NATURAL LIGHTING

DISSERTATION

Submitted 3rd February 2012

CONTENTS

I II III IV V

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................5 LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................6 LIST OF TABLES ...........................................................................................................................7 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................................7 LIST OF IMPORTANT QUANTITIES ................................................................................................7

CHAPTER ONE | INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................8 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 A HISTORY OF DAYLIGHTING .................................................................................................... 8 A HISTORY OF ELECTRIC LIGHTING ........................................................................................... 9 ENERGY CONSUMPTION......................................................................................................... 10 DAYLIGHTING IN MODERN ARCHITECTURE............................................................................. 10

CHAPTER TWO | BENEFITS OF DAYLIGHTING .................................................................................... 11 2.1 2.2 WHY USE DAYLIGHT? ............................................................................................................. 11 DAYLIGHT and HEALTH ........................................................................................................... 11

CHAPTER THREE | DESIGNING FOR DAYLIGHT ................................................................................... 13 3.1 3.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ...................................................................................................... 13 COMPONENTS OF DAYLIGHT .................................................................................................. 14 DIRECT ........................................................................................................................... 14 DIFFUSE .......................................................................................................................... 16

3.2.1 3.2.2

CHAPTER FOUR | DAYLIGHT FACTOR ................................................................................................ 17 4.1 4.2 APPEARANCE OF DAYLIGHT FACTOR ...................................................................................... 17 DAYLIGHT FACTOR: CALCULATION METHOD 1 ....................................................................... 18 SKY COMPONENT ........................................................................................................... 19 EXTERNALLY REFLECTED COMPONENT ........................................................................... 20 INTERNALLY REFLECTED COMPONENT............................................................................ 20

4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.3

DAYLIGHT FACTOR: CALCULATION METHOD 2 ....................................................................... 22

Example 4.3.1 ................................................................................................................................ 23 4.3.1 VERTICAL SKY COMPONENT ........................................................................................... 24

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER FIVE | WINDOW DESIGN ................................................................................................... 25 5.1 5.2 5.3 WINDOW SIZE ........................................................................................................................ 25 MINIMUM VIEW WINDOW: ................................................................................................... 25 SIZING WINDOWS FOR DAYLIGHT .......................................................................................... 25

Example 5.3.1 ................................................................................................................................ 26 5.4 LIMITING DEPTH .................................................................................................................... 27

Example 5.4.1 ................................................................................................................................ 28 5.4.1 5.5 5.6 5.7 NO-SKY LINE ................................................................................................................... 29

UNIFORMITY OF DAYLIT ILLUMINANCE .................................................................................. 29 GLARE .................................................................................................................................... 30 THERMAL IMPACT OF WINDOWS ........................................................................................... 30 HEAT LOSS ...................................................................................................................... 30 SOLAR GAIN.................................................................................................................... 31

5.7.1 5.7.2 5.8 5.9 5.10

CHOICE OF GLAZING............................................................................................................... 31 SHADING DEVICES .................................................................................................................. 32 ROOFLIGHTS.......................................................................................................................... 33 UNIFORMITY OF ILLUMINANCE - ROOFLIGHTS ................................................................ 33

5.10.1

CHAPTER SIX | DAYLIGHT REDIRECTING SYSTEMS ............................................................................. 34 6.1 LIGHT PIPES............................................................................................................................ 34 PROBLEMS WITH LIGHT PIPES......................................................................................... 35

6.1.1 6.2

LIGHT SHELVES ....................................................................................................................... 35

CHAPTER SEVEN | REGULATIONS, STANDARDS and GUIDES .............................................................. 37 7.1 7.2 6.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 EXISTING REGULATIONS ......................................................................................................... 37 MINIMUM WINDOW FOR VIEW ............................................................................................. 38 MINIMUM DAYLIGHT FACTORS .............................................................................................. 38 AVOIDING OVERHEATING....................................................................................................... 39 AVOIDING GLARE ................................................................................................................... 39 STANDARDS AND GUIDES....................................................................................................... 40 PLANS FOR CHANGE ............................................................................................................... 40

CHAPTER EIGHT | FINDING A BALANCE ............................................................................................. 41 8.1 8.2 INTEGRATION OF DAYLIGHT WITH ELECTRIC LIGHTING .......................................................... 41 SELECTION OF APPROPROATE CONTROL SYSTEMS ................................................................. 41

ABSTRACT

CHAPTER NINE | CASE STUDY ........................................................................................................... 43 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 INTRODUCTION TO DAYLIGHTING GALLERIES ......................................................................... 43 SAINSBURY WING, NATIONAL GALLERY .................................................................................. 43 THE BUILDING PLAN ............................................................................................................... 44 CONTROLLING DAYLIGHT IN THE GALLERY............................................................................. 45 INTEGRATION WITH ARTIFICIAL LIGHTS .................................................................................. 45 THE QUALITY OF LIGHT........................................................................................................... 45 THE GRAND STAIRCASE .......................................................................................................... 46

CHAPTER TEN | CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................................................... 47 CHAPTER ELEVEN | RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................... 48 11.1 11.2 CHANGES TO REGULATIONS ................................................................................................... 48 FURTHER STUDY..................................................................................................................... 49

GLOSSARY ....................................................................................................................................... 50

APPENDIX A | IMPORTANT QUANTITIES ........................................................................................... 52 APPENDIX B | COEFFICIENT A FOR THE INTERNALLY REFLECTED COMPONENT ................................... 53 APPENDIX C | COEFFICIENT V FOR THE INTERNALLY REFLECTED COMPONENT ................................... 54 APPENDIX D | TABLE SKY COMPONENT FOR VERTICAL GLAZED RECTANGULAR WINDOWS ................ 55 APPENDIX E | GLAZING TRANSMITTANCE ......................................................................................... 56 APPENDIX F | COMPARISON OF ROOFLIGHTS ................................................................................... 57 APPENDIX G | ROOFLIGHT PROFILES................................................................................................. 58 APPENDIX H |SUMMARY OF DAYLIGHT REDIRECTING SYSTEMS ........................................................ 59 APPENDIX I | STANDARDS AND GUIDES FOR DAYLIGHTING DESIGN .................................................. 60 APPENDIX J | DAYLIGHTING SCHEDULE............................................................................................. 61 APPENDIX K | RECOMMENDED TYPES OF LIGHTING CONTROL .......................................................... 62 APPENDIX L | SWITCHING OR DIMMING CONTROLS ......................................................................... 63

BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................................................. 64

ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT

Lighting is one of the major consumers of electricity, particularly in the commercial sector (25% to 40%). Electricity is expensive to generate and therefore expensive to consume. Natural lighting in the form of sunlight and light from the sky can bring enough light into buildings during the day so that rooms are not dependant wholly on electric lights. To quantify the potential for natural light in buildings, a series of calculations can be performed. The percentage daylight factor in a room can be predicted and design considerations can be made based on a rooms limiting depth. In order for a daylighting design to be successful, the daylight must enhance the comfort of the occupants of the building. Therefore the window design must admit a daylight factor of between 2% and 5%, while also minimising solar gains and heat losses trough the glazing. This can be done firstly by using reflective glazing, which reduces the U-Value of the fabric and therefore reduces heat loss through this element. Reflective glazing also reflects a lot of heat from the sun while still allowing light into the room. Appropriate shading devices will prevent glare and solar gains by blocking direct sunlight, however must be implemented correctly so as not to waste available daylight. Alternative methods are used to direct daylight into spaces when sidelighting by windows is not a possible option. Rooflights can be incorporated as part of a daylighting design, often as a feature to enhance aesthetics, however are not suitable for lighting entire buildings due to solar gain. Rooflights are best used in buildings such as warehouses where solar gain is not an issue. Sunlight is easily redirected by light pipes and light shelves. These devices are considered when there is a great deal of sunlight available to a building. People prefer to work in daylit environments as it improves mood and can have positive implications on health in general. However, current regulations for daylighting do not provide sufficient minimum guidelines so as to ensure that every building is well daylit. It is expected that individual user control and task lighting will be seen more in lighting designs as a means of controlling electric light and maximising daylight in future.


II

LIST OF FIGURES

II

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 Figure 3.1 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.2 Figure 4.3

Energy consumption in US commercial and residential buildings Direct horizontal illuminance The components of the daylight factor Dimensions needed to determine sky component Daylighting Simulations Showing Vertical Sky Component on the facades of a Courtyard The ratio of S and H (Rooflights) A comparison of daylight penetrations from a standard side window and one with an interior lightshelf A comparison of daylight penetrations from a standard side window and one with an exterior lightshelf

Figure 5.2 Figure 6.1

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3

A comparison of daylight penetrations from a standard side window and one with a combined lightshelf Views inside the National Gallery View inside the National Gallery Sketch of National Gallery by Architect FP Cockerell (1950) Plan of galleries in National Gallery, Sainsbury Wing, London View through daylit gallery The Grand Staircase, Sainsbury Wing, National Gallery

Figure 9.1 Figure 9.2 Figure 9.3 Figure 9.4 Figure 9.5 Figure 9.6

III

LIST OF TABLES

III

LIST OF TABLES
Appearance of Daylight Factor The extent of direct daylight penetration is given by the no-sky line Minimum glazed area for view when windows are restricted to one wall Minimum Average Daylight Factor

Table 4.1 Table 5.1 Table 7.1 Table 7.2

IV

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BRE CIBSE CIE

Building Research Establishment Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers International Commission on Illumination (Commission Internationale de l'clairage) Externally Reflected Component International Energy Agency Internally Reflected Component Organisation for Economic Co-Operation And Development Sky Component

ERC IEA IRC OECD SC

LIST OF IMPORTANT QUANTITIES

SYMBOL DF E D L I UNIT % lux Metres (m) cd/m2 Lumens (lm) Candela (cd)

QUANTITY Daylight Factor Illuminance Limiting Depth Luminance Luminous Flux Luminous Intensity

CHAPTER ONE | INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER ONE | INTRODUCTION

1.1

A HISTORY OF DAYLIGHTING

Aside from the primitive rock and cave dwellings, an early use of daylighting in buildings can be traced back to the Roman courtyard houses. Due to the Italian climate the dwelling needed to provide shade in order to avoid overheating, while also allowing light to penetrate to the interior. A courtyard with entrance atrium was formed, with large doorways admitting maximum levels of light spanning out from the centre of the house. In order to combat the issue of heat, much smaller windows faced the road and gardens. Later in Medieval London as glass became more readily available, weather-sealed windows were installed in rooms depending on where light was needed. Wooden shutters were also installed on these windows to prevent temperatures from uncomfortable levels indoors during the summer. Renaissance Italy saw the introduction of large patterned windows, and long glazed sections of the facades. Buildings were limited to a depth of 15-20 metres to facilitate daylighting requirements, and a courtyard was often placed at the rear to further enhance the use of natural light. During the eighteenth century, refinements were made to daylighting design to reduce the contrast between the light outside and inside. A type of window bay, known as a window embrasure, was designed so as to introduce a gradient of light into the space. In the 1800s and 1900s many artists and architects found inspiration in the beauty of natural light. Many chapels were built in this time which maximised the use of natural light. Houses along the canals of Amsterdam can be seen with largely glazed facades, showing the growing love for and importance of daylight at this time. (Philips, 2000)

CHAPTER ONE | INTRODUCTION

1.2

A HISTORY OF ELECTRIC LIGHTING

As far back as 13,000 BC, man was using fire to build primitive lamps as a way of bringing additional light to his cave. Over 10 thousand years later, tracking the position of the sun in the sky led to the invention of the sundial as a method of tracking time. 200 AD saw the introduction of the candle in China, and later in 400 AD was brought to Europe. Various attempts at oil lamps were made, until the 1800s when gas lighting was in general use. Building on the work of many scientists before him, American inventor Thomas Edison made significant developments in the areas of electricity and incandescent light. Edison is ultimately credited with the invention of the modern day light bulb in 1879. Soon after the creation of The Edison Electric Light Company, electricity spread across America. In the early 1900s Britain began introducing electricity, and by 1943 electricity was being used across Ireland.

CHAPTER ONE | INTRODUCTION

10

1.3

ENERGY CONSUMPTION

In modern times, the cost of the generation of electricity poses a problem for the sustainability of electric lighting. Artificial lighting is one of the main users of energy in a building; for example, lighting accounts for a quarter of electrical consumption in a typical office building (DOE, 2009).

Figure 1.1

Energy consumption in US commercial and residential buildings.



Source: DOE (2009)

Lighting designers now strive to achieve an intelligent balance between artificial light and natural light from the sun. In doing this, the aim is to achieve a higher standard of lighting for the occupant, while also minimising electrical consumption.

1.4

DAYLIGHTING IN MODERN ARCHITECTURE

Due to the bright and modern aesthetics of a daylit building, architects tend to be the most interested in its incorporation into building designs. However, if daylighting is to be taken seriously as a means of reducing electricity consumption, engineers and architects must communicate during the crucial design stages in order to ensure that the optimum glazed area is designed for each building.

CHAPTER TWO | BENEFITS OF DAYLIGHTING

11

CHAPTER TWO | BENEFITS OF DAYLIGHTING

2.1

WHY USE DAYLIGHT?

The light provided by daylight is far greater than that produced by lamps. Even in cloudy weather, external illuminance can reach 50,000 lux, which is 100 times the illuminance required for lighting most tasks. Therefore, even if only 1% of the available light can be utilised, the interior lighting requirement will likely be met (OECD/IEA, 2006).

As the cost of energy increases and sustainable living becomes a priority, there has been growing interest in using daylight as the major light source in buildings. In order for this to be successful, the daylighting must enhance the comfort of the occupants of the building. Poor lighting designs can result in the uncomfortable occupant eliminating daylight by closing the blinds. This is often seen in office buildings with largely glazed facades, where the blinds appear permanently closed. Daylighting should always be encouraged for buildings unless there is a
valid reason not to include it (SLL Handbook, 2007).

The incorporation of daylight into a lighting design scheme is not as simple as providing additional windows. Consideration must be given to the availability of daylight, the maximisation of light, the uniformity of light provided to a space, the thermal impact, the control of glare, and the integration with electric lighting. When done well, daylighting can make a very effective and attractive space (Philips, 2004).

2.2

DAYLIGHT and HEALTH

The circadian system is a biological rhythm associated with the solar day, affecting heart rate, metabolic rate, wakefulness and flexibility (Oxford Dictionary of Sports Science and Medicine). This rhythm is maintained when one is exposed to bright light during the day and little light at night. Daylighting in buildings is an effective means of ensuring the human circadian system avoids disruption, especially for those who have little opportunity to go outside. (Boyce et al, 2003a)

CHAPTER TWO | BENEFITS OF DAYLIGHTING

12

The provision of windows with a view to the outdoors, as well as daylight, has been known to reduce stress for building occupants, provided sufficient care is taken to avoid visual discomfort through glare and distraction. This has the potential to increase productivity of workers in offices. Daylight has far superior colour rendering properties, when compared to most forms of electric lighting. This maximises visual performance for the occupant. (Boyce et al, 2003)

Surveys have shown that in nearly all building types, people prefer to work by daylight.
BRE, 2007

CHAPTER THREE | DESIGNING FOR DAYLIGHT

13

CHAPTER THREE | DESIGNING FOR DAYLIGHT

3.1

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Many factors must be considered while designing for daylight (CIBSE, 1999)

The amount of daylight available to a site must be determined at a given time. This can be done by tracking the path of the sun.

The amount of daylight admitted to a space must be quantified. Illuminance can be measured using a lux meter, or the daylight factor can be predicted (See 4.2 and 4.3).

Bigger windows result in more admittance of daylight, and glazed areas can be determined at a given level of daylight.

Large windows tend to be a source of heat gain and heat loss in summer and winter respectively. Therefore, steps should be taken to prevent thermal impact.

 Appropriate glazing should be selected in order to minimise glare.

The depth to which daylight will penetrate into a room should be calculated to determine if the back of a room is adequately daylit. The depth of daylight penetration will vary with window head heights, and so that should be considered.

Rooflights and atria can supplement the daylight through the windows. The benefits of daylight redirecting systems such as light pipes should be considered for buildings in which daylight through windows is unavailable.

Adequate controls must be installed to suit the user environment and to maximise the use of daylight.

CHAPTER THREE | DESIGNING FOR DAYLIGHT

14

3.2

COMPONENTS OF DAYLIGHT

Daylight is delivered in two different ways: (Brandi, 2006) 1. Direct; light shining directly from the sun. 2. Diffuse, light given off by the sky.

3.2.1 DIRECT

Direct sunlight is ideal for solar technologies as it is easily redirected and concentrated. This sunlight can help reduce the need for heating in winter if allowed into the building. However, in summer, excessive amounts of direct daylight can lead to overheating. The solar elevation at a given time of day depends on the latitude of the site. (Tregenza et al, 2011)
=
of the year: The solar declination varies depending on the day

(Northern) Summer Solstice, 21st June Equinox, 22nd March, 23rd September (Northern) Winter Solstice, 22nd December

+23.5 0 -23.5

At midday:
, = 90 +

(1)

Note: Midday here is the moment at which the sun is at its highest. This is not necessarily 12pm.

CHAPTER THREE | DESIGNING FOR DAYLIGHT

15

The latitude of Dublin, for example, is approximately 53.3, and so the following are the maximum solar elevations (at midday) for mid-Winter, the equinox and mid-Summer respectively. 22 , = 90 53.3 23.5 = 13.2 21 , = 90 53.3 + 0 = 36.7 21 , = 90 53.3 + 23.5 = 60.2 The intensity of sunlight is influenced by pollution and water vapour in the atmosphere. As these factors increase, light becomes scattered and ultimately reduces the intensity of the solar beam. This effect is known as the illuminance turbidity of the atmosphere, Til. Til = 1.5; dry conditions in the high mountains Til = 2.5; rural Til = 3.5; urban Til = 5.0; industrial

When the illuminance turbidity is known, the illuminance due to direct sunlight can then be estimated using the following graph:
Horizontal Illuminance, kilolux

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Solar Elevation, degrees

Illuminance Turbidity 5.0 3.5 2.5 1.5

Figure 3.1

Direct horizontal illuminance (i.e., from sunlight) Source: Adapted from Tregenza et al (2011)

CHAPTER THREE | DESIGNING FOR DAYLIGHT

16

3.2.2 DIFFUSE

Diffuse daylight occurs with a cloud cover, partial cloud cover, or when the sky is blue. It is considered comfortable for general tasks and is ideal for bringing daylight into buildings. The diffuse horizontal illuminance due the sky (excluding sunlight) can be estimated using a graph similar to Figure 3.1.The diffuse illuminance increases as the illuminance turbidity increases. This is due to a greater scattering of light across the sky. When the graphs for direct and diffuse illuminance are compared, direct sunlight delivers a much higher illuminance than the sky. It is for this reason that reflected sunlight is used wherever possible as a source of interior lighting. (Tregenza et al, 2011)

CHAPTER FOUR | DAYLIGHT FACTOR

17

CHAPTER FOUR | DAYLIGHT FACTOR

4.1

APPEARANCE OF DAYLIGHT FACTOR

Depending on the percentage daylight factor in a room, a feeling of brightness or dullness is sensed by the occupant. Daylight Factor Less than 2% Appearance gloomy appearance when using daylight alone full electric lighting needed Windows provide a predominantly daylit appearance Supplementary electric lighting needed Optimum balance of electric and daylighting in terms of energy reductions Strongly daylit  Electric lighting rarely needed during daytime Thermal problems from large windows Table 4.1: Appearance of Daylight Factor Source: Crown (1998)

Between 2% and 5%

Greater than 5%

CHAPTER FOUR | DAYLIGHT FACTOR

18

4.2

DAYLIGHT FACTOR:

CALCULATION METHOD 1

The daylight factor is the ratio of the indoor illuminance at the point in question to the outdoor unobstructed horizontal illuminance. NOTE 1 NOTE 2 Both are measured under the same standard sky. Direct and reflected sunlight are excluded.

The first method for calculating daylight factor can be found in CIBSE Guide A, 2006.

= 100% (2)

Usually a CIE overcast sky is used to calculate the Daylight Factor. This sky gives off approximately 5000 lux.

100% 5000

(3)

The value of the Daylight Factor is dependent on the geometry of the reference point in relation to the window and room dimensions. The daylight factor measured at a particular point in a room remains the same regardless of changes in the daylight levels outside the window. According to CIBSE, the daylight factor is also calculated by finding the sum of its components: = + + (4)

CHAPTER FOUR | DAYLIGHT FACTOR

19

Figure 4.1

The components of the daylight factor.

Source: SLL Handbook (2009, pg. 132) SC = Sky Component ERC = Externally Reflected Component

IRC = Internally Reflected Component

4.2.1 SKY COMPONENT The BRE simplified method for estimating the sky component (SC) at points in rooms lit by vertical windows. It relates only to the CIE standard overcast sky. (CIBSE, LG10: 1999) The following information (see figure 4.2) is needed to use the table (Appendix D): hw, the height of the window head above the working plane Hwp, height of working plane above floor W1, W2, the widths of the window on each side of a line drawn from the reference point normal to the plane of the window D1, the distance from the reference point to the plane of the window

CHAPTER FOUR | DAYLIGHT FACTOR

20

The ratios hw/D1, W1/D1 and W2/D1 are worked out and the SC can then be read directly from the table.

Figure 4.2

Dimensions needed to determine sky component Source: SLL Handbook (2009, pg. 132)

4.2.2 EXTERNALLY REFLECTED COMPONENT To estimate the externally reflected component, the sky component obscured by the obstruction as seen through the window is calculated and divided by 5. (CIBSE LG10, 1999)

4.2.3 INTERNALLY REFLECTED COMPONENT The BRE split-flux, inter-reflection formula for vertical windows gives an approximate value for the internally reflected component. (CIBSE LG10, 1999) = + 5 1 (5)

CHAPTER FOUR | DAYLIGHT FACTOR

21

Aw T A R C

Area of Window (excluding window frame) Transmittance of Glazing to Diffuse Light Total Area of Room Surfaces (ceiling, floor, walls, windows) Area-Weighted Reflectance of All Room Surfaces A Function of the External Obstruction Angle, [ = 0.635 63.4 3300 10 + 39] (6)

Rfw

Area-Weighted Reflectance of the floor and the area of the walls below the mid-height of the window but excluding the window wall Area-Weighted Reflectance of the ceiling and the area of the walls above the mid-height of the window but excluding the window wall

Rcw

For a more accurate determination of the IRC, the following equation can be used:

= 1 + + Where = 10 80

(7)

(8)

Coefficients a and v are obtained using tables in Appendices B and C. The room index, K, is necessary to determine coefficients a and v. LW H L + W

K=

(9)

In this case, Hr is the room height above the working plane. Correction factors are then added to the IRC to account for dirt, glazing transmission and window frames and bars.

CHAPTER FOUR | DAYLIGHT FACTOR

22

4.3

DAYLIGHT FACTOR:

CALCULATION METHOD 2

An alternative method of calculating the daylight factor is to use the following formula, also found in CIBSE Guide A, 2006: , Aw T A R = 1 (10)

Area of Window (excluding window frame) Angle of Visible Sky Transmittance of Glazing to Diffuse Light Total Area of Room Surfaces (ceiling, floor, walls, windows) Area-Weighted Reflectance of Room Surfaces

NOTE 1

This formula is valid when the external obstruction gives a horizontal skyline, i.e., the external obstructions are all generally the same height. Values for transmittance of glazing are provided in Appendix E.

NOTE 2

Early in the design stage, when sizing windows, the equation can be inverted. See Example 5.3.1 for example calculation. = 1

(11)

CHAPTER FOUR | DAYLIGHT FACTOR

23

Example 4.3.1
(Adapted from CIBSE LG10, 1999)

Calculate the daylight factor in an office, given the following data. Data: Room Length Room Width Room Height Area-Weighted Reflectance Visible Sky Angle Window Height Window Width Transmittance 6m 4m 3.0 m 0.55 30 2.5 m 3m 95%

6m

OFFICE
Solution 4.3.1
3m 4m

Aw (excluding 20% for window frame), = 2.5 3 0.8 = 6

Total Area, A, = + + + = 6 4 + 26 3 + 24 3 + 6 4 + 3 2.5 0.8 = 114

Substituting all values into equation 10 gives, = 8 30 0.95 = 2.15 % 1141 0.55

This daylight factor will provide a predominantly daylit appearance.

CHAPTER FOUR | DAYLIGHT FACTOR

24

4.3.1 VERTICAL SKY COMPONENT A Vertical Sky Component of 27% 2 or above is recommended as an acceptable level of light for a window to receive. This is based on a window looking across a street 12m wide at a terraced house with ground and first floor levels. In built-up up areas such as city centres, this is often not achievable. Therefore the vertical sky component ponent applies more to a building in a less built-up built area or else a domestic building building. (Boubekri, 2008)

In special cases, such as when a window looks onto a courtyard, an altered version of the daylight factor equation 10 is used: = 2 1

(12)

Where Dw is the Vertical Sky Component. Figure 4.3 shows a radianceradiance based simulation of the average

vertical

sky

component

20%

available on all of the facades of a project. This is useful when designing courtyards or VSC %
40%

adjacent buildings. If the VSC is not satisfactory (above 27%) on the required can facade be made then to

changes

courtyard width or the distance between buildings. By doing this simulation it is possible to determine the daylight factor inside the rooms. Figure 4.3 Daylighting Simulations Showing Vertical Sky Component on the Facades of a Courtyard Source : IN2 Engineering, Engineering 2011

CHAPTER FIVE | WINDOW DESIGN

25

CHAPTER FIVE | WINDOW DESIGN

5.1

WINDOW SIZE

A window is an effective way to bring daylight into buildings. A great advantage of a window is that it provides occupants with a view to the outside. It is essential that the correct size of window be chosen to suit the size and purpose of the room. It must provide an adequate view to the outside, and a sufficient level of daylight. The thermal impact of windows must be considered to avoid overheating (SLL Handbook, 2009).

5.2

MINIMUM VIEW WINDOW:

The size of window needed to give an adequate view depends on how far one is from the window. See Table 5.2.1 for the minimum glazed areas for view, according to British Standards.

5.3

SIZING WINDOWS FOR DAYLIGHT

The amount of daylight achieved in a room is directly proportional to the size of the window. For a given daylight factor, the required window area can be calculated. This is done by rearranging the formula for daylight factor (equation 10) to give equation 11. 1 =

CHAPTER FIVE | WINDOW DESIGN

26

Example 5.3.1
(Adapted from CIBSE LG10, 1999)

Calculate the window area necessary to ensure a predominantly daylit appearance in this office space. Data: Room Length Room Width Room Height Visible Sky Angle Transmittance Area-Weighted Reflectance 6m 4m 3.0 m 30 95% 0.55

4m

OFFICE

6m

Solution 5.3.1

= Daylight Factor:

From Table 4.1 it is recalled that a predominantly daylit appearance occurs between daylight factors of 2% and 5%. For the purpose of this calculation it will be said that a daylight factor of 3.5% is required in order to provide a sufficiently daylit space. Total Area of Surfaces: = + + + = 6 4 + 26 3 + 24 3 + 6 4 + 0.8 = 109 + 0.8 Area of Window: = = 3.5 109 + 0.8 1 0.55 30 0.95

266.096 + 1.953 = 9.337 + 0.0685A 28.5 0.9315 = 9.337 A = 10.02 m

CHAPTER FIVE | WINDOW DESIGN

27

5.4

LIMITING DEPTH

The amount of daylight provided to a space will decrease as the distance from the window increases. As a general rule, daylight will penetrate to a depth of twice the height of the window head above the window sill. (The formula for the limiting depth, developed by BRE, can be used for a more accurate calculation of the depth to which daylight will penetrate into the room, assuming no external obstruction of the sky.

, =

2 + 1

(13)

w h R

Width of Window Wall Height of Window Head above Floor Area-Weighted Reflectance of surfaces in half of room remote from the window.

CHAPTER FIVE | WINDOW DESIGN

28

Example 5.4.1
(Adapted from CIBSE LG10, 1999)

Calculate the limiting depth of this office and determine whether or not daylight will reach the wall furthest from the window. Data: Room Length Room Width Room Height Surface Reflectances Window Width Window Height Cill Height above Floor Glazing Transmittance 6m 4m 3.0 m Ceiling 70%, Walls 50%, Floor 20% 3m 2m 0.5 m 90%
6m

Solution 5.4.1:

From Equation 13, = 2 + 1

3m

OFFICE
4m

Width of Window Wall = 4 Area-Weighted Reflectance of Surfaces on back half of room:

= = 0.5 + 0.5 + 2 0.5 + 0.5 + 2

0.50.26 4 + 0.56 40.7 + 0.56 3 + 0.54 3 = 0.56 4 + 0.56 4 + 6 3 + 4 3 = 43 = 0.4777 = 0.48 90

Limiting Depth: = 2 4 2.5 = 5.9 2.5 + 41 0.48

Daylight will penetrate 5.9 m into the room, effectively reaching the back wall. When there are windows located at both ends of a room, the limiting depth calculated above can be doubled.

CHAPTER FIVE | WINDOW DESIGN

29

5.4.1 NO-SKY LINE Where there is an external obstruction the limiting depth is given by the no-sky line. This is the line on the working plane beyond which no direct light from the sky will penetrate.

Table 5.1

The extent of direct daylight penetration is given by the no-sky line

Source: SLL Handbook (2009, pg. 134)

5.5

UNIFORMITY OF DAYLIT ILLUMINANCE

Uniformity of illuminance is satisfactory for a room which is sidelit (on one side only) if the depth of the room is less than the limiting depth. (Littlefair, 1996). However, uniformity can also be estimated if the room satisfies the Criteria of Uniformity. The Criteria of Uniformity, according to Littlefair, 1996, are as follows: (Littlefair, 1996) 1. The average daylight factor in the front half of the room should not exceed three times the average daylight factor in the back half.

2. The minimum daylight factor should exceed 1% or 100 lux. The space will then have no particularly dark or gloomy areas.

CHAPTER FIVE | WINDOW DESIGN

30

5.6

GLARE

Glare may be experienced either as discomfort glare or disability glare. It is important to limit the glare to avoid errors, fatigue and accidents. Disability glare is may be experienced near spotlights or large bright sources such as a window in a relatively poorly lit space. Discomfort glare usually arises directly from bright luminaires or windows. (CIE-UK, 2002)

In almost all daylit buildings the control of incoming sunlight needs to be considered at the strategic planning stage. The only exceptions are buildings such as greenhouses where sunlight is always welcome. (CIBSE, 1999) Glare most often is due to the sun itself. Other times, glare may come from a bright patch of sky or from a reflection of light from a building opposite. (Littlefair, P. et al, 2001)

It is important to distinguish in all cases whether the glare is due to the direct or diffuse light. If direct sunlight is the cause, then venetian blinds or a similar shading device is recommended. However, if diffuse light is the source of the glare, then tinted glazing or thinner roller blinds

would minimise glare. (Littlefair, 1995)

5.7

THERMAL IMPACT OF WINDOWS

5.7.1 HEAT LOSS When considering heat loss through building fabric elements, glazing is most commonly the largest contributor due to its relatively high transmittance (U-Value). A double-glazed window has a U-Value of 3 -4 W/m2K, while a single-glazed window can have a U-Value up to approximately 5.5 W/m2K. The U-Values vary widely depending on the frame materials, air gaps, and coatings. Building Regulations (Part L, 2010) state the maximum permissible U-Value for glazing is 2.2 W/m2K. In order to achieve such a low U-Value, the space between the panes can be filled with gases such as argon. Filling this cavity reduces the heat loss through this gap. This, coupled with a low-emissivity glazing, can achieve U-Values of less than 2.0 W/m2K. (BRE, 2007)

CHAPTER FIVE | WINDOW DESIGN

31

5.7.2 SOLAR GAIN From the calculation of window area and limiting depth it can be concluded that larger windows bring more daylight into spaces. Unfortunately it is not as simple as installing large glazed areas in every building, as large windows can also lead to overheating. This results in internal temperatures rising to uncomfortable levels, and increased solar cooling loads. (OECD/IEA, 2006)

Solar gains are generally welcomed in the winter because they help offset heating requirements; however in the summer months, when the solar elevation is greater (see 3.2.1) direct sunlight through the windows leads to high solar cooling loads which must be countered by air conditioning or natural ventilation. This is an added expense and must be considered early in the design stage. By incorporated some simple changes into the design, the issue of solar gain can be eliminated. (OECD/IEA, 2006)

According to CIBSE Lighting Guide 10, 1999 and the BRE Environmental Design Guide, there are
three main solutions to the problem of solar cooling loads. The first of these solutions is simply

to reduce the glazed area. By limiting the glazed area of the building, the solar gain can be minimised. Calculations can be carried out to determine cooling loads and heating loads at a range of window areas. This will determine the optimum percentage glazing for the building. The other two recommended solutions are to consider the choice of glazing, and finally to use an appropriate shading device.

5.8

CHOICE OF GLAZING

A carefully considered choice of glazing can help to avoid the problems outlined above such as glare, solar gain and heat loss through the window. Tinted glazing generally reduces the daylight factor more than it reduces the solar gain. However, low-emissivity glazing coatings can be used. These allow light to pass through the glazing, but reflect a lot of the heat away from the building. (CIBSE LG10, 1999)

CHAPTER FIVE | WINDOW DESIGN

32

5.9

SHADING DEVICES

Two main groups of shading devices are considered; permanent shades externally and adjustable shades internally.

Permanent shades tend to perform well year-round as they exclude summer sun while allowing in low angle winter sun. A reduction in daylight factor, especially in winter, can be experienced due to a lower visible sky angle.

Manually adjustable shading, such as venetian blinds are ideal for areas such as computer rooms, where individual user control is preferable. In winter the shading can be retracted so as to allow in all of the available light. It is unlikely that direct sunlight would pose a problem during winter due to overcast sky conditions. In summer, enough daylight (at least 2%) will enter the room with the shade down. (BRE, 2007)

However, this is based on the optimistic assumption that the building occupant will adjust the shading correctly. If a daylight factor of 2% can be achieved, electric light will likely be unnecessary. Even if the daylight factor is 2%, a deep room will require electric lighting as the back of the room will likely be inadequately lit. (CIBSE, 2004) Often, particularly in offices, there is the risk of excessive blind use. To avoid blinds being left down and significant wastage of daylight, Littlefair (1994) recommends implementation of the following techniques:

Provision of a good view to occupants as an incentive to raise blinds, Avoid over glazing when the occupants see large areas of sky, Upkeep maintenance on blinds so that they are easy to operate, Ensure occupants know how to operate the blinds fully, Raise all blinds at the end of each working day.

CHAPTER FIVE | WINDOW DESIGN

33

5.10

ROOFLIGHTS

Rooflights can be a useful supplement to sidelighting with windows. Particularly, rooflights are effective in providing daylight over large areas in single story buildings, such as warehouses. There are several different types of rooflights (horizontal, shed, sawtooth and monitor) and each have advantages and disadvantages. (See Appendix F&G)

5.10.1

UNIFORMITY OF ILLUMINANCE - ROOFLIGHTS

Uniformity of illuminance depends on the spacing to height ratio of the rooflights. If rooflights are too far apart, the illuminance will not appear uniform. The spacing to height ratio (see figure 5.2) is between adjacent rooflight centres to the height of rooflight centre above a horizontal reference plane (CIBSE LG10, 1999). In general, if the minimum illuminance divided by the average illuminance in a space is greater than 0.8 then the lighting is uniform. However, in the case of rooflighting, a non-uniform illuminance can often be aesthetically pleasing.

Figure 5.2

The ratio of S (the spacing between adjacent rooflights) and H (height of rooflight

centre above a horizontal reference plane) determines the uniformity of illuminance. Source: CIBSE LG10 (1999, p 37)

CHAPTER SIX | DAYLIGHT REDIRECTING SYSTEMS

34

CHAPTER SIX | DAYLIGHT REDIRECTING SYSTEMS

See Appendix H for comparison of daylight redirecting systems.

6.1

LIGHT PIPES

A light pipe is a daylighting device comprising a hollow tube with a highly reflective inner surface (Venturi et al, 2006). The purpose of a light pipe is to channel sunlight into any area of a building. The use of sunlight in this system means a reduction in the cost of artificial lighting. Unlike other systems involving direct sunlight, additional cooling loads due to solar gain are avoided due to the removal of the suns heat during the piping process. Light piping should be considered for underground interiors when daylight is not available through windows or skylights (Littlefair, 1996). A light pipe system consists of three components (Littlefair, 1996): a) An outside collector
"

An outside collector (heliostat) on the roof collects direct sunlight. Diffuse daylight is unsuitable as a primary source due to limits on how it can be concentrated for collection. The type of heliostat used depends on the dimensions of the pipe. For example, a very wide and short pipe may not require a heliostat, while a narrow pipe will require a collimation of sunlight before it enters. For domestic applications, inexpensive light pipes without collecting devices can be used. b) The light pipe itself An outside collector (heliostat) on the roof collects direct sunlight. Diffuse daylight is unsuitable as a primary source due to limits on how it can be concentrated for collection. The type of heliostat used depends on the dimensions of the pipe. For example, a very wide and short pipe may not require a heliostat, while a narrow pipe will require a collimation of sunlight before it enters. For domestic applications, inexpensive light pipes without collecting devices can be used.

CHAPTER SIX | DAYLIGHT REDIRECTING SYSTEMS

35

c) A luminaire The light pipe is typically an empty shaft through which collimated beams of light can travel. It is assumed that the light is distributed evenly across the entrance of the pipe entrance. Lenses can be used to concentrate the beams however there is a loss of light with each encounter with a lens. A luminaire to release the collected light into the interior space: For use in large buildings, the

light travelling through the pipe must be divided into smaller beams are redirected to the internal spaces. Tapping mirrors can be used to do this, however precise optical alignment is necessary to prevent the wasting of light. This is a very difficult process.

6.1.1 PROBLEMS WITH LIGHT PIPES The cost of ductwork for light pipes can be substantial, and can take up a large volume of the building. The open shaft can also aid the spread of fire. A solution to this problem could be to
emergency sprinkler system. fill the shaft with water and have it double as an

Light pipes are seen as an inefficient daylight distribution system due to the distance the light has to travel and the often convoluted path the pipe takes. The efficiency also greatly depends on whether the sky is clear or overcast. (SLL Handbook, 2009)

6.2

LIGHT SHELVES

A lightshelf divides a window into two parts; a lower part that acts as a window for view, and an upper window that redirects the daylight towards the back of the room. A lightshelf can also provide shade from direct sunlight and reduce glare from the sky. The light shelf works by reflecting the daylight off the ceiling. Direct sunlight is ideal for lightshelves as it can be easily redirected. If adequate sunlight is received, this can lead to a more even distribution of light throughout the roof than is found in a room with only a side window (Boubekri, 2008).

CHAPTER SIX | DAYLIGHT GHT REDIRECTING SYSTEMS

36

The light shelf can be positioned on the interior, exterior, or a combination of both. The daylight penetration curves for each are shown in figures 6.1, 6.2and 6.3.

Figure 6.1

A comparison of daylight penetrations from a standard side window and one with an interior lightshelf. Source: Boubekri (2008, p 117)

Figure 6.2

A comparison of daylight penetrations from a standard side window and one with an exterior lightshelf. Source: Boubekri (2008, ( p 117)

Figure 6.2

A comparison of daylight penetrations from a standard side window and one with a combined lightshelf. Source: Boubekri (2008, 2008, p 116)
Side-lit only Site-lit with light shelf

CHAPTER SEVEN | REGULATIONS, STANDARDS and GUIDES

37

CHAPTER SEVEN | REGULATIONS, STANDARDS and GUIDES

The CIBSE Lighting Guides provide a recommendation for minimum illuminance levels in buildings. The recommended levels vary depending on the type of work being carried out in the space and the light quality necessary for the tasks. These recommendations do not distinguish between light coming from daylight and artificial light. As daylight is not required in order to comply with regulations, it is left to the architect and building designers to make the decision on its inclusion.

7.1

EXISTING REGULATIONS

Section 8.1 of the European Workplace Directive of 1989 states:

Workplaces must as far as possible receive sufficient natural light and be equipped with artificial lighting adequate for the protection of workers safety and health.

The Directive, however, do not provide a minimum level of daylight for this legislation to be followed. Therefore, building designers must look to the Building Regulations for minimum daylighting requirements.

CHAPTER SEVEN | REGULATIONS, STANDARDS and GUIDES

38

7.2

MINIMUM WINDOW FOR VIEW

British Standards - Lighting for Buildings specify a requirement for minimum glazed areas for view when windows are restricted to one wall. It is recommended that when windows are restricted to one wall the total width of the window should be at least 35% of the length of the wall. Depth of room from outside wall (max.) m <8 8 11 >11 14 >14 NOTE 20 25 30 35 Windows which are predominantly designed for view may not provide adequate task Percentage of Window Wall, as seen from inside (min.) %

illumination. Table 7.1:

when windows are restricted to one wall Minimum glazed area for view

Source: British Standards 8206 2 (2008, p 7)

6.3

MINIMUM DAYLIGHT FACTORS

Minimum daylight factors for dwellings have been specified in the British Standards Code for Practice of Daylighting. Room Type Minimum Average Daylight Factor % Bedrooms Living Rooms Kitchens Table 7.2: 1 1.5 2 Minimum Average Daylight Factor

Source: British Standards 8206 2 (2008, p 10)

CHAPTER SEVEN | REGULATIONS, STANDARDS and GUIDES

39

However, these minimum daylight factors specified are very low and require very little effort to be made in order for these to be achieved. A daylighting schedule is provided in CIBSE Guide A, 1999, which offers a recommendation of average and minimum daylight factors for a range of building types. Although this is a recommendation of best practice and is not a requirement, a high level of appreciation for daylight is shown by the guide. This daylighting schedule was omitted in subsequent versions of the guide. (See Appendix J)

7.4

AVOIDING OVERHEATING

Regulations exist which prevent overheating in buildings. These apply to all workplaces. Health, Safety and Welfare Regulations 1992 state:

During working hours, the temperature in all workplaces inside buildings shall be reasonable

However, these regulations do not specify maximum temperatures, nor do they suggest methods of preventing or combating the issue of overheating.

7.5

AVOIDING GLARE

For areas in which display screen equipment are in use, regulations are in place to prevent discomfort glare. The Health & Safety Executive (HSE) Regulations 1992 state:

Windows shall be fitted with a suitable system of adjustable covering to attenuate the daylight that falls on the workstation

CHAPTER SEVEN | REGULATIONS, STANDARDS and GUIDES

40

7.6

STANDARDS AND GUIDES

Standards and guides are provided as references for use when the decision is made to incorporate daylighting into building design. Some examples are the Code of Practice for Daylighting and CIBSE SLL Daylighting and window design LG10 1999. (See Appendix I for full list)

7.7

PLANS FOR CHANGE

In the December 2011 issue of the CIBSE Journal, Code for Lighting author Peter Raynham spoke of the plans for a new Code:

This time its a real rethink. Basically we took what we had, tore it up and started again.

Raynham spoke of the need for a new Code as a result of the changes to Part L of the Building Regulations due to take place in 2013. A new approach to lighting design in general is envisaged one that focuses on task lighting as opposed to general space lighting. It is foreseen that this approach will enhance user control and will lead to an increased motivation for the lighting designer to supplement lighting with daylight.

CHAPTER EIGHT | FINDING A BALANCE

41

CHAPTER EIGHT | FINDING A BALANCE

8.1 INTEGRATION OF DAYLIGHT WITH ELECTRIC LIGHTING

It cannot be expected that a building will be designed solely with daylight as this is clearly impractical. Therefore, a balance must be found between natural and electric light which will most benefit the occupant. For successful daylight/electric lighting integration, the following must be completed (Mooney, 2010):

Selection of appropriate luminaire and lamp packages, Selection of Appropriate control systems, Understanding the clients expectations and needs, Understanding the clients occupation patterns, Correct commissioning of the systems,

Respecting the users.

A brief introduction to the selection of control systems is given in 9.2.

8.2

SELECTION OF APPROPROATE CONTROL SYSTEMS

CIBSE recommend dividing buildings into light planning zones in Lighting Guide 10, Daylighting and Window Design (1999) (Appendix K&L). Each zone is classified by the use of the space and the use of daylight within the room.

Owned spaces, Shared spaces, Temporarily owned spaces, Occasionally visited spaces, Un-owned spaces, Managed spaces, e.g. atria.

CHAPTER EIGHT | FINDING A BALANCE

42

Once the zones are classified, there are several employable controls which can be considered. CIBSE examine four of the main methods of control:
Switching Dimming Photoelectric (daylight linking) Occupancy sensors

Significant energy svings can be made through the use of these controls, if installed in the appropriate zones. (CIBSE LG10, 1999)

CHAPTER NINE | CASE STUDY

43

CHAPTER NINE | CASE STUDY

NATIONAL GALLERY, SAINSBURY WING, LONDON

9.1

INTRODUCTION TO DAYLIGHTING GALLERIES

Natural light adds to the aesthetics of an art gallery, provides ambient lighting and often contributes to the display lighting. When direct sunlight passes through a gallery space it can reveal the shapes and textures of sculptures and draw the eye towards works of art. Windows offer view to the outdoors, helping visitors to orientate themselves. These aspects of natural light help to create a visually exciting and attractive gallery space. The architect and lighting designer involved are required to carefully consider every glazed element so as to ensure that the areas of sensitive artwork are conserved and shaded from light, while other areas are illuminated but remaining glare-free. (CIBSE LG8, 1994)

9.2

SAINSBURY WING, NATIONAL GALLERY

Architects: Venturi, Scott Brown and Associates Inc., in association with Sheppard Robson Architects Lighting Design: Fisher Maratz Inc., USA

Location: London, England Client: National Gallery, London

Cost: $47,930,000/36,485,000 Completion: 1991 Situated in Trafalgar Square, the Sainsbury Wing is home to some of the greatest Renaissance paintings in the world. The wing was built as an extension to
Fig. 9.1 (Source: VSBA)

William Wilkins 1838 National Gallery building (VSBA). As with many galleries, daylighting is incorporated into the design of the National Gallery, and in particular the Sainsbury Wing, and used as a tool to enhance the overall gallery experience. As far

CHAPTER NINE | CASE STUDY

44

back as the 1800s when the original building was built, plans were being made to utilise daylighting in the gallery. Figure 9.3 shows a sketch from 1850 of architect FP

Cockerells proposal for the National Gallery reconstruction. Figure 9.2

Fig. 9.2 (Source: VSBA) Fig. 9.3 (Source: CIBSE LG8 (1994, p 6)

shows how the current gallery looks similar to the sketch.

9.3

THE BUILDING PLAN

The Sainsbury Wing was completed in 1991 as an extension to the original National Gallery. The building is stand-alone in Trafalgar Square, but is
joined by a bridge to the main galleries. The building

is broken up into small galleries to make use of wall surface areas for hanging paintings. There are three levels to the building, in addition to a basement, however the main galleries are all located on the top floor to maximise the use of natural light through the roof. From the outside, the building does not appear to be extensively daylit, as the walls are Portland limestone, and not glazed as one might expect from a daylit building. Lower floors have some windows providing the entrance hall with sidelighting. Figure 9.4 Plan of galleries in National Gallery, Sainsbury Wing, London Source: Phillips (2000, p 204)

CHAPTER NINE | CASE STUDY

45

9.4

CONTROLLING DAYLIGHT IN

THE GALLERY
Light reaching the paintings must be consistent throughout the day, and so needs to be controlled impeccably. Initially, unlimited daylight is admitted through the glazing on the roof. Automatically adjusting louvres then control the quantity of light reaching the gallery walls. The louvres adjust depending on the level of daylight shining through the glazing. When the gallery is closed, the louvres close fully. The only light in the gallery between Figure 9.5 View through daylit galleries Source: VSBA 6pm and 10am is that provided by a small amount of security lights. This means that the energy used on adjusting louvres is not wasted.

9.5

" LIGHTS INTEGRATION WITH ARTIFICIAL

The artificial lighting system employed consists of low-voltage tungsten halogen fittings, positioned around the edge of the roof lights. A combination of the artificial and natural light is used to light each gallery. The paintings are limited to receiving 650,000 kilolux hours in a year. A computer monitors this and it is controlled such that each painting receives a light level of approximately 200 lux for 8 hours per day. The closed louvres at night also helps reduce the total kilolux hours of light.

9.6

THE QUALITY OF LIGHT

The rooms are designed to exhibit Renaissance paintings, rich in colour and texture, and the combination of cool, natural light with warmer, artificial sources, is most successful. Phillips (2000, pg. 205)

CHAPTER NINE | CASE STUDY

46

9.7

THE GRAND STAIRCASE

The grand staircase, pictured in figure 10.7.1, is strategically placed behind a large glass wall to overlook the Wilkins Building and Trafalgar Square.

Figure 9.6

The Grand Staircase, Sainsbury Wing, National Gallery Source: VSBA

CHAPTER TEN | CONCLUSIONS

47

CHAPTER TEN | CONCLUSIONS

Daylighting enhances mood of building occupants which can result in higher levels of productivity. Architects tend to favour daylight and incorporate it into designs due to its effect on the aesthetics of a building. Direct sunlight delivers a much higher illuminance than the sky. Therefore, as sunlight is easily redirected, light pipes and light shelves are a viable option where there is a great deal of sunlight available to a building. The daylight factor in a room quantifies the level of brightness due to daylight. The optimum daylight factor is between 2% and 5%, as this strikes the best balance between the levels of daylight and the thermal impact on the building. The thermal impact solar gain and heat loss through glazing can be avoided by incorporating some small changes into the design. Firstly, window area should not be greater than what is necessary to provide a daylight factor of between 2% and 5%. Furthermore, reflective coatings on glazing can reduce heat gains while still allowing in light, whereas tinted glazing will block a lot of light and result in a low daylight factor. Finally, shading devices should be designed with consideration to the building function. Permanent shading devices tend to perform well yearround as they exclude summer sun while allowing in low angle winter sun. Manual shading devices should be maintained correctly in order not to waste available daylight. In daylit conditions a shallow plan building (less than 14 m deep) will perform better than a deeper plan building. This is due to the fact the limiting depth of the room is greater than the room depth. This ensures that daylight reaches the back wall of the room, providing a satisfying uniformity of illuminance. A shallow plan design will also allow for a range of natural ventilation options. Current regulations for daylighting in buildings do not provide sufficient minimum guidelines. In order for an increased impact to be made in reducing electricity consumption, daylighting should be more strictly enforced.

CHAPTER ELEVEN | RECOMMENDATIONS

48

CHAPTER ELEVEN | RECOMMENDATIONS

11.1 CHANGES TO REGULATIONS
Building Regulations and CIBSE Codes for Lighting provide requirements for daylight in buildings; however the minimum values stated are easily achievable with the installation of a simple window. The regulations do not encourage ambitious lighting designs and do not require an effort to be made in the area of daylighting. In Lights Labours Lost, The International Energy Agency made suggestions as to how a more regulated approach to daylighting could encourage energy-saving through the use of natural light. The IEA urged that daylight sensors and dimming controls be required in certain buildings to prevent wastage of electricity when daylight is available. In order to stimulate lighting designers into designing for task lighting, The Agency advise that individual user control be addressed. They also advocated the introduction of a minimum daylight-utilisation factor for
t both new and existing buildings. This would ensure that all buildings were being designed with

a view towards maximising daylight. The IEA (2006) state: Thus far, to our knowledge, no jurisdiction has implemented regulations imposing minimum daylight usage requirements nor have any countries required measurement and disclosure via a label, certificate or some other device, of building daylight utilisation factors. Minimum daylight factors should be printed in CIBSE Guide A, as they were in 1999, in order to re-emphasize the significance of daylighting to Building Services engineers, and in particular lighting designers.

CHAPTER ELEVEN | RECOMMENDATIONS

49

11.2 FURTHER STUDY

There is huge scope for further study into the area of natural lighting. Below are several topics within the field of natural lighting and window design which could be considered in detail.

Dependence on Building Occupant Durability; Fire; Lighting Simulation; Maintenance; Privacy Safety; Security; Sound; Wind Loading.

In particular I feel that there is much to be learned from lighting and daylighting simulations. Although it did not fall within my realm of study in this dissertation, from speaking with David Walshe of IN2 Engineering I understand that daylighting simulations are vital if natural lighting is to be considered seriously as a viable and efficient light source.

Finally, an energy consumption analysis would be beneficial in demonstrating plainly the financial benefits of daylighting. A building could be modelled with a range of percentage glazing and the electricity consumption due to lighting, heating and cooling could be monitored. This would prove that the optimum glazing area is 30%, and would quantify energy savings definitively.

GLOSSARY

50

GLOSSARY
ARTIFICIAL LIGHTING BALLAST A light source other than the sun (e.g. Lamps) An electrical device for starting and regulating fluorescent and discharge lamps CIE OVERCAST SKY The value for a uniform overcast sky during the hours of daylight, sunrise to sunset, for all seasons within the year. COLLIMATE DAYLIGHT To make rays of light accurately parallel Daylight can be defined as a combination of sunlight and skylight DAYLIGHT FACTOR The daylight factor is the ratio of the indoor illuminance at the point in question to the outdoor unobstructed horizontal illuminance. DIMMER Used to increase and reduce light from an electric light or set of lights DISCOMFORT GLARE Glare which is noticeable but does not directly affect the visual difficulty of tasks DISPLAY LIGHTING Used to enhance a feature, rather than provide general illuminance ELECTRIC LIGHTING GLARE HELIOSTAT See Artificial Lighting A contrast between levels of light in a field of vision A device used in light piping to track, collect and concentrate sunlight ILLUMINANCE TURBIDITY The degree to which pollution and water vapour in the atmosphere cause light to scatter LOUVRES A window fitted with fixed or movable horizontal slats for admitting light NO SKY LINE The line on the working plane beyond which no direct light from the sky will penetrate

GLOSSARY

51

OBSTRUCTION PHOTOELECTRIC

Something which blocks the path of light Light sensing device used in the balancing of daylight and artificial lights

REFLECTANCE ROOFLIGHT SOLAR DECLINATION SOLAR GAIN SUNLIGHT TRANSMITTANCE UNIFORMITY VISUAL PERFORMANCE WINDOW

The ratio of the total amount of light reflected by a surface to the total amount of light incident on the surface In a roof, an opening which is glazed with a transparent or translucent material

The latitude at which the sun is directly overhead Heat gain due to the sun Light from the sun
The ratio of the light energy falling on a body to that transmitted through it

Ratio of minimum illuminance to average illuminance in a space

Visual performance is determined by the speed and accuracy with which a visual task is performed

Construction for closing a vertical or near-vertical opening in a wall or pitched roof, which will admit light and may provide ventilation

WINDOW EMBRASURE

A recessed window for reducing light contrast by introducing it to a space gradually

WORKING PLANE

The horizontal, vertical or inclined plane in which the visual task lies (Typically approximately 0.8m)

APPENDIX A | IMPORTANT QUANTITIES

52

APPENDIX A | IMPORTANT QUANTITIES

(SOURCE: college coursework)
Luminous flux

The light emitted by a source or received by a source.

Quantity is derived from radiant flux [w] by evaluating the radiation in accordance with the luminous efficiency of the standard eye. [v]

Luminous intensity

The quantity which describes the power of a source or illuminated surface to emit light in a given direction.

Illuminance

The luminous flux density at a point on a surface, ie., the luminous flux incident per unit area.

Luminance

The intensity of light emitted in a given direction per projected area of a luminous or reflecting surface.

= =

Inverse Square Law

D is the distance in metres from the source to the point. This inverse square law states that the illuminance is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the light source, i.e. illuminance decreases the further it is measured from the light source.

APPENDIX B | COEFFICIENT A FOR THE INTERNALLY REFLECTED COMPONENT

53

APPENDIX B | COEFFICIENT A FOR THE INTERNALLY REFLECTED COMPONENT

CIBSE LG10, 1999 (pg. 71)

APPENDIX C | COEFFICIENT V FOR THE INTERNALLY REFLECTED COMPONENT

54

APPENDIX C | COEFFICIENT V FOR THE INTERNALLY REFLECTED COMPONENT

CIBSE LG10, 1999 (pg. 71)

APPENDIX D | TABLE SKY COMPONENT FOR VERTICAL GLAZED RECTANGULAR WINDOWS

55

APPENDIX D | TABLE SKY COMPONENT FOR VERTICAL GLAZED RECTANGULAR WINDOWS

(CIBSE LG10:1999)

/APPENDIX E | GLAZING TRANSMITTANCE

56

APPENDIX E | GLAZING TRANSMITTANCE

(CIBSE LG10:1999)

APPENDIX F | COMPARISON OF ROOFLIGHTS

57

APPENDIX F | COMPARISON OF ROOFLIGHTS

(CIBSE LG10:1999)

APPENDIX G | ROOFLIGHT PROFILES

58

APPENDIX G | ROOFLIGHT PROFILES

(CIBSE LG10:1999)

APPENDIX H |SUMMARY OF DAYLIGHT REDIRECTING SYSTEMS

59

APPENDIX H |SUMMARY OF DAYLIGHT REDIRECTING SYSTEMS

LIittlefair (BRE, 1996)

System

Enhances Uses Works in Good core sunlight cloudy glare illuminances effectively conditions control

Allows Reduces view out solar thermal gains

Low cost

Easy maintenance

Light Pipe with Heliostat Light Pipe without Heliostat Light Shelf Key:

(1)

(1)
Notes:

(2)

System meets the stated requirement:

(1) (2)

Depends on emitter design If an external shelf is fitted

[no symbol]

Well

Partly Poorly

APPENDIX I | STANDARDS AND GUIDES FOR DAYLIGHTING DESIGN

60

APPENDIX I | STANDARDS AND GUIDES FOR DAYLIGHTING DESIGN

STANDARDS
British Standards, BS 8206-2: 2008 Code of Practice for Daylighting. Building Bulletin 87 Guidelines for Environmental Design in Schools Designing schools for the Future Building Bulletin 95 Lighting Design for Schools Building Bulletin 90

GUIDES
BRE Designing Buildings for Daylight. BRE Designing Quality Buildings A BRE Guide BRE Designing with Innovative Daylighting CIBSE SLL Code for Lighting CIBSE Guide A Environmental Design CIBSE Society of Light and Lighting: LG2: CIBSE Society of Light and Lighting: LG3: CIBSE Society of Light and Lighting: LG5: CIBSE Society of Light and Lighting: LG8: CIBSE Society of Light and Lighting: LG10: Lighting for Healthcare buildings The visual environment for display screen use Lecture, Teaching and Conference Rooms Lighting for Museums and Galleries Daylighting and Window Design

APPENDIX J | DAYLIGHTING SCHEDULE

61

APPENDIX J | DAYLIGHTING SCHEDULE

(CIBSE A, 1999)

APPENDIX K | RECOMMENDED TYPES OF LIGHTING CONTROL

62

APPENDIX K | RECOMMENDED TYPES OF LIGHTING CONTROL

(CIBSE LG10:1999)

APPENDIX L | SWITCHING OR DIMMING CONTROLS

63

APPENDIX L | SWITCHING OR DIMMING CONTROLS

(CIBSE LG10:1999)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

64

BIBLIOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION Phillips, D., 2000, Lighting Modern Buildings, pp. 20-24, Architectural Press, Oxford DOE (U.S. Department of Energy),2009, Building Energy Data Book, Accessed 21st October 2011: http://buildingsdatabook.eren.doe.gov/ BRE, 2007, Designing Quality Buildings A BRE Guide, BRE, Watford Designing For Daylight Brandi, U., 2006, Detail Practice, Lighting Design, Principles, Implementation, Case Studies, Characteristics and Basic Design Rules, p 19, Birkhauser Tregenza, P. et al, 2011, Daylighting, Chpt. Three The Daylight Climate, pp. 63-68, Taylor and Francis, Routledge

DAYLIGHT FACTOR The Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions Best Practice Programme, 1998, DETR Energy Efficiency, HMSO, Norwich The Department of the Environment, Transport and the Regions Best Practice Programme , 1998, Best Practice Guide 245, Desktop Guide to Daylighting - for Architects, Scheme Design, p 7, Crown, Norwich CIBSE, 1999, CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE LG:10 Daylighting and Window Design, pp 70-71, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London CIBSE, 1999, CIBSE GUIDE A Environmental Design, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London Boubekri, M., 2008, Daylighting, Architecture and Health - Building Design Strategies, Elsevier Ltd., Oxford

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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DAYLIGHT REDIRECTING SYSTEMS Venturi, L. et al, 2006, Lighting Research and Technology Journal, Light Piping Performance Enhancement Using a Deflecting Sheet, 38, 2, p167, Arnold Publishers Littlefair, PJ, 1996, Designing With Innovative Daylighting, Building Research Establishment Report, Technology Review Heliostat and Light Pipe Systems, BRE CIBSE, 2009, Society of Light and Lighting Handbook, Chapter 7 Daylighting, p 137, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London Boubekri, M., 2008, Daylighting, Architecture and Health - Building Design Strategies, pp. 116117, Elsevier Ltd., Oxford Boubekri, M., 2008, Daylighting, Architecture and Health - Building Design Strategies, Fig 6.10, pg 117, Elsevier Ltd., Oxford Boubekri, M., 2008, Daylighting, Architecture and Health - Building Design Strategies, Fig 6.9, pg 117, Elsevier Ltd., Oxford WINDOWS CIBSE, 2009, Society of Light and Lighting Handbook, Chapter 7 Daylighting, p 134, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London CIBSE, 1999, CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE LG:10 Daylighting and Window Design, p 3, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London Littlefair, P. et al, 2001, BRE - Office Lighting, Construction Research Communications Ltd., Watford Littlefair, P, 1995, Daylight Design for Display Screen Equipment, BRE Information Paper, BRE National Illumination Committee of Great Britain, 2002, Lighting of Work Places, Part 1 Indoor, ISO 8995-1, CIE-UK

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International Energy Agency and Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 2006, Light's Labour's Lost Policies for Energy-Efficient Lighting, OECD International Energy Agency, Paris CIBSE, 2004, CIBSE GUIDE F: Energy Efficiency in Buildings: Part A: Designing the Building, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London BRE, 2007, Designing Quality Buildings A BRE Guide, External Walls, Windows and Doors, p 131, BRE, Watford Littlefair, P, 1996, Designing with Innovative Daylighting, BRE Press, Watford CIBSE, 1999, CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE LG:10 Daylighting and Window Design, p 37, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London CIBSE, 1999, CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE LG:10 Daylighting and Window Design, Table 2.3, p 36, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London
CIBSE, 1999, CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE LG:10 Daylighting and Window Design, Table 2.8, p 36,

Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London CIBSE, 2009, Society of Light and Lighting Handbook, Chapter 7 Daylighting, p 136, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London REGULATIONS CIBSE, 1999, CIBSE GUIDE A Environmental Design, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London Entwhistle, J., 2011, CIBSE Journal - In a New Light, pp 46-48, Volume 3 Number 12, December 2011, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London. DAYLIGHT INTEGRATION Mooney, D., 2010, Advances in Daylight Simulation - Why is Daylight design the Cinderella of Building Modelling, CIBSE/Parsons Brinckerhoff

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CIBSE, 1999, CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE LG:10 Daylighting and Window Design, pp 62-63, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London CASE STUDY CIBSE, 1994, CIBSE LIGHTING GUIDE LG: 8 Lighting for Museums and Galleries, pp 4-8, Chartered Institute of Building Services Engineers, London Phillips, D., 2000, Lighting Modern Buildings, Part 2 Case Studies, Case Study 51, pp. 204-205, Architectural Press, Oxford RECOMMENDATIONS International Energy Agency and Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development, 2006, Light's Labour's Lost Policies for Energy-Efficient Lighting, pp 54-55, 352, OECD International Energy Agency, Paris IMPORTANT QUANTITIES Lighting Design Lecture Notes (College Coursework)