1

INTRODUCTION

Steel is not any specific product. It is essentially a malleable alloy of iron and one or more of other elements like carbon, chromium, nickel, silicon, vanadium, tungsten or almost any active element (other than gas) from the periodic chart of elements. Steels may contain many other elements such as Al, Si, Mn, S, P, O, etc. which are not added specifically for any specific purpose but are inevitably present because of their association in the process of iron and steelmaking and can not be totally eliminated during the known process of iron and steelmaking. These are known as impurities in steel. The chemical composition of steels broadly divides them into two major groups, viz. (i) plain carbon steels and (ii) alloy steels. In essence steelmaking is a process of selective oxidation of impurities i.e. reverse of ironmaking. In principle it resembles fire refining of non-ferrous metals but the end product is an alloy rather than pure metal. The overall process includes charge preparation, melting refining, tapping, deoxidation, recarburization, alloying, teeming, stripping, etc. During steelmaking the impurities are oxidized to their respective oxides (with the exception of sulfur which is reduced) and the oxides are eliminated either as gas (in the case of carbon) or liquid oxide product of suitable chemical character known as slag. The slag is in fact a sink in which the impurities to be removed from iron are to be held stably. In order to produce steel of right quality, i.e. right chemical composition, slag of the right chemical character is aimed at and it is assessed in terms of oxidizing power and basicity of the slag. Modern steelmaking is supposed to have been begun with the advent of Bessemer process of steelmaking in eighteen sixties in U.K. It used air for refining. Soon the open hearth and the electric furnaces were developed to melt steel scrap and make steel. These required external energies for melting scrap. Common steelmaking processes are as follows. Conventional Processes o Basic Bessemer / Thomas o Open Hearth o Electric Arc Basic oxygen Furnace Processes o LD Process o Kaldo o LDAC/OLP o Q-BOP/OBM o Hybrid Blowing Modified Conventional Processes o Ajax Process The students of MME 98 batch obtained their industrial training at Rahim Steel Mill, Noyabari, Sonargaon, Narayanganj dated from 07.02.2004 to 05.03.2004. This mill makes billets from scarp, sponge iron and some other raw materials. From the billets rods in rolling mills are made. This plant also has a Ferro Alloy shop and tundish board making shop. It has a 30MW capacity power station and testing facilities such as UTM, spectroscope, chemical testing etc. The details of the tasks going on there are described in the following sections.

MAKING OF STEEL IN INDUCTION FURNACE

Induction Furnace is a melting pot where refining of steel making by virtue of chemical reactions/ slag making is restricted due to various constraints particularly pertaining to physical and chemical characteristics of refractory lining. However, dilution of certain elements e.g. Phosphorous, Sulfur and Carbon is possible with the proper selection and mixing of input material. Refining of steel in Induction Furnace will have serious consequences over the productivity. When refining is not possible, it is imperative that selection of input material should be done very carefully. There are several reasons for the popularity of Induction Melting Furnaces for making steel. They consume less power comparing EAFs. Expenditure on electrode is nil. They use lesser quantity of refractory. Initial investment is less on plant and equipment. Thus, there are economic advantages in making steel through Induction Furnaces route. The only snag is that at present bulk quantity steel cannot be produced through Induction Furnace route. May be that in future it may be possible to do so. Considering all these, Rahim Steel Mill has changed their EAF with Induction furnaces. The plant has eight induction furnaces. In order to control chemistry of end product, chemical analysis of all input metallic is taken before snaking the charge-mix. After about 50% charging is completed, a bath sample is sent to laboratory. The chemical analysis is examined. If it has high carbon, Sulfur and phosphorous, percentage Sponge iron in the charge is increased. When about 80% melting is completed a final bath sample is taken. If carbon is still high more of sponge iron fines are charged; in case carbon is less, cast iron scraps are charged. Thus, the chemistry is controlled. Since no vigorous arcing like Electric Arc Furnace takes place in Induction Melting Furnaces, the oxidation of iron much less and losses are also minimal. Silicon and Manganese in metal are oxidized by Fe 2O3 and FeO Carbon is reduced by iron oxide of DRI. Sulfur and phosphorous are diluted by DRI. INDUCTION FURNACE An induction furnace consists of an annular channel surrounding a core of laminated iron Sheets. Molten-metal is always present in the channel to act as a secondary winding of just one turn. The core is surrounded by the primary winding Because of this type of design these furnaces, using low frequency power sources, are known as core type furnaces. The rate of heat generation, besides other factors, directly depends upon the frequency of the power source. The modern furnaces use currents of high frequency in excess of 10 Kc/sec. up to the level of radio frequency. For steel melting, medium and high frequency induction furnaces are university adopted. Rahim Steel Mill uses eight induction furnaces bought from India. The output may be at upto several thousand volts and 100 Mc/sec. with a total power output of 100 kW. In general high frequency furnaces are costly but are more efficient in melting than low frequency furnaces. It consists of a crucible of usually a magnesite monolithic construction with a spout for pouring. The charge is placed in this crucible and it acts as the secondary winding. The crucible is surrounded by several turns of water cooled copper tubing which carries the high frequency primary current. The size of the

3 furnace, which is that of the crucible vary from a few kilo to several tones. However Rahim Steel Mill uses furnaces of 9 ton capacity. The furnace capacity is limited depending upon whether it is to be used as a melting unit or as merely a holding furnace for molten steel. The furnace is generally charged manually but simple mechanical charging devices are not uncommon. The charge consists of graded steel scrap. It is essential to process of melting and hardly any refining take place. A thin layer of slag is maintained on the surface to prevent oxidation of the bath by atmospheric oxygen. Slag is an insulator and hence is not heated by induction. It is therefore usually very dry and hence it does not take part in refining. The operation is quite simple. Light scrap is charged at the bottom and heavy at the top to prevent atmospheric oxidation of the scrap, as far as possible. The charge must be of accurately known composition since there is generally no time provision for analysis of the sample during the heat. The bath analysis is controlled by the charge, composition after melting necessary alloy additions are made to meet the specifications. As the temperature reaches the required value it is tapped in a teeming ladle. Excellent stirring action and very low oxidation loss of metal and alloys make this process useful in reutilizing the well graded scrap to produce the same or nearly the same type of steel without much of external virgin alloy additions. Since usually no oxidation is carried out the steel bath is not deoxidized to any appreciable extend. The temperature is under very effective control. The process is equally suited to produce any type of alloy steels on a small scale. In fact it is practically the only commercial process for making steels on a small scale. It is commonly used in alloy steel foundries. The crucible can be enclosed in a vacuum chamber and thereby better quality steel of wide specifications can be produce on a small scale. This is known as vacuum induction melting.

RAW MATERIALS FOR MAKING STEEL

SCRAP Good quality processed scrap is required in order to maintain quality of finished products, i.e. ingot or billet produced from liquid metal made in induction furnace. It is also better to use assorted varieties of processed scrap for meeting the ultimate objective. The collection system of domestic scrap from different generating sectors is not up to the mark and hence there is every possibility of producing poor quality of material through induction furnace route, if such scrap is used directly for melting without any segregation or processing. Rahim Steel Mill uses processed and assorted varieties of scrap so as to ensure desirable quality of the product as well as performance of the equipment. The main advantage of processed scrap like shredded scrap made out of light sheet cuttings etc. is that it gives an opportunity of higher density charge-mix in the furnace. Absence of rust on the scrap also reduces the electricity consumption per tone of liquid metal produced. In Bangladesh the process scrap is generated mainly in the initial stages of finished steel consumption mainly from fabrication shop and

4 machining of cast iron & steel products and mostly in form of cuttings, punching, turnings, borings, etc. These arise in all places where cast iron & steel products are processed and include engineering industries, Govt. departments like railways, defense, small workshops, mechanical and manual processors, repairing units, etc. Its volume depends on steel consumption at that time. Scraps are not abundantly present in Bangladesh. So scraps including ship scraps are imported from foreign countries. SPONGE IRON Sponge Iron is one of the major constituent of the input material. Unless proper selection of Sponge Iron with respect to its chemical composition is resorted to, the consumers will be subjected to adverse effect on their overall performance of the plant. It is also imported from abroad.
EFFECTS OF VARIOUS CONSTITUENTS OF SPONGE IRON ON PRODUCTION OF STEEL

(i) Total Iron Higher the Total Iron, lower will be the gangue content. Lower Total Iron (higher gangue content) will have the following adverse effects on steel making. - Lower metallic yield - Higher slag generation - Higher energy consumption - Higher tap to tap time Therefore, higher the Total Iron in Sponge Iron better is the productivity. In figure No. 1 it has been shown the effect of gangue on productivity.

Figure 1 (ii) Metallic Iron Metallic yield of Sponge Iron is directly proportional to the metallic iron content of Sponge Iron. Higher, metallic iron means lower FeO content. Higher metallic iron in Sponge will have the following effects: - Higher metallic yield (steel output) - Lower FeO content - Lesser slag generation - Lower energy consumption per unit of steel produced - Higher productivity

5 Effect of higher metallic iron on productivity is shown in Fig No. 2

Figure 2 (iii) Carbon Carbon in Sponge Iron gives rise to carbon boil during melting. Carbon also deoxidizes the molten bath. Sponge Iron has substantial (more than 10%) FeO content. Carbon reduces this FeO thereby increasing the Fe content in the bath resulting in higher metallic yield. Higher Carbon in Sponge Iron Results: - Adequate carbon boil - Deoxidization - Reducing FeO - Higher yield (iv) Sulfur & Phosphorous Sulfur in Iron Ore used for the production of Sponge Iron is directly proportional to the Sulfur content in Sponge Iron. Sulfur is injurious to steel. Therefore, Sulfur content in Sponge Iron should be as low as possible. Like Sulfur, Phosphorous content in steel should also be low. (v) FeO FeO is basic in nature. When Sponge Iron is used in acid lined furnace, the FeO present in Sponge Iron will have adverse effect on the lining. Erosion of lining takes place at the slag line. Higher FeO content means higher gap between the values of Fe metallic and Fe total which influences in lowering Fe metallic content. Effect of higher Fe metallic content is discussed earlier. In order to reduce the Oxygen content in the bath and also higher recovery of Fe from FeO, addition of Carbon becomes a must. Consumption of Fe-alloys increases with the higher oxygen level in the molten bath. Higher FeO content in Sponge Iron will have the following effects: - Erosion of acid lined refractory - Lesser lining life - Oxidation of bath - Higher consumption of Fe alloys - Higher requirement of carbonaceous material - Loss of Fe in slag - Lower yield - Excess boiling of the bath - Higher cost of production

6 - Restricting usage of other low-grade scrap (vi) Metallization Metallization is a derived figure, which is a ratio in percentage of Metallic Iron divided by Total Iron. Higher the metallization, higher is the metallic Iron, which results in higher productivity. Figure 3 shows the effect of metallization on productivity.

Figure 3 (vii) Gangue Gangue in Sponge Iron gives rise to the generation of slag. Higher the gangue content, higher is the slag volume. (viii) Non-magnetic Non-magnetic comprises mainly of char material. Char does not have any positive contribution. It generates slag and reduces the yield. FLUXES A flux is a substance added during smelting and reefing to bring down the softening point of the gangue materials, so reduces the viscosity of slag and to decrease thee activity of some component to make it stable in the slag phase .Lime stone is generally added during steelmaking to make the slag basic enough to retain phosphorus and sulfur. Fluorspar and bauxite are added to decrease the viscosity of refining slag.

DEOXIDIZING AND ALLOYING ELEMENTS

SILICON It is used as a primary deoxidizing agent in a furnace where a reducing slag is to be made. It is also used as a common deoxidizer in the furnace or in the ladle when killed or semi killed steel are being made. This is a very common deoxidizer and is used in the form of Ferro silicon .silicon is also added as alloying element foe better strength, hardenability and electrical properties. Typical use is for making transformer grade steel. MANGANESE

7 It is a weaker deoxidizer than silicon .as an allying element it gives strength and toughness it is added as Ferro manganese of various grades. Typical use is for making Hadfield and structural steels where silicon and manganese are added together it may be added as a mixture of individual Ferro-alloy or as silicon manganese.

REFINING

In modern steelworks refining in the furnace is limited to lowering the carbon content of the metal, final alloying additions and degassing of the molten steel being carried out in the ladle. For refining purpose ladle refining furnace ((LRF) is used in Rahim Steel Mill. During training, it was not in operation.

CONTINUOUS CASTING

Continuous casting may be defined as teeming of liquid metal in a short mold with a false bottom through which partially solidified ingot is continuously withdrawn at the same rate at which metal is poured in the mold. The equipment for continuous casting of steel consists of: i. The ladle to hold steel for teeming ii. The tundish to closely regulate the flow of steel in the mold iii. The mold to allow adequate solidification of the product iv. The withdrawal rolls to pull out the ingot continuously from the mold v. The cooling sprays to solidify the ingot completely vi. The bending and/or cutting devices to obtain handable lengths of the product vii. The auxiliary electrical and/or mechanical gears to help run the machine smoothly. The mold is open at both end and is water cooled. The operation is started by fixing a dummy plug-bar to temporarily close the bottom of the mold. Steel is slowly poured in the mold via a tundish and as soon as the mold is full to a certain level withdrawal of the plug begins. The arte of withdrawal must exactly match with the rate of pouring for smooth operation of the machine. Uninterrupted pouring and simultaneous withdrawal gives rise to the whole cast being poured in the form of one piece which may be cut into smaller pieces as per the requirement. In order to expedite the process ingot does not completely solidify in the mold. As soon as a sufficiently thick skin, which would be able to stand the pressure of the liquid core is formed, the withdrawing from the mold commences. It is then cooled by secondary cooling. A small area of the ingot, where the liquid core is able to press the solid skin against the mold walls, maintains a sort of seal to prevent liquid steel from leaking from the mold. This acts as a moving seal if the bar is withdrawn slowly from the mold and an equivalent amount of steel is poured in. If the bar is withdrawn rapidly this seal may fracture and may produce cracks in the ingot or even leak-outs. Both of these eventualities can be eliminates and the casting speed can be increased it a moving mold is adopted rather than a stationary mold. In Rahim Steel Mill, for continuous casting Concast design is used. TUNDISH

8 It is necessary to teem steel from the ladle into the mold via tundish. It is not merely a distributor of steel into multiple streams or a buffer between the mold and the ladle. It helps to control the steel flow more accurately by maintaining the metal level the same during the entire casting period. It can sub-divide the flow into several streams. The metal level in the tundish can be altered readily to effect adjustments in rate of teeming. MOLD The mold is made out of drawn copper tube or machined out of a solid block or is a welded plate construction of high conductivity electrolytic grade copper. The mold is water cooled. It has open bottom and hence is closed by a dummy plug bar in the beginning. The strand withdrawal begins by withdrawing this dummy bar. The length of the mold should be such that under the conditions of its cooling adequate skin must be formed before the ingot emerges out of it. WATER SPRAYS Having accomplished the initial cooling (primary) in the mold the solidification of the remaining core and further cooling (secondary) of the solid product is accomplished by quenching using high pressure water sprays. The sprays are directed from all sides on the casting. WITHDRAWAL ROLLS These are one or two pairs of rolls meant to finally grip the ingot and pull it out at a pre-fixed rate without deforming the product. The pressure exerted by the rolls on the product should neither be excessive to cause its deformation nor less to allow slipping. THE DUMMY BAR To begin with, the bottom of the mold is temporarily closed by what is known as a dummy bar. It is meant to lead the product through the roller apron and withdrawal rolls. The head of the bar has a bolt or a loop around which the metal solidifies and thereby ensures a good grip for pulling the cast bar. During withdrawal as the head of the dummy bar crosses the cut-off point, it is disengaged and kept ready for the next heat. OPERATION The machine is kept ready by fixing the dummy bar in position. The teeming ladle is brought in position and the temperature of the metal is measured. The teeming ladle must be preheated to the required temperature before tapping steel in it. Teeming commences when the temperature of steel falls to the required level. The tundish must be pre-heated to the required level by this time. The metal is pouring in the mold. As the level of steel in the mold rises to a certain prefixed level the reciprocation of mold begins and immediately thereafter the dummy bar is withdrawn slowly. The secondary cooling sprays are put on as the dummy bar moves drown. The lubricating oil is turned on immediately after the teeming commences. The speed of withdrawal should be quickly adjusted to the predetermined speed for the particular steel being cast. Pouring continue steadily till the ladle is empty.

9 CUT-OFF DEVICE The strand comes out of the mold and the secondary cooling system in the form of a long continuous piece. It is cut into desired lengths either by oxy-acetylene torch or by mechanical shear of adequate capacity. The cutter travels with the same speed as that of the withdrawal so that actual cutting operation does not come in the way of continuous production. As soon as the cut is through the cutter returns back to the original position for the next cut. AIR COOLING OF CASTINGS The individual cut pieces of the castings are transferred to the roller-bed normalizing yard, one by one, by pushed and are air cooled on these beds. The pieces can also be transferred to a soaking furnace in red hot condition for further rolling without cooling to room temperature.

ROLLING SECTION

The process of plastically deforming metal by passing it between rolls is known as rolling. This is the most widely used metalworking process because it lends itself to high production and close control of the final product. In deforming metal between rolls, the work is subjected to high compressive stresses from the squeezing action of the rolls and to surface shear stresses as a result of the friction between the rolls and the metal. The frictional forces are also responsible for drawing the metal into the rolls. Steel is marketed in a wide variety of sizes and shapes, such as strip in coils, strip cut to sheet, plate, bars or rods, pipes, railway rails, tees, channels, and I-beams. These shapes are produced at mills by rolling. This working of steel also improves its quality by refining its crystalline structure and making the metal tougher. A bloom is the product of the first breakdown of the ingot. Generally the width of a bloom equals its thickness, and the cross-sectional area is greater than 230 cm 2. A further reduction by hot-rolling results in a billet. The minimum cross section of a billet is about 40 by 40 mm. Blooms and billets are semi-finished products because they are subsequently formed into other mill products. Rahim Steel Mill cut off billets into smaller size and uses those for rolling. Billet cross section is 120 by 120 mm2. In rolling, the cast steel is first heated to bright-red heat in a furnace and is then passed between a series of pairs of metal rollers that squeeze it to the desired size and shape. The separation between the rollers diminishes for each successive mill stand (pair of rollers). As the steel is reduced in thickness it becomes longer, but the width stays almost unchanged. In Rahim Steel Mill, thirteen rolling stands are placed in a long line. As a length of steel passes through these stands, it is simultaneously rolled in more than one stand. This requires careful matching of the stand speeds, which most increase down the line to match the growing length of the rolled steel. From furnace the steel is passed on to roughing mills and finally to finishing mills that reduce it to the correct cross-section. The rollers of mills that produce railway rails

10 and such structural shapes as I-beams, H-beams, and angles are grooved to give the required shape. The mill consists basically of rolls, bearings, a housing for containing these parts, and a drive for applying power to the rolls and controlling their speed. Therefore, very rigid construction is needed, and very large motors are required to provide the necessary power. Rolling mill is of two-high mill type. Rolls of equal size are rotated only in one direction. The stock is returned to the entrance, or rear, of the rolls for further reduction by means of a platform which can be raised to pass the work above the rolls. For high production Rahim Steel Mill installed a series of rolling mills one after another in tandem. Each set of rolls is called a stand. Since a different reduction is taken at each stand, the strip will be moving at different velocities at each stage in the mill. The speed of each set of rolls is synchronized so that each successive stand takes the strip at a speed equal to the delivery speed of the proceeding. The temperature in the last finished stand varies from 700 to 900 0C, but should be above the upper critical temperature to produce uniform equiaxed ferrite grains. The main parameters in rolling are: The roll diameter The deformation resistance if the metal as influenced by metallurgy, temperature, and strain rate The friction between the rolls and the workpiece The presence of front tension and / or back tension in the plane of the sheet One common defect in rolling mill arises depending on the interaction of the plastically deforming rolls and rolling mills. Under the influence of the high rolling forces the rolls flatten and bend and the entire mill is elastically distorted. Because of mill spring the thickness of the sheet existing from the rolling mill is greater than the roll gap set under no-load condition. In order to roll to precise diameter it is necessary to know the elastic constant of the mill. In Rahim Steel Mill, 13 stands are used. There are total 19 passes. Here 120 sq sizes are reduced to 10 mm diameter. The first stand has 7 passes. Stand 1 pass 1 reduces the area 14.729%. Stand 1 pass 7 reduces the area to 24.5%. After here the size is 50 sq mm. At last at the stand 13 pass 19 the diameter becomes 10 mm. A flow Chart is given in the next page.

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Figure 4 Flow Chart of Rolling Mill.

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FERROALLOY MAKING

FACTORS FOR FERROALLOYS PRODUCTION

As is fairly well understood, the four key (cash) cost factors for ferroalloys production are Ore Electricity Reductants Labors To these four factors, one should also add transportation, both inland and sea, although this is not as specifically linked to production as the four factors indicated above, so not as easily controllable by the producer. Obviously there is a linkage between freight costs and the oil price. For most ferroalloy plants, the most important two factors are ore and electricity, which combined typically account for more than 50% of total plant operating costs. ORE As is widely appreciated there has been a steady shift of ferroalloys production from the steelmaking regions of Europe, North America and East Asia to ore producing countries such as South Africa, Australia and Latin America. In South Africa, the worlds major source of chrome ore, rising costs for labors plus greater access to capital have led to greater investment in mechanization. Wherever possible, mechanized mining is being applied in place of conventional scraper mining. Mechanized mining results in higher efficiencies and uses less than half the workforce per run-of-mine tonne compared to scraper mining. ELECTRICITY As is well known, ferroalloys production is exceptionally energy intensive. The specific energy consumption is especially high for silicon-based alloys; lower - but still significant - for chrome and manganese alloy production. Due to their high specific power consumption, ferroalloy producers have typically been able to negotiate special pricing agreements with power producers. Understandably, there is a general lack of transparency surrounding these agreements. Typically, they include allowances for interpretability and night-time operation. In some instances, contracts have included linkages to published commodity prices in order to balance out plant cash flows in good and bad times. However, these agreements are the exception rather than the rule. These commodity-linked agreements seem to occur in parts of the world where there has been a surplus of power. They have provided a supposed win-win scenario in that the utility has a stable market for surplus electricity, and the user obtains cheaper power in times of low commodity prices, i.e. 80-90% of the time over the past decade or so! In Europe and the United States, power markets are being deregulated (re-regulated might be a more apt description) and utilities previously under state control are being privatized. The impact of this development on long-term prices generally - and specifically for intensive power consumers such as ferroalloys producers is difficult to assess, since the electricity market still seems to be in a state of flux. Short term, prices have been decreasing in Europe due to the overcapacity.

13 Longer term, the costs of replacing obsolete plant will come into the pricing equation. An important implication of a free market for power is that the significant variations in power costs across Europe are likely to diminish over time. This means that the pockets of low-cost power that do arise (such as in France and Scandinavia) should disappear as a ready market for surpluses is created. In general terms, power costs increase as you go from the north of Europe to the south (this is for a variety of reasons, linked to population density, hydro power availability, market structure etc). A free market for power should see this disparity diminish. Hence there are long-term implications of a liberalized European power market for ferroalloys capacity still operating in the region. While it is tempting to speculate that these processes of electricity de-regulation will be repeated in Asia and the rest of the world, the one clear difference between the USA and Europe compared to Asia is that whereas the former are geographically cohesive markets, Asia is geographically fragmented making large-scale power transfers across the region next to impossible. Given the massive capital structure of the power industry, the apparent lack of opportunity for service differentiation and its tendency towards an oligopoly, repeating the electricity deregulation process in Asian markets such as Japan and Korea, or for that matter in smaller economies such as Australia and South Africa, is likely to prove difficult. Another point is that Asia is generally bereft of low-cost energy sources (hydro, fuel minerals) compared to the developing countries, or even Europe and North America. Combined with rapidly growing and increasingly prosperous populations in the region, these factors help to explain the comparatively high electricity costs in Asia. ReductantsFor ferroalloys production, as well as the integrated steel and foundry sectors, coke availability has become a strategic issue. LABOR It is clearly difficult to generalize too much about this cost sector, since it is driven primarily by local conditions. Obviously the plants in high-income regions such as Japan and Europe have had to minimize the use of labor for a long time in order to remain in operation. In less developed economies (South Africa, for example), social issues come to the fore, and as a result of the relatively low cost of labor, ferroalloy plants appear substantially overmanned compared to their counterparts in the developed north. This is a function of the greater use of mechanization as well as of contract labor.

SOME FERROALLOY PLANTS IN OTHER COUNTRIES

Bhutan Bhutan Ferro Alloys Pasakha Increase: 7,000 tpy Time-frame: N/A Status: Under Examination Bhutan Ferro Alloys, currently producing 18,000 tpy of ferrosilicon, has been examining the possibility of adding a second furnace. A decision was to be decided in the first quarter of 2001. The main market for the plants production is India.

14 Iceland Icelandic Alloys Grundartangi Increase: 40,000 tpy Time-frame: August 1999 Status: Operating Icelandic Alloys, in which Elkem has a 51% stake, increased production of ferrosilicon in Iceland to 100,000 tpy. This investment replaced capacity at Thamshavn which switched 20,000 tpy of ferrosilicon to silicon metal. Norway Tinfos Jernverk Kvinesdal Increase: 60,000 tpy Time-frame: 2000 Status: Operating A third furnace for silicomanganese was added at Kvinesdal from November 2000, taking capacity to 200,000 tpy.

FERROALLOY PLANTS IN BANGLADESH

The ferroalloy plant of Rahim Steel Mill is the first and the only such kind of plant in Bangladesh. This ferroalloy plant not only satisfies their needs of ferroalloy for steel making but also contribute to outer market. The products area) Ferro-Manganese. b) Silico-Manganese c) Ferro-Silicon d) Ferro-Chrome e) CaC2 SPECIFICATION OF FURNACE USED IN FERROALLOY PLANT IN RAHIM STEEL MILL Transformer capacity ------------ 5000 KVA Primary Voltage (H.T)-------------- 11,000 V Secondary Voltage (L.T)------------ 60-130 in 17 steps H.T Current Full -------------------- 267 amp Secondary (L.T)---------------------- 33450-22204 amp Designed by Mr. Anil Gupta Supplied byG.A Danicli (INDIA) The better working of furnace depends on Pitch Circle Diameter (PCD). For ferrosilicon PCD is small and ferro-manganese PCD is more. PCD varies from 2.5 to 3 times of electrode diameter. Capacity depends on the types of ferroalloyFerro-Manganese- 27-30 MT/day Ferro-Silicon------10 MT/day Silico-Manganese-18-20 ton/day RAW MATERIALS USED IN RAHIM STEEL MILL

15 So far Rahim Steel Mills has produced three kinds of ferroalloys1. Ferro-Manganese. 2. Ferro-Silicon. 3.Silico-Manganese. 1. FERRO-MANGANESE Mn-ore(Moil) 44-46% Mn-ore(Joda) 38-40% Lamcoke Lam-coke (81%) +Charcoal (19%) Dolomite Electrode paste 2. FERRO-SILICON Quartz Iron Charcoal Electrode paste 3. SILICO-MANGANESE Mn-ore (Moil) 44-46% Mn-ore(Joda) 38-40% Quarzite Lam-coke Lam-coke +Charcoal High MnO slag Dolomite Electrode paste The Mn-ore is imported from INDIA and AUTRALIA. The Mn-ore imported from AUSTRALIA is expensive that is why it is mixed with the relatively cheaper ore from INDIA to minimized the production cost. SPECIFICATION OF MN-ORE (MOIL) FROM AUSTRALIA I. Mn---46-48% II. Iron6.5-7% III. Silica---11% IV. Alumina-2.5-3% V. Phosphorus-0.185% SPECIFICATION OF MN-ORE(JODA) FROM INDIA I. Mn----38-40% II. Iron18% III. Silica6.00%(max) IV. Alumina6.5%(max) V. Phosphorus0.11% The quartz used in this purpose has 98.50% silica and 1.00% iron.

TUNDISH BOARD MAKING

Tundish is that simple device where liquid steel stays for a while before entering the mold. So qualified tundish lining is required. There are two methods of tundish lining,

16 viz. , the conventional lining which requires preheating and the cold castable lining which does not need preheating but it needs insulating powder cover on the steel bath. A carefully designed and approximately lined tundish should last nearly for 40-50 heats. In Rahim Steel Mills, the following raw materials are used for tundish board making: Quartz Powder (60) Phenolic Resin Starch T (T.S.P.) Starch S (Sayatex) China Clay Scrap paper Glass Wool Bentonite Boric Acid At first all the raw materials are mixed into a hydro-pulper with water. The pulper contains three blades which cause the materials to get mixed. Then some portion of pulp is poured into the pressure box. Here water is sucked out from the pulp using a vacuum pump. After removal of water the box is inverted and the pulp is transferred to the forming table which is shaped as the tundish board. From there the boards are taken to the furnace for drying. The boards are dried for 4 hours. The temperature of the furnace is 1710 C. The gas is passed to the furnace at the rate of 10 m3 per hour. One tundish requires 11 pieces of boards. For these 11 pieces of board 75 kg raw materials are required. A flow chart is given below. Raw Materials

Hydro-Pulper

Pressure Box

Forming Table

Furnace for Drying (4 hours)

Trolley

Figure 5 Flow Chart of Tundish Board Making.

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Tro lle y Hydro-pulper Pressure Box

Furnace

Tro lle y

Water Pump

Forming Table

Vacuum Pump

Fresh Water Tank Overhead Tank

Underground Slurry Tank

Figure 6 Tundish Board Section.

TESTING LABORATORY
Generally the testing lab of RAHIM STEEL MILL is divided into two main sections. Physical Testing Lab Ultimate tensile testing machine. Spectroscopic analysis. Chemical Analysis Lab

ULTIMATE TENSILE TESTING LAB

The tensile test is most frequently performed to determine certain mechanical properties. A specifically prepared sample is placed in the heads of the testing

18 machine & an axial load is placed on the sample through a hydraulic or mechanical lever loading system. The force is indicated on a calibrated dial. If the original crosssectional area of the specimen is known, the stress developed at any load may be calculated. The deformation or strain is measured at a fixed length, usually 2"by a dial gauge called an extensometer. The unit strain may then be determined by dividing the measured elongation by the gauge length used. OBJECTIVES The first objective of this laboratory is to introduce to the tensile load test and evaluation of a materials Youngs modulus, the material property that characterizes any linear elastic isotropic material. The second objective is to determine the value of the ultimate stress (u), yield stress (y) and modulus of elasticity (E) of materials by performing tensile tests and to understand the physical meaning of these values. These objectives will be accomplished by performing tensile tests, plotting the data, and determining u, y, and E. The Third objective is to understand the elastic behavior of a brittle (steel with high carbon content). EQUIPMENT The specimen (steel) will be gradually loaded until it fails in tension using an Instron testing machine -while monitoring load and elongation. An "extensometer" will be used to obtain a measure of strain and a "load cell" used to obtain a measure of stress TENSILE TEST SPECIMEN GEOMETRY The standard tensile test is based on an ideal view of the physical setup, namely, a long, thin rod that is subjected to an extension while the corresponding load to maintain this rate is measured. The basic assumptions are that the loading is purely axial and the deformation takes place uniformly, both along the length of the specimen and throughout the cross-section. Under these conditions, it is sufficient to measure just two macroscopic quantities: extension (i.e., a change in length over a predetermined gauge length) and load (i.e., the force required to impart the controlled extension). Two geometries of tensile specimens are used for standard tests: a round bar for bulk material properties (e.g., for beams) and a flat specimen for sheet (product) material properties. Each is subject to the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) specifications and has a nominal gauge lengthfor this lab the gauge length will be 2 inches. The gauge length refers to the distance between ends of an extension gage put on the specimen to measure elongation between these points. The deforming length is significantly longer than the gage length in order to ensure that the stress state is uniaxial and deformation is quasi-uniform over the gauge length. YIELD STRENGTH High strength steels dont possess a well-defined yield point. For these materials the maximum useful strength is the yield strength. The yield strength is the stress at which a material exhibits a specific limiting deviation from the proportionality of stress & strain. The value is determined by the offset method. The value of the offset is generally between .10 and .20 % of the gauge length. In case of steel rods generally the yield strength is denoted as the grade. The 60 grade or the 40 grade actually defines the yield strength of the rods such as 60,000 psi or 40,000 psi. The steel products such as in the form of rods come to this analysis lab to be checked for its

19 mechanical properties. If the tested value agrees with the targeted value the product then send to the customer. In case of mismatch of the resulted value with the targeted ones, the sample then is rejected.

SPECTROSCOPIC ANALYSIS

It has been known that many metallic elements under suitable excitation emit radiation of definite wavelengths. The dispersion of this light by a spectroscope or spectrograph produces a spectrum characteristic of the atom or molecule. This phenomenon is utilized in the chemical analysis of metals and alloys. If the various elements in a sample to be analyzed are made to emit their characteristic lines by electron or x-ray bombardment, analyzing the emitted radiation may identify them. If the various characteristic lines in the emitted spectrum are simply identified, the analysis is known as qualitative. However, if the intensities of these lines are compared with those of a suitable standard, quantitative data may be obtained. This method of analysis is more commonly known as emission spectroscopy or chemical analysis by fluorescence. Emission spectrum analysis is non-destructive & much more rapid than the ordinary wet methods of chemical analysis. Usually spectroscopic analysis is performed while melting the scraps in order to make steel. This spectroscopic analyzer confirms the presence of various alloying elements with their quantitative measurement. It can detect 22 alloying elements of a sample at the same time. During the entire melting process each heat is passed through this analysis at least more than one time. After melting a sample of first bath is tested to get confirmation of its chemical composition by this testing method. Therefore some other scraps are added to the first bath as per their targeted requirement. In this way this chemical composition analysis is done until the projected composition is reached. The chemical composition report of a steel sample is used to be as followed. 03/04/2004 12:17:28 sample 132/1st bath. Mr. x.R.S.M.induction .3+7 Program: FELAST Task: FELAST
C Mn Si S P Ni Cr Mo V

1> AVG

0.20297 0.20297

0.57920 0.57920

0.13784 0.13784

0.04443 0.04443

0.04013 0.04013

0.10820 0.10820

0.09482 0.09482

0.01209 0.01209

0.00269 0.00269

Run 1> AVG Run 1>

Cu 0.35926 0.35926 Zr 0.00214

W 0.00915 0.00915 N )0.04616

Ti 0.00173 0.00173 FE% 98.3073

Sn 0.02388 0.02388

Co 0.01224 0.01224

Al 0.00739 0.00739

Pb 0.00579 0.00579

B 0.00030 0.00030

Nb 0.00227 0.00227

20
AVG 0.00214 )0.04616 98.3073

CHEMICAL ANALYSIS LAB

Generally the chemical analysis lab deals with the job to determine the content of various alloying elements of steel. Chemical lab of RAHIM STEEL MILL usually perform the analysis to determine the total carbon, silicon, manganese & some other alloying elements in steel and ferro alloys. DETERMINATION OF TOTAL CARBON BY STROHLEIN APPARATUS (COMBUSTION METHOD) By this method carbon is oxidized at high temperature in a stream of dry and pure oxygen to yield CO2. This CO2 is absorbed in saturated KOH solution. The decrease in volume of the gas after absorption is read directly on a scale as % of carbon, after making due correlation in the volume of the change in temperature & pressure.
PROCEDURE

Bring the combustion furnaces to the proper temperature (1000-1050 c) for iron & plain carbon steel & (1150-1200c) for alloy steel. Introduce the combustion boat along with the 1 gm of sample (fine drilling) into the hot zone of the combustion chamber. The oxygen for combustion is supplied from a gas cylinder to the combustion tube at a constant pressure, which has been dried by passing through concentrated H2SO4. Now link between the furnace & the burette through cock. The rate of reaction can be observed from the descent of liquid in the burette. Reaction generally takes for 2-3 min. then collects the gas until the measuring burette has been nearly filled. Adjust the level. Now open the cock in such a way as to connect the absorption vessel (filled with KOH solution) with the measuring burette. Pass the gas thrice into the absorption vessel. Collect the remaining gas in the burette. The levels are adjusted again with the help of the leveling bottle & the % of carbon is then directly read on the scale on the scale of the burette. Measure the temperature & pressure & makes the necessary correction to determine the correct % of carbon. DETERMINATION OF SILICON IN FERRO SILICON When finely powdered alloy is fused with Na2O2 in an iron crucible, sodium silicate is formed. This is dissolved in dilute HCl, & the silisic acid thus produced is dehydrated to SiO2. This is filtered off, washed, dried, ignited &weighed as impure SiO 2. The residue is treated with conc. H2SO4 & HF to expel SiO2 as SiF4. The loss in weight represents the weight of SiO2 from which silicon is calculated.
PROCEDURE

Take 0.5 g of the finely powdered alloy sample into an iron crucible & mix it with 8 g of Na2O2. Cover the mixture with an additional layer of 2 g of Na2O2. Heat gently over a Bunsen burner for a few minutes, holding the crucible with a pair of tongs. Rotate the crucible slowly while heating so that molten liquid comes into contact with the particles that may have kept to the top of the crucible. Keep the bottom of the crucible at a dull red heat for 5 min. Take the crucible away from the flame and when still hot, transfer the content to a nickel dish of 300 ml capacity or to a 600 ml Pyrex beaker. Add 50 ml of cold water. Rinse the crucible 2-3 times with water. Add the rinsing to the beaker. Transfer the solution from the beaker to a casserole and add 40-50 ml

21 conc. HCl in excess. Evaporate to dryness at a temperature not exceeding 110c. bake and cool. Redissolve the residue in 20-ml conc. HCl by gentle heating for 5 min. dilute with 250 ml of hot water. Filter through a filter paper containing a little ash less paper pulp & wash alternatively with HCl &water until free from iron. Finally wash with hot water. Reserve the filter paper with the residue. Evaporate the filtrate to dryness & bake for 1 hr at a temp not exceeding 110c. cool. Add 20 ml of dilute HCl & heat to boiling. Dilute with 200 ml of hot water. Filter, wash as above and transfer the residue with the paper to a large size Pt crucible. Dry, ignite and weigh. Treat the ignited residue with a few drops of H 2SO4 (sp. Gr. 1.42) and 3 to 4 drops of HF. Evaporate to dryness. Re-ignite and weigh. The loss in weigh will give the wt of silica from which the % of silicon in the ferro-silicon can be calculated.

DETERMINATION OF MANGANESE IN IRON, STEEL AND FERRO-ALLOYS

Manganese is largely used in the form of ferro manganese as a deoxidizer in the steel industry. It is an important constituent of many alloy steels. The following methods are used to determine manganese in iron, steel & ferro alloys. PERSULPHATE-ARSENITE METHOD This method is applicable to iron & steel having less than 0.5% Cr. In this method, Mn salts are oxidized to permanganic acid by ammonium persulfate in the presence of silver nitrate solution, which acts as a catalyst. The permanganic acid is then reduced by a standard sodium arsenite solution & from the amount of the arsenite solution used, the percentage of Mn in the steel sample is calculated. PROCEDURE Weigh 1.1 g of the steel sample and transfer it to a 350-ml conical flask. Dissolve in 5 ml 1:3 H2SO4 & then oxidize with 30 ml HNO3 (sp. Gr. 1.2). Heat until solution is complete and boils to expel nitrous fumes. Add 100 ml of water, 5 ml of 85% phosphoric acid and 5 ml of AgNO 3 solution followed by 10 ml of 25% ammonium persulfate solution. Boil for about half a minute. Cool rapidly to 25 c or lower, and 5 ml of 1% NaCl solution. Titrate immediately with .1N sodium arsenite solution until a clear yellow color is indicated, which does not change on further addition of arsenite solution. If Cr, V and Co salts are present in the solution, they are also oxidized by ammonium persulfate, but sodium arsenite selectively reduces only Mn. However due to the uncertainty of the reaction, it is recommended not to use this method for steels containing these metals in amounts exceeding 0.5-1% each.