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UNIVERSAL G RAVITATION
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These equations are only valid for two spheres, for two objects whose sizes are much smaller than the distance between them, or for a particle and a sphere. The moon is kept in its orbit around Earth by gravity, the reaction force of the moon on the Earth results in the Earths tides.
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A longitudinal vibration occurs when it vibrates parallel to its axis A torsional vibration occurs when an object twists around its axis. Oscillation=vibration One complete vibration=1 cycle #cycles/s is called frequency Period is the number of seconds it takes to complete one cycle. Objects are vibrating in phase when the have the same period and pass through the rest position at the same time The amplitude is the distance from the axis to the maximum displacement The formula was used historically to calculate the acceleration due to gravity (for a pendulum)
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If a wave goes from a light rope to a heavy rope, the wave slows down and the wavelength decreases, and the opposite is true if a wave goes from a heavy rope to a light rope. Pulses reflected from a fixed end are inverted Pulses reflecting from a free end are not inverted. In both types of reflection there is no change in the frequency, speed, or wavelength. As a wave changes mediums, at the boundary between media the speed and wavelength change, and partial reflection occurs. Some of the energy continues on, whereas some is reflected back. When a pulse enters a new medium, it is not inverted. When a wave goes from a slow medium to a fast medium, the fast medium behaves as a free end, and the wavelength and speed increase When a wave goes from a fast medium to a slow medium, the slow medium behaves as a rigid wall, and the reflected wave is inverted, although the transmitted wave is not. The wavelength and speed decrease.
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The interference patter between to point sources vibrating in phase is a symmetrical pattern of alternative areas of destructive and constructive interference radiating out.
7. 3 SPEED OF SOUND
y y y Sound travels slower than light, example thunderstorm.
Sound fastest in solids, followed by liquids, gases, because the particles are closest together so sound can be transmitted quickest.
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Loud sounds may rip away hair cells causing damage Hearing aids amplify sounds
7.7 DIFFRACTION/REFRACTION
y y Longer wavelengths diffract more (low frequency) Voices carry further at night because cool air closer to the surface causes sound to refract downwards, during the day opposite occurs because cool air on top.
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When objects travel supersonically they leaves spheres of sound waves behind them, which interfere with each other creating a cone of intense acoustic pressure that is referred to as a sonic boom because it is heard as two large cracks. Sonic booms create disturbances for humans and animals.
MUSIC
y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y y Music is sound that originates from a source with one or more constant frequencies. Noise originates from a source where the frequencies are constantly changing randomly. While pitch is highly dependent on frequency, it is still subjective to the listener. A pure tone is a sound consisting of one frequency. Consonance: Combinations of sounds that sound pleasing, often the frequencies are in a simple ratio. Dissonance is the opposite. An octave has sounds with double the frequency. The scientifical musical scale is based on 256 Hz, the musical one on 440Hz. The frequency of a string is inversely proportional to its length, its diameter, and the root of its density. It is proportional to the square root of its tension. In the fundamental mode, the string vibrates in one segment, producing its lowest, fundamental frequency. Overtones occur when the string vibrates in more than one segment. Harmonics are whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency The quality of a musical note is dependent upon the number and intensity of any overtones it produces along with the fundamental. In a closed air column, resonance first occurs when the column is 1/4, since then one node is formed. In an open air column, resonance first occurs when the column is 1/2. Stringed instruments consist of the vibrator (string) and the resonator, a hollow chamber which vibrates in resonance with the string. Wind instruments contain either open or closed air columns in which either the players lips or a reed is the vibrator. Percussion instruments involve striking one object to cause it to vibrate. The human voice is another instrument. Air from lungs passes by vocal cords, which act as a double reed. Loudness is controlled by the amount of air forced upwards, and pitch is caused by tension as well as the size of the vibrating parts. The pharynx, mouth, and nasal cavity control the quality of the sound, as they act as resonating cavities. Electrical instruments amplify and alter vibrations so that they may be reproduced by loudspeakers, which reproduce the full range of human hearing. Digital sound recordings record sound in binary, not as waves. Acoustics are the total effect of sound produced in an enclosed space. They are dependent no the shape of the area as well as its composition. Reverberation time is the time required for the intensity of the sound to drop to 10-6 or its original value or until the sound becomes inaudible. This is the most important acoustic property of a concert hall. Various sound reflectors can be strategically placed to determine a rooms acoustical properties.
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O P TI CS
The Speed of light in a vacuum is c=3.00X10 m/s.
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REFLECTION
For any ray directed towards a plane mirror, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. These angles are measured between the incident ray or the reflected ray, and the normal, respectively. The normal is the line drawn from the point of incidence at 90 to the surface of the optical device. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane.
REFRACTION
Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one medium into another of differing density. Often, in a phenomenon called partial reflection and refraction of light, the light will be split into two rays. When light goes from a slow medium to a fast medium (dense to less dense) it bends away from the normal, whereas when light goes from a fast medium to a slow medium, it bends towards the normal. A ray directed along a normal does not refract as it changes media.
INDEX OF REFRACTION
The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a given material is the index of refraction of the material. An optically dense medium has a high index of refraction and the higher the index of refraction, the slower the speed of light, and the smaller the angle of refraction.
LAWS OF REFRACTION
Snells Law states that , where 1 represents the incident ray and 2 represents the refracted ray. When light passes through something such as a window pane, it goes in through air, refracts inside the window, and then refracts back as it re-enters the air, resulting in an emergent ray parallel to the incident ray but no longer on the same path. This sideways shifting is called lateral displacement.
cables. Within fibre optic cables, there is cladding (which has a lower refractive index than the glass core) to ensure that the rays are travelling from a slow medium to a fast medium, and thus total internal reflection can occur. Effects such as mirages result from air refracting through increasingly hot air until the incident angle passes the critical angle and the light is totally internally reflected back upwards.
PARABOLIC MIRRORS
Parabolic Mirrors have 3 predictable rays- If the ray comes in parallel to the principal axis, it will reflect out through the focal point. If the ray comes in through the focal point, it will leave parallel to the principal axis. If it goes in along the diameter, it will leave along the same diameter. There are 3 scenarios for converging mirrors. 1. 2. 3. If the object is behind the center, its image will be diminished, inverted, and real. If the object is between the centre and the focal point, the image will be enlarged, inverted, and real. If the object is between the focal point and the mirror, the image will be enlarged, erect, and virtual.
For a diverging mirror, the image will be diminished, erect, and virtual. There are several mirror/lens equations:
There are several conventions when working with these equations. f is negative when the mirror is diverging. di is negative when the image is virtual (behind the mirror). hi is negative when the image is inverted.
REFRACTION IN LENSES
Rules for rays in a converging Lens: y y y A light ray travelling parallel to the principal axis refracts through the principle focus. A light ray passing through the secondary focus refracts parallel to the principal axis. A light ray travelling through the optical centre does not refract, it goes straight through.
Rules for rays in a diverging lens y They are the same as above, however in this scenario, the principal focus in on the same side as the object, and the secondary principal focus in on the other side. The opposite is true for a converging lens.
Sign Conventions y y Image distances are positive if they are on the opposite side of the lens form which the light is coming, if on the same side, it is negative. (- for virtual images) Image height is negative when the attitude is inverted.
Ferromagnetic substances are substances that can become magnetized by placing them in a magnetic field. Atoms of ferromagnetic substances are like tiny magnets, each with opposite poles. These dipoles, as they are known, line up with their neighbors so that their magnetic axes are in the same direction, forming a magnetic domain. Un unmagnetized ferromagnetic substance contains millions of magnetic domains, but they are pointing in random directions and so as a whole the substance remains unmagnetized. However, when placed in a magnetic field, the dipoles turn so that all the domains have the same direction, causing one end to have a north pole, and the other to have a south pole, creating flowing charge. Materials which, when removed from a magnetic field, revert to random alignment instantly are known as soft ferromagnetic materials, whereas when iron is alloyed with other materials, such as aluminum and silicon, these added metals keep the dipoles in line even when removed from the magnetic field, thereby forming a permanent magnet. These alloys are referred to as hard ferromagnetic materials.
MA G NETIC FIELDS
The basic principle of electromagnetism, Oersteds discovery, is that whenever electric current moves through a conductor, a magnetic field is created in the region of a conductor. If a straight conductor is held in the right hand with the right thumb pointing in the direction of the electric current, the curled fingers point in the direction of the magnetic field lines. (Note: in a diagram x denotes moving into the page, a dot represents moving out of the page.) The magnetic field around a straight conductor can be intensified by bending the wire into a loop, even more so by bending it into a coil (also known as a solenoid), which can be further increased by the presence of an iron core inside the coops of the solenoid. If a coil is grasped in the right hand with the curled fingers representing the direction of the electric current, the thumb points in the direction of the magnetic field inside the coil. The magnetic field strength of a coil increases with more current, more loops, and a core material with higher relative magnetic permeability.
MOTOR PRINCIPLE
Faraday discovered that when a current carrying conductor cuts across an external magnetic field, it experiences a force perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the direction of electric current. If the fingers of the open right hand point in the direction of the external magnetic field, and the thumb represents the direction of current, then the force will be in the direction in which the palm faces. The motor principle can be applied to moving-coil loudspeakers, galvanometers, and the electric motor.