The Holocene

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Evidence of enhanced winter precipitation and the prevalence of a cool and dry climate during the mid to late Holocene in mainland Gujarat, India
Vandana Prasad, Binita Phartiyal and Anupam Sharma The Holocene 2007 17: 889 DOI: 10.1177/0959683607082403 The online version of this article can be found at: http://hol.sagepub.com/content/17/7/889

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The Holocene 17,7 (2007) pp. 889896

Evidence of enhanced winter precipitation and the prevalence of a cool and dry climate during the mid to late Holocene in mainland Gujarat, India
Vandana Prasad,* Binita Phartiyal and Anupam Sharma
(Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeobotany, 53 University Road, Lucknow 226007, UP , India)
Received 17 November 2005; revised manuscript accepted 25 April 2007

Abstract: The Kothiyakhad sedimentary sequence of Mahi estuary in mainland Gujarat, India, contains valuable information on late- to mid-Holocene climatic conditions as inferred by phytolith, palynofacies, magnetic susceptibility and clay mineralogical studies. Three distinct climatic regimes, ie, Phase I, II and III, were established. Phase I (3660~3400 yr BP) shows a gradual weakening of SW monsoonal activity, though overlapped by enhanced western disturbances which led to the development of cool climatic conditions. The coupled effect of SW monsoon and enhanced winter precipitation produced improved hydrological conditions, which supported the agrarian society of the Indus Valley civilization until the beginning of Phase II (~3400~3000 yr BP). During Phase II the SW monsoon was in a state of severe recession, leading to severe drought-like conditions, other than for a brief but intensely warm and humid pulse recorded at ~3320 yr BP, associated with SW monsoonal activity. In Phase III (~30002850 yr BP), SW precipitation fluctuated greatly with a considerable increase in warm summer conditions, similar to present-day conditions. The weak SW monsoonal activity ~3500 yr BP also coincided with a global cool and arid phase and this probably explains the timing as well as the cause of why the population of the Indus civilization migrated to more humid areas to sustain their livelihoods. Key words: Estuarine sediments, palynofacies, phytolith, magnetic susceptibility, clay mineralogy, palaeomonsoon, Indus Valley civilization, Gujarat, India, Holocene.

Introduction
Monsoon systems are the product of a thermodynamic atmospheric circulation, characterized by strong seasonality of wind direction, temperature and precipitation (Ramage, 1971). The SW monsoon system is one of the major climatic systems of the world, having an impact over the Indian, the African subcontinents and the western part of South East Asia (Overpeck et al., 1996). Palaeoclimatic studies indicate strong SW monsoonal activity during the early Holocene that continued with little variation until the mid Holocene. Following the early-Holocene monsoon optimum a progressively weakened monsoon and increased aridity were generally characteristic of the mid Holocene (Steig, 1999). Global palaeoclimatic records show weakening of the SW monsoonal precipitation during 50003500 yr BP and increased aridification in the Northwest India, Pakistan, Arabia and Sahara regions (PetitMaire et al., 1995). The weakening of the SW monsoon during the mid Holocene was much more gradual in comparison with the glacialinterglacial transition (Overpeck et al., 1996). Various conti*Author for correspondence (e-mail: vanprasad@yahoo.co.uk)

nental and marine climatic records indicate a dry climatic phase during the mid to late Holocene in India (Caratini et al., 1991, 1994; Nigam, 1993; Sukumar et al., 1993; Naidu, 1996; Phadtare, 2000; Sarkar et al., 2000; Yadava and Ramesh, 2001). However, because of variation in latitude, altitude and distance from the sea, the dry and arid phase of the mid Holocene in various basins is not synchronous (Kale et al., 2003). This dry phase also coincides with the collapse of many old cultures eg, the Mesopotamian, Syrian and Indus Valley civilizations. During the late Harappan phase of the Indus civilization (50003500 yr BP), the western regions were covered by many flourishing prehistoric settlements (eg, Mohenjo-Daro, Jalipur, Taxila, Lothal) indicating a moist climate between 5000 and 3800 yr BP (Possehl, 1993, 1997). Mainland Gujarat was also a part of the prehistoric settlements, as is evident from the presence of vast archeological sites. The Harappan culture was in full bloom during 50003400 yr BP in this region (Possehl, 1993, 1997). It is considered that the changing mid-Holocene climate must have played an important role in the rise and fall of the Harappan phase of the Indus civilization. Substantial data on the geomorphology, neotectonics, sedimentology and changing sea level has been generated from mainland

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Figure 1

Location and geological map of the study area (modified after Rachna et al., 1998)

Gujarat (Biswas, 1987; Merh and Chamyal, 1997; Maurya et al., 1997, 2000; Rachna and Chamyal, 1998; Rachna et al., 1998, 1999, 2000). However, data of palaeoenvironmental significance from this region is rather scanty (Rachna and Chamyal, 1998; Kusumgar et al., 1998; Rachna et al., 1998). A multiproxy study involving phytoliths, palynofacies, magnetic susceptibility and clay mineralogy has been attempted with the aim of reconstructing the palaeoclimatic conditions, based on the Kothyiakhad section, which has been identified as a type section by Rachna and Chamyal (1998).

Geomorphology of the study area

Mainland Gujarat is divided into four broad geomorphic zones: the eastern upland zone, the shallow buried pediment zone, the alluvial zone and the coastal zone (Maurya et al., 2000). The various geomorphic features include river cliffs, unpaired valley fill terraces, modern point bars and mudflats. The rivers flowing in the area, namely the Narmada, Dhadhar, Mahi and Sabarmati, originate in the eastern highlands (Deccan Traps and Arravali range) and drain into the Gulf of Cambay (Chamyal et al., 2003). Well preserved midlate Holocene sediments are exposed as valley fill terraces along the river channels and in estuarine settings. The Mahi river arising at Aravalli, flows southwestward and runs for about 275 km in Gujarat and finally enters an estuarine setting before joining the Gulf of Cambay. The 2.5 m thick Kothiyakhad section exposed at Kothiyakhad and Mujpur localities on the northern and southern banks of the Mahi river, is an unpaired valley fill terrace in the estuarine zone (Figure 1). The region has flat alluvial plain topography dissected by numerous ravines. We have also studied 2.0 m thick Bharuch and 7.8 m thick Itola sections along the Narmada and Dhadhar rivers, respectively, for detailed lithology for a regional correlation with the Kothyiakhad section (Figure 2). The Bharuch section lies in the estuarine zone while the Itola section is a fluvio-lacustrine deposit (Figure 1).

Material and methods

Detailed lithostratigraphy was established with respect to the 2.5 m, 2.0 m and 7.8 m sections at Kothiyakhad, Bharuch and Itola sections,

respectively, representing a large part of mainland Gujarat. This enabled a regional correlation. The Kothiyakhad section was studied in detail for phytolith, magnetic susceptibility, palynofacies and clay mineralogy, based on 14 samples, taken at regular intervals from the exposed sediment succession consisting of alternating sand, silts, silty-sand and organic-rich clays (Figure 2). Phytoliths are amorphous silica particles that precipitate in and or between the cells of living plant tissue, especially in grasses. Owing to their resistance to decay, fossil phytoliths are now being increasingly used for the reconstruction of palaeovegetation patterns, especially for deciphering forest/grassland ecotones (Alexandre et al., 1997; Barboni et al., 1999; Blinnikov et al., 2002). Deflocculation of sediment was achived by placing 5 g of sediment sample in a 10% calgon solution overnight. The suspended clay was siphoned out and the residue was washed with distilled water several times. The sample was then treated with 10% HCl, and heated in a sand bath for 1020 min to remove the carbonate content from the sediment. The residue was twice washed using distilled water and dried. The organic content was removed by heating the residue in 30% H2O2 in a sand bath for 2030 min depending on the richness of organic content of the sediment. The remaining residue was again twice washed with distilled water and dried. Phytolith extraction was achieved using heavy liquid solution of CdI2 and KI (specific gravity 2.3) and centrifuged at 1000 r.p.m. for 5 min. This step was repeated until all the material lighter than 2.3 was recovered. The phytoliths were washed, dried and weighed. Dried phytoliths were mounted on a glass slide using Canada balsam. Several slides were also mounted in immersion oil to view the three-dimensional images of phytoliths. Phytolith identification was made under 400 and 1000 magnification on an Olympus BX51 microscope. At least 300400 counts were made from each sample in order to count 200 short cell morphotypes from each sample. The extracted phytoliths were counted and classified according to the classification of Twiss et al. (1969), Twiss (1992) and Mulholland and Rapp (1992). However, multiplicity and redundancy of many phytoliths morphotypes prevent the attribution of phytoliths to species and genus (Rovener, 1971; Mulholland, 1989). Hence, in the present study phytolith assemblages have been used to decipher fluctuation in the past grass vegetation as a result of monsoonal variability during the mid- to late-Holocene time interval in this region.

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Figure 2

Lithology of the sections from A, Kothiyakhad; B, Bharuch; and C, Itola

Magnetic susceptibility () is controlled by the concentration and the grain-size distribution of ferromagnetic minerals and provides a valuable tool for precise correlation of sedimentation records (Thomson, 1975; Thompson and Oldfield, 1986; Verosub and Roberts, 1995). Variation in shows gross changes in the relative concentrations of magnetic minerals. It has been used to infer climatic change from marine (Thomson, 1975; Bloemendal et al., 1988; Bloemendal and Menocal, 1989); loess and palaeosols (Maher and Thomson, 1992; Verosub et al., 1993) and lacustrine sequences (Gasse et al., 1994; Williamson et al., 1998; Phartiyal et al., 2003). Magnetic susceptibility is strongly sensitive to variations of the local climate and constitutes an accurate proxy record, along with other parameters. Non-magnetic cubic plastic holders (10 cm3) were used and measurements for were done with a dualfrequency MS2 Bartington susceptibility meter. The values reported here are the low-frequency measurements (460 Hz). Samples were analysed at the palaeomagnetic laboratory at the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun. Palynofacies study was applied with a view to monitor proximaldistal relationships in relation to the clastic sediment source. A palynofacies zonation scheme involving characterization of various organic matter types, identification of palynomorphs and

their relative proportion, size spectra and preservation state in the vertical profile have been applied to the characterization of depositional environment in terms of salinity (freshwater/brackish/marine), redox conditions, productivity and the stability of the water column (stratified/seasonally stratified/continuous mixed) (Tyson, 1995). Samples (5 g) were taken and treated with 10% HCl and heated in a sand bath for 1020 min to remove the carbonate content from the sediment. After washing with distilled water two to three times, the sample was treated with 40% HF solution to dissolve the silicates. Minimal oxidizing reagents were used and the samples were washed thoroughly, centrifuged and the slides were prepared using polyvinyle alcohol and mounted using Canada Balsam. Clay minerals are known as palaeoenvironmantal indicators because they are neoformed and thermodynamically most stable under surface geological conditions. Generally the clay mineral assemblage is controlled by the parent material as well as by the climate. Although the technique of using clay minerals in deciphering palaeoclimate is not yet routinely employed, it has been used increasingly (Singer, 1980, 1987; Chamley, 1989; Vardachari et al., 1994; Pal et al., 2000, 2003). Since clays are ubiquitous and relatively easy to analyse, their use in palaeoenvironmental reconstruction holds considerable attraction. Clays were separated by

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the Atterberg method (Muller, 1967) and also identified by x-ray diffraction with a Seifert x-ray diffractometer, using Cu/Ni radiation at 40 kV/30 mA, from 5 to 400 2 at the department of Geology, Lucknow University, Lucknow.

Results
Lithostratigraphy
Detailed lithology of 2.5 m, 2.0 m and 7.8 m sections at Kothiyakhad, Bharuch and Itola sections, respectively, are shown in Figure 2. The 2.5 m thick Kothiyakhad section can be divided into three units. Unit I (00.9 m) silty sand to sand; Unit II (0.91.5 m) mostly organic-rich clay with sand at the base; and Unit III (1.52.5 m) comprising silty clay and sand. Kusumgar et al. (1998) and Rachna and Chamyal (1998) have established a chronology of the section and given three dates. The base of the section dates to 3660 90 yr; the 1.2 m level from the base dates to 3320 90 yr; and the 2.4 m level dates to 2850 90 yr (Figures 2 and 3). The 2 m thick Bharuch section is composed of alternating sand and clay sequences with an organic-rich clay band at 1 m interval. The 7.8 m thick Itola section is also composed of alternating sand, silt and clay layers with a prominent organic-rich clay band (similar to the Kothyiakhad and Bharuch sections) at a level 4 m from the base of the section. At the 1 m level this section is dated to 3620 390 yr BP. Charcoal pieces at the 0.5 m level and pottery pieces at the 2.0 m levels are also observed in this section. As this is a fluvial section it shows more sediment accumulation than is found in the other studied sections that belong to the estuarine setting in the same time span. Figure 2 shows the lithological and chronological correlation of the sections along the Mahi (Kothiyakhad section), Narmada (Bharuch) and Dhaddar (Itola section) rivers of mainland Gujarat. As these sections correlate very well in terms of lithological attributes, we have taken the Kothiyakhad section as the type section to represent the mainland of Gujarat.

Depositional units
On the basis of the studied parameters and lithological characteristics, three units have been identified in the Kothiyakhad section.

Unit I (00.9 m)
Unit I contains silty sand and sand-dominated horizons. The basal most fine sand is overlain by silty sand with fine silty clay partings (Figure 2). Phytolith data for this unit show dominance of rondel and trapezoid phytolith morphotypes, though saddle, bilobate and cross type morphotypes occur in low proportions. Bulliform, rod, rounded and pointed morphotypes are present in small numbers. Low magnetic susceptibility values are seen at the base, gradually increasing towards the middle part and then decreasing again towards the top portion of the section. (Figures 3 and 4). The palynofacies of this unit are characterized by increasing proportions of black oxidized and degraded brown organic matter debris varying between 2050% and 3040%, respectively. Structured organic matter debris occurs in very low proportions. Amorphous organic matter is completely absent in this unit. Pollen grains also occur in very low numbers, represented by family Poaceae, and are present mostly in the silty clay horizon. Protoperidinoid cysts represented by Bitectatodinium spp. and Tectatodinium spp., and very few poorly preserved gonyaulacoid dinoflagellate cysts represented by Spiniferites spp., occur in the silty clay horizon (Figure 5). The clay fraction of the basal part contains mica, smectite and vermiculite. However, the middle part has smectite, chlorite and palygorskite clay minerals. The topmost part of unit contains little sepiolite, evaporites (mainly gypsum) and secondary carbonate (calcite, aragonite) minerals, in addition to the clay minerals present in the middle part of the section.

Figure 3 Lithology, phytolith data and magnetic susceptibility plotted against the lithocolumn

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Figure 4 Transmitted light microscopy images of selected phytoliths. All scale bars, 10 m. A, bilobate; BC, saddle; D, collapsed saddle; E, trapezoid; F, cross; GI, rondel

Unit II (0.91.5 m)
Unit II is represented by an organic-rich clay horizon overlying the 0.25 m sand bed. Phytolith data show an abrupt increase in saddle, bilobate and cross morphotypes. Trapezoids and rondel morphotypes occur in low proportions.High magnetic susceptibility is measured in the basal and middle parts, which gradually decreases towards the top (Figure 3). The palynofacies of this Unit shows a large proportion of well-preserved structured organic matter and amorphous organic matter debris but a considerable decrease in oxidized black and degraded brown organic matter content. Freshwater dinoflagellate cysts represented by Bosedinia spp. and acritarchs occur in significant numbers whereas protoperidinoids are present in small numbers and there is a complete absence of gonyaulacoid dinocyst (Figure 5). The bulk mineralogy of different samples of the unit is more or less similar to that of Unit I. The dominant clay minerals are mica/illite and smectite with very little halloysite.

acritarchs occur in moderate numbers. Protoperidinoids are present in significant numbers. Quartz, feldspar and mica/illite are the major minerals found in this unit. The clay minerals are illite/mica and smectite with little vermiculite and palygorskite at the top.

Palaeoenvironmental reconstruction
Our results can be used to reveal three episodes of fluctuating climate in the Kothiyakhad section corresponding to Phase I, Phase II and Phase III, respectively. The evidence and interpretations for each of these three phases are summarized as follows.

Phase I (~36603400 yr BP)

This phase shows deposition in a high-energy estuarine environment, as indicated by a larger proportion of coarser material in the estuarine depocenter. The unsorted terrestrial organic matter and low occurrences of protoperidinoids and gonyalacoid dinocyst indicate that depositional sites close to the river mouth experienced little tidal influence. A high percentage of black oxidized debris and low occurrences of structured organic matter debris point to oxidizing conditions at the sedimentwater interface. The presence of Poaceae pollen grains and high susceptibility values indicate the prevalence of arid climatic conditions during this phase. Presence of smectite along with palygorskite, sepolite calcite/aragonite and evaporites in the upper part of this Phase also indicate increasing arid conditions. Phytolith mophotypes recovered from this interval are characteristic of Pooideae and Festucoideae grass subfamilies that dominated during this interval and are also indicative of cool climatic conditions perhaps as a result of frequent winter precipitation. However, extremely low occurrences of phytolith morphotypes belonging

Unit III (22.5 m)

This unit is represented by silty clay and sand horizons of the upper part of the Kothiyakhad section. Phytolith data show great fluctuation in this unit. Amongst the various phytolith morphotypes, the saddle type dominates in the phytolith assemblages. Bilobate and cross type occur in moderate numbers. Comparatively low magnetic susceptibility values are encountered. The proportion of black oxidized debris and degraded brown debris fluctuates. The well preserved structured organic matter and amorphous organic matter content shows a decreasing trend at the base of this unit and increases in the upper horizons. Pollen grains, freshwater dinoflagellates and

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to the subfamilies Panicoideae and Chloridoideae may be indicative of weak SW monsoonal activity during this phase.

Phase II (~34003000 yr BP)

This phase starts with the deposition of sand that is overlain by a dark grey organic-rich clay sequence in a restricted estuarine setting. The presence of a large proportion of well preserved structured, as well as amorphous, organic matter content indicate the prevalence of reducing conditions at the sedimentwater interface. An increase in freshwater dinoflagellate and acritarch spp. indicates enhanced freshwater supply under an estuarine setting that resulted in the development of stratification of water masses and the establishment of anoxic conditions at the sedimentwater interface. The formation of low energy conditions with a stratified water column in the estuarine environment favoured the deposition of organic-rich clay during this phase. The phytolith data indicate the dominance of a morphotype belonging to the subfamily Panicoideae, Chloridoideae grass cover indicating an increase in warm and humid conditions associated with intense summer monsoon activity during this phase. Enhanced susceptibility values during this phase can also be explained by the intense water supply that, in turn, may have brought more material from the catchment resulting in high values and/or by the in situ formation of ferromagnetic minerals during pedogenesis (Evan and Heller, 1994). This is further supported by the presence of smectite, illite/mica and halloysite clay minerals.

Phase III (30002850 yr BP)

This phase marks the return of silty clay and sand sedimentation in the estuarine system. The lithology of this phase is more or less similar to that of Phase I, where organic matter distribution indicates a fluctuating anoxic/dysoxic conditions at the depositional site. The phytolith data indicate fluctuating climatic conditions. The large proportion of phytolith morphotypes belonging to the subfamily Chloridoideae and moderate numbers of subfamily Panicoideae point to a warm and humid climate with considerably warm summer conditions resulting from fluctuating SW monsoon activity. This is further supported by the larger proportions of protoperidinoid cysts (heterotrophic dinocysts), indicative of eutrophication conditions associated with an increased supply of nutrients from the adjacent land mass (Matsuoka, 2001). The decreased magnetic susceptibility values and reappearance of palygorskite clay minerals also point towards a warmer but dry climate that can be considered to be very similar to present day conditions.

Discussion
The lithological and other geological characteristics of Kothiakhad (Mahi river basin), Bharuch (Narmada river basin) and Itola (Dhadhar river basin) show that the upper few metres of midHolocene sediments are very similar, indicating a common depositional regime on both local and regional scales. The present-day climatic conditions, particularly the monthly precipitation record of this region, show maximum precipitation during summer months (JuneSeptember) with almost no rains during the winter months (DecemberApril). The semi-arid climate favours shrubs and grasses over a woodland type of vegetation wherein the phytolith study becomes a more promising palaeoecological tool for continental climate reconstruction. In addition, the palynofacies, magnetic susceptibility and clay mineralogical parameters provide additional support for the overall climate interpretations presented here. The multiproxy study carried out on the Kothyiakhad section reveals considerable fluctuation in SW monsoonal activity during the mid Holocene. A high percentage of black oxidized debris, along with low occurrences of structured organic matter debris, point to the presence of oxidizing conditions during 35003400 yr

Figure 5 Palynofacies and clay mineralogy data plotted against the lithocolumn

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BP. The grass phytolith data indicate a weak SW monsoon but enhanced winter precipitation, leading to cool conditions in this region. It is likely that the increased relative proportion of phytolith morphotypes of cool season (C3) grasses over warm season (C4) vegetation are a result of a greater length of the winter season during this phase. The sudden dominance of C3 grasses during the dry phase of LGM of tropical South Africa has also been attributed to increased winter rainfall activity (Scott, 2002). Previous studies of salt lakes Didwana and Lunkaransar in the Thar desert, Rajasthan area show greatest winter precipitation between 5500 and 3500 yr BP (Singh, 1971; Swain et al., 1983; Singh et al., 1990). The possibility of winter precipitation in the Thar desert was further confirmed by Enzel et al. (1999) indicating a high water-table and improved hydrological conditions at Lunkaransar lake after 5500 yr BP, the result of increased winter rainfall. The high susceptibility values during this time span also indicate dry conditions with a high rate of erosion in the adjoining areas. The occurrence of evaporites (mainly gypsum) and secondary carbonate minerals further indicates arid climatic conditions during this phase. The shift in climate, from warm and humid to a dry phase during the mid to late Holocene, has also been well recorded at various locations on the Indian subcontinent (Caratini et al., 1991, 1994; Nigam, 1993; Sukumar et al., 1993; Naidu, 1996; Phadtare, 2000; Sarkar et al., 2000; Yadava and Ramesh, 2001; Kale et al., 2003). Archaeological records show that the Indus Valley civilization flourished between 5500 and 4500 yr BP, which implies that the climatic conditions were favourable. However, we know that during this time, the SW monsoon was on the decline. This ambiguity is resolved by our data, which indicate enhanced winter precipitation during this phase. The coincidence of enhanced winter precipitation and a weak SW monsoon could have maintained favourable hydrological conditions and so have supported the Indus civilization (55004500 yr BP). This is because winter rainfall has a much larger effect on percolation of water to the subsurface because of the reduced evaporative conditions than are associated with increased SW monsoon alone (Enzel et al., 1999). The net effect of a weaker SW monsoon and increased winter precipitation made the critical difference between conditions in the early and middle Holocene and eliminated the drought conditions during the mature phase of the Indus civilization. However, during the late phase of the Indus civilization, the SW monsoonal activity decreased considerably and almost ceased at 3400 yr BP, which resulted in severe drought conditions at this time. Higher levels of received solar energy during the mid to late Holocene may also have enhanced the interannual variability of the summer monsoon and altered winter airflow over South Asia, changing total annual precipitation and producing much drier conditions (Staubwasser et al., 2003). After the cold and dry phase, the SW monsoon regained its strength ~34003000 yr BP as characterized by the expansion of warm and humid grasses. The increased primary productivity during this phase also indicates high nutrient discharge in the estuarine system as a result of greater freshwater runoff from the adjacent landmass. The sedimentation of organic-rich clay under the influence of a warm and humid climate and enhanced magnetic susceptibility, probably the result of in situ formation of ferromagnetic minerals during pedogenesis (Evan and Heller, 1994), further supports the conclusion of very active SW monsoon conditions. The warm and humid pulse ~3320 3000 yr BP has also been recorded in various parts of the Indian peninsula (Sarkar et al., 2000; Yadava and Ramesh, 2001). The phytolith data of ~30002850 yr BP show fluctuation in the SW monsoonal activity during this time. An increase in saddle type phytolith morphotypes during this phase indicates intense warm conditions during the summer months. The reappearance of palygorskite clay minerals indicates the prevalence of arid climatic conditions from 2850 yr BP onwards.

Conclusions
The mainland of Gujarat experienced considerable variation in the occurrence of monsoonal activity during 36602850 yr BP. It is interpreted that the 36603400 yr BP palaeoclimatic records of Kothiyakhad, correspond to the later phase of the well established weakening phase of the SW monsoon that commenced from 5500 yr BP. During this period SW monsoon activity declined gradually and almost ceased around 3400 yr BP. Winter precipitation, because of more active western disturbances, during 36603400 yr BP was much more pronounced and extended over larger parts of western India, though this too declined ~3400 yr BP. This was the time when the Indus civilization declined drastically in this region. The SW monsoon regained its strength with a brief pulse of enhanced precipitation around 3320 yr BP along with minor subsequent fluctuations. Further studies in the adjoining areas are currently in progress with the intention of establishing a more complete record of midHolocene monsoonal variability in the region.

Acknowledgements
Our sincere thanks to Dr N.C. Mehrotra, Director, BSIP, Lucknow for his encouragement. This work was supported in part under grant-in-aid project No. SR/S4/ES-49/2003 of the Department of Science and Technology. Thanks are due to Professor L.S. Chamyal and his research group for rendering help during field work. We are grateful to the Department of Geology, Lucknow University, Lucknow and the Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun for laboratory facilities.

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