INTRODUCTION

Electric power is a natural physical phenomenon, a fundamental type of energy

which mankind has learned to create and control for its benefit. Electricity is always
energy produced by converting some other form of energy (heat, mechanical motion,
solar light, or moving wind, etc.) into electric power. Electricity has two advantages over
other forms of energy that have led to its wide popularity. First, it is flexible: it can be
transformed into heat, light, mechanical motion, radio signals, television images, and
stereo sound. Second, it is very controllable: it can be turned on and off in a millionth of a
second, and metered out precisely, from an amount so little that it would hardly move one
grain of sand a tenth of a millimeter, to quantities that can power entire nations. This
chapter is a basic “layman’s tutorial” on electricity, electric power, and the basics of
electrical power engineering. It discusses electricity, electric power, and some of the
fundamental concepts used in electric utility systems at an introductory level.
Occasionally it glosses over messy details if they are not needed to explain the
fundamental “big picture.” Persons with an electric utility company who do not have an
engineering background may find it useful in understanding the basics of their company’s
product. Engineers and others who know power may find it useful in helping explain
basic power concepts to those new to the field and for preparing non-technical
presentations to community groups, etc. It begins with a discussion of the basic concepts
of voltage, current, power, and electric power flow.

VOLTAGE, CURRENT, AND POWER

Electricity has two fundamental components, the current, or amount of electrical flow,
and the voltage, or electrical pressure pushing the electric flow. Together, voltage and
current determine the amount of power − the rate at which useful work or light can be
produced:
Power = voltage × current
Energy used is measured in terms of power times the duration of use. One kilowatt used
for one hour is a kilowatt-hour, abbreviated as kWh, or kWhr
ALTERNATING CURRENT

There are two types of electric power, direct current (DC) and alternating current
(AC). In direct current systems, the electricity constantly moves in one (direct) direction.
It can be thought of as flowing like water through a pipe. The voltage is analogous to
water pressure, always pushing in one direction, and in DC systems, current, like water
flow in a pile, always moves in that one direction.
Almost every electric utility system in the world uses a different type of electricity:
alternating current, abbreviated as AC. In an AC power system, both the voltage and the
current in all electric equipment oscillate, as shown in Figure Voltage and current
alternate back and forth at the same rate, many times a second. Although it might seem
that the resulting power would be worth little because it pushes and then pulls back so
soon afterward, this is not the case. For one thing, electricity moves so fast, at nearly the
speed of light, that it can travel more than 1,500 miles in 1/120th of a second (the
standard duration of a single one of those oscillating pulses), a distance great enough to
span the route from power generator to power consumer, anywhere on this planet.
Beyond that, many electric appliances are indifferent to the direction of current flow. An
electric water heater, for example, produces heat whenever current flows through its
filament in either direction. It does fine with AC current. So do most other electrical
devices. It doesn’t matter to them that the AC power is fluctuating in direction, because
power flow is a bit different than water flow: the oscillating nature of AC power actually
provides power very efficiently. The physics works out and the equipment works, even if
it is a bit difficult to fathom without a lot of mathematics involving complex variables.
The rate of oscillation of the electricity in a power systems around the world is
either 50 or 60 cycles per second (50 or 60 hertz – oscillation rate is named after an early
electrical scientist, Hertz). “American” type systems oscillate at 60 hertz, “European”
type systems at 50 hertz. Both work just as well, and neither frequency is noticeably
better than the other, despite what one might hear from heavily opinionated “experts.”
Anytime one finds an engineer who insists one is substantially better than the other it will
turn out that he or she “grew up” on that type of system and has a rather narrow
understanding of the other type of system’s capabilities.
 Although both DC and AC power are electricity, they act very differently in some
ways. Each has certain advantages and disadvantages over the other in different
situations, but on balance AC power is considered the more useful, and in some ways a
bit safer. With respect to safety, DC power is far harder to stop when something goes
wrong − as in an accident or equipment failure that leads to a short circuit. Because AC
power changes voltage back and forth many times a second, there is always a brief instant
– all that is needed – when the power is not moving and a circuit breaker can effectively
break a short circuit current. The same cannot be said for DC, which means circuit
breakers for DC are, other things being equal, bigger, heavier, and, to the authors, not
quite as preferable as using AC power.
More important, though, AC power allows the use of a transformer − a nearly
foolproof device that can change voltage wherever it is needed (transformers are
explained later in this chapter). Transformers enable power engineers to use high voltage
when necessary − as when moving great amounts of power long distances from generator
to city − and then conveniently lower voltage to a safer, more efficient, and more useful
level for home and business use. By comparison, changing the voltage level of DC power
is arduous, inefficient, and unreliable, meaning that a DC utility system could never
function as efficiently as an AC power system. For these reasons, all electric utilities
worldwide operate at either 60 or 50 cycles per second (3,600 or 3,000 cycles per
minute.)

Fig; Alternating current (AC). Voltage and current in an electric system oscillate at 50 times
(European) or 60 times (American) per second. AC power provides certain advantages for use in
electric utility systems.
Since voltage and current in an AC power system vary many times a second, they are
usually measured in terms of the RMS value − root mean square − a mathematical term
for computing their average value over time in the way that is most useful in electric
measurement. RMS value is about 80% of peak value, so that when one says a typical
household wiring system is 120 volts, this means it usually peaks during each cycle at
more than 150 volts, while averaging about 120 volts. What is really important, though, is
the RMS value, the average produced through each cycle, which is representation of the
power it can provide.

IS ELECTRICITY SAFE?

Any source of energy − a tank of propane stored behind a rural farmhouse, a large
millwheel, a windmill, or an electric line − is a potential hazard that can injure and even
kill if misused. Electricity is no different, but it is a particularly safe form of energy when
handled according to standard safety precautions, such as those in the National Electric
Safety Code. One reason it is safe is that it is so controllable, but a big challenge in
keeping it safe is that it can act quickly, essentially at the speed of light. Automatic
equipment can detect most leaks, called short circuits or faults, and “shut down” the
electrical flow before substantial damage is done. Although not completely fail-safe, such
circuit breakers and ground fault detectors are quite effective, and combined with sound
design, good maintenance, and safe practices make electricity quite safe.

TYPICAL RANGES OF VALUES

A typical light bulb uses 60 watts − 1/2 amp at 120 volts. A toaster uses about
1,000 watts − a bit more than 8 amps at 120 volts; a television 240 watts − two amps at
120 volts; a large central air conditioner or heat pump 6,000 watts − 25 amps at 240 volts.
As previously noted, large amounts of power are often measured in kilowatts − units of
1,000 watts − and larger amounts, still, in megawatts − a million watts. The cumulative
demand of a large city or state might be measured in billions of watts − gigawatts.
Cumulatively, metropolitan Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, uses about 8 gigawatts of power
during the peak period of electric usage.
In almost all cases, whether inside a home or on the utility system, the number of
volts being used in any application is greater than the number of amps. Voltage used in
homes and most businesses worldwide is somewhere between 100 and 250 volts
depending on local standards, but the wires for running the current through the walls to
each outlet in a home will be sized to carry a maximum of about 15-25 amps. The same is
true throughout a utility power system, a large transmission line might operate at 345,000
volts while carrying 2000 amps. Again, far more volts are used than amps. The fact that
more volts are used than amps is not due to any fundamental physical reason − remember
volts and amps are arbitrarily chosen units of measurement. It simply turned out that the
most efficient use of electricity, as engineers have learned to design it, usually calls for
about one hundred times as many volts as amps. This is a useful rule of thumb.

RANGES FOR VOLTAGE

The power flowing through most houses and buildings in the United States is
between 110 and 120 volts, in Europe about 230 to 250 volts, and in Japan 100 to 105
volts. The differences exist because these countries each established a different standard
when the electric industry started there. Voltage levels in this range (100-250 volts)
provide enough power for typical small appliances like TVs, microwave ovens, etc., and
even large equipment like air conditioners and water heaters. What is important for good
operation is that the appliances be designed to run at the voltage level standard used
locally, e.g., appliances intended for 250 volt operation in France would not work well if
plugged into sockets in Japan, where they would get only 40% of the voltage they need to
function.
Electric utilities use a higher voltage in their systems as they move power from
one location to another. The more power that must be moved, the higher the voltage used.
Large transmission lines, built with wires hung from big, lattice-like steel towers,
typically run at voltages of from 100,000 to 750,000 volts. Local distribution lines, built
on poles or buried under the street, usually operate at around 10,000 volts.
VOLTAGE LEVELS

All European and most African and Asian countries use a supply that is within 10%
of 230 V, whereas Japan, North America and some parts of South America use a voltage
between 100 and 127 V. A distinction should be made between the voltage at the point of
supply (nominal system voltage) and the voltage rating of the equipment (utilization
voltage). Typically the utilization voltage is 3% to 5% lower than the nominal system
voltage; for example, a nominal 208 V supply system will be connected to motors with
"200 V" on their nameplates. This allows for the voltage drop between equipment and
supply. Voltages in this article are the nominal supply voltages and equipment used on
these systems will carry slightly lower nameplate voltages. Voltage tolerances are for
steady-state operation. Momentary heavy loads, or switching operations in the power
distribution network, may cause short-term deviations out of the tolerance band. In
general, power supplies derived from large networks with many sources will be more
stable than those supplied to an isolated community with perhaps only a single generator.
The choice of utilization voltage is governed more by tradition than by optimization of
the distribution system. In theory a 230 V distribution system will use less conductor
material to deliver a given quantity of power. Incandescent light bulbs for 120 V systems
are more efficient and rugged than 230 V bulbs, while large heating appliances can use
smaller conductors at 230 V for the same output rating.
Practically speaking, few household appliances use anything like the full capacity
of the outlet to which they are connected. Minimum wire sizes for hand-held or portable
equipment is usually restricted by the mechanical strength of the conductors. One may
observe that both 230 V system countries and 120 V system countries have extensive
penetration of electrical appliances in homes. National electrical codes prescribe wiring
methods intended to minimize the risk of electric shock or fire. Many areas using
(nominally) 120 V make use of three-wire, single-phase 240 V systems to supply large
appliances. Three-phase systems can be connected to give various combinations of
voltage, suitable for use by different classes of equipment. Where both single-phase and
three-phase loads are served by an electrical system, the system may be labelled with
both voltages such as 120/208 or 230/400 V, to show the line-to-neutral voltage and the
line-to-line voltage. Large loads are connected for the higher voltage.
Other three-phase voltages, up to 830 Volts, are occasionally used for special
purpose systems such as oil well pumps. Following voltage harmonization all electricity
supply within the European Union is now nominally 230 V ± 10% at 50 Hz [1]. For a
transition period (1995–2008), countries who previously used 220 V will use a narrower
asymmetric tolerance range of 230 V +6% −10% and those (like the UK) who previously
used 240 V use now 230 V +10% −6%[2]. Note that no change in voltage is required by
either system as both 220V and 240V fall within the lower 230 V tolerance bands (230 V
±6%). In practice this means that countries such as the UK that previously supplied 240
V continue to do so, and those that previously supplied 220 V continue to do so. However
equipment should be designed to accept any voltages within the specified range.
Large industrial motors (say, more than 250 HP or 150 kW) may operate on medium
voltage. On 60Hz systems a standard for medium voltage equipment is 2300/4160V
whereas 3300V is the common standard for 50Hz systems.

HIGHER VOLTAGE HAS MUCH MORE “CLOUT” THAN LOW VOLTAGE

Voltage has a squared relation to capability: double the voltage and the power
delivered increases by a factor of four, not two. As a result, slightly increased voltages
have much more dramatic effects than might be expected. A light bulb designed for 120-
volt operation will produce very intense light if connected to 240 volts, but will burn out
in a matter of minutes from overheating. The 240- volt appliances used on special circuits
in a home do not have access to two times the power available from normal 120-volt
electrical outlets − they are being provided with the potential for four times the power.

CONSTANT VOLTAGE SYSTEMS

As discussed above, if a light or motor needed more power the additional power
could be supplied by increasing the voltage, or the current, or both voltage and current, to
the device. Although this is the case, electric power systems throughout the world are
designed to keep the voltage as nearly constant as possible, and change the power
delivered by varying only the current flow. Thus, the electric power delivered to a typical
house in the United States is provided to the house at around 110 to 120 volts (with a
limited amount that is at double that voltage, for large uses like electric dryers). This
voltage is supplied whether the house is using no power, or a great deal of it. What varies,
as power used inside the house varies, is the current drawn from the power system, zero
amps if no power is used, and perhaps 90 amps if 11 kW is being used, which is about the
peak demand of a typical small home with its air conditioners, water heater, refrigerator,
and lights and appliances.
In fact, in modern power systems, as demand goes up, voltage actually goes down,
an inevitable consequence of the rules of electrical flow. But not by much. The rules of
nature make it impossible to keep voltage absolutely constant in a power system as the
demand for power varies, although engineers can reduce that tendency through various
means, all of which cost money. Most power systems are quite good in this regard,
despite being designed to provide low cost power, but voltage will vary by perhaps as
much as six percent from times of peak to times of minimum demand. Still, those
extremes represent typically a six to one (600%) change in demand. A 6% change in
voltage is not much in response.
The really important point is that power engineers design the electric utility systems
so that voltage at any one point stays as close to constant as possible. Their goal is to
make the power system appear electrically as a voltage source, i.e., an unchanging supply
of constant voltage regardless of the amount of power demanded. Knowing that this will
be the case, engineers of electrical equipment and appliances − motors, heaters, industrial
pressure pumps, blenders, microwave ovens, garage door openers, and video games − can
design them so that they will vary the current they draw as their power needs change. All
of those devices, and everything else that uses electricity, would have to be a bit more
complicated, and thus slightly more expensive, to make them work as evenly and safely,
if both voltage and current could, or did, vary.
ELECTRIC LOAD

The term load means the electrical demand of an appliance connected to and drawing
power from the electric utility system to accomplish some task, e.g., opening a garage
door, or converting that power to some other form of energy such as light or heat.
Electrical loads are usually rated by the level of power they require, measured in units of
volt-amperes, called watts. Large loads are measured in kilowatts (thousands of watts) or
megawatts (millions of watts). Many appliances are also rated by how much of the end-
use product they produce. For example, an incandescent light bulb might be rated at 75
watts and 1,100 lumens of light, a lumen being a measure of light output, while a
fluorescent light tube might be rated at 60 watts and 1,250 lumens output. Similarly, an
air conditioner might be rated at 2,400 watts and 2,650 BTU, or British Thermal Units, an
amount of heating or cooling output.
While the groups of devices shown in Figure all have roughly the same electric load,
they will not all use the same amount of power during a day, because they operate on
different schedules. Of those shown, probably the pair of refrigerators would use the most
energy, because they operate around the clock.

Fig; Household appliances

AVAILABILITY AND SERVICE INTERRUPTIONS

The most dramatic power quality problem for most electric consumers is an
interruption of service. For some reason, be it failure of equipment, damage to lines by a
wind storm, a tree falling on a line, or a car hitting a utility pole, flow of electric power is
interrupted. Lights go out, motors cease to operate, heaters stop heating, and electric
circuits cease to function, causing everything from minor nuisances to major
inconveniences. Service interruptions in most power systems in developed countries are
rare. Throughout the United States, the average electric consumer suffers about two
interruptions per year, with “lights out” lasting about one and one-half hours, total. This
means average availability is 99.983%, equal to 8,758.5 hours over 8,760 hours per year.

TRANSIENT VOLTAGE INTERRUPTIONS

Power flow does not have to be completely interrupted in order for equipment
operation to be stopped. An important quality that power must have is a reasonable level
of voltage regulation all power systems worldwide are designed to provide a stable,
constant source of voltage, from which appliances can draw power as needed. Power is of
little use to customers unless it is supplied at the proper voltage, and unless that voltage is
Reasonably constant. If voltage strays too high, equipment is damaged. If it drops too
low, equipment will stop working, and motors like those in refrigerators and air
conditioners may fail. (The motors try to compensate for the low voltage by working
harder, overheat as a result, and burn out.) Voltage problems occur on a power system if
the local distribution equipment does not have sufficient capacity to serve the load (low
voltage), or if that equipment is not operating properly (high voltage). These types of
problems are generally very rare, but when they occur, they last for minutes, hours, or
even days.
Somewhat more common, and nearly impossible to eradicate completely, are transient
voltage problems. If electric lines are struck by lightning, and various control equipment,
i.e., lightning arresters, fails to stop it, lightning spikes of very short duration may flow
through the power system and damage nearby equipment.
 If there is a sudden failure of one of the system’s components, there can be
momentary voltage sag, lasting a second or less, before it is taken off the system and
voltage is restored. Sometimes, when a large electric motor is starting, it will cause
momentary voltage flicker on nearby circuits and houses. This often produces a flickering
or brief dimming of lights. Transient voltage deviations may not cause a problem if they
are of sufficiently short duration or if the voltage does not drop too low or rise too high.
However, electrical equipment, like computers, robotic control systems, and digital
clocks, is very sensitive to even brief voltage sags or spikes. For example, even a 50%
drop in voltage for a half second will cause many computers to lose their memory and
digital clocks to forget the time.

VOLTAGE SPIKE

In electrical engineering, spikes are fast, short duration electrical transients in

voltage (voltage spikes), current (current spike), or transferred energy (energy spikes) in
an electrical circuit. Fast, short duration electrical transients (over voltages) in the electric
potential of a circuit are typically caused by
• lightning strikes
• power outages
• tripped circuit breakers
• short circuits
• power transitions in other large equipment on the same power line
• malfunctions caused by the power company
• Electromagnetic pulses (EMP) with electromagnetic energy distributed typically
up to the 100 kHz and 1 MHz frequency range.
• Inductive spikes
In the design of critical infrastructure and military hardware, one concern is of pulses
produced by nuclear explosions , whose nuclear electromagnetic pulse (EMP) distribute
large energies in frequencies from 1 kHz into the Gigahertz range through the
atmosphere. The effect of a voltage spike is to produce a corresponding increase in
current (current spike). However some voltage spikes may be created by current sources.
Voltage would increase as necessary so that a constant current will flow. Current from a
discharging inductor is one example. For sensitive electronics, excessive current can flow
if this voltage spike exceeds a material's breakdown voltage, or if it causes avalanche
breakdown. In semiconductor junctions, excessive electrical current may destroy or
severely weaken that device. An avalanche diode, transient voltage suppression diode,
transil, varistor, ove voltage crowbar, or a range of other over voltage protective devices
can divert (shunt) this transient current thereby minimizing voltage. While generally
referred to as a voltage spike, the phenomenon in question is actually an energy spike,
in that it is measured not in volts but in joules; a transient response defined by a
mathematical product of voltage, current, and time. Voltage spike may be created by a
rapid buildup or decay of a magnetic field, which may induce energy into the associated
circuit. However voltage spikes can also have more mundane causes such as a fault in
a transformer or higher-voltage (primary circuit) power wires falling onto lower-voltage
(secondary circuit) power wires as a result of accident or storm damage. Voltage spikes
may be longitudinal (common) mode or metallic (normal or differential) mode. Some
equipment damage from surges and spikes can be prevented by use of surge protection
equipment.
LOW VOLTAGE

Low voltage is an electrical engineering term that broadly identifies safety

considerations of an electricity supply system based on the voltage used. While different
definitions exist for the exact voltage range covered by "low voltage", the most
commonly used ones include "mains voltage". "Low voltage" is characterized by carrying
a substantial risk of electric shock, but only a minor risk of electric arcs through air.

The above mentioned problems due to over voltage and under voltage on electrical
appliances are minimized using simple circuit. This circuit is protecting from over
voltages/under voltages.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:

This circuit protects refrigerators as well as other appliances from over and
under-voltage. Operational amplifier IC LM324 (IC2) is used here as a comparator. IC
LM324 consists of four operational amplifiers, of which only two operational amplifiers
(N1 and N2) are used in the circuit. The unregulated power supply is connected to the
series combination of resistors R1 and R2 and pot meter VR1. The same supply is also
connected to a 6.8V zener diode (ZD1) through resistor R3. Preset VR1 is adjusted such
that for the normal supply of 180V to 240V, the voltage at the non-inverting terminal (pin
3) Of operational amplifier N1 is less than 6.8V. Hence the output of the operational
amplifier is zero and transistor T1 remains off. The relay, which is connected to the
collector of transistor T1, also remains de energized. As the AC supply to the electrical
Appliances is given through the normally closed (N/C) terminal of the relay, the supply is
not disconnected during normal operation.

When the AC voltage increases beyond 240V, the voltage at the non-inverting
terminal (pin 3) of operational amplifier N1 increases. The voltage at the inverting
terminal is still 6.8V because of the zener diode. Thus now if the voltage at pin 3 of the
operational amplifier is higher than 6.8V, the output of the operational amplifier goes
high to drive transistor T1 and hence energize relay RL. Consequently, the AC supply is
disconnected and electrical appliances turn off. Thus the appliances are protected against
over-voltage. Now let’s consider the under-voltage condition.

When the line voltage is below 180V, the voltage at the inverting terminal (pin 6) of
operational amplifier N2 is less than the voltage at the non-inverting terminal (6V). Thus
the output of operational amplifier N2 goes high and it energizes the relay through
transistor T1. The AC supply is disconnected and electrical appliances turn off. Thus the
appliances are protected against under-voltage. IC1 is wired for a regulated 12V supply.
Thus the relay energizes in two conditions: first, if the voltage at pin 3 of IC2 is above
6.8V, and second, if the voltage at pin 6 of IC2 is below 6V. Over-voltage and under-
voltage levels can be adjusted using presets VR1 and VR2, respectively.
BRIEF DESCRIPTION ABOUT CIRCUIT COMPONENTS

• Step down single phase transformer (230v/12v AC ,1A)

• Integrated Circuit 7812
• Integrated Circuit LM324 operational amplifier.
• Capacitors (470 µF, 0.1 µF, 0.1 µF).
• Resistors(33k,10k,6.8k,1k,10k,10k,6.8k,1k)ohms.
• Pot meters (VR1=47k, VR2=47k) ohms.
• Diodes (D1-D6) IN4007, Red led
• Transistor BC547
• Zener diodes (6.8v,6v).
• Relay (12v, 200Ohms).

STEP DOWN SINGLE PHASE TRANSFORMER (230V/12V AC ,1A):

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors — the transformer's coils or "windings". Except
for air-core transformers, the conductors are commonly wound around a single iron-rich
core, or around separate but magnetically-coupled cores. A varying current in the first or
"primary" winding creates a varying magnetic field in the core (or cores) of the
transformer. This varying magnetic field induces a varying electromotive force (EMF) or
"voltage" in the "secondary" winding. This effect is called mutual induction. If a load is
connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary winding and
electrical energy will flow from the primary circuit through the transformer to the load. In
an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding (VS) is in proportion
to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns in the
secondary to the number of turns in the primary as follows:
 By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating
current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped
down" by making NS less than NP. Transformers come in a range of sizes from a
thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a stage microphone to huge units
weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of national power grids. All
operate with the same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide. While new
technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits,
transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household
("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high voltage power transmission, which
makes long distance transmission economically practical.

BASIC PRINCIPLES

The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a
magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a
coil of wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction).
Changing the current in the primary coil changes the magnitude of the applied magnetic
field. The changing magnetic flux extends to the secondary coil where a voltage is
induced across its ends A simplified transformer design is shown to the left. A current
passing through the primary coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary
coils are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, such as iron; this
ensures that most of the magnetic field lines produced by the primary current are within
the iron and pass through the secondary coil as well as the primary coil.

INDUCTION LAW

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law
of induction, which states that:
where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil
and ¢ equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are
oriented perpendicular to the

Figure; An ideal step-down transformer showing magnetic flux in the core.

A magnetic field line, the flux is the product of the magnetic field strength B and the area
A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of
the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the
excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary
and secondary coils in an ideal transformer, the instantaneous voltage across the primary
winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation for stepping
up or stepping down the voltage
IDEAL POWER EQUATION

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power
is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is
perfectly efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the
magnetic field and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming
electric power must equal the outgoing power.
Pincoming = IPVP = Poutgoing = ISVS

TRANSFORMER UNIVERSAL EMF EQUATION

If the flux in the core is sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between its rms
Voltage of the winding E, and the supply frequency f, number of turns N, core
crosssectional area a and peak magnetic flux density B is given by the universal EMF
equation:

CONSTRUCTION

LAMINATED STEEL CORES

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high
permeability silicon steel. The steel has a permeability many times that of free space, and
the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current, and confine the flux to a
path which closely couples the windings. Early transformer developers soon realized that
cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy-current losses, and their
designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires.
Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel laminations, a principle
that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin non-
conducting layer of insulation. The universal transformer equation indicates a minimum
cross-sectional area for the core to avoid saturation. The effect of laminations is to
confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their
magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses, but are more laborious and expensive to
construct. Thin laminations are generally used on high frequency transformers, with some
types of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz.

Figure; Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of unit.

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of E-shaped
steel sheets capped with I-shaped pieces, leading to its name of "E-I transformer". Such a
design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core
or C-core type is made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and then
bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two, forming two C shapes, and the core
Assembled by binding the two C halves together with a steel strap. They have the
advantage that the flux is always oriented parallel to the metal grains, reducing
reluctance. A steel core's remanence means that it retains a static magnetic field when
power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high
inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually after a few
cycles of the applied alternating current. Over current protection devices such as fuses
must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass. On transformers connected to long,
overhead power transmission lines, induced currents due to geomagnetic disturbances
during solar storms can cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer
protection devices.
 Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with
low-loss high permeability silicon steel or amorphous (non-crystalline) metal alloy. The
higher initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower
losses at light load.

APPLICATIONS
A major application of transformers is to increase voltage before transmitting
electrical energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistance and so
dissipate electrical energy at a rate proportional to the square of the current through the
wire. By transforming electrical power to a high-voltage (and therefore low-current) form
for transmission and back again afterward, transformers enable economic transmission of
power over long distances. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply
industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand. All but a
tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers
by the time it reaches the consumer.
Transformers are also used extensively in electronic products to step down the supply
voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. In the above circuit
using only 230v/12v AC,1A step down transformer. The transformer also electrically
isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage.
Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers and to match
devices such as microphones and record player s to the input of amplifiers. Audio
transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a single
pair of wires. Transformers are also used when it is necessary to couple a differential-
mode signal to a ground-referenced signal, and for between external cables and internal
circuits.

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon

chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor
devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a
thin substrate of semiconductor material. Integrated circuits are used in almost all
electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics.
A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual
semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit
board.
Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed
that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes, and by mid-
20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The
integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous
improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using discrete electronic components.
The integrated circuit's mass production capability, reliability, and building-block
approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of
designs using discrete transistors.
There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance.
Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by
photolithography and not constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore, much less
Material is used to construct a circuit as a packaged IC die than as a discrete circuit.
Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power
(compared to their discrete counterparts), because the components are small and close
together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square mm to around 350 mm², with up
to 1 million transistors per mm².

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT 7812

It Is Integrated Circuit Of 78 Series. Its Voltage Is 12v. It is the ic used to regulate the
secondary side voltage of the transformer after rectification. Main purpose of this
regulation is providing to trip the relay.
The main functions are:
• Asserting reset output during power-up, power-down and brownout conditions
for μP system;
 • Detecting power failure or low-battery conditions with a 1.25V threshold
detector;
• Watchdog functions;
• Manual reset.
Application
• Power-supply circuitry in μP systems

BLOCK DIAGRAM

PIN CONFIGURATION
PIN DESCRIPTION

Manual-Reset: (CMOS). Active low. Pull low to force a reset. Reset remains
asserted for the duration of the Reset Timeout Period after MR transitions from low to
high. Leave unconnected or connected to VCC if not used.
Vcc
Power Supply: Reset is asserted when V CC drops below the Reset Threshold
Voltage (VRST ). Reset remains asserted until VCC rises above VRST and keep asserted
for the duration of the Reset Timeout Period (TRS) once VCC rises above VRST.
GND
Ground Reference for all signals.

Active-Low Reset Output (Push-Pull or Open-Drain).It goes low when Vcc is below
the reset threshold. It remains low for about 200ms after one of the following occurs: Vcc
rises above the reset threshold (V RST ), the watchdog triggers a reset, or goes from
low to high.
RESET

The inverse of

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT LM324 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
An operational amplifier, which is often called an op-amp, is a DC-coupled high gain
Electronic voltage amplifier with differential inputs and, usually, a single output.
Typically the output of the opamp is controlled either by negative feedback, which
largely determines the magnitude of its output voltage gain, or by positive feedback,
which facilitates regenerative gain and oscillation. High input impedance at the input
terminals (ideally infinite) and low output impedance (ideally zero) are important typical
characteristics Modern designs are electronically more rugged than earlier
Implementations and some can sustain direct short circuits on their outputs without
damage. The op-amp is one type of differential amplifier. Other types of differential
amplifier include the fully differential amplifier (similar to the op-amp, but with 2
outputs), the instrumentation amplifier (usually built from 3 op-amps), the isolation
amplifier (similar to the instrumentation amplifier, but which works fine with common-
mode voltages that would destroy an ordinary op-amp), and negative feedback amplifier
(usually built from 1 or more op-amps and a resistive feedback network).

CIRCUIT NOTATION
The circuit symbol for an op-amp is shown to the right, where:
• V + : non-inverting input
• V − : inverting input
• Vout: output
• VS + : positive power supply
• VS − : negative power supply
The power supply pins (VS + and VS − ) can be labeled in different ways
(See IC power supply pins). Despite different labeling, the function remains the same
— to provide additional power for amplification of signal. Often these pins are left out of
the diagram for clarity, and the power configuration is described or assumed from the
circuit.

Figure ; Circuit diagram symbol for an op-amp

A single sided supply op-amp is one where the input and output voltages can be as low as
the negative power supply voltage instead of needing to be at least 2 volts above it. The
result is that it can operate in many applications with the negative supply pin on the op-
amp being connected to the signal ground, thus eliminating the need for a separate
negative power supply.
 The LM324 (released in 1972) was one such op-amp that came in a quad package and
became an industry standard. In addition to packaging multiple op-amps in a single
package, the 1970s also saw the birth of op-amps in hybrid packages. These op-amps
were generally improved versions of existing monolithic op-amps and were without a
doubt the best op-amps available. As the properties of monolithic op-amps improved, the
more complex hybrid ICs were quickly relegated to systems that are required to have
extremely long service lives or other specialty systems.
RECENT TRENDS
Recently supply voltages in analog circuits have decreased (as they have in digital logic)
and low voltage opamps have been introduced reflecting this. Supplies of ±5V and
increasingly 5V are common. To maximize the signal range modern opamps commonly
have rail-to-rail inputs (the input signals can range from the lowest supply voltage to the
highest) and sometimes rail-to-rail outputs.
PIN DIAGRAM
Lm 324 consists of four operational amplifiers.

APPLICATIONS
USE IN ELECTRONICS SYSTEM DESIGN
The use of op-amps as circuit blocks is much easier and clearer than specifying all
their individual circuit elements (transistors, resistors, etc.), whether the amplifiers used
are integrated or discrete. In the first approximation op-amps can be used as if they were
ideal differential gain blocks; at a later stage limits can be placed on the acceptable range
of parameters for each op-amp. Circuit design follows the same lines for all electronic
circuits. A specification is drawn up governing what the circuit is required to do, with
allowable limits. For example, the gain may be required to be 100 times, with a tolerance
of 5% but drift of less than 1% in a specified temperature range; the input impedance not
less than 1 megohm; etc.
A basic circuit is designed, often with the help of circuit modeling (on a computer).
Specific commercially available op-amps and other components are then chosen that
meet the design criteria within the specified tolerances at acceptable cost. If not all
criteria can be met, the specification may need to be modified. A prototype is then built
and tested; changes to meet or improve the specification, alter functionality, or reduce the
cost, may be made.

CAPACITORS

A capacitor or condenser is a passive electronic component consisting of a pair of

conductors separated by a dielectric. When a voltage potential difference exists between
the conductors, an electric field is present in the dielectric. This field stores energy and
produces a mechanical force between the plates. The effect is greatest between wide, flat,
parallel, narrowly separated conductors. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single
constant value, capacitance, which is measured in farads. This is the ratio of the electric
charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. In practice, the
dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current. The conductors
and leads introduce an equivalent series resistance and the dielectric has an electric field
strength limit resulting in a breakdown voltage. The properties of capacitors in a circuit
may determine the resonant frequency and quality factor of a resonant circuit, power
dissipation and operating frequency in a digital logic circuit, energy capacity in a high-
power system, and many other important aspects.
Electronic symbol

THEORY OF OPERATION
A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-
conductive substance is called the dielectric medium, although this may also mean a
vacuum or a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A
capacitor is assumed to be self contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no
influence from an external electric field. The conductors thus contain equal and opposite
charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric contains an electric field. The
capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal
capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of
charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them

Sometimes charge buildup affects the mechanics of the capacitor, causing the capacitance
to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each
conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

ENERGY STORAGE
Work must be done by an external influence to move charge between the conductors in
a capacitor. When the external influence is removed, the charge separation persists and
energy is stored in the electric field. If charge is later allowed to return to its equilibrium
position, the energy is released. The work done in establishing the electric field, and
hence the amount of energy stored, is given by

In the above circuit using Capacitors (470 µF, 0.1 µF, 0.1 µF) main purpose of these
capacitors gives ripple free DC output.
RESISTORS
A resistor is a two-terminal electronic component designed to oppose an electric current
by producing a voltage drop between its terminals in proportion to the current, that is, in
accordance with Ohm's law:
V = IR
Resistors are used as part of electrical networks and electronic circuits. They are
extremely commonplace in most electronic equipment. Practical resistors can be made of
various compounds and films, as well as resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity
alloy, such as nickel/chrome).
The primary characteristics of resistors are their resistance and the power they can
dissipate. Other characteristics include temperature coefficient, noise, and inductance.
Less well-known is critical resistance, the value below which power dissipation limits the
maximum permitted current flow, and above which the limit is applied voltage. Critical
resistance depends upon the materials constituting the resistor as well as its physical
dimensions; it's determined by design. Resistors can be integrated into hybrid and printed
circuits, as well as integrated circuits. Size, and position of leads (or terminals) are
relevant to equipment designers; resistors must be physically large enough not to
overheat when dissipating their power

Figure; Three resistors

Symbol

In the above circuit using Resistors(33k,10k,6.8k,1k,10k,10k,6.8k,1k)ohms.

POT METERS
 A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an
adjustable voltage divider. If only two terminals are used (one side and the wiper), it acts
as a variable resistor or Rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical
devices such as a volume control of a radio. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can
be used as position transducers, for example, in a joystick.
A linear taper potentiometer has a resistive element of constant cross-section,
resulting in a device where the resistance between the contact (wiper) and one end
terminal is proportional to the distance between them. Linear taper describes the
electrical characteristic of the device, not the geometry of the resistive element. Linear
taper potentiometers are used when an approximately proportional relation is desired
between shaft rotation and the division ratio of the potentiometer; for example, controls
used for adjusting the centering of (an analog) cathode-ray oscilloscope.

Figure; A typical single turn potentiometer

Symbol

In the above circuit using Pot meters (VR1=47k, VR2=47k) ohms.

DIODES
 In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal device (thermionic diodes may also have
one or two ancillary terminals for a heater). Diodes have two active electrodes between
which the signal of interest may flow, and most are used for their unidirectional electric
current property. The varicap diode is used as an electrically adjustable capacitor.
The unidirectionality most diodes exhibit is sometimes generically called the
rectifying property. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current
in one direction (called the forward biased condition) and to block the current in the
opposite direction (the reverse biased condition). Thus, the diode can be thought of as an
electronic version of a check valve. Real diodes do not display such a perfect on-off
directionality but have a more complex non-linear electrical characteristic, which
depends on the particular type of diode technology. Diodes also have many other
functions in which they are not designed to operate in this on-off manner.

CURRENT–VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTIC
A diode’s I–V characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation

Figure; I–V characteristics of a P-N junction diode

In the above circuit using Diodes (D1-D6) IN4007, diodes (D1-D4) are used as a rectifier

LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE
 LEDs are based on the semiconductor diode. When the diode is forward biased
(switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes and energy is released in the
form of light. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. The LED is usually small in area
(less than 1 mm2) with integrated optical components to shape its radiation pattern and
assist in reflection. LEDs present many advantages over traditional light sources
including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size
and faster switching. However, they are relatively expensive and require more precise
current and heat management than traditional light sources.
Applications of LEDs are diverse. They are used as low-energy and also for
replacements for traditional light sources in well-established applications such as
indicators and automotive lighting. The compact size of LEDs has allowed new text and
video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are useful in
communications technology.
Symbol

In the above protective circuit used red led .In this led connected across the relay coil it is
indicates tripping of the relay.

TRANSISTOR BC547
In electronics, a transistor is a semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or
switch electronic signals. A transistor is made of a solid piece of a semiconductor
material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or
current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing
through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much
larger than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is used
in radio, telephone, computer and other electronic systems. Some transistors are packaged
individually but most are found in integrated circuits.
BC - Small signal transistor ("all round")
 Transistors are commonly used as electronic switches, for both high power applications
including switched-mode power supplies and low power applications such as logic gates.
BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) was the first type of transistor to be mass-
produced. Bipolar transistors are so named because they conduct by using both majority
and minority carriers. The three terminals of the BJT are named emitter, base and
collector. Two p-n junctions exist inside a BJT: the base/emitter junction and
base/collector junction. "The [BJT] is useful in amplifiers because the currents at the
emitter and collector are controllable by the relatively small base current." In an NPN
transistor operating in the active region, the emitter-base junction is forward biased, and
electrons are injected into the base region. Because the base is narrow, most of these
electrons will diffuse into the reverse-biased base-collector junction and be swept into the
collector; perhaps one-hundredth of the electrons will recombine in the base, which is the
dominant mechanism in the base current. By controlling the number of electrons that can
leave the base, the number of electrons entering the collector can be controlled.
Symbols

In the above circuit using only Transistor BC547(NPN).

ZENER DIODE

A Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current in the forward direction like a
normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown
voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". The device was named after
Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property.
A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is reverse-biased
below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is
exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown.
Unless this current is limited by external circuitry, the diode will be permanently
damaged. In case of large forward bias (current in the direction of the arrow), the diode
exhibits a voltage drop due to its junction built-in voltage and internal resistance. The
amount of the voltage drop depends on the semiconductor material and the doping
concentrations.
The device is specially designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the
so-called Zener voltage. A Zener diode contains a heavily doped p-n junction allowing
electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of
the n-type material. In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the transport of
valence band electrons into the empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced
barrier between these bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively
high levels of dopings on both sides. A reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a
controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at
the Zener voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown voltage of 3.2 V will
exhibit a voltage drop of 3.2 V if reverse bias voltage applied across it is more than its
Zener voltage. However, the current is not unlimited, so the Zener diode is typically used
to generate a reference voltage for an amplifier stage, or as a voltage stabilizer for low
current applications. The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the
doping process. While tolerances within 0.05% are available, the most widely used
tolerances are 5% and 10%.

Figure; Zener diode schematic symbol Figure; Current-voltage

characteristic of a Zener
diode with a breakdown
voltage of 17 volt.
In the above circuit using Zener diodes (6.8v,6v).
RELAY

A relay is an electrical switch that opens and closes under the control of another electrical
circuit. In the original form, the switch is operated by an electromagnet to open or close
one or many sets of contacts. It was invented by Joseph Henry in 1835. Because a relay is
able to control an output circuit of higher power than the input circuit, it can be
considered to be, in a broad sense, a form of an electrical amplifier.

BASIC DESIGN AND OPERATION

A simple electromagnetic relay, such as the one taken from a car in the first picture, is an
adaptation of an electromagnet. It consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core,
an iron yoke, which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a moveable iron
armature, and a set, or sets, of contacts; two in the relay pictured. The armature is hinged
to the yoke and mechanically linked to a moving contact or contacts. It is held in place by
a spring so that when the relay is de energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit.
In this condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the
other set is open. Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on
their function. The relay in the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the
yoke. This ensures continuity of the circuit between the moving contacts on the armature,
and the circuit track on the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered
to the PCB.
When an electric current is passed through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts
the armature, and the consequent movement of the movable contact or contacts either
makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when
the relay was de-energised, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the
connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is
switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but
gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured
to operate quickly. In a low voltage application, this is to reduce noise. In a high voltage
or high current application, this is to reduce arcing.
If the coil is energized with DC, a diode is frequently installed across the coil, to dissipate
the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise
generate a voltage spike dangerous to circuit components. Some automotive relays
already include that diode inside the relay case. Alternatively a contact protection
network, consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series, may absorb the surge. If the coil
is designed to be energized with AC, a small copper ring can be crimped to the end of the
solenoid. This "shading ring" creates a small out-of-phase current, which increases the
minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle. By analogy with the functions of the
original electromagnetic device, a solid-state relay is made with a thyristor or other solid-
state switching device. To achieve electrical isolation an optocoupler can be used which
is a light-emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor.

Figure; Simple electromechanical relay

POLE AND THROW

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A
relay will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing
the coil in one of three ways:
• Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the
circuit is disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A
contact or "make" contact.
• Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated;
the circuit is connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B
contact or "break" contact.
• Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one
normally-open contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal.
It is also called a Form C contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If
this type of contact utilizes a "make before break" functionality, then it is called a
Form D contact.
In the above circuit using relay (12v, 200ohms).It is trips under over/under voltage
conditions at that time electrical appliances disconnected from the supply so
electrical appliances protected from over and under voltages.