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Chapter 8 : Protocol Architecture | Computer Networks

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Home Topics Chapter 1- Introduction Chapter 2- Transmission Media Chapter 3-Encoding And Modulating Chapter 4- Digital Data Communication Chapter 5- MULTIPLEXING AND SWITCHING Chapter 6- SPREAD SPECTRUM Chapter 7- ERROR DETECTION AND CORRECTION Chapter 8- PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

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Chapter 8 : Protocol Architecture

Q. 1. Define Protocol architecture. Ans. Protocol architecture is the layered structure of hardware and software that supports the exchange of data between system and supports distributed applications, such as electronic mail and file transfer etc. Q. 2. What is a Protocol? Ans. A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communications. A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated and when it is communicated. The key elements of protocol are (a) Syntax: Syntax is defined as structure or format of data, meaning the order in which they are presented. (b) Semantics: It refers to the meaning of each section of bits. It includes that how is a particular pattern to be interpreted and when action is to be taken based on that interpretation. (c) Timing: It includes two characteristics when data should be sent and how fast they can be sent.

Q. 3. What do you mean by standards? Ans. Standards are very important factors in telecommunication technology and process. They provide guidelines to manufactures, vendors, govt. agencies, etc. Data comm. standards can be classified as following: 1. De facto: These are the standards that have not been approved by an organized body but have been adopted as standards through wider spread use. 2. De Jure : Those that have been legislated by an officially recognized body.

Q. 4. Name any four standards creation committees. Ans.

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1. International organization for standards (ISO) 2. American National standards Institute (ANSI). 3. Institute of electrical and electronics engineers (IEEE). 4. Electronic Industries Association (EIA).

Q. 5. Discuss simple protocol architecture? Ans. Instead of a single module for performing communications, there is a structured set of modules that implement the communication functions. The structure is referred to as protocol architecture. The following figure suggests the way in which a file transfer facility could be implemented.

In this three modules are used. 1 .File transfer module: this module is responsible for making sure that the file transfer commands and data are reliably exchanged between systems. Hence file transfer module contains all of the logic that is unique to the file transfer applications, such as transmitting passwords, file commands, and file records 2. Communications service modules: It is concerned with assuring that the two computer systems are active and ready for data transfer and for keeping track of data that are being exchanged to assure delivery 3. Network access module: Because these tasks are independent of the type of network that is being used Therefore the logic for actually dealing with the network is placed in a separate network access module. That way, if the network to be used is changed only the network access module is affected

Q 6 What is the main communication agents Ans The communication agents are those who help in transforming the information from one place to another place. in general communications can be said to involve three agents :-

1. Applications 2. Computers

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3. Networks Application execute on computers that typically support multiple simultaneous applications. Computers are connected to network and the data to be exchanged are transferred by the network from one computer to another. Thus the transfer of data from one application to another involves first getting the data to the computer in which the application resides and then getting it to the intended application within the computer

Q. 7. Explain the Three layer model briefly. Ans. We can organize the communication task into three independent layers: 1. Network access layer: It is concerned with exchange of data between a computer and the network to which it is attached. The sending computer must provide the network with the address of destination computer, so that the network may route the data to the appropriate destination. The specific software used at the layer depends on the type of network to be used. Different standards have been developed for circuit switching, packet switching, LANs and others.

2. Transport layer: Regardless of nature of applications that are exchanging data, there is usually a requirement that data be exchanged reliably. That is we would like to be assured that all of the data arrive at the destination application and that the data arrived in the same order in which they were sent. The mechanisms for providing reliability are independent of nature of applications. Thus it makes sense to correct those mechanisms in a common layer shared by all applications this is referred to as transport layer.

3. Application layer: Application layer contains the logic needed to support the various user applications. For each different type of application such as file transfer, a separate module is needed that is peculiar to that application. Fig. illustrates the simple architecture. It shows the three computers connected to a network. Each computer contains software at the network access and transport layers and software at the application layer for one or more applications. For successful communication, every entity in overall system must have a unique address.

Q. 8. Define service access points? Ans. Each application on a computer must have a unique network address. This allows the network to deliver data to the proper computer. Each application on a computer must have an address that is unique within that computer. This allows the transport Layer to support
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multiple applications at each computer. These latter addresses are known as service access points (SAPs)

Q. 9. What is interface data unit (IDU)? Ans. The set of rules about the interface should be present for successful exchange of information between two layers. The IDU consists of two parts: (a) SDU (Service data unit) (b) ICI (Interface control information)

Q. 10. Define service data unit (SDU). Ans. SDU is a part of IDU. The SDU is the information passed across the network to the peer entity and then up to layer (n + 1).

Q. 11. Define IC! (Interface control Unit). Ans. ICI contains the control information which is necessary to help the lower layer (n) to do the necessary job.

Q. 12. What is PDU (Protocol Data Unit) ? Ans. In order to transfer the SDU, the layer n entity has to divide it into many smaller pieces. Each piece is given a header and sent as a separate PDU such as a packet The PDU headers are used by the peer entities to carry out their peer protocol. Some PDUs contain data while other PDUs contain the control information. The PDU headers will identify or differentiate between different types of PIJUs. They also provide sequence numbers and counts. .

Q. 13. What are the Merits and demerits of Os! Reference model? Ans.
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Merits: 1. The protocols in OSI model are better hidden. So they can be easily replaced by new protocols as the technology changes. 2. OSI model is truly a general model. 3. It distinguishes very clearly between the services, interfaces and protocols. 4. This, model supports connection oriented as well as connectionless services, Demerits: 1. Sessions and presentation layers are not of much use. 2. This model was devised before the protocols were invented. So in real life there is a problem of fitting protocol into model.

Q. 14. Write a short note on LAN. Ans. These networks connect computers and other information processing devices, which are located within a limited physical area, like office, classroom, building, factory, work site etc. LANs are essentially a part of many organizations for providing telecommunications network capabilities to the end users. Most of LANs use a range of communication media, like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, wireless radio etc. which we have already learnt about to interconnect various microcomputers and work stations. For making this communication possible, every PC has the circuit board known as network interface card. Most of LANs use a powerful microcomputer having a large hard disk, which is known as network server, which has a network operating system which controls telecommunications and the use and sharing of network resources.

Q. 15. Write a short note on WANs. Ans. As most of the organizations are very widespread. Whose offices are not limited to building, they may be spread throughout large city of metropolitan area. The communication networks, which cover large geographic areas, are called wide area networks. These networks have become quite necessary in the current era, where the day to day activities of many business organizations are spread thought. WANs are used by many companies for transmitting and receiving information among the workers, customers clients etc across cities, regions, countries etc. These networks usually have a global connectivity also.

Q. 16. Define Internet? Ans.

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As the business operations are becoming, global, where one has to have connectivity with global customers, other organization etc. This connectivity is done by connecting many LANs using wide area networks. These inter connected networks are generally known as inter network or popularly known as Internet. We can define internet as a network of networks, which connects different organizations, to share information, resource etc. These networks enable end users to communicate with other users on other LANs, so that one can access the computing resources, organizations. These networks for their connectivity rely on inter networks processors like switches, routers hub gateways etc.

Q. 17. Write a short note on intranet. Ans. The basic goal of many organizations is to create connectivity between each and every branches of the organization. The network which connects the various locations and gives connectivity within the organization is called intranet. These networks are limited to the organization for which they are setup. These intranets can be connected to other intranets and extranets forming internet. Intranets are designed to be open with security, whose web browsing to the end users. There internal websites may be designed by company, its business, Units, departments, workgroups etc. For example, a marketing department may design an intranet website so that anyone can know about their products and, services an. have detail information about them.

Q. 18. What is Extranet? Ans. There are those networks, which link some of the internets of the company with those of its business partners, customers, suppliers, consultants, etc., who cart access selected intranet websites and companys databases. Most of the organizations establish private extranets among themselves, so that they can be real business partners, who share information, resources etc. Instead of private extranets, organizations can also use the internet, to establish network connections between them. Some organizations use virtual private networks (VPNs) to establish secure Intranets and Extranets.

Q. 19. Write down the difference between OSI and TCP/IP model. Ans.

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Q 20 Name any five standard creation committees Ans. 1 International organization for standardization (ISO) 2 International Telecommunication Union Telecommunication standards

3 American National standards institute (ANSI) 4 Institute of electrical and electronics engineers (II Fl) 5. Electronic industries Association (ElA).

Q. 21. Describe connection-oriented and connectionless services. Ans. Layers can offer two different types of service i.e. connection-oriented and connectionless services. Connection-oriented service: It is modelled after the telephone system. To talk to someone, you pick up the phone, dial the number, talk and then hang up. Similarly, to use a connection oriented network system, the service user first establishes a connection, uses the connection, and then releases the connection. The essential aspect of a connection is that it act like a tube, the sender pushes objects in at one end, and receiver takes them out in same order at the other end. Connectionless service: It is modelled after the postal system. Each message carries the lull destination address and each one is routed through the system independent of all others. Normally, when two messages are sent to the same destination, the first one sent will be the first one to arrive.
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Q. 22. Discuss the communication systems. Ans. Communication systems can be classified as 1. Simplex system 2. Half duplex system 3. Full duplex system. 1. Simplex system: ln these systems the information is communicated in only one direction. For example the radio or TV broadcasting systems can only transmit, they cannot receive. 2. Half duplex systems: These systems are bi-directional, i.e. they can transmit as well as receive but not simultaneously. At a time these systems can either transmit or receive e.g. Tranreceiver . 3. Full duplex system: These are truly bi-directional systems as they allow the communication to take place in both the directions simultaneously. These systems transmit as well as receive simultaneously, for example the telephone system.

Q.23 Explain the OSI Reference model. Ans. This standard model for network protocol was developed by international standards organisation (ISO) which was the major step in standardization on network communications. This model is known as ISO-OSI (International standards organizationopen system interconnection) reference model, as it deals with connecting open system i.e. the systems which are open for communication with other systems. This model serves as a standard model for network architecture. OSI model is divided into seven layers as follows:

1. Physical layer: This layer is concerned with the transmission of raw bits, over the communication channel. This layer provides physical transmission of data of the communication media in the network. While designing this layer, it has to be made sure that when one computer sends a 1 bit, other competitor should receive it as a I bit, not only as a 0 bit. Here the concerned issues largely deal with mechanical, electrical and procedural interfaces. This layer is in the domain of electrical engineer., 2. Data Link Layer: This layer is concerned with providing on error free Organization and transmission of data into data frames transmit these frames sequentially and process the acknowledgment frames which are sent back by the receiver. As the physical layer is concerned only with accepting and, transmission of bits without knowing structure of them, it is up to data link layer to create and recognise the frame boundaries.
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This task is done by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of frames. 3. Network layer: This layer provides appropriate routing by establishing connections among the various subnets. This layer design is concerned with determination of routing of data packets across the source to the destination. When many packets are present in the subnet, it creates congestion which has to be controlled by this layer. When data has t be routed across different networks, the addressing of the data packet destinations, which poses great problems. The difference in protocols of networks may also pose problems. All these problems have to be overcome, by this layer to allow heterogenous network to be interconnected. 4 Transport layer: This layer helps organization and transfer of data between the nodes. The basic function of this layer to accept the data from the session layer divide it into smaller units, if needed, then send them to the network layer. This layer ensures that all the data pieces arrive correctly, at the receiving end. This layer also determines the type of service to be provided to the session layer. 5. Session layer: This layer is concerned with establishment of sessions between two computers to establish connection. A session transmits the data like, transport layer, but it provides useful enhanced service. This layer allows establishing connection to remote systems. This layer determines which user has the turn for data transmission. It does it using taken management technique, where tokens are given to data, the data which posses the token can do a data transmission. 6. Presentation layer: This layer provides data transmission codes and formats. This layer is concerned with syntax and semantics of the information which is being transmitted. This layer handles the abstract data structures and conversion to the standard representation. The data encryption compression etc. is used for data transmission, whose representation is taken care of by this presentation layer. 7. Application layer: This layer provides communication services for user applications. This layer contains a large number of protocols which are commonly required transmission of data. All the software required for interacting with incompatible hardware and software are available in this layer. This layer is also used for file transfer. This layer provides all general purpose and special purpose facilities.

Q. 24. Write down the Basic principles of OSI model. Ans

1. Whenever, there is a need for different levels of data abstraction, a different layer has to be created. 2. Every layer has well defined functions. 3. The functions of every layer should be based on international standard protocols. 4. The layers should have boundaries to minimize the flow of information across the interfaces. 5. The total number of layers should be large enough so that functions which are distinct should not be performed by one layer.

Q. 25. What is Sliding Window Protocol? Ans.

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The principle advantage of using piggy backing over having distinct acknowledgement frames is a better use of the available channel band width. The pack field in the frame header casts only a few bits, whereas a separate frame would need a header, the acknowledgement and a checksum. In addition fewer frames sent means fewer Frame arrived interrupts and perhaps fewer buffer in the receiver, depending on how the receivers software is organized. In the next protocol to be examined, the piggy back field casts only I bit in the frame header. If r and y costs more than a few bits, the next three protocols are more robust and continue to function even under pathological conditions. All three belong to a class of protocols called sliding window protocols. The three differ among themselves of efficiency, complexity, and buffer requirements. In all sliding window protocols, each out bound frame contains a from 0 up to some maximum. The maximum of usually 21. So nicely in n but field. The stop and wait sliding window protocol sequence number to 0 and 1, but more sophisticated versions on sequence number ranging the sequence number fits uses n = I restricting the use arbitrary n.

The essence of all sliding window protocol is that at any instant of time, the sender maintains a set of sequence numbers. Corresponding to, frames it is permitted to send These frames are said to fail within the sending window similarly, the receiver also maintains a receiving window corresponding to the set of frames, it is permitted to accept the senders window and receivers window need not have the same lower and upper limits or even have the same size. In some protocols they are fixed in size, but in other they can grow or shrink as frames are sent and received.

Q. 26. What are the various networking devices? Ans. 1. Repeaters its the property of signal that after travelling a particular distance it gets weakened, the property is called as attenuation. Hence a way should be there, by which a weakened signal should gain its original strength and is propagated further. This is achieved with the help of device called repeater. Before signal gets weakened, it is made pass through the repeater. One another device, which sounds similar to repeater, is amplifier, but the basic difference between them is that amplifiers are generally used for the analog signals while repeaters for digital. Above all there is a difference between their working principles too, i.e. repeaters from the input signal extracts the data and regenerates it, in doing so the noise is eliminated at each interface but amplifiers only amplifies the incoming signal and let it pass, is also given the gain in same factor as data signal is getting, leading to the poor signal quality.

2. Bridges. Bridges dont care what protocol is being used on the network (TCP/IP, IPX, Apple Talk, etc.) since they operate at whats called the data-link level. This is both a benefit and a curse; since they work at such a simple level, that they are able to operate at blindingly fast speeds, but since they will indiscriminately forward data, one has little control over their operation. This is where routers come in. l3ridges operate at link layer but Routers work at the network layer. 3. Routers. Routers understand the protocols being used to carry the data over the network. And since they understand the protocols, they can use rules to decide hat to do with a specific piece of data. Because of this, routers are useful in linking networks that are used for different purposes or by different organizations. 4. Gateways. They are the devices, which operate at Application Layer, so depending on the type of applications various application gateways exist. Various types of gateways are : Filtering gateways make routing decisions based on information in network packets. if a packet passes the security criteria, the gateway passes it through. Filtering gateways are easy to build but difficult to configure securely. Because filters pass traffic directly from an untrusted network, they are not as secure as other gateways. Circuit-level gateways operate at the session level and require modified clients to communicate directly with the gateway, which appears to the outside host as the session originator. Application-level gateways (proxies) operate at the application level, Negotiation each client/server connection made between a host on the trusted network
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and a host outside. Like the circuit gateway, they never directly link trusted and untrusted networks. Hosts inside the trusted network point their clients to the application gateway, which accepts client requests (e.g., HTTP, Telnet, or FIP) and relays them to an external destination host as if the firewall were the requesting client.

Q. 27. Explain TCP/IP Protocol. Ans. This is most widely used protocol for networks throughout the world. This technology is adopted as the global standard of networking. This is combination of two basic protocols the transmission control and internet. This technology is used by the internet, internet and extranets. Many operating systems and networking software are coming up with compatibility to this architecture. Currently most of the organizations are adopting this technology. This protocol consists of five basic layers which can be related to seven layers of ISO-OSI reference model. According to TCP/IP reference model total functionality of communication process is divided into four different layers 1. Internet layer 2. Transport layer 3. Application layer 4. Host to network layer. 1. The Internet layer: This layer holds the whole architecture together. Its job is to permit hosts to inject packets into any network and have they travel independently to the destination. They may arrive in a different order than they were sent, in which care it is the job of higher layers to rearrange them, if in-order delivery is desired. The internet layer defines an official packet format and protocol called internet protocol (IP). The job of internet layer is to deliver IP packets where they are supposed to go. Packet routing is clearly the major issue here, as is avoiding congestion. 2. Transport layer: The layer above the internet layer is called transport layer. It is designed to allow peer entities on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation, just as in the OSI transport layer. Two end to end transport protocols have been defined here. The first one TCP, is a reliable connection oriented protocol that allows a byte stream originating one machine to be declined without error on any other machine in the internet. The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an unreliable, connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCPs sequencing or flow control and wish to provide their own, It is also used for one-short, client-server-type request reply queries and applications in which prompt delivery is more important than accurate delivery, such as transmitting speech or video. 3. The application layer: The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers. No need for them was perceived, so they were not included. Experience with an 051 model has proven this view correct, they are of little be use to most applications. On top of transport layer is the application layer. It contains all the higher-level protocols. The early ones included virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP). The virtual terminal protocol allows a user on one machine to log on to a distant machine and work their. The file transfer protocol provides a way to move data efficiently from one machine to another. 4. The Host to network layer: Below internet layer is a great void. The TCP/IP model does not really by much about what happens here, except to point out that the host has to connect to the network using some protocol so it can send IP packets to it. This protocol is not defined and varies from host to host and network to network.

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Q. 28. Write a short note on Ethernet. Ans. Ethernet is the most widely used LAN Protocol. The original Ethernet was created in 1976. Ethernet is designed to operate at 10 Mbps. Access to the network by a device is through a contention method (CSMA/CD). The Ethernet frame contains seven fields. 1. Preamble 2. Start frame delimiter (SFD) 3. Destination address (DA) 4. Source address 5. Length / type 6. Data 7. CRC Each station on an Ethernet network has its own network interface card (NIC). The NIC fits inside the station and provides the station with a 6 byte physical address. The Ethernet address is 6 bytes (48 bits) that is normally written in hexadecimal notation. In Ethernet a source address is always a unicast address and the destination address can be unicast, multicast or broadcast. There are the different categories of traditional

10 Base-T is Twisted-pair Ethernet. Base-3 FL is the fiber link Ethernet. Thick Ethernet uses a bus topology with an external transceiver connected via a tap to a thick coaxial cable. This Ethernet uses a bus topology with an internal transceiver or a point-to-point connection via an external transceiver. 10 base-T uses a physical star topology. The stations are connected to a hub with an internal transceiver or an external transceiver. 10 Base FL uses a star topology to connect stations to a hub. The standard is normally implemented using an external transceiver called fiber optic MAV. LAN is divided into Bridges. A bridge can raise the bandwidth and separate the collision domains on an Ethernet LAN. A switch allows each station on an Ethernet. LAN to have the entire capacity of the network to itself.

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