Fluid Dynamics & Physical properties of sediments

Chapters 2

Contents

Sediment Erosion, Transport & Deposition

Unidirectional currents Waves

Bedforms and Primary Sedimentary Structures Density Currents

Entrainment

Ability of a fluid (e.g., air, water, ice) to erode a particle depends on a variety of factors, including the fluid density, fluid viscosity, depth of flow, fluid velocity Characteristics of the sediment (size, shape, binding by micro-organisms, etc.) also important

Entrainment

Density: mass per unit volume

Affects the magnitude of forces that act within a fluid and on the bed, and the rate at which particles will settle Low fluid flows readily (e.g., air) High fluid resists flowage (e.g., ice)

Viscosity: ability of fluids to flow

Entrainment

Fluid motions may be either laminar or turbulent depending on the flow velocity, fluid viscosity and bed roughness Laminar flow

Streamlines follow parallel paths, velocity constant along streamlines Very low fluid velocities & smooth beds Assumed for most subsurface flows

Entrainment

Turbulent flow

Flow moves as a series of constantly changing and deforming masses (eddies), includes movement perpendicular to the mean flow direction Instantaneous velocity varies around timeaverage value Most flow of water/air is turbulent under natural conditions

Boggs 2001

Entrainment

Reynolds Number (dimensionless)

Re= UL/ U mean flow velocity L characteristic length (e.g., flow depth) kinematic velocity

Ratio of inertial to viscous forces Low Re laminar flow, high Re turbulent flow

Entrainment

A fluid moving above a bed exerts a shear stress at the bed surface

Boundary shear stress Force per unit area parallel to the bed Proportional to flow velocity, fluid density, scale/depth of flow, slope of stream bed

Entrainment

Several forces affect a grain of sediment on a bed and below a flowing fluid Forces resisting motion

Gravity Inter-particle friction Cohesion/electrochemical bonds (clays)

Entrainment

Fluid forces

Drag component a function of boundary shear stress Lift component Bernoulli effect

Boggs 2001

Entrainment

In reality, the critical threshold for grain movement also depends on:

Particle shape, size, sorting Bed roughness Cohesion

As such, thresholds have been determined experimentally, rather than predicted from calculations

Hjulstrom Diagram
Experimentally derived Applies to flow depth of 1 m

Boggs 2001

Sediment Transport

Once a particle has been set in motion, its transport path is a function of particle settling velocity, current velocity and turbulence

More energy needed to put a particle into motion than to keep the particle in motion

Stokes Law

Defines particle settling velocity Stokes Law only works for particles smaller than .1 (fine sand) in water. Velocities for larger particles overestimated because of viscous turbulent drag in the wake of the settling grain

Leeder 1999

Sediment Transport

3 modes of particle movement:

Bedload continuous/regular contact with the bed

Traction (rolling, sliding) Saltation Common for sand, gravel and coarser sediment

Sediment Transport

3 modes of particle movement:

Suspended Load Particles held in continuous suspension by fluid turbulence

Upward component of fluid flow overcomes gravitational forces Finer grain sizes (very fine sand to clay) Intermittent suspension possible

Sediment Transport

3 modes of particle movement:

Washload clay-size particles derived from an up-current source, rather than eroded from bed

Large washloads possible even for very low velocities

Grain Transport

Leeder 1999

Sediment Deposition

Sediment transported by fluid flow will be entrained as long as the flow is competent enough

I.e., velocity is high enough (air and water)

As a flow decelerates, it loses competence and sediment is deposited

Decrease in slope (e.g., rivers) Spreading of flow (river deltas) Etc.

Sediment Deposition

Sediment deposition may be temporary or permanent

E.g., seasonal variations in discharge can cause deposition/erosion in rivers

Sedimentologists study sedimentary structures (see later), sediment textures, etc. to infer transport mechanisms, depositional environment

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Primary sedimentary structures develop during the processes of transport, deposition and by a variety of other means shortly thereafter. We need to understand how these features form in order to be able to use them to deduce the depositional environment of a sedimentary deposit.

Boggs 2001

Bedforms/Sed Structures

Contacts between adjacent beds indicates change in environmental conditions 1 bed does not necessarily imply 1 depositional event

Bedforms/Sed Structures

Currents flowing over a mobile bed of silt or coarser grain sizes will produce bedforms Type of bedform is a function of the nature of the current (unidirectional/oscillatory, velocity), sediment grain size and other parameters (e.g., water depth)

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Some overlap Hysteresis effects Modification of bedforms during changing flow conditions

Boggs 2001

Current Ripples

http://www.geo.uu.nl/Research/Sedimentology/Staff/mvhattum/flume.html

Current Ripples

Boggs 2001

http://www.geo.uu.nl/Research/Sedimentology/Staff/mvhattum/flume.html

Dunes: 3-D (Sinuous crested) Rib and furrow Scour pit cross-bedding

Trough cross-bedding

Festoon cross-bedding

Dunes: 2-D (Sand waves) Superimposed ripples

Planar tabular cross-bedding

Bedforms/Sed Structures

Straight-crested (2-D) dunes -> planar tabular cross-bedding Sinuous-crested (3-D) dunes -> trough cross-bedding Shape also depends on orientation of outcrop with respect to cross-bed orientation

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Upper Plane Bed

Modern beach

Cretaceous beach

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Herringbone cross-bedding/lamination Opposing orientations (true) Tidal indictor reversing currents

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Ripples Wavelength: 5 cm -> 20 cm Height: 0.5 -> 3 cm Planform: Straight -> sinuous

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Dunes Larger scale: Heights 10s of cm -> several m (more for subaerial dunes), wavelengths 10s of cm -> 10s of m Fine sand or coarser Planform: straight (sand waves) to sinuous

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Cross-beds: Sets & Cosets
Form sets Coset of tabular sets Coset of trough sets

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Like unidirectional currents, waveinduced near-bottom currents will generate bedforms in mobile sediments Includes purely oscillatory motions, asymmetrical motions, combined flows

Waves

Previous discussion on sediment transport relates to unidirectional currents Surface gravity waves can also put sediment into suspension and cause sediment transport

Waves, wave-induced currents

Waves

Formed by wind blowing over sea surface Parameters: height, wavelength, period Controlled by:

Duration over which wind blows (time) Fetch distance over which wind blows Velocity of wind
Water depth

Wave Transport

Deep Waves

Shallow Waves

Leeder 1999

Waves, wave-induced currents

Waves start interacting with the bottom when they move into shallow water (1/2 )

Circular particle motions in deep water replaced by back-and-forth motions (acceleration/deceleration) at seafloor Acceleration induces near-bottom shear stresses that can put sediment into suspension Sediments become available for transport by other currents -> combined flows Very important in shallow-marine, lacustrine environments

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Wave ripples
Classic straight crestlines, symmetrical in profile, peaked or rounded crests Crestlines normal to propagating waves Interference patterns possible Small features (few cm wavelength, < 1cm height) in silt to large features (several m wavelength, few m height) in gravels

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Wave ripples

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Wave ripples
Asymmetric (shoaling) waves produce asymmetric wave ripples Similar to ripples produced by unidirectional currents Use morphology to distinguish wave/current ripples

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Wave ripples

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Wave ripples
L H Wave Current Wave Current LL LS

15

RI = L/H

RSI = LS/LL

2.5

Shoaling wave ripples

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Hummocky cross-stratification
Coarse silt to fine-grained sandstone Generally sandstones interbedded with shales Wave-formed structures, but no modern analogues?

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Hummocky cross-stratification

Hummocky cross-stratification

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Graded Bedding
Beds have coarser-grained sediments near their bases, become finer-grained towards their tops (normal grading) Waning energy conditions Turbidity currents, overbank deposits, etc. Reverse grading also possible Can be a way up indicator

Graded Bedding

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Convolute bedding and lamination
More or less regular folds in sedimentation units (beds, sets, etc.) Often undeformed above and below Syndepositional or post-depositional

Convolute bedding West Texas

Bedforms/Sed Structures

Bedding planes (upper and lower) can reveal much about depositional environments

Bedforms/Sed Structures Erosional Markings

Deposition of some beds is preceded by a period of erosion (increasing then decreasing velocity) Sole marks on bases of beds often generated during period of erosion Bases of sandstones interbedded with shales, positive relief structures Episodic sedimentation

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Flute marks (erosional)
Scour into cohesive bed by turbulent eddies Tightly curved, deep nose, open outward and shallow in down-current direction Various morphologies and sizes but generally same morphology on any give bedding plane Excellent paleocurrent & way-up indicators

Flute marks

Tool marks

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Load Casts (Deformation)
Gravity acting upon density imbalances between unconsolidated sediments Generally sands deposited quickly upon soft mud Sand sinks into the underlying soft sediment Rounded, irregular lobes of variable size (mm -> m)

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Load Casts

Pseudonodules (Ball and Pillow)

Load Casts

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Miscellaneous Structures
Raindrop imprints Dessication cracks (mud cracks) Syneresis cracks - subaqueous shrinkage of muds Rill marks

Mudcracks

Mudcracks

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Trace Fossils
Sedimentary structures formed by the burrowing, boring, feeding, locomotion activities of organisms (not body parts) Ichnofossils Good environmental significance: organism behaviour a function of salinity, energy, sedimentation rate, substrate, water depth, etc.

Laminated-to-burrowed sandstone

Bedforms/Sed Structures
Different types of organisms have similar types of behaviour (crawling, burrowing, etc.) Similar traces produced by different types of organisms. May not always be possible to determine which organism responsible for a given structure Worms, crustaceans, bivalves, insects, gastropods, trilobites, fish, dinosaurs, etc.

Trace Fossils
Descriptive/generic classification
Tracks and Trails Track single foot Trackway many tracks Trail continuous, surface or subsurface

Burrows and Borings Boring firm substrate Burrow- loose, unconsolidated sediments Burrow/boring system interconnected Shaft vertical burrow/boring Tunnel/Gallery horizontal burrow/boring Burrow lining thickened burrow wall Burrow cast Bioturbation Miscellaneous Bioturbate texture extensive bioturbation, few recognizable Configuration spatial relationships (orientation, etc.) Spreite U-in-U, or spiral structures

Trackway

Trackway

Trackway

Teichichnus

Paleophycus Chondrites

Arenicolites

Trace Fossils
Increasing Energy Level

Trace Fossils
Ichnofacies

Sediment Gravity Flows

Gravity can cause sediment transport

Mass-transport processes Operative in subaerial and subaqueous settings Fluids may help suspend sediment, reduce internal friction, but gravity key driver Sediment gravity flows four types, each with a different grain suspension mechanism

Processes
T urbidity Current Liquefied Flow Grain Flow Debris Flow

T urbulence Intergranular Grain Flow Interaction

Matrix S trength

Processes

Turbidity Currents

Grains held in suspension by fluid turbulence Generated by submarine failures, rivers entering lakes, etc. Can transport sediment long distances (100s of km) Slow/stop through mixing with ambient water or change of slope

Turbidity Currents

An Ideal Turbidite Bouma Sequence

E Pelagic D Planar laminated C Ripple crosslaminated B Planar laminated A - Massive

Processes

Turbidites

Sedimentary structures record waning currents Commonly normally graded Thickness variable cm to 10s of cm; tabular beds Complete Bouma Sequences not always developed

Use shorthand notation E.g., ABC, BC, A, ACE

Graded carbonate turbidites West Texas

Processes

Fluidized/liquefied flows

Grains held in suspension by intergranular flow (loss of grain contacts) Pore fluids escaping upward Loosely packed sands subjected to a shock Flow freezes from bottom up as it slows and sediment is redeposited

Dish structures

Processes

Grain Flows

Grains held in suspension by grain-to-grain collisions (dispersive pressure) Relatively steep slopes Flow freezes from bottom up as it slows and sediment is redeposited

Processes

Debris Flows

Grains held in suspension by matrix strength (suspended fines) Traditionally thought that clays were needed, now known not to be true Wide range of grain sizes transported if available

Processes

Four end-member types gradation from one type to another

Hybrid flows Changes with time, location Other classification schemes possible

Most experimental work done in 60s and 70s new work changing some ideas Relatively low submarine slopes needed, & trigger mechanism Cohesive mass movements slides, slumps, etc.

Summary

Competence of a fluid to entrain sediment is a function of several variables

Properties of fluid e.g., velocity, depth, density Properties of particle size, shape, relationship to other grains, etc.

Summary

Once a particle is set in motion, it may be transported in a variety of ways

Bedload, suspended load, washload

Particles are deposited when flow loses competence

E.g. though deceleration

Deposition can be temporary or permanent

Summary

As sediment is transported, it may be molded into a variety of bedforms Type of structure that forms is a function of fluid velocity and grain size

Phase diagrams used to predict conditions under which a particular bedform will form

Bedform migration generates characteristic sedimentary structures

Summary

Sediment may be transported/deposited by unidirectional flows, waves and wave-induced flows and gravity flows

Characteristics of sediment deposit used to infer depositional processes, and therefore environment