GRAECA TERGESTINA

STORIA E CIVILT 1
copyright Edizioni Universit di Trieste, Trieste 2013.
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Legal Documents in Ancient Societies
www.ldas-conf.com
Steering Committee: Sophie Dmare-Lafont, Mark Depauw,
Michele Faraguna, va Jakab, Dennis P. Kehoe, Uri Yiftach-Firanko
Con il contributo di:
Ministero dell'Istruzione, dell'Universit e della Ricerca
PRIN 2008 La burocrazia greca: denizione e funzionamento
dei procedimenti amministrativi nel mondo antico
Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici Universit degli Studi di Trieste
Legal Documents in Ancient Societies IV
Archives and
Archival Documents
in Ancient Societies
Trieste
30 September-1 October 2011
edited by
Michele Faraguna
EUT EDIZIONI UNIVERSIT DI TRIESTE
4
Contents
Michele Faraguna (Trieste)
7 Foreword
Dennis Kehoe (New Orleans)
11 Archives and Archival Documents
in Ancient Societies: Introduction
Ancient Near East
Sophie Dmare-Lafont (Paris)
23 Zero and Innity: the Archives
in Mesopotamia
Klaas R. Veenhof (Leiden)
27 The Archives of Old Assyrian Traders:
their Nature, Functions and Use
Antoine Jacquet (Paris)
63 Family Archives in Mesopotamia
during the Old Babylonian Period
Susanne Paulus (Mnster)
87 The Limits of Middle Babylonian
Archives
Classical Greece
Christophe Pbarthe (Bordeaux)
107 Les archives de la cit de raison.
Dmocratie athnienne et pratiques
documentaires lpoque classique
Shimon Epstein (Tel-Aviv /Freiburg)
127 Attic Building Accounts from
Euthynae to Stelae
Edward M. Harris (Durham)
143 The Plaint in Athenian Law
and Legal Procedure
Michele Faraguna (Trieste)
163 Archives in Classical Greece:
Some Observations
The Persian Tradition
and the Hellenistic World
Ingo Kottsieper (Gttingen)
175 Aramische Archive aus
achmenidischer Zeit und ihre
Funktion
5
Laura Boffo (Trieste)
201 La presenza dei re negli archivi
delle poleis ellenistiche
Lucia Criscuolo (Bologna)
245 Copie, malacopie, copie d'ufcio
e il problema della titolarit
di un archivio nellEgitto tolemaico
Mark Depauw (Leuven)
259 Reections on Reconstructing
Private and Ofcial Archives
The Roman Empire
va Jakab (Szeged)
269 Introduction: Archives in the Roman
Empire
Kaja Harter-Uibopuu (Wien)
273 Epigraphische Quellen zum
Archivwesen in den griechischen
Poleis des ausgehenden Hellenismus
und der Kaiserzeit
Thomas Kruse (Wien)
307 Bevlkerungskontrolle,
Statuszugang und Archivpraxis
im rmischen gypten
Rudolf Haensch (Mnchen)
333 Die Statthalterarchive
der Sptantike
Uri Yiftach-Firanko (Jerusalem)
351 Conclusions
363 Index locorum
7
foreword
Foreword
To Lisetta Brunner
The research group Legal Documents in Ancient Societies aims to investigate the
legal and administrative systems in a variety of societies of the ancient world
through a document-based approach, crossing traditional disciplinary bounda-
ries and providing a locus for scholars who work in different but contiguous
elds to discuss and compare the results of their individual research. The fourth
meeting of the group was held at the University of Trieste on 30 September-1

October 2011 and focused on the study of archives and archival records and the
different ways they interlocked with, and were functional to, the workings of the
ancient administrative, and political, systems.
Twelve papers were delivered at the meeting and are published in this book
in a revised form. The papers are arranged in four sections dealing respectively
with the Ancient Near East, Classical Greece, the Persian Tradition and the Hel-
lenistic World, and the Roman Empire. Given that the themes touched upon by
the contributors chronologically span from the astoundingly extensive records
of the Old Assyrian traders in the early second millennium B.C. to the archives
kept by provincial governors in the late Roman Empire and range geographi-
cally from Mesopotamia to the Western Mediterranean, including Asia Minor,
Egypt and Aegean Greece, considerable effort has been made, rst, to contextu-
alise the signicance of each essay within the scholarly debate of each discipline
and, secondly, to bridge the gaps and highlight similarities and differences in the
8
archival practices and concepts of the societies examined. Each section is thus
enriched by introductory comments or afterthoughts on the three papers, while
the Introduction and Conclusions tie up the common threads and bring together
the general methodological and conceptual concerns emerging from the case-
studies analysed in the essays.
In order to avoid modern anachronistic projections on ancient documenta-
tion, the working denition underlying the essays has been that an archive in
line with the Encyclopaedia Britannica is the organised body of records produced
or received by a public, or private, entity in the transaction of affairs and pre-
served by it for its specic needs and purposes. In other words, archives, whether
public or private, are no doubt the physical spaces, the repositories where records
are kept, but they are also the organised active memory of the society produc-
ing them, thus reecting the practical needs and administrative practices as well
as the ideological models of that society, whose world order they mirror and
perpetuate to a signicant extent. In the essays by I. Kottsieper and L. Criscuolo
archives, conceived as collections of documents deliberately made for public or
private purposes in antiquity, have been set apart from dossiers, assemblages
of texts not originally kept in the same repository but successively brought to-
gether as a result of different circumstances. Only the former, archives in the
technical sense, are hence studied in this volume.
The archives dealt with in the essays are especially conspicuous for their va-
riety, both in terms of quality and of quantity. The rst element distinguishing
them is whether they were of public or private nature, although such distinction
is not always necessarily clear-cut and, as shown by K. Veenhof and A. Jacquet, it
can hardly be applied to the Old Assyrian and Old Babylonian source material.
Records were, moreover, written on a variety of materials, including clay tablets,
papyrus, wooden tablets, but also on leather as well as bronze and lead plates, so
that when they were kept on perishable materials and are now lost, as is normal-
ly the case for the Graeco-Roman world, their existence must be inferred from
literary texts and epigraphic documents, which were copies of (or extracts from)
archival records and, as shown by K. Harter-Uibopuu, sometimes established
regulations regarding their upkeep and organisation.
Other variables concern the life-time of archives and records. Documents
were generally preserved and stored not for the sake of keeping a memory of
the past but for their concrete signicance for the present. At the public level, as
illustrated by Th. Kruse, written texts testifying to the privileged legal and scal
status of individuals in Roman Egypt could be consulted and quoted even 200
years later, while boundary disputes between Greek poleis in Hellenistic and
Roman Asia Minor and the ofcial correspondence between Greek cities and
Hellenistic kings, once more often concerning the renewal of tax privileges, not
rarely reveal, as highlighted by L. Boffo, that the relevant documents could be
produced decades, if not centuries after the original settlement or award. Like-
wise, following E. M. Harris argument, written plaints in Classical Athens played
9
foreword
an important role in enforcing the principle of res iudicata, whereas the archivi-
zation of ofcial manumission documents in Hellenistic and Roman Delphi was
meant to provide permanent evidence of free status. Other detailed documents,
as emphasized by S. Epstein in his contribution on Athenian fth and fourth
century building accounts, were, on the other hand, discarded when they were
no longer of use and only shortened, recapitulative records were likely to have a
longer life. At a private level, K. Veenhof, A. Jacquet and I. Kottsieper make a simi-
lar distinction between documents of unlimited and those of limited validity.
Documents proving title of ownership, donations or inheritance rights were, as
a rule, preserved for a long time, for several generations, while short-term con-
tracts were generally discarded as soon as the obligation had been fullled. The
keeping of loan contracts in an Old Babylonian archive beyond the expiry date
can, as a consequence, be explained by assuming that the debts had not been paid
and, in actual fact, remained outstanding.
Notwithstanding such variety of individual cases, a number of common pat-
terns also emerge in respect to the organization and the physical aspect of the
storerooms where the documents were preserved, the classication of texts, the
function of record-keeping and the role of seals. One further constant pattern is
that archives, especially public ones, were rarely centralised and ofcial informa-
tion was stored in multiple repositories kept by different magistrates interacting
with one another. This is the case, at a private level, with the archives of the Old
Assyrian traders and, at a public level, with the local archives of Classical Athens
and Hellenistic and Roman Egypt. Such a pattern furthermore entails, as shown
by L. Criscuolo, that documents often had to be available in more than one copy.
Leaving aside the complex and intractable question of whether these shared
habits were the result of independent developments or represent a common
trait to the entire Near Eastern and Mediterranean area, which far exceeds the
scope of this volume, we are entitled to speak of a recurring archival behaviour.
It appears that in the best documented areas and periods, such as Mesopotamia
in the second millennium B.C. and in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt, the produc-
tion of written records was impressively abundant and administrative and le-
gal practices had reached a remarkable degree of complexity and sophistication.
Each individual administrative act entailed the drawing of multiple documents
and thus produced a true documentary chain. On this basis, it seems reasonable
to assume that also where archival documents, with some important exceptions,
have not been preserved but where sophisticated uses of writing were developed,
as is the case of the Greek world, the functioning of the political, institutional, le-
gal and economic system was largely dependant on the plentiful production of
written documents and on extensive record-keeping.
This book would not have seen the light without the help and support of
many. I would like to acknowledge my sincere gratitude to Professor Roger S.
Bagnall and to the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World at New York University
for their generous nancial contribution towards the organization of the meet-
10
ing in Trieste. Warmest thanks are also due to the Dipartimento di Storia e Cul-
ture dallAntichit al Mondo Contemporaneo (now renamed as Dipartimento di
Studi Umanistici) of the University of Trieste and to its Head Professor Claudio
Zaccaria for providing further substantial funding. I am grateful for her help and
collaboration before and after the meeting to my colleague Professor Laura Boffo
with whom I share a long-term project on Public archives in the Greek cities
from the archaic to the early Roman age. This volume was funded by the Ital-
ian Ministry of Education and Scientic Research (MIUR) as a part of that pro-
ject (PRIN 2008 La burocrazia greca: denizione e funzionamento dei procedimenti
amministrativi nel mondo antico; Coordinatore nazionale: Prof. Lucia Criscuolo).
I would also like to thank the participants for the stimulating discussion at the
meeting and for the speedy revision of the texts for publication. The members of
the steering committee of the group Legal Documents in Ancient Societies, Sophie
Dmare-Lafont, Mark Depauw, va Jakab, Dennis P. Kehoe, Uri Yiftach-Firanko,
provided vital assistance with scientic and practical advice and with their re-
sponses to the papers at the end of each session. Special thanks are moreover
due to Dr. Mauro Rossi and Mrs. Gabriella Clabot at EUT for their competent and
efcient handling of the production of the book. I would like to nally thank my
dear wife Joanna and my family for their moral and emotional support over the
years.
This book is dedicated to my mother, Lisetta Brunner, without whom I would
have never been what I am.
Michele Faraguna
Trieste, February 2013
11
archives and archival documents
The importance of archives, whether they consist of documents written on in-
scriptions, papyri, or cuneiform tablets, can hardly be overstated for the study
of many questions in ancient history, including, among other things, law, espe-
cially as it affected family relationships, the ancient economy, and the adminis-
tration of empires. The study of archives has long been a basic feature of ancient
history, but in recent years, scholars have approached archives employing new
methodologies adapted from other elds, particularly in the social sciences. This
is certainly so in papyrology, the eld represented in this volume with which I
am most familiar, but it is also the case with epigraphy and cuneiform studies.
This increasingly sophisticated use of archival material helps us to ask new ques-
tions in many elds in ancient history, and the sharing of methodologies across
disciplines makes it possible for scholars in diverse elds to learn from one an-
other, even though they often have little regular contact because of the special-
ized nature of their work. This was certainly the case at the Legal Documents in
Ancient Societies meeting in which I participated, the conference in Washing-
ton in 2009 on transaction costs in ancient economies, which brought together
Egyptologists, legal scholars, and ancient historians. The papers at the conference
in Trieste now collected in this volume remind all of us how much scholars can
learn from colleagues working in very different disciplines. In what follows, I
would like to sketch out what I understand to be some important developments
Archives and Archival
Documents in Ancient
Societies: Introduction
dennis kehoe
12
in the use of archival material, and then, on that basis, to try to place the papers
collected in the present volume in a broader perspective.
To begin with papyrology, collections of documents, perhaps, on occasion, in-
accurately termed archives, have provided a basis for investigating many issues,
from administrative and economic history in Ptolemaic, Roman, and Byzantine
Egypt, to private family law and legal history. In the eld of economic history, the
Zenon papyri, the Heroninos archive, and the Apion papyri represent the most
important sources of evidence for analyzing the development of estates and the
political economy of Egypt in the Ptolemaic, Roman, and Byzantine periods.
However, our understanding of the rural economy has been enhanced by other
less heralded archives. Two important examples are the Soterichos archive (OMAR
1979), which documents the affairs of a small-scale tenant farmer in the Fayum
in the late rst century CE, and the archive of Aurelius Isidorus (BOAK & YOUTIE
1960), which allows us to trace the challenges affecting landowners and liturgists
in Karanis in the Fayum at the turn of the fourth century CE.
The chief advantage of private papyrological archives like these for studying
the rural economy of Greco-Roman Egypt is that they allow us to trace in detail
the individual situations of farmers, both tenants and landowners, particularly
in terms of their relationships with landlords, laborers, and other landowners, as
well as the state. Since archival material by its very nature concerns the affairs of
discrete individuals, we cannot automatically generalize from patterns revealed
in them. However, what we can do is trace basic economic relationships, which
can add depth to or alter more overarching models of the ancient economy. The
study of archives is especially valuable when their evidence can be placed in a
broader historical context, one that is properly based on models developed from
other ancient evidence and from comparative material from better documented
pre-industrial economies. At the very least, comparative evidence allows us to
appreciate what kind of economic relationships were likely to have occurred in
antiquity, what levels of production might be feasible in an ancient economy,
and how later societies confronted similar legal issues resulting from economic
activity and familial relationships.
We can see how our understanding of economic relationships can be changed
by archival material by considering the Heroninos archive, a collection of some
450 letters, orders, and accounts that document in great detail the management
of a large estate in third-century CE Roman Egypt. Dominic Rathbone, in his
ground-breaking 1991 book, undertakes a detailed investigation of this material.
Rathbones study traces to the degree possible the development of large estates
belonging to Aurelius Appianus, an equestrian and councilor at Alexandria, thus
a member of Egypts provincial elite, and other persons of his circle. But more im-
portant, the Heroninos archive allows us to trace the management of an estate to
a degree of detail unparalleled elsewhere in the Roman Empire. Rathbones study
shows that at least some landowners employed wage labor on a scale not hereto-
fore recognized, and it also provides evidence for how such workers were deployed
13
archives and archival documents
and paid. In addition, the detailed accounts that Heroninos and other administra-
tors submitted to the estates central administration suggest that the owners of
this and comparable estates could calculate the protability of the various crops
they cultivated. However, when interpreted against a broader model of an agrar-
ian economy with little annual growth and limited opportunities for investing
large amounts of wealth, the evidence from the Heroninos archive provides ev-
idence for how a landowner sought to prot under such constraints by, among
other things, developing a rigorous management system to control the costs of
producing basic staples such as wine and wheat, and thereby gaining economies
of scale that gave them competitive advantages over smaller-scale farmers.
Since Rathbones work on the Heroninos archive, a number of scholars
have engaged in the intensive study of a comparable body of material from late
antiquity, the documentary papyri concerned with the organization and manage-
ment of the estates of the Flavii Apions in sixth-century Oxyrhynchus. Although
the material connected with the Apions does not constitute a coherent archive
in the way that many contributors to the present volume would dene one, the
fth-century and sixth-century papyri do provide a coherent body of material
that allows us to study in some detail the organization of a large estate belonging
to a member of the Byzantine imperial aristocracy. We can also trace both how
this estate grew over time and how its growth affected the agrarian economy in
the surrounding Oxyrhynchite villages. Among the scholars who have studied
this material in recent years are Jairus Banaji (2001), who has traced how aris-
tocratic landowners took advantage of their role in tax collection to accumulate
wealth, Roberta Mazza (2001), Peter Sarris (2006), and Todd Hickey (2012).
The numerous papyri associated with the estate of the Apions make it pos-
sible to study not only the organization and management of the estate, but also
the estates relationship with the surrounding agricultural communities, the vil-
lages in the Oxyrhynchite nome in which the Apions owned property. This is
a subject that Giovanni Rufni (2008) has taken up in his recent book, a work
that suggests the possibilities of examining now familiar documentary material
from a new theoretical perspective. In his study, Rufni seeks to come to a bet-
ter understanding of the economic and social role that the Apion estate played
in the Oxyrhynchite nome, and on that basis to draw broader conclusions about
the role of large estates in the Byzantine Empire. He does this by drawing on an
emerging eld in the social sciences, social network theory, to map the connec-
tions and relationships among individual persons associated with the Apion es-
tate. This material allows Rufni to test the hypothesis that the estate stood at
the top of a centralized hierarchy in Oxyrhynchus, which would mean that the
estate occupied a dominating position in the region. In an alternative model, as-
sociated with the Egyptian village of Aphrodito, contemporary with sixth-centu-
ry Oxyrhynchus, which Rufni also examines, small farmers and tenants seem
to have established relationships directly among themselves, without having a
large estate or an economically dominant house serve as the point of contact.
14
Rufni is one of several young scholars to use network theory to make sense
of a vast array of data in order to ask new questions about an ancient society.
Another scholar using this methodology is Caroline Waerzeggers (Leiden), who
has applied social network analysis to neo-Babylonian cuneiform archives so as
to map the relationships among elite in Babylon (Waerzeggers, forthcoming).
In a very different eld, my own colleague at Tulane University Margaret Butler
is applying social network theory to an archaeological data base of burials from
Macedon and other locations in ancient Greece. Butler uses changes in burial
customs as proxy evidence for changing social institutions in fourth-century
Macedon, and network theory allows her to determine how certain artifacts
found in graves might cluster.
1
Testing the strength of links between various bur-
ial practices enables Butler to trace changing burial customs in a rigorous rather
than largely impressionistic fashion. It is interesting to see that a similar meth-
odology can be applied both to interpreting material culture and to documentary
evidence. To return to Caroline Waerzeggers, she presented a paper on network
theory at a conference in 2008 organized by Michael Jursa of Vienna as part of his
project on the Economic History of Babylonia in the First Millennium BC.
2
For
this conference Jursa sought out scholars working on various periods in Babylo-
nian history as well as ones working in the Hellenistic and Roman economies.
The Babylonian scholars, in my understanding, are confronted with masses of
documents in numerous cuneiform archives, and so Jursa sought to establish a
scholarly dialogue with Greek and Roman historians to offer both sides a broader
perspective as they pursue their individual topics. The scholars presenting pa-
pers on the Babylonian world at the Vienna conference demonstrated a great deal
of ingenuity in applying new methodologies to their evidence and in drawing
compelling conclusions about the nature of ancient Near Eastern economies.
The papers in this volume approach archives from a somewhat different per-
spective, with a focus on understanding them as coherent bodies of evidence and
on that basis drawing historical conclusions, for example, about the governmen-
tal policies in ancient city states or empires, about economic relationships in the
ancient Near East, or about the role of law in the administration of justice.
Several of the papers are concerned directly with establishing criteria for de-
ning an archive and on this basis interpreting one. Thus Klaas Veenhof, The
Archives of Old Assyrian Traders: their Nature, Functions and Use, examines a
collection of some 23,000 clay tablets kept by Old Assyrian traders in the city of
Kanesh in southern Anatolia from about 1900 BCE until the city was destroyed
in 1835 BCE. Many of the traders kept archives of documents in their houses in
Kanesh, and they apparently had advance warning about the impending doom

1 In a book project titled The Kings Canvas: The Transformation of Ancient Macedon.
2 The conference Too much data? Generalizations and model-building in ancient economic history
on the basis of large corpora of documentary evidence was held July 16-17, 2008 at the University of
Vienna.
15
archives and archival documents
of their city, since they were able to take some documents, presumably ones
concerning still outstanding obligations, with them when they abandoned their
houses. The surviving archives are thus far from complete, but they do offer a
great deal of information about the economic activities of merchants engaging
in commerce far from the capital of the empire, in one of as many as forty trading
stations in Anatolia. These archives seem to offer a great deal of evidence for how
such merchants were able to enforce obligations and resolve disputes, which
would have been absolutely vital to their being able to conduct business. Of par-
ticular interest is the governing body that loomed over the traders, the karum,
a hierarchical organization that served to regulate relationships among traders.
Did it also play a role in enforcing contracts into which the Assyrian traders en-
tered with local people from whom they acquired gold and silver? The paper of
Antoine Jacquet, Family Archives in Mesopotamia during the Old Babylonian
Period, is part of a broad project to consider archives from the rst dynasty of
Bablyon, in the 20
th
to the 17
th
centuries BCE, in their context as they are discov-
ered archaeologically, to learn what one can from the ensemble of documents
rather than from documents considered individually. Jacquets paper describes
the variety of people who kept archives, including many women. One of his im-
portant points is that one should distinguish between documents kept for the
long term, often concerned with real estate sales, juridical decisions, marriage,
inheritance, adoptions, and manumissions, and documents recording short-
term obligations, such as debt contracts, which would be destroyed when the
obligation was completed or at least be eventually purged. Short-term arrange-
ments, which might offer an insight into the scale of commerce in which traders
would be involved, are likely to be under-represented in the archives. Moreover,
both Veenhof and Jacquet raise the troubling point that it is difcult to see how
ancient people navigated among their archives to retrieve important informa-
tion in a timely fashion.
To turn to papyri and Ptolemaic Egypt, Lucia Criscuolo, Copie, malacopie,
copie dufcio e il problema della titolarit di un archivio nellEgitto tolemaico,
distinguishes between archives proper, that is, collections of documents delib-
erately collected and maintained and kept by an individual for a specic pur-
pose, and other dossiers of documents, sometimes assembled in antiquity, but
without the direct purpose of an archive. In her paper, Criscuolo emphasizes the
importance of understanding the conditions under which documents were pro-
duced, especially copies of ofcial documents, which may not display a profes-
sional appearance. Clearly the phenomenon of copying documents produced for
ofcial purposes was widespread, since it could be important for an individual to
be able to have available the information from ofcial enactments. From another
perspective, in his paper on Aramaic archives from the Persian period in Egypt,
Ingo Kottsieper explores the reasons why individuals maintained archives. In
the case of Nakhthor, an ofcial of the Persian satrap Arsames, the preserved pa-
pers concern Nakhthors duties and those of his predecessor, and their collection
16
of documents served to establish Nakhthors political authority. Other archives
that Kottsieper examines might serve to establish peoples personal legal status
or rights, as is the case with the archives of Jedaniah and Anani.
To return to the ancient Near East, Susanne Paulus, The Limits of Middle
Babylonian Archives, examines archival material concerning the Kassite dy-
nasty to reconstruct landownership patterns, important both for the economic
history of the period and for understanding the power of the king, which to a
large extent derived from his capacity to bestow land on loyal or favored subjects.
The archival material, however, does not permit drawing a complete picture of
changes in landownership, and many documents remain unpublished. Howev-
er, Paulus nds a promising way forward by examining stone inscriptions, or ku-
durrus. These stones, which invoked divine protection against anyone who might
disturb the rights of the temple or individual who erected them, included texts
recording land donations. So they help to ll in gaps in the incomplete archival
material. For example, the king, as the highest judge, would adjudicate property
disputes, but there is no royal archive documenting such decisions, since it fell
to the individuals involved in the dispute to preserve their documents. The ku-
durrus provide an important source of information to reconstruct the economic
history of this period.
Preserving documents in public archives was a common activity for Greek
city states, and Christophe Pbarthe, Les archives de la cit de raison: dmocratie
athnienne et pratiques documentaires lpoque classique, examines the role
of local and centrally maintained written records and the relationship between
them to address the broader issues about the nature of Athenian democracy. One
issue concerns the degree to which rationality rather than traditional social ties
characterized the organization of Greek city states. In addition, Pbarthes study
raises questions concerning the degree to which writing (as opposed to orality)
was central to classical Greek democracy. If, as Pbarthe argues, the use of writ-
ing was an integral part of a broadly rational organization of the city state, it is
still not always clear precisely what purpose the publication of a document on
stone served, or the relationship between an inscription that could be publicly
viewed and the original documents maintained by the city. Shimon Epstein ad-
dresses this issue in his paper, Attic Building Accounts from Euthynae to Stelae,
concerned with the inscriptions recording the public building accounts from the
Periclean building program in fth-century BCE Athens, the later construction
of the Erechtheion, and fourth-century building accounts from Eleusis. By ana-
lyzing the information that was in all likelihood presented when the ofcials in
charge of these building programs underwent their auditing process, but did not
appear on the inscriptions, Epstein makes a convincing argument about the po-
litical purposes of the inscriptions. For Greek cities in the Hellenistic and Roman
periods, Laura Boffo, La presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche,
and Kaja Harter-Uibopuu, Epigraphische Quellen zum Archivwesen in den
griechischen Poleis des ausgehenden Hellenismus und der Kaiserzeit, investi-
17
archives and archival documents
gate the preservation of documents concerned with both the administration of
the cities and with private legal arrangements. Boffo examines the epigraphic
archives kept by cities as a way of understanding the evolving relationship be-
tween city and king in the Hellenistic world. Her thesis is that the preservation
of archives involving royal enactments was a sign of the kings power. The kings
exercised their power not only through imposing taxes on the cities and reward-
ing favored individuals with honors, but also through acts of generosity toward a
city, such as funding cults or even the education of children.
Harter-Uibopuu considers the well-known manumission documents from
Delphi as well as grave regulations from Roman Asia Minor to address how cit-
ies changed their practices in preserving documents from Hellenistic times. This
paper raises important questions for how people in Roman provinces sought to
enforce private legal arrangements. Arranging the manumission of a slave as a
sale to the god at Delphi carried with it a kind of protection that the owners of the
slaves involved apparently did not expect to gain from the more conventional le-
gal institutions of their cities. The publication on the temple wall, in abbreviated
form, of the manumission document preserved in the archive was surely meant
to emphasize both the validity of the manumissions and the authority of the god
in enforcing them. In Asia Minor, by contrast, the grave regulations show that
private individuals were condent of being able to call upon public authorities
to enforce their wishes about the ways in which their tombs would be used over
generations long after they were deceased. The prescription that a violator of the
tomb would be compelled to pay a public ne is paralleled in Greek wills from
Roman Egypt, in which the testators also include public nes for people who vio-
late the terms of the will.
Archives could play a much more basic role in resolving legal disputes, as em-
phasized by Edward Harris paper on the The Plaint in Athenian Law and Legal
Procedure. Harris challenges the widely held belief that decisions in Athenian
courts were reached more by rhetoric or social considerations than by following
the strict requirements of the law. Roman civil procedure tried to limit the scope
for going outside of the strict requirements of the law through the formulary sys-
tem. Athenian law did this by requiring public and private actions to be drawn
up specically in accordance with existing statutes (Roman law did not require
this, but instead required a remedy to exist), and the plaint carefully outlined the
statute violated, the precise nature of the violations of the laws, and the amount
of damages caused and sought. Harris focus on the plaint as a feature of Athenian
law that brought order and predictability to the adjudication of disputes raises
some broader questions. One is whether other Greek city states applied a simi-
lar requirement to court cases, or whether the Athenian court system applied a
unique reform that made legal business qualitatively different from other Greek
cities. A more fundamental issue concerns the difference between ways in which
Greek law developed in the classical period, closely tied as it was with the legisla-
tion and thus the political processes of Greek democracy. In contemporary Rome,
18
by contrast, as Aldo Schiavone (2012) emphasizes, the development and interpre-
tation of Roman law remained largely in the hands of aristocratic legal experts,
who struggled to remain independent from immediate political pressures. To re-
turn to Athenian law, a further incentive for trials to be conducted in accordance
with the law consisted in the penalties that might be imposed on magistrates
who allowed cases in violation of these prescriptions. That the administration of
Athenian law, then, might be more predictable than other scholars, most nota-
bly Adriann Lanni (2006), would suggest, has important implications for under-
standing the Athenian economy in the fourth century, a period for which we also
have substantial evidence for the development of commercial banking.
Publicly maintained archives could play a crucial role in deciding legal issues
that had wider implications for the administration of cities, as Thomas Kruse
emphasizes in his paper Bevlkerungskontrolle, Statuszugang und Archiv-
praxis im rmischen gypten. If Roman rule in Egypt to a large extent involved
dening the population in terms of various legal statuses with corresponding
privileges, it could be crucial both for the state and private individuals to have
access to records that could prove status. In many areas of classical Roman law,
it was not necessary to have written documentation to prove a case or enforce a
contract, although written evidence would obviously be helpful. In the case of
marriage, for example, the absence of documentation was not a hindrance to as-
serting that a marriage was legitimate, as the emperor Probus, in a constitution
preserved in the Code of Justinian, responded in a third-century rescript, as long
as there were witness who could verify that a marriage existed (C. 5.4.9). In the
later empire, a series of constitutions by the emperor Justinian makes clear a
growing preference for written documentation. In Roman Egypt, proof of status
was greatly facilitated by the ability of cities to maintain public archives with
epikrisis documents and other indications of status, such as the house-by-house
census declarations. Rudolf Haensch offers a very different perspective in his
paper on the types of archives kept by provincial governors in the later Roman
Empire, Die Statthalterarchive der Sptantike. Haensch takes the view that, in
the earlier empire, when it is generally assumed that provincial governors main-
tained extensive archives, the types of documentation to which governors could
have recourse were limited. But the situation changed in late antiquity, as gover-
nors maintained for decades court protocols and other important records. These
might be available in the provincial capital, as well as in a central store of archives
in Constantinople. The best evidence for the long duration of extensive archives
is the ability of Augustine to quote decisions made in the early fourth century
when he discusses the relations between Catholics and Donatists. Haenschs in-
vestigation has important implications for the administration of justice both un-
der the principate and in late antiquity; an important question concerns whether
the administration of justice in the Roman Empire was enhanced by the access
on the part of provincial governors and other judges to relevant legal decisions,
19
archives and archival documents
or whether it was largely incumbent upon the litigants to produce the relevant
documentation to support their cases.
To conclude, the papers in this volume use comparable methodologies to ad-
dress common questions in the eld of ancient history writ large. The focus on
the exact nature of archival material and the uses to which it might be put pro-
vide new perspectives to make more precise the types of conclusions that can be
drawn in future work on this type of evidence. The papers in this volume point
the way to new ways in which archives from the ancient world can be studied,
as well as to the benets of bringing together scholars working in diverse elds
with common interests and methodologies.
20
Bibliography Banaji 2001
J. Banaji, Agrarian Change in
Late Antiquity: Gold, Labour and
Aristocratic Dominance, Oxford.
Boak & Youtie 1960
A. E. R. Boak & H. C. Youtie, The
Archive of Aurelius Isidorus in the
Egyptian Museum, Cairo, and the
University of Michigan (P. Cair.
Isidor.), Ann Arbor.
Hickey 2012
T. M. Hickey, Wine, Wealth, and
the State in Late Antique Egypt,
Ann Arbor.
Lanni 2006
A. Lanni, Law and Justice in
the Courts of Classical Athens,
Cambridge.
Mazza 2001
R. Mazza, LArchivio degli Apioni.
Terra, lavoro e propriet senatoria
nellEgitto tardoantico. Bari.
Omar 1979
S. Omar, Das Archiv des Soterichos,
Pap.Colon. VIII, Opladen.
Rathbone 1991
D. Rathbone, Economic
Rationalism and Rural Society
in Third-Century A.D. Egypt:
the Heroninos Archive and the
Appianus Estate, Cambridge.
Ruffini 2008
G. Ruffini, Social Networks in
Byzantine Egypt, Cambridge.
Sarris 2006
P. Sarris, Economy and Society in
the Age of Justinian, Cambridge.
Schiavone 2012
A. Schiavone, The Invention of
Law in the West, trans. Jeremy
Carden and Antony Shugaar,
Cambridge (Mass.) and London.
Waerzeggers, forthcoming
C. Waerzeggers, Marduk-
rmanni. Local Networks and
Imperial Politics in Achaemenid
Babylonia, Orientalia
Lovaniensia Analecta, Leuven.
Ancient Near East
23
archives in the ancient near east: response
Glory (or shame) to the brick ! wrote Prof. G. Cardascia in an article introduc-
ing legal assyriology to beginners
1
. Indeed, Assyriologists are better off with the
numerous tablets found in the deserts of the Near East, but this documentary
wealth is not fully available nor completely usable, for many reasons.
One of them is the dispersion of the archives
2
.
By itself, a tablet gives a great amount of information, deriving from its con-
tent but also from its external aspect, the shape of its writing and the mention or
the printing of seal(s). But a complete interpretation also requires knowledge of
the archaeological context of its origin, and its possible connection to an archive.
Whether this tablet was kept with others or not, how it was stored, in which
room or part of a building, all this enhances and enlightens the historical
comment. What to do for instance with a list of people receiving various amounts
of grain or silver? A. Jacquet shows here how the archivistic point of view helps
to rule out some hypotheses and suggest others. Such an approach implies


1 Cardascia 1954 = 1995, 15: Gloire (ou opprobre) la brique !.
2 On the notion of archive in Mesopotamia, and the scientic and methodological questions
it raises, see Veenhof 1986, and especially his brillant introduction to the volume (1-36).
Zero and Innity:
the Archives in Mesopotamia
sophie dmare-lafont
24
awareness of the Mesopotamian practices of conservation and utilization of the
archives.
The administrative services of palaces or temples on the one hand and those
of the large households owning huge estates on the other hand worked in the
same manner, though on a different scale: incomes and expenses were registered
on notes, which were regularly copied on monthly or annual tablets; distribu-
tions of rations to employees and members of the family were carefully listed;
some legal documents were kept, as well as letters dealing with political or ad-
ministrative matters, or with current litigations in court.
Taken on their own, these texts may look very disparate and the link between
them does not appear at rst sight. For instance, we know that royal or religious
ofcers in Babylonia
3
or in Syria
4
used to put together at home documents con-
cerning their ofcial functions along with their own family archives or those
belonging to other citizens. Had we ignored their common provenience, the idea
of bringing these texts together would have not occurred to us. Taking into con-
sideration their material unity changes the way we look at the criteria of classi-
cation and internal organization of an archive, and leads us also to reconsider the
relevance or the distinction between ofcial and private sectors.
These pieces of information, which we consider crucial nowadays, were ig-
nored or neglected for a long time. In the middle of the 19
th
century, during the
relentless competition between European cultural diplomacies in the Near East,
the excavators usually diplomats themselves were basically concerned with
the quantity of ndings: they wanted to send to their museums as many artifacts
and texts as possible, even if this meant damaging the sites, scattering the ar-
chives and destroying small pieces considered ordinary or uninteresting. Many
precious indications have been lost during the harsh diggings of the archaeologi-
cal pioneers. For instance, no one would pay attention to the sherds sometimes
found along with the tablets because they were seen as common fragments of
pottery; but they could have been the remains of storage jars, and could have
given information about the archival methods of the Mesopotamians
5
. In the
same vein, the precise locus where the texts were found and their disposition on
the ground were sometimes omitted, when in fact these data inform us about
the classication practices and the activities of a building. Finally, the political
circumstances, the increasing number of illicit diggings and the setting up of
the museum collections have often led to the dispersion of archives which origi-
nally formed a coherent set. The case of the family of Ea-ilta-bni, in the 7
th
-6
th


3 See for instance the texts from Dr-Abieuh, published by Van Lerberghe & Voet 2009,
and the comments of D. Charpin, Annuaire de lEcole Pratique des Hautes Etudes 142, 2011,
17-21, esp. 21.
4 See the archives of the diviner Z-Bala and his family at Emar (Dmare-Lafont 2008, 213-14)
and the archives from the house of Urtenu at Ugarit (Bordreuil & Malbran-Labat 1995).
5 Veenhof 1986, 13.
25
archives in the ancient near east: response
centuries B.C., is a good example thereof: their activities are reported during six
generations in tablets kept in Jena, Istanbul, Oxford, Paris and at Yale University.
A patient work aiming at regrouping the whole le was necessary in order to al-
low a global study of the matrimonial and economic strategies of this powerful
family from Borsippa (modern Birs Nimrud, close to Babylon)
6
.
Mesopotamian families themselves sometimes had to face the scattering of
their own archives, because of marriages, commercial activities or uprootings
after wars or economic crises. The Assyrian merchants, for instance, often had
two homes and carried their archives from one house to the other, as K. Veenhof
explains here. In Old-Babylonian times, exiled people from Uruk, in Southern
Mesopotamia, moved to the North and settled in Kish, bringing with them their
documents
7
.
Finally, it sometimes happened that the tablets were destroyed, when they
preluded to the drafting of ofcial and monumental documents. Such is the case
of the Medio-Babylonian kudurrus studied by S. Paulus in this volume: paradoxi-
cally, they testify to the existence of these invisible documents and raise the
question of the purpose of such inscriptions engraved in the stone.
Be they available or virtual, archives are the frame within which most of the
Mesopotamian sources have to be interpreted and, in this respect, the three fol-
lowing contributions illustrate several aspects among the numerous avenues to
be further explored.

6 Joanns 1989.
7 Charpin 1986, 402-18.
26
Bibliography Bordreuil & Malbran-Labat
1995
P. Bordreuil & Fl. Malbran-
Labat, Les archives de la maison
dOurtenou, CRAI 139/2,
443-51.
Cardascia 1954
G. Cardascia, Splendeur et
misre de lassyriologie juridique,
Annales Universitatis
Saraviensis 3, 156-62
(reprinted in Hommage
Guillaume Cardascia,
Mditerranes 3, 1995, 15-23).
Charpin 1986
D. Charpin, Le clerg dUr au
sicle dHammurabi (XIX
e
-XVIII
e

sicles av. J.-C.), Hautes Etudes
Orientales 22, Paris.
Dmare-Lafont 2008
S. Dmare-Lafont, The King
and the Diviner at Emar, in L.
dAlfonso, Y. Cohen & D.
Srenhagen (eds.), The City
of Emar among the Late Bronze
Age Empires History, Landscape
and Society, Proceedings of the
Konstanz Emar Conference
25-26.04. 2006, AOAT 349,
Mnster, 207-17.
Joanns 1989
F. Joanns, Archives de Borsippa:
la famille Ea-ilta-bni. Etude
dun lot darchives familiales en
Babylonie du VIII
e
au V
e
sicle av.
J.-C., Hautes Etudes Orientales
25, Paris-Genve.
Van Lerberghe & Voet 2009
K. Van Lerberghe & G. Voet, A
Late Old Baylonian Temple Archive
from Dr-Abieu, CUSAS 8,
Bethesda.
Veenhof 1986
K. R. Veenhof (ed.), Cuneiform
Archives and Libraries. Papers
read at the XXX
e
Rencontre
Assyriologique Internationale,
Leiden 1983, PIHANS 57, Leyde.
27
the archives of old assyrian traders
klaas r. veenhof
The Archives of Old
Assyrian Traders:
their Nature, Functions
and Use
1

The Old Assyrian archives are private archives. They were found in the houses of
traders who in the early centuries of the second millennium BC lived in Kanesh,
an ancient city in Central Anatolia, not far from modern Kayseri. The houses are
situated in the commercial district of the lower town, called krum Kanesh, which
ourished for more than a century during the period of level II, which came to
an end by destruction around 1835 BC (middle chronology). The Assyrian settle-
ment in Kanesh is not only nearly the only source of our documentation, thanks
to more than fty years of excavations, it was also the administrative capital of
an Assyrian colonial network that comprised ca. 30 commercial settlements and
small trading stations, spread over the whole of Central Anatolia. The archives
were kept in what they called the sealed room (maknukum) or guarded room
(maartum), where also valuables were stored. They vary considerably in size and
range from few hundred to a few times ca. 2000 cuneiform documents, varia-
tions that must reect the importance and status of a trader, the history of the

1 See for general information on the excavation at Kanesh and on the Old Assyrian trade
Larsen 1976; zg 2003, and Veenhof 2008a, mentioned below in the bibliography, and see
also C. Michel, Old Assyrian Bibliography (OAAS 1), Leiden 2003. In the following text I have
simplied the rendering of the Assyrian names, not indicating long vowels and typical Semitic
consonants, writing Ishtar instead of Itar, Assur, etc.
28
house and presumably also the administrative habits of the owner. The archives
consist of the written documents accumulated drawn up, received, acquired,
accepted for safe-keeping, or deposited there for other reasons during the pe-
riod of activity of a trader, which usually covered many, occasionally up to thirty
years. In several cases the house had been taken over or inherited by his son, who
added his own records to those left behind by his father and there are also a few
examples of archives with records of three generations of traders. The archives
brought to light by the excavations, rst by the villagers and after 1948 by Turk-
ish archeologists, reect what they contained when the houses were destroyed.
1. Traders, archives and records
Some general information on the traders, their archives and the types of records
they contain is necessary before I can focus on the subject of this paper. This is
not easy, because the archives of Kanesh have yielded more than 23.000 cunei-
form documents (half of which are more or less known or accessible) of an at
times bewildering variety, which reect an extensive and very sophisticated
overland trade, carried out by perhaps ca. 60 trading families. Moreover, most
of the texts available were unearthed and sold by the local villagers, so that their
archival background and coherence is unclear. Only the publication of ofcially
excavated archives, in TPAK 1 and the volumes of the series AKT, offers better in-
sights, but much work still remains to be done.
Status, wealth and family situation of the traders vary considerably and their
archives, all of which contain the usual variety of business documents, reect
these differences in the nature and numbers of commercial records and corre-
spondence and to some extent also in the presence of certain types of legal docu-
ments. And most traders also had a family house in Assur, with an archive, but we
know little from Assur, because the layers of this period in the lower town were
not reached by the German excavators.
In general, archives of traders whose family had stayed behind in Assur con-
tain more letters of their wives and more correspondence with relatives, busi-
ness associates and representatives, who took care of their legal and economic
interests in Assur. Archives of traders living in Assur, whose grown-up sons lived
and worked in Anatolia, include letters exchanged between them, while those
of traders settled in Kanesh with their family comprise letters exchanged with
their wives when they were traveling around. Important family documents
marriage contracts, testaments, title deeds, last wills, and joint-stock contracts
that supplied the trader with his capital were usually kept in the archive in As-
sur, but may turn up in Kanesh when a whole family lived there. Many of the
older traders focused on the import of tin and textiles from Assur and their sale
for silver and gold in Anatolia, so that their archives contain many letters and
records relating to the caravan trade. Others were more involved in the internal
29
the archives of old assyrian traders
trade in copper and wool inside Anatolia, and we also meet traders who traveled
a lot in Anatolia and were engaged in commission sale and agency for colleagues
in Assur and Kanesh.
For a good appraisal of the archives several facts have to be taken into account.
The rst is that several traders also had houses apparently with archives in
other trading settlements in Anatolia, where they stayed temporarily and even
could move. This can only be discovered by a comprehensive analysis of an ar-
chive and as an example I mention some features of the large archive of Shallim-
Assur and his family (more than 1100 texts), which has been analyzed in an ex-
emplary way by Larsen. In the rst volume of its edition (AKT 6a) he writes: It
seems clear that his main archive must have been stored in the city of Durhumit,
2

where he stayed during the last years of his life and where eventually he died and
was buried. () The texts from the Kanesh archive, relating to his work and his ac-
tions are probably to be understood as a scattered sample that happened to end up
here, presumably because he was staying in this house occasionally and received
letters and engaged in other activities that led to the writing of texts (AKT 6a,
8-9). His house also contained many documents of his elder brother Iddin-abum,
although he must have had his own house with a separate archive. The dates and
subject matter of these documents made Larsen conclude that when he was a
very young man he may have shared a house and archive with his brother (from
where his texts were never removed) and that, much later, after his death, col-
lected documents relating to his affairs were brought to the house of his brother,
who was the executioner of his estate. Shallim-Assurs eldest son, Ennam-Assur,
probably was the main inhabitant of the house, but he was murdered only a few
years after his fathers death, in ca. 1865 BC.
3
Next we have ca. 200 texts associated
with the affairs of the latters younger brother, Ali-ahum, who must have been
the last person to use this house and to deposit texts here, several of which deal
with attempts to obtain blood money for his murdered brother. But since none of
them is later than ca. three years after this murder, while he must have lived con-
siderably longer, the later texts were not stored in this house, where he prob-
ably did not live, so that the documentation for his last years is no longer extant.
In fact no dated records from the last 25 years, before Kanesh was destroyed in ca.
1835 BC, have been found and Larsen considers it likely that the house was in fact
not lived in during this period and may have been used exclusively for storage.
Fortunately, the texts it contained were not removed (AKT 6a, 11-13).
4


2 An important city and colony, ca. 250 km north of Kanesh, the center of the Anatolian cop-
per trade.
3 The texts are dated, according to the Assyrian custom, by means of the name of an impor-
tant eponymous ofcial in the City of Assur, head and manager of the City Hall, who was
elected annually. This institution was created during the rst year of king Erishum I, according
to the Middle Chronology ca. 1870 BC.
4 Concerning the archive excavated in 1993 in grid LVII/127-128, with texts from three
30
A second feature is that, as mentioned in some records, groups of texts for a
variety of reasons could be taken out of an archive and brought elsewhere, fre-
quently to Assur. A trader could move to Assur in old age and take records along,
as shown by the witnessed record EL 141:1-10, The containers with tablets of
Enlil-bani and the containers with copies we entrusted to Iddin-Kubum and he
brought them to Enlil-bani. When a lawsuit, by appeal, was transferred from
krum Kanesh to the court of the City of Assur, records to be used as evidence were
shipped there. EL 298:9ff. describes how in a conict about a debt the authorities
of krum Kanesh entrusted to an attorney of the plaintiff a sealed box with ten
sealed documents, including four formal letters (napertum, missive) of krum
Kanesh, four missives of a trader sealed by the krum and two records dealing
with the debt in question, which (lines 35-36) he will submit to the City and our
Lord (the ruler). When a trader died and his business had to be liquidated and
his inheritance divided on the basis of his last will which was always kept in
Assur this had to take place after heirs and relevant records had been brought
together in Assur, as a ruling of the City stated (Veenhof 1995, 1725-7). And we
have seen in the previous paragraph how a large le on the affairs of a dead trader
was brought to the house of his brother, who was the executor of his estate.
In some cases, after a trader had died, particular records in his archive could
be required to prevent unnished transactions from being frozen and to pay or
collect debts. In such a case formal authorization could be given to open his safe
and take out assets and tablets. Two records inform us about what happened in
this way with the archive of Elamma. CCT 5, 3 reports that after his death the sons
of his partner had opened the strong-room and taken out a sealed debt-note for
12 pounds of silver, declaring: We act at the order and under the responsibility
of his investors. They were, as usual in such situations, accompanied by a com-
mittee of impartial outsiders (ahitum), who looked on and afterwards sealed the
door of the strong-room together with those who had entered. And in Kt m/k 145
people declare: On the basis of a verdict of the plenary krum the scribe seized us
and we entered Elammas house and broke the seals of the strong-room, which
we left there. Agua took two coffers with tablets. In the deposition (BIN 6, 220+)
that is part of a large le, studied by Matou 1969, about what happened when
the trader Puzur-Assur died, his sons state: When our father Puzur-Assur had
died the investors and creditors of our father, having entered his sealed strong-
room, took 12 boxes with tablets and entrusted these to you.
The destruction of the houses in krum Kanesh in ca. 1835 BC did not come as a
complete surprise, no unburied skeletons were found, nor valuables (silver, gold,
items of bronze) in the strong-rooms. This suggests that the inhabitants man-
aged to ee in time and it is reasonable to assume that they took along a num-

generations of traders, Michel 2008b, 58 observes that the number of texts of the second own-
er, Ali-ahum, son of Iddin-Suen, is not substantial (ca. 50 letters, 11 loan contracts), presumably
because he also had a house in Burushhattum, and one in Assur.
31
the archives of old assyrian traders
ber of records, in particular those recording valid debt-claims and investment
contracts, perhaps also title deeds. This situation helps to explain why in general
records of the last twenty years of krum Kanesh level II are fairly rare. But there
must have been other reasons too, perhaps the move of traders from Kanesh, the
administrative centre of the trade, to cities and colonies in the north and west,
which were the centers of economic activity. Larsen, in the introduction to AKT
6b points to the apparent collapse in the commercial activities of the Assyrian
businessmen [that] probably had its roots in legal and economic problems asso-
ciated with the death of a whole generation of important merchants.
5
Whatever
was the case, there is no evidence that, when a number of years after 1835 BC the
rebuilding of what became krum Kanesh level Ib started, Assyrians tried to re-
trieve records from the earlier ruins.
Finally, we have to assume that the enormous number of written records ac-
cumulating in the archives made traders from time to time decide to remove
texts that were no longer valid or necessary. Most commercial transactions were
nished in a few years
6
and their records did not have to be preserved, as hap-
pened with title deeds or marriage contracts. Only in particular cases, such as
with a joint-stock company that would run for ten years, did records have to be
preserved for longer periods. This explains why records from the oldest period,
when the scope of the trade was also more limited, are relatively rare,
7
but we
know almost nothing about the removal of records, apart from returning debt-
notes when they were paid. We occasionally meet references to records we
would expect to nd, but which are missing, but we do not know why. The ar-
chive of Kuliya (AKT 5) contained eight, in part overlapping lists (texts nos. 62-
69) that enumerated in all 50 tablets of various kinds, apparently present there;
the biggest one lists 27 tablets placed in a big box. Since none of these tablets
was found in the archive, the list may have been drawn up to select and identify
documents that were removed, but we do not know why and where. In general
one gets the impression that outdated records were not systematically discarded
and that much depended on the habits and zeal of the archive owner, who usu-
ally had room enough to store them, while reading and selecting them may have
been a cumbersome task. Some old documents, such as large memoranda enu-
merating all outstanding claims, may have been preserved for their informative
value, letters from relatives and wives for emotional reasons. The archaeological
record unfortunately is not clear enough to show whether old, outdated records

5 The issue is studied in the framework of a monograph by Barjamovic-Hertel-Larsen 2012.
6 The terms of commercial loans, actually the consignment of merchandise given on credit to
traveling agents, usually did not exceed one year. Also the notes and accounts of expenses paid
en route by the leader of a caravan lost the value after the accounts had been settled.
7 The absence of early dated records (the oldest one preserved is from eponymy year 47) is
not surprising, since nearly all are debt-notes and they were returned or destroyed when the
debt was paid (see also below note 34).
32
may not have been stored in separate containers or even rooms. No hoards of
discarded tablets were found outside the archival rooms and houses, used as ll
or for paving a oor, as happened in Babylonia.
Every archive also contains groups of records that cannot be linked with its
owner or related to his business, which I have called elsewhere (Veenhof 2003,
115, 5. 2) strange records. Various explanations for their presence are possible.
There were people without a house in the krum, e.g. caravan personnel, trave-
ling agents and relatives who stayed in Kanesh for some time. They may have
deposited their records in the archive of their boss, as is clear for an employee of
the trader Imdilum. Traders traveled a lot and might temporarily move to other
places and in such cases they might give valuable records in safe-deposit (ana
nabm ezbum) to a friend or colleague. The most impressive piece of evidence is
a large tablet in New York (CTMMA I, 84), where a trader, whose strong-room had
been emptied out by a partner, enumerates and describes 25 records of all kinds,
including tablets of others, which they had left in deposit with me (l. 40),... all
contained in two sealed containers (lines 60f.).
8
In several cases such deposited
records were apparently never retrieved by their owners, who may have died or
disappeared. As already mentioned above in connection with the archive of Shal-
lim-Assur, traders did move and could live only temporarily in a house, judging
from the presence of groups of records belonging to them alongside the more
substantial archive of the owner or main inhabitant of the house. Ccile Michel
observed that the archive edited in TPAK 1, basically that of Shumi-abiya, also con-
tained 25 letters of a certain Assur-mutappil, some still in unopened envelopes,
but not a single debt-note of his. She assumes that he deposited his letters with
Shumi-abiya when he left Kanesh, but did not return; some letters addressed to
him that had arrived after his departure were never opened and read (33-4).
2. Traders in different situations and contexts
The circumstances under which traders lived and worked in Kanesh could be dif-
ferent and this had a bearing on their archives. We may distinguish the following
situations:
a) A trader as the head of a family who had moved to Kanesh, while leaving his
family, that means his wife and young children, behind in Assur. All impor-
tant family records are in Assur and this situation generates a correspond-
ence between husband and wife. The lively business correspondence is with
the traders male relatives, investors and especially his representatives in As-

8 That the victim could give a long, detailed description of all these tablets implies that he had
kept a list of them.
33
the archives of old assyrian traders
sur, who take care of his interests, receive his silver, buy merchandise for ex-
port and equip his caravans. His sons in due time might join him, assist him
in the business and when they are grown up develop their own commercial
activities, to be continued after his death.
A good example is Pushuken, father of four sons, who was active in Kanesh
for more than 20 years and died there. His business was continued mainly
by his son Buzazu, who lived in his house, where his fathers archive was left
in place,
9
to which he added his own records. It contained i. a. letters sent to
Pushuken by his wife in Assur and also many texts dealing with the division
of Pushukens inheritance among his children, in which his eldest daughter, a
priestess in Assur, played a prominent role.
b) A variant to this type is the successful trader who after many years returns to
Assur and leaves the business in Kanesh in the hands of his by now experi-
enced son, whom he assists and advises in letters sent from Assur, while also
carrying on some business of his own. The son took over his fathers house
and archive, apart from the records his father had taken along when he re-
turned to Assur, presumably records of affairs that still had not been nished,
although this is not easy to prove, for we have no texts from Assur.
The best example is the prominent trader Imdilum, whose father Shu-Laban
was already active in Anatolia, who led the business there at least 17 years,
returned to Assur around 1880 BC and was succeeded by his son Puzur-Ishtar.
The latter is attested for fteen years, the last seven after his father had died.
The father in Assur kept writing letters to his son, which we have to distin-
guish from copies of letters written by him when he still lived in Kanesh.

c) A young man who moved to krum Kanesh to trade there in the service of or
in cooperation with his father who remained in Assur. The latter, the boss of
the family business, conducts a lively correspondence with him and also sup-
plies him with merchandise, money, advice and information and in return
receives the silver sent back from Anatolia, which he uses to pay debts and
taxes and to equip a new caravan.
A good example is Assur-nada, son of Assur-idi, whose archive was published
in Larsen 2002. It shows us a father much concerned about what his son does,
such as the latters failure to meet promises (of votive gifts) made to the gods,
and also burdened with the task of caring for his sons children, after the lat-
ters wife, who had stayed in Assur, had died. Another example is Ennum-
Assur, the oldest son of Shalim-ahum, a merchant and capitalist living in As-
sur and the main business associate of Pushuken (mentioned under a). He

9 All texts dealing with Pushuken were unearthed and sold by the local villagers early in the
20
th
century and there exists no general description of his (reconstructed) archive, although we
can now identify almost 350 letters and dozens of legal documents that belonged to it.
34
lived, temporarily perhaps together with his brother Dan-Assur, in a house
in Kanesh, whose archive was excavated in 1970 and partially published
(without the tablets still in sealed envelopes) as AKT 3. The archive, not sur-
prisingly, contained letters of the father to his son(s) and letters written by
Ennum-Assur when he traveled and worked elsewhere in Anatolia, to his wife
Nuhshatum. She had to take care of and guard his house and the archive
and was occasionally instructed to retrieve documents from the archive for
particular purposes.
d) A grown-up son who had moved to Kanesh with his wife, when he had become
independent or his father in Assur had died and he had inherited his share
in his fortune. He started a business and family life there and his sons in due
time would work with him and get married. In his archive we may also nd
contracts and records relating to their family life and the business correspond-
ence is with male relatives, his representatives and his investors in Assur.
A good example is Elamma, the younger son of Iddin-Suen, an energetic im-
porter of merchandise from Assur (which he occasionally visited), whose ar-
chive, excavated in 1991 and 1992, I am publishing. He lived in Kanesh for
more than thirty years (opposite the house of his elder brother Ali-ahum)
and had a lively correspondence with his representatives in Assur. His busi-
ness was carried on after his death by some sons and his energetic widow, La-
massatum, who continued to live in the house for several years and conducted
some business of her own. The archive also contains records dealing with the
division of his fathers, his own and his wifes inheritance and records about
and letters from various family members living in Kanesh or Assur, such as
a le about the death, funeral and inheritance of a twice married daughter,
10

and letters of his favorite daughter, who was priestess in Assur.
e) In some cases an archive contains a number of records of the father of the trad-
er, but this depended on his age and where he lived, in Assur or Anatolia. We
have e.g. no records of Pushukens father Suejja, who lived in Assur, and only
a few of Imdilums father Shu-Laban, of whom it is not certain that he lived
in or visited Kanesh.
11
In Ali-ahums house in Kanesh, excavated in 1993, with
an archive of more than 900 texts, a few dozen letters addressed to his father
Iddin-Suen were found, but no debt-notes. Ccile Michel
12
assumes that these
letters, which all have low excavation numbers, had been stored separately af-
ter his death, when his son Ali-ahum (active there since ca. 1895 BC) became

10 I studied this le in Veenhof 2008b.
11 Larsen 1982, 224 assumed that the father, who appears already in ca. 1910 BC (ICK 2, 104),
died early and that Imdilums uncle Assur-imitti, who lived in Assur, took care of the interests
of the family, before Imdilum himself is attested in the sources, 18 years later.
12 Michel 2008b, 58, footnote 1.
35
the archives of old assyrian traders
the owner of the house and the archive. This contrasts with the archive of Id-
din-Suens second son, Elamma (who lived across the street in Kanesh), whose
house, which he must have acquired or built when he became an independent
trader,
13
did not contain documents of his father. The archive of Shallim-Assur,
son of Issu-arik contained a few letters to and records of his father, but no let-
ters written by him after he had returned to Assur, presumably because he
died there soon (AKT 6a, 6). After the death of a pater familias his inheritance
was apparently divided and his rm liquidated, whereupon his sons could
start their own business.
14
In most cases one of the sons acquired the house in
Kanesh, where his mother might continue to live, with his fathers archive left
in place, to which his own and his mothers records would be added.
3. The krum organization
The archives excavated, while clearly those of private entrepreneurs and their
families, also reect the fact that the Old Assyrian traders belonged to a commu-
nity and organization of traders. They all originated from the same city, Assur, and
had all settled abroad, far from home, in a completely different environment and
society, without military protection. This stimulated forms of cooperation (mu-
tual aid, business partnerships, representation, etc.), but it also took a more struc-
tural form. The totality of the Assyrian traders in Kanesh formed a kind of corpo-
ration, called krum. This term originally meant the quay, harbor district that
every Mesopotamian city had, where bulk goods arrived by boat, and then also
the commercial quarter where traders met and nally its inhabitants as a group. A
krum could comprise foreign traders, who might organize themselves as a group,
at times with a leader (called its head), to cooperate and to be better equipped
to deal with the local powers. Krum Kanesh was a well-organized, hierarchical
organization, which comprised a plenary assembly, the krum great and small
that met as an assembly (puhrum), and knew a committee, designated as the big
men, who ran the daily affairs. The plenary krum appears frequently as court-of-
law to solve the many, mostly commercial conicts between its members.
The krum as organization had a building, the krum house, where meetings
were held and its secretary worked, which housed a cella with the statue of the
god Assur (by whose dagger members would swear), and had storage facilities
and an archive. The krum arranged and supervised the presumably semi-annual
general accounting of krum Kanesh (nikkass a krim Kane), which involved
both individual traders and the krum as such. They were necessary because of

13 The oldest dated text in which he occurs, as creditor, is from ca. 1905 BC, much earlier than
his elder brother, but the latter apparently rst operated from Assur, before coming to Kanesh,
perhaps after the death of their father.
14 See Larsen 2007 for this development.
36
the many credit operations and book transfers between members, for account-
ing the results of collective commercial transactions organized by the krum to
which its members could subscribe, and for settling accounts (on taxes and cred-
it sales) with the local palace, whereby payments and transfers were regularly
channeled via the krum organization.
Krum Kanesh was also the administrative head of the colonial network that
consisted of at least 25 other krums and trading stations (wabartum), spread over
central Anatolia. As such it functioned as an extension of the government of the
City of Assur, to which it was responsible and whose directives it had to apply. It
maintained the diplomatic relations with the many city-states and rulers in Ana-
tolia, with whom treaties had been concluded, and stepped in when problems
arose. It could also issue orders and rulings, and traders in other colonies could
appeal to the authorities of krum Kanesh for justice.
The archive of the krum probably contained records (or their copies) ema-
nating from these activities, such as ofcial letters and verdicts, and we have
references to tablets of/in the krum-house on which traders were booked/
registered for certain amounts, which they owed the organization or it owed to
them.
15
Since the krum-house has not been found, we do not have the archives
of krum Kanesh, but many texts it produced and also received (letters from other
colonies and from the City of Assur and its ruler) are known and give us a wel-
come insight into its workings. They are frequently referred to or quoted in the
business correspondence and several (copies) of them were found in the archives
of the traders. As a self-governing institution the krum had its members per-
form various administrative, commercial and judicial tasks and in doing so they
produced or were given records and letters, some of which (in part duplicates)
ended up in their archives. The orders and verdicts of the krum were sealed by
members who administered them and acted as its court-of-law and special mem-
bers (called lm) could represent the krum in nancial transactions. Messengers
in temporary service of the krum, sent out to other colonies with ofcial letters
and orders, might take their copy of such texts home when they returned.
16
The
traders in whose cases the krum intervened by letters, orders and verdicts appar-
ently could acquire duplicates of these records. And this was also the case with
ofcial letters of the City, addressed to the krum, which dealt with an issue that
involved a particular trader. The texts of three treaties concluded between the As-
syrians and some Anatolian rulers were all found in private archives, presumably


15 See Veenhof 2003, 1.1. There is e.g. mention of a big tablet of the krum-house and of
a traders deposits [booked] on the third and sixth tablet of the krum-house, but we do not
know the system.
16 The role of the messengers of the krum is described in Veenhof 2008c, 224-46, and there
one nds samples of ofcial letters carried by messengers. A large selection of ofcial letters of
the Assyrian authorities is offered by Michel 2001, Ch.1.
37
the archives of old assyrian traders
because their owners had represented the krum when they were negotiated and
concluded and had retained a copy of the text.
4. A classification of the texts
The records in the archives can be classied in several broad categories:
a) Letters, which comprise usually ca. 30-50% of the texts of an archive. The main
types are letters related to the caravan system, letters that report on a variety
of commercial and legal problems (frequently small les around a particu-
lar incident), letters from and to family members, and ofcial letters, by the
authorities in Assur or in Kanesh and their agents. An overview is offered by
Michel 2001, who presents 400 of them in translation, divided into seven
chapters, each with its introduction, dealing with the Assyrian and the Anato-
lian authorities, the caravan trade, smuggling, commercial partnerships and
joint-stock companies, family rms (three samples), and the correspondence
of women.
17
b) Legal documents, usually ca. 30% to 40% of the texts, an important older sample
of which (340 records) was published long ago in EL in a careful classication.
They can be distinguished in two types. The rst consists of contracts of vari-
ous types, of which debt-notes, service contracts with personnel, transport
contracts, contracts on settling accounts, and quittances are most numerous.
Next there is a limited number of contracts concerning family life (marriage,
divorce especially when a trader married an Anatolian bride and inherit-
ance) and a large variety of other contracts, e.g. concerning securities, joint-
stock companies, partnerships, and contracts that served as title deeds, about
the purchase of houses and slaves in Anatolia (frequently from defaulting
debtors, whose pledges were forfeited)
18
. The second comprises a great variety
of records that emanate from and reect the administration of justice, such
as protocols of private summonses, testimonies, oaths sworn, interrogations,
agreements, records of arbitration, mediation and adjudication, together
with protocols of lawsuits and of verdicts by the various colonial authorities.
In addition verdicts by the City Assembly of Assur, which issued also strong
letters of the City (Assur), written to help a plaintiff whose case has been con-
sidered valid by the legal authorities.

17 Other collections of published letters are those related to the caravan system, studied in
Larsen 1967, the letters in Prague, published in Prag I, those in the Assur-nada archive edited in
Larsen 2002, and translations of letters in the recent volumes in the AKT-series.
18 See for such contracts B. Kienast, Das altassyrische Kaufsvertragsrecht, FAOS Beiheft 1, Stutt-
gart 1984.
38
c) Lists, memorandums and notes, usually ca. 20-30% of the texts, ca. 600 of which,
mostly unearthed before the ofcial excavations by the local villagers and
therefore devoid of their archival context, were edited in Ulshfer 1995.
Alongside a variety of short notes about expenses, distributions of bread and
meat, small payments, settlements, deposits, etc., the more important catego-
ries are:
lists of packets of silver and gold, the yield of the trade, but also gifts for
various persons, entrusted for shipment to Assur;
large memorandums (tahsistum) that register all a traders transactions
that had resulted in debt-claims that still had to be paid;
lists of records present in his archive at a particular moment, probably
drawn up as inventory or because they were transferred.
5. The functions of the texts
Old Assyrian documents are not only very numerous, but there is also no body of
cuneiform texts that contains so many references to the writing, reading, send-
ing, transfer, use and storage of written documents. That is because the success of
the OA trade depended on them and they were indispensable for three reasons:
a) In the system of overland trade based on a colonial network there was a con-
stant need of communication, of passing on information between traders liv-
ing or working at home (in Assur), traveling in the caravans (six weeks from
Assur to Kanesh), living in Kanesh or in one of the many commercial settle-
ments spread over Anatolia. Oral communication did take place, but the trade
would have been very difcult and much less successful without this written
communication.
b) The trade was so sophisticated and dense that is there were so many simul-
taneous transactions of an at times complex nature that the human mem-
ory was unable to remember all the data. They had to be written down to aid
the memory, to prevent problems and in the interest of good accountability.
c) The nature of the trade and the value of the goods traded on many levels and
in many situations required valid records (uppum harmum), that is records
whose contents are certied by the seals of parties and witnesses impressed
on its envelope. By issuing valid records traders could obtain and use capital
of investors and money-lenders, buy on credit from the City Hall in Assur, and
they used them to contract caravan personnel, employ commission agents,
sell on credit, and provide and obtain securities. They not only informed
them on transactions, but also provided evidence to be used if problems arose
that had to be solved by private summons, arbitration or formal lawsuits.
39
the archives of old assyrian traders
Written documents therefore had three partly overlapping functions, as means
of communication, as aid to memory and as evidence. These functions must also
have determined the preservation of the records, but here many things are un-
certain. Many letters may have been preserved because they contained impor-
tant business or other information, but others, such as letters from wives and
family, presumably often for emotional reasons. Most letters of both categories
must have lost their informative or evidentiary value after a few years and were
or could have been thrown away, but we cannot establish to what extent that
happened. The preservation of records with a lot of valuable data (e.g. the large
memorandums) and records with evidentiary value (e.g. of contracts, invest-
ments, etc.) is understandable, but most of the commercial records too lost their
value after the transactions recorded had been completed and accounts had been
settled, for they are different from marriage contracts, title deeds, or records of
the division of an inheritance. Such texts, including judicial records conrming
rights that had been contested, had a lasting value, as OB archives show, which
occasionally contain records more than a century old. Most OA loans and cred-
its were for a year or less and only investment loans (ebuum) and contracts for
joint-stock companies (in which traders used capital made available by inves-
tors) could have a longer duration, up to 10 years in some cases. And even though
we nd some very old debt-notes, possibly never paid and therefore preserved,
and we meet a few references to credit not paid back for a very long period, this
does not change the fact that the great majority of the records in the archives no
longer had any practical or legal value. We have to assume that once deposited
in an archive, as long as there was space available to store them, records had a
good chance of remaining there. Sifting, which required reading and classifying
them, presumably did not have priority. When a son succeeded his father and in-
herited his house or when a trader moved elsewhere, to Assur or another colony,
their records (or at least part of them) would be left behind. It seems rather likely
that groups of older records that were no longer needed and were not thrown
away were stored in separate containers. Some of the inscribed (but not sealed)
bullae may have identied them, such as AKT 6a, 16, Tablets concerning our
Iddin-abums debts, which could be related to groups of records of Shallim-Assurs
elder brother, found in his archive (see above 1). Unfortunately the excavation
reports never identify the tablets that were found together in a particular con-
tainer or as a group, nor where exactly such bullae were found.
19
The three functions mentioned of course obtain whenever texts are written,
but they apply in particular in the framework of the OA overland trade and its
colonial system.

19 More such bullae were found in Shallim-Assurs archive, e.g. Kt 94/k 879, Memorandums
concerning agents, and Kt 94/k 1062, Validated records of my witnesses concerning the sons
of Iddin-abum, see zg-Tunca 2001, 347-9.
40
5.1. Communication
The colonial system meant that members of the same family and rm were regu-
larly and at times for long periods separated by considerable distances, not only
between Assur and Kanesh, but also between the nearly forty colonies and trad-
ing stations spread out over the whole of Central Anatolia and Northern Mesopo-
tamia. In this situation letters were of vital importance. We can distinguish busi-
ness letters, private letters especially those exchanged with wives and other
relatives and ofcial letters, written by the Assyrian authorities, both in Kanesh
and in Assur.
Among the business letters an important category are those required by the
system of overland trade by donkey caravans. They were called notifying mes-
sages and caravan reports by Larsen 1967. The rst type sent from Kanesh
and from Assur reports that a caravan with silver and gold or one with tin and
textiles had left Kanesh or Assur and summarily mentions its load, the persons
involved, also with instructions about what to do with the goods. Those dealing
with caravans with silver and gold leaving for Assur must be archive copies kept
in Kanesh. The second type reports on the arrival of the caravan at its destination.
Those sent from Assur, Larsens caravan accounts, mention the arrival of the
money and describe in detail how it was used to make various payments and in
particular for equipping a new caravan: the purchase of merchandise and don-
keys (with numbers and price) and the hiring of personnel; the Assyrians them-
selves called them letter of purchases. Those written in Kanesh, again archive
copies, report on the safe arrival of the merchandise from Assur, its clearance in
the palace (payment of taxes, etc.), the expenses incurred en route and the rst
sales made. Such letters may well have been sent ahead of the caravans they de-
scribe, to inform their recipients in time about what was coming. Known dupli-
cates may indicate that a second copy was given along with the caravan. These
letters must be used in combination with the transport contracts drawn up for
these caravans and the detailed accounts of the expenses made by the leader of the
caravan. The few cases where we have all four texts for one caravan are informa-
tive in showing to what extent requests and orders were or could be followed up.
Such letters were also used to check whether the goods arriving matched the data
of the caravan accounts. A nice example is TC 3, 36:16-23, We opened the packet
(with silver) in the presence of ve traders and broke your seals. One took out of
it the excise and checked the remainder of the packet: it contained 14 pounds and
37 shekels, which is 1 pound less than your letter mentioned. They must have
erred when weighing it there (in Kanesh).
The bulk of the letters was written in a large variety of situations, usually
to inform about business matters, to make requests or give orders, or to report
on a variety of problems political, economic, social, personal that interfered
with the trade. Many were exchanged between traders and their sons, agents or
partners who traveled around in Anatolia or were based in another colony. They
41
the archives of old assyrian traders
could contain warnings for war, unrest, blockades, difcult customers, or prob-
lems with the market, stating that no silver was available, that textiles were in
demand, or that there was too much supply of tin (which affected the price). It al-
lowed the recipient to redirect a caravan or to keep merchandise for some time in
store. Other letters, at times of a more personal kind, but always also with busi-
ness information, were exchanged between a trader traveling in Anatolia and his
wife staying in Kanesh. Many such letters received elsewhere or en route were
apparently taken along when the trader returned to his base in Kanesh and end-
ed up in his archive.
A remarkable sample of communication via various channels is provided by
the letter edited in Larsen 2002 as no. 18. On his journey in Northern Mesopota-
mia, heading for Hahhum, where caravans would normally cross the Euphrates,
Assur-nada receives a letter from his father in Assur, who writes:
If you are afraid to go to Hahhum, go to Urshu (more to the southwest, across the
Euphrates) instead. Please, travel alone. Do not enter Mamma (across the Euphrates,
northwest of Hahhum) together with the caravan. And in accordance with the orders
of the City Assembly your brothers caravan must be split into three. Then let the rst
leave Mamma and as soon as it has reached Kanesh, the second can leave Urshu, and
then the third can leave in the same way.
This letter implies that information on the problems in the area of Hahhum-
Mamma had reached Assur, either directly from there or from Kanesh, where
incoming caravans had told about it. This information then had made the City
Assembly issue an order on the behavior of the caravans and when Assur-nadas
father learned about it he wrote a letter to his son, who must have received it en
route and have taken it along to Kanesh, where it ended up in his archive.
Interesting information on letters is found in CCT 2, 6:6-15, written when Im-
dilum is accused by an angry partner of constantly writing him heated, incendi-
ary letters (himtum), which from now on he will no longer read. Imdilum reacts
by writing: If I have written you any incendiary letter of mine and you have pre-
served it, send it under your seals to your representatives to show it to me and
put me to shame. Or show it to my representatives there so that they can put me
to shame. I have copies of all letters I have sent you over time! We know copies
or duplicates, also of letters, but this statement is surprising and if Imdilum was
not an exception or exaggerating, we may assume that most copies were in due
time discarded, for few were found.
While letters were indispensable, the long distances (it took at least ve
weeks to travel from Assur to Kanesh) and the time it took to receive a reply, let
alone when the addressee was lax in answering, were at times felt as frustrating.
One trader wrote in an unpublished letter What? Must we be hurling big words
at each other over a distance of many miles (as) with a sling? Several traders
complain of having written many letters without getting an answer and some
even protest that they have used up all the clay in the town for their letters
42
without getting an answer, or ask Is there no clay in GN that you do not keep me
informed? (see Veenhof 2009, 195, with Kt 94/k 497:15).
Ofcial letters played an important role in the administrative and juridical
sphere. Ofcial letters, at times circular letters of the krum organization (to
each colony and trading station) and of the City of Assur could impose regu-
lations and order or forbid certain transactions. Krum Kanesh could also order
other colonies to take or abstain from certain actions. Ofcial letters of standard-
ized types served the administration of justice by ordering the transfer of a party
or witnesses in a trial (Larsen 1976, 255-8; Veenhof 2008c, 230-4). So-called
strong tablets of the City, sent from Assur, could grant rights to plaintiffs, e.g.
to summon or interrogate an opponent, to engage an attorney, to get access to
certain tablets in an archival room, etc. Ofcial letters of the krum were also in-
strumental in establishing or renewing agreements or treaties (sworn oaths)
with local rulers or in solving problems, when caravans were detained, goods got
lost, traders were apprehended or killed, or palaces delayed payment for mer-
chandise bought.
We know these ofcial letters only because they were found in private ar-
chives, presumably because, as mentioned, people serving the krum organiza-
tion apparently did take such letters home after they had accomplished their
job. This was e.g. done by Kuliya, messenger of the krum, whose archive was
published in AKT 5. It contained several such letters, some clearly circular letters,
whose address not only mentioned the colonies and persons to whom it was ad-
dressed, but also Kuliya himself as our messenger, which turned such a letter
into his credential, which he apparently took home. The address of AKT 5, 2:1-6
reads: Thus krum Kanesh, to the dtum-payers, our messenger Kuliya and the
krums of Durhumit, Hattush, Tamniya and Tuhpiya, all the way until Nenassa,
and 5:1-6 begins with: Thus krum Kanesh, to Kuliya, our messenger, the krum
Tegarama and wherever I. son of K. is staying.
Letters with decisions of the City Assembly in Assur, addressed to krum
Kanesh, must also have arrived in more copies, meant for the krum and for the
person with whom it dealt, usually a plaintiff whose case had been considered
strong. Some were even found in unopened envelopes and since not opening
such an important letter is unthinkable, it must have been a duplicate of a let-
ter used by the krum organization in the relevant lawsuit, meant for the party
involved. ICK 1, 182 is a letter addressed to krum Kanesh by the ruler of Assur,
which communicated the decision reached by the City to grant Imdilum the
right to hire an attorney and to send him to Kanesh to gain his case. The copy we
know was found in the archive of Imdilum, whom it concerned, but there must
have been another copy in the archives of the krum.
43
the archives of old assyrian traders
5.2. Aid to Memory
The importance of written records as aid to memory is obvious. Traders were usu-
ally involved in many simultaneous transactions, for their own family or rm,
for investors, for friends and partners for whom they sold merchandise in Anato-
lia. They worked with representatives and agents, who were given merchandise
in commission or sold on credit, and many were also involved in transactions
with or via the krum organization. It must have been difcult to keep track of
all activities, to remember the size of debts, claims, and investments, due dates,
rates of interest, names of debtors and witnesses. There was, moreover, a concern
about whether agents would pay in time or had to be summoned and charged
default interest. The best aid was drawing up a memorandum
20
whose Assyrian
name, tahsistum, from the verb to remind, has exactly that meaning, especial-
ly one that listed all a traders outstanding claims by excerpting his debt-notes.
Since the claims were often on agents who had received merchandise on credit,
one could also call them memorandums of outstanding claims (a baabtim,
CCT 3, 19b:3-4) or memorandums concerning agents (a tamkaruttim), the term
used on the bulla Kt 94/k 879. They were valuable as a means to collect outstand-
ing debts, even in the absence of the original debt-notes, because they provided
the essential data, including the due date and the witnesses, so that the debtor,
confronted with them, would not normally refuse payment. In CCT 3, 19b:3-10,
Pushukens wife complains, your representatives have taken away and keep in
their possession the memorandum with the outstanding claims that you have
left behind in your house (in Assur, when leaving for Anatolia). I cannot get at
anything and do not know at all whether they have paid your creditors or not.
It is up to you! The biggest such memorandum I know is a tablet with 113 long
lines that registers in abbreviated form 62 different transactions from a period
of 18 years.
21
Such memos were drawn up from time to time or updated and the
fact that in most cases the original debt-notes excerpted in them are not present
in the archive shows that the debts had been paid; only the contracts of a few bad
debts remained.
Memorandums could be kept in a strong room in a box (tamalakkum), as
mentioned in BIN 6, 19:18, and some bullae attached to containers mention
memorandums among their contents, e.g. Kt 84/k 878, My tablets in sealed
envelopes, my copies, and memorandums.
22
While in general memorandums

20 The expression tahsistam nadum means to draw up a memorandum, or more simply to
note down. Memorandums are frequently mentioned in surveys of available documents (see
for references CAD T s.v.) and BIN 6, 18:18-20 asks: Bring the boxes (tamalakk) with memoran-
dums along.
21 See Veenhof 1985.
22 See zg-tunca 2001, 347; note also Kt n/k 1460:24-26, ilinu-containers made of rush
in which memos have been placed.
44
as private records were not sealed one calls them open memorandum (t. pat-
tum; AKT 6b, 375:11; 446:19-20), we occasionally also meet a memo with seals.
In Kt n/k 176:4-10, I. asks B. Does this memo not carry your seals? B. answers:
They are my seals. They opened the memo and 45 shekels of silver proved to be
written in the memo. And BIN 4, 32:34-36 asks: Encase a memo in an envelope
(harmum) and write in it . Though not a valid legal record a memo might con-
tain important or condential data, that had to be protected by a sealed envelope
and therefore Ka 24b:31-33 asks to send a memorandum of witnesses under seal.
Because most transactions concerned valuable goods or money and entailed
liabilities it was customary to carry them out in the presence of witnesses and to
record them in writing. But in some situations no witnessed record was drawn
up, but a private note or memo in the rst person singular (I gave, entrusted,
paid), where the mention of the witnesses in whose presence the action had
taken place did sufce, since one could summon them when necessary. An ex-
ample of how this worked is found in the letter Kt 94/k 769 (courtesy of M. T.
Larsen):
I left (as credit) 32 shekels of silver in city B. with E. When we met on the road I said
to him: Give me the silver I gave you!. He answered: I have sent it to you with A. I
then seized A. and said: The silver E. gave you, give that to me! A. answered: E. did
not give me any silver! If E. can produce witnesses that he gave it to me, I will pay you.
Now seize E. and let him give you the 32 shekels of silver. If he refuses to pay confront
him with strong conditions.
23
If E. says: I really gave it to A., then let him give you the
name of his witnesses, assist him to get a tablet with (the testimony of) his witnesses
in the gate of the god and let him bring it to me.
Memorandums were drawn up in many situations, dealt with a variety of issues
and could vary greatly in size and complexity. Archives usually contain groups of
small tablets with up to a dozen lines of script (often only partially inscribed),
that register one or a few transactions, usually payments (to be) made and trans-
fers of goods, which were probably drawn up during a business trip, as aid to
memory, presumably by the traders themselves, many of which were able to read
and write; some of them exhibit a non-professional hand. The few groups I found
in the archive of Elamma, judging from their excavation numbers probably were
kept together and perhaps still had to be digested or submitted for accounting. A
very small tablet, with only four lines of script (Kt 91/k 338) reads, 3 shekels of
silver due from the man of Ebla, who took the wool. That such texts were called
tahsistum, memo, is shown by Kt 91/k 339 (an oblong tablet of only 1 by 2 cm
and with seven small lines of script): 1 mina 2 shekels of tin S. borrowed from
me; this tahsistum is a later one (warkiat), perhaps an addition to a previous lot.
A particular type of memo is of the following type: I am entitled to a share of 1

23 They usually were that if the person refusing payment was proved wrong he would pay the
double or triple of the disputed sum.
45
the archives of old assyrian traders
mina of silver in the holding (and) and of 45 shekels in the one-thirds-fund of
the caravan of A and B. (Kt 91/k 323, and variations). They state a traders share
in the proceeds from a particular caravan (ellutum) and were no doubt submit-
ted when the accounts were settled.
24
Why and when memos were drawn up is
shown e.g. by the letter ATHE 30:17-23, written by a transporter: 22 shekels of
silver, the price of 2 kutnu-textiles of D., which you charged to me, you have
(already) deducted from the transport fee due to me. Do not forget it over there,
draw up a memo about it.
25
The writer of TC 3, 100 had promised to do so, saying
when the two textiles I gave you have been converted into silver, I will draw up
your memo, but has to confess I forgot it when the caravan was leaving.
Apart from the big memorandums of outstanding claims, there were mem-
orandums of witnesses, to all appearances a list of witnesses that had been
involved in a particular case. Those concerning the payment for the wool of
Ushinalam, mentioned in the bulla Kt 94/k 1664, must have been attached to a
container that held the memos published as AKT 6a, nos. 91-103. Larsen describes
them as small, square tablets, ca. 3,5 to 4 cms in size () which give an amount
of silver which has been received from the proceeds of Ushinalams wool and
conclude with a list of witnesses (AKT 6a, 17).
26
The use of a memo of witnesses
is shown by CCT 5, 17a: We gave our testimony before Assurs dagger and I now
send you a copy of the valid tablet drawn up in the Gate of the God. Read it and
make up your mind and then submit a notication
27
to the gentleman, which
he has to conrm or to deny and also draw up a memo of your witnesses. The
testimony under oath, rendered by the writers, is sent to the addressee, who
has to use it to force his opponents to accept or deny the claim. This is done in
a formal confrontation, in the presence of (court) witnesses and the writers ask
the addressee to send them a note on who they were (so that they could be sum-
moned later, if the problem was not solved). Another example is in the letter
CCT 4, 14b:15-18, where the creditor A. has to be paid: He (Hanaya) still owes me
[x] minas 15 shekels of silver. And when I departed on my trip I left you a memo
with my witnesses, saying: Draw up a valid record (of their testimony), then in-
tervene and take (it) from the silver of Hanaya and satisfy A.

24 See for the system and the terminology used, Dercksen 2004, Ch. 9.
25 In Assyrian: ina libbika e i tahsistaka idi (correct the editio princeps).
26 These memorandums mention in all ca. 2 talents 18 pounds of silver, the proceeds from the
sale of ca. 25 tons of wool, received by 13 different traders, which shows the size and complexity
of this commercial operation.
27 The expression is nuduam nadum, perhaps to make a note, to serve somebody a notice
(one also nds to give somebody a n.). The noun, from the verb nadum that is used for to put
down, draw up (e.g. a memorandum), occurs a few times in the combination ina tahsistim u
nudutim, among (a persons) memorandums and notications (see CAD N/II 312 s.v. nuduu),
as the place where one has to look for a particular tablet, but we are as yet unable to differentiate
the two types.
46
5.3. Evidentiary Value
Most transactions, which frequently concern valuable merchandise or substan-
tial sums of money, took place before witnesses and were recorded in writing,
usually on a valid tablet (uppum harmum). This term qualies a tablet by the
verbal adjective harmum, lit. covered (by a clay envelope), which has the mean-
ing valid(ated), because the envelope carries the seal impressions of parties, wit-
nesses, etc., that gives a record its legal, evidentiary power.
28
The inscriptions on
the bullae, attached to various containers with tablets, mention among their con-
tents valid tablets,
29
which were carefully preserved so that, if problems arose,
they could be produced, shown or submitted. Valid tablets could record a
variety of contracts concluded before witnesses, ranging from simple debt-notes
to contracts about a joint-stock company (naruqqum), with many investors and a
large capital. Others are settlements of accounts, agreements, records of deposit,
acquisition of securities, sale of houses and slaves, etc. They were used during
private summonses and lawsuits and could settle conicts, unless it was claimed
and proved that a record was no longer valid.
30
The awareness of their existence
and warning statements such as I have in possession a valid tablet (uppam har-
mam ukl), scil. as proof of my claim, must have induced people to meet their
obligations. The importance of such a valid record is also clear from Kt n/k 470
(courtesy of C.Gnbatt), drawn up to revive, to replace a lost quittance as proof
of the payment of a debt. Lines 1-9 presumably repeat the original text, stating
that the debt has been paid, and they are followed by the phrase that the krum
organization summoned those who had sealed that record, who then revived
(l. 15, balluum) the tablet before Assurs dagger by their testimony under oath.
31

Various types of valid records were generated by granting credit and ex-
tending loans, due to complications met in collecting or paying them, in forcing

28 The verb is also used in abbreviated expressions, such witnesses harrumum, short for
drawing up a valid record of a testimony sealed by the witnesses.
29 Ten occurrences in zg-Tunca 2001, 319-50. Note Kt m/k 100, with the text Copies of
valid tablets of the debt of A. and I., whose originals are in the strong room of ., and Kt 93/k 273,
Valid tablet with the verdict of the krum concerning S. In AKT 3, 106:11-13, a trader asks his
wife to send him the boxes (tamalakk) with valid records which A. left behind with you.
30 OA expresses this by the stative of the factitive stem of the verb akum, ukku, not yet rec-
ognized in CAD A/I s.v., meaning 3, which mentions only one occurrence and translates mis-
laid. The now more than a dozen references leave no uncertainty about its meaning, e.g. in
POAT 2:24-26, where as a result of a comprehensive settlement of accounts all the earlier valid
tablets of the debt of I. are (now) cancelled (-ku!-u), and such a fact can also be the conse-
quence of a verdict (CCT 5, 18d:3-5). In Kt r/k 17:5-6 a man is accused of having given invalid
tablets as pledges. In younger variants of the clause in quittances, that if the missing debt-note
still turns up it is invalid (see below under b), ukku may replace sar, e.g. in Ugarit-Forschungen
7 (1975) 318, no. 4:15 (read: a
!
-ku-u).
31 Reviving lost legal records is attested in other periods too, see Veenhof 1987, 49-50 for
some Old Babylonian examples.
47
the archives of old assyrian traders
defaulting debtors to pay or provide a security. They were meant to safeguard the
interests of the creditor, as is shown by some cases where in the objectively styled
contracts in the third person singular clauses in the rst person singular were
inserted, (as) spoken by the creditor during the transaction and by which he had
claimed (additional) security.
32
They occur in various types and situations and the
most important types are the following.
a) A debtor denying or disputing a claim, promising a (delayed) payment and in
some other situations could be forced to accept a binding agreement (tarkis-
tum) in which he promised to pay a ne (frequently the double or triple) if he
was subsequently proved wrong or did not live up to his promise. A similar
contract could be imposed upon a person who shifted a debt claim to some-
body else and therefore had to conrm (ka unum) this presumed debtor on
penalty of a ne. The result in such cases was a witnessed valid tablet of his
binding agreement, on which he impressed his seal.
33
b) If a debtor paid his creditor or his creditors representative and they did not
have the original debt-note available to return it, the debtor received a tablet
of satisfaction, a quittance (uppum a ab). It recorded the payment in the
presence of witnesses and invariably stated that if later the debt-note should
turn up it was invalid (sar; examples in EL nos. 191ff., and see above note 30).
Letters mention that such a quittance could be exchanged for the original
debt-note, whereupon both records could die (mutum) or be killed. This is
usually interpreted as be cancelled, which was done by breaking the sealed
envelope, which deprived the tablet inside of legal force
34
(but allowed its
preservation for administrative purposes, see below 6 on splitting a tab-
let). That several quittances have turned up in archives suggests that the ex-
change and perhaps the return of the original debt-note did not always take
place or perhaps at times was impossible. While it is true that a debt-note
became harmless if its envelope was removed and the existence of a quittance

32 E.g. clauses where the creditor states item/person x is my pledge (Veenhof 2001, 127-8),
or where he grants himself the right, if the debtor defaults, to borrow the amount owed at the
latters expense with a money-lender (see below type c).
33 See for the procedure Kt 91/k 242:3-11, "They drew up a valid tablet of his contract(ual ob-
ligation), that he promised to conrm PN. If he does no conrm PN, he will pay in accordance
with the contract of his valid tablet to the creditor [] (remainder missing). An example of
such a contract is TC 3, 262, dealing with a man who denied the accusation of not having paid
his share in the purchase price of a slave. The envelope, after mentioning the seals, begins with
Contract (tarkistum) of S. , that he will pay 12 shekels of silver for 6 shekels of silver, hence a
conditional penalty of 100%.
34 See for dying tablets, Veenhof 1987, 46-50, where some occurrences are discussed. In
Prag I 446, an arrangement between the sons of debtor and creditor, states that if the former
produces a sealed quittance, the latter will release the debt-note, whereupon the one tablet will
smash the other. The exceptional use of this verb (mahum) indicates physical destruction.
48
neutralized its validity, the debtor must have wanted his debt-note back to
destroy it.
c) A loan contract with the creditor as debtor, because, as he had stipulated in
the debt-note, he was authorized to borrow the debt owed by a defaulting
debtor at the latters expense with a moneylender and to charge the debtor
compound interest (Veenhof 1999, 66-9).
d) Debt-notes, usually for smaller debts, which are stated to be owed to the
tamkrum, that is an unnamed creditor. This allowed cession of the claim and
we have letters where somebody writes in such a case: I have a record stating
that I am the tamkrum. In about a dozen cases we meet the clause stating
that the bearer [twice the holder] of the tablet is the creditor (wbil uppim
ut tamkrum). It turned debt-notes into bearers cheques the earliest occur-
rence of this device and this made it possible to cede and perhaps to sell
debts (see Veenhof 1997, 351-64).
The procedure described under d) explains the existence of a particular type of
debt-note and means that it may turn up in an archive without a (for us) obvious
connection with its owner, and there are more OA devices that have such con-
sequences. One is that debt-notes and similar records had a monetary value and
could function as a kind of (clay) money. They could be handed over as pledges,
alongside valuable property,
35
and at the division of a traders inheritance his
widow and children could be assigned bonds, which they could exchange or con-
vert into silver. Shares in a joint-stock company (formulated as a debt owed to
the investor) could be inherited and sold, and I even found a case where a man
was ready to draw up a (in my opinion ctive) contract whereby he owed to his
brothers creditor exactly the same amount of silver as his brother and so provid-
ed him a security. It is only in ofcially excavated archives that one can identify
such strange tablets and search for an explanation of their presence.
Alongside witnessed contracts also testimonies (ibuttum) play an impor-
tant role in the OA commercial society as evidentiary records, for several reasons.
One is that commercial transactions inside Anatolia could be cash, that in the
trade promises and oral agreements were used, and that in general in trade not
all payments, expenses and losses could be recorded in writing before witness-
es.
36
Therefore they had to be accounted for by statements, oral declarations, not
infrequently under oath. In OB commercial partnerships too the nal settle-
ment of accounts about yields, losses, and prot frequently took place by clear-

35 See for this feature, Veenhof 2001, 132-3.
36 Not necessarily because no writer was available, for there are indications that traders could
read and write, as shown by less professionally written texts and the information that a son of
a trader was learning the scribal craft in Assur.
49
the archives of old assyrian traders
ance (tbibtum, ubbubum) in the temple of the Sun god, apparently under oath.
Testimonies could become necessary if a trader died and not all his assets and
debts could be proved, records turned up whose status was uncertain and if his
sons and heirs had to declare We are sons of the dead, we do not know In
such situations oral witnesses are produced and testify and we have two verdicts
of the City Assembly in Assur that refer to an existing procedural law, written on
a stele, that states that a debt-claim on a dead trader will only be honored if it is
conrmed by witnesses.
37

Most testimonies appear in the course of the administration of justice and
this was a consequence of the judicial practice, because it was often not easy to
recover the facts due to the complications of the trade and because parties, wit-
nesses and evidence could be in different places.
38
One usually tried to solve con-
icts, especially on the payment of debts and similar claims, rst on a private
level by summoning a debtor or opponent before witnesses or mediators. The
latter were seized (at times by mutual agreement of the parties) in order to n-
ish, settle the affair (awtim gamrum). Letters frequently mention these mat-
ters and ask to set witnesses against (b aknum ana) a person who refuses
to meet his liabilities. When such a private attempt failed or when the opponent
did not stick to what he had promised, the plaintiff could appeal to the krum
court to obtain satisfaction. In such a case this court rst made the witnesses and
mediators who had been present at the earlier confrontations render testimony
of what had happened and had been said. Occasionally the testimony of these
witnesses and mediators had already been recorded in writing, in which case we
read, We gave our tablet. In most cases they gave an oral testimony before the
dagger of Assur or in the gate of the god, which was then recorded in writing
in the form of a deposition in the rst person, which the witnesses signed (by
impressing their seals) and which was given to the court.
To do so certain complications might have to be surmounted, because the
usually two or three witnesses were expected to deliver a single testimony, one
of witnesses in agreement (b etamdtum; BIN 4, 70:17-18, until I obtain a
tablet of two witnesses in agreement so that we do not come to shame). And
this nal testimony, recorded in writing, was at times apparently preceded by
and based on drafts, which we nd in the archives, alongside (provisional) copies

37 See Veenhof 1995, 1729, on the use of the verb kunum, to be conrmed, as used in
Kt a/k 394:17 and Kt n/k 1925:16f. This is not a general law applying in all situations, for the
verb as such can be used of both oral and written evidence, as shown by another verdict of the
City Assembly, quoted in AKT 6a, 294:16-17, which demands that a disputed debt, contracted in
Anatolia, shall be conrmed by his tablets or his witnesses. There was no difference between
the value and power of oral and written evidence, their use was conditioned by their availability
and the situation.
38 See for the details and the variation in the procedures and testimonies the dissertation of
Thomas Hertel, Old Assyrian Legal Practices, defended in Copenhagen in 2007 and to be pub-
lished soon.
50
of testimonies, probably prepared for the benet of the plaintiff or of those who
had rendered it. The unique judicial record POAT 9, drawn up because one party
contested a testimony given, describes how it had been drafted. In a formal ap-
peal D. said to M.:
I did not arrange to let you give testimony. Why have you given a tablet with your tes-
timony? M. answered: I did not give the tablet at my own initiative. The gentleman
(who needed the testimony) appealed for us with krum Tawiniya and the krum made
us testify, whereupon we, I and my companion, gave the tablet (with our testimony).
M. added: When we drew up the tablet in the gate of the god my companion remind-
ed me of a few things (words) that I did not know. And after I had made him swear
an oath (made him raise his hands) we added them. D. repeated: I did not arrange
to let you give testimony!
The administration of justice by formal courts also gave rise to a variety of re-
cords. The krum authorities and the City Assembly could both issue strong tab-
lets that granted plaintiffs whose case had been considered strong, the right to
hire an attorney, who had powers that enabled him to search for the truth. Parties
could be forced to swear an oath in which they had to conrm or deny a variety
of facts. Such formal, substantive oaths were apparently carefully formulated and
written down in advance by the court. They started with a formal invocation, Lis-
ten, god/goddess of the oath, followed by verbal forms in the mode (subjunctive)
of the oath (e.g. EL 284, and CCT 5, 14b). Such formal oaths were sworn while
holding the dagger of the god Assur, in the gate of the god, and in such cases the
court could appoint special witnesses to attend the swearing of these oaths. The
tablet with the text of the oath sworn was put in an envelope, with the seals of the
persons who heard his oral statement (a pi/au ime) to conrm its authentic-
ity. It usually ended up in the archive of the party that had won the case.
The complexity of the issues and the fact that persons and evidence could be
located in Assur, Kanesh or elsewhere, frequently prevented a quick solution and
verdict. It resulted in various so-called procedural verdicts, that prescribe steps
to be taken to collect the evidence and nd the truth, such as gaining access to
tablets, summoning witnesses, interrogating people, making statements, and
they can be conditional (if then). The nal verdict, frequently passed many
months later, is usually rather short and restricted to the main issue. OA did not
produce verdicts of the Old Babylonian type, which present a short history of
the case, describe the various steps taken to nd the truth and even occasionally
mention the reason for the verdict. Difcult cases, in particular those concerning
the liquidation of a business after a traders death and the division of his inherit-
ance, could generate large les of, at times, dozens of texts of different type, most
of which are undated. The challenge to reconstruct such cases can only be met if
such a le can be reconstructed or is found in an excavated archive.
51
the archives of old assyrian traders
6. Functional overlap
The three functions of written records overlap. Information in letters, in particu-
lar in the long caravan accounts, is a valuable aid to memory and it can be used to
claim that a caravan upon arrival proves to contain less that had been mentioned
in the letter that also functioned as a kind of bill of lading. Long memorandums
listing outstanding claims can be more than an aid to memory. CCT 2, 8-9, a let-
ter of 75 lines written by Imdilum to his brother, his son and an agent, consists
mainly of a long list of his outstanding claims, which quotes two memorandums
we have (CCT 6, 9a and KTS 2, 42), but it ends with the request: Please, make all
these agents (tamkr) pay!. The data from the memorandum transmitted in the
letter apparently enabled the addressees to dun the debtors, even without the
original debt-notes at hand, because they must have been aware of their liabili-
ties and knew that with the data available the witnesses could always be sum-
moned to buttress the claims.
Letters can also have evidentiary value, especially those called napertum,
missive. The word is very common, but refers especially to letters that are not
simply communications, but in which orders and authorizations are given, facts
are stated or acknowledged, or claims established. They have a kind of legal force
and are sent under seal to the person (a partner, agent, representative) who can
use them to realize something in the name of the sender. A napertum can bring
about the release of a tablet held as security for a debt and they play a role when
more persons are involved in a transaction, e.g. when debts, claims, securities or
merchandise have been transferred and an authorized missive is required to
be able to proceed. In ICK 2, 150, where E. had probably ceded his debt-claim or
entrusted its collection to his partner, we read: If E. says: I. owes ten pounds of
copper to P. and if P. indeed brings a napertum with E.s seal stating that I. does
owe 10 minas of copper to P., then I. will pay the copper to P. The text adds that if
the napertum is supplied I. shall not make E. swear an oath, i.e. is not entitled to
request further proof. Kt 91/k 368:20-25 states that if A. (to whom E. had entrust-
ed merchandise for transport) protests against releasing it to P. (the addressee of
the letter), then let him hear the napertum of E. that he must entrust the textiles
in their sealed bags to you.
Because of their evidentiary value such missives were preserved in their
sealed envelopes or in a packet. Archives have yielded more than forty inscribed
bullae with the text napertum of PN, apparently a label attached to such a tablet
or a packet containing it, stored in the archive. They remind me of OB letters in
which superiors give instructions, which at the end may state: Keep/guard this
letter of mine as testimony / proof of me /my word. It is not by accident that
these words occur especially on a rare category of sealed Old Babylonian letters,
called zepum, which may be compared to the equally sealed Sumerian letter or-
ders, kept by administrators as proof of the discharge of an order, of the deliv-
52
ery of goods.
39
I also mention here that when the ruler of Assur wrote a letter to
Pushuken to ask him for a favor (POAT 18) and promises that he will take action
for him in a undisclosed matter, he adds in lines 17-21: Now look, one brings you
two tablets. Read one of them and keep the other with you. The second must be
POAT 18, found in its sealed envelope and I assume that it was preserved as proof
of the promises made by the ruler.
Legal documents, both contracts and judicial records, with a primary eviden-
tiary function, of course at the same time can be valuable sources of information
and this may have been a reason to preserve them, also when their legal value
no longer mattered. This is particularly true of debt-notes, occasionally true
loans, but more frequently recording the amount of silver an agent has to pay for
merchandise received in commission. Upon payment of the debt they had to be
given back to the debtor they are called his tablet to annihilate this proof of
a discharged liability (see above, 5.3, b). But for a trader, creditor or debtor, the
information provided by a debt-note could be valuable for his administration, in
particular if he had to render account of his business to investors or partners. I
have suggested that, upon payment, one could break the sealed envelope (which
gave it its legal force) and preserve the tablet inside, now devoid of any legal val-
ue. This would explain why so many debt-notes without envelopes are found in
archives, not all of which we can simply consider proof of unpaid debts. This is
now conrmed by a few occurrences of the verb laum, to split, with a tablet
as object, e.g. AKT 6c, 561:7-15, Pay this silver to E. and obtain the release of my
tablet (debt-note) and split it and deposit it with A., among my tablets (cf. AKT
6c, 671:14-16 and Larsens note on these lines). It means separating envelope and
tablet, destroying the former, which carries the seal impression of the debtor and
gives it its legal force, and keeping the tablet inside.
7. Copies and duplicates of records
The preceding pages have made clear for which purposes written records were
used, but some additional data must be added. Insight into the use of tablets
is also provided by the many references to copies or duplicates (mehrum or me-
hertum). The inscription on the sealed bulla Kt 94/k 878 identies the contents
of the container it was attached to as my valid records, my copies and memoran-
dums, and TTC 21:1-7 states we entrusted the boxes with tablets of E. (and) the
boxes with copies (tamalakk mehr) for transport. Inbi-Ishtar in CCT 2, 17b:3-6

39 The OB letters write upp anniam ana ibtia (variants bt awtia and qp awtia) kil(lam)
or uur, cf. Veenhof 1986, 33 note 125; see for zepum, F. R. Kraus, in: J.-M. Durand - J.-R. Kup-
per (eds.), Miscellanea Babylonica. Mlanges offerts Maurice Birot, Paris 1985, 141f., 7. An unpub-
lished Old Babylonian letter order writes preserve my tablet as (if it were) a sealed document
(kma kankim).
53
the archives of old assyrian traders
asks his correspondent to take along both valid records and copies and memo-
randums that you have in your possession and KTS 40:33 mentions tablets of
my witnesses and their copies. We also read requests to make and send copies
overland,
40
for which one used a specic term, mehram ubalkutum, as discovered
by Larsen. It is used in AKT 6a, 231:8-17, On the day my father left Assur he made
his testament in your presence. Please, my fathers and lords, have a copy of my
fathers will made, what he decided for us. Give this tablet, as it has been cleared
(?), to A. and send him here with the rst caravan.
We have to distinguish between copies and duplicates, although Old Assyrian
does not have separate terms for them. A duplicate is a document that was imme-
diately produced in more copies, an example of which is the letter of the ruler of
Assur sent to Pushuken (POAT 18, see 6), both copies of which apparently were
in an envelope sealed by the ruler and hence valid. With valid deeds we can
easily identify copies made later, because they can only reproduce the text on the
envelope, which begins by listing the persons who had sealed it, while on the tab-
let inside they are mentioned at the very end, as those in whose presence (ma-
har) the contract had been concluded. An example is AKT 6a, 123, a copy of the text
on the envelope of an original debt-note, referred to in other texts, but not pre-
served in the archive. Such copies of debt-notes (also of quittances and service
contracts) make sense, because the sealed envelope usually reproduces the text of
the contract inside, occasionally with minor differences, also due to limitations
of space alongside the seal impressions. Of many valid tablets, notably deposi-
tions, the text on the envelope is usually short and limited to mentioning the
witnesses and the so-called procedural formula, for this affair the krum gave
us and we gave our testimony before Assurs dagger. Copies of such envelopes
are useless, since they do not contain the substance of the testimony or agree-
ment. If copies of such texts are needed they have to be made before the tablet is
encased in the sealed envelope and this is indeed what we can observe. I mention
some examples of copies of depositions from the archive of Shallim-Assur, now
accessible in AKT 6a. First copies made from (indicated by =) tablets before they
were encased in envelopes: 10 = 10a inside envelope 10b; 56 = 58 inside 57; 77 = 79
inside 78; 84 = 83 inside 82; 191 = 191a inside 191b; 194 = 195b inside 195a. Other
tablets, on the basis of the identity of the witnesses and the procedural formula
must be copies of tablets still inside their unopened envelopes: 46 and 47 = 48,
53 = 54, 104 = 105, 106 and 107 = 108, 118 and 119 = 117, 195 = 196a. And we also
have copies of depositions whose sealed original is not preserved in the archive:
63 = 64 (settling accounts), 221 = 222 (summons), 227 = 228 (interrogation), 257 = 258
(interrogation), 270 = 271 (answer to an attorney, called witnessed statement).

40 See references in CAD M/II, s.v. mihru, 1, a, 2, a-b. Cf. TC 3, 9:14-16, send overland to me a
copy of the record stating that my affair is terminated; TC 3, 44:14-19, they have removed the
copy (of the caravan account), there is no copy of the textiles they have been depositing here.
We have made and sent copies of the valid records and they are under seal in the house.
54
The same applies to verdicts of a krum, where the text on the envelope starts
with Seal of krum GN, while the (copy of the) tablet inside begins with The
krum passed the following verdict: This applies to AKT 6a, 66 (copy) and 67
(unopened envelope), cf. the tablet 80 from the opened envelope 81.
Shallim-Assurs archive also contained three virtually identical copies of a
contract for the transport of a large amount of silver to Assur, AKT6b, 478-480,
whose purpose is not clear, but the background might have been a conict. This
is suggested by texts 495-497, three identical copies that start with the text of
such a transport contract, but presented as testimony by the persons who had
witnessed the transfer of the silver, given because, as the procedural formula
shows, the krum had made them testify.
I am not able to offer a general picture of the making and use of copies, which
requires much more research and has to take into account the numerous refer-
ences in letters. But I note that the edition of an excavated archive shows that
copies, especially of depositions and at times several of the same record, were
fairly numerous and apparently considered useful. Their presence in Shallim-As-
surs archive probably has to do with the long and at times bitter ghts between
members of the family, which generated and required a lot of written evidence,
in addition to the presence of a large le concerning a dead brother, whose execu-
tioner Shallim-Assur was (see above 1). All copies mentioned above were found
in this archive and therefore had been kept in store. Copies certainly will also
have been sent out to provide others, members and associates of the family/rm
living elsewhere (including Assur), with records of evidentiary and informative
value. Many letters do indeed mention the making and dispatching of copies and
we have information on their uses during summonses and lawsuits.
For the existence of copies of letters various explanations are possible and
some reasons have already been mentioned in 5.1. Copies or duplicates are also
likely for important letters addressed to more than one person, if they did not live
in the same place. While most copies we know are of legal documents, we cannot
assume that every person who sealed a contract or deposition as witness received
a copy of it. Copies of debt-notes are fairly rare, but they were occasionally made
to allow a partner or representative to collect a debt. In CCT 2, 38:3-9, Puzur-Assur
writes to Pushuken: I told you that I wished to stay here one month longer in
order to collect all my outstanding claims. But you said: Leave me your copy, then
I will collect the silver and send it after you. Such a copy therefore is comparable
to a memorandum with excerpts of debt-notes. Some of the latter state why they
were made, e.g. EL 225:47-48, Copy of valid records (made because) they went
overland, similarly EL 224:37-38, ICK 1, 187:63, TC 3, 13:45-47, each time at the
end of a long memorandum. It is understandable that this was done for reasons
of security, considering the value of the original debt-notes. Security is also sug-
gested as a reason for making a copy in CCT 3, 14-19, whose writer orders to bring
all his belongings into a new house, lock it up and give a copy (listing) all you left
behind to the maid and leave a second one behind in the main dwelling. Some
55
the archives of old assyrian traders
of the copies of testimonies or depositions must be due, as mentioned above (
5.3), to the fact that several witnesses together had to give one single testimony,
which generated drafts and copies to be checked and approved. But they also ap-
pear in connection with important legal cases, apparently to provide witnesses
with written evidence of what they had testied and for which they might be
held responsible. An interesting example are the two copies of a long deposition
in connection with a conict between the krum organization and an Anatolian
ruler, who had accused and jailed an Assyrian trader for conspiring with a rival
ruler. The deposition reports how the krum negotiated with the ruler to obtain
the release of its member, but we do not know how the affair ended. The depo-
sition is given by ve traders, apparently appointed to negotiate for the krum
organization, and they testify before the krum of what had happened. That this
was done in accordance with a tablet of the City (of Assur), shows that the mat-
ter was important enough to get the City involved. One copy of this long text was
found in the archive of the family of the victim, Assur-taklaku, excavated in 1993
(see Michel 2008b), apparently supplied in order to inform his relatives. The
second turned up in that of Usur-sha-Ishtar, excavated in 1962, who was one of
the traders who had negotiated and testied.
41
One might expect other copies of
this deposition, made for the other members of the delegation, for the archive of
the krum and one to be sent to Assur. This is a rare example, because we know
the origin of the two copies, but it suggests that there were more such cases, also
in less serious affairs, where copies of a deposition may have been made and dis-
tributed, but they are difcult to identify if we are dealing with records from il-
licit excavations, scattered by the antiques trade.
8. Finding ones way in a large archive
The use of a large archive with more than a thousand cuneiform tablets is only
possible to somebody who knows what it contains, where particular texts are to
be found and is able to read them. This was obviously in the rst place the owner
of the archive and we know that many traders could read. But others too had to
be able to do it, e.g. if in the absence of the trader a debt-note had to be retrieved
(uum) to be returned to a debtor who had paid or to be shown to a reluctant
one, when a tablet handed over as pledge or given in safe deposit was asked back,
or when a trader had died and particular records needed to be inspected or used.
The use of an archive by its owner is taken for granted and we regularly read
that he inspects, selects, takes, removes and adds documents, which are placed
among his tablets (ina libbi uppu aknum). More information is occasionally

41 See for the copy excavated in 1962, C. Gnbatti, The River Ordeal in Ancient Anatolia, in: W. H.
van Soldt (ed.), Veenhof Anniversary Volume, Leiden 2001, 151-60, where one also nds the data
on the other copy, Kt 93/k 145.
56
given when an absent owner asks others, such as his wife, employee or partner,
to do so and he gives some details, or when he shows his concern about the safety
of his records. The writer of AKT 3, 112, hearing about A.s departure writes: I
had entrusted to him the boxes with tablets under my seal and he was to guard
my seals (....) Ask his representatives there whether he has left the tablets some-
where(?) or has taken them out personally. Good examples of requests to wives
are in the letters addressed by Ennam-Assur to his wife Nuhshatum, who is in
charge of his house in Kanesh and has to guard it and its archive. Do not give
any tablet to anybody until you see me, he writes to her in Kt 91/k 563:10-14. It
is probably not by accident that in the address of his letters she usually gures
alongside what must be his representatives, friends or agents, presumably be-
cause she has to allow them to nd and identify the tablets he asks for, since she
could not read them. He asks her and a certain Alaku in AKT 3, 84:4-23, Look
(plural) for the tablet in which I certied (the testimony of) my witnesses A. and
E. in the gate of the god, which is placed in the container with the tablets of the
gate of the god. Take it out of it, pack it, solidly, in leather, seal it and entrust it to
H. or S. to bring it to me. In AKT 3, 82:4-13 he asks her and her husbands repre-
sentatives: In the hulu-container
42
a memorandum without envelope, listing
the witnesses on behalf of P., has been deposited among the tablets. Inspect it
and if the witnesses in question are staying there, lead them down to the gate of
the god and validate the tablet with their testimony and inform me about it. In
AKT 3, 106:11-13 she is asked to send him immediately the boxes with valid re-
cords that A. left behind for you.
These letters and many other texts show the existence of various containers,
the most frequent one called tamalakkum/tamalkum, a word only attested in OA,
whose meaning is unknown, perhaps a kind of wooden box, usually protected by
sealings.
43
Such a box can be identied by its position in the archive (the upper t.,
of a stack or on the shelve? Kt 93/k 69:18), by its size (we meet a small one with six
tablets and a big one with more than twenty tablets; cf. also AKT 3, 104:17), and by
its cover or encasing. Kt 93/k 69:18-27 (courtesy of C. Michel) states: We opened
the upper tamalakkus that were covered by (or: encased in) leather (ina makim
harm) and removed the tablet
44
. But one also identies boxes by their specic

42 Attested only in OA, also in Kt 91/k 446:18, which mentions the sealing of a hulum.
43 See AKT 5 p. 174 and CAD T s.v. Other frequently mentioned containers used for tablets (and
other items) are ilinum and hurinum, both only attested in OA, exact meanings unknown,
see AKT 5, 175. BIN 4, 90:14-16 mentions three t.s with tablets put under seal in a ilinum,
and according to Kt k/k 53:12-15, a hurinum is to be taken out of a t. Both t. and h. are also
used for transporting tablets. Note a . made of rushes (a altim) in Kt n/k 1460:26, which sug-
gests a basket-like container. Kt f/k 11:5-6 mentions small .s containing sealed records, and
BIN 6, 218:5-6, 13 t.s with tablets alongside a pouch (zurzum) with tablets. See for the rare
hulum footnote 42.
44 Kt f/k 11:23 (courtesy of L. Umur) mentions a ilinu-container with a leather cover/casing
(makam harim), containing tablets.
57
the archives of old assyrian traders
contents and we meet a t. with tablets with certied testimonies (a ib), t.s with
memorandums, t.s with valid records, a t. with copies (a mehr, TTC 21:1f.),
a t. with big tablets of the caravan(s) (a upp rabtim a harrnim, AKT 3, 77:7), 7
t.s with tablets of agents (a tamkrim, TPAK 1, 77:3), etc. Note also Kt 91/k 147:29-32,
In all 12 tablets, placed in a t. with new tablets, not in envelopes.
If tablets in an archive were stored and arranged in groups of various type,
in different containers, one would expect the excavations to have revealed their
material traces. This is true and in addition the archives have produced a large
number of inscribed, frequently sealed bullae, originally attached to packets or
containers with tablets, whose contents or nature they mention.
45
Most numer-
ous is the designation napertum, missive (already mentioned above), followed
by the name of the person who had sent it or for whom it was meant. Some in-
scriptions start with the word tablet(s) followed by qualications, such as of
PN, of the debt of PN; other mention valid tablets (in sealed envelopes) or
quittances. Fuller descriptions are: copies of tablets by which I sent silver to
PN, my encased tablets, my duplicates and my memorandums, certied tab-
lets of my witnesses, tablets of the city, tablets of the testament of A., tablets
of native Anatolians, testimony of A. and B., tablet of the gate of the god con-
cerning A., and memorandums of witnesses of the price of wool of A. It would
be too much to describe this as a classication system, but it is clear that groups
of tablets, often les or tablets of similar type, were kept together, stored and
labeled so that they could be found more easily.
The excavator, Tahsin zg, in several publications has described how he
found the tablets and the bullae. On the archive found in 1994 (in the house in
grid LXIV/LXV-130/131, now being published as AKT 6) he writes (zg 2001,
370): In the conagration the thin partition wall between rooms nos. 5-6 fell
down to its foundations and the tablets kept in the two rooms were mixed up. An
archive of 947 tablets and unopened envelopes and pottery were found in these
two small rooms. They were evidently kept on wooden shelves against the walls
and the tablets found along the walls are those that fell off the shelves in the re.
The tablets that had been packed in bags, in straw wrappings and sacks were dis-
covered in piles in the middle of the rooms. A group of tablets, as usual, were kept
in pots. The pottery was set along the base of the walls. On the archive excavated
in 1991/2 (in the house in grid LVI-LVII/128-129, the archive of Elamma, which
I am publishing) he wrote: The archive of the merchant was found along the
base of the east wall of room 3 and in rooms 4-5 in groups once packed in boxes,
bags, sacks and straw mats. On top of each group lay one or two bullae. Unopened
envelopes were placed at the bottom, tablets on top. In contrast to other archives

45 The inscribed bullae were edited by O. Tunca, Inscriptions on the Bullae, in: zg-Tunca
2001, 319-50.
58
here we did not nd tablets stored in jars.
46
Elsewhere he mentions the discov-
ery in a room of two groups of 50 unopened envelopes, lying side by side and
observes that the shape of a rectangular pile of tablets and fragments of carbon-
ized wood suggests that they were kept in some kind of wooden box.
Unfortunately, these observations are rather general, with few photos of the
tablets in situ (but see zg 2003, 71-5, ills. 13-18) and the ground plans of the
houses do not show the exact positions of the hoard of tablets. Moreover, we al-
most never learn the excavation numbers of the tablets found in such groups or
in jars, so that it is impossible to identify them. The bullae attached to or belong-
ing to containers or packets with tablets in most cases were numbered and pub-
lished separately, so that it is extremely difcult to establish in the few cases
when the archive in question is published to which groups of tablets or packet
they belonged. It is regrettable that the unique opportunity to discover more
about archival classication and storage is lost, also due to the absence of an epig-
raphist at the dig where every year so many written documents were found.
One would expect that tablets in current use were stored on the shelves along
the walls (on which the tamalakku-containers could have been placed) or on bench-
es covered with reed mats, perhaps in open bowls, to be easily accessible. Since
retrieving and selecting tablets stored in jars is rather difcult, jars may have con-
tained older tablets, preserved but rarely used, but we cannot prove it. The excava-
tor has suggested for the archive excavated in 1990, in the Avant-propos (p. 8) of
TPAK 1, that the position in which tablets were found in the ruined archival room
might indicate that some groups were kept on a second oor. One part, whose ex-
cavation numbers he mentions, was found on the oor, the rest mixed with the de-
bris that lled the room. But the distinction is not very convincing, for I have found
that the envelope of text 10 was found in the debris, but the tablet it contained on
the oor. That certain groups of tablets were kept on a second oor, where the liv-
ing quarters were, is not impossible, but would be surprising, since the strong
room on the ground oor, closed with a heavy, sealed door was better and safer.
These last observations show that there are still many questions, but the po-
tential of the material is huge. Because the textual data are so rich and diversied
and their philological analysis already yields important insights, a good correla-
tion between epigraphic and archeological data will yield more. Moreover, publi-
cation of the many still unpublished archives (with more than 12.000 texts) will
help to solve some of the remaining epigraphic and lexical problems, including
the precise nature of the various containers. This will throw more light on the
customs of the remarkable Old Assyrian traders, energetic and creative business-
men and at the same time industrious writers of records and careful keepers and
users of their archives.

46 T. zg, A Boat-shaped Cult-vessel from the Karum of Kanish, in: H. Gasche et al. (eds.), Cin-
quante-deux rflexions sur le Proche-Orient ancien offertes en hommage Lon De Meyer, Leuven 1994,
369-76.
59
the archives of old assyrian traders
Abbreviations
Abbreviated titles of text editions and assyriological journals are those used in
the CAD. But note:
AKT 3 Bilgi, E. & Gnbatti, C., Ankaraner Kultepe-Texte III: Texte der
Grabungskampagne 1970. FAOS Beiheft 5, Stuttgart 1995.
AKT 4 Albayrak, I., Kltepe Tabletleri IV (Kt. o/k), TTKY VI/33b, Ankara
2006.
AKT 5 Veenhof, K. R., The Archive of Kuliya, son of Ali-abum (Kt. 92/k 188-
263), Kltepe Tabletleri V, TTKY VI/33c, Ankara 2010.
AKT 6a Larsen, M. T., The Archive of the alim-Aur Family. Vol. 1. The First
Two Generations. Kltepe Tabletleri VIa, TTKY VI/33d-a, Ankara
2010.
CAD The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of
Chicago. Chicago, 1956ff.
CTMMA Larsen, M. T., Old Assyrian Texts, in: I. Starr (ed.), Cuneiform Texts
in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Vol. 1. Tablets, Cones and Bricks of
the Third and Second Millennia. New York 1998, 92-142, nos. 71-98.
EL Eisser, G. & Lewy, j., Altassyrische Rechtsurkunden vom Kltepe, I-II.
MVAeG 33, 35/3, Leipzig 1930-1935. Quoted by text number.
Kt a .../k Sigla of texts from Kltepe (Kt) found in krum Kanesh (/k) from
1948 (=a) until 1972 (=z).
Kt 73 .../k Sigla of texts from Kltepe found in krum Kanesh since 1973.
OAA(S) Old Assyrian Archives (Studies), Leiden 2002ff.
POAT Gwaltney, W.C., The Pennsylvania Old Assyrian Texts, Hebrew
Union College Supplements, 3, Cincinnati 1983.
Prag I + no.
Texts edited in K. Hecker G. Kryszat L. Matou,
Kappadokische Keilschrifttafeln aus den Sammlungen der
Karlsuniversitt Prag, Praha 1988.
TPAK 1 Michel, C. & Garelli, P., Tablettes palo-assyriennes de Kltepe, 1
(Kt 90/k). Paris 1990.
60
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Barjamovic, G. - Hertel, Th.
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at Kanesh. Observations on the
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Dercksen 2004
Dercksen, J.G., Old Assyrian
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Kryszat 2004
Kryszat, G., Zur Chronologie
der Kaufmannsarchive aus der
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Larsen 1967
Larsen, M. T., Old Assyrian
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Larsen 1967
Larsen, M. T., The Old Assyrian
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Larsen 1982
Larsen, M. T., Your Money or
Your Life! A Portrait of an Assyrian
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Larsen 2002
Larsen, M. T., The Aur-nd
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Larsen 2007
Larsen, M. T., Individual and
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Larsen 2008
Larsen, M. T., Archives and Filing
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Larsen, M. T., The Archive of the
alim-Aur F amily. Vol. 1: The
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Matou, L., Der Streit um den
Nachlass des Puzur-Aur, Archiv
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63
family archives in mesopotamia
Family Archives in
Mesopotamia during the
Old Babylonian Period
1
The leadership exerted by the kingdom of Babylon under the rule of kings Ham-
mu-rabi and Samsu-iluna, especially between 1764 and 1712 B.C., led scholars to
call Old Babylonian the period spanning from the 20
th
to the 17
th
century. Except-
ed this short period, the whole four centuries are however rather characterized
by a political parcelling out and Mesopotamia was most of the time divided into
several kingdoms dominating larger or smaller areas (Isin, Larsa, Enunna, Mari,
Ekallatum, Babylon, etc.).
2
The unity of this period has to be looked for on a cul-
tural level. Semitic populations called Amorites had settled in the whole Meso-
potamian plain as early as the end of the 3
rd
millennium.
3
During the rst cen-

1 This study was written within the framework of the project Archibab: Archives babyloni-
ennes (XX
e
-XVII
e
sicles) directed by Dominique Charpin and supported by the Agence Natio-
nale de la Recherche. D. Charpin read the present manuscript carefully and addressed me valuable
remarks. I also benetted from very fruitful discussions with S. Dmare-Lafont. Unpublished
texts from the Nies Babylonian Collection (NBC) are quoted here with the kind permission of
B. R. Foster, Laffan Professor of Assyriology and curator of the Yale Babylonian Collection. It is
my pleasant duty to thank all of them sincerely.
2 See in general Charpin 2004.
3 The early diffusion of Amorite traditions through Mesopotamia has been pointed out by
specialists; see Sallaberger 2007, and, for another point of view, Michalowski 2011, especially
Chapter 5: The Amorites in Ur III Times, p. 82-121.
antoine jacquet
64
turies of the 2
nd
millennium, they formed a real koin characterized by common
references and practices in many domains such as religion and cults or social
and political organization.
4
One of these common practices denitely was the
use of writing in a lot of activities and situations of everyday life, maybe after the
model constituted for a long time by some great bodies present in every part of
every kingdom (palace and temple administrations) and certainly related to the
development of new institutions.
The documentation of the Amorite period is actually characterized by a huge
increase of archival texts, in number as much as in variety.
5
By studying political
structures of ancient Mesopotamia, we are rapidly led to admit that we never
have to deal with States or Cities ruled by formal constitutions comparable to
Greek Cities. We often have to deal, on the contrary, with individuals and groups
of people organized according to different coexisting local or tribal traditions,
kingship being only one gure of authority among others.
6
The question of the
relations between archival and institutional practices can hardly nd an answer
as for the Amorite period. However the obvious importance of writing implies a
very protable reection on the use of producing, keeping, gathering and trans-
mitting written records regarding authority.
After a general presentation of the Old Babylonian archival documentation,
this paper will come to the interesting problem of the function and motivation
of family archives and archival documents. This will be an occasion to present
some unpublished examples from the archives of Marduk-muballi, resident of
the city of Lagaba, now essentially kept in the Yale Babylonian Collection.
1. An Inventory of Old Babylonian Archives
In this general presentation, the reader will be provided at rst with some quan-
titative data about archival documents, then with some elements about who pos-
sessed archives in the Mesopotamia of the beginning of the 2
nd
millennium and
nally with a tentative typology of archival documents and the question of utility
of such an enterprise.
The ARCHIBAB project is directed by Prof. Dominique Charpin and supported
by the French Agence Nationale de la Recherche. Its purpose is to gather every Old
Babylonian archival document presently published into a digital data base which

4 The idea of a widespread Amorite culture in Mesopotamia during the rst centuries of the
2
nd
millennium was rst brilliantly developed in Durand 1992. For political matters, see Char-
pin 2004, especially Chapter 8, La vie politique au Proche-Orient vers 1765, p. 232-316.
5 See in general Charpin 2008a, Chapitre 3: Les documents darchives, p. 97-129 (English
version: Charpin 2010, Chapter two: The Archival Documents, p. 68-114).
6 See Durand 2004; Charpin 2007.
65
family archives in mesopotamia
can be freely browsed online.
7
We rst had to count precisely how many texts we
had to deal with, whose number eventually appeared to be much underestimat-
ed: there are 32092 archival documents currently published.
8
Among them, only
19585 texts have a well established origin thanks to regular excavations which
provide us with, at least, the name of the modern site and, when it is known,
the name of the ancient city, or, at most, a precise locus, a building and a room,
a detailed archaeological context. These documents come from about 40 sites all
over Mesopotamia, from the Mediterranean coastal area to the West to Iran to
the East and from the Taurus to the North to the Gulf and Arabic Desert to the
South. This undoubtedly represents a unique documentary situation regarding
the whole Mesopotamian Ancient History.
Table 1:
Distribution of published archival documents throughout Old Babylonian Mesopotamia
9
1. Southern Babylonia 1.1 Ur (tell Muqqayair) 1250
1. 2 Uruk (Warka) 793
1.3 Larsa (tell Senkereh) 972
1.4 Laga (al Hibar) and Girsu (Tello) 27
1.5 Kutalla (tell Sifr) 106
Total: 3148
2. Central Babylonia 2.1 Nippur (Nuffar) 1172
2. 2 Isin (In Baryat) 1040
2.3 Kisurra (Abu Hatab) 477
2.4 Adab (Bismaya) 57
Total: 2746
3. Northern Babylonia 3.1 Babylon 113
3. 2 Sippar Yahrurum (Abu Habbah) 246
3.3 Sippar Amnnum (Tell ed-Dr) 445
Total: 804

7 For a general presentation of the project, see the PDF document Prsentation ARCHIBAB
to be downloaded at <http://www.archibab.fr/Accueil.htm>, which gives two more references
to presentations by D. Charpin also downloadable at http://www.digitorient.com.
8 Data provided by the Archibab data-base (2012/5/7).
9 Table rst drawn by D. Charpin (see Charpin in press a) with updated data according to the
Archibab data-base (2012/5/7).
66
4. Diyala Basin 4.1 Enunna (Tell Asmar) 61
4. 2 Nrebtum (Ischali) 133
4.3 Tutub (Khafajah) 111
4.4 aduppum (tell Harmal) 194
4.5 Uzarlulu (Dhibai) 5
4.6 Tulul Khattab 37
4.7 M-Turan (Tell addad and Tell es-Sib) 170
4.8 Tell Yelkhi? 28
Total: 739
5. Susa and Elam 5.1 Susa (Shush) 950
Total: 950
6. Middle Euphrates 6.1 Yabliya-al-kapim (tell Shishin) 8
6. 2 Harrdum (Khirbet ed-Diniye) 116
6.3 Mari (tell Hariri) 8813
6.4 Terqa (tell Ashara) 106
6.5 Tuttul (tell Bia) 377
Total: 9420
7. Northern Mesopotamia 7.1 Ninive 3
7. 2 uarra (Shemshra) 243
7.3 Nuzi (Yorghan Tepe) 1(?)
7.4 Qaar (tell Rimah) 342
7.5 Zamiyatum(?) (tell Taya) 2
7.6 Razam of Yussn(?) (tell Hawa) 1(?)
7.7 ehn / ubat-Enlil (tell Leilan) 559
7.8 Anakkum (Chagar Bazar) 351
7.9 abatum (tell Tabn) 1
Total: 1503
8. Western Syria 8.1 Alalah (tell Atchana) 278
8. 2 Ebla (tell Mardikh) 2
Total: 270
9. Palestine 9.1 Haor 4
9. 2 Hebron 1
Total: 5
67
family archives in mesopotamia
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68
As for the 12507 remaining documents, they unfortunately come from irregu-
lar or ancient and non-scientic excavations in which diggers did not take pain
to record the place where they discovered the tablets. The combined action of
the looter and of the antique dealer caused not only to separate irremediably the
documents from their archaeological context, but also to dismantle the archives
which are then scattered all over the world in different public or private collec-
tions. Scholars often deal with isolated texts and rst have to reconstruct the ar-
chives to which they belong. Computer-aided analysis is fortunately now very
helpful and the precise origin of the tablets can often be deduced by crossing dif-
ferent pieces of internal evidence such as philological or epigraphical details, the
typological or thematical situation of the document, chronological, topological
or prosopographical data, etc.
10
2. Who Possessed Archives in the Old Babylonian Mesopotamian Society?
The question of literacy is one of the great issues of recent historiography about
the Ancient Near East. The idea that reading and writing were not only a matter
of specialists or professional scribes but an ability shared by a rather large part
of the elite, at least from the beginning of the 2
nd
millennium on, now seems to
be broadly accepted.
11
But archive keeping is another matter: on the one hand,
obviously not everyone who wrote personally kept documents and, on the other
hand, not everyone who kept personal archives at home did necessarily read and
write cuneiform Akkadian: the production of archive documents and their con-
servation aimed at particular goals.
2.1. Great Organisms and Private Houses
Archaeologists like to distinguish among their discoveries between palaces and
temples, which have an aura of prestige, and simple houses, supposed to be less
noble subjects of study; in the same way, epigraphists are used to oppose ofcial

10 This is the category in which we are unfortunately forced to sort the texts supposedly com-
ing from Damrum (68 documents), Dur-Abi-Euh (89), Marad (3), Dilbat (73), Makan-apir (1),
Sippar (1835 documents, without any indication of the very place of nding), Ki (177), upur-
ubula (44), Tigunanum (2); some documents are assumed to come from an area, without be-
ing linked to a city: so are the 453 texts coming from the vicinity of Nerebtum, in the Diyala
Valley, or those from the vicinity of Nusaybin. These data must be taken as a coarse evaluation
of the documentary situation and are supposed to be rened progressively as the Archibab data-
base catalogue will get completed.
11 See Charpin 2008a, especially Chapitre 1: Une affaire de spcialistes?, p. 31-60, quoting
Vanstiphout 1995, p. 2188, and Postgate 1992, and developing his own argumentation; Eng-
lish version now published as Reading and Writing in Mesopotamia: The Business of Special-
ists? in Charpin 2011, p. 7-24.
69
family archives in mesopotamia
archives, the ones produced and kept by great organisms (palaces and temples)
on the one hand and so called private archives on the other hand, with often
the same distinction in terms of prestige.
12
As a matter of fact archives of great
organisms are the mere consequence of the attention to economic bookkeeping.
They appeared early during the 3
rd
millennium and kept on existing until the end
of Mesopotamian Antiquity. They are no State archives but only the accumula-
tion of personal and administrative archives: the archives of the King, especially
his correspondence, are kept together with the records produced by the differ-
ent administrative services of the Palace. The latter, private archives, increased in
number during the OB period, although they already existed during the 3
rd
mil-
lennium. They range from small groups of tablets to huge collections of records
of a nally larger typological richness than archives of great organisms.
13
In the
following pages, attention will be especially paid to these private archives.
2.2. The mark of the elites
We have to consider that accumulation and transmission of archival documents
is generally a fact of members of the social and economic elite, private entrepre-
neurs or servants of the palace, merchants, farmers, priests, etc. These people
owned houses and lands, slaves, silver or grain that they could lend at interest,
and every kind of precious things. This also explains why the distinction be-
tween ofcial and private archives is not as signicant as this modern terminol-
ogy might suggest.
14
The very reason for the existence of archival documents is
the existence of valuable goods that could be owned, acquired, sold, shared or
claimed before a jurisdiction. The redaction of these documents is the result of
acts that transfer or conrm authority on a good or a person.
2.3. Archives of men, archives of women?
The use of written records is not only the fact of men but also of some women,
either singles or widows or even married ones managing their goods without
needing any mans consent.
15
Some special categories of women such as conse-

12 Ofcial excavations actually often concentrated particularly on palaces and temples, as in
the great sites of Nineve, Mari, or Ebla, and left apart whole districts of private houses and the
private archives they must have contained.
13 For an example of the intense activity of scribes in some families, see Tanret 2004.
14 See Veenhof 1986, p. 9-11.
15 On women in Ancient Near East, see in general the papers read at the 33
rd
Rencontre As-
syriologique Internationale (Durand 1987); sex and gender were at stake at the 47
th
Rencontre (see
Parpola & Whiting 2002); see also Briquel-Chatonnet et al. 2009, especially the third part
of the book Femmes lettres, archives de femmes dans le Proche-Orient ancien, p. 215-332. A
good presentation of the Old Babylonian problematics is in Barberon 2003.
70
crated women called nadtum, who were vowed to the male deity of their city
or of a renowned sanctuary of the kingdom (at rst, the temple of the Sun God,
ama, in Sippar) were also free from any mans control and could write, use and
keep archival documents:
16
these women received precious dowries and were
in some cases even elevated to the status of heir. They were able to buy some
real estate properties. They could lend silver. They were exposed to every kind
of litigation. Then, they used written records just like the men of their family
and neighborhood did. They had their own seal, which was extremely rare as
for women. However, the existence of archives of women is discussed. Contrary
to what was thought formerly, we are now aware that the main part of archival
documents concerning the goods of nadtum-women of ama living in Sippar
were not found in their own houses, in the cloister of Abu Habbah, but in vari-
ous houses in tell Abu Habbah and the neighboring tell ed-Dr. The archives of
nadtum actually were a part of the archives of their family, kept in the house of
the family chief (the father, a brother or uncle).
3. A Typology of Archival Documents and their Function
Regarding Authority
Scholars often distinguish three types of archival documents: letters, legal doc-
uments and administrative documents (which are rather to be considered as
bookkeeping documents, because they are not necessarily produced by an ad-
ministration in the modern sense of that word). This typology used to be a guide
for the publication of texts. As a result, students often have to look for documents
belonging to one same archive and kept in one museum but published in differ-
ent volumes because letters, legal and administrative documents were published
separately.
17
Although this typology is helpful to understand the sense of each
text taken apart, it is an obstacle to the understanding of the meaning of the ar-
chives themselves, where documents of different nature were kept together in a
same le because they only made sense (and can be now understood) together.
This is the direction that scholars have to follow now, trying to reconstruct the

16 See Barberon 2009.
17 A large number of projects used to exist in the rst half of the 20
th
century but are no longer
living projects: see for example M. Schorr, Urkunden des Altbabylonischen Zivil- und Prozessrechts,
VAB 5, Leipzig, 1913 or A. Ungnad, Babylonische Briefe aus der Zeit der ammurapi-Dynastie, VAB 6,
Leipzig, 1914, both aiming at publishing the entire corpus of legal documents (VAB 5) and let-
ters (VAB 6) then known; cf. also the 6 volumes of the Hammurabis Gesetz series (Leipzig, 1904-
1923), devoted to Old Babylonian legal documents. The Altbabylonische Briefe series founded by
F. R. Kraus at the University of Leyden in 1964 now comprises 14 volumes providing editions
of Old Babylonian letters; each volume is devoted to one collection or museum so that archives
are dismantled and the lack of indexes prevents scholars from searching all letters sent by or to
somebody.
71
family archives in mesopotamia
original les and asking for each and every text why it was written, why it was
kept, why in this archive, by this person, a.s.o.
18
For this reason another typology may be more helpful, according to the sta-
tus of the document whithin the archive where it was kept; two main categories
have to be distinguished: rst, documents that normally had a limited validity
in time, and which should have been destroyed or at least discarded when they
were no longer valid; second, documents with unlimited validity, which were
supposed to be kept forever and came to constitute what is to be called family
archives.
19
I will add a third type to this distinction: archives containing a lot of
texts written and kept only as aids to keep archives in order, by summing up the
content of texts that are present in the tablet room, or gathered in a tablet box or,
on the contrary, absent from the archives because they were momentarily useful
out of the le they belonged to
20
.
When we are lucky enough to deal with private archives found during regular
and scientic excavations, we can almost always note that the nal point of the
accumulation of documents coincides with the abandonment of the house by the
family, after a catastrophe such as the destruction of the house by re or by invad-
ers. Putting the whole archive in order, it is possible to note that the typology
of texts is much more varied for the last generation than for the previous ones,
which can be explained by the fact that a sort was regularly operated within the
archive and discarded documents were destroyed or put aside.
21
3.1. Documents of Limited Validity Establishing Responsibility
Documents that we are used to distinguish as administrative documents, legal
documents or letters in our modern terminology were actually all preserved by
the ancient Mesopotamians in their archives for the same reason: because they
established and kept a trace of an individual responsibility before an authority.
As will be seen below, limits separating types of texts are tight and we should
rather distinguish, as the Ancients did, between documents without sealing and
sealed documents. Ancient Mesopotamians indeed called documents by the ge-
neric name uppum tablet, or kankum sealed document when the cylindar seal
of the person whose responsibility was engaged was unrolled on it. For practical


18 For a good example of this approach, see Charpin 2000a, p. 77-78, dealing with a family
archive of the Old Babylonian city of Isin: two brothers opposed each other in a trial. The nal
text, that was produced at the end of the case, can only be understood in the light of their exile,
which is only shown by the rest of the archive.
19 See Charpin in press a.
20 See Tanret 2008.
21 See in general the papers of the round table Les phnomnes de n darchives en Msopo-
tamie edited by F. Joanns in the Revue dAssyriologie 89 (1995), p. 1-147.
72
reasons, three types of documents of limited validity will be described in what
follows: bookkeeping documents, legal documents and letters.
Bookkeeping archives are usually considered as a useful tool to control and
anticipate economic activities or to manage a material or human resource.
22
They
are also a way of controlling individuals who work in any administrative service
and have to justify before their superiors the management of the resource that
they are responsible for. For example, a quittance, which can be used as a book-
keeping record by the one who is responsible for the disbursement, also serves
as legal text as it is sealed by the recipient and can be presented as proof for a
payment before an administrative hierarchy or a jurisdiction. This is true in large
administrative services such as the palace of Mari, as it is in private houses where
an intendant is supposed to manage goods (silver, barley, dates, etc) for the bene-
t of his master. The utility of bookkeeping texts rarely lasted more than one
year and often expired after the annual submitting of accounts and tax collect-
ing, usually xed at harvest time or at the time of a religious festival; the text was
normally erased and the tablet regularly recycled by the ofce that produced it.
23

In administrative services of the Palace of Mari for instance, some ofces used
to discard daily records as soon as their content was written on a recapitulatory
tablet, unless they are sealed documents, supposed to be kept as legal or admin-
istrative proof of a payment: in that case, they used to mark them with a red ink
line, so that they are not counted twice but not recycled either.
24

Short term contracts often contained the mention of their own expiry (loan
contracts, hiring contracts, leasing contracts, etc.). They are by nature part of this
rst category of documents of limited validity. They were thus regularly taken
out of the archives and either destroyed, when their validity had expired, or can-
celled and marked with a cross scratched on the surface, when the dispositions
changed whereas the expiry had not passed.
25
The utility of letters, nally, normally expired as soon as the message was
delivered and most of them must have been rapidly destroyed or recycled after
their reception. According to their content however, they could have been kept as
memories of an act of communication. As the envelope was printed with the seal
of the sender, a letter could be used as legal proof of a declaration of the sender or
for an order given to the recipient: for example, a letter in which the master of a
house orders his intendant to pay silver to a creditor will be kept by the intendant
as evidence to justify an expense when he shall present his accounts. There even

22 Wilcke 1970, p. 166 and, on the Mari archives especially, Ziegler 2001.
23 Some of these tablets, discarded as superuous, however survived as dead archives, in sec-
ondary contexts when they were used to ll benches or oors, such as in the well known Room
116 of the palace of Mari.
24 Charpin 1984, p. 258-259.
25 That was commented by Veenhof 1995, p. 320; three examples now in Archibab: BDHP 30,
YOS 13 354, CBS 1153 [Stol Ml. Renger 1].
73
family archives in mesopotamia
exist some letters containing this advice by the sender to the recipient: Keep
this letter of mine as a testimony of my words.
26
The very reason to write and keep archival documents resides in the necessity
for everyone to be in possession of every title establishing ones rights or pro-
tecting oneself against a possible future claim. In every case, such a document is
written in favour of the one whose rights might be contested, and kept by him.
It is sealed by the one who abandons his right or whose responsibility might be
engaged before an authority, should it be a jurisdiction or an administration. The
writing of the tablet is not of much value in itself. The document has to be sealed
to be valid before an administrative or legal authority. A document sealed in due
form cannot be contested before a court.
27
Everyone who contracts and commits
oneself to do or not to do something had to unroll ones seal on a written docu-
ment which was kept as a proof by the beneciary of this commitment. In loan
contracts, for example, as long as the responsibility of a debtor is involved, the
creditor keeps the document as written evidence that could be produced before a
court as an argument supporting a claim. Each time that the responsibility of the
debtor is modied, a new sealed document is written in his favor. As soon as the
responsibility is completely removed, the original sealed document is broken so
that it cannot be produced anymore before any jurisdiction.
28
These principles
help understand a lot of very allusive, albeit interesting, short notes that com-
pose the major part of the Old Babylonian archival documentation.
The following examples are taken out of the unpublished archives of Marduk-
nair, resident of Lagaba. NBC 8831 is a receipt of silver without any apparent
interest; it reads:
29

26 See the list of references established by Veenhof 1986, p. 33 n. 125, now to be completed
with Charpin in press b, especially p. 52-54.
27 In the letter AbB 3 82, Ibbi-Sumuqan tries to dissuade Yahgunum from claiming a eld that
he had sold three years before, using the following argument: he (= the actual owner of the
eld) brought me a tablet according to which he purchased the eld from you. I saw it and it is
without any ambiguity: your seal and (the name of) 5 witnesses are written on it. If he shows
this tablet to judges, could they transgress the law in your favor?. French translation and com-
mentary in Charpin 2000a, p. 77. On the attention paid to the legal status of a text, and the rich-
ness of related vocabulary, whether a tablet is sealed or not sealed, whether it comprises a date
or not, etc., see Charpin 2008b, p. 9 sq.
28 For that reason, we always have to wonder why a text was conserved, and thus discovered:
every loan contract that has come to us corresponds to a debt that actually was not reimbursed,
either because a catastrophe put an end to the activities of the creditor (and sometimes to the
archive itself), or because a general remission was proclamed by the king. It is now clearly at-
tested that kings of the Old Babylonian period could choose to cancel every debt in the country
by proclaming an edict of justice (marum) every time that the kingdom was confronted to a
major economic crisis, and especially during the rst year of their reign; in the latter case, loan
contracts often were conserved by the creditor, even though the debts had been remitted and
the tablet had no validity anymore; see Charpin 2000b.
29 NBC 8831: 1/2 GN K. BABBAR, U. TI. A -tl-(d)da-gan, KI (d)AMAR.UTU-mu-ba-l-i, ITI
APIN. DU. A U 10. KAM, MU GU. ZA NISAG. A.
74
1/2 shekel of silver: receipt of Utul-Dagan, from Marduk-muballi. 10/viii/Samsu-
iluna 5.
This text should have been sealed by the recipient, Utul-Dagan, as receipts usu-
ally are, but it is not. This receipt was certainly not kept by Marduk-muballi for
bookkeeping purposes only. Other documents in the archive, especially receipts
of barley or wool, allow to imagine that this text actually records the partial reim-
bursement of a debt by Marduk-muballi to his creditor, Utul-Dagan. The origi-
nal contract, normally kept by the creditor, was not broken since the debt was not
completely reimbursed. This is why it is important for Marduk-muballi to keep
this receipt safely as written evidence of his partial reimbursement of the silver,
which could be presented before a court in case of a claim over that silver.
A slightly different case can be imagined according to NBC 8908, which sim-
ply records a quantity of our, written here without any key-word. In spite of the
lack of explicit elements of description, this six-line record is extremely helpful
to understand who is supposed to keep a document in his archives and for what
purpose. The text reads:
30
40 liters of our. (If) the sealed document (kankum) of Marduk-muballi (re)appears,
it will be broken. 1+/vii/Samsu-iluna 7.
The seal of one Gimil-Gula is unrolled on the tablet.
31
This is certainly the sign that
this record is a receipt and Gimil-Gula is the recipient, although his name is not
written in the text and neither the verb to receive (akkadian mahrum) nor the
noun receipt (akkadian namhartum or sumerian U. TI. A) frequently used in the
standard phraseology of Old Babylonian receipts are written. The short sentence l.
2-4, although very laconic, allows us to understand why this document was written,
sealed by Gimil-Gula and kept by Marduk-muballi: the our was owed to Gimil-
Gula by Marduk-muballi, which was recorded in an original loan contract, desig-
nated here by the expression kank Marduk-muballi, literally Marduk-muballis
sealed document, to be understood as the document sealed by Marduk-muballi
(and kept by Gimil-Gula). When Gimil-Gula came to recover his loan, he could not
nd the original loan contract, sealed by Marduk-muballi, which he must have
kept in his own archives as evidence of the loan. Marduk-muballi accepted to re-
imburse him, certainly because they knew each other very well and were used to
have business together.
32
In a normal procedure of reimbursement of a debt, the
original loan contract should have been broken and no more text written. In this

30 NBC 8908 (Lagaba, 1+vii/Si 7): 0,0.4 Z. DA, ka-ni-ik (d)AMAR.UTU-mu-ba-l-i, i-il-li-a-am,
ih-he-ep-pi, ITI DU.[K] U 1+x. KAM, MU (gi)TUKUL U. NIR.
31 Gimil-Gula, son of umum-libi, servant of Amurrum and Ninsianna gi-mil-(d)GU. L[A]
/ DUMU u-mu-um-li-ib-[i] / R (d)MAR. T[U] / (d)NIN. SI.AN. NA.
32 This Gimil-Gula is well known in other documents as a relative of Marduk-muballi, the
owner of the archive.
75
family archives in mesopotamia
special case, the present receipt was written in favor of Marduk-muballi and kept
by him in his archives as evidence that he did reimburse the our and that the
original contract has been discarded even though the tablet could not be broken
33
.
3.2. Documents of Unlimited Validity and the Constitution of the Family Archives
A second type of archival documents is composed of texts that have an unlim-
ited validity. In this category can be classied legal documents establishing the
status of goods and persons, such as titles of property, purchase or exchange con-
tracts, donations, dowries, marriage contracts, adoptions, inheritance contracts
describing parts of inheritance that were shared between heirs, etc.
This category is hardly represented in the archives of great organisms, palace
or temples, as if they did not have to justify their ownership, whereas they are a
large part of the archival documents found in private houses. The use of written
records of such legal acts seems to have largely increased during the Old Babylo-
nian period, which may be related to the emergence of a professional justice in
Mesopotamia during the Old Babylonian period, and maybe because, for the rst
time, it was felt necessary to make up for the mortality of the witnesses or loss of
individual or collective memory, especially in legal procedures.
34

It is now clearly established that written titles of property were supposed to
follow the goods every time they were sold, exchanged or shared. The texts were
transmitted by the former owner to the new one along with the goods them-
selves and were accumulated to form family archives.
35
And then, the history of
a private property can often be reconstructed on a large span of time, sometimes
on about six generations and more than 200 years, as is the case with the amaz-
ing Ur-Utu archive. The archives of this religious dignitary of the city of Sippar-
Amnnum (tell ed-Der), north of Babylon, were discovered during regular exca-
vations by the Belgian team led by L. De Meyer. They had been abandonned there
by the last inhabitant of the house after a violent re during which he obviously
tried to rescue them from destruction. Studying this wonderful archive (com-
posed of almost 2000 texts), M. Tanret and C. Janssen were able to highlight what
they called the chains of transmission of the property documents.
36

33 This practice has been pointed out for a long time as for purchase contracts of land or
houses ; see Charpin 1996. What is interesting here is that this procedure is about a very cheap
object (40 liters of our), which is proof for a wide generalization of the use of writing in legal
matters in the late Old Babylonian period.
34 See in general Charpin 2008a, Chapitre 4: Le geste, la parole et lcrit dans la vie juridique,
p. 131-158 (English version: Charpin 2011, Chapter 3. Old Babylonian Law: Gesture, Speech, and
Writing, p. 43-52; see below for further developments and examples.
35 See especially Chapin 1986 (updated English version in Charpin 2010b, Chapter 4. The
Transfer of Property Deeds and the Constitution of Family Archives, p. 53-69) as a starting
point to a long series of studies.
36 The idea was elaborated and developped by the Belgian team of Ghent in charge of the
76
At the sale of a real estate property, the seller was supposed to give to the buy-
er every document justifying his ownership of the property, i.e. every former title
of ownership. Generation after generation, because of the possibility for elds or
houses to be gathered or shared, put into pieces or sold as a whole, the property
documents accumulated in les called uppi ummatim u uppt urd (the mother
tablet and the following tablets). Following the chains of transmission, it is then
possible to go up to the original transaction that caused the property to be, for
the rst time, as it is sold in the present time, whether it was formed by gather-
ing some different plots of land or one eld was divided into different plots.
37

The mother tablet records the original acquisition of the good as it exists and
the following tablets record each intermediary transaction between that rst
acquisition and the present time. Sometimes, one of these tablets is missing and
the seller is asked to write a certicate establishing his own responsibility in case
of a claim against the buyer about this missing document.
The importance attached to the keeping and transmitting of these titles of
property is a sign of how written evidence became important in trials about a
property.
38
Complementarity of oral and written evidence is obvious in a lot of
trial records. As a matter of fact, Akkadian language uses the same words to de-
scribe the one and the other and speaks of the testimony of a tablet (btum); it
also speaks of the mouth of the tablet (p uppim) or of the talking of the tablet
(awt uppim) to designate its content.
39
During the Old Babylonian period, oral
testimony only was no more felt sufcient as proof in a legal case and the collec-
tion of written elements was necessary. Judges can ask in the same case to hear
witnesses and to have tablets read, so that it was felt dodgy to go to trial without
any written evidence of ones rights, as is shown by the lettre AbB 11 55:
40
a nad-
tum of ama called Narmtani who lived in Sippar chose to postpone a litigation
about inheritance because she was not in possession of her tablets, which were
kept by a male member of her family, and she knew that she could not defend her
rights without being able to produce them:
Speak to amiya: Thus says Narmtani, daughter of Ipqatum. May my Lord and my
Mistress (= the gods ama and Aya) keep you in good health for my sake! The inheri-
tance of my paternal uncles daughter has been taken, and she gave me her tablets; but

publication of the Ur-Utu archives: see especially Janssen 1992 ; Janssen, Gasche, Tanret 1994,
and Janssen 1996.
37 See Van Lerberghe & Voet 1991 for denitions of what Babylonians called uppi ummatim
and uppt urd, and the very clear schematical view of chains of transmission published in
Janssen 1996, p. 243, expecting the forthcoming M. Tanret, C. Janssen, L. Dekiere, Chains of
Transmission: a search through Ur-Utus property titles, MHEM 2, Ghent.
38 See Charpin 2008a, p. 145-151 (English version: Charpin 2011, p. 48-52), with bibliography.
39 Charpin 2008a, p. 148 (English: Charpin 2011, p. 50) and the forthcoming Charpin in press b.
40 AbB 11 55: translation by M. Stol, revised according to the French translation and commen-
tary in Charpin 2000a, p. 73-74.
77
family archives in mesopotamia
as for Nratum, who had taken her inheritance before me, who had acted against her,
whose expenses had been paid back, and who also had drawn up a tablet renouncing
(any further) claim, today the warkm-ofcial, interceding for him, is harassing me.
Aliyatum, her sister, released one-half mina of silver from the lap of my paternal
uncles daughter and I seized her, but, as I had nobody, she then escaped from me. So
thus I said (to myself): My tablets are in the hand of my father. As long as my father
does not come here, I will not litigate. Now, do not neglect me!
Another example of this new attention paid to written evidence is the case record
CT 47 63 dated to the 14
th
year of Samsu-ilunas reign in favour of the nadtum
Amat-Mamu: Amat-Mamu, nadtum of ama had been adopted by an older na-
dtum called Belessunu; when Belessunu died, Amat-Mamu received the mother
tablets (uppt ummtim) of the properties of Belessunu which proved, along
with her adoption contract, that she was the legitimate owner of the proper-
ties. Thanks to these tablets, she could defend herself against her cousins who
claimed her properties and were obliged to leave her a tablet renouncing any fur-
ther claim. The whole le was kept, as usual, in the house of a man of her family,
in that case, an uncle of hers. But then, the tablets were lost and Amat-Mamu had
to come before the local court so that judges reconstitute the lost documents (Ak-
kadian language says that they made the tablet live again). I quote here only an
extract from this long text:
41
By order of Sn-imeanni and the assembly of the merchants (krum) of Sippar, one
has made this tablet live again. The tablet of inheritance (tuppi apltim), the tablets
of former possessions (tuppi ummtim) and the tablet renouncing any claim (tuppi la
ragmim) that Amat-Mamu, daughter of Sn-il, received from Blessunu, in the house
of Ikn-p-Sn or wherever they will be seen, they belong to Amat-Mamu, daughter of
Sn-il. In the future, according to the content of this tablet, Ikn-p-Sn, his sons, and
the parents of Blessunu, whether men or women, as many as they are, shall not lay
any claim against Amat-Mamu, daughter of Sn-il. They swore by ama, Marduk and
Samsu-iluna the king.
We do not know where and by whom this new record was eventually kept, but
this example of resurrection of a lost tablet shows how important it was for
Amat-Mamu to be in possession of a written title establishing her rights over her
goods and protecting her against any further claim
42
. Things assuredly went the
same way for anybody during the Old Babylonian period.

41 See Charpin 1986, p. 133-135 (revised English version now published as The Transfer of
Property Deeds and the Constitution of Family Archives, Charpin 2010, p. 53-69), and, for a
new translation, Charpin 2000a, p. 74-76.
42 See also Charpin in press b, p. 53.
78
3.3. The Organization of Private Archives and the Memory
The last point of this brief survey of Old Babylonian archival documents is about
a particular kind of texts without any sealing, witness nor date (and then assur-
edly invalid before a court) which people however used to keep in their archives.
Most of them are lists and memoranda, often devoid of any key-word. Their mo-
tivation is difcult to understand when they are taken separately. They make
sense only when they can be put back together with the archives to which they
belonged. Their use actually was often to help organize the archives themselves.
The ling of documents within an archive sometimes was the reason to write
other documents.
43
The archives of Marduk-muballi in Lagaba provide us with good examples
of this common practice: NBC 8632 is a table listing diverse quantities of barley
(measured in GUR) and silver (measured in GN [= shekels]) associated with 19
personal names, 9 of which are unfortunately missing, being lost in a large la-
cuna. It does not display any explicit formula, neither date nor validation mark
(seal impressions, etc.). This text certainly has no legal value and it is difcult to
give it some meaning at the rst reading. The data are in Table 2.
In absence of any context, this text could be interpreted either as a list of dis-
bursements of barley and/or silver attributed to 19 persons or as a list of receipts
of barley and/or silver brought by 19 persons. The absence of totals, normally
calculated at the end of this kind of list, speaks against the identication of this
tablet as an accounting document. Once put back within the archives to which it
belongs and compared to another series of data, this recapitulatory list however
sheds light on an interesting archival practice of the Old Babylonian period: 12
loan contracts have indeed been identied in Marduk-muballis archive. They
record loans of barley and/or silver by Marduk-muballi to different people and
were supposed to be kept by Marduk-muballi until his debtors reimbursed the
whole amount. They are quite regular legal documents, dated and sealed, men-
tioning the name of the creditor, that of the debtor, and those of the witnesses,
the interest rate and the expiry date. Table 3 recapitulates the whole data sorted
in chronological order.
44

43 On the methods of ling of archival texts in Mesopotamia and the various containers used
for conservation of tablets, see the synthesis drawn by K. Veenhof as an introduction to the
30e Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale (Leiden, 1983): Veenhof 1986, especially p. 11-18, with
bibliography.
44 The content of these documents, rst studied by O. Tammuz in his unpublished Ph. D.
Dissertation (Tammuz 1993), was used as material for a study by D. Charpin on the inuence
of marum-edicts on the archives of private entrepreneurs in the Old Babylonian period; see
Charpin 2000b, especially p. 194 sq. The present table 2 however adds the data of two more do-
cuments: NBC 8533 and NBC 8534 and have been corrected according to collations of the texts:
the date of NBC 8571 is 26/iv/Si 8; the name of the debtor on NBC 6798 is Imdi-Enlil.
79
family archives in mesopotamia
Table 2: Data recapitulated in NBC 8632
Line Nr. Barley Silver Personal name
2 7 GUR 2 GN Imdi-Enlil
3 4 GUR Huzalum
4 1 GUR 1/2 GN Ubarum son of Irra-nair
5 1 GUR []
6 1/2 GN []-tim
7 0,3.0 GUR [] the mayor (rabinum)
8 1 GUR [] the intendant (atammum)
9 1/3 GN 11+ E [-mu]allim the gentleman (awlum)
10 1/2 GN [] []-lum
11 3 GUR []
12 2 GUR 3 GN []
13 0, 2.0 GUR []
14 0, 2.0 GUR Ipqu-Itar
15 0, 2.0 GUR Addu-tayyar
16 0, 2.0 GUR Ui-ina-puqi
17 0, 2.0 GUR Sin-imguranni
18 0, 2.0 GUR Ubarum
19-20 1 1/2 GN Sin-iddinam son of []
21 1 GN Addu-ilum
Table 3: Catalogue of the loan contracts of barley and silver in the archives of Marduk-
muballi of Lagaba (sorted by chronological order)
Text Barley Silver Debtor Date
NBC 8570 3 GUR ab-waabu 1/xi/Si 5
NBC 8874 1/2 GN Ili-u-ama 13/xi/Si 5
NBC 8564 2 GUR Ea-tukulti 23/ii/Si 6
NBC 8744 1 GUR 1/2 GN Ubarum son of Irra-nair 17/v/Si 7
NBC 8568 3 GUR ama-nur-matim son of ama-nair 11/vi/Si 7
NBC 6798 7 GUR 2 GN Imdi-Enlil 5/xi/Si 7
NBC 6752 2 GUR 3 GN erum-ili son of Nur-Kabta 1/xii/Si 7
NBC 8768 1/4 GN Huzalum 20/xii/Si 7
NBC 8571 1 GUR Ubarum 26/iv/Si 8
NBC 8533 0,3. 2 GUR Girni-isa 10/vi/Si 8
NBC 6827 2 GUR 1 GN Huzalum 1/vii/Si 8
NBC 8534 1 GUR 1 1/4 GN Gimil-Gula -/i/Si 9
80
Comparing both series of data, several points can be underlined (highlighted in
the tables above):
line 2 of NBC 8632 is an exact parallel to the data of the loan contract NBC
6798, recording the loan of 7 GUR of barley and 2 shekels of silver by Marduk-
muballi to Imdi-Enlil dated to 5/xi/Samsu-iluna 7.
the name of Huzalum recorded in line 3 of NBC 8632 appears as debtors
name in two loan contracts of the same series, NBC 8768 (20/xii/Samsu-iluna
7) and NBC 6827 (1/vii/Samsu-iluna 8) with different quantities.
line 4 of NBC 8632 is exactly parallel to NBC 8744, recording the loan of 1 GUR
of barley and 1/2 shekel of silver by Marduk-muballi to Ubarum, son of Irra-
nair dated to 17/v/Samsu-iluna 7.
in line 12 of NBC 8632, the personal name is missing but the quantities are
the same as in NBC 6752, a loan contract of barley and silver to erum-ili, son
of Nur-Kabta (1/xii/Samsu-iluna 7).
other names lost in the lacunae of NBC 8632 might also have corresponded to
people known as debtors in other loan contracts.
These few parallels do sufce to state that we are dealing with a recapitulatory
list of debts to be recovered by Marduk-muballi.
45
It does not aim at substituting
for the sealed documents, which were kept beside it. It must have corresponded
to another purpose and may have helped Marduk-muballi know in a glance the
content of a coffer or basket of tablets in which he kept those texts. It remains to
be seen why these texts were led together and recapitulated once for all on that
record without any indication of the nature of the recorded documents. It has to
be noticed that the only loan contracts that have been identied with certainty as
parallels to NBC 8632 were dated to the 7
th
year of Samsu-iluna (months v, xi and
maybe xii). The loans they record are likely to have been cancelled by the edict of
marum of iii/Samsu-iluna 8.
46
NBC 8632 may thus be a recapitulatory list of the
arrears of cancelled loan contracts that Marduk-muballi knew he would never
recover because of the royal edict.
47
He of course did not need to write down the
nature of the texts: he knew too well what the basket or coffer contained, if, as

45 This is not the only known example of this practice in Old Babylonian archives; see for in-
stance AUCT 5 99, a recapitulatory list of loans made by Ibni-Amurrum which D. Charpin man-
aged to link with 5 original contracts (AUCT 5 41 and 43; BBVOT 1 38, 40 and 48); see Charpin
2005, p. 417 and 2008b, p. 11.
46 Charpin 2000b, p. 195.
47 Some of the loan contracts had apparently not been reimbursed at all, as it is clear for
NBC 6798, 8744 and maybe 6752; some lines of NBC 8632 may however record total amounts
of several contracts or arrears of loans already partially recovered, which would explain the dif-
ferences in quantities, for instance, as for known loans by Huzalum.
81
family archives in mesopotamia
I assume, he had lost 22 GUR of barley (maybe about 6600 liters) and about 10
shekel of silver (about 80 grams)!
48
For the sake of completeness, a letter belonging to the archives of Marduk-
muballi has to be quoted. It was sent from Babylon by Sagil-mansum to Marduk-
muballi and mentions the existence of another recapitulatory list of loan con-
tracts, probably to be also linked with the edict of mirum of Samsu-iluna 8:
49
(1-3) Speak to Marduk-muballi: Thus says Sagil-mansum. (4) May ama and Marduk
grant you good health! (5-6) The basket of tablets for which I am responsible, open it
before Apil-Ea and (7-11) the sealed tablet (that says): 1 mina and 1 1/2 shekel of silver,
[] of gold, dated to the year of the images of suppliants (= Samsu-iluna 6), the year of
the powerful weapon (= Samsu-iluna 7) and the year of the royal stall (= Samsu-iluna
8), that is of 3 years, received by So-and-So, (12-15) that have been given to be recovered
by Munawwirum, the chair-carrier that is how it is inscribed (16-18) that sealed
tablet, have it brought to me to Babylon.
A series of loan contracts have been accumulated by Sagil-mansum during years
6, 7 and 8 of Samsu-iluna. They were then entrusted by Sagil-mansum to Munaw-
wirum to be recovered.
50
This agreement led to write a sealed tablet, the one that
Sagil-mansum speaks about in his letter, which was kept in a basket along with
other business papers of Sagil-mansum and deposited at Marduk-muballis as
Sagil-mansum left Lagaba to reside, at least temporarily, in Babylon. One can im-
agine that, when Samsu-iluna proclaimed his edict in month iii of his 3
rd
year of
reign, Sagil-mansum may have intended to get paid by Munawwirum who, as a
recoverer (muaddinum), had become responsible for the reimbursement of the
loans. This is why Sagil-mansum may have asked that Marduk-muballi had the
sealed tablet brought to him to Babylon.
51

48 Another question is about the status of loan contracts dated sometimes long after the proc-
lamation of the marum edict and whether they were not supposed to compensate the loss of
former amounts, cancelled by the edict ; both dossiers (Marduk-muballi around NBC 8632 and
Ibni-Amurrum around AUCT 5 99) indeed contain texts dated to several months following the
marum of iii/Si 8, and in the case of Marduk-muballi, even 10 months later (NBC 8534 dated
to -/i/Si 9); the fact that these texts were found together with the discarded contracts would
rather indicate that they were never recovered and were cancelled too; see the discussion in
Charpin 2000b, p. 197, with other references.
49 YOS 15 38 (NBC 6290); see Charpin 2000b, p. 195 and n. 36.
50 Mari provides us with a nice parallel of such a recapitulatory list: M.15119+M.15287 is a list
of unrecovered loan contracts found in the house of the princess Inibina, that were entrusted
to ubnalu to be recovered. The list itself is not sealed, but it was established in presence of the
king and it ends with these words (l. 58-60): ubnalu received 2 sealed tablets, copy of the pre-
sent tablet, to be recovered; see Charpin 2008b.
51 D. Charpin gives another explanation (Charpin 2000b, p.195): Bien que la lettre ne le dise
pas explicitement, il est vident que suite la marum du mois iii de lan 8 de Samsu-iluna,
laffaire est annule; do la demande de Sagil-mansum que le contrat avec Munawwirum lui
parvienne Babylone. I do not understand why, in case of a cancellation of the agreement
with the muaddinum, he would have needed to have his sealed document at hand: he could
82
Both examples show how ling and manipulation of archival documents caused
to write other documents describing their content and containers. Letters them-
selves, at least in private context, could have been preserved as memoranda in
order to give sense to a le of documents and keep a trace of a decision or of an
order that led to write or preserve other texts. Both examples also help measure
once again the gap that exists between the number of loans that were actually
written and the number of those which have come to us: among 19 texts recorded
in NBC 8632, 2 texts were identied with certainty and a third one according
to an hypothetical restoration. As for the loan contracts of silver mentioned in
Sagil-mansums letter, they never came to us.
52
Other loan contracts recorded
or mentioned in both texts may either have been broken in antiquity after the
debt had eventually been reimbursed, or destroyed in the ground waiting to
be discovered, forgotten by the digger or scattered on the antique market. The
representativeness of the samples we deal with always has to be questioned be-
fore using them as material for quantitative studies.
53
Conclusion
This paper has tried to demonstrate that, however important it is to rene typo-
logical distinctions in order to get a better understanding of archival documents
taken separately, the major progress in assyriological studies will come from
analysing private archives as a whole, when they have been luckily unearthed
during regular excavations, or from gathering and (re)constructing them, le
after le, by confronting and trying to make sense with documents of different
natures. This is how the Archibab project intends to get a better understanding
of phenomena that led to an increasing production, conservation, and use of pri-
vate archives at the beginning of the 2
nd
millennium B.C. in Mesopotamia.

have simply let it sleep as a discarded document in his archives in Lagaba. The claim would
anyway only be legal if the recovery had already been processed before the proclamation of the
marum for someone intending to recover a debt after the marum would incur death penalty.
52 NBC 8723 dated to the 5
th
year of Samsu-iluna was surely not recapitulated in the tablet
mentionned in YOS 15 38: by this contract, Sagil-mansum lent silver to illi-ama so that he
could buy him a female donkey within 10 days (18/vi-bis/Si 5).
53 It is also possible that not every loan recorded on NBC 8632 led to a written contract; small
loans of barley recorded at ll. 13-18 may have for instance led only to an oral agreement beween
people who knew each other. Studying AUCT 5 99 mentioned above, D. Charpin indeed notes
(Charpin 2008b, p. 11): Il convient de souligner quaucune des 13 crances en nature () nu-
mres dans la deuxime partie de AUCT 5 99 na t retrouve; vu la modestie des montants
en jeu (aux alentours de 1 qa), elles nont sans doute pas fait lobjet dun contrat crit. La conclu-
sion est trs importante; tant ce texte de AUCT 5 que le texte de Mari montrent que les prts
pouvaient trs bien ne pas faire lobjet de la rdaction dune crance. Cela limite encore plus les
conclusions quantitatives quon peut tirer dun point de vue conomique des crances qui ont
t retrouves ().
83 family archives in mesopotamia
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C. Janssen, Inanna-mansum et
ses ls: relation dune succession
turbulente dans les archives dUr-
Utu, RA 86, p. 19-52.
Janssen 1996
C. Janssen, When the House
is on Fire and the Children are
gone, in: K. R. Veenhof (ed.),
Houses and Households in Ancient
Mesopotamia. Papers read at the
40
e
Rencontre Assyriologique
Internationale, Leiden, July 5-8,
1993, PIHANS 78, Leiden,
p. 237-246.
Janssen, Gasche, Tanret 1994
C. Janssen, H. Gasche, M.
Tanret, Du chantier la tablette.
Ur-Utu et lhistoire de sa maison
Sippar-Amnnum, in: H. Gasche,
M. Tanret, C. Janssen, A.
Degraeve (ed.), Cinquante-deux
rexions sur le Proche-Orient
ancien offertes en hommage
Lon De Meyer, MHEO 2, Ghent,
91-123.
Michalowski 2001
P. Michalowski, The
Correspondence of the Kings of Ur.
An Epistolary History of an Ancient
Mesopotamian Kingdom, MC 15,
Winona Lake.
Parpola & Whiting 2002
S. Parpola, R. M. Whiting
(ed.), Sex and Gender in the
Ancient Near East. Proceedings of
the 47
th
Rencontre Assyriologique
Internationale, Helsinki, July 2-6,
2001. Part I-II, Helsinki.
Postgate 1992
J. N. Postgate, Early
Mesopotamia. Society and
Economy at the Dawn of History,
London/New York.
Sallaberger 2007
W. Sallaberger, From Urban
Culture to Nomadism: A History
of Upper Mesopotamia in the Late
Third Millennium, in: C. Marro
and C. Kuzucuoglu (ed.),
Socits humaines et changement
climatique la n du Troisime
millnaire: Une crise a-t-elle eu
lieu en Haute Msopotamie, Varia
Anatolica 19, Istanbul & Paris,
p. 417-456.
Tanret 2004
M. Tanret, The Works and the
Days On Scribal Activity in Old
Babylonian Sippar-Amnnum,
RA 98, p. 33-62.
Tanret 2008
M. Tanret, Find the Tablet-box
New Aspects of Archive-Keeping in
Old Babylonian Sippar-Amnnum,
in: R. van der Speck (ed.), Studies
in Ancient Near Eastern World
View and Society, Presented to
Marten Stol on the Occasion of His
65
th
Birthday, 10 November 2005,
and His Retirement from the Vrije
Universiteit Amsterdam, Bethesda,
2008, p. 131-147.
Van Lerberghe & Voet 1991
K. Van Lerberghe, G. Voet, On
Quasi-Hllentafeln, NAPR
6, p. 3-8.
Vanstiphout 1995
H. Vanstiphout, Memory
and Literacy in Ancient Western
Asia, in: J. M. Sasson et al.,
Civilizations of the Ancient Near
East 4, p. 2181-2196.
85 family archives in mesopotamia
Veenhof 1986
K. R. Veenhof, Cuneiform
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K. R. Veenhof (ed.), Cuneiform
Archives and Libraries. Papers read
at the 30
e
Rencontre Assyriologique
Internationale Leiden, 4-8 July
1983, PIHANS 57, Leiden, p. 1-36.
Veenhof 1995
K. R. Veenhof, Old Assyrian
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the Occasion of his 65
th
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PIHANS 74, Leiden,
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e
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87
the limits of middle babylonian archives
The Limits of Middle
Babylonian Archives
1
Middle Babylonian Archives
Archives and archival records are one of the most important sources for the un-
derstanding of the Babylonian culture.
2
The denition of archive used for this
article is the one proposed by Pedersn: The term archive here, as in some
other studies, refers to a collection of texts, each text documenting a message or a
statement, for example, letters, legal, economic, and administrative documents.
In an archive there is usually just one copy of each text, although occasionally a
few copies may exist.
3
The aim of this article is to provide an overview of the
archives of the Middle Babylonian Period (ca. 1500-1000 BC),
4
which are often

1 All kudurrus are quoted according to Paulus 2012a. For a quick reference on the texts see
the list of kudurrus in table 1.
2 For an introduction into Babylonian archives see Veenhof 1986b; for an overview of differ-
ent archives of different periods see Veenhof 1986a and Brosius 2003a.
3 Pedersn 1998; problems connected to this denition are shown by Brosius 2003b, 4-13.
4 This includes the time of the Kassite dynasty (ca. 1499-1150) and the following Isin-II-pe-
riod (ca. 1157-1026). All following dates are BC, the chronology follows willingly ignoring all
linked problems Gasche et. al. 1998.
susanne paulus
88
left out in general studies,
5
highlighting changes in respect to the preceding Old
Babylonian period and problems linked with the material. Finally, it will be
shown that it is possible to reconstruct lost archival records with the help of ma-
terial from outside the archives.
There is a complete break between the Old Babylonian and the Middle Baby-
lonian archives caused by the downfall of the First Dynasty of Babylon. The end
of the Old Babylonian Period came gradually. Starting in the 11
th
year of Samsu-
ilna (1653-1613), Hammu-rpis successor, parts of the Southern kingdom broke
away, including major cities such as Ur, Uruk and Larsa. This also marks the end
of the archives in these places during his 12
th
year, while documentation in the
cities of Isin, Nippur and Lagaba did not fall silent until the 30
th
year of Samsu-
ilna.
6
While the North stayed under Babylonian control, the South fell under
the inuence of the so called First Sealand Dynasty, with only a few, recently
published texts documenting this period.
7
At the same time the Kassites,
8
a peo-
ple possibly originating from the Zagros region, started to move into Northern
Babylonia, settling down in the region around Sippar. Some of them were quick-
ly integrated into Babylonian society, others fought against the Babylonian army.
These encounters are mentioned in the late Old Babylonian year names.
9
Finally,
during the reign of Samsu-ditna, the Hittite king Murili I. raided Babylon, put-
ting an end to Hammu-rpis dynasty.
10
From recently published material it has
been conrmed that the Kassites were directly involved in these nal ghts as
well.
11
It was also the Kassites who proted most from the situation, taking over
the throne to rule Babylonia for the next 400 years.
Information concerning the rst Kassite kings ruling over Babylonia is
sparse. Only a few royal inscriptions survived, often in the form of copies dating
to later periods.
12
With one exception the archive of Tell Muammad which
dates to the transitional period
13
the archival records
14
do not resume until the
reign of Kurigalzu I. about 1370, who founded a new capital in the North of Bab-

5 The Middle Babylonian archives are e.g. missing in Veenhof 1986a and Brosius 2003a.
6 Charpin 2004, 335-6.
7 Dalley 2009 and van Koppen 2010, 456-7.
8 On the Kassites, their history and culture see Sommerfeld 2000 and Zadok 2005.
9 Paulus 2011 with further references; add van Koppen 2010.
10 Charpin 2004, 382-3.
11 See Paulus 2011, 4 note 31.
12 Bartelmus 2010, 143-6.
13 Alubaid 1983; for recent proposals for the chronological classication of the material see
Boese 2008 and van Koppen 2010, 457-62.
14 For an overview of the Kassite archives see Pedersn 1998, 103-19; Brinkman 1976, 35-49,
and Sassmannshausen 2001, 3-4.
89
the limits of middle babylonian archives
ylonia: Dr-Kurigalzu.
15
Sadly, only about 100 tablets
16
of the ofcial,
17
palatial ar-
chives survived, most of them being administrative records that deal with the
distribution of precious metals for building purposes and the redistribution of
clothes.
18
Only a fragment of a royal letter hints that an archive of international
correspondence may have existed in Dr-Kurigalzu, similar to the contemporary
archives of Hattua in Anatolia or Tell el-Amarna in Egypt.
19
Most of the texts
from Dr-Kurigalzu are still unpublished.
20
The situation is even worse for the old capital Babylon: due to the high level of
groundwater in the area it has only been possible to excavate the Middle Babylo-
nian levels once, and only for a very limited amount of time. In the private houses
of the Merkes quarter about 570 tablets were found: nearly all of them remain un-
published to-date. Pedersn was able to identify ve private archives containing
lists and legal documents, often sale and loan contracts. Sometimes the original
storage places of the tablets large clay pots were discovered as well.
21
Such an archive-in-a-pot has also been found in the small settlement of Tell
Imlihiye, located in the north-east at the river Diyala, from where 45 tablets have
been published. Most of them contain rural administrative lists, but among
them a slave sale and a letter have been identied.
22
There are also some archival
rests from the nearby villages.
23
An important archive belonging to the brewers of the main deity Sn has been
unveiled in Ur. Most of the 75 texts, all of them published, are legal documents:
mostly sale contracts, but also disputes and court records.
24
Nevertheless, 90% of all Kassite tablets, totaling at over 12000 pieces, came
from the city of Nippur, provincial capital and seat of the highest Babylonian God
of the Kassite period, Enlil. About 20% of the material has been published so far.
25


15 Modern Aqr Quf. For the recent excavations and new data from Dr-Kurigalzu see
Clayden 2012.
16 These gures are based on Clayden 2012, where a full list of all known tablets is given.
Brinkman 1976, 43 speaks of ca. 250 inscribed objects from Dr-Kurigalzu, but this includes
building, votive inscriptions, etc.
17 For the distinction between ofcial and private archives see Veenhof 1968b, 10-11.
18 See Baqir 1944; Baqir 1945, 1946; Gurney 1949 and 1953.
19 For the letter fragment see Brinkman 1976 no. J. 2.18. For the international correspondence
found in Tell el-Amarna Moran 1992; for Hatti see Beckman 1999.
20 See the list by Clayden 2012.
21 See Pedrsen 2005, 72 g. 28 and 101 g. 49.
22 The total of texts from Tell Imlihiye is listed 84, see Sassmannshausen 2001, 4. For the texts
see Kessler 1982, 51-116.
23 Kessler 1985, 18 and 74-9; 1995, 281-8.
24 See Brinkman 1976, 44. For the texts see Gurney 1983.
25 Brinkman 1976, 41-2; add the material now published by Sassmannshausen 2001. For an
overview see Pedersn 1998, 112-6 and Sassmannshausen 2001, 186-8.
90
Most of the administrative documents belong to the archive of the governor of
Nippur, the andabakku:
26
but his archive also contained letters and legal docu-
ments that show the activity of the governor in slave sales.
27
Part of this nd was
the archive of the granary, covering specically the income and redistribution of
natural produce.
28
While most material from Nippur is from ofcial archives, in
later excavations two small private archives with about 35 tablets were discov-
ered.
29
With these archives being an exception, only a few texts are known from
famous cities like Uruk, Larsa, Isin, K and Adab
30
together with the so called
Peiser archive of unknown origin.
31
Not only the geographical, but also the chronological distribution is highly
unbalanced.
32
Over 90% of the records originate from the time between Burna-
Buria II., i.e. middle of the 14
th
century, and Katilia IV., at the end of the 13
th
cen-
tury.
33
With only a few texts from the Nippur archives being dated earlier, most of
them document the period between the 14
th
and 13
th
century, just as the archives
of Tell Imlihiye and Dr-Kurigalzu.
34
The reason for the break of the archives
in the 13
th
century was the conquest of Babylonia by the Assyrian king Tukult-
Ninurta I. in 1220. Some scholars even stated that Nippur was deurbanized after
this period, but texts from outside the archives prove the contrary.
35
Only the ar-
chives of Ur and the unpublished material from Babylon cover the whole later
Kassite period, with just the Babylonian tablets dating to the very end.
36
Due to the state of publication it is impossible to draw a complete picture
of the legal matters covered by the Middle Babylonian archives. This article will


26 For an overview of the published Nippur material see Sassmannshausen 2001, 3 note 6.
For the role of the andabakku in Nippur see Sassmannshausen 2001, 16-21; cf. also the com-
ments by Brinkman 2004.
27 For the letters see Radau 1908; for slave sales see Petschow 1983. For legal texts from Nip-
pur cf. Petschow 1974.
28 Sassmannshausen 2001, 187-94.
29 For these archives see Pedersn 1998, 116 with further references.
30 Brinkman 1976, 40-9 and Sassmannshausen 2001, 3-4.
31 Brinkman 1976, 46; Sassmannshausen 2001, 4.
32 See Brinkman 1976, 35-40 and the graphical overview by Stiehler Alegria-Delgado 1996,
229. The material from Babylon must be corrected following Pedersn 2005, the dates for Dr-
Kurigalzu following Clayden 2012.
33 Brinkman 1976, 36-7.
34 Nevertheless some tablets from Dr-Kurigalzu date to Marduk-apla-iddina I., see Clayden
2012.
35 For example Gasche et al. 1998, 31: Towards the end of the thirteenth century, most of
Nippur was abandoned, and no early twelfth-century contexts have been identied at the site,
while the kudurru M 4 proves the contrary.
36 Especially the archive M8 has material dating to Zababa-uma-iddina and Enlil-ndin-ai,
the last Kassite kings; cf. Pedersn 2005, 94.
91
the limits of middle babylonian archives
therefore focus on one topic: real estate sale contracts. So far only one of these
contracts has been published, concerning a house plot in Nippur.
37
A few nearly
identical documents are known, especially from the unpublished Babylon texts,
38

but surprisingly, as far as I know, none of them deal with larger estates or elds.
39

This is completely different from the situation in the preceding Old Babylo-
nian period, where land sales were common, especially in Middle and Northern
Babylonia, for example in Nippur.
40
Perhaps, one may assume, this is due to a
coincidence, but at the same time sales of movable property, especially of slaves,
are known from all Middle Babylonian archives.
41
Another explanation might be
that there were restrictions to prevent and/or control real estate sales, as it was
proposed for the end of the 3
rd
millennium in Babylonia.
42
Or, nally, could it be
possible that private property on real estate did not exist at all because the king
owned all the land?
43
Material from outside the archives The kudurrus
To answer these questions we have the unique opportunity to use juridical mate-
rial dealing with real estates from outside the archives: the kudurrus.
44
Kudurrus,
in older literature often labelled boundary stones by mistake, are typical for
the Kassite period. These 40 to 90 cm tall objects, made of dark limestone, were
usually decorated with gods symbols and bore long inscriptions. They were set
up in temples before the Gods with the purpose of securing real estate property
from encroachment by the highest authorities of the state, such as the king and


37 Sassmannshausen 2001, no. 10; for comments on this text see Paulus 2008.
38 See Paulus 2008, 318 note 2 and Pedersn 2005, especially the archives M 1 and M 8. Parts
of another real estate sale from Babylon have been published by Paulus 2009, 19-22.
39 Normally only qaqqaru kiubb (in the city) empty lot for building a house, see Paulus
2008, 318-9 note 4, or bttu (eptu) (build) houses: see the examples in Pedersn 2005, ar-
chives M1 and M8.
40 See for example Renger 1987 or Stol 2004, 844-7.
41 Sassmannshausen 2001, 202-8.
42 See Neumann 1987, 33-7.
43 Cf. Schloen 2001, 297: that the king had rights over all of the land, so that in theory, at
least, all landholdings were royal grants.
44 kudurru is a Mesopotamian word used for these objects. Nevertheless, they were more of-
ten labeled as nar stele by the Babylonians. For the problematic terminology see Brinkman
2006, 6-8 and Paulus 2012a. The term kudurru is used as a science historical term in this article.
Following the denition proposed in Paulus 2012a a kudurru is a stela made of stone or clay
or a stone tablet, on which a juridical act concerning sale, donation, conrmation of rights and/
or exemptions of real estate property and/or prepends for a kings subject is both recorded and
protected against violation with the help of the gods (curses and symbols).
92
the provincial government. In other words, by means of the kudurru, the estate
owner asked the gods for assistance to protect his property.
45
Interestingly, the geographical and chronological distribution of the kudur-
rus is not congruent with the archival material, but shows a lot of differences.
Focussing only on the objects datable to the Kassite period more than 60 ob-
jects date to the later Isin-II-dynasty and the Early Neo-Babylonian period
46
the
chronological distribution for the Middle Kassite period is relatively even, show-
ing no peak in the main period of the archives, while most kudurrus date to the
reigns of the late Kassite kings Meli-ipak and Marduk-apla-iddina I. during the
12
th
century.
47
This is due to a coincidence: When the Elamites conquered Baby-
lonia they looted the temples, taking away precious objects including many of
the newer kudurrus that still were in place. This is also the reason why a lot of
kudurrus were not discovered in Babylonia but rather in the Elamite capital, Su-
sa.
48
Apart from the more than 54, often badly damaged, kudurrus found in Susa,
there are also Kassite kudurrus from Babylon, Ur, Dr-Kurigalzu and Nippur, as
well as from cities without Middle Babylonian archives like Sarol-e-Zohab in the
upper Diyala-region, the important cities of Sippar and Ki or the southern cities
like Larsa.
49
The information from the kudurrus can thus be used complemen-
tary to the archival records to reconstruct parts of the legal system of the Kassite
period. The aim of this article is to use the material from these objects and the
archival records to answer the following questions:
Can restrictions on the sale of real estate property be reconstructed with the
help of the kudurrus?
Can the legal information of the kudurrus be used to reconstruct documents
that must have existed in the archives?
Restrictions on real estate sales
Although all Kassite kudurrus deal with real estate property, the role of the sale
50


45 For the art historical aspects see Seidl 1987; for the inscriptions see Paulus 2012a with a
full edition of all known kudurrus. An English synopsis is in Paulus 2012b.
46 Cf. Paulus 2012b, g. 1.
47 Cf. Paulus 2012a. There are only three kudurrus from the Early Kassite Period (ca. 1500-
1328), while ve kudurrus can be dated to the main period of the archives.
48 For the historical background see Potts 1999, 232-9.
49 Examples for Kudurrus datable in the Kassite Period: Babylon: M 4; Ur: U19; Dr-Kuri-
galzu: NM 3; Nippur: U4; Sarpol-e-Zohab: MAI I 4, Sippar: KaE I 1; M 2; Ki: Kassite fragments
(see Clayden 1992, 149-51), Larsa: NM 1, KuE 1.
50 The denition for sale used is: Sale is the exchange for an amount of money or its equiva-
lent. It is important to understand, that this does not always correspond with the Babylonian
terminology; see above.
93
the limits of middle babylonian archives
itself is minor. The king buys some land from the provincial governor and his
subordinates.
51
This proves that he was not the owner of all land in his state, nev-
ertheless no sales of larger estates between private parties exist until long after
the end of the Kassite period. The usual way property was transferred was the
royal donation.
52
To fully understand the donation system, we must rst take a closer look at
the system of landownership during this period. The rural landscape of Babylo-
nia was dominated by small settlements alongside rivers and canals surrounded
by elds. These elds could be private property often owned and cultivated by a
family. Towns owed duties and taxes to the provincial government and, as head
of all provinces, to the king. The king was able to give the complete income from
one town to one of his loyal subjects, like a high ofcial or a priest, in the form of
a royal donation. This meant that the affected town was exempted from taxes and
other duties owed to the province, with this income going directly into the cof-
fers of the new owner, making the whole town effectively his private property.
53
It is hard to nd traces of this system in provincial archives, as for example in
the governors archive in Nippur, because these towns are neither listed in the
income list of taxes nor were the inhabitants subscribed for public labor. Never-
theless, some information can be found: some private structures were included
on a sketchy map of the surroundings of Nippur;
54
donations and problems con-
cerning irrigation are mentioned in the letters, and disputes over the exemption
from taxes can be found in court records.
55
But the fact that the donated towns
were no longer part of the provincial administration meant that the provincial
archives did no longer record matters concerning them, especially since the
separation from the provinces included an exemption that no ofcial was al-
lowed to enter a private town.
56
Due to the fact that whole towns, including their hinterland, could become
private property, the king necessarily had to control who exactly possessed land,
since he would lose control of large parts of his empire otherwise.
57
As a solution,

51 See M 3: The king buys a garden and other estates and gifts them to his daughter; and MAI
I 1: The governor is labelled as ndinn eqli seller of the eld and MAI I 5: the governor receives
a payment for an estate.
52 For the legal institute of donation see Neumann, Paulus 2009, esp. 143.
53 For the reconstruction of this system see Paulus 2012a and 2012b; for land owned by the
gods see also Paulus 2010.
54 CBS 13865, see Finkelstein 1962, 80 and pl. X, edition Paulus 2012a.
55 For example the letters CBS 19793 (Radau 1908, no. 24), CBS 4753 (Lutz 1919, no. 52), CBS
4663 (Lutz 1919, no. 23) and the court record CBS 12914 (Clay 1906, no. 39), all from the gover-
nors archive in Nippur.
56 The interdiction to enter the private towns was usually expressed in the exemption clauses
or as part of possible violation listed in the curses at the end of the inscriptions.
57 So Charpin 2008, 77 : On a donc affaire une amputation du domaine royale.
94
transfer of property was only allowed by inheritance in the male family line.
58

Only in case of a subjects severe misconduct the king was allowed to expropri-
ate him. If there was no legitimate heir, it was the kings duty to give the land
to somebody else, usually someone sharing the deceased ones profession.
59
At
the same time the sale or donation of the land to a third party was denitely re-
stricted and it is not by coincidence that no larger real estate sales, neither on
kudurrus nor in the archival records, are known from the Kassite period. Like
provincial governors,
60
the king was allowed to sell land, but even in this case the
terminology of sale is avoided, as shown by the following example:
NKU I 4:
(I1)
[X hors]es
(7)
gave (iddinma)
(2)
[Adad-zra]-ubi,
(3)
[son of Ad]ad-ra,
(4)
the
merchant,
(5)
[t]o the king,
(6)
Marduk-apla-iddina (I.) and
(8)
81 ha land
(9-10)
in (the prov-
ince) Bt-Sn-eme,
(11)
81 ha land
(12-13)
in (the province) Bt-Sn-aard ()
(16)
they sur-
veyed (imu) and
(20)
established it permanently (ukinn)
(17)
for
(18)
Adad-zra-ubi,
(19)
the merchant.
61
While this is clearly a sale horses are given in exchange for land the Babylo-
nian sale terminology is avoided
62
and instead terms like give (nadnu), sur-
vey (mau) and establish permanently (kunnu), all known from the royal
donations, are used. Although this is clearly no royal donation, the act is verbally
disguised to better t into the system of landownership, where a strong restric-
tion on real property sale existed and only small estates like private elds around
the towns, gardens or houses and building plots could be freely sold.
63
This restriction continued in following times: clay tablets from the archives,
kudurrus and also stone tablets
64
hybrids between a kudurru and a clay tablet
prove this fact. The situation only slowly changed under Marduk-ndin-a
(1099-1082) during the Isin-II-period (1157-1026). An interesting example high-
lights that there were still restrictions:
65
the text describes a transfer of property

58 The right of inheritance was secure, because the land was always donated forever (ana m
ti).
59 See M 4 and its discussion in Paulus 2007, 8-15.
60 See note 51.
61 NKU I 4, I1-20: (I1) [X ANE. KUR]. RA. ME (2) [
m.d
IKUR. NUMUN]-ub-i (3) [DUMU
m.d
I]KUR-ri- (4)
[l]
DAM.GR (5) [a]-[n]a LUGAL (6)
[d
AMAR.UTU.IBILA.M
na
(7) []M-ma (8)
[10];0.0 GUR NUMUN (9) [10];0.0 GUR NUMUN (10) i-na - (11)
d
XXX-e-me (12) 10;0.0 GUR NU-
MUN (13) i-na - (14)
d
XXX. SAG. KAL () (16) im-u-u-ma (17) a-na (18)
m.d
IKUR. NUMUN-
ub-i (19)
l
DAM.GR (20) u-kin-nu. The restoration of the word horses ([X ANE. KUR].
RA. ME) in the rst line is very likely.
62 See Sassmannshausen 2001, 203-10 for an overview of the terminology. Typical are terms
like M price and mu to buy.
63 See note 39.
64 For example IMB 1, a very early Isin-II-period stone tablet, with a small estate sale, or ENAp
3, also a stone tablet.
65 See MNA 4.
95
the limits of middle babylonian archives
from Bltnu, who sells part of his paternal estate (about 56 ha), to one Urkt-
Bura, thus concluding a normal private sale.
66
But when the king learns of this,
he decides to return (turru) the land to Bltnu, while any refund of the silver
to Urkt-Bura is not mentioned in the text.
67
Bltnu appeals to the king, who
nally agrees to hand over administration of the land to Urkat-Bura in form of
a donation.
68
But it is clearly understandable that this transaction was not a real
royal donation but rather a private sale, now approved by the king. In other simi-
lar situations the land sold or privately donated was always given the approving
label of a royal donation.
69
Even in the following Early Neo-Babylonian period (1026-625),
70
when due to
internal problems and the weakening of royal power it was no longer possible for
the king to control the transfer of real estate, a phrase is written at the beginning
of every real estate sale contract: Together with the seller the buyer proclaimed
to buy for the price X.
71
With this standardized formula still a proclamation was
made to the king asking for his permission for the transaction.
72
In reality, most
properties were transferred without the control or even knowledge of the king
proving that the restrictions on sale here reconstructed for the Middle Babylo-
nian period did no longer exist.
The reconstruction of archival documents
While the kudurrus explain the lack of real estate sale documents in the archives,
at the same time they also point out that more types of documents must have
existed than we actually know of from the archives.
Part of the kudurru inscription was copied from a legal document: the pro-
perty, usually large real estates, the parties involved and the transaction. Later
in the Kassite period, a list of witnesses was added. Other important parts of the
kudurru inscriptions are the narrative introduction, where reasons for the land
transfer are given, and, even more fundamental, the protective part, where a list
of possible aggressors and actions against the real estate is combined with curses
from the gods against the malefactor. Both, introduction and protective part, are
not part of normal legal documents, making the kudurru itself more than a mere

66 MNA 4: I1-19, sale terminoloy (M) is used.
67 MNA 4: I20-23.
68 MNA 4: II2-5. Donation terminology is used: to hand over administration (pni udgulu)
and to gift (rmu).
69 niditti arri donation of the king, see for example MNA 2: II7 in a private sale.
70 For an overview of kings, history and texts from this period see Frame 1995, 70-270.
71 itti seller buyer k price mara imbma, see Petschow 1939, 9.
72 On this interpretation of the Neo-Babylonian sale form see Paulus 2012a.
96
copy of a legal tablet. Nevertheless, we can use the information extracted from
the legal part to reconstruct the documents behind it.
73
Sometimes it is even mentioned in the inscription that this part of the kudur-
ru was copied from a special clay tablet. There are three important types of tablets
mentioned. First of all the donation or, in Akkadian, the kunuk arri a iprti, the
the kings sealed document of instructions. With this act the land was given to
the ofcial, but real assignment occurred locally in the province and was docu-
mented in another sealed tablet, the ammatu or the tablet of the land survey. Fi-
nally, when the new land owners property rights were contested, the king judged
the matter and his verdicts were recorded in form of kank dni, the sealed docu-
ments of the judgment. In one example all three documents were listed:
MAI I 1:
(III11)
The tablet of the land survey and the tablet of the eld, the sealed docu-
ment of the judgment
(12)
he (= the king) sealed ().
74
In this case the tablet of the donation and the tablet of conrmation during the
law suit is one, because no original document of donation was issued by the for-
mer king leading to the contestation of ownership.
75
Normally only one or two
different types of documents are recorded on one kudurru. Focusing on the ex-
amples from the Kassite period, an attempt will be made to restore content and
context in the archives:
Starting with the donation, these tablets contain a description of the land and
the act of the donation itself which was witnessed by the highest ofcials of the
empire, since the entitlement took place in the kings palace and was sealed with
the kings own royal seal leading to its specially name: kunuk arri a iprti, the
the kings sealed document of instructions.
76
This term is only rarely used in
Kassite times,
77
but it is often noted that the king sealed the donation tablet him-
self.
78
Sometimes this was not possible and led to further litigation.
79
While no
real donation tablet has been found, we do know of similar tablets found in the
contemporary royal archives of Ugarit on the Levantine coast and Hattua, capital
of the Hittite State in Anatolia.
80
From these examples we also can learn, where

73 Paulus 2012a and 2012b.
74 MAI I 1: (III11) 1. K up-pi A. ka-nik di-ni (III12) ik-nu-uk-ma.
75 See MAI I 1: II13 with commentary by Paulus 2007, 5-7.
76 For a complete discussion of the term kunuk arri a iprti see Paulus 2012c, for older inter-
pretations see Kienast 1987.
77 U7 II1. It becomes common in the later Isin-II-period. See Paulus 2012d.
78 See KuE 1: III22ff. and III42, M 3: (text 4) 21ff. and (text 8) II9; M 4: IV5 and U3: II1ff.
79 See MAI I 1: II12 (cf. note 75) and MAI I 6: I22. The fact that the king did not seal the donation
is often quoted verbatim as possible violation in the curses, cf. MAI I 7: IV2.
80 For the Hittites see Riemschneider 1958 and Wilhelm 2005; for Ugarit see Mrquez
Rowe 2006.
97
the limits of middle babylonian archives
we can expect to nd donation documents within the archival structures of Baby-
lonia. Being the most important proof of land ownership, these documents were
kept in the private archives of the beneciary for generations.
81
In case of doubts
they could be presented in court.
82
From the kudurrus we know that the beni-
ciaries of the land donation were high ofcials, like viziers, high priests etc.
83
,
while the archives we have come from average townsmen, like temple brewers,
merchants and others. So the chances to nd information on land donations in
these archives are minor.
84
Copies of the documents should also have existed in
the royal archives, similar to Ugarit or Hattua, but as presented in the overview
at the beginning of this article, no corresponding archives have been discovered
so far.
Regarding land surveys, the situation is almost the same. This act took place in
the local provinces, where the land was nally given to the beneciary. The act of
the land survey was at the same time an act of publication, making the new own-
ership known.
85
Involved were a eld surveyor, a royal envoy and provincial of-
cers.
86
All of them witnessed the act and could be questioned on it in a later law
suit.
87
The tablets, named ammatu,
88
were given to the new owner, so we should
be able to nd them in private archives.
89
An analogue procedure in the contem-
porary Middle Assyrian texts makes it very likely that copies were also stored in
the royal and provincial archives
90
. As for the private and royal records, we lack
any traces, for the same reason as mentioned for the donation tablets. Concern-
ing provincial archives, which only have been discovered in Nippur, we lack the


81 For the practice of storage of real estate tablets in old Babylonian Period see Charpin 1986.
A good Kassite example for the storage of real estate tablets is M1, see Pedersn 2005, 72-3.
82 The king asked for the tablet stored in the house of the proprietary (M 4: III9ff.); the tablets
are shown to the king (KaE II 1: II4ff. and Ka IV 2: II22ff.), the tablet is contested ( 1: I11ff.), the
land is given according to the tablet (KaE II 1: II7).
83 A list of all beneciaries is to be found in Paulus 2012a.
84 See above.
85 Sometimes it is noted that the king sealed this tablets by his royal seal (for example M 3:
text 8 I17), but the king is never listed as witness for the land survey.
86 For the procedure of the land survey see Robson 2008, 166-76; Baker 2011, 293-307, and
Paulus 2012a (study of the sons of Arad-Ea).
87 MAI I 1: II21ff.
88 Written 1. K; my interpretation follows Sommerfeld 1984, 304-5. Charpin 2002, 178-9
puts it in context with the old Babylonian uppi ummatim mother tablet issued for the rst
owner (see Charpin 1986, 135-49), but in Middle Babylonian it was always issued in connec-
tion with the land survey to the actual owner. In addition the etymology of ummatum = AMA
mother and ammatum = 1. K one cubit is completely different. For a complete discussion
see Paulus 2012a.
89 ammatu-tablets are mentioned in M 3: text 8 I17; MAI I 1: III11, MAI I 3: I 21, MAI I 7: IV20
and U3: II1ff.
90 MAL B6, cf. Roth 1995, 177-8; see also Jakob 2003, 70-2.
98
land register tablets and concerning matters. Nevertheless, we nd traces of the
involved ofcials in ration lists.
91
Finally, for the court records it is more complicated to reconstruct a uniform
document typology. The kings role was that of the highest judge and he there-
fore treated all matters concerning real estates of high ofcials,
92
including bor-
der conicts with neighbors or matters about hereditary succession. The tablets
issued not only contain the nal verdicts but also documents written during the
trial, for example the uppi ana urn, the tablets for the water ordeal
93
that
were required to send the parties to the evidence procedure, which took place in
front of the gods. These sorts of tablet are also known from the private archives of
the brewers in Ur as well as the archive in Nippur, where the king is mentioned,
but that deals with animal theft, not questions of landownership.
94
Nevertheless,
we thus have a direct correlation between the kudurrus and archival records. As
for the nal verdicts, none have yet been found for the same reasons mentioned
before, because they usually are stored within the private archives of the bene-
ciaries with copies being kept in the royal archives.
95
To conclude, the rich but badly published material from the Middle Babylo-
nian archives does not always correlate with the material from outside of the ar-
chives, thus showing important gaps in written records. But the situation is not
as hopeless as it may appear. Especially one unpublished archive from Babylon is
very promising.
96
It belonged to one Itti-Ezida-lummir, an ipu exorcist or evo-
cator, a title that is also known from the beneciaries in the kudurrus.
97
About
100 tablets were discovered, a lot of them real estate sales concerning houses and
house plots. Along with them a kudurru was unearthed. Sadly, it was highly dam-
aged, with no inscription being left.
98
This situation makes it possible, that the

91 For the occurance of a r arri-ofcials, typical royal envoys see Sassmannshausen 2001, 45.
92 See Paulus 2007; Kassite examples are NM 3, M 4, MAI I 1, perhaps also KaE II 1 and 1.
93 M 4: IV38ff. and V14ff.
94 See Paulus 2007, 15-6 with further references. A detailed study is in preparation by the
author.
95 At the end of M 4: VI26ff. it is noted that the kudurru inscription is a copy (gabar) of three
verdict issued by the kings Adad-uma-iddina, Adad-uma-uur and Meli-ipak. Because some
time passed between the different verdicts, it is certain that there were copies in private hands.
96 M 8, see Pedersn 2005, 93-101.
97 An ipu is the beneciary in AAI 4, while brs are known from the Kassite kudurrus
K I 1 and M 4.
98 For a beautiful photograph of this object see Marzahn, Schauerte 2008, 176. While kudur-
rus were kept usually in the temple and not in private archives (see Seidl 1989, 72-3), there are
two possible explanations for this exemption: due to the state of preservation it is not possible
to say, if the kudurru was already inscribed. So perhaps it was purchased by the family and wait-
ing to be inscribed with the donation. Another more probable reason is found in the date of the
archive to the absolute end (see note 36) of the Kassite period. So perhaps in these insecure days
the family took the kudurru from the temple to avoid that the Elamite could loot it, like lots of
other objects.
99
the limits of middle babylonian archives
family of Itti-Ezida-lummir owned some houses in Babylon, as well as a land do-
nation of a larger estate in this province or another. So it is my hope that this ar-
chive may help to understand how the system of landownership worked for the
beneciary himself. In order to overcome the limits of the Middle Babylonian
archives, we have to further publish the known material and, at the same time,
combine it with all the information from outside the archives.
Table 1 List of kudurrus
Kudurru Seidls number
*
museums number publication
**
AAI 4 private collection Paulus 2012a
ENAp 3 YBC 13522 Paulus 2012a
IMB 1 T1 BM 91015 King 1912 (BBSt no. 30)
Ka IV 2 3 Sb 30 Scheil 1900 (MDP 2, 92 ff.)
KaE I 1
BM 91036
BM 135743
King 1912 (BBSt no. 1)
KaE II 1 p. 229 Land of the Bible Museum Grayson 1981
K I 1 YBC 2242 Paulus 2012a
KuE 1 p. 225 L 7076 Arnaud 1972
MAI I 1 61 Sb 26 Scheil 1905 (MDP 6, 31 ff.)
MAI I 4 p. 222 Teheran? Borger 1970
MAI I 5 59 Sb 33 Scheil 1905 (MDP 6, 39 ff.)
MAI I 6 G3 Sb 169 Scheil 1905 (MDP 6, 42 ff.)
MAI I 7 p. 222 NBC 9502 Paulus 2012a
MNA 2 79 BM 90841 King 1912 (BBSt no. 7)
MNA 4 p. 223 IM 90585 Al-Adami 1982
M 2 12 BM 90829 King 1912 (BBSt no. 4)
M 3 23 Sb 23 Scheil 1908 (MDP 10, 87 ff.)
M 4 25 BM 90827 King 1912 (BBSt no. 3)
NKU I 4 private collection Paulus 2012a
NM 1 p. 221 L 7072 Arnaud 1972
NM 3 2 IM 49991 Baqir 1944
1 57 AS 1335 (+) Sb 6430 Paulus 2012a
U3 9 IM 5527 Sommerfeld 1984
U4 8 VA 213 Hilprecht 1896 (BE 1/2 no. 150)
U7 18+19 Sb 6432 (+) Sb 791 Paulus 2012a
U19 84 IM 934 Gadd, Legrain 1928 (UET no. 165)
* Seidl 1989. Supplementary kudurrus added in 1989 are listed with the page no. in Seidl 1989.
** Usually the publication of the cuneiform text, sometimes an important edition.
100
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Classical Greece
107
les archives de la cit de raison...
Occupant une place centrale dans lhistoire ancienne, la cit grecque continue
de faire dbat, sur fond de tradition historiographique nationale diffrente,
comme le rsume Oswyn Murray. Pour les Allemands, on ne peut parler de la
polis que dans un manuel de droit constitutionnel; la polis franaise est une sorte
deucharistie; la polis anglaise est un accident historique; la polis amricaine,
enn, combine les pratiques de la Maa et les principes de justice et de libert
individuelle
1
. Deux grandes approches se distinguent toutefois. La premire
peut tre qualie dinstitutionnelle. Elle rduit ltude du politique celle des
institutions politiques. Depuis une quinzaine dannes, elle oriente les travaux
du Copenhagen Polis Centre autour de lhistorien Mogens H. Hansen. La deuxime
se revendique de lanthropologie, invitant dpasser la sparation entre socit et
politique. Naturellement, les nuances sont multiples et les nouvelles approches
se succdent un rythme soutenu. Parmi celles-ci, il convient de distinguer la
piste ouverte par Vincent Azoulay et Paulin Ismard, quils nomment la cit en cir-
culation
2
. Il sagit de raisonner en tenant compte des diffrentes chelles du poli-
tique. Paulin Ismard a mis en uvre une telle approche dans son rcent ouvrage,

1 Murray 1992, 15.
2 Azoulay & Ismard 2007.
christophe pbarthe
Les archives de la cit de raison.
Dmocratie athnienne
et pratiques documentaires
lpoque classique
108
La cit des rseaux. Athnes et ses associations VI
me
-I
er
sicle av. J.-C. (2010), se proposant
de rchir aux chelles de fonctionnement de la socit civique athnienne
3
.
Selon lapproche traditionnelle, les associations, en particulier les dmes et
les phratries, sont des cits en rduction, diffusant auprs des citoyens la culture
dmocratique
4
. Ds lors, elles ne participent pas activement la construction de
lidentit civique. Or, des recherches rcentes remettent en cause cette approche.
Dans son livre sur Salamine, Martha Taylor tablit ce quelle nomme la carte non-
ofcielle de lAttique, travers ltude de cette le qui fonctionne comme un dme
sans en tre un
5
. Le citoyen habitant Salamine est la fois un Salaminien et un
co-dmote sur le continent puisquil est inscrit dans un dme territorial comme
tous ses concitoyens. Plus gnralement, larchologie dessine une cit dcen-
tralise, ouverte, caractrise par une grande uidit entre diffrentes identi-
ts sociales qui, conjointement, participent la dnition de la citoyennet.
Les espaces et les pratiques du politique y trouvent une expression singulire-
ment largie
6
. Cette approche semble contredire le modle dfendu par Oswyn
Murray, celui dune cit de raison dont la cohrence institutionnelle tmoigne-
rait dun haut degr de rationalit. Elle tourne ainsi le dos aux catgories webe-
riennes pour sinscrire dans le holisme de Durkheim
7
. Les institutions politiques
ne sauraient tre comprises en dehors des interactions sociales. Il faudrait alors
privilgier la uidit des identits multiples la rigidit du statut.
Pour autant, les diffrentes rformes, commencer par celle de Clisthne
quil en fut lauteur, unique ou non, importe peu ici dessinent une organisa-
tion qui nest pas dpourvue dune certaine rationalit. Elles sont senses appor-
ter progressivement plus de cohrence, en contradiction avec le modle durkhei-
mien qui postule un accroissement de lincohrence correspondant lajout de
nouveaux critres aux anciens qui ne disparaissent pas. Cette cohrence est tou-
tefois tonnante car elle semble procder de la volont du rformateur, comme
sil avait prvu les effets de sa rforme. Quoi quil en soit, elle serait la preuve dun
haut niveau de rationalit, tant dans les motivations du changement que dans
ses consquences. Pour Murray, la rupture est chercher au VI
me
sicle avec les
rorganisations des corps civiques
8
. Les rformes qui se produisent modient le

3 Ismard 2010, 28.
4 Cf. en particulier Whitehead 1986 et Lambert 1998.
5 Taylor 1997.
6 Azoulay & Ismard 2007, 303.
7 Pour Max Weber (conomie et socit, chap. 6), les cits grecques ont invent le politique, au
sens o elles l'ont distingu, rendu autonome par rapport aux autres sphres d'activit.
8 Globalement nanmoins, Oswyn Murray insiste sur la continuit. La cit grecque est
une cit de raison parce que lhomme grec est un animal politique, et cela ds Homre; nous
pouvons retracer lvolution, mais elle reprsente non pas un changement de nature, dun type
dorganisation social un autre, mais lvolution rationnelle dun systme dont le caractre fon-
damental na pas chang (Murray 1992, 33).
109
les archives de la cit de raison...
nombre, la composition et les fonctions sociales des tribus. Il est vident que les
changements introduits par Clisthne Athnes impliquaient une rvision fon-
damentale des fonctions des institutions sociales tous les niveaux, et un haut
degr de rationalit pour laborer un nouveau systme dunits corrles; le fait
que les noms paraissent traditionnels et que lon invoque la sanction religieuse
ne doit pas masquer la nature radicale de cette exprience de restructuration du
corps civique tout entier
9
.
Le dbat est donc loin dtre tranch et sans doute doit-il tre abord de faon
diffrente
10
. Il sera ici discut laune des pratiques documentaires qui consti-
tuent assurment une perspective intressante. Dabord, leur tude permet
denvisager une autorit collective durable et complexe sans bureaucratie pro-
fessionnelle, sans fonctionnaires. Il ne saurait donc tre question de sen tenir
Max Weber sur ce point. Ensuite, linsistance sur le fonctionnement concret de la
polis interroge nouveaux frais le degr de conscience des citoyens, en particulier
lorsquil sagissait de mettre en place de nouvelles institutions ou dlaborer de
grandes rformes. En raison des sources dont nous disposons, en raison gale-
ment de la supercie de son territoire, Athnes parat toute indique pour poser
la question du degr de rationalit de lorganisation institutionnelle dune cit.
Avant de dcrire dans quelle mesure les pratiques documentaires athniennes
permettent une interaction entre les institutions centrales, Boul notamment, et
les associations, en particulier les dmes, il est cependant ncessaire de rappeler
que la dmocratie nest pas le produit de lcriture.
1.
Le discours politique athnien associe-t-il lcriture et la dmocratie? La ques-
tion mrite dtre pose tant les historiens ont eu tendance soit considrer
cette association comme un fait, par anachronisme incontrl, soit au contraire
rduire le recours lcriture comme une pratique de pouvoir, lexercice dune
domination
11
. Cette dernire thse fut celle, en son temps, de Claude Lvi-Strauss
dans ses Tristes Tropiques
12
. Pour lAntiquit, plusieurs travaux dhistoriens ont
repris leur compte cette rexion
13
. Deborah Steiner insiste sur le fait que lcri-

9 Murray 1992, 27.
10 La rexion de Cornelius Castoriadis, largement mconnue par la grande majorit des his-
toriens, vite de nombreuses chausses-trappes pistmologiques (cf. Pbarthe 2012).
11 Cf. notamment Harvey 1966.
12 Chapitre 28: Leon dcriture.
13 Steiner 1994, 242-251 analyse le rapport lcriture de Rousseau (Sur lorigine des langues
et Le contrat social) et cherche des similitudes avec les Anciens. Les travaux de R. Thomas ont
pris en considration cette association entre pouvoir et criture sans toutefois intgrer les
inscriptions. Writing is perhaps most immediately connected with power in relation to
110
ture distingue les Grecs des Barbares, les dmocrates des tyrans, ceux qui parlent
de ceux qui crivent
14
. Elle analyse luvre dEschyle, Les Suppliantes, dans cette
perspective. Lafchage des dcisions populaires est oppos au rouleau de papy-
rus scell, deux types dcriture sont distingus
15
. La tablette crite afche est
galement pense comme le rsultat dune parole libre. lorigine de la dcision,
il y a une prise de parole que retranscrit la notice. In a democracy [], speech
is the primary means of conducting business
16
. Cela soppose presque terme
terme avec la ralit orientale dcrite par Hrodote. Par exemple, aprs chaque
conqute, Ssostris faisait inscrire un pilier avec son nom, celui de son pays et le
fait quil ait conquis cette terre par la force. Pour les peuples les plus couards, il
fait ajouter une reprsentation dorganes gnitaux fminins
17
. Par linscription,
les monarques orientaux commmorent, mais aussi afrment, leur droit de
conqute, leur possession. Lcriture sert borner un territoire, laide de horoi
qui proclament lasservissement des populations
18
. Pour autant, dans lAthnes
pr-solonienne, de telles bornes ont exist pour rendre publique la dpendance
de certains paysans. La priode tyrannique permet-elle une identique associa-
tion entre criture et pouvoir?
La tyrannie des Pisistratides a semble-t-il engendr trs peu de documents of-
ciels. Selon la Constitution des Athniens, Pisistrate se serait fait accorder un corps
de gardes par lassemble
19
. Inscription ou tradition orale? Aucune source ne per-
met dafrmer lexistence dune publication des dcisions prises par les Pisistra-
tides. Sils ont recouru un tel afchage, il est concevable quils aient li leurs ins-
criptions avec les btiments quils faisaient par ailleurs construire. Cependant,
des documents pigraphiques de cette poque, c. 550, ont t retrouvs qui, sans
tre des dcrets, sont bien des critures publiques
20
. Ils concernent lorganisation
des Panathnes. ce titre, ils donnent le titre et le nom des magistrats. Ils sont
une trace de ladministration de la cit lpoque archaque. Peut-on alors accep-
ter que les documents pigraphiques voqus ici ne constituent pas une mani-

the state and its records: one thinks, for example, of the state lists of citizens () or records of
taxes (Thomas 1994, 33). Toutefois, selon elle, cela ne concernerait pas directement la Grce
ancienne. Records, if kept at all, tended to be slight, disorganised and in any case largely un-
centralised (Ibid., 34). Sans doute a-t-elle lesprit, lutilisation des archives dans les monar-
chies orientales telle quelle apparat dans le tmoignage dHrodote (Steiner 1994, 142-149).
14 Cf. Steiner 1994, 127-185, particulirement p. 166-174.
15 Cf. Steiner 1994, 168.
16 Steiner 1994, 169.
17 Voir Hdt. 2.102-106 et Diod. 1.55.7, avec le commentaire de Steiner 1994, 128-129.
18 Dans lAthnes pr-solonienne, il semble bien que de telles bornes aient exist pour rendre
publique la dpendance de certains paysans. Cela montre bien quil est rducteur de vouloir
associer mcaniquement lcriture un effet social donn.
19 Arist., Ath. Pol., 14.1.
20 IG I
3
, 507-509 avec le commentaire de Stroud 1978, 28.
111
les archives de la cit de raison...
festation publique darchives? Lentreprise de mise par crit du droit entreprise
par Solon et auparavant par Dracon, la conservation darchives judiciaires par les
thesmothtes inviteraient plutt rpondre par la ngative.
Un type particulier dinscriptions et de support est attest pour lAthnes des
Pisistratides, des statues dHerms implantes dans toute lAttique
21
. Celles-ci
sont connues des lexicographes comme Hsychios et Harpocration. Toutefois, la
source la plus ancienne et la plus complte sur ces Herms, lHipparque, un dia-
logue apocryphe de Platon, date du IV
me
sicle
22
. Parmi les mrites du ls de Pisis-
trate, Socrate cite la volont ducative, laide dherms installs dans lensemble
de lAttique qui portaient des maximes delphiques:
Il forma le projet de faire alors lducation des campagnards. Dans ce but, il t dresser
pour eux des herms sur les routes entre la ville et les diffrents dmes; puis, dans
le trsor de ses propres connaissances, celles quil avait apprises et celles quil avait
dcouvertes, choisissant les penses quil jugeait les plus sages, il les mit lui-mme en
vers lgiaques et t graver ses pomes comme documents de sa sagesse; ainsi, tout
dabord, ses concitoyens nauraient plus admirer les sages inscriptions du temple de
Delphes, comme Connais-toi toi-mme, Pas dexcs et dautres de ce genre, mais ils
estimeraient plus sages les prceptes dHipparque; de plus, dans leurs alles et venues,
lisant ses maximes de sagesse et y prenant got, ils multiplieraient leurs visites an
de complter leur instruction. Il y avait deux inscriptions: sur celle du ct gauche
de chaque herms, une inscription fait dire Herms quil est situ entre la ville et le
dme; sur celle du ct droit, il proclame: Ceci est un monument dHipparque: marche
dans des sentiments de justice
23
.
Trois nalits distinctes apparaissent pour ces inscriptions: duquer les pay-
sans de lAttique, transmettre un got de la sagesse et une volont damliorer
cette dernire et louer la sagesse dHipparque en lieu et place de celle de Delphes.
Le recours lcrit savrait indispensable pour une entreprise dune telle am-
pleur. Nous possdons une borne qui daterait de cette poque, ce qui invalide-
rait la thse des historiens qui mettent en question la vracit de cet extrait de
lHipparque
24
.

21 Cf. Harrison 1965, 108-117, particulirement 113-114; Lewis 1988, 292 et 293 g. 29;
Shapiro 1989, 125-132, en particulier p. 125-126, et Parker 1996, 80-83.
22 Plat., Hipp., 228b-229d. Arist., Ath. Pol., 18.1 donne des indications complmentaires.
Rogue 2001, 245-249 a dfendu le premier tiers du IV
e
s. comme date de ce dialogue apo-
cryphe. LHipparque a souvent t vu comme un dialogue sans porte historique, par exemple
Schnapp-Gourbeillon 1988. Mais sur le point qui nous intresse prsent, les herms, il
convient de ne pas ngliger ce tmoignage.
23 Plat., Hipp., 228d-229a (traduction CUF). Sur la vracit de cette anecdote, cf. Jensen 1980.
24 IG I
3
, 1023: mi-distance entre Kphal et la ville, le splendide Herms. Cf. Shapiro 1989,
125-132; Lewis 1988, 292 et 293 g. 29. La datation retenue, 525-514, procde dune association
directe entre ce document et les dcisions prises par Hipparque telle que le texte du dialogue
platonicien lindique. Il convient donc dadopter la plus grande prudence son sujet.
112
Dautres documents sont associs la tyrannie des Pisistratides. Hrodote
mentionne une collection doracles sur lAcropole. Leur origine nest pas connue
avec certitude. Oracles de la Pythie, prdiction dAthna? Quoi quil en soit,
loracle crit fondait le pouvoir du tyran. Une fonction analogue peut tre prte
aux pomes homriques. Ceux-ci auraient t mis par crit, par Pisistrate ou par
lun de ses ls, Hipparque:
Entre autres preuves nombreuses et remarquables de sagesse, il introduisit le premier
dans ce pays les pomes dHomre et obligea les rhapsodes les rciter aux Panath-
nes, les uns aprs les autres sans interruption, ce quils font encore aujourdhui
25
.
Le texte ainsi tabli devait tre conserv an dtre rcit, ce qui faisait de ce
document conserv la version ofcielle des pomes homriques. Il est tentant
dassocier cette dition et la rforme des Panathnes, du moins la fte en elle-
mme devenue un concours athltique panhellnique. Dans ce cadre, la rcita-
tion de la version de rfrence des pomes homriques prend tout son sens
26
.
Elle tait un signe indniable de puissance. Les tyrans matrisaient la tradition
et pouvaient surtout linvoquer avec prcision lors de contestations politiques.
Dune certaine manire, ils apposaient leur sceau sur les pomes homriques.
linstar de Thognis de Mgare, ils scellaient un texte, cest--dire un contenu et
non lidentit dun auteur
27
. Il est ainsi difcile de parler de tyrannie de lcriture
pour lAthnes archaque, mme sil y a un usage spcique au tyran de lcriture,
une criture des tyrans.
De mme, il nest pas possible de relier lavnement de la dmocratie la crois-
sance de lalphabtisation
28
. Athnes, celle-ci est manifestement antrieure.
Ds lpoque de Clisthne, avant donc la priode dmocratique stricto sensu, la
pratique de lcriture doit tre considre comme majoritaire dans le groupe
des adultes libres mles. La rforme censitaire de Solon impliquait sans doute
dj un recours, mme faible lcriture, donc une alphabtisation minimale.
Diodore fait mention dune loi solonienne qui, limitation dune disposition
gyptienne, exigerait des citoyens une dclaration crite de leur fortune, le verbe
utilis est apographesthai:

25 Plat., Hipp., 228b (traduction CUF); voir aussi Ael., V.H., 8. 2. Par cette citation tronque, nous
nchappons pas la critique faite par Schnapp-Gourbeillon 1988, 806-807 qui considre que
si lextrait concernant les pomes homriques est souvent comment, le reste est le plus sou-
vent laiss de ct. On ne cherche pas donner un sens lensemble. Les historiens ne courent-
ils pas alors le risque de ngliger le contexte gnral? Lhistorienne le pense et prfre analy-
ser le passage dans sa globalit comme une fable certes, qui illustre une conception du Sage
Autocrate, mais aussi comme un ensemble articul sur la fonction de la posie dans la cit, o
Homre joue alors un rle prpondrant, mais non unique (p. 807).
26 Cf. Aloni 1997, 171-174.
27 Sur le sceau de Thognis et le parallle avec la politique culturelle dHipparque, cf. Ford 1985.
28 Cf. Pbarthe 2006.
113
les archives de la cit de raison...
Il tait enjoint tout gyptien de dposer auprs des magistrats une dclaration crite
sur les sources de ses revenus, et quiconque faisait une fausse dclaration ce sujet
ou se procurait des gains illicites devait tre condamn mort. On dit que cette loi fut
apporte Athnes par Solon la suite de son voyage en gypte
29
.
Il semble sinspirer dHrodote:
Cest Amasis qui imposa cette loi aux gyptiens: que tout gyptien, chaque anne,
ft connatre au nomarque ses moyens dexistence; que quiconque ne le ferait pas et
ne justierait pas de ressources honntes serait puni de mort. Solon dAthnes a pris
cette loi en gypte pour ltablir chez les Athniens; et ceux-ci lobservent tout jamais,
comme une loi parfaite
30
.
Lhistorien dHalicarnasse utilise deux verbes, apophanein et apodeiknynai, qui
nimpliquent pas ncessairement le recours lcrit
31
. Une dclaration orale de-
vant un magistrat comptent serait donc une autre possibilit que lcriture.
partir du moment o la pratique de lcriture est rpandue au VI
me
sicle, il parat
difcile de s'en tenir la stricte oralit. Ds avant Clisthne donc, la ralisation de
listes nalit censitaire parat hautement probable.
Si l'on se tourne vers les discours athniens anciens prsent, l'association
entre criture et dmocratie n'est pas vidente non plus. Les sources ne men-
tionnent ainsi jamais l'accs libre et direct linformation. Elles voquent en
revanche le droit crit qui constituerait une garantie contre l'arbitraire. Lorsque
Thse compare la dmocratie et la tyrannie dans son dialogue avec le hraut de
Thbes, il afrme:
Pour un peuple il nest rien de pire quun tyran. Sous ce rgime, pas de lois faites pour
tous. Un seul homme gouverne, et la loi, cest sa chose. Donc, plus dgalit, tandis que
sous lempire de lois crites, pauvres et riches ont mmes droits
32
.
Mais le mme personnage rappelle:
Quant la libert, elle est dans ces paroles: Qui veut, qui peut donner un avis sage
sa patrie? Lors, son gr, chacun peut briller ou se taire. Peut-on imaginer plus belle
galit?
33
.
Loralit serait-elle donc dmocratique?

29 Diod. 1.77.5 (traduction CUF).
30 Hdt. 2.177 (trad. CUF).
31 Sickinger 1999, 35. Il en conclut quil nest pas possible danalyser ces deux passages.
32 Eur., Suppl., 429-434 (traduction CUF). De mme, Clon dfend la xit des lois (Thuc. 3.37).
33 Eur., Suppl., 438-441 (traduction CUF).
114
Cest alors Platon qui intervient pour apporter de la complexit ce dbat.
Il oppose en effet dans le Politique la loi (nomos) comme droit crit, la parole
vivante, la rigidit lvolution:
La loi ne pourrait jamais embrasser avec exactitude ce qui est le meilleur et le plus
juste pour tous au mme instant, et prescrire ainsi ce qui est le mieux. Car les dissi-
militudes sont telles entre les hommes et entre les actions, sans compter que presque
jamais aucune des affaires humaines ne demeure pour ainsi dire en repos, que cela in-
terdit toute technique de prendre un parti simple qui vaudrait, en quelque domaine
que ce soit, pour tous les cas et pour toujours
34
.
Lexposition de cette limite intrinsque de la loi nest videmment pas destine
valoriser le dbat au sein dune assemble:
Il est bien clair que, dune certaine faon, la lgislation relve de la fonction royale.
Mais ce qui vaut le mieux, ce nest pas que les lois prvalent, mais que prvale le roi qui
est un homme rchi
35
.
Autrement dit, pour Platon, lcriture nest quun pis-aller, permettant dviter
les errements dmocratiques. En labsence dun citoyen politique (aner politikos),
cest--dire dun citoyen royal, la rigidit des lois crites, dont la rdaction doit
tre cone des individus possdant lepistem politique, garantit la cit une
certaine stabilit
36
. Loralit nest valorise que pour le basileus, qui peut, par son
savoir, saffranchir des lois, lorsque bon lui semble. Nanmoins, il convient de ne
pas accorder une importance trop grande la pense platonicienne car comme
le souligne Cornelius Castoriadis, Platon a jou un rle tout fait considrable
dans ce quon peut appeler la destruction du monde grec
37
.
Il faut donc abandonner toute relation univoque entre lcriture et la nature
du rgime politique dune cit. Le questionnement se dplace alors et porte sur
le rle des pratiques documentaires dans lorganisation de la cit athnienne,
plus prcisment dans la relation entre le centre (assemble, conseil, magistrats)
et les multiples priphries (dmes, phratries). Dans la perspective de lven-
tuelle mise au jour dun processus de rationalisation institutionnelle, il convient
danalyser prsent le moment clisthnien en gardant lesprit la distinction sur
laquelle Pierre Bourdieu a attir lattention, entre la logique pratique et la logique
logique. Il privilgie la premire car la seconde amne appliquer un raisonne-
ment extrieur lobjet tudi. Les logiques pratiques des institutions, des pra-
tiques humaines doivent tre constitues dans leur spcicit, une des erreurs

34 Plat., Pol., 294a-b (trad. Brisson et Pradeau).
35 Plat., Pol., 294a (trad. Brisson et Pradeau).
36 Nous faisons le choix ici de traduire aner politikos par citoyen politique. Lexpression
homme politique est assurment source derreurs, tant elle suggre un groupe, celui des
professionnels de la politique, alors que Platon pose une question anthropologique.
37 Castoriadis 1999, 21.
115
les archives de la cit de raison...
scientiques majeures dans les sciences historiques consiste tre plus rigoureux
que lobjet, mettre plus de rigueur dans le discours sur lobjet quil ny en a dans
lobjet, de manire tre en rgle avec les exigences de rigueur qui sont de mise,
non pas dans lobjet, mais dans le champ de production de discours sur lobjet
38
.
2.
laune du chapitre 42 de lAthenaion Politeia, permanence et centralit dominent
la citoyennet athnienne. Dmes et phratries ne sont alors envisags que
comme des subdivisions civiques, et ce, ds Clisthne, sans volution. Ce der-
nier apparat alors comme un crateur dont les historiens prtendent mesurer
le degr dinnovation et partant de l, le degr de rationalit en recourant
une approche dialectique, entre rupture et continuit. Selon Paulin Ismard, [la
rforme de Clisthne] organisait la hirarchisation et larticulation dune srie
de communauts invites intgrer une architecture civique renouvele
39
. Ce
point est dautant plus important que la citoyennet continue de reposer sur
cette organisation communautaire jusqu la loi de Pricls (451/0). Le mme
historien qualie alors la cit de corporatiste, si on comprend par l que les ins-
truments juridiques de contrle de la citoyennet par les instances centrales de
la cit sont inexistants
40
. Il ny aurait donc pas de rupture la n du VI
me
sicle,
les communauts anciennes ne cderaient pas leur place une politeia ration-
nelle. Le processus de contrle civique des associations serait progressif. Loc-
troi de la citoyennet serait donc de la seule responsabilit des phratries et des
dmes. Lexamen des pratiques documentaires amne toutefois nuancer cette
approche.
la n de la tyrannie, en 510, un diapsphismos fut organis pour rayer tous
ceux qui nauraient pas d tre citoyens. LAthenaion Politeia (13.5) rapporte que
Pisistrate fut soutenu par des personnes appauvries par la perte de leurs crances
et par des personnes dont la naissance ntait pas pure. Selon Paulin Ismard, la
procdure a recouru des listes communautaires
41
. Le vocabulaire utilis serait
anachronique, cest--dire que lauteur aurait plaqu sur des vnements de la
n du VI
me
sicle la procdure de la rvision des listes qu'il connaissait pour le
IV
me
sicle
42
. Il est toutefois possible de tirer de cette remarque une autre cons-
quence. La motivation parce que beaucoup jouissaient indment de la politeia
est galement anachronique. Elle fait rfrence lesprit des rvisions des listes, la

38 Bourdieu 2012, 148.
39 Ismard 2010, 119.
40 Ismard 2010, 119-120.
41 Ismard 2010, 81-83.
42 Ismard 2010, 82 n. 180.
116
vrication que ne bncient des privilges affrants la citoyennet que ceux
qui sont citoyens
43
. En 510, il ne sagit videmment pas daller rechercher ceux
qui, depuis plusieurs dizaines dannes, en loccurrence leurs enfants ou descen-
dants, vivaient comme des citoyens. Ainsi, il ny a pas rvision mais tablissement
d'une liste de citoyens, au moment o une nouvelle dnition de la citoyennet
tait tablie
44
. Ds lors, le recours ou non des listes associatives nest pas la ques-
tion principale. Comment un tel recensement a-t-il pu tre organis?
Il nest pas possible de rpondre cette question. Toutefois, ce premier re-
censement, qui est une prise de position institutionnelle, due Isagoras et
son groupe, permet de comprendre la raction de Clisthne, une fois parvenu
prendre le contrle de la situation
45
. Quelles que fussent ses motivations, il pro-
posa une nouvelle dnition du corps civique, en prenant appui, dune manire
ou dune autre, sur les Athniens qui avaient assig lAcropole sur laquelle Clo-
mne, Isagoras et leurs partisans staient rfugis
46
. Il est alors possible de pro-
poser la reconstruction suivante
47
. Il fallait dabord tablir la liste des dmes, puis
la procdure denregistrement en leur sein. Les dmarques dont lexistence est
atteste en 508/7 paraissent tout dsigns pour la mise en uvre pratique de
cette rforme
48
. Le rassemblement des noms contenus dans les diffrentes listes
tait enn possible par le biais du Conseil, qui comportait au moins un membre
de chaque dme en son sein
49
. Un document ad hoc fut-il cr ce moment-l?
Le registre de dme (lxiarchikon grammateion) apparat dans les sources au
cours de la deuxime moiti du V
me
sicle
50
. La premire attestation gure dans
un dcret instaurant une taxe sur un misthos peru par des hommes inscrits dans
le registre. Parmi les hypothses sur lorigine de ce document, lune met laccent
sur ltymologie. Ce document aurait reu ce nom en raison de la lxis, le patri-

43 Cf. Pbarthe 2006, 193-196. Le cas de la distribution du bl donn par Psammtique en
445/4 est de ce point de vue signicatif.
44 Cf. Pbarthe 2006, 182.
45 Rappelons que peu aprs la chute dHippias, Isagoras aid de Clomne fait expulser sept
cents epistia athniens, souills (Hdt. 5.72.1).
46 Hdt. 5.72-73.
47 Cf. dj Pbarthe 2006, 182.
48 Arist., Ath. Pol., 21.5.
49 Nous reviendrons ailleurs sur lanalyse que propose Ismard 2010, 84-121 de la rforme de
Clisthne. Disons simplement ici que nous ne partageons pas son modle dauto-organisation,
savoir le fait que les diffrentes communauts de lAttique archaque sont certainement les
propres acteurs dune rforme qui na fait quintgrer dans une architecture administrative
commune des groupes qui avaient souvent une existence trs ancienne (Ismard 2010, 119).
Pour autant, il ne saurait tre question de lui opposer linstauration dune centralit civique
(p. 120). Cette alternative ne permet tout simplement pas de comprendre cette rforme. Les
lecteurs de Cornelius Castoriadis y verront les consquences dune lecture qui en reste la seule
dimension ensembliste-identitaire (pour une premire approche, cf. Pbarthe 2012).
50 IG I
3
, 138.
117
les archives de la cit de raison...
moine. Ny seraient inscrits ds lors que ceux qui disposaient dune fortune mi-
nimale. Dautres prfrent voquer le lxiarchos, un magistrat charg de vrier
la qualit des participants de lassemble. Ces deux options ne sont pas irrcon-
ciliables du reste. La nature censitaire de la politeia impliquait un recensement
rgulier des fortunes. Il ny a pas de raison a priori de considrer que les thtes
ntaient pas inscrits. Avec la mise en place de larme civique, celle qui combat
victorieusement Marathon, un recensement parat essentiel. Le dme apparat
alors comme lchelon institutionnel pertinent, dans une cit sans administra-
tion et sans fonctionnaires, pour mener bien cette procdure et pour en trans-
mettre le rsultat aux institutions centrales. Larticulation entre les dmes et la
Boul est vraisemblablement un lment dterminant pour en comprendre les
ressorts pratiques. Ds avant 451 donc, loctroi de la citoyennet est laffaire du
centre
51
. Si la loi de Pricls donnait aux phratries la responsabilit de ltablis-
sement de la liation, linscription dans le dme demeurait indispensable
52
. Elle
nest pas dlgue sans contrle aux associations. Il serait naturellement erron
de dduire une rationalisation de ce recours lcriture, puisquil manifeste au
contraire une rationalit organisationnelle en acte
53
.
Celle-ci est mieux connue pour le IV
me
sicle, notamment grce aux plai-
doyers attiques qui rapportent plusieurs tentatives de fraude dans les inscrip-
tions dans les registres
54
. Deux registres apparaissent dcisifs, le registre de
dme et le registre de phratrie. Ce dernier est mentionn dans le Contre Lochars:
Nayant pu obtenir dtre inscrit lui-mme, il institue son ls au mpris des lois,
comme ls adoptif dArchiads, avant que le dme et procd lexamen; il ne lavait
pas introduit dans la phratrie dArchiads: cest seulement aprs quil et t inscrit
au dme que, de connivence avec un des phratres, il le t inscrire au registre de la
phratrie
55
.
La procdure dinscription est dcrite longuement dans un discours dIse:
Ces associations [gn et phratries] ont une rgle uniforme: quand un homme leur
prsente un enfant n de lui ou adopt par lui, il doit jurer, en posant la main sur les
victimes, que lenfant prsent est n dune citoyenne, marie lgitimement, aussi
bien sil sagit de son propre enfant que dun enfant adopt. Quand le pre a prt ce
serment, les autres membres nen procdent pas moins un vote; si la dcision est
favorable, on inscrit lenfant sur le registre de la communaut, mais jamais avant le
vote. Telles sont les formalits minutieuses quimposent les statuts de ces confrries.

51 Contra Ismard 2010, 122-128 sur la loi de Pricls (451/0).
52 Ismard 2010, 125.
53 Castoriadis ne pense pas que la cit est premire, cest--dire quelle prcde la raison (lle
de la cit, pour Vernant). La constitution de la communaut politique est dj de la philoso-
phie en acte (Castoriadis 2004, 59).
54 Cf. Pbarthe 2006, 203-206.
55 Dm. 44.41.
118
Or, tel tant le rglement, les membres de la phratrie et du gnos, parce quils avaient
toute conance en Apollodros et quils me connaissaient comme ls de sa sur,
minscrivirent sur le registre aprs un vote unanime et aprs le serment prt par
Apollodros sur les victimes. Cest ainsi que, de son vivant, jai t adopt par lui et ins-
crit au registre de la communaut sous le nom de Thrasyllos, ls dApollodros, lequel
Apollodros ma adopt selon cette voie, comme les lois ly autorisaient
56
.
Lhsitation concernant le registre, celui du genos ou celui de la phratrie, importe
peu ici. Le caractre dcisif de linscription dans un document est signicatif. Du
reste, le mme Thrasyllos, aprs avoir pris un nouveau patronyme tmoignant de
son adoption (premire inscription), tente de se faire inscrire dans le registre de
dme dans lequel son pre adoptif gure:
Avant mon retour des ftes de la Pythade, Apollodros dclara aux gens du dme quil
mavait adopt et fait inscrire dans le gnos et la phratrie, quil minstituait son hritier
et il leur recommanda, sil lui arrivait auparavant malheur, de minscrire dans le re-
gistre du dme sous le nom de Thrasyllos, ls dApollodros, et de ny point manquer
57
.
Mais il est ici simplement question du dme ou de la phratrie. Quel rle jouait les
institutions centrales? Ces documents navaient-ils quune ralit locale?
En raison de la conscription, de la scalit (eisphora) ou bien encore plus sim-
plement de la participation lassemble, le dmarque, responsable de linscrip-
tion dans le registre et responsable du registre lui-mme, doit tre considr
comme un agent des institutions centrales de la cit
58
. Le Contre Lochars permet
de dcrire avec prcision limportance du lxiarchikon grammateion. Le plaideur,
Aristodmos, dispute Lochars la succession dArchiads. Ce dernier, dcd
sans enfant, a donn par adoption ses biens Locrats (I) qui les a transmis
son ls Lostratos qui, de son vivant, fait de mme avec son enfant Locrats (II).
Celui-ci meurt sans enfant et la succession choue Lochars, son frre. Dans
lpisode qui nous intresse, Locrats (I) tente tout prix dtre dmote Otryn
ce qui lui permettrait de revendiquer bon droit et au titre de ladoption les biens
dArchiads inscrit dans ce mme dme:
Dabord, stant prsent au dme dOtryn, il se disposait se faire inscrire sur le ta-
bleau des membres de lassemble, lui qui tait du dme dleusis; puis, avant mme
son inscription sur le registre des dmotes, participer aux affaires du dme
59
.
Si Lochars tente de se faire inscrire sur le pinax ecclsiastikos, cest parce que le
registre de dme nest pas encore ouvert. Il entend donc vivre comme un dmote

56 Is., Apol., 7.16-17 (trad. CUF).
57 Is., Apol., 7. 27 (trad. CUF).
58 Nous avons dj dvelopp ce point dans Pbarthe 2006, en particulier p. 206-222.
59 Dm., Leo., 44.35 (trad. CUF modie).
119
les archives de la cit de raison...
an que son inscription, le moment venu, relve de lvidence
60
. Louverture a
lieu au moment des Grandes Panathnes, sans doute en prsence de trs nom-
breux dmotes attestant ainsi la rgularit de linscription et plus gnralement
la vracit des informations contenues dans le registre.
cette occasion, grce sa liste, le dmarque vriait lidentit de ceux qui
allaient percevoir le thorique (que Lochars tente de toucher), ce qui consti-
tuerait une preuve effective de son adoption. Ensuite, il faut garder lesprit
lorganisation des Panathnes au cours desquelles les participants se rendaient
au Cramique pour le dbut de la grande procession par dme la tte duquel se
trouvait le dmarque. Un complment dinformations peut tre trouv dans un
dcret de 335/4-330/29 qui rglemente les ftes annuelles, les Petites Panath-
nes
61
. Les hieropoioi sont chargs de rpartir la viande provenant du sacrice aux
Athniens dans le Cramique, comme dans les autres distributions de viande ,
et de rpartir les parts pour chaque dme en proportion du nombre de leurs par-
ticipants la procession
62
. Cela signie que chaque dme dtermine le nombre
des participants et que les dmarques ont la charge de rpartir la viande entre
chaque individu. The demarchs diakosmesis was doubtless necessary not only
for the ordering of the procession but also to assist the hieropoioi in identifying
by deme those who were to be allotted their meat
63
. cette occasion galement,
tait vers le theorikon
64
. Ds lors, le passage du Contre Lochars prend tout son
sens
65
. Louverture du registre lors des Grandes Panathnes ou des Petites
se faisait parce quune fois la liste originale rvise, le dmarque distribuait le
thorique et sassurait du droit de chacun la perception de la viande
66
. Par ses
archives, il veillait donc ce que la cit ne verst pas indment une indemnit
qui rendait effective la citoyennet et plus important encore, il tait le garant du
droit des citoyens partager le sacrice et par l il assurait la cohsion civique.
La procdure dcrite met en vidence limportance du registre et le rle dter-
minant du dmarque. Pour autant, larticulation avec les institutions centrales
peine apparatre, sinon sous forme de dduction logique. Ltude de la rforme

60 On peut voquer comme parallle lanoblissement taisible, bien connu des historiens de
la France moderne.
61 Rhodes & Osborne, n 81.
62 Rhodes & Osborne, n 81, l. 24-27: vc]ovtav tz cz ta: 8a: ta: Avz:av cv [Kc-
zc:a ]: zznc cv tz:; zz:; czvo:z:; zn[ovcc:v 8c ] tz; c:8z; c:; tov 8ov
czotov ztz [toc; ncnov]tz; onoooc; zv nzc: o 8o; czoto;.
63 Whitehead 1986, 137.
64 Plkidis 1962, 90-91 et Faraguna 1997, 15.
65 Dm., Leo., 44.37.
66 Cette ide de louverture se retrouve dans Is., Apol., 7. 27 lorsquApollodros fait savoir aux
dmotes son intention de leur prsenter Thrasyllos comme son ls adoptif et de le faire ins-
crire. Cette question est traite au moment de lassemble lectorale du dme, cest--dire au
dbut de lanne civique.
120
scale de 378/7, corrle avec celle de la rforme de Priandre (358/7), permet
de saisir la place dcisive quoccupaient les documents provenant des dmes
dans le fonctionnement quasi quotidien de la cit. Une bonne partie du dbat
se concentre autour dun extrait du Contre Polycls dans lequel une procdure
semble-t-il particulire est dcrite pour 362:
Vous aviez dcid que, pour chaque dme, les dmarques et les bouleutes dresseraient
la liste des dmotes propritaires et des citoyens soumis lenkttikon qui seraient
appels payer davance pour les autres: je fus inscrit dans trois dmes car ma fortune
est bien visible
67
.
Trois lments introduisent une diffrence avec le droulement habituel du pr-
lvement de leisphora
68
. Les Trois Cents napparaissent pas et la dsignation des
proeispherontes ne semble survenir quau moment de leisphora
69
. Lorateur semble
indiquer quen temps normal les dmes jouaient un rle dans la perception de
cette taxe. Aucune mention de deux autres proeispherontes qui auraient vers une
partie de la somme avec Apollodros nest faite. Sagit-il pour autant dune proc-
dure exceptionnelle?
Observons demble que le systme dcrit voque trs directement la proc-
dure utilise pour la conscription, en particulier lassociation entre le dmarque
et les bouleutes. Une diffrence non ngligeable rside nanmoins dans lasso-
ciation de trois dmes. Le droulement semble avoir t le suivant. Une dclara-
tion et/ou une estimation est faite lchelle des dmes. Puis une centralisation
permet de recouper les informations ainsi obtenues. Un passage de Dmosthne
laisse en effet deviner une dclaration faite par ses tuteurs en vue de leisphora, c:;
to 8oo:ov ct:ozoc
70
. Lexpression eis to demosion ne doit vraisemblable-
ment pas tre entendue ici comme lenregistrement dans les archives civiques
mais comme une dclaration faite devant le dmarque. Bien entendu, tous
les biens devaient tre dclars, ce qui implique que les dmarches pouvaient
concerner plusieurs dmes. Lhypothse dun cadastre est en outre prendre en
considration
71
. Selon les lexicographes, les dmarques faisaient du reste des
apographai des proprits dans leurs dmes
72
. La centralisation serait le fait des
dmotes-bouleutes.
Il nen demeure pas moins quaucune rfrence nest faite aux proeispherontes
dans le Contre Polycls, ce qui constitue largument principal de ceux qui refusent

67 Dm., Pol., 50.8 (trad. CUF modie).
68 Wallace 1989, p. 474.
69 De nombreux commentaires ont t faits propos de labsence des Trois Cents (cf. Brun
1983, 36 n.3).
70 Dm., C. Aphob. II, 28.8; cf. 11.
71 Faraguna 1997.
72 Dans la Souda comme dans Harpocration, s.v. 8zo;; scholie un vers dAristophane
(Nues, 37).
121
les archives de la cit de raison...
dy lire la description de la procdure habituelle. La thse de Wallace est simple,
the proeispherontes were never a standing college but were always newly consti-
tuted at the time when an eisphora was required
73
. Du reste, il tait normal de
mettre en place un systme qui tenait compte des changements qui pouvaient
intervenir dans les fortunes, dans un sens comme dans lautre
74
. La mort gale-
ment rendait caduque les listes permanentes
75
. chaque eisphora, il fallait int-
grer les exemptions qui avaient pu tre obtenues entre temps. Enn, le volon-
tariat ne doit pas tre nglig. Mais alors, quand la rvision avait-elle lieu? Une
procdure annuelle serait dun intrt limit, notamment avant 347, priode au
cours de laquelle il y eut moins dune anne sur deux avec eisphora. Il faut donc
envisager une dclaration individuelle, sur le mode de celle qui est dcrite par
Dmosthne. Une intervention des dmarques, sur la base de leurs informations
cadastrales, nest de plus pas exclure.
En dpit du silence relatif des sources, il est intressant de rappeler comment
ces informations locales, et les documents qui les conservent, participent dune
organisation centrale. La rforme de 378/7 est en effet prcde dun recense-
ment des fortunes athniennes, dont le rsultat est mentionn par Polybe, 5 760
talents. Cest partir de cette opration que les symmories sont constitues.
Deux fragments dAtthidographes nous renseignent leur sujet. Le premier est
de Philochoros (n IV
me
sicle dbut III
me
sicle):
Les Athniens furent pour la premire fois diviss en symmories sous l'archontat de
Nausinikos, comme le rapporte Philochoros dans le cinquime livre de son Atthis
76
.
Le deuxime est rdig par Kleidmos (milieu IV
me
sicle):
Kleidmos rapporte dans son troisime livre que lorsque Clisthne institua les dix tri-
bus la place des quatre qui existaient auparavant, ils [les Athniens] furent aussi divi-
ss en cinquante groupes qu'ils appelrent naucraries, de mme que les cent groupes
entre lesquels ils sont actuellement diviss sont appels symmories
77
.
Les symmories apparatraient donc en 378/7 et seraient au nombre de cent
78
. La

73 Wallace 1989, 479. Dm., Phen., 42.3 et 32 montre simplement quun homme riche ayant
dj appartenu aux Trois-Cents est de nouveau intgr dans ce groupe, ce qui na rien de surpre-
nant. De mme, un autre passage de Dmosthne (Dm., Cour., 18.103) qui voque la continuit
au sein du groupe, sexplique par le petit nombre dAthniens capables davancer les eisphorai
nentre pas en contradiction avec le fait que les Trois-Cents sont dsigns chaque leve. Voir
Is., Philok., 6.60.
74 Cf. par exemple Lys., Diog., 32. 25 qui cite un bnce de 2 talents sur une seule expdition
maritime.
75 Plat., Lois, 785a-b envisage un systme de correction permanente.
76 FGrHist 328 F 41. Trad. Moss 1979, 32.
77 FGrHist 323 F 8. Trad. Moss 1979, 32.
78 Ce point a fait lobjet dimportantes discussions.
122
cit pouvait alors exiger le versement des eisphorai en tenant compte du revenu
des contribuables. lintrieur de chaque symmorie, un des membres tait dsi-
gn diagrapheus
79
. Il avait pour charge de rpartir entre les diffrents membres de
la symmorie la charge nancire relative leisphora, en fonction de leur timma
respectif quil devait galement contrler, sinon estimer. Pour Matthew Christ,
if the symmories of 378/7 provided for the rst time a mechanism for eliciting
and checking t:ztz and for allocating tax burdens on this basis, this would
have been more than sufcient justication for their establishment
80
. cette
date donc, les Athniens ont tabli un recensement gnralis des fortunes,
partir duquel ils tablirent une liste de contribuables rpartis en symmories
pour payer leisphora. Sans les dmes et les registres que les dmarques tenaient
jour, une telle opration eut t impossible.
Lesprit de cette rforme se comprend mieux encore en regardant la loi trirar-
chique de Priandre de 357. Ce dernier avait introduit deux modications prin-
cipales, une liste de 1 200 contribuables, dits syntleis et linstauration de vingt
symmories composes de soixante membres chacune. Les symmories de 358/7
sincrivent-elles dans le mme systme que celui qui fut instaur vingt ans plus
tt pour leisphora? Vincent Gabrielsen a bien montr que le systme reposait sur
un principe de liste daptitude, une liste des contributeurs potentiels aux eispho-
rai et au nancement de la otte. La cration de symmories nintervient que dans
un deuxime temps
81
. De ce fait, il y a bien un systme unique reposant sur lesti-
mation du timma de la cit et la cration de symmories distinctes. Isocrate ta-
blit une seule et mme catgorie lorsquil mentionne les mille deux cents, ceux
qui paient leisphora et assurent les liturgies
82
. Les symmories proprement dites
taient constitues par les stratges qui dsignaient de mme les trirarques
83
.
En somme, il parat pour le moins aventureux dopposer la cit en circulation
la cit de raison
84
. Mme si les sources manquent pour dcrire le fonctionne-
ment au V
me
sicle, tout laisse penser que la politeia athnienne, mme avant
la dmocratie proprement dite, reposait sur un quilibre raisonn entre centre
et priphries. Dans cette subtile construction, les documents crits jouaient un
rle dcisif. De fait, cette circulation crite garantissait une rpartition quilibre
des pouvoirs, vitant une accumulation qui se serait produite soit au bnce des
lites, dont lassise patrimoniale aurait pu faciliter une autorit locale, soit au b-
nce de lassemble et dun dmos plus populaire. Mais ce constat, cette logique

79 Harpocration, s.v. 8:zyzz avec Christ 2007, 65-66.
80 Christ 2007, 67.
81 Cf. en dernier lieu Gabrielsen 1994, 182-199.
82 Isocr., Ant., 15.145.
83 Dm., C. Boeotos I, 39.8: Comment les stratges feront-ils pour nous inscrire sil sagit de
constituer une symmorie ou de dsigner un trirarque?.
84 De notre point de vue (Pbarthe 2012), limaginaire permet de dpasser cette opposition,
parce quil contient les intervalles dans lesquels Paulin Ismard voit le politique (2011, 172-173).
123
les archives de la cit de raison...
logique, ne doit pas masquer la logique pratique. Ces changements nont pas t
faits par un spcialiste de gographie lectorale et il est nul besoin de postuler un
Clisthne gomtre pour parvenir une telle conclusion
85
. Il suft de rappeler
limportance de la circulation dans limaginaire politique athnien et la peur
lgard de toute accumulation ou concentration. Autrement dit, le territoire de la
cit tait un espace de circulation, qui ne se rduisait pas une polarisation qui
relguerait les priphries des fonctions subalternes.
Toute loriginalit de la cit athnienne apparat alors, celle dune construc-
tion politique connaissant un centre et des priphries, sans pour autant les ins-
crire totalement dans une hirarchie qui se serait oppose la conception ath-
nienne de lgalit. Ainsi, sans une bureaucratie professionnelle, les Athniens
sont parvenus construire des institutions durables et complexes, permettant
lexercice dune relle autorit sur lensemble du territoire; sans bureaucratie
professionnelle, mais non sans archives.

85 Pour des raisons diffrentes, nous suivons ici Paulin Ismard (2010 et 2011).
124
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athnienne, Annales(ESC) 34,
425-437.
Murray 1992
O. Murray, Cits de raison, in:
Murray & Price 1992, 13-39.
Murray, Price 1992
O. Murray et S. Price (d.), La
cit grecque dHomre Alexandre,
Paris.
Parker 1996
R. Parker, Athenian Religion: A
History, Oxford.
125 les archives de la cit de raison...
Pbarthe 2006
Chr. Pbarthe, Cit,
dmocratie et criture. Histoire
de lalphabtisation dAthnes
lpoque classique, Paris.
Pbarthe 2012
Chr. Pbarthe, Faire lhistoire
de la dmocratie athnienne avec
Cornelius Castoriadis, REA 114,
139-157.
Plkidis 1962
C. Plkidis, Histoire de lphbie
attique, Paris.
Rogue 2001
C. Rogue, Sur une difcult
de traduction de lHipparque,
REG 114, 242-255.
Schmitt Pantel, de Polignac 2007
P. Schmitt Pantel et Fr. de
Polignac (d.), Athnes et le
politique. Dans le sillage de Claude
Moss, Paris.
Schnapp-Gourbeillon 1988
A. Schnapp-Gourbeillon,
Homre, Hipparque et la bonne
parole, Annales(ESC) 43,
805-821.
Shapiro 1988
H. A. Shapiro, Art and Cult under
the Tyrants in Athens, Mainz am
Rhein.
Sickinger 1999
J. P. Sickinger, Public Records
and Archives in Classical Athens,
Chapel Hill et Londres.
Steiner 1994
D. T. Steiner,The Tyrants Writ.
Myths and Images of Writing in
Ancient Greece, Princeton.
Stroud 1978
R. S. Stroud, State Documents in
Archaic Athens, in: Athens comes of
Age. From Solon to Salamis, Papers
of a Symposium Sponsored by the
Archaeological Institute of America,
Princeton, 20-42.
Taylor 1997
M. Taylor, Salamis and the
Salaminioi. The History of an
Unofcial Athenian Demos,
Amsterdam.
Thomas 1994
R. Thomas, Literacy and the
City-state in Archaic and Classical
Greece, in: Bowman & Woolf
1994, 33-50.
Wallace 1989
R.W. Wallace, The
Athenian Proeispherontes,
Hesperia 58, 473-490.
Whitehead 1986
D. Whitehead, The Demes
of Attica 508/7-ca 250 B.C.,
Princeton.
127
attic building accounts from euthynae to stelae
shimon epstein
Attic Building Accounts
from Euthynae to Stelae
1
In this paper, I intend to explore the relationship between the forms of Athe-
nian building accounts as presented by relevant ofcials at their annual euthynae,
as deposited in a state archive on perishable materials, and as carved on mar-
ble in public places. Various forms and probable purposes of inscribed building
documents will be discussed, with particular attention given to the factors be-
hind preserving or omitting the names of workers. I will mostly deal with three
groups of building accounts: those of the Periclean building programme from
the third quarter of the fth century, of the Erechtheion (409-405 BCE), and the
Eleusinian accounts of the Lykourgan epoch (333-328 BCE).

1 This paper owes much to the lecture of Prof. D. Schaps, which I heard at the Hebrew Uni-
versity of Jerusalem in March 2007. I am grateful to him for showing me the yet unpublished
text of a later version of his paper presented at the 13
th
International Congress of Greek and
Latin Epigraphy in Oxford, September 2007. It is also my pleasure to express my gratitude to
Prof. M. Faraguna for inviting me to the conference on Archives and Archival Documents in Ancient
Societies in Trieste, and for his valuable suggestions during and after the conference. Other par-
ticipants contributions and comments were very helpful, too. This paper was prepared during
my Hans-Jensen-Minerva post-doctoral fellowship at Freiburg University. I would like to thank
the Minerva Foundation for providing nancial support, and Prof. Sitta von Reden, my host at
Albert Ludwig University of Freiburg.
128
As is well known, the Periclean inscriptions (the statue of Athena Promachos
IG

I
3
435, the Parthenon I
3
436-51, the chryselephantine statue I
3
453-60,
the Propylaea I
3
462-6, the golden Nikai from the Parthenon I
3
467-71, and the
two statues for the Hephaestion I
3
472) mention no builders names and very
few construction details. In contrast, minute recording of what was done and by
whom is, on the face of it, a salient feature of the accounts of the Erechtheion (IG
I
3

475-9, mostly 475-6), whereas the Eleusinian documents (IG

II/III
2
1672 and
1673)
2
mention dozens of names, but selectively, as will be shown.
In this paper, I will try to establish the following arguments:
a) While there may have been a particular reason for publishing each building
account, there was a common purpose, too: the inscribed documents served
as symbols and, to an extent, as a means of attaining transparency and ac-
countability.
b) While the form of each building inscription may have correlated with the
purpose of its erection, it depended heavily on sources available. Due to the
euthynae, nancial accounts were always there, whilst no other relevant docu-
ment may have existed.
c) Accordingly, even if commemorating the builders names may have been one
of the reasons for engraving the accounts from the Erechtheion and Eleu-
sis (as well as from Epidaurus and Delos), this aim has been only partially
achieved, as I shall argue. I argue that the anonymous workmen at the Ere-
chtheion and most of builders left unmentioned in the Eleusinian inscrip-
tions were unnamed in the original documents, and perhaps this was true
for earlier projects, too. The authorities did not go out of their way to nd out
information, absent from nancial accounts, even where it could have been
obtained relatively easily.
Finally, I will discuss broader implications of these conclusions as to the role of
archives and documents in classical Athens.
It is difcult to imagine more different building documents than the Periclean
inscriptions on the one hand and the accounts of the Erechtheion on the other.
The former parade huge sums but remain obscure as to technical, organizational
and even nancial details. In the latter, the sums are modest but we can see what
was built in which prytany, how much did it cost, who performed the work and
how he was paid for it. Here for the rst time we have building accounts ordered
by prytanies, and within each prytany and this makes the inscriptions of the
Erechtheion unique by architectural elements. In addition, for the rst time
individual builders are named and their statuses indicated. Eighty years later,

2 See now Clinton 2005, nos. 159, 177.
129
attic building accounts from euthynae to stelae
some Eleusinian accounts are still ordered by prytanies, but others are not. Many
workers and sellers are named in these accounts, but in spite of a clear tendency
towards giving more information with the passage of time, the proportion of
persons of undened status is much higher in the Eleusinian inscriptions than
in those of the Erechtheion. In what follows, I try to make sense of these differ-
ences and similarities. I do not pretend to know full answers: as we are all aware,
Greek inscriptions are often haphazard in what they mention or omit. Not to
mention the accidents of survival of various bits of information in various in-
scriptions. Still, I hope to have discerned a certain logic behind what is preserved
and what is not in inscribed building accounts.
It seems a natural hypothesis that the differences between various groups
of building accounts as we have them depend, to a signicant extent, on why
these documents were inscribed in the rst place. At the same time, whatever
the purpose of an inscription might have been, it could include only the available
information, though not necessarily all such information, of course. As already
said, here I presume that nancial accounts prepared for the annual euthynae
were the main and often the only source of the relevant information. We do not
know many details about the process of the euthynae, but the ofcials in ques-
tion in our case, primarily epistatai and the tamiai of the temples built surely
had to submit the records reecting their activity during their term in ofce. The
form of these records might have been loosely dened, but there were common
elements, probably indispensable: almost every Greek account we have contains
the names of the magistrates and the year in which they served, generally identi-
ed by an eponymous magistrate; what they received from the previous ofce-
holders; and what they passed on and to whom. These records (presumably on
papyrus, but perhaps on wax-covered wooden tablets or on whitewashed boards
where texts were written with charcoal) could be subsequently deposited in an
archive, though I am not certain. According to Ath. Pol., the tablets, indicating
the payments due according to the various deadlines during the year, made by
the poletai, were deposited with the council and then produced and wiped off
when the payments were made.
3
Similarly, the records of at least some ofcials
accounts could have been deleted after their examinations were nished,
4
espe-
cially if the records were inscribed.
5
Alternatively, these records might have been

3 Arist. Ath. Pol. 47. 2-48. Cf. Rhodes 2001, 34. The contracts themselves were perhaps kept for
future reference, at least when they were important for maintaining evidence of ownership.
See Faraguna 1997, 12-3, and now Papazarkadas 2011, 51ff. Other examples of documents de-
stroyed: Cohen 2006, 79; Sickinger 1999, 68-70.
4 This is perhaps why the famous ATL lists the aparchai rather than the tributes themselves:
the inscribing probably began only in 432/1 (ATL I vii), and if the hellenotamiais accounts for
the previous years were not preserved, but the temple inventories, with their obvious religious
meaning, were, the Athenians may have simply published these inventories.
5 This possibility must not be assumed automatically for all types of documents: Sickinger
1999, 70 ff.
130
deposited in a reduced form. Once the examination passed, not all the informa-
tion may have been deemed worthy of preservation: whereas the data proving
the ofcials integrity were perhaps no more relevant, the sums paid still were.
Although, on the face of it, it would be easier simply to deposit in an archive the
same table that was submitted for the audit, two considerations might have in-
terfered: economy of space (we do not know how archives were organized) and
perhaps more formal character of archives in comparison with the les present-
ed for the euthynae. The euthynae were basically oral procedures, I believe, espe-
cially in the fth century: the records prepared may have been rather loosely or-
ganized, because they were accompanied by oral explanations. We should expect
more uniform requirements for the les deposited into archives.
I see three basic possible reasons for signicant differences in form and con-
tent between various building inscriptions: 1) while some inscriptions were
based on the records submitted for the euthynae, others took information from
the reduced form of these records, deposited in an archive; 2) evolution of the
format of the records presented for the euthynae and perhaps of those stored in
archives; 3) having similar information for all building projects, the Athenians
in each given case decided to inscribe various parts of this information, depend-
ing on what seemed relevant for their purposes. Of course, these three possible
factors are not mutually exclusive.
6
We will now consider the probability of each
of these factors inuence for every one of the three main construction projects
of Classical Athens.
Periclean building documents
I doubt that anyone could have passed his audit with only the data preserved in
the inscriptions of the Parthenon or of Athena Promachos. This is especially true
with regard to those who paid to individual builders rather than to ofcial bod-
ies: since no name is mentioned, who could check that no obol of the huge sums
involved ended up in the coffers of those who pretended to give the money away
to masons and sculptors? Since we know that individual workmen were named
in the accounts of the Erechtheion and Eleusis, it is, on the face of it, the most
economic hypothesis that these data were available to the authors of the texts
of the Periclean building inscriptions as well, but were omitted most probably
for the sake of economy, but also perhaps because too much information would
obscure the main messages of the inscription, to which we shall soon return. In
any case, it was a relatively early stage in the development of the epigraphic hab-
it, when inscribing too detailed accounts was not something the Athenians got

6 The fact that building inscriptions are often reduced versions of original accounts may un-
dermine Burfords theory of the evolution of the building contracts: Kuznetsov 2000, 119-23,
127ff, 166-7 with Epstein 2008, 110.
131
attic building accounts from euthynae to stelae
used to. But while this hypothesis my number three seems most economic,
I would not altogether exclude two other possibilities. First, the Parthenon ac-
counts seem not to have been inscribed until the project had been in full swing:
the rst ve years are all inscribed in the same hand.
7
Likewise, the accounts of
the statue of Athena Promachos, which span the period of at least nine years, may
have been published at a single time.
8
If so, the records of the accounts for several
years must have been kept in some archive, at least until they were inscribed,
9

but they may have contained a reduced form of the records submitted for the au-
dit the form we read today. By the time contemporary accounts were published,
the epigraphic routine had already been established. Regardless of the delay in
publication, the reduced form may have been the only one preserved in an ar-
chive, at least at that time. Another possibility is that the written accounts of the
Periclean time, already at the stage of euthynae, were much less detailed than we
would expect. Some data may have been privately recorded and produced only
when required, i. e. when objections were raised during ones audit. Thus, when
the ofcials disbursed money to hundreds of workers witnesses presumably had
to be present. To record the witnesses names could have been even more impor-
tant than to write down all the names of the recipients, as many of them, being
foreigners, would leave Athens by the time of the euthynae.
10
Here we deal with
one of the most important differences between the roles of documents in ancient
Greece and in modern times. In our accounts, every entry about expenses and
even receipts has to be balanced by a corresponding signed document testifying
to the reality of the transaction. However, in ancient Greece witnesses and (pub-
lic) oaths played the role of our signature. Even in fourth-century Athens, written
contracts properly sealed and deposited were invalid without eyewitnesses of
the agreement.
11
This reminds us of destroying of documents concurrently with
a partys compliance with the obligations imposed by written arrangements,
mentioned above.
12
Accordingly, it would not be so surprising if the recipients
of public money remained sometimes (or always) anonymous in the accounts of
the Pentekontaetia. Surely, Pericles would not publicly point to Pleistoanax and
Kleandridas in his famous audit in 446.
13
As for the eyewitnesses of the transac-
tions, if they were ever ofcially registered (I doubt), it would serve no purpose
to preserve their names on stone after the euthynae.

7 Sickinger 1999, 70.
8 Ibid.
9 Sickinger 1999, 70-1.
10 See Epstein 2010 for a probably high ratio of journeymen among the builders of Athenian
temples and fortications.
11 E.g. Dem. 34,35; cf. Cohen 2006, 79 with n. 40; Faraguna 2008.
12 See supra, n. 3.
13 Ar. Nub. 859 with schol.; Plut. Per. 23.1.
132
Another interesting problem is the organization of the accounts by prytanies
(or absence of such organization). Some payments were made once in a prytany
already in the middle of the fth century (I
3
435.19, 26, 52, 77, 112), and, of course,
the epistatai of Athena Promachos kept records of such payments before they sub-
mitted their accounts. However, other payments are made daily or as lump sums
(:oo: znonz;, ibid., see also 472.186), and monthly payments (but not pay-
ments per prytany) are mentioned in the accounts of the Parthenon and Propy-
laia (ztzcv:o:;: I
3
436. 29; 443. 231; 446.339; 447.361; 449.403; 462.51). For this
reason, I would not be surprised to nd out that the les submitted to logistai (or
whoever examined the ofceholders after their terms in the fth century) were
not ordered by prytanies. This ignoring of prytanies seems even more probable
for the documents preserved in archives.
After envisaging the possibility that the original documents from which the
Parthenon inscriptions were drawn simply lacked many important data, we
remain with the fact that some data were surely there and were omitted when
the accounts were engraved. Thus, the names of the epistatai, recorded down to
438/7, are not given afterwards. As far as administration goes, it was not impor-
tant: their secretary is named (strangely enough, his name is preserved even for
the years when he was a syngrammateus, though the other grammateus name is
unknown), so the board may be easily identied, but this was so from the start.
14

Whatever the reasons for dropping the names of the commissioners, commemo-
rating these ofcials was hardly the purpose of inscribing the accounts. What
was the purpose?
It was once believed that the administrative accounts were inscribed for pub-
lic scrutiny.
15
We are more skeptical today.
16
The fuller version of the epistatais
accounts may have been exposed, on ozv:8c;, for scrutiny between their end of
term and euthynae,
17
but the Parthenon inscriptions as we have them are hardly a
convenient tool for accountability. In particular, no worker could nd himself in
these documents and check whether all money allegedly paid to him had really
reached his hands. And, of course, it would be pointless to check the rectitude of
the ofcials who underwent their audits several years ago. Of course, the huge
sums may have served as imperial propaganda,
18
though one can wonder whether
the buildings and statues themselves were not enough for this purpose. A partial
answer is that the epigraphic propaganda could be launched before the construc-
tions became impressive (but this does not seem to apply to the statue of Athena

14 Another example of haphazardness: the dating prescripts of the early years of the Parthe-
non accounts and of those of Propylaia omit archons names.
15 See, for example, ML, 164.
16 See, e.g., Hedrick 1994, whose case is perhaps overstated. See also Hedrick 1999; Rhodes
2001, 140-4 for a more balanced view.
17 On ozv:8c;, see Wilhelm 1909, 239-49; Fisher 2003.
18 Cf. Rhodes 2001, 140-1.
133
attic building accounts from euthynae to stelae
Promachos, as we have seen). There probably were other propagandistic points,
besides the grandeur of the undertaking. One of them, I would suggest, is dem-
onstrating that the sums, contributed by the hellenotamiai, are relatively mod-
est. In the best preserved accounts for 434/3 (ML 59) the board is not mentioned
at all, and in the Propylaia account of the same year (ML 60) it is only Athenas
aparche, a mina in a talent. The treasures of Athena seem to be the main paymas-
ters. It is probably not a coincidence that the publication of the Parthenon ac-
counts began the next year after the ostracism of Pericles main rival. The decision
to commemorate the accounts on stone was probably taken in the year of Thouky-
dides ostracism, when the opposition to the Periclean building program seems
to be maximal. In view of the accusations that the Athenians exploited their allies
by using their money, taken for military purposes, for adorning their own city
(Plut. Per. 12. 2), Pericles and his supporters tried to demonstrate that the con-
struction was mostly nanced from Athens own resources. The aparche was pre-
sumably seen as legitimate. Which contention was closer to the truth is another
matter.
19
There may have been an administrative point, too. The year when the ac-
counts of the Parthenon were rst inscribed is the year when syngrammateis to the
boards of the epistatai of the Parthenon and of the hellenotamiai are rst secure-
ly attested.
20
Whatever the logic behind these reforms, it was perhaps deemed
worthwhile to advertise the changes.
21
Last but not least, there was democratic propaganda, too. Though not very
suitable as a check on the authorities, the inscribed accounts probably served as a
symbol of accountability and transparency. When an Athenian looked at the stele
with the Parthenon accounts, he understood that the magistrates involved had
undergone audits whereby every willing citizen had been allowed to be present
and even to challenge any ofcial. Therefore, the technical details are not that im-
portant now. What matters is that it is we, the Athenians, who build magnicent
temples and manage impressive sums. Our ofcials submit us annual accounts
and publicize them. Every citizen who wishes may learn which board contrib-
uted how much to which purpose. As stated above, some information that we
consider as important and that we nd in later building documents may have
not been easily available to the authors of the Periclean building inscriptions.


19 See Kallet-Marx 1989 versus Samons 1993.
20 See ML, on p. 164.
21 Michele Faraguna reminds, in his response to this paper, that the sheer fact that there were
both a grammateus and a syngrammateus implies that the paperwork to be dealt with was not
negligible. One could suggest that the appointment of a permanent co-secretary of the Par-
thenon commissioners was needed because the decision to publish the records increased the
amount of paperwork. This seems seducing as far as the Parthenon accounts are concerned.
However, the appointment in the same year of a permanent syngrammateus to the hellenotamiai,
whose accounts remained unpublished at this stage (and perhaps at all, as we have seen: above,
n. 4) should give us a pause.
134
Even so, the Athenians could publish much more details, had they wished. What
they included was probably deemed sufcient for the purposes suggested here.
22
The Erechtheion
So much for the building accounts before the Peloponnesian war. As we have
seen, the documents of the next construction complex attested, the Erechtheion,
are mainly distinguished by three new features: they are ordered by prytanies;
inside prytanies they are ordered by architectural elements; they contain de-
tailed descriptions of how much was paid, to whom, for which tasks and by
which method. Of these three features, the order by prytanies was already es-
tablished by the time the construction of the Erechtheion was resumed (e.g.
ML 77 and, more immediately relevant, ML 84 of 410/9; interestingly, an oligar-
chic decree known as ML 81 refers to months, not to prytanies). In contrast, the
order by architectural elements is special for the Erechtheion. Besides the strin-
gent nancial and political situation, what was so special for this project is that
the construction was interrupted (we do not know when, nor, for that matter,
when it began). Schaps, in his yet unpublished essay referred to above, suggests
that, when the project was renewed in 409/8, nobody will have known ex-
actly how much work remained to be done, and so nobody can have calculated
precisely how much it should cost.
23
Hence the need to publish the survey of
what was already done (I
3
474), so that the information would remain publicly
available during the work and money could not be claimed for work that in fact
had been done by the earlier commissioners. The survey was organized, natu-
rally enough, by architectural item. For a further check on the commissioners,
the annual accounts recorded precisely which work was done, organized in the
same way. The explanation seems tempting. I would add another peculiarity of

22 The response of M. Faraguna justly emphasises the religious dimension of publicising
the building accounts. It is true that most Greek building inscriptions preserved reect the con-
struction of temples. Not all the temples, however. We still have to answer, why the building
accounts of some temples (and some secular projects, like Conons restoration of the Athenian
Walls) were inscribed, whereas other public construction activity remained epigraphically un-
attested. To the secular projects named by Faraguna one might add the construction of the Pnyx
(three times), of the Theater of Dionysus (twice, not to count local theaters), of the Tholos, of
the Arsenal, and so on. However, we have no accounts for the rst stage of the erection of the
Erechtheion, either. One cannot assume, together with Humphreys 1985, that all these build-
ings were privately nanced. In any case, there are no signicant differences in this respect
between the Lykourgan period and earlier decades, as we have seen. Of course, some building
inscriptions may remain unknown to us, but this possibility does not save Humphreys theory.
23 This is especially true if no accounts of the corresponding commissioners survived. Of
course, such possibility should have been an excellent argument for preserving the accounts,
but surely, the Athenians, like any other people, frequently learned from their own mistakes.
On the other hand, some accounts may have not survived in the stormy events of 415-410.
135
attic building accounts from euthynae to stelae
the project in question, following, too, from the interruption of the works: the
epistatai had to deal only with relatively advanced stages of the construction. Nei-
ther transportation nor works in quarries were needed. Certainly, the accounts
of these activities would not be ordered by architectural elements.
The particular need to provide a check on embezzlement, due to the unique
situation mentioned above, may have something to do with detailed indication
of the workers, their tasks and their salaries. Together with order by prytanies and
by architectural items, this feature surely made the accounts of the Erechtheion
look more like accounts. And though we nd most of these features in later ac-
counts in Attica and elsewhere, only the Delian building documents can rival
the inscriptions of the Erechtheion in their minute description of the tasks. It
seems that the epistatai used for their accounts written specications from which
the builders read off (or heard) their instructions. The similarity between some
lines of I
3
475 476 and the inscribed specications of the ships arsenal built by
Philon (IG II
2
1668.15ff), is striking. It is the most economic hypothesis that these
specications were included already in the records presented for the euthynae.
Similar material seems to be available to the ofcials of Periclean Athens, too,
24

but they did not use it, at least for the inscribed accounts. As for the indication
of the workmens status, the accounts of the Erechtheion remain unsurpassed
in Antiquity. Various explanations were offered for this rst appearance of the
individual in building accounts.
25
Political and nancial situation, administra-
tive reforms and gradual development of epigraphical habits were proposed as
causes. In fact, as individuals are named in later accounts, we should beware of
too circumstantial explanations. As for the stringent nancial situation, surely
no time was so prosperous that the Athenians were ready to tolerate embezzle-
ment. Some general factors surely were at play here. Thus, designation of metics
through demes where they were registered and of slaves through their owners
name in genitive is not attested before the end of the fth century. As for the
metics, Whitehead sees here a real reform of their status,
26
but a simple change
of epigraphic practice seems at least no less plausible. And it looks like the only
option for the change in designation of slaves. Similarly, as stated above, there
is no telling when individual workmen make their appearance in the euthynae
the change may have been merely epigraphic. Even so, neither resident aliens
nor slaves would be designated so precisely in any document before the end of
the fth century.
While this mentioning of every worker, including a slave, and meticulous in-
dication of his status is a (perhaps the) prominent feature of the accounts of the

24 Cf. Burford 1963, 25.
25 They are summarized in Feyel 2006, 16-7.
26 Whitehead 1977, 152.
136
Erechtheion,
27
we will be surprised to understand that some workmen remain
anonymous and probably even more are not even mentioned. The anonymous
workers are the ocvcyo: of Raidios (I
3
475.57, at least two, only one working
each given day
28
) and of Phalakros Paianieus (475.41-2, one man). They may be
slaves (cf. Xen. Mem. 2.3.3; we know that Phalacros had slaves, but they are named:
IG I
3
476.81-3, 229-31, 313-4), or relatives,
29
or pupils. The unmentioned workmen
are those who helped artisans employed on the basis of piece rate pay. The exist-
ence of such assistants is indicated by two facts. First, Raidios, already mentioned
here, works with assistants when employed on daily basis, but alone when paid
by piecework.
30
But he surely needs assistants when working with a two-hand
saw, as he probably does. The difference between the employment methods is
that it was pointless to mention assistants in the account when only the amount
of work done was relevant (and the name of the recipient of the pay Raidios in
our case). In comparison, the number of workers was of course relevant for daily
payment (but their names were not, since obviously the wage was taken directly
by Raidios). Second, the possibility of artisans paid by piecework having unmen-
tioned assistants (once more, probably slaves, but not necessarily) is sometimes
implied by comparison of their earnings when working in a group (when eve-
ry craftsman was recorded) and alone (cf., e. g., IG I
3
475.31-51 and 476.192-218,
223-48). We may nd it strange, that some workers are left unmentioned where-
as in other cases no one is forgotten, not even slaves. In fact, what is unusual is
not that ones slaves or other assistants are ignored when the pay depends on
the amount of work done, but that slaves are so often mentioned (and named)
in these accounts. Let us see, then, when they are mentioned. This occurs in
two cases: when slaves work separately of their masters, as slave carpenters do
(IG I
3
475.66-9, 233-4, 254-6, 288-93; and perhaps 476.119-23), or when they chan-
nel columns in brigades, together with free masons. When slaves have independ-
ent tasks, their names are relevant either as their owners title for the money
earned, or as independent recipients of their wages. But why on earth should one
mention slaves when they channel columns together with their masters (this
is what most slaves attested at the Erechtheion do), while omitting them when
they work, together with their masters, on stone blocks? The answer, I believe,
lies within the collective character of the channeling. Channelling of each col-
umn was, in fact, a latent form of contract,
31
but still without a formal contract
and accordingly without a formal contractor. Formal contracts for large sums are

27 In one instance, too diligent indication of status creates obscurity: Aco:z: A:nno Kc-
:o (475.110-3). See Epstein 2010, n. 31.
28 See Epstein 2010 with n. 4.
29 Cf. IG XI, 2, 161.71: N:av: z: ta: c:a: cyzozcvo:; cn: toc :ovo; cz; 8co :oo;
8zz:
30 Cf. Epstein 2009 with nn. 49-50.
31 Caskey 1927, 411.
137
attic building accounts from euthynae to stelae
avoided at the Erechtheion, for reasons that should be discussed separately. Ac-
cordingly, there was no one man who could receive the wage earned by the entire
brigade. In addition, the composition of these brigades was always heterogene-
ous: never only members of one family, never only a master and his slaves. Ac-
cordingly, it was important to precise the contribution of each worker or of his
master, if we speak of a slave. The slaves names proved that their owner really
brought such and such number of workers.
32
Now, if we believe, together with Burford and some other scholars, that the
workers are named (mainly) for ideological purposes,
33
we should conclude that
those unnamed did not work. However, we do have at least three unnamed syner-
goi. Moreover, the contractors workers are never mentioned in our inscriptions,
including those of Epidaurus, on which Burfords hypothesis is primarily based.
Does it mean that commemorating the builders just was not the purpose of in-
scribing these accounts? Not necessarily. We must keep in mind the difference
between the purpose of an account, and the purpose of its publication. The com-
missioners did not think of commemorating the workers when they prepared
the le for their audit they probably thought how to avoid severe punishment
in case of accusation of abusing public trust. When they prepared the inscrip-
tion, the names were not there. Of course, they could be restored, at least in some
cases. Phalakros, for example, was an Athenian citizen; his assistants name could
not be a great secret. But, apparently, this was never done. I am not surprised.
If commemorating the names of those who contributed to the building of the
temple had been the purpose of inscribing the accounts, why not simply pub-
lish a list of names, as, for example, in the casualty list of the Erechtheis tribe
(IG I
3
1147), or the list of those who participated in a naval battle (I
3
1032 = II
2
1951)?
By inscribing the nancial accounts, the Athenians achieved several aims: not
only they commemorated the names, but the precise contribution of everyone
involved. Beyond this, they provided an additional check on their ofceholders.
If the Periclean building inscriptions served as symbols of accountability and
transparency, those of the epoch of Cleophon were a means of attaining these
aims. I believe this step was taken, at least to an extent, consciously.

32 One Erechtheion account (IG I
3
475. 272-85) lists numbers of anonymous workers, from 19
to 33, (with unnamed functions) in several prytanies, and the sums paid. The sum in drachmas
equals the number of men in each of the prytanies. Loomis 1998, 105-6, sees here laborers,
who didunspecied work. The anonymity of these workmen induces Kuznetsov 2000, 52-3
to assume that they were slaves, public or private. I am not sure, and suggest that the sums reg-
istered are intended for the workers nourishment: one or two obols a day, during three or six
days for a worker. See Epstein 2008a, nn. 2, 15. In this case, the anonymity was only natural.
33 See, e.g., Graham 1998 108: citizens, foreigners, metics and slaves are engaged in some
common enterprise. Cf. Burford 1971, 75.
138
The Eleusinian Inscriptions
In Lykourgan Athens the records for the euthynae were doubtless ordered by
prytanies, as are the accounts of 329/8 (II
2
1672). However, the accounts of trans-
portation of marble drums to Eleusis (II
2
1673) ignore prytanies. This is surely a
case when not all information available was deemed relevant, probably because
the work was undertaken between July and September.
34
II
2
1672 is much more
similar to the accounts of the Erechtheion: the order by prytanies; sometimes
by architectural details; many workers are named and their status indicated. Be-
fore I proceed to differences between these accounts, I will highlight the differ-
ences between the conditions in which the works on the two complexes were
performed, as well as between the contexts in which the accounts were prepared.
First, II
2
1672 reects the activity of two boards: not only the Eleusinian epistatai,
but also of the Treasures of the two Goddesses. As these boards had different eu-
thynae, the accounts we have had to be composed for the publication, which pro-
vided good opportunity for editing. Second, contractors were widely used; we
shall see some consequences of this fact for the form and content of our accounts.
Third, the activity reected is not actually construction of a temple where none
existed. Some elements were built; some parts were repaired. Building debris
was removed. Transportation and quarrying were performed. Like in Delos, but
not as in the Erechtheion neither the works themselves nor the accounts could be
totally ordered by architectural items. The description of the work done is typi-
cally less detailed than in the accounts of the Erechtheion. One of the reasons, I
suggest, is that instead of using the written specications as a basis for the ac-
counts, as at the Erechtheion, the Eleusinian accounts use the contracts. This is
one result of contracting the work out: after all, one of the supposed advantages
of such contracting is that now it is the contractors, rather than the ofcials, who
should mostly deal with the specications. Another, more obvious result of the
wide use of contracts is that the contractors workers probably most builders
involved are totally unknown to us. I doubt that the authorities wanted to com-
memorate these workers, but had they wanted it would not have been easy they
surely did not know these workmen's names.
What is more enigmatic is the complete anonymity of daily wagers in the
Eleusinian accounts. As the workers employed on a daily basis are named in the
accounts of the Erechtheion (except when they are assistants), we may suggest
that the names of such workers were recorded in Lykourgan Athens, too. My
guess is that these names were omitted when the accounts were prepared for
publication. Since all daily workers of the same skill level got the same salary,
their names seem to be considered irrelevant. At the Erechtheion, such work-
ers were fewer and, especially in the rst documented year, they did not work

34 Salmon 2001, 200.
139
attic building accounts from euthynae to stelae
by more than three together. Afterwards the habit to mention the daily wagers
was already established. In comparison, at Eleusis we often see groups of ten mis-
thotoi, so that signicant space could be saved by suppressing their names. One
result is that we ignore the number of daily workers in the Eleusinian construc-
tion project. Accordingly, as only a name gives out its bearers status in Athens,
we cannot calculate the ratio of builders of various statuses on the Eleusinian
building site.
35
Conclusion
The Greeks were unique in inscribing nancial accounts. We have seen how in-
terplay between the available information and the purposes of its publication
might inuence the form and content of a particular subset of these accounts
building accounts. Though fuller versions of building documents may have ex-
isted in archives on perishable materials, the inscribed version was somehow
considered the ofcial one, in contrast to our present conception of the docu-
ment.
36
It is remarkable to what extent this ofcial document could have been
shaped by contingent circumstances.

35 For such calculations, see Feyel 2006, 325.
36 Rhodes 2001, 136.
140
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143
the plaint in athenian law and legal procedure
When an Athenian citizen or other resident of Attica initiated a private or public
suit, he began by issuing a summons to the defendant to appear before a magis-
trate on a certain day.
1
On this day he submitted a written document to the mag-
istrate, which recorded his own name, the name of the defendant, the type of
action he was initiating, and the charges against the defendant.
2
This might be
called an engklma (Dem. 32. 2, 4, 27; 34.16) or graphe (Dem. 18.8, 9).
3
If the defen-
dant denied the charges, he submitted a written statement to that effect called
an antigraphe (Lys. 23.10; Dem. 45.46; Hyp. Eux. 31; Poll. 8.58). Each litigant swore

1 For the methods of initiating legal procedures see Lipsius 1905-15, 804-28.
2 Calhoun 1919, 190 believes that in the time of the earlier orators complaints were still
made orally and were written down by the court ofcials, and that the practice of handing them
in in writing was introduced in the fourth century, probably not long before the commence-
ment of Demosthenes career.
3 Engklma appears to be the term used mainly in private actions (e.g. Dem. 34.16), but it
is used for the plaint in a public charge at Lys. 9.8 and Pl. Ap. 24b-c. In the procedure of phasis
the plaint was called the phasis see [Dem.] 58.7. In the eisangelia procedure the plaint could
be called the eisangelia cf. Lyc. Leocr. 137; Hyp. Lyc. 3; Eux. 29-32. In the apographe procedure
the plaint was called the apographe see Lys. 9.3. Cf. Lipsius 1905-15, 817 with note 48 (Fr
die besonderen Formen der ffentlichen Klagen wird die Klageschrift selbst, wie c:ozyyc:z,
zo:;, znzyay, cv8c::; . . . ).
The Plaint in Athenian Law
and Legal Procedure
edward m. harris
144
an oath that the statements in his document were true, and the document could
therefore also be called an antmosia (Is. 3.6; 5. 2; Lys. 23.13; Pl. Ap. 19b; Harpocra-
tion s.v. zvtaoo:z; Poll. 8.55).
4
If the magistrate accepted the case, he posted
a copy of the plaint before the statues of the Eponymous Heroes in the Agora
(Dem. 21.103).
5
Before the trial began the secretary of the court read the plaint
to the judges (Aeschin. 1. 2). At the end of his speech the accuser might read out
the plaint (Hyp. Phil. 13; Eux. 40) or remind the court of the main charges (Dem.
19.333; 23. 215-18). Despite its importance in Athenian legal procedure, the main
handbooks on Athenian law pay little attention to the plaint.
6
Several recent es-
says have discussed the plaint but only examine some of the evidence and do not
provide an extensive analysis of its role in Athenian legal procedure.
7
The basic form of the plaint contained the name of the accuser, the name
of the defendant and the name of the offense. A good example is the plaint
submitted by Apollodorus in his case against Stephanus: Apollodorus, the son of
Pasion, from the deme of Acharnai, (brings a charge) of false testimony against
Stephanus, the son of Menecles, from the deme of Acharnai. Penalty: one talent
( Anoo8ao; Hzo:avo; Azvcc; ltczva Mcvccoc; Azvc: cc8oz-
tc:av, t:z tzzvtov) (Dem. 45.46). The version Demosthenes (21.103) gives
of the plaint written by Euctemon follows the same pattern: Euctemon from the
deme of Lousia has brought a charge of desertion against Demosthenes from
the deme of Paiania (lctav Aoco:cc; cyzzto ^oocvv Hz:zv:cz

4 On this term see Wyse 1904, 294. Cf. Harrison 1971, 99.
5 Demosthenes (21.103) says that Euctemon brought a charge, which was displayed, then did
not attend the anakrisis, which would indicate that the magistrate posted the charge before the
anakrisis, not after. Pace Faraguna 2006, 205, note 34 (dopo lanakrisis una copia dellatto di
accusa veniva esposta dal magistrato . . .). Cf. Isocr. 15. 237; [Dem.] 58.7-8. On the monument of
the Eponymous Heroes see Shear 1970.
6 Beauchet 1897 contains no general discussion of the plaint. Lipsius 1905-15, 815-24 men-
tions only the plaints found at Dem. 45.46; Dem. 37. 22, 25, 26, 28, 29; D. H. Din. 3; Plut. Alc. 22;
D. L. 2.40 and does not discuss many of the passages examined in this essay. The index to his
work contains no entry for the term cyz. Harrison 1971, 91-2 mentions only those plaints
cited by Lipsius and contains no extensive discussion of their contents and role in litigation.
MacDowell 1978, 150-1, 201, 239 gives translations of the plaints at Dem. 37. 22, D. H. Din. 3,
and D. L. 2.40, but states only the prosecutor or claimant gave the magistrate a statement of
his charge or claim and that by the time of Demosthenes it was submitted in writing. Todd
1993, 126 discusses briey the possibility that the magistrate might not accept the indictment
but has nothing about the indictments form or contents. Gagarin 2008, 112-3 discusses only
the plaints cited by Harrison and has nothing to add to his discussion. Pbarthe 2006, 315-43
has a very good discussion of the documents used in litigation but has only three pages on the
engklema, phasis, and paragraphe.
7 Faraguna 2006 discusses only the plaints mentioned by Lipsius and Harrison and the doc-
uments at [Plut.] Mor. 833e-834b (I am skeptical about the authenticity of this document). Ber-
trand 2002 and Thr 2007 only discuss some of the evidence and provide little analysis of the
documents role.
145
the plaint in athenian law and legal procedure
:notz:oc).
8
The names of the accuser and the defendant are followed by the
patronymic and the name of their demes (Demosthenes is probably abbreviating
Euctemons plaint by omitting the patronymics). Demosthenes (21.87) says that
the names of the kleteres, the witnesses to the summons, were also written on the
plaint (cf. [Dem.] 53.14).
9
This information was important for the magistrate who received the charge
for several reasons. The rst was to establish the full identity of each party for all
subsequent stages of the procedure. If the defendant lost the case and had to pay
damages, the record of the trial would clearly indicate who had to pay. If the de-
fendant were condemned to pay a ne or lose some political rights, the praktores
who collected nes would know whom to record as a public debtor.
10
The second
was to determine the status of the two parties; if both were citizens, the magis-
trate would send the case to one of the regular courts, but if one party was a met-
ic, he would have to refer the case to the Polemarch and the prostates of the metic
might become involved. If the defendant were a slave, the magistrate would have
to make sure that his master would represent him in court. Lysias speech Against
Pancleon illustrates the importance of establishing the status of the defendant.
The accuser recounts how he summoned Pancleon before the Polemarch because
he assumed he was a metic (Lys. 23. 2). When he replied that he was a Plataean and
belonged to the deme of Decelea, the accuser summoned him before the court of
the tribe Hippothontis (Lys. 23.3). The fact that he was careful to select the right
jurisdiction reveals that he obviously expected the magistrate to reject the charge
if it was not brought in the right venue.
Third, the magistrate had to know the precise nature of the charge so that
he could be sure that the accuser was initiating a procedure contained in one of

8 The accuser in a public case apparently did not have to decide about what penalty he was
going to propose at the timesis phase of the trial until after the court voted about the guilt of
the defendant. This would explain why Demosthenes in his speech Against Meidias mentions
several possible penalties for the defendant. See Harris 1989, 125-26. This would also explain
why Euctemons plaint did not contain a penalty. See, however, [Dem.] 58.43 (Theocrines adds
a penalty of ten talents in a graphe paranomon), Aeschin. 2.14 (Lycinus writes one hundred tal-
ents as penalty), Arist. Ath. Pol. 48.4 (the accuser at the euthynai writes the penalty (to t:z
c[n:yz]zcvo;) and the comic version of a plaint found at Ar. Vesp. 894-97: zocct 8
t; yz;. cyzzto/Kcav Kc8zvz:cc; Azt A:avcz/tov tcov z8:c:v ot: ovo;
zto:cv/tov l:c:ov. T:z ao; oc:vo;. See also the law about archives from Paros,
which required the accuser in a public suit against those who tampered with public documents
to write the amount of the penalty in the plaint: t:z cn:yzocvo; | t: nzc:v zno-
tc:oz: (SEG 33.679, lines 27-32).
9 Lipsius 1905-15, 805 thought that this was not necessary because the names of these wit-
nesses are not found on the plaints in the passages cited in note 6, but there is no reason to
believe that these documents were complete.
10 For the praktores see Antiph. 6.49; IG I
3
59 (c. 430 BCE), fr. e, lines 47-8; IG II
2
45 (378/7),
line 7; Agora 15.56A, line 34. For the importance of having the right name on the plaint see
Dem. 39.15.
146
the laws. All magistrates in Athens were forbidden to follow any unwritten law,
that is, a law that was not found in the written lawcode of Athens (Andoc. 1.86).
11

If a magistrate accepted a charge that did not follow one of the legal procedures
in the lawcode, he would violate this rule and be subject to prosecution at his
euthynai (Arist. Ath. Pol. 48.4). The Athenian magistrate did not issue an edict in-
dicating what kinds of charges he would accept. He was not like a Roman mag-
istrate who could make procedural innovations by applying standard procedure
to new kinds of offenses or modify the traditional formulae; he could only accept
charges in accordance with a particular law. Fourth, the plaint would enable the
magistrate to make sure that the accuser had brought his charge in the correct
jurisdiction. If the accuser had brought his charge before the wrong magistrate,
the latter would reject the charge and could indicate to the accuser another mag-
istrate to whom he should submit his case. This also served to protect the mag-
istrate by helping him to avoid accepting cases that lay outside his jurisdiction.
Fifth, in private cases the magistrate, the public arbitrator and the court had
to know in private cases the exact amount of damages the plaintiff was request-
ing. The public arbitrator and the court needed to know so that it could deter-
mine whether the losses suffered by the plaintiff were roughly equivalent to
the damages he requested. For instance, Demosthenes, when arguing his case
against his guardians, had not only to prove that they had embezzled a large
amount of his inheritance but also to show the exact amount that they had taken
(Dem. 27.4-6). Sixth, if the plaintiff lost the case, the court had to know how much
he had requested to determine the amount of the epobolia, a ne of one-sixth the
amount he had requested.
12
Seventh, if the defendant were to charge the accuser
with making a false summons (graphe pseudokleteias), it was necessary to know
the names of the alleged witnesses to the summons so that they could be invited
to testify.
13
For all these reasons, it was crucial to have a written record of all this
information.
But the plaint contained much more information than these basic facts. The
accuser also had to indicate the illegal actions performed by the defendant. He
could not just assert that the defendant had broken the law; he had to show what
the defendant had done to violate the law. When describing the actions of the de-
fendant, the accuser also had to follow the language of the statute under which he
had initiated his procedure. In 343 Hyperides brought a charge of treason against
Philocrates using the procedure of eisangelia. This law applied to three types of
offenses: 1) attempts to overthrow the democracy, 2) treason (betraying [no8a ]
the city, its ships, land or naval forces), and 3) speaking against the best interests

11 Note that several passages state explicitly that an action was brought in accordance with
a specic procedure provided by law see, for example, [Dem.] 59.66; Dem. 24.32, 34-8; 32.1;
33. 2-3; 35.3; 43.7,15,16.
12 On the epobolia see MacDowell 2008.
13 On the graphe pseudokleteias see [Dem.] 53.14-18.
147
the plaint in athenian law and legal procedure
of the Athenian people while accepting money (ta av cy tz z:otz ta
8a ta Avz:av ztz zzvav) (Hyp. Eux. 7-8).
14
When he wrote his
indictment, he followed the wording of the third offense very carefully.
The impeachment that I drew up was just and in accordance with the law, referring
to him as an orator giving counsel against the best interests of the people and receiv-
ing money and gifts from those working against them. Even so I was not satised to
bring in the impeachment before I had added underneath: These proposals he made
against the best interests of the people, because he had taken bribes. And I wrote
his decree underneath. And again I added: These further proposals he made against
the best interests of the people, because he had taken bribes. And I wrote the decree
alongside. Indeed this statement is written down ve or six times because I thought
that the trial and the judgment should be just (Hyp. Eux. 29-30).
Hyperides included the three key terms public speaker (toz), not in the
best interests of the Athenian people ( tz z:otz ta 8a ta Avz:av), and
taking money (ztz zzvovtz, ztz zav) not just once but sever-
al times.
15
He also included texts of the decrees Philocrates had proposed when he
committed these offenses. The complete document must have been rather long.
The charges in the eisangelia brought by Polyeuctus against Euxenippus contained
the same terms from the statute: speaking against the best interests of the people
of Athens and taking money and gifts from those acting against the Athenian peo-
ple (Hyp. Eux. 39). After Lycurgus drew up his indictment against Leocrates using
the same procedure, several people approached him and asked why he did not in-
clude in it the charge that Leocrates had betrayed his fathers statue dedicated in
the temple of Zeus the Savior. Even though Lycurgus did not include this charge,
it contained the key word betrayed (no8c8acvz:) from the statute about ei-
sangelia (Lyc. Leocr. 136-7). When Lycurgus initiated the same procedure against
Lycophron for seducing the wife of Charippus, he included in his plaint a state-
ment of her relatives that during her wedding Lycophron followed her and tried
to persuade her to avoid having sexual relations with Charippus (Hyp. Lyc. 12).
He also wrote that Lycophron was making many women stay indoors and grow
old unmarried, while forcing many others into unsuitable and illegal marriages.
Even though his use of this procedure was highly unusual, Lycurgus still followed
the language of the statute by stating that these actions undermined the democ-
racy by violating the laws (Hyp. Lyc. 12: ztzcc:v tov 8ov nzzz:v[ov]tz
toc; vooc;).
16
When Theomnestus charged Neaira with wrongly claiming citi-

14 For discussion of the terms of the law in this passage see Whitehead 2000, 186-88.
15 Cf. Whitehead 2000, 236: Hyperides had taken care there to echo the words and phrases
of the impeachment law itself.
16 Lyc. Leocr. 147 may be a summary of the main charges in the indictment. A fragment from
one of Lycurgus speeches against Lycophron (fr. 63 Conomis) indicates that the accusers ar-
gument was that breaking the law was equivalent to overthrowing the democracy because the
laws protected the democracy. See Whitehead 2000, 129.
148
zen-rights, he used the language of the relevant statute, which forbade foreigners
to be married to an Athenian citizen ([Dem.] 59.17, 126).
When Epaenetus brought an accusation before the Thesmothetai against
Stephanus for wrongfully holding him as a seducer, he wrote a detailed justi-
cation of charges and quoted the relevant laws. The term moichos, which I have
translated as seducer, refers to someone who has illicit sexual relations with a
woman, usually the wife of another man or an unmarried daughter living under
the protection of a male relative.
17
He began by citing the law that allowed him to
bring this kind of public suit.
18
He then admitted that he had had sexual relations
with the daughter of Neaira, but denied that he had seduced her in violation of
the law. Next he presented his main arguments. First, she was not the daughter
of Stephanus, but of Neaira. Second, Neaira knew that her daughter was having
sexual relations with him. Third, he cited the law that did not permit anyone
who has sexual relations with prostitutes to be taken as a seducer and argued
that the house of Stephanus was a house of prostitution. Epaenetus closely fol-
lows both the law about the procedure he is following, presents the main facts he
promises to prove, and the law about prostitutes he will use to support his case.
19

His plaint was clearly very long and detailed.
20
The plaint that Meletus brought
against Socrates for impiety appears to have been shorter but still contained the
main charges and facts alleged against the philosopher. Meletus alleged that Soc-
rates was guilty because 1) he corrupted the youth; 2) he did not believe in the
gods that the community of Athens recognized, and 3) he introduced new gods
(Pl. Ap. 24b-c; cf. Euthphr. 3b).
21
In a public suit against an illegal decree, the plaint not only stated the charge
against the proposer of the decree but also listed the laws that the decree contra-
vened (Aeschin. 3. 200) and the specic clauses of the decree that were illegal.
22


17 See Kapparis 1999, 297-8 for discussion with references to earlier scholarship.
18 Kapparis 1999, 308-13 does not discuss the nature of the plaint brought by Epaenetus.
19 To prove his statements about Epaenetus plaint, Apollodorus does not have the secre-
tary read the plaint but calls the sureties and arbitrators who brought about a settlement
([Dem.] 59.70). This plaint was evidently not kept in the archives because Epaenetus withdrew
his charge before the case came to court ([Dem.] 59.68-9). On withdrawing charges before the
anakrisis, see Harris 2006, 405-22.
20 The charges mentioned by Demosthenes (19.8) in his prosecution of Aeschines were prob-
ably listed in the plaint: 1) Aeschines made no true report; 2) prevented the people from hearing
the truth from Demosthenes; 3) his proposals were not in the interests of Athens; 4) Aeschines
did not obey the instructions in the decree about the embassy; 5) Aeschines wasted time during
which the city lost opportunities, and 6) Aeschines accepted gifts and payments. Demosthenes
repeats several of these charges at 278-9.
21 I am skeptical about the authenticity of the denunciation of Alcibiades brought by Thes-
salus (Plut. Alc. 22.4; cf. 19. 2-3). For a defense of its authenticity see Frost 1961; Stadter 1989,
LXIX-LXXI, and Pelling 2000, 27.
22 Cf. [Dem.] 58.46: if Theocrines brought a graphe paranomon, he would have added the laws
violated by the defendant in his indictment.
149
the plaint in athenian law and legal procedure
When Diodorus accused Aristocrates of proposing an illegal decree for Charide-
mus, he included in the plaint all the laws Aristocrates had violated: 1) the law
about the Areopagus; 2) the law about convicted murderers; 3) the law about
bringing convicted murderers to the Thesmothetai; 4) the law about just homi-
cide; 5) the law requiring trials for all accused of murder; 6) the law about taking
hostages; 7) the law about laws being the same for all individuals, and 8) and the
law requiring that no decree take precedence over a law (Dem. 23. 215-18; cf. 51).
Demosthenes (18.56-9) says that Aeschines indictment of Ctesiphon singled out
three clauses in his decree of honors: 1) that Demosthenes always speaks and acts
for the public benet; 2) that Demosthenes should receive a crown, and 3) that
the award of the crown should be announced in the theater of Dionysus.
23
When
Diodorus charged Androtion with proposing an illegal decree of honors for the
Council, he included in his plaint the laws that he claimed Androtion had vio-
lated (Dem. 22.34). These included the law requiring all decrees of the Assembly
receive prior approval from the Council (Dem. 22.5-7), the law forbidding honors
for members of the Council who have not had triremes built (Dem. 22.8), and the
law forbidding prostitutes and public debtors to propose motions in the Assem-
bly (Dem. 22. 21-24, 33-4).
24
The plaint in a private suit also included a description of the main facts the
plaintiff had to prove and followed the language of the relevant statute. Dionysius
of Halicarnassus (Din. 3) gives the text of a plaint brought by Dinarchus against
Proxenus: Dinarchus, the son of Sostratus, a Corinthian, (brings a case of) dam-
age against Proxenus. Proxenus harmed (czc) me by receiving into his house
in the country when I had ed from Athens and returned to Chalcis, two hundred
and eighty-ve gold staters, which I had sent from Chalcis with Proxenus know-
ledge and which I had when I came to his house, and silver items worth not less
than twenty mnai. He plotted against these. As in the plaints brought in public
cases, the charges contain the key word from the statute (czc) and specify
the facts the accuser seeks to prove.
25
The law about damage also contained dif-
ferent penalties for damage caused willingly, for which there was double com-
pensation, and damage caused involuntarily, for which there was simple com-
pensation (Dem. 21.43). This is probably the reason why Dinarchus added the
phrase to show that Proxenus had acted willingly, which would have entitled him
to double compensation. When Apollodorus brought his charge of false testimo-
23 Aeschines charges: Aeschin. 3.9-31 (Ctesiphons decree awarded a crown to an ofcial who
had not yet passed his euthynai), 32-48 (the decree provided for an announcement of the crown
in the theater of Dionysus), 49-170 (the decree contains false statements).
24 The plaint in charges against inexpedient laws may also have contained texts of the laws
violated by the new laws, but the two preserved speeches delivered in cases brought on this
procedure, Demosthenes Against Leptines and Against Timocrates, do not discuss the plaint.
25 Compare the use of the word czc in the plaints mentioned at Dem 36. 20. For a plaint in
a private suit for damages specifying the actions of the defendant see also Dem. 52.14.
150
ny (cc8oztc:av) against Stephanus, he stated in his plaint: Stephanus gave
false testimony against me (tz cc8 oc ztcztcoc) by testifying to the
written statements contained in the document and added a copy of Stephanus
testimony (Dem. 45.9-11, 46). When Theopompus made his claim for the estate
of Hagnias, he was careful to include in his written statement that he was the
son of a cousin, basing his claim on the precise wording of the relevant statute
(Is. 11.18). When an accuser brought an indictment for homicide before the Ar-
eopagus, his sworn statement included the verb killed (ctc:vc) found in the
law about the jurisdiction of the Areopagus (Lys. 10.11; Dem. 23. 24-5).
The plaint that Pantaenetus made against Nicobulus also contains many de-
tails about the defendants actions.
26
First, it states that Nicobulus made a plot
against him and his property and that he instructed his slave to carry out the
plot. Second, Nicobulus placed his slave in his mining works and forbade him
to continue working them (Dem. 37. 25). The third charge appears to have been
related to the slaves of Pantaenetus. The summary of Nicobulus does not allow
us to determine the nature of the fourth charge (Dem. 37. 28), but the fth charge
was that Nicobulus had violated the contract, probably by seizing the mining
works (Dem. 37. 29). At the end of the plaint were several additional charges in-
cluding assault, outrage, violence, and offenses against heiresses (Dem. 37.32-3),
but Nicobulus does not specify what actions Pantaenetus accused him of com-
mitting. Later in the speech, however, Nicobulus reveals that Pantaenetus
charged him with entering his house and going into the rooms of his daughters
(Dem. 37.45). In his plaint in a maritime suit Zenothemis stated that he had
made a loan to Hegestratus on the security of a cargo and that after Hegestratus
was lost at sea Demo misappropriated the cargo (Dem. 32. 2, 4).
27
As in the plaints
for public charges, those for private charges also contained the main facts the
accuser intended to prove.
The plaint in a suit for damages might contain a detailed list of sums. Dem-
osthenes says that his plaint against Aphobus began: Demothenes makes the
following charges against Aphobus: Aphobus holds money belonging to me,

26 The inserted documents at Dem. 37. 22 and 29 must be forgeries because the statements
they contain are not consistent with the information found in the speech. First, the document
uses the rst person singular, but other examples of plaints use only the third person (Dem.
21.103; Ar. Vesp. 894-97). Second, the narrative states that Evergus seized the mining works of
Pantaenetus and caused him to become a public debtor. This implies that Pantaenetus became
a public debtor because he could not operate his mining works and earn the money needed to
make his payments to the state. Pantaenetus also claimed that Evergus and Nicobulus violated
their agreement by seizing his mining works (Dem. 37.6). The document at 22 however states
that Pantaenetus became a state debtor because Nicobulus slave seized the money his slave was
taking to make the payment for the mine. The document at 29 states that Nicobulus violated
the agreement by selling the mining works and the slave, but this is at odds with the statement
at Dem. 37.6. This casts doubt on the other inserted documents at Dem.37. 25, 26 and 28.
27 Cf. the charges in the plaint summarized and read out at Dem. 34.16.
151
the plaint in athenian law and legal procedure
which he received as guardian, eighty mnai, which he received as the dowry of
my mother according to the will of my father (Dem. 29.31). He then listed all
the items he claimed, specifying the source of each, the exact amount, and the
person from whom Aphobus received it (Dem. 29.30). These items included 1)
money from the sale of slaves for his mothers dowry (Dem. 27.13-17); 2) money
owed from the failure to return the dowry (Dem. 27.17); 3) thirty mnai from
revenue of a workshop and the sale of slaves (Dem. 27.18-22); 4) money from
twenty slaves given as security for a loan (Dem. 27. 24-29); 5) the value of iron and
ivory from the workshop (Dem. 27.30-33), and 6) cash left with the guardians and
the interest accruing (Dem. 27.33-39). Demosthenes was also careful to mention
that Aphobus received this money in his capacity as guardian (cn:ton;), using
the key word in the statute governing the procedure he had selected.
28
Once
again, the plaint must have been very long.
The counter-plea might contain the basic facts the defendant intended to
prove. In his reply to the charges of Apollodorus, Stephanus replied that his tes-
timony was true (Dem. 45.46). When the half-brother of Astyphilus brought
his case against Cleon, he not only claimed the estate of Astyphilus but outlined
his main arguments and the facts he intended to prove: rst, Astyphilus did not
adopt Cleons son; second, Astyphylus did not leave his property to anyone; third,
Astyphilus did not make a will; and fourth, he has the best claim on the property
of Astyphilus (Is. 9.1).
Even though Athenian law contained nothing like the prescribed phrases of
the Roman formulary system, one should not exaggerate the difference between
the two systems. When the accuser drew up his plaint he had to follow the lan-
guage of the statute.
29
If the plaint did not contain the key words of the relevant
statute, the magistrate who received the charge might compel the accuser to
add them. When Dionysius used the procedure of apagoge to the Eleven against
Agoratus, he charged him with killing his father. For one to use this procedure,
however, one had to apprehend the defendant ep autophoro, that is, in circum-
stances that made his guilt obvious.
30
To make the plaint Dionysius submitted
conform to the language of the statute, the Eleven insisted that he add the key
term epautophoro to the charge (Lys. 13.85-87).
One of the reasons for requiring the accuser to write the specic charges
he intended to prove at the trial was to ensure procedural fairness for the de-
fendant. The defendant needed to know not only the kind of action the accuser


28 Note that the key word cn:ton was also written in the plaint against Aristaechmus who
was accused of misappropriating the property of his wards (Dem. 38.15).
29 Note that the diamartyria submitted by Leochares against the claim of Leostratus to the es-
tate of Archiades followed the terms of the law ([Dem.] 44.46: ovtav zcta nz:8av yvo:av z:
c:a; ztz tov coov).
30 For the procedure and the meaning of the term ep autophoro see Harris 2006, 373-90.
152
had brought but also to know what the accuser claimed that he had done. This
would allow him to prepare a detailed reply to each one of the charges. T. Bing-
ham rightly stresses the importance of informing the defendants about charges
against them:
The fair trial of a civil action is now held to require the parties to reveal their respec-
tive cases and almost all material relevant to them before the trial even begins. The
point of the law is that litigation should be conducted with the cards face up on the
table. This is achieved, rst, by requiring the claimant to set out in writing in some
detail the grounds on which he claims. He cannot appear at trial and present a case
different from that which he has advanced in writing. The defendant in turn must
set out in some detail in writing the ground on which he resists the claim. He cannot
simply deny the claim and leave the claimant and the judge wondering what his de-
fence is. Nor can he appear at trial and advance a defence different from that indicated.
Thus the line of battle should be drawn with some precision before the rst shot is
red in court.
31
The accuser was also required to provide at the anakrisis all the evidence he
planned to present at the trial.
32
This evidence was then placed in a container
called an echinos; the accuser could not present at the trial any evidence of docu-
ments not placed in the echinos. On the other hand, the reply of the defendant
would also let the accuser know how he planned to reply to his charges.
33
Of course, there was always the possibility that at the trial the accuser might
make charges that were not contained in the indictment. Hyperides (Eux. 32)
describes how this tactic might put the defendant in a difcult position: if the
defendant were to reply to charges not contained in the indictment, the court
might reprimand him for discussing irrelevant matters, but if he were to neglect
them, the court might assume they were true. Several defendants complain about
this tactic. A soldier accused of slandering generals claims that instead of concen-
trating on the charges in the plaint his opponents are slandering his character
(Lys. 9.1-3). When defending Ctesiphon, Demosthenes (18.9) criticizes Aeschines
for using this tactic: because he has spent the larger part of his speech on other
topics and told very many lies about me, I think that it is necessary and correct to
say a few words about these charges so that none of you be misled by irrelevant
arguments and listen to my just points about the indictment in a hostile spirit.
For instance, Aeschines when prosecuting Timarchus complained that Demos-
thenes would attempt to distract the judges from the charges by talking about
the recent peace with Philip and other irrelevant matters (Aeschin. 1.166-70). In
the speech Against Androtion the accuser Diodorus complains that the defendant

31 Bingham 2010, 101.
32 See Thr 2007.
33 On the anticipation of arguments in Athenian courts see Dorjahn 1935, who may underes-
timate the amount of information obtained through the plaint and at the anakrisis.
153
the plaint in athenian law and legal procedure
is skilled in rhetoric and that he will deceive the judges and make them forget
about their oath (Dem. 22.4).
34
Hyperides exaggerates the problem because there was a safeguard protecting
the defendant. In their oath Athenian judges swore to vote only about the charges
in the indictment (Dem. 45.50).
35
This meant that when casting their votes, the
judges should consider only the facts that the accuser promised to prove and dis-
regard all statements that did not bear directly on these charges (ca toc nzy-
zto;). In fact, Hyperides (Eux. 35-6) reports that Lysander charged Epicrates of
Pallene with digging his mine inside the limits of another mans mine and tried
to sway their decision by promising to bring in three hundred talents for the
citys budget.
36
The judges paid no attention to the accusers promises but fol-
lowed what justice required: they determined that the mine was inside its own
boundaries and by that same vote made their property secure and conrmed the
rest of their period for working the mine. The accusers promise did not sway
the judges; they paid attention to the law and the facts of the case. When they saw
that the defendants actions did not violate the law and that he was not guilty of
the charge of encroaching on anothers mine, he was acquitted.
Another way of distracting the judges from the charges in the plaint was for
the defendant to boast about his public service. Lysias (12.38) notes how some
defendants make no attempt to answer the charges against them but show that
they are good soldiers, or have captured many ships from the enemy, or have
made cities that were hostile into your friends. Several passages however show
that the courts ignored such statements because they were strictly irrelevant to
the charges contained in the plaint.
37
Aeschines (3.195) says that the court that
tried Thrasybulus on a charge of proposing an illegal decree did not take into
account his role in restoring the democracy but convicted him because he was
guilty as charged. When Aristophon charged Timotheus with bribery, the court
paid no attention to his victories and conquests but convicted him on the charge
Aristophon brought: You did not allow public services like these to inuence the
trial or the oath that you obeyed while casting your votes, but you ned him one
hundred talents because Aristophon said he received money from the Chians and
Rhodians (Din. 1.14). According to Demosthenes (21.143-47), the court did not al-
low the achievements of Alcibiades and his ancestors to affect their decision, but

34 See also Dem. 21. 208, 211 where Demosthenes predicts some wealthy trierarchs will ask the
judges to acquit Meidias as a favor to them and to pay no attention to their oath. Cf. Dem. 23.95,
219 for attempts to distract the judges.
35 This clause is mentioned or alluded to many times in forensic oratory: Aeschin. 1.154, 170;
Dem. 22.4, 43, 45; 24.189; 30.9; 32.13; 37.17; Is. 6.51-2; Lyc. Leocr. 11-13.
36 For the nature of the charge see Whitehead 2000, 248-9 with references to earlier litera-
ture.
37 Pace Lanni 2005 and 2006, 46-64 who does not discuss the plaint and its role in litigation.
154
sent him into exile for violating the law.
38
When Epicrates was accused of bribery
and other offenses in the Assembly, Demosthenes (19. 277) tells us that his ser-
vice in restoring the democracy did not help him to win acquittal. The written
plaint was an important way of checking this abuse. The plaint compelled the
defendant to reply to the specic charges against him and prevented him from
introducing irrelevant material. The plaint also served to keep the judges focused
on their duty to punish those who had violated the law.
39
After the trial was over, the plaint was kept on le, probably in the Metroon.
40

According to Aristotle (Pol. 6.5.4.1321b34-37), the normal Greek city-state kept
records about the verdicts in trials. Athens was no exception to this general
rule.
41
Several passages show that documents containing the charges were kept
in the archives after the trial was concluded. The rst comes from Demosthenes
speech Against Zenothemis. Zenothemis brought two separate suits against Pro-
tus and Demo in a dispute about loans made on the security of grain shipments
(Dem. 32.4). Protus did not contest the charges brought by Zenothemis and lost
his case by default. When Zenothemis brought his case against Demo, the latter
charged that the suit was not admissible and brought a paragraphe action. At the
trial he cited the statements made by Zenothemis in his plaint against Protus and
used them as evidence in his own case (Dem. 32. 27).
42
The second comes from
Demosthenes speech Against Nausimachus and Xenopeithes. Nausimachus and

38 Demosthenes alters some of the details to make Alcibiades case resemble that of Meidias,
but that does not alter his point that the courts paid no attention to public service. For examples
of other men who were convicted despite their public service see Dem. 24.133-35 (Thrasybulus,
Philepsius, Agyrrhius, and Myronides) and Hdt. 6.136.1-3.
39 Note Antiphon 5.11 the judges are to consider only whether the defendant committed
the crime. Compare also Lys. 16.9, which contrasts the dokimasia, at which it was permitted to
discuss the candidates entire life, with regular trials, at which the accuser had to limit himself
to proving the charges in the plaint. Rhodes 2004 observes that Athenian litigants generally
keep to the point, but he does not discuss the role of the plaint. Rhodes never denes what he
means by relevant and his judgment of what is relevant and what is not in the speeches is
often arbitrary.
40 Pace Gagarin 2008, 195: But verdicts in general were not ofcially recorded. In footnote
49 Gagarin claims although speakers often mention the result of a previous case () no speak-
er mentions writing in connection with the verdict in a private case. The evidence cited below
(overlooked by Gagarin) shows that the plaint, which presumably recorded the courts decision,
was in fact kept in the archives. Records of verdicts may have also been kept at the Aiakeion (see
Stroud 1994).
41 Cf. the anecdote of Chamaeleon of Heraclea (fr. 44 Wehrli = Athen. 9.407b-c) about Alcib-
iades entering the Metroon and erasing the indictment against his friend Hegemon of Thasos.
According to Diogenes Laertius (2.40) the indictment of Meletus against Socrates was still in
the Metroon during the second century CE. Sickinger 1999, 131-33 is rightly skeptical about the
veracity of Chamaeleons anecdote and the document in Diogenes Laertius, but this does not
mean that other plaints could not have been preserved in the Metroon.
42 The accuser of Pancleon uses his statement in his reply to a charge made by Aristodicus in
the same way, but, instead of having the document read by the secretary, calls Aristodicus as a
witness (Lys. 23.13-14).
155
the plaint in athenian law and legal procedure
Xenopeithes had brought separate suits against their guardian Aristaechmus
for damages when they reached the age of majority. They reached a settlement
with Aristaechmus, who paid them three talents and was given a release (Dem.
38.3-4). After the death of Aristaechmus, however, Nausimachus and Xenopei-
thes brought separate suits against each of his four children. One of the children
brought a paragraphe against this claim on the grounds that a release had been
granted (Dem. 38.4-5). At the trial, the son had the text of the plaint in their earli-
er suit against Aristaechmus read out (Dem. 38.14).
The third passage comes from Isaeus speech On the Estate of Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus
had adopted Endius, who inherited his estate and survived him for twenty years
(Is. 3.1). After he died a woman named Phile claimed that she was the legitimate
daughter of Pyrrhus, and her kyrios Xenocles of Kopros, claimed the estate on her
behalf (Is. 3.2). The sister of Pyrrhus also claimed the estate, but Xenocles chal-
lenged her claim with a diamartyria. In response to this diamartyria the son of Pyr-
rhus mother brought a charge of false testimony against Xenocles and obtained
a conviction against him (Is. 3.3-4). He then brought another charge of false testi-
mony against Nicodemus, the brother of Philes mother, who had testied about
his sisters marriage to Pyrrhus (Is. 3.4-7). At the trial of Nicodemus, the son of Pyr-
rhus mother had the clerk read out the diamartyria brought by Xenocles and used
it as evidence to prove that the defendant had given false testimony (Is. 3.6-7).
Even if the accuser did not follow through on a public charge, a copy of his
indictment was still kept on le. For instance, Theocrines denounced Micon
concerning a merchant ship using the procedure of phasis ([Dem.] 58.5).
43
Theo-
crines gave the denunciation to Euthyphemus, the secretary of the overseers of
the port, who posted the charge in front of their ofce ([Dem.] 58.8).
44
Theocrines
came to an illegal agreement with Micon, withdrew the charge, and convinced
Euthyphemus to erase the denunciation just as the overseers were summoning
Theocrines to the preliminary hearing ([Dem.] 58.8-10). Even though the copy
that was posted before the ofce of the overseers was erased, the original copy of
the plaint was kept on le and was read out by the clerk when Theocrines was lat-
er brought to trial for making an illegal settlement with Micon ([Dem.] 58.7-8).
For the litigants there were two main reasons for keeping the plaint on le.
First, it protected the defendant from any further charges. The laws of Athens
provided that once a case was settled or decided, one could not bring another

43 On this procedure one can consult MacDowell 1991; Hansen 1991 and Wallace 2003.
MacDowell and Hansen believe that there was one law about phasis, but it is more likely that
this procedural term was found in several different laws and that in each law it had a slightly
different meaning suited to the substantive context. To this extent I would agree with Wallace,
but do not nd convincing his general conclusions about Athenian laws.
44 On these ofcials see Din. 2.10; SEG 26.72, lines 41-44 with Stroud 1974, 180-81; Arist. Ath.
Pol. 51.4.
156
case against the same person on the same charge (Dem. 20.147; 37.18, 21).
45
If an
accuser did attempt to violate this rule by bringing a second charge on the same
grounds, it was important for the defendant to have a public document on record
to prove that the case had already been decided. This is the way the son of Aristae-
chmus used the plaint in his case against Nausimachus and Xenopeithes. Second,
if one initiated a public charge, then failed to bring the case to trial, the accuser
lost the right to bring any more public charges. Therefore even if the accuser did
not follow through on his prosecution, it was important to keep the plaint in the
archives because it provided evidence for his partial loss of rights (atimia). This
is the way the accuser who prosecuted Theocrines used the plaint. Third parties
could also use the evidence of the plaint to establish facts that might support
their cases. This is the way Demo used the plaint in his case against Zenothemis.
The plaint was not the only record of trials in Athens. The poletai recorded
the sales of conscated properties and often included details about legal pro-
cedures and verdicts. For instance, in the records for the years 342/1-339/8 the
poletai reported the conscation of properties owned by Philocrates, the son of
Pythodorus, from the deme of Hagnous. The document lists the properties con-
scated, then adds all the properties of Philocrates, son of Pythodorus, [of Hag-
nous, being conscated] since Philokrates did not appear for [the trial] according
to the public indictment which was brought against him by Hyperides, son of
Glaukippos, of Kollytos, but was convicted in absentia by the court. (trans. Merit-
t).
46
There is a more lengthy entry in the records of 367/6 for the property of Theo-
sebes, who was convicted on a charge of impiety and did not show up at his tri-
al.
47
In this case, several creditors came forward to present claims to his property,
and the document records the amounts claimed and the decision to pay these
claims. Most of the entries are much more brief and record properties reported
by the apographe procedure. Even though these documents do record the verdicts
of trials or other legal procedures, their main functions were different from the
plaints that were kept in the Metroon. One function was nancial: these records
kept track of public revenues gained by sales of conscated property. Another
was to ensure the accountability of the poletai and to prevent embezzlement by
these ofcials. A third function was to provide proof of ownership for those who
purchased the conscated properties.
48
The supervisors of the eet also kept records that might include the verdicts
of trials. Each trierarch had the duty to return the ship in good repair to the dock-

45 For this point see Faraguna 2006, 206.
46 For the text see Langdon, in Lalonde, Langdon & Walbank 1991, P26, lines 446-60. There
appears to be another entry for property conscated from Philocrates, which uses similar lan-
guage: cf. P26, lines 399-402.
47 For the text see P5, lines 8-39.
48 On the documents about land ownership in Attica see Faraguna 1997.
157
the plaint in athenian law and legal procedure
yards of the eet.
49
The Supervisors (epimeletai) of the dockyards in conjunction
with a tester (dokimastes) inspected the triremes when they returned, classied
them as in good shape or not, and reported their ndings to the Council.
50
If
there was damage to the ship or it was lost, the trierarch could be held nancially
responsible, and the case was heard before a court, which might impose a penalty
of double the value of what was lost.
51
The trierarch could present an excuse (skep-
sis) and claim that the loss or damage was caused by a storm. If the court accepted
his excuse, the trierarch was exonerated.
52
One entry in the records of the Super-
visors for the year 325/4 states that the trierarchs Euthydicus, the son of Antiph-
anes of Phegai and Diphilus the son of Diopeithes of Sounion presented such an
excuse and were acquitted (IG II
2
1629,

lines 771-80). In cases of acquittal like this
one, these records would protect the defendant against any further legal action.
Another entry is longer and more detailed (IG II
2
1631, lines 350-403).
53
A trea-
surer named Cephisodorus had not returned the equipment for ten triremes
(IG II
2
1631, lines 357-59). After he died, the supervisors of the dockyards brought
charges against his brother Sopolis in 325/4, and the court imposed a ne for
more than double the value of the equipment (IG II
2
1631, lines 353-60). Sopo-
lis returned some oars, but all of his property was declared subject to consca-
tion and reported by Polyeuctus (IG II
2
1631, lines 360-65). Polyeuctus however
allowed Sopolis to keep his share of the reward so that he could retain his rights
as a citizen (IG II
2
1631, lines 365-8). He also passed a decree in the Council pro-
tecting Sopolis against any further claims on his property (IG II
2
1631, lines 350-2,
368-403).
A fourth kind of record recording the outcome of trials are the so-called diadi-
kasia-documents. Evidence for these records is provided by eight inscriptions.
54

The headings of three of these inscriptions contain the phrase o:8c 8:c8:zozv-
to (the following men brought a diadikasia-procedure). The heading of one of
these inscriptions is dated by the archon Phanostratus and the secretary Cleide-
mus to the year 383/2 (IG II
2
1930, lines 1-2). The heading of another inscription
has the same secretary (IG II
2
1931, lines 1-2). A third inscription contains the
names of two archons (380/79) and (381/0) (Hesperia 15, 1946, 160, no. 17,
lines 1-3). Each list contains a series of entries beginning with a name in the nom-
inative with a patronymic, followed by the preposition zvt: (instead of) and a
name in the genitive with the patronymic. One of the lists is organized by demes

49 For the duties of trierarchs see Gabrielsen 1994, 105-69.
50 For the role of the Council in supervising the eet see Arist. Ath. Pol. 46.1 with Rhodes 1972,
115-22 and 153-58.
51 For references see Rhodes 1972, 154, note 2.
52 IG II
2
1629, lines 746-49, 796-99; 1631, lines 115-20, 140-43, 148-52.
53 On this case see Gabrielsen 1994, 163-64.
54 IG II
2
1928-32; Hesperia 7, 1938, 277, no. 12; 306, no. 29; Hesperia 15, 1946, 160, no. 17.
158
(IG II
2
1932) while another contains demotics as well as patronymics (Hespe-
ria 15, 1946, 160, no. 17). The obvious explanation for these entries is that the
rst person challenged the second person to undertake his duties in a diadikasia
and that as a result of the trial, the second person replaced him.
55
There has been
some debate about the nature of the public duties at issue in these legal proceed-
ings, but Davies has made a strong case for relating them to a group called the
Thousand, who were liable for payment of the eisphora early in the fourth centu-
ry BCE.
56
Like the records of trials involving trierarchs, these records were kept
mainly for nancial purposes: their aim was to provide an authoritative list of
those required to pay the eisphora. They also protected those who brought the
challenge from further liability for the eisphora. As with the records of trials in-
volving trierarchs, they served both the nancial interests of the state and the
legal rights of individuals.
A fth kind of document recording the verdicts in trials are the records of
dedications of phialai made by metics preserved in a series of fragmentary in-
scriptions. The standard formula in these records is x, living in [deme], having
escaped (= escaped conviction by) y, phial by weight 100 while the most detailed
version of the formula is x, living in [deme], [profession], escaped y, son of yy, of
[deme], phial by weight 100.
57
I give a sample of three entries:
Soteris, living in Alopeke [a pedd]ler(?), having escaped (conviction by) Sostratos of
Hermos (and) Timarchides of Euonymon, phial by w[eigh]t: 100.
Eutychis, a peddler, having escaped (conviction by) Sostratus (and?) Mnesistratus of
Alopeke, phial by weight: [100].
P(hi)linna, living in Pirae(us), having escaped (conviction by) Astynomos from Oia,
phial by weight: 100.
The nature of these trials depends on how one restores the heading in the cyma-
tion of IG II
2
1578. Meyer has recently restored the lines to read: These dedicat-
ed. [All received or listed] when Demoteles, son of Antimachos, of Halieus, was
polemarch, according to the law, from the graphai aprostasiou, on the fteenth
of Hekatombaion.
58
Many other scholars have however restored the private ac-
tion dike apostasiou, and some have argued that these trials were legal ctions
that were actually manumissions.
59
This is not the place to enter into this con-
troversy.
60
The only point I wish to make is that the primary purpose of these

55 On the diadikasia for liturgies see Harrison 1971, 237-8.
56 Davies 1981, 133-50.
57 See Meyer 2010, 12-3.
58 See Meyer 2010, 133-35.
59 For discussion see Meyer 2010, 17-28 and 43-7 with references to the views of earlier
scholars.
60 My own view is that Meyer is correct to reject the idea that these trials were manumis-
sions effected by the legal ction of a trial on a charge of apostasiou. I am skeptical however
159
the plaint in athenian law and legal procedure
inscriptions is to record dedications, which make them similar to the records of
dedications in the Parthenon and Erechtheum.
61
That is why they give the weight
of the dedication and do not specify the nature of the legal action. They aim to
prevent embezzlement by ofcials, not to provide a record of a trial. Even though
the records of the poletai about conscations, the naval inventories and the dedi-
cations of phialai report the verdicts in trials, they are really nancial records that
mention verdicts rather than records of trials.
62
If there was a trial in the Assembly and the defendant was found guilty, there
was a decree recording the grounds for conviction and the penalty imposed.
63

At the trial of Aeschines in 343, Demosthenes (19. 276-80) had the clerk read out
the decree condemning Epicrates and other ambassadors to death. He quotes
several of the phrases from the decree: Since they conducted the embassy con-
trary to their instructions, and some of them were proved to have been mak-
ing an untrue report in the Council, and sending untrue letters, and telling
lies against our allies and accepting gifts. The decree clearly contained the main
charges against the ambassadors even though it did not provide precise details
about their actions.
64
The nal type of judicial document to be noted are the lists of those de-
nounced for the desecration of the Herms and the parody of the Mysteries. At
his trial in 400/399 Andocides mentions four denunciations about the parody
of the Mysteries by Andromachus (Andoc. 1.12-13), Teucrus (Andoc. 1.15), the wife
of Alcmaeonides (Andoc. 1.16) and Lydus, the slave of Pherecles (Andoc. 1.17). In
the rst two cases Andocides has the clerk read the documents containing their
names and two lists of names are found inserted into the text. Andocides then

about the restoration noczocv]to; and the restorations yzz: zno]otzo:oc and
8:z: zno]otzo:oc at IG II
2
1578, lines 1-2. A search through the PHI database yielded not a
single parallel for any of these expressions in Attic inscriptions. I would tentatively suggest
cn:]otzo:oc (ofce of epistates) which is attested at IG II
2
1635, line 71; 1651, line 10, and 1672,
line 74.
61 On these see D. Harris 1995.
62 The trials mentioned in the nancial records of the Amphictyons of Delos fall into this cate-
gory. See IG II
2
1641B, lines 22-33; 1646, lines 3-14 with Stumpf 1987, and IDlos 98, B, lines
24-30. Cf. Faraguna 2006, 202: per una corretta valutazione del loro signicato, importante
ricordare che essi ci sono invariabilmente tramandati in rendiconti di carattere nanziario e
ci in quanto gli atti giudiziari di cui conservano memoria avevano conseguenze, in termini di
entrata o di mancate entrate, per lamministrazione dei magistrati che li allegavano nei loro
oyo:.
63 Cf. Sickinger 1999, 133: If the Metroon preserved any records of a judicial nature, these
will have been the records of trials that were initiated or conducted before the Boule or Ekkle-
sia. He cites Kahrstedt 1938, 27.
64 At the trial of Leocrates Lycurgus had the clerk read out the decree about the trial of Phryn-
ichus and the decree condemning Hipparchus and other traitors (Lyc. Leocr. 111-119). See also
the documents at [Plut.] Mor. 833e-834b. The authenticity of all these documents however is
questionable.
160
mentions two denunciations about the desecration of the Herms by Teucrus
(Andoc. 1.34-35) and Diocleides (Andoc. 1.36-47). Andocides has the clerk read
both of these lists (Andoc. 1.13, 47). These documents appear to be genuine be-
cause they contain names not provided by the orator but conrmed by the Attic
stelai (IG I
3
421-422).
65
The nature and function of these documents are slightly
mysterious. In his speech Andocides says that some of those denounced ed the
country and were sentenced to death while Plystratus was arrested and executed
(Andoc. 1.13), but the document inserted into the text gives only names and does
not indicate the verdict or punishment. One wonders if these names were list-
ed on a stele containing the names of all those condemned in the two scandals,
which was similar to the list of traitors mentioned by Lycurgus (Leocr. 118-19) or
the stele about the injustice of the Peisistratids set up on the Acropolis (Thuc.
6.55.1-2). What is important for our topic is that these documents were obviously
kept in the archives and that Andocides uses these documents to prove that he
did not commit the crime of impiety (Andoc. 1.10).
Nothing could better illustrate the importance of writing for Athenian legal
procedure than the written plaint.
66
Even though litigants made oral presenta-
tions to the court, the shape and content of their speeches was determined to a
large extent by the contents of the written plaint. If the accuser wished to gain a
favorable decision, he had to prove the exact charges contained in the plaint. The
plaint also compelled the accuser to show that the defendant had violated a spe-
cic law or set of laws. If the defendant wished to be acquitted, he had to answer
and refute all the written charges against him. The plaint also served to dene
and clarify the issues the judges would have to decide. After the trial was over, the
plaint was kept in the archives, probably in the Metroon, and served as evidence
for the courts decision. In this way, the document played an important role in
maintaining the principle of res iudicata.
67

65 The names Cephisodorus, Oionias and Hephaestorus, found in the documents but not in
the rest of the speech, are attested in the Attic Stelai (IG I
3
421, line 33 [Cephisodorus]; line 10
[Hephaestodorus]; 422, lines 217, 219, 375 [Oionias]).
66 On the role of writing in Athenian legal procedure see Faraguna 2008.
67 I would like to thank Michele Faraguna for inviting me to participate in the conference and
all the participants for helpful comments and encouragement. I would also like to thank James
Sickinger for reading over a draft of this essay and making several helpful suggestions. I have
also proted from reading an unpublished essay of his on the publication of verdicts.
161 the plaint in athenian law and legal procedure
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163
archives in classical greece: some observations
Archives in Classical Athens:
Some Observations
michele faraguna
Through their different interests and approaches, the three papers of this session
have presented an overview of the main questions in the current scholarly de-
bate on archives and archival practices in classical Greece. To some extent, we
can be reproached for only focusing on Athens archives and corpora of archival
documents are also known from other cities of mainland Greece (notably Argos,
where a recently discovered archive comprising 134 bronze tablets dated to the
early fourth century is still unpublished)
1
and colonial areas such as Sicily and
Magna Graecia
2
but this Athenocentric bias will be partially compensated by
the contributions of Laura Boffo and Kaja Harter. Athens nonetheless remains
unique in that differently from other poleis the role and organization of ar-
chives can be placed, and contextualized, within the larger frame of the institu-
tional and administrative system.
As it must have become apparent, compared to students of Ancient Mesopo-
tamia Greek historians are placed in a more disadvantaged position for archi-
1 SEG 54,427. Cf. Kritzas 2003-2004 and 2006.
2 On the lead tablets from Kamarina (SEG 42,846) see Cordano 1992; Dubois 2008, 103-14
(no. 46). For the archive of the Olympieion in Locri cf. Costabile 1992 (for a recent review of the
questions posed by the tablets and of the newest bibliography cf. Costabile 2007, 251-307 [SEG
57,935]).
164
val documents were normally written on perishable materials (whitewashed
wooden boards, waxed tablets, papyrus) and are consequently now lost. The few
exceptions are represented by records on lead or bronze, such as the archive of
the Athenian cavalry, a group of over 600 lead tablets dumped in the area of the
agora, which, according to the terminology employed by papyrologists (namely by
Lucia Criscuolo in her paper), should however be technically dened a dossier,
since they were discarded and did not all belong to the same period (nor they
were all found in the same place)
3
. The existence of archival documents must
therefore be largely inferred from the literary sources, as shown by Christophe
Pbarthe and Edward Harris, or be traced back from references to other docu-
ments not meant for display on stone, from headings, formulae or variations in
formulaic language (or contents) in inscriptions, as discussed by Shimon Epstein
in his paper, sometimes even from the way the text was laid out on the stone
(for instance when the text is organized in columns, presumably after a papyrus
model, as it frequently happens in archaic and classical legal texts from Crete)
4
.
The difculties students of Greek archives must overcome are aptly symbo-
lised by the image we have chosen for the cover of this book. It is a reconstruction
of the Metroon the archive of the Athenian Council and Assembly located in
the agora in Hellenistic times
5
. It is frequently assumed, on the basis of a pas-
sage in Aristotles Constitution of the Athenians (47,5), that this is what the public
archive in the Metroon looked like also in the fourth century. Needless to say, Ari-
stotles passage has been subject to different interpretations and, as a result, the
proposed reconstructions of the archive vary accordingly
6
. As is well known,
archives are not archeologically traceable and the site of an ancient archive can
normally be identied only when a concentration of seals is found
7
. There is,
however, also a more subtle reason accounting for the immaterial substance
of ancient Greek archives, and this is the lack of a centralised repository of doc-
uments which is a recurring feature in the way polis administration was orga-
nized. Archeion, the Greek word from which our modern term archive is de-
rived, until the Hellenistic period indicated the ofce of a magistrate, arche,
where, no doubt, records were kept, but did not primarily identify the building
as the place where documents were publicly stored. In other words, in a Greek
city each public ofcial had his own archive and, as a principle, there were as
many public archives as ofcials. The Metroon in Athens, where the records of
the Council and the Assembly were stored, was to some extent the central archive
3 Kroll 1977. Cf. Pbarthe 2006, 237-8.
4 Del Corso 2003, 32-5; Faraguna 2011, 14.
5 Valavanis 2002, 246-7 (gs. 10-11).
6 Sickinger 1999, 148 and 246 n. 50; Valavanis 2002, 249; Coqueugniot 2007; Papazarka-
das 2011, 73-4.
7 Invernizzi 1996; Valavanis 2002, 236-44.
165
archives in classical greece: some observations
but this is true only in so far as the Council and the Assembly transacted the most
important business for the community. Records which were outside the compe-
tence of these democratic bodies were preserved elsewhere
8
.
Christophe Pbarthes paper is signicantly built on this assumption. On the
one hand, at a theoretical level, he has explored, and stressed, the wider implica-
tions of the study of archives and administrative procedures as a heuristic tool
for our understanding of the Greek polis as, simultaneously, a state and a so-
ciety, or, to use more concrete language, an original construction where sans
une bureaucratie professionnelle, les Athniens sont parvenus construire des
institutions durables et complexes, permettant lexercice dune relle autorit
sur lensemble du territoire. On the other hand, in the second part of his paper,
he has shown how, even in a community like Athens where citizenship was con-
ceived as participatory and exclusive, citizen registers, since the archaic age and
well before the establishment of democracy, were not centralised but, instead,
were kept locally in the almost 140 administrative units, the demes (or villages),
into which the Attic territory was divided. Full citizenship rights were acquired
only after the new member of the community had been socially and ritually in-
troduced by his father to the phratry and deme, the hereditary subgroups he was
to belong to for the whole of his life
9
. The lexiarchika grammateia, the registers
kept by the local magistrates, thus became the repository of the ofcial informa-
tion, both on personal and economic status, the polis needed for political, military
and taxation purposes. When the army was to be mobilised, taxes and liturgies
had to be assigned or the assembly pay had to be distributed, the local registers
provided the hard data necessary to compile lists and carry out such operations
at a polis level. The functioning of the administrative system and the ability to
pool together human and material resources in other words hinged on the in-
teraction between centre and periphery and on the circulation of the relevant
information
10
.
While Christophe Pbarthe has provided us with the broad picture, Shimon
Epsteins paper has offered us a valuable insight into the question of the rela-
tionship between the inscribed text of a document, what we can today read on
the stone, and the original records kept on le by the magistrate, on the basis
of which the inscription was prepared. He has focused on the Attic building ac-
counts pertaining to the Parthenon, the Erechtheion and construction work in
the sanctuary of Eleusis, spanning from the Periclean age (the Parthenon was built
over fteen years between 447/6 and 433/2 BC) to the 30s and 20s of the fourth
century. The striking feature of these accounts is that they greatly differ in the
8 Faraguna 2005, esp. 72-3.
9 Whitehead 1986, 97-104; Lambert 1993, 161-89; Robertson 2000.
10 On this point see also my forthcoming article Citizen Registers in Archaic Greece: The Evidence
Reconsidered.
166
amount and the quality of the information they provide. How are such differen-
ces to be accounted for? In order to offer some general background, it must be
remembered that Athens was a democracy and that democratic procedures also
governed the building process. On the basis of other relevant contemporary evi-
dence, it must be surmised that the building of the Parthenon was rst decided
by the citizens Assembly, and following this act the written technical specica-
tions (syngraphai) were commissioned to an architect and then approved again by
the Council and Assembly
11
. Once construction started, a special board of magi-
strates, the epistatai, was annually appointed to oversee the development of the
project, manage all the nancial aspects and contract out the execution of each
architectural element
12
. At the end of their term of ofce, the epistatai had to ren-
der the accounts of the euthynai. It is interesting to note that the administrative
process I have described is perfectly reected by the Erechtheion accounts, where
we rst encounter a reference to the decree of the demos authorizing resumption
of construction, and then we nd 1) a survey of the already existing architectural
elements; 2) the specications for the works to be continued; 3) lists of the indi-
vidual pieces and of the workers to whom their execution was assigned, organ-
ized by prytanies (IG I
3
474-479). The same organization is also to be found, more
than a century later, in the inscription concerning repair works to the city walls
(IG II
2
463), where, again, we have the enabling decree of the Assembly (ll. 1-34),
the syngraphai (ll. 35-118) and nally a list of the sections of the walls and of the
contractors the work had been assigned to (ll. 120-130)
13
.
As suggested by Shimon Epstein, this was the kind of documentation which
we may expect was presented by the magistrates in charge on the occasion of
their euthynai. Seen in this light, the Parthenon accounts indeed pose a problem,
as they are very much unlike the other documents we have. In order to explain
their different organization, I would like to add another possibile dimension to
those explored by Epstein, in other words the religious dimension. The accounts
of the Parthenon were inscribed on a single imposing stele, according to the re-
construction of W. Dinsmoor 1,60 meters tall, 1,80 wide and 0, 20 thick, six years
being inscribed on one face, seven on the reverse and two on the sides. It was
clearly a monument resembling the lapis primus and lapis secundus of the Atheni-
an tribute lists
14
and this makes it very likely that it was conceived as an anathema,
a dedication to Athena. It is striking that the building accounts we have both for
the fth and for the fourth century are mostly connected to construction for reli-
gious purposes. We do not have accounts for the Periclean Odeon or for the Long
11 Carusi 2006.
12 Marginesu 2010.
13 Faraguna 2010, 134-5.
14 On these monuments cf., most recently, Miles 2011. For their original location see Monaco
2008.
167
archives in classical greece: some observations
Walls. The objective in publishing the Parthenon accounts on a large monument
was to show the goddess that her moneys were managed in a correct and pious
manner. Given this objective, details were to some extent not necessary. As Ep-
stein underlines, the Parthenon inscriptions as we have them are hardly a con-
venient tool for democratic accountability.
Records on perishable materials nonetheless there must have been and my
guess is that they were not very different from what we get in the Erechtheion
accounts. The board of epistatai signicantly not only appointed a secretary
(grammateus) who changed every year but also a syngrammateus, a co-secretary
named Antikles who held this position continuously until 437/6 and was then
promoted to the role of secretary until the project was completed. The pre-
sence of a permanent co-secretary shows that the amount of paperwork to han-
dle must have been not negligible. In the fourth century magistates overseeing
public building also had judicial competence and could impose nes as well as
preside over the court when legal cases resulting from breach of contract ended
up in a trial (Aesch. 3,14: o: 8c tav cyav cn:otztz: nzvtc; ycov:z avtz:
8:zot:oc)
15
. It can therefore be reasonably assumed that the epistatai needed
to keep detailed records of their activity.
A fundamental issue that remains open to doubt however concerns how per-
manent such records were. The epistatai of the Parthenon were an ad hoc board
specically elected to oversee the construction of the temple and they nished
their work when the project was completed. They must have had an ofce on the
acropolis while building was in progress but what happened after that? We must
assume that only accounts in a shortened form were preserved and the more de-
tailed records were either discarded or privately kept. We have something simi-
lar in the fth-century accounts of the deme of Rhamnous, where for each year
we have records concerning the moneys belonging to Nemesis given out on loan
and those in the hands of the hieropoioi (IG I
3
248). These are obviously only the
annual grand totals but, as shown by IG I
3
247bis, a lead plaque recording the
movements of money between the epistatai and the hieropoioi, more detailed re-
cords concerning each individual transaction must have existed. The tablet was
found in a cistern and had obviously been discarded when it ceased to be of use
16
.
The same question indirectly arises also from Edward Harris paper on the
enklema, the plaint, and its function in Athenian legal procedure. Harris has
convincingly shown that the written plaint submitted by the accuser when he
initiated legal procedure to a remarkable extent contributed to ensuring proce-
dural fairness and, more generally, to the good functioning of the judicial system.
It recorded the information that the magistrate who received the charge needed
to determine that the case was c:ozyay:o;, i.e. could be lawfully accepted and
15 Marginesu 2010, 72-8.
16 Petrakos 1999, II, no. 181. Cf. also Petrakos 1984, 188-95.
168
had been brought before the correct jurisdiction. G. Thr had already stressed
the importance of the plaint for dening the legal issue about which the popular
judges would decide
17
. Harris shows that the charges against the defendant had
to follow the language of the statute under which the action was brought. This
ensured that the court would only decide whether the defendant had violated a
specic law and that the judges would uphold their oath to vote according to the
laws. Harris argument is important because he has not only investigated the
function of the plaint in private and public charges, dikai and graphai, but also
systematically extended the analysis to include other procedures such as eisange-
lia, phasis and paragraphe. As a result, we now have a much better knowledge of
the elements the indictment consisted of and we know that it could be a rather
elaborate document that had to be framed according to the terms of the law and
specied in a detailed manner the acts through which the defendant had violated
the law.
More to the point for the topic of this volume, Harris has also shown that
records of trials could be used after the case had been judged both as evidence
in subsequent litigation and as a source of information for further administra-
tive (mainly nancial) documents, especially those presented by magistrates
when they rendered their accounts (and then inscribed on stone)
18
. I agree with
him that Arist. Pol. 1321b34-37 should be taken seriously and that :oc:; 8:-
zot:av, together with z: yzz: tav 8:av, were as a rule preserved in Greek
poleis
19
. What remains perhaps more controversial is where they were kept after
the trial was over. Personally, I do not believe that all indictments were stored in
the Metroon. For the reasons I stated before, I think it is more likely that only
the plaints within the jurisdiction of the Council and the Assembly were kept
there. The other indictments must have been stored in the archive of the magi-
strate who was responsible for the case
20
. The rich epigraphic evidence adduced
by Harris also seems to conrm this conclusion. Again, however, the main ques-
tion remains, for how long? Harris has mentioned two interesting passages in
Demosthenes Against Zenothemis (32, 27) and Against Nausimachus and Xenopeithes
(38,14-16), where a legal argument is developed on the basis of the information
provided by the indictment in a related earlier case. The second passage is par-
ticularly important as it appears that forteen years had elapsed between the two
trials (38,6). I could add another passage from Demosthenes Against Aristogeiton:
in this speech Aristogeiton is described as an evil person and is attacked, among
17 Thr 2007.
18 Cf. also Sickinger 2007, 204-6.
19 This has however been recently denied by Gagarin 2008, 195, according to whom, apart
from some exceptions, verdicts in general were not ofcially recorded; cf. also Gagarin
2009, 86.
20 Faraguna 2006; cf. 2009, esp. 68-9.
169
archives in classical greece: some observations
other things, for having sold his sister by the same mother as is stated in the
indictment of the action which was brought against him on these grounds by
his brother (25,55)
21
. The indictment is then read to the judges. The impression
is again that a long time had elapsed between the trials. Where did these docu-
ments come from? Were they retrieved from a public archive or did they come
from some private, family archive? Previously, I had suggested that they must
have come from the magistrates archeion. It is therefore rewarding to note that
at the end of his thorough and enlightening examination of the evidence Edward
Harris has reached the same conclusion.
21 On the speech, if genuine, see MacDowell 2009, 298-312.
170
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The Persian Tradition
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175
aramische archive aus achmenidischer zeit und ihre funktion
Aramische Archive
aus achmenidischer Zeit
und ihre Funktion
ingo kottsieper
1 Einleitung
1
An mehreren Orten in gypten und Palstina sind Papyrusurkunden in aram-
ischer Sprache gefunden worden, die aus der Epoche des achmenidischen Rei-
ches stammen. Im Rahmen des Generalthemas dieses Bandes soll hier der Frage
nachgegangen werden, welche dieser Texte antiken Archiven zugeordnet wer-
den knnen und wozu beziehungsweise wem diese Archive dienten.
Die Beantwortung dieser Fragen ist ein wenig komplexer, als man im ersten
Moment annehmen mchte. Obwohl an den verschiedenen Orten jeweils meh-
rere Dokumente gefunden wurden, mssen die meisten von ihnen von dieser
Untersuchung ausgeschlossen werden. Es fehlen in vielen Fllen ausreichende
Informationen ber die genauen Fundumstnde der einzelnen Dokumente und
damit auch darber, mit welchen anderen genau sie bei ihrer Auffindung ein
Cluster bildeten, das auf ein ursprngliches Archiv hinweisen knnte.
So geben die Ausgrber der Deutschen Expeditionen nach Elephantine der
Jahre 1906-1908, der wir einen Groteil der aramischen Texte von dieser Insel
1 Ich danke Herrn Dr. Harald Samuel, Gttingen, fr seine Hilfe bei den Korrekturen meines
Manuskripts.
176
verdanken, keinerlei Informationen ber die exakten Fundorte der einzelnen
Texte. Lediglich ein sehr knapper und summarischer Hinweis wird von O. Ru-
bensohn geboten: Die ersten Papyri fanden wir schon am Abhang des Koms
vor Mauer m 1, die grere Menge aber ist an der Mauer m 2 und an der spten
Mauer m 3 aufgedeckt worden. Die Papyri lagen hier kaum 1/2 m unter der mo-
dernen Oberflche im losen Schutt ... . [Sie] sind also nicht in einem Gef gefun-
den worden ... . Fr die Anlage n gilt das gleiche wie fr m; auch hier lie sich
ein fester Grundri nicht mehr feststellen. Die Funde an Papyri waren brigens
hier im Verhltnis zu m gering an Zahl.
2
Aus dieser Anmerkung wird nur eins
deutlich: Die Texte wurden nicht in Gefen gefunden offenkundig auch nicht
als zusammengebundene Bndel. Wie sie an ihren Fundort ge langten und wel-
che Papyri exakt an welchem Ort gefunden wurden, ist vllig unklar, womit
auch die ursprngliche Funktion der Fundorte unklar bleibt. Handelt es sich um
mehrere antike Archive wobei dann immer noch die Zuordnung der einzel-
nen Texte zu diesen unbekannt bleibt oder um eine Art von Genizot, in denen
man nicht mehr gebrauchte Dokumente sekundr depo nierte? Oder sollte die-
ser Fundkomplex nur eine Abfallhalde gewesen sein, an der die Dokumente der
Sldner nach Aufgabe ihrer Kolonie von Spteren abgeladen wurde, wie es z. B.
auch in Nord-Saqqara der Fall war?
3
Natrlich kann man diese Texte entsprechend ihren Inhalten und/oder der
in ihnen genannten Personen gruppieren, wie es z. B. B. Porten und A. Yardeni
in ihrem ausgezeichneten Textbuch der aramischen Texte von gypten getan
haben.
4
Dabei prsentieren sie drei dieser Gruppen ausdrcklich als Archive: Das
Briefarchiv der Gemeinschaft unter der Leitung Jedanjas
5
(A4.1-10), das Archiv
der Mibtahja (B2.1-11) und das des Anani (B3.1-13).
6
Die Fragwrdigkeit dieses
Vorgehens, bei dem die archologischen Daten vllig ausgeblendet werden, zeigt
sich aber insbesondere im Hinblick auf das so erschlossene Jedanja-Archiv. So
enthlt es neben Dokumenten, die aus den schon erwhnten deutschen Ausgra-
bungen stammen (A4.1-4+6-10) mit A4.5 auch den Strass burger Papyrus, der
1898/99 in Luxor gekauft worden war. Da die brigen Texte erst Jahre spter
ausgegraben wurden, erscheint es jedoch als vllig unwahr scheinlich, dass der
Strassburger Papyrus mit diesen ursprnglich an demselben Ort in einer Art
2 Rubensohn in Honroth-Rubensohn-Zucker 1909, S. 29.
3 Die aramischen Dokumente wurden dort neben demotischen, hieratischen und griechi-
schen Texten auf einer Art Mllhalde gefunden, wohin sie wahrscheinlich erst bei der Errich-
tung der koptischen Siedlung verbracht worden waren, vgl. Segal 1983, S. 2.
4 Vgl. Porten-Yardeni 1986-1999 (= TAD). Die Texte werden in diesem Beitrag mit A, B, C oder
D dem Band entsprechend zitiert, z.B. A4.1 fr einen Text aus Band I. Auf Angaben aus den Einlei-
tungen zu den Textgruppen wird mit TAD + Bandnummer und Seitenzahl verwiesen.
5 Im Folgenden werden die Namen in einer deutschen Adaption ihrer Transkription in TAD
geboten, auch wenn diese linguistisch zuweilen fragwrdig ist.
6 Vgl. aber auch schon Porten 1968, z. B. S. 191, 278 u..
177
aramische archive aus achmenidischer zeit und ihre funktion
Archiv deponiert worden war. Sollte der Finder dieses Archivs wirklich nur die
Fragmente dieses Papyrus entnommen und dann die anderen Texte wieder mit
einer 0.5m dicken Erdschicht bedeckt haben? Damit weisen alle Indizien darauf
hin, dass A4.5 von einem anderen Fundort stammt. Auch bei den auf Elephan-
tine gefundenen Dokumenten bleibt vllig unklar, ob sie als zusammenge-
hrende Gruppe an das Tageslicht kamen oder von mehreren der genannten
unterschiedlichen Fundstellen stammen. Die Rekonstruktion dieses Archivs
beruht also allein auf dem Inhalt der Dokumente und auf der Vorstellung mo-
derner Forscher, was ein solches Archiv enthalten haben knnte.
7
Selbst wenn
eine solche Rekonstruktion historisch korrekt wre, so eignet sich ein auf diese
Weise erschlossenes Archiv nicht fr die Beantwortung der Frage, was wir auf
Grund gesicherter Daten ber Inhalt, Organisation und Funktion von antiken
Archiven aussagen knnen. Eine Analyse dieser rekonstruierten Archive wrde
nur das ergeben, was von den modernen Forschern, die sie rekonstruiert haben,
als mageblich fr die Zugehrigkeit zu einem Archiv vorausgesetzt wurde. Von
daher sind Archive, fr die sich nicht auch eine uere Evidenz auf Grund der
Fundumstnde erweisen lsst, aus rein methodologischen Grnden von der Un-
tersuchung auszuschlieen.
Glcklicherweise lsst sich zumindest fr groe Teile des sogenannten
Mibtahja- und des Anani-Archivs sowie fr Dokumente aus dem Umkreis des
Satrapen Arames (A6.3-16) eine solche uere Evidenz beibringen, so dass diese
als Basis fr eine entsprechende Untersuchung dienen knnen. Dazu kommen
die in gypten gefundenen Reste von Schriftrollen, die eine Sammlung von ein-
zelnen Dokumenten enthalten haben; auch diese lassen sich als eine Art Ar chiv
ansprechen und knnen entsprechend mit in die Untersuchung einbe zogen
werden. Schlielich geben auch die Dokumente vom Wadi Dalije einige weitere
Hinweise fr unser Thema.
7 Dementsprechend weichen auch die Angaben zum Umfang der Archive der Mibtahja und
des Anani bei Yaron 1961[a], S. 4-6, und Porten 1968, S. 200-263, voneinander und von den
Angaben in TAD ab; vgl. unten zur Rekonstruktion dieser Archive. Auch hinsichtlich des Je-
danja-Archivs besteht eine Diskrepanz zwischen TAD und Porten 1968, S. 278. Mit A4.6 wird
ein neuer Text aufgefhrt, der auf einer neuen Rekonstruktion aus Einzelfragmenten beruht.
Dagegen fehlt in TAD nun die Abgabenliste fr den Tempel Jahus (C3.15 = Cowley 22), die nach
Porten 1968, S. 278, zu diesem Archiv gehrte. So bezeichnet auch TAD III, S. xiii, lediglich
die communal leaders als Autoren des Textes, macht aber sonst keinerlei Angaben ber die
Zugehrigkeit des Dokumentes zu einem Archiv. Der Grund fr dieses Schweigen knnte sein,
dass von den im Jedanja-Archiv genannten Personen aus der judischen Gemeinschaft nur eine
einzige in dieser Liste, die am ehesten in das Jahr 400 v.Chr. datiert, erscheint (TAD III S. xvii)
und Jedanja als fhrendes Mitglied der Gemeinschaft berhaupt nicht erwhnt wird. Die Texte,
die TAD nun dem Jedanja-Archiv zuordnet, stammen hingegen, soweit erkennbar, alle aus der
Zeit von 419 - ca. 407 v.Chr. Offenkundig liegt in TAD die Vorentscheidung zu Grunde, dass das
rekonstruierte Archiv das communal archive of Jedaniah (TAD I, S. 53) sei, und nicht, wie
man auch annehmen knnte, das Archiv des Tempels von Elephantine, in dem fr lngere Zeit
Jedanja eine Leitungsfunktion hatte.
178
2 Die Archive
2.1 Das sogenannte Archiv der Mibtahja
2.1.1 Rekonstruktion des Archivs
Wie oben schon angesprochen, ordnen Porten und Yardeni die Texte B2.1-11
einem Archiv der Mibtahja zu. Auf Grund der unterschiedlichen Fundumstnde
knnen diese Dokumente drei Kategorien zugeordnet werden:
1 Der Hauptteil dieses Archivs besteht aus neun Dokumenten (B2. 2-4+6-11),
die von Einheimischen am Anfang des letzten Jahrhunderts als eine Einheit
gefunden und dann auf dem Antiquittenmarkt verkauft wurden.
8
Es han-
delt sich um sehr gut erhaltene Dokumente, die noch verschlossen und ge-
siegelt waren. Dem entspricht die Information des Hndlers, der angegeben
hat, dass sie in einem Holzkasten gefunden wurden. Dass diese Dokumente,
obwohl sie an zwei verschiedene Personen verkauft wurden, zusammen ge-
hren, zeigt sich auch daran, dass beide Kufer jeweils einen Teil ein- und
desselben Dokumentes, das in zwei Teile zerbrochen war, erstanden. Wenn
auch nicht zu klren ist, ob das Dokument erst nach der Auffindung zerbrach,
so besteht hier ein materieller Joint zwischen beiden Sammlungen. Da alle
diese offenkundig in einem Kasten gefundenen Doku mente auch mit den
Angelegenheiten einer einzigen Familie befasst sind, darf man sie als ein si-
cheres Beispiel eines Archivs ansehen.
2 Mit groer Wahrscheinlichkeit gehrt auch B2.1 zu diesem Archiv. Es teilt
mit den gerade beschriebenen Doku menten die Eigenschaft, dass es als gut
erhaltenes, noch geschlossenes Dokument gefunden wurde und sich mit An-
gelegenheiten derselben Familie beschftigt. Obwohl es erst spter im Jahr
1904 oder 1905 erworben wurde und keine eindeutigen Informationen ber
die Fundumstnde vorliegen, wurde es von Sayce uneingeschrnkt als Teil des
unter 1. genannten Fundes ediert.
9
Man wird annehmen drfen, dass es von
demselben Hndler stammt, der es als Teil desselben Fundes prsentierte. Dass
der Hndler diesen Fund an verschiedene Personen verkauft hat, zeigt schon
die Tatsache, dass die unter 1. genannten Dokumente an zwei unter schiedliche
Kufer gegangen sind. Wie dem auch sei, weder wrde die Zuordnung dieses
Textes zur 1. Gruppe noch seine Ausscheidung aus der Untersuchung an dem
Bild, dass die 1. Gruppe ergibt (s.u.) etwas ndern.
8 Zu den Fundumstnden und dem Erwerb der Dokumente vgl. A. H. Sayce in Sayce-Cowley
1906, S. 9, und die Bemerkung von R. Mond ebd., S. 7.
9 Vgl. Sayce in Sayce-Cowley 1906, S. 5.
179
aramische archive aus achmenidischer zeit und ihre funktion
3 B2.5 jedoch kann in diesem Zusammenhang nicht als Teil des Archivs
bercksichtigt werden. Dieses sehr fragmentarische Dokument ist Teil der
Funde der deutschen Ausgrabungen und gehrte sicher nicht zum ur-
sprngli chen Inhalt der Kiste, in der die 1. Gruppe und wahrscheinlich auch
B2.1 gefunden wurde. Zwar versicherte Rubensohn, das einige Einheimische
ihm den Ort gezeigt htten, an dem die frheren Dokumente gefunden
worden wren, und dieser nur 1 m von dem Ort entfernt war, an dem wir
spter den groen Fund an aramischen Papyri gemacht haben,
10
aber dies
beweist nicht, dass auch B2.5 an diesem Ort gefunden wurde. Wie oben
aufgezeigt, fehlt jeder Hinweis auf eine konkrete Zuordnung einzelner Do-
kumente zu den unterschiedlichen Fundorten, und die angefhrte Be mer-
kung Rubensohns lsst auch nicht erkennen, um welchen Fundort es sich
genau handelt, von dem aus in 1 m Entfernung die anderen Dokumente
gefunden wurden m 1, m 2 oder m 3? Zudem widerspricht die Aussage der
Einheimischen der frheren des Verkufers, dass die Dokumente in Assuan
gefunden worden seien.
11
Sollte hier ein Missverstndnis vorliegen und die
Einheimischen den deutschen Ausgrbern nicht den Platz gezeigt haben, an
der die Kiste mit den Dokumenten gefunden worden war solche Kisten
wurden auf Elephantine nicht mehr gefunden! , sondern schlicht einen
Platz, an dem man weitere solche Dokumente finden kann?
12
Aber selbst die
inhaltliche Zuordnung von B2.5 zum Archiv der Mibtahja ist fragwrdig.
Sie beruht schlicht darauf, dass in Z. 2 ein Mahseja erwhnt wird, der im

10 Rubensohn in Honroth-Rubensohn-Zucker 1909, S. 14.
11 Vgl. Sayce-Cowley 1906, S. 9.
12 Die Formulierung des Berichts von Rubensohn in Honroth-Rubensohn-Zucker 1909, S.
14, erlaubt auch die Frage, ob er wirklich mit dem konkreten Hndler und Finder der Kiste
gesprochen hat: Ein Besuch in Assuan noch im Jahre der Aufdeckung 1904 verschaffte mir die
Bekanntschaft und das Vertrauen der in Betracht kommenden Hndler und Sebbachgrber.
Rubensohn hat somit mit mehreren Hndlern gesprochen und, nimmt man die Formulierung
ernst, keine sichere Kenntnis, wer von diesen genau die Dokumente verkauft bzw. gefunden
hatte. Dass hier unterschiedliche Personen sich widersprechende Angaben machen konnten,
hatte schon Sayce erfahren: Different accounts were given to Mr. Howard Carter ... and myself
as to the place of their discovery. On the one hand we were told that they had been found in
the island of Elephantin, and the actual spot from which they had come was pointed out to
us; on the other hand we were assured that they had really been discovered in a wooden box
by the workmen employed in making the new road which runs from the railway station at the
southern end of Assuan to the English Church and Cataract Hotel on the top of the hill. That
this latter was the true story seems to admit of little doubt ... (Sayce in Sayce-Cowley 1906,
S. 9). Wie wenig verlsslich die Angaben der Einheimischen sein konnten, zeigt sich auch
darin, dass Maspero 1904 offenkundig durch Sayce (vgl. Sayce ebd.) den angeblichen Fundort
eines anderen Dokumentes (B4. 2) und zweier Ostraka (D7.3; D7.9) kannte und dort graben
lie. Zwar fand er dort weitere Dokumente, aber nicht aramische, sondern nur griechische
und demotische. Offenkundig bezog sich auch hier die Ortsangabe schlicht auf eine Stelle, an
der man Dokumente finden konnte. Es ist auch kaum zu erwarten, dass die Sebachgrber ge-
nau Buch darber fhrten, wo welche Dokumente bei ihren alltglichen Arbeiten auftauchten
zumal dies schon die wissenschaftlichen Ausgrber unterlieen.
180
Kontext einer geplanten Eheschlieung Geld erhlt und so wahrscheinlich
der Brautvater war. Zwar hie der Vater Mibtahjas auch Mahseja, aber allein
in den erhaltenen Texten aus Elephantine begegnen mit Mahseja b. Schiba
(B7.1, 2) und [M]ahseja b. Jesa[ja] (B5.3,6) zwei weitere Mahsejas, die auch
Tchter gehabt haben knnen und wahrscheinlich zu anderen Familien
gehrten. Es handelt sich offenkundig um einen dort verbreiteten Namen.
Mithin kann die Zugehrigkeit von B2.2-4+6-11 zu diesem Archiv als weitgehend
gesichert und die von B2.1 als sehr wahrscheinlich gelten, whrend B2.5 aus der
Untersuchung auszuschlieen ist.
13
2.1.2 Inhalt des Archivs
Eine Analyse der Dokumente zeigt, dass das Archiv in der vorliegenden Form
nicht das der Mibtahja, sondern das ihres Sohnes Jedanja (I) war.
14
Und es han-
delt sich nicht um ein allgemeines Familienarchiv, sondern offenkundig um
eine Sammlung von Dokumenten, die direkt oder indirekt das Erbe betreffen,
das Jedanja (I) von seinen Eltern erhalten hat.
Dementsprechend besteht das Archiv aus zwei Teilen. Die jngsten Doku-
mente B2.9-11 (geschrieben 420-410 v.Chr.) sind alle fr Jedanja (I) selbst ausge-
stellt worden.
So ist das jngste Dokument von 410 v.Chr. (B2.11) eine Teilungseinverstnd-
niserklrung, die von Mahseja (II), dem Sohn der Mibtahja, fr seinen Bruder
Jedanja (I) offenkundig nach dem Tod ihrer Mutter verfasst wurde. Inhalt ist die
Aufteilung der Leibeigenen Mibtahjas, die nach dem Tod der Mutter an ihre Sh-
ne bergingen.
15
B2.11 war somit niemals Bestandteil eines Archivs der Mibtahja.
Mit B2.10 (416 v.Chr.) liegt ein Dokument vor, mit dem ein gewisser Jedanja
(II) bar Hosea bar Uria jeden Anspruch auf ein Haus aufgibt, das seinem Onkel
Jesanja bar Urija einst gehrt hat. Diesen Anspruch hatte er gegen Jedanja (I) und
Mahseja (II), den Shnen der Mibtahja erhoben, die offenkundig in Besitz des
Hauses gelangt waren. Mibtahja war in erster Ehe mit Jesanja verheiratet ge we-
sen, ihre beiden Shne stammten aber aus ihrer zweiten Ehe mit Eshor/Natan.
Es darf angenommen werden, dass Jesanja nicht lange nach der Eheschlieung

13 Vgl. schon Yaron 1961[a], S. 4-5; Porten 1968, S. 237-239.
14 Vgl. schon auch Porten 1968, S. 239; warum in TAD dennoch an der irrefhrenden Bezeich-
nung als Mibtahia Archive festgehalten wird, ist nicht nachzuvollziehen.
Da in den Texten verschiedene Personen mit demselben Namen begegnen, werde diese
hier mit I, II usw. unterschieden. Jedanja (I) und Mahseja (II) waren die Kinder von Mibtahja,
der Tochter Mahsejas (I), und ihres zweiten Mannes Eshor/Natan. Jedanja (II) ist der Neffe von
Mibtahjas erstem Mann Jesanja.
15 Wahrscheinlich wurde ein entsprechendes Gegendokument, in dem Jedanja (I) sich mit
der Teilung einverstanden erklrt, in dessen Namen abgefasst und an Mahseja (II) bergeben.
181
aramische archive aus achmenidischer zeit und ihre funktion
verstorben war
16
und Mibtahja sein Haus geerbt
17
und Jahre spter an ihre ei-
genen Shne aus zweiter Ehe berschrieben hatte.
18
Die Rechtmigkeit dieser
Transaktion wurde von Jedanja (II), dem Neffen Jesanjas, bezweifelt.
Aus den erhaltenen Rechtstexten lsst sich der juristische Hintergrund dieses
Falls mit groer Wahrscheinlichkeit erhellen.
19
Die erhaltenen Ehevertrge gehen
auf die Frage ein, was mit dem Besitz der Eheleute geschieht, wenn einer von ih-
nen stirbt, wobei im vorliegenden Kontext insbesondere der Fall von Interesse ist,
dass der Ehemann verstarb. Dabei sind drei unterschiedliche Regelungen belegt:
16 Dies ergibt sich mit groer Wahrscheinlichkeit aus folgenden Beobachtungen: Die Hei-
ratsurkunde bezglich Mibtahjas Ehe mit Eshor/Natan, ihrem zweiten Mann, datiert in das
Jahr 458 v.Chr. Dies ergibt sich aus der Gleichung 26. Tishri = [1]6. Epiph eines Jahres der Herr-
schaft des Artaxerxes, dessen konkrete Zahl in einer Lcke stand. Dies war nur im Jahr 7 der Fall
gewesen, wobei die entsprechenden sieben Einerstriche die bestehende Lcke perfekt ausfl-
len wrden. TAD gibt als zweite Mglichkeit die Gleichung 26. Tischri = [2]6. Epiph an, was auf
das Jahr 20 = 445 fhren wrde. Jedoch wre das Zahlzeichen fr 20 nach in Z. 1 deutlich
zu kurz fr die zu ergnzende Lcke. Zudem wrde man von dem Zahlzeichen 20 in der Tages-
angabe [20] + 6 des Monats Epiph noch Reste vor den Einerstrichen erwarten, whrend von
einer 10 solche Reste weniger wahrscheinlich wren. Auch sachlich passt diese Datierung
besser. Ausweislich von B2.3-4 war Mibtahja 460 v.Chr. mit ihrem ersten Mann verheiratet,
von dem sie dann aber keine Kinder hatte (vgl. unten zu B2.10). Htte sie ihren zweiten Mann
erst 445 geheiratet, so htte sie ihre beiden Shne aus zweiter Ehe frhestens mit Ende Zwan-
zig, eher aber in den Dreiigern bekommen, will man nicht davon ausgehen, dass sie schon
mit zehn Jahren verheiratet war. Die berschreibung eines Hauses an sie und ihren ersten
Ehemann von 460 (B2.3-4) lsst sich gut im Kontext ihrer ersten Eheschlieung verstehen, so
dass dann ihr Mann kurz nach der Eheschlieung verstarb und sie zwei Jahre spter erneut
heiratete. Dann knnte sie etwa 18-20 Jahre alt gewesen sein ein gutes Alter um noch zwei
Shne zu bekommen. Da sie wahrscheinlich 410 gestorben war (vgl. unten, Anm. 18), wre sie
etwa 65-70 Jahre alt geworden.
17 Andernfalls msste man entweder annehmen, dass Jesanja Mibtahja das Haus whrend
ihrer Ehe ohne jede Einschrnkung hinsichtlich einer Scheidung berschrieben habe, so dass
es auch nach einer solchen in ihrem Besitz blieb. Dies wre aber ebenso ungewhnlich wie der
Fall, dass das Haus bei der Scheidung an Mibtahja ging, was den entsprechenden Klauseln der
erhaltenen Ehevertrge widersprechen wrde, nach denen der Besitz (und insbesondere Immo-
bilien) grundstzlich beim ursprnglichen Eigentmer blieb (B2.6, 22-28; B3.3,7-10; B3.8, 21-28).
Auch ist kaum anzunehmen, dass Jesanja nach der Neuverheiratung seiner ehemaligen Frau
mit einem anderen Mann dessen Shnen sein eigenes Haus zukommen lie.
18 Dass dieser Vorgang, in dem Mibtahja nur als Nebenperson erwhnt wird, voraussetzt,
dass Mibtahja schon gestorben war (so Porten 1968, S. 256), ist nicht berzeugend. Zwei
Beobachtungen sprechen gegen diese Annahme:
1. Die Verteilung der Leibeigenen Mibtahjas nach ihrem Tod findet erst 410 v.Chr., also
sechs Jahre spter statt (vgl. B2.11, s.o.). Man erwartet aber, dass dies relativ zeitnah nach
ihrem Tod geschehen sein muss, da die Besitzverhltnisse bezglich lebender Personen
wohl kaum solange unklar blieben. Es gibt keinen Hinweis, dass diese Leibeigenen zwi-
schenzeitlich einem anderen Erbe zugesprochen waren. Mithin drfte Mibtahja erst 410
v.Chr. gestorben sein.
2. B2.10 aus dem Jahr 416 v.Chr. selbst erwhnt in Z. 7 ein Haus der Mibtahja, der Tochter
des Mahseja, das ihr Vater Mahseja ihr gegeben hat. Nach ihrem Tod wre dies aber das
Haus ihrer Erben und nicht mehr das Haus der Mibtahja gewesen.
19 Vgl. zum Folgenden auch Yaron 1961[a], S. 69-76.
182
1 Die Ehefrau wird ohne Einschrnkung als Machthaberin, Inhaberin
der Verfgungsgewalt
20
ber den Besitz des Mannes eingesetzt (B3.3,10-13).
2 Diese Bestimmung wird an die Bedingung geknpft, dass die Ehe kinderlos
blieb. Dies findet sich im Ehevertrag der Mibtahja mit ihrem zweiten Mann
(B2.6,17-19).
3 Die kinderlose Ehefrau darf das Eigentum ihres Mannes weiter nutzen, so-
lange sie nicht wieder heiratet. Eine Wiederverheiratung wird analog zu ei-
ner Scheidung behandelt (B3.8, 28-34).
21
Die bersicht zeigt, dass nach dem Tod eines Ehemannes der Verbleib seines
Besitzes bei der Witwe nichts Auergewhnliches ist, aber dass die rechtliche
Ausgestaltung hierfr variieren konnte und auf der Vereinbarung beruhte, die
bei der Eheschlieung verhandelt und im Ehevertrag festgehalten wurde.
22
Es
war also fr einen Auenstehenden nicht a priori ersichtlich, ob Mibtahja mit
dem Haus ihres ersten Mannes frei und uneingeschrnkt als ihr Eigentum
verfahren konnte. Dies erklrt, warum Jedanja (II) sptestens zu dem Zeitpunkt,
an dem das Haus an Mibtahjas Kinder berging, Einspruch erhob.
23

20 Zu vgl. jetzt auch Botta 2009, S. 81-95, der auf S. 90 die Bedeutung dieser Aussagen as
a clause conferring a right (...) to property, which may not be abridged without due process,
and that could be properly translated, you have authority/control definiert.
21 Vgl. Botta 2009, S. 58; Friedman 1980, S. 427f. und die dort genannte ltere Literatur. Dass
sich diese Passage auf eine Wiederverheiratung und nicht auf Polygamie bezieht, macht die
Formulierung man wird ihr tun deutlich. Normalerweise wrde der Ehemann als
Handelnder hier einschreiten, aber da er nicht mehr lebt, treten hier seine nicht nher bestimm-
ten Rechtsvertreter bzw. die Rechtsgemeinde auf. Entsprechend wird die Ehefrau in diesem Fall
nicht als , d.h. als diejenige, die die Macht oder Verfgungsgewalt hat, ber den Besitz des
kinderlos verstorbenen Mannes eingesetzt, sondern als seine > @ (> @ , Z. 29).
Mglicherweise ist dies als >@ im Sinne von die an ihm festhlt zu lesen, was ein recht-
licher terminus technicus fr eine Frau sein knnte, die nach dem Tod ihres Mannes so weiter-
lebt, als ob sie noch mit ihm verheiratet wre und deswegen sein Besitz auch noch nicht an seine
Erben bergeht (zur Ergnzung vgl. u.a. TAD). Durchaus erwgenswert ist aber auch die Lesung
>@ im Sinne von Nachfolgerin, vgl. Grelot 1972, S. 236.
22 Dass also der Neffe Jesanjas der natural legal heir seines Onkels war, wenn dieser kin-
derlos verstarb (so Botta 2009, S. 111), ist somit nur solange korrekt, bis dies durch vertragliche
Vereinbarungen auer Kraft gesetzt wurde.
23 Warum er dies nicht schon bei der erneuten Eheschlieung der Mibtahja tat, kann nicht mit
Sicherheit gesagt werden. Mglicherweise aber wollte Jedanja nicht das Risiko einer Vertrags-
strafe eingehen. So enthlt B2.6, 29-30 ausdrcklich die Drohung, dass jeder, der die Ehefrau aus
dem Besitz verdrngen will, eine hohe Strafzahlung zu leisten hat. Solange der Ehevertrag der
Mibtahja mit ihrem ersten Mann noch verschlossen war, konnte nur ein Eingeweihter wissen,
ob ein entsprechender Passus in ihm stand. Damit war ein Vorgehen gegen Mibtahja ohne
genaue Kenntnis ihres Ehevertrages sehr riskant. Aber in dem Moment, in dem das Haus an
andere berging sei es als berschreibung oder sei es als Erbe (vgl. dazu Anm. 18) war eine
solche Klausel nicht mehr wirksam und der Versuch konnte sich lohnen.
183
aramische archive aus achmenidischer zeit und ihre funktion
Die Tatsache, dass die Besitzverhltnisse im Ehevertrag geregelt waren, knn te
zudem erklren, warum der Ehevertrag der ersten Eheschlieung Mibtahjas
im Gegensatz zu dem der zweiten nicht erhalten ist. Zur Klrung der Sachlage
musste er geffnet werden und war danach in weiteren Prozessen nicht mehr ver-
wendbar und daher wertlos.
24
Die einzige rechtlich noch rele vante Be stim mung
eines solchen Vertrages htte sich aber auf die Besitz verhlt nisse nach dem Tode
des Ehemannes bezogen, die aber nun durch die vor liegende Verzichtsur kunde
geklrt wird, welche das Besitzrecht der Shne Mibtahjas bezglich Jesanjas
Haus beurkundet. Dies erklrt dann auch die merkwrdige Ein schrnk ung, die
in dieser neuen Urkunde gemacht wird: der Neffe Jedanja verzichtet zwar fr
sich und seine Rechtsnachfolger auf jede weitere Ansprche und Klagen, nimmt
aber ausdrcklich Kinder des Jesanja aus (Z. 13 + 16f.). Wie oben gesehen, gab es
Ehevertrge, die das Eigentumsrecht der Witwe auf den Fall beschrnkten, dass
keine Kinder des Verstorbenen existierten. Und wohl kaum zufllig war eine
solche Vereinbarung Bestandteil des Ehevertrages fr Mibtahjas zweite Ehe. Die
scheinbar berflssige Klausel woher sollten auf einmal diese Kinder kommen?
erklrt sich damit recht einfach als bernahme einer entsprechenden Klausel
aus einem entspre chen den Ehevertrag, dessen noch relevante Bestimmungen
nicht einfach auf gege ben werden konnten. Eventuell noch existierende Kinder
des Jesanja hatten und behielten das Recht, gegen die bereignung des Hauses
ihres Vaters an die Kinder seiner ehemaligen Frau aus zweiter Ehe vorzugehen,
auch wenn dies wohl nur eine theoretische Mglichkeit war.
Ebenfalls um die Rechtmigkeit des Erbes von Jedanja (I) und Mahseja (II)
geht es auch in dem 420 v.Chr. abgefassten Dokument B2.9. Strittig war in diesem
Fall nicht die Erbfolge, sondern die Frage, ob ihr Vater Eshor/Natan der rechtm-
ige Besitzer gewisser Gter gewesen war und seine Shne sie so zu Recht geerbt
hatten, oder ob Eshor/Natan diese Gter nur fr einen dritten aufbewahrt hatte,
so dass sie von seinen Erben zu erstatten waren.
25
Dass Jedanja und Mahseja die rechtmigen Erben sowohl ihres Vaters als
auch ihrer Mutter waren, regelt der Ehevertrag ihrer Mutter Mibtahja aus dem
Jahr 458 v.Chr. (B2.6), auf den schon oben verwiesen wurde. Die Bestimmungen
in Z. 17-22, dass Mibtahja die Alleinerbin ihres Mannes sein wird, wenn er keine
Kinder hat, und dass ihr Mann ihr Alleinerbe ist, wenn sie kinderlos stirbt, im-
plizieren, dass ihre beiden Shne Jedanja und Mahseja ihre rechtmigen Erben
sind, wobei sie jeweils den Besitz eines Elternteils sofort nach dessen Tod erbten.
24 So auch schon Yaron 1961[a], S. 76.
25 Dies bedeutet nicht, dass Eshor/Natan erst 420 gestorben war, wie z.B. Porten 1968, S. 255
(vgl. auch TAD II, S. 15; Grelot 1972, S. 198), annimmt. Eshor/Natan hatte diese Gter vom Gro-
vater (!) der Klger bernommen. Mithin ist es ebenso gut mglich, dass 420 dieser Grovater
gestorben war und seine Enkel als Erben die (vermeintlich?) ihm gehrenden Gter eintreiben
wollten. Vgl. zu diesem Text auch unten, Anm. 31.
184
Wie oben angesprochen, war dies eine durchaus bliche Regelung,
26
so dass der
Ehevertrag nur dann geffnet zu werden brauchte, wenn jemand anderes diese
Erbfolge bestreiten wrde. Aber er behielt rechtliche Re levanz fr die Erben als
eine Art Testament, das auch in Zukunft den Erban spruch belegen konnte. Mit-
hin gehrt dieses Dokument in das Archiv des Je danja, das seine Erban sprche
beziehungsweise das von ihm Ererbte zum Thema hat.
Ebenfalls von Bedeutung in diesem Kontext ist B2.8, ein Dokument aus dem
Jahr 440 v.Chr., in dem ein gewisser Pia seine Ansprche auf Besitztmer gegen-
ber Mibtahja und ihren Erben (Z. 7f.) aufgibt. Da Jedanja und sein Bruder die Er-
ben dieser Besitztmer waren, schtzte dieses Dokument auch sie vor etwaigen
Ansprchen dieses Mannes.
27
Als Erben des Besitzes ihrer Mutter bernahmen sie natrlich auch die Do-
kumente, die diese als rechtmige Besitzerin von Immobilien auswies. In die-
se Kategorie gehren B2.1-4 und 7. Dabei bilden B2.1-4 ein eigenes Unterarchiv
mit Bezug auf ein Haus, dass vormals Mibtahjas Vater Mahseja (I) gehrt hat.
28
Dessen Besitzrechte waren aber 464 v.Chr. zu Unrecht bestritten worden,
worber eine Urkunde ausgefertigt wurde (B2. 2), die nun Mahsejas Anspruch
26 Auch B3.8 enthlt diese gegenseitige Einsetzung als Erbe, vgl. Z. 28-30 + 34-36.
27 Wahrscheinlich handelt es sich bei Pia um den dritten Ehemann der Mibtahja, und das
Dokument gehrt in den Kontext ihrer Scheidung von diesem, wie schon Halvy 1907, S. 111,
dargelegt hat, vgl. z. B. auch Cowley 1923, S. 41; Porten 1968, S. 245-248; Grelot 1972, S. 189;
Muffs 2003, S. 32; Botta 2009, S. 128. Dafr spricht die Erwhnung eines , d.h. ei-
nes Ehevertrages, der offenkundig neben den verhandelten Gtern eine Rolle in dem von Pia
angestrengten Prozess spielt. Dementsprechend wre Z. 3f. wie folgt zu bersetzen: (Pia sagte)
... in Bezug auf den Rechtsstreit, den wir in Assuan durchfhrten als eine Auseinandersetzung (?)
in Bezug auf Silber und Weizen und Kleidung und Bronze und Eisen, allen Besitz und Gter,
und in Bezug auf einen Ehevertrag. drfte damit das letzte Glied der Reihe sein,
die vom zweiten (in Bezug auf) abhngig ist. Die ganze mit (Auseinanderset-
zung [?] in Bezug auf) eingeleitete Phrase kennzeichnet also den Rechtsstreit als einen Pro-
zess hinsichtlich der Gtertrennung bei einer Ehescheidung, dem der Ehevertrag zugrunde
gelegt wird. Da nach solchen Ehevertrgen normalerweise die Ehefrau alles von ihr in die Ehe
eingebrachte wieder an sich nehmen konnte, konnte es leicht streitig sein, was dazu gehrte.
Der Ehevertrag der Mibtahja mit Eshor/Natan belegt deutlich, dass der eigentliche Besitz
der Frau nicht genannt wurde Mibtahja war, wie B2.1-4 zeigt, Besitzerin eines Hauses auf
Elephantine, das in diesem Ehevertrag nicht erwhnt wird. So konnte es bei Scheidungen zu
Auseinandersetzungen ber das kommen, was die Ehefrau an Kapital abziehen konnte. B2.8
belegt, dass es zu einer gtlichen Einigung kam und Pia entsprechend keinerlei Ansprche an
seine ehemalige Gattin hatte.
Dass TAD II, S. 15 offenkundig nicht mehr davon ausgeht, dass Pia ein Ehemann Mibtahjas
war, hat wohl seinen Grund darin, dass B2.9 aus dem Jahr 420 als Hinweis auf den Tod des
zweiten Ehemanns verstanden wurde. Wie oben gezeigt (vgl. Anm. 25), ist diese Deutung aber
nicht zwingend, sondern Eshor/Natan knnte durchaus einige Jahre vor 440 gestorben sein.
Dass bei dem Prozess mit Pia der Ehevertrag eine rechtliche Grundlage war, erklrt, wie schon
Porten 1968, S. 247, bemerkt, das Fehlen des Vertrages. Er wurde geffnet und war danach
rechtlich ungltig. Umgekehrt zeigt dann die Existenz des ungeffneten Ehevertrages mit
Eshor/Natan, dass diese Ehe nicht geschieden wurde, sondern Eshor/Natan gestorben war.
28 Vgl. dazu auch Szubin-Porten 1983[a], S. 39-41.
185
aramische archive aus achmenidischer zeit und ihre funktion
auf das Haus besttigt. Dieser berschrieb 460 v.Chr. seiner Tochter Mibtahja
das Haus (B2.3), wobei das entsprechende Dokument in Z. 23-27 auf den Rechts-
streit von 464 verweist und ausdrcklich das entsprechende Dokument (B2. 2)
nennt, welches Mahseja nun zusammen mit dem Haus seiner Tochter fr den
Fall bergibt, dass der Klger von 464 seine Klage noch einmal aufnehmen sollte.
Ohne dieses Dokument, das eine strafbewehrte allgemeine Klageverzichts-
klausel enthlt (Z. 12-15), htte jedermann, einschlielich des Klgers von 464,
risikolos erneut die Rechtmigkeit des Besitzes anzweifeln knnen. Mehr
noch, Mahseja besa offenkundig kein lteres Besitzdokument und konnte 464
die Klage nur durch einen Eid abwenden. Eine weitere Klage, dass er das Haus gar
nicht als sein Eigentum htte weitergeben drfen, htte nach seinem Tod ohne
das besagte Dokument seine Tochter in Beweisnot gebracht. Dies illustriert in
besonderem Mae nicht nur die Wichtigkeit des Besitzes solcher Dokumente,
sondern auch die ihrer bergabe an die folgenden Besitzer.
Mit der berschreibung des Hauses hatte Mahseja (I) auch zugleich Jesanja,
dem ersten Mann seiner Tochter, als Gegenleistung fr die Bebauung ein Wohn-,
aber kein allgemeines Besitzrecht eingerumt, was B2.4 dokumentiert. Das Be-
sitzrecht der Mibtahja wird darin dahingehend eingeschrnkt, dass sie nach ei-
ner etwaigen Scheidung das Haus nicht einfach an andere verkaufen kann, son-
dern es den gemeinsamen Kindern zusteht andernfalls wird das Grund stck
geteilt und Jesanja erhlt die eine Hlfte, die aber wiederum an die Kinder mit
Mibtahja vererbt werden soll. Indirekt schliet dies aber jedes Erbrecht einer
anderen Person oder eine Klage eines dritten, dass Jesanja ihm das Grundstck
bereignet htte, aus: Du hast nicht die Verfgungsgewalt, es zu verkaufen oder
es aus Zuneigung einem anderen zu geben (Z. 6f.). Damit besttigt das Doku-
ment indirekt, dass Mibtahja nach dem Tod Jesanjas uneingeschrnkte Besitze-
rin auch dieses Hausteils wurde, und damit auch, dass es rechtmig an Jedanja
(I) und Mahseja (II), die Shne der Mibtahja, vererbt werden konnte.
In diesen Kontext gehrt auch B2.1, das auf Grund der Fundumstnde
wahrscheinlich ebenfalls Bestandteil dieses Archivs war und das Recht Mahse-
jas (I) an einer Mauer dokumentiert, die ein anderer auf seinem, Mahsejas (I)
Grundstck, errichtet hat.
B2.7 schlielich ist die berschreibung eines weiteren Hauses an Mibtahja
durch ihren Vater Mahseja (I), das damit ebenfalls zur Erbmasse gehrte, die Je-
danja (I) und sein Bruder Mahesja (II) bernommen hatten.
Dieses Dokument belegt, dass das Archiv offenkundig nicht vollstndig vor-
liegt. Z. 6-7 erwhnt ein lteres Dokument, dass das Besitzrecht Mahsejas (I) be-
sttigt und an Mibtahja weitergegeben wurde. Dieses Dokument wurde si cher-
lich auch an die Erben weitergereicht,
29
fehlt aber in der vorliegenden Sammlung.
29 Natrlich ist nicht auszuschlieen, dass es zu einem Prozess gekommen war, bei dem das
Dokument geffnet worden war. In diesem Fall wre aber zu erwarten, dass ein entsprechen-
des neues Dokument abgefasst und ausgehndigt wurde.
186
Da der sptere Hndler dieses Archiv aber an unterschiedliche Personen verkauft
hat, ist es durchaus mglich, dass dieses Dokument an einen anderen Kufer ge-
langte und erst in der Neuzeit verloren ging bzw. in einer anonymen Samm lung
der wissenschaftlichen Forschung vorenthalten wird.
30
2.1.3 Zusammenfassung
Die zehn Dokumente diese Archivs teilen alle den Aspekt, dass sie in einem
Rechtsstreit ber das Erbe, das Jedanja (I) und Mahseja (II) von ihren Eltern
erhalten haben, als Beweismittel fr dessen Rechtmigkeit dienen knnen.
31

Dem entspricht, dass all diese Dokumente noch nicht geffnet und damit als Be-
weismittel gltig waren. Damit ergibt sich fr dieses Archiv eines Privatmannes
eine klare Funktion, die auch erklrt, warum die Dokumente aus der berschau-
baren Zeitspanne von 61 Jahren stammen.
Da das Archiv auch ein von Mahseja (II) fr seinen Bruder Jedanja (I) ausge-
stelltes Dokument enthlt (B2.11), darf man Jedanja (I) als Besitzer des Archivs
ansehen. In wieweit Mahseja (II), dessen Besitzansprche die Mehrzahl der Do-
kumente ebenfalls betreffen, auf dieses Archiv zurckgreifen konnte, kann man-
gels Quellen nicht entschieden werden.
32
2.2 Das sogenannte Archiv des Anani
2.2.1 Rekonstruktion des Archivs
TAD II prsentiert die dreizehn Dokumente B3.1-13 unter der berschrift The
Anani Archive.
33
Dabei wurden B3. 2-13 von Sebachgrbern auf dem Ruinenh-
gel von Elephantine gefunden und von Charles Edwin Wilbour zwischen dem
28.1. und 12. 2.1893, also innerhalb von zwei Wochen, von drei verschiedenen
Frauen gekauft.
34
Auf Grund ihres Erhaltungszustandes knnen B3. 2-13 in fnf
Kate gorien eingeteilt werden:
30 Vgl. auch schon Sayce in Sayce-Cowley 1906, S. 5.
31 Dies gilt auch dann, wenn man B2.9 mit Botta 2009, S. 130 (vgl. auch Muffs 2003, S. 30),
dahingehend interpretiert, dass die Gter, um die es dort geht, wirklich nicht Eshor/Natan
gehrt hatten und entsprechend von Jedanja (I) und seinem Bruder zurckerstattet wurden.
Das Dokument schtzt in diesem Fall die beiden Brder vor dem Vorwurf, doch noch unrechtes
Erbe in Besitz zu haben.
32 Denkbar ist auch, dass er ein eigenes Archiv besa, zu dem Dokumente gehrten, in de-
nen Jedanja (I) ihm das Anrecht auf seinen Teil des Erbes besttigte und zusicherte, in einem
Rechtsfall die entsprechenden Urkunden vorzulegen.
33 Vgl. schon Yaron 1961[a], S. 5-6, der zu diesem Archiv nur B3. 2-8 und 10-13 zhlt. hnlich
Porten 1968, S. 234, der zustzlich B3. 2 ausschliet.
34 Vgl. zur Fund- und Editionsgeschichte Kraeling 1953, S. 9-11.
187
aramische archive aus achmenidischer zeit und ihre funktion
1 Acht Rollen lagen Kraeling, der die Texte 1953 editiert hat, noch als geschlos-
sene und versiegelte Dokumente vor. Leider nennt Kraeling nicht exakt,
welche diese waren, aber mit Sicherheit gehren B3.3 und B3.10-13 dazu, die
auf Pl. XXI in Kraelings Edition in diesem Zustand photographisch doku-
mentiert sind.
35
Neben diesen Rollen sind nur fr B3.4-6 auch die Um schlags-
bereiche mit der Auenaufschrift nahezu unversehrt erhalten, so dass diese
die brigen drei noch versiegelt aufgefundenen Rollen waren.
2 B3.9 (= Kraeling 8) war offenkundig ebenfalls noch vollstndig erhalten von
Wilbour gekauft worden, aber wohl von ihm selbst geffnet worden.
36
Of-
fenkundig ging dabei der uerste Papyrusstreifen mit der Auenauf schrift
verloren.
3 Opfer eines dilettantischen ffnungsversuches drfte auch B3.8 sein, das
sich einschlielich des Umschlagsbereich mit der Auenaufschrift aus ei-
nem gesonderten Bndel an Fragmenten plus einiger davon getrennt aufbe-
wahrter Fragmente
37
nahezu vollstndig rekonstruieren lsst. Offenkundig
war das Dokument erst nach der Auffindung in seine Fragmente zerfallen,
die dann gebndelt an das Museum gingen.
38
4 B3. 2 ist ebenfalls nur aus Fragmenten zusammengesetzt, von denen aber
nicht bekannt ist, ob sie als gesondertes Bndel vorlagen. Jedoch ist nicht
nur der Textbereich nahezu vollstndig erhalten, sondern auch einige kleine
beschriftete Fragmente, die dort nicht eingeordnet werden knnen und so-
mit wahrscheinlich zur Auenaufschrift gehrten. So ist es wahrscheinlich
ebenfalls nach seiner Auffindung das Opfer eines verfrhten Versuches, es zu
ffnen, gewesen.
39
5 Auch B3.7 ist nachtrglich aus Fragmenten rekonstruiert. Im Unterschied
aber zu den vorgenannten Dokumenten ist auffllig, dass der Beginn des
Textes zwar vllig erhalten ist, dieser aber exakt mit dem oberen Rand des
erhaltenen Papyrus zusammenfllt, so dass man den Eindruck hat, der obere
Umschlagsbereich mit der Auenaufschrift sei abgeschnitten gewesen. Im
35 Die fnf Dokumente sind von oben nach unten B3.3, 10, 11, 13 und 12.
36 One roll (No. 8) he [scil. Wilbour, I. K.] may have tried unsuccessfully to open, for it came
to the museum in two separated, folded pieces, Kraeling 1953, S. 11.
37 Die Auenaufschrift wurde von Kraeling 1953 als Papyrus 15 ediert, einige Fragmente fan-
den sich auch unter den nicht eingeordneten Fragmenten von Pl. XVIII.
38 Vgl. Kraeling 1953, Pl. XXIII.
39 Vgl. Szubin-Porten 1983[b], S. 279, die, ohne ihre Quelle zu nennen, mitteilen, dass [a]n
early attempt to open it, probably by the purchaser of the Document, Charles Edwin Wilbour,
miscarried, and it broke to pieces.
188
Unterschied zu den anderen Dokumenten fehlt auch ein groes Stck am
Ende. Beides lsst sich dahingehend erklren, dass das Dokument schon in
der Antike geffnet und dabei der obere Teil entfernt wurde. Danach knnte
das Dokument falsch herum aufgerollt aufbewahrt worden sein, was den gr-
eren Verlust im unteren Bereiches erklren wrde. Damit wrde es sich um
ein juristisch nicht mehr gltiges Dokument handeln, bei dem die Auenauf-
schrift und mglicherweise sogar die Zeugenliste entfernt worden war.
40
Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass innerhalb von vierzehn Tagen eine ganze Gruppe
noch verschlossener Dokumente an unterschiedlichen Orten ergraben wurde,
die sich dann noch alle auf dieselbe Familie beziehen, ist uerst gering, so dass
die Zugehrigkeit der Dokumente der ersten 3 Kategorien (B3.3; B3.4-6 und
B3.8-13) zu einem Archiv kaum zu bezweifeln sein wird. Da es Indizien dafr
gibt, dass auch B3. 2 (Kategorie 4) erst nach der Auffindung zerfallen war, kann
es ebenfalls mit recht hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit zu dieser Gruppe gezhlt wer-
den. Der abweichende Erhaltungszustand von B3.7 (Kategorie 5) lsst sich sach-
lich damit erklren, dass es sich hierbei um ein schon in der Antike geff netes
Dokument handelt (s. auch unten), und ist somit kein Gegenar gument gegen
die Zuordnung dieses Textes zu dem vorliegenden Archiv. Da es zudem aus
derselben Familie wie die brigen Dokumente stammt und sogar zu einem
Themenbereich gehrt, der auch in anderen Dokumenten dieser Gruppe behan-
delt wird, darf daher auch fr dieses Dokument die Zugehrigkeit zu demselben
Archiv angenommen werden.
41
Die Zugehrigkeit von B3.1 zu diesem Archiv, die TAD II, S. 53, nahelegt, ist je-
doch nicht zu rechtfertigen. Zwar wurde es auch noch in aufgerolltem und versie-
geltem Zustand gefunden, stammt aber aus der spteren deutschen Ausgrabung,
was keine nhere rumliche Zuordnung zu dem Fundort der anderen Dokumen-
ten erlaubt. Die Annahme, dass die Stelle, die schon 1893 von den Sebachgrbern
abgetragen wurde, dieselbe sei, an der man ber ein Jahrzehnt spter in 0,5 m
Tiefe wiederum ein solches Dokument fand, wre doch zu unwahrscheinlich.
42
40 Trifft dies zu, so ist Frag. d nicht an das Ende des Dokumentes zu lokalisieren, obwohl es
am unteren Rand einen freien Zeilenabschnitt erkennen lsst. Ein solcher kann aber, wie z. B.
B3.9 erkennen lsst, auch dadurch entstehen, dass die Zeugenliste in einer neuen Zeile an-
setzt, die nicht ganz ausgeschrieben wird. Damit wre aber die offenkundige Namensangabe
@>auf diesem Fragment wohl dem Schreibernamen zuzuordnen.
41 Es sei aber betont, dass dies nur deshalb zulssig ist, weil die Fragmente von B3.7 offen-
kundig auch zur gleichen Zeit von der selben Gruppe von Sebachgrbern gefunden wurde. Die
Wahrscheinlichkeit, dass dieses Dokument von einem anderen Ort stammt und sich nur zufl-
ligerweise inhaltlich perfekt an die brigen anschliet, ist uerst gering.
42 Vgl. zu diesem Text aber auch Anm. 49.
189
aramische archive aus achmenidischer zeit und ihre funktion
2.2.2 Der Inhalt des Archivs
Die Familienverhltnisse der in diesen Texten genannten Personen sind recht
komplex. Meullam bar Zakkur (I) hatte eine Leibeigene namens Tapemet, wel-
che Anani (I) bar Asarja geheiratet hatte. Ihre leibliche Tochter war Jehoima
(B3.7, 2-3.8.17; B3.10, 2. 27; B3.11, 2. 21; B3.12,18), die aber rechtlich als Tochter
Meullams, des ehemaligen Besitzers ihrer Mutter, galt. Dies geht nicht nur aus
der Formulierung Jehoima ..., deine [scil. Tapemets, IK.] Tochter, die du mir
[scil. Meullam, IK.] geboren hast in der Urkunde, mit der Tapemet und ihre
Tochter aus der Leibeigenschaft entlassen werden (B3.6,4-5), hervor, sondern
auch aus der Tatsache, dass nach dem Tod Meullams sein Sohn Zakkur (II) recht-
lich als Bruder der Jehoima gilt und fr sie den Ehevertrag abschliet.
43
Ihr Ehe-
mann war Anani (II) bar Haggai. Das vorliegende Archiv ist das des Anani (II)
und seiner Ehefrau Jehoima. Dies geht mit Sicherheit daraus hervor, dass die
letzten beiden Dokumente (B3.12 und 13) aus dem Jahr 402 fr bzw. von Anani
(II) ausgestellt wurden.
Dass dieses Archiv neben Urkunden, die den rechtmigen Besitz einer
Immobilie durch Anani (II) (B3.12 [Jahr 402]) und seine Frau Jehoima (B3.7
[Jahr 420], B3.10 [Jahr 404], B3.11 [Jahr 402]) belegen, auch den Ehevertrag der
Jehoima (B3.8 [Jahr 420]) enthlt, entspricht dem Bild, das auch das soge-
n annte Archiv der Mibtahja ergab. Die in den Texten genannte Immobilie war
dem Paar sukzessive von den Eltern der Jehoima bereignet worden. Dement-
sprechend kam das Paar auch in den Besitz der Kaufurkunde, mit der Anani (I)
das Haus erworben hatte (B3.4 [Jahr 437]), sowie einer Urkunde, mit der Anani
einen Teil der Immobilie an seine Frau Tapemet berschrieben hatte (B3.5 [Jahr
434]). Im Kontext des vorliegenden Archivs belegen diese Dokumente, dass Ana-
ni (I) und seine Frau als rechtmige Besitzer die Immobilie an ihre Tochter bzw.
deren Ehemann bergeben haben.
44
Selbstverstndlich gehrt das Dokument der Freilassung Tapemets und ih-
rer Tochter Jehoima durch Meullam (B3.6 [Jahr 427]) als rechtlich hchst be-
deutsam in das Archiv Jehoimas und ihres Mannes. Dieses Dokument regelte
zugleich auch das zuknftige Verhltnis Jehoimas zu Zakkur (II), dem Sohn
Meullams. Sie und ihre Mutter haben verbindlich zugesichert, Meullam und,
nach dessen Tod, auch seinen Sohn zu untersttzen wie ein Sohn oder eine
Tochter ihren Vater (B3.6,11-15).
Dem rechtlich komplexen Status von Tapemet und ihrer Tochter Jehoima
entspricht, dass im Archiv der Tochter und ihres Ehemannes sogar die Heirats-
urkunde ihrer Mutter Tapemet aufbewahrt wurde (B3.3 [Jahr 437]), die aus der
Zeit vor ihrer Freilassung datiert. Das Dokument zeigt deutlich, dass die erb-
43 B3.8; in Z. 3, 4 und 5 wird Jehoima ausdrcklich als Schwester Zakkurs (II) bezeichnet.
44 Vgl. auch Szubin-Porten 1983[a], S. 35.41-45.
190
rechtlichen Implikationen einer Ehe zwischen einer Unfreien und einem Frei-
en nicht a priori festgelegt waren, sondern einer besonderen, einvernehmlichen
Regelung bedurften. Im endgltigen Text werden die Eheleute jeweils gegen-
seitig als uneingeschrnkte Erben des gemeinsamen Besitzes eingesetzt, aber
diese Bestimmung ist als Korrektur ber eine andere Bestimmung geschrieben
worden, nach der eine dritte Person Erbe der Hlfte des Besitzes sein sollte. Da bei
drfte diese Person wohl Meullam, der damalige Besitzer Tapemets, gewe sen
sein, was, wie 176 des Kodex Hammurapi zeigt, nicht ungewhnlich ge wesen
wre.
45
Mithin bestand durchaus das Risiko, dass Erben Meullams nach dem
Tod Ananis (I) oder seiner Frau Tapemet Anspruch auf ein Teil des Erbes erhe-
ben konnten, der mit diesem Ehevertrag aber abgelehnt werden konnte.
46
Dass
dieses Dokument in das Archiv des Anani (II) und seiner Frau Jehoima gelang-
te, legt damit auch die Vermutung nahe, dass Jehoima die einzige Erbin ihrer
Eltern war, und dass Pilti, der als Sohn der Tapemet (und wahrscheinlich Ananis
[I]) in ihrem Ehevertrag erwhnt wurde (B3.3,13), relativ frh verstarb oder aus
einem anderen Grund als Erbe nicht (mehr) in Frage kam. Dem ent spricht auch
B3. 2 (Jahr 451), in dem ein gewisser Micha gegenber Anani (I) bezeugt, dass er
in Bezug auf eine Sache keinerlei Ansprche mehr hat und entsprechend nicht
mehr klagen kann.
47
Auch dieses Dokument hat wohl Anani (I) an seine Tochter
bzw. seinen Schwiegersohn vererbt, die damit sich als seine Rechtsnachfolger
erweisen.
Nur auf den ersten Blick scheint aber B3.9 keinen inhaltlichen Bezug zu den
brigen Texten zu haben. Es handelt sich bei diesem Dokument aus dem Jahr 416
um die rechtlich bindende Zusage eines gewissen Uria an Zakkur (II), der von
Rechts wegen als Bruder Jehoimas galt, dass weder Uria noch seine Nach fah ren
Zakkurs leiblichen Sohn Jedanja, den Uria adoptiert hatte, zu einem Leib eigenen
machen knnen, sondern Jedanja als rechtmiger Sohn Urias gelten soll.
Dass auch dieses Dokument in das Archiv der Jehoima und ihres Mannes ge-
langte, knnte zwei Grnde haben. Zum einen drfte die Zu sicherung Urias,
dass Jedanja sein Sohn wird ( , Z. 5) implizieren, dass damit Jedanja,
45 Deutlich ist zu erkennen, das in Z. 11 ein ursprngliches (der) Verfgungsge-
walt ber die Hlfte von allem hat in ein (die) Verfgungsgewalt ber alles hat
gendert worden ist. Entsprechend wurde auch in Z. 12 ein in korrigiert (vgl. Yaron
1961[b], S. 129-130). Z. 11 enthielt den Namen der mnnlichen Person, die zunchst die Hlfte er-
ben sollte, der aber nahezu vllig ausgelscht und mit Ta(pe)met ist es, die berschrie-
ben wurde. Da sich die erhaltenen Schriftspuren am Schluss durchaus zu ergnzen lassen
und der erste Name sicher ein enthielt, ist die von Porten 1968, S. 211 auf Grundlage des schon
von Yaron angefhrten 176 des Codex Hammurapi vorgeschlagene Lesung
Meullam bar Zakkur ist es, der naheliegend.
46 Damit ist die Vermutung Porten 1968, S. 234, nicht zutreffend, dass die Aufbewahrung des
Ehevertrages ihrer Mutter durch Jehoima und ihren Mann had little more than sentimental
value since the dowry which usually went to the children was most meager.
47 Vgl. zu diesem Dokument auch Szubin-Porten 1983[b].
191
aramische archive aus achmenidischer zeit und ihre funktion
soweit keine andere Verfgung Zakkurs vorliegt, nicht mehr als Erbberechtig-
ter Zakkurs auftreten kann. Angesichts der Versorgungsverpflich tung, die Je-
hoima nach B3.6 auch gegenber Zakkur bernommen hatte, war dies fr sie
durchaus von Bedeutung. Jedanja konnte eben keine daraus eventuell ableit bare
Ansprche an Jehoima stellen und wahrscheinlich auch keine An sprche mehr
auf das Erbe seines leiblichen Vaters und Grovaters, von dem mglicherweise
Jehoima als rechtliche Tochter Meullams und Schwester Zakkurs (II) profitiert
haben knnte. Ein vllig anderer Grund aber knnte auch sein, dass Zakkur das
Dokument an seine Schwester bzw. ihren Mann bei seinem Tod weitergege-
ben und sie somit als Rechtswahrer fr seinen Sohn eingesetzt hat, um diesen
vor einer spteren Versklavung zu schtzen. Das Dokument direkt an Jedanja zu
geben, htte kontraproduktiv sein knnen, da sein neuer Vater es ihm wegneh-
men konnte und somit kein Rechtsmittel mehr verfgbar gewesen wre, eine
nachtrgliche Versklavung zu verhindern. Ohne weitere Quellen wird man hier
keine endgltige Entscheidung fr die eine oder andere Mglichkeit treffen
knnen, wenn auch deutlich ist, dass es durchaus sachlich-juristische Grnde
gegeben haben kann, dass auch dieses Dokument in Ananis (II) Archiv sich
fand.
48
Von besonderem Interesse ist B3.13 (Jahr 402), ein Dokument ber ein Dar-
lehen, dass Anani (II) aufgenommen hat. Solche Darlehensdokumente wurden
fr den Glubiger hier ein gewisser Pahnum ausgestellt und verblieben bei
diesem, solange die Schuld nicht beglichen wurde, damit dieser es gegebenen-
falls in einem Prozess vorweisen konnte. Wenn dieses Dokument sich aber im
Archiv des Schuldners Anani (II) findet, so bedeutet dies folglich, dass das Dar-
lehen zurckgezahlt war. Dass Anani (II) dieses Dokument aufbewahrte, kann
damit erklrt werden, dass eine Schuldurkunde in den Hnden des Schuldners
als Beleg galt, dass die Schuld bezahlt worden war.
49
Die rechtliche Bedeutung von B3.7 aus dem Jahr 420, die dieses Dokument
fr Anani (II) und seine Frau Jehoima gehabt haben knnte, ist unklar. Die Ur-
kunde hat die berschreibung von Rechten an einem Haus durch Anani (I) an
seine Tochter Jehoima zum Inhalt, die aber im Jahr 404 und 402 durch B3.10


48 Dies wurde von Porten 1968, S. 234, bezweifelt; vgl. auch Yaron 1961[a], S. 5-6.40.
49 Ein anderes Beispiel fr eine zurckgegebene Schuldurkunde drfte B3.1 sein, die aus dem
Jahr 456 stammt. Sie beurkundet ein Darlehen von 4 Schekel Silber, dass Meullam bar Zak-
kur einer gewissen Jehohen gewhrt hat. TAD ordnet dieses Dokument dem Archiv des Anani
zu, was aber, abgesehen davon, dass das Dokument wohl kaum an derselben Stelle gefunden
wurde (s.o.), auch inhaltlich nicht plausibel ist. Trfe dies zu, so wre die Urkunde ja immer im
Bereich der Familie Meullams bzw. seiner Rechtsnachfolger geblieben, was bedeuten wr-
de, dass sie nie bezahlt und offenkundig auch nie eingefordert wurde. Daher ist es viel wahr-
scheinlicher, dass das Dokument aus dem Archiv der Jehohen stammt, die die Schuld bezahlt,
die Urkunde ausgehndigt bekommen und als Beleg fr die Rckzahlung aufbewahrt hat.
192
und 11 erweitert und auf eine neue rechtliche Basis gestellt wurden. Damit war
das Dokument von 420 (B3.7) prozessrechtlich obsolet, was erklren knnte,
warum wohl schon in der Antike die Auenaufschrift und mglicherweise auch
die Zeugenliste entfernt worden war und nur noch der Inhaltsteil aufbewahrt
wurde. Mglicherweise war das Dokument im Kontext der berschreibungen
von 404/402 geffnet und dann der Vollstndigkeit halber oder zur spteren In-
formation ber den offensichtlich komplexen Vorgang mit den beiden neuen
Dokumenten zusammen aufbewahrt worden.
2.2.3 Zusammenfassung
Das Privatarchiv des Anani (II) und seiner Frau Jehoima entspricht grund stzlich
dem Archiv des Jedanja. Wie jenes enthlt auch dieses nur Rechtsdo kumente, die
einen Bezug zum Besitz und rechtlichen Status der Archiveigner haben und aus
einer berschaubaren Zeitspanne von 50 Jahren stammen. Dies gilt auch dann,
wenn die Urkunde in Bezug auf die Adoption des Neffen der Jehoima (B3.9)
an diese oder ihren Ehemann gegeben wurde, um den Perso nen standstatus des
Neffen als Sohn und nicht Leibeigener seines Adoptiv vaters nach dem Tod
seines leiblichen Vaters zu sichern. Damit htten Jehoima bzw. ihr Ehemann
den Rechtsstatus eines Rechtswahrers, und auch dieses Do kument wrde damit
einen Bezug zu ihrer rechtlichen Stellung haben. Whrend die Dokumente des
ersten Archivs aber alle noch geschlossen und fr eine Verwendung in einem
Prozess geeignete Urkunden waren, enthlt das Archiv des Anani auch ein Doku-
ment, dass wahrscheinlich schon in der Antike geffnet worden und damit pro-
zessrechtlich unbrauchbar war. Da es aber einen rechtlichen Vorgang dokumen-
tiert, der eine Vorstufe zu spteren, durch ge schlossene Dokumente bezeugte
Vorgnge betrifft, ist seine Existenz in diesem Archiv durchaus nachvollziehbar.
Die Tatsache, dass alle diese Dokumente entweder nahezu unversehrt erhal ten
sind bzw. sich sonst nahezu vollstndig rekonstruieren lassen und es Hin weise
gibt, dass sie erst nach ihrer Aufndung zerstrt worden waren, lsst ver muten,
dass sie hnlich wie das erste Archiv ursprnglich in einem Kasten, oder, wie das
nchste Archiv, in einem Beutel deponiert worden waren, wodurch sie weitgehend
geschtzt waren.
2.3 Das Briefarchiv des Nahthor
2.3.1 Rekonstruktion des Archivs
Ein vllig anderes Archiv liegt mit dem Briefarchiv des Nahthor, eines Beam-
ten des Satrapen Arames, vor, das 1954 von Driver publiziert wurde (A6.3-16).
Obwohl die Fundumstnde vllig unbekannt sind, spricht die Tatsache, dass sie
nicht nur zusammen, sondern auch mit einer Ledertasche und einer Sammlung
193
aramische archive aus achmenidischer zeit und ihre funktion
von Bullen gekauft wurden, dafr, dass sie ursprnglich in dieser Tasche aufbe-
wahrt worden waren.
50
2.3.2 Inhalt des Archivs
Das Archiv
51
besteht aus zwei unterschiedlichen Gruppen von Briefen. Die eine
Hlfte (A6.10-16) sind Briefe, die an den Beamten Nahthor adressiert waren und
alle mit seinen Dienstaufgaben in Verbindung stehen.
52
Dies gilt dann auch fr
A6.9, der die Ausgabe fr die Rationen regelte, die Nahthor bei seiner Reise im
Auftrag Arames nach gypten zustanden.
Die brigen Briefe handeln zumeist von Psamek, dem Vorgnger Nahthors
(A6.10,1), sind aber nicht an diesen addressiert (A6.3-4; A6.8). Dementsprechend
stehen in diesen Briefen auch nicht die Dienstaufgaben Psameks zur Diskus-
sion, sondern sie besttigen die Autoritt dieses Beamten in gypten. So weist
Arames in A6.4 einen anderen Beamten an, dass er Psamek als Verwalter sei-
ner Domne in der Nachfolge des Vaters handeln lassen soll. A6.3 greift in einen
Konflikt bezglich frherer Leibeigener ein, die offenkundig die Zeit, die
Psamek brauchte, um sein Amt anzutreten, nutzten, unter Mitnahme von Die-
besgut zu fliehen. Arames spricht hier Psamek als Nachfolger seines Vaters
die Ent scheidungsgewalt ber diese Leibeigenen zu. A6.8 weist einen anderen
Beamten rechtsverbindlich an, Psamek in Bezug auf die Domne und einen
Truppenteil zu gehorchen. Mithin handeln alle diese Briefe von den Rechten
Psameks bzw. seiner Autoritt als Beamter und Verwalter des Arames. A6.7,
ein Brief, in dem Arames die Haftentlassung einer Gruppe kilikischer Arbeiter
fordert, so dass diese wieder auf seiner Domne Dienst tun knnen, schlgt ein
vergleichbares Thema an, obwohl in ihm Psamek nicht erwhnt wird. Aber auch
die stark zerstrten Briefe A6.5 und 6 handeln offenkundig von der Verwaltung
der Do mne des Arames in gypten.
50 Vgl. Driver 1954, S. 1-2.
51 Zu den Texten und insbesondere zu ihrer rechtlichen Bedeutung vgl. jetzt auch Kottsieper
2012.
52 A6.10 ist eine rechtsverbindliche Verwarnung Arames gegen Nahthor, mit dessen Leistun-
gen er nicht zufrieden ist; A6.11 teilt Nahthor eine Entscheidung in einem Rechtsfall mit, der
entsprechend er dann handeln soll; A6.12 weist ihn an, einen Bildhauer eine Statue anfertigen
zu lassen und ihm Rationen zur Versorgung auszugeben; A6.13 ist eine Anweisung, sich um die
Angelegenheit einer anderen Domne in gypten zu kmmern; A6.14 ist eine Aufforderung,
dafr zu sorgen, dass die Einknfte einer anderen Domne nach Babylonien gebracht werden
sollen; A6.15 ist eine Reaktion auf Klagen ber Nahthor und sein Vorgehen gegen andere, und
eine Anweisung, wie er sich korrekt verhalten soll; A6.16 ist offenkundig eine Reklamation
ber falsche Gter, die Nahthor gesandt hat.
194
2.3.3. Zusammenfassung
Aus der gegebenen bersicht zeigt sich recht eindrcklich, dass das vorliegen-
de Archiv unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Amtsgeschfte des Nahthor zusam-
men gestellt ist. Dazu gehren natrlich die Schreiben, die seine Amtspflichten
betreffen und entsprechende Anweisungen enthalten, aber auch die Schreiben
aus der Zeit seines Vorgngers, die die Autoritt des Verwalters an sich bzw. das
Dienstverhltnis von Untergebenen betreffen. Dass in diesem Archiv offenkun-
dig keine direkte Dienstanweisung an seinen Vorgnger zu finden ist, zeigt, dass
entweder Nahthor bei seinem Dienstantritt diese als fr seine Aufgabe irrele-
vant ausgesondert hat, oder aber, dass Psamek bei der bergabe der Do ku mente
nur solche weitergab, die fr das Tagesgeschft seines Nachfolgers noch von Be-
deutung sein konnten, wozu er sicher nicht die konkreten Dienstan weisungen,
die er selber erhalten hatte, rechnete. Es handelt sich hiermit also um ein deut-
lich sachbezogenes Archiv, das im Wesentlichen nur die lteren Doku mente
auf be wahrt, die fr den aktuellen Archivinhaber von Bedeutung waren. Dem
ent spricht, dass auch hier wirklich alte Dokumente aus frheren Zeiten, etwa
aus der Dienstzeit von Psameks Vater, nicht vorliegen und wir von diesem nur
indirekt aus den Briefen aus der Zeit von Psameks Dienst erfahren (A6.3-4).
2.4 Die Texte vom Wadi Daliye
1962 wurde von Beduinen in einer Hhle im Wadi Daliye bei Jericho eine Samm-
lung von Dokumenten entdeckt, die dort offenbar im Zusammenhang mit den
Wirren am Ende der Perserzeit von Flchtlingen aus Samaria mitgebracht wor-
den waren, die dann in der Hhle ihren Tod fanden.
53
Die Texte selbst waren of-
fenkundig noch alle aufgerollt und gesiegelt gewesen, wenn auch einige wohl
schon vor ihrer Auffindung stark verrottet waren, andere mglicherweise durch
die Beduinen geffnet wurden. So fanden sich auch eine groe Anzahl von Bul-
len, mit denen die Rollen versiegelt gewesen waren, sowie Reste der Schnre,
mit denen man sie umwickelt hatte.
Soweit es die zum Teil erheblich zerstrten Texte erkennen lassen, handelt
es sich bei diesen um Handels- und Rechtsurkunden, wobei die Mehrzahl sich
auf den Sklavenhandel (WDSP 1-9, 18-20, 22, 26) oder den Verleih von Sklaven
(WDSP 10, 12-13, 17, 27) beziehen. WDSP 14 und 15 handeln von Immobilien,
WDSP 16 vielleicht von einem Weingarten, whrend WDSP 11, 21 und 23-25 das
Objekt der Rechtsvorgnge nicht mehr erkennen lassen. WDSP 28-37 sind zu
zerstrt, um noch mit ausreichender Sicherheit ihr Thema und ihre Rechtsgat-
tung zu bestimmen. Die Urkunden stammen aus der Zeit von 375 bis sp testens
53 Vgl. den Fundbericht in Cross 1963 und Anm. 56; die massgeblichen Editionen sind Gropp
2001 und jetzt Duek 2007.
195
aramische archive aus achmenidischer zeit und ihre funktion
332 v.Chr.
54
Da in mehreren Texten, die aus der Zeit von 335 und frher stam-
men, ein gewisser Jehonur bar Laneri insbesondere als Kufer von Sklaven auf-
tritt, in einer anderer Gruppe von Dokumenten, die etwa in die Zeit von 375-
340 datieren, Jehopadaini bzw. sein Sohn Netira in dieser Funktion begegnen,
geht Duek davon aus, dass zumindest ein groer Teil der Texte den Archiven der
genannten Personen zuzuordnen sei.
55
Dies ist mglich, aber nicht zu sichern.
Dass alle Dokumente an einer einzigen Stelle in der relativ groen Hhle, die
ber hundert Flchtlinge beherbergt hatte, gefunden wurden,
56
kann man zwar
damit erklren, dass hier befreundete Familien ihre Dokumente zusammen ver-
borgen hatten. Mglich ist aber auch, dass solche Urkunden in einem zentralen
Archiv einer Institution gesammelt waren, deren Aufgabe es war, insbesondere
Transaktionen von Leibeigenen zu kontrollieren und/oder zu gewhren, dass
der Status der Betroffenen als Unfreie nachweisbar war. In einer antiken Stadt-
gesellschaft spielte dies eine groe Rolle.
57
Trotz der groen Unsicherheit darber, ob wir es hier mit einem oder meh-
reren Archiven zu tun haben und wem diese dienten, zeigt auch dieser Textfund
grundstzlich, dass solche Archive nicht beliebige Dokumente enthielten, son-
dern inhaltliche Schwerpunkte hatten. Und sie dienten nicht zur Aufbewahrung
obsolet gewordener Dokumente, sondern, wie die kurze Zeitspanne von 40 Jah-
ren zeigt, enthielten sie durchweg nur solche, von denen man annahm, dass sie
noch geschftlich oder juristisch gebraucht wurden. Im Hinblick auf Leib ei gene
waren Handels- und Freilassungsurkunden nach dem Tod des bet reffenden Leib-
eigenen im Normalfall obsolet oder allenfalls noch fr seine direkten Kinder von
Bedeutung. Dies entspricht dem Zeitraum von ca. 40 Jahren aus der die Urkun-
den stammen. Dass ein Sklave lnger als 40 Jahre lebte oder als Leibeigener von
Interesse war, drfte eher die Ausnahme gewesen sein.
2.5 Sammeltexte als Archive
Ebenfalls als eine Art von Archiv knnen die Rollen angesprochen werden, die
Abschriften oder Zusammenfassungen von Einzeldokumenten enthielten und
wiederum in gypten gefunden wurden. Dabei sind folgende Formen belegt:
54 Vgl. Duek 2007, S. 441-445.
55 Vgl. Duek 2007, S. 458-466.
56 Vgl. Cross 1963, S. 113-114: the cave of the papyri ... penetrates into the southern cliff-side
for some 65 meters. ... The find spot proved to be in a remote recess of a deep passageway. ... The
number of skeletons ... found ... was staggering. Dr. Lapp reports more than eighty recovered in
the first campaign, and estimates that the full count ... may reach 200.
57 Auch die Rechtsurkunden hinsichtlich von Immobilien knnten bei einer solchen Institu-
tion hinterlegt sein, zumal die erhaltenen Reste nicht erkennen lassen, um was es bei ihnen im
Einzelnen geht.
196
1 Rollen, die Abrechnungen enthalten. Insbesondere eindrcklich ist hier die
Erstbeschriftung des Aiqar-Palimpsests (C3.7). Dieser wohlbekannte Weis-
heitstext wurde auf eine Rolle geschrieben, die aus Blttern von mindestens
zwei lteren Rollen zusammengesetzt war.
58
Dabei enthielten diese lteren
Rollen einzelne Reporte darber, welche Schiffe man an welchem Tag bei ih-
rer Ankunft bzw. Abfahrt inspiziert hatte, was sie an Ladung mit sich fhr-
ten und welche Abgaben man erhoben hatte. Die einzelnen Monate werden
durch Summenangaben abgeschlossen, wie auch eine Zusammenfassung
der Daten am Ende der Rollen zu finden war. Da diese Rollen offenkundig
in einem Zug geschrieben und nicht Tag fr Tag ergnzt wurden, kann mit
Si cherheit davon ausgegangen werden, dass dem Schreiber einzelne Doku-
men te vorlagen, deren Angaben er hier nicht nur zusammenfasst, sondern
detailliert dokumentiert. Solche Rollen ersetzen somit die Sammlung bzw.
ein wohlgeordnetes Archiv der einzelnen Schriftstcke. Von besonderer
Bedeutung ist aber auch, dass solche Schriftrollen nur fr einen bestimm-
ten Zeitraum aufbewahrt wurden. So wurde ihr Inhalt nach einigen Jahren
ge lscht und der Papyrus fr einen literarischen Text genutzt. Damit ent-
sprechen sie den bisher behandelten Archiven in zwei wesentlichen Aspek-
ten: Sie haben eine klare Funktion, d.h. sie sind keine beliebige Sammlung
von Dokumenten, und sie sind nicht auf die Sicherung der Dokumente fr
einen beliebig langen Zeitraum angelegt, sondern werden offenkundig dann
aufgegeben, wenn ihre Funktion erfllt ist. Es sind also keine Archive fr die
Nachwelt, sondern funktionale Sammlungen fr die Gegenwart.
2 Dass einzelne Dokumente als Abschriften in Rollen gesammelt wurden, illus-
triert auch C3.13. Dass diese Rolle Einzeldokumente archiviert, wird nicht nur
darin deutlich, dass die einzelnen Dokumente zumeist deutlich durch eine
Leerzeile und einen horizontalen Strich am rechten Rand voneinander abge-
setzt sind, sondern insbesondere dadurch, dass die einzelnen Texte teil weise
einen unterschiedlichen formalen Aufbau haben und sogar noch ihre ber-
schriften wie Memorandum (Z. 1, 10, 44, 50) oder Memo-
randum ber (Z. 46, 48) enthalten.
59
Es handelt sich also um eine Sammlung
von Memoranden, die, soweit der erhaltene Text es erkennen lsst, alle den
Transfer von Gtern zum Thema haben, so dass auch hier themenorientiertes
Archiv vorliegt.
3 Schlielich sei auf die Sammlungen von Gerichtsprotokollen verwiesen, von
denen sich mehrere in Saqqara gefunden haben (B8.1-12). Wie in C3.13 sind
58 Vgl. hierzu jetzt Kottsieper 2009, S. 152-156.
59 Vgl. A4.9 als Beispiel eines einzelnen Memorandums; dass die Einzeldokumente auch an-
ders beginnen konnten, zeigt Z. 23, wo mit @ mglicherweise eine Orts- oder Zeitangabe am
Anfang stand.
197
aramische archive aus achmenidischer zeit und ihre funktion
dabei die einzelnen Flle durch Leerzeilen (B8.2; B8.4; B8.7), Striche an den
Seiten (B8.2) oder sogar durch ein stilisiertes in einer Leerzeile (B8.5) oder
nur durch Absatzschreibung (B8.6) voneinander getrennt. Dabei belegen B8.7
und 8, dass die einzelnen Dokumente durchaus auch unterschiedliche Schritte
bei der Rechtsfindung in einem einzelnen Fall betreffen konnten. So sind in
diesen Rollen einzelne Vernehmungsprotokolle, die offenkundig sukzessive
durchgefhrt worden waren, mit Leerzeile und Strich voneinan der getrennt.
Solche Rollen sind Zeugen einer Art amtlichen Archivierung von Dokumen-
ten ber Einzelvorgnge, wobei auch hier die Ausrichtung auf eine bestimmte
Funktion grundlegend ist. Es sind nicht einfach Dokumentensammlungen oder
Urkundenbcher, die alle mglichen Dokumente und Urkunden beinhalten,
sondern Rollen, in denen Dokumente zu einem amtlichen Aufgabenbereich in
Abschriften gesammelt wurden. Dabei handelt es sich nicht um Rechtsurkun-
den, sondern um informative Dokumente, deren Informationen zu einem
Thema oder Bereich auf diese Weise archiviert wurden. Offenkundig konnten
aber diese Archivrollen dann, wenn ihre Informationen nicht mehr gebraucht
wurden, anderen Zwecken zugefhrt werden. Dies belegt nicht nur das Aiqar-
Palimpsest, sondern z. B. auch B8. 2, dessen Einzeldokumente in eine Rolle ge-
schrieben wurden, die ursprnglich andere Verwaltungstexte enthielt.
3 Zusammenfassung
Die Durchsicht der Textgruppen bzw. Texte, die mit hinreichender uerer Evi-
denz als Zeugen ursprnglicher und nicht erst modern rekonstruierter Archive
angesprochen werden knnen, ergibt ein erstaunlich klares Bild. Solche Archi-
ve enthielten Dokumente, die fr den Archivbesitzer eine konkrete Funktion in
der Gegenwart hatten. Sie dienten nicht der Aufbewahrung beliebiger Schrift-
stcke, die man mglicherweise aus sentimentalen Grnden behalten woll te.
Dementsprechend enthalten die Archive der Privatpersonen Rechtsdoku men te,
die sich auf die Besitzstandsrechte und/oder den Rechtsstatus des Ar chiveigners
beziehen. Es sind keine Familienarchive, die der Familien ge schich te dienen,
sondern aus der Vergangenheit werden normalerweise nur solche Dokumente
aufbewahrt, die noch fr die Gegenwart in ihrer Funktion als Rechtsdokumente
eine Funktion haben.
Dies entspricht den Archiven mit einem institutionellen Hintergrund. Da
es hier nicht darum ging, den Rechtsanspruch einer Privatperson zu sichern,
sondern die Verwaltung mit Informationen ber Ablufe zu versorgen, war hier
eine sekundre Form der Archivierung beliebt: die Abschrift einzelner Urkun-
den zu einem bestimmten Themenbereich. Der Vorteil liegt auf der Hand. Eine
Rolle lsst sich leichter transportieren oder deponieren als eine grere Anzahl
einzelner Papyrusbltter oder Dokumente und in ihr lassen sich die Informa-
198
tionen auch gleich fest in eine sachliche oder zeitliche Ordnung bringen. Aber
auch hier gilt der Grundsatz, dass ein solches Archiv nicht fr die Nachwelt an-
gelegt wurde, sondern fr einen zeitnahen Gebrauch, nach dem es obsolet wurde
und entsprechend entsorgt werden konnte.
Das Archiv des Beamten Nahthor entspricht den Privatarchiven darin, dass es
sich deutlich auf die Funktion und das damit verbundene Amt einer einzel nen
Person bezieht.
Mglicherweise belegen die Dokumente aus dem Wadi Daliye, dass ins-
beson dere fr Rechtsurkunden in Bezug auf Leibeigene im Palstina der aus-
gehen den Perserzeit auch zentrale Archive existieren konnten, durch die eine
Institution den fr eine Gesellschaft rechtlich und sozial konflikttrchtigen Be-
reich des Status von Freien und Unfreien kontrollieren konnte, in dem sie die
entsprechenden Urkunden sammelte und so vor Zerstrung sicherte. Aber auch
hier findet sich kein Hinweis darauf, dass solchen Archiven eine Funktion ber
die Gegenwart hinaus zugesprochen wurde. Falls diese Dokumente jedoch aus
Privatarchiven stammen sollten, so wrden diese den in gypten gefunden en
funktional entsprechen.
199 aramische archive aus achmenidischer zeit und ihre funktion
Bibliographie
Botta 2009
A. F. Botta, The Aramaic and
Egyptian Legal Traditions at
Elephantine, Library of Second
Temple Studies 64, Edinburgh.
Cowley 1923
A. Cowley, Aramaic Papyri of the
Fifth Century B.C., Oxford.
Cross 1963
F. M. Cross, The Discovery of the
Samaria Papyri, The Biblical
Archaeologist, 26, S. 109-121.
Driver 1954
G. R. Driver, Aramaic Documents
of the Fifth Century B.C., Oxford.
Duek 2007
J. Duek, Les manuscrits aramens
du Wadi Daliyeh et la Samarie
vers 450-332 av. J.-C., Culture and
History of the Ancient Near East
30, Leiden.
Friedman 1980
M. A. Friedman, Jewish Marriage
in Palestine, I, Tel Aviv-New York.
Grelot 1972
P. Grelot, Documents aramens
dEgypte, LAPO 5, Paris.
Gropp 2001
D. M. Gropp, The Samaria Papyri
from Wadi Daliyeh, in: D. M.
Gropp et.al., Wadi Daliyeh II:
The Samaria Papyri from Wadi
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1909
W. Honroth, O. Rubensohn
und F. Zucker, Bericht ber die
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Sprache und Altertumskunde,
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I. Kottsieper, Look, son, what
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its Relationship to the Book of
Tobit, in: D. Dimant und R.G.
Kratz (eds.), The Dynamics
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Qumran, Forschungen zum
Alten Testament 2. Reihe, 35,
Tbingen.
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I. Kottsieper, Briefe als
Rechtsurkunden: Zu einigen
aramischen Briefen des Arames,
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State, Society and the Epistolary
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Abhandlungen 55/1, Wiesbaden
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E.G. Kraeling, The Brooklyn
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Haven.
Muffs 2003
Y. Muffs, Studies in the Aramaic
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B. Porten, Archives from
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Angeles-London.
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B. Porten und A. Yardeni,
Textbook of Aramaic Documents
from Ancient Egypt, I-IV,
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A. H. Sayce und A. E. Cowley,
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200
Segal 1983
J. B. Segal, Aramaic Texts from
North Saqqra with some
Fragments in Phoenician,
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Szubin-Porten 1983[a]
H. Z. Szubin und B. Porten,
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Yaron 1961[a]
R. Yaron, Introduction to the Law
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201
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
Gli studi recenti sulla storia e sulle pratiche dellarchiviazione nelle citt greche
dimostrano che la capacit delle poleis di organizzare degli archivi ai ni delle
proprie esigenze gestionali e auto-rappresentative aveva trovato applicazione e
sviluppo ben prima dellepoca alessandrina
1
.
Un corretto approccio al modo di gestione dei demosia grammata in et elleni-
stica deve dunque ancora una volta richiamarsi allaspetto funzionale dellarchi-
viazione, che, nel trasformarsi delle circostanze storiche, politiche, istituzionali
generali, ne adattava i caratteri, incrementando la quantit del materiale tradizio-
nale, introducendo nuove specie e voci alle categorie usuali, inglobando nel siste-
ma i documenti esterni che richiedevano la registrazione, articolando in manie-
ra pi idonea le diverse fasi e classi delle scritture da lungo tempo praticate
2
.

1 Per una sintesi, vd. Boffo 2003; Faraguna 2005; per considerazioni circa la necessit di
rivedere lidea ancora diffusa del perfezionamento del sistema archivistico dei Greci com-
piutosi in et ellenistica per il contatto pi diretto con il mondo orientale, vd. Boffo 2011a;
per aspetti specici, vd. Faraguna 2000, 2003, 2011. I lavori indicati sono preliminari ad uno
studio completo su Le poleis e i loro archivi (a cura di M. Faraguna per let arcaica e classica, di L.
Boffo per let ellenistica), nel quale i diversi aspetti qui toccati solo tangenzialmente avranno
pi organica trattazione. Ove non diversamente indicato, le date sintendono a.C.
2 In questa prospettiva la (ovvia) dialettica fra storia politica e istituzioni, sui caratteri della
quale ha richiamato lattenzione ad esempio Gauthier 1985, pp. 4-5, pu trovare una denizione
La presenza dei re
negli archivi delle poleis
ellenistiche
laura boffo
202
Quello che era cambiato era il contesto generale, che da un lato aveva porta-
to allampliamento delle relazioni amministrative e diplomatiche allinterno di
un sistema poleico e interpoleico (preesistente e accresciuto dalle fondazioni e
dalle promozioni di statuto) sempre pi integrato, dallaltro aveva introdotto o
accentuato nei circuiti documentali intra- e infra-cittadini le diverse forme del-
la parola del re, con le sue esigenze e conseguenze politiche e amministrative
3
.
In questa prospettiva, appare del tutto giusticato ricondurre gli inizi del pe-
riodo ellenistico allepoca (almeno) di Filippo II, le cui lettere risultano aver
ampiamente circolato e rappresentato materiale di opportuna conservazione
negli archivi delle citt
4
. Allo stesso modo, quasi allaltro capo della fase alta del
periodo in questione, appare meritevole di considerazione per laspetto che qui
interessa la nota di Polibio (21,45, 2) che la scontta di Antioco III si prospetta-
va per le poleis dellAsia Minore come una liberazione, quale dal tributo, quale
dalla guarnigione, tutte dalle ordinanze regie (zooc 8c nzvtc zo::av
nootzyztav)
5
. La situazione che lo storico riferiva alle citt che rientravano

pi corretta, uscendo dai vincoli del mero rapporto di causa-effetto. La considerazione vale an-
che per le citt di fondazione reale, le quali assumevano gli aspetti istituzionali delle poleis di
tradizione: non sorprende che nel 202 ca. il trattato tra Filippo V e Lisimachia terminasse c:; tz
8[oo:z yzztz], sigillato to:; 8oo: [o:; 8ztc:o:;] (Staatsvertrge III, 549, ll. 3-6). Vd.
anche quanto segue.
3 Una tipica espressione della interrelazione fra le poleis di vecchio e nuovo conio con am-
pia circolazione di documenti da conservare costituita dalla cd. diplomazia della parentela,
la costruzione e pubblicizzazione organizzate delle parentele mitiche e storiche tra le citt,
desiderose di trovare e dichiarare la loro collocazione nel nuovo contesto allargato: vd. Curty
1995; Jones (N. F.) 1999; Lcke 2000; Sammartano 2008/9; Patterson 2010. Per la parola del
re e il dialogo che ne conseguiva, oggetto di ampia considerazione in dottrina, vd. ad esem-
pio Mari 2009, pp. 89 sgg.; Virgilio 2011, pp. 27 sgg. Lattenzione specica alla prassi ammini-
strativa e alle conseguenze archivistiche delle espressioni di quel dialogo, non valutate dagli
studiosi, pu consentire alcuni chiarimenti circa il rapporto tra i diversi discorsi politici, a
parere di chi scrive non soltanto riconducibile al rilancio delle opposte rappresentazioni (come
invece rilevato ad esempio da Bertrand 1990; Ma 2004, pp. 136 sgg.; Bencivenni 2010, pp. 167-
168, nt. 91; ma vd. la stessa Bencivenni 2003, p. 280, nt. 68, a proposito della vicenda di Milasa
citata pi sotto).
4 Per un repertorio delle lettere di Filippo II ad Atene vd. Pbarthe 2006, p. 296, con note; cfr.
anche Ceccarelli 2005, p. 357, con note; Bencivenni 2010, p. 154, ntt. 17-18 e, per altri destina-
tar, Sickinger c.s., nt. 20; vd. anche la nota seguente.
5 La qualica di prostagma non va qui intesa in senso tecnico (per il quale vd. Gauthier
1993, pp. 42-43; Bencivenni 2010, pp. 140 sgg.), quanto in senso generale di ordine ufciale
avvertito come espressione di un potere impositivo (cfr. Mari 2006, pp. 210-211). Bench si ri-
conduca alla polemica, presenta per noi un signicato generale anche il passo in cui Polibio,
per rilevare la malvagit del piano di Apelle, tutore di Filippo V, il quale voleva portare la
lega degli Achei ad un assetto del tutto simile a quello dei Tessali, sottolineava la negativi-
t della condizione di questi ultimi (4,76, 2): i Tessali sembravano amministrarsi secon-
do le proprie leggi e distinguersi di molto dai Macedoni; invece non ne differivano in nulla,
ma la loro situazione era simile a quella dei Macedoni e facevano tutto quello che veniva or-
dinato dagli uomini del re (nzv cno:ocv to nootzttocvov to: zo::o: ; era quanto
altrettanto polemicamente rilevava Demostene, III Phil., 33, a proposito di Filippo II, che
203
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
nella sfera di controllo del re si pu estendere a tutte le poleis che furono a contat-
to pi o meno diretto con unautorit regale: libere o soggette che fossero,
esse non potevano ignorare i messaggi dei re (in tutta la loro gamma di contenuti
e di obblighi) e i documenti che li rappresentavano, e ad essi adeguavano, nei
testi e nella loro articolazione, le risposte previste dalle proprie strutture ammi-
nistrative, con le speciche pratiche di scrittura e di memoria
6
.
Sembra dunque opportuno, se pure in forma preliminare e sommaria, trac-
ciare una rassegna dei diversi modi attraverso i quali il potere reale ellenistico,
diretto o indiretto che fosse, entrava (o intrudeva) e viveva negli archivi delle
poleis. Data la multiformit della relazione, le occasioni per linsediamento erano
molteplici; date la pratica della catena documentaria generata dai provvedi-
menti amministrativi e larticolazione degli archeia (gli ufci e [i loro] archivi) le
forme della registrazione e della diramazione lo erano altrettanto
7
. E se natural-
mente non possiamo ritenere che le poleis praticassero i sistemi e i processi rico-
struibili tutte ai medesimi livelli, nelle stesse forme e per lintero periodo, come
per lo studio dei sistemi archivistici in generale siamo autorizzati a concludere
di una capacit comunque posseduta ed esplicabile dalle comunit organizzate

yzc:... Octtzo: ov tonov no:tcccoz:: su genesi e caratteri dei passi, vd. Mari
1999, pp. 646-647; sulla situazione della Tessaglia in et antigonide, vd. ora Helly 2009, pp.
345-356). Non si entra qui nella discussa questione circa il termine basso dellellenismo, se
non per indicare che, nella prospettiva dello studio delle pratiche archivistiche delle poleis, il
passaggio fra II e I secolo sembra un ragionevole discrimine, collegato con un diverso sistema
di rapporti istituzionali: vd., tra gli altri, Gauthier 2005; Vial 2005 e Coudry, Kirbihler 2010
(i quali ribadiscono il carattere intrusivo dellautorit romana sin dal II secolo, ma propon-
gono come momento netto di cesura istituzionale nelle citt greche la riorganizzazione sillana
dell85/4, con conseguenze dirette sui documenti darchivio).
6 La distinzione, tradizionale, fra citt libere e soggette da tempi recenti oggetto di
riconsiderazione, anche in conseguenza di una valutazione attenta alle forme discorsive e do-
cumentali del rapporto tra re e polis di turno: vd. p. es. Hatzopoulos 1997, 2003, spec. pp. 60
sgg.; 2003/4; Mari 2006, pp. 215 sgg. (per il regno macedonico); Ma 2003, 2004, pp. 111 sgg.
(principalmente per quello seleucidico); Mller 2003, pp. 427 sgg. (per il rapporto tra il re per-
gameno e la sua capitale); Sartre 2004 e Capdetrey 2007, spec. pp. 209 sgg. (per lAsia Minore);
cfr. anche Bertrand 1997, pp. 182 sgg.; ONeil 2000; Debord 2003, pp. 301-302; Fernoux 2004,
pp. 117, 165-166; Hamon 2009, pp. 371-373 e qui sotto.
7 Il principio della creazione di documenti complementari e concatenati, dellarticolazione
delle pratiche archivistiche, della molteplicit funzionale e spaziale dei luoghi di produzione
e/o di conservazione dei documenti ormai riconosciuto nellambito degli studi sullarchivia-
zione nel mondo antico: per lapplicazione di esso al mondo delle poleis vd. Boffo 2003, p. 15;
Faraguna 2005, pp. 72 sgg.; 2006a, pp. 202-203; 2006b, pp. 61 sgg. Al principio in questione
naturalmente correlato quello della gerarchia funzionale dei diversi documenti, che ha portato
a ulteriori denizioni utili per lanalisi del mondo greco: i documenti primari / provvisori
a fronte dei documenti secondari / denitivi per il V.O. A. e i documenti a vita breve a
fronte dei documenti a vita lunga per il mondo romano, intesi come rispettivamente quelli
strumentali ad una prima, parziale registrazione di dati e quelli, in genere cumulativi, desti-
nati alla conservazione nella (pi) lunga durata (vd. rispettivamente Ferioli, Fiandra, Fissore
2000, p. 357 e Moreau 2000, p. 719). Limportanza del presupposto emerge con evidenza anche
dallinsieme dei contributi di questo volume.
204
a gestire dei grammata in funzione della propria pi o meno lunga e pi o meno
intensa vita politica.
La comunicazione del re alle poleis, nella sua manifestazione scritta, si espri-
meva in primo luogo in una serie di documenti recapitati a destinazione, qua-
li vettori del potere
8
. Bench non se ne possa valutare il numero sulla base
dellattestazione epigraca (che comunque riportava quasi esclusivamente i do-
cumenti favorevoli alla polis che la disponeva), proprio il fatto che questultima
abbia incrementato negli ultimi decenni in maniera vistosa il numero delle let-
tere reali induce a confermare lidea dellampiezza del fenomeno e della necessit
per le citt di tenerne la gestione
9
. Con lepistolograa si connetteva (anche per

8 La citazione da Savalli Lestrade, Cogitore 2010, Sez. II; sulle lettere come espressione del
potere reale vd. anche Muir 2009, spec. pp. 90 sgg.; Virgilio 2010, spec. pp. 108-109; 2011, pp. 32
sgg. Singolare e signicativa espressione del ruolo dello scritto del re nel sistema di relazione
con la polis il dossier epigraco del 200 ca. riportato da Nisiro (IG XII 3, 91, lettera di Filippo V
e decreto conseguente, ll. 1-8 e 9 sgg.): la concessione delluso delle leggi locali avveniva attra-
verso la lettera con sigillo del re yzztz... z: ozy:8z tzv zo:ca; portata (cav,
in senso proprio) dal polites intermediario incaricato di riferire oralmente la volont del re (ll.
7-8: cvtctzz: zcta: zvzyyc:z: c:v z ocov cz; c:8oz:; cfr. ll. 15 e 19). Era lo stesso
sfondo del rapporto tra Atene e Demetrio Poliorcete, illustrato al meglio dal decreto del 304/3
SEG 36, 163, proposto dal partigiano Stratocle di Diomea: uno dei sostenitori del re riceveva la
politeia nelle forme istituzionali consuete dopo che il re aveva mandato a conoscere per iscritto
quali erano stati i meriti della persona nei confronti propr e della citt (ll. 10 sgg.: nc: oc o z-
o:cc; cnc [otc:cv] t: oc: z: ta: 8a:, zno[z:vav...; cfr. IG II
2
486, ll. 11-13; 587, ll. 4-5,
con Habicht 2006, pp. 89, 425). I documenti non andavano naturalmente disgiunti dallintensa
attivit di legazione reciproca e dal connesso scambio delle carte che caratterizz lepoca e
rappresent uno strumento fondamentale del dialogo tra poleis e autorit reale: signicativi
sono ad esempio il caso di Xanto, che nel 243/2 inviava a Tolemeo III una legazione con gramma-
ta (laccreditamento di dovere, il decreto civico da apodidonai) e una petizione aggiuntiva (nc:
av :octc tz cnovztz cnc8azv), riportandone co:ozv lepistole di accoglimento
(SEG 36, 1218, rispettivamente ll. 10, 18-19 e 4-5, con Bousquet 1986, pp. 27-29 e Wrrle 1988,
p. 457, nt. 155) e, dalliniziativa opposta, di Antioco III impegnato nelle trattative con Teo, il
quale invi alla polis una lettera di richiesta di una legazione con cui trattare e afd ad essa di
ritorno la lettera di esenzione scale, da illustrare al demos (SEG 41, 1003, I, ll. 29-36); una se-
quenza pi completa di documenti trasmessi indica il dossier epigraco milesio del 262 ca. che
riproduceva una lettera con cui Tolemeo II confermava i privilegi scali riconosciuti dal padre,
portata (co:ocv) a Mileto da un legato del re, il probouleuma che ne aveva stabilito la let-
tura e la discussione nellekklesia, il conseguente decreto onorario del demos, che a sua volta era
stato inviato al re tramite legazione civica (Milet I 3, 139; cfr. Rhodes, Lewis 1997, pp. 378-379;
Savalli-Lestrade 2003, pp. 22-23; Bencivenni 2010, pp. 161-162). Per una sintesi efcace della
natura dei documenti del potere e sul loro effetto nelle citt greche per il regno seleucidico
vd. ad esempio Capdetrey 2007, pp. 340-341, 352.
9 Dallopus classicum RC, del 1934 (1970) peraltro riservato alla sola epistolograa epigraca
di diadochi ed epigoni rinvenuta in Asia e nelle isole prospicienti alla raccolta che B. Virgilio
cura in vista della pubblicazione di quella relativa allAsia, il numero salito da settantacinque
a ca. quattrocentoquaranta attestazioni, dirette e indirette (Virgilio 2009, p. 401, con Virgilio
2010, pp. 118-119; 2011, p. 73; per una rassegna dellepistolograa iscritta dei re di Macedonia,
vd. Hatzopoulos 1996, II, B, con lanalisi in I, pp. 396-405, 411-414, 416-426; per un aggior-
namento, vd. Hatzopoulos 2006, pp. 85-86, cfr. 87 sgg. e Tziafalias, Helly 2010, pp. 85 sgg.).
Un caso di lettera reale incisa nella polis vincente ad esempio rappresentato dalla missiva di
205
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
ragioni formali) la pratica delle ordinanze circolari, i diagrammata, i quali rappre-
sentarono un importante strumento dintrusione della volont del sovrano
nella vita amministrativa e nel sistema documentario delle poleis
10
.
Nella forma con cui venivano indirizzati alla singola polis, o entravano nella
sua amministrazione, gli scritti promananti dallautorit regia passavano natu-
ralmente nella sezione delle comunicazioni in entrata dellarchivio deputato alla
conservazione degli atti ufciali, congurandosi come nuovi zt:oo:
11
. L
essi venivano tenuti come documento di riferimento normativo in conseguen-
za dei quali decretare e in conformit ai quali (ztz + acc.) procedere va-
riamente associato a quello delle norme civiche che essi ingeneravano, per tutto
il tempo che le circostanze storiche e la necessit pubblica avessero previsto
12
.

Lisimaco del 283 ca. che, in una delle controversie territoriali fra Samo e Priene, decideva a favo-
re della prima: il documento ci pervenuto attraverso lepigraa della citt insulare (IG XII 6.1,
155) e non attraverso larchivio epigraco del tempio di Atena Poliade a Priene (che la dovette
peraltro inserire in quello riposto, facendone gli opportuni riferimenti/estratti nei documenti
relativi allapplicazione della decisione arbitrale; diverse lettere regie conservate dai Prienesi
costituivano documento di riferimento per larbitrato rodio del 196-192, Magnetto 2008, p. 43,
l. 171, con pp. 110, 177 e 180 e sotto); sulle motivazioni delle poleis per liscrizione delle missive
regali, vd. Bencivenni 2010, spec. pp. 161 sgg. Vd. anche la nota seguente.
10 Su natura, storia, diffusione del diagramma reale come istituto giuridico, ancora una volta
da ricondurre a Filippo II, si veda leccellente sintesi di Bencivenni 2003, pp. 18-32 e 90-93, 115-
129, dove si considera anche il rapporto con la documentazione legislativa cittadina; vd. anche
Mari 2006, pp. 211 sgg.; Maffi 2006, p. 310; Cassayre 2010, pp. 48 sgg.
11 Nel signicato denito da Ph. Gauthier di documenti donnant lieu enregistrement
(BE 1995, 525, p. 526). Il medesimo messaggio poteva costituire naturalmente sostanza per la
composizione da parte della cancelleria reale di una catena documentaria destinata a circui-
to misto, pi o meno coeva: per unattestazione concreta, vd. la versione epigraca del dossier
relativo allattribuzione di dorea ad Aristodicide di Asso, nella quale la lettera gurava insieme
con (parte del)la sequenza di trasmissione dellordine ai funzionari interessati (I.Ilion 33 con
Bencivenni 2004 e qui sotto); per linsieme dei documenti reali connessi con una disposizione
del re che riguardava un personaggio di una polis ma che prevedeva un circuito pi ampio, reale
e poleico, vd. RC 66, ll. 16-17, la lettera del 135 con cui Attalo III comunicava a Cizico gli onori da
lui attribuiti al suo cittadino Ateneo accludendo z: tz o:nz nootzyztz z: :zvanz
tz yzcvtz cav nc: toctoc (essa pervenuta in una sequenza epigraca della capitale
del regno Pergamo, OGIS 331, composta del decreto cittadino di recezione di quanto richiesto
dallultima lettera iscritta, di una lettera di Attalo II del 142 ad Ateneo stesso, della lettera di
Attalo III a Cizico, della lettera di questultimo re a Pergamo, di tre giorni precedente, che comu-
nicava la decisione di rendere Zeus Sabazio synnaos di Atena Niceforo e Ateneo suo sacerdote,
ordinando che le lettere-prostagmata fossero riportate (ccoz:) tra le leggi sacre della polis,
ll. 59-60; vd. anche sotto).
12 Il volere del re passava, nella citt, attraverso la deliberazione del demos: si vedano, ad
esempio, lordine di Filippo V nella sua prima lettera a Larisa del 217, :va :ozoz: cz;
ona;... (Syll.
3
543, l. 6; cfr. l. 14), oppure la lettera con cui Eumene I nel 263-241 esprime la vo-
lont che il demos pergameno onori i cinque strateghi usciti di carica e scrive ad esso ona;
cv ta: ctzc ova: occcozcvo: t:otc zctoc;... (I.Pergamon 18 (OGIS 267), ll. 18-
19; la lettera alle ll. 1-20; il decreto alle ll. 21-39). Quanto al rimando congiunto alle norme
reali e civiche cui rifarsi, tra i numerosi esempi si ricorderanno: il decreto di Ereso RO 83, B,
ll. 16-19 (nel 332, i tiranni sono processati [zt]z tzv 8:zyzzv t[a ]zo:ca; Aczv8a
206
Esplicito, bench riferito a localit retta da un governatore reale, il caso di Egina,
che nel 159-144 onorava lepistates pergameno Cleone per lequanimit con cui
aveva svolto la sua attivit giudiziaria: quando necessario egli aveva rimandato
alle disposizioni legislative prese dai re, da un lato contenute nelle ordinanze
(reali) registrate nellarchivio cittadino di pertinenza, dallaltro lato assorbi-
te nelle leggi civiche (cn: tz... vcvooctcvz :v cno ta [v z]o:cav ztz
tc tz c:[; to 8]oo:ov c[]zt:ocvz n[oo]tzyztz z: toc; vooc;)
13
.

z: to:; voo:;, ovvero in conformit con le procedure indicate da Alessandro e secondo le
leggi della citt, cfr. l VI, ll. 13-15 e 23-25); il decreto di Colofone SEG 48, 1404, ll. 21-24 (III sec.,
nel periodo in cui la citt era sotto controllo di un sovrano), un regolamento del contenzioso
fra politai e appaltatori delle tasse il quale prevedeva che le citazioni si effettuassero ztz tov
voov e i processi ztz to 8:zyzz toc zo:ca; (il documento peraltro probabilmente
riguardava lappalto delle tasse dovute al re: vd. tienne, Migeotte 1998, p. 150 (= Migeotte
2010, pp. 382-383); Migeotte 2004, p. 224; Chandezon 2004, p. 142 e sotto); I.Iasos 82 (Tit.Cal.,
Test. XVI; SEG 44, 696), ll. 45-46 (nel decreto con cui Calimna, nellorbita dei Lagidi, nel 250-
225 ringraziava i giudici ias per aver operato ztz tc to 8:zyz[z toc ] zo:ca; z: toc;
vooc;; cfr. Cassayre 2010, p. 113, con Gauthier, BE, 1995, 449; Dssel 2003, p. 254; Bencivenni
2008, p. 189, nt. 9; Walser 2008, p. 271, nt. 241; in generale, per le forme dintervento dei re
ellenistici nelle crisi giudiziarie delle poleis e per le scritture che lo esprimevano, vd. Gauthier
1994, pp. 166 sgg. = Gauthier 2011, pp. 114 sgg., circa lcn:otoz di Antigono Dosone a Caristo
SEG 44, 710); IG XII 4, 1, 152, ll. 14-18 (il giuramento civico di Coi e Calimni uniti in homopoliteia,
nel quale limpegno verso la democrazia vigente, laccordo ripristinato z: to:; voo:; to:;
cy Ka: nzt:o:; cnzoco: z: to:; 8oyzo: tz; co:z; z: tz:; 8:zyzz:; tz:; cnc
tz; oono:tc:z;, secondo una sequenza che a ragione Bencivenni 2008, pp. 199, 201 sgg.
propone di ricondurre alla compresenza della normativa locale e di documentazione ufciale
lagide relativa allaccordo); Le Guen, Associations, n. 47, III B, ll. 7-9, Aneziri, Vereine, pp. 387-391,
D12 (nellindicazione del re Eumene II, il tribunale congiunto di Teo e dei Technitai dionisiaci
nel II sec. usava giurare di operare [ztz toc;] vooc; z: tz ; cn:otoz ; t[a zo:cay z:
tz ] :oztz toc 8oc; sullingerenza del re nellattivit istituzionale della citt vd. Le Guen,
Associations, pp. 248 sgg. e Cassayre 2010, pp. 66-67; lidea di Aneziri, Vereine, p. 100, nt. 450 che
die Reihenfolge entspricht hier dem Wert der aufgezhlten Begriffe non seguita dallap-
prezzamento dellintrusione del volere reale nei dispositivi decisionali civici). I riferimenti alla
sequenza lettera/e del re-decreto/i fatti nel dossier di Larisa (217-215), sia dalla polis (l. 47, cfr. ll.
17-18 e 52) sia dal re (ll. 26-27), nella forma attengono allordine procedurale di decisione. Anche
a questo sistema di relazione si rifaceva il detto attribuito ad Antioco III secondo cui le poleis
non dovevano tener conto dei suoi scritti quando questi ordinavano qualcosa contro i [loro]
nomoi (zv t: yz nzz toc; vooc; cccav ycvcoz:, Plut. Mor. 183 F, su cui vd. Virgilio
2011, pp. 28-29). Per un tentativo di ricostruzione della posizione concreta delle ordinanze reali
negli archivi cittadini si rimanda al volume in preparazione.
13 IG IV
2
2, 749, ll. 14-15 (ancora citato come OGIS 329; cfr. SEG 45, 233 e Virgilio 2011, p. 51, nt.
110). Linterrogativo di Savalli-Lestrade 1996, p. 156, nt. 25 circa la natura dei nomoi richiama-
ti, suscitato dalla formulazione complessiva del passo e dalla condizione dellisola di possesso
personale degli Attalidi (dal 209), sembra risolto comunque dal confronto con i nessi espliciti
attestati nei documenti citati nella nota precedente: anche se pesantemente condizionati dal
controllo o dallimposizione reale, i nomoi si conguravano come il versante civico del com-
plesso giuridico di riferimento in Egina (fondamentale a riguardo Gauthier 1993, pp. 44
sg., 48; vd. anche Savalli-Lestrade 2001, p. 90 e K. Hallof, IG, ad loc.). La polis del resto doveva
anche incamerare altri documenti reali, dal momento che, nelle sue condizioni di controllata,
doveva sottoporre al re i decreti che riguardavano i suoi agenti, per la convalida: se per Egina si
conserva solo il dispositivo del decreto al riguardo (ll. 51-53), per la pisidica Olbasa si conserva
207
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
Ad entrambe le categorie, oltre che allinsieme dei documenti contabili connessi,
si rifacevano evidentemente i documenti (cnovztz) esibiti dagli amba-
sciatori di Eraclea al Latmo incaricati dopo il 196 di richiedere ad Antioco III la
conferma di un articolato insieme di privilegi scali concessi dai re preceden-
ti
14
. N il caso di insistere sullinsieme dei chrematismoi contenuti negli archivi
della citt caria di Milasa (da gran tempo grecizzata), ricorrentemente impegnata
con i sovrani di tre dinastie e i loro funzionar a sostenere le proprie competenze
amministrative e scali sul centro religioso di Labraunda e perci sollecita nel
conservare le lettere (redatte tra il 280 ca. e il dicembre 219) utili ad accompa-
gnare la documentazione amministrativa interna e a suffragare la legittimit dei
propr argomenti
15
. E particolarmente indicativa (anche della tipologia dei docu-
menti di garanzia che le poleis ellenistiche archiviavano) era la notizia che, dopo
il 305, un duciario di Tolemeo I riportava in una lettera a Iaso: egli era stato rag-
giunto da ambasciatori della citt che recavano le vostre petizioni accolte da noi
nelle quali era (riconosciuto) che la citt era libera, autonoma e alleata (covtc;
tz nzcav z:aztz cv o[:;] v tv no:v [cccczv z: ] zctovoov c:vz:
z: cv ocz:z:)
16
.
Che del resto il rapporto tra lautorit regale e lamministrazione di una po-
lis trovasse uno degli aspetti qualicanti nella corretta gestione dei documenti
inviati e ingenerati appare dal regolamento del piccolo centro cario di Filippi-

di seguito a uno dei due decreti interessati la lettera di Attalo II di convalida (Virgilio, LDP
2
, n. 34,
con SEG 47, 1759 e Savalli-Lestrade 2001, p. 89).
14 SEG 37, 859, C, ll. 12-13; il termine hypomnemata pu richiamare sia documenti origina-
li sia memoranda confezionati su e con essi per la contingenza (Montanari 1998, 813); nel
contesto, sembra da preferire la prima opzione, gi proposta, con cautela, da Wrrle 1988,
p. 457, nt. 155 (vielleicht eher Akten aus dem stdtischen Archiv, nella traduzione i dos-
siers ripresi da Savalli-Lestrade 2003, pp. 32-33, nt. 70 e Ma 2004, pp. 153, 391); per la se-
conda, cfr. Chankowski (A. S.) 2009, p. 102: mmoirs fonds sans doute sur lanalyse de
documents darchives. Sulle vicende storiche di Eraclea, che non ebbe forse mai prima un
controllo seleucide, vd. Wrrle 1988, pp. 433 sgg.; Ma 2004, pp. 53, 59, 61, 65, 89, 149, 263, nt.
63; Chankowski (A. S.) 2009, pp. 101-102; sulla complessa situazione amministrativa del centro
sotto il controllo seleucide e sulla documentazione correlata vd. sotto.
15 Per il dossier epigraco, che menziona o riporta le lettere/ i grammata in possesso della citt
inviati dal funzionario Sofrone, di Tolemeo glio di Tolemeo II, del dinasta Olimpico (quattro
epistole a Milasa e una a Seleuco II, inviata per conoscenza alla polis), oltre che due lettere di
Seleuco II (a Olimpico) e due di Filippo V (a Milasa e a Olimpico) e il giuramento di questulti-
mo a favore della citt, vd. Virgilio, LDP
2
, nn. 20-25, con le pp. 170-184 (cfr. Virgilio 2001); per
unanalisi accurata della documentazione prodotta dallintera vicenda vd. Bencivenni 2003, pp.
247-298, n. 9; per una recente illustrazione dei manufatti iscritti, indispensabile per la com-
prensione delle vicende dellarchivio, vd. Isager 2011, pp. 206 sgg. e sotto, con nt. 73.
16 I.Iasos 3, ll. 2-3. Appare chiaro il riferimento allaspetto concreto del portare la documen-
tazione utile (per il cc:v, vd. sopra, nt. 8). In questo caso si trattava degli z:aztz, le doman-
de scritte di concessione dello statuto indicato rivolte qualche anno prima a Tolemeo, le quali
erano state accolte ed erano divenute di conseguenza documenti di prova (cos giustamente
Savalli-Lestrade 2003, pp. 32-33, nt. 70). Sulle vicende di Iaso sotto la signoria lagide, vd. da
ultimo Vacante 2008, pp. 524 sgg.; vd. anche sotto.
208
Euromo, conseguente allalleanza stretta con Antioco III nellagosto-settembre
del 197
17
. Tutto quel che concerne i documenti ufciali (tz ztz toc; z-
t:ooc;) diventava pertinenza della nuova, o rinnovata, magistratura principale
dei prostatai del demos (ll. 10-11), mentre la redazione e la spedizione delle lettere
ufciali (yzztz) che dovevano transitare formalmente dallufcio loro o da
quello dellaltra nuova arche dei kosmoi incaricati della sicurezza dello stato (8:z
tav zc:av toctav) venivano sottoposte al controllo reciproco (ll. 12-15)
18
.
Negli archivi poleici gli effetti del rapporto con i re si manifestavano oltre che
con lentrata e la conservazione dei messaggi esterni e della risposta diretta ad
essi anche con la presenza delle pi o meno numerose e articolate catene docu-
mentarie generate dai diversi provvedimenti e statuti giuridici, economici, sca-
li imposti o negoziati e dalle loro conseguenze amministrative.
Ormai saldamente attestata (e non solo per i periodi e per le localit di pi di-
retta sottoposizione ai sovrani) la possibilit della compresenza nella polis degli
obblighi scali interni verso il tesoro civico, il politikon, e di altri verso quello
del re, il basilikon, nelle diverse categorie e forme richieste dalle circostanze
19
. Vie-

17 Cfr. Ma 2004, pp. 385-387, n. 30 (come decreto costituzionale; la traduzione omette la
precisazione amministrativa menzionata nel testo, che gurava, come by these magistrates
in Ma 2002, p. 340); vd. anche, da altra prospettiva, Savalli-Lestrade 2010b, pp. 138-140, con il
testo alle pp. 147-148 e con la corretta lettura dellespressione: par lintermdiaire de ces ma-
gistrats (p. 148), risalente a Gauthier, BE, 1995, 525, p. 526. Il condizionamento da parte del
re appare dal tenore del documento, bench la polis, pur sempre libera, avesse tentato qualche
bilanciamento (vd. Ma 2004, pp. 121-122; Dmitriev 2005, pp. 210-211; Capdetrey 2007, pp. 215,
300-301, 378-379, 435; Fabiani 2010, p. 475; pi critica appare Savalli-Lestrade 2010b, p. 140,
che indaga soprattutto lorigine della magistratura cretese nella citt caria); merita in ogni
caso attenzione il rilievo che Virgilio 2010, pp. 104-105 (cfr. Virgilio 2011, pp. 27-28) pone
sullattenzione di Antioco III per le relazioni epistolari con le citt. Lalleanza (Ma 2004, pp.
384-385, n. 29) era datata con lanno di regno e il mese macedone (ll. 1-2; per il signicato delle
date reali nei documenti civici vd. sotto).
18 Le lettere dovevano essere redatte alla presenza dei due collegi (ll. 13-14) e non potevano
essere inviate allinsaputa luno dellaltro (l. 15): giustamente Dmitriev 2005, p, 294 rileva insie-
me linteresse del re alla soluzione amministrativa adottata e il controllo pur sempre esercitato
dalla citt sul proprio funzionamento; sulla medesima linea si pone Savalli-Lestrade 2010b, p.
139, la quale peraltro insiste sulle dinamiche politiche interne della polis e sul tentativo di porre
ne alluso di lettere segrete destinate ai sovrani operanti nella regione (il testo impone tuttavia
lobbligo solo per le lettere che dovevano passare per gli organi interessati, non per tutte le
lettere); sulla vicenda, vd. anche Virgilio 2011, p. 39, con nt. 74. Sulla carica dei prostatai nelle
citt carie e sul loro rapporto con larchiviazione, cfr. Fabiani 2010, pp. 472-476 e sotto, con nt.
50 (per il rapporto dellz c: ov to nootzt:o v iaseo di SEG 51, 1506, ll. 8-9 con la conservazio-
ne dei documenti di pertinenza dei prostatai, in un contesto topograco e funzionale peraltro
da precisare, vd. Fabiani 2001, pp. 95 sgg.; Haensch 2003, p. 192; Fabiani 2010, p. 475, con C.
Brixhe, BE, 2002, 388). Sul senso dellespressione 8:z ta v z c: av, come riferita auf eine aktive
Mitwirkung der Behrde, vd. anche il contributo di K. Harter-Uibopuu in questo volume.
19 Per la distinzione tra le due casse, vd. ad esempio I.Mylasa 201 (III sec.), dove si precisava
che i locatar dei diversi tipi di terreno dovevano pagare [z: tz ] noon:ntovtz c toc z-
o::oc [no:]t:oc (ll. 8-9; cfr. l. 11; un decreto dello stesso periodo indicava che la polis
relativamente alle tasse sulla persona poteva concedere lateleia solo av no:; c:z cot:v,
209
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
ne facile immaginare la necessit per la polis di tenere accurata registrazione di
quanto era dovuto alla cassa reale, ai ni della trasmissione del relativo rendicon-
to annuale ai funzionari del re competenti e a testimonianza della propria lealt
contributiva, oltre che, nel caso opportuno, dellattestazione di una situazione
gravosa da alleviare o di una favorevole da confermare da parte del sovrano o fun-
zionario di turno, oppure anche solo della documentazione dei limiti topograci
delle aree considerate imponibili dalle rispettive amministrazioni (ed facile
immaginare che linteresse alla corretta tenuta delle scritture era reciproco)
20
.
Alle carte del sistema amministrativo delle citt, la dioikesis, si erano aggiunte
nuove categorie documentali, la cui regolarit doveva essere assai pi ampia
di quanto lascino intravvedere le fonti o considerino gli studiosi che si sono oc-
cupati dei vari aspetti e dei vari momenti della relazione scale tra poleis e so-
vrani. Signicativo della molteplicit della documentazione necessaria per un

I.Mylasa 104, ll. 8-9; sul tipo di tassazione, imposizioni regolari od occasionali destinate o allu-
na o allaltra cassa, vd. Gauthier 1991); gli Ias di Caria, nel 305/4 impegnati nelle gi ricordate
trattative con Tolemeo I, facevano dichiarare ai loro ambasciatori presumibilmente con pez-
ze dappoggio che, se da un lato essi pagavano la syntaxis per la propria difesa al re, dallaltro
tav 8c :cvav z: tav o:nav nooo8av... c:oc; c:vz: (I.Iasos 3, ll. 5-6, cfr. 13-14, 24-25; vd.
Migeotte 2005a, pp. 197-198, e, per la medesima situazione lungo il III secolo, I.Iasos 37, 38, 45,
54; SEG 57, 1069, 1070, 1084). Per una rassegna di casi di pagamento di tributi var ai re delle di-
verse dinastie da parte delle poleis dAsia Minore, vd. Migeotte 2004, pp. 214 sgg. (per il decreto
milaseo citato, lunico fra quelli esaminati che non appartiene a documento di esenzione, vd.
p. 215); vd. anche (per il regno seleucidico) Chandezon 2004; Martinez-Sve 2004; Capdetrey
2007, pp. 398 sgg. (con la ricognizione delle attestazioni letterarie ed epigrache, pp. 398-407);
Schuler 2007, pp. 384-401 (per lAsia Minore, con la conclusione della Invasion des knigli-
chen Fiskus in die ffentlichen Finanzen der Poleis, p. 401, cfr. p. 399). Vd. anche quanto segue.
20 Sulle conseguenze documentali della situazione, cfr. Martinez-Sve 2004, p. 94 (per il re-
gno seleucidico): la cit devait tenir une comptabilit prcise et dtaille des prlvements
effectus chez elle pour pouvoir rendre des comptes ladministration royale e gi Corsaro
1985, quando rilevava il rapporto fra gli obblighi scali delle poleis nei confronti dei sovrani e le
pratiche di archiviazione (p. 92). Si d qui per acquisito (con Chandezon 2004, pp. 140-141) che
la riscossione delle tasse dovute al basilikon fosse di competenza della polis e non dei funzionar
reali responsabili per larea, per quanto evidentemente essi fossero implicati nelloperazione di
ricevimento delle quote e dei loro documenti; era la citt che si incaricava di conferire allam-
ministrazione reale il dovuto: cfr., per limposta collettiva, tienne, Migeotte 1998, p. 155
(= Migeotte 2010, p. 388); Ma 2004, p. 97; Migeotte 2004, pp. 221 sgg.; 2005a, p. 196, nt. 22 (for-
se troppo cauto sul ritmo annuale di raccolta), e, per la tendenza tolemaica nei territor doltre-
mare to act through the cities, Bagnall 1976, p. 242 (in parziale contraddizione con p. 110, a
proposito della Licia, come giustamente rilevato da Wrrle 2010, p. 390, nt. 154; ci non toglie
la presenza di istituti reali anche allinterno delle poleis, come attestano il cv A:zvzooa:
yz,ocz di PCZ 59036, l. 4, del 257, o i oycct:z delle citt licie indicati nel prostagma del
277/6 o 239/8 Wrrle 2010, p. 361, l. 12, con pp. 376 sgg., Finanzkasse). Anche per lambito
attalide, se la vicenda del contenzioso tra la citt di Metropolis di Ionia e gli appaltatori dei
daz sul porto del Caistro pu essere indicativa (ed intesa correttamente), la riscossione di
versamenti per il re avveniva tramite il sistema civico (SEG 53, 1312 B, del 144/3, ll. 18 sgg., con
Dreyer, in I.Metropolis, pp. 52 sgg., che pensa ad appaltatori locali, la cui attivit wurde von
einem stdtischen Magistraten tglich begleitet und kontrolliert, e Jones (C. P.) 2004, p. 477,
con un meno convincente probably royal; vd. anche sotto, nt. 23).
210
versamento al re pu essere quanto emerge dai lacerti di un documento di esen-
zione per una polis a noi sconosciuta fra III e II secolo, esonerata per sette anni dal
pagamento al basilikon dei phoroi, e richiesta di provvedere a contribuire dallot-
tavo una somma derivante da tutte le rendite prodotte ogni anno ([c] nzoav
tav y:yvocvav nooo8av nz[czotov] cv:zctov): ogni anno produceva nella
citt registrazioni speciche delle singole prosodoi, sulle quali operava lammini-
strazione civica per la scalit interna e sulle quali si computavano le quote da
riversare al titolo richiesto della cassa reale e, di conseguenza, nella scrittura cu-
mulativa ad essa riferita tenuta nella sezione dei documenti scali della citt, alla
voce tributaria in oggetto (il tutto da consegnare in duplicato al funzionario reale
responsabile, con eventuali allegati, insieme alla somma di denaro)
21
. Non sor-
prende che a Eritre, nel III secolo, fossero distinte le categorie di versamento inti-
tolate alla difesa della citt, alla rimanente amministrazione e agli utili per il re
(c:; tc tv czv t; noca; z: tv zv 8:o:o:v z: c:; tz ta: zo:c:
occovtz), dove lultima espressione cumulativa pu rappresentare, in paral-
lelo a quelle tradizionali della polis, il titolo amministrativo generale che nella
citt ionica era riferito alla gestione e registrazione complessiva di quanto Eritre
doveva pagare al re sotto varie voci
22
.
Gravata da unimposizione scale e nanziaria estremamente articolata su
voci tradizionali e nuove, la citt si trovava dunque a dover fare i conti con li-
nee di documentazione e di registrazione aggiuntive ed estranee, che entrava-
no negli ambiti darchivio riservati ai vari tipi di imposte e tasse con le proprie
catene documentarie (intitolate al basilikon invece che al politikon), quando non
si integravano con le serie di informazioni raccolte dalla polis ai ni scali o di
contabilit propr (con doppia intitolazione, e con tutte le trascrizioni richieste
dal passaggio tra luna e laltra categoria)
23
.

21 Ma 2004, pp. 403-404, n. 36, ll. 14-18, per una localit non identicata (cfr. ivi, p. 97 e Capde-
trey 2007, pp. 200, 406, 421; a motivo dellesiguit della somma, Migeotte 2004, p. 222 ritiene
improbabile che si trattasse dellimposta collettiva). La tipologia della registrazione nale di
trasmissione poteva essere dettata dalle esigenze e dalle forme dellamministrazione reale rice-
vente.
22 I.Erythrai 28, ll. 29-31 (ca. 270), con la cauta considerazione ad locum per la terza voce Dies
knnte eine Art von Steuer gewesen sein (p. 115); per il riferimento allinsieme dei contri-
buti richiesti cfr. Bielman 1994, p. 85, con nt. 23 (la ripresa da Rostovzev 1966, p. 552 merita
attenzione, se non per la traduzione alcuni pagamenti graditi al re, di cui promuovevano gli
interessi, per la corretta conclusione che tz o. , naturalmente, un termine tecnico, nt. 551)
e I.Erythrai 31, la lettera con cui circa un decennio dopo Antioco I o II concedeva che gli Eritrei
zoooytoc; c:vz:... tav tc zav znzvtav z: tav c:; tz lzzt:z ocvzyocvav (RC 15,
ll. 26-28, cfr. Capdetrey 2007, p. 404, con Schuler 2007, p. 390, ein Blndel verschiedener
Abgabe). Sulla cz t; noca; come categoria speciale di documentazione di molte citt
ellenistiche, vd. Boffo 2011b. Ai fondi per la phylake potevano contribuire, oltre che cittadini
benefattori, come nel caso di Eritre, anche dinasti (per il caso di Filetero, e per la registrazione
al riguardo, vd. qui sotto).
23 Per limmagine dellestraneit cfr. Ma 2004, p. 114 (a proposito dellintrusione nelle
poleis delle tasse a benecio dei re, le quali generavano una scalit parallle lintrieur de
211
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
Lobbligo della registrazione valeva naturalmente anche per lopposto allim-
pegno scale, lesenzione concessa dal re, per periodi pi o meno lunghi (compu-
tabili in annualit), su categorie di contributi o persone amministrativamente
pertinenti alla citt
24
. Se per il primo caso limpegno della polis poteva limitarsi
alla registrazione dellesonero per la o le annualit del caso nelle diverse catego-

la cit, mais sur laquelle elle navait aucune autorit et qui bnciait un corps qui lui tait
tranger). Quanto allarticolazione della scalit regale nelle poleis che fosse o meno unavo-
cazione di tributi pre-esistenti vd. ad esempio la casistica di Eraclea al Latmo (sottoposta ai
Lagidi, poi a Filippo V e ad Antioco III), sui terreni, prodotti, animali, transiti, attivit portuale,
importazioni (SEG 37, 859, del 196-193, B II, ll. 15-16; III, ll. 2-9; cfr. Wrrle 1988, pp. 458 sgg.;
Ma 2004, pp. 98, 125, 149, 153, 175, 245, 263, nt. 63, 276, nt. 21, 387-394, n. 31; Migeotte 2004,
pp. 216-219), oppure quella di Telmesso di Licia, sotto controllo lagide dal 279 (almeno, cfr. SEG
28, 1244), su alberi da frutto e su voci non specicate, su altri prodotti del suolo, sul cereale, sul
pascolo (OGIS 55, ll. 13-21, con Bagnall 1976, pp. 89-102; Wrrle 1978, 1979; Domingo Gygax
2001, pp. 143-150, 167 sgg., 183 sgg.; Chandezon 2003, pp. 257-258; Migeotte 2003, pp. 306-
308; 2005a, p. 197 con nt. 30; il titolare della citt come dorea, Tolemeo glio di Lisimaco, nel
240 aveva provveduto ad alcune esenzioni, ma la polis doveva pur sempre al re una decima dei
prodotti agricoli), della gi ricordata Metropolis di Ionia (citt sotto controllo attalide), sui tran-
siti del porto del Caistro no allesenzione concessa da un sovrano (SEG 53, 1312, B, ll. 18 sgg.,
con Dreyer, in I.Metropolis, pp. 52 sgg.; Jones (C. P.) 2004, p. 477; Virgilio 2007, pp. 72-73; sulla
restante scalit, cfr. Dreyer, pp. 50, 54, nt. 211) e, nella Macedonia antigonide, sulle transazioni
commerciali legate alle kteseis dei singoli nelle citt (Hatzopoulos 1996, II, n. 20, ll. 24 sgg.,
con BE, 2007, 373, p. 700) e in generale sugli oikoi (le leitourgiai menzionate in Hatzopoulos
1996, II, n. 39, l. 12 e sotto, nt. 26). Per una fonte di reddito particolare, collegata alliniziativa
dei re specialmente nelle citt di pi stretto controllo, Sardi fornisce lesempio della presen-
za di ergasteria di costruzione e propriet seleucidi, sui quali il basilikon esigeva laftto (SEG
39, 1285, ll. 8-10, c:nc z: z: zz: noc:; nzooovtz:; la formulazione della lettera reale
lascia intendere che la presenza di beni del re in locazione alle citt in questione non era un
caso eccezionale; vd. Gauthier 1989, pp. 105 sgg.; Ma 2004, pp. 49, 97, 283, nt. 91). Le distinzio-
ni delle linee documentali venivano probabilmente meno nel caso in cui venissero dichiarati
imponibili dei beni gi soggetti al sco cittadino (ce genre de situation tait peut-tre plus
courant que les sources ne le laissent entendre, secondo Migeotte 2004, p. 223, a proposito di
t; noocn:c:o; c:oot; cn: tv no:t:v, imposta, per breve tempo, da Antioco III
a Sardi nel 214/3, SEG 39, 1283, ll. 5-6, con Gauthier 1989, pp. 33 sgg.; Domingo Gygax 2001, p.
198; Ma 2004, pp. 48-49, 98; Aperghis 2004, p. 165; contrar allidea di una doppia tassazione
sulla stessa fonte di reddito sono invece Chandezon 2003, p. 330; 2004, p. 140; Martinez-Sve
2004, pp. 94-95). Altre forme di integrazione e di circolazione interna di documenti contabili
si vericavano quando la citt si vedeva restituito per certi scopi limporto di tasse precedente-
mente devolute al re (ad esempio per lacquisto di olio per il ginnasio: cfr. SEG 39, 1285, ll. 3-6,
con Capdetrey 2007, pp. 424-425, a Sardi, a costituire un fondo speciale (cnoc:cvov); SEG 37,
859, A, ll. 10-11, con Gauthier, BE, 1989, 277, p. 404, a Eraclea al Latmo, il limen civico, cfr. Wrrle
1988, p. 462), oppure quando si trovava ad agire come agente contabile del basilikon (come
appare dal dispositivo di provvigione per i soldati di guarnigione di Palaimagnesia neo-politai
di Smirna, per i quali il demos doveva novooz:... ona; zcto:; 8:8atz: c zo::oc tz tc
ctztz z: tz oav:z tzz ooz c:ac: c zo::oc 8:8ooz: zcto:;, I.Smyrna 573, III,
ll. 106-107, con Bertrand 2005, pp. 43-45, o, come sembra ipotizzabile per il pagamento delle
guarnigioni reali in loco, attraverso una quota di quanto dovuto al sovrano, Couvenhes 2004,
p. 93, nt. 86).
24 Le annualit erano quelle del computo amministrativo centrale, cui il calendario cittadino
si sar dovuto adeguare: vd. anche quanto segue.
212
rie di documento interessate dai momenti e dalle fasi di raccolta, per il secondo
la cura delle scritture doveva farsi pi capillare, comprendendo non solo liste di
nomi aggiornate e distribuite ai vari ufci interessati, ma anche cancellazioni
nelle catene documentarie che li riguardavano. Bench inserita in un contesto
organizzativo particolare, indicativa di una situazione documentale complessa
la lettera-proclamazione con cui Antigono Dosone nellestate del 222 comu-
nicava a Berea che aveva concesso lztcc:z no:t:av c:toc []y:av, lesenzio-
ne dalle prestazioni personali, ai sessanta comandanti delle truppe cittadine che
avevano combattuto con lui nel Peloponneso
25
. La lista di nomi allegata, oltre che
essere ssata sulla pietra con il messaggio del re, era entrata nel circuito delle
registrazioni civiche (da quella generale degli ateleis a quelle relative alle diverse
liturgie) e delle sue relazioni con larchivio del distretto militare regionale di Bot-
tia cui la citt apparteneva e che riceveva per conoscenza
26
.
Una situazione articolata di documentazione indotta nel positivo di un
incremento delle prosodoi e nel negativo della necessit di rendicontare ad altri
produceva anche lintervento del re sullestensione del territorio di una polis
e sulla sua amministrazione economica e scale, mediato dalla concessione di
terreno extra-poleico a un beneciario e dalla contestuale attribuzione (no-
occoz:/nooo:,c:v) dellarea alla citt
27
. Una parte almeno dei tributi che

25 I.Beroia 4, ll. 5-8 (la data in Tziafalias, Helly 2010, p. 108). La citazione da Hatzopoulos
2001b, p. 51, nt. 31; per il provvedimento vd. anche Hatzopoulos 1996, I, pp. 438-439, 453-454 e,
per il documento in questione, Hatzopoulos 2001a, p. 121; Faraguna 2006c, p. 125; Mari 2006,
p. 219. Per il rapporto fra la monarchia di Macedonia e le citt al suo interno, storiche e inglobate
nel corso del tempo, considerato precisamente nella prospettiva di forma e contenuto dei do-
cumenti ufciali a partire dal regno di Filippo II, vd. Hatzopoulos 1996, 1997, 2003, 2003/4,
2006 con Mari 1999, 2006: la conclusione che i centri ebbero struttura e dignit poleica carat-
terizza diversamente lintrusione da parte del sovrano, ma naturalmente non lelimina (cfr.
Hatzopoulos 1996, I, p. 439: bench le liturgie in questione are due within a civic framework,
the ultimate beneciary is the central authority). Vd. anche nt. seguente.
26 Il re aveva inviato messaggio e lista anche ai responsabili del distretto (ll. 8-9); il medesimo
procedere si ritrova lanno seguente, quando il re scrive al koinon dei Tripolitai e a un personag-
gio identicabile nello stratego di esso, per informare dellesenzione concessa a tre hetairoi e
ad almeno cinque hegemones di una delle citt membro, i quali avevano combattuto a Sellasia
(Hatzopoulos 2006, p. 48; Tziafalias, Helly 2010, pp. 104 sgg., n. IV). Una situazione riferita
a un solo personaggio, cittadino di Azoros, attesta unaltra lettera del re allo stratego (proba-
bilmente) e a un imprecisabile intermediario, mediante la quale si tutelano i diritti di un
minorenne rimasto orfano di padre e si prescrive che a lui z: 8acz:... cvctaozv z; notcov
c:cv nz av... z: o o:o; ztc; cota ca; zv c:; ::zv c (Tziafalias, Helly 2010, pp.
94 sgg., n. III, marzo 221, ll. 24-28; sul caso vd. anche sotto).
27 Per una discussione sui princip giuridici e sui caratteri del provvedimento reale nel siste-
ma ellenistico di sfruttamento e gestione dei territor, vd. Bencivenni 2004, pp. 167 sgg. Il fatto
che la pratica sinora sia attestata in due casi nel regno seleucidico (ai tempi di Antioco I e II) nul-
la toglie al suo signicato dindicatore delle linee generali di un rapporto (anche a prescindere
dallinterrogativo se il conferimento alle citt fosse obbligato o meno); inoltre, il tenore delle
disposizioni dettate a Ilio dal funzionario reale coinvolto nelle operazioni di assegnazione ad
Aristodicide di Asso sembra riettere un contesto amministrativo non ignoto (Virgilio, LDP
2
, n.
18, p. 265, ll. 13-15 e, per una forse eccessiva convinzione della frquence du rattachement aux
213
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
quei distretti sino ad allora avevano dovuto al re direttamente o per tramite di
altri concessionar doveva continuare ad afuire al basilikon (a meno di speci-
ca esenzione scale), mentre al beneciario dovevano toccare tutte o gran parte
delle rendite pertinenti: alla polis e alla sua amministrazione, una volta concorda-
ti con il conferente il principio, le modalit, le percentuali per il servizio, doveva-
no toccare le operazioni di riscossione e inoltro per il conto del re (se richiesto) e
del concessionario, con i guadagni comportati dalla mediazione e dalle ricadute
scali dallarea che rientrava nei suoi conni, per quanto limitate dalle esenzioni
riservate al conferente
28
. Oltre alla corrispondenza che si sviluppava nelle diverse
fasi delloperazione e che vedeva coinvolti diversi gradi dellamministrazione re-
ale (e, almeno in uno dei casi attestati, probabilmente dellinteressato), oltre alla
denizione catastale dellarea entrata a far parte della chora, oltre alla consueta
decretazione civica connessa, dunque, negli archivi cittadini dedicati entravano
linee o voci parallele e poi consecutive di documentazione, riconducibili ai diver-
si ambiti della scalit e della sua gestione, interna e di relazione con altre entit,
comprese le varie esenzioni
29
.

cits grecques de la cte genne de domaines concds aux dles ou aux familiers du pouvoir
royal sleucide, Capdetrey 2007, p. 151, seguito da Thonemann 2009, p. 375; 2011, p. 248). Vd.
anche nt. 29.
28 Che la polis ne traesse vantaggio esplicitato dalla gara per essere scelta dal beneciario
attestata dalla lettera del funzionario seleucide coinvolto dal donativo di Antioco I ad Aristodi-
cide (Virgilio, LDP
2
, n. 18, p. 265, ll. 5-8); che il vantaggio rientrasse nella categoria delle proso-
doi appare facile dedurre (vd. ad esempio Musti 1977, pp. 240-241; Gauthier 1980, p. 46; cfr.
Sartre 2004, p. 168, nt. 15; Bencivenni 2004, pp. 177 sgg.; Thonemann 2009, p. 375; 2011, p.
248; allincremento della disponibilit di prodotti agricoli pensa Aperghis 2004, pp. 105-106).
Quanto agli altri interlocutori, il re otteneva di dimostrare la sua evergesia a philos, o familiare,
e citt (in una scelta che poteva essere orientata), senza probabilmente perdere troppo delle sue
rendite (incrementandole in caso di mantenimento di un phoros civico proporzionale alla chora,
o, nelleventualit di aphorologesia, salvaguardandole attraverso (gli) altri tele) e afdando la ge-
stione del territorio a enti interessati allo sfruttamento e incaricati della sua gestione scale; il
beneciato godeva comunque della titolarit di un bene che gli produceva delle entrate, al netto
delleventuale contribuzione da conservare, direttamente o indirettamente, per il re e di quanto
doveva versare alla citt (dopo adeguate trattative): anche in questa prospettiva che si deve
valutare la condizione giuridica e scale del terreno inglobato nella chora di Gambreion che nel
326/5 o 325/4 il titolare Krateuas dava (in tutto o in parte) in aftto, specicando la produttivit
dellarea coltivabile (e dunque la sua imponibilit proporzionale per chi fosse titolato al prelie-
vo) e il fatto che il kepos annesso doveva un phoros annuo (al re, nella persuasiva interpretazione
di Thonemann 2009, spec. pp. 375 sgg., che non considera peraltro laspetto che qui si rileva).
In generale, vd. Chandezon 2004; Aperghis 2004, pp. 106-107; Capdetrey 2007, pp. 149-153; cfr.
Corsaro 1985, p. 88.
29 Per quel che riguarda il re, lunico caso di comunicazione diretta attestato sinora, in un
contesto differente, quello di un sovrano a una citt caria, nel III sec., il quale ycyzcv t:
oc: z: ta: 8a: ot: noo[o]:,c: t: noc: tov tav Xztocav 8ov, allo scopo di
creare una sympoliteia (I.Mylasa 913, ll. 2-4: vd. Reger 2004, pp. 153-154); per linsieme della cor-
rispondenza relativa a unoperazione di prosorizein interna allamministrazione reale, trasmes-
so alla citt mediante lettera di accompagnamento del responsabile di essa, esemplare il gi
citato dossier relativo ad Aristodicide, con le sue tre lettere di Antioco I allo stratego Meleagro;
214
Il ventaglio delle catene documentarie indotte non si limitava alla scalit.
Appare ovvia la produzione documentale collegata con le multiformi manifesta-
zioni di onoranza che le citt, pi o meno spontaneamente e frequentemente,
riservavano ai sovrani, in loco o nei centri sede delle grandi feste dinastiche, dal
decreto che di volta in volta dava inizio alle procedure e dalle lettere di comunica-
zione alle varie registrazioni contabili derivate, gli elenchi, gli estratti documen-
tali... sufciente considerare nella prospettiva che qui si rileva una serie di dati
contenuti in documenti ufciali.
A Teo, nel 203 ca., il denaro per la fabbrica e la dedica dellagalma per Antioco
III doveva essere fornito dai tamiai cittadini c tav t:av ta zo:cav c t;
8:o:oca;, ovvero in prima istanza da un gi costituito fondo riservato Onori
per i re, oppure, in caso di mancanza di denaro, da uno dei capitoli disponibili (o
riservabili) dellamministrazione civica tradizionale, comportando loperazione,
come quelle relative agli altri sovrani con cui la polis aveva a che fare, adegua-
ta registrazione
30
. Cos avveniva in caso di altra soluzione contabile, come per

lesistenza di un periorismos dellarea trasferita documentata dallaltro dispositivo connesso
con la pratica, quello ordinato da Antioco II per larea venduta a Laodice II (Virgilio, LDP
2
, n. 19,
ll. 7, 15, 51; il documento da conservarsi nella cancelleria reale e da esporsi sulle cinque steli
pubblicitarie doveva naturalmente entrare negli archivi della polis eventualmente interessata);
a uno o pi decreti si afdava laccettazione da parte della polis delle condizioni del rapporto
col beneciario (Virgilio, LDP
2
, n. 18, p. 265, ll. 13 sgg.: il seguito della richiesta di Meleagro agli
Iliei zot: zv ocyao: [scil. Aristodicide] tv zvzyzv noozcvo: faceva riferi-
mento ai documenti della relazione diretta con Aristodicide e alla loro registrazione in archivio,
come prospett RC, pp. 70-71 e accoglie Bencivenni 2004, p. 163 e 2010, p. 166; del resto, un
esemplare di psephisma di onore e benecio scale documentato dal (secondo) decreto priene-
se per lufciale seleucide Larichos, I.Priene 18, ll. 20-27, bench in un contesto allapparenza di-
verso: vd. Bencivenni 2004, pp. 179-180); seppure assai lacunosa e di difcile interpretazione,
una lettera di ambito seleucide del 220 ca.-188 indirizzata a Seleucia/Tralles e menzionante una
dekate al basilikon, sembra collegare la richiesta cittadina al riguardo a periorismoi che suggesti-
vo ricondurre alla situazione sopra indicata (RC 41 (I.Tralleis 17), ll. 4, 5, 8; per il suggerimento,
vd. Corsaro 2010, p. 117; per ipotesi sulla paternit della lettera Acheo, Zeuxis, un funzionario
seleucide vd. Ma 2004, p. 213). Assai minor margine di contrattazione, ma numerose conse-
guenze documentali avevano le poleis del continente greco che per ordine del re dovevano de-
cretare lincorporazione come cleruchi e cittadini di soldati gi impiegati al servizio antigonide,
secondo la convincente interpretazione presentata da Oetjen 2010 delle circostanze dei decreti
di cittadinanza attestati in Grecia dalla seconda met del III secolo (a cominciare naturalmente
da quelli di Larisa in seguito allintervento di Filippo V, di cui sopra, alla nt. 12). Com noto,
unultima, signicativa operazione di prosorizein reale si ebbe con la decisione testamentaria
di Attalo III di lasciare a Roma la citt di Pergamo libera, nooo:oz; zct: z: noc[:t:y]
azv v c:v [cv] (OGIS 338, l. 6, del 133; per lintegrazione e interpretazione, vd. p. es. Virgi-
lio 1993, p. 25, nt. 53 aggiungendole ai conni anche quel territorio che decise (fosse territo-
rio) cittadino e Dmitriev 2005, pp. 78-79, con nt. 33).
30 SEG 41, 1003, II, l. 63, con Ma 2004, p. 145; nellambito della dioikesis era del resto previsto
dallo stesso decreto la taxis di un fondo annuale per la celebrazione dei sacrici per la coppia
reale nelle simmorie civiche (ll. 17-21): cfr. Migeotte 2006, pp. 92-93; Rhodes 2007, p. 356, con
nt. 40. I re in questione non erano necessariamente solo seleucidi (per loccupazione lagide
della citt ai tempi della guerra laodicea, vd. Ma 2004, p. 36 e, per il successivo controllo attalide,
ivi, pp. 47, 256, nt. 65; per i problemi di datazione dei documenti tei riferiti ad Antioco III, ivi,
215
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
i prestiti accesi dalla polis di Delo allo scopo di nanziare le statue e le corone
per i sovrani di turno, sia presso una banca privata, sia presso il tesoro di Apollo,
registrati dalle scritte (epigraphai) sugli stamnoi della cassa poleica e della cassa
sacra conservati nel santuario e riportati nella contabilit degli hieropoioi
31
. Nella
prospettiva dellintrusione della presenza reale nella documentazione civica,
non particolarmente signicativo che le spese per gli onori per i re (e la relativa
documentazione) appartenessero a una voce nanziaria distinta e parallela ri-
spetto alla dioikesis civica, oppure rientrassero in questultima e in una delle sue
attribuzioni interne
32
.
Per quanto meno autonoma, signicativa era anche la presenza dei re elle-
nistici allinterno delle liste che registravano le operazioni religiose e rituali della
polis di turno e che di volta in volta aggiungevano date, circostanze, nomi, moda-
lit. E ancora la Teo impegnata a onorare Antioco III e la moglie a prescrivere che
limportante festa istituita allo scopo fosse iscritta nel libro sacro (zvzy[zz:
8c t]zctv tv cotv c:; tv :czv cov), il registro ufciale delle feste ci-

pp. 55, 66, 203-208, Appendice 2). Il nomos che Teo verisimilmente non unica si era data cnc
t; ztzocc; tav t:av (ll. 89-90) poteva riguardare i manufatti in onore dei benefattori
in generale, e non soltanto quelli dei re (tanto pi che il denaro previsto per il completamento
della fontana per Laodice doveva essere prelevato senzaltro dalla dioikesis, ll. 87-88). Fondi ri-
servati (apotetagmena) per gli onori dei re e della regina, in questo caso limitatamente alla
famiglia di Antioco III, sono attestati anche a Sardi, dopo il 209: vd. Robert 1964, p. 10, n. 1, ll. 18-
19 (con Gauthier 1989, pp. 58-59, 75-76, 152-153). Una partita di bilancio riservata agli onori
per i re, nelle diverse loro forme e obbligatoriet, appare anche nella Samo lagide della met del
III secolo, dove il benefattore Bulagora interviene anche quando c:;... cv toc; otczvoc; [scil.
di Tolemeo III e Berenice] z: tz; co:z;... nc:o:ocvz cnv ztz (IG XII 6.1, 11, ll. 27
sgg.); ad altro capitolo apparteneva o otczvo; ta: zo:c: che Alicarnasso versava a Tolemeo
II, tramite un deposito bancario che produceva ricevuta, PCZ 59036, ll. 25-26 (vd. Wrrle 2010,
pp. 377-378; cfr. anche nota seguente).
31 Cfr. I.Dlos 399A, ll. 21-23 (il conto del 192 che registra il recipiente della cassa cittadina con-
tenente la somma presa a prestito dalla polis per le corone di Eumene II, oltre che di un re e di
un demos non identicabili), ll. 36-38 (la registrazione del recipiente della cassa cittadina conte-
nente la somma presa a prestito dalla polis nel 195 per le statue di Attalo I e del medico Filippo),
ll. 47-49 (il recipiente della cassa cittadina contenente la somma presa a prestito dalla polis nel
194 per pagare le statue di Attalo I, di Antioco III e di Laodice); I.Dlos 442A, ll. 25-26, 64-65 (il
conto del 179 con la registrazione della restituzione alla cassa sacra nel 180 del prestito acceso
lanno precedente dalla citt per le corone di Filippo V, Eumene II e il demos di Rodi), ll. 41-44,
66-67 (le restituzioni alla cassa sacra della somma presa a prestito dalla citt lanno precedente
per le corone di Filippo V e di Massinissa). Per la natura delle epigraphai in questione, vd. ad
esempio Nouveau Choix 2002, p. 154: soit une tiquette soit une inscription lencre sur la
jarre elle-mme. Sulle pratiche amministrative e contabili della polis di Delo in relazione alle
spese comportate dalla diplomazia vd. ivi, p. 155; su quelle generali in et ellenistica, nelle
diverse fasi, vd. Migeotte 2005b.
32 A Teo, la voce delle corone per Antioco III e Laodice era entrata allelenco di quelle messe
annualmente in aggiudicazione dai tesorieri civici (SEG 41, 1003, II, ll. 57-59: noonac:v 8c t
av [t;] otczvona:z; toc; czototc y:vocvoc; tz:z; tv [nz]zoc:o:v tav otczvav
toctav). Per la problematica del rapporto, connessa con le diverse indicazioni nelle fonti epi-
grache, vd. in particolare Schuler 2005; vd. anche pi oltre.
216
viche e dei loro regolamenti
33
. E il risultato pi in generale (oltre che probabil-
mente le forme redazionali dei registri ricapitolativi) si coglie negli esempi di
calendario rituale civico o ginnasiale pervenuti nella trascrizione epigraca
34
.
A Pergamo, nella tarda et ellenistica, si trascriveva un calendario religioso
che, nella forma del rimando al decreto apposito mediante estratto/riassunto
dei considerando, manteneva nella sequenza mensile, esito delle trascrizioni sus-
seguenti, la registrazione della festa connessa con le vittorie di Attalo I contro
i Galati e Antioco Hierax pi di un secolo prima
35
. A Eritre, dopo il 189, il calen-
dario dei sacrici trascritto vedeva inseriti nella sequenza dei destinatar delle
thysiai di ogni mese le voci re e re Antioco (I)
36
. Egualmente signicativo
delle conseguenze documentali dellinserimento delle cerimonie per i re nella
vita civica il calendario dellattivit religiosa e atletica di feste nel ginnasio di
Coo, polis libera dopo Apamea, redatto fra 158 e 145: di esso resta la trascrizione
epigraca per tre mesi consecutivi, con linclusione di Attaleia (per Attalo I, 240-
197), processioni per il re Tolemeo (VI, 181-145), per Eumene (II, 197-158), per
il re Attalo (II, 158-138), per un altro basileus dal nome perduto
37
. Se tali onori
erano conseguenti a donativi reali e se la trascrizione registrava la recezione di
cerimonie di carattere civico nella serie di attivit dellistituto, com stato corret-
tamente ipotizzato, la compresenza di serie parallele di liste, con le loro diverse
modalit e fasi di redazione appare facile da dedurre
38
.

33 SEG 41, 1003, II, ll. 28-29; su questo tipo di scritture, sulla loro organizzazione, sul loro con-
testo documentale vd. anche quanto segue.
34 Rileva giustamente la frequenza dei giorni reali nel calendario delle poleis, indirizzando
allesame delle conseguenze istituzionali dellintervento sul tempo della citt, Savalli-Le-
strade 2010a, spec. pp. 69-70 (per gli esempi qui sotto citati vd. p. 69, nt. 60) e 83; a Ma 2004, pp.
167-168 si deve la sottolineatura della pratica di inserire le disposizioni religiose connesse con
la regalit nel sistema di riferimento preesistente (vd. anche Chaniotis 2007, p. 161; Wiemer
2009, pp. 127 sgg.).
35 I.Pergamon 247, I, ll. 1-6, con Virgilio 1993, p. 33. Per le altre voci ci si limitava alla nota ztz
:oz di un dato anno (cfr. II, ll. 2 sgg.). Sulla compresenza di mesi macedoni e locali nel
documento e sulla durata del calendario, vd. oltre.
36 McCabe, Erythrai 61, rispettivamente ll. 28, [34], [48], [63-64] e 22, [29a], 36, 49, [62], [64], 72-
73, 93, cfr. 82, 95; in un mese gura destinatario di sacricio anche Alessandro (l. 90), in un altro
compare anche una basilissa (ll. 39-40, forse Stratonice); i re sono gli Attalidi. Dal momento
che i sacric per i re e per Antioco erano qualicati come koinon, lecito pensare che essi gu-
rassero nelle registrazioni delle altre poleis della lega ionica. Per ulteriori presenze reali nella
vita religiosa di Eritre, vd. pi sotto.
37 IG XII 4,1, 281, rispettivamente l. 8, ll. 12-14, l. 27, ll. 40-41, ll. 47-48 (la datazione della lista
conseguente: vd. Habicht 2007, p. 145, nt. 158 e, per il contesto storico di buona relazione con le
due dinastie implicate, pp. 145-146).
38 Per la prima ipotesi, in rapporto per al solo ginnasio, vd. Bringmann, Steuben, pp. 252-254,
Kotsidu 2000, p. 569 (contra Aneziri, Damaskos 2004, p. 266 con nt. 135); per la discussione
circa competenze civiche e competenze ginnasiali in fatto di cerimonie religiose per i sovrani
e per lidea che nel caso in questione si trattasse di stadtische Feste, vd. Aneziri, Damaskos
2004, p. 262, nt. 107 (descrive giustamente il documento come vritable tableau miniature
217
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
Naturalmente (e variamente) associati ai libri sacri erano i testi religiosi
composti per i re e i loro familiari: il loro signicato e la periodicit delle cerimo-
nie cui erano collegati ne garantivano la redazione ufciale e la conservazione
nelle forme idonee ai diversi impieghi cui erano destinati. A Teo, gli onori per la
regina Apollonide (moglie di Attalo I) prevedevano una volta allanno il canto di
un inno presso laltare (parabmion) da parte dei paides liberi e di un inno da
parte di fanciulle scelte: concluderne la conservazione in almeno un esemplare
di riferimento (donde trarne le copie duso) diviene naturale
39
. E se la vicenda
epigraca eritrea dellaggiunta nel 281 del peana per Seleuco I alla sequenza delle
composizioni analoghe per Apollo e Asclepio incise nel 380-360 con il regola-
mento dei sacrici per le due divinit pu riettere un comportamento di regi-
strazione, viene altrettanto facile pensare ad analoga aggiunta al documento o al
dossier darchivio
40
.
Allo stesso modo signicativa diventava la presenza dei sovrani nella docu-
mentazione connessa con lattribuzione dei sacerdoz, da quella pi sintetica
in una lista delle vendite a quella pi ingombrante a generazione dellapposito
contratto per i titolari susseguentisi. Per il primo caso, baster rimandare al re-
gistro delle vendite di Eritre, comprensivo di una quarantina danni (300-260) e
progressivamente aggiornato anche sulla pietra: intorno al 270 viene riportata la
voce relativa al culto per il re Alessandro
41
. Per il secondo, appare signicativa
la diagraphe stilata a Coo post 188 dalla commissione istituita nc: tzv co:zv
z: tzv zzv t:zv z: ocvtcccv[t]z: zo:c: lccvc: z: co:; 8c: tzv
:caocvzv nzc[v], le cui vicende di redazione appaiono riesse dallesito
epigraco, che rileva una nuova aggiudicazione dopo qualche anno e qualche

de la vie religieuse de lpoque Le Guen-Pollet 1991, p. 198, ma nella versione del testo da
correggere il nome dei mesi della prima e terza colonna in Gerastios e Agrianios e da elimina-
re la nota dapparato n. 10 di p. 197; egualmente da emendare sono i nomi dei mesi di quanti
riprendono le integrazioni delledizione Syll.
3
1028, ora superata; vd. anche Bosnakis, Hallof
2005, p. 239); quanto alle fasi redazionali delle liste interessate, occorrer segnalare che ad
esempio Habicht 2007 non esclude che gli Attaleia fossero festeggiati gi prima (p. 145).
39 Robert 1937, pp. 9-20 (cfr. Virgilio 1993, pp. 47-48, con nt. 175), ll. 8-10: correttamente Del
Corso 2005, p. 20 ne rileva lappartenenza al bagaglio di testi legati a tradizioni locali, ritua-
li, o eventi storici particolari, che eventualmente potevano essere fatti leggere e studiare nelle
scuole. Mutatis mutandis, appare signicativo per il lessico impiegato il riscontro del decreto
del sinodo sacerdotale egizio del 238, nella sezione riservata alle manifestazioni del culto per
Berenice III: degli inni composti in suo onore dagli scribi sacri e consegnati al maestro cantore
tz zvt:yzz ztza:ooctz: c:; tz; :c[z; coc;] (Virgilio LDP
2
, pp. 211-221, n. 4, l. 59).
40 I.Erythrai 205 (LSAM 24), con laggiunta alle ll. 74 sgg. (subito interrotte dalla frattura della
pietra).
41 I.Erythrai 201 (LSAM 25), a, l. 78, nella serie dellanno di Zenodoto, nel mese Leneo, insieme
col sacerdozio di Zeus Basileus. Il sacerdozio attestato sino al III sec. d.C., senza che natural-
mente si possa dire se ci sia stata interruzione: cfr. I.Erythrai 64, l. 7 e, sulla specicit del caso di
Alessandro per il prestigio del personaggio, Frija 2012, pp. 25-26.
218
adattamento di normativa, con conseguente accumulo di documenti
42
. Natural-
mente poi i sacerdoz reali entravano come gli altri nelle diverse catene docu-
mentarie della polis, per le loro implicazioni diplomatiche e istituzionali e per
quelle economiche e scali: per le conseguenze documentali delle seconde basti
pensare, oltre ai registri di vendita, alle diverse linee di contabilit interessate
(anche per le esenzioni scali concesse); al primo aspetto si riconducono quanto
meno i decreti propositivi della vendita e della costituzione delle commissioni
redigenti, a loro volta inseriti nel rispettivo insieme di documenti generato dalla
catena diplomatica col re
43
.
Neppure priva di conseguenze documentali era, tra le forme di onoranza per
i re, la costituzione di nuove trib poleiche a loro intitolate. Del caso pi noto, la-
teniese, che nel 307/6 pass da dieci a dodici, nel 224/3 a tredici, nella primavera
del 200 scese a undici per ritornare subito dopo (e sino allet romana imperiale)
a dodici, abbiamo indicazione nelle conseguenze sulla denizione e posizione
istituzionale dei demi. La prima aggiunta alle dieci tradizionali delle trib Anti-
gonide e Demetriade (per Antigono Monoftalmo e Demetrio Poliorcete) sembra
aver comportato il trasferimento ad esse di quindici demi ciascuna; quella suc-
cessiva della Tolemaide (per Tolemeo III) il prelievo di un demo dalle precedenti
e la creazione del nuovo Berenikidai; leliminazione delle due macedoni una ri-
assegnazione di quelli svincolati alle phylai originarie; lultima dellAttalide (per
Attalo I) la ripresa di un demo per trib e la creazione del nuovo Apollonieis
44
. La
conclusione di conseguenze sui documenti connessi con lorganizzazione della
polis attica diviene scontata: al di l del mutare di ruolo e peso delle strutture in-
termedie nel sistema amministrativo ateniese e delle ricadute di esso nei loro



42 Si tratta di IG XII 4, 1, 306, lincisione della prima diagraphe, mantenuta e aggiornata con la
sola sostituzione dei nomi dei commissar e delle date (lacunosa della parte nale; la citazio-
ne nel testo alle ll. 2-3), e di IG XII 4,1, 309, lincisione della nuova, stilata dalla commissione
trascritta anche nel documento originario, con selezione delle disposizioni indicate nel primo
documento e (apparente) aggiunta della durata epi biou. Anche se la lacunosit delle due epigra
(pi consistente nella seconda) non permette il confronto sistematico, possibile concludere
che il nuovo aspirante sacerdote poteva apprendere i propri doveri-diritti dai due documen-
ti associati, luno riciclato e semplicemente ridatato, laltro stilato per loccasione (anche in
considerazione dellulteriore iscrizione su pietra, sembra questa uninterpretazione pi sod-
disfacente di quella di Bosnakis, Hallof 2005, p. 255, i quali pensano a zwei Kopien ein und
derselben diagraphe, come IG, ad nn.; il discusso problema del rapporto fra versioni iscritte e
versioni darchivio delle diagraphai sacerdotali in generale richiede un approfondimento, per il
quale si rimanda al volume in preparazione).
43 Per un caso esemplare, vd. gli esiti documentali delle legazioni del milesio Irenia presso
Eumene II e Attalo II, cui pertiene la redazione di una diagraphe per il sacerdozio del dio Eume-
ne: vd. Herrmann 1965, spec. 113-117, con Milet VI 3, 1040 e commento di W. Gnther a p. 24.
44 Sulle diverse conseguenze della creazione delle trib reali nel sistema tradizionale atenie-
se, vd. Traill 1975, spec. pp. 25 sgg. Sul contesto storico delle iniziative, vd. Byrne 2010, p. 159.
Sulla durata dei provvedimenti e le sue conseguenze documentali, vd. sotto.
219
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
archivi, risulta difcile non pensare anche a interventi sulle mappe territoriali,
sulle liste di persone di pertinenza, sui diversi documenti della religiosit
45
.
Anche nelle altre poleis indubbio che listituzione di trib regali comport
adeguate conseguenze nella vita locale e nei suoi documenti, da quelli ingenerati
dallatto di assegnazione dei cittadini a quelli poi connessi con la sua esistenza
nel sistema amministrativo
46
. Un indizio, signicativo per la sua risalenza (323-
312) e la sua esplicitezza pu derivare da quanto stabilito dal decreto con cui la
citt di Latmo organizzava lunione con Pidasa, indotta dal satrapo di Caria Asan-
dro
47
. In essa era prevista laggiunta a quelle di Latmo della trib Asandris, alla
cui composizione dovevano contribuire per sorteggio Latm e Pidasei, i quali poi
avrebbero partecipato alle cerimonie religiose speciche della nuova trib e delle
fratrie interessate
48
.
Il rapporto di reciprocit e scambio tra poleis e sovrani naturalmente compor-
tava anche dei benec per le prime, nella forma di contributi e aiuti di vario ge-
nere da parte dei secondi.

45 Per la diversa documentazione connessa con lorganizzazione civica ateniese di et classica,
vd. Pbarthe 2006, pp. 173 sgg. Lunico catalogo di demi raccolti per trib a noi giunto una
versione epigraca della ne del III secolo, SEG 36, 230 (IG II
2
2362), con la sezione, lacunosa,
della trib Tolemaide, II, ll. 54 sgg.; sul suo rapporto con le operazioni del 200 e sulla documen-
tazione darchivio ad esse correlata, di varia risalenza, vd. Stanton 1994, p. 194; per un mutato
assetto della rete amministrativa interna dalla met del III secolo e lapparente venir meno del
ruolo istituzionale di demi e fratrie dalla met del II, vd. Ismard 2010, pp. 327 sgg. Naturalmen-
te alle trib reali erano connessi anche la pratica del culto per gli eroi eponimi e un sacerdozio
specico: vd. Habicht 1970, p. 154; Mikalson 1998, p. 81; Habicht 2006, p. 219 e quanto segue.
46 Per Demetrieis, forse con Antigoneis, a Samo, vd. Kotsidu 2000, pp. 257-259, n. 175 [E2];
per una Seleukis (Seleuco I) a Colofone e a Magnesia al Meandro, vd. rispettivamente Kotsidu
2000, p. 356, n. 241 [E] e pp. 368-369, n. 252 [E]; per Antigoneis (forse Antigono Gonata) a Tessa-
lonica, vd. Kotsidu 2000, p. 184, n. 115 [E] (I.Thess 184); per unAttalis a Ilio, vd. Kotsidu 2000,
pp. 309-310, n. 213 [E], a Magnesia sul Meandro (Attalo I), vd. Kotsidu 2000, pp. 369-371, n. 253
[E 1, 2]. A contesto diverso, ma con pari conseguenze, si riconducono le trib regali connesse con
la (ri)fondazione di una citt e variamente attestate nel tempo: vd., forse, la trib Alexandris
a Ilio (Kotsidu 2000, pp. 300-301, n. 205 [E]); lAntiochis (Antioco I) ad Antiochia al Meandro
(Kotsidu 2000, p. 381, n. 261 [L]); le Seleukis, Antiochis, Laodikis, Eumenis, Attalis, Stratonikis a
Hierapolis di Frigia, (Cohen 1995, p. 306); le Attalis e Laodikis di Laodicea al Lico (Cohen 1995,
p. 309); le Seleukis e Antiochis di Nysa (Cohen 1995, p. 258); le Philetairis, Attalis, Eumeneia di
Pergamo (Cohen 1995, p. 169); gli Eumeneis di Sardi (Cohen 1995, p. 231). A questi elenchi, noti
da tempo, si aggiunga lattribuzione a un re (forse Tolemeo I) della quinta trib attestata a Iaso
negli ultimi decenni del IV secolo (I.Iasos 59 e Maddoli Suppl., 5, su cui Fabiani 2010, p. 482), la
Tolemaide (riferita al Filadelfo) dellepigrafe caria SEG 51, 1495, l. 2 (Bargasa?), le Seleukis e An-
tiochis di Ege (Malay, Ricl 2009, p. 40, ll. 22-25, con P. Hamon BE, 2010, 522, p. 830).
47 SEG 47, 1563, su cui Bencivenni 2003, pp. 151 sgg., n. 6; Wrrle 2003a, 2003b, pp. 1373-1377:
la volont del satrapo sarebbe stata espressa e comunicata da un diagramma, o da un documento
contenente la sua gnome (cfr. Hamon, BE, 2011, 526). Per la cronologia di Asandro, vd. Fabiani
2009, spec. pp. 62-65, 72. Per la durata del provvedimento (e per la sopravvivenza del decreto),
vd. pi oltre.
48 Ll. 4 sgg. Il passo con il dispositivo in questione non del tutto chiaro per quel che riguarda
lorganizzazione civica originaria dei due centri: vd. Wrrle 2003a, pp. 125-128.
220
La citt aveva interesse a tenere precisa contabilit di riscontro alle sovven-
zioni che il sovrano decideva di assegnarle dal basilikon, come nel caso della Teo
seleucidica di ne III-inizi II secolo, dove una parte del prezzo di un fondo che la
polis donava agli Artisti dionisiaci doveva essere pagata dai tamiai dellanno se-
guente sui primi contributi che sarebbero stati loro conferiti dal tesoro reale per
lamministrazione civica (c t[av n]atav 8ooocvav zcto:; cy zo::oc
c:; t[v t ]; noca; 8:o:o:v)
49
.
Necessit e cura per la documentazione interna ed esterna comportavano
i casi di elargizioni reali nalizzate, su pi anni, o in perpetuo. Viene facile pen-
sare alla documentazione prodotta da quella della regina Laodice a Iaso (195 ca.),
in base alla quale il diecete per dieci anni doveva conferire alla citt diecimila
medimni attici di cereale, che i tamiai dovevano vendere (in toto o in parte) ad un
prezzo sso, cos che i prostatai e quanti altri la citt ritenesse utile coinvolgere
procedessero ad assegnare una quota del ricavato (non superiore alle trecento
dracme di Antioco) in dote alle fanciulle povere
50
. Pi nel particolare, un punti-
glioso decreto della polis di Del, che nel 159/8 regolamentava lo sfruttamento
del capitale di fondazione conferito in perpetuo dal re (associato) Attalo II per le-
ducazione dei fanciulli liberi e per il nanziamento degli Attaleia, nellattestare la
ricaduta delle operazioni contabili e amministrative comportate dalla gestione
dei prestiti quinquennali conseguenti indica le vie della catena documentaria
che ne derivava
51
. La richiesta esplicita ai commissar di depositare nel damosion

49 Le Guen, Associations, n. 39, ll. 15-18, con le importanti osservazioni sul possibile iter conta-
bile allinterno della polis di Rhodes 2007, pp. 360-361: i sovrani in questione potrebbero essere
i Seleucidi o gli Attalidi (vd. ivi, pp. 204 sgg., con lopzione per i secondi, fra 218 e 204; per una
sintesi delle posizioni, vd. Aneziri, Vereine, pp. 174 sgg., 376 ad D2). Allo stesso modo Eraclea
al Latmo chiedeva ad Antioco III che 8:8atz: 8c z: c zo[::oc c:; 8:o:]o:v t; noca;
z:otz cv ncov, c: 8c yc tzzvtz [c. 5 a ]; notcov (SEG 37, 859, C, ll. 1-2, con Wrrle
1990, p. 19, nota *; Migeotte 2004, pp. 218-219; Schuler 2005, pp. 401-402; in Ma 2004, p. 389
ancora erroneamente [ c:; ]o:v); il re concedeva anche c zo::oc per tre anni la som-
ma necessaria per il ripristino dellacquedotto (A, ll. 12-13; per donazioni nalizzate, vd. anche
quanto segue).
50 Ma 2004, pp. 375-380, n. 26A, ll. 15-25; cfr. Ma 2004, pp. 134-135, 233-234, con Fabiani 2010,
pp. 473-476 (i pr. erano allora i magistrati principali della citt, detentori della demosia sphragis
e, come a Euromo, connessi con pratiche di produzione e conservazione di documenti ufciali,
tenuti nel loro archeion; cfr. sopra con nt. 18) e Vacante 2011, pp. 43-45 (che propende per la
vendita in quantit ssate). Giustamente Vrilhac, Vial 1998, p. 166, nt. 98 respingono lidea
di una molteplicit di simili fondazioni da parte della regina. Vd. anche la nota seguente.
51 Bringmann, Steuben, n. 94 [E], sul cui contesto storico vd. Murray 1996, spec. pp. 40 sgg.
(ma per la data esatta vd. Mulliez 1998, pp. 237 sgg.); su alcune delle pratiche amministrative
connesse vd. Dimopoulou-Piliouni 2007 e Migeotte 2009/10. Un analogo caso di costituzio-
ne di capitale di fondazione a partire da un dono regale indirizzato alleducazione dei bambini
si ebbe a Rodi nel 161/160 grazie allinvio di 280.000 medimni di cereale da parte di Eumene II
(Polyb. 31,31,1-3); lo stesso re aveva graticato Del di un fondo di rotazione riservato per la sito-
nia (F.Delphes III 3, 237, ll. 5-7, Syll.
3
671B, ll. 6-7: cfr. Migeotte 1991, pp. 34-35 = Migeotte 2010,
pp. 320-322) e di una fondazione per gli Eumeneia (cfr. Syll.
3
671A, il decreto di regolamento, in-
viato in copia al re), anchessi naturalmente ricchi di conseguenze documentali. I giusti rilievi
221
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
grammateion lelenco denitivo dei mutuatar (con una parallela nel tempio) sot-
tolineava limportanza delloperazione e il signicato di riferimento del docu-
mento che conteneva i nomi di quanti permettevano al meccanismo di svolgersi.
Essa non attestava che la lista era lunico documento generato dalle operazioni e
destinato alla conservazione nei luoghi della comunit
52
. Qualche dettaglio, al-
meno per una linea del complesso documentale, appare laddove il sovrano che
detta le procedure, come per la Mileto del 299 ca., che riceveva da Antioco (I) le
entrate derivanti dalla stoa fatta da lui costruire allo scopo di contribuire alla ri-
costruzione del Didymeion: i tesorieri e magistrati cittadini (i pritani) dovevano
prendere in consegna ([nzz]8ccoz:) le prosodoi, assegnarle ad un fondo
speciale (ztztz [ooc:v 8c ] zctv zzctv) e procedere poi allaggiudicazio-
ne dei lavori (:o[ao:v] no:c:oz:)
53
.
Lungo una linea pi diretta delliter amministrativo, il nome del sovrano -
gurava in liste civiche riepilogative delle somme ricevute dallesterno, la cui or-
ganizzazione variamente costruita su uno degli elementi cardine, annualit,
nome dellevergete, scopo e il cui rapporto con (le) altre sequenze potevano va-
riare a seconda degli usi e della complessit della locale amministrazione
54
. Per
quanto non sia chiaro se si tratti di redazione epigraca costruita su dati raccolti
da diverse serie darchivio tematiche (col titolo specico Tz8c c8acv 1:ctz:-
o; Attzoc 8aczv ta: 8a:) o della trascrizione di un elenco riassuntivo a
nome del donatore, risulta indicativa appunto della registrazione e della variet
della documentazione generata una distinta delle doreai del dinasta Filetero alla

di Chankowski (V.) 2007b, pp. 106 sgg. e Gabrielsen 2008, pp. 117, 120-121 sui meccanismi am-
ministrativi richiesti dal dispositivo nanziario della fondazione (come istituto) potrebbero
estendersi alle conseguenze documentali di essi e alle diverse permanenze di elenchi e logoi nei
sistemi archivistici.
52 Ll. 28-31: zv|z|yzzvtc; toc; 8c8zvc:ocvoc; z: tz cvccz zctav c n:vzz; c-
ccacvoc; 8co... ztzcvta 8c to cv cvz n:vzz cv tov vzov, tov 8c cvz n:vzz cv to
8zoo:ov yzztc:ov (sulle procedure amministrative connesse con la redazione delle liste,
preventivamente lette nellassemblea, vd. Gauthier 2000, p. 121 = Gauthier 2011, pp. 392-393);
la disposizione, espressa con laoristo del verbo, riferita alla prima serie di operazioni e non
ripetuta nella descrizione del regime per il futuro (ll. 33 sgg.), ma il seguito del regolamento
rende chiaro che la gestione del fondo continuava a comportare la redazione e conservazione
dei due pinakes dei prestiti quinquennali, secondo i ritmi naturali di quel tipo di documentazio-
ne; vd. anche Migeotte 2009/10, pp. 211 sgg.
53 OGIS 213, ll. 19-23 (I.Didyma 479). Lintervento del sovrano non naturalmente indicativo
del fatto che la polis non sarebbe stata in grado di contabilizzare e gestire il fondo, bens del-
la volont del re che il suo benecio risultasse, nella distinzione, pi evidente di quanto non
avvenisse di solito con i fondi dovuti ai benec di singoli (come giustamente rilevato da Ga-
brielsen 2008, p. 123: Nominally, the donor never became completely separated from his or
her donation). Per la pratica della ripartizione nalizzata dei fondi nelle poleis ellenistiche vd.
Migeotte 2006 (per Mileto, pp. 79-83).
54 Per il richiamo alla loro esistenza vd. Bringmann 2004, p. 150, nt. 6, donde si traggono gli
esempi che seguono.
222
citt di Cizico tra 280 e 270
55
. Anno per anno (ne sono conservati sei), sono indi-
cati nalit/causale gare, stato di guerra, rifornimento dolio e banchetto per
i neoi, approvvigionamento alimentare e dorea specica, denaro (forse anche
per una fondazione), cavalli, esenzione scale sui beni in transito nel territorio
dinastico, truppe spesate, cereali
56
.
Linserimento dei re in liste tematiche appare in altri documenti ricapitolativi
trascritti in un dato momento su pietra. Esempio indicativo lelenco dei contri-
butori alla ricostruzione di Tebe, re e citt, distribuiti su una quindicina di anni
fra 315 ca. e inizi III secolo
57
. Un titolo generale di scopo (che copriva due colonne
di elenco) introduceva una prima sequenza di donatori per una decina danni,
citt e basileis (due volte quello futuro di Sidone, Filocle, e una Demetrio, nel 304),
nella prima colonna variamente separati da spaziature funzionali; una seconda
titolatura allinterno della seconda colonna, distinta da paragraphoi, introduceva i
re che avevano contribuito successivamente (ma ante 293)
58
.

55 OGIS 748 (cfr. Bringmann, Steuben, n. 241 [E 1]): le ultime 7 linee sono lacunose; alla leggi-
bilit epigraca si deve probabilmente il fatto che per la prima annualit indicato accanto al
nome delleponimo anche la sua qualica, assente nelle successive. Per linquadramento crono-
logico, e la possibilit che la sequenza temporale non sia continua, vd. Gauthier 2003, p. 13 (=
Gauthier 2011, p. 581), nt. 14; sul contesto storico, Orth 2008, p. 493.
56 Alle diverse nalit e categorie corrispondevano naturalmente catene documentarie speci-
che: per quella connessa ad esempio con la phylake del territorio (ll. 13-14), vd. sopra, con nt. 22.
57 Syll.
3
337 (con Bringmann, Steuben, n. 83 [E 1]), privata del titolo e assai lacunosa nelle pri-
me 17 linee; egualmente perduti sono i dati di contesto del manufatto. Per la lettura del docu-
mento ancora fondamentale, per gli aspetti che qui si considerano, Holleaux 1938, pp. 1 sgg. A
differenza dello studioso, tuttavia, non si ritiene che la ricapitolazione sia stata esclusivamente
epigraca, raccogliendo le contenu de plusieurs listes manuscrites jointes bout bout (p. 6):
se vero che esistevano tali elenchi, corrispondenti a plusieurs sries de versements, datant
dpoques diverses, chelonnes sur une assez longue dure, non escluso che esistessero,
a scopo raggiunto o a periodi, liste ricapitolative darchivio, con quelle caratteristiche formali
dintitolazione e ripartizione che compaiono nella trascrizione epigraca (integrale e, come ri-
leva giustamente Holleaux, pp. 4-5, effettuata in ununica occasione).
58 Vd. rispettivamente l. 1 (integrata da Holleaux 1938, p. 39), [Too: c:ztz c8azv t no:
t Oc:av cv tov oocvo::oov], e ll. 35-36, To: zo:[c:c; tz8c c8azv] t no[: cv tov ooc-
vo::oov]. Ad organizzazione tematica pu ricondursi la (lacunosa) trascrizione epigraca
di Argo SEG 32, 371 (Bringmann, Steuben, n. 47 [E]), che riporta in parallelo su due colonne
rispettivamente il contributo nanziario dei re Tolemeo VI, Tolemeo VIII, Cleopatra II e quello
di nove citt cipriote, entrambi conclusi da un vacat: limpaginato delliscrizione e la natura del
manufatto non impediscono la possibilit dellinserimento della sequenza in un elenco (epi-
graco e, a monte, darchivio) pi lungo introdotto dallindicazione di scopo (vd., a partire da
una diversa interpretazione delle quote contributive delle poleis, Meadows 2005, con la con-
clusione che esse dovevano essere reiterate). La forma pi semplice dingerenza reale nei
documenti civici rappresentata dallinserimento del nome in elenchi pi specicatamente
civici, come quelli di sottoscrittori: quello accluso allestratto di decreto istitutivo di epidosis per
il restauro del ginnasio a Larisa nel 192-186 (SEG 33, 460, II, conservato solo in parte) vede indi-
cati 1::nno; zo:cc; (alla l. 1 probabilmente come il pi generoso) e Hcocc; 1::nno: to:
zo:c:o; (ll. 17-18; sul documento, vd. Migeotte 1992, pp. 90-93, n. 33).
223
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
Alla luce di quanto precede, appare comprensibile che alcune poleis, per perio-
di di tempo anche prolungati, ritenessero di dover riservare agli affari relativi
ai re (tz zo::z ) una voce dellagenda delle assemblee, in posizione di rilie-
vo subito dopo i hiera
59
. Una possibile conseguenza di ci era che, nellorganiz-
zazione della raccolta dei decreti della seduta, quanto eventualmente suscitato
dalla circostanza trovava una collocazione regolare e facilmente reperibile nelle
sequenze delle ekklesiai
60
.
In rapporto ai diversi tipi di documentazione introdotta e ingenerata dai re
ellenistici nelle poleis e alle forme della loro gestione nel rapporto quotidiano
con lamministrazione e le cancellerie reali un ulteriore fattore merita attenzio-
ne: limpiego di sistemi di datazione propr a queste ultime, i quali, sotto diversi
aspetti e con vario peso sulla vita amministrativa della polis, richiedevano ad essa
un ulteriore impegno nellorganizzazione delle carte, e probabilmente anche un
supplemento di documentazione, rappresentato da tavole di conguaglio e da
liste parallele
61
.
Signicativi di unesigenza e di una pratica (per quanto sinora limitata alla
Caria seleucidica e a una citt di dipendenza pi diretta) sono i due decreti ono-
rar di Amyzon del 202 e 201 che recavano la data reale (indicazione del regno di
Antioco III, anno dellera seleucide, mese macedone, il nome del gran sacerdote
del culto dinastico e di quello di Zeus Kretagenetas e Diktynna) e introdotta dal-
la formula a; 8c o 8o; zyc: (e come computa il demos) la data locale, com-
posta dello stefaneforo eponimo e del mese ionico in un caso, dello stefaneforo

59 Una rassegna dei decreti onorar che comportano il privilegio dellaccesso allassemblea
dopo (la trattazione de)gli affari sacri e reali gura in Ivantchik 2007, pp. 105-107 (con il
giusto rilievo dei problmes soulevs par le roi (par une lettre ou par une ambassade)): si
tratta di Samo, con una trentina di ricorrenze tra ne IV e met III sec. (vd. anche IG XII 6, 2,
Ind. VIII, 38 a-b); Efeso, con cinque, ca. 325-275; Bargilia, con una, ca. 270-261. Ai dati proposti
dallo studioso si deve sottrarre quello suggerito di Olbia Pontica (SEG 57, 723, l. 18: vd. i dubbi
giusticati di A. Avram, in BE 2008, 399), ma aggiungere quello di Calimna, persuasivamente
integrato alla l. 64 della versione iscritta I.Iasos 82, citata sopra per lintervento di un re median-
te diagramma nella richiesta di giudici stranieri (nt. 12). Per lapplicazione del principio della
priorit istituzionale assunta dal rapporto con il re di turno, sono signicative le disposizioni
date nel testo dellaccordo di reclutamento fra un Antigono e la polis cretese di Eleuterna (IC II,
xii, 20, con Guizzi 2001, pp. 385-389): una volta giunti gli ambasciatori del re, i cosmi devono
convocare lekklesia entro dieci giorni, o comunque al pi presto, e, in essa, introdurli e non
trattare nullaltro prima di aver dato loro una risposta (ll. 11-17).
60 Per ipotesi circa lorganizzazione darchivio dei decreti cittadini, si rimanda al volume in
preparazione.
61 Da altra prospettiva, laspetto stato meritoriamente rilevato nellimportante contributo di
Savalli-Lestrade 2010a (vd. anche sopra, con nt. 34 e le note seguenti). Occorre naturalmente
distinguere tra la versione iscritta e quella darchivio (oltre che considerare gli usi delle varie
versioni di un documento: vd. Meadows 2005, pp. 464-465); ad esempio la considerazione di
Gauthier, Hatzopoulos 1993, p. 36, che in Macedonia la datation par anne de rgne est loin
dtre la rgle sur les documents antrieurs 168 nasce dalla considerazione esclusiva dellepi-
graa.
224
e del sacerdote locale dei re (Antioco padre e glio omonimo) nellaltro
62
. Un uso
corrente nei documenti di accordi interpoleici, allora presumibilmente afdato
alla rispettiva memoria degli incaricati delle poleis e a un conguaglio ad hoc, in
una relazione pi indiretta poteva trovare la formalizzazione scritta, di volta in
volta tra la sequenza eponimica cittadina, lanno del regno di controllo e, al caso,
leponimia sacerdotale generale di turno (lasciando alle memorie civiche ssate
allinizio del contatto pi stabile con le monarchie il conguaglio tra il computo
mensile del tempo locale, civile e religioso, e il calendario macedone)
63
. Se larchi-
viazione dei documenti si poteva mantenere (per praticit) per anno e mese po-
leico (quale che fosse), le necessit della corrispondenza con lamministrazione



62 Rispettivamente Ma 2004, pp. 338-339, n. 9, ll. 3-4; pp. 339-340, n. 10, ll. 3-4, entrambi in in-
tegrazione sicura (per lovvia lettura vd. Buraselis 2010, p. 427; incomprensibile la traduzione
di Debord 2003, p. 290: dont le peuple [i.e. la cit] est matre [ linitiative]; vd. anche quanto
segue). La polis era del resto stata abituata alla datazione con anno di regno e mese macedone
dalla lunga sottoposizione ai Tolemei, quando peraltro leponimo locale era il neopoios dellAr-
temision: vd. Robert, Robert 1983, p. 118, n. 3, ll. 1-3 (cfr. p. 127, n. 6, ll. 1-3); il fatto che nelle
versioni epigrache non venisse riportato il nome del mese locale non autorizza a concludere
che il calendario macedone al tempo dei Lagidi a remplac le vieux calendrier local (p. 120;
cfr. Savalli-Lestrade 2010b, p. 131), che ricompare nel 202; qualche anno dopo peraltro poteva
apparire unepigrafe con decreto onorario datato da anno locale e mese macedone (ivi, p. 235,
n. 35, ll. 1-2; cfr. anche Savalli-Lestrade 2010b, pp. 131, nt. 29 e 132-133: lipotesi dapprima poco
convinta che ci potesse essere stato panachage con i mesi macedoni diventa via via accredi-
tabile; vd. nota 64). Per il demosion di Amyzon, vd. Robert, Robert 1983, p. 213, n. 26, l. 6; per una
(nuova) lista di stefanefori dal 167, dopo il ventennio rodio, vd. ivi, pp. 244 sgg., nn. 51-54.
63 Tra i non pochi esempi della formulazione di conguaglio nei documenti intercittadini e
intragreci, vd. il trattato di pace fra Mileto e Magnesia al Meandro, Milet I 3, 148 (185-180?: sulla
datazione, vd. lo status quaestionis in Laffi 2010, pp. 78-79, nt. 7), ll. 89-91: esso doveva iniziare a ;
c v M: o:o: z yoco:v, otczvo ov co v to v c[tz
---
]z : vz Hczvo:a vz z: c tv c n:
8c z, a ; 8c Mz yvtc; [z yoco:v, otczv]o ov A:otc z z: vz Ayvca vz z: nc nt<v>
c n: 8c z. Per le eponimie sacerdotali annuali centralizzate lagidi occorre segnalare che la loro
menzione nella data di alcuni decreti di Xanto abbinata alleponimia del locale hiereus dei Tole-
mei e non a quella civile contiene solo i titoli, non i nomi (cfr. SEG 36, 1218, del 202/1); lipotesi
di Bousquet 1986, p. 31, che essi non fossero conosciuti non appare sostenibile, anche alla luce
del richiamo alluso egizio di simili gelichtete Formeln fatto da Buraselis 2010, pp. 422 sgg.
Diverso era naturalmente il caso delle eponimie pluriennali, come quella dellarchiereus intro-
dotto da Antioco III e ripreso poi dagli Attalidi e dellarchiereia di Laodice: la ritenzione del nome
era semplicata, ma la presenza almeno nelle citt di pi diretto controllo era intesa come
invasiva, dal momento che per il primo il re aveva disposto di ztza: ,c:v 8c zc to v z: c v
tz: ; ocyyzz: ; z: c v to: ; z o:; zt:oo: ; o: ; c: :otz: e per la seconda che le titolari
c n:yz oovtz: 8c z: c v [to: ;] ocvzz yzo: ctz toc ; ta v [noyo v]av z: a v z :cc: ;
(vd. rispettivamente Ma 2004, pp. 326-328, n. 4, ll. 44-46 e pp. 405-406, n. 37, ll. 26-28; cfr. pp.
232-233, con il rimando ai decreti conservati che applicano la prima norma nelle citt di Amyzon
e Xanto; la durata di un anno circa della seconda, legata al presunto ripudio di Laodice vd. ad
esempio Debord 2003, pp. 291, 293 da vericare: cfr. Ogden 1999, pp. 137-138; lidea si con-
nette con la convinzione che la norma, in assenza di altre attestazioni epigrache, non avesse
trovato grande e diffusa applicazione: per un giudizio sospeso, vd. Mller 2000, p. 533, con nt.
81).
225
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
del re richiedevano un sistema di pronto reperimento, con liste cronologiche pa-
rallele di confronto (quando non di registrazione)
64
.
Tali liste erano tanto pi importanti quando si trattava di registrare le festi-
vit introdotte per i sovrani, che erano aggiunte o associate a quelle civiche, ma
che rispondevano anche al calendario macedone della regalit. Dati i contesti e
quanto si viene delineando sullattivit documentale nelle poleis, viene facile in-
terrogarsi sullesistenza di copie del calendario macedone con le feste reali, cui
conformare la scelta dei giorni e dei mesi civici via via dedicati ai sovrani (e in-
trodotti poi nel libro sacro)
65
.
Com gi stato notato, gli obblighi scali nei confronti dellamministrazio-
ne reale prevedevano dei computi secondo le annualit di essa, che avevano il
loro riscontro nelle cancellerie di rapporto. Le poleis variamente impegnate nella
raccolta e nel rendiconto delle tasse dovute difcilmente avrebbero potuto esi-
mersi dai calcoli e dalla registrazione conformi a quel ritmo. La precisione ammi-
nistrativa, del resto, era funzionale anche alla tempistica delle esenzioni, come
dimostra la gi ricordata lettera di un funzionario seleucide del 197 ca. che ssava
lo statuto scale di una citt sconosciuta per gli anni a venire: essa non avrebbe
pagato nulla al basilikon per sette anni, riprendendo dallottavo
66
.

64 Questo naturalmente non signica luso parallelo di due diversi sistemi calendariali, che
giustamente Daubner 2008, p. 177, nt. 24 esclude per Pergamo (senza spiegare la compresenza
di mese macedone e mesi eolici nel gi citato I.Pergamon 247 altrimenti che con la Sonderstel-
lung della polis-capitale del regno). A facilitare le relazioni intervenne nelle poleis micrasiatiche
il progressivo slittamento dellinizio dellanno dal solstizio destate allequinozio dautunno: vd.
Savalli-Lestrade 2010a, pp. 63, 83 (cfr. Laffi 2010, p. 92; per la complessit della situazione
nei possedimenti lagidi doltremare, vd. anche Bousquet 1988, p. 23, con i rimandi di nt. 6: il
calendario macedone di Xanto e della Licia non corrispondeva a quello dEgitto). Non si pu qui
approfondire il caso ateniese, che, al dire di Plutarco (Dem. 10,4), dal 307 al 287 avrebbe visto la
sostituzione delleponimia tradizionale con quella del sacerdote dei Soteres Antigono e Deme-
trio (il cui nome essi cn: tav :oztav z: tav ocoz:av nocyzov), senza per trova-
re conferma nelle fonti epigrache: fra il tentativo di Dreyer 1998 di ricondurre il dato allepo-
nimia (aggiuntiva) degli anagrapheis tra 294 e 292/1 e la negazione di massima della veridicit
della notizia di Buraselis 2010, si potrebbe richiamare lipotesi di uneponimia secondaria che
gli Ateniesi avrebbero variamente praticato nelle scritture correnti, ma non in quelle esposte;
B. Dreyer (p. 27, nt. 15) pone laccento sulluso nel passo del verbo anagraphein per lascrizione
dei due Macedoni agli theoi soteres (10,4: oatz; zvcyzzv) e per la registrazione nella serie
dellultimo titolare del 287 (46,1: ^::ov, o; v :ccc; tav latav zvzycyzcvo;): ci non
pu documentare una coincidenza delle funzioni eponimiche di hiereus e di anagrapheus (come
responsabile di scritture), ma pu indicare la presenza di liste con, rispettivamente, lanagraphe
degli onorati e quella dei loro sacerdoti.
65 Col segnalarne lattuale mancanza di attestazione, non evita di richiamare il problema
Savalli-Lestrade 2010a, p. 68 (dans la plupart des cas, nous ignorons en rgle gnrale si oui
ou non le choix des jours et des mois consacrs localement un roi ou une reine avait comme
rfrent ultime une liste de ftes royales dont les dates taient tablies daprs le calendrier
macdonien; il corsivo della studiosa; cfr. anche ivi, p. 70).
66 Ma 2004, pp. 403-404, n. 36, ll. 14-18. Vd. Schuler 2007, pp. 395-396 e sopra, con nt. 33.
226
Allaspetto della presenza reale negli archivi cittadini, nelle sue diverse e molte-
plici applicazioni, si collega naturalmente quello, speculare, della sua cessazione,
attraverso lo scarico eventuale del materiale connesso con gure o regni non
pi praticati dalla polis (restando inteso che la documentazione reale connessa con
la dinastia di governo o controllo doveva essere conservata in tutte le componenti
principali e di lunga durata della sua liera)
67
. Che ci potesse essere attenzione al
riguardo da parte di un sovrano sembra emergere dalla richiesta di Attalo III alla
propria citt capitale di immettere nella sezione delle leggi sacre (: co: vo o:)
dellarchivio civico, ex ofcio e dichiaratamente di validit illimitata, i prostagmata
reali circa la nomina di Ateneo a sacerdote ereditario di Zeus Sabazio, linstallazio-
ne del dio nel Nikephorion e le cerimonie da compiere, afnch [gli onori per il
dio e i benec per il personaggio] permangano per sempre non rimossi n modi-
cati (o na; z v c: ; z nzvtz o vov z : vtz z: z ctz ctz c v:)
68
.
Come s visto, il problema riguarda sostanzialmente la corrispondenza con
le sue componenti e conseguenze normative, la documentazione scale, quella
connessa con lorganizzazione istituzionale e religiosa.
Linteresse della citt a conservare comunque le missive di un re o della sua
amministrazione che la riguardavano appare evidente per ci che concerneva la
denizione del suo statuto e delle sue relazioni con lautorit rappresentata, in
base al principio burocratico-amministrativo del risalire il pi indietro pos-
sibile nella serie degli atti delle amministrazioni reali relativi alla questione
riconosciuto dagli studiosi ai rapporti tra petenti e autorit
69
. E in questa prospet-

67 A prescindere naturalmente dai ritmi darchivio riservati ai documenti a vita breve coinvol-
ti nella relazione qui parzialmente delineata.
68 RC 67, ll. 14-16 (OGIS 331, ll. 58-60, cfr. sopra, nt. 11); Pergamo aveva compiuto loperazione
attraverso lo psephisma adottato alluopo, come rilevano le linee nali, sole superstiti, che pre-
vedono larchiviazione anche di esso: cyyz []z: 8c z: c:; [to]c [; : ]coc; vooc; [toc; t ];
[no ]ca; [t]o8[c to ] :oz z: oz: zcta: voa: c:a: c:; znzvtz toy ovov (OGIS
331, ll. 2-4). Le ipotesi di C. B. Welles (p. 271) circa le ragioni dellultimo re di Pergamo per la ri-
chiesta sostanzialmente lincertezza del futuro non sono dimostrabili (in ogni modo da sfu-
mare lidea che royal enactments would not outlast the dinasty). Lespressione nel testo
era una variante retorica del formulario civico relativo ai decreti che passavano a leggi (sacre):
cfr. il pressoch contemporaneo psephisma Virgilio, LDP
2
, pp. 246-251, n. 14 (con Hamon 2004)
che doveva essere []c:ov... c:; znzvtz tov ovov z: zt[z]tc[v]z:... cv voo[:; : ]c[o:;]
(ll. 61-62; la deposizione naturalmente aveva signicato concreto) e, sempre per il II secolo,
LSAM 13, ll. 40-43, il regolamento civico per il sacerdozio di Asclepio, con la variante cyyzz:
8c z: c:; toc; vooc; [toc; t]; [no ]ca; to :oz to8c z: [oa]ozv zcta: voa:
c:a: c:; znzvtz tov ovov. Per unattestazione di basilikoi nomoi a Pergamo, vd. in ne.
69 Cfr., nello specico per il caso di Labraunda, Virgilio 2001, p. 49 e Bencivenni 2003, p.
281, nt. 68, che riprendono le considerazioni di Habicht 1972, p. 168, via Robert, BE, 1972, 422,
p. 462 (cfr. anche Bencivenni 2003, pp. 260-261, nt. 8, con Dignas 2002, pp. 277-278). Leven-
tuale incisione delle lettere promossa dalle citt potenziava lefcacia politica ed esemplare
delle disposizioni impartite in esse, ma costituiva pur sempre una ulteriore diramazio-
ne documentaria della catena nella quale esse erano inserite, che garantiva nel suo complesso
il fondamento giuridico delloperazione specica (la quale poteva essere rappresentata in
misura pi o meno completa attraverso la pietra: per unanalisi di motivi e aspetti della pratica,
227
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
tiva occorre considerare il fatto che la citt conservava non solo i documenti che
le riconoscevano dei privilegi (e che venivano sovente iscritti), ma anche quelli
di contenuto meno favorevole (epigracamente esibiti solo collateralmente e in
contesti particolari). Baster ricordare due casi, nei quali la procedura di resa epi-
graca attesta una vita darchivio trasversale alle diverse autorit di controllo.
Com noto, Priene dovette gestire per molta parte della sua storia una situa-
zione territoriale fatta di contestazioni e conitti. Non sorprende che essa, in
generale attenta alle carte civiche, tenesse via via memoria dei documenti reali
che vi pertenevano. Nel 285 ca., impegnata a trattare uno status favorevole con
Lisimaco, la citt esibiva (per intero o per estratto) lautorevole dispositivo di Ales-
sandro, del 334, che aveva denito i suoi conni e concesso unateleia
70
. Nel 196-
191, in occasione dellarbitrato rodio nella rinnovata contesa territoriale con Samo,
Priene poteva aver ancora esibito un documento di Alessandro, oltre a c n:otoz:
zo::z: delle diverse dinastie coinvolte e le lettere dello stratego lagide Agesar-
co del 245 ca.
71
. Ed difcile pensare che, nel 135, quando legati prienesi e sam si
recarono a Roma per unulteriore fase della contesa, i primi recassero soltanto il
pur dettagliato testo dellarbitrato, cui si richiamava il senato per la conferma
72
.
Signicativo, sotto diversi aspetti, anche il dossier collegato alla gi ricorda-
ta querelle fra il sacerdozio del santuario di Labraunda e la polis di Milasa in Caria,
composto dalle lettere di re e amministratori lagidi, seleucidi, antigonidi redatte

vd. Bencivenni 2010, spec. pp. 165 sgg. e anche quanto segue). Dal canto loro, i Romani non
mancarono di dichiarare la validit di provvedimenti giuridici e scali dei re di cui assumevano
i territor, come dimostrano ad esempio i senatoconsulti Popillianum e Licinnianum del 132 e 119
(riferiti rispettivamente agli Attalidi e a Mitradate V del Ponto: RDGE 11, con SEG 50, 1212, e 13,
con Daubner 2003, pp. 231-235 per la data).
70 Un diagramma per Bencivenni 2003, pp. 8, nt. 12, 30, nt. 39; un insieme di tre documenti
per Vacante 2010, pp. 220, 232 sgg. La versione signicante del precedente (con la sua rubrica
darchivio, piuttosto che epigraca, Bzo:ca; A[czv8]oc) e il dossier decreto civico-lettera
di risposta venivano incisi contemporaneamente sul fronte dellanta Nord del tempio di Atena
Poliade: I.Priene 1 (con Vacante 2010, pp. 220-221), 14, 15, con Sherwin-White 1985, pp. 82-83;
Magnetto 2008, p. 18.
71 Vd., rispettivamente, Magnetto 2008, p. 42, ll. 168-70 (con pp. 105 e 176), l. 171 (con pp. 110,
139 e, per una lettera di Antioco III, l. 167, pp. 140-141, con una datazione fra 213 e 197), ll. 131-
132 (con pp. 131-132); vd. anche Magnetto 2009, p. 9. Sullarchivio prienese, interessato dalla
vicenda, vd. Magnetto 2008, p. 178 e Camia 2009, p. 91; i Prienesi, che citavano col rimando
ad annum la legazione a Lisimaco del 283/2 ca. (p. 40, ll. 120-121), conservavano senzaltro copia
della lettera del diadoco che aveva allora attribuito la vittoria a Samo (che laveva pubblicata: IG
XII 6.1, 155). Per la data dellarbitrato, vd. Magnetto 2009, pp. 10 sgg.
72 Camia 2009, p. 86 (gi I.Priene 41, RDGE 10B; cfr. Famerie 2007, pp. 99-101, AEp 2007, 1428),
l. 12. Lesibizione di documenti pu essere indicata dal rimando come precedenti ai :t:z
c:cvz accettati da Roma qualche tempo prima nel senatoconsulto inciso nellarchivio
del tempio di Atena (Famerie 2007, pp. 99-100 (AEp 1427), l. 5; cfr. Magnetto 2009, p. 16, con
cui sinclina qui a pensare che il documento, gi I.Priene 40, RDGE 10A, fosse riferito sempre alla
contesa con Samo; non toccate sono comunque le capacit documentali di Priene, che poteva
forse anche rifarsi a un verdetto di Antigono Monoftalmo: vd. Magnetto 2008, pp. 109-110 e
2009, loc.cit.).
228
fra 280 ca. e 219, sette delle quali, databili o agli anni 40 o agli anni 20, ci sono
giunte riprodotte su diversi supporti nel santuario e nella polis, o in immedia-
ta conseguenza dei fatti, o in epoca romana (alla ne del II secolo o nel I secolo
d.C.)
73
. Che il dossier avesse anche e sempre una sua vita darchivio parallela a
quella epigraca pu essere suggerito dal recente rilievo che la lettera di Seleuco
II a Olimpico del 242 ca. (e da questi inoltrata a Milasa), iscritta sia allarrivo sia
nella prima et imperiale romana, gurava con la lettera daccompagnamento
del funzionario solo nella seconda incisione
74
. Non iscritto nelle due riprese del
documento cui era connesso (del 220 ca. e del tardo II sec.) risulta sinora anche
lantigraphon della lettera di Olimpico a Seleuco II suscitata negli anni 40 dallu-
dienza conseguente alle prime decisioni del re, che lo stratego trasmetteva alla
polis con la propria epistola di conferma del suo statuto e delle sue competenze
75
.
Parte del dossier labraundeno trovava inoltre nella prima et imperiale ulteriore
versione epigraca a Milasa stessa, a giudicare dalla conservata trascrizione della
lettera di Olimpico alla citt del 220
76
. Quali che fossero le ragioni della rivaluta-
zione dei documenti in diversi momenti dellepoca romana, appaiono evidenti
linteresse e il valore riconosciuti dai diversi interlocutori ai precedenti ammini-
strativi, di qualsivoglia origine, uniti alla pratica di usare epigracamente atti a
disposizione
77
.

73 Vd. sopra, con nt. 15. Gli archivi in questione dovevano essere due, quello dei sacerdoti e
quello della polis, entrambi dotati della corrispondenza e della documentazione in oggetto. La
considerazione di Isager 2011, p. 206 che la lettera di Olimpico a Milasa che concludeva in senso
positivo la fase degli anni 40 del III secolo quite likely fosse incisa circa ventanni dopo pu
sostenere lidea di J. Crampa (I.Labraunda, p. 52) che la (sinora) unica incisione contemporanea
dei documenti del 240 ca., la lettera di Seleuco a Olimpico favorevole a Khorris, senza la lettera
del funzionario alla citt, derivasse dallarchivio sacerdotale e riettesse il (momentaneo) pre-
valere dellautorit religiosa (cfr. Reger 2010, p. 51). Rovesciando la prospettiva, si pu anche
ritenere che lautorit che dettava liscrizione fosse Milasa, che pubblicava una lettera in fondo
possibilista e taceva della trasmissione di Olimpico, che richiedeva lobbedienza ad essa
(I.Labraunda 2, l. 5).
74 Cfr. Isager 2011, pp. 206 con ntt. 25 e 27, 207-208 e 213: si tratta rispettivamente di I.Labraunda
1, 1B (Virgilio, LDP
2
, pp. 272-273, n. 20) e di I.Labraunda 2. A quanto si pu giudicare attraverso le
lacune, i testi delle diverse serie risultano identici nel dettato, fatta salva la monottongazione.
75 I.Labraunda 3 (Virgilio, LDP
2
, pp. 273-275, n. 21), ll. 24-25; 3B, ll. 7-8; cfr. I.Labraunda 4, ll. 6-7.
Non escludeva lincisione anche dellantigraphon Crampa, I.Labraunda, p. 52.
76 I.Mylasa 23, con Virgilio 2001, p. 48, nt. 31 (cfr. I.Labraunda 4); la nota di Crampa, ad
I.Labraunda 4, p. 24, nt. 1, che il documento milaseo may have belonged to a collection of earlier
documents non chiarisce il rapporto con la documentazione darchivio.
77 Per unanalisi delle circostanze storiche e del rapporto tra le diverse entit coinvolte, vd.
(con qualche cautela) Dignas 2002, pp. 204 sgg. Per una rassegna dei documenti di et ellenisti-
ca iscritti a Labraunda in et romana, vd. Chaniotis 1988, pp. 248 (D32), 250-251 (D41), con li-
dea del rinnovo di documenti gi incisi, per contingenti ragioni politiche (pp. 256, 273-274). Si
ricorder che allincirca alla stessa epoca avveniva la nota indagine tiberiana sui titoli dellasylia
micrasiatica, la quale riconosceva, accanto ai maiorum benecia e ai sociorum pacta, anche regum
qui ante vim Romanam valuerant, decreta (Tac. Ann. III, 60).
229
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
Prova signicativa dellimportanza dei documenti reali per lamministra-
zione di una polis impegnata con i susseguenti poteri di controllo e anche del
destino darchivio in cui quegli atti potevano incorrere quanto emerge da un
insieme epigraco dell1 a.C. di Nysa, gi fondazione seleucidica, che riferisce e
riproduce lesito di una vicenda documentale lunga quasi tre secoli, connessa con
il riconoscimento di benec al santuario di Plutone e Kore entrato nella perti-
nenza della colonia. Esso vedeva incisi una lettera del 281 di Seleuco I e del glio
Antioco ad un funzionario (preceduta forse dalla lettera di accompagnamento
di questi alla localit allora interessata), una di re di altra dinastia impegnato a
confermare quanto riconosciuto dagli cnoocv / no av zo:c:; e altri
documenti correlati
78
. A quanto si pu dedurre dal documento civico che allori-
gine della scrittura epigraca, si trattava di tz :cz yzztz, che la citt aveva
conservato in archivio, ma che aveva dovuto rimuovere in epoca romana, quando
verisimilmente i privilegi erano stati revocati. Uno degli strateghi cittadini, che
si era occupato (cn:cc:;) degli interessi del luogo di culto e della citt presso
il governatore romano, riportandone alla ne una lettera dassenso, si era difatti
curato di recuperarli, di illustrarli (c[z]v:oz;) al magistrato e di restituirli
al (loro) archivio (znoztcotocv c:; to yzztov), ricomponendo ufcial-
mente un dossier che la polis si premurava di riprodurre, per le parti signicative,
sulla pietra nel santuario
79
.
Il medesimo principio del valore di precedente da confermare o da modi-
care, specialmente nel passaggio da un controllo allaltro, si pu attribuire ai
documenti scali almeno quelli cumulativi e di trasmissione che entravano
evidentemente in causa quando si doveva dimostrare la consistenza di un contri-

78 RC 9 (lettera di Seleuco I e Antioco, per lo studioso forse gi incisa a tempo debito), 64 (di re
imprecisabile: per lipotesi di Mitradate VI, dopo l88, vd. Rigsby 1996, pp. 402-403, n. 185; sui
tentativi didenticazione, che comprendono anche Antioco III ed Eumene II, vd. la discussione
di Ma 2004, p. 214, che esclude Antioco III sulla base delluso del singolare, presupposto ora da
rivedere, come segnalato da Virgilio 2010, pp. 119 sgg.; 2011, pp. 75, 224-230; il riferimento ai
predecessori citato nel testo alle ll. 7, 12, 13); per i frustuli di ulteriori documenti del dossier,
compresa allapparenza una lettera reale tardo-seleucidica che menziona Antioco il Grande e
che precede RC 64, vd. Rigsby 1996, p. 401; Ma 2004, pp. 218-219, 311-312.
79 Syll.
3
781 (RDGE 69), I, ll. 9 sgg.; al documento civico segue la lettera del proconsole (II),
debitamente consegnata in patria dallemissario niseo (zno8oc;, l. 13) e registrata allarrivo
(vd. l. 14, la data di recezione): di essa si sono conservati solo la formula di saluto e linizio delle
considerazioni, con il nome dello stratego (ll. 15-16). Alla ricostruzione indicata, che riprende le
osservazioni di Rigsby 1996, p. 405 sui papyrus documents in questione, non sembra poter-
si opporre unalternativa ragionevole (soprattutto non quella, pure considerata dallo studioso,
that grammateion here means the archival wall at the temple). I tre mesi intercorsi fra larrivo
della lettera del proconsole e la verbalizzazione epigraca furono necessari per le eventuali
veriche dei documenti esibiti al magistrato, forse pi numerosi di quelli iscritti, e per linci-
sione del dossier (inevitabile la conclusione di Rigsby, loc. cit., che i documenti o le loro copie
had been kept privately over the intervening years by interested parties). Per un periodo mi-
tridatico di Nisa, che giusticherebbe una crisi nei rapporti con Roma, vd. Rigsby 1996, p. 402 e
Campanile 1996, pp. 162 sgg. Vd. anche, in generale sul rapporto fra autorit civili e santuario,
Boffo 1985, pp. 287-293.
230
buto per il quale si dichiarava lentit imponibile e/o si richiedeva una forma di
esonero. lecito immaginare che le dichiarazioni generali di benecio scale si
fondassero in realt su trattative speciche, corredate dei documenti storici che
riferivano alla nuova, o rinnovata, signoria, le aree imponibili, lo stato tributario,
lentit media delle prosodoi connesse.
Il processo della relazione fra Antioco III e Teo illustrato dal primo dei due
decreti civici in onore della coppia reale, al di l dei ltri del linguaggio di-
plomatico, ricco di suggestioni
80
. Un soggiorno nella polis aveva reso edotto il
re della grandezza (cyco;) delle syntaxeis versate ad Attalo I da una quindi-
cina danni, che egli prometteva di condonare nellassemblea in cui dichiarava la
polis sacra, inviolabile ed esente dal phoros; lasciati i particolari tecnici ad una
successiva legazione della citt richiesta per lettera quando era ormai lontano,
Antioco alla ne conferm ad essa di aver esonerato Teo in perpetuo dei phoroi
pagati al rivale
81
. Appare difcile escludere che loperazione avesse implicato
dei grammata con una registrazione della contabilit precedente, necessar per
le veriche applicative di una rimozione che si congurava per sempre e che
aveva le sue conseguenze nellamministrazione e nelle entrate seleucidi
82
. E non
mette conto qui di rilevare le componenti documentali del regolamento scale di
Apamea del 188, per le poleis che avrebbero dovuto pagare a Eumene i tributi gi
versati ad Antioco
83
.
Pi sfuggente (a motivo dello stato delle nostre conoscenze sul fenomeno)
il destino dei documenti darchivio connessi con le diverse forme di onoranza
religiosa, o delle voci derivate nei documenti della citt
84
.
Una categoria che diviene semplice concludere come conservata in ogni
modo naturalmente quella degli atti amministrativi civici che richiamavano
la gura reale soltanto attraverso la data, o la menzione di una trib intitolata.
Com stato di recente chiarito, anche in un caso di rimozione esasperata della
memoria come quello dellAtene del 200 a.C. contro tutti gli Antigonidi (in ogni
caso avvenuta dopo ventinove anni di distacco effettivo), perno le azioni mani-

80 Per la natura del linguaggio in questione e per limmagine nel testo, vd. Ma 2004, p. 354.
81 Ma 2004, pp. 351-353, n. 17, ll. 14, 19-20, 29-34.
82 Per una valutazione amministrativa delloperazione in due tempi, vd. Ma 2004, p. 92,
con qualche forzatura; vd. anche Capdetrey 2007, pp. 418 sgg. (a sua volta, la decisione del re
navait de force et ne pouvait sinscrire dans la dure que si sa formulation prenait une forme
crite); non si entra qui nella vexata quaestio semantica e di sostanza del rapporto tra phoros e
syntaxis, ricorrenti nelle fonti con apparente indifferenza e incoerenza, e in quella dello statuto
della aphorologesia in relazione ai diversi obblighi contributivi di una citt verso il re di turno:
vd. a riguardo Chankowski (V.) 2007a, pp. 324 sgg., con giuste osservazioni circa la necessit di
andare oltre la mera considerazione del discorso ideologico reale (e civico).
83 Polyb. 21,45, 2.
84 E che ancora una volta deve essere valutata a prescindere dal destino epigraco dei docu-
menti, sinora lunico a essere preso in considerazione nellambito delle ricerche sulla damnatio
nel mondo greco. Vd. anche quanto segue.
231
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
feste di erasione epigraca furono selettivamente concentrate nelle aree centrali
della polis e in ogni modo non toccavano il contenuto dei documenti, liste, decre-
ti onorar per singoli o collegi
85
. Precisamente la nalit dimostrativa, a quanto
pare limitata nel tempo, oltre che nello spazio, sembra contrastare con lidea di
unindagine pi o meno sistematica (e piuttosto impegnativa) negli archivi per
labolitio nominis corrispondente.
Naturalmente rimossi dovevano essere invece i documenti legati ad unor-
ganizzazione tribale decaduta. Se esplicito il caso di Atene, con le modiche
gi segnalate, meno chiaro il caso di altre poleis, sia ove non ci siano dati pre-
cisi sulla ne di un ordinamento, sia ove resti testimonianza delle phylai reali
o dinastiche per epoche tarde. Ad esempio il destino dellorganizzazione legata
alla trib Asandris ci precluso dallincertezza circa la data di creazione e il suc-
cesso dellunione fra Latmo e Pidasa (comunque legata al decennio di governo
del satrapo, 323-313) e il rapporto istituzionale tra Latmo e la successiva Eraclea
al Latmo, fondata nei pressi negli anni del controllo di Antigono Monoftalmo
86
.
Se tuttavia vero che il permanere della stele nel tempio poliade di questultima
attesta linserimento del documento nella (almeno epigraca) lokalgeschicht-
liche Urkundensammlung, come una sorta di Grndungsurkunde, e che ad
Asandro, come fondatore, era riservato un culto nellambito della phyle, non
si pu escludere che almeno questultimo fosse rimasto e che nei hiera grammata
della nuova citt se ne conservasse documentazione
87
.
Precisamente latteggiamento conservativo o di recupero delle memorie delle
citt si connette con il permanere o il riemergere del culto per un sovrano o per
una dinastia, con tutte le sue manifestazioni pubbliche e le sue giusticazioni
documentali, originali o rinnovate. Com noto il problema complesso e condi-
zionato dalla scarsit e natura delle fonti, ma lecito attendersi, per periodi pi o
meno lunghi, una sopravvivenza attiva, oltre che, in alcuni casi, un recupero, con
i suoi diversi riessi nella documentazione darchivio, via via conservata, ricopia-
ta, creata
88
. I dies festi, sacra, sacerdotes che Atene nel 200 annull per gli Antigonidi

85 Vd. Byrne 2010, spec. pp. 65 sgg.; vd. anche Culasso Gastaldi 2003, pp. 259-260. Ci non
escludeva naturalmente che la versione darchivio di quei documenti andasse soggetta al nor-
male destino degli atti civici col passare del tempo. Sulle vicende storiche ateniesi dellepoca,
vd. Habicht 2006, pp. 218-220 e Byrne 2010, p. 159. Vd. anche sotto.
86 Sulle incertezze legate alloperazione, variamente collocabile nel periodo di dominio di
Asandro, vd. Bencivenni 2003, p. 166; Wrrle 2003b, p. 1376, nt. 61. Sui rapporti con la succes-
siva fondazione, vd. Wrrle 2003b, pp. 1375 sgg.
87 Per le considerazioni sulle memorie della citt di Eraclea evocate dal documento e dalla sua
storia, vd. Wrrle 2003a, pp. 142-143, donde si traggono le citazioni nel testo, e 2003b, p. 1376.
Quanto alla documentazione interessata, si pu pensare, se non al decreto istitutivo, almeno a
voce sul libro sacro della citt (vd. qui sopra).
88 Si tratta naturalmente di cogliere la vitalit delle manifestazioni al di l del permanere
delle epigra e dei monumenti, variamente investiti di un valore storico e dimostrativo che
aveva vita propria: cfr. Savalli-Lestrade 2009, pp. 141-142; 2010a, pp. 68 sgg. Un caso per il
quale lapparente rimozione dei manufatti stato visto corrispondere alla cancellazione di
232
si poterono mantenere senza disagio in luoghi ben pi numerosi di quelli che
sinora documentano per epoche anche molto pi tarde giorni intitolati, mesi,
trib, festivit e concorsi, sacerdoz, santuar
89
.
Allo stesso modo vivevano di vita propria i diversi istituti nanziar connessi
con capitali di fondazione erogati dai re, con il corredo di documenti correlati. Si-
gnicativo il caso di Colofone, che in et romana amministrava il fondo offerto
dagli Attalidi per banchetti da offrire ai frequentatori del ginnasio dopo lefebia,
la cui celebrazione annuale richiedeva un decreto e la nomina di epimenioi de-
putati, con lavviamento delle procedure di nanziamento per quel che doveva
gurare, nei diversi luoghi, sotto la rubrica zo::z 8c:nvz
90
.
in questa prospettiva dei destini archivistici di documenti pi o meno di-
rettamente prodotti dallamministrazione reale che occorre valutare il contro-
verso caso del basilikos nomos pergameno un regolamento urbanistico sotto la
responsabilit degli astynomoi locali fatto incidere in et traianeo-adrianea da

tutto il dispositivo in occasione del passaggio di dinastia appare quello di Teo, i cui decreti per
Antioco e Laodice disposti su blocchi di parastas del tempio furono rinvenuti fuori sito presso
il muro del temenos (Herrmann 1965, pp. 31-33, 89-93): se lidea avanzata da Chaniotis 2007, p.
171, che Teo avrebbe avuto interesse a rimuovere quanto era collegato con un re che si era distin-
to per aver eliminato le syntaxeis pagate al rivale, plausibile, occorre pur sempre riettere sulle-
sistenza della lista dei Seleucidi divinizzati incisa nel II secolo OGIS 246 (Kotsidu 2000, pp.
473-474, n. *356 [E]; cfr. Ma 2004, pp. 192, 211). In generale sulla durata delle forme di culto reale
nelle poleis, vd. ancora Habicht 1970, pp. 186 sgg.; per una rassegna delle attestazioni, vd. Kot-
sidu 2000 (Kultische Ehrungen, pp. 636-637 dellindice, alle diverse voci). Vd. anche sopra, nt. 41.
89 Per le vicende ateniesi vd. ancora Liv. 31,44, 4: il decreto, oltre allabolitio nominis, preve-
deva diesque festi sacra sacerdotes, quae ipsius [Filippo V] maiorumque eius honoris causa instituta
essent, omnia profanarentur. Lassociazione dei Demetrieia con le Dionisie, iniziata nel 295/4, era
terminata con la rivolta ateniese al re nel 288/7 (cfr. Le Guen 2010, pp. 506, 510). Lelenco delle
attestazioni nel testo riprende quello (analitico) di Chankowski (A. S.) 2010, pp. 277-278, che
comunque suscettibile di ampliamento. Per il mantenersi del culto reale, inter alia inserito
nel sistema dellevergetismo, vd. gi Robert 1966, p. 15 (ripreso in Gauthier 1985, pp. 48-49);
per gli Attalidi onorati a Pergamo almeno sino al 60 a.C., con un possibile accantonamento al
tempo della permanenza in citt del re del Ponto, vd. Virgilio 1993, spec. pp. 69 sgg., 92 sgg.;
per il mantenersi nella Sardi dellepoca augustea degli Eumeneia e Panathenaia (per lAtena di
Pergamo) istituiti nel 166 ca., vd. Robert, Robert 1950, pp. 7-8, 18-25.
90 SEG 39, 1244, II, ll. 46-54: c n: tc nctz vca; lc z voo; :ozc voc toc 8 oc tz zo::-
z 8c: nvz to: ; vc o:; z: ncoctc o:; ocvtcc: oz:, ta v 8c 8:8oc vav c: ; tzc tz z tav
8:zno:oc vtav, z z ta v z no8c:vcc vav c n:v: av oc o : z c zcta v c: oco vtav Mc v:nno;
toc ; tc c ovtz; c n:v:cc oc:v z nc coc t ; 8znz v;, tz tc 8:8o cvz ztz nzz t ;
no ca; z vc ncc t : no c:, t v tc toc 8 oc noz: co:v z: tz ; ta v zo:c av c t[o: - - - - - -,
su cui vd. Robert, Robert 1989, pp. 99-101 (per i quali si tratterebbe di una ripresa dellistituto) e
Bringmann, Steuben, pp. 303-304, n. 262a [E]; da circostanziare la lettura di Frhlich 2009, p.
83, nt. 122, che accenna al dato come a uno degli examples dvergtes prenant le relais des rois
(come per lanonimo ginnasiarco pergameno che forn lolio []ztzvzocc vav [][]z tav...
c ta v zo::a v yz[,a v... ], esauritisi dopo la morte di Attalo III nel torno di qualche anno: P.
Jacobstahl, MDAI(A) 33 (1908), pp. 381-383, n. 3 + H. Hepding MDAI(A) 35 (1910), pp. 419-
421, ll. 9-10, su cui vd. Hamon BE, 2009, 518 e, per la data del decreto al 129, Wrrle 2007, p. 509).
Per i problemi di datazione, per la quale si propongono gli anni seguenti al 120 o al 90, vd. Eilers
2002, pp. 124 sgg.
233
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
uno di quei magistrati, a sue spese, nellarea dellagor inferiore della polis
91
. Il
collegio, che doveva continuare ad avere un proprio zc:ov ufcio e archivio
poteva ancora disporre di una copia (di cui si manteneva lortograa) di un re-
golamento che conteneva gli ambiti dintervento e rappresentava la continuit
delle funzioni della magistratura
92
.
Non si pu dire quali fossero i termini di applicazione di quel precedente
storico, ma esso costituiva evidentemente un documento di riferimento per chi
esercitava quella carica, degno di unesposizione che dava rilievo al magistrato
promotore di essa
93
.

91 SEG 13, 521 (alla l. 1, correggi zotcvoav in zotcvoav). Per i problemi di datazione delle-
pigrafe ad esempio ricondotta dai Robert allepoca ellenistica avanzata (BE, 1952, 137; 1955,
188) vd. Chandezon 2003, p. 189, nt. 33; sul problema del rapporto tra normativa risalente e
attualit imperiale romana, vd. ad esempio Virgilio 1993, pp. 111-114 (di cui non si condividono
tutte le considerazioni); vd. anche Amelotti 2001, p. 225.
92 Per il rilievo dellortograa vd. Robert, Robert, BE, 1952, 137. La menzione esplicita a un
zc:ov alle ll. 227-229, laddove si prescrive una multa per gli astinomi se essi avtz: tv
c czctav yzv tav cztav c:; to z., al termine della sezione riservata alle cisterne; la
prima disposizione relativa al controllo di esse che i magistrati zvzyzocvo: [la lista delle
strutture nelle case] cv ta: Hzvc:a: v: t:coaozv tv yzv no; toc; otztyoc; (ll.
206-208). Resta da chiarire se larcheion in questione sia il medesimo, come sembra indicare una
prima lettura e come pensano quanti lo intendono come archivio tout court (vd. ad esempio
Allen 1983, p. 176); che la documentazione prodotta dagli astinomi avesse collocazione artico-
lata, a partire precisamente dal loro ufcio, appare naturale dagli usi nelle poleis: la graphe in
questione doveva gurare anche (almeno) negli archeia degli strateghi (per struttura e organiz-
zazione degli archivi di Pergamo, si rimanda al volume in preparazione).
93 Ad impliciti aggiornamenti pensava Amelotti 2001, p. 225, in evidente riferimento al
fatto che le multe nel documento originario erano conteggiate in dracme (per un caso analogo,
sempre da Pergamo, vd. Wrrle 1969, con pp. 185-187 e nt. 99). Sullimportanza del documento
per il collegio magistratuale, vd. ancora Wrrle 1969, p. 188.
234
Abbreviazioni
AEp LAnne pigraphique, Paris 1888-.
Aneziri, Vereine S. Aneziri, Die Vereine der dionysischen Techniten im Kontext der
hellenistischen Gesellschaft, Historia-Einz. 163, Stuttgart 2002.
BE Bulletin Epigraphique, a cura di AA.VV., in REG, 1938-.
Bringmann, Steuben K. Bringmann, J. von Steuben (a cura di), Schenkungen
hellenistischer Herrscher an griechische Stdte und Heiligtmer, I,
Zeugnisse und Kommentare, Berlin 1995.
DNP Der neue Pauly: Enzyklopdie der Antike, a cura di H. Cancik, H.
Schneider, Stuttgart 1996-.
F.Delphes III G. Colin et al., Fouilles de Delphes, III, pigraphie, Paris 1929-.
I.Beroia L. Gounaropoulou, M. B. Hatzopoulos et alii, Inscriptiones
Macedoniae Inferioris, I, Inscr. Beroeae / lHlIlA1l2 KATU
MAKlJONlA2, A', lHlIlA1l2 BllOlA2, Athenai 1998.
I.Dlos Inscriptions de Dlos, Paris 1926-1972.
I.Didyma A. Rehm, Didyma II, Die Inschriften, Berlin 1958.
I.Erythrai H. Engelmann, R. Merkelbach, Die Inschriften von Erythrai und
Klazomenai (IK 1, 2), I-II, Bonn 1972-1973.
I.Iasos W. Blmel, Die Inschriften von Iasos (IK 28.1, 28. 2), I-II, Bonn 1985.
I.Ilion P. Frisch, Die Inschriften von Ilion (IK 3), Bonn 1975.
I.Kyme H. Engelmann, Die Inschriften von Kyme (IK 5), Bonn 1976.
I.Labraunda Labraunda, Swedish Excavations and Researches, III, 1, J. Crampa, The
Greek Inscriptions, 1-12 (Period of Olympichus), Lund 1969.
I.Magnesia O. Kern, Die Inschriften von Magnesia, Berlin 1900.
I.Metropolis B. Dreyer, H. Engelmann, Die Inschriften von Metropolis (IK 63), I,
Bonn 2003.
I.Mylasa W. Blmel, Die Inschriften von Mylasa (IK 34, 35), I-II, Bonn 1987,1988.
I.Pergamon Altertmer von Pergamon, VIII 1, Die Inschriften von Pergamon, a cura
di M. Frnkel, Berlin 1890.
I.Priene F. Hiller von Grtringen, Die Inschriften von Priene, Berlin 1906.
I.Smyrna G. Petzl, Die Inschriften von Smyrna (IK 23, 24.1), I-II, Bonn
1982,1987.
I.Thess
lHlIlA1lKA Ol22AAONlKllA 21MBOAH 2THN
HOAlTlKH KAl KOlNUNlKH l2TOllA TH2 AlAAlA2
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235
la presenza dei re negli archivi delle poleis ellenistiche
I.Tralleis F. B. Poljakov, Die Inschriften von Tralleis (IK 36.1), Bonn 1989.
Le Guen, Associations Br. Le Guen, Les associations de technites dionysiaques lpoque
hellnistique I. Corpus documentaire, Nancy 2001.
LSAM Fr. Sokolowski, Lois sacres de lAsie Mineure, Paris 1955.
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pp. 193-384.
McCabe, Erythrai D. F. McCabe, Erythrai Inscriptions, Packard Humanities Institute
CD #6, 1991 (http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/main).
Milet I. 2, I.3 A. Rehm, Inschriften, in Milet. Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen und
Untersuchungen seit dem Jahre 1899, I. 2, Das Rathaus in Milet, Berlin
1914; Milet. , I.3, Das Delphinion in Milet, a cura di Th. Wiegand,
Berlin 1914.
Milet VI.3 P. Herrmann et alii, Inschriften von Milet, 3, Inschriften n. 1020-
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OGIS W. Dittenberger, Orientis Graeci inscriptiones selectae.
Supplementum sylloges inscriptionum Graecarum, I-II, Leipzig
1903-1905.
PCZ Catalogue gnral des antiquits gyptiennes du Muse du Caire:
Zenon Papyri, I-IV, a cura di C.C. Edgar, Le Caire 1925-1931.
RC C. B. Welles, Royal Correspondence in the Hellenistic Period. A Study
in Greek Epigraphy, London 1934 (rist. anast. Chicago 1970).
RDGE R. K. Sherk, Roman Documents from the Greek East. Senatus
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RO P. J. Rhodes, R. Osborne, Greek Historical Inscriptions 403-323 BC,
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SEG Supplementum Epigraphicum Graecum, Leiden 1923-.
Staatsvertrge H. Bengtson, H. H. Schmitt, Die Staatsvertrge des Altertums, I-II, a
cura di H. Bengtson, Mnchen-Berlin 1962-1969 (II
2
, 1975); III, a
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Syll.
3
W. Dittenberger (F. Hiller von Grtringen), Sylloge
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Tit.Cal. M. Segre, Tituli Calymnii, ASAA, n.s. 6-7 (1944-45) [1952].
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245
Copie, malacopie, copie dufficio ...
Il recupero di testi da cartonnages ha posto gradualmente un problema che la ri-
cerca papirologica sta affrontando ancora in questi anni: quello della denizione
esatta non solo del concetto di archivio, ma anche della casistica che individua le
forme differenti di aggregazione dei documenti e soprattutto della paternit o
denominazione precisa di queste aggregazioni. Con il termine di aggregazione
intendo qui comprendere sia la denizione di archivio vero e proprio, sia quella
pi ampia, recentemente affermatasi, di dossier. Alla denizione, come pure alla
distinzione tra archivi e dossier pubblici o familiari, in particolare per lepoca el-
lenistica, ma non solo, hanno contribuito principalmente gli scritti di Pestman,
Martin e pi recentemente Jrdens, Van Beek, Vandorpe, Clarysse e ancora Heil-
porn
1
. Questi studiosi si sono impegnati a descrivere e connotare approfondita-
mente tale aspetto della ricerca papirologica, anche in relazione agli studi com-
piuti su insiemi documentali, principalmente di carattere contrattuale o scale
e per lo pi provenienti dallAlto Egitto e quindi da contesti talvolta anche arche-
ologicamente ricostruibili, come per gli ostraca tebani recentemente pubblicati

1 Mi riferisco naturalmente alle classiche denizioni fornite rispettivamente in Pestman
1990
2
, p. 51; e pi specicamente, per gli archivi familiari e per la distinzione con i dossier,
Pestman 1995, pp. 91-92; Martin 1994, p. 570; Jrdens 2001; Van Beek 2007, pp. 1034-1037;
Vandorpe 2009, 218-219; Heilporn 2009, pp. 17-20; Clarysse 2010, p. 48.
Copie, malacopie, copie
dufcio e il problema
della titolarit di un archivio
nellEgitto tolemaico
lucia criscuolo
246
da Paul Heilporn o per gli archivi familiari da Pathyris studiati da Vandorpe-Wae-
bens
2
. Nel primo caso, cio quello degli archivi veri e propri, com noto, si in-
tende sottolineare il deliberato intento di raccogliere e conservare i documenti,
mentre per i dossiers si tratta di raggruppamenti avvenuti a posteriori, talvolta
anche nellantichit, ma non necessariamente con lintento primario di conser-
varli o di classicarli: come per esempio nel caso di ostraca gettati via in un certo
momento o in un certo luogo e quindi riuniti arbitrariamente dalle circostanze
di rinvenimento, oppure di papiri impiegati per confezionare cartonnages. Certo
in casi simili molti dei testi potevano essere stati conservati congiuntamente an-
che prima di essere eliminati, ma nel momento del loro recupero non detto che
si possa constatare e denire facilmente n la natura del loro eventuale passato
accorpamento, n lautore o gli autori di tale operazione. In altre parole ci che
avvenuto per larchivio di Zenone, pur nella complessit della struttura e delle
articolazioni che anche questo celeberrimo archivio ha gradualmente rivelato,
non facilmente applicabile ai documenti recuperati dai cartonnages tolemaici
3
.
Oltre al ltro rappresentato dal loro ultimo impiego da parte degli imbalsama-
tori in un certo luogo e in un certo momento, che di regola ignoriamo e che per lo
pi pu essere anche lontano da quello di origine dei papiri, spesso con i papiri da
cartonnages ci si trova di fronte a contenuti molto differenti per tipo e per genesi,
che mescolano pubblico e privato, ovvero spesso a testi inviati e ricevuti da uno
stesso personaggio ma, come vedremo, scritti dalla stessa mano. Inoltre di solito
il numero di testi, apparentemente, quasi sempre assai modesto. Ci nonostan-
te le esigenze di studio e talora forse anche una certa fretta hanno moltiplicato
nelle edizioni la denizione di archivio o dossier del signor X semplicemen-
te quando un nome, specie se di un funzionario, ricorreva pi spesso. E questo
n dalle origini della moderna papirologia: il caso dellarchivio di Menches, il
comogrammateo di Kerkeosiris, pubblicato nei volumi dei papiri di Tebtynis,
sul quale gli studi di Verhoogt hanno riportato lattenzione riconducendone
i documenti ad una raccolta pubblica e non privata, ancorch particolarmente


2 Heilporn 2009 ha infatti brillantemente tentato di ricostruire dei piccoli archivi familiari,
che in origine avevano raggruppato ricevute che furono rilasciate a medesimi contribuenti e
che poi, dopo essere state gettate, furono probabilmente ritrovate, insieme a molte altre, in uno
stesso contesto archeologico, ma successivamente vennero distribuite, e talvolta pubblicate, in
differenti collezioni. In pratica da dossiers di documenti scali ha identicato piccoli archivi,
anche se ormai solo virtuali. Analogamente in Vandorpe-Waebens 2009, partic. pp. 53-79, le
autrici hanno proceduto a collazionare tutti i documenti, ora dispersi, che in origine erano stati
conservati come archivi di alcune famiglie di Pathyris, secondo un metodo denito di archeolo-
gia museale.
3 Unestrema sintesi delle complesse ricostruzioni dei nuclei identicabili nellinsieme di
circa 2.000 papiri che costituiscono il cosiddetto archivio di Zenone (meglio archivi di Zenone)
si pu leggere nel volumetto altamente divulgativo, ma assai preciso di Clarysse -Vandorpe
1995, partic. p. 31.
247
Copie, malacopie, copie dufficio ...
degli scribi di Kerkeosiris
4
. In effetti credo si possa ormai ritenere assodato che
la presenza di lettere o pro-memoria o conti di sicuro carattere privato, non sia
inconciliabile con accorpamenti pubblici da parte dei titolari di cariche, sia di
rango elevato sia di livello anche molto modesto
5
.
In questa sede perci vorrei affrontare il tema della titolarit di un archivio,
cio di un insieme di documenti deliberatamente raccolti e conservati in antico,
vericando proprio alcuni casi di raccolte legate alla realt amministrativa che
sono state, per comodit o per fretta, attribuite a personaggi, i quali difcilmente
invece ne sono stati i titolari o i responsabili. Lo scopo proprio quello di di-
mostrare come la natura dei cartonnages, prodotti con materiali di scarto, abbia
invece enfatizzato le caratteristiche dellamministrazione tolemaica ssandola
proprio nella sola fase nale, nel momento in cui loggetto del suo intervento non
aveva pi ragione di essere, anzi nel momento in cui i documenti diventavano
ormai superui, e sottolineare la necessit di porsi alcune domande, meno fre-
quenti nora, ma indispensabili se si vogliono interpretare correttamente certi
testi.
Preliminarmente poi vorrei anche chiarire che inoltre fondamentale cer-
care di attribuire una pi corretta identit diplomatica a testi che sovente sono
frettolosamente deniti malacopie o minute (drafts), piuttosto che, pi sem-
plicemente, copie, solo sulla base di una maggiore o minore eleganza calligra-
ca o correttezza ortograca nella loro stesura. Come si detto, laggregazione di
testi sotto la denominazione archivio di stata infatti fondamentale non solo
per orientarsi pi facilmente tra i testi e allinterno di gruppi di essi, ma anche
per analizzare i processi amministrativi. Tuttavia dopo questo primo passo ora
indispensabile operare unanalisi pi accurata sotto il prolo diplomatico per
vericare la correttezza delle denizioni e di conseguenza la corretta interpre-
tazione ultima dei documenti: in sostanza, per ripercorrere pi esattamente il
procedimento e la trala dellamministrazione. evidente infatti che se si consi-
derano certi testi come prodotti diretti di un determinato autore, piuttosto che

4 Verhoogt 1998, pp. 24-32. Da quanto segue potrebbe essere utile in futuro unulteriore ri-
essione anche sullinsieme di documenti provenienti dai cartonnages trovati a Tebtynis da
Grenfell e Hunt, molti dei quali, come quelli relativi ad Ossirinca, sembrano nel complesso
provenire pi genericamente dallufcio/archivio di alcuni villaggi tout-court.
5 Cf. Van Beek 2007, p. 1039, che per propone una lettura di questi insiemi documentari
misti a mio avviso un po riduttiva: A rigid distinction between public and private c.q. family
archive, however, is not possible; ofcials often kept part of their administrative papers when
retiring from ofce, merging them with their private correspondence. Una tale ricostruzione,
peraltro non dimostrata (si potrebbe altrettanto plausibilmente sostenere che erano le carte
private ad essere nite insieme a quelle pubbliche), comporta una valutazione dellammini-
strazione tolemaica come di un sistema quasi dilettantistico, in cui da una parte ognuno poteva
portarsi via i documenti, dallaltra ciascun singolo funzionario, detentore di un ufcio anche
nel villaggio pi piccolo, faceva fronte ai propri impegni a casa propria, anche senza avere a
disposizione le carte necessarie lasciate dal predecessore.
248
copie di un altro, se ne pu modicare la funzione o il signicato
6
. Il fatto stes-
so che un documento pubblico possa essere stato conservato anche per decen-
ni dopo la sua redazione comporta inevitabilmente la necessit di valutarne il
perch, sia rispetto ai doveri che ogni funzionario doveva adempiere, sia rispetto
alle forme di controllo che lo stato evidentemente poteva attuare. Per contro, la
convinzione che un funzionario al termine del proprio mandato potesse portare
via i documenti relativi al suo incarico, d della dimensione amministrativa elle-
nistica unimmagine piuttosto approssimativa e quasi amatoriale e rappresenta
unoggettiva contraddizione con quanto sopra osservato.
Vorrei pertanto soffermarmi su alcuni casi a mio avviso signicativi e co-
gliere loccasione per ringraziare pubblicamente i responsabili e i collaboratori
delle iniziative che ci consentono questi ulteriori studi, vale a dire in particolare
papyri.info (http://www.papyri.info/), e tutte le piattaforme di database, ormai
ricchissime di testi e anche di immagini
7
.
Il problema di partenza risiede nella scelta dellespressione malacopia abi-
tualmente utilizzata per connotare testi nei quali siano presenti errori, e so-
prattutto cancellature, soprascritture, correzioni. Questa parola per comporta
due conseguenze: la prima che attribuisce a chi scrive, implicitamente ed au-
tomaticamente, la qualica di primo autore del testo stesso, e la seconda che
non sempre possibile giusticare il legame tra due testi, quando, come spesso
avviene, la malacopia si trovi insieme (e particolarmente sul verso) ad un testo
diverso. Per le copie invece, il problema si affronta solo in quanto si conosca o si
deduca lesistenza di un testo assolutamente uguale ad un originale di partenza:
per esempio dalla menzione in una petizione di altre copie della richiesta inviate
a funzionari diversi, oppure dalla presenza o riferimento sullo stesso foglio di
un altro testo chiamato antigraphon (ti mando la copia della lettera che X ha
inviato ecc.). In questultimo caso si pu parlare naturalmente di copia duf-
cio, ovvero di una redazione che riproduceva, a cura di terzi, un originale, senza
lintervento o la consapevolezza, e forse nemmeno il consenso, dellautore.
Come si detto i cartonnages spesso hanno restituito testi che per le modalit
di scrittura sono stati considerati come malacopie, ma che ad un pi approfon-
dito esame, dovrebbero essere considerati invece come copie dufcio, cio anti-
grapha, realizzati a cura di grammateis e per scopi di carattere burocratico.

6 Per fare un esempio abbastanza banale: la famosa lettera di istruzioni di un dieceta ad un
economo, P. Tebt. III, 703, giustamente denita copy, iscritta sul recto e sul verso di un papiro
frammentario, ben difcilmente sar stata quella redatta ad Alessandria per leconomo dellAr-
sinoite, sebbene ovviamente il suo contenuto riporti quel testo. La scrittura e la stessa impagi-
nazione sui due lati del rotolo fanno piuttosto supporre che essa sia stata ri-copiata in un ufcio
periferico o per un ufcio periferico, ad uso anche di altri funzionari.
7 Un particolare ringraziamento devo anche a Todd Hickey, conservatore della collezione del-
la Bancroft Library, per la cortesia, e la tempestivit con cui, nel momento in cui predisponevo
la prima versione di questo contributo, ha provveduto ad inviarmi le immagini di alcuni papiri
di Tebtynis non immediatamente accessibili.
249
Copie, malacopie, copie dufficio ...
La necessit di affrontare questo aspetto dellinterpretazione dei documenti
sorta e si presentata con evidenza allorch ho pubblicato gli ultimi papiri de-
nominati P. Med. Barelli che la prof. Orsolina Montevecchi mi aveva assegnato
8
.
Linsieme era stato acquistato alla ne degli anni 70 del secolo scorso ed era stato
denominato, forse addirittura dallo stesso venditore, come archivio di Pankra-
tes. A mia conoscenza tutti coloro ai quali la Montevecchi afd la pubblicazione
partirono dal presupposto sottolineato dalla studiosa che i testi fossero forse in
origine incollati luno appresso allaltro a formare un rotolo
9
. La frequente men-
zione di Pankrates, un o no; t; ocvtzc: attivo intorno alla met del II secolo
a.C., come destinatario contribu a orientare la comune opinione verso lipotesi
di trovarsi di fronte ai documenti raccolti nel suo ufcio. Ad essi inoltre si dove-
vano aggiungere alcuni altri documenti frammentari conservati nella collezione
di Lille e pubblicati allincirca negli stessi anni da Boyaval
10
. I papiri pi ampi e
leggibili sono stati ormai tutti editi
11
. Ne restano forse due o tre di una consisten-
za apprezzabile, oltre a numerosi altri testi pi frammentari, che per continua-
no ad attendere unedizione, anche sommaria. Dei papiri da me letti due erano
petizioni di un medesimo personaggio di nome Ptolemaios a Pankrates
12
, quasi
a confermare la tesi che appartenessero al suo archivio. A proposito del primo
caso per, un documento iscritto solo sul recto, osservavo: in apparenza sembra
trattarsi di una minuta per lassenza della data, che per potrebbe essere andata
perduta nella parte mancante del papiro
13
; di essa per esisteva anche linizio di
una copia, apparentemente della stessa mano, con un vistoso errore proprio nel
nome del funzionario (Hcyztc:, P. Med. Bar. 10, l. 1 = SB 18, 13096). Era anche
questa una malacopia, dato il marchiano errore? Nel secondo caso invece mi tro-
vai di fronte ad una realt pi complessa: il protagonista della petizione scritta
sul recto, il cleruco Ptolemaios, compariva infatti, a proposito della stessa questio-
ne, anche in altri 2 documenti del cosiddetto archivio, scritti rispettivamente sul
recto e sul verso di un altro papiro, e probabilmente era autore anche di una terza
petizione
14
. Un altro elemento che pareva confermare lidenticazione delluf-
cio di Pankrates come luogo di destinazione e dunque di raccolta dei papiri era

8 Si tratta dei papiri editi in Criscuolo 2004, che concludono la pubblicazione dei testi pi
estesi tra quelli di questo gruppo acquistati dallUniversit Cattolica.
9 Montevecchi 1981, p. 251.
10 Boyaval 1988, p. 105 e nota 2, con bibliograa precedente.
11 Si veda la lista in Criscuolo 2004, nota *.
12 SB 18, 13095 e P. Med. Bar. 3 recto in Criscuolo 2004.
13 Cf. leditio princeps in Aegyptus, 66, 1986, p. 24.
14 Si tratta di SB 16, 12721 (P. Med. Bar. 2v), petizione ad Apollodoro, epistates e grammateus dei
cavalieri catecici, e dellancora inedito P. Med. Bar. 2r, petizione sempre a Pankrates. A questi
documenti rinviava anche leditrice di P. Med. Bar. 3v, SB 18, 13097, petizione di cui per manca
il prescritto con lindirizzo e il nome dellautore.
250
che la mano di tutti questi documenti era la stessa
15
: il cleruco aveva evidente-
mente tempestato di missive Pankrates, che diligentemente le aveva conservate.
Dunque che dubbi possono esserci su questa ricostruzione? A dire la verit
molti: anzitutto uno dei documenti in questione, SB 16, 12721, iscritto sul verso
di una petizione a Pankrates, non era indirizzato a Pankrates ma ad un epistates
di nome Apollodoro. Certo Ptolemaios poteva aver copiato per Pankrates anche
la petizione inviata ad un altro funzionario, ma come spiegare la sciatteria, pur
nella correttezza grammaticale e sintattica, con cui entrambi i documenti erano
stati scritti
16
? La risposta veniva in realt da un altro testo dellarchivio, il P. Med.
Bar. 14 = SB 16, 12722, la lettera accompagnatoria di Pankrates ad un certo Petesou-
chos, sfortunatamente un personaggio ignoto, che diceva Ti abbiamo inviato la
copia dellhypomnema consegnato a noi da Ptolemaios. Certo gli hypomnemata
erano stati pi di uno
17
, ma evidentemente lultimo destinatario di questi papiri
non era stato Pankrates e la mano che aveva scritto i testi che noi leggiamo non
era quella di Ptolemaios, ma di uno scriba dellufcio dell o no; t; ocvtzc:.
Questo per poteva spiegare assai meglio perch nel cosiddetto archivio accanto
a queste petizioni indirizzate a Pankrates e a documenti in cui egli veniva men-
zionato, ci fossero testi per contenuto totalmente estranei allufcio di questo
funzionario militare: non era lui che aveva conservato i papiri e non era da lui
che i papiri erano stati eliminati per nire in cartonnages, ma da coloro che li
avevano ricevuti in copia, presumibilmente cio i funzionari locali del villaggio
che, questo s, compare direttamente o indirettamente, in tutti i testi: Ossirinca.
Ecco perch gi nelledizione del P. Med. Bar. 3r proposi di non considerare pi
come minute i documenti, solo perch apparivano iscritti affrettatamente, con
poca cura, e spesso utilizzando abbreviazioni proprio per le denominazioni dei
funzionari, ed ecco perch soprattutto suggerii di identicare come luogo ultimo
di raccolta proprio un ufcio di Ossirinca, una sede amministrativa di pi fun-
zionari con competenza su quel villaggio e su quelli ad esso collegati
18
.
Alla luce di queste considerazioni pu essere interessante saggiare, per casi

15 Cf. anche nelleditio princeps di SB 18, 13097, in Aegyptus, 66, 1986, p. 31.
16 Sciatteria che naturalmente ha condotto a denire il papiro gi edito, cio il verso, come
abbozzo di una petizione, cf. editio princeps in Aegyptus, 63, 1983, p. 18.
17 Cf. sicuramente SB 18, 13095, P. Med. Bar. 3 recto in Criscuolo 2004, P. Med. Bar. 2r ined.; a
cui forse si pu aggiungere SB 18, 13097.
18 Cf. Criscuolo 2004, p. 11; ad una conclusione simile giunto anche Clarysse 2008, p. 65,
ma con Clarysse non sono daccordo che ci fosse pi di un ufcio per ciascun villaggio (per
esempio un ufcio dei basilikoi georgoi, ibid., p. 68) ai quali tornavano in copia, da altri ufci
per lo pi di livello superiore, i documenti che da l erano partiti, come le petizioni di singoli,
o che ad esso erano relativi; penso che ci fosse una sede unica per le carte di tutti i funzionari
di villaggio, e che da l i fogli di papiri, forse dopo parecchi anni, venissero prelevati per nire
nei cartonnages. Di recente, cf. Jrdens 2008, stata data notizia di un archivio, da cartonnage,
relativo a Busiris che parrebbe, pur dalla sommaria descrizione, rappresentare una situazione
abbastanza simile, con petizioni indirizzate a differenti funzionari del villaggio.
251
Copie, malacopie, copie dufficio ...
simili, se le descrizioni di papiri deniti come malacopie (drafts) possano corri-
spondere effettivamente a minute, e vericare le attribuzioni che sono state date
ad archivi, quando i testi provengano da cartonnages: come si vedr in qualche
caso ci sono molte ragioni per rivedere queste denizioni o attribuzioni.
Un caso piuttosto curioso per esempio quello dellarchivio di Phil: si tratta
di 4 papiri, i P. Koeln 5, 222-225, tutti collegati a questa donna, vedova di Hexakon,
un amministratore della dorea di Galestes nellHerakleopolites, anche in questo
caso, come per i documenti di Pankrates, alla ne degli anni 40 del II secolo
19
. Il
fatto che tutti e 4 siano iscritti sul verso di papiri che non hanno altri testi iscritti
sul recto, se non a volte tracce di lettere (probabile indizio del lavaggio), di per
s potrebbe trovare giusticazione proprio nella conservazione di copie per uso
personale allinterno della famiglia di Phil. Ma solo il P. Koeln. 5, 223 la petizio-
ne di Phil al dieceta (e tra laltro non si tratta decisamente di una minuta, a meno
di non considerare Phil come una scriba di alta professionalit), mentre gli altri
tre sono chiaramente testi dufcio che la nominano e fanno riferimento alla sua
situazione scale: come mai allora sarebbero arrivati tra le sue carte? Quanto pri-
ma osservato per i testi di Pankrates, penso sia utile anche qui: i documenti sono
s relativi alla questione sollevata da Phil, ma non sono mai stati tra le sue carte.
Essi, copiati in ufci differenti (uno, il P. Koeln 5, 222, probabilmente proprio in
quello del dieceta), sono poi stati messi insieme in quello del villaggio di riferi-
mento, dal funzionario o dai funzionari che dovevano procedere allapplicazione
di quanto deciso dalle autorit superiori.
Analogamente, anche un altro piccolo gruppo di malacopie (drafts) che con-
tengono lettere a funzionari, si pu prestare a qualche osservazione. P. Tebt. 3,
732, 733 e 734 infatti sono stati tracciati, secondo gli editori, dalla stessa mano
sul verso di altri documenti
20
e sono indirizzati rispettivamente al dieceta Sara-
pion, allepimelete Apollonios e di nuovo a questi (P. Tebt. 3, 734, fr. 1) e al suo
successore Ptolemaios (P. Tebt. 3, 734, fr. 2), attivi nellArsinoites alla ne degli
anni 40 del II secolo e attestati da documenti rinvenuti sempre nei cartonna-
ges di Tebtynis
21
. Anche questi papiri provengono dai cartonnages rinvenuti a
Tebtynis, e in particolare dalla medesima mummia di coccodrillo n. 26. Da questa
stessa viene inoltre P. Tebt. 3, 735, un resoconto di arretrati dovuti nel villaggio di

19 Per la gura di Galestes come detentore della dorea menzionata nei papiri cf. Criscuolo
1986; sullarchivio, per il quale gi si prospetta unattribuzione non imperniata sulla gura di
Phil, vd. ora il sito http://www.trismegistos.org/arch/archives/pdf/265.pdf. Inoltre le fotogra-
e dei 4 papiri sono ora accessibili nel sito http://www.uni-koeln.de/phil-fak/ifa/NRWakade-
mie/papyrologie/Karte/band5.html.
20 Riproduzioni fotograche, di quasi tutti i papiri editi e dei loro recto, sono consultabili di-
rettamente da www.papyri.info; i testi, nella descrizione degli editori , are closely connected,
being draft reports on various subjects to superior ofcials, hastily written in the same rather
coarse hand on the back of other documents.
21 Cf. Sarapion, Pros. Ptol. I, 46 e VIII, 46; Apollonios, Pros. Ptol. I, 935 e VIII, 935; Ptolemaios,
Pros. Ptol. I, 955.
252
Areos Kome, parimenti indirizzato allepimelete Apollonio, ugualmente denito
come draft, ma scritto sul recto di un papiro precedentemente gi utilizzato e la-
vato per essere scritto nuovamente. Sebbene gli editori non abbiano fatto osser-
vazioni in merito, la fotograa permette di constatare che la scrittura del tutto
simile a quella dei tre verso ai numeri precedenti, come pure la particolare forma
di abbreviazione del titolo di Apollonios
22
. Il fatto di essere scritti su papiri nel
loro secondo utilizzo ha portato a considerarli come malacopie, prime stesure
di testi che avrebbero ricevuto una redazione pi decorosa e corretta. Ma restano
aperti due interrogativi: chi fu lautore di queste malacopie e sono veramente
malacopie?
P. Tebt 3, 732 ha sul recto un documento inedito. Di questo si sa per che vi si
menzionava un raccolto e una distribuzione di viveri. P. Tebt. 3, 733 ha sul recto
invece il n. 956 (inedito descritto), unaltra richiesta o lettera, concernente forse
un appalto, che si conclude in calce con la richiesta di fare indagini indirizzata
forse ad un basilicogrammateo, che per dovrebbe essere stato in carica nellHe-
rakleopolites, nonch con lordine impartito, forse ad un subordinato, di copiar-
la
23
. Inne P. Tebt. 3, 734 ha come recto il n. 1007 (inedito descritto), un testo assai
frammentario concernente sementi, forse un conto che per menziona due vil-
laggi della meris di Themistos. Il tenore delle 4 lettere ad epimeleti, P. Tebt. 3, 733,
734 (fr. 1 e 2) e 735, oltre ai testi nei recto, fa pensare ad un funzionario al livello di
nomo che si rivolge ad un suo collega, epimelete. Gli editori ipotizzarono un ba-
silicogrammateo
24
, si potrebbe proporre anche un economo, ma il vero problema
se i 4 testi siano veramente malacopie stilate dal basilicogrammateo o dalleco-
nomo, ovvero nel loro ufcio. Anzitutto le forme di indirizzo non corrispondono
al modo con cui ci si rivolge tra funzionari, soprattutto se parigrado: solitamente
infatti nella forma epistolare non si riporta il titolo, oppure, negli hypomnema-
ta, il titolo compare in forma completa e soprattutto corredato dalla titolatura
aulica, che qui manca completamente. vero che in una malacopia non detto
che si rispetti del tutto quanto poi si scriver nel testo denitivo, ma comun-
que un dato signicativo, dal momento che costante. C infatti unannotazione
in testa al fr. 1 di P. Tebt. 3, 734 che, in questa forma, suscita qualche dubbio
25
:
zv(c:ntz:?) (ctoc;) Hz(av) , ricevuta l8 di Pachon dellanno 29. Ma

22 A onor del vero in questultimo papiro la prima linea, in cui ci sarebbe lindirizzo con il
nome del funzionario e il titolo, attualmente del tutto illeggibile, e solo pallidamente, cono-
scendo la trascrizione, si pu scorgere forse la sopralineatura della my con cui questo scriba
abbreviava il titolo di cn(:)(ct;).
23 Cf. ll. 14-15: Aovvac:. ,to [ov]. Tc (:) :;. Ua:. zvt:y (zz:(?)). Tc (:) :;. Secondo
gli editori Aronnophris potrebbe essere il basilicogrammateo dellHerakleopolites.
24 Peraltro il contenuto dei recto, si adatta molto bene anche ad un ufcio di funzionari legati
allamministrazione dei monopoli, come leconomo o, appunto, lepimelete.
25 La foto non consente di vedervi una seconda mano, come riportato in www.papyri.info, n
gli editori hanno fatto questa affermazione. La mano a mio avviso la stessa, solo le dimensioni
delle lettere sono assai pi piccole.
253
Copie, malacopie, copie dufficio ...
perch si dovrebbe fare una simile annotazione su una malacopia? E perch con-
cludere questa malacopia con unaltra annotazione abbreviata: cn(ctzz) tv
cn(:otov), ho allegato la lettera? Mi pare dunque che si possa dare uninter-
pretazione diversa di questi documenti. Si tratta piuttosto di copie dufcio pre-
disposte per conservare memoria di quanto era stato inviato, per le quali era im-
portante mantenere lindicazione anche abbreviata, sia dei destinatari, sia, come
nel P. Tebt. 3, 734, degli eventuali allegati che avevano accompagnato linvio. In
tal caso lannotazione in testa al P. Tebt. 3, 734 potrebbe forse essere interpretato
come zv(t:yzov) oppure ancor meglio zv(cyvaotz:
26
). E di copie dufcio
(questa volta presumibilmente allegate ad accompagnatorie e forse ritornate ad
un ufcio periferico) si tratta per i due documenti che hanno reso possibile la
ricostruzione dellenteuxis di un basilikos georgos di Ossirinca, P. Tebt. 3, 771, di cui
appunto sono state trovate nel cartonnage di provenienza due versioni danneg-
giate, ma integrabili: luna tracciata con una scrittura estremamente elegante, ac-
curata, quasi libraria e con unimpaginazione perfetta, laltra scorrevole e sicura,
ma decisamente assai meno curata.
Un altro articolato insieme di documenti da cartonnage quello che viene
comunemente ascritto al basilicogrammateo dellHerakleopolites Dionysios, do-
cumenti conservati principalmente ad Heidelberg e nella collezione dellUniver-
sit Cattolica di Milano. Mentre il primo gruppo stato pubblicato recentemen-
te nel volume IX della raccolta dei P. Heid. con il titolo Papyri aus dem Archiv des
kniglichen Schreibers Dionysios, il piccolo nucleo di Milano resta sostanzialmente
inedito. Tuttavia da una rapidissima ricognizione a questo gruppo ho potuto con-
statare almeno un dato interessante
27
, e cio che su 46 frammenti, alcuni molto
piccoli, di documenti in gran parte amministrativi, 17 risultano scritti sul verso
di testi che non hanno pi scrittura sul recto
28
, il che corrisponde a pi di un terzo
circa: una percentuale piuttosto alta, che potrebbe trovare la sua giusticazione
proprio nella pratica di redigere copie su documenti inutili o resi inutilizzabili,
come nel caso dei documenti di Phil. Ma gi i papiri della raccolta di Heidel-
berg presentano una casistica notevole: alcuni di essi infatti sono chiaramente
indirizzati al basilicogrammateo Dionysios, altri fatti pervenire a lui gi in copia

26 Cf. lannotazione che compare oltre che in P. Heid. IX, 425, 428, anche in P. Berl. Salmen. 10-
12 e 15, 17; P. Mert. 2, 59; P. Ryl. 2, 65, UPZ I, 118.
27 Ringrazio la prof. Carla Balconi che mi ha concesso di vedere gli originali. Ho potuto quindi
ispezionare i papiri che per sono ancora nella stessa situazione in cui si trovavano al momento
dellacquisto, cio appoggiati a cartone, sotto plexiglas. Non stato possibile quindi vericare il
lato opposto di quello visibile, presumibilmente privo di scrittura. Solo tre documenti del grup-
po sono nora stati editi, SB 22, 15213; 24, 15896 e P. Sijp. 10a. Sullinsieme dei testi vd. Daris
1995.
28 Solitamente nel caso i papiri avessero testo su entrambi i lati, venivano venduti in modo
che fosse visibile, quindi dato che tutti questi sono appoggiati su cartoncino bianco non do-
vrebbero avere testo apprezzabile: va da s che sarebbe auspicabile poter vericare se erano
comunque stati utilizzati.
254
per conoscenza, e conservati, talora dopo essere stati a loro volta inoltrati ad altri
funzionari
29
. In questi casi si tratta veramente di copie effettuate per luso del ba-
silicogrammateo, come riferimento delle questioni sbrigate
30
. interessante che
spesso compaia, in calce ad una copia di testo di inoltro, anche lindicazione de-
gli altri funzionari ai quali doveva essere inviata una copia, o comunque notizia,
dellaffare in questione
31
: ci consente di avere unidea ragionevolmente fondata
sulla dimensione della produzione documentale che gli ufci tolemaici realizza-
vano: per esempio per ciascuno dei casi illustrati dai documenti che partivano da
petizioni di singoli, si possono calcolare almeno altre 4 copie, inclusa quella con-
servata dallufcio, cio tre altri funzionari (per esempio, lo stratego, lepistates
e larchiphylakites). Se poi ciascuno degli altri funzionari a sua volta riproduceva
almeno una volta lo stesso testo e come minimo dava riscontro o assenso al ba-
silicogrammateo, si pu arrivare facilmente ad un numero tra i 10 e i 20 testi che
venivano generati dal sistema
32
.
Naturalmente una revisione completa di tutta la documentazione provenien-
te da cartonnage, nella quale siano individuabili nuclei omogenei di testi perti-
nenti agli stessi funzionari o villaggi, potrebbe fornire ancora altri esempi delle
pratiche dufcio, sia per quanto concerne le annotazioni, particolarmente atten-
te alla cronologia dei documenti oltre che alla denizione dei contenuti, sia sulle
modalit di espletamento delle pratiche, e consentirebbe forse di collocare anche
meglio, nella liera burocratica, alcuni di questi piccoli archivi. Per il momento
in questa sede mi pare ci si debba limitare a due principali conclusioni.
La prima che la convinzione secondo la quale un documento pubblico e re-
datto da scribi fosse prodotto secondo alti standard professionali (senza cancel-
lature, ripensamenti, correzioni ecc.) e debba essere valutato perci come i docu-
menti delle amministrazioni pubbliche moderne, va rivista, almeno per quanto
concerne lamministrazione a livello di nomo o pi in basso. Gli scribi degli uf-
ci avevano sicuramente una buona manualit e, sovente, una certa sicurezza
nellindicare anche con abbreviazioni e sintesi, aspetti pi formulari, peraltro
facilmente leggibili, ma non avevano nessuno scrupolo a correggere, aggiunge-
re, cancellare testi perno se questi venivano poi spediti al di fuori del proprio
ufcio. Non basta perci che un papiro si presenti sciatto o pieno di correzioni
per considerarlo una malacopia.

29 Per esempio P. Heid. IX, 422, 423, 425, 431 in cui Dionysios indicato come diretto destina-
tario, o 428 in cui invece si fa solo allusione, in testi indirizzati ad altri funzionari, a notiche
ricevute.
30 Cos li interpreta leditrice, P. Heid. IX, pp. 5 ss.
31 Cf. P. Heid. IX, 423, ll. 23-24; 431, ll. 37-41.
32 Una serie di copie di documenti partiti dallufcio di un basilicogrammateo stata identi-
cata nei P. Berl. Salmen. 10-17, datati al I secolo a.C., che offrono anche alcuni aspetti diplomatici
piuttosto simili a quelli dellufcio del basilicogrammateo Dionysios.
255
Copie, malacopie, copie dufficio ...
La seconda conclusione che la produzione e larchiviazione di documenti in
copia (propria o altrui) probabilmente un fenomeno pi frequente e diffuso di
quanto nora non si sia considerato nella ricostruzione dei processi amministra-
tivi; questa pratica stata spesso attribuita piuttosto agli utenti (autori di petizio-
ni, coltivatori, contribuenti ecc.), mentre, come si visto, molte di queste copie
venivano predisposte allinterno degli ufci. Questo fenomeno per contro pu
complicare lidenticazione dellultima destinazione di un documento e quindi
dellarchivio da cui ci arrivato, che non necessariamente coincideva con quelli
dei personaggi che compaiono al suo interno.

256
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259
reflections on reconstructing private and official archives
The three papers in this session have covered very diverging aspects of archives
and archive keeping, from found to reconstructed, from private to ofcial, from
original (in the sense of the archive document itself) to copy (in the widest sense
of the word, including publication).
Ingo Kottsieper has presented us some examples of private archives, which,
as he has convincingly demonstrated, deal with very specic private matters.
Rather than just general papers they turn out to be collections of documents
relevant for a legal problem of their owner. This problem often concerns money
and property, of course.
Thus we have seen the documents selected by Jedanja to prove that every-
thing he inherited from his parents really belonged to him; or the couple Anani
and Jehoihma, for whom documents proving the legal status of the woman
were an essential part of the archive, again because they could prove her right to
possess property. The two cases illustrate nicely that it is essential for the study
of a private archive to reconstruct the last owner, i.e. the person for whom the
documents have meaning and legal value. It is in fact only when the last owner
is identied by the historian (or philologist) that everything suddenly ts: one
could compare it with a detective story which features a great multitude of clues.
These clues do not actually make sense until the proverbial Hercule Poirot (a Bel-
gian!) gathers everyone at the end of the book and in a lengthy expos informs
Reections on
Reconstructing Private
and Ofcial Archives
mark depauw
260
everyone who is the killer and why. As a matter of fact, there are more similarities
between the detective and the scholar in this case: they also face similar prob-
lems in identifying what is evidence and what is not. It is clear from Kottsiepers
survey that identifying which documents are part of the archive and which are
not is often problematic. In fact, this question runs parallel with the identica-
tion of the owner and purpose of the archive, just like the metamorphosis of a
fact into a clue is essential when a detective determines who did it and why.
This brings us to the longstanding discussion of the denition of an archive,
1

which was briey touched upon by Lucia Criscuolo: What is an archive? What is
a dossier? Should we study one or the other?. Here I think and I hope to please
everyone by saying this that everyone is right. Of course a historian should use
all available evidence when reconstructing a historical fact, and thus dossiers are
essential. But on the other hand Kottsiepers and Criscuolos papers have illus-
trated once more that reconstructing an archive with its (last) owner and its
raison dtre can give us a much deeper insight. In this case the archive sud-
denly becomes alive, and a tranche de vie appears before us.
Reconstructing such a collection of documents is often difcult. In the ideal
situation the set is found during ofcial excavations, nicely wrapped and other-
wise protected, with perfectly preserved texts. This seems like an archival schol-
ars wet dream, but once in a while it does in fact occur. Thus the Demotic archive
of Totoes was found in Deir el-Medina as the content of two sealed jars.
2
Second best is the case of the archive now kept in Brussels, purchased in the
early 70ies, with papyri still wrapped in linen.
3
A package with three large con-
tracts concerning the sale of a specic house by a woman called Setjairetbinet
alias Taba, and two packages with smaller documents, some of which concern the
same sale transaction. Yet other of the smaller documents deal with very differ-
ent matters by a necropolis worker called Djedher. In fact, it is only because we
know from other sources that these two people were married and had children
that we know this must be their private archive. The collection of papers only
then makes sense.
But even in this case, where we have ample background information, ques-
tions remain: thus the business papers of the husband do not form a coherent
whole: they seem entirely unrelated to each other and to his wifes papers record-
ing the sale transaction. If we did not have the physical evidence that they belong
together, scholars no doubt would have refrained from reconstructing them into
a single archive. In this case, even with the physical evidence little sense can
apparently be made of this part of the archive. Why would a busy businessman

1 For a recent survey of the discussion and the terminology used, see Vandorpe 2009, esp. pp.
217-219.
2 Botti 1967, vol. 1, p. IX. See also Vandorpe 2009, p. 223.
3 Depauw 2000, pl. 1-5.
261
reflections on reconstructing private and official archives
keep only a few receipts for different taxes and a letter apparently unrelated to it?
It illustrates the inherent danger in reconstructing private archives which deal
with a specic purpose, i.e. that scholars throw out other items because they do
not t in. In a way the scholar has to do this, because like the detective he needs
a motive to solve the murder, and unrelated facts are useless to this purpose. But
still the person who turned out to be guilty also had a life outside his crime. The
writer of detective stories will not focus on that and perhaps even make abstrac-
tion of it entirely. But it was still there and may have left its traces. Even some-
thing that does not t in can still be part of an archive.
The Brussels archive is also interesting in precisely the opposite respect: i.e.
the danger that documents which were physically not part of the archive but t-
ted in nicely are reconstructed as being part of the archive. Compare it to the
detective who at the end nds the solution to the puzzle and identies the killer,
but suddenly sees clues everywhere, many of which may actually be facts totally
unrelated to the crime. Paradoxically some of the facts which are not related to
the crime and are thus in a sense false clues can even help to solve the puz-
zle.
4
To come back to the concrete: the Brussels archive has been claimed by some
to be incomplete in the sense that another document thought to be part of it was
already known seventy years earlier, in casu the marriage contract of Setjairet-
bint and Djedher, known since 1900.
5
At rst sight it seems inevitable that this
item belongs to the archive, thus ruining its closed character and making the
scholar wonder what other items may belong to it. But in fact a logical principle
(reconstructed by Pestman on the basis of other archives) saves the integrity: a
wife tends to keep her marriage contract, which contains commitments from
her spouse, in a safe place where malignant husbands have no control over it,
e.g. in the house of her parents or of other family members such as brothers.
6
This always reminds me of the novel The Quincunx by Charles Palliser, where
the search for documents (the last will and a codicil modifying it) illustrates how
important ownership of a document is in a system where claims were not cen-
trally registered. Whoever owned a document could destroy it, thus effectively
annihilating the claims and rights it contained. So in fact it is rather unlikely or
actually very improbable that the marriage document was preserved in the Brus-
sels archive after all. This again illustrates the importance of reconstructing an
archive for the Sitz-im-Leben of the documents and vice versa.
What I have said so far relates mostly to private archives. But what about pub-
lic archives? Are they similar? Or completely different? Well, rst of all we must
probably problematize the distinction private public/ofcial itself, at least to a

4 As William of Baskerville is led to the perpetrator by a false hypothesis in U. Eco, The Name
of the Rose.
5 See e.g. Muhs 1996, p. 15 and n. 40, corrected in Muhs 2008, esp. pp. 38-39 n. 22 & 33.
6 See Pestman 1961, pp. 83-86; Muhs 2008, p. 38 n. 22; and Depauw 2000, p. 11.
262
certain extent. It is true that everyone in antiquity and each of us today has a
private side to his life and a public, ofcial one. We work as scholars for a uni-
versity and everything which relates to our ofce is ofcial. Yet we are also hu-
mans and our professional interaction is only one aspect of our social life. Often
the two cannot be distinguished neatly in our lives, and we should probably not
expect the ancients to be more politically correct in this respect than we are.
Perhaps letters in particular illustrate the problematic distinction between pri-
vate and ofcial: within a single letter people switch from business to ofcial to
private. So much so, that when my colleague Willy Clarysse urged me to make
this distinction in my book on Demotic letters,
7
I tried but in the end decided
against it. It is often almost impossible to draw the line (although it is good to
try to draw it!).
8
For us, conicts of the private and the ofcial are often problematic and pain-
ful: imagine a hopeless student who turns out to be the son of a friend, or a judge
who presides the trial of someone he knows very well. It is an interesting ques-
tion whether in antiquity people were less strict in this. Probably hierarchy and
knowing someone were even more important than today and caused less prob-
lems. A nice example of this mix of ofcial and private, other than the Menches
archive already mentioned by Criscuolo or the Nakhthor archive mentioned by
Kottsieper, is the Zenon archive. Like the Aramaic Nakhthor archive, the Zenon
archive includes the archive of Panakestor, his ofcial predecessor (as private
manager!). But it also contains evidence for Zenons private business dealings on
the side, which were probably not illegal and the term is very anachronistic
here. Whether this lends the Ptolemaic administration something approxima-
tive or even amateuristic (in Criscuolos words) is an interesting question.
An extra problem when dealing with ofcial and public archives is that these
apparently are far less likely to survive the tooth of time than their private coun-
terparts. This is probably inherent to their nature: since they had to be public,
they had to be in some way at least occasionally accessible to people who wanted
to consult them, and thus could less easily be preserved in a safe place far away
from every disturbance, surviving thousands of years.
9
In fact, with the excep-
tion of inscribed copies to which I will return later, in Egypt these more ofcial
archives indeed particularly seem to be preserved when they paradoxically
were thrown away or recycled into mummy cartonnage.
10
One can imagine the
problems this gives for the scholar who wants to reconstruct their original Sitz-
im-Leben, as Criscuolo convincingly demonstrates: there are a lot of clues here,

7 Depauw 2006, pp. 106-109.
8 For a typology, see Vandorpe 2009, pp. 231-237.
9 It is instructive that most of the Demotic family archives preserved are those of underta-
kers and other necropolis workers, who have access to tombs to safeguard their papers! See
Muhs 2008, esp. pp. 33-35.
10 See e.g. Cuvigny 2009, pp. 45-47.
263
reflections on reconstructing private and official archives
but also a lot of suspects and no clear motive! One could even say that the scholar
here is like a detective walking around in a battleeld, with bodies scattered
everywhere: no wonder people get confused as to which crime they should in-
vestigate rst. As a result people tend to group documents on the basis of similar
names just as if they try to group bodies with similar wounds ...
Criscuolos paper is somewhat of an antidote to this exclusively prosopo-
graphic approach. She presents documents which have long been considered
drafts originally preserved in a private archive, but which are in her view quick
secondary copies for ofcial purposes. In fact, she reconstructs not the archive of
an ofcial (Pankrates) or even a group of ofcials (such as the basilikoi grammateis
of Areos Kome), but rather an ofcial archive for all government ofcials in a
particular locality. A similar study of the diplomatics of the documents involved,
also shows the archive of Philo to be ofcial rather than private, and again part
of the village archive. That such archives did in fact exist, is also suggested by
a set of documents which formed the subject of a paper at the congress of De-
motic studies in Oxford in 2011. Cary Martin presented an impressive collection
of rather large papyri with early Demotic letters which only recently appeared
on the market. Although the texts are clearly letters starting with the appropri-
ate epistolary formulae, there is something strange about them: they are written
on large sheets, which is atypical for Demotic letters, something I had already
noticed when I rst saw the photographs.
11
But also, it turns out that on some
sheets more than one letter is present, sent by different people but apparently
written (or should I say copied) in the same hand. Here again it is an attractive
hypothesis to suppose that these documents are copies which were part of an of-
cial archive, perhaps that of a village or town.
As Criscuolo shows, examining the evidence very carefully can help to recon-
struct the Sitz-im-Leben. It is not because a document is written in a rather care-
less hand and with spelling mistakes, that it has to be a preliminary draft written
by the author. She shows how these drafts in some and perhaps many - cases
turn out to be rather the opposite: post-factum copies written by a third party for
bureaucratic or archival purposes. Indeed this conclusion may warrant the re-
examination of further archives to see whether the so-called drafts could not in
fact be rather careless copies, e.g. for Demotic the archive of Hor or the archive of
Medinet Madi, with the very long set of ostraca which has been identied by the
editor Menchetti as a draft for a petition.
12
Of course we should be very careful to
abuse this new interpretation and let it become a panacea: no doubt we will nd
archives with drafts (all private?), just as others may turn out to be copies.

11 A photograph appeared in Pierre Berg et associs. Vente aux enchres publiques Paris. Vente: Ar-
chologie, Miniatures Orientales, Art de la Chine. Samedi 15 et Dimanche 16 octobre 2005, Paris 2005,
pp. 92-93 no. 374. See www.trismegistos.org/text/105770 or Enchoria 29 (2004/2005), p. 156 no.
285 [DL 29. 285].
12 Ray 1976; Menchetti 2005.
264
This raises the interesting question of standards of care (or quality control)
in an archive. Indeed visual impact seems to be important in legal documents,
at least in the original. Formal issues such as large format or careful layout en-
hance the appeal and thus probably also legal value of an agreement. A single
mistake could apparently sometimes lead to the production of an entirely new
copy (in the other English sense of the word this time).
13
It may not be a coinci-
dence that these formal aspects tend to become somewhat less important as the
centralisation of evidence proceeds. Perhaps systematic registration and archive
keeping by the authorities made it less important what the document looked like
or indeed made ownership of documents less important.
14
On the other hand
we should probably not underestimate the archive keeping of older societies. In
the corridors of the Demotic congress I talked to Kim Ryholt about some recent
research of his, and he pointed to archaeological evidence for large to very large
ofcial archives of documents, already in the Old Kingdom.
15
It only makes us
wonder how much there once used to be, but is now lost.
The questions relating to standards of care and the no doubt immense amount
of evidence which has disappeared in the course of time brings me to the third
paper in this session, of Laura Boffo. She deals with what one could call very of-
cial or real public archives, which unfortunately are only known to us through
extracts and copies (carefully executed this time) on stone. Her situation is not
enviable. To continue my whodunnit-simile: she is a detective walking around
on a battleeld where the bodies have long disappeared, and the only clue to the
murder is a commemorative inscription at the entrance. Little hope of nding
who is guilty of which crime here, but fascinating to see how big the battle must
have been and why it took place ...
To an Egyptologist it comes as no surprise that the king is present in these
archives: in Egypt the pharaoh, like God, is everywhere (and probably knows eve-
rything), to such an extent that questioning his presence almost seems blasphe-
mous. This of course is very different in Greece, where kings are what one could
call with an oxymoron something of an atavistic novelty. Kings brought with
them new types of documents which the archival administration in the poleis
had to cope with.
Here again money is important: scal obligations to the polis and to the king
must have caused administrative problems. This is not very different in hellen-
istic Egypt, where similar distinctions between sacerdotal and royal taxes and
perhaps military and royal taxes were made: it must have made life of ofcials

13 An example is P. Dem. Memphis 7 A-B (published in Martin et al 2009, pp. 145-152. See
www.trismegistos.org/text/43705).
14 Compare Depauw 2012.
15 K. Ryholt, oral communication.
265
reflections on reconstructing private and official archives
dealing with taxes in all these categories far from easy.
16
Here also you see trans-
fers from one category to the other and temporary exceptions, with all the dis-
cussions, conicts and paperwork this entails. Expansions of the territory of the
poleis may have caused similar problems, which may be compared to changes
in borders of nomes in Egypt (e.g. because of the founding of a new city such as
Antinoupolis), about which relatively little is known. But scality (taxes) was not
the only area in which dealings with the king left their traces. Honours to the
king and other expenses had to be paid, from a special account or not, and feasts
for the royals could be registered ofcially, in the holy book of each polis; royal
priesthoods were created and corresponding lists were made; new tribes were
created; etc..
Royal epistolography and royal diagrammata regarding all these matters en-
tered the polis archives and changed legal life. Ofcials were now obliged to take
both royal and polis legislation into account, and this may in many cases have
been somewhat of a puzzle. Anglo-Saxon common law with its precedents spon-
taneously comes to mind.
To make things even worse, royal dates were installed next to the local ones,
probably another thing to keep track of. The administration probably stuck to the
local calendar, but for correspondence with the king needed to keep track of the
royal system. The debate about using BCE and CE instead of BC and AD illustrates
how sensitive such symbols are, so no mistakes could be made here. On top of
that long term commitments were demanded by king, and he could also ask for
documents to be removed because privileges were revoked.
Of course epigraphy is selective in what it preserves for eternity (or at least
for long): favourable decisions are more likely to be inscribed than unfavourable
ones, but they must also have been present in the archives. Although they only
offer a glimpse, and not even an impartial one, these Greek inscriptions show us
what there must once have been. So many crimes that scholars would never have
had the time to solve them ...

16 For an introduction, see Falivene 2009, pp. 530-532.
266
Bibliography Botti 1967
G. Botti, Larchivio demotico da
Deir el-Medineh (Catalogo del
Museo Egizio di Torino. Serie Prima
Monumenti e Testi 1), Firenze
1967.
Cuvigny 2009
H. Cuvigny, The Finds of Papyri:
the Archaeology of Papyrology, in:
R. S. Bagnall (ed.), The Oxford
Handbook of Papyrology, Oxford
2009, pp. 30-58.
Depauw 2000
M. Depauw, The Archive of Teos
and Thabis from Early Ptolemaic
Thebes (P. Brux. dem. inv. E.
8252-8256) (Monographies Reine
lisabeth 8), Turnhout-Bruxelles
2000.
Depauw 2006
M. Depauw, The Demotic Letter.
A Study of Epistolographic Scribal
Traditions against their Intra-
and Intercultural Background
(Demotische Studien 14),
Sommerhausen 2006.
Depauw 2012
M. Depauw, The Evolution
and Use of Demotic Contracts
in Epistolary Form, in: U.
Yiftach (ed.), The Letter: Law,
State, Society and the Epistolary
Format in the Ancient World
Proceedings of a Colloquium
held at the American Academy in
Rome (28-30.9.2008) (Philippika:
Marburger Altertumskundliche
Abhandlungen), Wiesbaden 2013,
forthcoming.
Falivene 2009
M. R. Falivene, Geography and
Administration in Egypt (332
BCE 642 CE), in: R. S. Bagnall
(ed.), The Oxford Handbook of
Papyrology, Oxford 2009,
pp. 521-540.
Martin et al. 2009
C. J. Martin et al., Demotic Papyri
from the Memphite Necropolis (P.
Dem. Memphis) in the Collections
of the National Museum of
Antiquities in Leiden, the British
Museum and the Hermitage
Museum (Papers on Archaeology of
the Leiden Museum of Antiquities,
Egyptology 5), Leiden 2009.
Menchetti 2005
A. Menchetti, Ostraka demotici
e bilingui da Narmuthis (ODN
100-188) (Bibliotheca di Studi
Egittologici 5), Firenze 2005.
Muhs 1996
B. P. Muhs, The Administration
of Egyptian Thebes in the
Early Ptolemaic Period, Diss.
Pennsylvania, Philadelphia
1996.
Muhs 2008
B. P. Muhs, Archival Archaeology
of Early Ptolemaic Theban Papyri
and Ostraca, in: A. Delattre-P.
Heilporn (edd.), Et maintenant
ce ne sont plus que des villages ...
Thbes et sa rgion aux poques
hellnistique, romaine, et
byzantine. Actes du colloque tenu
Bruxelles les 2 et 3 dcembre 2005,
Bruxelles 2008, pp. 33-47.
Pestman 1961
P.W. Pestman, Marriage
and Matrimonial Property in
Ancient Egypt. A Contribution to
Establishing the Legal Position
of the Woman (P.L.Bat., 9),
Lugdunum Batavorum 1961.
Ray 1976
J. D. Ray, The Archive of or (Texts
from Excavations, 2), London
1976.
Vandorpe 2009
K. Vandorpe, Archives and
Dossiers, in: R. S. Bagnall
(ed.), The Oxford Handbook of
Papyrology, Oxford 2009,
pp. 216-255.
The Roman Empire
269
introduction: archives in the roman empire
Introduction: Archives
in the Roman Empire
eva jakab
The common desire for transparency and publicity can be considered as the main
goal of setting up archives at all. In principle, two important areas of archival ac-
tivities should be distinguished: those in the public and in the private context.
Both public (communal) and private archives record highly relevant acts in a trust-
worthy manner, protecting against forgery or uncertainty in legal affairs. Public
archives also serve as aims of a developed and bureaucratic public administration.
In the present volume, three papers deal with different kinds of archival activ-
ity in the Roman Empire. R. Haensch, K. Harter and Th. Kruse open new perspec-
tives on the topic each from a specic aspect but with detailed research. Thomas
Kruse investigates status-related affairs in Roman Egypt, Kaja Harter scrutinizes
communal archives for private documents in Asia Minor and Rudolph Haensch
focuses on archives in the Late Antiquity, drawn up about court hearings in the
ofce of the prefect.
In the rst century AD, forgery seems to have been a general problem in the
Roman world. Inscriptions, especially from the Hellenistic provinces, preserve
evidence of a steady struggle of public authorities to counter it. Kaja Harter starts
with the famous edict of Quintus Veranius from Myra (SEG 33,1177), from the
rst century AD, which introduced strict measures against forgery. Such laws
were presumably passed because of widespread, dangerous manipulations in le-
gal life, throughout the Roman Empire.
270
Similar rules can be observed in ancient Italy, too. In the Roman Republic, ear-
lier laws had already set heavy penalties for forgery of wills (testamentum). Later
on, it sufces to mention Sullas criminal law before 70 BC the lex Cornelia de fal-
sis. In AD 5 or 6, a lex Iulia vicesimaria laid down the special circumstances under
which wills were to be opened. This law also implied that all substantial property
should pass through properly written and sealed documents. In AD 61, a decree
of the Senate interfered in the technicalities how a document was to be drawn up
and sealed by the parties and witnesses. Suetonius (Nero 17) gives a short descrip-
tion of the rule which became known as the Senatus Consultum Neronianum:
It was then for the rst time (devised) against forgers that no tabulae should be sealed
unless they were bored through and a string passed three times through the holes
A late antique passage of Pseudo-Paulus offers a more detailed treatment of the
subject (PS 5, 25,6):
The Senate decreed that those tabulae, which contain the writing of either public or
private contracts, are once witnesses have been summoned to be sealed in this way:
the tablets, having been perforated on the top edge towards the middle, are bound
around with a tripled string, and the seals of the wax placed on top of the string are im-
pressed, so that the interior preserves the des of the writing by means of the exterior.
Tablets produced in another way provide no evidence.
Indeed, it is a surprising intervention into the world of law in action which
normally used to function on its own terms. A new way of preparing documents
was ordered by law for the sake of general security. The des (reliability) and
textual integrity were protected by technical specication on how legal docu-
ments ought to be made. Tabulae written and closed otherwise were no longer
accepted as evidence before court.
Laws and decrees against forgery witness a strong public interest in secur-
ing reliability and transparency in private affairs, too. On the other hand it is
surprising how few details are preserved about archival activities in Roman Italy.
Some sort of archive for private documents can be assumed in the background of
money transactions carried out through bankers (argentarii, faeneratores or num-
mularii). In a special edict, the Roman praetor ruled its details. He approached the
problem from the aspect of litigation. Ulpian reports it as follows (D. 2,13,4 pr.-1):
The praetor said: Let those who operate a banking business produce accounts in mat-
ters relating to their business with the day and consul added. The reason for this edict
is most equitable. For since bankers prepare the accounts of individuals, it was equi-
table that what he prepared on my account and the (relevant) documents, which in a
certain measure can be deemed to be mine, be produced to me.
Apart from Ulpians theoretical treatment, legal documents about such activi-
ties of argentarii also exist. For example, it is well recorded in the Archive of the
271
introduction: archives in the roman empire
Sulpicii (in a set of wooden tablets which were drawn up in the Mount Vesu-
vius country, in the rst century AD) that bankers acting in nancial affairs of
their clients used to set up exact records (statements) regularly. Based upon this
phenomenon, the praetor ruled that each banker should be obliged to produce
his business accounts as evidence in a trial if required by one of the parties.
TPSulp. 60 (AD 43, a draft of a bank account) seems to be such evidence about a
loan granted by a Roman woman, Titinia Antracis, to a peregrine lady, Euplia.
These and other texts may give a hint to further possible archival activities for
private legal documents in Roman Italy.
But let us return to the three papers of the present volume and introduce
them in a more or less chronological order. Thomas Kruse offers a detailed de-
scription on how checklists of population might have worked in Roman Egypt.
First of all, this sort of registration served taxation purposes. It is convincing how
exactly the Roman authorities controlled and divided different groups of popula-
tion by granting tax privileges. The census, carried out carefully every fourteen
years, is well documented in papyrus rolls according to the place of residence. It
can be reasonably assumed that each village and town laid down special archives
for collecting the data and forwarding to the metropolis of the nomos. Kruse picked
out especially the privileged group of metropolitai with reduced laographia rates
called dodekadrachmoi (paying twelve drachmas a year) in Oxyrhynchos, or ok-
tadrachmoi (paying eight drachmas a year) in the Herakleopolites. The epikrisis,
the registration with the Roman authorities of each young citizen after turning
fourteen secured for him the access to this privileged status. Plenty of related
sources are preserved: declarations of entitled persons by their parents, quarrels
and trials with the authorities. The rich documentation enables us to reconstruct
the whole procedure in a new light. Kruses thorough report of this special type of
archival activity is a valuable contribution to our general knowledge of archives
in the Roman Empire.
Kaja Harter discusses two special types of archives: manumissions of slaves
in a form of a (ctitious) sale from Delphi and funeral inscriptions from Asia
Minor. The legal rules of both groups belong partly to sacred law (lex sacra) and
partly to profane law. It seems to me an important feature, which should be con-
sidered in their interpretation. Furthermore, both types of legal acts create an ob-
ligatio unilateralis: there is only one party who declares his will (Max Kaser speaks
of einseitiger, rechtsschpferischer Akt der juristischen Selbstgestaltung). In
Roman law, a funerary inscription and its terms are generally considered as acts
of Privatautonomie it is commonly accepted that there was no need of any ar-
rangement with public authorities for its legal enforcement. Kaja Harters careful
treatment of the sources leads to a possible reconstruction of internal registra-
tion methods in archives. It is very likely that a professional, a grammateus, drew
up a new version for the register, using the original document and summing up
its main terms. The mixed formula of the preserved documents is a strong ar-
gument for her thesis: a chirographum, a rst-person narration is consequently
272
combined with a third-person narration. The widely used public registration of
funeral inscriptions, with privately xed penalties for damage and for unauthor-
ized burials, is a striking example for increasing public control and interference
in private legal affairs.
Rudolph Haensch looks at late antique documents of archival activities in eve-
ry day practice of prefects. In particular, the scarcely known but valuable scripts
of Johannes Lydus (De magistratibus) open a new perspective on the adminis-
tration of the prefectus praetorio Orientis in the early sixth century. According to
the testimony of Lydus, there must have been a huge storage capacity for legal
documents in Konstantinopolis. However, the safekeeping of legal documents
in archives must have existed already much earlier. For example, Theodosius I is-
sued a law after his victory over Magnus Maximus (388), which declared that all
verdicts which were passed by iudices appointed by the defeated should be void
(Codex Theodosianus 15,14,8). Furthermore, such verdicts should be removed
also from public archives (ex omnibus publicorum monumentorum scriniis). This
report is a strong argument for the existence of detailed registers about court
hearings and public affairs at that time. Furthermore, the careful dealing with
petitions in the prefects bureau is well documented: the settlement was noted
as a subscriptio on the very request, afterwards copied and handed out to the ap-
plicant. It is very likely that all originals were kept by the authorities in some
sort of archive. The sources quoted above may suggest the existence of developed
and systematized archival activities indeed, our knowledge of Late Antiquity
is far from complete. Rudolph Haensch underlines the coincidental character of
preservation and warns against hurried generalization.
Summing up, it can be observed that the Roman administration took an in-
creasing interest in archival activities in the whole Empire. State control over
public affairs and over the relations between state authorities and citizens (e. g.
taxation) was highly developed already at the end of the Republic, but it became
more and more characteristic in the ensuing centuries. The essential growth on
territory and population, the increasing migration and administrative structure
required more control over private affairs. For publicity and security against for-
gery, the deposition of important documents (e. g. testaments) became common
practice in the provinces and probably in ancient Italy, too.
273
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
Epigraphische Quellen zum
Archivwesen in den griechischen
Poleis des ausgehenden
Hellenismus und der Kaiserzeit
kaja harter-uibopuu
Zu Beginn der rmischen Herrschaft im Osten knnen die griechischen Poleis
bereits auf eine jahrhundertelange Tradition des Archivwesens zurckblicken,
wie andere Beitrge in diesem Buch deutlich zeigen. Dennoch lassen sich ab dem
2. Jh. v. Chr. nderungen sowohl in der Struktur und Organisation der Archive,
als auch in der Publikation archivierter Akten nachweisen. Auch die Rolle der
stdtischen Amtstrger und ihrer Archive im Rahmen der privaten Rechtsge-
schfte wurde angepasst. Im Mittelpunkt der folgenden Ausfhrungen stehen
allerdings nicht Archive als Aufbewahrungssttten ffentlicher Urkunden, also
Staatsakte jeder Art. Vielmehr werde ich mich den privaten Rechtsurkunden
im Rahmen des stdtischen Archivwesens widmen. Dafr sind als Quellen zu-
nchst stdtische Dekrete und Edikte der rmischen Provinzialverwaltung her-
anzuziehen. Im ersten Teil des Beitrages sollen im Detail zwei neue Texte aus Kos
prsentiert werden, die in diese Gruppe von Texten gehren. Andererseits sind
zwei weitere, wesentlich grere Gruppen von Inschriften fr das angesproche-
ne Thema aufschlureich: Die Freilassungsinschriften aus Delphi und anderen
mittelgriechischen Stdten und die Urkunden ber Graberrichtungen aus dem
kaiserzeitlichen Kleinasien. Diese beiden Textgruppen werden im zweiten und
dritten Teil meines Beitrages behandelt.
1

1 Die Forschungen zu diesem Beitrag werden vom sterreichischen Forschungsfonds FWF
Fr Marlene Valeria
274
Zwei Dekrete aus Kos (IG XII 4,1,84 und 85)
ber Struktur und Organisation von stdtischen Archiven in hellenistischer Zeit
sowie deren Umgestaltung informieren ausfhrlich stdtische Dekrete wie das
spthellenistische Reformgesetz aus Paros, das von Wrrle und Lambrinudakis
ediert und kommentiert vorgelegt wurde.
2
Der Text enthlt den Dekretentwurf
einer Kommission zur Sanierung des ffentlichen Urkundenwesens, der wohl
nach seiner Verabschiedung auf einer Stele im Hestia-Heiligtum der Stadt aufge-
stellt worden war. Whrend bis zu dieser Reform das Original der eingereichten
Privaturkunden bei den mnemones verblieb, sollten nach der Reform autorisierte
Abschriften der Urkunden in einem unabhngigen Archiv aufbewahrt werden,
um im Zweifelsfall durch einen Textvergleich eventuelle Vernderungen des
Originals nachweisen zu knnen. Ein zno8ct; (Archivar) sollte dafr zustn-
dig sein, die Vertragsabschriften im Heiligtum in eine verschlossene Kiste ein-
zuwerfen, aus der sie nur in einem komplizierten und genau regulierten Verfah-
ren wieder entnommen werden konnten.
3
Auch das Edikt des rmischen legatus
pro praetore der Provinz Lycia, Q. Veranius, das inschriftlich aus Myra erhalten
ist, stellt die Sicherung der Originalurkunden in den Mittelpunkt der Anweisun-
gen. Verwendung von Palimpsesten sowie, nachtrgliche Zustze und Rasuren
werden ausdrcklich verboten und unter Strafe gestellt. Dabei werden vor allem
die 8oo:o:, die Sklaven der Stadt, die in der Archiv-Verwaltung arbeiten, ange-
sprochen. Ihnen wird ausdrcklich untersagt, Urkunden, die nicht den geforder-
ten Ansprchen entsprechen, entgegenzunehmen. Tryphon, ein Sklave der Stadt
Tlos, der sich trotz mehrfacher Ermahnung nicht hatte belehren lassen, wurde

im Rahmen des Projekts Funerary Fines in Greco-Roman Asia Minor untersttzt. Austrian
Science Fund (FWF): [P22621]
2 Lambrinudakis-Wrrle 1983, 285-289 mit deutscher bersetzung (SEG 33, 679). Die In-
schrift ist auf einer 1.87 m. hohen Stele aus parischem Marmor angebracht und enthlt einen
Text von 90 Zeilen, der hervorragend erhalten ist. Sie wird anhand der Buchstabenformen und
der Beamtennamen in das zweite Viertel des 2. Jh. v. Chr. datiert. Eine englische bersetzung
bei Arnaoutoglou 1988, Nr. 97 mit kurzen Literaturhinweisen. Vgl. auch Georgoudi 1988,
243-244; Boffo 1995, 113-114.
3 hnliche Sicherungsmanahmen sind vor allem aus dem Bereich der stdtischen Verwal-
tung bekannt und werden von Lambrinudakis-Wrrle 1983, 348-349 und Frhlich 2004,
270, erlutert. Sie sind unter anderem fr Athen belegt. IG II
2
1174 enthlt ein Dekret des De-
mos Halai Aixonides ber die Rechenschaftsablage des demarchos und der tamiai aus dem Jahr
367/6 v. Chr. Die Amtstrger sind angehalten, ihre Abrechnungen monatlich in eine verschlos-
sene Kiste (:ato;, Z.6/7) zu werfen, aus der sie dann (unverndert) am Ende der Amtszeit zur
Rechenschaftsablage entnommen werden (Z.10-13). Tit.Cam 110, Z.9-19 (Ehrendekret fr Philo-
krates, Sohn des Philostephanos, nach 182 v. Chr.) beschreibt ebenfalls die doppelte Sicherung
von Urkunden ber Abrechnungen in den Handakten der zustndigen Amtstrger (noc:z,
Z.9-10) und einer verschlossenen Kiste (:ato;, Z.11-12). Nicht zuletzt war es den koischen
tamiai, hierophylakes und prostatai vorgeschrieben, ihre Abrechnungen ber die Einzahlungen
an die Kasse des Asklepiostempels in eine derartige Kiste einzuwerfen, IG XII 4,1,71, Z.13-15
(LSCG 155). hnlich auch IG XII 4,1,343 (Paton-Hicks 33 und Iscr. Cos ED 237), Z.5 und Z.14.
275
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
ausgepeitscht und gab mit seinem Fehlverhalten den Anlass fr das Edikt.
4

An die Seite dieser Texte muss man nun zwei neue Inschriften aus Kos stellen,
die jngst von K. Hallof ediert wurden. Ich mchte die Gelegenheit nutzen, die
beiden stark fragmentierten Inschriften kurz vorzustellen und die dort verwen-
deten Termini nher zu erlutern. Wenn die beiden Dekrete auch nicht so gut er-
halten sind wie die Inschriften aus Paros und Myra, knnen dennoch einige Hin-
weise auf die Praxis der Archivierung von Urkunden in Kos entnommen werden.
Der erste Text stammt von einer Inschrift, die der Schrift nach zu urteilen
wohl in das 1. Jh. v. Chr. zu datieren ist und von einer Reform der Aufsicht ber
das stdtische Archiv handelt (Z.6).
IG XII 4,1,84
5
c n : o v z o |c - - -
c.7
- - - t o| c M v o - -
c.5
- -,
c8oc tz ocz z: ta 8|za, yvaz noot|ztzv z: o|ccctzv|
Zancoc vcatcoc,
v

T:|- - -
c.7
- - toc - -|:8zzvto;, - - - -
1 toc ^c:v:z,
v
`A:otz:oc to|c - - - - - Hc|ococ; to|c ona;|
tz tc tz; no:o; nzyztz |ztz ct:ot|ov 8:o:tz: t- - - -
to; zc:oc czz; zoz|cotcov - - - |vavt: 8c:z - - - -
tzc:z, 8c8oz: cac|vto; toc8c to|c :ozto; |nc: tav z|-
8 t:,ocvav cn: tav zc:a|v - - - vcvo|octcvz, to; |8c zno8c:|-
oocvo; z: c:oz: ztz | - - - - zv|8z yzztcz MHN - - - -
zcz; tz ; zt:o|c:oz; o 8c| z:c:; zcta |v:
o
- - - - -|
z znotct|z|a 8c - - - - - - -o; yzzt:o; to|cto; to; z|-
12 t:oo; cv nc:oo|: - - - - - - - -|ov ccov to: 8c | - - - - c|-
zt:oc|v - - - - - - - - - - n|otcov tov - - - - - - - - -
HAllll1 - - - - - - - - - - - ta :8:atz no- - - - - - - - -
^lAlTA- - - - - - - - - - - - - nzvtc; oo- - - - - - - - - -
Unter dem monarchos - - - S.d. Meno- -. Beschluss von Rat und Volk, Vorlage der prostatai
und Ratsherren Zopyros d.J., Tim- - S.d. - -idamas, - - - (4) S.d. Deinias, Aristaios S.d. - - -,
Pythokles II.: damit die Geschfte der Stadt auf das Beste verwaltet werden - - - die Aufseher
des Archivs ganz sicher - - - keine - - - die mter/Archive, mge man beschlieen: sobald das
Dekret ber die (8) ffentliche Beurkundung von Rechtsakten bei den Behrden in Kraft gesetzt

4 Wrrle 1975, 255-257 mit deutscher bersetzung (SEG 33, 1177).
5 Sieben Fragmente einer Marmorstele, a und b schlieen direkt aneinander an und bilden
die linke obere Ecke des Steins, c kann rechts an den Text angefgt werden. Fragment g gehrt
unter Fragment a, die Teile d, e und f sind nicht mehr zuzuordnen. Der Text entspricht der Aus-
gabe im IG XII, die auch auf den Scheden R. Herzogs aufbaut.
6 Z.10: Das Fragment ist an dieser Stelle schwierig zu deuten. Zwar findet sich die Angabe
eines Monats vermehrt in Kos, aller dings im Dativ immer mit Prposition (und teilweise Arti-
kel) in der Form c oder cv (ta) v: oder ohne Prposition oder Artikel im Genitiv vo;. Die
erste Formulierung ist stets auf Zeitangaben in der Zukunft bezogen, etwa: die Zah lung erfolgt
im Monat Batromion, IG XII 4,1,326 (Paton-Hicks 27), Z.12, oder sie sollen die Prozession
durchfhren ... im Monat Gerastion, IG XII 4,1,79 (Iscr. Cos ED 146), B Z.1-4. Der Genetiv findet
sich in Datierungen zumeist in den Prskrip ten von Dekreten (IG XII 4,1,79 A Z.1-2: Unter dem
monarchos Tharsikrates, am ersten Tag im Monat Gerastion). Wie die Nennung eines Monats
hier syntaktisch erklrt werden kann, ist unsicher.
276
wurde, - - - was gesetzlich verordnet ist, dass die knftig Ernannten fr jeden [Monat?] einen
Mann zum Sekretr bestimmen - - - fr den eingetragenen Tag;
7
der Gewhlte soll sein Amt
antreten ... - - - Ablegen soll - - - der grammatikos diese (12) Beurkundungen an vielen
- - - trug. Die - - - bereits beurkundeten - - - vorher - - - dem Privatmann - - - alle - - -
Z.6 bezeugt, dass zur Aufsicht ber das Archiv (oder auch die Archive, Z.7 und 8)
Wchter, czc; im Amt waren, die in Zukunft einen grammateus einsetzen
sollten, um die bestmgliche Verwaltung der stdtischen Agenden zu sichern.
Herzog hatte berlegt, ob dieser Sekretr monatlich bestimmt werden musste,
in Z.10 sei schlielich vom Beginn der Amtszeit desjenigen, der bestimmt wur-
de, die Rede.
8
Mglicherweise hat man als seine Aufgabe die Erfassung und die
Ablage der eingereichten Urkunden, die in Z.11-12 als zt:oo: bezeichnet
werden, zu sehen.
Jedenfalls macht die Erwhnung eines Archivs respektive einer entsprechen-
den Behrde (z c: oc, Z.6) das Thema der getroffenen Regelungen deutlich. Aus-
zuschlieen ist nicht zuletzt aufgrund der Position im Text die Vermutung,
dass es sich um eine allgemeine Publikations oder Archivierungsklausel gehan-
delt haben knnte. Z.7-8 enthalten gleich zu Beginn des Antrages den Verweis auf
ein bereits zu einem frheren Zeitpunkt beschlossenen psephisma, das zum aktu-
ellen Zeitpunkt erst in Kraft gesetzt werden musste. Ich schlage vor, in der Lcke
am Ende von Z.7 nach dem Vorbild des Edikts des Veranius aus Myra (Z.15-16) nc:
ta v zu ergnzen. Damit wre als Inhalt des psephisma die ffentliche Beurkun-
dung von Rechtsakten angegeben.
9
Mglicherweise musste eine entsprechende
Reform des Leitungsgremiums herbeigefhrt werden, nach deren Umsetzung
die dann Ernannten erst einen Sekretr bestimmen sollten, dessen Kompetenzen
im weiteren Verlauf des nun zu beschlieenden psephisma erlutert wurden.
Die Erwhnung eines Privatmannes in Z.14 weist vielleicht darauf hin, dass
es im vorliegenden Text nicht nur um die Aufbewahrung von Staatsurkunden
gegangen sein wird, sondern vielmehr so wie auch in der nchsten Inschrift
um die Registrierung von Privaturkunden. An Stelle der vor allem in atheni-

7 Mglicherweise auch Akk. pl. (mit entsprechend genderter Akzentuierung): die eingetra-
genen Tage. Insgesamt ist gerade diese Formulierung schwierig zu deuten, da ein attributiv ge-
brauchtes Aorist-Partizip eingetragener keinen eindeutigen Sinn ergibt. In den beiden Par-
allelstellen hat das Partizip zt:oc:; deutlich passive Bedeutung: IG XII 4,1,302, Z.18-19
(zt:oc:oz; c:oaoo:z;, eingetragene Eide); Iscr.Cos ED 229, Z.8-9. Zu denken wre eher
an den oder die Tage der Eintragung oder, Hallof folgend, den dazu bestimmten Tag (mg-
lich auch in der Mehrzahl).
8 IG XII 4,1,84, kritischer Apparat zu Z.9: ztz |vz.
9 Z.7/8 ergnzt Hallof folgendermaen: 8c8oz: cac|vto; toc8c to|c :ozto; |- - -
z||t:,ocvav cn: tav zc:a|v ...] und bersetzt mge man beschlieen: sobald das Dekret in
Kraft gesetzt wurde, - - - was vor den Amtstrgern verhandelt wird, ... (zur bersetzung siehe unten
Anm.15). In SEG 33, 1177, Z.15-16 nennt der Statthalter Veranius seine eigene Anweisung nc:
tav zt:,ocvav 8:ztzy . Die Wendung wird von Wrrle 1975 als Anordnung ber (ffent-
liche) Beurkundung von Rechtsakten bersetzt und 258-261 erlutert.
277
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
schen Inschriften blichen Bedeutung von zt:,c:v verhandeln,
10
wird
man wohl auch hier von der in Archivangelegenheiten vorherrschenden Be-
deutung des Verbums dienstlich erledigen, eine Urkunde ausfertigen, regist-
rieren ausgehen mssen.
11
Parallelen zu dieser Verwendung bieten zumindest
zwei weitere koische Inschriften. In der Vergabeurkunde fr das Priestertum der
Aphrodite Pontia vom Ende des 2. Jh. v. Chr. wird davon gesprochen, dass es die
Pflicht der prostatai war, eine Abrechnung ber den Inhalt der Schatzkisten und
dessen Aufteilung in das ffentliche Archiv einzubringen.
12
Auch ein fragmen-
tiertes Sakralgesetz aus dem gleichen Zeitraum enthlt einen Hinweis auf eine
derartige Hinterlegung einer Abrechnung.
13
In diesem Sinne wre der in Z.11-12
von Hallof berzeugend ergnzte zt:oo; mit Preisigke ein von Privaten
oder Beamten rechtmig vollzogener Akt und daher die darber aufgesetzte
Urkunde, Schriftstck, ....
14
Bereits diese wenigen berlegungen mssen reine
Hypothesen bleiben, sollen aber einen Ansto dazu geben, das Dekret in die mo-
dernen Untersuchungen zum Archivwesen aufzunehmen.
IG XII 4,1,85 ist deutlich jnger als der eben vorgestellte Text und wird in das
1. Jh. v. Chr. oder das 1. Jh. n. Chr. datiert. Die Inschrift weist aber im verwendeten
Formular durchaus Parallelen zu IG XII 4,1,84 auf und handelt ebenfalls von ei-
nem ffentlichen Archiv.
IG XII 4,1,85
15
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
| - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - zvt:|yzo:; A- - - - - - -
| - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - 8z|oo:o; nc:- - - - - - - - -
4 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - :8z; zcv - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ztzzycta: - - - - - - - - - -
| - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 8|zoo:oc 8:zo:- - - - - - - - - -
| - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - n|z` czotz; tznc,|z; - - - - - - - ]
8 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - z tav o:nav tzv 8c . - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -o:; ocvzzoooco:v c - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -o8c ztzzycta: to: 8c 8z - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - tzv c:cvzv nzz ta: 8za: - - - - - -
12 - - - - - - - - - - - - ttz: ccota 8c ta: :8:atz, z: z 8|tz: - - -]

10 Larfeld 1902, 668-672 zur Verhandlungsformel (zt:oz:) in athenischen Dekreten,
die von der Mitte des 4. Jh. an belegt ist, und auch in IG XII 4,1,129 (Iscr. Cos ED 71), A Z.9, einem
athenischen Ehrendekret fr den Koer Nikomedes aus dem Ende des 4. Jh. v. Chr. ergnzt wird.
11 Preisigke, Wrterbuch II, s.v. zt:,a (2). Vgl. Wilhelm 1909, 291.
12 IG XII 4,1,319 (SEG 50,766), Z. 20: z: oyov zt:,ovta c; tz 8zoo:z yzztz ... und
sollen die Abrechnung in das ffentliche Archiv einbringen, Parker-Obbink 2000, 440.
13 IG XII 4,1,342 (Iscr. Cos ED 58), Z.10-11. Zu dem eng damit verwandten ztzzt:,c:v
siehe sogleich.
14 Preisigke, Wrterbuch II s.v. zt:oo;.
15 Stele aus weiem Marmor, gefunden 1905 im Sdwesten des rmischen Theaters, anschlie-
end in das Kastell verbracht. Die bersetzung folgt bis auf wenige Ergnzungen derjenigen
von K. Hallof in der elektronischen Edition von IG XII 4,1 (http://pom.bbaw.de/ig/).
278
- - - - - - - - a ta: 8zoo:a: o 8c cnzvzyc; zno8cz|cvo; - - - - - - ]
| - - - - to|c cooc:tz o 8c zv ztzzt:zta z: o|y - - - - - - -]
| - - o| zv z: t|o:| nootztz: tz 8zoo:z ozyc:8: cnzvzy|c; - - - - -]
16 - - - -zv cno tav :8:atzv cn: to; nootztz;, z: z - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - nzzycvcoz: cn: to zc:ov, z: z ctz: t:; - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - t:ccvov cncoa o 8zoo:o; o tav co|czav - - - - - - -]
| - - - zno8c|zcvo; ztcozy:ocvzv nzz toc :8:atz - - - - - - - - - -
20 | - - - - - - cnz|vzyc; to: 8c covtc; tav :8:atzv zt - - - - - -
| - - - - - - c; zvz|yzzv z: ztzyozoov tcccav c:va|v - - - - - -]
| - - - - - - |ztzzcoa: z: to cv ncovz,ov z|yc:ov - - - - -]
| - - - - - - to: 8c| tz:z: noo8:zyzovta: ztzoccz|z: - - - - - - ]
24 | - - - - - - toc ya|oooooc tz; zcz; czotz; z |z - - - - - - - ]
- - - - - - - - - - - zc:a: not:cta: 8c z` czot - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - l|.|AN 8ctz: zt:oo - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ONTU^|.|T vacat? - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - den Abschriften - - - der Archivsklave - - - (4) soll er verschlieen - - - des Archiv-
sklaven - - - von jeder Bank/von jedem Tisch - - - (8) der brigen - - - denen, die Vertrge
schlieen, nicht - - - soll er verschlieen. Die - - - (12) Es sei dem Privatmann erlaubt, wenn
er will - - - dem Archivsklaven; der aber soll zwingend nach dem Empfang (der Urkunde?)
- - - des Vermittlers. Der Mann aber soll beurkunden und (quittieren) - - - der Mann
und die prostatai zwingend mit dem ffentlichen Siegel - - - (16) von den Privatleuten bei
den prostatai
16
, wenn - - - sich einzufinden bei dem Archiv, wenn es verlangt einer - - - soll
(dem Verlangen) Folge leisten der Archivsklave der chreophylakes
17
- - - nach dem Empfang
der durch einen Privatmann untersiegelten (Urkunde) - - - (20) zwingend. Diejenigen Privat-
leute, die Urkunden mit sich fhren - - - zur Registrierung
18
und zum Kauf von Papyrusrollen
- - - soll bezahlen und das berschssige Geld - - - die tamiai sollen zustzlich anweisen zur
Instandsetzung - - - (24) des Archivschrankes fr jeden Tag, der - - - dem Archiv. Festsetzen
aber soll fr jed- - - empfngt Urkunden (?) - - -
Auch die zweite Inschrift aus Kos ist so schlecht erhalten, dass jeder Versuch ei-
ner Interpretation nur Hypothese bleiben kann. Da keine Zeilenbergnge aus-
gemacht werden knnen, ist man auf die Stichworte angewiesen, die im erhal-
tenen Text einen Hinweis auf den Inhalt geben knnen. Meines Erachtens muss
der vorliegende Text Vorschriften zur Archivierung von Urkunden enthalten ha-
ben, die Privatleute einreichten (Z.19, Z. 21), darunter mglicherweise Urkunden
ber Vertrge (Z.9). Fr das Archiv agieren in diesem Zusammenhang sowohl
ein 8zoo:o;, also ein Sklave der Stadt (Z.6, 13, 18), als auch ein Amtstrger, der
schlicht o zv genannt wird.
19
Zu den Aufgaben dieses Amtstrgers gehrte es,
etwas zu registrieren, zu beurkunden oder allgemein unter die im Archiv hin-

16 Hallof: gegen die Vorsteher.
17 Verwalter des chreophylakion, des Schuldbucharchivs.
18 Hallof: zum Kopieren.
19 Dabei sei daran erinnert, dass auch die Aufseher des Archivs in IG XII 4,1,84 angewiesen
wurden, einen zv yzztcc; zu bestimmen (Z.9). Von diesem wrde man aber annehmen,
dass er in weiterer Folge grammateus und nicht einfach zv genannt wurde.
279
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
terlegten Urkunden aufzunehmen (Z.14). Kztzzt:,c:v wird lediglich in
Kos gebraucht und entspricht wohl zt:,c:v. Sowohl in der vorliegenden
Inschrift als auch in den beiden Parallelstellen wird ztzzt:,c:v einge-
setzt, um die Handlungen von Amtstrgern zu beschreiben.
20
Gemeinsam mit
den nootztz: sind sie verpflichtet, eine Handlung zu setzen, die das Siegel der
Stadt involvierte (Z.15). Die nootztz: waren eines der wichtigsten mtergre-
mien in Kos, dessen fnf Mitgliedern sowohl die Kontrolle ber die Einhaltung
kultischer und politischer Normen als auch die Kontrolle der Finanzgebahrung
verschiedener ffentlicher Stellen und Heiligtmer oblag. Das koische Dekret
ber den thesauros im Heiligtum des Asklepios aus der Mitte des 2. Jh. v. Chr. sieht
es als eine der Aufgaben der nootztz: vor, die Abrechnung ber den Inhalt der
Schatztruhe in das Archiv, namentlich in eine dort aufgestellte Kiste, einzubrin-
gen, mithin also fr die Archivierung der Abrechnung Sorge zu tragen.
21
Auch
die Aufgaben des 8zoo:o; erschlieen sich nur schwer, als sicher ist aber wohl
festzuhalten, dass er nicht mit dem zv ident war. In Z.13 folgt der Nennung

20 Aus dem Jahr 202/1 v. Chr. stammen ein Dekret ber eine Umlage und eine umfangrei-
che Liste der Spender. Jeder Bewohner und jede Bewohnerin von Kos die dies wollten, seien
sie Brger oder Fremde, konnten eine Spendenzusage (epangelia) abgeben. Diese wurde in
der nchsten Volksversammlung verkndet, worauf das Volk den Wert der Spende beurteilte
und diese annahm oder ablehnte. Die angenommenen Spendenzusagen sollten auf drei Ste-
len publiziert werden, deren Erstellung die poletai verdingten, die abgelehnten Spendenzusa-
gen sollten ebenso erfat, wohl in einer Liste eingetragen oder auf andere Weise registriert
werden. IG XII 4,1,75 (Paton-Hicks 10), Z.32-34: ztz|zt:|ozvta 8c z|:| | c: |z| t:vav
znoc:otov|: z cnzyyc:z Sie sollen auch registrieren, wenn bei jemandem die Spendenzusa-
ge nicht besttigt wurde. Da die ursprnglichen Listen der Teilnehmer am Kult des Apollon in
Halasarna unleserlich geworden waren, beschlossen die Phylen von Halasarna, neue Listen
anzulegen, und diese nicht nur auf leukomata auszuhngen und den jeweiligen Amtstrgern
zur Verfgung zu stellen, sondern sie auch so zu erfassen, wie andere (wohl ebenso offizielle)
Schriftstcke erfasst wurden. IG XII 4,1,103 (Paton-Hicks 367), Z.72-77: z: to; | znoyzz-
cvo; z|tzzt:,ovta | zot: z: tzz | yzztz zt: |,ovt: Und die (Liste der)
Aufgezeichneten sollen sie registrieren, sowie sie auch die brigen Schriftstcke eintragen. Gerade diese
Stelle legt die inhaltliche Gleichsetzung zwischen ztzzt:,c:v und zt:,c:v nahe.
Das Kompositum findet sich in der epigraphischen berlieferung lediglich in Kos und scheint
auch in der literarischen berlieferung nicht auf. Fr die papyrologische Evidenz gibt Preisigke
als Bedeutung ein Rechtsgeschft vornehmen, rechtswirkend verfgen ber etwas, das Verb
wird also in den Papyri zur Beschreibung von Ttigkeiten von Privatpersonen verwendet. Zur
Unterscheidung dieser Varianten von zt:,c:v als registrieren, eintragen durch Amtstr-
ger und rechtswirksam verfgen durch Privatpersonen siehe Wrrle 1975, 259-260. Vgl.
zu der verwandten Bedeutung eine Antwort oder Entscheidung erteilen, die im Verkehr mit
Knigen, Volksversammlungen oder aber auch rmischen Behrden Verwendung findet, Bu-
raselis 2000, 18-19 und Robert 1963, 381-382.
21 IG XII 4,1,71 Z.13-15: z: oyov c; |:|atov czovta tav ztav |ooo|z z c;
tov ozcov c: to: tc tz:z: z: to: :co||czc; z: to: nootztz: ... und die
Abrechnung der Gelder sollen sie in die Truhe (scil. im Archiv) legen, wieviel in die Schatztruhe einge-
zahlt wurde, die tamiai, die hierophylakes und die prostatai. Zur :ato; vgl. oben Anm.3. Zu
den prostatai im hellenistischen Kos umfassend Grieb 2008, 160-163 mit weiterfhrender Li-
teratur. Hallof bersetzt die Phrase c; |:|atov czovta in der elektronischen Edition
von IG XII 4,1 (vgl. oben Anm.15) als in das Archiv legen.
280
des 8zoo:o; die Bestimmung, dass er verpflichtet sei, etwas zu bernehmen.
Mglicherweise gehren auch Z.18-19 in einen engeren Zusammenhang. Wh-
rend in Z.18 ein 8zoo:o; der chreophylakes genannt wird, enthlt Z.19 wiederum
die Angabe, dass er etwas Versiegeltes, wohl eine versiegelte Urkunde oder aber
auch Zweitschrift, von einem Privatmann bernehmen soll.
22
Die Registrierung
der Urkunden blieb aber nach Ausweis des Fragments dem zv vorbehalten.
Auf die Ausstattung des Archivs weist die Aufforderung in Z.5 und 10, ztz-
zycta: er soll verschlieen, hin. Am Schlu des erhaltenen Textes erfahren
wir, dass es ein yaooooov gab (Z. 24), einen Archivschrank, der eine hnliche
Funktion wie die in IG XII 4,1,71, Z.13 erwhnte :ato; gehabt haben knnte.
23
Ob sich allerdings die Restaurierungsmanahmen, fr die die stdtischen tamiai
Geld zur Verfgung stellen mssen (Z. 23), auch darauf beziehen, ist nicht klar.
Zu den Aufgaben des Archivs gehrte mglicherweise neben der Aufbewahrung
und Beurkundung von Schriftstcken, die von Privatleuten eingereicht wurden,
auch der Verkauf von Papyrusrollen (Z. 21).
24

Z.16-18 knnen mglicherweise auf Unstimmigkeiten in der Fhrung des Ar-
chives bezogen werden. Es ist vorgesehen, dass Privatleute sich an die prostatai
wenden konnten (Z.16). Weiters wird bestimmt, dass jemand sich beim Archiv
einzufinden hatte, wenn es verlangt wrde (Z.17). Ob dieser Zwang allerdings
einem Amtstrger, dem damosios oder einer weiteren Privatpartei galt, ist nicht
festzustellen. Zuletzt musste auch der damosios der chreophylakes einer Aufforde-
rung Folge leisten (Z.18). Den Anlass fr die Regelung derartiger Vorgehenswei-
sen knnten Vorflle gegeben haben, wie sie auch am Anfang der Reformen in
Paros oder in Lykien anzunehmen sind. Dabei wird deutlich, dass die Authentizi-
tt der eingereichten Urkunden stets in Frage gestellt und die Schuld fr etwaige
Misstnde durchaus dem Personal des Archivs gegeben werden konnte.
25
Aller-
dings bleiben alle diese berlegungen, wie einleitend festgehalten, Spekulation.

22 Die Nennung des damosios in Z.6 ist ohne Zusammenhang. Zwar knnte das Verb 8:z-
o:,c:v gefolgt sein, hinberschaffen oder auch berbringen (von Schriftstcken etwa
I.Olympia 52, Z.39-40; IG VII 2711, Z.83-87 und CID IV 127, Z.16), aber genauer lt sich die
Ttigkeit nicht bestimmen. Zum 8zoo:o; tav coczav verweist Hallof auf IG XII 4,1,347,
Z.6 und 104, Z.543-544, 637.
23 Auch in IG XII 4,1,354, Z. 2 ist ein yaooooov erwhnt, allerdings wieder ohne erkenn-
baren Zusammenhang. Z.4-5 der selben Inschrift bestimmen eine Abgabe (?) von 10 Drach-
men fr die zo: zt:oo: , die anderen Urkunden. Deutlich geht aus der Nennung des
yaooooov in IG XII 3,330, dem Testament der Epikteta, Z. 277-279 und 283-284 hervor, dass
es sich auf Thera um eine Einrichtung im ffentlichen Archiv handelt.
24 Fr den in epigraphischen Quellen ungewhnlichen Begriff fhrt Hallof I. Priene 114, Z.11,
30 als Parallele an.
25 Vgl. Wrrle 1975, 279-281 und Lambrinudakis-Wrrle 1983, 308-320, sowie Weiss 2004,
79-80 und 84.
281
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
Die Archivierung von Freilassungsurkunden in Delphi
Von den theoretischen berlegungen der Stadtverwaltungen zur Organisa-
tion der Archive und zu den Aufgaben der dort ttigen Personen kommen wir
zu praktischen Beispielen der Hinterlegung und Beurkundung privater Rechts-
geschfte. In Delphi belegen ca. 1200 Inschriften seit dem 2. Jh. v. Chr. die Ent-
lassung von Sklaven in die Freiheit, durchwegs durch den Verkauf an den Gott
Apollon.
26
Durch die Flle der Texte und die kontinuierliche Aufzeichnung bis
in die Kaiserzeit ist es mglich, das Aufkommen der amtlichen Archivierung
und staatlicher Regelungen dazu zu beobachten. Gleichzeitig kann man einer
der wichtigsten Fragen fr Rechtshistoriker, die mit epigraphischem Material
arbeiten, nachgehen dem Verhltnis der Originalurkunde zur publizierten In-
schrift. Von Anfang an scheint die Aufzeichnung der Freilassungsurkunden, die
zuerst an der Polygonalmauer hinter der Stoa der Athener und dann im Theater
von Delphi vorgenommen wurde, eine groe Rolle gespielt zu haben. Albrecht
geht im Konsens mit einem Groteil der modernen Forschung davon aus,
dass in Delphi mit Ende des 3. Jh. v. Chr. ein Gesetz die Publikation derartiger
Urkunden im Heiligtum zwingend vorschrieb, whrend in anderen mittelgrie-
chischen Stdten eine derartige obligatorische Einbindung der ffentlichkeit
nicht nachzuweisen sei.
27
Interessante berlegungen zur Aufzeichnungspflicht
prsentiert Krnzlein, der ebenfalls eine Pflicht zur inschriftlichen Publikation
annimmt. Diese knnte auch in den letzten beiden vorchristlichen Jahrhunder-
ten bestanden haben, obwohl eine gesetzliche Regelung fr diesen Zeitraum
nicht zweifelsfrei nachgewiesen werden knne. Das Interesse des Heiligtums
an einer Publikation der Freilassungsakte, die im einzelnen dem Freilasser oder
dem Freigelassenen berantwortet wurde, lag weniger in der Bewahrung der Ur-
kunden und dem Schutz des Rechtsaktes. Dafr seien die Inschriften zu unber-
sichtlich und zu unzugnglich angebracht gewesen, darber hinaus scheint es
keinen speziellen Platz im Heiligtum fr die Aufzeichnungen gegeben zu haben.
Zunchst sei die Polygonalmauer herangezogen worden, dann waren es Sockel

26 Mulliez 1992, 31 mit Anm. 1 zu den lteren Zahlenangaben, vgl. auch Krnzlein 1983,
301-302. Mulliez bereitet ein Corpus der delphischen Freilassungsurkunden vor, das als CID V
erscheinen und nicht zuletzt zu Fragen der detaillierten Chronologie der Freilassungsinschrif-
ten aus dem Theater von Delphi wertvolle neue Erkenntnisse bieten wird. Fr meinen Beitrag
beruhen die chronologischen Angaben auf den bislang vorliegenden Textausgaben. Zur Ver-
kaufsfreilassung siehe jngst Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011 I, 387-398 mit weiterfhren-
der Literatur; Zelnick-Abramovitz 2005, 208-222.
27 Albrecht 1978, 202-203 mit Anm. 8 zur bersicht ber die ltere Forschung. Obwohl die
Publikationspflicht in den Urkunden nicht erwhnt wird, meint Albrecht, dass alleine die Fl-
le der publizierten Inschriften, die dem Freigelassenen keine Vorteile bieten, auf einen Auf-
zeichnungszwang zurckzufhren sei. Auch Mulliez 1992, 32, geht von einer Pflicht zur Auf-
zeichnung ab dem beginnenden 2. Jh. v. Chr. aus, wenn auch nicht nachzuvollziehen sei, unter
welchen Umstnden und aufgrund welcher genderten Rechtslage die Setzung der Inschriften
erfolgte.
282
von Denkmlern bzw. das Theater.
28
Das Interesse des Heiligtums scheint also
weniger den einzelnen Texten und ihren Klauseln gegolten zu haben, als der
Menge von Texten. Das Ziel der Kundmachung sei es gewesen, hervorzustrei-
chen, in welch groer Anzahl von Fllen Apollon zugunsten von Sklaven gehan-
delt habe, die eigentlich jetzt ihm gehrten, deren Freiheit er aber gewhre und
schtze. Um Apollon zu preisen und Werbung fr das Heiligtum zu machen
seien die Freilasser und Freigelassenen verpflichtet worden, die Texte aufzeich-
nen zu lassen.
29

Fr die frhesten Freilassungsinschriften in Delphi ist nicht sicher belegt,
ob es neben der Aufzeichnung auf der Polygonalmauer auch noch Urkunden auf
vergnglichem Material gab, die bei den Parteien oder an neutraler Stelle verblie-
ben. Trotzdem scheint diese Annahme sehr wahrscheinlich.
30
Erst im Laufe des
2. Jh. v. Chr. finden sich Hinweise auf die Aufbewahrung derartiger Urkunden.
Diese Aufbewahrung lag in den Hnden des Heiligtums ebenso wie bei privaten
Zeugen oder Garanten der Freilassung.
SGDI 1913, Z.14-19 (Delphi, 156-151 v. Chr.)
31
Bcz:at |H|zy; Azzoc `A-
:oocc;. z avz cv ta :ca z: nzz tov vz-
16 oov Mcvtz z: zvt:yzov nzz Hzy.
Mztco: o :ccc; `Av8ov:o; z: o vzoo;
|Mc|v; z: :8:atz: Hzy;, T:av, ^aoco;,
|Oco|t:o;.

28 Vgl. zu den Mauern und Denkmlern in Delphi auf denen die Freilassungsinschriften an-
gebracht waren Daux 1936, 81-82.
29 Krnzlein 1980, 82-83; 1983, 302-303. Meines Erachtens wurde die Aufzeichnung der In-
schriften allerdings nicht von den Priestern, sondern wohl vom Rat der Amphiktyonie und
den Amtstrgern, die fr die Verwaltung des Heiligtums und seiner Finanzen verantwortlich
waren, veranlat. Dabei wird man auch den finanziellen Aspekt nicht auer Acht lassen dr-
fen, die Aufzeichnungen werden wohl kostspielig gewesen und die Einknfte dem Heiligtum
zugute gekommen sein. Lefvre 1998, 42 und 51 zur unsicheren Teilung der Administration
zwischen Stadt und Amphiktyonie.
30 Mulliez 1992, 32 geht davon aus, dass die Publikation einer Inschrift lediglich die Kopie
der Freilassungsurkunde darstellte. Ebenso argumentiert schon Krnzlein 1983, 302-303, dass
es im Interesse des Freigelassenen gelegen haben muss, eine Urkunde ber seinen Status zu
erhalten, umsomehr als viele Freilassungen durch Fremde im Heiligtum des Apollon erfolgten
und dort auch publiziert wurden. Im Fall eines Streits um den Status des ehemaligen Sklaven
wird man sich gerade im spten Hellenismus nicht mehr nur auf die Aussage von Zeugen
verlassen haben. Vgl. auch Lambrinudakis-Wrrle 1983, 360.
31 Der Text ist an der Sdseite der Polygonalmauer angebracht (Pomtow 1889, Tafel III Nr.
248) und ist sehr schlecht erhalten. Die umfangreichen Ergnzungen wurden nach der vom
selben Freilasser ausgestellten Urkunde SGDI 1912 (siehe unten Anm.32) vorgenommen. Wie
hnliche Texte auch ist die Urkunde nach dem archon in Amphissa und dem archon in Delphi
datiert. Sie enthlt den Verkauf der Sklavin Aristion zur Freilassung durch Lykopos, einen Br-
ger aus Amphissa an Apollon in Delphi fr 3 Minen. Der Empfang des Kaufpreises wird quit-
tiert, der ehemaligen Sklavin werden Freiheit und unberhrbarkeit garantiert. (Z.1-14).
283
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
Garant: Pankles, Sohn des Laarchos, Amphisseer. Die Kaufurkunde (ist hinterlegt) im Tempel
und bei dem nakoros Menes und eine Zweitschrift bei Pankles. Zeugen: Der Priester Andronikos
und der nakoros Menes und die Privatmnner Pankles, Timon, Dorotheos, Theotimos.
Die Freilassungsurkunde wird im Text als Kaufurkunde (avz, Z.15) bezeichnet.
Sie besttigt aus der Sicht des Verkufers Lykopos, Brger der Stadt Amphissa,
dass er die Sklavin Aristion dem Gott Apollon bergeben und den Kaufpreis von
3 Minen erhalten habe und ist in Form einer ocyyz festgehalten. Diese Ur-
kunde wurde im Heiligtum und beim vzoo; aufbewahrt (Z.15). Zustzlich gab
es eine Zweitschrift (zvt:yzov) bei Pankles, dem Sohn des Laarchos aus Am-
phissa, der sowohl als Garant der Freilassung (cz:at, Z.14) als auch als einer
der vier privaten Zeugen (Z.18-19) auftritt.
32
Auch die etwas ltere Urkunde SGDI
II 1764 zeigt neben der Aufzeichnung im Tempel die Aufbewahrung einer Zweit-
schrift, wiederum bei einer Privatperson.
SGDI 1764, Z.8-10 (Delphi, 168 v. Chr.)
33
8 to zvt:yzov czo|o|-
c: Kz:co;. c:o: 8c covta o: nzztcvzvovtc; occovtc; laoa ztz tzv
zv{zv}zyzzv z: avzv tzv cv ta: :za: zvzycyzvcvzv.
Die Zweitschrift bewahrt Kallieros. Ermchtigt seien alle
34
, die zufllig anwesend sind, und
Soso ergreifen gem der anagraphe und der Kaufurkunde, die im Heiligtum registriert ist.
Die beiden verwendeten Termini zvzyzc:v und zvzyz sind in diesem Text
in ihrer Bedeutung nicht leicht voneinander zu unterscheiden. Beide knnen so-
wohl das Setzen einer Inschrift, respektive die inschriftliche Aufzeichnung als
auch das Registrieren respektive den Eintrag in bestimmte Register oder Listen
bezeichnen. Der Text von SGDI 1764 legt nahe, dass es sich um die inschriftli-
che Publikation (zvzyz ) und die registrierte und archivierte Kaufurkunde
(avz zvzycyzvcvz) handelt. Beide Exemplare, die Inschrift und die Urkunde

32 Vom selben Freilasser stammt auch SGDI 1912, eine Freilassungsurkunde fr die Sklavin
Physis, die ebenfalls im Heiligtum und beim nakoros aufbewahrt wird, zustzlich befinden
sich Abschriften (zvt:yzz) wiederum bei Pankles. Auch die Zeugen sind die selben wie in
SGDI 1913. Insgesamt sind zvt:yzz aber in vorchristlicher Zeit selten belegt, der Terminus
wird nur ca. zehn mal im Zusammenhang mit Freilassungsurkunden erwhnt, whrend er fr
Abschriften von Dekreten der Polis, die z. B. an andere Stdte bersandt werden sollen, regel-
mig verwendet wird. Zu den Vergleichsbeispielen aus den Freilassungsurkunden siehe Cal-
derini 1908, 62 mit Anm. 2 und 3.
33 Die Inschrift befindet sich an der Sdseite der Polygonalmauer (Pomtow 1889, Tafel III Nr.
99).
34 Krnzlein 1984, 61, erlutert, dass sich die Ermchtigung des Freiwilligen (nzztcvzv-
av) nicht nur auf den formalen Akt des occ:v beziehe, mit dem ein ehemaliger Sklave aus den
Hnden desjenigen, der behauptet sein Eigentmer zu sein, befreit werden konnte, sondern
auch auf die damit verbundenen Rechtsfolgen. Zahlreiche Texte verdeutlichen, dass das Ein-
schreiten fr einen Freigelassenen fr den Freiwilligen jedenfalls ohne Folgen wie Klagen oder
Strafen bleiben sollte (u.a. SGDI 2216, Z.14-16; 2229, Z.6-9; 2322, Z.12-13).
284
knnen demnach als Referenz fr die Ermchtigung der Freiwilligen und damit
natrlich als Beweis fr die Freiheit des ehemaligen Sklaven herangezogen wer-
den.
35
Ein zvt:yzov wird im 2. Jh. lediglich in SGDI 1764 erwhnt und nicht
zu diesen mglicherweise streitentscheidenden Dokumenten gezhlt. Derartige
Klauseln ber die Hinterlegung oder Aufbewahrung von Freilassungsurkunden
verschwinden gegen Ende des 2. Jh. v. Chr. wieder.
36
Erst ab dem Ende des 1. Jh. v. Chr. enthalten die Freilassungsinschriften wie-
der Informationen zur Hinterlegung, erstmals taucht dabei eine echte Archivie-
rung durch einen stdtischen Amtstrger auf. FD III 6, 20 informiert ber diesen
gesetzlich vorgeschriebenen Vorgang.
FD III 6, 20, Z.11-14
37
tzv avzv t:c-
12 |cz| ztz tov vo|ov, tz|v |cv cv t|o :c|ov toc `Ano|avo;
cvzzzvtc;, tzv 8c
tz: Za:oc c: yzzvtc; cv to 8zoo:ov yzztocz:ov 8:z toc
yzztca; N:zvoo; toc Aco:zoc.
Die Kaufurkunde hinterlegen wir gem dem Gesetz, die eine inschriftlich im Heiligtum des
Apollon, die andere von der Hand des Zoilos geschrieben im staatlichen grammatophylakion
durch den grammateus Nikanor, Sohn des Lysimachos.
Der Kaufvertrag wird ztz tov voov hinterlegt, entsprechend einem Gesetz,
dessen Inhalt wir wie bei den meisten Querverweisen nicht kennen. Dies ge-
schieht einerseits durch die Setzung einer Inschrift (cvzzzvtc;, eingeschla-
gen habend, von den Freilassern) im Heiligtum. Diese Publikation der Freilas-
sungsurkunden erfolgte nun nicht mehr an der Polygonalmauer sondern im
Theater von Delphi.
38
Andererseits wurde eine Exemplar tz: Za:oc c: yz-

35 Mulliez 1992, 34 mit Anm. 17. Die gleiche Formulierung findet sich auch in SGDI 1743, Z.9-
10; 1762, Z.4-5; 1763, Z.4-5, eine Variante bietet SGDI 1815, Z.5-6 mit folgender Formulierung:
c:o: 8c covta o: nzztcvzvovtc; occovtc; laoa ztz tzv avzv z: zvzyzzv tzv cv
ta: | :ca: zvzycyzvcvzv. Dies zeigt wohl, dass Urkunde und Inschrift als Einheit gesehen
wurden. Alle Texte stammen aus der IV. Priesterschaft (170-157 v. Chr.), SGDI 1762-1764 lassen
sich sogar genau auf das Jahr 168 v. Chr. datieren, die Wendung scheint also nur sehr kurze Zeit
in Verwendung gewesen zu sein. Wilhelm 1909, 263 sieht in beiden Begriffen einen Hinweis
auf die Aufzeichnung im Archiv und verweist dazu auf die Listen von Freilassungen, die aus
Nordgriechenland erhalten sind, u.a. IG IX 2, 17.
36 Eine Ausnahme bildet die Freilassungsinschrift SGDI 2327, wieder aufgefunden sdlich der
rmischen Agora und neu ediert von Bousquet 1964, 388-391, die aus der Zeit zwischen 63/2
und 51/50 v. Chr. stammt und in Z.31-33 ein zvt:yzov erwhnt, das bei drei Privatpersonen
hinterlegt war.
37 Der gesamte Text der Urkunde findet sich unten bei Anm. 53.
38 Die vorliegende Urkunde wurde auf einem der Orthostaten, die rund um die Orchestra
aufgestellt waren, angebracht. Inschriften finden sich im Theater von Delphi auch an der Ter-
rasse ber dem diazoma, im obersten Teil des Gebudes sowie an den Auenmauern, Colin
1898, 3-4.
285
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
zvtc; durch Zoilos Hand geschrieben habend (ebenfalls von den Freilassern)
in das staatliche yzztocz:ov gebracht. Diese Archivierung erfolgte durch
den grammateus Nikanor, Sohn des Lysimachos. Das Amt des yzztcc; t;
noca; ist in Delphi in den Freilassungsurkunden des ausgehenden ersten Jh. v.
Chr. das erste Mal erwhnt. Man wird aber sicher davon ausgehen knnen, dass
er nicht nur fr die Registrierung der Freilassungsurkunden zustndig gewesen
war.
39
Ob der in der Inschrift genannte voo; respektive die voo: sich nur auf
die Kaufurkunden der Freilassungen beziehen, oder allgemein die Mitwirkung
der Stadt auch an anderen Rechtsgeschften betreffen, ist nach der derzeitigen
Quellenlage nicht zu entscheiden.
40
Wir haben kaum Anhaltspunkte dafr, wie
das Beurkundungsverfahren in Delphi im Detail ausgesehen haben mag, einige
grundstzliche berlegungen werden sich im weiteren aber trotzdem anstellen
lassen.
Die Freilassungsinschriften belegen das staatliche Archiv unter verschie-
denen Namen. Neben dem eben schon angesprochenen Terminus 8zoo:ov
41

yzztocz:ov, der vorwiegend in der ersten Hlfte des 1. Jh. n. Chr. belegt
ist, findet sich etwa gleich oft auch die Wendung 8zoo:z yzztz. Schlie-
lich treffen wir auch hufiger in der zweiten Hlfte des 1. Jh. n. Chr. 8oo:ov
tcco; an, dieser Begriff ist wie die beiden eben genannten etwa zwanzig Mal
belegt.
42
Die Formulierungen zur Hinterlegung der Urkunden variieren leicht,
zeigen aber alle den selben Rechtsvorgang: ein Exemplar der Urkunde kommt
in das Archiv, zustzlich kommt es zu einer Publikation des Textes auf Stein.
Hervorzuheben ist, dass in verschiedenen Texten deutlich darauf hingewiesen
wird, wer die Kaufurkunde, die ja die Grundlage der Freilassung bildete, wohl
auf Papyrus geschrieben hatte. Normalerweise tat dies der Freilasser selbst, wie
in der eben zitierten Urkunde FD III 6, 20. Die folgende Inschrift FD III 6,15 an-
dererseits ist ein Beispiel fr eine Urkunde, die vom Sohn der beiden Freilasser
geschrieben wurde, da diese selbst des Schreibens unkundig waren.

39 Mulliez 1984, 374-379 argumentiert berzeugend, dass es sich um ein stdtisches Amt
handelt, das ebenso wie die anderen mter jeweils fr ein Jahr ausgebt wurde, wobei Iterati-
on zwar belegt, nicht aber die Regel ist.
40 Mulliez 1992, 35 geht von einem allgemeinen Gesetz zur Archivierung von Vertragsur-
kunden aus; Gauthier 1972, 95 mit Anm. 83 referiert beide Mglichkeiten, hlt aber ein Spezi-
algesetz fr die Freilassungen fr wahrscheinlicher (vgl. unten Anm. 60).
41 Neben den blichen Formen der nordwestgriechischen Koine finden sich jeweils auch die
entsprechenden Formen der attischen Koine in den Freilassungsinschriften, also neben 8z-
oo:o; auch 8oo:o; usw. Auf eine getrennte Wiedergabe der Begriffe kann hier verzichtet
werden.
42 ^zoo:z yzztz: FD III 6,12, Z.10-12; 14, Z.13-14; 44, Z.12-13; 109, Z. 25-26; 121, Z.19-21.
^zoo:ov yzztocz:ov: FD III 6, 19, Z.15-16; 20, Z.13; 27, Z.14-15; 29, Z.12-13. ^oo:ov
tcco; (bis auf eine Ausnahme stets in attischer Koine): FD III 1,141, Z.10; III 4,78, Z.13; III 6,5,
Z.18-19; 35, Z.17-19. Mit Wilhelm 1909, 262-263 ist anzunehmen, dass immer die selbe staatli-
che Institution gemeint ist.
286
FD III 6,15, Z.13-18 (20-46 n. Chr.)
43
tzv avzv
t:ccz, tzv cv cv to :cov
toc `Anoavo; cvzzzv-
16 tc;, tzv 8c yzzvto; toc c:oc za-
v, cnc: zcto: yzztz oc 8c:cv, 8:z toc yzztca; `Aoz-
oc toc Zcvzyoz cv tz 8zoo:z t|z|; no:o; yzztz
Die Kaufurkunde hinterlegen wir, die eine inschriftlich im Heiligtum des Apollon, die andere,
geschrieben von unserem Sohn, da wir die Buchstaben nicht kennen, durch den grammateus
Abromachos, Sohn des Xenagoras, unter den ffentlichen Schriftstcken der Stadt (im ffent-
lichen Archiv).
Die Freilassung der Sotericha durch ihren Herrn Paramonos, Sohn des Aristeas,
aus dem 1. Jh. n. Chr. wird immer wieder als Ausgangspunkt fr die allgemeine
Aussage herangezogen, dass die Originalurkunde, das zctoyzov im Tempel
aufbewahrt wurde, whrend die Abschrift oder Zweitschrift, das zvt:yzov, ins
Archiv gelangte. Vermeintlich ist hier eine allgemeine Qualifikation der beiden
hinterlegten Exemplare einer avz zu finden.
44

FD III 6,43, Z.12-13 (1. Jh. n. Chr.)
12 t:cz: tz; avz; to cv zv|t:|yzov cv |t|z 8zoo:z tz; no:o; yzztz
8:z toc yz-
ztco; Ocococ; toc Oc|o|coc;, t|o 8|c zctoyzov cn:otccoz ta ca.

Ich hinterlege die Zweitschrift der Kaufurkunde unter den ffentlichen Schriftstcken der Stadt
(im ffentlichen Archiv) durch den grammateus Theokles, Sohn des Theokles, das selbst ge-
schriebene (Exemplar) habe ich dem Gott anvertraut.
Da dieser Text allerdings den einzigen epigraphischen Beleg fr ein zctoyz-
ov darstellt, sollte ihm angesichts der schon mehrfach angesprochenen Aus-
drucksvielfalt der delphischen Inschriften nicht allzu groe Bedeutung beige-
messen werden.
45
Vergleiche mit der Verwendung des Begriffes in literarischen

43 Die Inschrift, die die Freilassung eines Sklaven Soterichos betrifft, befindet sich teils auf
dem fnften, teils auf dem sechsten Block an der Orchestra. Unklar ist, wo der Anfang der Frei-
lassungsurkunde aufgezeichnet war, da der erhaltenen Text mit der Paramone-Klausel beginnt.
Valmin betont, dass auch auf keinem der Steine der Umgebung der erste Teil der Urkunde ge-
funden wurde. Auch die Bedingungen der Freilassung (bergabe des Kaufpreises erst nach drei
Jahren aus einem Darlehen) sind ungewhnlich. Vgl. zum Schlu der Inschrift Mulliez 1986,
454-456.
44 So vermerkt etwa Weiss 1923, 358 unter Angabe der vorliegenden Inschrift Bleibt nm-
lich ein Exemplar der Papyrus- oder Pergamenturkunde bei dem Gotte zurck, ... whrend das
andere der weltlichen Obrigkeit bergeben wird, so bezeichnet sich das erstere, namentlich in
Delphi, als zctoyzov (Original). Ebenso Dareste-Haussoullier-Reinach 1898, 261; Wil-
helm 1909, 262; Wrrle 1975, 264 mit Anm. 555.
45 Zur Vorsicht mahnen Klaffenbach 1960, 38 mit Anm. 2: In der Tat begegnet einmal,
aber auch nur dieses einzige Mal, die Angabe: ... (es folgt der griechische Text der Inschrift), die
287
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
Quellen legen nahe, dass damit der vom Freilasser geschriebene Vertrag gemeint
ist, der in weiterer Folge stets als c:oyzov bezeichnet wird.
46
Dennoch fhrt
die begriffliche Unschrfe uns zu der fr Rechtshistoriker wichtigsten Frage:
Sind die Freilassungsinschriften, die wir auf den Polygonalmauern und im Thea-
ter von Delphi vorfinden, getreue Abschriften der archivierten Kaufurkunden,
so wie es einige Formulierungen vermuten lassen, oder wurden die Urkunden
vor der Publikation redigiert?
47
Sind uns die vollstndigen Urkunden erhalten?
Wenn es eine berarbeitung gab, wo und von wem wurde diese vorgenommen?
In Delphi war ab dem Ende des 3. Jh. v. Chr. nach Ausweis der umfangreichen
epigraphischen Quellen ausschlielich die Verkaufsfreilassung gebruchlich,
die wohl zunchst von Brgern anderer mittelgriechischer Stdte dorthin ge-
bracht wurde.
48
Die ltesten Urkunden berliefern diesen Verkauf als ocvyz
typisch objektiv stilisiert, wobei die Kaufurkunden nach Ausweis einiger Texte
sowohl beim vzoo; im Tempel als auch bei privaten Zeugen hinterlegt sein
konnten.
49
Ab dem 1. Jh. n. Chr. ist dann auch das c:oyzov als Urkundstyp
fr den Verkauf der Sklaven an den Gott und damit in die Freiheit belegt.
50
Ty-

denn auch in der Regel als ein entsprechendes Zeugnis gewertet worden ist, ... und zuletzt
Mulliez 1992, 35-36.
46 LSJ s.v. zctoyzov: written with ones own hand, ones own writing. In diesem Sinne App.
Syr. 5, 24; Plut. Sert. 27; Dion. Hal. 5,7.
47 Diese Frage werfen auch Weiss 1923, 357-358 und Krnzlein 1980, 82-83; 1983, 302-306
auf. Einen allgemeinen berblick ber die Publikation von Freilassungen bietet Calderini
1908, 254-257, bevor er 260-266 detaillierter auf die Verhltnisse in Delphi eingeht.
48 Albrecht 138-139 vermutet, dass zunchst eine nicht publizittsbedrftige, daher rein zivi-
le Freilassungsform angewandt wurde, die sich heute nicht mehr rekonstruieren lt.
49 In dieser Art etwa die Inschrift SGDI 2117 (Delphi, 199 v. Chr.), in der die Freilassung der
Sklavin Strato durch ihren Herrn Hagesias, Sohn des Polytimos, einen Plygonier, besttigt
wird. otztzycovto; Xzcnoc Nzcnzt:oc vo; `Azvz:oc, cv ^co:; 8c zovto; |
`1:z vo; `Hz:oc, cn: to:o8c znc8oto `Ayo:z; Hoct:oc Hcyovcc; ta: `Anoav:
| ta: Hc:a: oaz ycvz:c:ov z: ovoz ltzta, t:z; zyc:oc vzv tcoozav, c' a:|tc
zctzv cccczv c:cv, no:cocozv o z c:, za; cn:otccoc ltzta tzv avzv |
5
ta: ca:.
cz:at ztz tov voov z: tzv ocozv lccco; `ln:v:oc Hcyo|vcc;. ztcc;
to: :cc:; lc;, Zcvav z: to: nootztz: Mzvt:z;, A:z:8z; | z: o vcaoo; Kcav
`Ocotz, :8:atz: Kz:zt;, Hztcz;, Kzc:8z; | ^co:, `Ayzocz;, l:av, `lyzo:av
Hcyovc:;, 1:cz; O:voz:o;. Unter dem Strategen Chalepos, Naupaktier, im Monat Athanaios, in
Delphi unter dem Archon Hybrias im Monat Heraios: Unter folgenden Bedingungen bergab Hagesias,
Sohn des Polytimos, Plygonier, dem Apollon Pythios einen weiblichen Sklaven mit dem Namen Strato, fr
einen Preis von vier silbernen Minen, damit sie frei sei und tun knne, was immer sie will, so wie Strato
dem Gott die Kaufurkunde anvertraute. Garant gem dem Gesetz und dem Vertrag: Seleukos, Sohn des
Epinikos, Plygonier. Zeugen: Die Priester Eukles und Xenon und die prostatai Mantias und Aiakidas und
der neokoros Kleon, Sohn des Orestas; die Privatpersonen Kallikrates, Patreas, Kalleidas, (alle) Delphier;
Agaseas, Simon, Ergasion, (alle) Plygonier und Philleas, Oinoaier. Calderini 1908, 265 wendet sich
gegen die von Keramopoullos 1904, 27-28 geuerte Ansicht, dass bereits in den lteren Ur-
kunden eigenhndige Unterschriften, also subjektiv stilisierte Elemente zu greifen wren.
50 Wrrle 1975, 262, mit Anm. 540: whrend der Terminus in Delphi erst im 1. Jh. n. Chr.
nachzuweisen ist, scheint er in den westlokrischen Stdten Physkos und Amphissa schon im 2.
Jh. v. Chr. in Verwendung gewesen zu sein.
288
pisch fr diese Urkundenform ist die subjektive Stilisierung. Es handelt sich um
eine eigenhndig niedergeschriebene Erklrung, in der sich der Verkufer (also
der Freilasser) dem Kufer (also dem Gott) gegenber verpflichtet. Die entspre-
chenden Inschriften im Theater von Delphi scheinen auf den ersten Blick eine
echte Abschrift dieser neuen Form der Privaturkunde zu sein. Dabei findet sich
der Terminus c:oyzov nicht nur als Bezeichnung fr die gesamte Urkunde,
sondern auch fr die Erklrungen der Garanten des Verkufers, die dem Kufer
fr das ungestrte Eigentum einzustehen hatten und somit dem Gott gegenber
die Freiheit der ehemaligen Sklaven sicherten.
51
Betrachtet man die Inschriften
genauer, zeigt sich allerdings, dass sie eine eigentmliche Mischform der beiden
Urkundstypen enthalten. Zumeist handelt es sich um objektiv abgefasste Texte,
die aber ihnen zugrundeliegende cheirographa in einzelnen, subjektiv stilisier-
ten Formeln erkennen lassen und damit (scheinbare) Brche im Urkundstext
enthalten.
52
Anhand der bereits oben (bei Anm. 37) in Auszgen zitierten Frei-
lassungsurkunde fr Zoilos sollen im folgenden die einzelnen Klauseln nher
erlutert werden.
FD III 6, 20 (Delphi, 20-1 v. Chr.)
53
zovto; lc8aoc toc `ln:v:oc, vo; `Az:oc, occcovtav ^:o8a-
oc toc 1:ov:oc, ^:o8|a|oc |to|c `Av8ov:oc, K:tozoc toc ^aococ,
znc8ovto Za:o; `Ano|a|v:oc z: ^za `Avt::oc, ocvcczcotcoc-
4 oz; 8c o: ^z||oc|; tz; c|yztc|o;| oc cn' cccc:z: nz:8z:ov o:oyc-
vc;, a: ovoz Za:o;, ta: `An|o|a|v: ta:| Hc:a:, t:z; zyc:oc vzv
ncvtc, z:
tzv t:zv zncovt: nzozv, |c' a:tc| ccccov c:cv z: zvcnzov zno nzv-
tav tov nzvtz ovov z|: no:oc|vt|z o| zv noz:tz: z: a:,ocvov onoc
zv oc-
8 tz:. zcotzzcv 8c |cz:atz| ^zavz Hoczoc. c: 8c t:;
cznto:to Za-
|:||oc c|n: zt|z8oc:oa, cz:ov nzccta|ozv ta: ca: tzv avzv o: tc
zno8ocvo:
z: o cz:at|. o|o:|a; 8c z: o nzztcav| c:o; cota occav cn'
cccc:z:
Z|a:o|v z,z|:o; a|v ||z: zv|cno8|:o; |nzo|z; 8:z; z: ,z:z;. tzv avzv
t:c-
12 |cz| ztz tov vo|ov, tz|v |cv cv t|o :c|ov toc `Ano|avo;
cvzzzvtc;, tzv 8c
tz: Za:oc c: yzzvtc; cv to 8zoo:ov yzztocz:ov 8:z toc

51 Siehe v.a. Wrrle 1975, 262-263, der darauf hinweist, dass Texte aus Physkos und Amphissa
die Verwendung derartiger Erklrungen bereits fr das 2. und 1. Jh. v. Chr. belegen. Vgl. Kera-
mopoullos 1904, 27-28.
52 Zu dieser Vermengung der Formulierungen Calderini 1908, 263; Weiss 1923, 358-359;
Wrrle 1975, 263.
53 Der Text findet sich am elften Block des Podiums. H 0.42 B 0.90 m., Buchstabenhhe 1.3-
1.5 cm. Die Schrift ist unregelmig und an einigen Stellen stark zerstrt.
289
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
yzztca; N:zvoo; toc Aco:zoc. ztcc; o: cn:ycyzotc; ^:o8a-
o; 1:ov:oc, ^zav Hoczoc, N:ootzto; z: lc8ao; o: `ln:v:oc,
^:o8ao;
16 z: Azcv; ltztz|y|o|c|, 1:ov:o; N:|av|o;, 1:avo;} toc l:noc,
cnc ^za nzocozv
z: cccocozv cnc zctzv yzz:, cnc: oc o:8c yzztz. oooyc: ^za
ocvcczcotc:|v|
tz: noycyzcvz: avz:. ztcc; o: zcto:. c: |^z|avo; toc Hoczoc.
oooya ycyovc-
vz: cz:at; cn: tz; noycyzcvz; avz; ztzotzc:; cno Za:oc z:
^zoc;. z-
20 tcc; ztz nzvtav o: zcto:.
Unter dem Archon Eudoros, Sohn des Epinikos, im Monat Amalios, Ratsherren waren Diodo-
ros, Sohn des Philonikos, Diodoros, Sohn des Andronikos, Kritolaos, Sohn des Dorotheos. Zoilos,
Sohn des Apollonios und Damo, Tochter des Antiphilos, bergaben wobei mir Damo, meine
Tochter, zustimmte zur Freiheit das Kind, das im Haus geboren worden war, mit dem Namen
Zoilos, dem Apollon Pythios, fr einen Preis von fnf Minen Silber. Sie haben den Preis zur Gn-
ze empfangen. Bedingung ist, dass er frei sein mge und unberhrbar gegenber allen und auf
alle Zeit und tun knne, was auch immer er will, und hingehen kann, wohin auch immer er
mchte. Als Garanten haben wir Damon, Sohn des Polemarchos, eingesetzt. Wenn aber jemand
Zoilos zum Zweck der Versklavung ergreift, so sollen die Freilasser und der Garant dem Gott
Gewhr leisten fr den Kauf. Auf die gleiche Art und Weise soll jeder, der zufllig anwesend
ist, berechtigt sein, Zoilos zur Freiheit zu ergreifen, wobei er unbestraft bleiben soll und sich
keiner Klage oder Strafe stellen muss. Die Kaufurkunde hinterlegen wir gem dem Gesetz, die
eine inschriftlich im Heiligtum des Apollon, die andere von der Hand des Zoilos geschrieben im
ffentlichen grammatophylakion durch den grammateus Nikanor, Sohn des Lysimachos.
Zeugen (sind) die, die unterfertigt haben: Diodoros, Sohn des Philonikos, Damon, Sohn des Po-
lemarchos; Nikostratos und Eudoros, Shne des Epinikos, Diodoros und Lamenes, Shne des
Stratagos, Philonikos, Sohn des Nikon, Philon, Sohn des Gripos. Fr Damo, in ihrer Anwesen-
heit und auf ihren Befehl, fr sie geschreiben, da sie die Buchstaben nicht kennt: Es anerkennt
Damo, zuzustimmen dem angefhrten Kauf. Zeugen (sind) dieselben. Hand des Damon, Sohn
des Polmarchos. Ich anerkenne, Garant geworden zu sein fr den angefhrten Kauf, eingesetzt
von Zoilos und Damo. Zeugen fr all dieses (sind) dieselben.
Folgender Aufbau der Urkunde lsst sich feststellen: Z.1-2 enthalten die genaue
Datierung des Rechtsvorgangs, unter Nennung des amtierenden Archonten, des
Monats und der Ratsherren, allerdings ohne Angabe eines Tages.
54
Darauf folgt
in Z.3 die Erklrung des Verkaufs, im vorliegenden Fall eingeleitet durch znc -
8ovto, da es sich um eine von Zoilos, Sohn des Apollonios und Damo, Tochter
des Antiphilos, gemeinsam vorgenommene Freilassung handelt. Wenn nur eine
Person als Freilasser auftritt, lautet die Wendung natrlich znc8oto (etwa SGDI
1912, Z. 2). In dieser Erklrung, die stets in der dritten Person wiedergegeben
wird, wird auch der freizulassende Sklave genannt, ebenso Apollon Pythios als

54 Mulliez 1992, 37-38. In Inschriften, die Freilassungen durch Brger anderer Stdte in Del-
phi publizieren, ist stets auch eine Datierung nach dem lokalen Amtstrger vorgenommen, vgl.
etwa SGDI 2117, Z.1 (oben Anm.49).
290
Kufer (Z.5). Einen ersten Hinweis auf den angesprochenen Bruch in der Syn-
tax bietet Z.4: In die Erklrung des Verkaufs ist durchaus blich die Zustim-
mung eines Familienmitgliedes eingeschoben, in diesem Fall die Zustimmung
der Tochter der Freilasser, Damo. Auf einmal wird davon gesprochen, dass Damo,
meine Tochter, mir (wohl ihrem Vater) zustimmt. Hierin wird man einen
Teil einer als cheirographon eingereichten Urkunde zu sehen haben, der bei der
Redaktion des Textes entweder bewut im Original belassen oder aber berse-
hen wurde.
55
Zur znc8oto-Erklrung gehren die Bedingungen, unter denen der
Verkufer den Sklaven dem Kufer Apollon Pythios bergibt: der Sklave mge
frei und unantastbar bleiben, das heit jeglicher Zugriff auf den Freigelassenen
zur Wiederversklavung soll untersagt sein. An dieser Stelle findet sich auch die
Paramone-Klausel, wenn die Freilassung unter der Bedingung erfolgte, dass der
Freigelassene eine bestimmte Zeit bei seinem ehemaligen Herrn verbleiben soll-
te.
56
In der vorliegenden Urkunde wird aber auf eine derartige Beschrnkung der
Freiheit bewut verzichtet. Zoilos ist frei, zu tun, was auch immer er mchte und
seinen Wohnort zu wechseln (Z.7-8).
Der Kaufpreis betrug nach Z.5 fnf Minen, gleichzeitig wird in unserem
Fall objektiv stilisiert die bernahme des Kaufpreises quittiert. Derartige Quit-
tungen finden sich sowohl in der dritten Person als auch in der ersten Person.
Dabei ist aber darauf hinzuweisen, dass die ersten Belege fr Quittungen in der
Form znca oder zncocv aus dem ersten Jh. n. Chr. stammen. Sie sind wohl
ebenfalls Beispiele fr Textelemente, die den entsprechenden cheirographa ent-
nommen wurden. Die objektiv stilisierten Belege zncc: oder zncovt: blei-
ben wesentlich hufiger, das Verhltnis betrgt ungefhr 2.5 : 1.
57
In zahlreichen
Freilassungsinschriften fehlen die Quittungen, die fr einen echten Kaufver-
trag aber ein unabdingbares Element darstellen. Krnzlein legt berzeugend
dar, dass man daraus nicht darauf schlieen drfe, dass die Texte Belege fr un-
entgeltliche Freilassungen seien, sondern vielmehr, dass die Bezahlung eines
Kaufpreises (oder Lsegeldes nach Krnzlein), kein konstitutives Element der
Freilassungsurkunde gewesen sei und es daher auch nicht zwingend notwendig
gewesen war, dieses in die ohnehin berarbeitete und gekrzte inschriftliche

55 Das gleiche Phnomen findet sich in FD III 6,42, Z. 2-3.
56 Zur Paramone-Klausel u.a. Mulliez 1992, 38-39 mit Anm. 36 und weiterfhrender Litera-
tur oder Zelnick-Abramovitz 2005, 222-248.
57 Einige Beispiele seien zur Illustration hier angefhrt. zncc:: SGDI II 2042, Z.4 (196 v.
Chr.); 1840, Z.5-6 (ca 150-140 v. Chr.); FD III 2,174, Z.11 (ca 118 v. Chr.); 2,131, Z.3 (ca 78 v. Chr.); FD
III 6,135, Z.7-8 (ca 75-80 n. Chr.) und mehr als 100 weitere Belege. zncovt: SGDI II 2146, Z.3
(150-100 v. Chr.); FD III 3,19, Z.4 (ca 53 v. Chr.); 6, 20, Z.6 (ca 20-1 v. Chr.); 6,44, Z.5 (20-46 n. Chr.);
6,130, Z.11 (ca 90-100 n. Chr.) und etwa 60 weitere Belege. znca: FD III 6,114, Z.6 (49/8-40 v.
Chr.); 6,115, Z.4 (20-1 v. Chr.); 6,19, Z.5 (1-20 n. Chr.); 6,31, Z.6-7 (1-20 n. Chr.); 6,8, Z.9 (20-46 n.
Chr.); 6,33, Z. 2 (47-66 n. Chr.); FD III 4,78, Z.5 (85 n. Chr.) und etwa 40 weitere Belege. znco-
cv: FD III 6, 27, Z.6 (1-20 n. Chr.); 6,6, Z.9-10 (20-46 n. Chr.); 6,108, Z.5-6 (47-66 n. Chr.); 6,109,
Z.8-9 (75-100 n. Chr.); 6,123, Z.6 (90-100 n. Chr.).
291
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
Publikation aufzunehmen.
58
Gerade das Fehlen der Quittung ist ein gewichtiges
Argument gegen die Annahme, dass die Inschrift eine wortgetreue Kopie des
Freikaufes sei.
Z.8 enthlt einen neuerlichen Einschub in der 1. Person Plural: Die Freilasser
versichern, als cz:at Damon, Sohn des Polemarchos, eingesetzt zu haben
(zcotzzcv).
59
Krnzlein stellt fest, dass auch in den krzesten Freilassungs-
texten die Nennung des Garanten nie fehlte, da sie nach dem Recht der Stadt not-
wendig gewesen war. Dies belegen expressis verbis Texte, in denen von einer Stel-
lung des Garanten ztz tov voov oder ztz toc; vooc; (tz; no:o;) gem
den Gesetzen (der Stadt) gesprochen wird.
60
Die im vorliegenden Text folgende
Erluterung der Garantiepflichten der Freilasser und des Garanten (Z.8-10) sowie
die Freistellungsklausel, die jeden zufllig Anwesenden dazu ermchtigte, ohne
Angst vor Strafe oder Verfolgung fr einen von Wiederversklavung bedrohten
Freigelassenen einzutreten (Z.10-11), waren nicht obligatorisch und knnen
auch nicht in allen Texten nachgewiesen werden.
61
Die unpersnliche Nennung
der Freilasser Zoilos und Damo als o: zno8ocvo: weist meines Erachtens darauf
hin, dass diese Klausel formelhaft ist.
62
In Z.11-14 folgt die Archivierungsklausel,
die wiederum aus Sicht der Freilasser formuliert ist und bereits eingehend ana-
lysiert wurde (oben bei Anm.38ff.).
Den Abschlu der Freilassungsinschrift bilden die Listen der Zeugen (Z.14-16)
sowie persnliche Erklrungen eines Familienmitglieds (Z.16-18) und des Garan-
ten (Z.18-20). Acht Zeugen, darunter der cz:at Damon, Sohn des Polemar-
chos, besttigen das Rechtsgeschft und knnen wohl in Zukunft als Auskunfts-
personen zur Freilassung des Zoilos herangezogen werden.
63
Ungewhnlich ist

58 Krnzlein 1980, 86-90.
59 Die etwa 60 Belege fr personalisierte Angaben zur Einsetzung eines Garanten stammen
alle aus dem 1. Jh. n. Chr. Vgl. etwa FD III 4,73, Z.11-12 (8 n. Chr.); 6, 27, Z.7-8 (1-20 n. Chr.); 6,31,
Z.8-9 (1-20 n. Chr.); 6,13, Z.9 und Z. 22-24 (20-46 n. Chr.); 4,78, Z.13 (85 n. Chr.).
60 Etwa SGDI II 1760, Z.9-10 (156-151 v. Chr.); FD III 2, 122, Z.6 (126 v. Chr.); 1, 297, Z.13-14
(90 v. Chr.) und einige hundert weitere Belege. Zu den personalisierten Einsetzungen mit
einem Verweis auf die geltenden Gesetze vgl. FD III 6,19, Z.6-7 (1-20 n. Chr.); 6,5, Z.10-11 (20-46
n. Chr.); 6,15, Z.10-13 (20-46 n. Chr.); 6, 22, Z.11-12 (20-46 n. Chr.). Vgl. auch Gauthier 1972, 95,
der annimmt, dass es sich bei den genannten Gesetzen um delphische nomoi ber Freilassun-
gen handelte (oben Anm. 40).
61 Krnzlein 1983, 304-305 zur Einsetzung des Garanten. Zum Schutz vor Wiederverskla-
vung siehe v.a. Krnzlein 1984 und ausfhrlich zum Prozess um die Freiheit Rfner 1997,
373-376. Siehe auch Calderini 1908, 222-234 mit Vergleichen zu Freilassungsakten aus ande-
ren Teilen Griechenlands.
62 Vgl. Krnzlein 1983, 306-307 zur Frage, ob die Haftung der Veruerer gegenber dem
Gott vereinbart werden mute, oder ex lege bestand. Krnzlein entscheidet sich, ebenso wie
Partsch vor ihm, fr eine gesetzliche Haftung und erlutert, dass die Angabe dieser offenbar
unntigen Klauseln durch das Streben nach Vollstndigkeit zu begrnden sei.
63 Normalerweise werden unter den Zeugen die Priester des Apollon von den :8:atz: (Pri-
vatpersonen) unterschieden, dabei werden die Priester stets an erster Stelle genannt (z. B.
292
die Benennung der Zeugen als ztcc; o: cn:ycyzotc; (Z.14). Normalerwei-
se wird cn:yzc:v in Delphi nur verwendet, um darauf schreiben auszudr-
cken und findet sich so etwa in Anweisungen zur Setzung einer Inschrift.
64
Auch
die Ttigkeit der Zeugen wird erst ab dem 1. Jh. n. Chr. nher beschrieben und
dabei mit cnoyzc:v darunter schreiben, unterzeichnen bezeichnet, etwa
in dem eine Liste einleitenden Hinweis ztcc; o: cnoyzzvtc;.
65
Die vor-
liegende Inschrift zeigt deutlich, dass nicht nur die Freilassung selbst bezeugt
wurde. Die selbe Gruppe von Mnnern besttigt auch die Zustimmung der Toch-
ter Damo und die Homologie des Garanten. Persnliche Erklrungen der Zeugen
finden sich normalerweise in den Freilassungsinschriften nicht. Sie waren auch
nicht notwendig, da die Zeugen lediglich im Streitfall angerufen werden sollten,
um die Echtheit der Urkunde oder ihr Wissen um den Rechtsakt zu besttigen.
Eine Ausnahme bildet FD III 6,14, die eine interessante Unterschrift enthlt. Zu-
nchst bezeugen in Z.11 die beiden Priester Dionysios, Sohn des Astoxenos und
Damon, Sohn des Polemarchos gemeinsam mit fnf Privatpersonen die Freilas-
sung zweier Mdchen durch Iranion, Tochter des Nikandros, die Stellung eines
Garanten und die Freistellungsklausel. Sie werden ebenfalls als Zeugen fr die
Archivierung des antigraphon des Kaufvertrages und die Besttigung des Ga-
ranten genannt (Z.16). Von zweiter Hand sind Z.17-21 hinzugefgt, die sich im
Schriftbild von der vorhergehenden Inschrift unterscheiden, aber nicht genau
zu datieren sind. In ihnen besttigen drei neue Privatpersonen in der 1. Person
Plural, die Abschrift unterzeichnet zu haben.
66
Da wir nicht davon ausgehen wer-
den knnen, dass die drei Zeugen ihre Unterschrift direkt auf den Stein im Thea-
ter gesetzt haben, liegt eine sptere Abschrift einer subjektiv stilisierten Bestti-
gung der Zeugen auf der Originalurkunde vor, die ansonsten auf den Inschriften
stets objektiv stilisiert wiedergegeben wurde.
Die Homologie des Garanten Damon, Sohn des Polemarchos, wird mit dem
Vermerk c: eingeleitet (Z.18-19). Sie findet sich in dieser Form in weiteren del-
phischen Freilassungsurkunden und bildet eine notwendige Ergnzung zur Er-
klrung der Freilasser, den cz:at eingesetzt zu haben. Die folgende Passage
war also auf der Originalurkunde von Hand des Garanten selbst geschrieben und

FD III 6,19, Z.17-20). Eine derartige Spezifizierung der Zeugen findet sich in der vorliegenden
Inschrift nicht. Allerdings wissen wir von den beiden erstgenannten Zeugen, dass sie gemein-
sam dem nicht angefhrten Dionysios, Sohn des Aristoxenos, als Priester des Apollon ttig wa-
ren (unter anderem FD III 6,19, Z.17-20; 6, 23, Z.11-12; 6, 27, Z. 21-23; 6,31, Z.17-19, alle 1-20 n. Chr.).
Auch die privaten Zeugen sind zumeist auch in anderen delphischen Inschriften belegt.
64 Etwa FD III 3, 239, Z.17 (160/59 v. Chr.); 2,48, Z.43-44 (97 v. Chr.); 1, 263b, Z.4 (2. Jh. n. Chr.).
Die Verwendung des Part. Pf. Akt. von cn:yzc:v ist epigraphisch nicht noch einmal belegt.
65 FD III 6,19, Z.16 (1-20 n. Chr.); 6, 27, Z.15 (1-20 n. Chr.); 6,31, Z.17 (1-20 n. Chr.); 6, 29, Z.13
(20-46 n. Chr.).
66 Z.17-18: to zvt:yzov cnoyc|yzzc|v c|no tv a|vv. ztcc; ... Das antigraphon
unterschrieben wir unter dem Kauf (unterhalb des Kaufvertrags). Zur Unterscheidung der Hnde Val-
min, FD III 6,14.
293
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
enthlt entsprechend subjektiv stilisiert seine Anerkenntnis der bernahme
der Verpflichtung, dem Kufer gegenber fr den Verkauf und damit die Frei-
heit des ehemaligen Sklaven einzustehen.
67
Die oooy:z selbst wird wohl auch
mndlich stattgefunden haben, die Abgabe der Erklrung des Garanten wurde
wiederum von den Zeugen besttigt (Z.19-20). Spannend sind nicht zuletzt Z.16-
19, die die Zustimmung der Tochter der Freilasser zum Verkauf enthalten.
68
Auch
hier liegt wiederum eine oooy:z vor, allerdings diesmal objektiv stilisiert und
in der 3. Person Sg. berliefert. Damo war wie die Freilassungsurkunde lehrt
selbst nicht in der Lage zu schreiben und konnte daher den Vermerk auf der
Urkunde nicht eigenhndig setzen (oc o:8c yzztz, Z.17). Allerdings wird
betont, dass sie bei der Errichtung der Urkunde anwesend war und den Vermerk
der oooy:z selbst anordnete (nzocozv z: cccocozv cnc zctzv yzz:,
Z.16/17). Wer das Schreiberamt fr sie bernahm, wird nicht gesagt, mglicher-
weise war es der grammateus Nikanor, der in der Archivierungsklausel als han-
delnder Amtstrger angefhrt wird (Z.13-14).
69

Die vorliegende Urkunde ist also eine Kombination aus objektiven und sub-
jektiven Elementen und belegt darber hinaus schriftliche und mndliche Vor-
gnge im Rahmen der Freilassungen. Betrachtet man die Freilassungsurkunden
aus dem 1. Jh. n. Chr. im berblick, fallen bestimmte Muster der Kombination
auf. Objektiv stilisiert sind stets die Einleitung mit dem Vermerk znc8oto / z -
nc8ovto und die ParamoneKlausel, sowie die Strafklauseln, soweit sich das bei
diesen Textbausteinen einwandfrei erkennen lsst. Subjektiv gehalten sind aus
Sicht der Freilasser oft die Quittung, die Einsetzung der Garanten und der Archi-
vierungsvermerk sowie schlielich verschiedene Zustze zum Schluss der Ur-
kunde aus der Sicht dritter Personen.
70
Wie hat man sich eine derartige Freilassung nun vorzustellen? Anzunehmen-
derweise waren die Parteien, also einerseits die Freilasser als Verkufer, even-
tuell Verwandte, deren Zustimmung notwendig war und die Garanten, sowie
andererseits Vertreter des Gottes als Kufer, wohl der manchmal namentlich
genannte nakoros und Priester, zusammengekommen, um den Kauf abzuschlie-
en. Ich wrde jedenfalls auch mit der Anwesenheit des Kaufobjekts, also des
freizulassenden Sklaven rechnen. Der Kaufpreis wurde bergeben, die notwen-
digen Erklrungen wurden geleistet und der Sklave war somit frei. Dazu wurde

67 Zur eigenhndigen Unterschrift der Garanten Keramopoullos 1904, 21-26. Zur oooy:z
Velissaropoulos-Karakostas 2011 II, 214-218 mit weiterfhrender Literatur.
68 Die Zustimmung von Familienangehrigen, die sich in Delphi in etwa 40% der erhaltenen
Freilassungsurkunden ausmachen lsst, wird von Krnzlein 1964 umfassend analysiert.
69 Die oooy:z konnte auch von einem Dritten geschrieben werden, wie dies etwa FD III
6,31 belegt.
70 Vgl. etwa SEG 34, 396 (BCH 108, 1984, 366 Nr. 4; 20-46 n. Chr.); FD III 6, 27 (1-20 n. Chr.); 31
(1-20 n. Chr.); 6 (20-46 n. Chr.); 29 (20-46 n. Chr.); 119 [2] + 120 (50 n. Chr.); 133 (75 n. Chr.); FD III
1, 138 (35 n. Chr.) und viele mehr.
294
eine Kaufurkunde entweder in der Form einer syngraphe oder eines cheirogra-
phon errichtet. Diese Urkunde wurde dem grammateus zur Archivierung ber-
geben, wobei man darunter wohl nicht nur die Aufbewahrung, wie sie in lte-
rer Zeit bei den Zeugen vorgenommen wurde, zu sehen hat. Die Formulierung
8:z toc yzztca; weist auf eine echte Beteiligung der Behrde hin, ohne die
die Freilassung wohl nicht rechtsgltig war. Man wird vielmehr von einer Be-
urkundung ausgehen mssen, wie sie in den eingangs angesprochenen Texten
aus Paros, Kos, Thasos und Myra enthalten ist. Ich denke, dass dies der Moment
der berarbeitung und Kompilation verschiedener Elemente zu einer Frei-
lassungsurkunde war: Der Freilasser legte der zustndigen Behrde (dem gram-
mateus) die Kaufurkunde vor, die mit einem Datum versehen und von Zeugen,
deren Identitt festgehalten wurde, besttigt wurde. In Anwesenheit des gram-
mateus wurden dann die notwendigen Erklrungen der Garanten und mglicher
anderer Zustimmender aufgenommen und ebenso frmlich bezeugt. Auf dem
Papyrus waren also jedenfalls verschiedene Hnde zu erkennen, auf Stein wurde
die Urkunde natrlich nur von einem Schreiber gesetzt.
Aus diesen Elementen wurde die neue Urkunde zusammengesetzt, die
schlielich sowohl auf Stein publiziert, als auch bei der Behrde hinterlegt, also
archiviert wurde. Diese Annahme knnte erklren, warum einerseits subjektiv
stilisierte Teile aus der Anerkenntnis eines Kaufes und andererseits objektiv sti-
lisierte Teile aus einer Beschreibung der Freilassung miteinander verknpft wur-
den. Fr diesen Vorgang berliefert FD III 6, 133, Z.15 und Z. 23 bildhaft den Be-
griff avzvco:z, also die Hinterlegung des Kaufes respektive der Kaufurkunde.
Somit sind die Freilassungsinschriften des 1. Jh. n. Chr. keine reinen Kopien von
Kaufurkunden, sondern Kopien neu erstellter, zumeist berarbeiteter und je-
denfalls beurkundeter Versionen des Freikaufes, also der Freilassungsurkunden.
Die Archivierung von Urkunden zur Graberrichtung
im kaiserzeitlichen Kleinasien
Aus dem kaiserzeitlichen Kleinasien sind mehrere tausend Grabinschriften er-
halten, die in unterschiedlicher Ausfhrlichkeit nicht nur ber die jeweiligen
Bestatteten berichten, sondern auch Verbote und Strafen zum Schutz der Grber
vor widerrechtlicher Verwendung enthalten. Zudem finden sich Angaben zur
Eintreibung der Strafgelder und zur gesetzlichen Verankerung der Vorschriften
sowie in manchen Fllen zum Erwerb der Grabsttte. Nicht zuletzt schlieen
zahlreiche Grabtexte mit einer Archivierungsklausel und informieren den Le-
ser ber die Hinterlegung der Vorschriften und Verbote im stdtischen Archiv.
Derartige Klauseln sind hufig aus Milet, Smyrna und Ephesos erhalten, um die
grten ionischen Zentren zu nennen. In Mysien und der Troas finden sie sich
eher selten, regelmig werden sie allerdings in Karien eingesetzt, vor allem
in Aphrodisias, aber auch Bargylia, Herakleia Salbake oder Nysa. Die frhesten
295
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
Exemplare der Archivierungsvermerke stammen aber aus Lykien und Pisidien,
wo bereits im 1. Jh. v. Chr. eine Mitwirkung der Archive an der Graberrichtung
nachzuweisen ist.
71

In unterschiedlichen Formulierungen enthalten die Inschriften den Ver-
merk znctc c:; to zc:ov oder znoc:tz: cv ta zc:a , der als Zeugnis
fr eine einfache Hinterlegung der entsprechenden Urkunde im stdtischen
Archiv interpretiert werden kann.
72
Daneben findet sich aber immer wieder
die Wendung 8:z tav zc:av, die auf eine aktive Mitwirkung der Behrde
an verschiedenen Rechtsakten schlieen lt. Dies besttigt wohl auch eine
Gebhrenordnung aus Ephesos aus der Zeit der Flavier, in der neben einer
Gebhr ztzyz:oc auch eine Gebhr yz:oc und 8: zc:oc belegt sind.
Gschnitzer sieht darin Beurkundungs- und Eintragungsgebhren fr eine
Registrierung durch das entsprechende Amt.
73
Deutlicher beschreibt diesen
Vorgang die Gebhrenordnung aus Thasos:
IG XII Suppl. 347 III (Thasos, 2. Jh. n. Chr.)
cn: N:z8oc toc `A:oto8oc to ` zovtc; c:nov
toc; czototc vovz; nzcc:v tz; coc; cnzvzy-
c; to:; ococvo:; 8:z tav 8oo:av zt:,c:v,
1 zzvovtz; ncvc:oc cv czotoc ztz tov vo-
ov
x
8
x
:oaoca; 8c 8:zyz; :oaoca;
av; a:; t; c cvcczooc zvz
x
z
x
tav z-
av yzocvav no:z.
Unter Nikadas, S.d. Aristodemos, in der zweiten Amtszeit, die archontes stellten den Antrag:
Die jeweils amtierenden mnemones sollen zwingend Papyrusrollen denjenigen zur Verf-
gung stellen, die durch die ffentlichen (Archive) Rechtsgeschfte beurkunden wollen. Dabei
nehmen sie fr jede (Eintragung der) Mitgift nach dem Gesetz vier Denare, einer Pacht oder der
Bezahlung einer Pacht oder einen Kauf es sei denn aufgrund einer Pfndung jeweils einen
Denar, die anderen Schriftstcke ohne Gebhr.

71 Allgemein Wrrle 1975, 263-279, der in seinem umfangreichen Kommentar zum Edikt
des Q. Veranius mehrfach auf die Archivierung von Urkunden rund um den Graberwerb und
die Graberrichtung eingeht. Siehe auch Wenger 1929, 342-344 und Ritti 2004, 558-562, sowie
Harter-UibopuuWiedergut 2012, bei Anm. 55-78; Harter-Uibopuu 2012. Detaillierte ber-
legungen zu den archivierten Urkundstypen und ihren Unterschieden, sowie zur Rolle der
Behrden (archeia) im Rahmen der Errichtung von Graburkunden stellen einen zentralen Teil
des Dissertationsvorhabens meiner Mitarbeiterin K. Wiedergut Epigraphische Quellen zum
Archivwesen in den Poleis Kleinasiens dar. Daher soll im folgenden nur ein kurzer Einblick
anhand weniger ausgewhlter Inschriften gegeben werden, wobei ich K. Wiedergut fr ihre
Untersttzung und die Mglichkeit, ihre Quellensammlungen zu verwenden, ausdrcklich
danken mchte.
72 Etwa I. Smyrna 206, Z.9-11; I. Ephesos 3215, Z.5-6; I. Milet VI 2, 677, Z.1-4; IAph 2007, 2,309,
Z.15-20; MAMA VI 83, Z.17-18 (Attouda); I.Iasos 635, Z.3; MAMA VI 133, Z.15-17 (Herakleia Salba-
ke); AvHierapolis 216, Z.5-8; I. Kibyra 291, Z.5.
73 I. Ephesos 13, vgl. Gschnitzer 1989, 392-393 und 400-402.
296
Den thasischen mnemones wird vorgeschrieben, bei der Errichtung einer
ffentlichen Urkunde ber ein privates Rechtsgeschft gegen feste Gebhren t-
tig zu werden. Sie sollen denjenigen, die beurkunden wollen (8:z tav 8oo:av
zt:,c:v) Papyrusrollen zur Verfgung stellen.
74
Darunter ist sicherlich
nicht nur das Material an und fr sich gemeint, sondern die Eintragung in die
entsprechenden Listen und die Aufnahme der Urkunde in ein Konvolut von
Abschriften. Wrrle setzt diese Ttigkeit mit derjenigen der Archivbeamten in
Priene gleich, die eine zvzyz in Papyrusrollen und auf Pergament vorneh-
men.
75
Derartige Aufgaben der Archive vermute ich auch als Hintergrund der
Vorschriften aus Kos, die eingangs vorgestellt wurden.
In den Grabinschriften lassen sich verschiedene, unter Einbeziehung des
Archivs vorgenommene Rechtsakte nachweisen. Dabei handelt es sich einer-
seits um den Kauf oder die Vergabe von Berechtigungen an der Grabsttte. An-
dererseits sind auch Testamente, die 8:z tav zc:av errichtet wurden, belegt.
Schlielich werden die Mitwirkung der Behrden bei der Absicherung der
Urkunden und allgemein der Vertragserrichtung angesprochen. An einigen
Beispielen soll diese Praxis nun kurz erlutert werden.
I. Milet VI 2, 613 (Ende 2. / Anf. 3. Jh. n. Chr.)
to aov cn:zto 8:z tav z|c:|av T(:to;) Na(v:o;) Kznooo;
cn: otcz(vooc) 1z:zvoc `Ayzvoc, (vo;) . cotz: tav cyovav
zctoc c: 8c t:; z' czctoc zc:, 8ao|c|: ta ^:8cc: z . t;
1 cn:yz; znocv znctc c:; to zc:ov cn: otczv(ooc)
vacat A:(:zvoc) Honz, (vo;) : .
Das Heroon erwarb T. Nonius Karpophoros durch die Archive unter dem Stephanephoros Fa-
bianus Ancharenos, im achten Monat. Es gehrt auch seinen Nachfahren. Wenn aber jemand
auer ihm bestattet, soll er dem Didymeus 1000 Denare geben. Die einfache Abschrift der In-
schrift ist hinterlegt im Archiv unter dem Stephanephoros Aelianus Poplas, im zehnten Monat.
Die Inschrift, die auf dem Trsturz des heroons angebracht war, besttigt zwei
Rechtsakte und unterscheidet deutlich zwischen dem Kauf der Grabsttte und
der Errichtung des Grabes. Der Kauf wurde unter Mitwirkung der Behrden oder
Archive vollzogen und wird nach dem Stephanephoren Fabianus Ancharenos im
8. Monat seiner Amtszeit datiert (Z. 2). Der Erwerb des Grabes bildet die Grund-
lage fr die Errichtung desselben, bei der die Berechtigungen zur Grablege eben-
so vorgeschrieben wurden, wie eine Strafe fr die Miachtung der Vorschriften
(Z. 2-3). Die Registrierung einer Kopie der epigraphe erfolgte unter dem Stepha-
nephoren Aelianus Poplas, im 10. Monat seiner Regierungszeit, mithin also zu-
mindest ein Jahr nach dem Kauf des Grabes. Die Inschrift wurde in einem, wohl

74 Weiss 1928, 569 und Daux 1926, 229 weisen den mnemones lediglich eine untergeordne-
te Rolle zu, indem sie die Aufzeichnung gestatten. Dagegen sprechen sich Lambrinudakis-
Wrrle 1983, 328, Anm. 236, aus.
75 Wrrle 1975, 260.
297
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
erst nach der Graberrichtung, aufgezeichnet. Der ganze Text ist objektiv stilisiert
wiedergegeben, vom Grableger wird in der 3. Person gesprochen. Da aus dem
Kauf wesentliche Angaben, wie etwa eine genaue Bezeichnung des Kaufobjektes,
der Verkufer, oder der Preis fehlen, haben wir hier wohl nur einen Verweis auf
die entsprechende Kaufurkunde vor uns. Auch die Urkunde zur Graberrichtung
ist sicher nicht wortwrtlich wiedergegeben, sondern liegt in berarbeiteter Fas-
sung vor.
76
Anders verhlt es sich mit dem Beispiel TAM II 63, einer Grabinschrift aus
Telmessos. Wiederum erfolgt der Kauf eines Grabmals (hier eines pyrgiskos)
durch die Archive und es folgen ein Verbot und die korrespondierende Strafklau-
sel. Der Text ist aber zur Gnze subjektiv stilisiert.
TAM II 63, Z.1-8 (Telmessos, kaiserzeitlich)
loz|?|z;
Kczcc;
avozv
1 8:z tav zc:-
av tov ncy:-
oov czcta
z: ycvz:: oc
8 `ln:8: ...
Ich, Sesammas, Kerameier, kaufte durch die Archive das Grabmal fr mich und meine Frau
Elpis ...
77
Ein Registrierungsvermerk fehlt, wie in Telmessos durchaus blich. An dieser
Stelle muss davor gewarnt werden, aus dem Fehlen einer Archivierungsklausel
in Grabinschriften auf das Fehlen der Archivierung selbst zu schlieen. Es kann
sich durchaus um eine lokale Tradition gehandelt haben, die Hinterlegung der
Urkunde eben nicht zu erwhnen. Gerade das funktionierende Archivwesen in
den lykischen Stdten der Kaiserzeit, auch in Verbindung mit der Errichtung von
Grbern, ist eindrucksvoll nicht zuletzt im Edikt des Q. Veranius belegt, auch
wenn in einigen lykischen Stdten entsprechende Hinweise auf den Grabin-
schriften selbst konsequent fehlen.
Neben dem Kauf wurde auch die unentgeltliche Weitergabe von Grbern
ohne Eigentumsbergang, die ocvao:;, oftmals unter Mitwirkung der Archi-
ve vorgenommen.
78
Interessant ist in diesem Zusammenhang auch ein Brief, der

76 Harter-UibopuuWiedergut 2012, bei Anm.9 und 77.
77 ... z: to:|;| | ncvco:; o|c| | lcoocv |z:| | `lzvoz:a z: tc |
12
vo:; av | z:
lat:a | tav ncvca|v?| | ctca 8c oc8c|
16
v: ccotz: tz|vz: cnc: z|no|t|c:oc: ta
|:c||atzta tz|
20
c:a ,z. ... und fr meine Schwiegereltern Euphrosyne und Ianoarios und unsere
Kinder und Soterichos, (den Sohn?) der Schwiegereltern. Niemand anderem soll es erlaubt sein, bestattet
zu werden. Widrigenfalls soll er dem ehrwrdigsten fiscus 1500 Denare zahlen.
78 Ein Beispiel dafr ist etwa die aphrodisische Grabinschrift IAph 2007, 11.103 (1.-3. Jh. n. Chr.):
298
auf dem Sockel eines ephesischen Sarkophags erhalten ist, und seinen Empfnger
berechtigt, seine Grabrechte in einem Archiv seiner Wahl eintragen zu lassen.
I. Ephesos 2121 (204 n. Chr.)
79
A:::a `A:otc:8 ta zt:ota K. `Avtav:z Tzt:zv z:c:v. ocyaa oo:,
c:c oc z8cc, cv aa ta ovt: o: cv `lcoa no t; n|c; t;
Mzyvt:; tv cv 8c:z ? ooov, c' a |-
8ccoz: oc tv ycvz:z ooc. cyzz tv cn:otov 8:z 8ococ oc ^:ovco:oc,
z: zct cncyzz. cn: cnztav 1z:oc Kc:avo; to z: `Av|v:oc
A:avo;, covto; ooc coco:zv zvt:yzz:|
znocoz: c:; ono:z zv oc; zc:z z: nzoco; coc. K.
`Avtav:z Tzt:zv cocoz tcvov 8:z:ov cc|ccoz - - - ycvcoz: - - -
zot:|
4 noycyzntz: z: caoz: oc, c:c oc, ccoz:. z: znctc c:; tz
zc:z no : Kz(zv8av) ^ccv:av 1z:a K:|av: to `Avv:a
A:av: cnzto:;.|
Aemilius Aristeides, den vir egregius, grt Claudia Antonia Tatiane. Ich bertrage Dir, mein
Herr Bruder, in dem Heroon, das mir in Ephesos vor dem magnesischen Tor gehrt, den auf der
rechten Seite gelegenen Sarkophag, unter der Bedingung, dass Du Deine Frau bestattest. Ich
lie den Brief von meinem Sklaven Dionysios schreiben, und ich unterfertigte ihn selbst unter
den Konsuln Fabius Cilo II und Annius Libo, wobei Du das Recht hast, ihn gegenzuzeichnen
und zu hinterlegen in welchen Archiven auch immer Du willst, auch ohne meine Anwesenheit.
Ich, Claudia Antonia Tatiane, Inhaberin des ius liberorum, befahl, dass geschehen mge
so wie es oben beschrieben ist. Und ich wnsche Dir, mein Herr, dass es Dir wohl ergehe. Und
es wurde hinterlegt (sc. die Urkunde) in den Archiven am 22. November im Jahr der Konsuln
Fabius Cilo II und Annius Libo.
Die Grabinhaberin, Claudia Antonia Tatiane, eine rmische Brgerin, bertrgt
ihrem Bruder Aemilius Aristeides das Recht auf einen Sarkophag in ihrem Grab-
haus, damit er seine verstorbene Frau bestatten kann. Entgegen der bisherigen
Meinung denke ich, dass es Tatiane nicht darum gegangen war, ihrem Bruder
zu gestatten, die Archivierung der synchoresis entweder vorzunehmen oder das

o nz tz; c ot:v T:c: oc | Kzc8: oc ^:z8occ voc | z: : 8: av zc toc ztz t v 8o|
1
c: ozv
zc ta ocva o:v c |no lz: oc |t|o|c | `loyc voc; | 8:z toc ||cocz: oc a v z v | t:;
ctz|:|v oc: toc tav t:|
8
vz |tc| y znoo o|;| |tc z |z|ooz nat c ot|a| zc |ta ta
c n:||c: ozvt:. Unterbau (des Grabes) des Tiberius Claudius Diadoumenos und seiner Angehrigen,
gem der ihm von Salvius, Sohn des Hermogenes, durch das chreophylakion erteilten synchoresis. Wer
etwa einen von diesen wegbewegt, dem soll die Erde keine Frchte tragen und das Meer nicht schiffbar sein,
ihm, der die Tat ausfhrt. Fast alle aphrodisischen Grabinschriften verweisen auf die Hinterlegung
der Urkunden im chreophylakion. Vgl. etwa aber auch TAM II 171, Z.4-7 (Hippokome); TAM II 925,
Z.6-8 (Rhodiapolis); TAM II 881, Z.3-6 (Akalissos); TAM II 353 (Xanthos). Allgemein zur synchoresis
Ritti 2004, 481-482; Wrrle 1975, 270-272; Harter-UibopuuWiedergut 2012, bei Anm. 15-22.
79 Stirnseite eines Marmorquaders (H 0. 22 B 1.89 T 0.78), der mit einem weiteren, rechts
anschlieenden Marmorquader den Sockel eines der Sarkophage gebildet hat. Zur Grabanlage
des Q. Aemilius Aristeides, in der drei Sarkophage aufgestellt waren, siehe ausfhrlich Rudolf
1992.
299
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
Schreiben einfach zu behalten. Vielmehr gesteht sie ihm zu, die Archivierung
auch ohne ihre Anwesenheit durchfhren zu knnen. Dies wrde bedeuten, dass
die Anwesenheit beider Parteien bei der behrdlichen Eintragung eines derarti-
gen Rechtsgeschfts notwendig gewesen war. Ob allerdings die Archivierung fr
die Rechtskraft der synchoresis zwingend war, oder lediglich eine Mglichkeit des
Schutzes darstellte, lsst sich anhand dieses Textes nicht eindeutig klren.
80
Die
Besttigung der Archivierung wird am Ende des Textes angefhrt und datiert,
dabei ist aber weder klar, ob es sich dabei um die Archive in Ephesos handelte,
noch, welcher Rechtsakt von der Eintragung betroffen war.
Auch unter den Grabinschriften sind Texte erhalten, in denen die fr Delphi
vorgestellten Brche zwischen subjektiver und objektiver Stilisierung nachge-
wiesen werden knnen. Dafr steht etwa eine Inschrift aus Hypaipa in Lydien.
Auf dem Grabmal des Arztes Basileides, S.d. Menodoros, das dieser fr sich, seine
Frau und die Nachkommen errichtete beginnt der Text in objektiver Stilisierung,
lediglich der Vermerk der Absicherung durch die Archive in Hypaipa ist subjek-
tiv stilisiert.
81

Viele Grber weisen Inschriften auf, die durch verschiedene Schreiber
manchmal mit deutlichem zeitlichem Abstand gesetzt wurden. Grabsteine
wurden oftmals wieder verwendet, ohne die lteren Grabtexte zu eradieren.
Manchmal wurden auch Teile dieser Texte bewut stehen gelassen, um dem
neuen Formular angepasst zu werden.
82
Interessant fr den vorliegenden Bei-
trag sind Texte, in denen die Mitwirkung der Archive bei Nachtrgen aufgezeigt
werden kann. Als Beispiel sei hier eine Grabinschrift aus Olympos vorgestellt.

80 Zur Auffassung Wengers (1929, 341-343) siehe Harter-Uibopuu 2012, bei Anm. 17.
81 I. Ephesos 3829 (SEG 31,997, vgl. BE 1982, 352, Marmortafel mit tabula ansata): Bzo:c:8;
Mvo8otoc :zto; z|tcocczocv to vc:ov czcta z: | ycvz:: z: cyyovo:;, 8cvo;
cov|
1
to; coco:zv znzot:aoz: zcto | ztz 8cvz tonov c: 8c , cnccc|vov c:vz:
`1nz:nvav oc nootc: |oc ovozt: *, tocto 8c z: 8:z tav cv `1nz: |
8
no:; zc:av
oz:oz:. Basileides, Sohn des Menodotos, Arzt, lie das Grabmal fr sich, seine Frau und die
Nachkommen errichten, wobei es niemandem zusteht, dieses auf irgendeine Art und Weise zu veruern.
Wenn aber doch, so soll er der Boule der Hypaiper unter dem Titel Strafzahlung auf 2500 Denare
verantwortlich sein. Dieses sicherte ich auch durch die Archive in Hypaipa ab. Vgl. zu den Stilbrchen
auch: I. Nikaia 117; AvHierapolis 278; TAM II 68 (Telmessos, die Errichtung des Grabes ist in der
3. Person Sg. beschrieben, der Vermerk der Berechtigung durch das Archiv in der 1. Person Sg.);
TAM II 1130 (Olympos).
82 Vgl. etwa SEG 48,1394; I. Ephesos 2218A; I. Ephesos 1655 und Harter-Uibopuu 2012 bei
Anm. 58-61.
300
TAM II 1028, Z.1-17 (Olympos, rmisch)
83
tov tcov ztcocc-
zocv `looc|o|o; cocc-
acvo; cno ovoav
4 ^:otc:oc 8:; czcta z: `Ayzc-
:8: cyzt: ^t:z;, zvcc-
zcv ctca 8c oc8cv: ccotz:
8ccvz:, oc:coc: ca
8 `Hz:ota * z: tc:oc: 8:z; ztzo-
v:o:; co:;.
col I. ocvca-
oz 8c z: lc-
12 zn:z Nc:c-
vct; t
ycvz:: oc
z: to:; c zc-
16 t;, z: 8:z
tav zc:av.
Das Grab errichtete Isochrysos, freigelassen von den Erben des Diotimos, Sohn des Diotimos, fr
sich und Agathemeris, Tochter der Demetria, die wir aufgezogen haben. Niemand anderem sei
es gestattet, bestattet zu werden, widrigenfalls wird er dem Gott Hephaistos 500 Denare schul-
den und den unterirdischen Gttern Strafen entrichten.
Ich habe die Zustimmung auch erteilt der Serapia Nikenetes, meiner Frau und ihren Kindern;
ihr auch durch die Archive.
Der Grableger Isochrysos, ein Freigelassener, errichtete ein Grab fr sich und
Agathemeris, die Tochter der Demetria.
84
Allen anderen wird eine Bestattung
darin verboten. Dennoch zeigt col. I ab Z.10 das Zugestndnis der Grablege an
Serapia Nikenetis und ihre Nachkommen, die nun ebenfalls in dem Grab bestattet
werden drfen. Die synchoresis wird 8:z tav zc:av erteilt, darauf verweist der
in der ersten Person sprechende Grableger, der wohl Isochrysos selbst sein mu.
Serapia knnte meines Erachtens die zweite Frau des Isochrysos gewesen sein,
fr die er seine ursprngliche Beschrnkung des Grabrechts aufhob. Zustzlich
83 Die Inschrift stammt von einem Grabhaus in Olympos, oberhalb der Tr waren Z.1-9 an-
gebracht, auf dem linken Trpfosten Z.10-19, auf dem rechten Trpfosten Z. 20-26. Heberdey
vermutet wohl zu Recht, das der Text ab Z.10 spter angebracht wurde als der Haupttext. Die
Annahme, dass Z. 20-26 noch spter gesetzt wurden, kann aus dem Inhalt der Inschrift nicht
besttigt werden. Ich nehme an, dass die nchste Bestimmung bereits in Z.18, also auf dem lin-
ken Pfosten, beginnt. Z.18-26 enthlt die Berechtigung der Grablege fr einen ehemaligen Skla-
ven, an dessen Freilassung die Archive von Olympos mitgewirkt hatten: ocvca|oz |
20
z:
1::n|na t|a| z: | Ocot:a | `Ocvnva, |ov| |
21
z: 8:z ta|v| | |z|c:a|v z |n|ccc|aoz|.
Ich habe die Zustimmung auch dem Philippos erteilt, der auch Theotimos genannt wird, Olympener, den
ich durch die Archive freigelassen habe.
84 Die Verwendung der 1. Person Pl. im Aorist deutet jedenfalls darauf hin, dass es nicht der
Grableger Isochrysos war, der fr Agathemeris gesorgt hatte. Sie wird mglicherweise ebenso
eine Freigelassene gewesen sein wie er, die Errichtung eines Grabes fr sich selbst und seine
Frau wre naheliegend.
301
epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
wird auch dem ehemaligen Sklaven Philippos Platz im Grabhaus eingerumt.
Gerade aus Olympos haben wir weitere Beispiele, die aufgrund der Schriftfh-
rung und der Anordnung der Texte nahe legen, dass es auch nach der Errichtung
eines Grabes und der Anbringung der Grabinschrift mglich war, durch syncho-
resis die Berechtigungen zu erweitern und die Rechtsakte auf dem Stein nachzu-
tragen.
85
Die Mitwirkung der Archive wurde in manchen Fllen wohl betont, um
die Rechtmigkeit der Vorgehensweise zu belegen. Zahlreiche Grabinschriften
aus Olympos belegen, dass eine Berechtigung zur Grablege, die nach der Graber-
richtung erfolgte, schriftlich ausgefhrt werden musste, so z. B. in TAM II 1003,
Z.5-7: ctca 8c oc8cv: ccotz: 8ccoc, c: cya t:v: cvyza; cn:tca Kei-
nem anderen ist es gestattet, zu bestatten, wenn ich ihm nicht schriftlich die Erlaubnis er-
teile.
86
Anzunehmenderweise ist mit der schriftlichen Ausfertigung der entspre-
chenden Urkunde auch eine behrdliche Genehmigung verbunden gewesen.
Wie bereits eingangs angesprochen, ist der Vermerk znctc c:; to zc:ov
in den Urkunden wesentlich hufiger anzutreffen, als derjenige, dass etwas
8:z tav zc:av durch die Behrden zu geschehe. In all diesen Fllen lt sich
die Rolle der Archive bei einer Hinterlegung, die durch das Verb znot::
nahegelegt wird, nicht bestimmen. Dennoch gibt es berlegungen, die auf mehr
als eine bloe Entgegennahme bereits vorbereiteter Urkunden deuten, und eine
Mitwirkung der zustndigen Amtstrger nahelegen. In seinem Kommentar
zum Edikt des Veranius argumentiert Wrrle berzeugend, dass die oc:ao:;
eine subjektiv stilisierte Erklrung des Grablegers zu Berechtigungen, Verbo-
ten und Strafen im Zusammenhang mit seiner Grabsttte darstelle, die bei den
zustndigen Archivbehrden zur Genehmigung eingereicht wurde.
87
Dass die
Rolle der Archive bei der Errichtung der Graburkunden nicht zu unterschtzen
ist, legen zudem die starken lokalen Traditionen in der Formulierung der Texte
nahe. In den meisten Stdten Ioniens und Kariens (mit Ausnahme von Ephesos
und Smyrna) werden stets hnliche Wendungen gebraucht, um Verbote zu set-
zen, Berechtigungen zu erteilen und Strafen anzudrohen.
88
Die Archivbeamten
werden also vermutlich bei der Erstellung der Texte geholfen oder zumindest
Vorlagen zur Verfgung gestellt haben. Schlielich gelang es der Stadt auf diese
Art und Weise auch, den berblick ber Eigentumsverhltnisse an Grabsttten
zu bewahren. Somit fgen sich die Urkunden, die von Erwerb und Veruerung

85 Zustzliche Bewilligungen nach der vollstndigen ersten Grabinschrift enthalten TAM II
1026, Z.8-13; 1031, Z.9-24; 1042, Z.6-13; 1089, Z.12-16; 1134, Z.8-14; 1137, Z.7-14; 1142, Z.9-15 und
weitere.
86 Vgl. in Olympos: TAM II 969, Z.4-5; 972, Z.5-7; 983, Z.4-5; 996, Z.3-5; 999, Z.4-6 und etwa 30
weitere Belege. Die schriftliche Erteilung von Zugestndnissen findet sich berall in Lykien in
Grabinschriften, auerhalb Lykiens sind die Belege sehr sprlich, vgl. etwa I.Iasos 385, Z.5.
87 Wrrle 1975, 269-272. Mglicherweise wird man in der oc:ao:; allerdings nicht eine
Urkundenform sondern einen genehmigenden Rechtsakt von Seiten der Behrde zu sehen ha-
ben, wie K. Wiedergut mitteilt.
88 Zu Ephesos siehe Harter-Uibopuu 2012, bei Anm. 33-34.
302
von Grabsttten sprechen, in die Registrierung von Grundbesitz, die aus frhe-
ren Jahrhunderten gut bekannt ist, ein.
* * *
Durch die Mitwirkung der stdtischen Behrden und Archive an den Freilas-
sungen in Delphi im 1. Jh. n. Chr. und den Graberrichtungen im kaiserzeitlichen
Kleinasien, sowie die Erluterung der beiden koischen Inschriftenfragmente
konnte angedeutet werden, dass die Stadt ab dem ausgehenden Hellenismus
und verstrkt in der Kaiserzeit Interesse daran zeigte, private Rechtsgeschfte
durch ihre Zustimmung abzusichern. Die Archive fungierten nicht nur als Hin-
terlegungsorte fr Akten und Urkunden, sondern auch als Notariate. Gleichzei-
tig hatte die Polis mit der oftmals obligatorischen Einreichung von Urkunden
ein Mittel gewonnen, die bereinstimmung dieser Rechtsgeschfte mit den gel-
tenden Vorschriften zu berprfen.
303 epigraphische quellen zum archivwesen
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Arnaoutoglou 1998
I. Arnaoutoglou, Ancient Greek
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Boffo 1995
L. Boffo, Ancora una volta
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Bousquet 1964
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307
bevlkerungskontrolle, statuszugang und archivpraxis
thomas kruse
Bevlkerungskontrolle,
Statuszugang und
Archivpraxis im
rmischen gypten
1
Zu den einschneidensten Manahmen, die die Rmer nach der bernahme
der Herrschaft in gypten getroffen haben, gehrte sicherlich die Einfhrung
der Kopfsteuer, die in gypten zoyz:z genannt wurde. Von ihr waren nur
Rmer, Alexandriner und die Bewohner der zunchst zwei (Naukratis und Pto-
lemais Hermiu) bzw. (nach der Grndung von Antinoupolis) drei poleis in der
gyptischen Chora ausgenommen. Ansonsten waren ihr alle Bewohner des Lan-
des unterworfen, also auch die in der Chora lebenden Griechen bzw. derjenige
Teil der hellenisierten Bevlkerung, der sich seinem Selbstverstndnis nach als
Griechen sah, was diese Personen besonders hart getroffen haben drfte, weil
sie damit auf eine Stufe mit den gyptern gestellt wurden.
Diese anfngliche Diskriminierung durch die Kopfsteuer wurde indessen
durch fiskalische Privilegien wieder partiell differenziert, indem nmlich ein
Teil der Bewohner der Gaumetropolen die Kopfsteuer zu einem reduzierten Satz
bezahlte. Diese Gruppe wurde im Arsinoites etwa einfach als zno tonoca;
bezeichnet, in Oxyrhynchos hingegen als tono:tz: 8a8cz8zo: sowie

1 Die Siglen der Papyruseditionen folgen der Checklist of Editions of Greek, Latin, Demotic
and Coptic Papyri, Ostraca and Tablets (http://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/scriptorium/pa-
pyrus/texts/clist.html).
308
im Herakleopolites als otz8zo:, weil der ermigte Kopfsteuersatz dort bei
12 Dr. bzw. 8 Dr. lag. Fr die Einreihung in diese von den Rmern neu konstitu-
ierte Statusgruppe mute von Vater- wie Mutterseite die Abkunft von Metropo-
liten nachgewiesen werden.
Aus der metropolitanen Bevlkerung wiederum herausgehoben war ihre Eli-
te. Sie ist in einigen Gaumetropolen unter der Bezeichnung zno (oder c toc )
ycvzo:oc bezeugt. Fr die Aufnahme in diese Statusgruppe war offenbar eine
mglichst lange, lckenlose Reihe von gewissermaen gymnasialen Vorfah-
ren gefordert.
2

Im Arsinoites, der das Gebiet der heute Fayum genannten durch den westli-
chen Seitenarm des Nil gespeisen Oase umfate, entsprach den zno ycvzo:oc
als hauptschliche Trger hellenischer Kultur mehr oder weniger die Gruppe der
zto:o:. Sie waren die Nachkommen der von den Ptolemerknigen dort in
groer Zahl angesiedelten militrischen Kleruchen. Die offizielle Bezeichnung
der Angehrigen dieser sozialen Gruppe lautete Katke aus der Klasse der 6475
(griechischen Mnner) des Arsinoites.
3
Diese so seltsam technisch anmutenden
Bezeichnung verweist deutlich auf den brokratischen Akt der Konstituierung
dieser Gruppe, demnach die Rmer irgendwann einmal die Griechen des Fa-
yum gemustert, aus ihnen einen numerus clausus von 6475 Katken gebildet und
diese mit fiskalischen Privilegien ausgestattet haben mssen.
4

ber den Zugang zu diesen privilegierten Statusgruppen wachten die loka-
len Verwaltungsbehrden mittels eines als cn::o:; bezeichneten Verfahrens
der Statusfeststellung und Statuskontrolle, welchem die mnnliche Bevlkerung
i.d. R. mit dem Eintritt der Volljhrigkeit (und damit der Steuerpflichtigkeit) im
14. Lebensjahr unterworfen wurde. Fr rmische Brger, Militrveteranen und
(zumindest anfnglich auch die Alexandriner) wurde die Epikrisis hingegen vom
praefectus Aegypti vorgenommen, wie einige diesbezgliche Aktenauszge des
Statthalterarchivs zeigen.
5
Wegen der besseren Dokumentation fr die Details
des Verfahrens soll im Folgenden indes die Epikrisis der privilegierten Gruppen
der enchorischen Bevlkerung im Mittelpunkt stehen.
6
Ebenfalls auer Betracht

2 Zur gymnasialen Klasse im Besonderen siehe auch Whitehorne 1982; van Minnen 2002;
Ruffini 2006.
3 Siehe etwa SB VI 9145,5 (cf. BL X 196; 184-192 n.Chr.): z|to:o; zn|o ta|v ||coc toc
`Ao:v|o|c:toc, SB XX 14163,5 (= P. Tebt. II 566 descr.): |zt|o:o; (l. zto:oc) tav cv
`Ao:(vo:t) z|v|8av `lvav.
4 Zu den Katken im Arsinoites siehe auch Montevecchi 1970, 1975; Canducci 1990, 1991.
5 Zur Rolle des Archivs des praefectus Aegypti fr die Archivierung der Akten ber die Epikrisis
dieser Personengruppen siehe auch Haensch 1992, 290-293.
6 Die umfangreichste analytische Behandlung der Epikrisis ist nach wie vor Nelson 1979,
seitdem ist zwar eine nicht unbetrchtliche Anzahl neuer Epikrisis-Dokumente hinzugekom-
men, die das vorher bekannte Bild von ihrem brokratischen Prozedere indes nicht wesentlich
verndert haben; zu einzelnen Aspekten der Epikrisis siehe ferner: Montevecchi 1974; Kruse
2002, 252-271; Yiftach-Firanko 2010.
309
bevlkerungskontrolle, statuszugang und archivpraxis
bleiben im Folgenden auch die gyptischen Priester, die als Personengruppe mit
besonderer Funktion und teilweise ausgestattet mit fiskalischen Privilegien
ebenfalls einer Epikrisis unterworfen waren, mittels derer die zustndigen Be-
hrden den Zugang zu den diversen Priestermtern und die Zusammensetzung
der Priesterschaften in den gyptischen Tempeln reglementierten und kontrol-
lierten.
7
Nicht bereits die Geburt, sondern erst ein administrativ-brokratischer Akt in
Form der Epikrisis entschied also darber, ob die mnnliche Nachkommenschaft
denselben privilegerten Status beanspruchen konnte wie ihre Eltern. Die Epikri-
sis fllte mithin eine wesentliche Entscheidung ber den knftigen Platz einer
Person in der Gesellschaft und das Ausma des ihm von dieser zugebilligten So-
zialprestiges. Diese hohe gesellschaftliche Bedeutung der Epikrisis wird in spre-
chender Weise etwa auch dadurch illustriert, da die betroffenen Familien die
erfolgreiche Absolvierung der Epikrisis ihrer jungen mnnlichen Nachkommen
als einen Grund zum Feiern betrachteten wie etwa kleine Einladungsbillets zu
Epikrisis-Feiern aus der mittelgyptischen Gaumetropole Oxyrhynchos zeigen.
8
Die erfolgreiche Absolvierung der Epikrisis fhrte dazu, da die betreffen-
de Person knftig in den offiziellen Akten als cn:c:cvo; gefhrt wurde. Als
Beispiel seien etwa zwei Eintrge in einer insgesamt 173 Eintrge umfassenden
Liste genannt, die der Vorsteher des Stadtviertels Apolloniu Parembole der arsi-
noitischen Gaumetropole Ptolemais Euergetis (Arsinoe) im Jahr 72/73 n.Chr. er-
stellt hat und die diejenigen in dem besagten zo8ov ansssigen mnnlichen
Personen umfat, die den ermigten metropolitanen Kopfsteuersatz zu be-
zahlen hatten. Die Liste ist Haus fr Haus angeordnet und verzeichnet in jedem
Eintrag neben dem Namen der betreffenden Person auch das Jahr ihrer Epikrisis
und ob der Betreffende gegebenenfalls anllich dieser berprfung unter die
14-jhrigen (d.h. also erstmalig unter die Kopfsteuerpflichtigen fr den privile-
gierten metropolitanen Kopfsteuersatz) eingereiht worden war und schlielich
sein Alter zum Zeitpunkt der Erstellung der Liste. Die beiden Eintrge betreffen
zwei junge Mnner, die im Haus ihrer Mutter Tamystha wohnen:
o::(z) Tzcoz; `Ano|av:|o(;) `Anoav:oc t|o|c `An|oa|v:oc (to;)
Tzco(z;) cn:(c:cvo;) cv (tcoozcoz:8czctco:) 8 (ctc:) (ctav) | `U:-
ycv; z8co; (to;) t; zct|; cn:|(c:cvo;) cv (tcoozcoz:8czctco:) ,
(ctc:) (ctav) .
9

7 Zu cn::o:; und c:o:o:; der gyptischen Priester siehe auch Kruse 2002, 258-262.
8 Siehe etwa P.Oxy. XXXVI 2792: zc: oc `Uc:av (l. `U:av) c:; | tv cn::o:v toc | c:oc
t :c c:; | tv |:|8:zv o::zv |
5
zno az; , LXVI 4541: catz oc 8c:nvoz: lzzn:a|v| | c:; to
Kzn:ta(c:ov) c:; cn:(:o:v) toc | c:oc zctoc |z|no a(z;) (beide 3. Jh.).
9 P. Lond. II 260 Kol. I Z. 1-2 (= SPP IV p. 62 Z. 507-508).
310
Haus der Tamystha: Apollonios, Sohn des Apollonios des Sohnes des Apollonios, die
Mutter ist Tamystha, im 4. Jahr (sc. des Nero = 57/58 n.Chr.) der Epikrisis unterzogen
und in die Klasse der 14-jhrigen eingeschrieben, 29 Jahre alt. | Horigenes, sein Bruder
von derselben Mutter, im 7. Jahr (sc. des Nero = 60/61) der Epikrisis unterzogen und in
die Klasse der 14-jhrigen eingeschrieben, 27 Jahre alt.
Die Statusbezeichnung cn:c:cvo; erscheint aber auch als Selbstbezeich-
nung in Eingaben an die Behrden, in denen die Angabe des Personalstatus von
Relevanz war. Dies gilt etwa fr die sog. Zensusdeklarationen oder besser:
Haushaltsdeklarationen (die zt` o::zv znoyzz: ), mittels derer jeder Haus-
haltsvorstand im Zuge des alle 14 Jahre stattfindenden Provinzialzensus, die in
seinem Haushalt lebenden Personen den Behrden gegenber zu melden hat-
te.
10
So deklariert etwa ein Haushaltsvorstand in Ptolemais Euergetis in einer fr
den Zensus des Jahres 145/146 n.Chr. den Behrden eingereichten Deklaration,
unter den in seinem Haushalt lebenden Personen einen 73-jhrigen Mieter na-
mens Chares, der den Katkenstatus besitzt, jedoch zu den sog. berjhrigen
(cncctz: ) gehrt, also demjenigen Personenkreis, der die Altersgrenze der
Kopfsteuerpflicht von 61 Jahren berschritten hat, dessen Ehefrau und Schwe-
ster und sodann unter deren Kindern, den Sohn, der als cn:c:cvo; cv zto: -
o:; bezeichnet wird, d.h. nach erfolgreicher Epikrisis in die Statusgruppe seines
Vaters eingeschrieben worden war.
11

Die Epikrisis schied mithin regelmig die fiskalisch-privilegierten Gruppen
der Bevlkerung als cn:c:cvo: von der groen Masse der einfachen Kopf-
steuerpflichtigen, den zoyzoccvo: mit dem Ergebnis einer rigiden Klas-
seneinteilung der Bevlkerung. Die Auswirkungen dieser Art von Bevlkerungs-
politik hat Hans-Julius Wolff treffend dahingehend charakterisiert, da sie das
schon immer bestehende Geflle zwischen jener (sc. hellenisierten Oberschicht)

10 Zum Provinzialzensus im rmischen gypten siehe Hombert Praux 1952; Bagnall
Frier 1994; Kruse 2002, 63-139; Jrdens 2009, 62-94; siehe ferner Bagnall 1991; Palme 1993.
Gelegentlich erscheint der Terminus cn::o:; auch als Bezeichnung fr die Haushaltdekla-
rationen im Zuge des Provinzialzensus, so etwa in P. Hamb. I 60,7-9 (Hermupolis, 90 n.Chr.):
znoyzoz: c:; tv zt` o:|:zv| cn|:|:o:v (fr weitere Zeugnisse siehe Bussi 2003, 162)
sowie in Zusammenhang mit deren berprfung bzw. der auf der Grundlage der berprfung
der zt` o::zv znoyzz: erstellten Register, die mitunter unter der Bezeichnung nc8:zov
cn::oca; t; zt` o::zv znoyz; erscheinen (siehe hierzu auch Kruse 2002, 264-265).
Diese Verwendung des Begriffes cn::o:; beruht auf dessen allgemeiner Grundbedeutung als
berprfung, Inspektion etc. und ist von dem hier diskutierten Verfahren der Statusber-
prfung zu unterscheiden.
11 P. Meyer 9,6-8 (cf. BL X 121; Ptolemais Euergetis, 8. Juli 147 n.Chr.): toc; cnoycyz(cvoc;)
cvo:|oc;, Xzt|z `At|z:oc toc ^|:ovco:o|c to; |Xz|c:t:oc t; `A||o8c:o:|o|c
zto:ov tav coc cncct (ctav) |o|y zoo; (l. zoov) z|: t|v | |toctoc ycvz:z
ocozv oonzt:|ov z8c||v `Ho:8z to; Tct:z; t; ^:8coc cyz|to|; zto|:|oc
z|no|ycyzcv|v| ta : (ctoc;) |c|oc `A8:zvoc cn: | |toc zctoc zo8oc ^:ov|co:(oc
Tonav) (ctav) z zo(ov) z: zot(cav) tcvz `Atz:zv (ctav) z zo(ov) cn:c-
:(cvov) cv zto:o:;.
311
bevlkerungskontrolle, statuszugang und archivpraxis
und den eingeborenen Massen durch soziale und steuerliche Bevorzugung der
ersteren in eine politisch-rechtliche Diskriminierung der letzteren umwandelte
und so zu verewigen suchte.
12

Das administrative Prozedere bei der Durchfhrung der Epikrisis kann wie
folgt skizziert werden: Die Eltern oder der Vormund stellten bei den zustndi-
gen Behrden vor allem in Gest alt des Strategen und des zo::o; yz-
ztcc; des jeweiligen Gaus sowie gegebenenfalls ad hoc bestellter cn::tz:
13

den Antrag auf Aufnahme des Knaben in die relevante Statusgruppe, und diese
berprften anhand der eingereichten Unterlagen und der bei ihnen gefhrten
Bevlkerungsregister die Berechtigung dieses Anspruches. War diese gegeben,
wurde der Betreffende sodann in die entsprechende Statusgruppe eingeschrie-
ben. Voraussetzung hierfr war, da die Eltern (bzw. noch weitere Vorfahren)
den beanspruchten privilegierten Personalstatus besaen, wofr entsprechende
Nachweise zu erbringen waren.
In den Anmeldungen ihres Nachwuchses zur Epikrisis legen die Antragstel-
ler Beweise fr die Berechtigung ihres Anspruches vor bzw. berufen sich zu die-
sem Zweck auf ffentlich archivierte Informationen, denen zu entnehmen ist,
da sie selbst Angehrige der privilegierten Bevlkerungsgruppe sind, in die sie
den eigenen Nachwuchs einschreiben lassen wollen.
Betrachten wir zunchst eine Epikrisis-Anmeldung fr die Metropolitenklas-
se aus der arsinoitischen Gaumetropole Ptolemais Euergetis (Arsinoe) aus dem
Jahr 187 n.Chr. (P.Gen. I
2
18), die das Standardformular fr derlei Dokumente re-
prsentiert. Das Ehepaar Maron und Eudaimonis, beide Metropoliten (zno t;
tonoca;) und registriert (zvzyzocvo;) im Stadtviertel Apolloniu Par-
embole, meldet den gemeinsamen Sohn Sarapion zur Epikrisis an. Begrndung
hierfr ist, da dieser im laufenden Jahr in die Klasse der 13-jhrigen eintritt und
deshalb der Epikrisis unterzogen werden mu. Zu diesem Zweck fgen sie ih-
rem Ersuchen die erforderlichen Nachweise bei, cnctzzcv tz 8:z:z. Obwohl
dieser Satz (wir haben die unseren Anspruch beweisenden Dokumente unten
angefgt) prima vista zu suggerieren scheint, als ob der Epikrisis-Anmeldung
eine Zusammenstellung entsprechender Beweisurkunden angefgt sei, folgt
indes nichts weiter als eine kurze Erklrung der Antragsteller, des Inhalts, da
sie sich in der Vergangenheit regelmig haben registrieren lassen (znoyzz -
cz tz:; ztz z:ov znoyzz:;). Damit sind die Haushaltsdeklarationen

12 Wolff 2002, 112. Man vgl. diesbezglich auch die einschlgigen Bestimmungen ge-
gen Statususurpation im Gnomon des Idios Logos (BGU V 1210), so etwa 44: A:ycnt:oc
znoyzzcvo|c| c:ov a; ccco|t|z tav 8co tctztov zvzzzvctz: (Z. 121-122) Von
einem gypter, der einen Sohn als gewesenen Epheben schriftlich gemeldet hat, wird von bei-
den (sc. Vater und Sohn) ein Viertel (sc. des Vermgens) eingezogen. Zur Deutung des 8co tc -
tztov siehe W. Uxkull-Gyllenband, Der Gnomon des Idios Logos. Zweiter Teil: Der Kommentar
(BGU V 2), Berlin 1934, 58.
13 Zu den fr die cn::o:; zustndigen Behrden und Funktionren siehe ausfhrlich Kruse
2002, 252-271.
312
(zt` o::zv znoyzz:) im Zuge des jedes 14. Jahr stattfindenden Zensus (siehe
oben) gemeint. Ergnzend wird hinzugefgt, da die beiden Ehepartner auch in
der Haushaltsdeklaration des 14. Jahres des Marc Aurel (= 173/174), also im letzt-
vergangenen Zensus, in dem besagten Stadtviertel gemeldet waren und bei Gele-
genheit dieser Deklaration auch den nunmehr der Epikrisis zu unterziehenden
gemeinsamen Sohn gemeldet haben (ocvznoyzzcvo: z: tov cn::voc-
vov av c:ov).
14
Dieser mu damals mithin etwa ein Jahr alt gewesen sein. Zum
Beweis des Anspruches auf den privilegierten Metropolitenstatus fr den Sohn
gengte also offenbar der Rekurs auf die in Erfllung der Deklarationspflicht bei
den zustndigen Behrden archivierten Zensusdaten. Fr die Epikrisis wurden
diese Aufzeichnungen dann dahingehend berprft, ob die beiden Ehepartner
jeweils in die Gruppe der Metropoliten eingetragen sind.
15

Auch in den Antrgen fr die Aufnahme in die Metropolitenklasse von Oxy-
rhynchos berufen sich die Antragsteller auf Eintragungen in amtlichen Listen.
Dies zeigt etwa die Epikrisis-Anmeldung fr den Knaben Sarapion aus dem Jahr
127/128 n.Chr. (P.Oxy. XII 1452 Kol. I). Sie wird den Behrden von dessen Onkel
eingereicht, weil der Vater bereits verstorben ist. Der Antragsteller begrndet
die Eingabe zunchst mit dem amtlichen Befehl zur Epikrisis der Angehrigen
der Metropolitenklasse: Gem dem Befehl ber die Epikrisis derjenigen, die
in die Gruppe der 13-jhrigen eintreten, wenn sie von beiden Elternteilen her
Metropoliten sind, die die Kopfsteuer zum Satz von 12 Dr. zahlen (c: c zo-
tcav yovcav tono:tav 8a8cz8zav c:o:v). Sodann verweist er auf die
Registrierung seines Neffen Sarapion im Stadtviertel Kretikon (ctzy cn` zo -
8oc Kt:oc) sowie darauf, da dieser im vergangenen Jahr in die Klasse der
13-jhrigen eingetreten ist. Da nunmehr dessen Epikrisis ansteht, erklrt er, da

14 P.Gen. I
2
18 (Ptolemais Euergetis, 25. Jan. 187 n.Chr.): |`Aav:a| zyozvoo|zv|t: z:
|y|cvz||o:zoz|vt: n|o|; t cn:||:oc: | |nzz Mz|avo; Mzav|o;| toc |`l|oz,
|t||o; lz|zto|; z: t; ycvz|:o|; lc8z:o|
5
v|:|8o; Ht|o|cz:oc toc H|a|vo;,
zotc|av zno |t|; tonoca;, zvzy(zocvav) cn` z|o8oc `Anoav:oc Hzc-
o;, t; 8c | lc8z:ov:8o; ctz c:oc zctoc Mza|vo;. toc ycyovoto; :v c| z|av
c:oc |
10
lzzn:avo; noozvto|; c:;| (tc:oz:8czctc:;) ta cvco|tat: |, (ctc:)| z: oc: -
ovto; |c|n:||:vz: z|tz tz |ccc|ocvtz, cnctzzcv tz 8:z:|z|. | zncy(zzcz)
tz:; ztz z:ov zno|y|(zz:;), t 8c | toc :8 (ctoc;) ||coc Ac:oc `Av|t|avc:voc
z|
15
otco|: z|noyzzcvo: cn: t; noc:cv;
\zo8|oc|/
, ocv|znoy(zzcvo:) ||z:
tov cn::vocv|o|v av | c:ov cv |t| zct toc :8 (ctoc;) zt` o::zv zno|y(z). 8:o
cn:8:8ocv. | (2. Hd.) `Aav:o; zyoovooz; z: ycvzo:zoz; oco(c:az:). |
20
(1.
Hd.) (ctoc;) , Mz|o|c Ac:oc Koo8oc `Avtavc:voc | Kz:ozo; toc c:oc, Tc: .
15 Mitunter werden die Epikrisis-Anmeldungen fr die Metropolitenklasse von Ptolemais
Euergetis (Arsinoe) zwar etwas ausfhrlicher, indem sie fr die Ehepartner wenigstens alle zu-
rckliegenden Zensusanmeldungen mit ihrem jeweiligen Datum auflisten, wie etwa die Epi-
krisis-Anmeldung des Didymos und der Isis fr ihren Sohn Anoubas aus dem Jahr 141 n.Chr.
illustriert (P.Grenf. II 49 [= P. Lond. III 703]), wo die zt` o::zv znoyzz: der Jahre 103/104,
117/118 und 131/132 n.Chr. genannt werden. Derlei Angaben aus den frheren Zensusdeklara-
tionen erleichterten den Behrden zwar sicherlich die Arbeit, verpflichtend waren sie aber au-
genscheinlich nicht, da sie sich nicht regelmig in den Epikrisis-Anmeldungen finden.
313
bevlkerungskontrolle, statuszugang und archivpraxis
sein Neffe ein 8a8cz8zo; sei (8a ovtz zctov 8a8cz8zov) und da
dessen Vater vor seinem Tod ebenfalls diesen Status besessen habe (tov toctoc
nztcz tctccctcvz: to n:v ovtz 8a8cz8zov), weil er in der Kopf-
steuerliste (8:` oooyoc zoyz:z;
16
) des 8. Jahres des Hadrian des Stadtvier-
tels Pammenus Paradeison unter den Dodekadrachmoi verzeichnet war (8:z
zoyz:z; (ctoc;) `A8:zvoc zo8oc Hzcvoc; Hzz8c:ooc). Das Regi-
ster, auf welches sich der Antrag hier bezieht, ist also im Jahr 123/124 n.Chr. an-
gelegt worden. In ihm erschien der Vater des Knaben offenbar zum letzten Mal
als 8a8cz8zo; und ist irgendwann danach verstorben. Der Statusnachweis
fr den ebenfalls verstorbenen Grovater ist nicht mehr vollstndig erhalten.
Der Hinweis auf das Jahr 89/90 n.Chr. in der letzten erhaltenen Zeile des Textes
drfte sich aber sehr wahrscheinlich auf eine Kopfsteuerliste dieses Jahres bezie-
hen, in welcher der Grovater als 8a8cz8zo; eingetragen war.
17
In anderen
Epikrisis-Anmeldungen fr die Metropolitenklasse von Oxyrhynchos wird an
dieser Stelle regelmig der Grovater mtterlicherseits genannt, weil ber ihn
der Nachweis fr den Besitz des privilegierten Metropolitenstatus auch von der
mtterlichen Seite her gefhrt wird. Im vorliegenden Fall waren die Eltern des
Sarapion aber Vollgeschwister.
Im Gegensatz zu den Epikrisis-Anmeldungen fr die Metropolitenklasse von
Arsinoe berufen sich die Antragsteller bei ihren Antrgen fr die Aufnahme un-
ter die tono:tz: 8a8cz8zo: von Oxyrhynchos also nicht auf die Re-
gistrierung im Zuge der 14-jhrigen Zensusperiode, sondern auf die amtlichen
Kopfsteuerlisten bzw. Bevlkerungsregister des Stadtviertels, in welchen der
Vater bzw. der Grovater mtterlicherseits des zum Eintritt in die Statusgrup-
pe berechtigten Knaben in die entsprechende Statusgruppe eingetragen waren,
was von den fr die Epikrisis zustndigen Behrden zu berprfen war.
Der Knabe Sarapion wird nun aber von seinem Onkel zum selben Zeitpunkt
wie fr den Eintritt in die Metropolitenklasse auch zur Epikrisis fr die Klasse

16 Zur Bedeutung von oooyo; in diesem Kontext siehe B. A. van Groningen, OMOAO-
lOl, Mnemosyne n.s. 50, 1922, 124-137.
17 P.Oxy. XII 1452 (127/128 n.Chr.; cf. BL III 137; IV 62; VI 102; VII 139; VIII 246; IX 186; X 142)
Kol. I: `Ayza ^z:ov: otz(tya) z: | `lcz: zo:(:a) yz(ztc:) z: o:; z(o:;)
z(c:) | nzz ^:o8aoc Hoct:a(vo;) | toc ^:o8aoc to(;) Tztc::o(;) |
5
`Ao:to;
zn` `Occyav noca;. | ztz tz ccco(cvtz) nc: c|n:|:(oca;) tav | noo(z:vovtav)
c:; (tc:oz:8czctc:;) c: c zot(cav) | yovcav ton(o:tav) (8a8cz8zav)
c:o:v, | ctzy cn` zo8(oc) Kt:oc |
10
o tav oonzt:av oc z8c(av) | lzzn:a(vo;) z:
Tvccoo:to; | |to(;)| ^aycca; c:o; | lzzn:av noo(ca;) c:; (tc:oz:8c-
zctc:;) ta | 8:c(ovt:) :z (ctc:) Tz:zvoc |
15
`A8:zvoc Kz:ozo; toc c:oc. | ocv
nzzycvoc(vo;) no; tv | toctoc cn::(o:v) 8a |c|:|vz|: | zctov (8a8cz8zov),
z: tov t|o|ctoc | nztcz coc 8c oonz|
20
t:ov z8c(ov) lzzn:avz tctc(cctcvz:)
| to n(:v) ovtz (8a8cz8zov) 8: oooy(oc) z|o|yz(:z;) | (ctoc;) `A8:zvoc
|z|o8(oc) |Hzc(voc;)| | Hz||z8c:ooc, z: tov n|zt(cz) tav oo||nzt:av oc
z8cav toc |
25
8c z(:o;) nznno(v) Hoct:a(vz) | ^:o8a(oc) tctc(cctcvz:) to
n(:v) ovtz (8a8cz8zov), | |o|v z: (ctc:) ^|o:t:zvo|c | --------.
314
der zno ycvzo:oc von Oxyrhynchos angemeldet. Diese Deklaration ist nm-
lich in der zweiten Kolumne von P.Oxy. XII 1452 erhalten. Weil der Nachweis der
Berechtigung zum Eintritt in diese gegenber den 8a8cz8zo: noch hhere
Statusgruppe auf anderem Wege gefhrt werden mute als fr die Epikrisis in
die Metropolitenklasse, mute die Epikrisis in die Klasse der zno ycvzo:oc of-
fensichtlich auch dann gesondert beantragt werden, wenn wie im vorliegenden
Fall ein und dieselbe Person zum Eintritt in beide Statuskategorien berechtigt
war. Wir lesen in P.Oxy. XII 1452 Kol. II zunchst wieder wie bei der Anmeldung
fr die Metropolitenklasse in Kol. I (siehe oben) die Bezugnahme auf den ent-
sprechenden Befehl zur Epikrisis der c toc ycvzo:oc, wenn sie, wie es hier
heit, dieser Kategorie angehren (c: c toc ycvoc; toctoc c:o:v). Diese
Voraussetzung ist erkennbar weniger przise formuliert als diejenige fr die
Epikrisis in die Metropolitenklasse, wo gesagt wird, da beide Eltern dieser
Statusgruppe angehren (oder angehrt haben) mssen (vgl. Kol. I). Der Grund
fr diese demgegenber eher vage Formulierung in der Epikrisis-Anmeldung
fr die gymnasiale Klasse liegt wohl darin, da diese Voraussetzung im Fall der
zno ycvzo:oc komplexer war und nur eine mglichst lckenlose und lange zu-
rckreichende Ahnenreihe gleichsam gymnasialer Vorfahren gewhrleistet
durch die in dieser Bevlkerungsgruppe bliche Endogamie zum Eintritt in
die Klasse der c toc ycvzo:oc berechtigte, was im weiteren Verlauf des Textes
deutlich wird.
Die Erklrung ber den Statusnachweis beginnt mit der Feststellung, da
Plution, der Grovater des Sarapion im 5. Jahr des Vespasian (= 72/73 n.Chr.) der
Epikrisis unterzogen worden ist. Dies geschah seinerzeit aufgrund von wieder-
um von dessen Vater Diodoros vorgelegten Dokumenten, aus denen hervorging,
da wiederum dessen Vater (also der Ururgrovater des Sarapion, ein Mann
namens Ptolemaios) in einer Liste aus dem 34. Jahr des Augustus (= 4/5 n.Chr.)
eingetragen ist. Nach der Erklrung, da der Grovater Plution mittlerweile ver-
storben ist, fhrt der Text fort mit der Angabe ber die Epikrisis des verstorbe-
nen Vaters des Sarapion im Jahr 99/100 n.Chr., wonach der Text abbricht. In den
Paralleldokumenten folgen hier blicherweise Angaben ber die gymnasiale Ab-
kunft der matrilinearen mnnlichen Vorfahren, was indes im vorliegenden Fall
nicht zu erwarten ist, da der der Epikrisis zu unterziehende Knabe wie bereits
erwhnt einer Ehe von Vollgeschwistern entstammt.
18


18 P.Oxy. XII 1452 (siehe auch o. Anm. 17) Kol. II: `Ayza ^z:ov: otztya z: | `lcz:
zo:(:a) yz(ztc:) z: o:; z(o:;) z(c:) |
30
nzz ^:o8aoc Hoct:a(vo;) | toc
^:o8aoc to(;) Tztc::o(;) | `Ao:to; zn `Occyav noca;. | ztz tz ccco(cvtz)
nc: cn::(oca;) t|av| | noo(z:vovtav) c:; toc; c toc ycvz(o:oc) c: c |
35
toc ycvoc;
toctoc c:o:v, ctzy | cn` zo8(oc) Kt:oc o tav o|onzt:av oc z8c(av)
lzzn:a(vo;) | z: Tvccoo:to; zo(tcav) t|o(;)| | ^|ayc|(ca;(?)) c:o;
lzzn:av n|oo(ca;)| |
10
c:; (tc:oz:8cztc:;) ta 8:c(ovt:) :z (ctc:) Tz:zvoc
|`A8:zvoc Kz:ozo; toc c:oc. | ocv nzzycvoc(vo;) no; tv toctoc | cn::(o:v) 8a
ztz tv ycvoc(vv) | ta c (ctc:) coc Occon(zo:zvoc) cno locta:|oc| |
15
lao:(:oc)
315
bevlkerungskontrolle, statuszugang und archivpraxis
Die Bezugnahme auf die Epikrisis von Vorfahren im Jahr 72/73 bzw. auf die
Eintragung von Vorfahren in die Liste aus dem Jahr 4/5 n.Chr. findet sich bis in
das sptere 3. Jh. regelmig in den Epikrisisanmeldungen fr die gymnasiale
Klasse von Oxyrhynchos. Besonders eindrucksvoll ist etwa ein Epikrisis-Antrag
vom 25. Juli 269 n.Chr.
19
, in dem ein Mann namens M. Aurelius Hermophilos die
Aufnahme seines Neffen M. Aurelius Flavius in die Klasse der zno ycvzo:oc
von Oxyrhynchos beantragt und die Berechtigung seines Ersuchens dadurch be-
legt, da er unter Angabe des Jahres der Epikrisis der jeweiligen Personen und
Generation um Generation zurckschreitend den Stammbaum des Knaben bis
auf einen Vorfahren namens Asklepiades, Sohn eines gleichnamigen Landver-
messers, zurckfhrt, der im Jahr 4/5 n.Chr. also 265 Jahre zuvor! erstmals in
die Liste dieser Bevlkerungsgruppe eingetragen worden war.
Der aus den oxyrhynchitischen Epikrisis-Anmeldungen zu gewinnende Be-
fund illustriert, da die gymnasiale Klasse von Oxyrhynchos offenbar mehrfach
einer Generalrevision unterzogen worden ist, bei der die Kriterien der Zugeh-
rigkeit jeweils neu fixiert worden sein mssen. Die erste dieser Revisionen war
die im Jahr 4/5 n.Chr. Mit ihr wurde sehr wahrscheinlich diese Bevlkerungs-
klasse zumindest in Oxyrhynchos berhaupt erst konstituiert. Eine weitere Ge-
neralrevision erfolgte dann im Jahr 72/73 n.Chr. Wo in den oxyrhynchitischen
Epikrisis-Antrgen die Bezugnahme auf diese beiden Revisionen (bzw. die aus
ihnen hervorgegangenen Akten fehlt), werden Vorfahren genannt, die im 3. u.
4. Jahr des Nero (= 56/57 u. 57/58 n.Chr.) in die Liste der gymnasialen Klasse
eingetragen worden sind, womit zu dieser Zeit eine weitere Generalrevision die-
ser Statuskategorie bezeugt ist.
20
Es scheint, da zwischen 4/5 n.Chr. und 72/73
n.Chr. auch Mitglieder in die Klasse der zno ycvzo:oc aufgenommen worden
sind, die keinen langen gymnasialen Stammbaum von beiden Elternteilen her

otz(tyozvto;) z: N:zv8(oc) ycvoc(voc) z|o:(:oc)| | yz(ztca;) z: av
z(av) z(c:) tav c toc | ycvz(o:oc) cn::(o:v) cn:c:o(z:) tov | nztcz
av toc | 8c z(:o;) nznnov Hoct:a(vz) |
50
|cn` z|o8(oc) ^ooc lcvz(o:oc)
|zo(oca;)| | z:; o nzt() zctoc cv cn(c)(ctco:v) cnvcy|(cv)| | zno8c:c(o:v) a; z:
o zctoc nzt() | Htocz:o(;(?)) `Aa(v:oc) Hzt(o;) cot:v | cv t toc 8 (ctoc;) coc
Kz:ozo; yz() z | |:( ), |
55
|tct|c(cctcvz:) to n(:v), |z|: |tov t|oc z(:o;)
n|zt(cz)| | |coc| 8c oonzt:o(v) z8c(ov) lzzn|:a(vz)| | |oo:|a(;) |cn:|c:|o|(z:)
ta y (ctc:) |coc| | |Tz:zvoc cno ^|:ov otz(tyozvto;) z: a|v z(av)| | |z(c:)
cn|: toc noc:cvoc |
o0
|zo8(oc)| ^ooc |lcvz(o:oc)| | --------.
19 PSI V 457 (cf. BL I 399; IV 88; VI 176; VII 235; VIII 398; X 240; XI 245); zur Datierung siehe
auch D. Hagedorn, ZPE 12, 1973, 282 Anm. 22; R. Pintaudi, ZPE 27, 1977, 117-118.
20 Zu der Generalrevision unter Nero siehe etwa P.Oxy. XLVI 3279. ber die Kriterien, die zum
Zeitpunkt ihrer Konstituierung in augusteischer Zeit fr die Bestimmung der Zugehrigkeit
zur gymnasialen Klasse in Oxyrhynchos mageblich waren, sind wir nicht informiert. Es ist
jedoch zu vermuten, da in die im Jahre 4/5 n.Chr. erstellte Liste v.a. diejenigen Griechen
Aufnahme fanden, die auf einen gleichsam hellenischen Stammbaum verweisen und diesen
durch entsprechende Dokumente (z. B. beim Gymnasium selbst gefhrte Listen) glaubhaft be-
legen konnten.
316
aufzuweisen hatten, wobei die Kriterien fr diese Aufnahme im Dunkeln blei-
ben. Nach 72/73 n.Chr. ist dies indes nicht mehr nachzuweisen. Mit der Revi-
sion im 5. Jahr Vespasians scheint vielmehr endgltig das Erfordernis eines pa-
trilinearen gymnasialen Vorfahren vter- wie mtterlicherseits endgltig fixiert
worden zu sein, welcher entweder in der Liste von 4/5 oder in der von 72/73
erscheinen mute.
In einem unlngst publizierten Beitrag
21
zu den Epikrisis-Anmeldungen aus
Oxyrhynchos aus Anla der (Neu)Edition eines solchen Dokuments
22
vertritt U.
Yiftach-Firanko die Auffassung, da das administrative Prozedere bei der An-
meldung des volljhrigen mnnlichen Nachwuchses zur Epikrisis in die Klasse
der c toc ycvzo:oc aus zwei aufeinanderfolgenden Verfahrensschritten be-
standen habe: The report (sc. die Epikrisis-Anmeldung) shows two stages. First,
the boy is registered in one of the city amphoda. Then, usually in the same year
or the year that follows, one of the childs relatives issues a report to the nomes
strategos, the basilikos grammateus, the grammateus poleos, and the bibliophylakes in
charge of the bibliotheke demosion logon, relating when and in which amphodon
the registration took place. This report sets in motion the epikrisis: the heads of
the nomes administration examine if the evidence presented by the applicant to
back his claims matches the information at their disposal, primarily that located
in the bibliothekes files. It also stands to reason that both the registration in the
city amphodon and the epikrisis by the nome officials had some bearings on the
candidates gymnasial status. But what were the exact bearings of each of the two
acts? Did the candidate become a full member of the gymnasion after the registra-
tion in the amphodon or only after the epikrisis?
23
Ich glaube indes nicht, da die Registrierung im Stadtviertel als dem fis-
kalischen Domizil der betreffenden Person (also seiner :8:z, wie dieses in den
Papyrusurkunden regelmig bezeichnet wird) Bestandteil des Verfahrens der
Epikrisis war. Vielmehr erfolgte die Registrierung im zo8ov zu einem weit
frheren Zeitpunkt vor der Einreichung der Epikrisis-Anmeldung an die zustn-
digen Behrden. Letztere fand, wie oben bemerkt, zum Zeitpunkt des Eintritts
des mnnlichen Nachwuchses in das Volljhrigkeitsalter statt, worauf die Epikri-
sis-Antrge etwa mit dem Bezug auf den behrdlichen Befehl nc: cn::oca;
tav nooz:vovtav c:; (tc:oz:8czctc:;) regelmig rekurrieren. Ent-
sprechend wird dann etwa auch in der oben behandelten Epikrisis-Anmeldung
P.Gen. I
2
18 fr die Klasse der Metropoliten von Arsinoe
24
diese damit begrn-
det, da der Knabe noozvto|; c:;| (tc:oz:8czctc:;) (Z. 10). Man beachte
den Gebrauch des Prsens - bzw. Aoristpartizips in den beiden Wendungen, der

21 Yiftach-Firanko 2010.
22 PSI VII 731 + P.Col. inv. 134 (nach 97/98 n.Chr.).
23 Yiftach-Firanko 2010, 58-59.
24 Siehe oben Anm. 14.
317
bevlkerungskontrolle, statuszugang und archivpraxis
zum Ausdruck bringen will, da die betreffenden Personen zum Zeitpunkt des
Befehls zur Epikrisis im Begriff sind, in das Volljhrigkeitsalter einzutreten bzw.
zum Zeitpunkt der Einreichung des Epikrisis-Antrags soeben volljhrig gewor-
den sind.
Die Registrierung im Stadtviertel des Wohnortes drfte dagegen in der Re-
gel schon sehr viel frher, mitunter schon kurz nach der Geburt erfolgt sein und
mithin zum Zeitpunkt der Beantragung der Epikrisis bereits einige Jahre (wenn
nicht gar mehr als ein Jahrzehnt) zurckliegen. Dafr spricht zunchst schon die
sprachliche Formulierung dieses Tatbestandes mit einer Wendung wie ctzy
cn` zo8oc (wie etwa in P.Oxy. XII 1452,9 u. 35 f.
25
), die auf einen in der Ver-
gangenheit abgeschlossenen Vorgang verweist. Erwiesen wird die Registrierung
im Stadtviertel schon im frheren Kindesalter aber beispielsweise durch die
oben in anderem Zusammenhang bereits erwhnten umfangreichen und nach
verschiedenen Statusgruppen gegliederten Bevlkerungsregister ber die im
Stadtquartier Apolloniu Parembole von Arsinoe ansssigen Personen, die dessen
Amphodarch im 5. Jahr Vespasians (= 72/73 n.Chr.) zusammengestellt hat (SPP IV
p. 62-78).
26
In diesen Akten findet sich unter anderem auch eine Liste noch min-
derjhriger Shne von kopfsteuerpflichtigen Bewohnern.
27
Diese Knaben wa-
ren im Zuge des Zensus (zt` o::zv znoyz) des 8. Jahres des Nero (= 61/62
n.Chr.) als zwei bis einjhrige gemeldet und seinerzeit in die Bevlkerungslisten
aufgenommen worden, d.h. die betreffenden Personen sind zum Zeitpunkt der
Erstellung der Liste mittlerweile 12-13 Jahre alt und erreichen damit entweder
mit dem Eintritt in das 14. Lebensjahr die Alterschwelle der Kopfsteuerpflich-
tigkeit oder stehen kurz davor. Ferner erfahren wir aus dem Prskript zu dieser
Liste, da auch alle diejenigen Knaben in sie aufgenommen worden sind, die
den Behrden im Zeitraum zwischen dem 9. Jahr Neros und dem 5. Jahr Vespa-
sians (= 62/63-72/73 n.Chr.) mittels separat eingereichter Geburtsanzeigen als
hinzugeboren angezeigt worden sind (ozvcvtav cn:ycycvvoz:).
28
Dar-
aus ergibt sich, da die Registrierung der betreffenden Knaben im Stadtviertel
Apolloniu Parembole vor 1-11 Jahren erfolgt ist. Ferner erfahren wir, da Eltern
den Behrden die Geburt ihres Nachwuchses auf zwei Wegen anzeigen konn-
ten. Entweder im Zuge des nchsten flligen alle 14 Jahre stattfindenden Zensus,
wenn der Haushaltvorstand ohnehin alle in seinem Haushalt lebenden Perso-

25 Siehe oben Anm. 17 u. 18.
26 Siehe zu diesem Text auch ausfhrlich Kruse 2002, 272-276.
27 SPP IV p. 62-78 Z. 28-244 (= P. Lond. II 261 Kol. 3-17).
28 SPP IV p. 62-78 Z. 28-36: nzz `Hzc:8oc z|o|8zoc `Anoa(v:oc) Hzc(o;) |
znooy:oo; z:av c:av ||z|oy|zoccvav |
30
toc c (ctoc;) Actoztoo; Kz:ozo;
Occonzo:zvoc | lczotoc tav |8|:z t; zt` o::zv znoyz||; | toc (ctoc;) Ncavo;
zvzyc|y|zcvav (8:ctav) | c: (cvo; ctoc;) cnzvzc:cv|av z: t|av zno (ctoc;) | c -
: 8 (ctoc;) Occonzo:zvoc 8:` cnovztav |
35
ozvcvtav cn:ycycvvoz: | c:vz: 8c (es
folgen die Eintragungen der einzelnen Personen).
318
nen melden bzw. registrieren lassen (zvzyzcoz:) mute oder vielleicht
insbesondere immer dann, wenn ihnen der Zeitraum bis zum nchsten Zensus
zu lang erschien auf dem Wege besonders eingereichter Geburtsanzeigen.
29

In beiden Fllen wurden solche Kinder dann unter die Hinzugeborenen (cv
cn:ycycvcvo:;)
30
aufgenommen und waren damit im Stadtviertel bzw. im fis-
kalischen Domizil ihrer Eltern registriert und erschienen von nun an in den von
den Behrden des zo8ov gefhrten und regelmig aktualisierten Bevlke-
rungslisten.
Die Registrierung im zo8ov ist mithin m. E. kein gesonderter Akt im Epi-
krisis-Verfahren wie Yiftach meint, sondern es ist vielmehr eine notwendi-
ge Bedingung fr die Durchfhrung der Epikrisis, da eine solche
Registrierung bereits vorliegt oder mit anderen Worten: Wollten die El-
tern (oder sonst ein Verwandter) die Aufnahme eines Knaben in eine der privi-
legierten Statusgruppen beantragen, dann hatten sie nachzuweisen, da dieser
ordnungsgem in seinem Stadtviertel registriert (zvzyzocvo; bzw. ctzy
cn` zo8oc) war. Die angesichts der geschilderten Problematik von Yiftach
gestellte Frage Did the candidate become a full member of the gymnasion after
the registration in the amphodon or only after the epikrisis? ist daher im Sin-
ne der zweiten Alternative zu beantworten. Dies entspricht wohl nicht zuletzt
auch der fiskalischen Ratio hinter dem brokratischen Verfahren der Epikrisis.
Denn die Steuerprivilegien, die aus der Zugehrigkeit zu den zno ycvzo:oc
oder sonst einer der bevorrechtigten Bevlkerungsgruppen resultierten, wur-
den erst mit dem Eintritt in das Volljhrigkeitsalter wirksam, da die betreffen-
de Person erst von diesem Zeitpunkt an der Kopfsteuerpflicht unterlag, und aus
diesem Grund stellen die Eltern ja auch regelmig erst mit dem Eintritt ihres
mnnlichen Nachwuchses in das 14. Lebensjahr den Antrag auf seine Epikrisis.
Ob mit der Epikrisis zugleich auch eine Zugehrigkeit zum Gymnasium als der
mageblichen, gewissermaen hellenische Identitt vermittelnden Kulturin-
stitution erworben wird, wie die Frage Yiftachs zu suggerieren scheint, mchte
ich zumindest fr zweifelhaft halten, da hierfr wohl noch weitere Kriterien (so
vor allem die Ephebie) erfllt werden muten.
31

29 Zu den Geburtsanzeigen, die (im Gegensatz zur Zensusmeldung) wohl nicht verpflichtend
waren, siehe Kruse 2002, 171-176 und jngst Snchez-Moreno Ellart 2010.
30 Man beachte etwa die Formulierungen in der Zensusdeklaration BGU I 115 (= W.Chr.
203; Ptolemais Euergetis, ca. 189 n.Chr.), wo einige Personen als zvzycyz(cvo:) cv
cn:ycycv(cvo:;) bzw. als zvzycyz(cvo:) cv cn:ycycv(cvo:;) klassifiziert werden.
31 Dieses Problem kann in unserem Zusammenhang freilich nicht im Detail errtert werden.
Der brokratische Akt der Epikrisis in die Klasse der zno ycvzo:oc gewhrte indes wohl nur
den Zugang zu besti mmten f i skal i schen Pri vi l egi en und prjudizierte m. E. nicht
ohne weiteres die Zugehrigkeit zum Gymnasium als Institution. Wenigstens nicht, soweit
dies aus den Epikrisis-Dokumenten selbst ersichtlich ist. Zum Eintritt in das Gymnasium ge-
hrte aber zwingend die adquate griechische Erziehung verbunden mit sportlichem Training
bzw. die Ephebie. Die Zulassung zur Ephebie erfolgte indes in einem weiteren Verfahren durch
319
bevlkerungskontrolle, statuszugang und archivpraxis
Eine andere Form als die bisher behandelten Epikrisis-Antrge aus Ptolemais
Euergetis und Oxyrhynchos hatten diejenigen fr die gymnasiale Klasse der
Gaumetropole Hermupolis, denn diese rekurrierten nicht nur wie jene lediglich
auf anderswo archivierte Akten bzw. Register, sondern enthielten sogar Auszge
aus solchen. Dies zeigt etwa der Epikrisisantrag P. Amh. II 75
32
aus Hermupolis,
von ca. 168 n.Chr.
Der Text umfat insgesamt drei Kolumnen. Der Antrag selbst, von dem nur
noch wenige Reste sowie der Kaisereid, mit dem er beschworen wird, erhalten
sind, stand in Kol. I. Mit ihm beantragt Demetria alias Tereus fr ihren Sohn
Artemon die Epikrisis in die Klasse der zno ycvzo:oc.
33
In den Kol. II und III
folgen dann in chronologisch absteigender Reihenfolge die Nachweise ber die
Berechtigung dieses Anspruches, die aus Zensus und Epikrisisakten aus zum
Teil sehr lange zurckliegender Zeit entnommen worden sind und die smtlich
gymnasiale Vorfahren des Knaben Artemon betreffen.
34

Das erste Exzerpt (P. Amh. II 75,31-34) ist ein Auszug aus den Akten ber den
Zensus im Jahr 159/160 n.Chr. Er erwhnt unter Angabe der entsprechenden
Fundstelle (Stadtviertel stliche Stadt, 11. Amphodarchie, 2. Aktenfolge) die
Zensuseingabe (zvzo:ov) des minderjhrigen Artemon, registriert im Stadt-
viertel Westliches Phrourion, der durch seinen Vormund vertreten wird. Nach
der durch ein ct z(av) gekennzeichneten Auslassung von Namen, die sonst

die stdtischen Behrden in Zusammenwirken mit den Funktionren des Gymnasiums, wel-
ches in gypten erst in der rmischen Zeit unter dem Namen c:o:o:; bezeugt ist (Zu ihrem
Fehlen in der ptolemischen Zeit siehe Habermann 2004, 341). Im Zuge dieses Verfahrens
wurden die Knaben auf ihre Eignung hin berprft. Was das Alter des Eintritts in die Ephebie
betrifft, so spricht, soweit dies aus den auf die c:o:o:; bezglichen Quellen im rmischen
gypten zu entnehmen ist, einiges fr das 14. Lebensjahr bzw. die Zeit kurz davor oder danach.
Die c:o:o:; der Epheben fand mithin ungefhr zur selben Zeit statt wie die cn::o:; in
die Klasse der zno ycvzo:oc. Allein schon aus der Existenz des speziellen Verfahrens der
c:o:o:; der Epheben drfte m. E. aber zu folgern sein, da die Absolvierung der cn::o:; al-
lein fr eine Zugehrigkeit zum Gymnasium wohl nicht ausreichte. Zu Ephebie und c:o:o:;
im rmischen gypten siehe insbesondere Nelson 1979, 47-49; Whitehorne 1982; Bussi
2003, 163-164. Zum Gymnasium siehe auch Orth 1983.
32 Cf. BL I 2; 431; V 5; siehe auch Nelson 1979, 31-32.
33 | -ca.?- nzz ^t:z; t; z: Tcccto; `l|z:oc t(o;) Occto; | | - ca.?- | `l-
on(o ) zno y(cvzo:oc) | |otz8zoc zvzyzocv; cn|: ta cvcotat(:) | | ctc: `Avta-
vc:voc z: Ococ tav c:av lczot|av o c:o; ||oc |
5
|`Atcav - ca.?- |avo; | | -ca.?- z:
oc:c: | cn::(vz:) | | - ca.?- |oc | | |15 Zeilen fehlen| |
23
| - ca.?- | c:8o( ) | |
| | - ca.?- | zno toc ycvzo:o(c) |
25
| - ca.?- z: ovc|a tv Actozto|o|; | |Kz:ozo; Mz-
oc Ac:oc `Avtavc:voc l|czotoc z: | |Actoztoo; Kz:ozo; Aoc:oc Ac:oc|
Ococ lczotoc t|cv| | |8cv 8:cccoz:. (ctoc;) :8 Actoztoo;| Kz:ozo;
M|zoc| | |Ac:oc `Avtavc:voc lczotoc z: A|ctozto|o; Kz:ozo;| |
30
|Aoc:oc
Ac:oc Ococ lczotoc Mcoo| 8 (Hervorhebungen von mir).
34 Siehe hierzu auch den unten in der Appendix reproduzierten Stammbaum der Familie des
Artemon, wie er aus P. Amh. II 75 rekonstruiert werden kann. Die Lesung und Ergnzung ei-
niger der in den im folgenden zitierten Aktenauszgen erscheinenden Abkrzungen ist zwar
nach wie vor ungeklrt. Das Muster ihres Aufbaus wird jedoch ohne Probleme verstndlich.
320
noch in der Haushaltsdeklaration genannt waren, folgt der Eintrag ber den
besagten Artemon: Er selbst, Artemon, Sohn des Artemon alias Agrippa, vom
Gymnasium, 3 Jahre alt. Es handelt sich bei diesem Artemon um dieselbe Per-
son, fr die in Kol. I die Epikrisis beantragt wird. Er war offensichtlich bereits im
zarten Alter von nur drei Jahren nach dem frhen Tod seines Vaters Vorstand des
Haushaltes geworden und mute daher bei der Abgabe der Zensusdeklaration
von einem Epitropos vertreten werden.
35

Der zweite Auszug (P. Amh. II 75,36-40) stammt aus den Zensusakten des Jah-
res 145/146 n.Chr. Er betrifft nun die Zensusdeklaration des Vaters des Artemon,
Artemon alias Agrippa und zitiert aus ihr die Meldung seiner eigenen Person mit
der Angabe des Stadtviertels, in welchem er registriert war, seines Status als zno
ycvzo:oc und seines Alters, nmlich 53. Die zweite aus der Haushaltsdeklarati-
on zitierte Meldung ist dann die seiner Ehefrau Demetria alias Tereus, ebenfalls
zno ycvzo:oc und damals 26 Jahre alt.
36

Diesem Muster folgen sodann auch die weiteren Aktenauszge. Zunchst
einer aus den Zensusakten des Jahres 131/132 n.Chr. (P. Amh. II 75,41-46) mit

35 P. Amh. II 75,31-35 (cf. BL I 2.431): y (ctoc;) coc A::oc `Avtav:voc Ho(ca;) zn(:atoc)
:z z(o8z:z;) 8:z8o;. | zvzo(:ov) `Atcavo; `Atcavo; toc z: `Ay:nnz
to; | ^t:z; t; (z:) Tcccto; zno y(cvzo:oc) z:(o;) zvzy(zocvoc) cn:
1||o(c:oc) :(o;) | 8:` cn:ton(oc) Htocz:oc ^:8coc ztc( ) ct` z(av) c(zctov) |
35

`Atcavz `Atcavo; toc (z:) `Ay:nnz zno y(cvzo:oc) (ctav) y (Hervorhebungen von
mir). bersetzung: 23. Jahr des vergttlichten Aelius Antoninus (Akten des) Stadtteils stli-
che Stadt, 11. Amphodarchie, 2. Aktenfolge. Eingabe des Artemon, des Sohnes des Artemon alias
Agrippa, von der Mutter Demetria alias Tereus, vom Gymnasium, minderjhrig, registriert im
Stadtteil westliche Festung, durch den Vormund Ptolemaios, Sohn des Didymos nach an-
deren (sc. Namen): Er selbst, Artemon, Sohn des Artemon alias Agrippa, vom Gymnasium, drei
Jahre.
36 P. Amh. II 75,36-40 (cf. BL I 431; V 5): (ctoc;) o(o:a;) Ho(ca;) zn(:atoc) :z
z(o8z:z;) | | 8:z|8o|(;), zvzo(:ov) | `Atcavo; to|c| (z:) `Ay:nnz `Atcavo|;|
toc `Aon(:z8oc) znz8oc( ) t(o;) Tcccto; |`Ano(av:oc)| z|n|o y(cvzo:oc) |
zvzy(zocvoc) cn: 1o(c:oc) :(o;) z ( ) z ( ) c(zctov) `Atcavz tov |(z:) `Ay|:n- |
|nz|v zn|o| y(cvzo:oc) (ctav) vy, |
10
|ct`| z(av) y(cvz:av) ^t:zv tv (z:)
Tcc(cv) `lz:o(c) y(cvz:z) (zctoc) zno y(czo:oc) (ctav) ;. bersetzung: 9.
Jahr ebenso (Akten des) Stadtteils stliche Stadt, 11. Amphodarchie []te Aktenfolge, Ein-
gabe des Artemon alias Agrippa, Sohn des Artemon des Sohnes des Asklepiades ... von der
Mutter Tereus, Tochter des Apollonios, vom Gymnasium, registriert im Stadtteil westliche
Festung: ... er selbst Artemon alias Agrippa, vom Gymnasium, 53 Jahre, nach anderen (sc. Na-
men) von Frauen: Demetria alias Tereus, Tochter des Hermaios, seine Ehefrau, vom Gymna-
sium, 27 Jahre. Der Papyrus hat fr die Altersangabe der Demetria alias Tereus in Z. 40
(= 40), demnach sie im Jahr 106 n.Chr. geboren sein mte. Sie htte also ihren Sohn Arte-
mon, fr den sie 168 n.Chr. die Epikrisis beantragt im erstaunlich fortgeschrittenen Alter
von mindestens 50 Jahren geboren. Auerdem ist diese Altersangabe inkonsistent mit Z. 61
(siehe unten Anm. 41), wo gesagt wird, da Demetria alias Tereus im Jahr 132 n.Chr. 12 Jah-
re alt war. Dieser letzteren Angabe ist wohl Glauben zu schenken und die Altersangabe in Z.
36 entsprechend zu emendieren (siehe auch den Kommentar des Hg. in P. Amh. II p. 93). Ver-
mutlich ist der Schreiber der Aktenauszge beim Abschreiben in die falsche Zeile gerutscht,
was insofern leicht erklrlich wre, da es sich ja um Aktenauszge handelt, die expressis verbis
feststellen, da Teile der Originalakten nicht mit abgeschrieben wurden.
321
bevlkerungskontrolle, statuszugang und archivpraxis
einem Auszug aus der Haushaltsdeklaration des Grovaters des Artemon und
seiner beiden Kinder, also des Vaters des Artemon, und dessen Schwester.
37
Die
drei folgenden Aktenauszge behandeln dann die Urgroeltern von Vater- und
Mutterseite (wohlgemerkt: in der patrilinearen Abstammungslinie) des Arte-
mon. Zunchst in einem Auszug aus Akten des Jahres 64/65 n.Chr. (P. Amh. II 75,
47-49), der diesmal nicht den Zensusakten entnommen ist (denn in diesem Jahr
hat kein Zensus stattgefunden), sondern auf ein Register aus dem 11. Jahr Neros
rekurriert, in dem die Eltern des Grovaters vterlicherseits des Artemon, As-
klepiades und Berous sowie deren Sohn Artemon eingetragen worden waren.
38

Dann folgt ein Auszug aus den Akten des Zensus von 75/76 n.Chr. (P. Amh. II 75,
50-53), und zwar aus der diesbezglichen Haushaltsdeklaration des Vaters der
Gromutter mtterlicherseits Apollonios, der auch seine Frau Didyme und sei-
ne 9-jhrige Tochter Tereus, also die Gromutter des Artemon, meldet.
39
Darauf
folgt dann wiederum ein Auszug aus dem bereits erwhnten Register aus dem
Jahr 64/65 mit einem Eintrag ber denselben Apollonios (P. Amh. II 75, 54-55).
40


37 P. Amh. II 75,41-46: |: (ctoc;) co|c `A8:zvoc Ho(ca;) zn(:atoc) :z z(o8z:z;)
[| to(oc) [| o(zto;) , | |zv|zo(:ov) `Atcavo; `Aon:z8oc toc `A:ca;
| ||t(o;) B|c|octo; `lz:oc zno y(cvzo:oc) zvzy(zocvoc) cn:(?) 1o(c:oc)
:(o;) z | | c:oovco( ) | | | zn(:atoc) otz(oc) c(zctov) |`A||t|cavz `Ao-
n:z8(oc) | |z [| zno y(cvzo:oc) (ctav) ny, |
15
|`Atca|vz to|v (z:)| `Ay:nnzv c:ov
|t(o;) T|cc(cto;) `Ano(av:oc) zno y(cvzo:oc) (ctav) , | | |o8a(zv) t|v (z:)
| Ozo:v cy(ztcz) t(o;) t|;| (zct;) zno y(cvzo:oc) (ctav) z. bersetzung: 16.
Jahr des vergttlichten Hadrianus (Akten des) Stadtteils stliche Stadt, 11. Amphodarchie, []
te Aktenrolle Seite 138. Eingabe des Artemon, des Sohnes des Asklepiades des Sohnes des
Achilleus, von der Mutter Berous, Tochter des Hermaios, vom Gymnasium (registriert im?)
Stadtviertel westliche Festung Wohnung: Er selbst Artemon, Sohn des Asklepiades [] vom
Gymnasium, 83 Jahre; Artemon alias Agrippa, (sein) Sohn, die Mutter ist Tereus, Tochter des
Apollonios, vom Gymnasium, 39 Jahre; []dora alias Thaesis, Tochter von derselben Mutter,
vom Gymnasium, 41 Jahre.
38 P. Amh. II 75,47-49: :z (ctoc;) Ncavo; 1o(c:oc) :(o;) z to(oc) o(zto;) 8,
`Aon:z8; `A:(ca;) | `Aon:z8oc t(o;) Tca Havo; (ctav) , | y(cv)
(zctoc) Bc|oc|; `lz:oc toc ^a:av|o|; (ctav) 8, `Atcav c:o; (zctoc) (ctav) :.
bersetzung: 11. Jahr Neros, (Stadtteil) westliche Festung, 1. Aktenrolle, Seite 44: Asklepia-
des, Sohn des Achilleus des Sohnes des Asklepiades, von der Mutter Teon[], Tochter des He-
ron, 49 Jahre; seine Ehefrau Berous, Tochter des Hermaios des Sohnes des Dorion, 44 Jahre;
Artemon, sein Sohn, 19 Jahre.
39 P. Amh. II 75,50-53 (cf. BL I 431; V 5): (ctoc;) coc Occonz|o|:zvoc 1o(c:oc) :(o;) :8
z(o8z:z;) z(o) zvz(o:ov) `Ano(av:oc) `Anoa(v:oc) | t|o|c `Hzo|c
|t(o;) Tcc(cto;) `Ano(av:oc) zno y(cvzo:oc) | | c(zctov) `Anoa(v:ov) (ctav)
z, | y(cvz:av) ^:8cv `l||z:oc toc ^:oo(ooc) y(cvz:z) (zctoc) zno |y(cvzo:oc)
| (ctav) , | |T|cccv cy(ztcz) (zctoc) |z|no y(cvzo:oc) (ctav) . bersetzung: 8.
Jahr Vespasians, (Stadtteil) westliche Festung, 14. Amphodarchie, eine andere Eingabe des
Apollonios, des Sohnes des Apollonios des Sohnes des Herakles, von der Mutter Tereus, Tochter
des Apollonios, vom Gymnasium []: Er selbst Apollonios, 41 Jahre; von den Frauen: Didyme,
Tochter des Hermaios, seine Ehefrau, vom Gymnasium, 40 Jahre; Tereus, seine Tochter, vom
Gymnasium, 9 Jahre.
40 P. Amh. II 75,54-55: :z |(ctoc;) N|cavo; 1o(c:oc) :(o;) z to(oc) |o(zto;) |c,
322
Mit diesen Aktenauszgen sind die Nachweise ber den privilegierten Perso-
nalstatus eines zno ycvzo:oc in der patrilinearen Abstammungslinie beendet
und es folgen sodann ebensolche Aktenauszge ber die mtterliche Abstam-
mungslinie des Artemon. Zunchst ein Auszug aus den Zensusakten des Jahres
131/132 n.Chr. (P. Amh. II 75,56-61), und zwar aus der Meldung der Groeltern
mtterlicherseits, Hermaios und Theus, sowie deren Tochter Demetria alias Te-
reus (also der Mutter des Artemon), die damals 12 Jahre alt war.
41
Sodann ein Aus-
zug aus den Akten des Zensus des Jahres 89/90 n.Chr. (P. Amh. II 75,62-69) mit
dem Exzerpt der Deklaration des Ururgrovaters mtterlicherseits Hermaios,
der seine Kinder Areios und Thermuthion (also die Urgroeltern des Artemon)
sowie seine Enkel deklariert.
42
Es fehlt also in diesen Aktenauszgen ber die
matrilineare Abstammungslinie des Artemon (im Gegensatz zu den oben er-

`Ano|a|v:o; `Anoa(v:oc) |
55
|to|c `Hzoc |t(o;)| Tcccto; (c ta v) . berset-
zung: 11. Jahr Neros, (Stadtteil) westliche Festung, 1. Aktenrolle, [Seite .]5: Apollonios, Sohn
des Apollonios des Sohnes des Herakles, von der Mutter Tereus, 30 Jahre.
41 P. Amh. II 75,56-61 (cf. BL I 431): : (ctoc;) coc `A8:zvoc 1o(c:oc) |:(o;)| 8
z(o8z:z;) z(o) zvzo(:ov) `lz:oc `Ac:oc | toc `lz:oc t|o|; Ococ(:o;)
`lz:oc zno y(cvzo:oc) | zvzy(zocvoc) cn: Ho(ca;) |:|(o;) ot|z|(oc) ct`
z(av) c(zctov) `lz:ov | zno y(cvzo:oc) (ctav) 8, |
o0
y(cvz:av) Occv z8c(v) z:
y(cvz:z) tav (zctav) yovcav (ctav) y, | ^t:zv tv (z:) Tcc(cv) cy(ztcz) (zctoc)
zno y(cvzo:oc) (ctav) :. bersetzung: 16. Jahr des vergttlichten Hadrianus, (Stadtteil)
westliche Festung, 4. Amphodarchie, eine andere <Eingabe> des Areios, des Sohnes des Her-
maios, von der Mutter Thermuthion, der Tochter des Hermaios, vom Gymnasium, registriert
im Stadtviertel westliche Stadt, Wohnung, nach anderen (sc. Namen): Er selbst, Hermaios,
vom Gymnasium, 44 Jahre; von den Frauen: Theus, seine Schwester und Ehefrau von densel-
ben Eltern, 43 Jahre; Demetria alias Tereus, seine Tochter, vom Gymnasium, 12 Jahre. Zur
Altersangabe in Z. 61 siehe oben Anm. 36.
42 P. Amh. II 75,62-69: (ctoc;) ^o:t:zvoc 1o(c:oc) :(o;) 8 z(o8z:z;) | z(o)
|z|vzo(:ov) `lz:oc `Ac:oc toc vc(atcoc) `A|c:oc |to; | |Oc|oc:o; zn|o
y(cvzo:oc)| zvzy(zocvoc) cn: Ho(ca;) |:(o;)| ot|z|(oc) ct z(av) |
o5
c(zctov)
`lz:ov zno y(cvzo:oc) (ctav) vy, | Ac:ov c:ov zno y(cvzo:oc) (ctav) ,. | `lz:ov
c:ov `Ac:o|c| 8: ( ) t(o;) Ococ(:o;) zno y(cvzo:oc) (ctav) , | y(cvz:av)
Ococ(:v) cy(ztcz) (zctoc) t(o;) Tcc(cto;) z8c(;) zno y(cvzo:oc) y(cvz:z)
toc | z8c(oc) `Ac:oc zno y(cvzo:oc) (ctav) 8, || (Kol. III) Occv cy(ztcz(?)) (zct;)
zno y(cvzo:oc) z (ctoc;). bersetzung: 9. Jahr Domitians, (Stadtteil) westliche Festung,
4. Amphodarchie, eine andere Eingabe des Hermaios, des Sohnes des jngeren Areios des
Sohnes des Areios, von der Mutter Thermuthion, vom Gymnasium, registriert im Stadtviertel
westliche Stadt, Wohnung, nach anderen (sc. Namen): Er selbst, Hermaios, vom Gymnasium,
53 Jahre, Areios, (sein) Sohn <vom Gymnasium, 27 Jahre; Hermaios, Sohn> des Areios [], die
Mutter ist Thermution, 2 Jahre; von den Frauen: Thermuthion, seine Tochter, von der Mutter
Tereus, (seiner) Schwester, vom Gymnasium, Ehefrau des Bruders Areios, vom Gymnasium, 24
Jahre; Theus, ihre Tochter, vom Gymnasium, 1 Jahr. Im Exzerpt in Z. 66 hat der Schreiber of-
fenbar eine Zeile des Originals ausgelassen, siehe hierzu auch den Kommentar der Hg. (P. Amh.
II p. 93): The person who makes the returns in lines 62-9 for A. D. 90 is Hermaeus who was
born in A. D. 37. His son Arius was born in A. D. 63 (line 73), and it is his grandson Hermaeus son
of Arius who was two years old in A. D. 90; cf. lines 56-8, which give the return of the younger
Hermaeus himself in A. D. 132. We must therefore read Ac:ov c:ov zno y(cvzo:oc) (ctav)
,. | `lz:ov c:ov `Ac:o|c|.
323
bevlkerungskontrolle, statuszugang und archivpraxis
whnten ber die patrilineare) eine Zensusdeklaration des Urgrovaters Areios.
Mglicherweise deshalb weil entsprechende Akten fr ihn gerade nicht auffind-
bar waren. Dafr erscheint der Urgrovater dann allerdings bereits als zweijh-
riger zusammen mit seinem Vater Hermaios in dem letzten Aktenexzerpt des
Textes (P. Amh. II 75,70-72) aus dem bereits erwhnten Register aus dem 11. Jahr
Neros (= 64/65 n.Chr.).
43
Die oben behandelten Aktenauszge in dem Epikrisis-Antrag P. Amh. II 75
zeigen brigens da die diversen zitierten Zensusakten aus frheren Jahren of-
fenbar eine andere Form haben als die an drei Stellen erwhnte Akte aus dem 11.
Jahr Neros, denn in den Auszgen aus den Zensusakten wird immer aus einer
Haushaltsdeklaration (hier zvzo:ov genannt) zitiert, und fr diese eine Fund-
stelle in den Aktenrollen ber den entsprechenden Zensus angegeben, whrend
aus der Akte aus dem Jahr 64/65 n.Chr. lediglich nur kurze Zitate der relevanten
Namen angefhrt werden. Das lt vermuten, da es sich bei den Zensusakten
um too: ocyoo:o: handelte, also Aktenrollen zu welchen die originalen
Zensusdeklarationen zusammengeklebt worden waren.
44
Die Akte aus dem Jahr
64/65 n.Chr., fr die keine Binnengliederung angegeben wird, scheint hingegen
lediglich eine alphabetisch angeordnete Namenliste bzw. ein Register gewesen zu
sein, aus der die die Vorfahren des Artemon betreffenden Eintrge zitiert werden.
Das Register aus dem 11. Jahr Neros, bei welchem es sich nicht um eine Zen-
susakte handeln kann und das noch in einer weiteren Epikrisis-Anmeldung aus
Hermupolis erscheint
45
, war wohl ebenso Ergebnis einer behrdlich angeordne-
ten Revision der gymnasialen Klasse von Hermupolis
46
, wie es die oben erwhn-
ten entsprechenden Register aus dem 34. Jahr des Augustus (= 4/5 n.Chr.), dem
3. und 4. Jahr des Nero (= 56/57 u. 57/58 n.Chr.) und dem 5. Jahr des Vespasian
(= 72/73 n.Chr.) im Falle der c toc ycvzo:oc von Oxyrhynchos waren. Im Zuge
dieser Manahme sind vielleicht alle existenten gymnasialen Familien neu er-
fat worden und es mgen die Kriterien fr die Zugehrigkeit der zno ycvz-
o:oc von Hermupolis neu bzw. endgltig fixiert und sogar mglicherweise auch
neue Mitglieder in diese Statusgruppe aufgenommen worden sein. Nach diesem
Zeitpunkt war es dann vielleicht fr die Epikrisis in die gymnasiale Klasse von
Hermupolis erforderlich, da ein mnnlicher Vorfahr von Vater- wie Mutter-

43 P. Amh. II 75,70-72: :z (ctoc;) Ncavo; Hoca; :(o;), |...| to(oc) o(zto;) :8,
| `lz:o; `Ac:oc vc(atcoc) `Ac|:o|c t(o;) Ococ(:o;) (ctav) , | Ac:o; c:o;
t(o;) Tccct(o;) z|8|c(;) (ctav) . bersetzung: 11. Jahr Neros, (Stadtteil) west-
liche Stadt, []te Aktenrolle, Seite 114: Hermaios, Sohn des jngeren Areios des Sohnes des
Areios, von der Mutter Thermuthion, 29 Jahre; Areios, (sein) Sohn, von der Mutter Tereus, (sei-
ner) Schwester, 2 Jahre.
44 Zur Gestalt der Zensusakten siehe auch Kruse 2002, 129-139.
45 P. Ryl. II 102 (cf. BL I 388; 467; VII 172).
46 Die Hg. von P. Amh. II 75 erwogen bereits: The eleventh year of Nero was not a census
year; but a revision of the cn::o:; lists seems to have been made by then (p. 93); siehe auch
Montevecchi 1974, 229.
324
seite her, in dieses Register aus dem 11. Jahr Neros eingetragen sein mute. Das
wrde erklren, warum man sich, wie aus der Analyse von P. Amh. II 75 deutlich
geworden ist, auch noch rund 100 Jahre spter auf die Eintragung von Vorfahren
in dieser Liste beruft. Auffallend ist, da in Hermupolis offenbar auch die Ehe-
frauen in diese Liste eingetragen wurden
47
, was fr die gymnasiale Klasse von
Oxyrhynchos nicht bezeugt ist.
Wir haben gesehen, da aus Registern ber die Epikrisis bzw. Zensusakten
Auszge angefertigt wurden, die dann (wie etwa im Falle der hermopolitischen
Epikrisis-Anmeldungen) als Nachweis fr einen privilegierten Personalstatus
dienten und damit fr die Berechtigung des Anspruches, in die betreffende
Statusgruppe eingeschrieben zu werden. Aber nicht nur bei Gelegenheit der
Epikrisis, sondern auch wenn irgendwann spter Nachweise ber den Status
irgendwelcher Personen bentigt wurden, griff man auf solche archivierten Ak-
ten zurck. Ein solcher Fall liegt wohl auch dem im folgenden zu besprechenden
Dokument zugrunde. Es stammt aus der arsinoitischen Gaumetropole Ptolemais
Euergetis (BGU II 562 = W.Chr. 220) und datiert aus nachtraianischer Zeit. Es
handelt sich um Auszge aus den amtlichen Zensus- und Epikrisis-Akten, die ein
Mann namens Sabinus, wie er sagt, in bereinstimmung mit den archivierten
Akten (ocavz to:; cv ztza:oa)
48
angefertigt hat. Er knnte im Gauar-
chiv (der ::o 8oo:av oyav), wo wohl die Originale der Akten archi-
viert waren, ttig gewesen sein. Wir wissen nicht, zu welchem Zweck die Ausz-
ge angefertigt wurden, weil der Anfang des Textes nicht mehr erhalten ist. Die
Aktenauszge betreffen aber ganz offensichtlich smtlich Mitglieder ein- und
derselben arsinoitischen Katkenfamilie, deren Oberhaupt ein Mann namens
Tebulos ist. Veranlat wurden sie vielleicht von einem Familienmitglied, wel-
ches einen Nachweis ber seinen privilegierten Status bentigte.
Vom ersten erhaltenen Aktenauszug (Z. 1-5) sind nur noch geringe Reste er-
halten.
49
Klarer sehen wir erst mit dem zweiten Exzerpt in den Z. 6-13. Er stammt
aus dem c:ov:oo; des 7. Jahres des Traian, womit sicherlich die Akten des im
Jahr 103/104 n.Chr. abgehaltene Zensus gemeint sind, wobei mit dem Terminus
c:ov:oo; auf die Personalbeschreibungen, der in den Haushaltsdeklaratio-
nen gemeldeten Personen rekurriert wird. Der Auszug betrifft einen zto:o;
cn:c:cvo; namens Dioskoros, Sohn des Tebulos, der 20 Jahre alt ist, seine
beiden Brder, Eubulos und Theon, 22 und 14 Jahre alt und ebenfalls als zto:-

47 P. Amh. II 75,49. Es ergibt sich indes nicht nur aus den in Auszgen zitierten Zensusakten
in P. Amh. II 75 sondern auch aus originalen Zensusdeklarationen (siehe P. Lond. III 936 [p. 30],
217 n.Chr.) u. 946 [p. 31]; 231 n.Chr. sowie P. Med. I 37 [= SB X 10437]; 217 n.Chr.) sicher, da in
Hermupolis sowohl Ehefrauen wie Tchter mit dem Statussignifikativ zno ycvzo:oc qualifi-
ziert wurden es also wohl auch offiziell fhren durften.
48 BGU II 562, 20-21; siehe zu diesem Text auch Kruse 2002, 267-269.
49 ---------- |
1
| | ov|- ca.15 -| | |to; t; zct|; zt|o:o; cn:c:cvo;
| | Ocav zo(;) z8c(o;) t|o; - ca.13 -| | | | ctcz Bcv:| - ca.17 -|
z8c() |
5
cyzt zto:oc |(ctav) |.
325
bevlkerungskontrolle, statuszugang und archivpraxis
o: cn:c:cvo: bezeichnet, sodann ihre Schwester Apollinarion (16 Jahre alt)
und schlielich die Mutter der vier Geschwister Berenike (37 Jahre alt).
50

Der folgende dritte Aktenauszug stammt aus den Akten ber die Epikrisis der
Katkenshne, die im 8. Jahr Traians (= 104/105 n.Chr.) von den Epikritai Sotas
und Papos vorgenommen worden ist. In ihm ist der Fall eines Katkensohnes
namens Theon, Sohn des Tebulos, dokumentiert, der mit dem im vorherigen
Auszug aus den Zensusakten des 7. Jahres (siehe oben) als 14-jhrigen Katken
erscheinenden Theon, Sohn, des Tebulos, identisch sein mu. Von ihm heit es
nun in den Akten der Epikritai, er sei aus der Klasse der zvcn::to: in die der
Steuerpflichtigen (der zoyzoccvo:) des Dorfes Trano( ) eingereiht worden,
also in die Kategorie derjenigen Einwohner die den vollen Kopfsteuersatz zu
zahlen hatten, wohingegen er als zto:o; eigentlich in den Genu des erm-
igten privilegierten Steuersatzes fr diese Bevlkerungsgruppe htte kommen
mssen. Auerdem ist Theon offensichtlich auch noch unter die Bewohner ei-
nes Dorfes eingereiht worden, nicht unter die der Gaumetropole, unter die er
eigentlich gehrt htte, weil die Familie dort im Stadtviertel Tharapeias ansssig
war. Den Grund fr diese Epikrisis nicht nur in die falsche Bevlkerungskatego-
rie, sondern darberhinaus auch noch unter die Bewohner des falschen Ortes
erfahren wir nicht. Vielleicht war Theon bzw. derjenige der seine Epikrisis zu
veranlassen gehabt htte, seinerzeit nicht anwesend. Wie dem auch sei: Irgend-
wann nach dieser fehlerhaften Statusfeststellung mu von Theon (oder einem
anderen Familienmitglied) bei den Behrden dagegen protestiert worden sein.
Es wurde nmlich, wie wir aus dem Aktenauszug weiter erfahren, vom Knigli-
chen Schreiber des Gaus eine Untersuchung des Falles veranlat, mit dem Ziel,
zu klren, wie es passieren konnte, da der besagte Knabe unter die zoyzoc -
cvo: des Dorfes Trano( ) aufgenommen wurde. Dies lt sich wohl mit einiger
Sicherheit, dem (wenn auch leicht verstmmelten) Passus in Z. 17 entnehmen.

50 BGU II 562,6-13: c c:ov:ooc , (ctoc;) coc Tz:(zv)oc Ozznc:z; cn: lcvctcvc: |
o(zto;) c o::(z) 8:ncy:z z: z:(:ov) ' 8' (ctov) (tctztov z: c:ootov) co;
| ^:oooo; Tcoc(oc) toc Tcoc(oc) (to;) Bcv:(;) t; Tcoc(oc) | zto:(o;)
cn:(c:cvo;) (ctav) , (ctc:) (ctav) : |
10
lcoc(o;) z8c(o;) (to;) t; zct;
cn:(c:cvo;) zto:(o;) (ctav) , (ctc:) z zo(o;). | Ocav zo(;) z8c(o;)
(to;) t; zct; zto:(o;) cn:(c:cvo;) (ctav) :8. (c:z:). | `Anoavz:o(v)
oonzt(:o;) z: oo(t:o;) z8c() cy(zt) (zt)o:(oc) (ctav) :,. Bcv:()
Tcoc(oc) | (to;) `lcv; cy(zt) zto:(oc) (to;) t; zct;} (ctav) ,.
bersetzung: Aus den Zensusakten des 7. Jahres des Traian (= 103/104 n.Chr.), Stadtviertel
Tharapeia beim Tempel des Seknebtynis, Seite 35: Haus mit zwei Trmen und einem Innenhof,
1/6 1/24 (sc. von diesem Haus); Dioskoros, Sohn des Tebulos des Sohnes des Tebulos, von der
Mutter Berenike, Tochter des Tebulos, der Personenstandsberprfung unterzogener Katke,
20 Jahre; im 6. Jahr (= 102/103 n.Chr.) 19 Jahre. Eubulos, (sein) Bruder, von derselben Mutter, der
Personenstandsberprfung unterzogener Katke, 22 Jahre; im 6. Jahr 21 Jahre; ohne besonde-
re Kennzeichen. Ein anderer Bruder, Theon, von derselben Mutter, der Personenstandsber-
prfung unterzogener Katke, 14 Jahre. Frauen: Apollinarion, seine Schwester von demselben
Vater und derselben Mutter, Tochter eines Katken, 17 Jahre. Berenike, Tochter des Tebulos, von
der Mutter Helene, Tochter eines Katken, {von derselben Mutter}, 37 Jahre.
326
Anllich dieser Untersuchung ist nun Theon vor den Epikritai im 8. Jahr er-
schienen und aus den von ihm vorgelegten Dokumenten (c av cnvcyzto
zno8c:cav), mittels derer er offensichtlich seine Abstammung aus einer in
der Gauhauptstadt ansssigen Katkenfamilie beweisen konnte, schien es den
Epikritai offensichtlich (zvcv), da die Rechte bezglich der Katken (sc. in
dem vorliegenden Fall) zu respektieren seien und Theon der Gruppe der im 7.
Jahr Traians 14-jhrigen Katkenshne des Stadtviertels Tharapeia zugewiesen
werden msse.
51

Dieses Ergebnis ihrer Untersuchung haben die Epikritai Sotas und Papos in
den Akten ber die von ihnen im 8. Jahr durchgefhrte Epikrisis der Katkensh-
ne dokumentiert. Wie aus der von ihnen dann vorgenommenen Einreihung des
Theon in die Gruppe der 14-jhrigen Katkenshne des vorherigen 7. Jahres
hervorgeht, mu dessen falsche Epikrisis unter die kopfsteuerpflichtigen Dorf-
bewohner also in diesem Jahr stattgefunden haben. Die Angaben in den Zensus-
akten des 7. Jahres wurden dann aber offensichtlich aufgrund des Untersuchung
im folgenden Jahr entsprechend korrigiert, denn in dem oben erwhnten vorhe-
rigen Auszug aus diesen Akten erscheint Theon ja vllig korrekt als 14-jhriger
zto:o; cn:c:cvo;.
52

Es ist anhand der in diesem Beitrag vorgestellten Dokumente hoffentlich
deutlich geworden, da die von den Rmern in gypten etablierte Einteilung
der Bevlkerung in abgestufte und regelmig auf ihre Zusammensetzung hin
berprfte Statusgruppen mit der damit einhergehenden Reglementierung und
Kontrolle des Statuszugangs mittels des Verfahrens der Epikrisis nicht ohne eine
differenzierte Aktenfhrung und eine systematische Archivierung der betreffen-

51 BGU II 562,14-22: c cn::ocav c:av zto:(av) (ctoc;) coc Tz:(zv)oc latoc z:
|
15
Hznoc ycyc(vzo:zotav) cn:(:tav) o(zto;) :z. ctcoc z:o; c:oc
zto:(oc) | zno zvcn::t(av) c:; zoy(zoccvoc;) zvc:(cvoc) z: ctz8ocvto;
cno toc zctoc | zo:(:oc) y(zztca;) c:|; to| cctzo|vz: |z: na; cn|
cn|: t() a Tzvo( ) | z: cn: t; cctzoca; nzzycvo(cvoc) z: c av cnvcy(zto)
zno8c:cav | ncvoto; zvcv :v oa,c:v tz no; toc; zto:(oc;) 8:z:z |
20
z:
oc:(c:v(?)) nzz8cvz: Ozznc:z; (tcoozcoz:8czct) , (ctoc;) Tz:zvoc
Kz:ozo; toc c:oc | Ocav Tcoc(oc) toc Tcoc(oc) (to;) Bcv:(;) z8c(;)
nzto(;). (2. Hd.) lzc:vo; cczz | tz no:cvz ocavz to:; cv ztza:oa. ber-
setzung: Aus den Akten ber die Epikrisis der Katkenshne im 8. Jahr des vergttlichten Trai-
an (= 104/105) der Epikritai Sotas und Papos, ehemaligen Gymnasiarchen, Seite 11: (bezglich
des Falles) eines anderen minderjhrigen Katkensohnes aus der Gruppe der noch nicht der
Personenstandsprfung unterzogenen, der in die Gruppe der Kopfsteuerpflichtigen aufge-
nommen und von demselben Kniglichen Schreiber bermittelt worden war, mit der Maga-
be, zu untersuchen [] wie [] im Dorf Trano( ); sowohl als dieser zur Untersuchung erschie-
nen war, als auch aus den Beweisurkunden, die er vorlegte, schien es uns offensichtlich, da
die auf die Katken bezglichen Rechte zu wahren seien und er in die Gruppe der im 7. Jahr des
Traianus Caesar des Herrn (= 103/104) 14-jhrigen (sc. Katkenshne) im Stadtviertel Tharapeia
aufgenommen werden msse: Theon, Sohn des Tebulos des Sohnes des Tebulos, die Mutter ist
Berenike, die Schwester des Vaters. (2. Hd.) Ich, Sabinus, habe das Vorstehende in bereinstim-
mung mit den ffentlich verwahrten Akten entnommen.
52 Siehe oben Anm. 50.
327
bevlkerungskontrolle, statuszugang und archivpraxis
den Akten durchfhrbar war. Die Selbstdeklarationen der Bevlkerung im Zuge
des in jedem 14. Jahr abgehaltenen Provinzialzensus wurden nicht nur in Ak-
tenrollen gesammelt, sondern aus ihnen wurden nach Wohnorten, (d.h. Stadt-
quartieren und Drfern) angelegte Einwohnerlisten bzw. Bevlkerungsregister
angelegt, deren Binnengliederung wiederum nach Statusgruppen differenziert
war. Evidentgehalten und aktualisiert wurden diese Listen einerseits durch die
regelmigen Zensusmeldungen sowie gegebenenfalls durch Geburtsanzeigen,
mittels derer die privilegierten Gruppen der Bevlkerung ihren mnnlichen
Nachwuchs am Wohnort registrieren lieen. Dieser wurde infolgedessen knf-
tig als zvzyzocvo; bezeichnet. Ebenfalls in die Bevlkerungsregister mit ein
flossen ferner die Ergebnisse der jhrlich durchgefhrten Epikrisis der in das
Volljhrigkeitsalter und damit in die Steuerpflichtigkeit eintretenden Mitglie-
der der fiskalisch privilegierten Bevlkerungsklassen, die in diesen Listen so-
dann mit dem Zusatz cn:c:cvo; bezeichnet wurden.
Der Ort der Archivierung solcher Akten bzw. Register war zunchst sicher-
lich bei den Behrden des Wohnorts, wo die betreffende Person, welche zur
Epikrisis angemeldet wurde, registriert war. Angelegt und gefhrt wurden die
Bevlkerungsregister nmlich in der Gaumetropole von den Vorstehern dieser
Stadtteile, den Amphodarchen, in den Drfern vom Komogrammateus. Wir wis-
sen ferner, da Kopien solcher Register auch an andere Behrden, namentlich
die Verwaltung der Gaumetropole und die Gauverwaltung gingen.
53
Von den
Lokalbehrden wurden sodann Kopien der Akten insbesondere im Gauarchiv
(::o 8oo:av oyav) deponiert.
Darberhinaus erhielten aber auch die alexandrinischen Behrden der Pro-
vinzverwaltung diese Akten, und zwar ber den fr den jeweiligen Gau zustn-
digen coy:ot; in Alexandria, der die Finanzen und die Administration des
Gaus regelmig zu berprfen und eventuelle Unstimmigkeiten aufzuklren
sowie die jhrliche Revision der Verwaltung des Gaus durch den Statthalter
vorzubereiten hatte. So erfahren wir etwa aus einer eidlichen Erklrung an den
Gaustrategen des Oxyrhynchites aus dem Jahr 93/94 n.Chr. (PSI X 1109), da der
Eklogistes dieses Gaus dem Strategen den Auftrag bermittelt hatte, zu berpr-
fen, ob ein gewisser Dionysios, Sohn des Komon tatschlich von beiden Eltern
Dodekadrachmos ist, er also diesen Status zu Recht beansprucht. Dieser Auftrag


53 So erklrt etwa der Amphodarch, der im Jahr 72/73 n.Chr. die oben besprochenen diver-
sen nach Statusgruppen gegliederten Register ber die im Stadtviertel Apolloniu Parembole
ansssige Bevlkerung (SPP IV p. 62-78) zusammengestellt hat, da eine Kopie der in seinem
Stadtviertel ansssigen Liste der Rmer und Alexandriner auch dem zo::o; yzztcc;
des Gaus und dem yzztcc; tonoca; eingereicht worden ist (Z. 376-377). Da nicht alle
Listen unten vollstndig sind, mu unklar bleiben welche der sonst noch in SPP IV p. 62-72 ver-
sammelten Einwohnerlisten an bergeordnete Behrden gegangen sind. Es finden sich aber
noch weitere solche Einreichungsvermerke fr die drei ebenfalls in die Aktenrolle aufgenom-
menen Steuerabrechnungen, siehe hierzu auch Kruse 2002, 274-276.
328
war wohl das Resultat einer berprfung der dem Eklogistes eingereichten Epi-
krisis-Akten bzw. Bevlkerungsregister, in denen dieser irgendwelche Unstim-
migkeiten festgestellt haben mu. Den Prfauftrag bermittelte der Stratege
sodann an den Vormund des Betroffenen, der, weil der leibliche Vater wohl mitt-
lerweile verstorben ist, in Reaktion darauf nun die eidliche Erklrung abgibt, da
sein Mndel vterlicher- wie mtterlicherseits von Dodekadrachmoi abstammt.
54

Am Schlu des Textes findet sich sodann der wohl zu Beweiszwecken angefgte
Auszug aus den Epikrisisakten des 9. Jahres des Domitian (= 89/90 n.Chr.), der
anscheinend die Epikrisis des besagten Dionysios zum Gegenstand hat.
55

54 PSI X 1109,1-27 (cf. BL VIII 406; X 246): Kzc8:a: `Ac:a: otz(tya:) | nzz Ocavo;
^:ovco:oc toc Acov|to; to; `lo:av; tav zn` `Oc|cyav noca; ovt:otoc |
5

^:ovco:oc Koavo;. no; to ctz|8ocv oo: cno toc cyoy:otoc c:; | cctzo:v c:8o; ta:
:z (ctc:) cv to(a) | o(zt:) v 8:` oc cnc,tocv c: o | noycyzcvo; ^:ovco:o; |
10

cot:v c zotcav yovcav (8a8cz8zo;) | |zn|oz:voz: c:vz: zctov (8a8cz8zov)
| |z|vzyzocvov cn` zo8oc | `lnno8ooc, z: tov toctoc nztcz | Koavz ^:ovco:oc
toc Koavo; |
15
to; T:oc8z; t; Ko:vtoc zvz||yzocvo|v cn: toc zctoc zo8(oc) | |
-ca.?- o|o:a; 8c z: tov t; | |to; zc|toc nztcz ^:ovco:o(v) | |to n:v (8a8cz8zov)|
ovtz zvzyzocvov |
20
|cn` zo8oc| ^ooc Oo:8o; | |tctccctcv|z: zctov ta (ctc:)
| |^o:t:zvoc toc c|:oc cv cncctco:. | |z: ovca Actoz|toz Kz:ozz | |^o:t:zvov
lcz|otov lczv:ov |
25
|octa; c:vz: (2. Hd.?) (ctoc;)| :y Actoztoo; | |Kz:ozo; ^o-
:t:zvoc lc|zotoc lczv:oc | | -ca.?- |. bersetzung: An Claudius Areios, den Strategen,
von Theon, Sohn des Dionysios des Sohnes des Leon, die Mutter ist Isione, aus der Stadt Oxy-
rhynchos, Vormund des Dionysios, des Sohnes des Komon. Zu dem Dir vom Eklogistes ber-
mittelten Auftrag vom 11. Jahr (= 91/92 n.Chr.) (niedergelegt) in der 2. Aktenrolle, Kolumne 50,
mittels dessen er berprft wissen wollte, ob der vorgenannte Dionysios von beiden Eltern her
ein Dodekadrachmos ist, erklre ich, da er ein Dodekadrachmos ist, registriert im Stadtviertel
Hippodrom, und da dessen Vater Komon, Sohn des Dionysios des Sohnes des Komon, die
Mutter ist Tioudas, Tochter des Quintus, registriert in demselben Stadtviertel [---], und ebenso,
da der Vater seiner Mutter (sc. des Knaben Dionysios) [der vormals Dodekadrachmos war],
registriert im Stadtviertel Dromos der Thoris im 6. Jahr Domitians (= 86/87 n.Chr.) in der
Klasse der berjhrigen verstorben ist. Und ich schwre beim Imperator Caesar Domitianus
Augustus Germanicus, da es sich so verhlt. (2. Hd.?). Im 13. Jahr des Imperator Caesar Do-
mitianus Augustus Germanicus [---]. In Z. 17 ist am ehesten ein Hinweis auf den Status des Va-
ters zu ergnzen, man erwartet eigentlich c:vz: z: zctov (8a8cz8zov), wofr aber nach
dem Hg. (siehe den Zeilenkommentar) an der Stelle kein Platz ist, weshalb er ein verkrztes
c:vz: (8a8cz8zov) erwgt.
55 Der Text bzw. die vom Hg. gebotene Transkription ist mir an dieser Stelle nicht ganz klar:
Sie lautet (PSI X 1109, 28-29): c cn::oca; (ctoc;) ^o:t:zvoc | ,( ) o(zt:) :,
a; (ctav) :z cn:c:(cvo;) (ctc:) :y. Rekurriert wird offenbar auf das 17. oz einer
Aktenrolle, was eigentlich erwarten lt, da davor die Nummer des entsprechenden to o;
genannt war. Man ist zwar zunchst versucht, diese an der vom Hg. nicht entzifferten Stelle
vor o ( ) zu suchen. Eine berprfung anhand einer mir von R. Pintaudi dankenswerterwei-
se zur Verfgung gestellten Photographie des Papyrus ergab indes, da die Lesung , am An-
fang der Z. 29 palographisch recht plausibel zu sein scheint. Ich vermag indes ebensowenig
wie der Erstherausgeber die folgenden Zeichen recht zu deuten. Sicher ist jedenfalls, da es
sich um eine Abkrzung handeln mu, wobei ich diese nicht schon nach dem Eta annehmen
mchte, wobei das letzte Zeichen, wohl der Krzungsstrich ist. Das ,..( )(?) ist vielleicht als
Hinweis auf eine amtliche berprfung (,to:;) des Falls zu deuten und daher vielleicht
eine Form von ,tca anzunehmen. So findet sich etwa hufig in amtlichen Dokumenten bzw.
Listen neben einzelnen Eintrgen der gegebenenfalls mehr oder weniger stark abgekrzte
329
bevlkerungskontrolle, statuszugang und archivpraxis
Die oben behandelten Texte zeigen ferner, da die diversen die Bevlke-
rungs- resp. Statuskontrolle betreffenden Akten ber sehr lange Zeitrume, z. T.
sogar ber Jahrhunderte hinweg, archiviert und konsultierbar gewesen sind,
damit man aus ihnen die entsprechenden Nachweise ber den Personalstatus
der Familie bzw. die Epikrisis der Vorfahren der bei der aktuellen Epikrisis an-
gemeldeten Personen erheben resp. seitens der Behrden die von jenen unter
Berufung auf solche Akten geltend gemachten Ansprche berprfen konnte.
Das System der cn::o:; der Statusgruppen der enchorischen Bevlkerung
gyptens mit Hilfe der auf sie bezglichen Akten hat nach Ausweis unserer
Quellen bis zum Ende des 3. Jh. offenkundig reibungslos funktioniert.
56
Eine
betrchtliche Organisationsationsleistung, die sicherlich nicht allein in dem
Ziel der Konstitution einer lokalen Elite begrndet war, sondern nicht zuletzt
auch darin, die Gefahr ungerechtfertigter Steuerausflle soweit als mglich zu
minimieren. Denn, da im Prinzip die Einreihung jedes neuen Mitglieds in eine
der fiskalisch privilegierten Statusgruppen der enchorischen Bevlkerung einer
Minderung des Steueraufkommens gleichkam, konnte es in den Augen der R-
mer hier wohl gar nicht genug Kontrolle geben.

Randvermerk ,tc: (berprfe!), und zwar den Gegenstand des betreffenden Eintrages (sie-
he hierzu etwa P. Lond. Wasser Z. 42 und die diesbezglichen Bemerkungen des Hg. Interes-
sant auch P. Bouriant 42, 298). Fr PSI X 1109, 29 mchte ich (mit aller Vorsicht) daher ,t(c:)
vorschlagen. Gegenstand dieser Untersuchung knnten die in dem 17. oz dokumentier-
ten Daten sein. Zu der auf das o(zt:) :, folgenden Passage: a; (ctav) :z cn:c:(cvo;)
(ctc:) :y bemerkt der Hg. im Zeilenkommentar Si voluto, pare, annotare che nella. 13
o
di
Domiziano il ragazzo sottoposto ad cn::o:; aveva undici anni. Es wre indes ungewhnlich,
wenn die Epikrisis, bereits im Alter von 11 Jahren und nicht, wie blich, mit dem Erreichen des
14. Lebensjahres vorgenommen worden wre. Auerdem versteht man nicht ganz, wieso an
dieser Stelle pltzlich von der Epikrisis im 13. Jahr (= 93/94 n.Chr.) die Rede sein soll, wo doch
der Aktenauszug, wie in Z. 28 gesagt wird, aus den Epikrisis-Akten des 9. Jahres (= 89/90 n.Chr.)
stammen soll. Knnte es vielleicht sein, da die berprfung, auf die mglicherweise mit dem
,t(c:) rekurriert wird (siehe oben), den Umstand betraf, da der Knabe mit einer (irregul-
ren) Altersangabe von 11 Jahren in den Akten aufschien, dann aber bei der Epikrisis des 9. Jahres
in die 13-jhrigen eingereiht wurde?
56 Die sptesten bisher bekannten Epikrisisantrge sind SB XXII 15626 (276-282) fr die Me-
tropolitenklasse und P. Turner 38 (274/275 od. 280/281) fr die gymnasiale Klasse von Oxy-
rhynchos.
330
*
Reproduktion von P. Amh. II p. 91.
Appendix:
Der Stammbaum der Familie des Artemon, Sohn des Artemon alias Agrippa
nach P. Amh. II 75*
331 bevlkerungskontrolle, statuszugang und archivpraxis
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Bagnall-Frier 1994
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I 6475 cateci greci dellArsinoite,
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Gymnasion, Berlin, 335-348.
Haensch 1992
R. Haensch, Das Statthalterarchiv,
ZRG, 109, 209-317.
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A. Jrdens, Statthalterliche
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175), Stuttgart.
Kruse 2002
Th. Kruse, Der Knigliche
Schreiber und die Gauverwaltung.
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Verwaltungsgeschichte gyptens in
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Arabs (30 v.Chr.245 n.Chr.)
(Archiv fr Papyrusforschung,
Beiheft 11), 2 Bde, Leipzig-
Mnchen.
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O. Montevecchi, Nerone a una
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5-7 dicembre 1997, a cura di C.
Basile e A. Di Natale, Siracusa
(Quaderni del Museo del Papiro
9), 91-98.
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W. Orth, Zum Gymnasium im
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Studien. Hermann Bengtson zum
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the Greco-Egyptian Birth Returns
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333
die statthalterarchive der sptantike
Die Statthalterarchive
der Sptantike
rudolf haensch
Einfhrung
2003 wurden die Reste einer umfangreichen, Mitte des 5. Jh. n. Chr. erlassenen
Regelung von Gebhren publiziert, die bei verschiedenen Rechtsstreitigkeiten
vor den Statthaltergerichten in der stlichen Hlfte des Rmischen Reiches zu
zahlen waren
1
. Wie viele andere sptantike, in griechischer Sprache abgefate,
offizielle Dokumente aus diesem Reichsteil weist auch dieses Edikt eine Reihe
lateinischer Lehnwrter auf. Neben den Bezeichnungen fr bestimmte Mit-
glieder der administrativen Stbe wie singulares (II 5) oder exceptores (III 2) und
der Bezeichnung fr die Gebhren selbst, sportulae (I 4), finden sich lateinische
Lehnwrter auch fr administrative Akte bzw. Dokumente: tz oncctz bzw.
oncco:o; (completio) fr die Ausfertigung von Urkunden, 8tov oc-
ztoo; fr ein Dekret, das einen curator minoris einsetzte. Diese und zahlreiche
andere, z. T. noch im heutigen modernen Griechisch nachweisbaren Lehnwrter
aus dem Lateinischen
2
sind ohne eine hoch entwickelte Kanzleipraxis der rmi-

1 Di Segni-Patrich-Holum 2003; wichtige Korrekturen bei Feissel 2006 Nr. 718 (= BE 2004,
394); die Inschrift jetzt auch als AE 2003, 1808 und SEG 53, 1841 greifbar. Fr eine sorgfltige
kritische Durchsicht danke ich U. Ehmig (Wien) und R. Frber (Mnchen).
2 Mourgues 1995, 125-127.
334
schen Administration und Rechtsprechung nicht denkbar. Von einer solchen
berichtet auch Johannes Lydus, ein hochrangiges Stabsmitglied des praefectus
praetorio Orientis, des wohl wichtigsten Amtsinhabers unterhalb des Kaisers, in
seiner Schrift De magistratibus
3
im ersten Drittel des 6. Jh. Man erwartet, da der-
artigen Kanzleipraktiken ein entsprechend entwickeltes Archivwesen zur Seite
steht.
Diese Annahme ist auch so sehr in der Forschung verankert, da im Gegen-
satz zur Hohen Kaiserzeit
4
fr die Sptantike, also die Jahre zwischen 284 und
640, m. W. bisher nie die Existenz umfangreicher Archive rmischer Admini-
strationstrger hinterfragt, geschweige denn bestritten wurde
5
. Sieht man sich
allerdings die wenigen einschlgigen Werke der Sekundrliteratur
6
an, so ver-
schwinden derartige Vorstellungen in einem Nebel der Unsicherheit: Eine ei-
genstndige Arbeit zu den Archiven des Rmischen Staates in der Sptantike gibt
es bisher nicht und auch die Hinweise in der sonstigen Literatur sind sprlich.
In einer dieser wenigen Stellungnahmen heit es zudem: Wieder ist man am
besten ber das kaiserzeitliche gypten informiert
7
. Nach der Sicht des Autors,
eines der profiliertesten Papyrologen und Kenners der Sptantike, wissen wir
demnach viel mehr ber die Archive der Hohen Kaiserzeit also der Periode, fr
die man die Existenz solcher Einrichtungen wegen des Mangels einschlgiger
Quellen nicht selten bestritten hat als ber die der Sptantike. Das lt ahnen,
da die Kenntnislage keineswegs so gnstig ist, wie gerne angenommen wird.
Um so wichtiger ist es, die verstreuten Quellen einmal zusammenzustellen. Was
wissen wir also grundstzlich ber die Existenz von Statthalterarchiven in der
Sptantike und speziell ber ihre Zusammensetzung, ihre Nutzungsmglichkei-
ten und ber diejenigen, die sie betreuten?
Die wohl wichtigste Nachricht zur Archivierungspraxis hoher Verwaltungs-
trger des sptantiken Rmischen Reiches findet sich bei dem erwhnten Johan-
nes Lydus. Von dem Archiv des praefectus praetorio Orientis berichtet er
8
, es gbe
im sdlichen Teil des Hippodroms in Konstantinopel, unter der kaiserlichen
Loge, umfangreiche Rumlichkeiten, die sich bis zur sogenannten Sphendone,
der Kurve des Hippodroms, hinzgen. In ihnen wrden die Unterlagen der Ge-
richtsverhandlungen vor den praefecti praetorio Orientis aufbewahrt. Man fnde
dort immer noch alle Protokolle seit der Zeit des Kaisers Valens, also sptestens

3 Schamp 2006. Eine ltere englische Ausgabe: Bandy 1983.
4 Zu dieser Kontroverse Haensch 1992, 214-219.
5 Die Bemerkungen von Nicolet 1994, IX sind bezeichnend. Vgl. Kaser-Hackl 1996, 557.
6 Ausbttel 1988, 107; Gross 1950; Posner 1972, 205-223; Seeck 1921; Tengstrm 1962, 28-
30. Fr die mittel- und sptbyzantinische Archivierungspraxis bei kaiserlichen Verlautbarun-
gen s. van der Wal 1981, 307.
7 Palme 1999, hier 99 Anm. 72.
8 De mag. III 19, 1. Dazu Dagron 1974, 317 (der auch auf Const. Porphyr. Caer. I 20 Vogt I 120
f. verweist).
335
die statthalterarchive der sptantike
seit dem Jahr 378, bis in das beginnende 6. Jh. Die Dokumente wrden dort so
aufbewahrt, da sie jederzeit leicht konsultiert werden knnen. Jetzt aber zum
Zeitpunkt der Abfassung seiner Schrift sei als eine der Folgen der Ttigkeit des
vllig unfhigen Prtorianerprfekten Johannes des Kappadokiers der Posten
des instrumentarius, der dieses Archiv beaufsichtigte, nicht mehr besetzt (mit den
entsprechenden Konsequenzen fr das Archiv). Ein Archiv, das ber 150 Jahre die
Urkunden eines bestimmten Typs vollstndig und leicht zugnglich aufbewahrt,
stellt der betreffenden Administration ein gutes Zeugnis aus. Weiterhin mchte
man meinen, da das, was fr den Vorgesetzten der Statthalter vieler stlicher
Provinzen galt der Zustndigkeitsbereich des praefectus praetorio Orientis um-
fate grob gesprochen alle Provinzen stlich der Dardanellen, auer den gypti-
schen , zumindest weitgehend auch auf diese zugetroffen haben sollte.
Einer der wichtigsten Hinweise auf das Archivwesen hherer Reprsentan-
ten der rmischen Macht, aber auch lokaler Instanzen bildet die Praxis der so-
genannten testificatio actorum, d. h. der Erklrung einer Partei zu den Akten einer
Behrde
9
. Diese Praxis setzt nmlich voraus, da die entsprechenden Protokolle
bei den Institutionen zumindest fr einen gewissen Zeitraum archiviert wur-
den. Da das Recht der testificatio actorum auch von den Statthaltern neben ande-
ren lokalen Institutionen ausgebt wurde, bezeugen u. a. Cod. Iust. II 4, 28 vom
Jahr 294, Cod. Theod. II 4, 2 vom Jahr 322, Cod. Iust. I, 2, 14, 7 vom Jahr 470, Nov.
Iust. 15 vom Jahr 535. Speziell fr den Fall der Erteilung einer procuratio zeigt dies
Ps.-Paul. Sent. I 3, 1, fr den Fall einer Schenkung ein Gesetz Konstantins aus dem
Jahr 316, das in den Fragmenta Vaticana und im Codex Theodosianus erhalten ist
(249, 7 f. bzw. VIII 12, 1, 1), ferner eine Regelung des Kaisers Leo aus dem Jahr 469
(Cod. Iust. I 57, 1).
Wie wichtig diese Praxis auch noch zu Beginn des 6. Jh. war, belegen zwei
Edikte des Aspar Alypius Constantinus, praefectus praetorio Orientis 502 bis 505
10
.
Dem 19ten Edikt zufolge, mute die Reinschrift einer vom Statthalter mit seiner
Unterschrift besttigten Urkunde innerhalb von 15 Tagen ausgefertigt werden.
Das 18te legte fest, da der, der die acta entgegennahm, aufbewahrte und gegebe-
nenfalls den Parteien aushndigte, ein besonders zuverlssiger Mann sein mu-
te. Er sollte auch ber angenommene und ausgegebene Urkunden ein Inventar
fhren. Daher sei er nicht alleine vom Statthalter und der Abteilung seines Sta-
bes, die fr die acta zustndig sei, auszuwhlen, sondern auch vom Bischof und
den fhrenden Honoratioren (des Statthaltersitzes ?). Das Edikt zeigt zum einen,
da es auch noch zu Beginn des 6. Jh. in jedem Statthalterstab eine Abteilung gab,
die fr schriftliche Unterlagen (acta) zustndig war. Zum anderen deutet es er-
hebliche Probleme bei ihrer Aufbewahrung und ihrem Zugang an. Offen bleiben

9 Dazu Bickermann 1933; Steinwenter 1915, besonders 30 ff. Vgl. Kaser-Hackl 1996, 557;
Posner 1972, 217 f.
10 Zachariae von Lingenthal 1843. Zu dem Prfekten PLRE II 315.
336
mu, ob man die Wahl des Zustndigen deshalb aus der Administration hinaus
verlagern wollte, weil die Verwaltung in diesem Punkt nicht mehr zuverlssig
funktionierte, oder weil sich eine entsprechende Privatisierung in anderen Be-
reichen bewhrt hatte; denn die Beteiligung des Bischofs und der honestiores an
der Auswahl des Administrationstrgers gab diesem eine zustzliche, moralisch
fundierte Autoritt.
Explizite Belege fr sptantike Statthalterarchive
Als zentraler Beleg fr die Existenz sptantiker Statthalterarchive
11
wird gerne
Cod. Theod. XV 14, 8 genannt, eine Anordnung von Theodosius I nach dem Sieg
ber Magnus Maximus im Jahre 388. Nach dem Erla sollten u. a. die Urteile all
derer, die von Maximus als iudices, d. h. also insbesondere als Provinzstatthalter,
eingesetzt worden waren, in Zukunft keine Gltigkeit mehr haben. Dement-
sprechend sollten sie aus den Aufbewahrungsorten (scrinia) der ffentlichen Do-
kumente entfernt werden (ex omnibus publicorum monumentorum scriniis iubemus
auferri). Sicher ergibt sich daraus ein Hinweis auf eine gewisse Archivierungs-
praxis bei den iudices; wie lange aber, wo und bei welcher Zugnglichkeit archi-
viert wurde, erfahren wir nicht.
Dieses Zeugnis ist der einzige explizite und generelle Hinweis auf Statthal-
terarchive! Als Beispiel fr ein einzelnes Statthalterarchiv wird in der Literatur
immer wieder auf das der Africa Proconsularis hingewiesen. Augustinus bezieht
sich mehrfach in seiner Auseinandersetzung mit den Donatisten auf die Unter-
lagen, die im Archiv des proconsul Africae eingesehen werden knnten. So betonte
er z. B. im Zusammenhang mit der Diskussion um Bischof Felix von Abthugni,
der eine wichtige Rolle beim Ausbruch des Donatistenstreites zu Beginn des 4.
Jh. spielte, die Unterlagen der gegen ihn im Jahr 314 vom proconsul Africae durch-
gefhrten Untersuchung seien in den proconsularia archiva zu finden (c. Cresc.
III 61, 67). Dort knnte nicht nur der gesamte Wortlaut des Richterspruchs, der
sententia, des damaligen Proconsuls Aelianus, nachgelesen werden, sondern so-
gar das gesamte Prozessprotokoll: Si tota gesta vis legere, ex archivo proconsulis accipe
(c. Cresc. III 70, 80). In diesem Archiv fnde man auch den offiziellen Bericht,
mit dem der Vorgnger des Aelianus die Bittschrift der Anhnger des (donati-
stischen) Gegenbischofs Donatus von Carthago an Kaiser Konstantin bermit-
telt habe, die sogenannte relatio Anullini proconsulis ad imperatorem Constantinum
(brevic. Coll. III 7, 8). Schlielich verweist Augustinus noch bei einem dritten
Dokumentenkomplex auf das Statthalterarchiv der Proconsularis: Das Ergeb-
nis eines Rechtsstreites zwischen den Bischfen zweier verschiedener Glau-
bensrichtungen im Jahre 394 vor dem proconsul Flavius Herodes knne man

11 S. z. B. Seeck 1921, 901.
337
die statthalterarchive der sptantike
ex gestis proconsularibus, also aus den Gerichtsurkunden der proconsules Africae,
erfahren
12
.
Sicherlich ist damit zu rechnen, da Augustinus tatschlich als Quelle fr
sein Wissen und seine Zitate zumeist Abschriften dieser Dokumente benutzte,
die innerhalb der katholischen Kirche weitergegeben wurden. Aber er konnte
es sich gerade in diesem Streit, in dem von den staatlichen Autoritten erstellte
Dokumente (ber das Verhalten kirchlicher Amtsinhaber whrend der Zeit der
antichristlichen Manahmen der Tetrarchen) und nicht theologische Probleme
eine so groe Rolle spielten, nicht leisten zu behaupten, die Dokumente sei-
en jederzeit in den entsprechenden Archiven einsehbar, wenn dies nicht der Fall
gewesen wre. Im Archiv des proconsul Africae mssen also tatschlich Protokolle
mindestens 100 Jahre lang aufbewahrt worden sein. Das Gleiche gilt fr die Kor-
respondenz der proconsules mit dem Kaiser bzw. zumindest ihre wichtigsten Teile.
Zu der durch Augustinus bezeugten Archivierungspraxis pat die These
O. Seecks
13
, nach der der Codex Theodosianus, also die erste groe sptantike
Sammlung kaiserlicher Gesetze, wesentlich auf der Basis der im Statthalterar-
chiv in Carthago archivierten kaiserlichen Konstitutionen entstanden sei. Seeck
schlo dies aus den in diesem Codex gesammelten Gesetzen und speziell dar-
aus, wo diese Regelungen ihren Angaben nach angeschlagen und an wen sie vor
allem gerichtet waren. Allerdings sind die an die proconsules Africae gerichteten
und in Carthago proponierten Gesetze keineswegs in einer solchen berzahl,
da seine These als zweifelsfrei bewiesen gelten knnte. Zudem lsst sich der Be-
fund ebenso gut mit der Gegenthese Mommsens erklren, es seien in Nordafrika
ansssige Rechtsgelehrte gewesen, die das Material fr wesentliche Teile des Co-
dex Theodosianus geliefert htten.
Angesichts der Publikation des Codex Theodosianus im Westen des Rmi-
schen Reiches im Jahr 438 wurde im rmischen Senat ber die Empfnger der
ersten vier Musterexemplare gesprochen. Zwei gingen an hohe Amtsinhaber
in Rom, eins blieb das Musterexemplar fr weitere Kopien und das vierte soll-
te nach Nordafrika gesandt werden
14
. Selbst wenn man das Archiv des procon-
sul Africae und nicht das des vicarius oder des Provinziallandtages fr den wahr-
scheinlichsten Bestimmungsort dieses Musters des neuen Gesetzeswerkes in
Nordafrika hlt, wirft die entsprechende Textpassage ein zentrales Problem auf:
Warum erfhrt man nichts von entsprechenden Regelungen fr andere Provin-
zen? Bzw. allgemeiner formuliert: Ist das, was fr das Archiv der proconsules Afri-
cae nachgewiesen werden kann, auch fr die der Statthalter anderer Provinzen
typisch?

12 Vgl. auch Actes Conf. Carthago (SChr. 194) I 48.
13 Seeck 1889, insbesondere 4-8.; dagegen Mommsen 1900, 172 (390 f.); danach Posner 1972,
211 f; Lepelley 2002, 62-64. Doch s. auch Krger 1877, insbesondere 82 f. Corcoran 1996, 12, 29
Anm. 31 lt die Frage offen.
14 Gesta senatus Romani de Theodosiano publicando 7.
338
In den Statthalterarchiven: Amtstagebcher (commentarii/cottidiana) und
Unterlagen aus dem Bereich der Rechtsprechung?
Man mchte vermuten, wenn irgendwo, dann msse man im Falle der gypti-
schen Provinzen feststellen knnen, ob es Statthalterarchive gab und was sich
in ihnen befand. Doch das erweist sich als schwieriger als vermutet. Man hat
sogar im Gegenteil z. B. gerade auf der Basis der gyptischen Dokumentation
die These vertreten, in der Sptantike seien keine Amtstagebcher (commenta-
rii/ cnovzt:oo: )
15
, also ein besonders zentraler Typ von Statthalterurkun-
den
16
, mehr gefhrt worden. Verfahren vor Gericht seien nur noch in Form ein-
zelner Protokolle, aber nicht mehr im Rahmen grerer, das einzelne Verfahren
bergreifender Dokumentenkomplexe aufgezeichnet worden
17
. Wenn es keine
Amtstagebcher und/ oder keine zusammenhngenden Aufzeichnungen von
Gerichtsverfahren mehr gab, wrde auch generell fraglich, inwieweit berhaupt
noch geordnet archivierte Statthalterurkunden existierten.
Grund fr die These, Amtstagebcher seien in den Kanzleien der sptanti-
ken Statthalter der gyptischen Provinzen nicht mehr gefhrt worden, ist, da
in keinem der etwa 40 Protokolle von Gerichtsverhandlungen vor Statthaltern
der gyptischen Provinzen in nachdiokletianischer Zeit sich die Angabe findet,
sie stammten c cnovzt:oav toc 8c:vo; toc ycovo;, also aus den com-
mentarii eines bestimmten Gouverneurs. Aus dem Fehlen solcher Dokumente
folgerte man, da Gerichtsverfahren nicht mehr in Amtstagebchern protokol-
liert worden seien, sondern nur noch in der Form ausfhrlicher und detaillierter
Einzelprotokolle.
Gegen diese These ist zunchst einmal festzuhalten, da es von Beginn
der Kaiserzeit an stets auch ausfhrliche Einzelprotokolle gegeben hat
18
. Ganz
zweifelsfrei hat der eine Typ von Protokoll nicht den anderen verdrngt, son-
dern beide haben zumindest 300 Jahre lang nebeneinander existiert. Auch be-
zieht sich das letzte Protokoll, in dem eingangs erwhnt wird, es stamme c
cnovzt:oav toc 8c:vo; toc ycovo;, auf eine Gerichtsverhandlung eines
Statthalters aus dem Jahr 218. Alle Aufzeichnungen von Prozessen vor praefecti
Aegypti mit spterem Datum weisen auch bei guter Erhaltung diese einleitende
Formulierung nicht mehr auf. Man knnte also ebenso gut die These vertreten,
die Amtstagebcher der Gouverneure seien bereits zu Beginn des 3. Jh., also vor
der sogenannten Krise des 3. Jh. und den diokletianischen Reformen, abgeschafft
worden. Da das nicht geschieht, beruht neben dem Gewicht der angeblichen
Epochengrenze der Herrschaft Diokletians wohl darauf, da das besterhaltene

15 Zu diesem Dokumententyp jetzt vor allem Mourgues 1998.
16 Haensch 1992, 219-245.
17 Bickermann 1933, 346 vgl. 344, 348. Vgl. Coles 1966, 24; Kaser-Hackl 1996, 557 Anm. 23.
18 Haensch 2008, 123 f., insbesondere Anm. 41.
339
die statthalterarchive der sptantike
originale Fragment eines Amtstagebuches, das eines Strategen, also des wich-
tigsten Amtsinhabers auf der lokalen Ebene, in dem u. a. auch eine Gerichtsver-
handlung aufgezeichnet ist, in das Jahr 232 datiert (W. Chr. 41).
Da Auszge von Gerichtsprotokollen von praefecti Aegypti zwischen 218 und
284 mit der Angabe c c novzt:oa v toc 8c: vo; toc yco vo; fehlen, hat bis-
her keinen Vertreter der These von einem Ende der commentarii in der diokletia-
nischen Zeit gestrt. Mu es aber etwas etwas besagen, wenn sich unter 40 Zeug-
nissen aus dem 4. und 5. Jh. (fr das 6. Jh. fehlt jedes Protokoll eines Verfahrens
vor einem Statthaltergericht) kein einschlgiges Zeugnis findet? Mehreres warnt
davor: Nach Johannes Lydus gab es im Stab des praefectus praetorio Orientis noch
zu Beginn des 6. Jh. zwei Typen von Aufzeichnungen von Gerichtsverhandlun-
gen die sogenannten personalia und die sogenannten cottidiana
19
. Die cottidiana
wrden von den chartularii gefhrt, die aus den exceptores ausgewhlt wurden.
Diese Aufzeichnungen wrden auch als regesta oder ephemer(id)ai bezeichnet. Sie
enthielten das, was an jedem Tag geschehen sei, einschlielich des Vermerks, da
sich an einem Tag aus diesem oder jenem Grund nichts ereignet habe. Das ent-
spricht genau dem Aufbau des Amtstagebuches des Strategen von 232.
Selbstverstndlich mu das, was fr den praefectus praetorio Orientis noch zu
Beginn des 6. Jh. typisch war, nicht notwendigerweise auch fr die Statthalter
dieser Zeit gegolten haben. Aber da im Rahmen der Reformen Diokletians die
Amtstagebcher keineswegs abgeschafft wurden, legen auch mehrere Neupub-
likationen von Papyri von Verwaltungstrgern unterer Ebenen nahe: P. Oxy. LIV
3741, anscheinend aus dem Jahr 313, drfte den Rest eines Amtstagebuches eines
unbekannten lokalen Amtsinhabers darstellen, bei dessen Ttigkeit offensicht-
lich beneidenswert hufig an einem Tag nichts anfiel. Bei CPR XVII A 18 vom Jahr
321 handelt es sich allem Anschein nach um die bisher sptest datierte Kopie
aus einem Amtstagebuch, in diesem Fall eines Strategen ([zvt:yzov cnov]-
zt:oav la [ot]ztoc A::zvoc otztyoc to: czt[o]o; lonoc:toc.
lnc: , no; t o:v nc t cn: tv 8oo:zv otztzv). P. Oxy. LIV 3758
ist ein umfangreiches, 227 Zeilen umfassendes und fast 3 m langes Dokument
aus dem Jahre 325, also 20 Jahre nach der Abdankung Diokletians. Es enthlt die
Protokolle von mindestens sieben, in einem einzigen Monat durchgefhrten
Gerichtsverhandlungen vor einem oy:ot;/ curator rei publicae. Wie auch im-
mer man das Dokument bezeichnen mchte, es bezeugt durch seine Anlage und
die berschrift in den Zeilen 3 und 4 cnov(ztz ?) (vo;) 1zc[v]a t[o]c
: ctoc; cn: ^:oooc:8oc oy:otoc (n)(o;) ztza:o[o]v auch
noch fr das fortgeschrittene 4. Jh. die Praxis, Gerichtsverhandlungen in gre-
ren Gruppen aufzuzeichnen.
Wenn im 4. Jh. die hchsten Trger der Reichsadministration wie die praefec-
ti praetorio und Funktionre der lokalen Ebene wie die curatores rei publicae Amts-

19 De mag. III 20, 7 und 9; 27, 3 bzw. III 20, 4; 27, 3 und 68, 6.
340
tagebcher fhrten, dann sollte dies auch fr die Statthalter gegolten haben
20
.
Tatschlich drfte das Fehlen von Angaben, die vorliegende Aufzeichnung eines
Gerichtsverfahrens stamme c cnovzt:oav toc 8c:vo; toc ycovo;, nicht
darauf beruhen, da es keine Amtstagebcher mehr gab, sondern ganz anders
zu erklren sein. Dieses Formular war zumindest im Falle der Statthalterurkun-
den fr verkrzte, auf Streitgegenstand und Urteil beschrnkte Exzerpte von
Gerichtsprotokollen typisch, die als Parallelflle zitiert wurden. Diese Praxis des
Zitates solcher Parallelen scheint im 3. oder 4. Jh. aufgegeben worden zu sein
entweder weil sie aus nicht mehr erkennbaren Grnden keinen Erfolg mehr ver-
sprach oder eher weil sie direkt untersagt wurde
21
.
Eine offene Frage ist allerdings, wie lange in den drei nachdiokletianischen
Jahrhunderten noch Amtstagebcher gefhrt wurden
22
. Nach Johannes Lydus
endete diese Praxis bei den praefecti praetorio in justinianischer Zeit. Im Falle der
Statthalter knnte dies schon frher der Fall gewesen sein. Dazu ist noch ein-
mal auf die sogenannten Einzelprotokolle zurckzukommen. Entsprechende
Dokumente bezeichnet, wie erwhnt, Lydus im Falle der Prfektenkanzlei als
personalia
23
. In ihnen seien die Gerichtsverhandlungen noch bis vor kurzer Zeit
von dem wortgewaltigsten adiutor mit solcher Sorgfalt und Genauigkeit aufge-
zeichnet worden, da diese bis ins Detail rekonstruiert werden konnten. Das
wisse er aus eigener Erfahrung: Als bei einem Rechtsstreit bestimmte Beweisur-
kunden nicht mehr htten herbeigeschafft werden knnen, habe man diese voll-
stndig aus dem personalium rekonstruieren knnen. Den Angaben von Lydus
nach wurden in den personalia die 8:zyvaoc:; in lateinischer Sprache wiederge-
geben (nc:cz,cv) ob wirklich gemeint war, da die gesamte Verhandlung
ins Lateinische bersetzt wurde, erscheint fraglich. Eher ist daran zu denken,
da nur zentrale protokollarische Elemente (und der Urteilsspruch) in Latein
abgefat waren
24
, so wie es auch ein jngst publiziertes Beispiel eines solchen

20 Vgl. Schmidt-Hofner 2008, 87 Anm. 143 die von ihnen verwalteten Amtstagebcher
(diurna) mit den commentarii identisch sein, die es in allen Statthalterbros gab. Auch Posner
1972, 213 geht von der Fortexistenz von daybooks aus.
21 Haensch 2008, 124.
22 Man sollte nicht bersehen, da es auch im Falle des Urteilsspruches eigens eingeschrft
werden mute, da dieser zunchst schriftlich formuliert werden mute und dann erst verkn-
det werden konnte: Cod. Theod. IV 17, 1-5, s. dazu auch Kaser-Hackl 1996, 609 mit Anm. 20.
23 De mag. III 20, 7-9; 27, 3.
24 Feissel 2004, 327-333 versteht die Passage dahingehend, da das gesamte Protokoll im
4. und beginnenden 5. Jh. lateinisch abgefat worden sei. Das ist aufgrund des Wortlautes
zweifellos die naheliegendste Interpretation. Es gibt aber fr die gesamte rmische Zeit in
den dokumentarischen Quellen kein Beispiel fr ein rein lateinisches Protokoll eines nicht-
militrischen Gerichtsverfahren eines Vertreters Roms im Osten bzw. eines sich dort auf-
haltenden Kaisers (bei der Rechtsprechung im Bereich des Heeres galt in der Hohen Kaiser-
zeit die offizielle Heeressprache, das Latein; fr die Sptantike s. demgegenber z. B. P. Oxy.
LXIII 4381). Was es gibt, sind die bilingualen Protokolle, bei denen aber nur der Rahmen,
also das Datum, die Nennung von Gerichtsherrn und Parteien sowie des Gerichtsortes und
341
die statthalterarchive der sptantike
Protokolls eines praefectus praetorio Orientis zeigt (AE 2004, 1410 = SEG 54, 1178;
aus dem Jahr 533).
Whrend aber aus dem spten 3., dem 4. und der ersten Hlfte des 5. Jh. ins-
gesamt etwa 40 Einzelprotokolle (mit bilinguem Rahmen) von Verhandlungen
vor Statthaltern gyptens bekannt sind, gibt es kein entsprechendes Zeugnis,
das sicher nach dem Jahre 461 datiert werden kann, und auch keines, fr das man
eine sptere Datierung als in das Jahr 481 auch nur in Betracht gezogen htte.
Anscheinend brachte nicht erst der Arabereinfall von 640, sondern schon das
sptere 5. Jh. bzw. 6. Jh. fr die Kanzlei- und Archivierungspraxis der Provinzi-
alverwaltung zumindest in gypten erhebliche Einschnitte mit sich
25
. Auf jeden
Fall von diesem Zeitpunkt an wird fr die gyptischen Provinzen auch fraglich,
ob Amtstagebcher noch gefhrt wurden.
Fr die aufgeworfenen Fragen lt sich wenig daraus ableiten, da in den
sptantiken Statthalterstben officiales mit den Titel commentariensis bzw. ab actis
bezeugt sind. Man hat zwar immer aus dem Titel des commentariensis gefolgert,
da auch in der Sptantike dieser officialis die Amtstagebcher gefhrt und ar-
chiviert habe
26
. Den ab actis erklrt man seit Anton v. Premerstein in der Weise,
da sich seine Funktion Ende des 4. Jh. aus einem adiutor des commentariensis
entwickelt habe. Der commentariensis sei fr das Fhren und das Verwahren der
im Zusammenhang mit der Kriminalgerichtsbarkeit entstandenen Dokumente
zustndig gewesen, der ab actis fr diejenigen bei der Zivilrechtspflege. Diese
These aber ist mehr als fraglich, da ihr zentrales Argument
27
eine Inschrift mit
der Erwhnung eines com(mentariensis) ab actis civilib(us) (ILS 2384 = RIT 229)
nicht in die betreffende Zeit, sondern in die Hohe Kaiserzeit datiert. Zwar gibt es
aus der Sptantike eine Reihe von Quellen, die belegen, da der commentariensis
bei Gerichtsverhandlungen ttig wurde
28
. Aber es fehlen fr ihn wie fr den ab

die Passagen zwischen den einzelnen uerungen, und schlielich zumindest manchmal der
Urteilsspruch (so in P. Oxy. LI 3614 und in den Acta Pionii 19-20) lateinisch abgefat waren.
M. E. drckt sich Lydus ungenau aus und bezieht sich auf das, was er in II 12, 2 anspricht, da
nmlich bis zu dem praefectus praetorio Orientis Kyros (439-442) die Urteile und damit ein
nicht standarisierbarer Teil der Protokolle auf Lateinisch abgefat worden seien. Schon in
II 12, 2 macht Lydus aus dem Verzicht auf lateinische Urteile ein vlliges Verschwinden der
lateinischen Sprache in den Dokumenten. Feissel uerst sich nicht dazu, wie er das von ihm
publizierte bilinguale Gerichtsprotokoll aus dem Jahr 533 in die Darstellung von Lydus ein-
bindet. Seiner Interpretation nach mte die Inschrift einen terminus post quem fr das von
Lydus scheinbar erwhnte vllige Verschwinden des Latein bieten.
25 Konzilsakten berliefern ein entsprechendes Protokoll fr einen Statthalter der Syria II im
Jahre 518: ACO III 92-106. Derart komplizierte Dokumente sind eigentlich nur auf Papyrus auf-
gezeichnet worden, so da das Schweigen anderer Quellenarten nichts besagen mu.
26 Zuletzt Palme 1999, 109.
27 Premerstein 1900, 766. Vgl. Palme 1999, 109 Anm. 123.
28 Premerstein 1900, 766 f.; fr die Kaiserzeit vgl. Haensch 1995. Besonders gut sind wir na-
trlich ber den des praefectus praetorio Orientis informiert: Joh. Lydus de mag. III 4, 4; 8, 2; 9, 8;
16; 17. Von den Papyri s. insbesondere P. Oxy. IX 1204 und P. Lips. I 40 = ChLA XII 518 III 16 f.
342
actis
29
explizite Zeugnisse, da sie die entsprechenden Unterlagen archivierten
und gegebenenfalls zu ihnen Zugang gewhrten. Direkt bezeugt ist nur, da der
commentariensis Ende des 4. Jh. eine Liste der Inhaftierten mit ihren jeweiligen
Personendaten und Anklagepunkten zu fhren hatte und diese jeweils inner-
halb von 30 Tagen dem Statthalter vorlegen mute
30
.
Die im Stabe des praefectus praetorio Orientis ttigen officiales mit den Titeln
commentariensis bzw. ab actis hatten jedenfalls nach den Angaben von Johannes
Lydus nichts mehr mit einer Archivierung der von ihnen gefhrten Unterlagen
zu tun. Dafr war dort der instrumentarius zustndig, fr den wir in den Statthal-
terstben kein Pendant kennen
31
. Der ab actis des praefectus praetorio Orientis hatte
zudem berhaupt nichts mit Unterlagen der Zivilrechtspflege zu tun, sondern
war mit den Dokumenten bei Prozessen aus dem Bereich der Finanzadmini-
stration betraut
32
. Alles das mag mit der groen Zahl der Stabsmitglieder dieses
Amtsinhabers und der Ausdifferenzierung von Funktionen in seinem Stab zu
erklren sein. Es warnt aber davor, eine Rolle dieser Amtsinhaber bei der Archi-
vierung einfach aufgrund ihrer Titel zu postulieren.
Einzeldokumente aus dem Bereich der Rechtsprechung?
Die Amtstagebcher sind die Dokumente, fr die man insbesondere eine ln-
gerfristige Aufbewahrung in einem Statthalterarchiv erwartet. Generell gespro-
chen, mchte man eine langfristige Archivierung vor allem fr die bei der Recht-
sprechung des Statthalters entstehenden Dokumente annehmen
33
, also neben
den cottidiana auch fr die personalia/ die Einzelprotokolle und jene Dokumente,
die im Rahmen der testificatio actorum ausgefertigt wurden. Da gerade letzte-
re beiden Dokumententypen keineswegs unverbunden nebeneinander stehen,
zeigt sich daran, da fnf oder eher sechs der acht Protokolle von Gerichtsver-

29 Den z. B. Posner 1972, 212 wegen seines Titels als the person in charge of the custody of
records betrachtet.
30 Cod. Theod. IX 3, 6.
31 Joh. Lydus de mag. III 19; 20, 5. Schief Kaser-Hackl 1996, 553 Anm. 59. In der Kaiserzeit
gab es officiales mit dem Titel ab instrumentis oder ad instrumentum nur im Bereich der in der
Finanzverwaltung ttigen familia Caesaris, s. CIL III 1315 (= IDR III 3, 364). 1470 = 7974 (= IDR III
2, 453). 1995; CIL VI 8854, cf. p. 3463 = 33753; CIL VIII 12898; AE 1903, 57.
32 Joh. Lydus de mag. III 4, 5; 9, 8; 20; 21, 1; 27, 2; 68, 6.
33 Auch die bei Cod. Theod. IV 16, 1 berlieferte Regelung setzt voraus, da die Unterlagen
zu Gerichtsprozessen lngere Zeit aufbewahrt wurden. Vgl. auch P. Lips. I 40 = ChLA XII 518 II
Z. 23. S. ferner die in einer speziellen Situation ausgesprochene grundstzliche Regelung: Cod.
Theod. XVI 5, 55 = Cod. Iust. VII 52, 6.
343
die statthalterarchive der sptantike
handlungen
34
, die mehr oder weniger przise ins 5. Jh. datieren
35
, Aufzeichnun-
gen ber eine versuchte Prozeeinleitung sind
36
. D. h. alle diese Protokolle be-
richten darber, da ein officialis nach Rckfrage und expliziter Anordnung des
Statthalters eine Petition verlas, mit der ein Bittsteller darum bat, seinen Gegner,
dessen Vergehen er erluterte, vor Gericht zu laden
37
. Alle diese Protokolle be-
zeugen also lediglich die Einleitung eines gerichtliches Verfahrens durch eine
amtliche Ladung. Ob es je zu dem Verfahren selbst kam oder man sich vorher
einigte, bleibt offen. Unter den acht bilinguen Protokollen aus dem 5. Jh. ist nur
ein einziges wirkliches Verhandlungsprotokoll
38
. Leider gibt es im Falle all dieser
Urkunden keinen spezifischen Anhaltspunkt fr eine Archivierung. Allein das
juristische Ziel dieses Vorgehens, bestimmte Ansprche zu sichern, macht eine
Archivierung recht wahrscheinlich.
Ein noch negativeres Ergebnis ist bei einem speziellen Typ juristischer Ur-
kunden festzustellen, den bei Statthaltern eingereichten Bittschriften. In den
170er Jahren und dann erneut im ersten Jahrzehnt des 3. Jh. war ein Bearbei-
tungsverfahren fr Petitionen eingefhrt worden, bei dem die Originale der
Bittschriften und der auf diesen erteilten Antworten, der subscriptiones, beim
Statthalter und seinem Stab verblieben. Um die ihnen erteilten Bescheide um-
zusetzen, muten sich die Bittsteller beglaubigte Abschriften von beiden besor-
gen
39
. Das Verfahren legt nahe, da man die Originale der Bittschriften und der
jeweiligen Bescheide archivierte, um gegebenenfalls auf sie zurckgreifen zu
knnen. Der letzte sicher datierte Beleg fr dieses Verfahren ist eine Petition des
Jahres 328 (SB XVIII 13260). Schon von diesem Zeitpunkt an gibt es fr diese spe-
zielle Dokumentengruppe keinerlei auch nur indirekte Hinweise darauf, inwie-
fern sie im Statthalterstab archiviert wurde. Im Stab des consularis Numidiae
40
ist
zwar unter Julian noch ein libellensis und in den stlichen Stben des beginnen-
den 5. Jh. ein a libellis bezeugt, aber inwieweit diese auch bei der Archivierung



34 In zeitlicher Reihenfolge: P. Oxy. XVI 1879 = ChLA XLVII 1409; ChLA XLV 1321; ChLA III 217 =
P. Thomas 25; ChLA XLIII 1247; P. Oxy. XVI 1878 = ChLA XLVII 1408; P. Oxy. XVI 1877 = ChLA XLVII
1407; ChLA XLIII 1251; PSI XIII 1309 = ChLA XLII 1226 (ganz unsicher datiert; dazu auch u. Anm.
38).
35 Fraglich bleibt dies nur bei ChLA XLV 1321. Bei P. Oxy. XVI 1877 = ChLA XLVII 1407 handelt es
sich eindeutig um einen sogenannten Libellprozess (und nicht eine litis denuntiatio). Zu diesem
zuletzt Palme 2008, 66.
36 Vgl. auch die Liste bei Benaissa 2010, 279.
37 Vgl. dazu Kaser-Hackl 1996, 566-576.
38 PSI XIII 1309 = ChLA XLII 1226, das im Lichte der hier gemachten Beobachtungen auf jeden
Fall nicht mehr ins 6. Jahrhundert zu datieren ist, sondern wegen der Statthaltertitulatur eher
in die erste Hlfte des 5. Jahrhunderts.
39 Haensch 1994.
40 CIL VIII 17896-7 = Chastagnol 1978.
344
und nicht nur der Bearbeitung solcher Bittschriften eine Rolle spielten, entzieht
sich unserer Kenntnis
41
.
Die Korrespondenz?
Neben den Unterlagen aus dem Bereich der Rechtsprechung erwartet man vor
allem bei der vielfltigen Korrespondenz eines Statthalters mit dem Kaiser,
den Prtorianerprfekten, aber auch untergeordneten Instanzen eine Archivie-
rung. Wie umfangreich eine solche Korrespondenz schon bei einem Vertreter
einer dem Gouverneur untergeordneten, regionalen Ebene war, zeigen P. Beatty
Panop. 1 und 2 aus den Jahren 298 und 300 fr den Strategen: Die erste Urkunde,
eine Zweitschrift der whrend 16 Tagen ausgehenden Korrespondenz, hat heute
noch eine Lnge von ber 6 m. Das zweite Dokument, eine Abschrift der an den
Strategen gerichteten, whrend des Februars des Jahres 300 eingegangenen Kor-
respondenz seitens des ihm vorgesetzten Statthalters, ist heute noch mehr als
5 m lang. Da zumindest in der Africa Proconsularis solche Korrespondenzen
ber 100 Jahre hinweg archiviert wurden, belegt die von Augustinus zitierte rela-
tio Anullini an Konstantin. Aber wiederum fehlt ein auch nur indirekter Hinweis
aus den gyptischen Provinzen. Es gab zwar in den Stben der sptantiken Statt-
halter mit dem cura epistularum einen officialis, bei dem man aufgrund seines Ti-
tels vermuten mchte, da er entweder etwas mit der Erstellung der Urkunden
dieses Dokumententyps zu tun hatte oder mit ihrer Archivierung oder mit bei-
dem
42
. Direkt zu belegen ist bis heute allerdings keine der drei Vermutungen.
Unterlagen aus der Finanzadministration?
Als dritter groer Dokumentenkomplex ergaben sich aus der Arbeit eines sptan-
tiken Statthalters die Unterlagen aus dem Bereich der Finanzadministration. Ge-
rade auf diesem Gebiet wurden die Statthalter vergleichsweise intensiv kontrol-
liert. So hatten sie nach einer in Quellen des 5. und 6. Jh. zu fassenden Regelung
43

alle vier Monate dem zustndigen Prtorianerprfekten in Form von breves, zu-
sammenfassenden listenartigen Aufstellungen
44
, ber den Steuereingang zu be-
richten. Mglicherweise war diese Regelung der Rest einer im Jahre 319 fr die
Provinz Corsica bezeugten Anordnung, nach der alle sechs Monate breves omnium
negotiorum ab officio tuo descripti ... ad scrinia eminentissimae praefecturae gebracht

41 Vgl. Palme 1999, 109.
42 Zu diesem Hagedorn-Mitthof 1997; Palme 1999, 109 f.
43 Cod. Theod. I 10, 7 (401); Cassiodor. var. XII 16.
44 Zum Begriff insbesondere Bonneau 1984.
345
die statthalterarchive der sptantike
werden sollten (Cod. Theod. I 16, 3). Umgekehrt wurde den Provinzstatthaltern
selbst anscheinend im monatlichen Abstand von den lokalen Instanzen Bericht
ber den Steuereinzug erstattet
45
. Nicht nur solche Regelungen legen nahe, da
sehr genau Buch gefhrt wurde, und die entstandenen Unterlagen auch entspre-
chend archiviert wurden. Eine 428 in Ravenna verfate Konstitution (Cod. Theod.
I 10, 8) erwhnt z. B. einen Vergleich zwischen den von den tabularii/ numerarii des
Statthalters vorgelegten breves und den von Beauftragten der kaiserlichen Zentra-
le in die Provinz bermittelten gleichartigen Dokumenten. Er zielte darauf, die
Hhe der tatschlichen Steuerforderungen zu bestimmen. Ein Steuererla des
Jahres 395 begrndete einen Verzicht auf Steuern fr 528.042 iugera der Provinz
Kampanien u. a. damit, da dieses Land nach einem entsprechenden Bericht und
dem Zeugnis veterum monumenta chartarum unfruchtbar sei (Cod. Theod. XI 28, 2).
Cod. Theod. XI 28, 3 (vom Jahre 401) ist der im Text umfangreichste Steuererla
unter den 17 im entsprechenden Kapitel De indulgentiis debitorum, also ber die
den Staatsschuldnern gewhrten Erlasse, des Codex Theodosianus exzerpierten
Regelungen. Erlassen wurden Steuerrckstnde bis zum letzten Jahr des vor-
ausgehenden Indiktionszyklus, d. h. bis zum Jahr 386/7. Damit der Steuererla
vollstndig durchgefhrt wurde, ordnete der Kaiser an, die entsprechenden Do-
kumente seien sie in den Hnden von Spezialsteuereintreibern (discussores), in
Archiven der Stdte, der Statthalter oder der Amtsinhaber am Kaiserhof ffent-
lich zu verbrennen (chartas omnes, sive quas tabularii civitatum sive officia iudicum
sive officium palatinum sive discussores habent, quibus tamen eius temporis et debitorum
nomina et debita continentur, undique in medium congregatas palam flammis iubemus
aboleri). Diese Anordnung ist typisch fr die im betreffenden Kapitel angefhrten
Steuererlasse, ohne da aber in den 16 anderen aufgenommenen Gesetzen noch
einmal explizit gesagt wrde, wo diese zu finden seien. Entsprechende Formu-
lierungen knnte es ohne weiteres gegeben haben, da viele der im Codex gesam-
melten Konstitutionen gekrzt worden sind.
Zentral zustndig in einem Statthalterstab fr alle derartigen Unterlagen
der Finanzverwaltung waren zwei sogenannte numerarii (die im 4. Jh. lange Zeit
noch als tabularii bezeichnet wurden). Einer von ihnen war mit den Dokumen-
ten betraut, die mit Abgaben zusammenhingen, die letztlich fr die arca fiscalis
des jeweils zustndigen praefectus praetorio bestimmt waren. Der andere sorgte
sich um die Einnahmen, die unter die largitionales tituli des comes sacrarum largi-
tionum fielen
46
.
Im Falle dieser officiales ist in ganz exzeptioneller Weise ihre Ttigkeitssttte
sogar einmal im Falle einer Provinz archologisch fabar. Bei den Ausgrabun-
gen des sptantiken Statthalterpalastes in Caesarea Iudaeae wurde nmlich an
dessen Ostseite ein in sich abgeschlossener und ber eine vorgelagerte Por-

45 Schmidt-Hofner 2008, 64-71 mit einer ausfhrlichen Diskussion von AE 1984, 250.
46 Zu ihnen Palme 1999, 110.
346
tikus zugnglicher Komplex von sieben Rumen gefunden, der nach den dort
angebrachten Inschriften den Erfordernissen verschiedener Stabsmitglieder des
Gouverneurs dieser Provinz diente
47
. In diesem Zusammenhang wird in der In-
schrift des zentralen Kopfraumes ein numerarius als zweite Person nach einem
chartularius und vor anderen chartularii genannt
48
. Derselbe numerarius erscheint
wohl auch als dritter in der Inschrift des zentralen Korridors dieses Teils des
Statthalterpalastes
49
. Wenn man jetzt allerdings erwartet, da der zentrale Kopf-
raum als Archiv diente, so irrt man sich. Nichts an den archologischen Resten
des Raumes knnte zu einer solchen These passen.
Sicherlich schliet dieser archologische Befund nicht aus, da zum Auf-
gabenbereich der numerarii auch die Archivierung der entsprechenden Unter-
lagen gehrte. Der numerarius war nach dem Zeugnis beider Inschriften nicht
der hchstrangige in dem Raumkomplex ttige officialis, sondern nur der zweite
bzw. dritte in der Hierarchie. Die Raumgruppe mag auch vorwiegend dem Publi-
kumsverkehr gedient haben zwei der sieben Rume hatten nach dem Zeugnis
dort angebrachter Inschriften
50
sicher diese Funktion. Das Archiv mag sich ganz
woanders befunden haben. Aber auch mit diesen Einschrnkungen warnt der
Befund von Caesarea davor, allzu selbstverstndlich davon auszugehen, da es
ein eigenes Archiv der Unterlagen aus dem Bereich der Finanzverwaltung bei
jedem Statthalter gab und da dieses von den numerarii verwaltet worden wre.
Schlu
Selbst wenn man also alle mglichen Quellenarten heranzieht, bleibt das, was
wir ber sptantike Statthalterarchive wissen, recht wenig. Johannes Lydus,
unsere wichtigste literarische Quelle, berichtet vor allem von dem Stab, den er
selbst gut kannte, dem des praefectus praetorio Orientis. Dessen Verhltnisse sind
aber wegen der umfassenden Vollmachten dieses Amtsinhabers und der dem-
entsprechend groen Zahl seiner officiales nur sehr eingeschrnkt auf die der
Provinzstatthalter bertragbar. Wie immer in der Papyrologie, wissen wir ent-
sprechend der Fundsituation der Papyri am besten ber die Administrationstr-
ger Bescheid, die vor Ort in den Drfern und Kleinstdten ttig waren. Es ist auch
durch die Charakteristika der papyrologischen berlieferung bedingt, da wir
sptantike officiales vor allem aus Listen und privaten Dokumenten kennen, aber
wenig von ihrer Ttigkeit erfahren. Obwohl schlielich mit dem praetorium von
Caesarea Iudaeae wenigstens ein sptantiker Statthalterpalast recht gut bekannt

47 S. zu diesem Komplex Lehmann-Holum 2000, 96-102.
48 Lehmann-Holum 2000 nr. 90.
49 Lehmann-Holum 2000 nr. 91.
50 Lehmann-Holum 2000 nr. 88 und 89, jeweils mit Zitat von Rom. 13, 3.
347
die statthalterarchive der sptantike
ist und in situ erhaltene Inschriften sogar bei der Identifikation der wichtigsten
Funktion ergrabener Rume Anhaltspunkte bieten, bleibt auch in diesem Falle
unklar, was wo archiviert wurde, wie lange dies geschah und wer dafr zustndig
war. So stellen denn die Bemerkungen von Augustinus ber das Archiv des Gou-
verneurs der Africa Proconsularis die wichtigsten Nachrichten ber sptantike
Statthalterarchive dar, die aus relativ wenigen, sehr gestreuten Quellen ergnzt
werden. La mmoire perdue der sptantiken Provinzialadministration wieder
zu finden, erweist sich keineswegs als leichter als die der Hohen Kaiserzeit.
Abkrzungsverzeichnis
PLRE = A. H. M. Jones-J. R. Martindale-J. Morris (ed.), The Prosopography of the
Later Roman Empire, 3 Bnde, Cambridge 1971-1992.
348
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der Stdte und Provinzen im
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351
conclusions
Conclusions
uri yiftach-firanko
In an ideal world, the student of an archive would enter a room in which all the
documents, where all the archived material would be found exactly in the same
place and position as it was left in antiquity. The student of the archive would
also nd a document, left by the creator of the archive, in which he stated how
and for what purposes the archive was created.
1
Alas, this is rarely the case. With
perhaps one exception, that of the Delphic manumission documents discussed
by Kaja Harter-Uibopuu (recording on stone a detailed account of manumission
documents deposited in perishable archives),
2
archives consist in the ancient
world of perishable material, which under normal circumstances has not been
preserved to our time. The consequent methodological problems are illustrated
by papers focusing on particular archives that are now lost,
3
as well as on periods

1 Compare, e.g., P.Oxy. I 34
v
= MChr 188 (127 CEOxyrhynchos); P.Oxy. II 237 (8. 27-43) =
Jur.Pap. 59 (89 CEOxyrhynchos); and in this volume, Harter-Uibopuu, p. 274.
2 Naturally, even in this case the epigraphic documentation did not replace the documenta-
tion on perishable material. Cf. pp. 281-294, with an analysis of the relation of the text of the
inscription to that of the perishable prototype.
3 As is the case, generally, with state archives of the middle Babylonian period, discussed by
Paulus, and the public archive of the krum of Kanesh, discussed by Veenhof. In both cases the
archive is reconstructed on account of external related material: cf. pp. 36-37, 42, 129-131.
352
and regions that in general yield no perishable material: this is especially the case
with Classical Greece and the Hellenistic world outside Egypt.
In his discussion of archival practices relating to court procedures, Edward
Harris pinpointed the existence of a register of enklmata, short accounts of the
details of a case that were presented to the Athenian dikastria before the case was
heard. But the said register, located according to Harris account in the archive
of the Metron, did not come down to us, and its existence is inferred primar-
ily from references in the orators. For this reason we can only guess the shape
or contents of the texts that were incorporated in that register. Shimon Epstein
argued for the existence of a register of some written accounts of the scrutiny
reports (euthynae) of former ofcials, but here too, the register itself did not come
down to us, and its contents are only recovered from accounts on building in-
scriptions drawn up upon information taken from that register.
4
The same ap-
plies to the lists of Athenian citizens, as kept in the demes registers following the
reform of Cleisthenes, a topic discussed by Christophe Pbarthe,
5
and to archives
of Hellenistic city-states, an issue dealt with by Laura Boffo. Boffo discusses the
existence of quite extensive archives, but the material she studies derives from
indirect references on stone.
6
The same applies to archives recording private le-
gal acts (purchases of graves) in late Hellenistic and early Roman Asia Minor, a
topic discussed by Harter-Uibopuu.
7
In all these cases we can hypothesize on the
shape of the archive or the forms of registration in it, but we do not know any-
thing certain.
In other cases, the material originally stored in the archive did come down to
us, but it was removed from its original archival settings, and it is our duty to try
to reconstruct these. I would like to draw a distinction between cases in which
the archive was already dissolved in antiquity, and those in which the dissolu-
tion took place in modern times. The rst case is discussed by Lucia Criscuolo.
Material stored in archives of Ptolemaic village ofcials was removed and sold
to embalmers, who used it as mummy cartonnage.
8
In their endeavor to recon-
struct the archive from which the papyri originated, modern editors have relied
on prosopographical considerations, a methodology naturally also applied by
others (consider, e.g., the paper of Ingo Kottsieper
9
) as well as on some work-
ing hypotheses, such as the assumption that rough drafts (malacopie) were really
drafts made within the ofce authoring them, and were meant to be disposed of

4 Cf. pp. 129-131. Paulus study of the kudurru discusses a similar evidentiary state of affairs
and raises similar questions.
5 Cf. pp. 115 ff.
6 E.g., p. 204.
7 Cf. pp. 294 ff.
8 Cf. pp. 246-247.
9 E.g., p. 176.
353
conclusions
once the nal version of the text would be composed. Criscuolo shows that revis-
iting this hypothesis could alter our reconstruction of the documents archive of
origin.
10

The second form of dissolution, the modern one, is manifested in almost eve-
ry paper dealing with the Ancient Near East and Greco-Roman Egypt. Sometimes
the dissolution was caused by looting. Papyri, parchments and clay tablets were
unlawfully excavated, and then purchased from dealers.
11
These dealers may give
some account of the provenance and the form of preservation of the documents.
Thus for example, some of the documents of the Mibtahja archive, discussed by
Ingo Kottsieper, were said by the dealer to have been found in a single wooden
box, and those aiming at reconstructing the archive seem to rely on this piece
of information.
12
Sometimes the texts were unearthed in authorized excavations,
but especially in earlier times they were removed from the site without taking
into account their exact location, a piece of information that could be very useful
for the reconstruction of the archive.
An outstanding example, provided by Klaas Veenhof, is that of the archives
of Assyrian merchants in Anatolian Kanesh. In one case, that relating to an ar-
chive excavated in 1991, Veenhof quotes the excavators account that groups of
tablets were packed in boxes, bags, sacks and straw mats, and that at the top of
each were found one or two bullae. But Veenhof also laments the general nature
of this observation, the lack of adequate pictures, and the fact that the said bul-
lae were published separately from the tablets themselves, without an adequate
indication of the tablets they originally related to.
13
Equally regrettable is the re-
port prepared by the German excavators digging in Elephantine in 1906-1908. In
this case, to cite Kottsieper, the excavators did not give exact information about
the nding of each document, so that we have no reliable information which
papyri were found at which spot and thus could form an archive with others.
14

These two examples show the importance of the participation of documentarists
in excavations of archives.
A nal problem relates to the pace of publication. As all of you know, the
amount of documentary material including that stemming from archives that
has not yet been published is immense. Thus, for example, of over 12,000 tablets
stemming from the archive of the governor of Nippur only 20%, we are told by
Susanne Paulus, have hitherto been published.
15
Remarkably, similar gures can
be provided by papyrologists, especially I think by those dealing with Demotic,

10 E.g., p. 250.
11 E.g., p. 172 n. 12 (Kottsieper); 28 (Veenhof).
12 Cf., e.g., p. 68, 178.
13 Cf. p. 39. See also p. 68 (Jacquet).
14 Cf. pp. 175-176, 179.
15 Cf. p. 89.
354
Coptic and Arabic papyri, but certainly also by those publishing Greek texts.
16

Still, projects launched by present and past participants of LDAS, targeted spe-
cically at publishing archives, may considerably improve this state of affairs in
the near future.
17

Among the archives discussed in this paper, a key distinction can be made be-
tween state and private archives, a distinction that is primarily valid in the case
of the Greco-Roman documentation, not necessarily with regard to the old Baby-
lonian or old Assyrian source material.
18
The archives studied by Epstein, Harris,
Boffo, Kruse, and Harter-Uibopuu are all state archives, that is they are managed
and maintained by a state organ, while those studied by Veenhof, Jacquet, Kott-
sieper and Criscuolo were created and held by private persons, occasionally for
an ad hoc purpose.
19

As for public archives, in some cases, as those discussed by Kruse and Har-
ter-Uibopuu, the same information was stored in more than one archive, each
serving a different purpose. This was especially the case when more than one
bureau was involved in processing the data, as is the case discussed in Kruses
paper.
20
The types of documentation deposited in public archives varied. Some
of the material deposited in Boffos archives relates to public interest, e.g., roy-
al decrees entailing the extension of the citys territory or bestowing upon the
city other privileges,
21
while in other cases, as those discussed by Epstein, Har-
ris, Harter-Uibopuu, Kruse and also other types of material discussed by Boffo,
it relates to private individuals.
22
Within the latter category, some of the ma-
terial relates to the persons duties in ofce. This is most clearly the case with
the records of the protocols of the euthynai, public investigations of Athenian
ofcials after their period in ofce came to an end, a source material discussed
by Shimon Epstein.
23
In other cases the archive kept record of the populations
civic status. Harter-Uibopuu, following inter alia epigraphic evidence published
by Michael Wrrle, pinpoints the growing interest on the part of the state, in
the late Hellenistic period, in recording property rights and contracts.
24
I think


16 According to papyri.info, the collection of the Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Colum-
bia University contains 5754 texts on papyrus and ostracon. Less than 400 of these texts have
hitherto been published.
17 Cf., in particular, http://www.archibab.fr/ and www.trimsmegistos.org.
18 Cf., in general, the cautious discussion by Antoine Jacquet, pp. 68-69.
19 The problem is discussed, e.g., by Criscuolo, p. 245 with n. 1 and repeatedly elsewhere in the
same paper. Cf. also Kottsieper, p. 187.
20 Cf. p. 326.
21 E.g., p. 207.
22 E.g., pp. 211-212 (Boffo); 129 (Epstein); 154 (Harris); 274 (Harter-Uibopuu); 309 (Kruse).
23 E.g., pp. 129-131.
24 E.g., pp. 274-280.
355
conclusions
that contemporary papyrological source material supports this conclusion (see
below).
25

Other archives were set by individuals, sometimes in connection with their
ofces: this is the case with the archives discussed by Lucia Criscuolo, and one of
the archives discussed by Ingo Kottsieper, that of Nahtor, a subordinate of the
satrap Arames in fth century BCE Egypt.
26
I would like to mention, e.g., one
interesting parallel, that of the register of in- and outgoing mail of the strategos
Aurelius Apolinarius, in late third and early fourth century CE Panopolis, briey
mentioned by Rudolf Haensch,
27
recording a total of more than 200 letters and
memoranda, and there are of course many similar cases.
28
These archives relate
for the most part to the ofcial activity of the owner of the archive (or in the case
of Nahtor also to that of his immediate predecessor) and hence also to a rela-
tively short period of time.
Other archives were created for private purposes. In this case the occupation
of the owner of the archive as well as the volume of his assets naturally affected
the size, shape and contents of the archive. On the one extreme we place the old
Assyrian merchants archives from Kanesh discussed by Veenhof and some old
Babylonian archives discussed by Jacquet.
29
Many of these archives consist of
many hundreds of documents, extend over several rooms, and allow us a glimpse
(in Veenhofs account) of the owners international economic activity. On the
other extreme we place Kottsiepers very small family archives of Achaemenid
Egypt (in one case just nine documents in all), rolled together in a single wooden
box, that do not even record a familys entire economic activity, but focus rather
on a narrower subject matter, namely titles to some private property and heredi-
tary rights that are subject to dispute.
30
I wonder if the archive-in-pot discussed
by Paulus should fall, in terms of its size, under this heading.
31

As to the contents of these private archives, we can generalize a distinction,
made most explicit by Jacquet, but also discussed by Veenhof, between two types
of archived documentation. Some types of documentation were commonly kept
for a very long period, in particular those relating to rights to landed property,
inheritance, and personal status. Other types of documentation were kept as a
matter of course for a shorter duration, and were then sifted out of the archive:
this would be the case with accounts, letters and loan contracts, which would be

25 Cf., e.g., P.Par. 65 = UPZ I p. 596 (145 BCEMemphis); P.Ryl. IV 572 (II BCE Arsinoits).
26 Criscuolo, pp. 248 ff.
27 Cf. p. 344.
28 Comparable is naturally the archive of the governor of Kassite Nippur, discussed by Paulus.
Cf. p. 90.
29 Cf., e.g., the archive of Shallim-Assur with more than 1,100 texts, discussed by Veenhof at
p. 29, and the Ur-Utu archive discussed by Jacquet at p. 75, with almost 2,000 documents.
30 Cf. p. 180.
31 Cf., e.g., p. 89.
356
kept only as long as the evidence provided by them was held relevant.
32
The same
distinction may be drawn with regard to papyrological material from Egypt, es-
pecially when the format of the document is investigated.
33

I would like to mention another type of archive, which was not thoroughly
discussed by any of the speakers, though alluded to by Veenhof.
34
I refer to what
may be termed communal archive. A private person, a local respectable, keeps
records belonging to members of his community, and ought to present the docu-
ments to the parties, or to a third person, at need. The practice is well documented
by the orators,
35
and even more so in the source material from Ptolemaic Egypt:
in the third and second centuries BCE, Greek double documents are kept after
their composition by a private person in the position of syngraphophylax (keeper
of legal documents), while the state creates a synoptic account reporting which
syngraphophylax keeps what document.
36
This is a more economical solution than
keeping private legal documents in a public archive, especially in an archival sys-
tem that is just evolving, as was the case in the young Ptolemaic state. These ar-
chives cannot be dened as public, for they are not managed by the state, but they
are not entirely private, for they serve the interest of their owners community,
rather than the owners private ends.
Many of the papers in this volume focus on the formation and inner organi-
zation of archives,
37
a question studied, for example, in Boffos paper. According
to Boffo, the Hellenistic polis was required to collect (and naturally to record) not
only its own taxes, but also those due to the hegemonic king. The result was the
addition, within the citys revenues records, of an additional chapter, document-
ing the kings revenues, the basilika, alongside the old chapter documenting the
politika, that is the citys own revenues.
38
One can also nd parallels in registers
from Roman Egypt. An especially detailed account of different types of docu-
mentation within a public archive is provided by Thomas Kruses discussion of
status-related material from Roman Egypt: in Roman Egypt we observe several
methods of keeping evidence of archived information: the submitted documents

32 The same applies to letters and accounts, cf. Veenhof, pp. 31, 39 and Jacquet, pp. 71-77 .
33 Cf. U. Yiftach-Firanko, The Grammatikon: Some Considerations on Feeing Policies of Legal Doc-
uments in the Ptolemaic and Roman Period, in D. Ratzan, D.Kehoe, U. Yiftach-Firanko (eds.), Le-
gal Documents in Ancient Societies II: Transaction Costs in the Ancient World. Proceedings of a Meeting
Held at the Center for Hellenic Studies, Washington DC, 27-28.7.2009 (forthcoming), discussing the
different feeing policies applied in the case of documents recording the conveyance of landed
property, inheritance, or status-related matters, and those applied in the case of loans, leases,
animal sales, and other transactions of short term signicance.
34 Cf. p. 32.
35 Cf. CHR. Pbarthe, Cit, dmocratie et criture. Histoire de lalphabtisation dAthnes lpoque
classique, Paris 2006, pp. 94-103, with a discussion of the relevant sources.
36 Cf., e.g., CPR XVIII 1.12-36 (231/206 BCETheogonis).
37 Cf. Jacquets discussion, pp. 70-71.
38 Cf. pp. 210, 222.
357
conclusions
themselves, sometimes put together in scrolls, i.e. the so called tomoi synkollesi-
moi, lists of extracts, and also (in the case discussed by Kruse) synoptic lists of
persons.
39
I think that all of the larger archives presented in our colloquium ex-
hibit some form of data processing and the resulting material.
One of the nicest illustrations of the data processing mechanisms is provided
by copies of petitions from the archive of the Roman governor of Egypt. Petitions
embedding written responses issued in the prefects ofce carry the number of
tomos (volume), and kollma (page) within that tomos in which the response was
kept within the prefects les.
40
Such a registration method seems common in
other public archives as well. To be mentioned in this context is Venhoofs short
account of the organization of clay tablets in the merchants archives in early sec-
ond millennium BCE Kanesh in boxes (tamalakkum/tamalakk), and the identi-
cation of the tablets by their size, cover, and specic contents, which is marked
by means of inscribed bullae.
41

Tightly connected with the above question is the creation process of the indi-
vidual entries. The study of this process is rendered difcult whenever (as is nor-
mally the case) we do not possess the original. Still, as shown by Harter-Uibopuus
analysis of the Delphic manumission inscriptions, a cautious and patient analy-
sis of the entries may yield results.
42
According to Harter-Uibopuu, the author
of the inscribed text started out from a routine formulary, that of the Greek act
of sale. Yet before the inscription was carved, he integrated into the routine text
additional provisions, added for the benet of the individual contracting parties,
a task that undoubtedly required some scribal expertise on his part. We may also
compare the formation process of the mid Babylonian kudurrus, a phenomenon
discussed by Susanne Paulus.
43
I would like to end my discussion with a general note. The volume published
here contains the proceedings of the fourth meeting of Legal Documents in Ancient
Societies generously hosted at the University of Trieste in September-October
2011. Our young research group meets every year, aiming at discussing how dif-
ferent ancient civilizations dealt with a subject matter chosen as our topic of that
meeting. We then try to draw some conclusions. The conclusions may be of a
comparative, phenomenological nature: in the case of the subject matter of the
present meeting, each archive may be studied on its own merits, and we may
ask to what extent similar legal, social, cultural and economic conditions may
explain the formation, structure and sphere of application of archives in the dif-
ferent societies studied in our meeting. As a student of archives in Ptolemaic and

39 Cf., e.g., pp. 309, 324-326.
40 Cf., e.g., P.Sakaon 38.33 = P.Flor. I 36 = MChr 64 (312 CETheadelphia).
41 Cf., in particular, pp. 56-58.
42 Cf. pp. 287-293.
43 Cf. p. 98.
358
Roman Egypt I was intrigued to observe the application of data-processing strat-
egies in old Babylonian archives that are strikingly similar to those applied in
my sources.
But there is also another approach, the evolutionary one: trying to see if we
can pinpoint development over time in the methods applied, and spheres of ac-
tivity recorded in archives. Naturally, the material from the Ancient Near East
should be excluded: Jacquets and Veenhofs contributions illustrate the effective
application of sophisticated methods in organizing immense archives of many
hundred documents each, but they do not discuss the origin and formation of
these methods.
44
Even with regard to the classical world, any endeavor to pin-
point evolution should be undertaken very cautiously, taking into account that
the material preserved from the Greco-Roman world outside Egypt is markedly
different from that excavated over the last century in the valley of the Nile.
45

Still, such an endeavor is worth undertaking, if only as a working hypothesis
that may nd in the future some corroboration, or eventually be abandoned. My
current impression is that in Athens of the fth and fourth century archives were
used primarily for the documentation of spheres of everyday activity in which
state interest was most direct: the records of the euthynai, discussed by Epstein
present one such case, while the lists of citizens discussed by Pbarthe is anoth-
er.
46
But as far as I know, documents of solely private interest where kept private-
ly.
47
As shown by Boffo, the source material from the Hellenistic period exhibits
change. The de facto subordination of the polis to hegemonic kingdoms required
the sophistication of its archives, which now had to keep record of a wide scope of
privileges granted and duties imposed by the new superpowers.
In the same period, the state becomes increasingly inclined towards super-
vising private legal activity: in the rst stage, roughly dating to the third cen-
tury BCE, the state focuses on keeping track of documents preserved privately
by preparing lists of the persons who have been entrusted with each documents
safekeeping. Then, by the mid second century BCE archiving methods become
sufciently advanced to allow the state to assume the safekeeping of private legal
documents itself. The archival system nally matures in the Roman period. The
two papers given in our colloquium relating to the Roman period, those of Kruse
and Haensch, focus primarily on spheres of activity that were always of state in-
terest: in the case of Kruses paper status and taxation. But the highly complex
mechanisms used for archiving documents, by different instances, discussed in
the two papers, is equally applied in public archives focusing on the preservation

44 Cf., e.g., pp. 68-69.
45 It would be intriguing to study, for example, the contents and structure of the archives in-
corporations of bankers or lenders, as those amply recorded in orations 32-35 of the Demos-
thenic corpus.
46 Pbarthe, p. 116.
47 See above n. 35.
359
conclusions
of private legal activity. Best attested in this regard are the acquisition archive
(bibliothk enksen) and the village grapheia, but other archives, most conspicu-
ously those located in the city of Alexandria are attested as well. Papyri stemming
from early Roman Egypt bear evidence of the multiple safekeeping in archives
of documents relating a wide scope of everyday, public and private activity: re-
ports and surveys, petitions and minutes of court proceedings, not to mention
every type of transaction and legal document. Archives of the early Roman period
match, if not in quantity, at least in diversity and sophistication their old Assyr-
ian and old Babylonian counterparts as discussed by Klaas Veenhof and Antoine
Jacquet.
Index Locorum
362
AbB
3 82 73 n. 27
11 55 76
AKT
3, 77:7 57
3, 82:4-13 56
3, 84:4-23 56
3, 104:17 56
3, 106:11-13 46 n. 29, 56
3, 112 56
5, 2:1-6 42
5, 5:1-6 42
5, 62-69 31
6a, 6 35
6a, 10 53
6a, 10a 53
6a, 10b 53
6a, 16 39
6a, 46 53
6a, 47 53
6a, 48 53
6a, 53 53
6a, 54 53
6a, 56 53
6a, 57 53
6a, 58 53
6a, 63 53
6a, 64 53
6a, 66 54
6a, 67 54
6a, 77 53
6a, 78 53
6a, 79 53
6a, 80 54
6a, 81 54
6a, 82 53
6a, 83 53
6a, 84 53
6a, 91-103 45
6a, 104 53
6a, 105 53
6a, 106 53
6a, 107 53
6a, 108 53
6a, 117 53
6a, 118 53
6a, 119 53
6a, 123 53
6a, 191 53
6a, 191a 53
6a, 191b 53
6a, 194 53
6a, 195 53
6a, 195a 53
6a, 195b 53
6a, 196a 53
6a, 221 53
6a, 222 53
6a, 227 53
6a, 228 53
6a, 231:8-17 53
6a, 257 53
6a, 258 53
6a, 270 53
6a, 271 53
6a, 294:16-17 49 n. 37
6b, 375:11 44
6b, 446:19-20 44
6b, 478-480 54
6b, 495-497 54
6c, 561:7-15 52
6c, 671:14-16 52
ATHE
30:17-23 45
AUCT
5 41 80 n. 45
5 43 80 n. 45
5 99 80 n. 45, 81 n.
48, 82 n. 53
BBVOT
1 38 80 n. 45
1 40 80 n. 45
1 48 80 n. 45
BDHP
30 72 n. 25
BIN
4, 32:34-36 44
4, 70:17-18 49
Cuneiform Texts
363
index locorum
4, 90:14-16 56 n. 43
6, 18:18-20 43 n. 20
6, 19:18 43
6, 218:5-6 56 n. 43
6, 218:13 56
6, 220+ 30
CBS
1153 72 n. 25
CCT
2, 6:6-15 41
2, 8-9 51
2, 17b:3-6 52
2, 38:3-9 54
3, 14-19 54
3, 19b:3-4 43
3, 19b:3-10 43
4, 14b:15-18 45
5, 3 30
5, 14b 50
5, 17a 45, 46
5, 18d:3-5 46 n. 30
6, 9a 51
CT
47 63
77
CTMMA
I, 84:40 32
I, 84:60f. 32
EL
141:1-10 30
191ff. 47
224:37-38 54
225:47-48 54
284 50
298:9ff. 30
298:35-36 30
ICK
1, 182 42
1, 187:63 54
2, 104 34 n. 11
2, 150 51
Ka
24b:31-33 44
Kt
84/k 878 43
91/k 147:29-32 57
91/k 242:3-11 47 n. 33
91/k 323 45
91/k 338 44
91/k 339 44
91/k 368:20-25 51
91/k 446:18 56 n. 42
91/k 563:10-14 56
93/k 69:18 56
93/k 69:18-27 56
93/k 145 55 n. 41
93/k 273 46 n. 29
94/k 497:15 42
94/k 769 44
94/k 878 52
94/k 879 39 n. 19
94/k 879 43
94/k 1062 39 n. 19
94/k 1664 45
a/k 394:17 49 n. 37
f/k 11:5-6 56 n. 43
f/k 11:23 56 n. 44
k/k 53:12-15 56 n. 43
m/k 100 46 n. 29
m/k 145 30
n/k 470 46
n/k 176:4-10 44
n/k 1460:24-26 43 n. 22
n/k 1460:26 56 n. 43
n/k 1925:16ff. 49 n. 37
r/k 17:5-6 46 n. 30
KTS
2, 42 51
40:33 53
Kudurru
AAI 4 98 n. 97
CBS 4663
(Lutz 1919, no. 23) 93 n. 55
CBS 4753
(Lutz 1919, no. 52) 93 n. 55
CBS 12914
(Clay 1906, no. 39) 93 n. 55
CBS 13865 93 n. 54
CBS 19793
(Radau 1908, no. 24) 93 n. 55
ENAp 3 94 n. 64
IMB 1 94 n. 64
Ka IV 2: II22ff. 97 n. 82
KaE I 1 92 n. 49
KaE II 1 98 n. 92
364
KaE II 1: II4ff. 97 n. 82
KaE II 1: II7 97 n. 82
K I 1 98 n. 97
KuE 1 92 n. 49
KuE 1: III22ff. 96 n. 78
KuE 1: III42 96 n. 78
MAI I 1 93 n. 51, 96,
98 n. 92
MAI I 1: II12 96 n. 79
MAI I 1: II13 96 n. 75
MAI I 1: II21ff. 97 n. 87
MAI I 1: III11 97 n. 89
MAI I 3: I 21 97 n. 89
MAI I 4 92 n. 49
MAI I 6: I22 96 n. 79
MAI I 7: IV2 96 n. 79
MAI I 7: IV20 97 n. 89
MNA 2: II7 95 n. 69
MNA 4 94 n. 65
MNA 4: I1-19 95 n. 66
MNA 4: I20-23 95 n. 67
MNA 4: II2-5 95 n. 68
M 2 92 n. 49
M 3 93 n. 51
M 3 96 n. 78
M 3: text 8 I17 97 n. 85, n. 89
M 4 90 n. 35, 92 n.
49, 94 n. 59, 98
n. 92 and 97
M 4: III9ff. 97 n. 82
M 4: IV5 96 n. 78
M 4: IV38ff. 98 n. 93
M 4: V14ff. 98 n. 93
M 4: VI26ff. 98 n. 95
NKU I 4, I1-20 94 n. 61
NM 1 92 n. 49
NM 3 92 n. 49, 98 n. 92
1 98 n. 92
1: I11ff. 97 n. 82
U3: II1ff. 96 n. 78, 97 n. 89
U4 92 n. 49
U7 II1 96 n. 77
U19 92 n. 49
Larsen 2002, no. 18 41
M.
15119 81 n. 50
15287 81 n. 50
NBC
6290 81
6752 79, 80
6798 78 n. 44, 79,
80 n. 47
6827 79, 80
8533 78 n. 44, 79
8534 78 n. 44, 79,
81 n. 48
8564 79
8568 79
8570 79
8571 78 n. 44, 79
8632 78, 79, 80,
81 n. 48, 82
8723 82 n. 52
8744 79, 80 and n. 47
8768 79, 80
8831 73
8874 79
8908 74
POAT
2:24-26 46 n. 30
9 50
18 53
18: 17-21 52
Prag I 446 47 n. 34
TC
3, 9:14-16 53 n. 40
3, 13:45-47 54
3, 36:16-23 40
3, 44:14-19 53 n. 40
3, 100 45
3, 262 47 n. 33
TPAK 1, 77:3 57
TTC
21:1ff. 57
21:1-7 52
Ugarit-Forschungen 7
(1975) 318, no. 4:15 46 n. 30
YOS
13 354 72 n. 25
15 38 81 n. 49, 82 n. 52
365
index locorum
TAD
A4.1-10 176
A4.5 176, 177
A4.6 177 n. 7
A4.9 196 n. 59
A6.3 193
A6.3-4 193, 194 n. 52
A6.3-16 177, 192
A6.4 193
A6.5 193
A6.6 193
A6.7 193
A6.8 193
A6.9 193
A6.10 193 n. 52
A6.10-16 193
A6.11 193 n. 52
A6.12 193 n. 52
A6.13 193 n. 52
A6.14 193 n. 52
A6.15 193 n. 52
A6.16 193 n. 52
B2.1 178, 179, 180,
185
B2.1-4 184
B2.1-11 176, 178
B2.2 184, 185
B2.2-11 180
B2.3 185
B2.3-4 181 n. 16
B2.4 185
B2.5 179, 180
B2.6,17-19 182
B2.6,17-22 183
B2.6,22-28 181 n. 17
B2.6,29-30 182 n. 23
B2.7 184, 185
B2.8 184
B2.9 183, 184 n. 27,
186 n. 31
B2.9-11 180
B2.10 180, 181 n. 16
and 18
B2.11 180, 181 n. 18
B3.1 188, 191 n. 49
B3.1-13 176
B3.2 186 n. 33, 187,
188, 190
B3.2-8 186 n. 33
B3.3 187, 188, 189
B3.3,7-10 181 n. 17
B3.3,10-13 182
B3.3,13 190
B3.4 189
B3.4-6 187, 188
B3.5 189
B3.6 189, 191
B3.6,4-5 189
B3.6,11-15 189
B3.7 187, 188, 189,
191, 192
B3.7,2-3 189
B3.7,8 189
B3.7,17 189
B3.8 184 n. 26, 187,
189
B3.8-13 188
B3.8,21-28 181 n. 17
B3.8,28-34 182
B3.9 187 n. 40, 188,
190, 192
B3.10 189, 191
B3.10-13 186 n. 33, 187
B3.10,2 189
B3.10,27 189
B3.11 189, 192
B3.11,2 189
B3.11,21 189
B3.12 189
B3.12,18 189
B3.13 189, 191
B4.2 179 n. 12
B5.3,6 180
B7.1,2 180
B8.1-12 196
B8.2 197
B8.4 197
B8.5 197
B8.6 197
B8.7 197
B8.8 197
C3.7 196
Aramaic Texts
366
ACO
III 92-106 341 n. 25
Acta Pionii
19-20 341 n. 24
Aelianus
V. H. 8.2 112 n. 25
Aeschines
1.2 144
1.154 153 n. 35
1.166-170 152
1.170 153 n. 35
2.14 145 n. 8
3.9-31 149 n. 23
3.14 167
3.32-48 149 n. 23
3.49-170 149 n. 170
3.195 153
3.200 148
Andocides
1.10 160
1.12-13 159
1.13 160
1.15 159
1.16 159
1.17 159
1.34-35 159-160
1.36-47 160
1.47 160
1.86 146
Antiphon
5.11 154 n. 39
6.49 145 n. 10
Appianus
Syr. 5.24 287 n. 46
Aristophanes
Nub.
37 and schol. 120 n. 72
859 131 n. 13
Vesp.
894-897 150 n. 26
Aristoteles
Ath. Pol.
13.5 115
14.1 110 n. 19
18.1 111 n. 22
21.5 116 n. 48
42 115
46.1 157 n. 50
47.2-48 129 n. 3
47,5 164
48.4 145 n. 8, 146
51.4 155 n. 44
Pol.
1321b34-37 154, 168
Athenaeus
9.407b-c 154 n. 41
C3.13 196
C3.15 177 n. 7
D7.3 179 n. 12
D7.9 179 n. 12
WDSP
1-9 194
10 194
11 194
12-13 194
14 194
15 194
16 194
17 194
18-20 194
21 194
22 194
23-25 194
26 194
27 194
28-37 194
Greek and Latin Literary Texts
367
index locorum
Augustinus
brevic. Coll.
III 7, 8 336
c. Cresc.
III 61, 67 336
III 70, 80 336
Cassiodorus
var. XII 16 344 n. 43
Chamaeleon
fr. 44 Wehrli 154 n. 41
Clidemus
FGrHist 323 F 8 121
Constantinus Porphyrogenitus
de caer. I 20 334 n. 8
Demosthenes
9.33 202-203 n. 5
18.8 143
18.9 143, 152
18.56-59 149
18.103 121 n. 73
19.8 148 n. 20
19.276-280 159 n. 60
19.277 154
19.278-279 148 n. 20
19.333 144
20.147 156
21.43 149
21.87 145
21.103 144, 150 n. 26
21.143-147 153
21.208 153 n. 34
21.211 153 n. 34
22.4 153
22.5-7 149
22.8 149
22.21-24 149
22.33-34 149
22.34 149
22.43 153 n. 35
22.45 153 n. 35
23.5 149
23.24-25 150
23.95 153 n. 34
23.215-218 144, 149
23.219 153 n. 34
24.32 146 n. 11
24.34-38 146 n. 11
24.133-135 154 n. 38
24.189 153 n. 35
25.55 168-169
27.4-6 146
27.13-17 151
27.17 151
27.18-22 151
27.24-29 151
27.30-33 151
27.33-39 151
28.8 120 n. 70
28.11 120 n. 70
29.30 151
29.31 151
30.9 153 n. 35
32.1 146 n. 11
32.2 143, 150
32.4 143, 150, 154
32.13 153 n. 35
32.27 143, 154, 168
33.2-3 146 n. 11
34.16 143, 150 n. 27
34.35 131 n. 11
35.3 146 n. 11
36.20 149 n. 25
37.17 153 n. 35
37.18 156
37.21 156
37.22 144, 150 n. 26
37.22-29 144 n. 6
37.25 150
37.26 150 n. 26
37.28 150
37.29 150
37.32-33 150
37.45 150
38.3-4 155
38.4-5 155
38.6 168
38.14 155
38.14-16 168
38.15 151 n. 28
39.8 122
39.15 145 n. 10
43.7 146 n. 11
43.15 146 n. 11
43.16 146 n. 11
45.9-11 150
45.46 143, 144, 150,
151
45.50 153
52.14 149 n. 25
368
[Demosthenes]
42.3 121 n. 73
42.32 121 n. 73
44.35 118 n. 59
44.37 119 n. 65
44.41 117 n. 55
44.46 151 n. 29
50.8 120 n. 67
53.14 145
53.14-18 146
58.43 145 n. 8
58.46 148 n. 22
58.5 155
58.7 143 n. 3
58.7-8 144 n. 5, 155
58.8 155
58.8-10 155
59.17 148
59.66 146 n. 11
59.68-69 148 n. 19
59.70 148 n. 19
59.126 148
Dinarchus
1.14 153
2.10 155 n. 44
Diodorus Siculus
1.55.7 110 n. 17
1.77.5 113
Diogenes Laertius
2.40 144 n. 6, 154 n.
41
Dionysius of Halicarnassus
Ant. Rom.
5.7 287 n. 46
Din.
3 144 n. 6, 149
Euripides
Suppl.
429-434 113 n. 32
438-441 113 n. 33
Harpocration
s.v. zvtaoo:z 144
s.v. 8zo; 120 n. 72
s.v. 8:zyzz 122 n. 79
Herodotus
2.102-106 110 n. 17
2.177 113
5.72.1 116 n. 45
5.72-73 116 n. 46
6.136.1-3 154 n. 38
Hyperides
Eux.
7-8 147
29-32 143 n. 3
31 143
32 152
35-36 153
39 147
40 144
Lyc.
3 143 n. 3
12 147
Phil.
13 144
Isaeus
3.1 155
3.2 155
3.3-4 155
3.4-7 155
3.6 144
3.6-7 155
5.2 144
6.51-52 153 n. 35
6.60 121
7.16-17 118
7.27 118, 119 n. 66
9.1 151
11.18 150
Isocrates
15.145 122 n. 82
15.237 144 n. 5
Johannes Lydus
de mag.
II 12, 2 341 n. 24
III 4, 4 341 n. 28
III 4, 5 342 n. 32
III 8, 2 341 n. 28
III 9, 8 341 n. 28,
342 n. 32
III 16 341 n. 28
III 17 341 n. 28
369
index locorum
III 19 342 n. 31
III 19, 1 334
III 20 342 n. 32
III 20, 4 339
III 20, 5 342 n. 31
III 20, 7 339
III 20, 7-9 340 n. 23
III 20, 9 339
III 21, 1 342 n. 32
III 27, 2 342 n. 32
III 27, 3 339, 340 n. 23
III 68, 6 339, 342 n. 32
Livius
31.44.4 232 n. 89
Lycurgus
1.11-13 153 n. 35
1.111-119 159 n. 64
1.118-119 160
1.136-137 147
1.137 143 n. 3
1.147 147 n. 16
fr. 63 Conomis 147 n. 16
Lysias
9.1-3 152
9.3 143 n. 3
9.8 143 n. 3
10.11 150
12.38 153
13.85-87 151
16.9 154 n. 39
23.2 145
23.3 145
23.10 143
23.13 144
23.13-14 154 n. 42
32.25 121 n. 74
Philochorus
FGrHist 328 F 41 121
Plato
Ap.
19b 144
24b-c 143 n. 3, 148
Euthphr.
3b 148
Hipp.
228b 112 n. 25
228b-229d 111 n. 22
228d-229a 111 n. 23
Leg.
785a-b 121 n. 75
Pol.
294a 114 n. 35
294a-b 114 n. 34
Plutarchus
Alc.
19.2-3 148 n. 21
22 144 n. 6
22.4 148 n. 21
Dem.
10.4 225 n. 64
46.1 225 n. 6
Mor.
183 F 206 n. 12
Per.
12.2 133
23.1 131 n. 13
Sert.
27 287 n. 46
[Plutarchus]
Mor.
833e-834b 144 n. 7,
159 n. 64
Pollux
8.55 144
8.58 143
Polybius
4.76.2 202 n. 5
21.45.2 202, 230 n. 83
31.31.1-3 220 n. 51
Suetonius
Nero 17 270
Suidas
s.v. 8zo; 120 n. 72
Tacitus
Ann. 3.60 228 n. 77
Thucydides
3.37 113 n. 32
6.55.1-2 160
Xenophon
Mem. 2.3.3 136
370
AE
1903, 57 342
1984, 250 345 n. 45
2003, 1808 333 n. 1
2004, 1410 341
Athenian Agora
15, 56A.34 145 n. 10
19, P5.8-39 156 n. 47
19, P26.399-402 156 n. 46
19, P26.446-460 156 n. 46
AvHierapolis
216.5-8 295 n. 72
278 299 n. 81
Bringmann, Steuben
47 222 n. 58
83 222 n. 57
94 220 n. 51
241 222 n. 55
262a 232 n. 90
CID
IV 127.16 280 n. 22
CIL
III 1315 342 n. 31
III 1470 342 n. 31
III 1995 342 n. 31
III 7974 342 n. 31
VI 8854 342 n. 31
VIII 12898 342 n. 31
VIII 17896-7 343 n. 40
Clinton, Eleusis
159 128 n. 2
177 128 n. 2
F.Delphes
III 1,138 293 n. 70
III 1,141.10 285 n. 42
III 1,263b.4 292 n. 64
III 1,297.13-14 291 n. 60
III 2,48.43-44 292 n. 64
III 2,122.6 291 n. 60
III 2,131.3 290 n. 57
III 2,174.11 290 n. 57
III 3,19.4 290 n. 57
III 3,237.5-7 220 n. 51
III 3,239.17 292 n. 64
III 4,73.11-12 291 n. 59
III 4,78.5 290 n. 57
III 4,78.13 285 n. 42,
291 n. 59
III 6,5.10-11 291 n. 60
III 6,5.18-19 285 n. 42
III 6,8.9 290 n. 57
III 6,6.9-10 290 n. 57
III 6,12.10-12 285 n. 42
III 6,13.9 291 n. 59
III 6,13.22-24 291 n. 59
III 6,14 292
III 6,14.13-14 285 n. 42
III 6,15 285
III 6,15.10-13 291 n. 60
III 6,15.13-18 286
III 6,19.5 290 n. 57
III 6,19.6-7 291 n. 60
III 6,19.16 292 n. 65
III 6,19.17-20 292 n. 63
III 6,20 288-294
III 6,20.6 290 n. 57
III 6,20.11-14 284-285
III 6,22.11-12 291 n. 60
III 6,23.11-12 292 n. 63
III 6,27 293 n. 70
III 6,27.6 290 n. 57
III 6,27.7-8 291 n. 59
III 6,27.15 292 n. 63 and 65
III 6,27.21-23 292 n. 63
III 6,29 293 n. 70
III 6,29.13 292 n. 65
III 6,31 293 n. 69 and 70
III 6,31.6-7 290 n. 57
III 6,31.8-9 291 n. 59
III 6,31.17 292 n. 65
III 6,31.17-19 292 n. 63
III 6,33.2 290 n. 57
III 6,35.17-19 285 n. 42
III 6,42.2-3 290 n. 55
III 6,43.12-13 286-287
III 6,44.5 290 n. 57
Greek and Latin Inscriptions
371
index locorum
III 6,44.12-13 285 n. 42
III 6,108.5-6 290 n. 57
III 6,109.8-9 290 n. 57
III 6,109.25-26 285 n. 42
III 6,114.6 290 n. 57
III 6,115.4 290 n. 57
III 6,119 [2] + 120 293 n. 70
III 6,121.19-21 285 n. 42
III 6,123.6 290 n. 57
III 6,130.11 290 n. 57
III 6,133 293 n. 70
III 6,133.15 294
III 6,133.23 294
III 6,135.7-8 290 n. 57
Hatzopoulos 1996, II
20.24ff. 211 n. 23
39 211 n. 23
Hesperia
7, 1938, 277, no. 12 157 n. 54
7, 1938, 306, no. 29 157 n. 54
15, 1946, 160, no. 17 158
15, 1946, 160,
no. 17.1-3 157
I. Beroia
4.5-8 212 n. 25
I. Dlos
98B.24-30 159 n. 62
399A.21-23 215 n. 31
399A.36-38 215 n. 31
399A.47-49 215 n. 31
442A.25-26 215 n. 31
442A.64-65 215 n. 31
I. Didyma
479 221 n. 53
I. Ephesos
13 295 n. 73
1655 299 n. 82
2121 298-299
2218A 299 n. 82
3215.5-6 295 n. 72
3829 299 n. 81
I. Erythrai
28.29-31 210 n. 22
31 210 n. 22
64.7 217 n. 41
201, a.78 217 n. 41
205 217 n. 40
I. Iasos
3.2-3 207 n. 16
3.5-6 209 n. 19
37 209 n. 19
38 209 n. 19
45 209 n. 19
54 209 n. 19
59 219 n. 46
82 223 n. 59
385.5 301 n. 86
635.3 295 n. 72
I. Ilion
33 205 n. 9
I. Kibyra
291.5 295 n. 72
I. Labraunda
1, 1B 228 n. 74
2 228 n. 74
2.5 228 n. 73
3.24-25 228 n. 75
3B.7-8 228 n. 75
4 228 n. 76
4.6-7 228 n. 75
I. Mylasa
23 228 n. 76
104.8-9 209 n. 19
201 208 n. 19
201.11 208 n. 19
913.2-4 213 n. 29
I. Nikaia
117 299 n. 81
I. Olympia
52 280 n. 22
I. Pergamon
18 205 n. 12
247 225 n. 64
247, I.1-6 216 n. 35
I. Priene
1 227 n. 70
14 227 n. 70
15 227 n. 70
372
18.20-27 214 n. 29
40 227 n. 72
41 227 n. 72
114 280 n. 24
I. Smyrna
206.9-11 295 n. 72
573, III.106-107 211 n. 23
I. Tralleis
17 214 n. 29
IAph 2007
2,309.15-20 295 n. 72
11.103 297-298 n. 78
IC
II, xii, 20 223 n. 59
IG I
3

59.47-48 145 n. 10
138 116 n. 50
223-248 136
229-231 136
233-234 136
247bis 167
248 167
254-256 136
288-293 136
313-314 136
421-422 160
421.10 160 n. 65
421.33 160 n. 65
422.217 160 n. 65
422.219 160 n. 65
422.375 160 n. 65
435 128, 132
436-451 128
436.29 132
443.231 132
446.339 132
447.361 132
449.403 132
453-460 128
462-466 128
462.51 132
467-471 128
472 128, 132
474 134
474-479 166
475-476 135
475-479 128
475.31-51 136
475.41-42 136
475.57 136
475.66-69 136
475.110-113 136 n. 27
475.272-285 137 n. 32
476.81-83 136
476.119-123 136
476.192-218 136
507-509 110 n. 20
1023 111 n. 24
1032 137
1147 137
IG II
2

45.7 145 n. 10
463 166
486.11-13 204 n. 8
587.4-5 204 n. 8
1174 274 n. 3
1578 158
1578.1-2 159 n. 60
1629.746-749 157 n. 52
1629.771-780 157
1629.796-799 157 n. 52
1631.115-120 157 n. 52
1631.140-143 157 n. 52
1631.148-152 157 n. 52
1631.350-403 157
1635.71 159
1641B.22-33 159 n. 62
1646.3-14 159 n. 62
1651.10 159 n. 60
1668.15ff. 135
1672 128, 138
1672.74 159 n. 60
1673 128, 138
1928-1932 157 n. 54
1930.1-2 157
1931.1-2 157
1932 158
1951 137
2362 219 n. 45
IG IV
2 2,749.14-15 206 n. 13
IG VII
2711.83-87 280 n. 22
373
index locorum
IG IX
2,17 284 n. 35
IG XI
2,161.71 136 n. 29
IG XII
3,91 204 n. 8
3,330 280 n. 23
4,1,71 280
4,1,71.13-15 274 n. 3, 279
4,1,75.32-34 279 n. 20
4,1,79 A.1-2 275 n. 6
4,1,79 B.1-4 275 n. 6
4,1,84 274, 275-277
4,1,85 274, 277-280
4,1,103.72-77 279 n. 20
4,1,104.543-544 280 n. 22
4,1,104.637 280 n. 22
4,1,129 277 n. 10
4,1,152.14-18 206 n. 12
4,1,281 216 n. 37
4,1,302.18-19 276 n. 7
4,1,306 218 n. 42
4,1,309 218 n. 42
4,1,319 277 n. 12
4,1,326 275 n. 6
4,1,342 277 n. 13
4,1,343 274 n. 3
4,1,347.6 280 n. 22
4,1,354.2 280 n. 23
6,1,11.27ff. 215 n. 30
6,1,155 205 n. 9,
227 n. 71
Suppl. 347 III 295-296
ILS
2384 341
Iscr. Cos
ED 58 277 n. 10
ED 71 277 n. 10
ED 146 275 n. 6
ED 229.8-9 276 n. 7
ED 237 274 n. 3
Kotsidu 2000
115 219 n. 46
175 219 n. 46
205 219 n. 46
213 219 n. 46
241 219 n. 46
252 219 n. 46
253 219 n. 46
261 219 n. 46
*356 232 n. 88
Le Guen, Associations
39.15-18 220 n. 49
47, III B.7-9 206 n. 12
LSAM
13.40-43 226 n. 68
24 217 n. 40
25 217 n. 41
LSCG
155 274 n. 3
Ma 2004
4.44-46 224 n. 63
9.3-4 224 n. 62
10.3-4 224 n. 62
17 230 n. 81
26A.15-25 220 n. 50
30 208 n. 17
36.14-18 225 n. 66
36.14-18 210 n. 21
37.26-28 224 n. 63
Magnetto 2008 227 n. 71
Malay, Ricl 2009,
ll. 22-25 219 n. 46
MAMA
VI 83.17-18 295 n. 72
VI 133.15-17 295 n. 72
McCabe
Erythrai 61 216 n. 36
Milet
I 3, 139 204 n. 8
I 3, 148 224 n. 63
VI 2, 613 296-298
VI 2, 677.1-4 295 n. 72
VI 3, 1040 218 n. 43
ML
59 133
60 133
374
77 134
81 134
84 134
OGIS
55.13-21 211 n. 23
213.19-23 221 n. 53
246 232 n. 88
267 205 n. 12
329 206 n. 13
331 205 n. 11
331.2-4 226 n. 68
331.58-60 226 n. 68
338.6 214 n. 29
748 222 n. 55
Paton-Hicks
10 279 n. 20
27 275 n. 6
33 274 n. 3
367 279 n. 20
RC
9 229 n. 78
15.26-28 210 n. 22
41 214 n. 29
64 229 n. 78
66.16-17 205 n. 11
67.14-16 226 n. 68
RDGE
10A 227 n. 72
10B 227 n. 72
11 227 n. 69
13 227 n. 69
69 229 n. 79
RIT
229 341
RO
81 119 n. 61
81.24-27 119 n. 62
83 B.16-19 205 n. 12
83 G VI.13-15 206 n. 12
83 G VI.23-25 206 n. 12
Robert 1964
1.18-19 213 n. 30
Robert, Robert 1983
3.1-3 224 n. 62
6.1-3 224 n. 62
26.6 224 n. 62
35.1-2 224 n. 62
51-54 224 n. 62
SEG
13,521 233 n. 91
26,72.41-44 155 n. 44
28,1244 211 n. 23
31,997 299 n. 81
32,371 222 n. 58
33,460 222 n. 58
33,679 274 n. 2
33,679.27-32 145 n. 8
33,1177 269, 275 n. 4
33,1177.15-16 276 n. 9
34,396 293 n. 70
36,163 204 n. 8
36,230 219 n. 45
36,1218 204 n. 8,
224 n. 63
37,859 211 n. 23
37,859 A.12-13 220 n. 49
37,859, C.1-2 220 n. 49
37,859, C.12-13 207 n. 14
39,1244, II.46-54 232 n. 90
39,1283.5-6 211 n. 23
39,1285.3-6 211 n. 23
39,1285.8-10 211 n. 23
41,1003, I.29-36 204 n. 8
41,1003, II.17-21 214 n. 30
41,1003, II.28-29 216n. 33
41,1003, II.57-59 215 n. 32
41,1003, II.63 214 n. 30
42,846 163 n. 2
44,696 206 n. 12
44,710 206 n. 12
45,233 206 n. 13
47,1563 219 n. 47
47,1759 207 n. 13
48,1394 299 n. 82
48,1404 206 n. 12
50,766 277 n. 12
51,1495.2 219 n. 46
51,1506.8-9 208 n. 18
53,1312 B.18ff. 209 n. 20,
211 n. 23
53,1841 333 n. 1
54,427 163 n. 1
54,1178 341
57,723.18 223 n. 59
57,1069 209 n. 19
375
index locorum
57,1070 209 n. 19
57,1084 209 n. 19
SGDI
1743.9-10 284 n. 35
1760.9-10 291 n. 60
1762-1764 284 n. 35
1762.4-5 284 n. 35
1763.4-5 284 n. 35
1764 283, 284
1815.5-6 284 n. 35
1840.5-6 290 n. 57
1912 282 n. 31,
283 n. 32
1912.2 289
1913.14-19 282
2042.4 290 n. 57
2117 287 n. 49
2117.1 289 n. 54
2146.3 290 n. 57
2216.14-16 283 n. 34
2229.6-9 283 n. 34
2322.12-13 283 n. 34
2327.31-33 284 n. 36
Staatsvertrge
III, 549. 3-6 202 n. 2
Syll.
3

337 222 n. 57
543.6 205 n. 12
543.14 205 n. 12
671A 220 n. 51
671B.6-7 220 n. 51
781 229 n. 79
1028 217 n. 38
TAM
II 63 297-298
II 68 299 n. 81
II 171.4-7 298 n. 78
II 353 298 n. 78
II 881.3-6 298 n. 78
II 925.6-8 298 n. 78
II 969.4-5 301 n. 86
II 972.5-7 301 n. 86
II 983.4-5 301 n. 86
II 996.3-5 301 n. 86
II 999.4-6 301 n. 86
II 1003.5-7 301
II 1026.8-13 301 n. 85
II 1028.1-17 300-302
II 1031.9-24 301 n. 85
II 1042.6-13 301 n. 85
II 1089.12-16 301 n. 85
II 1130 299 n. 81
II 1134.8-14 301 n. 85
II 1137.7-14 301 n. 85
II 1142.9-15 301 n. 85
Tit. Cam.
110.9-19 274 n. 3
Tziafalias, Helly 2010,
p. 94 ff., no. III.24-28 212 n. 26
Virgilio, LDP
2
4.59 217 n. 39
14.61-62 226 n. 68
18.5-8 213 n. 28
18.13-15 212 n. 27
18.13ff. 214 n. 29
19.7 214 n. 29
19.15 214 n. 29
19.51 214 n. 29
20 228 n. 74
21 228 n. 75
34 207 n. 13
20-25 207 n. 15
Wrrle 2010,
p. 361, l. 12 209 n. 20
376
BGU
I 115 318 n. 30
II 562 324-326
II 562, 20-21 324 n. 48
V 1210 311 n. 12
ChLA
III 217 343 n. 34
XII 518 II, 23 342 n. 33
XII 518 III 16ff. 341 n. 28
XLII 1226 343 n. 34
XLIII 1247 343 n. 34
XLIII 1251 343 n. 34
XLV 1321 343 n. 35
XLVII 1407 343 n. 34
XLVII 1408 343 n. 34
XLVII 1409 343 n. 34
CPR
XVII A 18 339
XVIII 1.12-36 356 n. 36
MChr
64 357 n. 40
188 351
P.Amh.
II 75 319-324
P.Beatty Panop.
1 344
2 344
P.Berl. Salmen.
10-12 253 n. 26
10-17 254 n. 32
15 253 n. 26
17 253 n. 26
P.Bouriant
42,298 329 n. 55
P.Dem. Memphis
7 A-B 264 n. 13
P.Flor.
I 36 357 n. 40
P.Gen.
I
2
18 311-312, 316
P.Grenf.
II 49 312 n. 15
P.Hamb.
I 60,7-9 310 n. 10
P.Heid.
IX, 422 254 n. 29
IX, 423 254 n. 29
IX, 423, ll.23-24 254 n. 31
IX, 425 253, 254 n. 29
IX, 428 253, 254 n. 29
IX, 431 254 n. 29
IX, 431, ll. 37-41 254 n. 31
P. Koeln
5, 222 251
5, 222-225 251
5, 223 251
P. Lips.
I 40 341 n. 28,
342 n. 33
P. Lond.
II 260, I,1-2 309 n. 9
II 261, col. 3-17 317 n. 27
III 703 312 n. 15
III 936 324 n. 47
P.Lond. Wasser l. 42 329 n. 55
P. Med. Bar.
2r 249 n. 12,
250 n. 17
2v 249 n. 14
3 250
3r 249 n. 12, 250
3v 249 n. 14
10, l. 1 249
14 250
P. Med.
I 37 324 n. 47
Papyri and Tablets
377
index locorum
P. Mert.
2, 59 253 n. 26
P. Meyer
9,6-8 310 n. 11
P. Oxy.
I 34v 351 n. 1
II 237 (8.27-43) 351 n. 1
IX 1204 341 n. 28
XII 1452 313-314, 317
XII 1452, I 312 n. 17
XVI 1877 343 n. 34 and 35
XVI 1878 343 n. 34
XVI 1879 343 n. 34
XXXVI 2792 309 n. 8
XLVI 3279 315 n. 20
LI 3614 341 n. 24
LIV 3741 339
LIV 3758 339
LXIII 4381 340 n. 24
LXVI 4541 309 n. 8
P. Par.
65 355 n. 25
P. Ryl.
II 65 253 n. 26
II 102 323 n. 45
IV 572 355 n. 25
P. Sakaon
38.33 357 n. 40
P. Sijp.
10a 253 n. 27
P. Tebt.
2, 566 308 n. 3
3, 703 248 n. 6
3, 732 251, 252
3, 733 251, 252
3, 734 251, 252, 253
3, 734, frg. 1 and 2 252
3, 735 251, 252
3, 771 253
3, 956 252
3, 1007 252
P. Thomas
25 343 n. 34
P. Turner
38 329 n. 56
PCZ
59036, l. 4 209 n. 20
59036, ll. 25-26 215 n. 30
PSI
V 457 315 n. 19
VII 731 316 n. 22
X 1109 327
XIII 1309 343 n. 38
SB
VI 9145,5 308 n. 3
XVI 12721 249 n. 14, 250
XVI 12722 250
XVIII 13095 249 n. 12, 2
50 n. 17
XVIII 13096 249
XVIII 13097 249 n. 14, 250
n. 15 and 17
XVIII 13260 343
XX 14163, l. 5 308 n. 3
XXII 15213 253 n. 27
XXII 15626 329 n. 56
XXIV 15896 253 n. 27
SPP
IV p. 62-78 327 n. 53
IV p. 62-78.28-36 317 n. 28
IV p. 62-78.28-244 317 n. 27
TPSulp.
60 271
UPZ
I, 118 253 n. 26
W. Chr.
41 339
203 318 n. 30
220 324
378
Cod. Iust.
I, 2, 14, 7 335
I 57, 1 335
II 4, 28 335
V 4, 9 18
VII 52, 6 342 n. 33
Cod. Theod.
I 10, 7 344 n. 43
I 10, 8 345
I 16, 3 345
II 4, 2 335
IV 16, 1 342 n. 33
IV 17, 1-5 340 n. 22
VIII 12, 1, 1 335
IX 3, 6 342 n. 30
XI 28, 2 345
XI 28, 3 345
XV 14, 8 272, 336
XVI 5, 55 342 n. 33
D.
2,13,4 pr.-1 270
Nov. Iust.
15 335
Ps.-Paul. Sent.
I 3, 1 335
V 25, 6 270
Roman Legal Sources
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
LAURA BOFFO, Professor of Greek History, Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici, University of Trieste,
boffolau@units.it
LUCIA CRISCUOLO, Professor of Greek History, Dipartimento di Storia Culture Civilt, University of
Bologna (Alma Mater Universit di Bologna), lucia.criscuolo@unibo.it
SOPHIE DMARE-LAFONT, Professeur dhistoire du droit, Universit Panthon-Assas (Paris 2) Directeur
dtudes lcole Pratique des Hautes tudes, section des Sciences historiques et philologiques,
sophie.demare-lafont@u-paris2.fr
MARK DEPAUW, Associate Professor of Ancient History, Research Unit of History, KU Leuven,
mark.depauw@arts.kuleuven.be
SHIMON EPSTEIN, Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Institute for Papyrology, University of Heidelberg,
shimon.epstein@gmail.com
MICHELE FARAGUNA, Associate Professor of Greek History, Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici, University
of Trieste, faraguna@units.it
RUDOLF HAENSCH, Professor of Ancient History, Kommission fr Alte Geschichte und Epigraphik des
Deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts, Mnchen, haensch@aek.dainst.de
EDWARD HARRIS, Research Professor of Ancient History, Department of Classics and Ancient History,
Durham University, edward.harris@durham.ac.uk
KAJA HARTER-UIBOPUU, Senior Scientist, Documenta Antiqua History of Ancient Law, Institute for
the Study of Ancient Culture, Austrian Academy of Sciences, kaja.harter@oeaw.ac.at
ANTOINE JACQUET, Charg de recherches (projet ANR ARCHIBAB), cole Pratique des Hautes tudes,
Section des sciences historiques et philologiques, jacquet.antoine@wanadoo.fr
VA JAKAB, Professor of Roman Law, Faculty of Law, University of Szeged, Hungary Dsc (Doctor
Scientiarum) at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, jakabeva@juris.u-szeged.hu
DENNIS KEHOE, Professor, Classical Studies, 2010-2013, Andrew W. Mellon Professor in the
Humanities, Tulane University, kehoe@tulane.edu
INGO KOTTSIEPER, Adj. Professor for Hebrew Bible, Department 1: Protestant Theology, Westflische
Wilhelms-University Mnster / Gttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities, ikottsi@gwdg.de
THOMAS KRUSE, Senior Researcher, Documenta Antiqua Papyrology, Austrian Academy of Sciences,
Vienna, thomas.kruse@oeaw.ac.at
SUSANNE PAULUS, Research Associate, Institut fr Altorientalische Philologie und Vorderasiatische
Altertumskunde, University of Mnster, kudurru@gmx.de
CHRISTOPHE PBARTHE, Matre de confrences en histoire grecque, membre dAusonius, Universit de
Bordeaux 3, christophe.pebarthe@wanadoo.fr
K.R. VEENHOF, Schubertlaan 50, 2102 EM Heemstede, Netherlands, k.r.veenhof@hetnet.nl
URI YIFTACH-FIRANKO, Senior Lecturer, The Department of Classics, Hebrew University of Jerusalem,
uiftach@mscc.huji.ac.il
LEGAL DOCUMENTS IN ANCIENT SOCIETIES
1. THE LETTER
Rome, 28-30.9.2008 (Wiesbaden, Harrassowitz Verlag, forthcoming)
2. TRANSACTION COSTS IN THE ANCIENT WORLD
Washington DC, 27-28.7.2009 (forthcoming)
3. IDENTIFIERS AND IDENTIFICATION METHODS
LeuvenBrussels, 23-25.9.2010 (forthcoming)
4. ARCHIVES AND ARCHIVAL DOCUMENTS IN ANCIENT SOCIETIES
Trieste, 30.9-1.10.2011
5. SALE AND COMMUNITY
Budapest, 6-7.10.2012
Finito di stampare nel mese di aprile 2013 presso
la Ripartizione Comunicazione Istituzionale e Organizzazione Eventi
dellUniversit degli Studi di Trieste
per conto di EUT Edizioni Universit di Trieste