Vsa Group of Institutions, Salem

VSA GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS, SALEM
DEPARTMENT OF ECE

ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

(FOR III-SEM-CSE STUDENTS)

UNIT-I

FUNDAMENTALS OF ANALOG COMMUNICATION

PREPARED BY

Ms.V.Ezhilya, Lect/ECE

HOD PRINCIPAL
ADC/ECE 2013 Ms.V.Ezhilya
2

3
ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF ANALOG COMMUNICATION
Principles of amplitude modulation, AM envelope, Frequency spectrum and
bandwidth, Modulation index and percent modulation, AM voltage distribution,
AM power distribution, Angle Modulation-FM and PM waveforms, phase
deviation and modulation index, Frequency deviation and percent modulation,
Frequency analysis of angle modulated wave, Bandwidth requirements for angle
modulated waves.
UNIT II DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Introduction, Shannon limit for information capacity, Digital amplitude
modulation, Frequency shift keying, FSK bit rate and baud, FSK transmitter, BW
consideration of FSK, FSK receiver, Phase shift keying- Binary phase shift keying
QPSK, Quadrature amplitude modulation, Bandwidth efficiency, Carrier
recovery Squaring loop, Costas loop, DPSK.

UNIT III DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
Introduction, Pulse Modulation, PCM PCM sampling, Sampling rate, Signal to
quantization noise rate, Companding Analog and Digital Percentage error,
Delta modulation, Adaptive delta modulation, differential pulse code
modulation, Pulse transmission Intersymbol interference, eye patterns.

UNIT IV DATA COMMUNICATIONS
Introduction, History of Data Communications, Standards Organizations for
data communicaton, Data communication circuits, Data communication codes,
Error control, Error detection, Error correction, Data communication hardware,
Serial and parallel interfaces, Data modems, Asynchronous modem,
Synchronous modem, Low speed modem, Medium and high speed modem,
Modem control.

UNIT V SPREAD SPECTRUM AND MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES
Introduction, Pseudo-noise sequences, DS spread spectrum with coherent binary
PSK, Processing gain, FH spread spectrum, Multiple access techniques Wireless
communication, TDMA and CDMA in wireless communication systems, Sourse
coding of speech for wireless communication.

4

Unit I FUNDAMENTALS OF ANALOG COMMUNICATION

S. No
Topic Reference
Teaching
Aids
No of
hours
UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS OF ANALOG COMMUNICATION
1
Principles of amplitude
modulation, AM envelope
T 1, Ch - 1 CB 1
2
Frequency spectrum and
bandwidth
T 1, Ch 1 CB 2
3
Modulation index and percent
modulation,
T 1, Ch 1 CB 1
4
AM voltage distribution, AM
power distribution
T 1, Ch 1 CB 1
5
Angle Modulation-FM and PM
waveforms
T 1, Ch 1 CB 1
6
Phase deviation and
modulation index
T 1, Ch 1 CB 1
7
Frequency deviation and
percent modulation
T 1, Ch 1 CB 1
8
Frequency analysis of angle
modulated wave
T 1, Ch 1 CB 2
9
Bandwidth requirements for
angle modulated waves
T 1, Ch 1 CB 2

Total Hours= 12

T 1: Analog and Digital Communication by S.Prabhu Bharathi Publications

5

Class 1: Principle of AM modulation & Envelope

Let us consider the modulating voltage,

Vm(t) = Vm Cos mt
Vc(t) = Vc Cos ct
According to the definition, the amplitude of the carrier signal is changed after
modulation.

VAM = Vc + Vm=Vc+Vm Cos mt------------- (1)

= Vc [ 1+ (Vm/Vc) Cos mt ] ------------- (2)

ma= Em/Ec Where ma is the modulation index (or)depth of
modulation.

Therfore VAM=Vc(1+ ma Cos mt ) ------------- (3)
But the instantaneous amplitude of modulated signal, i.e at any time
VAM(t)= VAM Cos ct------------- (4)
i.e. the modulated wave contains amplitude of the carrier wave.so that
equation(4)is represented by the product of VAM Cos ct.
Sub equation(3)in(4)
VAM(t)= Vc (1 + ma Cosmt) Cosct

= Vc Cosct + ma Vc Cosmt Cosct

= Vc Cosct + ma Vc [Cos(c + m)t + Cos(c m)t]
2
= Carrier + USB + LSB
Finally the modulated wave contains carrier term and upper side band and
lower side band.

Write the Expression for AM & calculate its Power and Efficiency
(OR)
Write down the AM equation and also obtain an expression for its Power saving
and efficiency.[16 M]
[16

6
Frequency spectrum of AM Wave

Graphical representation of AM

Phasor representation of AM

Power relation in AM:

m c
e e

c
e

2
c a
V m

2
c a
V m

m c
e e
c
e
2
c a
V m

2
c a
V m

LSB USB
0
VAM(t)
V
c

BW=2
m

m c
e e +
V
c
0
Carrier
V
AM
(t)
A

m
e
m
e
) (
2
USB
V m
c a

) (
2
LSB
V m
c a

7
- The modulated wave contains three terms such as carrier wave, LSB,
USB.
- The modulated wave contains more power than the unmodulated
carrier.
Total Power in modulated wave will be,
Pt = PC + PUSB + PLSB
i.e. total power Pt of AM wave is the sum of carrier power and side band
power.

PC - Carrier power
PUSB - Upper Side Band power
PLSB - Lower Side Band power

But we know that
R
V
R
V
R
V
P
R
V
P
USB LSB C
t
2 2 2
2
+ + =
=

Vcarrier=RMS value of carrier voltage.

VLSB= VUSB=RMS value of upper and lower side band voltages.

R=Resistence in which power is dissipated.

The RMS value is
VRMS=Vm/2

Therefore

Pcarrier=V
2
carrier/R=(Vc/ 2)
2
/R=Vc
2
/2R
R
V m
R
V m
R
V
P P
C a
c a
SB
USB LSB
8
2
2 /
2 2
2
2
=
|
.
|
\
|
= = =

8
(
(
+ =
(
(
+ =
=
+ + =
2
1
2
1
2
. .
8 8 2
2
2
2
2 2 2 2 2
a
C
t
a
C t
c
c
C a C a C
t
m
P
P
m
P P
R
V
P
t k W
R
V m
R
V m
R
V
P

Current relation in AM:

2
1
2
1
.
.
2
1
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
a
C t
a
C t
c C
t t
a
C
t
m
I I
m
I I
R I P
R I P
m
P
P
+ =
(
(
+ =
=
=
(
(
+ =

It=Total(or)modulated current
IC=Carrier current

Efficiency:

% = Power in side band x 100
Total Power

=PLSB+PLSB x 100
PTotal

= ma
2
x 100
2+ma
2

If ma = 1
Then % = 33.33 %
In this only one third of total power is carried by the sidebands and the rest two
third is wasted.
9
Class 2: Frequency Spectrum & Bandwidth

In AM with carrier scheme, there is wastage in both transmitted power
and bandwidth. In order to save the power in amplitude modulation the carrier
is suppressed because it does not contain any useful information. This scheme is
called as the double side band suppressed carrier amplitude Modulation (DSB-
SC). It contains LSB and USB terms, resulting in a transmission bandwidth that is
twice the bandwidth of the message signal.
Let us consider the modulating voltage,

Vm(t) = Vm Cos mt ------------(1)
Vc(t) = Vc Cos ct -------------(2)

For obtaining the DSB-SC wave we have to multiply both carrier signal and
message signal.hence,
V(t)DSB-SC = Vm(t).Vc(t)
=Vm.Vc cosm t cosc t
V(t)DSB-SC=Vm.Vc [ cos(c +m )t + cos(c - m )t
2
USB LSB
From this equation we know that the carrier is suppressed in double side band
suppressed carrier.
AM
It shows that carrier term c is suppressed. It contains only two sideband
terms having frequency (c - m) and (c + m). Hence this scheme is called as
DSB-SC AM.

Derive the expression for DSB-SC AM and calculate its efficiency. [16 M]

10
Frequency spectrum of DSB-SC

Phasor representation of DSB-SC AM:

Power Calculation:

w.k.t The total power transmitted in AM is
Pt =Pcarrier +PLSB +PUSB

If the carrier is suppressed , then the total power transmitted is
Pt = PLSB +PUSB

w.k.t, PLSB = PUSB = ma
2 V
c
2

8R

maVc
2
c
-
m

c
+
m

B.W = 2
m

V
c
0
Carrier
V
SSB

A

m
e
m
e
) (
2
USB
V m
c a

) (
2
LSB
V m
c a

11
Pt = ma
2 V
c
2
+ ma
2 V
c
2

8R 8R

=
C
a
t
c a
P
m
P
R
V m
2
2 2
2
'
2 2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

Power Saving = Pt - Pt x 100

Pt
= [ 1+ ma
2
/ 2] PC - [ma
2
/ 2] PC

[1+ ma
2
/ 2] PC

= PC

[1+ ma
2
/ 2] PC

% Power Saving = 2 x 100
2+ ma
2

If ma = 1, then power saving (2/3) x 100 = 66.7 %

i.e 66.7% of power is saved by using DSB-SC-AM.

12
Class 3: AM Voltage distribution and power calcultation.

- In AM with carrier both the transmitting power and bandwidth is wasted.
Hence the DSB-SC AM scheme has been introduced in which power is
saved by suppressing the carrier component but the bandwidth remains
same.
- Increase in the saving of power is possible by eliminating one sideband in
addition to the carrier component because the USB and LSB are uniquely
related by symmetry about the carrier frequency. So either one sideband is
enough for transmitting as well as recovering the useful message. The
block diagram of SSB-SC AM is shown in figure.
- As for as transmission information is concerned only one side band is
necessary. so if the carrier and one of the two sidebands are suppressed at
the transmitter, no information is lost.
- This type of modulation is called as single side band suppressed carrier-
AM and the SSB system reduces the band width by half.

The block diagram of SSB-SC AM is shown in figure.

- The single side band suppressed carrier can be obtained as follows,

Vc(t)
Carrier signal
V2
V1
SSB-SC
AM
= 90 AM
= 90

AM
Vm
(t)
Derive the expression for SSB-SC AM and calculate its efficiency. [16 M]

13
- In order to suppress one of the sideband, the input signal fed to the
modulator1 is 90 out of phase with that of the signal fed to the
modulator2.

Let V1(t) = Vm cosm t .Vc cos c t
V2 (t) = Vm cos(mt + 90 ). Vc cos (c t + 90 )
= Vm sin mt. Vc sin c t
Therefore,
V(t) SSB = V1(t) +V2(t)
= Vm Vc [cosm t. cosc t + sin mt. sinct]
V(t)SSB= Vm Vc cos (c - m) t.
W.k.t, for DSB-SC AM
VDSB-SC (t) = Vm Ec [cos(c +m )t + cos(c - m)t]
2
When comparing equations of V(t) SSB-SC and VDSB-SC (t) , one of the sideband is
suppressed. Hence this scheme is known as SSB-SC AM.

Frequency Spectrum Of SSB-SC-AM:

V(t)
(m
a
Vc)/2
m

c
-
m

c

c
+
m

0
m

m

14
- The Frequency spectrum shows that only one side band signal is present ,
the carrier and the other sideband signal are suppressed. Thus the
bandwidth required reduces from 2 m to m i.e., bandwidth requirement
is reduced to half compared to AM & DSB-SC signals.

Power calculation:
Power in sidebands Pt = PSB = ma
2
Vc
2
/8R=ma
2
Pc / 4
Power saving with respect to AM with carrier
Power saving = Pt - Ptx100

Pt

where Pt = Total power transmitted.

Power saving = [ 1+ ma
2
/ 2] PC - [ma
2
/ 4] PC

[1+ ma
2
/ 2] PC

= PC +[ma
2
/ 2] PC - [ma
2
/ 4] PC

[1+ ma
2
/ 2] PC

=
100
2 4
4
100
2
2
4
4
100
2
1
4
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
+
+
=
+
+
+
+
a
a
a
a
a
a
m
m
m
m
m
m

15
If ma=1 then %power saving= (5/6) x100=83.3%
So we can save 83.3% of power with respect to AM with carrier.
- We can also find the power in SSB-SC-AM with respect to AM with DSB-
SC system and that will be,

100
2
4 2
100
'
' ' '
2
2 2
=
c a
c a c a
t
t t
P m
P m P m
p
p p
g powersavin

If ma=1 then %power saving=50%.therefore 50%power is saved with respect to
DSB-SC System.

16
Class 4: Angle Modulation FM & PM waveforms

The generation method of AM waves are broadly divided in to two
types,
Linear modulator(or)large signal modulator(or)high level modulation
Non Linear modulator(or)small signal modulator(or)low level
modulation

Linear modulator:
In this type of modulators the devices are operated in linear region of
its transfer characteristics.

Linear modulators are also divided in to two types,
Transistor modulator
Switching modulator.

Non linear modulators:
These modulators are operated in nonlinear region.
These are used in low level modulation.

The types of non linear modulators are,
Square law modulator,
Product modulator,
Balanced modulator.

Types of frequency modulation (FM):
The bandwidth of an FM Signal depends on the frequency deviation

ie W.K.T = KVm frequency deviation
If the frequency deviation is high, the B.w will be large. If it is low the B.w
will small.
Write short notes on the types of generation methods of AM with Carrier.

What are the types of frequency modulation? And explain about the Narrow
band FM and Wide band FM.[April-04]
17
And B.w depends on frequency deviation. Or modulation index
Frequency deviation depends on frequency sensitivity factor K.

If K or m is small B.w will be narrow

If K or m is large B.w will be large or wide.

Depending upon the value of frequency sensitivity K, FM may be divided
as under.
Narrow band FM : K or m is small, Hence FM is narrow.

Wide band FM : K or m is large, Hence FM is wide.

Narrow band FM:

Generation of Narrow band FM:

If modulation index value is small compared to one radian. It is narrow
band FM.
In Narrow band FM generation the carrier is added with the o/p of
balanced modulators. O/p of balanced modulators will be the side band
terms.
The message signal Vm(t) = VmCosmt
And carrier signal Vc(t) = VcCos(ct+)

= VcCos

The message signal is passed through integrator.
Vm(t)dt = VmCosmtdt
Carrier 90
0

phase shifter
Balanced
modulator

Integrator
Carrier
signal
generator
V
m
(t)
y(t)
FM
18

y(t) = Vm/mSinmt

The normal carrier is represented as VcCosct passed through phase
Shifter

Therefore Vc(t) = VcCos(ct+90) = -VcSinct

The o/p of Balanced modulator will be = - VcKSinct.y(t)
The o/p of narrow band FM is
VFM(t) = VcCosct VcSinct (KVm/m) Sinmt

VFM(t) = VcCosct Vcmf Sinmt. Sinct

Applying SinASinB =[Cos(A-B) Cos(A+B)]/2

Then

VFM(t) = VcCosct [(Vcmf)/2][Cos(c-m)t-Cos(c+m)t]

It is similar to AM wave representation. So the B.w also 2fm. So like an
AM we can represent the phase representation of an NBFM.

Wideband frequency modulation:

Generation of WBFM:

When the value of modulation index mf is quite large, then in FM a large
number of sidebands are produced and hence Bandwidth of FM is sufficiently
large. This type of FM system is known as wideband FM.

Final equn for FM is

VFM(t) = VcCos(ct + mf Sinmt)

Cos(A+B) = CosACosB - SinASinBVFM(t) =Vc[cosctcos(mfSinmt)
SinctSin(mfSinmt)]

Assuming modulation index mf is small compared to one radian, and then we
can make the following assumptions,

Cos(mfSinmt)~1
19

and Sin(mfSinmt)~mfSinmt (because Sin= if is small)

This is the required expression for single tone narrowband FM.

From the block dgm, the difference betn carrier and o/p of BM
produces an Narrow band FM but with some distortion.
The FM has constant envelope but the NBFM contains residual
amplitude modulation and therefore varies with time.
So the modulating wave contains some harmonics.

Practically a wideband FM is obtained by multiplying the
narrowband FM signal by using stable frequency multipliers.

We will consider a single tone FM system, the expression for a
single tone FM wave is,

VFM(t) = VcCos(ct+mfSinmt) 1

We have to simplify the equation by Fourier transforms. Fourier
transform is calculated by representing the signals in complex representation.
For representing complex representation we are taking the real part of FM.

Taking the real part, the exponential phases is given by,

VFM(t) = Vc e
(jct + mf sinmt)
2 e(j) = Cos + jSin

VFM(t) = Vc e
jct
.e
mfsinmt
) 3

In equn 3 the 2
nd
term is the periodic section with period
T = 1/fm, so it is expanded in the form of complex fourier transform,

V
FM
(t) = V
c
Cos
c
t V
c
m
f
Sin
m
t . Sin
c
t
The expression for complex Fourier series is

=
=
=
o
o
e
n
n
t jn
n
e c t x
0
) ( x(t)

Where
}
=
2
2
0
) (
1
T
T
t jn
n
dt e t x
T
c
e

20
In our expression x(t) is e
j mf sinmt
therefore the complex Fourier series is,

=
=
=
o
o
e
e
n
n
t jn
n
t jm
e c e
m f
) 4 (
0
sin

And coefficient Cn is

) 5 (
2
1
2
1
sin
=
}
m
m
m
m f
f
f
t jn
t jm
m n
dt e e f c
e
e

Substituting x = mt in eqn 5

x = 2fmt when t = 1/2fm

dx/dt = 2fm x= 2 fm(1/2fm) =

dx = 2fmdt and t = -1/2fm, x=-

) 6 (
2
1
2
1
.
)
sin (
sin (
=
=
}
}
t
t
t
t
t
t
dx e c
dx e e
f
f c
nx
x m j
n
jnx
x m j
m
m n
f
f

The integral part of the R.H.S is equal to nth order Bessel function
of the 1
st
kind and argument mf. This function is represented as Jn(mf)

Cn = Jn(mf)----------(7)

Substituting eqn (7) in eqn (4) then
) 8 ( ) (
sin
=

t jn
f n
t jm
m
m f
e m J e
e
e

Substituting eqn (8) in eqn (3) then

+

+
+

=
=
) 9 ( ) ( ) (
) ( . ) (
) ( t n j
f n
c
FM
t jn
f n
t j
c FM
m c
m c
e m J V t V
e m J e V t V
e e
e e

21
By taking real part on right hand side it will provide the expression for FM
signals.

+

+ = t n Cos m J V t V
m c f n
c
FM
) ( ) ( ) ( e e
_____(10)

Substituting n values and making use of the first property of Bessel function,
eqn(10) becomes
First property of Bessel function
Jn(mf) = J-n(mf)for even n
Jn(mf) = -J-n(mf) for odd n

VFM(t) = VcJ0(mf) Cosct

+ VcJ1(mf) [Cos(c+m)t cos(c-m)t]

+ VcJ2(mf) [Cos(c+m)t cos(c-m)t]

+ VcJm(mf) [Cos(c+m)t cos(c-m)t]

+ . ------------------ (11)

This is considered as mf is taken that it is greater than one.
We are using this type of wide band FM in order to obtain wide
bandwidth; it is used in mobile communication.
In order to evaluate the value of a given pair of sidebands or the
value of the carrier, it is necessary to know the value of the
corresponding Bessel function.
So from eqn(2) the mag. Of carrier is reduced by by J0m(f).and it is
having infinite number of sidebands and each side band is
represented by separate Bessel function.
In order to reduce the number of sidebands we have to consider to mf
value. If mf value is low then only J0(mf) and J1(mf) are existing. So it only
having a carrier and a pair of sideband term. And it may produce 100%
efficiency.
So according to modulation index value the sideband varies. If the
mf value is small sidebands are less. mf value is large
sidebands are more.

22
Types of Frequency Modulation

Narrowband Frequency Modulation

The time domain representation of a narrowband FM signal

(t) = c cos(2 fct) cos[ sin(2 fmt)] - c sin(2 fct) sin[ sin(2 fmt)]

Assuming that the modulation index is small compared to one radian, we may
use the following approximations:

cos[ sin(2 fmt)] 1 and
sin[ sin(2 fmt)] sin(2 fmt)

So, the simplified equation becomes
(t) = c cos(2 fct) - c sin(2 fct) sin(2 fmt)

The narrowband FM is similar to AM, the basic difference between the two is
that the algebraic sign of the lower side frequency in the narrowband FM is
reversed. Thus, a narrowband FM signal requires essentially the same
transmission bandwidth(i.e.,2fm) as the AM signal.

Wideband Frequency Modulation

In wideband FM we consider the time domain signal as follows:
(t) = Re[ cexp(j2 fct) + j sin(2 fmt)]
where = cexp[j sin(2 fmt)]
Through analysis we find that a wideband FM signal has infinity
bandwidth. In theory, an FM signal contains an infinite number of side
frequencies so that the bandwidth required to transmit such a signal is similarly
infinite in extent. In practice, however, we find that the FM signal is effectively
limited to finite number of significant side frequencies compatible with a
specified amount of distortion.
We may therefore specify an effective bandwidth required for the
transmission of an FM signal We define an approximate rule for the transmission
bandwidth of an FM signal generated by a single-tone modulating signal of
frequency fm. This empirical relation is known as Carson's rule

23

Class 5: Bandwidth Requirements for Angle Modulated Wave

We already know the relationship between no. of side band and mf.
So for a particular value of modulation Index mf we can calculate
the number of sidebands by using table. So a bandwidth also
depends on mf value.

The number of significant side bands n produced by plotting
Bessel function Jn(mf).
The number of sidebands are separated at fm (or) m(we are
representing frequency as fm or m)
So the total side band is B.W = 2nmrad/sec
B.W = 2nfm n no. of side bands.
If n contains large no. of sidebands, then it is related to mf. So n~mf

B.w = 2mfm mf = /m
= 2(/m) m
B.w = 2() (or) 2f

So the approximate B.w of WBFM is given by twice the frequency
deviation. This is true when mf>>1. This is also calculated by Carlsons
Rule.

Write notes on Transmission Bandwidth of FM signal.[April-04]

24

Advantages of FM over AM:
FM receives may be fitted with amplitude limiters to remove the
amplitude variations caused by noise
It is possible to reduce noise by increasing the frequency deviation.
Standard frequency allocation provides a guard band betn commercial
FM station.
The amplitude of FM is const. It is independent of modulation depth.
Where as in AM it depends on ma. All the transmitted power is useful in
FM. But in AM most of the power is carrier power.

Disadvantages of FM over AM:
FM transmitter and receiver, modulation, demodulation equipments are
more complex and hence more costly.
A much wider channel 200 KHz is required, but AM using only 10 KHz
channel.

Phase Modulation is defined as the process by which changing the phase of
the carrier signal in accordance with instantaneous value of the message
signal and amplitude and frequency remains constant.

Let the modulating signal t Cos V t V
m m m
e = ) (

|
u e
VcCos t soV
t VcCos t andV
c
c c
=
+ =
) (
) ( ) (

So is varied with phase angle

) 1 ( ) ( , =
i c PM
Cos V t V So |

Write the advantages and disadvantages of FM over AM.

Derive the expression for PM wave.

25
We are taking the instantaneous phase of the message signal so

) 2 (
) (
+ =
+ =
t Cos KV t
t KV t
m m c i
m c i
e e |
e |

( )
( ) t Cos m t Cos V t V
t Cos KV t Cos V t V
m P c c PM
m m c c PM
e e
e e
+ =
+ =
) (
) (

Where mp = modulation Index of Phase modulation

This is for single tone.
For generalized expression
( ) ) ( ) ( t KV t Cos V t V
m c c PM
+ = e

26
Class 6: Percent Modulation & Modulation Index
PERCENT OF MODULATION:
Before we explain 100-percent modulation in an fm system, let's review
the conditions for 100-percent modulation of an AM wave. Recall that 100-
percent modulation for AM exists when the amplitude of the modulation
envelope varies between 0 volts and twice its normal modulated value. At 100-
percent modulation there is a power increase of 50 percent.
Because the modulating wave is not constant in voice signals, the degree
of modulation constantly varies. In this case the vacuum tubes in an AM system
cannot be operated at maximum efficiency because of varying power
requirements.
In frequency modulation, 100-percent modulation has a meaning different
from that of AM. The modulating signal varies only the frequency of the carrier.
Therefore, tubes do not have varying power requirements and can be operated at
maximum efficiency and the fm signal has a constant power output. In fm a
modulation of 100 percent simply means that the carrier is deviated in frequency
by the full permissible amount.
For example, an 88.5-megahertz fm station operates at 100-percent
modulation when the modulating signal deviation frequency band is from 75
kilohertz above to 75 kilohertz below the carrier (the maximum allowable limits).
This maximum deviation frequency is set arbitrarily and will vary according to
the applications of a given fm transmitter. In the case given above, 50-percent
modulation would mean that the carrier was deviated 37.5 kilohertz above and
below the resting frequency (50 percent of the 150-kilohertz band divided by 2).
Other assignments for fm service may limit the allowable deviation to 50
kilohertz, or even 10 kilohertz.
27
Since there is no fixed value for comparison, the term "percent of
modulation" has little meaning for fm. The term MODULATION INDEX is more
useful in fm modulation discussions. Modulation index is frequency deviation
divided by the frequency of the modulating signal.
MODULATION INDEX.
This ratio of frequency deviation to frequency of the modulating signal is
useful because it also describes the ratio of amplitude to tone for the audio
signal. These factors determine the number and spacing of the side frequencies of
the transmitted signal. The modulation index formula is shown below:

28
TWO MARK QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by communication & what are the three essential things used
in communication?
Communication is the process of conveying or transferring messages from
one Point to another.
There are three essential things used in communication. They are
- Transmitter
- Receiver
- Communication channel

2. What is meant by communication channel and Mention its types.
The communication channel is the medium used for transmission of
electronic signal from one place to the other. The communication medium can
be conducting wires, cables, optical fiber or free space. Depending on the type
of communication medium, two types of communication systems will exist.
They are,
- Wire communication or line communication.
- Wireless communication or Radio communication.

3. What are the types of communication channels?
A. Transmission lines
B. Parallel wires
C. Co-axial lines
D. Wave guides
E. Optical fiber.

4. Define modulation?
Modulation is a process by which some characteristics of high frequency
carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of
another signal called modulating signal.
It is the process of impressing low frequency information signals on to a
high frequency carrier signals.

5. What are the types of modulation?
There are three types of modulation,
- Amplitude modulation
- Frequency modulation
- Phase modulation

29
6. What are the types of Communication system?

7. What are the advantages of modulation?
A. Reduction in the height of antenna
B. Avoids mixing of signals.
C. Increases the range of communication.
D. Multiplexing is possible.
E. Improves quality of reception.
Needs for modulation:
i) Ease of transmission
ii) Multiplexing
iii) Reduced noise
iv) Narrow bandwidth
v) Frequency assignment
vi) Reduce the equipments limitations

8. Define demodulation.
Demodulation or detection is the process by which modulating voltage is
recovered from the modulated signal. It is the reverse process of
modulation.
Communication system
Analog
communication.
Hybrid
Communication.
Digital
Communication.
PCM DPCM DM
Continuous wave modulation
(Carrier is continuous wave)
Pulse modulation
(Carrier is in pulses)
Amplitude
Modulation
Phase
Modulation
Frequency
Modulation
PAM PWM PPM
30
It is the process of separating low frequency information signals from the
modulated carrier signals.

9. Define Amplitude modulation?
Amplitude modulation is the process by which amplitude of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal but frequency and phase of carrier wave is remains
constant.

10. Define Frequency modulation?
Frequency modulation is the process by which frequency of the carrier
signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal.

11. Define direct Frequency Modulation.
Varying the frequency of a constant amplitude carrier directly
proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at a rate equal to
the frequency of the modulating signal.

12. Define phase modulation?
Phase modulation is the process by which Phase angle of the carrier signal
is varied in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating
signal.

13. Define Band width and how it is obtained from transmitted signal?
It is defined as the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by
a signal. (Or) It is defined as the frequency range over which an information
signal is transmitted.
To obtain:
1. The band width of the signal which is to be transmitted can be
obtained by plotting the spectrum of the signal with the Fourier
series or Fourier transform.
2. The band width of the signal is defined as the difference
between the maximum and minimum values of frequencies
present in the spectrum.

14. Define modulation index.
It is defined as the ratio between message amplitude to that of carrier
amplitude or it is the ratio of peak amplitudes of modulating signal and the
carrier signal.
It is given by
ma=Vm/Vc
(or)
31
m=Em/Ec
It is also known as depth of modulation.

15. What do you mean by percent modulation?
Percent modulation is the modulation index expressed in
percentage.
Percent modulation, M=m*100

16. As related to AM what is over modulation, under modulation and
100% modulation? [April-04]
(OR)
When does a carrier is said to be over, under modulated in
Amplitude modulation? [Nov-04]
In the case of Under modulation, modulation index ma<1(i.e.)Vm<Vc.Here
the envelope of Amplitude modulated signal does not reach the Zero
amplitude axis. Hence the Message signal is fully preserved in the
envelope of the AM Wave.
In the case of Over modulation, modulation index ma>1(i.e.)Vm>Vc. Here
the envelope of Amplitude modulated signal crosses the zero axis.
In the case critical modulation modulation index ma=1(i.e.)Vm=Vc.Here the
envelope of the modulated signal just reaches the zero amplitude axis. The
message signal remains preserved.

17. What is meant by AM Envelope?
The output waveform of an Amplitude modulation contains all the
frequencies that make up the AM signal and it is used to transport the
information through the system. Therefore the shape of the modulated wave
is called AM Envelope.

18. If a 10KW amplitude modulated transmitter is modulated
Sinusoidally by 50%, what is the total RF power delivered?
[Nov-05]
ma=50/100=0.5;Pc=10 kw
Pt=Pc(1+m
2
/2)
=11.25kw

32
19. Draw the Graphical and frequency spectrum of AM with carrier.
Frequency spectrum of AM with carrier:

Graphical representation:

20. Write the time domain expression of AM Signal.
eAM = Ec [1 + m cos (2 f m t)] cos (2 f c t).

21. What is meant by sidebands? Give the Bandwidth of AM wave.
The modulated carrier has new signals at different frequencies called
sidebands or side frequencies. They occur above and below the carrier
frequencies.
i.e. fUSB = fc + fm
fLSB = fc fm
Bandwidth is the difference between highest and lowest frequencies.
BW = fUSB - fLSB

m c
e e c
e
2
c
mE

2
c
mE

LSB USB
0
V
AM
(t)
E
c

BW=2
m

m c
e e +
33
= (fc+fm) (fc-fm)
BW = 2fm

22. Draw the frequency spectrum Representation of DSB-SC-AM?

Frequency spectrum:

23. How the total power can be calculated in Amplitude Modulation?
The total power can be calculated by,
Ptotal = Pc (1 + m^2/2)
Where, Pc is the carrier power in watts
m is the modulation index

24. What is meant by DSBSC?
The DSBSC is the Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier. This is type of
modulation in which the carrier is suppressed and only the sidebands are
transmitted.

25. What are the advantages of DSB-SC and SSB-SC.
DSB-SC:
Suppression of carrier results in economy of power.
It is commonly used in carrier current telephony system, in which one
sideband is filtered out to reduce the width of the channel required for
transmission.
It offers secrecy.
It increases the efficiency because the carrier is suppressed.

SSB-SC:
Bandwidth of SSB is half that of DSB-SC AM. Thus twice the number of
channels can be accommodated at a given frequency spectrum.
m c
e e

c
e

2
c a
V m

2
c a
V m

LSB USB
0
V
DSB-
SC
(t)
BW=2
m

m
m c
e e +

34
No carrier is transmitted, hence possibility of interference with other
channels are avoided.
It eliminates the possibility of fading. Fading occurs due to multipath
propagation of electro-magnetic waves.

26. Give the methods of generating SSB-SC-AM. And mention
Some applications of SSB-SC
The two methods of generating the SSB-SC waves are
Frequency discrimination or Filter method.
Phase discrimination method.
Applications:
Police Wireless communication.
SSB telegraph system
Point to point radio telephone communication
VHF and UHF communication systems.

27. What are the types of AM modulators?
There are two types of AM modulators. They are
Linear modulators
Non-linear modulators
Linear modulators are classified as follows
Transistor modulator
There are three types of transistor modulator.
Collector modulator
Emitter modulator
Base modulator
Switching modulators
Non-linear modulators are classified as follows
Square law modulator
Product modulator
Balanced modulator

28. What is single tone and multi tone modulation?
- If modulation is performed for a message signal with more than one frequency
component then the modulation is called multi tone modulation.
- If modulation is performed for a message signal with one frequency component
then the modulation is called single tone modulation.

29. What is the need for modulation?
Needs for modulation:
Ease of transmission
Multiplexing
35
Reduced noise
Narrow bandwidth
Frequency assignment
Reduce the equipments limitations

30. Compare AM with DSB-SC and SSB-SC.
AM signal DSB-SC SSB-SC
Bandwidth=2fm

Bandwidth=2fm Bandwidth=fm
Contains USB, LSB,
carrier
Contains USB,LSB Contains LSB or USB

More power is required
for transmission
Power required is less
than that of AM.
Power required is less
than AM &DSB-SC

31. What are the types of AM detectors?
1. Nonlinear detectors
2. Linear detectors

32. What are the types of linear detectors?
1. Synchronous or coherent detector.
2 .Envelope or non coherent detector.

33. What is the use of Automatic Gain Control in AM detector? Give their
types.
The Automatic Gain Control (AGC) keeps the output constant irrespective
of the increase or decrease in the signal level at the input of the receiver.
There are two types of AGC.
Simple AGC
Delayed AGC

34. A transmitter supplies 8 Kw to the antenna when modulated.
Determine the total power radiated when modulated to 30%.
ma=30/100=0.3;Pc=8 kw
Pt=Pc(1+m
2
/2)
=8.36 kw
35. The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8A when only carrier is sent. It increases
to 8.93A when the carrier is modulated by a single sine wave. Find the
percentage modulation.
Solution:
36
Given: Ic =8A It=8.93A m=0.8
Formula: It=Ic (1+m
2
/2)

8.93=8(1+m
2
/2)

m=0.701
It=8 (1+0.8
2
/2)

It=9.1A

36. A 1MHz carrier is amplitude modulated by 400Hz modulating signal to a
depth of 50%.The modulated carrier power is 1KW.Calculate the power of the
unmodulated signal.
Solution:-
Pc=1KW, ma=0.5=50%
KW P
m
P P
t
a
c t
125 . 1
2
) 5 . 0 (
1 10 1
2
1
2
3
2
=
(
+ =
(
(
+ =

The increase in power is given by 1.125-1=0.125KW is contained in two side
bands.

37. What is meant by High level & Low level AM transmitter?
The modulator amplifier operates at high power levels and delivers power
directly to the antenna. This is called High level AM transmitter.
The modulator amplifier perform modulation at relatively low power levels.
This is called Low level AM transmitter.

38. What are all the types of AM Receivers?
- Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) receivers
- Super heterodyne receivers

39. What are all the advantages & disadvantages of the TRF receiver?
Advantages:
- TRF receivers are very simple to implement
- TRF receivers have high sensitivity
Disadvantages:
o The gain of TRF receivers is not uniform over a wide frequency
range
o They are useful only to single channel low frequency applications.

40. What is meant by super heterodyne receiver?
The super heterodyne receiver converts all incoming RF frequencies to a
fixed lower frequency called intermediate frequency (IF). This IF is then
amplified and detected to get the original signal.

37
41. What is meant by Intermediate frequency?
The difference between local oscillator frequency (fo) and signal
Frequency (fs) is called intermediate frequency (IF).

42. Give any two advantages of super heterodyne receiver.
- The selectivity of this receiver is better since its IF amplifiers are
narrowband, and they operate only at IF.
- The design of IF amplifiers is relatively simple since they operate at IF.

43. List the Receiver parameters.
- Selectivity
- Bandwidth improvement
- Sensitivity
- Dynamic range
- Fidelity
- Insertion loss

44. What is meant by Local oscillator Tracking in the super heterodyne
receiver?
Tracking is the ability of the local oscillator in a receiver to oscillate either
above or below the selected radio frequency carrier by an amount equal to the
intermediate frequency throughout the entire radio frequency band.

45. Define Net Receiver Gain.
The net receiver gain is the ratio of the demodulated signal level at the
output of the receiver (audio) to the RF signal level at the input to the
receiver.

46. Define Dynamic range.
The dynamic range of a receiver is defined as the difference in decibels
between the minimum inputs level necessary to discern a signal and the input
level that will overdrive the receiver and produce distortion.

47. What is meant by frequency spectrum?
It is the representation of a signal in the frequency domain. It can be
obtained either by using Fourier series or Fourier transform.

48. Why do we consider the rms carrier voltage to calculate the carrier power?
It is because rms value decides the amount of power dissipated in the
radiation resistance R of an antenna.

38
49. Comparison between AM and FM.

Amplitude Modulation Frequency Modulation
Amplitude of the carrier is varied to
amplitude of modulating signal.
Frequency of the carrier is varied to
amplitude of modulating signal.
AM has poor fidelity due to narrow
bandwidth.
Since the bandwidth is large, fidelity is
better.
Most of the power is in carrier hence
less efficient.
All the transmitted power is useful.
Noise interference is more. Noise interference is minimum.
Adjacent channel interference is
present
Adjacent channel interference is
avoided due to wide frequency
spectrum.

50. Comparison between AM and Angle Modulation.

Angle Modulation have following advantages over AM:
1. The amplitude of the FM is constant. It is independent of depth of modulation.
Hence transmitter power remains constant in FM whereas it varies in AM.
2. Since amplitude of FM is constant, the noise interference is minimum in FM.
Any noise superimposing an amplitude can be removed with the help of
amplitude limits. Whereas it is difficult to remove amplitude variations due to
noise in AM.
3. The depth of the modulation have limitation in AM. But in FM the depth of the
modulation can be increased to any value by increasing the deviation. This does
not cause any distortion in FM signal.

51. What are the advantages and Disadvantages of AM?
Advantages:
1. AM transmitters are less complex.
2. AM receivers are simple, detection is easy.
3. AM receivers are cost efficient.
4. AM waves can travel a longer distance
5. Low Bandwidth
Disadvantages:
1. Power wastage takes place
2. AM needs larger Bandwidth
3. AM wave gets affected due to noise.

52. Define phase deviation.
The maximum phase deviation of the total angle from the carrier angle is
called phase deviation.

39
53. Define frequency Deviation.
The maximum departure of the instantaneous frequency from the carrier
frequency is called frequency deviation.

54. What is Deviation Ratio?
Deviation ratio (DR) is the worst case modulation index and is equal to
the maximum peak frequency deviation divided by the maximum modulating
spectrum. The worst case modulation index produces the widest frequency
spectrum. Mathematically, the deviation ratio is
DR =f(max) / fm(max)
Where DR = Deviation Ratio (unitlesss)
f(max) = maximum peak frequency deviation (hertz)
fm(max) = maximum modulating signal frequency (hertz)

55. A transmitter supplies 8 Kw to the antenna when modulated. Determine
the total power radiated when modulated to 30%?
m=0.3;Pc=8 kw
Pt=Pc(1+m2/2)
=8.36 kw

56. State the Carsons rule?
An approximate rule for the transmission bandwidth of an FM Signal
generated by a single tone-modulating signal of frequency fm is defined as
B =2 [ + f ].

57. Differentiate Between Narrow band and Wide band FM.
- In narrow band FM frequency deviation is very small. Hence the frequency
spectrum of two major sidebands like AM. Other sidebands are negligible
and they can be neglected. Therefore the bandwidth of narrow band FM
is limited only to twice of highest modulating frequency.
- If the deviation in carrier frequency is large enough so that the other side
bands cannot be neglected, then it is called wide band FM. The bandwidth
of wideband FM is calculated as per Carsons Rule.

58. What do you understand by narrow band FM?
When the modulation index is less than 1, the angle modulated systems are
called low index. The bandwidth requirement of low index systems is
approximately twice of the modulating signal frequency. Therefore the low index
systems are called narrow band FM.

40
59. State Carsons rule of FM bandwidth.
Carsons rule of FM bandwidth is given as,
BW= 2 [ + f ]
Here, is the max. frequency deviation
is the max. signal frequency.

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

1. Explain the principle of operation of square law modulator. Mention its merits
and demerits.
(OR)
Explain any one generation method of AM [Nov-05]
(OR)
Explain the principle of operation of any one non linear Modulator.

2. Explain the principle of operation of balanced modulator for Generating AM
with carrier. [Nov-03]

3. Explain the frequency discrimination method for generating SSB- SC-AM.
(OR)
Explain the method of generating an SSB.[Nov-05][Apr-04]

4. Explain the principle of operation of Envelope Detector (or) Linear Diode
detector and Mention its merits and demerits.
(OR)
Explain any one demodulation method of AM [Nov-04]
(OR)
Explain the principle of operation of any one linear detector.

5. Explain the principle of operation of synchronous or coherent detector.
(OR)
Explain the method of detecting the DSB-SC-AM.

6. Explain about Frequency division multiplexing, and time division
Multiplexing.[Nov-04] [Nov-07]

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