Chronology of the Khartoum 'Mesolithic' and 'Neolithic' and Related Sites in the Sudan: Statistical Analysis and Comparisons

with Egypt Author(s): Fekri A. Hassan Source: The African Archaeological Review, Vol. 4 (1986), pp. 83-102 Published by: Springer Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25130465 Accessed: 28/11/2009 17:19
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use. Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=springer. Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed page of such transmission. JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Springer is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The African Archaeological Review.

http://www.jstor.org

The African Archaeological

Revira,-, 4

(1986),

pp.

83-102

of the Khartoum Chronology 'Mesolithic5 and 'Neolithic5 and related sites in the Sudan: statistical analysis and comparisons with Egypt
FEKRI A. HASSAN

Abstract Assessment calendrical of radiocarbon measurements > ca ca from the central Sudan 7000ca 5000 BC. BC BC BC provides the following

age estimates: Khartoum Early Early Neolithic Group Middle These established Neolithic Group Late Neolithic Group estimates indicate at about

4900-4450 ca 4400-3800 3500-2700

settlements in the central Sudan were that the early Neolithic the same time as those at Merimda Beni Salama in the Nile Delta and

at sites of Upper Egypt are later in age. The Badarian the Fayum. The Predynastic are on dates Badarian with the coeval Available Shaheinab. is probably Hemamieh younger is poorly dated. than those for some Khartoum Neolithic sites, but the Badarian Resume L'?valuation
suivants:

de datations

au radiocarbone >7000

du Soudan

Central

a fourni

les ?ges absolus

Early Khartoum Groupe du N?olithique Groupe Groupe Ces r?sultats du N?olithique du N?olithique

c. 5000 BC c. 4900-4450 c. 4400-3800 c. 3500-2700 BC BC BC

inf?rieur moyen

sup?rieur n?olithiques au Soudan Central furent ?tablies indiquent que les habitations Beni Salama dans le Delta du Nil et au ? peu pr?s ? la m?me ?poque que celles ? Merimda de la Haute Egypte sont plus r?cents. Le Badarien ? Fayoum. Les gisements pr?dynastiques de Shaheinab. Les datations disponibles pour le est probablement Hemamieh contemporain de Khartoum, mais certains r?centes celles de sont Badarien que gisements n?olithiques plus le Badarien est mal dat?.

Introduction of the origins of food production along the Nile in Egypt must be viewed in Explanations and contacts with contiguous populations. Arkell terms of both local cultural developments

84

Fekri A. Hassan

was the source of the that the Khartoum Neolithic (1975:34), for example, has proposed Badarian on the basis of similarities in black-topped and rippled pottery, shell fishhooks, and The reverse was recently proposed by Trigger flat-topped maceheads. (1983:41), who that both sheep/goats and a kind of black-topped hypothesized pottery had spread south to from Egypt the central Sudan. He assumed that Shaheinab, the type-site of the Khartoum culture of Upper Egypt. Neolithic, was coeval with the Predynastic Gerzean An in ter-regional chronological framework now provides a basis for assessing the temporal the number of available dates is feasibility of such cultural contacts and diffusion. Although still far from satisfactory, especially for certain key sites in both Egypt and the Sudan, there are enough dates to establish a preliminary chart. The radiocarbon age chronological measurements for Egyptian Neolithic and Predynastic sites have already been listed and the numerous radiocarbon measure (Hassan 1985). My aim here is to examine analyzed ments now available from theHolocene sites in the central Sudan in order to provide credible age estimates for these sites. These estimates in the Nile Valley. spread of agriculture Conventional dates were et al. converted will be useful in interpreting the origins and

to their equivalent tree-ring corrected ages using the et al. (1982). Statistically tables of Damon aberrant dates were (1974) and Klein removed, and series of consistent calibrated dates from each site were averaged following the method described by Long and Rippeteau of sites was (1974). Finally, the contemporaneity using the t-test. Site locations are shown in Figure 1.Dates and corrections for sites in the central Sudan are presented 1. Those from the Sudanese Desert and from in Table Nubia are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. examined

Terminology

and classification

or 'Sudanese Neolithic' In practice, the terms 'Khartoum Neolithic' are used to refer to sites characterized by the presence of a pottery assemblage vessels decorated with an including lithic artifacts and fishing gear. Evidence for impressed zigzag pattern and by characteristic either plant cultivation or herding may be present or absent at these sites. Sites with a pottery type referred to as 'wavy line' and with no evidence of food production are referred to either as or 'Early Khartoum'. 'Khartoum Mesolithic' thus may be misleading when the origin and spread of For example, there is no evidence for domestic plants from the Sudan before the middle of the third millennium BC, and claims for domestic plants at have been withdrawn in lit. Kadero (Marks 1984). Magid (1984) reported grains of Pennisetum sp. from Shaqadud dated to ca 2700 BC: these grains may be domestic. Evidence for domestic animals is available from earlier contexts, as at Umm Direiwa, one of the early 'Neolithic' Neolithic sites (Haaland
1 Map

The usage of the term agriculture are discussed.

1981).
location of radiocarbon-dated sites mentioned in text: 1 Merimda

Figure

showing

4 Nagada; 2 Fayum; 3 Hemamieh; 5 Hierakonpolis; Beni Salama; 7 6 Afyeh; Wadi Haifa, 8 Dabarosa, Haifa Dcgheim; 9 Dibeira West; 10 11El-Kadada, Abka; 12 Shaqadud, Umm Direiwa: 13 Kadero, Saggai, Zakiab: 14 [Early] El-Ghaba; 15 16 17 Islang; 18 Tagra; 19 Khartoum; Sorourab; Shaheinab, Nofalab; 20 el 21 Mahal Kashm 22 23 Wadi Shaw Guli; Girba; Soleb; Teglinos; 25Wadi Howar (Rahib Wells); 26 Shabona: 27 Rabak. (Laqiya): 24 Selima;

Chronology of theKhartoum

'Mesolitkic' and 'Neolithic' sites in theSudan

85

M EDITERRWE AN SEA

1* 2,

^_?a
SUDAN 24 0

*-->,...

S*

22<

25'
/* ?1

?12
15

16' 17' 26

21

?>
?27 m

Mohammed-Ali 1982 1974 et al. Geus comm. pers. 1982 Aclamsou ai et Aclamsou 1974 ai et Haaland 1981 Haaland 1981 19811981 Haaland Haaland Adanison Khabir 1985 Khabir 1985 Marks 1984 Marks 1984 Canev? 1983 Canev? 1983 1983 Canev? Canev? 1983 Gens 1982Gcus 1982 1982 Gciis

Gcus comm. pers, Geus comm. pers. 1979 Haaland 1979 Haaland Haaland 1984 Haaland 19841984 El-Anwar 1981 Haaland 1955 Libby 1955Libby

Material1 Reference

6570-5590

6190-5375 5615-5090 6345-5465

4425-3885 4395-3800 4815-3685 5245-4585 5260-4730 3500-2915 5080-4545 4085-3645 4420-3880 4725-4385 3950-3640 4725-4385 3945-3635 4405-3175 5140-4580 C 5380-4935 3910-3400 4690-4135

'1420-3360 (BC)2 Corrected age Klein Damon et al.

52801120

42111160 41151150 42201150 43151400 38901460 48901145 32451135 49151115 38231145 47501140 45401215 45401215 3825132038451145 38101150 44751210 48901110 37651120 50901115

Half-Life 5568 Radiocarbon 9370?ll() !0:| 732011 72501110:1 74101100:i 72301100* (bp) + 6893 131 6408?80 70501120 9330?I10 ?225 8130 8370+350 age

605011001 602011303 44901100*

50001300 ? T-4045 56001110 T-3697 6010190 T-3261 4950180 T-3880 58701110 GlF-5507 56601120 IF-5505 O 56601120 GIF-G306 53501100 GIT-6307 50201100 50001100 GIF-6305 GIF-5506 49901110

5260180 5360180 54451380 50601450

SMIM139 6215175 M 485 Khartoum Khartoum, T-5024 Q-1536 SUA-298 SMU-II86 HAR-3475 related sites.

C-753 T-3222 T-5132 C-754 T-5134 T-5133 T-3223

No. Lab

Neolithic and T-5026 T-5027 T-5025 SUA-68

HAR-3476

Girba(KG-l4) Provenance Site and Saggai SI abona i Kashm cl

II Dirciwa Umm 11-14 15 Level Layer 25 (have II III El-Ushara 2 Level 6 Level 7 Grave 6 Grave Layer Shahcinab I 27.02,331 Rabak slang El-Ghaba

Sarurab

Shaqadud and related sites Uni m Dirciwa I Early Khartoum Archaeological Group Tagra

Neolithic Khartoum

Adamson 1974 et al. Anwar 1901 Anwar 1901 Kl El Krzyzaniak 1902Krzyzaniak 1902 Krzyzaniak 1902 Krzyzaniak 1902 Krzyzaniak 1902 Krzyzaniak 1902 Haaland 1970 Haaland 1901 Haaland 1981 Close 1904 Gcus comm. pers. Marks 1904 1902 Gcus 1901Gcus Gcus 1902 Gcus 1901

1902 Constantini *f a/. Vclastro al. Vclastro et al. 1960 et 1960 Marks 1904 Marks 1904 Marks 1904 1904

Marks

4555-4170 4540-3945 4725-4305 4395-3000 4605-4130 C 4415-3905 4425-3005 4425-3005 4090-3650 4400-3060 4560-4390 3940-3660 4530-3995

3465-2005 3700-3105 C 2310-1735 C C 2454-2160 3055-3375 C 2000-2410 3055-3360 4325-3020 3655-3060 C 1565-925

4395-3000

2970-2410 2900-2325

44651190 41451160 44601195 41371155 43501200 42201160 43901220 38551130 43501190 44751190 HO 42451 4540-200 41151155 42201140

55071120 26751120 27551135 40151150 2415113013601100 20951155 26561145 31201150 36251100 35801140 33901120

5480190 5590170 5060100 5360160 52901100 55201130 5360190 5500170 5610155 5380165 5030170 5280190 5260190

47901110 51701110 4370100 4630180 4830150

3860190 ?

3050190 4410190

SMIMI34 5584174 KN-2021 SMU-402 T-2109 T-2I0Q T-3260 KN-2823 KN-2822 T-3701 Guli SUA-2II GlF-4675 GIF-5213

SMU-1127 4059165 SMU-II33 3615100 SMU-1I2Q 4123106 SMU-1208 40461101 TX-445 TX-446

GIF-5500 GIF-5771 GIF-5770

Zakiab

Zakiab (35 102X/102y cm) T-3050 cm) (15 T-3700 II Noralab Level

T-2010

Midden KDD2I Grave KDD76 3 KOD22 Grave 5 Midden KDD107

Midden Kl-Kcdada Shaqadud \

KDD22 Grave 100

Midden) II Kadero Kadero I I Kadero Midden) (Southern

(Northern

102X/98y

Khashm cl-Girba Tcglinos Mahal (N-120) (N-125) *t-es beyond of range calibration Corrected fractionatioii for isotopic

Shaqadud Cave 16 Level Level 54 Level 38 Level 71

'. Neolithic Late

S Cshell =

charcoal;

88

Fekri A. Hassan

The Khartoum Sites and radiocarbon

Mesolithic

related to the Khartoum Mesolithic (with no age determinations of food production) include Tagra, Shabona, Sarurab, Saggai, and the early levels at Shaqadud. Their dates range from 8370 ? 350 bp (1-1485) at Tagra (Adamson etal. 1974) to 6408 ? 80 bp at Sarurab from determinations 1982). Subsequent (Mohammed-Ali evidence

Sarurab II, yielded estimates of 9370 ?

110 bp (HAR-3475) and 9330 ?

110 bp (HAR

3476), which indicate that Early Khartoum may date back to the tenth millennium bp (Clark 1984:115, Khabir 1985). The ceramic assemblage from Sarurab II includes sherds with wavy line and dotted wavy linemotifs, as well as dotted straight line, impressed, zigzag, and linear and (Khabir 1985). Most Khartoum Mesolithic impressions of calibration tables, except for a few late ones which range tree-ring twine are beyond the from 6570-5590 range dates

BC to 5615-5090 BC (Tab. 1).

The Khartoum the Khartoum Initially, now are dates available

Neolithic Neolithic

and related was dated

sites

from many Kadero, Zakiab. Nofalab, Rabak, Guli, Shaqadud, these sites are older than those from Shaheinab. The site of Umm Direiwa

at its type locality?Shaheinab. Additional other sites including Umm Direiwa, El-Ghaba, Islang, and El-Kadada. The dates from some of

(Haaland 1979) yielded three dates from one occupation (Umm to the others and is rejected Direiwa I), one of which (T-3261) is too young by comparison here. The acceptable dates (T-4045, T-3697) provide an average of 4800 ? 100 BC. Another occupation (Umm Direiwa II) has a single date, which converts to 3825 ? 320 BC, merely an age somewhere between 4465 and 3185 BC. indicating Neolithic El-Ghaba, assigned by Geus (1982, 1983, 1984, pers. comm.) to the Khartoum as known from Shaheinab, four dates from several Two graves. yielded congruent dates an average of 3830 ? 105 BC. Two other dates, also congruent, provide an average of 150 BC. The El-Ghaba graveyard may thus date from about 4500 to 3800 BC. Test a nearby site with similar ceramics (Geus pers. comm.) provided at El-Ushara, excavations two consistent dates averaging 4000 ? 105 BC. The fishing BC, and may be

provide 4540 ?

1981 ) dates to 4745 ?140 camp at Islang Island (El-Anwar with Umm Direiwa I and El Ghaba. contemporaneous The dated site of Rabak maximum

(Kosti), about 200 km south of Khartoum, preserves deposits with a cm 150 1984. El-Mahi of and Haaland (Haaland depth 1984). The oldest level is to 6020 ? 130 bp (T-5134). A middle level was dated to 6050 ? 100 bp (T-5133), and

an upper level to 4490 ? 100 bp (T-5132). All these dates were corrected for isotopic fractionation. Regression analysis of uncorrected and corrected dates from Kadero, Zakiab, Umm Direiwa, and Shaheinab (Haaland 1984:40) provides a correlation coefficient of 0.965 for the following relationship: corrected The date= 0.88 X uncorrected date + 990

is very similar to that of the Khartoum pottery from the early levels at Rabak At the deepest level a few sherds of 'wavy line' pottery were recovered. The Neolithic.

Chronology of theKhartoum

'Mesolithic3 and Neolithic3

sites in the Sudan 89

ceramics from the younger levels show great simlarities with the Jebel Moya tradition. The in subsistence the materials recovered from the early levels indicates regime reflected exploitation of Nilotic resources and cattle herding. The The date from the upper two dates from level (Level 2) at Rabak is tree-ring calibrated to 3215 ? 135 BC. levels (Levels 6 and 15) are very similar, and the averaged date is 4905 ? 90 BC. It should be recalled that the Rabak dates are also corrected the lower

corrected

for isotopic fractionation. Since most other dates are not yet corrected in this manner, itmay to compute an uncorrected at be useful for comparative purposes for the lower levels age Rabak. The resultant figure, 4445 BC, suggests that the site is slightly older than Kadero I North, and as old as El-Ghaba. was first dated by Libby (1955) who obtained two dates (C-754, C-753) with errors. dates standard The ? of corrected 4315 400 and ? 460 BC, 3890 ages large provide are Two Haaland dates similar and very ( 1979) respectively. (T-3222, T-3223) by provide an average of 4165 ? 105 BC. The average of all four dates is 4160 ? 100 BC. Shaheinab at Kadero southern midden I is dated by three measurements (Krzyaniak 1982), a 4015 ? 85 BC. The corrected age of the northern corrected of average provide is also dated by three dates to 4330 ? 95 BC, A nearby occupation midden (Kadero II) a BC. yielded single date which corrects to 4220 ?140 The site of Zakiab (Haaland 1978,1981 ) yielded two similar dates which give an average of The which 4345 ? 125 BC. The site at Nofalab, north of Omdurman, provided two dates (El-Anwar are ? The dates 4230 130 and similar BC. Guli (Adamson et al. 1974) yielded 1981). average a single date which gives a corrected age of 4350 ? 200 BC. At Shaqadud, on the western fringe of the Butana, where a long sequence is also recorded (Marks

1984), one date is available for an early component 1984, Marks et al. 1982, Magid to Khartoum Neolithic. level 18) equivalent The date (SMU-1134) (Midden, yields a corrected age of 4460 ? 195 BC. Three other dates (Marks 1984) on a younger occupation (SMU-1127, 1128, 1208) are congruent and provide an average of 2695 ? 75 BC. A single date from a higher level (SMU-1133) provides a corrected date of 2095 ? 155 BC (The dates used
versions).

here

are

those reported

by Marks

[1984],

which

supplant

previously

published

north of Shendi, a Neolithic El-Kadada, (Geus 1982, 1983), provided five occupation too ? One of 110 old dates. these (5170 by comparison with the others and may belong bp) is to an early occupation (Geus pers. comm.). There are also graves below the level dated to 5170 bp. The four acceptable dates average 3530 ? 60 BC. Late sites in eastern Sudan, not related to the Khartoum include Mahal Neolithic, a et with in al. ? corrected date of 2415 110 BC (N-120), Kassala (Constantini 1982) Teglinos el-Girba (Valastro et al. 1968) which yielded two dates of 3120 ? 150 BC and and Khashm

1360? 100BC.
The using cal groups. The age estimates the t-test. This of sites with revealed two or more dates were Neolithic that the Khartoum tested for significant differences sites belong to three chronologi

I and and the early graves at El-Ghaba; the early group consists of Umm Direiwa two of Umm those Direiwa date falls between from and The dates El-Ghaba. single Islang are not correction from the lower levels of Rabak without for isotopic differentiation statistically different from the average of the three sites above mentioned. The estimated ages

90

Fekri A. Hassan and Umm Direiwa dates

of the four sites in the early group are as follows (note that the Rabak are based on corrections for isotopic differentiation):

Rabak
Umm Direiwa I

4905 ? 90 BC (twodates)
4800 ? 4540 ? 100 BC 150 BC (two dates) (two dates).

Islang
El-Ghaba The the 0.05 Kadero

4745 ? 140BC (onedate)

and Nofalab.

second group of sites with two dates or more includes Shaheinab, Kadero I, Zakiab, The t-test showed that the two series from Kadero I are significantly different at level of probability, I-South. Otherwise but similar at the .01 level. This also applies to Zakiab and all sites are similar at the 0.05 level. The average age for these seem to belong to this and El-Ushara late graves at El-Ghaba

sites is about 4200 BC. The

phase.

II are not significantly different from the single dates on the Guli site and Kadero group, and are thus regarded as belonging to the same average dates of the middle Neolithic time interval. The estimated ages of the sites of the middle group are as follows: The

Guli Zakiab
Kadero I-North

4350 ? 200 BC (onedate) 4345 ? 125BC (twodates)

4330 ? 95 BC (three dates)

Nofalab Kadero II Shaheinab

Kadero El-Ushara Late El-Ghaba Dated I-South

4230 ? 130BC (twodates) 4220 ? 140BC (onedate) 4160 ? 100BC (fourdates)

4015 ? 4000 ? 3830 ? 85 BC 105 BC 105 BC (two dates) (two dates) (two dates). group ages are: in the central Sudan include El-Kadada

sites attributed

to the late Neolithic estimated 60 BC 75 BC

and Shaqadud El-Kadada Shaqadud

Cave. Their 3530 ? Cave 2695 ?

(four dates) (three dates).

culture post-dating The discovery of El-Kadada provided the first evidence for a Neolithic and isolated finds of the Khartoum Neolithic (Geus 1984:44-5). Some graves at El-Kadada a the variant Neolithic show local of Neolithic. The El-Kadada line Khartoum sherds wavy a of vessel of dots as decorated with lines itself is characterised by large variety shapes parallel well as fine incision. Rippled and combed surfaces are also represented. The fauna, unlike shows a high frequency of sheep and goats (Geus that of the older Khartoum Neolithic, 1984:47). In the Shaqadud Midden, the upper 40 cm contain late Neolithic (pre-Meroitic) artifacts. are comparable to the 'a of overlie accumulation dense sherds which burnished The deposits Shaheinab midden Neolithic' (Marks et al. 1982:38). The artifact assemblage from the top unit of the et al. in the cave. According toMarks is comparable with much of the material the of these cultural in materials the the "late" (1982:39), top layers 'places chronology of which so very little is known. Geus refers to it as Phase 2, Arkell as Pan-grave to Middle Kerma\ Mohammed-Ali it is comparable and Marks (1984) also

Neolithic

and, perhaps,

Chronology of theKhartoum

'Mesolithic' and 'Neolithic' sites in the Sudan 91

remark that the cave ceramics show clear similarities with slightly earlier pottery found to the east in the Gash Delta and Mohammed-Ali (Fattovich, Marks 1984). So far the only from is that 2415 the Mahal ? 130 BC. Dates of date for Gash Teglinos, Group published 3120 ? Atbara includes 150 and River west 1360 ? 100 BC have also been obtained of the Gash el-Girba, along the et to al. and Marks Fattovich, (Valastro 1968). According the Gash Group is a member of the Kassala Phase which also at Khashm

Mohammed-Ali

Group west of the Atbara and midway between Atbara and Kassala. On the basis of eight dates these authors suggest that the phase lasted from the BC. fourth to the end of the second millennium and Shaqadud firmly date the central Sudan late average dates from El-Kadada ca ca Neolithic there from 2700 BC. A single date from Shaqadud Cave (SMU-1133) 3500 to of 2095 ? 155 BC suggests that the late Neolithic may have lasted throughout the second millennium BC. The

(1984:179), sites of the Butana

The Neolithic The earliest Khartoum

of the Nile Neolithic

Valley:

comparative

chronology

sites, ca 4900-4400 BC, are as old as the site of Merimda Bcni Salama in the Delta, which is firmly dated to 4800 BC. In the Fayum, the early Neolithic there is no evidence in these sites sites date from about 5200 to 4500 BC but, unlike Merimda, (Ginter et al. 1982). In Upper Egypt, the Badarian is the oldest archaeologi evidence for pottery and food production. The available dates suggest that it is based on two radiocarbon determinations dates to about 4400-4000 BC. This assignment no are dates There from Hemamieh (Hassan 1984c). yet from any other Badarian site. for domesticates cal unit with sites in the Nagada region to the (1976) of the Khattara by Hays a was on few rippled pottery sherds, but It the of based Badarian presence II levels. Further exacava rippled pottery has been found in the Badari region in Nagada and the State seriation tions, sequence dates, University Expedition under by Washington The initial attribution was erroneous.

my direction

in the Nagada I that the early settlements region are late Nagada At in press). and Matson 1982, (Hoffman 1981, 1984a-c, Hassan Hierakonpolis (Hassan as far back as the Badarian, were revealed in a test 1984), early occupations, perhaps dating indicate

of these sites and radiocarbon age determina pit at the edge of the floodplain. Excavation site at El-Kab tions are eagerly awaited. There are also no dates for the predynastic to the Badarian. 1978), which is attributed (Demuyunck and Vermeersch, is probably younger than the early group of that the Badarian It may be concluded Khartoum Neolithic sites, but coeval with the middle group. Egypt seems to be that associated with the Tarifian, I (Ginter et al. 1982). The only date on this industry provides industry pre-dating Nagada and estimate of about 5200 BC. The Tarifian may thus overlap with early Khartoum The earliest pottery in Upper an an the

Fayum early Neolithic. The site of Shaheinab, dating to about 4200 BC, was most probably coeval with the Badarian, and certainly older than the Gerzean. There is thus no chronological justification of sheep/goat or cattle was introduced into the Sudan that the domestication for assuming from Upper Egypt during the Gerzean.

92

Fekri A. Hassan

The Eastern Recent Wendorf millennium

Sahara

and the Nile 1980, Schild and (Wendorf and Schild and Gabriel 1981, 1984) indicate Kropelin (Kuper desert in communities the regions in the sixth emerged Sahara

in the Egyptian investigations and the Desert Sudanese 1984) BC. food-producing if not earlier. Dates

that the earliest

from Laqiya, Rahib Wells and Selima in the Sudanese BC. Date SMU-773, with its Desert (Tab. 2) range from the sixth to the fourth millennium two Shaw (Laqiya) overlap for The dates Wadi is here from standard error, rejected. large the period ca 5700 BC. is also good evidence from the eastern and central Sahara for severe aridity during the fifth millennium be (Wendorf and Hassan 1980,Williams 1984). It ismost likely that the associated with this mid-Holocene aridity provided a stimulus droughts and unpredictability from the deserts to the Nile Valley for a population movement (Hassan 1984d). The desert There

Neolithic along

people may have moved the main Nile. This model

from various is consistent

regions and settled inwidely scattered places with observed similarities between the lithic and Holmes the 1985), between and between assem

from Nagada and Kharga Oasis (Hassan assemblages from Nabta Playa and the post-Shamarkian assemblages blages from the Great Sand Sea and the Fayum Neolithic The movement limited population Nile. Development

Neolithic, (Wendorf and Schild 1984:428). from the eastern Sahara into the Nile Valley was probably followed by shifts and amore significant exchange of cultural traits down and up the of river and land transport by means of boats and asses, together with the for intensification of contracts from the

of trade, were perhaps responsible expansion Gerzean (Nagada II) onwards. between and the Nilotic peoples Contact

their Sanaran

millennium BC was not altogether absent. It was most desert farmers and herders that led to an amalgamation traditions. pre-existing Nilotic The Khartoum Khartoum
traditions.

before the fifth neighbours of the actual movements probably of Neolithic traits with those of the

Neolithic

of the Central

Sudan

(Clark 1984). In Nubia, similarities sites in the same region (Shiner final Palaeolithic

clearly shows some continuities with Early between the Abka Neolithic sites and older 1968) also indicate continuity of Nilotic

The A-Group: Two dates

chronology

and Egyptian

connections

site at Afyeh AFH-7 (TF-47 and TF-48) from the A-Group (Kusumgar et al. 1963) a ? 120 date from Afyeh AFH-1 of BC. calibrated 3025 another However, average provide a much older date of 4535 ? 205 BC (U (Fairhall et al. 1966) provides W-30). A corrected date on several fractions of cow hide from of 3415 ? 120 BC was also obtained from measurements

context (Olsson 1972:251). site SJE 277/65:4 at Haifa Degheim from a 'Classic' A-Group on ? 120 Dates Terminal A-Group BC (U-835/6) from Haifa Degheim, and include 3295

3155 ? 145BC (U-2426) and 2805? 115BC (U-2425/2491 )iromDibeira site SJE 340.The
an average of 3240 ? acceptable dates for the Classic A-Group yield Terminal A-Group yield an average of 3070 ? 70. The chronological thus from about 3400 to 2900 BC. In Egypt, Nagada II is dated to ca 3450 BC at Nagada 70 BC and those for the range of the A-Group is

South Town

and 3550 BC at

1904 Close 1900 Close 1904Close

Kupcr Kuper 19011901 Close 1900 Close 1900

Material1 Reference

i? O

5730-5245

5620-5010 3065-3300

(BC)2 age Klein Damon et al. Corrected

7075-5705

5205-4560 4670-4125

54201110

52521160 44551195 40201120 36501110

(bp) Half-Life 47001500 74901300 6550165 5560 age Radiocarbon

SMU-955 59401100 SMU-954 63001130

KN-2962 5500100 KN-2930 4850160 KN-3034 KN-3000 Lab No.

SMU-773

ronology

Neolithic Desert of

sites

in the

Sudan.

Shaw '. Provenance S Wadi = shell; Site and (Laqiya)

Wadi Ho war

Wells) (Rahib i in a Sel

O Costrich = range charcoal; calibration eggshell

*t-=:

Beyond

Archaeological Group Desert

Sudanese Neolithic

Crane I960 andGriflcn Crane I960 andGriflcn Crane 1960 andGriffen I960 Crane andGriflcn Crane I960 and Crane Griflcn 1960 andGriffon Crane and Griflcn 1960

& 1965 Stuckcnrath & Ralph Ralph

1965

Wendorf 1968 Close 1980

Valastro ai et Wendorf 19681978 Wendorf 1968 Chatters 1968 Chatters 1968 Chatters 1968 Kantor 1965 Stuckcnralh

Material1 Reference

> C

()

5540-4445 4325-3805 3860-3360 4135-3670 4915-3940 4325-3805 5360-4390 3795-2550 3785-2430

C 5285-4915 C 5320-4945

5825-5290 age (bp) age (BC)2 Corrected

Half-Life Klein Damon 5568 et ai

5005190 50151305 '14751270 5410114050701115 '10701135 35901150 39601145 31901320 48301400 40701135 32301360

Radiocarbon

I3551200(R)

82601400(R) 6195170 6125170 1-864 61371300 TX-1155 65401110 51201100 WSU-110 56001200 WSU-174 WSU-147 48001120 WSU-103 5220150

44701300 59601400 5220150 45001350 91751400 94501400 8860190 WSU-176 77001120

M-795 M-802 SMU-582 M-801 M-798 No. Lab of post-Palaeolithic and Neolithic: M-794 sites M-803 M-804 WSU-103 in Nubia

P-721 P-722

nology

L Haifa VVadi West Provenance Site and

WHW-7 Haifa, Wadi West 5 Haifa Dibcira 12 13 Wadi Solcb, Solch,

Site DIW'2

9, L5 9, 9,L6 L4 9, L4 32, 32, Haifa U Abka L2 9, Wadi

rosa Buhen Daba South

DW-51 Dibcira Abka

D1W-50

WHW-5

Archaeological Shamarkian Group Abkan Neolithic Abka

Neolithic

Khartoum Post-Shamarkian -Variant Neolithic

29651170 3350-2655 C Kusutngai 1963 *f<?/. C 30001165 3365-2070 Kusuiitgai 1963 et al.

6175-5310 C Shiner I960

21051140 2310-1090 Wood Olsson 1972 34151120 Cowhide 3760-3155 Olsson 1972

45351205 4725-4305 Fairhall C 1966 at. et

32951120 3635-3005 Cowhide Olsson 1972 31551145 3400-2095 C Olsson 1972 20051115 C 2940-2560 Olsson 1972

4655100 WSU-190 60301200

4555175 43001115 46601100 42901120

4440190 4160155

U-2429> 3685190
U-2425, U-022,1 U-010, U-019," U-006 U-007 U-2492J and TF-47 TF-40 U-034 U-835 UW-30 U-2426

*\

With

ceramics

considered

(Schildto Neolithic be
eggshell

et

al.

1960:7

I6-V-19 AS Wadi Haifa Wadi Haifa 605'1 Site

Haifa Dcghcim

SJE340/SEII.-4 SJK340/SEII:5 SJE277/49.12 Dcghcim Haifa '. AFH7, CAFH7, = charcoal; Sostrich = = O 150 157 Dibcira AFII1 eh '\-ss calibration range A fey shell; Beyond \ With pottery 1960:603) (Shiner

SJF,227/65:4

Qadan Final

Variant Classic A-Group Khartoum

A-Group

A-Group Terminal

96

Fekri A. Hassan

3300 BC followed by III is placed at approximately (Hassan 1985). Nagada Hierakonpoiis to the First Dynasty dated about 3150 BC and lasting until about 2800 BC (Hassan 1980, thus seems to have been coeval with the later part of 1985, Kemp 1980). The A-Group to II and into have lasted the Nagada period of the First Dynasty. The A-Group was later than the post-Shamarkian for which two dates from sites Neolithic, (Tab. 3) provide an average of 4150 ? 120 BC. Dates on the Khartoum Variant Neolithic from Soleb indicate an age of about 5000 BC and are older than those for the A-Group. However, the A-Group may have overlapped with the Abkan, with acceptable DIW-50 and DIWr-4 dates of about 3200 BC, and the late Neolithic of the Sudan (cf. Trigger 1976:31-39), which is to at dated about 3530 ? 60 BC and 2695 ? 75 BC at Shaqadud El-Kadada (see above). This on the basis of reached by Nordstrom agrees in general with the conclusions (1972:28-29) to Nordstrom, ceramics and other artifacts. According the 'Classic' A-Group corresponds to the transition between Nagada III III, and the Terminal A-Group mosdy with Nagada to a and the First Dynasty. Nordstrom also identifies an Early A-Group which corresponds late Nagada I, and to the early and developed stages of Nagada II. Similarities between the A-Group and the indigenous Neolithic cultures suggests that the was not a result of a migration as Adams of Predynastic (1970:272) A-Group Egyptians concluded. The chronology that the Abkan and the Khartoum supports the hypothesis Variant to the development contributed of the A-Group (Trigger 1983:42). Fur the rise of rulers in Nubia the the A-Group time of thermore, (Williams provincial during now on is consistent with information available the existence of Neolithic communities 1980) in central Sudan and Nubia dating at least a thousand years before the A-Group. The rise of the Pharaonic in Egypt began ca 3150 BC (Hassan, 1980, Kemp dynasties was a it but series of kings commanding 1980), preceded by large provinces in Upper and Lower Egypt. These kings most probably date back to the beginning of the Final Predynastic both

period (Nagada III) dated ca 3300 BC.

Final This remarks

values

of their validity and corrected survey of radiocarbon dates and the critical examination that indicates Neolithic (Fig. 2) developments (though not necessarily of the same in were as old as those in Upper Egypt and subsistence regime) along the Nile the Sudan

and that regional developments with sustained traditions various characterize Nubia; cultural provinces. The boundaries between these provinces could not have been impervious to outside influences; and contacts both up and down the Nile are likely. The search for a single source of agricultural diffusion or a single province where kingship emerged and then spread is apparently futile. Cultures and ethnic entities are historical artifacts of mutable and transient inevitable models character infiltration to the incessant forces of internal change, and to the responding of ideas, artifacts, and individuals from neighbouring groups. to the theoretical issues raised here and the of providing adequate importance

In addition cultural

of the causes, and mechanisms of diffusion between the various routes, modes, Nile are the of and the there several considera Sahara, provinces methodological tions that should not be ignored. First, the number of dates so far available iswoefully small, based on chronology required resolution Single dates are almost At 50 least three dates from any (? years). are tentative.

and thus any interpretations useless at the level of temporal

NEOLITHIC MIDDLE LATE NEOLITHIC The bia. chart shows

m&?zn SHAOAOUO EARLY NEOLI THIC

SUDAN THF

??AOST-SHAMARK1AN

NUBIA

ma&?&si E o K n ) pot. nA N is

OTARIFtAN

(within deviations) statistical standard range two of to Scale weighted the left tree-ring in is years averages. calibrated BC. Chronological Figure 2 Neolithic of chart sites of Sudan Neolithic central Prcdynastic Egypt and Nu of sites and

DYNASTY I

I^SE'^tH:-: :r--r--^,..-.,.,.^--^fi
gg^] NEOLITHIC f?IffiM EARLY FAYUM

PREOYNASTOIC TERMINAL

???&

THE DELTA FAYUM THE UPPER EGYPT

-0

?c

3000

4000

5000

98

Fekri A. Hassan
or occurrence are for a reliable estimate of the ofthat

single

occupation

necessary

time-range

are apparently Second, many reported occupation. on on modern shell of determinations the basis (Geus pers. comm.), but a age satisfactory a of the age of modern shell by Burleigh determination (1982) indicates that the shell was dates from the older by about 150 years than expected. Accordingly, paired shell/charcoal same occurrence are also required to evaluate the reliability of the shell dates. There is also a of the dates dates to correct shell dates for istotopic fractionation. Such corrections have been reported by The choice of charred material for dating should also be Canev? ( 1983) and Haaland ( 1984). considered. Charred wood from trees, for example, may be significantly older than charred need
grain.

are on shell. The

the importance analytical approach to radiocarbon dating adopted here underscores a standard unit of measurement of tree-ring corrections not only to ensure (the calendrical to with facilitate correlation historical when also dates. but Averaging, year), appropriate The to reference temporal precision. Continued provides greater using statistical weighting, no as to the with of the standard if radiocarbon dates individual deviation, magnitude regard dates represent a point in time rather than a temporal range, can lead to faulty interpreta tions. It should also be noted that the temporal range of averaged dates represents a a chronology in establishing of food concerns the kind of evidence used to infer food production. Lack of producing communities utilization of domestic plants or animals may be a result of seasonal activities emphasizing or lack wild resources by food-producing of communities, preservation, inadequate retrieval a sites may be result of geological circumstances methods. Also, lack of archaeological during or after context of the site. It is therefore important to investigate sites in a regional the occupation in order to detect permanent/seasonal settlement patterns, to assess the impact of site ensure to on are that adequate and retrieval methods preservation, forming processes employed. probabilistic A further range, not the duration of occupation. that should be considered problem

Summary Critical tree-ring calibration, and statistical analysis of radiocarbon dates from and related sites in the central Sudan provide a Khartoum Neolithic, Mesolithic, framework for of post-Palaeolithic local cultures developments interpreting chronological evaluation, with Egypt

Khartoum

reported here in tree-ring (Fig. 2). The dates so far available, corrected years BC, suggest that the Early Khartoum dates from (Khartoum Mesolithic) to those from Shaheinab BC to 5000 BC. Sites with Neolithic ceramics analogous >7000 at Umm Direiwa include an early phase which is represented and I, Islang, El Ghaba, and connections Rabak, Kadero, Kadada Khartoum established the movement the Nile both dated itself, and other related sites including sites include El Zakiab, and Nofalab, date from ca 4400 to 3800 BC. Late Neolithic ca 270ff BC. which is dated to ca 3500 BC and Shaqadud, continuities Neolithic traditions. in the central indicate Sudan and Nubia that the Neolithic to the from Early Khartoum traits were amalgamated with previously were apparently for responsible tomany places along the course of of widely explain the establishment from ca 4900 to 4450 BC. Shaheinab

Cultural

The droughts of the mid-Holocene of Neolithic groups from various localities in Egypt and the Sudan. This would

Chronology of theKhartoum 'Mesolithic' and 'Neolithic3 sites in theSudan 99 communities in the Nile Delta and the Fayum, Upper Egypt. Nubia, and separated Neolithic the Sudan during more or less the same time interval, namely from about the close of the sixth BC to about 4400 BC. The Chronometrie data now available provide no reason to millennium that suspect agriculture was initated at a single cradle along the Nile and then transmitted
elsewhere.

with

at El-Kadada are coeval of the Neolithic and the A-Group the late manifestations II and Nagada III. The A-Group was coeval with the interval represented by Nagada II and lasted until the beginning of the First Dynasty in Egypt. It is the later part of Nagada states happened simultaneously toward provincial both likely that indigenous development Both in Nubia and Egypt.

Acknowledgements I am most grateful and Fred Wendorf comments to Isabella Canev?, F. Geus, Randi Haaland. on a preliminary read and commented A. E. Marks, Peter Shinnie. version of this paper. Their

who

were particularly useful in clarifying the position of various sites in the archaeolo and Mohammed-Ali Marks also provided Canev?, Geus, Haaland, sequence. gical references and information on radiocarbon dates. I also thank David and Laurel Phillipson for careful and incisive editing of the text. References
Adams, W. Y. 1970. A re-appraisal of Nubian

Culture History.
Adamson, central Khartoum' Adamson, D. D., Clark,

Orientalia 39(2):269-77.
J. D. and Williams, of the

and continuity central Sudan Hunters

economic in the

change

in the In From and S. A.

to Farmers

early Holocene. (eds J. D. Clark

M. A. J. 1974. Barbed bone points from

Sudan and tradition. A., Williams, the age Nature M. 'Early 249:120-3. A. J. and

Brandt):
California Close, A. E.

113-26. Berkeley: University

Press. 1980. dates Current from research northern and Africa.

of
recent

radiocarbon

Gillespie, R. 1982. Palaeogeography of the Gezira and of the lower Blue and White Nile Niles (eds valleys. In A land betweentwo
M. J. Williams Rotterdam: 165-219. war, S. A. and D. A. Adamson): Balkema. excavations A. A.

fournal of African History 21:145-67.

Close, A. E. 1984. dates Current from research northern and Africa, recent II. radiocarbon

Journal of African History 25:1-24.

Constantino Piperno, M. L,, Fattovich, R.? 1982. Preliminary investigations 21:30-3. and of Griffen, 1960. J. B. radiocarbon Pardini, E. and of report at the site of

El-An

1981. Archaeological area. Akuma

on the west bank of the river Nile in the

Khartoum Nyame 18:42-5.

archaeological

Mahal Teglinos
Nyame Crane, H. Akuma R.

(Kassala). November

1981.

Arkell, A. J. (Handbuch Burleigh, R. freshwater

archaeological I.

Nile Valley 1975. The prehistory of the der Orientalisk). Leiden: Brill. 1982. Two radiocarbon dates for shell from Hierakonpolis:
and geological interpretations. and

University Radiocarbon Damon,

Michigan 2:31-48.

dates

V.

Journal of Archaeological Srience 10:361-7.

Canev?, 1983. Pottery-using gatherers

P. E., C. W., A. and Ferguson, Long, E. I. 1974. Wallick, Dendrochronologic of the radiocarbon calibration time scale.

hunters at Saggai (Sudan): preconditions food production. Origini 12:1-278.

Chatters, University A. E. State 1968. Washington measurements radiocooarbon

for

AmericanAntiquity 39:350-66.
M, Demuynck, 1978. Fouilles A. and Vermeersch, le secteur P. M. sud-ouest d'El dans

I.

Kab.

Radiocarbon 10(2):478-9. Clark, J. D. 1984. Prehistoric cultural

In El Kab II (ed. P. M. Vermeersch): 125-44. Bruxelles: Fondation pp. Egyptologique Reine Elisabeth.

100

Fekri A. Hassan
A. W., W. R. and J. A. Hassan, F. A. 1984b. Radiocarbon settlements, chronology Egypt. date from

Fairhall,

Shell,

Young,

1966. Radiocarbon dates at the University III. Radiocarbon 8:498-506. Washington

Fattovich. R., Marks, A. E. and Mohammed

of

of Predynastic F. A.

Nagada 1984c. A

CurrentAnthropology 25:681-3.
Hassan, radiocarbon

Ali, A.

1984. The archaeology of the Eastern

results. Sudan: Sahel, African preliminary 2:173-88. Review Archaeological B. and Kr?pelin, S. 1984. Holocene Gabriel, Sudan. in north-west lake deposits

Hemamieh, 24/25:3.
Hassan, F. A. desertification

Upper Egypt. Nyame Ahuma

1984d. Mid-Holocene and human responses Conference. in the

Western Desert of Egypt. Paper presented at

the 17th Annual Chacmool Calgary. In press. F. A. 1985. Radiocarbon

Palaeoecology of Africa and theSurrounding

Islands Geus, F. 16:295-9. 1981. Franco-Sudanese excavations in

Hassan,

chronology

of

the Shendi area (1980). Nyame Akuma

18:37-42. Geus, F. 1982 Franco-Sudanese excavations in

Neolithic and Predynastic sites in Upper Egypt and the Delta. African Archaeological
Review Hassan, 3:95-116. F. A. and Holmes, of the Umm D. L. 1985. The area,

the Sudan
21:33-4.

(1981-1982). Nyame Akuma

archaeology Directorate General for

el-Dabadib

Geus, F. 1983. Rapport annuel d'activit? 1980-1982.

Khartoum:

Kharga Oasis, Egypt. FRSU Research project Report 82035. Cairo: Cairo University.
Hassan, F. A. and Matson, R. G. In press.

Antiquities
Sudan. Geus, F.

and National Museums

Sudan's Ancient

of the
Cultures.

1984. Rescuing

Seriation of Predynstic potsherds from the Nile Nagada region. In Late Prehistory of the
Basin Poznan: and the Sahara Polish Academy (ed. L. Krzyzaniak). of Sciences.

Khartoum: French Unit of the Directorate General of Antiquities and National

Museums Ginter, V. in the Sudan. B., Kozlowski, J. K., Pawiikowski,

Hays, T. R. 1976. Predynastic

research. Current Anthropology

Egypt: recent
17:552-4.

and Silwa, J. 1982. Ei-Tarif und Qasr el-Sagha, Forschungen zur Siedlungsgeschichte des Neolithikums, der Fr?hpredynastischen Epoche und des Mittleren Reiches. Mittulungen desDeutschen Arch?ologischen Instituts Abtdlung Kairo 38:97-129.
R. 1978. The seasonal Haaland, interconnection between Zakiab two Neolithic Nyame Haaland, in the Haaland, cultivating Haaland, R. Akuma R. Sudan. R. sites 13:31-5. 1979. on Report Akuma Nyame the 1979 season in the central and Kadero:

M.

Hoffman, M. A. 1982, The Predynastic of Hierakonpolis. Egyptian Studies Association, Publication No. 1.Cairo: University
Herbarium.

Hoffman, M. A. 1984. A stratified site sequence from Hierakonpolis. Paper for the Nile basin and Symposium Late prehistory of the
Sahara, Kantor, Egypt Poznan. H. and J. 1965. The its foreign relative correlation chronology before of the

Sudan.

14:62. herdsmen and

1981. Migratory women. Bergen. 1984. Continuity Norwegian

late Bronze Age. In Chronologies in Old World Archaeology (ed. R. W. Ehrlich): pp. 1-46. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Kemp, a B. reply A. 1980. to James R. Egyptian Mellaart. note radiocarbon dating: 54:25-8. Antiquity on the excavation

and Archaeological Review

discontinuity.

Khabir,

1985. A

17(1):39-5L
Hassan, F. A. 1980, Radiocarbon chronology of

of a Neolithic
Khartoum Klein, J., Lerman,

site in the Sarurab area,

Nyame Akuma 26:40. and J. C, Damon, P. E.

Province.

Archaic Egypt. Journal ofNear Eastern Studies 39(3):203-7. Hassan, F. A. 1981. The Predynastic of Egypt:
subsistence-settlement Khattara Science Hassan, region. Final Foundation, F. A. 1984a. studies Report in the Nagada to the National D.C. of

Ralph., E. K. 1982. Calibration of radiocarbon dates. Radiocarbon 24(2): 103-50.

L. Krzyzaniak, measurements 1982. Radiocarbon for the Neolithic settlement at

Washington The beginnings

Kadero
Kuper, R.

(central Sudan). Nyame Akuma 21:38.

1981. Untersuchungen der

Egyptian civilization at Hierakonpolis. Quarterly Review of Archaeology 5(1): 13-5.

der ?stlichen Sahara. Besiedlungsgeschichte Vorbericht ?ber die Expedition 1980. Beitrage

Chronology of theKhartoum
zur allgemeinen 3:215-75. und vergleichenden

'Mesolithic' and Neolithic3

Shiner.

sites in the Sudan 101

Cataract tradition. In The

Arch?ologie R. list, P. I. 1963.

J.

1968. The

S., Lal, D. and Kusumgar, Tata radiocarbon Institute Radiocarbon 5:278-9.

Sarna, date

(ed. F. Wendorf): pp. 535 of Nubia Prehistory 629. Dallas: Southern Methodist University Press. Stuckenrath, and Ralph. of Pennsylvania University VIII. Radiocarbon 7:187-99. R. E. K. 1965. dates

Libby, W. F. 1955. RadiocarbonDating. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Long, Rippeteau, and contemporaneity American E. A. A. and 1974. Testing radiocarbon averaging remains Akuma R.

radiocarbon

under the Pharaohs. B. 1976. Nubia Trigger. and Hudson. London: Thames

dates. Magid, from

39:205-15. Antiquity 1984. Macrobotanical interim note. Nyame

Trigger, B. 1983. The rise of Egyptian

civilization. (B. Trigger, A. B. Lloyd): Cambridge of Rabak Akuma Valastro, In Andent a sodal history Egypt, and D. O'Conner B. J. Kemp, 1-43. Cambridge pp. Press. and C. T.

Shaqadud: A. T.

24/25:27-8.
El-Mahi, and Haaland, research Sudan: R. 1984. Archaeological and Atbara: in the area

1983-1984.

Nyame

24/25:28-32.
Marks, A. E., 1984. Butana Archaeological Y. and

Rightmore, at Austin of Texas 1968. University dates VI. Radiocarbon radiocarbon

E., Davis,

University M.

I0(2):384-401.
Valastro, A. and V?rela, M. E., Davis. at Austin of Texas 1978. University Radiocarbon dates XII. radiocarbon G.

Project: 1983/84. Nyame Akuma 24/25:32-3.

Marks, A. E., Hays, A. project: T. R., 1982. Elamin, Butana report. Nyame interim Mohammed-Ali, archaeological Akuma 21:38-40.

20(2):245-73.
Wendorf, F. 1968. Summary of Nubian

Mohammed-Ali, A. 1982. The Neolithic Period in the Sudan, c. 6000-2500 BC Oxford: BAR
International Mohammed-Ali, The prehistory central 139. Series, A. and Marks, of Shaqadud a Sudan: A. E. 1984.

prehistory. In The Prehistory ofNubia (ed. F. Wendorf): pp. 1041-59. Dallas: Southern
Methodist Wendorf, F. University and Hassan, Press. F. 1980. Holocene

in the western report.

Butana,

Norwegian Nordstrom,

Archaeological H.-A. (ed.)

preliminary Review 17:52-9.

ecology and prehistory in the Egyptian Nile (eds Sahara. In The Sahara and the
M. and H. A. J. Williams Balkema. 19. Rotterdam: Faure): pp. 407

1972 Neolithic

and A

Group Sites. (Scandinavian Joint Expedition to Sudanese Nubia, vol. 3, 1). Uppsala:
Scandinavian University In Neolithic Books.

Wendorf, F. and Schild, R. (eds) 1980. Prehistory of theEgyptian Sahara. New York:
Academic Wendorf. F. Press. and Schild, R. 1984. Conclusions. the

Olsson,

I. U.

1972. The C 14 age

and A-Group Sites.

determinations.

In Cattle-keepers

of the Eastern

Sahara,

(Scandinavian Joint Expedition

Nubia. pp. Vol. 250-251. 3, 1). Uppsala: Books.

to Sudanese

Nordstrom): (ed. H.-A. Scandinavian

Neolithic of Bir Kiseiba (eds F. Wendorf. R. Schild and A. Close): pp. 404-28. Dallas:
Southern Williams, Methodist B. 1980. The University. lost Pharaohs of Nubia.

University R. Schild,

and Wendorf,

F.

1984.

Lithostratigraphy of Holocene lakes along the Kiseiba Scarp. In Cattle-keepers of the

Eastern Sahara, Dallas: theNeolithic of Bir Kiseiba. Methodist

Oct-Nov. Archaeology 1984. M. A. J. Williams, environments prehistoric From Hunters S. A. Brandt): toFarmers

Late

Quaternary in the Sahara. Clark

In and

(eds J. D.

(eds F. Wendorf, R. Schild and A. Close):

pp. 9-40. Southern University.

University

pp. 74-83. Berkeley: Press. of California

102

Fekri A. Hassan

Postscript Information was kindly communicated inApril 1986, while this paper was in by R. Haaland measurements fractionation of I for isotopic from Zakiab, Kadero age are now available, Umm Direiwa with I, and Shaheinab midden), together measurements

press. Corrections (southern additional

with corrections for isotopic fractionation of 5550 ? 90 bp for ? at and 5860 80 for 3 level Rabak. These data provide the (T-3699) bp (T-5726) in estimates calendrical for years for sites with known corrections following average age (cf, p. 90): isotopic fractionation lower levels (15, 6) 4905 ? 90 BC (two dates) Rabak, Shaheinab Rabak, upper Umm Direiwa Zakiab Shaheinab Kadero I-South Sites with corrections early and middle level I (3) 4740 ? 4800 ? 4780 ? 4560 ? 4400 ? 120 BC 100 BC 90 BC 70 BC 60 BC (one date) (two dates) (two dates) (three dates)

(two dates). for isotopic fractionation thus indicate that the temporal range of the Khartoum is from about 4900 to 4400 BC, con 'Neolithic' groups

in the Nile Delta and the Fayum. Shaheinab is temporaneous with the early occupations than the Gerzean and late or older but is either with older coeval Amratian, certainly slightly than Hemamieh. There are also no apparent temporal gaps within the sequence of early and middle Khartoum 'Neolithic' sites.