PART A

QUESTION 1 Why is it important to teach students the skills of problem solving?

What do you think of when someone mentions problem solving? Does it bring to mind visions of algebra word problems? For example: If Ali is 4 years older than Abu is and Abu is twice as old as Kamal, how old is Ali now? Think about the reasonableness of this problem. "Doesn't Ali know how old he is?" What about the problem where $5,000 is invested, part of it at 3% and part of it at 8%? At the end of the year, you know how much you have in interest, but you do not know how much you had invested at each rate. Why didn't you invest it all at 8% anyway? Students look at problems like this and ask why? Many students and teachers equate problem solving with mathematics. While it is true there is, a great deal of problem solving done in mathematics, problem solving is much largerit is a life skill. When students first encounter word problems, they also hear the words "problem solving." However, much of what they are doing is simply exercises designed to reinforce mathematical skills. I believe that many of the word problems in mathematics books fall into that category. There is nothing wrong with doing exercises and they are important for skill development, but exercises must not be confused with problem solving. One of the early methods students uses to solve word problems is to find the numbers and do the operation the teacher was doing yesterday. Students find success with this strategy and continue to use it. We must

help them expand beyond these ideas to see problem solving in a broader light. Instead of just trying to find the right answer, students need to be encouraged to interpret the situation and actually solve the problem. Schoenfeld (in Olkin and Schoenfeld, 1994, p.43) described the way in which the use of problem solving in his teaching has changed since the 1970s: My early problem-solving courses focused on problems amenable to solutions by Polya-type heuristics: draw a diagram, examine special cases or analogies, specialize, and generalize, and so on. Over the years the courses evolved to the point where they focused less on heuristics parse and more on introducing students to fundamental ideas: the importance of mathematical reasoning and proof..., for example, and of sustained mathematical investigations (where my problems served as starting points for serious explorations, rather than tasks to be completed).

So, why is it important to teach students the skills of problem solving ? Here are some reasons why is it important to teach students the skills of problem solving. 1. Mathematics is an essential discipline because of its practical role to the individual and society. Through a problem-solving approach, this aspect of mathematics can be developed. Presenting a problem and developing the skills needed to solve that problem is more motivational than teaching the skills without a context. Such motivation gives problem solving special value as a vehicle for learning new concepts and skills or the reinforcement of skills already acquired (Stanic and Kilpatrick, 1989,

NCTM, 1989). Approaching mathematics through problem solving can create a context, which simulates real life and therefore justifies the mathematics rather than treating it as an end in itself. 2. According to Resnick (1987), a problem-solving approach contributes to the practical use of mathematics by helping students to develop the facility to be adaptable when, for instance, technology breaks down. It can thus also help student to transfer into new work environments at this time when most are likely to be faces with several career changes during a working lifetime. 3. Problem solving can be a focus of mathematics teaching because it encompasses skills and functions, which are an important part of everyday life. Furthermore, it can help students to adapt to changes and unexpected problems in their careers and other aspects of their lives. 4. Give students experience of the power of mathematics in the world around them. Problem solving is a vehicle for students to construct, evaluate and refine their own theories about mathematics and the theories of others. 5. Problem solving help students construct a deep understanding of mathematical ideas. 6. Problem solving is also a skill, which can enhance logical reasoning. Individuals can no longer function optimally in society by just knowing the rules to follow to obtain a correct answer. They also need to be able to decide through a process of logical deduction what algorithm, if any, a situation requires, and sometimes need to be able to develop their own

rules in a situation where an algorithm cannot be directly applied. For these reasons problem solving can be developed as a valuable skill in itself, a way of thinking, rather than just as the means to an end of finding the correct answer. 7. To encourage students and help them to build their own understanding about the mathematical concept that they shall learnt. 8. Develop students' confidence in their own ability to think mathematically. Nowadays, if we ask students whether mathematics subject easy or difficult, the answer is difficult. Why is this happen? This is because they cannot make a relationship about what they have learnt and thing that happen in their life. Teaching problem solving will help our student to build their self-confidence and further more, they can overcome their weakness and built self-confidence that mathematics is an easy subject that they use every day in their life. 9. Help student to improve their problems solving experience through knowledge that they gain. This will build students awareness on the important of mastering mathematical knowledge. This will encourage them to strive to get the mathematical knowledge. 10. Through problem solving skills, anilities thinking, and sciencetific thinking skill can be develop in our students. This is because they are encouraged to solve the problem given in their own way and their own understanding or ideas.

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Problem solving skills also help student to be self-independence. When all works they must do by themselves, this will build self-independence. They will work hard to get what they want. Without hard working, they will gain nothing. This will develop a good behaviour.

12.

Problem solving skills is a device for students to construct, evaluate and refine their own theories about mathematics and the theories of others.

As a conclusion, we should teach our student skills of problem solving because it is very important. This skill will help student, so that they do not always rely on teacher to get information or to build mathematical concepts. Through problem solving skills, students can show and develop their own abilities. As we know, different person has different weakness and different strength. Problem solving skills will help student to show the real abilities and intelligence that they have.

QUESTION 2

What is the difference between inductive and deductive approach. example of each approach.

Give an

In teaching, there are many theoretical approaches that have been developed to promote the students' success in learning new information. There are two main theoretical approaches: inductive approach and deductive approach. The more traditional of the two theories, is the deductive approach, while the emerging and more modern theory, and is the inductive approach. Deductive approach works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a "top-down" approach. We might begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data -- a confirmation (or not) of our original theories.

Deductive Approach

Inductive approach works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach (please note that it's "bottom up" and not "bottoms up" which is the kind of thing the bartender says to customers when he's trying to close for the night!). In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.

Inductive Approach These two methods of approaches have a very different "feel". Inductive approach, by its very nature, is more open-ended and exploratory, especially at the beginning. Deductive approach is narrower in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses.

Comparison of two Approaches

Properties of Deduction

In a valid deductive argument, all of the content of the conclusion is present, at least implicitly, in the premises. Deduction is nonampliative.

If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Valid deduction is necessarily truth preserving.

If new premises are added to a valid deductive argument (and none of its premises are changed or deleted) the argument remains valid.

Deduction is erosion-proof. Deductive validity is an all-or-nothing matter; validity does not come in degrees. An argument is totally valid, or it is invalid.

Properties of Induction

Induction is ampliative. The conclusion of an inductive argument has content that goes beyond the content of its premises.

A correct inductive argument may have true premises and a false conclusion. Induction is not necessarily truth preserving.

New premises may completely undermine a strong inductive argument. Induction is not erosion-proof.

Inductive arguments come in different degrees of strength. In some inductions, the premises support the conclusions more strongly than in others.

QUESTION 3

Describe with an example the use of mnemonic devices in class. Mnemonic instruction is an instructional strategy commonly used with students who have disabilities as well as with their non-disabled peers. It is designed to improve memory of key information. Mnemonic instruction facilitates access to the

general education curriculum by giving students the tools th

Gey need to better

encode information so that it will be much easier to retrieve it from memory at later points. Mnemonics can be used in language arts (i.e., vocabulary, spelling, and letter recognition), mathematics, science, social studies, foreign language, and other academic subjects. Use of this instructional strategy does not require a wealth of additional materials or extensive planning and preparation time (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 1998). Mnemonics are most useful when the information to be recalled involves large amounts of disjointed information (such as naming the U.S. Presidents), or when there is a set of steps to be remembered in a particular order. Mnemonics assist in recall by providing a meaningful cue for new information. Mnemonics can be combined with other tactics, such as Repetition, Clustering, and Flowcharts. For example, a Mnemonic can be repeated to aid memorization. A Mnemonic device can also be created for the information contained in a Cluster or displayed in a Flowchart.

Below is an example of how to use a Mnemonic to help learners.

King Philip Cuts Open Five Green Snakes

K represent Kingdom, P for Phylum, C for Class, O for Order, F for Family, G for Genus and S for Species.

When we want to teach mathematics formula or the order of operations we can use mnemonic. For example, we we want to teach about the Order of Operations in mathematic, and want our student to remember is easily, we can use mnemonic. To do Order of Operations in Mathematics, we use to solve the Parentheses first, followed by Exponents, than Multiplication. After that, we solve division, Addition and lastly Subtraction.

Sometimes, when a students see a question of order of operations, they confuse which one should be solve first and it consequence . When the order of operations solve is not correct, the student will not get a correct answer and most important we do not want them to put a wrong concept of mathematics.

The best way to make our student remember or to help them to remember the order of operations in Mathematics is by using mnemonic device.

If we look carefully, to solve this type of question, we need to look at the question given. What are the operations involve in that question. As we know, to

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solve this kind of question, we need to solve the parentheses first, than Exponents, Multiplication, Division, addition and Subtraction. So, the order of operations is like this:i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Parentheses Exponents Multiplication Division Addition Subtraction

To help our student to remember the order of operations, here is an example of mnemonic that we can use:-

Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally P E M D A S = = = = = = Parentheses Exponents Multiplication Division Addition Subtraction

This type of mnemonic is known as letter strategy, where we take the first letter of every word as shown in the example above and then, we form new words and built a sentence that easy to remember.

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Another example of use of mnemonic devices in class is on how teach student to remember the equations for Tangent, Sine and Cosine. Two Old Angels Skipped Over Heaven Carrying Ancient Harps T stands for Tangent, O Stands for opposite, A stands for Adjacent, S stands for Sine, C stands for Cosine, and H stands for Hypotenuse. Therefore :Tangent Sine Cosine = = = Opposite/adjacent Opposite/Hypotenuse Adjacent/Hypotenuse

As a conclusion, teachers and administrators should consider mnemonic instruction a useful tool on a continuum of strategies that require varying levels of teacher involvement and student independence. Mnemonic instruction is an inexpensive strategy that provides a means of helping children with disabilities gain access to the general education curriculum. No specific level of teaching experience is required to learn or use this strategy. Furthermore, mnemonic instruction involves no additional costs for purchase of materials or technology.

Mnemonics can be teacher created or student created. However, the teacher should introduce and create mnemonics until students learn how to properly use them. Students should be allowed to create their own mnemonics when they are not only comfortable using them but also willing to create mnemonics with appropriate and correct information. This strategy is a low-tech approach that has shown most

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promise for learners with mild to moderate cognitive disabilities or for those who have high incidence disabilities. Because this strategy requires some previous knowledge and the ability to make connections between knowledge, it may not work as effectively for children with more severe cognitive delays.

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QUESTION 4

Describe how teachers can lead students to construct concepts.

As suggested by Cangelosi ( 1996), Leading Students to Construct Concepts approach requires a four-stage lesson. Firstly, a teacher need to decide on the type of grouping for implementing each stage whether in individual, small group, large group or whole-class grouping.

The Four-stage Lesson to lead students to construct concepts are:Stage 1. Sorting and Categorizing Students is presented by a task that require them to sort and categorize the specifics. Students were guided by the teacher. They are also allowed to complete the task by themselves. It is best that teacher carefully select examples and non-examples of the concepts. The nonexamples are to help students to test the hypothesis that they make when analyzing the attributes of the concepts. Stage 2. Reflecting and Explaining Students can explain their rationales for categorizing the specifics. Teacher can raise leading questions, stimulate thinking and clarify their expression.

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Stage 3

Generalizing and Articulating Through analyzing the examples and defining what sets the examples apart from the non-examples, students describe the concept in terms of attributes. They may develop a definition of the concept but not necessary for them to use the conventional name of the concept.

Stage 4

The description of the definition is tested with additional specifics that students already know are examples and non-examples of the concept.

A sample worksheet for teaching the concept of Square of Numbers. Look at the examples and non-examples given in each column, Analyze the attributes of the examples and compare them with that of the non- examples. Examples Non-examples 32 = 9 3X3=9 0.052 = 0.0025 0.05 X 0.05 025 0000 +00000 0.0025 (20)2 = 400 20 X 20 4 00 1. Have are the examples alike? How do they differ from non-examples?2. Write your first conjecture about the attribute of the examples. 2. Write your first conjecture about the attribute of the examples.

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3.

Write down some other examples and non-examples based on your first

conjecture. Check your list with another fried/group. 4. Now, write your second conjecture about the attribute of the examples. 5. Present your conjecture in the class discussion. Based on the discussion, write your third conjecture about the attribute of the examples. 6. Give a formal definition of the concept based on the list of examples given and the attributes identified.

QUESTION 5

Discuss a research-based teaching method that creates a meaningful and enjoyable learning in mathematics.

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Constructivist teaching techniques are based on the constructivist learning theory. This theoretical framework relies on an the earlier framework of cognitivism, which holds that learning should build upon knowledge that a student already knows; this prior knowledge is called a schema. Constructivists suggest learning is more effective when a student is actively engaged in the construction of knowledge rather than passively receiving it. Constructivist teaching methods are also based on the constructivist learning theory developed by a variety of philosophers. Along with John Dewey, Piaget researched childhood development and education. Their theories are now encompassed in the broader movement of progressive education. The constructivist learning theory says that children learn best when they construct a personal understanding based on experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. Furthermore, in the constructivist classroom, students work primarily in groups and learning and knowledge are interactive and dynamic. There is a great focus and emphasis on social and communication skills, as well as collaboration and exchange of ideas. This is contrary to the traditional classroom in which students work primarily alone, learning is achieved through repetition, and the subjects are strictly adhered to and are guided by a textbook. Some activities encouraged in constructivist classrooms are:

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 Experimentation: students individually perform an experiment and then come together as a class to discuss the results. Research projects: students research a topic and can present their findings to the class. Field trips. This allows students to put the concepts and ideas discussed in class in a real-world context. Field trips would often be followed by class discussions. Films. These provide visual context and thus bring another sense into the learning experience. Class discussions. This technique is used in all of the methods described above. It is one of the most important distinctions of constructivist teaching methods.

In the constructivist classroom, the teachers role is to prompt and facilitate discussion. Thus, the teachers main focus should be on guiding students by asking questions that will lead them to develop their own conclusions on the subject. Three major roles for teachers to support students in constructivist learning environments are: Modeling Coaching Scaffolding

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Teacher has to propose a model to develop constructivist learning environments around a specific learning goal. This goal may take one of several forms, from least to most complex: Question or issue Case study Long-term Project Problem (multiple cases and projects integrated at the curriculum level)

PART B
QUESTION 1

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Design a lesson to teach problem solving skill to your class. Name : School Subject Form : Siti Aminah Bt Haji Ahmad : SMK (1) Jalan Batu Tiga, Klang. : 2 Gigih : : : Circle : Understanding and use the concept of circumference to 33 21st June 2008 Mathematics

Number of student Date of lesson Time Topic : Learning Area

8.00 am 9.00 am

solve problem. Learning Outcomes : Pupils are able to estimate the value of . Pupils are able to derive the formula of the circumference of a circle.

Lesson development.

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Step/Time Step 1 10 minutes

Teacher Activity Making measurements of the

Student Activity 1. Form groups of four.

Teacher materials Cans of different

2. Take the materials listed by circumference the teacher and object diameter of the 3. Wrap the string around a

sizes( milks can, cans, cereals paint

different sizes..

can.

This

measure

the cans, canned

circumference of the can. Measure the length of the drinks string using meter ruler. cans), Record the value in the measuring column circumference. a 4. Measure the diameter of the can with an external meter ruler and an external calipers. labeled tape, string,

calipers. Record the value in the column labelled

diameter. 5. The students continue to process until each group

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measured at least 4 objects.

Step 2 Discovering the value of .

1. Each team need to record Tables their finding in a table. in ( table contains column for computer object, diameter of object, shown circumference of object and the screen. ratio Circumference/diameter) 2. Pupils divide the on the prepared

circumference of each of the cans by its diameter ( to three decimal places). Put this value in the column labelled ratio. 3. Pupils complete the data in the tables.

1. Based Step 3 Formula for circumference of . using .

on

their

result,

pupils determine the value

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2. Teachers

explanation

about the important of finding the circumference of an object. 3. When they pupils get the value of , they are asked to form a formula to

calculate a circumference of an object by knowing only the diameter of the object and the number represents . 4. Pupils are asked to prove their formula through a few questions solving of giving problem by the

teacher. 1. Pupils state their conclusion Conclusion/closure based on their finding through the activities that just carry out. 2. Each group writes their Colour paper.

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formula nicely on a piece of paper and pastes it on the notice board. 1. Pupils are given with 5 Evaluate problems related to circumference of circles. 2. Pupils use their knowledge to solve the problem. 3. Homework. 4. Pupils will also be assessed through observation. informal

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QUESTION 2. Design a lesson class where you use games as a teaching method.

Topic Subtopic

Number : : Positive and negative Number Pupils are able to subtract positive and negative number within 100.

Learning Outcomes

Name of the game Materials

: :

Numbers Chain Number cards, operation card, blue tack, Rules and

regulation cards.

PROCEDURES: 1. 2. Class is divided into 6 groups. Each group contains at least 5 pupils. Each group is provided with 20 pieces of number cards and 10 pieces of operation cards.

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3.

Each pupil is asked to answer the question given by other group. After putting their answer using the number card, they need to write a question for other group.

4.

Pupils are also asked to read their answer and their question after putting their number cards on the black board.

5.

Pupil is allowed to discuss in their group the answer and also the question they want to ask.

5.

The games will continue until one of the group finish putting their cards number in the numbers chain.

6.

This game also can be played with two players. Each will observe his/her opponent.

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RULES AND REGULATION 1. 2. 3. First question will be provided by the teacher. Each round, every group is represented by one member of the group. The first player can only get his/her second chance after all of his/her team member played the game. 4. Every correct question, they will get one mark and every correct answer, they will also get one mark. Total mark for each round is 2 marks. 4. If any group gives a wrong answer, other group can grasp the chance to write the correct answer and get one mark for their group. 5. If the question given by any group, out of the learning outcomes, the group will also loses it mark. 6. 7 8 Each group is asked to write the point that their group gains. Winner of the game is the group with the highest marks. Teacher will be the facilitator.

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ILLUSTRATION OF THE GAME 1. First player of group one start the games by answering the question below.

-2

+8

+6 +4

Answers of the first player of group one.

+ 2.

Group one get two marks. The game will continue with the first player of group 2.

-2

+8

+6
-

The correct answer is +2. Group 2 loses 1 mark.

+7
3.

-2

+4

The answer is wrong so that group 2 will get one mark only. Others group is allowed to give the correct answer and earn one mark.

4. 5.

The game continues until one of the group finish using their number cards. Each group will read their marks and the teacher can determine the winner.

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BIBLIOGRAFY Laman Web 1. 2. 3. Buku 1. Billstein,R.,Libeskind,S. & Lott J. W. (2001). A problem solving approach to mathematics for elementary school teachers ( 7th ed.) Addison Wesley Longman. Kahney, H. (1993). Problem Solving Current Issues ( 2nd ed.) Buckingham : Open university Press. 2. Sharma, M, C, (1989). Mathematics learning personality. Math Notebook. Center for teaching and Learning Mathematics. Framingham, Massachusetts. 3. Woods, D.R. (1986). Skills For Problem Solving. Hamilton, Ontario: http://www.cikgu.net/download/lpc2001/matematik/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_p%3%B31ya http://mathforum.org/library/ed_topics/method_solving/

Department of Chemical engineering, McMaster University.

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