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There are different types of neurones but they all have the same basic characteristics. The cell body contains the nucleus and cell organelles within the cytoplasm. There are two types of thin extensions from the cell body: Very fine dendrites conduct impulses towards the cell body A single long process, the axon, transmits impulses away from the cell body
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Reflex Arcs
Nerve impulses follow routes or pathways through the nervous system. Some nerve pathways are relatively simple, for example the knee-jerk reflex involves just two neurones: a sensory neurone communicating directly with a motor neurone to connect receptor cells with effectors cells. These simple pathways are known as reflex arcs and are responsible for our reflexes. But most nerve pathways are not simple but have numerous neurones within the CNS. A sensory neurone connects to a range of neurones within the CNS and passes impulses to the brain to produce a coordinated response. Even in reflex arcs there are additional connections within the CNS to ensure a coordinated response. Some synapses with motor neurones will be inhibited to ensure that the desired response occurs.
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Receptors detect a stimulus and generate a nerve impulse Sensory neurones conduct a nerve impulse to the CNS along a sensory pathway Sensory neurones enter the spinal cord through the dorsal route Sensory neurone forms a synapse with a relay neurone Relay neurone forms a synapse with a motor neurone that leaves the spinal cord through the ventral route 6. Motor neurone carries impulses to an effector which produces a response. For example, the bicep contracts to raise the arm away from the flame. THE PUPIL REFLEX When the eye is exposed from dark to light, there is a reflex arc causing a change in the diameter of their pupils. A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 (topic 8) EDEXCEL NOTES Page 2
CONTROLLING PUPIL SIZE High light levels striking the photoreceptors in the retina cause nerve impulses to pass along the optic nerve to a number of different sites within the CNS, including a group of coordinating cells in the midbrain. Impulses from these cells are sent along parasympathetic motor neurones to the circular muscles of the iris, causing them to contract. At the same time the radial muscles relax. This constricts the pupil, reducing the amount of light entering the eye.
Atropine The plant deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna) is the source of the drug atropine which was used in the Middle Ages by some women to make their pupils dilate. This was thought to be attractive to men, hence belladonna, which means beautiful lady in Latin, is the species name. Atropine inhibits parasympathetic stimulation of the iris, so the circular muscles of the iris relax. Today acetylcholine antagonist is used to dilate the pupils for an eye examination.
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WHY IS THERE A POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE ? The distribution of ions found in the solutions inside and outside a squid giant axon is unequal. This is achieved by the action of sodium-potassium pumps in the cell surface membrane of the axon which act against the concentration gradient and are driven by energy supplied by the hydrolysis of ATP. The organic anions are large and stay within the cell, so Cl - move out of the cell to help balance the charge across the cell surface membrane. The resting potential Once the concentration gradients are established and there is no difference in charge between the inside and outside of the membrane, K+ diffuse out of the neurone, through potassium channels, down the potassium concentration gradient. The membrane is permeable to potassium ions but is virtually impermeable to sodium ions. There is some leakage of Na+ into the neurone down the concentration gradient but it does not balance the difference in charge across the membrane caused by the movement of K+. The difference in charge caused by diffusion of K+ causes a potential difference across the membrane. Why is the resting potential of the axon -70mV? Two forces are involved and result from the concentration gradient generated and the electrical gradient due to the difference in charge. K+ diffuse out of the cell due to the concentration gradient and this causes the electrical gradient as there is a larger potential difference across the cell. The increased negative charge created inside the cell as a consequence attracts K + across the membrane. When the potential difference is about -70mV, the electrical gradient balances the chemical gradient. There is no net movement of K+, maintaining the resting potential of -70mV. An electrochemical equilibrium for potassium is in place and the membrane is polarised. A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 (topic 8) EDEXCEL NOTES Page 4
1. Depolarisation
When a neurone is stimulated some depolarisation occurs. The change in the potential difference across the membrane causes a change in the shape of the Na+ gate, opening some of the voltage-dependent sodium ion channels. As the sodium ions flow in, depolarisation increases, triggering more gates to open once a certain potential difference threshold is reached. The opening of more gates increases depolarisation further. This is positive feedback; a change encourages further change of the same sort. It leads to a rapid opening of all the Na+ gates. This means there is no way of controlling the degree of depolarisation of the membrane; action potentials are either there or they are not. This is referred to as all-or-nothing. There is a higher concentration of sodium ions outside of the axon, so sodium ions flow rapidly inwards through the open voltage-dependent Na+ channels, causing a build-up of positive charges inside. This reverses the polarity of the membrane. This is where the potential difference reaches +40mV. A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 (topic 8) EDEXCEL NOTES Page 5
If hundreds of action potentials occur in the neurone, the sodium ion concentration inside the cell rises significantly. The sodium-potassium pumps start to function, restoring the original ion concentrations across the cell membrane. If a cell is not transmitting many action potentials, these pumps will not have to be used very frequently. At rest there is some slow leakage of sodium ions into the axon. These sodium ions are pumped back out of the cell.
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SPEED OF CONDUCTION
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NEUROTRANSMITTER RELEASE When the presynaptic membrane is depolarised by an action potential, channels in the membrane open and increase the permeability of the membrane to calcium ions. These calcium ions are in greater concentration outside the cell, so they diffuse across the membrane and into the cytoplasm. The increased calcium ions concentration causes synaptic vesicles containing acetylcholine to fuse with the presynaptic membrane and release their contents into the synaptic cleft by exocytosis. STIMULATION OF THE POSTSYNAPTIC MEMBRANE The neurotransmitter takes about 0.5 ms to diffuse across the synaptic cleft and reach the postsynaptic membrane. Embedded in the postsynaptic membrane are specific receptor proteins that have a binding site with a complementary shape to part of the acetylcholine molecule. The acetylcholine molecule binds to the receptor, changing the shape of the protein, opening cation channels and making the membrane permeable to sodium ions. The flow of sodium ions across the postsynaptic membrane causes depolarisation, and if there is sufficient depolarisation, an action potential will be produced and propagated along the postsynaptic neurone. The extent of the depolarisation will depend on the amount of acetylcholine reaching the postsynaptic membrane. This will depend in part on the frequency of impulses reaching the presynaptic membrane. A single impulse will not usually be enough and several impulses are usually required to generate enough neurotransmitter to depolarise the postsynaptic membrane. The number of functioning receptors in the postsynaptic membrane will also influence the degree of depolarisation.
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INACTIVATION OF THE NEUROTRANSMITTER Some neurotransmitters are actively taken up by the presynaptic membrane and the molecules are used again. Other neurotransmitters rapidly diffuse away from the synaptic cleft or they are taken up by other cells of the nervous system. In the case of acetylcholine, a specific enzyme at the postsynaptic membrane, acetylcholinesterase, breaks down the acetylcholine so that it can no longer bind to receptors. Some of the breakdown products are then reabsorbed by the presynaptic membrane and reused.
The postsynaptic cell receives input from many synapses at the same time. The overall effect will determine whether the postsynaptic cell generates an action potential. Two main factors affect the chance of the postsynaptic membrane depolarising: The type of synapse The number of impulses received
Some synapses help stimulate an action potential, excitatory synapses, whereas other inhibit the postsynaptic membrane from depolarising, inhibitory synapses. There might be numerous excitatory and inhibitory synapses and so the action potential relies on the balance of these synapses at any given time. TYPES OF SYNAPSE EXCITATORY SYNAPSES Excitatory synapses make the postsynaptic membrane more permeable to sodium ions. A single excitatory synapse does not depolarise the membrane enough to cause an action potential but if several impulses arrive at the same time in a short time frame, there is sufficient depolarisation via the release of neurotransmitter to produce an action potential. Each impulse adds to the effect of the others, known as summation. There are two types of summation: Spatial summation o Impulses are from different synapses, usually from different neurones. The number of different sensory cells stimulated can be reflected in the control of the response
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INHIBITORY SYNAPSES Inhibitory synapses make it less likely that an action potential will occur in the postsynaptic membrane. The neurotransmitter from these synapses open channels for chloride and potassium ions in the postsynaptic membrane, moving through the channels down their diffusion gradient. Chloride ions will move into the cell and the potassium ions will move out. Thus, there is a greater potential difference, like hyperpolarisation. This makes subsequent depolarisation less likely.
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A chemical made in the top passed down the coleoptiles. This was demonstrated by removing the tip, placing it on a small block of agar jelly and putting the agar on top of the cut end of the coleoptile. The coleoptile started to grow again; a chemical produced by the top had diffused down through the agar jelly. Went provided more evidence by placing the agar blocks on one side of the cut coleoptile top in the dark; this caused the coleoptile to curve away from the side receiving the chemical messenger from the agar. The chemical was identified as the auxin, indoleacetic acid (IAA) and its major function is to stimulate growth.
Went measured the amount of chemical being produced on the shaded and lit side of the shoot and found that the total amount did not change compared to a shoot illuminated from all sides; instead more auxin had passed down the shaded side. The increased concentration of auxin caused elongation of the shaded side. Thus, the shoot grows towards the light. This explanation is known as the Cholodny-Went model.
The model has been widely criticised due to the small sample sizes and the difficulty of measuring the small concentrations. However, many plant physiologists maintain that the basic features of the model still hold. New techniques being used to study tropisms include the use of genetically modified plants that produce fluorescent proteins in the presence of auxin, making it possible to visualise the location of the auxin. Auxins are synthesised in actively growing plant tissues (meristems). The auxins are actively transported away to where they bring about a range of responses through their effect on cell elongation. By binding with receptors on the plasma membranes in the zone of shoot elongation, auxins produce second messenger signal molecules that bring about changes in gene expression. Transcription of genes coding for enzymes then result s in metabolic changes. It is through that the auxin causes acidification of the cell wall by indirectly stimulating the activity of proton pumps, moving H+ out of the cytoplasm. The low pH is thought to affect an enzyme in the cell walls that causes bonds between the cellulose microfibrils to break, expanding the cell wall. The increased potential difference across the membrane enhances uptake of ions into the cell. This causes the uptake of water, resulting in cell elongation.
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More than just shoot elongation Auxins have many other effects in plants. They inhibit growth of side branches down the plant (apical dominance). This effect can be seen if the growing tip at the top of a plant ( apical meristem) is removed. The side branches down the plant will start to grow. Auxins also initiate growth of lateral roots, fruit development and leaf fall. Many synthetic auxins have been produced for agriculture. 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) is an effective herbicide. Monocotyledons, inactivate synthetic auxins whereas in dicotyledons the auxins accumulate in cells, cuasing rapid growth that kills the plant. Hence why it can be sprayed to kill weeds but not grass. Commercial fruit growers spray plants with synthetic auxins to induce fruiting. This means that the fruit will be seedless due to the lack of pollination. Auxin is also used to help initiate rooting of currings for plant propagation. Agent orange was a mixture of synthetic auxins, seen used during the Vietnam War to defoliate the rainforest.
Reception of Stimuli
How does light trigger nerve impulses?
RECEPTORS Stimuli are detected by receptor cells that send electrical impulses to the central nervous system. Many receptors are spread through the body, but some are grouped together into sense organs, like the eye. These help to protect the receptor cells and improve their efficiency; structures within the sense organ ensure that the receptor cells are able to receive the appropriate stimulus. The receptor cells that detect light are found in the eye. The lens and cornea refract the light so that it focuses on the retina where the photoreceptor cells are located.
Different types of receptors Receptors can be cells that synapse with a sensory neurone, or can themselves be part of a specialised sensory neurone, like the temperature receptors in the skin. Type of receptor Chemoreceptors Mechanoreceptors Photoreceptors Thermoreceptors Stimulated by Chemicals Pressure, force Light Temperature Examples of role in body Taste, smell, etc. Balance, touch, hearing, etc. Sight Temperature control, awareness of surroundings
Except for photoreceptors, the receptors all work in a similar manner. At rest, the cell surface membrane has a negative resting potential. Stimulation of the receptor causes depolarisation of the cell. The stronger the stimulus, the greater the depolarisation. When depolarisation exceeds the threshold, it triggers an action potential. This is either relayed across the synapse using neurotransmitters or passed directly down the axon of the sensory nerve.
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The most common cause of blindness in the UK The central part of the retina (macula) receives light entering the yes from straight ahead. The delicate cells of the macula sometimes becomes damaged from causing progressive deterioration of sight. Agerelated macular degeneration is the most common cause of blindness in the UK. A drug, Lucentis, was approved for treatment of the wet type of the condition in 2008. The drug binds to a protein growth factor, stopping the growth of new abnormal blood vessels under the retina that leak fluid and blood. However, only 10% of cases are the wet type. The more common dry type is caused by accumulation of fatty deposits beneath the retina which cause it to dry out.
PHOTORECEPTORS The retina contains rods and cones. Cones allow colour vision in bright light whereas rods only give black and white vision. However, unlike cones, rods work in dim light as well as in bright light. In the centre of the retina, there are only cones. This area allows people to pinpoint accurately the source and detail of what they are looking at. The remainder of the retina have a rod-cone ratio of about 20-1. Three layers of cells make up the retina. The rods and cones synapse with bipolar neurone cells, which in turn synapse with ganglion neurones, whose axons together make up the optic nerve. Light hitting the retina has to pass through the layers of neurones before reaching the rods and cones.
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HOW DOES LIGHT STIMULATE PHOTORECEPTOR CELLS? In rods and cones, a photochemical pigment absorbs the light resulting in a chemical change. In rods, the molecule is a purple colour and called rhodopsin. The rod cell has an outer and inner segment; these contain many layers of flattened vesicles. The rhodopsin molecules are located in the membranes of the vesicles.
IN THE DARK In the dark, sodium ions flow into the outer segment through non-specific cation channels. The sodium ions move down the concentration gradient into the inner segment where pumps continuously transport them back out of the cell. The influx of Na+ produces a slight depolarisation of the cell. The potential difference across the membrane is about -40mV. This slight depolarisation triggers the release of a neurotransmitter, glutamate, from the rod cells. In the dark, rods release this neurotransmitter continuously. The neurotransmitter binds to the bipolar cell, stopping it depolarising. IN THE LIGHT When light falls on the rhodopsin molecule, it breaks down into retinal and opsin, non-protein and protein compounds. The opsin activates a series of membrane-bound reactions, ending in hydrolysis of a molecule attached to the cation channel in the outer segment. The breakdown of this molecule results in the closing of the cation channels. The influx of Na+ into the rod decreases, while the inner segment continues to pump Na+ out. Thus, the insider of the cell is more negative and becomes hyperpolarised, preventing the release of the glutamate. The lack of glutamate results in depolarisation of the bipolar cell. The neurones that make up the optic nerve are also depolarised and respond by producing an action potential. Once the rhodopsin has been broken down, it is essential that it is rapidly converted back to its original form so that subsequent stimuli can be perceived. Each individual rhodopsin molecule takes a few minutes to do this. The higher the light intensity, the more rhodopsin molecules are broken down and the longer it can take for all the rhodopsin to reform, up to 50 minutes. The reforming of rhodopsin is dark adaptation. A2 BIOLOGY UNIT 5 (topic 8) EDEXCEL NOTES Page 15
These two isomers are photoreversible. Plants synthesise phytochromes in the Pr form; absorption of red light converts Pr into Pfr. Absorption of far-red light converts Pfr back into Pr. In sunlight Pr is converted into Pfr, and Pfr into Pr. The former reaction dominates in sunlight because more red than farlight is absorbed. Pfr accumulates in the light whereas, in the dark, Pfr is slowly converted to Pr.
Far-Red Light
PHYTOCHROMES TRIGGER GERMINATION Phytochromes were discovered through germination experiments. Experiments with lettuce indicate that a flash of red light will trigger germination, but if followed by a flash of far-red light, germination is inhibited. When repeated, the same effect can be observed. This suggests that the effects of red light and far-red light are reversible. The finial flash of light determines whether germination occurs. Red light is particularly effective at triggering germination whereas far-red light seems to inhibit germination.
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The Brain
THE CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES From the top down, the cortex of the brain can been seen. It is grey and highly folded, composing mainly of nerve cell bodies, synapses and dendrites . It is also known as the grey matter. The cortex is the largest region of the brain. It is positioned over and around most other brain regions. It is divided into the left and right cerebral hemispheres. The two cerebral hemispheres are connected by a broad band of white matter (nerve axons), called the corpus callosum. The hemispheres are divided into lobes. Frontal lobe Parietal lobe Occipital lobe Temporal lobe
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Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging can provide information about the brain in action. It is used to study human activities like memory, emotion, language and consciousness. fMRI records the uptake of oxygen in active brain areas as deoxyhaemoglobin absorbs the radio wave signal but oxyhaemoglobin does not. Increased neural activity in the brain results in an increase in blood flow for oxygen, so there is an increase in oxygaemoglobin. The less radio signal there is absorbed, the higher the level of activity.
Axon growth
Axons of the neurones from the retina grow to the thalamus where they form synapses with neurones in the thalamus in a very ordered arrangement. Axons from these thalamus neurones grow towards the visual cortex in the occipital lobe. The visual cortex is made of columns of cells, proven in staining techniques and by using electrical stimulation. Axons from the thalamus synapse within these columns while adjacent columns receive stimulation. The columns were thought to be a result of nurture rather than nature but Crowley and Katz proved that it is not the case. They saw, by using labelled tracers, that ferrets and newborn monkeys both have these columns, suggesting that their formation was genetic. However, periods during postnatal development have been identified when the nervous system must gain specific experiences to develop properly, known as critical windows or sensitive periods.
Radioactive label moves from one eye and is concentrated into distinct bands in the visual cortex, showing the columns of cells that receive input from that eye. These banding patterns have been observed in animals that have received no visual stimulation.
PowerPoints include:
C:\Users\main\Downloads\~$The Brain - scans and imaging.pptxNerve Impulses - Over all story The Brain - scans and imaging
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