PETER CONNOLLY

G R E E C E
, AND RO E
I
# : ~ . .. AlT A.

Con t en t s
Greece a n d Macedonia
Chapter 1 T he City States 800-360 BC 10
Part 1 The States at War II
Part 2 The Phalanx 37
Part 3 The Phalanx in the Field 44
Part 4 Armour and Weapons 51
Chapter 2 Macedon 360- 140 BC 64
Part 1 T he Macedonian Wars 64
Part 2 The New Macedonian Army 68
Part 3 The Later Macedonian Army 75
Italy a n d T he Wester n Medi ter ranean
Chapter 1 T he Rise of Rome 800-275 BC 86
Part 1 T he Struggle for Ital y 87
Part 2 The Italian Military Systems 91
Chapter 2 Rome 275-140 BC 129
Part 1 T he Roman Army 160 BC 129
Part 2 T he Great Wars 143
The Roman Em p i re
Chapter 1 T he Empire 140 BC-AD 200 210
Part 1 Conquest of the World 210
Part 2 Army Organisation (Dr Brian Dobson) 213
Part 3 Equipment 228
Part 4 T he Army in the Field 239
Chapter 2 The Later Empire AD 200-450 249
Part 1 T he Mobile Army (Dr Roger T omlin) 249
Part 2 Equipment 259
Appendix 1 War at Sea 262
Appendix 2 Fortifications and Siege Warfare 274
Appendix 3 Roman Military Costume 304
Bibliography 314
Index 316
GREECE AND MACEDO:--IA
The City States 800-360 DC
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Int roductioD
Soon aftfi 1200 Be the great Bronu_
Age crvilisauon which had f1ourishC'd in
Greece for several ceerunes ...-ent into
a rapid decline and tinally collapsed.
Barbarous uibn poured southwards
obliterating the last remnant s of the
xt ycenaean culture, and a dark age de-
scended on Greece. T his book is a
survey of t he militar y syst em. that
emerged from this dark age. An auempt
is made t o t race of
militar y organisation, tact ics and ar ma-
ment in Greece and Italy from t he 8t h
cent ur y Be, when ci"ili.ation once more
began to emerge in Gree , unt il the
onsct of the second dark age when t he
Roman empire in the West collapsed.
Both Greece and Rome had to face
the supreme tnl. With Greece it WI$
.....hCII the Penian. in.-a.de<t at the begtn-
ning of the 5th e>:ntury, ...hile Rome
faced a similar cruci al situation when
the gratest of the ancienl generals,
Hannibal, invaded I taly 260 yea" later.
Both t hese wan are examined in con-
sidereble detail to show how the t wo
military systems rose to t he situaILon.
.\ toll of Rome' s or ganisat ion and equip-
ment was borrowed from the nat ion.
with whom she came into confl ict: the
Etruscans, Samnites, Celts, Canna-
ginians and, of course, the Greeks, T he
contr ibutic ns cf each of the . e states will
be examined in tu rn .
Alreadr by t he late Mycenaea n period
in the 13th and t 2th cent uries Be cen-
tral European influences were bei ng fel t
in t he Aegean world. T hi s continued in
the succeeding centuries and. b> the
time that Homer ' s epic poems of t he
.\i.ycenaean era, the l/iad and the Odyr-
uy, were commiued 10 " Titing, pra.;-
ticall> nothi ng of the ancient weaponry
survived. For t his reason, unless there is
adeat derivation fromtheearlier period,
the Bronze Age ...i ll be ignored. Our
knowledge of the 8t h and l1h centuries
is very sparse but , by t he 6th, we have
a conti nuous written history.
T he hislory of the 6t h and 5t h cen
runes is dominat ed first by t he rise of
Persia and later by the bl uer war be-
tween Sparta and At hens. T he period is
very well document ed by IWO great
wnrers-c- Herodot us, who ",as alive at
the time of the Pen ian invasion of
Gt'eece, and T bucydides, the great est of
the ancient historians, who "'as actually
involved in ue .... r between Spana and
Athens, To t hese one must add Xeno-
phon, who " Tore alVUIld t he beginning
of mc 4th century Be. Xenophon' s writ -
ings arc not in the same class as Herod -
OllIS or Thucydides but he was a soldier
and served for man) }'ean with the
Spanan. He is t hus an incomparable
source of infor mat ion about t he Spart an
military system.
literary sources ar e supple_
mented by a mass of archaeological
evidence. An er a battle it was custom-
ary for the vict or to dedicate some
armou r in a sanct uary such as Ol ympia.
In t ime t hese shrines became .0 clut-
tered wit h armou r that it became necea-
sar}' to t hro...' out the older pieces. At
Olympia some were dumped in t he
5treams and disused " "ells. whib t other
pio;es used to reinforce t he banks
of the stadium. In recent years some of
this armour has been recovered duri ng
exca' at KlIIS.
The S tates a t War
When t he Mycenaean stat es fell soon
aft er t 200 IIC, hotdes of savage tribes-
men, Greek speaking but from the
mountaimlU' north .... e.tern region,
moved down into sout hern Greece. T he
most formidabl e of t hese invaders were
the Dori ans. Many of t he original in-
habitants fled from Gr eece and settled
along the west coast of Asia Minor
(Turkey) in Ihe area t hat became kno",'n
as Ionia.
T he invasions and subsequenl migra-
tions came 10 an end about 1000 BC. This
....as followed by a period of settlement .
Finally, order began to ret.um . The little
states ,.'hich emerge<t consist ed of SC'V-
eral ,illages wit h their land under t he
control of a hereditary watlord. These
gradually consolidated unt il, by t he 8th
century. a poli tical structure which ...as
to characterise Greece began tc emerge.
T his was th e polis or city state where
the government of an area sett led on a
single town. Gradually powerfu l cities
began to absor b the ir neighbours; t he
foremost of these were Spart a and
Athens, In Athens, t he king was subse-
quently oust ed and supplant ed by t he
nobility. I n time t hey. tOO, weIC thrown
out and cont rol taken over by a dema-
gogic dictator, or tyrant. Final ly the
tyrant was ove rt hrown and democracy
T HE CITY STATES 800-360 Be
THE STATES AT WA R
established. This last Slep "" IS only
aochieYC'd on the eve of the Per sian wars.
Athens gained control of the whole of
AUica dur ing this period, and, b)' 500
Be. she was becoming the cuituraj cent re
of the Hellenic world and the mOSI
pcwertul Slate in central Greece.
Spana, on the orher hand, had a very
different development. T he Spartans
were descended from the Dot ian in-
vaders who had conquered Laconia.
T hey had enslaved part of the native
populat ion and subjected the rest. The
enslaved population were called helots,
T hey were t ied t o the land aod com
pelted to work t he state-owned farms
which pro,'ided Ihe Spartans with their
livelihood. The subject peoples, ca.lled
were allo"'"ed a measure of in-
dependence but were compelled to pro-
vide soldi ers to fight on the Spartan
s.ide. The Spanans were commanded in
baule by 1;\Oc herediw)' kings. By the
end of t he 7th century Sparta had over-
come " l essenia to the west I nd gained
control cf t he whok: of the southern
Pelcponnesu. Over the next 100 years,
either by coercion or persuasion, she
managed to unite t he states of the Pelo-
ponnes us into a league known t o t he
ancients a. ' t he Lacedaemonlans and
their but called today simply the
Peloponnesian League.
In t he middl e of the 6th cent ury, the
tyrant seized power at
Athen. , which he, and larer his son
Hippias, governed imerrrut renrly for
half a cent ury until deposed by the
Spanan king Cleomenn ",-hen he in-
vaded Attica in 511 Be. 10 t he ,,'ake of
the tyrants ci,ojl strife broke out as demo-
crat and oligarch st ruggk:d for power.
When t he oli garch Is>.goras "'as thrown
out, he appealed to his personal friend
Cleomenes for assistance. Clcomenes,
wit h a small body of rel ainers , agai n in-
vaded Attica, and so great was t he aura
of Span a tha I he took the city wit hout a
blow and gar risoned t he Acrorcn.
When the Athenians discovered t he
palt ry size of Cleomenes' party, t hey be-
sieged the Acropolis and Clecmenes, in
the face of starvation, .... a. forced t o sur -
render, Fear ing repri s.ls, t he Athenians
felt obliged to release the king and his
retainers. Enr aged at his humili at ion
Cleomenn relurned to Spana and mo-
bilised t he entir e Peloponnesian League
against Athens. Accompanied by t he
r r
GREECE A:-JD MACEDONIA
other king Demaratus, he led his
to"'ards the borders of Attica. In the
non h T hel:>l:s and Chakis, Alhens'
ri"al, seized the oppor-
tunity to stri ke at Ihcir enemy and alw
mobilised. hUI I:>I:fo"" the assault CQUld
be launched d issension broke out in t he
Peloponnestan ranks , !o.1any of the allied
Slates refuse<! to fighl Cleomenes' peT-
sonal wa rs fot him. Dcmaratlli> took
their &ide and the army broke up_ T he
Athenians could ha rdly have bl:lie,'ed
tneir good fon une and had the presence
of mind 10 ClI. pitalise o n th" situalion.
T hey marched notl h and in lhe same
day defeated bot h t he Tbebans and t he
Chalc,di ans, reducing the lat ter to the
st alUs nf a colony. continued
the ,,'ar and " 'as latn joined by' anot her
of Athens' ri"al s. t he island
of Acgma. [t was d uring this war that
Athem emerged as a mili ta ry power .
Her st ruggl" wit h Aegina forced her to
bui ld a na",- which, in a few short years ,
was to become t he strungesr in Greece.
T he ri se o f I' ",. ia
Mean",hile, evems in Asia ",ere begin-
ning to have an on Greece. AI the
end of the 7th century lie the great em-
pi re of Assyria had fallen and, by t he
midd le of t he suce<! lIlg Cent tIr), a new
giant had arisen " ' hieh was 10 absorb all
the previous empires. This ,,-as Persi:>..
I n the Lydian empire fell and t he
G reat King Darius overran Asia Minor
(furtey). One by' One l he Gr=k ci ties
along the eea" fell to t he Persi ans. Some.
in deSf"' nll ion, t ook 10 the sea. lne
P"""""ans, like l he kg\"ndal} Aenea>.
crossed the Aegean and t he Adriatic and
fi nally' settled al rhe colony' of Alalia in
Corsica . How,,\'er Ihey were moved on
by the F.lru.cans in and ult imalely
joined the colony' of !o. iassilia
scilles) on the southern coast of France
In when all the islands along t he
co.ast of A.ia .\ hoor were in Persian
hands. Darius in\' aded Europe . Pushing
up t he west coast of the Black Sea, he
cro>;,cd t he Danube and imade d
Scythia, Next T hraee was overrun and
.\-tacedoniu forced to submit. Only
' I'hessaly now , x,d hel ween t he Greek
states and Persia. In 500 the Greek
slate, in Asia ,\ I m" r, led by Mil"IU' ,
revolted and looked for help from t he
west . Athens and Eretr ia on the west
CQ;lSt uf Huboe a sent expeditionary
forces to Ionia which resulted in t he
saet inll end bur ning of Sardis, capi tal of
t he Persian
T he Persians put down the
"" '011 .\li lerlli> was overt hrown and its
pnpulark>ll ooId into d a,'ery, By -194 the
revcn " -as over and the Pers,ans pre-
pat' N for a pumnve o f"'dit ion against
GINa.
An embassy was sent (0 Greece de-
manding eart h and water, the traditional
symbols of suhmission. All hough prac-
tically all t he Greek states refused,
" .::gina. which had t rad ing links wnh
t he eaSl , submitted . Aegi na lies in the
Saronic gulf " nly te n kilometres olf the
Anic coaSi and cont rols access to At hen. '
harbouMi. With t he Isla nd under Persian
control Al hens woul d be: strangled.
Aegina was a memhcr of the Pclopon-
nesian League and Athens appealed to
her old enemy Cle" menes , The Spartan
king to"k up t he Atheni an cause hur
nnce aKain he Ca rne int o confl ict with
his collealo: ue Demarat us. The enmit y
which had smouldered between the I WO
' ince the abortive at tempr to invade
All iea some t 7 years hef"re now bursl
into fl ame , Cjeomenes laid charges of
illegit imacy against his colleague and
Dema ratus " 'as depmcd. T he fonner
king fled GR'eCe and toot ..,fuge wil h
the l' eMilans . Cleomenes, freed of his
partner, forcibly ..,turned A\'gina 10 its
former loy'allies and pa tched up an alli-
aOCe ,,-ith Athens agai m l the t hreatened
lOva,ion. T he PeMiians om"iously in_
lended only a limiled puniti"e operation
agalOst At hens and l':.-et ria which had
aided t he loman eevon.
I n 490 the Persia'" launched a sea-
borne anack. Er etria was sacked and the
llcct moved down 10 t he of .' lara-
toon ..,ady for 1he sIri ke against Athens.
The Al henians scm a runner 10 Sparta
and marched QUI 10 meet the invaders.
What happened at Uarathon isconfused
and t he truth will probab ly ne'"er be
known. The Spartans delayed their
march because they were ecl ebn ting a
resli val and ar rived 100 late for t he batt leo
T o t heir ast onishment they di scovered
lhal the At henians bad decisive ly de-
feated Ihe Persia ns and dr iven t hem Out
of Attica.
The defeat at Marathon served onl y
10 initat e t he Persians. All knew fhat t he
matl el WIS unsettled, but it was te n years
hefore a """ontJ arternpr " as matJe" [n
t he meamime Athens was able to build
up her lleel u nt il it ", as equai lOr he com-
bmed fl eels of all tbe ot her Greek stales.
\X"hen it became obvious t hat the
Persi.an in" sion was immine nt. a C\)f1-
g"'ss was as5Cmbled at the i.thmus of
U>rlnlh 10 try 10 'el tl e fhe imCTnal dif-
rere ncn of the Greet Slates SO t hat they
oould present a united front.
In sprmg of 480 BC lhe Persian
t ing Xen:es, accompanied b)"
alUt, the deposed king of Spar1a. crossed
the Hellespont. Hit vase army advanced
on (irec<.--e " il h t he fleet following along
t he coast . The anny forced its "'. j'
Ih",ugh T hrace and down into .\ Iace-
doni. , bui ldi ng up the road a. u
advan\"f:d, Herodotus says t hat
Thracia ns we re >0 overawed that even
in hi. own day they would not dig or
80W the area through which the army
passed ,
The P cr sian a rmy
T he ancient Greeks believed t hu!
Xerxes' arm)' numbered t hree million
plus camp followers_ Herodotus gives
t he total as fIve and a quarter million ,
bUI he is clearly a linle scept ical about
how such an ar my could be fed, AI the
end of the t92OS, General Si r Frederick
.\l aurice made a detailed stud)' of
Xerxes' route from the Helksronl,
examining in panicular the probk m of
water suppl y, and concluded that t he
Penian army could not ha'"e numbered
more lha n 2r O,ooo men plus n ,ooo
animal. probablethallhe rain -
fan allhi t lime ,,-as considerabl)' higher
l han today' ( <cc p. 157), t hn efore these
figu res could be mcreased shghtly. Even
so, t he fiKUre could hardly have been
over Of this number about
three-quarlen would ha'"e been com-
batants"
The !'ersi an ar my was a polyglot affair
d rawn from all quaners of a , 'ast empire.
L ike the Romans, t he Pers ians de_
manded Iroops from Iheir su biect races.
The VBS! majorit y of t he Persian army
were light- armed skir mishers, eit her
archers f" ,m central Asia or javeli neers
fro m the easter n Medi ter ran ean, T he
I' e" ian. and Medea who formed the
nucleus " f t he army' w"re I""se caps,
mult k oloured. long-sleeved tunics (be-
neat h which was a scale shir t) and
hreeches. T hey carried wicker shield. ,
proha!> l)" L"Overcd with hide, wh ich were
,,'
A sP'O!'rmon{arche< Tn,. proboblv
_,. an -lmmo<'oI' , """ 011fle 10.(l(X}
e",. p"'",,,,1 of 'Il<> Peran k,....
F,om s...... 511' "" nw", Be N""" In the Lo uvre
Pa,,,
Abova
1 2 3 Two a"owneadsar<l I,,,,,,""01 fl"'"
MOl.t hon Mu","um ,, "'''ow h"lrr;>m
,... '1." stand' hillock.t Th"nT>opyl"" Nal",,,,,1
A!cn_lOij,cal Mu,,"um, Ar"""" S P."" ..
sh..-d boss fr om Sarno.
somewhat SImilar in appearance (0 the
U." eOliafl . hid d., this was a central-
handgrip tv pc on It, wh ich was stitched a
metal 00". Their weapons co nsrsred of
a 'hort . bout zm in lengt h, a lung
composite lin'" with hronze- lipped ITcd
arruws and . dai/;ger which hung on the
right . ide,
The elite of t he !' eThlan anny werC rhc
klll g' 6 pe rsonal Ix>dyguard, the 10,000
Immort als, '" called thei r
st rengt h wa, always kept up to t hi,
numher. T h" ' I cquipm<' nl differed frum
orher I' er. ian, only in t he of it,
The l'er. ian caval ry wa,
armed in t he same fa ' hion as the infant ry
..pt that s"me wore met al helm" " .
l lemdmu, cla,ms thaI the Per, ian
cavalry numbe red &>,000, bul 8,<XXl
rna)' be a more reason able est imate.
Herodotus gIves t he size "f the Per-
sian fleet as t.,207 triremes, includ ing
300 I' hoenician "es,d" 200 Egypt ian
and 290 loman Greek It ,eems prob-
abl.. t hat the his torian i. here rec",<l ing
the pap<: r ' !lengt h of the Pe rs ian .\ le.1i-
terranean fl eet and nm Ihe operational
number , as it is dear from the later en-
gagement ' that the " ersian. did nm
have a ma"ive numerical superiorit y
The prillcipal ves",1 "f t he day was
t he' tr ireme. Thi. was a galley propdled
by about t 70 00" al three di fferent
le"ek At t he front of ship, at water
level, wa' a hrnnze- pJated beak which
Was used to hole and . ink enemy ship,.
T hi, t n'" of ship, varyi ng only sup....-
ficially , wa, used by all t he Medi t er-
raneun tleets of t he time, Aut hese gal-
leys carried a complemmt of ma rines
WOO"" lob It was to t ry til hoard and
capture t he enemy shi ps . Greek ships
carried ten boplite, and li,ur archers,
wheITa' t he Ionian ships each carrie d
30 10 ,*0 ma rines. T he. e marines were
armed mainl y wit h spears, javelins and
poleaxes.
The d efe n ce o f Gr eece
Fa<:ed with inva.ion, Athens and Sparta
had buried rh.... dilfncn"es, Athens had
eve n gone .0 far a. to pla"c h.... ent ire
military st rengt h, ship. a. well as men,
under Spanan command . It w'a. de-
cided Ul st<>p tile Persian ar my at t he
T empe Gorge, a nar row' defil e at the
suuth end of ,\ \ ount Olympus , A furce
of ro.coo hopfires was despatc hed and
in p"'it ion hefore Ihe Persians Ilad eve n
T HE C IT Y ST ATES &>0-360 lie
THE STATI\S AT WAR
crossed the Hellespont. Tllese force.
ha"e Ileld tile narrow passes 10 l he
south and uf .\ Iuunt Olympu, in-
defin irel y. Hut , for "orne reaS<lIl-pcr-
haps because the troop, d id ,I<" like
fighting so far trom home-t his fo r ....ard
po.it ion was I k rod" t u,
t haI the army wit hdrew be-
cause t he Persian fifth was
already opcrarmg in the area and rhe
"outhern Greeks felt they could nor
trust t hei r nonhern allie. Herodutus
also mentions the fear that Ihe Pers ian
fleet might outfl ank them and land
t roops funher down t he coast. In the
unrest ricred area along t h" the
Greek fleet could not guaranI"" to S1Up
the Persians ct.)ing Ihis and il was prol>-
ahly the main rea..m for the w, thdrawaL
was abandoned. Thi. had
",rinus rep<:reussiuns among the al h" , .
.\ \ any of the non he rn I" wn, believed
t hat Spuna only intended 10 make her
real stand at t he is!h mu s of ("-"rinth, and
in fa"1 many uf t ile l' e1opn nn" . ian,
advocated thIS line. As a res ult
many of t he nort hern rown s decided to
suomit. In "uk r 10 halt t his defect ion it
Wa' tinally' d..cided to m"ke a 't and al
Thermopd "e, a place wr. o. " name has
become a byword for heroism.
._.
Ea' tem ""I""'t po...,!;Jly PI'OM"".n, !oor>d a,
.. Probobly I, ,,,,, ,r.e boll.. 01 M.ralllon
The <!ed ,caMn fNds To Z"". the Atllen,,,no
rlIKliu,. thol.., 'iJO'l. tro<n t he Mede.'
Archaoolog,c.t Mu,,",,m, Olympia
' 3
GREECE A:-.: n .'I.1ACf: DO:--J I A
At T hermopylae the mountains come
in cl",e to the sea, leaving only tWO pos-
sible route! south-one along t he CNS!
and the (Mher a vcry di fficult route over
the mount ains. Today t here is a marshy
plain berween t he hills and the sea,
brought about by the silt ing of the ri,cr
Sperchrius ; in t he tIC t here
was only a nalTow passage between the
hills and the sea. These hills, the Calli-
dromus range, streich in an easl -wnl
direcnon down t he ecase and al t hrtt
points ther come very dose: t o the sea.
The lint of t bese (t he west gate) is at the
very beginning of the pass. Herodotus
descr ibes t his as so narro" lhat t here
was only room for a single cartway.
Here the hills are not very high and
could easily be crossed. Beyond t he wnl
gat e the pass widens. Here was situated
the and ent vilbge of Anthela Two and
a half kilometres beyond the west gate
lay the village of Thermopylae, named
after the hot springs which still rise
there today. T he calcium car bonate in
these ther mal spr ings gives t he land
scapc t he appear anceof crusty grey rock.
A great cl iff, known as Zastano, towers
nearl y r.ocorn above Thermopylae_
This cliff is the to t he pass. A shon
distance be}ond the cliff a spur jUls out
towards the sea (t his is t he middle pass).
Along t his spur t he people of Phocis had
const ructed a ..-all st retching OUt into
l he manM 10 stop the Malians in,.,.d_
ing Iheir CO!.Inlry. An}-one to
bn'lss this poi nl ....oeld neve to neg0-
nate the Zan ano cliff_About t hree kilo-
metres fan her along the pass is a t hIrd
narm'" poi nt (Ihe east gate) wit h t he
ancient ,-mage of ..\ lpeni buil t on a spur
jut ting out into the marshes. Here t he
hills are low and easy to CIo. s.
As ment ioned before, there ....as
anot her steep and difficult route into
cent ral Greece at the CS t end of Ihe
range. T his rout e follo s the valle}" of
the Asopus, which passes t hrough a
precipitous gorge. T oday the railway
and road bot h follow th is route, the
for mer passing t hrough a tunnel on the
we, t . ide of t he gorge, whilst the lalter
climb. up the hillside "n t he east of the
ravine and then runs over t he hills above
t he gorge. T his route was guar ded by
t he ancient citadel of Trachi. built on
top or t he steep cliff. overlooking the
..-est side of the gor ge. "So commander
"'ould auempr to force a passage at Ihis
point in thefaeeoCdetermined and well-
organised opposit ion_
.-\ shun distance off the coast lies t he
long island of Euboea, which st retehe,
for in a south-easterly di rection,
leaving onl) a narro.... channel bet....een
{he island and the mainland. Here, un-
like t he ori ginal position a{ T empe, i{
"as posMblr for Ihe Grttk tlerI: 10
' ent the Pen ian na'-y bypassing the
Grttk army on the mainland. This,
lhen, ....al t he area .,,-here the Grttks
elected to halt t he Persian ad.-ancr _
An edvance guard ....as immedi alely
sent out to man the pass until tbe rest of
t he army could be brought up. Cleo-
menes had met a violent end .e'"en years
earlier and had been succeeded by his
younger brot her Leonidas. It ....as Ihis
new Spart an king who marched nort h
.... it h hi. h..,dyguard of 300, the h'ppm ,
to hold t he pa
a_l ow
A model 01 Il"Ie p... 31 Trn., rnopyl... o. ,t
prob30'" 3l>p"a'lld c 500 Be. Tho Po,...,.,.
"",comped I'" pla n on " '" 1011 T"'"
01\0<:"", o. :A) I nd Il"Ie _ _ 1""
m_ lh, ,, I..t $I.M : 6)
'4
With the Spartans were 2,800 other
Peloponnesians. The war memorial seen
by Herodotus at Thermopylae records
4,000 Peloponnesians-900 more t han
he lim; t his may include the hetou who
accompanied every Spart an army.
As they advanced nort hward t hey
were joined by 100 T hespians and 400
Thebans. T his army was finally swelled
by 1,000 Phocians and t he compl ete
armyofthe Locrians. Each grou pserved
under its own Slraugos, or gener al.
T he Gt eek hoplite used a spear abour
2_5m long , giving him the advantage in
reach over his Per sian opponent. He
was heavily armed wit h a round shiel d
so-coon in diameter , a cuirass, helmet
and greaves (leg gu ards). He also carried
a sword which he would only use if his
spear broke, He fought in phalanx, or
format ion, about eight ranks deep. This
phalanx was probably organised in unit s
of 100 (lac/wi) whi ch were subdivided
into four smaller units, each of three
fi les of eight plus a rear-rank officer. The
officer commanding each file fought in
the front rank. This system may have
varied slightly from state to Slate, and
the Span ans seem 10 have confused t he
issue by applyi ng the name of lochos to
t he five major d ivisions of t heir army
(see p. 41)
The soldiers who joined Leonidas at
T hermopylae wer e told that the;: were
on ly t he advance guard for the rest of
t he army. When they reached the pass
they established a supply base in the
village of Alpen; at the east gate and
took u p their position at the middle gate
T hey then set about repair ing the wall
which t he Phocians had built. This wall
was excavated just before Ihe Second
World Wat; remains were discovered
only on the top of t he ridge. The wall
started with a tower and t hen zigzagged
down t he hill , It must have cominued
across t he level ground and probably
fini shed with another tower in the
ma rshes, There is a narrow gateway
next to t he tower on t he r idge, and
Herodot us claims there wer e several
more. T he 1,000 Phocians wer e placed
on top of t he mountain to counter any
Persian attempt to tum t he Spartan
posit ion by forcing t heir wa;: up t he
Asopus valley.
The combi ned Gr eek fleet, consist ing
of 21t tri remes, took up position at
THE CITY ST AT ES 800- 360 Be
THE STATES AT WAR
Attemisium at t he north end of Euboea.
Of t hese 127 were from Athens. This
was not t he total mUSter -ctarer, a further
80 shi ps were sent to Artemisium, of
which 53 were Athenian. T hey had been
held back i n case the Persian fleet tried
to sail round Euboea , number was
swelled by volunt eers from Greek cities
in Italy and desert ions from Greek
held by t he Persi ans to br ing the
total u p t o 368, of which almost half
were Athenian.
The Greek fleet, like the army,
under t he overall command of a Spar-
t an, Eurybiadas, whilst each of the
squadrons from t he cit ies was
under the command of it s own admiral.
The At henian fleet was command ed by
t he wily T'hemistocles, who had played
such an important part ill building up
t he Athenian navy.
The Gteek fleet, as it could t ravel
fast er , may have taken up its position at
Below
The p" oj seen from {he 'Ia.t
'lend' hillo c'. The cl,fls of Za'tano, towering
ne,rly 1.000m o"er Tlw mopylae, rise on t he
left. The aoe;ool coastli ne wou ld be-en
j ust {o thO r;ghl ol lhe modern (oad
"
GREECE A:-: D

J
' AO'
' ,V1" "'Jill'""
.....1I... GUlF

rR,,,
BOEOTIA

" ,,' M
' _ Ai


/

.I
-
."

..
lmemisium shunh' before t he land
force reached Thermopylae. The site of
the lemple of Anemi. , from " 'hich
Artemnrum go!: in name, has 00'" been
established with rea'C<1llbk certainty.
hs posil ion is IlUu1'ed by the ehapel of
Gcorgios on the hiD. beI",een
A.mini and Kur bat " . T he Greek a,n-
chon.ge can be identified as
me broad, open beach II PC"'ki Bay,
",'hi<.:h is io.kall > suited foc the pllrJlOSe.
I);' esl of Pe"ki lhe beadlo str etch oul in
analmost un broken line along t he non h
coast of Euboca, and t he Greek shi!>S
"u,J1d have had ample space to beach in
a single line . Lookoul posn were ""lab--
lished on Ille lIill. One of these mu.t
certainly ha"e been placed abo" e Cape
....rtemision, len kilometres cast of Pe"1<i
Bay. Anoi ller wa, posted on Ihe island of
Skiathos , which hes four kilometre' off
[he headland , )1' Magne.ia, A. t he I'e r_
si.n flcet sailed south it would have to
pa" betwee n Skiarhos and the mainl and
in order til enter the Euboean channel.
\X'hen the Pe..ian. were sighted, t he
lookout s on Skialho. would signal with
...n. and the observancn post above
Cape Anemi.ion woutd relay the mes-
sage to t he fl cet at Pe, 'ki. Three .hi!>S
were also 1X"led al Skialhos to keep
"" atch in case conditions were uesuir-
able for sigmlli ng,
Two Iighl galley., one stalioned at
and the O1hct at 1'hcrmopylae,
were used to maintai n commumcanoas
between t he land and 1ft forces. Ha,;ng
cstablished the' r position. t he t.ired<.
""tl ed down 10 a"'ait t he ani","! of the
Persians.
XerJl e. advan ces into Greece
Xerxes, was at Therm..
(modern Saloniki ) with both t he fled
and the army. When he advanoc:d imo
The.saly the twOarm. of hi. force would
be ..,paI\lted ..nd would onl y be able 10
rejoi n at the Euboean channel. At
Therma t he tinal plan. for the mvasion
of the pemnsula would ha"e been
wor ked out. A. t he army moved mm e
slo", ly, it <ct OUI I I days before t he fleet.
T he tWOforces probably agreed to meet

Map 01 ""ntral G'ftCO ' how, ng ,hot ' hoo" e 01
""Of. The "",n fo ul n are '''''wn '" Cfqm
Ancien' pia"" names a"" displ aYed on lla'oo
COIl"'" T"'s d,<!,tlCloon .. made

in the .\1&lian gulf on the loort eent h da y,
after Ihe army had secured ancoorago
there fur t he fleel.
Xerxes knew lhal the pesses
into Thessal)" no! occupied and he
entered lhe plain ....-nhouropposit ion. A,
he ad ' 'aOCCd sout h his S<.'OUts informed
him IMl lhe Spanans ...-ere holding the
pass al Thcrmop)"lac. Herodotus re-
OON' l he " " ,If )' lhallhe Great King .ent
OUI a horseman to reconnoi t re lhe Gred<
posillon. T hil SCOul adv'anoc:d to a
posit ion from ",'hich he could sec l he
....'all across Ihe middle gale but ....'15 un-
able to see into the Greek camp. It ....as
the Spanan da)' for dUly. The La<. -edae-
monians had piled l heir arm. outside:
the wall and were ei ther stripped olf
eXelciSlOg o r combing their long hair.
When Xerxes heard this he called
Demaut u< to a. k him what it meant.
T he exi led ki ng exp lained t hat it was
the Spart an custom to comll thei r ha ir
before pun inll their lives at risk, T his
.tor)' is probably apocr yphal, bUl it
illust rates the a'w in which Ihe Spar tans
were held by t herr fellow Greeks.
Xerxes reached Ihe plain of Lami a 14
days after Ieavmg Thcnna. He had
covered the 2llokm al lhe rate of 2Okm.
day . The a rmy camped in fr om of
Tl1Ichis and ,, '.i ted for the fleet to join
them.
Tbe Persian na" l had sem out len
fast galln 'S to the COUI.
These edvanced as far as Skiathos u n-
noIiced and puund on t he llu-ee Greek
galk)'S posted the-re 10 keep .... alch ,
\t' hen lhe lookouts on t he island sig-
nalled to rhe IIttt at Pevki, Herodotus
clai ms rhat t he Greeks panicked and
..... ithd rew down the channel 10 Cha.lcis,
lea\'lOg the Spanan /lank uncovered.
Before rejC<;\ ing this our of hand, it mUst
be remembered IMI lir e signalling at
this time coul d only conve y a single
message (see p. 275) and the Grttks ma)"
have thought the d readed Persians were
upon them, T he main Pe rsian fleet
sailed Ircm T herma on the r.... elfl h day
after the army had left. It rcached rhe
area of Keramidhi ju", nort h of Cap"
l'on and st" pped for t he night. l lere the
beaches are ver y sparse and only the
first arrivals could be pulled clear of the
.....ate r, Ihe rest ha\' ing to r ide al anchor
eijl:hl deep. It was a clear. cal m night
but at dawn a storm got up and many of
the ships were du lled on the rock)'
T ilE CI T Y STATES 800- 360 80:;
T HE STATES AT WAH
COISt. T he stor m lasted for three da)'S,
but on the fourt h tlK: fleet .... ... ..ble I"
SCI OUI ap,in, round l he promonh>ry of
.\ 1:agnes ia and bea<: h at Aphel"". On t he
second dar of Ihe S10nn the watchen
on the heigh.. of Euboca had informed
the Greek flttl of t he shipwreck of rhe
Persian lleel . Encouraged by this ne.n
t he Greek shi ps returned 10 l hei r
original Slation al Anemisium,
Thi. has been called into
question b)' hiSlorians, and wit h some
just ificalion. It is tha t the look_
"Uti on Skial hos, if they were still there
aflcr the capture of the t hree ships,
m,ght have seen a .....reck or t ....'o. How_
evcr , even on the c1earesl of days il
would have been impossible to sec a
wrecked galley frum a of aboUI
ten kilomet re. , let alone in a storm.
T he)' Iherefo re ha"e had no idea
of the extent of t ile damage. T his pan of
rhe story rs probably an attempt ttl
ace..sunt for I he Gr eek fleet being back at
Artemi.ium when t he Persians reached
Aphetae. 'I'he retreat 10 Chak is is prob-
ably a complete fiction. Herodotus has
also prullably naggerated Ihe effeCl of
the st"nn , Ihe Persian fleet ",IS prob-
abl>' ne" er as hig as he claimed. He kne.....
l ru. t l he fleet at Aphetse did not greatl y
outnumber the Greeks, so he has u ied
10 reduce il to a more real istic size by
wreding a large pan of it in the storm.
He cal mly ....TCI."k. anulher zoo galle>'s
only a rouple of later .
The bailie for Thermo p ylae
It was well int" August when Xerxc-s
reacbed the plain of Lamia, He hoped
lhat when his ann)' .....as assemhled. its
sheer size would cause the Greeks in the
pass to Iosc hean and dcs,," their polIS.
The Great King waited for fou r days,
probabl y anucipanng the arrival of the
lIeel . When Ihe)' did not show up, and
rhe Grl:s remained obSlinatel)' loo!!ed
in t he pass, he ral her flamboyantly
or de red for....ard his Medes and Cjssians
(who wele , imilarly ar med . but the
lat ter wore turbans) , wil h orde .. to
'brinll: t hem hack alive',
The Mcdes launched a ,eric, of
charges which failed to make any im_
on Ihe G reeks. When Xerxes
law lhal t ile Greeks were holding firm.
he .ounded the recall and scm forward
hi, pe rsonal bodyguard, t he Immort als,
led hy their comma nder Hydarne . Ten
"
GREECE ....!';I)
thousand " ra"k troops " f the greate$t
ar my that the ,,'mid had ever seen
mUl' hed out w do their kin !!'. hiddinl!'
' ) '0 tho'" wlm wat"hed from the Pcrs ian
l-amp a, they moved for"oard, il must
Ita\"e seemed imp"", iblc that they could
fail.
...., tM I mmonals ad\"aill-cd. the Spar-
ta rrs p",,,,,d through 1M "-all 10 m1
t hem, For all Ihe aura that sUJ'Tou nJcd
t he Immort al.tbeycould achieve not It-
in.o: agamSlthe heavily armed Sparl aos,
III t he wntincd ' pace of t he !Xl"' t heir
number. were of no ad\'amage and.
hoeeause thei r spears were .llOrler t itan
tho<.c of tltc Greeks. Ihey " 'CTe unablc to
enllage t hem at dose quarters. Herod-
here records t he f....oun le Spanan
Irick of preten<ling to run aWa}' and IMn
lUm mg and catching t he pUT'lumg
cnemy unawar"", but it seem, most un-
ltkclv that this manoeuvre could have
lx-en carried out in t he'c ,"ndition' and
in ,uch a cramped space. Also, as the
{,reeks ,, 'crc lighting a dd en.i,c acuon.
it was ",..,mi al t hai rite}' kepi: l heit
format ion ; any breaktng of rank. ....ould
ha"e presemcd the Pen;an. with thei r
dun"e.
On Ih... follOWing day Ih... I' e...ian.
at ta" ked , Each Gr""k l'<.lm ingem fought
t hem in tum Alt hough a few Grech
had been killc<l , at the en..! oft he day the
I' e"ian, were no nearer their object ive,
The [>er. i a n fleet arrivlC'll
The Pe...ian flttt arrived at Aphctac 16
afrer t he army had left Therma,
T he . ite rhe !leel beached is un-
certain: Herod otus saysl hal it wa,ab<xl[
80 ( I from Artemi,ium and
had a good supply of water , About
stllde' must he interpreted as between 70
and 90 ' tad," ( t 3-17km). T hi, limits the
.ite 10 Oliw n or Plalama flay . W' . K.
Prrrchen, who has .pent many years
I..mping over Greek haulefiel d" con-
", nei ngl}' argun in fa"(lIl r of the PIa-
tania ' ite hoecarn;e of its larger water
supply , !'latania eun,i.rs of a ""rin
of 'mall se parated rocky
I'romontnrie'. The large, t of the'c
beaches i' nnlv ahoU! 450 m long. T hi,
beach, which is just we.t of Plalani.., has
a , pri ng. I' lat a"ia it sel f has a small
Uream, it ,,'a, for the
Persiaes to beach tMir galle)'. if lhey
...-ere OOtlO lose any more 10t he weather,
they wou1<l ha,-e needed a considerable
ra
space In ac""mm",date the !leer.
xone " f the beaches at ['Iat ania i, deep
cn" ullh for mnre than nne line uf ,hi p. ,
If the Ik el were onlj' 450 strong. al1"w_
ing a m1llimum of j m per . hi p the line
would st retch for mull: than rhree kilo-
met res.
Pl atania Bay it sel f could hol d
aoout Ko galleys. and lite boay totbe ...-est
about Thrs mean_ t haI the res t of l he
!l""t mu. t have been beached. probably
squmlron hy "-lu" dn1l1, along the t iny
tx'achcs tn the w" , t "I' Platania st retch-
ing down as far as Oliw n Hay six kilo-
merre. west of Pl alania , These bcaches
arc very narrow and il would nnl j' have
been pl"sible ro pull rhe stem of l he
.hlp ck ;lr of lite water , The beaches
. lope <luit e ste.:ply at lhe ...- ater ,
which would mean that the prows of l he
gall eys 'Hluld ha"e been eomplCl ely
allu," t, Thi, wa, prohahly "ormal prac-
t ice whcn hattie wa<immi nent, allowing
the ship, ro he launched easily and
quicl<h' , T he supplv ships were prob-
moored JUSt olfshore.
T he Greeb on t he wuth side of t he
channel had one great ad" antage over
t hei r on the nort h. 1'01 most
of the day the haze makes ir imp""sible
to see acros s the c hannel f", m t he north.
" 'herea, one gets a perfect view frnm the
s",uh side . So the ( ir ecks could observe
the Pe" ian m,)\'ement , w[{hnut being
seen t hem!'c1,cs. and t hey USl"d t his to
great elfcct.
The p""ian' feared that , if Ihey at-
tal'ked , the (;reeks would withdraw inl<1
the narrOWS "f t he Eub<>can channel
"' \file l okm to the ea" lI ere, "'here the
narrow!' arc onlv t hree kilomerres " 'ide,
t he}' could either stand and tighl or '<lip
a...--a.}-. T he Greeks had chosen t hei r
pl><illon well. for this escape rout" ......
al way.opento l hem, T he Persian. m uld
har<l ly sai l down the channel before the)'
haJ destroyed t he Greek force. a. the
( ,reeb could then anac'l< the rea r half of
the fleet when t h,' front half was
in the channel. T he Pe..tans t herefore
decided to rry to rum Ihe Greek positton
by' "Cndmg a force around Euboca to
occupy l he"hanncl, On Ihe afternoon of
their arrival they dl-spatehc.:l 200
to cru,'lC olf the island of Skiat hos.
guardinl! lhe , ha rmel for t he
stragglers whl>were st ill co ming in. (T he
figure or 200 should he treated with
eaut inn.) The,e Ihen sailed round he-
hind t he i.land and . keeping sufficient ly
far out to sea to remain out of sighl of
the watch",,'t above Cape Ancmi. ion.
'lei off down Ihe cast e03M of Euboea.
T he Greek Ioo!<our posl on Sk,arhos had
"'0.
1.101> ""ow ng ' '''' ' oill"v" posw"n, ollhe
VO""'" for"",, du"nQ ' he ba!lle tor thermODvl..
A Leo,, ;das 6 Xerxe" CGree , fleet 0 Pe",an
t "' l The Spa' ta n "."" aJ n"""""'P\IIH has
beCome b......"., fo< _(>Ism
ob\'iously been a bandoned as the Greeks
only learned whar hud happened fro m a
deserter This post had ['robably bcen
withdrawn after the t hree warch ships at
rhe i, land had been captured.
T be deserter who informed the
Greeks was a man calle d Seyll ias. rhe
greatest diver of his day. II ehad escaped
byswimmingl he Eubocanchanncl. T he
Greeks immediardy ,em a fast ship
dow" t hro ugh t he Euripus to in[ot m the
53 Athenian ships which had been hdd
back in anticipation of the Persi an move.
Fifteen Per>lan ships had been de-
layed at their anchorage farther up the
,0051 and did nol set out {() j", n rhe mai n
fleet at i\pherae unt il lon g afrer t he other
ships had left. T hese latecomers did not
reach thc channel between Skiathos and
the mainland unril late 111 the afternoon,
Whetl lheir view we,t wa, blind ed by t he
glare of t he sett ing sun. T hey failed to
,ee tht ir compani ons in the shadows at
Platania Bay bUI did ,ee the G reek
\'e"eb shining in lhe evemng sun 10 t he
south- west. .' vli <taki ng t hem for t he
Persian navy , the y held their ,'ourse and
sailed stt aight in to t he arms of t he
Greeb, T hi, i, ll1lerest ing as it limit s
the extent of the Pcr,ian anchorage to
rhe e",1. If Ihere had Ix'en any , hip, e"t
of Platania they were bou nd to he seen,
wherea< t he anchorage at I' lat ania wa<
shi elded by a promontory at t he eas t
end,
Unfonun"tdy, Hcrodotu,' para llel
diar ies for t he fleel and army hreak down
al lhi, point and he appears to lo<e two
days. -t he tleet arrived at Aphctac on
the sixteenth day after the army set out
fwm T her ma . The Cvents ofthis and the
succeedi ng t hree day, 'eem 10 have heen
condenscd into two days. A. H.. Bum in
his book Pa,<i" ""d Ihe (heeks h,,, made'
a detailed ex"mination " f event,
and suggested a recomtruetion which
has generally heen followed he re
The next day (the seventeenth) the
Pen; ians, who wCle waiting for t hclI
detal hmenl lO round Euhoea, made no
attempt to attack t he Greek fleet. I .ale in
the afternoon t he (;reeks lau nched t heir
ships and rowed out into t he channel,
planning on a limited engagement to
te,t the enemy's meltIe and get ,orne
experience of Iheir tac tics
'X'hen t he Pc"ians Sa'" t he Greek
fleet approa ching, they put to sea. The
THE CITY STATES 800-360 Be
THE STATES AT WAR
Greeks had probahly been rowing in a
diamond formation. The enemy ships,
purting out from rhcit '"rious anchor-
ages, tried lom<' Iheir superior number s
and greater manoeuvrability lO sur-
round t hem. A< Ihe enemy ,hips ap-
proached, t he Greek ships, acting on a
signal from Eurvbiadas' f1ag,hip, turned
t heir prows outwards, at the ,ame t ime
drawing t beir sterns together to form a
cirde. T he n, on a second signal, t hey
charged the light er Persian ships head
on. The Persians, who had expect ed an
easy viclOry, had walked st raight into
t he trap. Having movcd right indo,e on
t he Greek ships, were now unable
to manoeuvre and use t bei r supe rior
seamanshi p; they were forced to light
on t he Greek lerms. \X'hen, shonly
afterwards, darkness began 10 descend
t he banle was btoken off, T he Greeks
mwed back 10 Anemisium elat ed wit h
t heir suects, - they had captured 30
Below
The ,lte ot the Per> on "' PI.."""
Bay at Ihe Southern lip of t he Magne,i an
About 30 qal reys we re Moched
here. The were o u1
smalle r bys to the west as far as 8,y
'9
GREECE AND MACEDONIA
enemy vessels and damaged or sunk
several mor e, does not state
the Greek losses hut several of thei r
,hips must have been sunk.
T hat night a viol ent s<m'we'ler sprang
up accompanied by torrent ial rain . T he
wind blew t he wrecka>:e from t he battle
into the Pers ian anchorages and it he-
carne entangled in the ,hip" which were
only half beached ,
Alt hough t he fleet at Aphetae suffered
con'iderahly, t heir troubles wer e as
nothin>: compared with the plight of
their companion, tr ying to round t he
southern end of Euhoea. They ....ere
caught by Ihe fu ll force of the storm and
das hed on 10 the rocky at the SOUl h
end of the island.
Herodotus , tates that t he following
morning the 53 At henian ships which
had been left to watch the southern end
ofEu hoea saile d into Anemisium hring_
ing the news of the total destruction of
t he PelSian detachment . T h is is im-
possible and clearly a day has Ix..,n loS!.
I n all likel ihood not hing happened on
t his day' as both sides repaired their
storm damage. It w(mld be t he follow-
ing morning, t he ni net eenth, that the
Alhenian ships arrived bringing tbe
of t he shipwreck.
Late that afternoon t he reinforced
Grttk lIeet once more rowed OUI into
the channeL Thi, time, probably be-
cause of t he haze, t hey managed to cross
the channel unobserved and swooped
upon t he Cilician galley' s which were
st ill at thei r moori ngs, destroyed some
of the ,hip" and then withdrew into t he
dusk It i, possible that t he Cilician
squadron was moored in Olizon Rayand
that the Greek Beet was able to sail un-
ohserved past Cape Griba, round the
we' tern headland and into t he hav to
attack the Cilician squadron before it
could be manned , T his is feasible as
they would have been approaching out
of the setting ,un.
The en d of T hcrmopr la c
Meanwhi le, at Thcrmopyla c the second
day's figh ting had come to an end. Day
afler day Leonidas had sellt messengers
,oulh ple ading for reinforcement s but it
was now clear t hat none were coming.
The Spartans were on their own and
their code of honour expressly forbadj;
t hem to de, ert t heir posts. Xerxes and
his advi'ers had probabl y been aware
si nce soon after their arrival t hat there
was a route ove r the mountai n whIch
could be used to outflank the Spartans
in Ihe pass. T he Call idromus mountai n
is laced wit h paths varying from st eep
and narrow goat tracks to fairly wide
paths. T he trouble wa , that the moun-
tain was de mel y forested and it would
he impossible to find one's way across
without a guide. T oday, when a great
dcal of deforestation has taken place, it
is st ill easy to lose one's way up thcre,
even in daylight .
At last the Persians found a local
named Ephialtes who informed
them that t here was indeed a rout e
known as t he Anopaea path, and that for
a price he would lead them across.
ThaI night, as soon a, it was dark,
Hydarnes led the Immort als out of
camp and, wit h Ephialtes showing t he
way, hegan t he ascent oftbe mountain.
Below
v,ew aclOSS the Euooean ch aon", hom lhe
Athen'8n DoMion at Pevk; B8y. The Pe";80
ancho'age to the fight of cent, e DO the
oppoSite 'ide of the , ,,ait i' as deafly
as it w" to Ihe Greek,
All night long t he Persians toi led up the
winding pat h until, at last, as t he sky
began to grey m the east , the grou nd
levelled off and t hey entered a smal!
plain. T hey were plodding along be-
neath oak trees. Last year's leave, lay
thick "n the ground and rustled heneath
their feet. Ahead of thcm there was a
movemem and vokes hroke the sile nce ,
then they saw Greek hopl ites ha,t ily
donning t hcir armour . lI ydarnes asked
who these men were, ad ding in con-
sternation, ' Are they Spartans?' T hese
were in fact t he t ,000 Pbocia'" whom
l.c'Onida, had detailed t o cover t he
m"untain path, Havmg est ablished their
identity, Hydame, arrayed his men for
batt le and showered the Ph""ians with
arrows.
T he Phocians, f"rgett ing their mis_
sion, became convinced that they were
the Immonals' prime larget, wilhdrew
to Ihe top of the hill and t here prepared
!() ' ell their lives dearly. Wil h t he mute
d ear the Persians ignored Ihe l' hocians
on the hill and pushed on over the
moumam.
The roUl e taken by t he ImmonaJs ha'
provoked a great deal of debate. In
recent year, Pritchett has made a very
deta iled ' lUdy of t he , it e and has sug-
gest ed a route wh ich seems to satisfy
most of the criteria. He rodotus claim'
thal Hydarnes look with him t he men he
commanded, i ,e. Ihe 10 ,000 I mmor tals.
There seems no reason to dou ht t his. If
the route were a narrow goat t rack where
the men could onl y marc h in single fi le,
t hen the column would have str etched
out for ten kilometres or more. T his i,
unacceptable , and Pritchett concludes
thai one must be looki ng for a broad
path where the soldier' could march
three or four ah reaSL
There is one point in Herodotus' top-
ography which is easy to identify : ' It
begi", at the river Asopus which flows
through the tavine.' T he site of t he
Asopus gorge can hardly he in question.
l ie continues t hat the Persians crossed
the Asopm befor e st art ing the ascent.
Thi, m ndusively t hem On t he
east side of the gorge. T here is a very
easy rout e up the hill,ide a\xmt one
kilometre east of t he Asopus gorge, T his
is both the short est and the easiest route
u p t he mountainside fro m t he Lamian
plai n , l t lead, by way " f t he Chalkomata
THE CIT Y STATES 800-360 lie
T HE STATES AT WAR
spring to the village of Elcut herochori,
where there are t he remain' of an ancient
fort covering t he begin ning of t he route.
proves that t he path was in use in
ancient ll mes.
Herodotus describe' Ihe Pen ' an, as
marching all night with the m"untain,
of the Ocracans on Ihe r ight and those of
t he Traehinian, on thcir left. On me
face of it t his i, impossible 10 reconnle
with any oft he suggested roUies over t he
mou ntains, particularly if t he Pe"ians
crossed the Asopus before they started
the a,cent , fm Traehis and ,'-Iount Oet a
are hoth wes t of t he Asopu, gorge.
However, since T her mopylae itself was
in t he terr ito ry of Tractus and J\ Iount
Octa mus l surcly be included amongst
t he mo untains of the Oetaeans, one must
conclude t hat the mountains of Trachis
included t he northern part ofthe Call i-
dromus range. T his is admittedly
d um,y hut there ""em, to be no ot her
explanat ion, especially as Herodotus
says t he Pers ians marched 'all night ' he-
twee n these mount ains. [f this is t he
r ightcxplanalion, l hen the march woul d
be in a southerl y d irecti on along the
west , ide of !\1ount Callidromu"
Herodot us also de' cr ihe' t he route as
pa"ing along the hack\xme of t he
lain. Thi, is an accurat e de script ion of
t he route from Elcuthcrochori across
the Ncvrcpohs pla in to t he pass between
t he Liathitsa and Callidromus pcab.
Thi , route follows the plat eau iu' t hel" w
the ridge of the moun tain on the south
side . The Ph"cians,accord ingto Herod-
mus, were stationed in a posit ion from
which t hey could defend t he rout e over
the m(mntains and the route 10 thei r
own count r y. Thi, can he no ot hn place
than the Ken opolis plain, which lies
about Iwo kilometres from t he su mmit
of the pass , Here there is a small lake
which today drie' out in the summer hul
may not have in ancient t ime' There i,
also a spring which would give an ample
su ppl y of dr inking wate r for the 1 ,000
hopliles. The pat h from Phoeis joinslhe
Anopaea route at t his point; if t he
Phocians had taken up their positio'"
any neare r t he pa", they would have
Left
The plain of Nevropolis juS! \0 ' ouln of ,he
l i.t hitsa C" II ,dromus pat . Its P'Us i' ion .tthe
iunction of the "'ute to the pass oM t he route
10 Ph"" i, ma 'e 11 1he most l, ke1v " Ie for
the Phocian po. it>on
{ ~ R E E C E AND MACEI) ONI A
been "rt I,,,,,, II,.. ruul" ro Ph, >.; ".
I' un henn", ." r"ul,' o,cr lh., Lia-
,hlt>;l-C"lhd , n", u, r a" w"uld I"
g" Ihl> Ik'i h Jlu ,n arc
agreed Ih,' 1'1.. ",i"n< h"'" up Ih,.."
'00 ur .I".. ' ",,,"n " ' n "n .\ \' J\lm I
'" the ",,"h "I rill' r"lh. Ihi, """IJ
"en,"nl" lil 11.-"..I"IU' d.......rif'l ",,,.
Th" I'.,'-" Ian, ", lJ hm'" r...""h" d Ill.
lop of ,lie r>a" ..1:'< 1 I hr,...<jlLln " r' " I
an hour Lu,, -al\o.,u' 1''''' ,j\ in ,h.,
"""nlng
L, " 'niJ.h ' CW1".,J ,h., """, lha' ,h.,
Immon al, ' ....re ,r..., ,";( the m"" malll>
li...a [r"m ,k-erl"l', wh.. , am, ,,, ,l uli ng
'ht nighl. anJ Ih,'n I" , ,,, I, ,,,,,,'m, l'"k'-.l
On rh" "h" , a n J "wn ' 0 lllf"UT'
hr m )U" all,1' dawn T h, (,,,,,,k ,'''Ill -
malllkr, hdd J ,oun, , 1
.\1>" , f,, ' ,,'hik
' till haJ a ,'han,'" . 1..,,, niJ a, . ,,'I1,'n h"
, a,\, thar t heir h,' an, '\'\1'" tI,'1 in iI, ,em
lhem on t heir way , ..h" SI'''' I<l''' h,
"h
TI>o,." 0 " . ,
,om"an"
0(*" J"".nc '.
.. ,,..,,1 ,. .

Below
T". ..:e
._.

.,a

n" :1.:> .,"C L'""
,,,,,, .c"""C n", ,..,
'",.. ,
'" ol" "".." ",
'" , .1\", ,- \
".
,,,,,ld never h" I"". 'I'll . , 00
Th,',!" ,,"' and .100 Thd 'a," ,,,mai n,',j
"nh him 1I"'1\.,J.>lU'
1....,"l ida' 1'",.",.1 II", TheNn, 1<' .la'
'''Ih him ..".I ,,,hI< Ill""
h.,.( r, Ihen",,) NolTk.
.-\, Ibe' " Ie lhc lT 1" , 1 ...1 " "I':,, h" r .
'''r1",,,,J 1"I,aw
...I ,",,,a"f,,>(. 40.1-: ,n' ,hall d tn" in
lt "'"ulJ ,ll" ! mm", u l,
-cvcral h..., r, ' " g..'{ . "-,wn f""n III"
" ... ir.l"nJ.d ."
Ih.. pAy J ..." r!,'
Ihe'
Ih" '''I' " f lh. rl",un
lam [he I' ,,_i., n, l h"
1....." .1,,1,," lh"l Ih,' ..
, 'a111" d. .wn 111'" 1h" .\ 1pcni T h,'
,ill; "I rh i, 1\ \\\'11 h."
Wilh ,,>It'" "I' Oil,'
<1\11 m.",h", alI,'''t three
b l"lll.-t r,, c,,' 1 " I' l h,' Phocian ",,111 at
Ihe' ' it c' of I he' c,,, l e Thl'l" i , ,m
d: ,,''' ' ll l n ,-\l l' _' ni <, \"'llhc ho"k ,, [
/ ,a' )J l1 Ll ,It,d ,"1 J o... n through Il ral:,,
, pili" II j, "I" ," t rakm I"nl\ allu
"Ill y II", In I,,,,,
h"ur' h'
"ax,', lId , t hi, aHack lInl ,l mid_
\\' h,' n hi, 1n"' 1" " mn"J 'h.
I'a" the n" longer In ,,J I"
d"k",llh,' ak, ng th"
I.... " h' ib ",.1,"'1 p"inl h...., ,i r""
uI' in " ilh lh,' lighl" "
lid,." ,,,, Ih,: 11",,-
Till, CI TY STXI ES
'rm: SL\TES AT w..\ W;
"'nh ""'kl",, Th..
.lrC h'IJ. 1" 1>,' , lrn 'en
"n WlIh """r)!,'" an.i d a,,-,hc,,-J "Wr
the r de' ,,.' Ih"ir h' !l.el Ih"
( ;"...k,. m,"1 "flh. (ir",-\.: ' I'_a"
were hr"h.., "e h.'phl'" J",,\\ rh,';r
,,, ,,,J, 3n ,1 n." " '-.I in h.....
rhe "f f;o,.-.." lxf,."" ,hem H.,, I.,"'"
01,13' tdl Ihe battle ,..-,. , h\>
( ,r" ek and P""ian
ror I" " " "" " ' " " , 'he t-.lo.iy. " " ur l im,...
the l' er ' lan, "'''I'lu,,-'.1 il anJ
Ihc ( 'h,.. k, Jr 11 h""k "I(" i". :-." (he
.1 I":r" ' l,,d unllll.",J,;,'m, ",,, u!!t ht
Ih" ne'" that (he I mm,'n"l, ""adl'.1
'he l\o.' I,,'m ,,1' , he f'alh. Till: ('re,k.
"I,....." a",1 ""l"".lred h'...a, J . Ih,
\\ all. f'a,,," Ih",u;,, " Ihe 1("'''' anJ
\\ II hdl' C\\ I" " 'mall hill"." k n""l( at-.'lI l
r cm ali-,.-.- th, mar- Ill' ",h," ,'
t hcv ("'''1<",1 a ,i " k and I'l'el'"c.'J ". ,I...,
J'h. 1', r, i:tn, " , '!tlned rim\lIl( h the; \\',Ll l
'md Ir icd m d"rnl>" 1 up 111" hill, id" b\lI
III ,' ; " ','r,' ,ll' i""n back , .- \ 1 tir" til c
( ;n:,,'" d..r,",kd the; m, d ",', \\',,11 their
""'rJ,. but "' h"n t h,' " br" k,' th,',
thctr """i bn" wi 'h Ih" Ir li,t,
1.elh T h"" i< ',,!,lu on unril
",..... """rwhd ",,'d by lh" hail ,,1 mI>
. ik>, 11\ ",,,Id,,, all " 01' ,nil.
Ikr,,,t" lu, n...-""l- a ",ll" "f '"''
'I'.m an, " 'h" at lim" ,,1 rh,' 1a'1
>l a",. ","" III u' ilh "l'lnhalmi".1l
:\II',: ni. Th,' fir-I. nam,' J EU"1"', "Il
k ar:llllg Itt.. I-'"r,ian' haJ ,T,,,,,,,.l

'J
GREECE AND ,\.iACEDON IA
t he called for his armour
and, though he could not !>Ce, ordered
his IIdoilO Ind him into t he thic\: of the
batde. The 5<'<:ond, Aristooemus, lost
his courage alld $Iipped a",,,y w;l h the
other allies. \\' hen he returned
to Spana he "'''$ di sgrao.'ed and "'''' onl)'
able to redm himself by his extra-
ordinary courage althe bame of Ptaraea
the followillg year ,
.-\s for Ephialtes. , a pri... -e "'as put 011
his head, fi e fled imo T hc>.saly, feari lti
t hat the Sp;onans "" ou ld hum himdown,
Yea'" later he retu rned 10 his home at
Anticyra, ",' here he was killed by a mall
who had a private grudge against him
hm who nevenhel ess claimed the re-
"" ard.
At about the S<lme ti me as the last of
the Spartans died in the pass, t he Per.
"an /led, stung hy the attack of the
previous evclli nl:, put to sea and eru"ed
the channel in force . The Greeb, who
were determined to maintain dose con
tact with their camp, lined u p for battle
in the shallo"'. iust " fJ t he beach. T he
Persian shiP'S formed a half circle and
tried to engul f the smaller Greek fleet.
Once again the Gn-chcharged head on ,
crashing into rhe bows of t he lighter
Pe",ian 'essel. In Ihe engagement t he
Greclt s we re roughly handled and lost
several shiP'S. but the)' also inflicted
"",,'en casuahin on Ihel< """mies,
\X' hen tbe Persians found that they were
achiC"' ing little wit hdrew. Al-
Illough ne ither .ide c--ould claim a , 'ic-
tory. the Greeks had been severely
maulrd. About 90 Athenian shi ps had
suffered damage .
Saon after the hattie the jo-oared gal-
Icy whkh had been act ing as a liaison
shi p bet ween the Iorce in the pass and
the fleet carne in bringing t he tragic
new'S from Thermop)' Iac.
\\"hc n the sailors heard of the death of
Leomdas lhei r heans sank. The)' \:new
lbat there "" as no point in stay'ing, ll>c)'
hauled in lhei r anchors and S-C1 off down
rhe channcl lowa rds t he T hey
sai lrd in thei r appointw order , with tile
Corinthians making up the vanguard
and the Alhenians bringing up t he rea!
T he hattered G ree\: fleet limped
so\lIhw"rd , passing t hrough the Euri -
pus, down past the slle of the great
At henian victory al ,\ tarat hon, around
Cape Suoium and u p to At hens. The
Petsi..ns had not seen the Greek tleel
slip ..way-s-once again IOC haze had
covered Ihe Ath.."nian movements, They
did m't learn of the tleet's de parture
L1 l1 t il early t he followi ng morning.
T he f a n of Athens
The dISaster at Thermopylae, and e<-
pc<;iall y the failure to reheve the tTOOPS
in the had a ser ious effect on t he
morale of Sparta", alii.,., Tm: ancient
accoums imply that t here were seriol"
defeclions amongst the nort h-weste rn
'X"cstern Arcadia had
supplied a quarter of the Peloponn....i"n
lmops in Leon idas army, but the fol.
Io",-jng yeat when t he call for troops
wem coul 10 the whole of the Pelopon-
,,"Ian l .<:lIgue, not a single unit
senl.
On l he Ihird day- after taking [he pa$'S
the I'e";an army se[ out again. The
lrain. especially' the hell")'
wallons. must have gone b )" the coast
,'-
lt PSO(OOTALI
road, hut now t hat all opposition had
been crushed, part of t he army pushed
thro ugh the mou mains and in\'aded
I'hocis, The,' SlIcked ""er)" ,'illagt', loot
inl! and hurning Ihe temples as. the)'
went. T he inhahi[an[s flw and
soul h 10 the moumains OUI of reach of
the pillaging ooldicr., l hat wrre
Clughl "'-cre .hown no merC)', Phocis
",'as 10 be made an el<.3mpk for [he rest
of GI'CC to see and "'-cigh ceeruuv
before de..-ided to continue rhe un-
equal conresr.
T he demonstrat ion was nOi wasted
T he towns of Boeotia offered eart h and
water. the token"fsubmission. and Ihey
Were spared but Ihey were compelled,
in ac"COrdancc with t he normal Persian
custom. to scnd cont inllcnts to tillht on
the Persian side , Herodotus' clai m t hai
the surrendered at T hermo_
p,. lae may be true. as only the tuwns of
Thespi"e "nd Plataea were listed for
destruction : t he Th espians for t he patt
they played at T hermopyb e , and the
Plat aean. for fighting on t he Al henian
at ,\1arathon and for servi ng wit h
the At henian fleet at Anemisium
These Platacan sailors had disem-
hari<. w at Chalas when the flcct was
passinll lhrough Ihe Euripus and made
t hei r way- home so t haI the)' could hel p
in t he evacuation of the [O""n. Hnth l he
I'latacans and the Thespians were
e-vllCWIIN to t he Pelopormcsln.
.-
....".. _"Il _ POl""" ..... '"
_,,,,, 10 A""-,,, The G"", ' '",",_
boNcfIed '" ,.... PI _ .,.."...
on tIw ..., (''IIhl) sOOt of "'" oJ...", and tile
Pe<.,. n _ , w... bNct>e<l .. &v
The Persian army pre"ed on south-
eastward, and entered Attica. Athens
was a scene of feverish aetl vit y a, the
population tried to evaCuate the city.
Most of the women am! children ,vcre
ferried across the Sar<mic Gulf to
T roeze tl on the nort h-cast cornet of the
Pelopo nnesus. Somc wetc ,em to the
island ofAeginaand the remai nder, wit h
all t he able-bodied men, were re movcd
to the i, land of Salamis in the hay of
Eleusis only JUS! over a kilometre from
the Athcnian coast. T he n acuatwn was
earned out in such a panic many of
the old and helple,. were left to thei r
fate. A few ' zealot s' >Iayed behind and
barricaded themselves in the temples.
Earlier, when the Atheniam had sent
to the or acle at Delphi to ask f" r it.
advice, they had received a reply which
cont ained the sentence: 'Zeus of t he
broad heavens grants to the Triton born
a wooden wall alone to rem"tn un,aeked,
that shall hel p thee and th}' "hildren' ,
Thi, ,m, int er preted by Themi,tocles
to mean that t hey ,hnuld lake to t heir
wooden ,hips, .\-l ost Atheniam
thi, interpretation, but a dissent mg
minority bui lt a pali,ade around t he lOp
of the Acrop"lis and t here awaited the
Persiam.
,\leanwhile t he Spartans had at la, t
mobilised t hei r ar my and a"embled at
Corinth under the command of the sur-
vi"i ng king Clcornbrorus They broke
up coast roa d along t he isthmus and
threw up a rampart aero" Its narrowest
pan ncar where t he Corimh ,hip canal
now runs.
T he Pe"ian army cont inued ir. t hrust
southward" laying waStC the
sioe ",hilst t he lIeet sailed down the
coast burning t he ,ea,ide villages , T hey
occupied Athens and captured t hc
bUl only after a dogged re-
sisrance by its defenders, then
lo oted and bu rned t he temple, and all
thc other buildi ngs on the anciem "i ta-
del. On the isbnd of Salamis the
:\ lhenian. must ha.-e able to sec
the col umn of smoke that marked the
end of th"l r ci ty. The l'e"ian lIeet
moved up the Anic coast and at
the old open harbour of Phalcrum.
The ( i reek fleet "la, bca(hed on the
east side of Sal ami, . There was a furore
on t he " land as the admirals of t he
\'ari(m, tleets argucd about what t o dc)
The , quadrons from the Peloponnesus
wanted to qui t t heir posit ion at Sa lamis
and join up wit h t he army at Corint h,
wherea s t he .'1.t henians quite u nder-
,tandably refused 10 abandon their
famltie' on t he island.
ThemlStod e" in "pite of "pposition
from the Corinthi ans, m'lnaged to con-
.- ince Eurybiadas, the Spartan admiral,
t hat if he left Sabmis the fleet would
disintegra te a, squadron looked lO
the defence of its own territory.
The b"ttl., o f Sa l<Omi s
As Pritchett remarked when he puh-
lished his second art icle on the batlle of
Sa lamis in Iyl'i 5, there have probably
been more art icles published on this
battle than any other lfl worl d history-
Hcrodotus devotcd the equivalem of a
ho"k to it and Aeschylus wrote a play
about it . It is also dealt with by Plutarch
l n 1",0 of his lives and Diodor us Sl(ulu"
who "1", gIves an a(eOurn of thc hall ie.
Amongst the modern w mmentalOr"
l\' G L Hammond give, the most
complete survey in wh ich he includes
some vCt y important ot" crvation, . He
is 'lui tc right in imisti ng that Aeschylus
should be used as , air hough the eviden,' e
comes from his play, the Pers;an.<. and
he has used considerable 'poetic licence'
in hi, presentat ion of m"teriaL he
fought in t he hattie and t herefore must
be treated as an eyewitness.
\X' hile Xct xes becn pUlting down
t hc al Athens the two ficets
lay al an,'hor, each wait ing for t he other
to make the fi rst move. T he ma in I'e r-
sian fleet was be ached m the bay 01
Ph"lerum iust south of At hens, while
deta"hme ms were anchored at Ihe en-
t rance to the Salamis strai t. He rodotu,
later mentions detachments at Ccos and
Cyno'ura. Ceos is impmsi ble [0 identify
bUi it may he "ne "fthe two small islands
off Lipsokoutali. Cvnosura (t he dog' s
lail), however, is easy t o identify the
long, narrow promontory projecti ng
eastwards from Salamis island.
T his places t he ancbmage
farther up t he channel, probably divided
into t hree parts : one in the ba y of Am-
bel aki in front of the town of
Salami. ; another in t he hay of Paloukia;
and a t hird in t he ooyof Arapis. Herod-
otus gives the number of shi ps in the
Greek lIeet as 380. Of t h" number 89
came from the Peloponnesus (t his in
d ude s 40 from Corinth) and )80 from
THE CI TY ST ATES 800- 360 ec
THE STATES AT WAR
Athens. Among t he minor contingents
the larges t numbers were f((lm Aegma
(30), Chaki s (20) "nd .\1egara ( 20 ), The
subsequent ha ltle for mat ion impl ies
thal the Athenians occupied [he bay
of I' aloukia, the l' elojXl nnesi"ns t he
northern bay of Arapi" and the ot hers
the ,0Ulhern bay of Amhelaki, for t hi,
i, how t hey formed up in battle line,
Aeschylu, in his play The Pc"",,,,
give. lhe Greek numbers a, 3t O, but he
has probably reduced the number for
effect, just as he has , urely grossly ex-
aggerated the Persian numbers. ' 1-1 0 \\
greal was t he number of the ships
that dared with theIr ra m, to engage the
l' ersian h",t /' T he ans wer - 310 Greek
Jgain' t Persian ' r he PerSIan
figure is obviously not meant to taken
seriously a, this is lhe number of ships
given by Herodmus for t he beginning of
the campaign and . even if t he origmal
figure were to be accepted, it makes no
allowance for the hundreds of ships
lost in t hc storm, along t he cast coast .
To suggesr that the Ileet was brought up
to exactly t he same strength by re-
inforcements is qui te ahsurd.
T h,' st rength of the Persian fleet may
be gues,ed by examining the Persian
st rategy, Agai n and Herodotus
, tresses t he superiori ty of t he Persian
, h ips and seamen, so it i, dear t hat
Xetxes d id not need to outnumber the
Greeh to expect to win. Why the n did
Xerxe, not hl <K"bde the Greek ttccr in
t he Sa lamis channel wit h half his Ileet
and t hen launch J two- pronged atta"k
on t he by land along t he
isthmus and by sea wllh the remainder
of t he fleet '
T he attraction of t his course of
"enormous. Cut off by land and sea, the
great number of On Salamis
would soon have exhausted thei r meagre
su pplies . In a ,-cry short time they would
have been sta rved into submission ,
Xer xes was unahle to adopl t hese tactics
for one simple reJson - he had neit her
enough ships nor soldier' to accomplish
the t ask j t is likely that t he Persian lIeet
now numbered no more t han 500
.- esse ls.
Once again rhe Per, ians appear 10
have waited several days to see if t he
Greek Ilcct would abandon its posit ion.
Xer xe, must have known that, as usual,
the Gr eeks we re at The
story t hat it was Themi 'lOdes who
'5
GREECE ,\:-;:0 .\ 1..
broul(hl on the battk]:ly ", nd ing a m.:S"-
sengcr to Xerxes 10 tell him lhat the
lIeet intended to escape is r rul>-
ahly umrue. AllIumn was drawin!l on
and Xcrxes almost cerrainly hOld nn ly
planncd iln a onc_",ason campaign.
On.. '(: the lleel was destroyed nothing
oould .top him in"ading the Pelopon-
ne.us. So Ix decided to lakC lhe miti a-
tive and bring on the battle.
Ha\-ing decided to force a confroma-
I,,,n ""it hi n IIx srrans on rhe
morn ing. t he Persians set about
ing the propo",d banlc area. T he main
lIeet put out from Phaterum and began
to mll"e up towards the channel.
S,,.'n after dusk the Persian, moved
a' many soldiers as t ..-auld across to
l he island of which he-
Iween SalamIS ..nd the mainland Thi.
island lay in thc pIllh of the projected
arC;l and oltbe '....edt. from
the battle wouad toe .. ashed up there,
Heu the soldiers could the (i rC'Cks
and offcr succour to their shipwrecked
friends. Thc idenuticanon ofttus island
is hotly disputed. Il ammond claim, that
it mu", he the island of Ag; o. Geurgim
opp",ite [' cram" in t he middle "I' t he
'Irait. whil S! PriICheU eomends thaI II
must he thc island of l .i psokout ali atthe
entrance 10 t he ,,hanncl. Hammond
would arrear 10 PUI \<,., must tru, t in
t he a.......'unt s of ancient authors such as
Srrabo ,, -ho had probably neve r vrsitcd
the ar.,. a , Drawinll: Irom
lheir descri ptions wou ld appear to l>e
''''r)' hazardous. [flhe Peniansoa;upied
Agius Georgios. wh ich lies directb- in
fronl of t he Greek -thoul
"001II from the .hore, the Greeks w"uld
ha.-e ",cn thcm at finl light.
T hcre " -could ha"e been little rhat the
Per.ian. could have d, me to prevent
thei r inMant d,. lodltemcnr, Moreover .
t he i.l and of Li r "" k"utali control. the
entrance to the st ran, and it would have
been vital for t he Pen ian. to secure it
bef"re 11l<' ", ng into rhe channel itse lf. II
mu", he added that lhe wreclt. did drift
southward. after the baltk.
Alter occupving l he i.land t he Per -
sian. dC'<palched Ihe ..tian. ..-""
maJe up thc wes ler n wing of the f1eel , t o
blockade the weSlcrn end "flhe Sal amis
channeL T hen al midnight the rest of
t he Heet. including the detachments at
Cynosura and Ceo moved ;ntu Ihc
entraoce of the strair. occupying the
area from Salami. to Munychi a.
Newsl hat the Per, ian lIeet had mm'eo
up IIlto the ent rance to the stra; 1 was
received in t he Greek camp duri ng t he
night. It was said 10 have been hrought
in hy AriSlidcs. the Athenian exile.
",110 managed to get throull:h rhe Penian
lines frum Aegma so Ihal he could fill:ht
for h.. in it. hourof peri l. The look -
out s on Salami . ho.....ver . must Iu.,'e
got some idea of ..'hal was happening.
The <Jreeh oow Itnew rhal they had to
fighl F. verything was 10 Iheir ad, amall:e.
In the narrow ,traits the Phoenicia ns
v,could he unable to usc thei r ,uperi" r
, eaman, hip ,
J ust l>eforc first lil(ht t he Grecks
dragged their galley. do"'n to Ihe waler .
boarded. ran out their oars and waited
for the ,ignal. The trumpets sounded
and the lIutes S1ruck up their rune,
Then. 10 lhe rh)'thmlC chanl of lhe,r
....
1t>e Site of tt>e dec,.,Ye bon>e O! Sa emo. Th<I
'ong (Cy""..,'a) IS on I"" C(lf\U.
and lho:> . ,to 01 ,he one,ent town of Salam; , o-n
1h. " ght P" rt 0' tho) ,sl" nd of L,p,okou'al , c.n
be coea,'y M<l" nO the lef,
lur wnlt, they pulle.:! II t hei r oaf' and
the galley5 beg"J.n to move out IntO rhe

Xerxes had taken up hi5 posi tion on
.' luunl Aeltaleos overfookmg lhe st rait.
Here a throne had hcen et ccted for him
so Ihal he could watch the hanle.
T he Persian <;eamen strained at thei r
""rs and p ulled towards I he Greek
As t he I wotlcets do"".:!, t he G reeks m
the a nt re backed waler SO t hat rheir
till<" bo...'ed. Seeing the Greeks bad ing
the J'ersian sai lors ....ere con, 'inu:.:!l hal
they were going 10 htc.al: in flight an.:! ,
raising their war Cf)' , the!' charged into
the ....lient_and still l he cent re backed
water . ,..:cording to Plulareh " 'et'C
waiting for someth inll rhar kne....
must happen. Suddenl)' t he l'eNian
fic<.:t lurched as the ....'ell carne up the
d umne!. The wave caught the Persian
shif' s from behin". of them wcr<'
knod'cd out of linc, veering hmsd,ide
on to the Greeb . The (,ree k sailn,.
raised a great shout _'On you sons of
Greece! l-rce your native land, free your
children, your wi , 'es, t he fan..,; of
falhers' Gods. and tho;- tombs of ynur
ancesl ors. balt ic for all' ,
T hen their hron;ze. plall"d
ram, darting thn>Ugh the foam crashed
through the hanl:, of oan; and ripped
into t he bow. of lhe I' e..ian
It is rather ,hftkult to undersland
Herodotus' description of t he hatt ie
fo r malion : l'lme niciam (for t hey
had t he western wi nK. towar ds Ekusis)
were arrayed 10 t he AIheni ans,
and to the Lacedaem"nians the lonians,
on Ihe eastern ....rng, neaTesI the PirK us'.
11 ,,"OUld nnl)' Ill" poss,hle to use l he
terms cast anJ "' est ....inlt if he rsdescnb-
iog t he pcsinon of Ihe t\ttt before it
ente",d the channel, and from (hel"',"
<.'Onl inuing 10 use this dc..,ripllun for
tbe Ionian and Phoenician fleets, -II i.
interesti ng (hat he does nol use t hese
for the Greek lleel. ) If Ihi. were
Ihe c,",,,,,, Ihen Ihe descript ion of the ....esl
.... ing as heing towards lileusrs i, a lillie
strange. However , it would he im-
pm, ihk to usC t he term, ea, t and west
.... hen the IIcet is d rawn u p in a non h to
.out h and aJ,'ancing Jireotly west-
wards.
It seems cert ain Ihal the ships from
were Malioned in lhe uf
Amhdaki as Ih,s " The only po,"t from
T HE C ITY STATES lloo3f1O Be
Tim STATI,S AT WAN.
....hich they could ha,-., buochl"d II flank
allack on l he il hd ra...'ng Penians, II
was also l he}' ho came 10 Ih c IUpport
of an Athenian . hip that was in trouble.
It folio..... that rhe Al henian, must ha,'e
held pnsil ion nelll to t hc Aeginelans.
i.e . Ihe cent re and right. and t herefore
t he Pel0l'" nrl<' , ian, held t he left wing,
It scem, to he agreed that t hero;- has
been a general rise in t he sea level in the
ar<'a around At hens. Pritchett '1lk>!e,
{'l[ample,; uf place<; t haI " 'ere
aN"'e t he ....lIler \e el in classical rim..,;
and are now belo iL Sewul ,"""iem
quarries have been discovered SUh-
merged henell(h I....., (0 t hree met res of
",aler. The same featun: .... ot>se,,-ed
""Mn the . h,p .hed, al ua .... ell-
A ela... tc 1shrine al Ihe "illage
of Agio, C-,"'ma, a' also found helo""
Ihe water lel' el.
There is a ,mall reef 350m " n Ihe
All ie coas t " pp<>site l'erama , in ..-[u" ical
Below
the bonle of Sa,-,. The G,,,,,, WI1I>O''''''' tt1e
ceo" e of ''''or t iu<,og t"" P..-- t_
,,,ott>,,, on<l Iu" ""0 r"" '",., "'a IS
""""'" _ 001 P!>oen,c " ..<1\1.....,1> wn
of "" _...,,_

GREECE AND MACEDONI A

The Pe",an l loot ente,ed the , tro,t with tho
Phoen,c,a n, sail ing in column to tM .a" 01
L,oso kout ali (ne.,.,st ,he P" "'usl ond Ihe
lon,ons '0 the ""'Sl of the .. let TheVwoold
he >'e dolHOVod in, o hnol ,n ,he Sto .. , T""
r.!O(>Onn,....ns t oo-mod up """,,",to lhe
PhOO'loe,.ns and the Alhe....... the
Ion, ..... whaSl the ,..t (e 110 Shop$) ' ay in w ar<
,n t'" bay 01 Atnf>eoIo u. h om _ thov
anacQd the 'WNlong Pe<s..n S'IoOO
ever, al though Burn and Hammond
both malte Ihis poi nt , neil her actually
shoo.. the Grcek tl1 in this posil ion.
Roth socw it pi VOied on t he Kamatero
promontory in full y)ev,' of the Persian
111. If Aes<:hyhn is to be interpreted
this '...y, l hen t he ba tt le wou ld haw to
he fought bel ...-een Arapis and Cape
Eilatouri. A more likely expl anation is
that t here might have " een a slight
or it was st ill dark. Alt er nat ively, t he
Persians may have hear d t he Greek
singi ng before t hcy actually entere d t he
51taits , Herodotu. later ment ions a wes!
wind which hie.... t he wreckage down
the coast . T his coul d have carried t he
sound of the Grcek singing the t hree to
tour kilometres 10 t he Persian fleet.
T he battle was on. Caught in Ihe nar-
row chan",,' t here was no room 10
manoeuvre. II _. ship agai nst ship.
T he Grceks managed 10 retain thei r
formation but, for the Persians, t his was
impossi ble . ma.. of the Persian
ships Wet"e jostl ed in the cn me of t he
chan""l, caught in l he dC"an at ing
en movement as t he ...'ings charged.
The Persians tried to t um
about while at the same li me l rying to
avoid ramming each ot her. Th<: G reeh
were able to pick off the enemy ships on
t he oUiside of the masSat will .
T he Persian sai lors fought bra,-e!y
before t he gaze of t heir king. T he
iavehneers swept t he decks of the Greek
galleys as they In ed to ram t hem. Just
off the promontory of Kamatero an
Ionian shi p from Semorhrace cbarged
out from t he mass of Persians and ripped
into t he hull of an Athenian gal ley, but
hef.,..e it could free itself from the
wreck2ge a trireme fromAegrna rounded
the promontory and caught Ionian
shi p amidships, " ' hile t he Ionian shi p
" 'as sinking, het complement of iave-
Ii neers . wept l he Greek o ff l he
dc.;k, boarded and capt ured the u ireme.
much to the delight of Xerxes.
Despite these isolated successes, the
Peloponnes ian I1t of 49 ships occupy-
iog the Iefl ..i ng and Inling on t he i.let.
It is also inc:onsi5'l em to att empt 10
reconci le Ae",hylus' figure of 3 10 for
lhe GTttI: fleet wit h HerodOlus' 380 by
suggesling l hat the missing 10 ships
fOTmed Ihe Cori nt hian squadron which
left before t he banle. This w<)\Ild have
left only 19 Pe1oponnesian ships to form
t he left wing.
The Athenian fl eet of 180 shi ps
covered t he c<: mre wit h us right wi ng
rest ing on the tip of th<: Kamat<: ro pro-
montor y, whi lst the ot her t i l ship. ,
ind uding t he 30 ships from Aegina ,
occupied l he ba y of Ambetaki. The dis-
tance from the i. let 10 t he l ip of t he
Kamarero promontory is about l ,os om,
Alk:>'ing a minimum of 20m per gal le}-
the ships would have to be drawn up in
fow 10 the lines,
According 10 Aeschylus., :I S lhe Per-
sians entered the strails Ihe)- firsl heard
t he Greek fl ee1singing thei r battle h)'mn
and only later saw t hem. This has been
used to suppan t he , 'ie..- that the Greek
fleet was dra....n up in the channel to t he
nort h of Kamalero, shielded from t he
Persian view by Mount Aegakos. How-
"" "-'''-' , EaS
c """"",.,
..;...111\ II
ti mes Ihis mun bave M.: O ao island.
Ik n , ""o this and mainland
t bere would beve been a sballo'" chan",,]
the water was not dp enough
for gal"'ys [0 navigate. Thi. small island
would ha,., made an excd lem point 0 0
ro which t he G reeks could lock t heir left
wing without fear of missile all ack from
the Penian infant ry on the mainland or
of hcioll out fl anked. T heir inferiority in
numhers made it all the more important
for t he Greeh t o avoid bein goutflanked ,
For this rea, On t he Corint hian Iteet of
40 ships was despalChed to prevent the
Egvpuans enteri ng t he WC$t end of
the channel. T h ere can be no t ru th
in Herodot us' S1atement_almos t cer-
t ainly laken from a biased Athenian
source -c- rhar t he Corint hians fl ed be-
fOl e l he battle.
This also undermi"". Ille argumenn
of t """" ",'ho ...-ould t ile bailie ana
fart her up tile channel in front o f the
island of Agios Grorgjos ,,-jth no 1od::ing
point for t he n ghl ...-jog. This would
hi,e allowed Ihe Persian ship'" to break
t hrough t ile r ight ",-jng at will. T ile
Greek fleet would have been d rawn up
in front of t hei r anchorages wilh t he
"
Persian fleet , crammed hel plessl)' in t he
",as in a posil>on.
bIInercd fleer tried to disoengage. As
"'ilhdrew from the t he
ships from Aegina ...'ai ti ng foc lhem
in t he hay of AmbeLaki and, IS they
caught lhem m a de.... taHng
Oank au"",k, T he Alhenians too, fullo",
ingup Ihe retreat , played havoc amongst
the fleeing sn ips.
The victuriuus Greek sailor-s showed
no me rcy to their shipwrecked enemies ,
Grahhing oan; nr any other weap"n I har
came to hand, t hey dubl>cd to dealh or
drowned t he uilo" a. t hey
slruggled helplessly in the water.
.\leaowhi1e, Ansndes, t he Alhenian
exile, galhered logelher of the
hophles "'ho were o n the shore ....tching
tile sca hattie, and " 'i tb these maruged
10 capture lhe Island of Psyllalea and
lhe Pers1aIl gamson l here,
tbus Wiling off the last resort foc the
wrecked Persian shi ps , Those ...nd.s
thai did flOC drift asllon: on t he island
Iioaled do",n l he e<>asl and came a.bore
on the prumunlury of ColilS about four
kilometr es $OIIl b of Phalerum.
Alth<>Ugh the Persian fleet was f..
from being dc,troyed and . till probabl)'
outnumhere d t he Greeks, Xerxes now
realised lhal his hopes of a q uick cam-
paign were gone. He hanck d over c" m
mand of lhe bulk "f his anny_po. ", si hly
150,000 me n-to Mardoniu. and rc-
lurned to Asia, Mardc nius withdrew
intoThes.aly and t here went int o wimer
quarters. For a fe", months at lca"
iOulMm Greece had a breallung
Xerxes feared l hal the defeat al Sala-
ntis mighl encourage t he l cmans 10
revoh, so he fleet 10 Cyme
and lhe spri ng stationed il al
s.m...
The Sp..rl. ns lJlobilisc
In t he following spring Ar1 S1 ides and
Xanrhippus, another exile who had re-
turned 10 defeml his coumry, ",c re
elected generals at At hens,
Mardoniu s now tr ied by diplomacy
to separate At hens from her allian,'e
witb the Pcloponncs ians, offering her
"cr y handsome terms, But Athens was
full of binerness over what had hap-
pened and, alt hough under normal err-
cum"anccs she. like all t he other GTC'e1<
stales, would TIOI shy a....ay from betTII )'-
ing a cause m the preferen<:<: of setf
imerest, she now rejected t he Persian
proposalSOUI of hand. However , .hedid
usc lhem 10 tl")' , WIlhout success. to focce
Spart a into promising more aid,
Summer had arri" ed when .\Iar-
donius mO\'ed soul h agam. 1\l:"aiting
until lhe ...'crc ripening, be ad-
"anced once more on Athens and once
again occupied it unopposed. And once
again Span a falled 10 come 10 Ihe aid of
her ally. AI Salamis Al hens had ri sked
all and in su dning saved Spana, She
had alsn refused 10 betr ay the ( i reek
cause but t his had lillie effect on the
Spanans. The only Ihing that held the
Greeks loget bcr was a fore ign cnem)' ,
not any Iovc for each other. Tbe Greek
resistance 10 Persia from Marat hon on-
.. aids is a ClItalogue of had planning,
groo;s inefficiency and selfishness punc-
Nalcd ...ith OlXaSional acts of brilli<tncc
and heroiOTTl, I t is incredible t hat
could possihly have WOD_ Tbc Persians ,
on the other hand, dl5pLayed exceuem
st ra legy,a greal deal of ener-g}' and con-
siderable bra"CI")' hUl suffered from
appalling back luck, I n t he final cam-
paign t hey completely outmanoeuvred
t he Greeks, and then ma de one mis-
calculation whi ch "cos llhem the war,
Wit h the re,,.,,cupalion of Athen. Ih"
citize ns aga in crossed over to Salami s,
" lardonius once more tried to come 1U
terms wit h lh" , e on Ihe island. The
Arhe nians sent an embassy 10 Spana 10
beg them to come to Iheir aid hUl , a. at
xtarerhon and Thcrrncpylae. they were
keeping a religiou. f",t i" al and refused
10 move. In t he mea ntime Ihe)' were
fc."eri shly bcighlening the "'all a"TOSS
the isthmus, maki ng u d ear to al i lhal
t his ..'as where lhe)' intended 10 fighl .
Day af ter day tbey tcmpori""d, each day
putting off l heir d.ision until the """I ;
this went on for ten It ...as no!
until the Athenians threatened to accepr
.\ l ardoni us' terms, which would place
t he At henian 03" )' under Persian 000-
trol, t hus the Pel oponnesus wide
open to alfack and rendering the ist hmus
defences obsolete, that Sparta act ed,
Once the decision was made Spart a
act ed witb gr eal energy. The enure
Greek f,m; es were placed under the
command of I' ausanias, son of kinll;
Cleombrotus (as Leoni das' son Plcisl-
archus was still a minor) and Euryanu,
the son of Doreius whom Cleombrot us
had oo-upted "" h is
T HE CITY STATES 800-360 BC
T H E S TATES AT WAR
fj,.., rhousand Spanans, nearly \W'O-
thirds of the lotal Spanan 1<:\1', plus
3S,ooo Itdou , set out nonh-
...'ard s. On lhe ' a!' the)' .....,re joi ned by
17,000 hoplites from the non h-castem
Peloponnes us.
:\ \ardomu. imme<.hatcly e" acuated
Athens, destroying what remained of
t he city before he left , E1eusis was also
put 10 the flame , Hc now wit hdrew to
Boeotia where t he coumry was much
more open and suit able for his cavalry.
As .\hrdoni us started northward he
heard that all ad vance guard of 1,(Xl()
Spart ans had already reached :\\cgara,
on ly 4Skm flom Alhens. Mardonius
lurned anJ., sendrng his cavall")' ahead,
made a ligblning strike againSI .\ k gala,
but wben he fai led t o lake the town and
heard that the G reek aim)' was gather-
ing at t he ist hmus, he called off his
troops and r et ired 11110 Boeotia. He
passed 10 lhe caSI of .\ l 00nl P arnes..
<;tosscd lhe Asopus river (lhis is nor the
same as the nver at T berrnopylae) and
ascended its nonh bank palt T anagra to
Soolu. in the IcrrilOry of T hel>es. Here
he eslablished a fonified camp whicb
HerodolUS describe. as about 10 stades
square (aboul 1,8oom"), which IS JUSt
over fi "" times rhe sil,e of lhe Roman
camp described hy l'olybius wh ich hel d
l O,OOO infant ry and 2, SOO cavalr y. This
suggests t hat .I,-Iatd"ni u.' army mighl
nOI be mucb more Ihan IlO,(Xl() men
ind ud ing cavalry.
Herodotus says that Ihe Persi an
lroops were ranged along Ih e river from
F.Il1hr"" to paSI Hysiae as far as the
lands of Plataea_ It is unfonunate that
only lhe site of Plalaea can be idenlified
with certainty ; t he sites of Scolus,
and Erytltrae are uncertain,
(h'er sc"cral Prrt cbett has done
a tremendous amount of gtound",orl:; on
the bat tlefield of Phu aca, He has walked
SCOTes of miles across the fields and hill-
side. t hai make up the hanlcficld seareh-
for tra"...,s of ancie nt habilation. T he
method he has u>!Cd is called
scat chmg the ground , preferably im
mediate ly after pillughin/-: , for frag-
ments of ancient t iles and pots. \X' hcre
lhese are found in large numhcrs ovet a
wide area, one can po:;lulale an ancient
to..-n or village" Til<: resulls nf his find-
ing> ha" e been publisbcd in t ..'o atticles.
The first appeared in tlte A......,c""
Journal of A" Meoioxy in 1957. The
'9
GREECE Ar-; n .\ 1/\ CEDO:-'; IA
'""'-'OM, in uhkh he modified ""me of
his "'t'''s. apl'Car,'d In a "ork entitled
'Sl udi,,,; In :\ocicnt <ired; Topographv'
published ellthl years later_ [Jsing this
method of sherdlnlt he has identifi ed
three vires, l<> the "<:sl of Plala,';I. Two of
these are on t he northern slopes of
,\ Ioon! which. with .\Iount Cuh-
3<"ron. hmll' lhe southern of lhe
baukfidd. aM a third rs on tlte river
.... L' " ng t he anciesn lhe
tu'o ,il'" on the $lof'C'> of .\Ioum Pasl ...
can be idcnntied wilh H,,,;,ae (ah.) .
Lsl<m ea.1 of modern Er vthraij and
and cm ErYlhrae (" I:><' ul one kilomeue
wCSI of m.>Jern Daphne).
The lh'rd .ite on t he A" ,pu, was
found while t'xpre"I,' I"o" ing for
S''<,lus, I' au, ,,nias desn ibcs a,
ahout 40 sloJdeJ (ei.:lll kil" m" lre. ) down-
.Iream frum the 1'1ala,:a to T hehe, road ,
AI a p'Hm " X'l<:ll y 40 .<!oJde,' downstream
from Ihc crossin.:, l'rildlCl l f"u nd ample
remains "r a do"skal settlement . Sl1b-
scqucr nly, Bur n Il;'s ,uggn t"d Ih"1 il
shc' uld he lo,';lled on l h,' ",uth side " f
Ihe n ve, but a'''''' pl' rn t he main Pri l_
ehcll's i..k nlitk al ,on of Ihe three towns,
The remains l hal Pritchett found were
in the area marhd on the general sl alf
map;; from ,he la'l " ar a, Pahomiloi .
The 1....:1: of ....'",..q uare {ired maps makes
Ihe of ItlJ"<'ll:r"phy in Ihat COUntrv
J"'rtkularlr dilli" ult
So the I' "",ian army" as ranged along
llle- n<"nh hank of Ihe river ....""pu, from
oppc."ile 10 almo..1 ">rposile
Plataea for a disl"rt,:" oj" "bout r zkm.
The sile of the Pers ia n e;,l. mp "';,I.S prob-
ably on lhe hIgh I(round above S<.-olu",
this """"er the main road from
Al 10Then.:. anJ :l<."'Ule the Asoru.
bridge. The ilself In t his area i.
a faIrl y insignifieam Slream which Can
be e,...,.""".1 ea.lly.
.\lC"dnwh,k Ihe [' c1"1",n...." ian army
haJ moved alon g Ihe i,lhmu, to Eleu, i .
where Ihcy were j"",ed by t he Athenia n,
who cros sed oVer from Salami. , Fr<>m
here t hey headed n"rt h and foll<>wcd Ihe
I' e" ian army imo Onc"C past
,Unum I' "rnc" they lurned west along
Ihe '''ut h side of t he A",I"'" I InodolU'
lell, u, th,' n reck armv reached
Erylhrae where thq' learned rhe Pe r-
sian I""it ion. Ae<:or<l ingly t hey look up
Ihei r I'''"illon, Ihe fOOl hills of Ihe
moumain. l'ritcberr. in his onginal
arncje on made a d,,' lailed st udy
01' Ihe mUles .wer t he m,>untain< im"
lhe \";;IlIey of lhe ""'-'rus, lie concluded
Ihal rbcre ""'n: only 1"'0 roul,"; : ollC1'01-
k'''ed wUlthly Ih" roUl" of Ih" mo.krn
Alhens_T henc, road ,,hich. fo, con-
,'en,er><,."C. i, IcrmeJ the liyr hloeaSlrn
...-.1. aM l he .. >lher "'h,eh was lra.xd by
Hammond . a-o..""d a ,lightly higher
I"l'" al:><>IIl 1..0 kilomelres fanher "'nt.
Thi, ""uld hll.'e been the route 10
.\ kgara anJ "iII be so ,,,11.."d. I n his I"ICT
amek he reie.. 1"d t he firsl roUle . daim-
ing Ihal only lhe .\legara roUle "'as
rl""liea" le , [ mU<l conclude From lhis
Ih;,l. l he meant for a baggage lrd'" ot
whc"CJc d a. lhe ""i'len....., (>f an
.... thcnian fori al (i ,-phloca' iro at Ihe
south end "f Ihe pa., pro\"es ..-oncl u-
, ,"'dj' that it wa, in usc in Ihe 4l h cen-
IUT j' ac. n,oth were oceupieJ by
Ihe At hcm'lIl I(eneral Chahria, in 379,
l ie him'Il' u':""l'ied Ihe ( iy phto",m rn
pa" hut Ihe Sparta ns Forced their way
o... cr Ihc route through !'lal'l"a, i ,e.
,\ lcgara wad,
If Pritchett i. eorren in his idemi_
of ancienl Ervi hrac. ju,t wesl (>f
Ihphne. Ihen t he G reeks would have
' learned' of the posili"ns tirsl
hand. k ll' from here one g.. >1S a pd""r.
armc vie..... of Ihe whole Persia n line, In
flk:l Ihi, view can be seen from any
po int "Ionl( lhe 1:>;o$C of the hills aU tile
wa" 10 Plal.....a r akm fan hcr "-esI. The
impl k al ion <It Hel ooOlus' remar k i, l hal
il "'as from El)"l hrae lhal the Gre.,....
lir" sa,,' lhe Penian f"O'6ilion ,,'hich
p'e.... uJ''S an" I"",ibihty Ihal Ihey
entered the s'alley .... y either lhe ,\lcgaTa
or G) phl .....a"ro pas",s aho....1 eig.... l to
ren k,lomel rC'! farther ".."t. E, 'en if
Ik rodulUs' .talement i!; dJSreg,u <kd.
t here Ca n be no .Iralel.lie ju"' Ii....,lIion for
II\.: ID<w ing eight 10ten I<ilo-
metres "asl warJs along {he 1'001 of rhe
rnountam, Iea.'ing their supply Imcs
widc 0l'Cn 1<> a tlank a!tack. espec' iallv a,
Ihey t hen proceeded 10 move westward.
3l1:ain, ()ne must therefore conclude t hai
they marehcd u p the ...alley fwm [he
"aM,
,\l ard, ' niu. had skilfullv ehmen t hc
,il e un whic' h he wi, hed 10 figbt. II e had
ralk n ha,'k on hi s own , upply lines and
al Ihe ' arne umc plac'ed a range or moun-
t " in, het " '''''n Ihe (lrc"h and their
source " I' which ,,'ould have 10
c...me from the Pd "' I"",n", u,, as .... uiea
had been ra" aged during
lUll rca... ""'ith h,s '<Ivai'}'
he ,,<mid " Te" k havoc on rhe Gr,-ek..
supply roUle,
When .\Ia,doniu< ,,""' Ihallhe (;n:el:
arm)' planned 10 h<:>Id the hilth 1!:1'<",nd
aM dId ",'I imend ro come oo";n mill
the ptain. he de.patehed ,\la,miu, wlI h
hi. e"sal'}' . Th" horsemen cros'ICd lhe
m'er anJ charged ur II\.: hillside in
'<.Iuad' c ns. cbcwenng the hoplitcs. wn h
arrows.
The ( , reek army. which "",,<,,d,ng 10
I lerod.l{ u' consisted of )8,;00 hel!"liln
anJ at'l<... l 70.000 lighl-atm"d IW...p
was om III banle order al"nl(
the f."' 1 of the hills wil h the, r .... aek> to
Ihe ditl. Allowi ng f(>r a deplh of eight ,
l he h"l'litc. alone would have Slretched
for about kilometrc,,;, The light-
armed Imop' would plOhahl y have heen
plal-ed " n t he wing, and
alonl( Ihe va, iou, spurs t h"t jUlted out
mto pla in, T he ob", uu, ,i le tor the
ri ght wing, mad" up of the Spanan,.
would hc t WO kilometre, we.1of m"d ern
Daphne Wilh Iheir 35.000 lIeI"" e"ver-
inl: Ihe 'upply mule 10 Ihe eas!- The
resl or the h,'phle. would have been
"Irel"h,'d out pa.. an,'len! Erylhrae a,
far "sl he l' lIlll ridgc lhat jutsoul inw Ihe
1'1"", Iwo and a half wesl of
Daphne. "'ilh a . tr(>ng connngem of
lighl-armoo u o<' p;; en lhe I,lng ridge
a birly "rong co"cr 10 t he left
wmg, Although Ihe Iighl- anned Ir<-...ps
on Ihe 'pu,s "'(>!Ild ha"e I:>ccn a....1e '"
give faid)' g<lod cover 10 the "'->rhles.
l here was one s'C'!)-- "-C';ll: spor iu" West
". aeoem wocn: t he gl<>IInd
is ."",n, Hen: lhe j-coo he>plitC'> f",m
.\Iegar;,l. "'er" I"kmg a terrible healing
from ,\ t.... i"ius' ca..-alry. T he .\ l egar1a ns
"Cnt a herald 10 the general, begging for
hel p, In response 300 Athenian ""rhte.
wll h a ofarchers votunreered
h' take up a I""iu on in from of lhe
.\ kgarians and .... reak Ihe force of It>.,
charges. Allain anJ again lhe
s<.l uadrnns or Per, ian cavalry eha'1led in
up",n Ihe 300 Atheman, . showerinll
them wilh mi"i le', .\la, i'liu, himwl f.
clothed in a 1'11fplc t unic, led t hc cha'I(C<
rid, nil h" richly caparisoned Ncsacan
h""e wnh its I(ol den bit. In the
rhc hallie his ho..e ...a, caught III Ihe
"de hy a ' l ray arm... , The animal reared
m ram. IhrowlIIg the Persian general.
Ad"'e he <:ould gel 10 hi, teet Ihe
.... Ihema"" were upon hi m. '('l;"hile ."me
grabbed hi, thru' l al him
wll h their SP<' U" only to d isc,wer t hat
heneat h his purp le t unic he wa, wearing
a cuim" of glided Fi nding lhat
they co ul d not get to hIS bod y, one of t he
Athenia ns stahhed hi m t hm ogh lhe
ami ", despatched him.
I I was ,omc lime hd o re t he Persian
reali,ed whal h"d
lX'hen they saw Alheniam crowded
",und the corpse in u,ual
however, fOi everybody wanted to get a
I"ok, in rna" and tr ied
to rec over rhe body. Athm ians
yelled to the ,\ k gar ian, to come down
and help them. r\ violent ,truggle raged
Ihe hody and the At heni ans ""ere
almost d rive n from Ihclr prey but ,
cont ingent ' fro m t he re, t of army
bcg"n to arri ve and t ile I'er, ian losse,
mountcd , the latter drew and halrnl
alx' ut 400m away. T h<: n, t hat
there wa, nOl hing could do, they
rctumed to Iheir camp to to .\-hr -
" onius . T he loss of their
commander cau, cd much distless in the
Persian camp_
However, among't the Greek<, t here
T hc body was placed
on a ca r! and dra wn along t hc rank. " ,
thai all might see iL .\1any of the hop-
lites hroke ranks to come li>rwurd and
gaze in awe on t he body
T he Greek decided to take
ad,-antage of Ihe di, turbance in the
Pe rsian camp and move their p", it ion
They marched down to Plat aca in the
ph m ahout rz krn far ther west , Herod -
ow , ,aY' that the ground was tiller t here
in all way' , hut c' hiell y hecause there
an ahundant supply of water from
a fountain called Garga phia. Where
were il was impo"ihle to gel suf-
hcient wat er as were unly t iny
st re<l ms and the Persian archers [' re-
vented them watering at t he Asopus
f-krodOlm docs not ment ion one very
imporlan! factor . ,upplies were having
to be hroughl up either hy t he road
around t he cast side of .\ -f ount Farnes or
hy a very ha!.ardous rout e bet ween
Mount and ,\ 10unt Pas t ra . Ir
aero" 10 Plalaea they wo uld
be able to receiv e direct from
the Pclopon ncsus over t he !>k gara pas!
T he Sl le of new water source, t he
Gargaphia fuuntain , i, unctrt ai n but it
is generally hel ieved to have bee n one of
T ItE CITY ST ATES 800- }60
THE STATES AT WAR
t he ' prlngs JUSI , oUlh oj the Agio,
]oanni , hill about t hree kilomet re'
non h-nort h-east of Er ylhrm.
Pritchctt convincingly ident ilie, it wil h
t he Ret,i spnng, which he says i, t hc
mos t <lhundant In the area. Agi" . loan-
n" hill lS one of several ,m"ll hilloc ks at
the nort h end of a flat r idge of hi gher
grou nd ahout three kilometres wide
j utting out towards the Asopus het ween
!I-I"Utll Cit haeron and .\\OUll1 I'u' tra ;
thi, is known a, t he A",pus ridge.
The Greeks g"t hered up t heir equip-
menr and mar ched down pas t Hys iae to
t he lands of Plat aea whcre rhcy en-
'nation hy nat ion t he Gar-
gap hia fount ain and t he precinci of the
hero Andron at cs among the low hi lt-
and in a level country' .
Unfortunately one can only guess at
the positi on of t he preci nct of the hero
Thucydides ment ions it
heing on nght (ea, l) side <>f the road
Bel<>w
The v,ew IrQm Ihe IllS: Groo< pos ,t,on ""or
modem Doph"". It wos !rom here that lho
Greek, gOl t he" frr>t Vi ew oIl he Pers,an
pOs't ;ons ,n , he d,'tance. From he' e there ', a
oa no,. mic Y;ew 01 !he Pers ,an line
3'
GREe CE A:-<D MACEDOl" IA
from Plataea to Thebes. This means
that u, 100, was in the area of the Agi<"I
loanms on il . Differenl
religions have a habit ofbui ldi nlt shrines
on the loaTIX spot. and many. Grk
Or'lhodox chapel overlies a P'Olr-"n shri ne.
' Amonlt 10... hills and in level counnf
would wtll d""LTibe a line slrelChinlt for
some six kilometres Over the "" 'cral hil-
loo::ks on Ihe Asopus ridge and aCI1)!;S the
plam in front of Plaraea, wit h iu left
wing Irn;ked on the Pyrgos hill, T he
Spart ans, holdi ng Ihe right on t he
Asopus ridge, covered t he water supply.
None would dare challenge the Sparlan
right 10 t he position of honour on t he
r ighl wing. hUI Ihe claim 10 Ihe second
moet hllIlout ahle po$it ion on Ihe lefl
" , ng waS disputed in t rue Greek
fashion het\u:en the Athenians ;md l he
TegCllns (",'ho al ways """" ed on l he left
in the Spanan It could be
d<M.tbted lhal Athens " 'QIIld win but it
soo..." an imCT"" ting sidelight on lhe
ancient ...00, C\'M! in t he Iace of
a most formidable enemy where Ihelr
very exist ence was al Slake, were pre-
pared to squabble about honour .
In t he finallinc up Ihe tight wing was
held by the 5,000 Spartans and Ihe 5.000
ot hcr La cedaemonians under I' ausanias,
who Wa s commander -in-chie f. T he
1, 500 were d rawn up on t heir
left, Thc lefl wing, on l he Pyrgos hills ,
was held by At henians commanded by
Aristide5 ,,'ith Ihei r fail hfu l allies l he
Plataeans. ,,'00 supplied 600 ooplites,
11.""'1 10 t hem. the IWO "inp
the 1C\'in from t he other stales "'-ere
drawn up. wilh the Peloponnesians on
the right next to the Spartans and t he
others next to t he AIhenians. The Iargnt
of these units w'" from Corinth, wh Ich
supplied 5,000 men , The sma11nt con-
Imgents were from Lepreon in T ri.
phylia and Pale in Cephallenia, which
senl zoo men each. Mycenae ami
T ir ;:ns , '" famo us in t he Hronze
could muster on ly 400 between them.
T he 35,000 hd"t. erl'ed on the ri ght
wing wil h t he Spanans; the remaining
34,500 light_armed troops probabl y
sen'ed on t he othe r ...ing, Their role
was to keep t he Persian aWI Y
from t he flanks IS this was t he weakesl
point of a hopht" I Tmy.
the 1' " " iaRS had finished
mourning t he dealh of .\!.asislius, They
too mm'ed up the ri , 'U were
opposile tbe new Greek posrtjon. Here
,\\atdoniu$ deployed his troops along
the non h bank, li e poned his crack
Pe,,;an u OOI'" opposile Ihe Lacedae-
momans. lI is weaker Persians were
piaLred opposite the Tegeans next in
line , The Spartan, probably fought fOUl
deep and the Tegcans and other 1.ace-
daemonians po, sihl y did t he same. A
deep formation was unnecessary against
ligh t-a rmed Imops, and t he longer t he
line ...'as the less likely the}' were 10 be:
o'Jlflanked. A1ro..ing I linle Ins than a
met re per man. t hee 13,000 hopIiles
probahly st retched OIIt for ahoul three
kilometres. 10 lhe Penillll$ Mar-
p1aa:d his Medes . Si no: mese
,,'ere oppo$ile t he from
Corint h, Poridaea, Orchomenus and
Sicyon, consisting of 1l ,900 oopliln
who, being less confident than t he Spar-
lans, we l e prohabl;-- drawn up eight
deep, t he .Medes would hal'e strel ched
for a littl e over a kilometr e. J.ikewise the
Hactrians covered the me n from Epi-
daurus, Troezen. Lepreum, Mycenae,
Ti r}"ns and Phli us, who were 3400
strong wit h a fron t of abeut acorn. Next
to the Bactrians Mardo. lIlius placed lhe
Ind ,ans fa<.;ng t he connngerus from
Hennione , Eretn:. , SI)Tll and Chalcis-
t , 3OO hoplites wilh I front of IboUI
1501J1. SeX! to the Indians he d rew up
l he laS! of his Asiln umll, the ScYl hians.
These raced the 2,000 hopIiln from
Ambracia. Leucas. I\naclorium. Pale
and Aegina, coveri ng a littfe over 200m.
Opposite the 11,600 Megariaos, Pla-
t..... ns and Athemans on his right " ,ng.
...ith a front of about 1,250m, he placed
8. tow
Mo""l or ,roe upper Asopu' va lley 100" 09
south The Greek, probably en'ered the pla,n
rrom 1M east (Iell) and f,,., .aw tn. Pe",an
pos"""" as ' My appr<>ltd,.d Eryth.ae He,e , he
F'.,.ians tau"ChIld tDtI" f, tSt ""them
3'
his northern G reck allies, the Borol ians,
Locrians , .\!ahan., TI1a.oalians and
Macedonians, plu. r,ooo )' hocians from
lhoo.e Phocian towns that had defa:ted.
Herodotus add. to t ltis list the minor
contingents from Phrygia, Thrace,
.\ \y.ia, Pxon,a, Elhiopla and Egypl .
So, o::x-=luding ca"alT)' and Iighl -armed
troops, the whole line covered ebour six
kilomclI'C"S.
The OI\-alry were dra\ll'tl up separ-
alely, ahn051 cen ainly on lhe ..
opposilC It..: !rOO",.
AflCr dra...-ing up lheir ar mies , bolh
sides st arted offeri ng !a<. Ti fi... "(:S hoping
for a favoura blc rupon.efrom the Gods.
The fi nal b att le
for eight days the two armies sal eyeing
each olher acros. Ihe valley whilst the
divinen< lr ied 10 produce favuurable
omens for an aHack. This delay was of
grealer benefit 10 the Greeks than the
Persians as supplies and reinforcements
werc now pouring imo Ihe G reek camps
by way of the .'l.k gara pass. T his pass,
whk h Ihe Boo....,l ians called T reis Cepha
lac, 'the three heads" can be idemified
with It..: p,a, s ofl hc Megara route ...'hich
runs bel .....een Ihrce peat. arrhe easr side
of Moum Cil haeron, Loukisthi, Fikhlhi
and Karoums.ab, and from ...-hieh il
must derive its name.
On the eight h day .\!ardonius de-
,patched pan of his OI,-alry "'00 rode
round the r ighl wing of the G reek army
and occupied rhe entrance to the pass.
capluring SOO baggage animals plus
wagons !heir dri"ers and
culUng t he G.-..ek .upply line. Why the
Grecb had not plao:d a "Irong holding
force in the mouth of the pass defies
underslandmg, but this son of negli-
gence is typ ical o f the Greek dty stales.
For three day. more neilher army
ffi m'ed. alrhough by no.... Ihe Pe..ian
ca.-alry ...Cre hara" ing Ihe
Greek lines. .... t firs! hght on Ihe elcvemh
day aftcr t hcy had laken up their new
P()Si lion, for So me unfalhoffi ahle re asOn
the Alhenian. and Spanano decided 10
exchange po.ilions, ' I'he rea. on given by
Herodotus, t haI the Spartans were
!<Cared of t he Persian. on their wing, is
so obviously an Alhenian brag that it
Iu. to be ignored . T he lrue reasOn is
po..ibly iU' 1 t he oppo.i IC: Ihe ri ghl
...'ing on t he hills 111 front of modern
Er)' l hu i ""3.0 much the stronger position
and tt..: .... thenian. on the left were find-
ing il much more diffi = 11 10 wit hstand
lhe COOOlam anacb of Ihe Persian
ca,all). So Inc 1113-" ha, 'c
offered to takc over lha{ posi tion_
Mar donius rnponded by fJlO\-ing his
... Tack Persian n oopo on to Ihis a.
well, makin g t he ...Iuatwn on Inc Jefl
wi ng a. round Pyrgos hill Ihar much
W'Se. So the Spa.. n ans moved back
again 10 dra..- Inc Pen ians wi th them.
AJlOIl her possible feuon, hut Ihis is
lughly unli kely u the Spanan. were no(
prone 10 br illiant lac1ical m(WeS, i. lhal
me Spartans intended to launch a sur-
p rise attack on Persia' s Gr eek allies
hopmg 10 knock lhem oUl before the
main haril e. It is more than likely Ih al
the ...holecpirode is untrue and anyway,
hy the end of t hc day, everybody was
hac'k to ' <l uare one. Murdcnius now
launc'hed a fu ll-scale ea,-alry allaek
across t he river . T he !'ersian horsemen
roue down the Greek lines .howeri ng
t hem with arrows whilst some of t heir
compamors for... -e d t heir way up on to
t he Asopu. ridge and fouled the Gar-
gaphia fouma.i n which, a. ll.ual , the
Spa..nans had failed {O guard. The
Greeks wen: now in serious t rouble:
they were unable 10 ,,alel at t he narrow
Asopus r iver for fear of lhe Persian
archers on t he oppooitc bank and lhey
were also CUi off from their supply lines
- lhey had been completely outgen-
eralled by .\l ardonius,
At a war counci l lhe Greek generals
de.:-ided l hal t he onl}- Ihing that
could do " a' to wJlhdraw 10 rhe foot of
lhe ltills " hOe-r'C' could reopen and
cover l heir supply IOUIC. Here also., al a
plao: called 't he Island' , there was a
plenliful supply of waler .
Thc problem of t he po.ilion of ' rhe
Island' seems insol uble. Herodotus
that il was len from the .... sopus
and Ihe Gargaphi an foumain and in
from of the lown of Plalaea . Ii was an
island formed by a scream call ed the
Ocroe which d ivides in two and then
rejoin. 3 ,\lade. funher on 10 for m an
island , Here lhey would have plent y of
"ialcr and would nOl he harmed by the
l'ersian horsemen. Such a . ile doe. nOI
exist today nor anyt hing like it in lhe
whol e hanl e aTea, T he only other ab un-
dam . pring in Ihe arca i. t he Vergu!iani
. pri ng whi ch ri. es iu", "'est of rhe chul<'h
of Agia Anna l WO kilometres we. t of
THE CITY STATES lie
T III' STATES AT WAR
modern Erythrai. In from of t his t here
i. a ridge of ltigher ground t hai
snelcnc. our paSI Plalaea on in CilSiern
side_T his i. flanked on eilber .i dc by
tributaries of {he Acrois, "..hich in
ancem limes have been much fuller .
( T he . ummertime .....arer supply avail-
able wday ...-<MIld be quile imufficienr 10
satisfy tnc needs of a l oo,ooo.strong

lr was tkcided to pull bad as soon as
it was dark. T here is C\cidence that lhere
three roads running nonhwanh
from t he foot of .\!OUnl Cilhaeron 10-
... T hebes. One, ...-hich descended
from t he Gyptnccastrc pass, coincided
roughly wil h the modem Athen. -
T hebes h ighway excepl thaI it would
have run more direCl ly norl h from the
pa.., whereas t he modern road 1.igugs
down lhe hilt- ide and passes t hrough
El ylhrai, The second road crossed lhe
' lhree hcad. ' pass and Ihen forked, wit h
one branch going 10 Plalaea and the
ot her branch heading north"'ard. aero..
lhe A..,pu. ri dge. West of Agios Ioannis
hillock il ....a. joined hy the Ihird road
l'o ming from I'l alaea. It rhen crossed l he
ri ve r and headed for T hebes, T he pb n
" 'as obviously for the At henians on t he
left wi ng 10,,-ilhdtaw on Plataea, for t he
cem re to usc lhe ' Ihn:e heads' road, and
for the Spanan. on Ihe right ...-ing 10
...-il hdra'" along I he GyphlOcastro road .
CharactmSlkallht he plan ...... bungled .
When darkness fdl me "hich
being in the plain had been SO badl}'
mauled lhe Persian ca" al ry during
the da)' , ...-nhdrew in great haste and
eit her inrenrionall}' or by accidem look
lhe wrong fori<. and finished up at
Plataea. They piled up l heir arm. b)'
t he T emple of Hera OUiside rhe waHs of
the to...-n and camped there.
Pausania. , hea ring Whal had ha p-
pened , gave orde.. for the n ght wing 10
wit hdraw, I lo....cver one lochagoJ named
Amornpharetus, who had nor been
suited when it was decided 10 withdraw,
now, in Uue Spartan fashion, refused 10
desert hi. p""1in t he racc of Ihe enemy.
The ter m lodwilO.< here mu,1 mean a
re gimental com1l1ande r and nOi a com_
mandcrof a l oo-slronglochos (.ee p , 4 1).
I' au, ani"" and Eur yanax, his colleague,
were in a quandary ; they could hardly
remain when t he rest of Ihe army wcre
withdra"'ing but, on rhe ot her hand,
t hey were loathe to .abandon .... mom-
II
GREECE AND MAC. EDO:-:I A
c
,
__ 33&
,
t
'-

Pl A 'A f A
Co"
The w,TI>Qo_." 01 "," G<ee.. fro'" ' .... AOOPUI
""goo The L.I",,<laemon..,n, <><:oJ!>"" 1.... o.gh<
_ on ,he A$<>pu$ .0<10" ..Ms' ,.... A,,.n ."J
<><:oJpoe(l ,,. left .nd 1..... """,,, Gree.. lhe
-."" " p'anned lOt tt>e
... 1. ..."....,. to ltI<Y_ Ov the toad to p, .
t"oe Ov ,.... toad to Hvso.. _ t....
_ G_u ,n me cen:fe 0'>' """ ."".. to
t"oe t __PMS. The """". __
1"'Sl.".g '" "'" t'- the wrong
I , "'_. "",,-.,....... carne 1r'ot
...tr>en nea ""a:ed a n'llht lOt t....
So1_ to ""O"'t n Sl' ". 01 "'" fact ""',,...,.
_elv_I .wav. .-...: '0 !ry ro' lhe _
_ ,.... Sr>t__nr;l 'he 01'* el
P,. .....
Below
The t>Bn l.t elO ot PI_, ... >@en from ' '''' norlh
" de 0' lr>f A",pus look,ng ,0u'h nS!
PI_' Na con t>/! SMn a, the foot ot MouN
C,th..,on on "," ,igo.' Anci. ot Plat.eo " OUld
ha.. bn n j ust in fro'" 01 " Modern E"" hraa "
,n ,he centro ..,' h , he paS!
t>en,nO'nd ,ne m,oo he, d' N". I,n l. ' 0
"On, D. ph"" con IU" toe >@en ,he '.!rn. nO
w" I"" Ii,,, G'ee k """t,,,,, The
I,on, of ",.tNa., , he Pyrgos nr I
H
pharcrus and his regimen\. So t he
Spartan army remained where it was
while the generals tried to persuade
Amompharetus to move Mean whi le, on
the left wing, the At henians who had
begun to fall back heard that t here was
trouble on t he n ghl wing and sent a
mounted herald to 1'30,I,ania, to ask hi m
what they should do.
A, the herald rode up the d ispu te was
,t ill ragmg, WIth Pau,ania, and Eury-
anax pleading wit h Amompharet u, and,
when t his failed, 108i ng thei r tempers
and shout ing at him. Amompharet u"
on t he other hand, was insis ting that he
, hould have been befor e t he
decision was
Herodotus says thaI Amompharetus
commanded the !qdJ('.' of Pitana, but
doe, nO! explai n what it was. Thucy-
dide" on t he OIhcr han d, whilst still not
explaining what it wa, to be,
insists that there was not and n""'er had
been such a unit . All t hat we can con-
clude is that Amcmpharerus com-
manded a regi ment and t hat he
wonld hav... been present at Ihe nut mal
Sparta n war jU'1 a, the prim",
pil", wa, later m the Roman armv.Prob-
ably he had been excluded as the council
would have bee n re'tricted to the , I rale-
goi of t he various Greek coming-em"
olherwise it would have got ent irely oul
of hand wilh the commanders of ever y
regiment and battalion want ing to be
present. Whe" v<>ling t ook plac<' in the
counci l pebbles were caq into t wo pile,
- for Ot against an action , Amom-
pharetus picked up a large stone with
bot h hand, an d cast it down at Pau-
..Ilia_ feet, crying, 'Thet e' s my pebble
and I VOle for nut fleeing from the
foreigners'
shouted back call ing him a
lunatic and out of his mind wnen t he
Athenian herald asked him for his in-
structions , l'ausanias a,ked them to huld
on and follow whatever the Spartan,
did,
'i\;-'hen dawn broke the argument was
slill raging. Pau,ania, now did what he
should have done all alung an d began to
withdraw, lea" ing Am"mpharet us
where he was. The column formed up
wnh the Spart ans at t he front and t he
Tegeans at t he rear . T hey wit hd rew
along the G,'phtoeastro road, marching
between the hillocks and keeping to the
broken ground,
T he Athenians , on the other hand,
withdrew aeruSS the plain towards
Plataea. A, expected Amomphare tus,
who had never helieved that Ihe rest of
t he army would desert him, now t hat he
found himself alone, ordered his regi-
ment !u take up their equipment and
followed.
When the I,x, kout s in t he Per, ian
camp pointed out to what
wa, happening he could hard ly have
bdieved his eyes. The Greek positions
were deserted. Part of the Greek army
was visible, lou nging around in front of
Ihe Athenians had d isappeared
as Ihey were , creened I'tom him by t he
Asopus r idge , and t he Spartans were
8lru ng out along the A",pu, ri dge with
Amompharetu, and his regime nt "rag-
gling behind as if in full ftighr.
\X'hen the Spart an, saw that Amom-
pharelUs .wa, foJluwing them two kilo-
metres be hind, t hey called a halt to wait
for hi m. I-Ierodot us that t hey halted
by a str eam called t he .\lolois at a place
knuwn as Argiopium where t here is a
.hri ne to the Demeter. This
shri ne has to be at t he fum uf the .hills
just we" of an cient Ilysia". In t he field,
,ust below the Pandanassa ri dge, on
which Hy,iae probably stood, Pri tchett
found cuI block> of .lOne whieh had
been t ur ned u p by a t ractor- d rawn
plough. He suggests convinci ngly that
t hi, wa, t he site of the shrine of De-
meter.
,\ \ ar donius was qUIck 1U take a<1wn-
tage of th... situal i"n. He ordered Out hI'
cavalry and followed up with t he whole
of hI' infa nt ry leading his Persi ans
againsl the Spanan col umn, knowing
that if he could knod out Ihe Sparta ns
t he wa r wou ld be u,-er. The re,1 uf the
army he despatched against t he Gr eeks
near riauca .
Amompharetu' refused to run and
continued to march in an orderly
fash ion. No sooner had he joined the
mall1 column {han the Persi an cavalry
were upon Ihem. l'ausania, hastily de -
ployed his hopliles along t he fOUl of the
mountain. Spartan di"'ipli ne and train-
ing weuld have enabled them to form up
in phalanx even under the hail of aero.... s
from the Persian cavalry,
The Spartan, were pi nned down
where they were and il wa, now im-
poss ible for t he m to move, Pausanias
sent he ralds to the Athenians begging
T HE CITY STATES 800- 360 BC
THE STATES AT \V,\R
Ihem to come t o hi, a"iSl ance and, If
po, ,, ble, to close t he gap in Ihe line
which had been left when t he cemr e
reneated to Plataea. It remained for the
Athenians to make the ma-
noeuvres. In re' pon'e the Al henian,
began 10 move east wards along t he foot
of the hills toward, the Spart an posi t ion
.\-leanwhile the Persian infantr y had
moved out of camp and erossed the
ri ' -- el . T he camp wa, abum SIX
kilumctre, from the Spartan posil inn
and it mu,1 have taken t hem at least an
hou r and a ha lf to up, especially as
the great mass of t hem would have had
to advance across the open fields .
G rad ually the Persian infant ry hegan
to mm'e in, , ett ing up t heir shields like
a fence a short dis tanee from the Spartan
line , From here t hey kept up a constant
barrage of missiles. T he Lacedae-
monian, an d Tcgcans crouched down
behind their shields to shelter from t he
arrows and wailed for the order to
charge " ausania" meanwhile, had
climbed up t he hi ll, ide and began fr an-
til-- ally ofle ring sacri fi ce" not dar ing to
give the order 10 charge before the
omens were fa,'uurab le.
.\ 1.eanwhile, on Ihe left wing, the
Atheni an ma rc h had been baIted as the
re, t of t he Pers ian army dosed in un
t hem. On t he hillside Pausania, Ii fled
up his eyes towards the temple of Hera
six kilometres away to the "..est beneath
the walls of 1'lataea, heseeehmg the god-
de,s to grant him t he omens he needed
but suI! without avail.
Relow him the hc plites gradually he-
gan to fall om of line as the Pe"ian
arrows found thei r mar k, and all the
lime more and more Pel'\ian, were com-
ing up. i n t he end t he 1, 500 T egeans,
whose d iscipl ine wa' never as good a,
t he Spart an" could stand it no longer.
Screaming their war cry they rose up
and charged. On the hillside Pau,ania,
kIll'''' t hat he had lu ac t quickly. He ran
down, took u p his po, il; un in the fro nt
ran k on the r ight wing an d gave the
orde r 10 advance. :--l o doubt in order to
avmd the charge uf sacrilege, he de-
clared that t he omen, were favourable,
and does not d ispute this.
T he Spanans rose as a ma n and, rais-
mg t heir spears, ebalged t he mass uf the
Pers ians. Seei ng them comi ng t he Per -
, ians discar ded their bo....s and {(x,k up
their spears. At first t hey fought o'"er
35
GREECE AND MACEDOKI A
the renee of Persten shields but soon lhe
Spartans had In. mpled this down and
they were tn amongst rhe Pers'allS
t hrusli ng their long spear. huo the
lightl y limed foreigne rs. The Pe rsians
fought br avel y, gnpphng wu h thei r
opponents. grabbing at their long spears
and br eal: i ng l he m ofr. They ,,'e re .
however, no real match for the heavily
anned Spanans Gradually they fell and
the Spartans Cl ambered over their bo dies
to get at the rest.
Mar do nlus himse lf. rid ing a whi te
horse. was i n t he thiel: of the bail ie
urging on his men. He was surrounded
by t,OI>O picked men, the flower of the
Persi an a rmy_ The.e men fo ught
valia ntly chargin g the Laccdaemoni an.
and many a Spartan reUbefore them But
the nee of lhe battle was inexorable.
Gradually the Spartan hoplitt'S C\lt their
...a) th ro ugh the 1,000. Fina ll y
.\{ardonius himself ns struc k from his
horse. So long .. he ..as a li ve the
Persiantood Iheir ground. but when
the ntIL"S spread through the n. nks lhal
Mardonius ...as dead and the majority of
his bodyguard wi th him. the army began
to falter and gtve ground. Soon their line
broke and they turned in Dight. rushing
headlong fo r their camp wit h Its wooden
wall ' the river,
\\:'hen they saw the Persians fl eeing lhe
other A, lans also look to thei r hee ls,
Only the Ilocotians. perhaps because of
their age-old e nmity with At hens.
conunued the fight They she....ed great
bravery and all 300 of lheir Sacred Band
fell ' n the ballic. but at 13S1 they too
bro l:e and ned across the r iver to
Thebe-.. The Persian rerrear ....as covered
by the cavalry ",,-ho l:ept b<'rween them
and the advanci ng Grech . This is 1I
re mar l:able rnbure 10 thelr lr3i nlnjt.
discipli ne and d evotion. as In mOSI
ane' ent hallies lhe hor-;emen "'ere the
fi rsl to flee . Even so. many of lhe fl eeing
Persi ans were CUI do wn by the light -
ar med J..lo" who "'ou ld no w have
ru sh ed OUI a head of the advand ng
phalanx,
The Spartans, heing the
the lirst to reach the Persian camp but
they found il impossible 10 approach the
palisade, Later the Athenians amved and
tbe "ruggle grew holter. For a long lime
tbe Persians fought them off but Il nally
the wa ll ",,'as breached. The Tegeans
. ..ere me first into Ihe slockade and lhey
we re lhe o nn who plundered
.\\.ardo nius tent. once ine Greeks ",,'ere
tnro the camp the Persians pUI up no
great re-siSl:rnce and ,,-ere slaughlered by
the "engeful Greclu. The numb<'r of the
Persian dead. lusl as the number of their
army. is obViously grossly exaggerated,
Herodotus says that onl y 3.000 of those
who ned In the camp survived. He also
talks of ao.ooo who managed 10 gel away
from rhe bail ie fi eld und er Art aba zus.
The Greek In..e s wer e sm all The
Lacedaemoma ns lost 91. the Tcgeans t1
and the Atheni ans The,e fil:Ure s are
probably True as II Is in fl ight that most
casualties are sustained
Such was the result of the batt le of
Plataea. The Spartan, bad avenged me
death of Leonidas and ,bo"'ed
memsetves. individually. as perhaps the
gre3teS! soldiers In history. Persia nevee
3gain allempted to invade Greece and
....as herself ove rcome by the Greel:s of
Alexander lhe Gr....l 150 later
amens agai n ' 1 Spa r ta
Arte r the defea l of the Persi ans bot h
Athens and Sparla Were free 10 pursue
their empire buUdlng which lhe Persians
had so rudely Interrup ted Al though both
sla teS followed an anti -Persian policy
and openl y sUPP" r!ed any ant i-Persian
activities in the eastern Mediterr"nean, it
was only a mat ter of ume before once
more Ihey were at each nther's throats,
For half a ce ntur)' a n intermi nent
peace erjsred bet.....en the 1'100 Slates. In
or der to fight lhe PerSia ns at se a the
At beni3ns formed a league of the
man ume .lates; Ihis ",,'IS l<rto","T1 a, Ihe
Confederacy of Delos . By exe rc ising
more and more control O,-cr her fellO'll
rncmbcn in tbis IClIguc. Athen. m3naged
10 convert a parlnership tntc an empire
the money appropriated from her
allies she built a greal neel and the ell)'
that "'" s the wonder of ur eworld.
In 43t IIC the long-expected wa r wtth
Sparta broke out. AI fi rsl it seemed lhat
ne ith e r , jd e could possibly Win , for
Athens cont rolled the sea and Sparta the
land. Sparla co uld I"y , iege to Athen s
but could not SlOp supplies coming in
from the sea, On the other hand, Athens
could launc h se ab or ne at tac ks on
southern Greec e but could not de feat
the SpaTlan army, II beca me" ",,'ar of
sieges ""'Hh p racticall y no full-scale
bartles.
.... fler lhe reUeat of the Persians. the
.... had masslVeI)' strenglhened
t he defences of rhefr clly and
constructed long ....l lIs slretch lng from
me d ly t o the har bo ur It Pi raeus.
Provided lhal Ih"'" long WlIlb remained
Intl ct and food could he broughl in by
sea, it "' as impossibl e for Sparta to
overco me her opponent
From the beginning, ho...ever, Athens
suffere d fr om bad luc k. When the
Spartans laid siege '" the cit)'. rnod wa,
hrought In fro m Egypt . These same
ships. however, also brought the plague
In the crowded conditions of lhe siege
Arhens ""'as devastated by the di sease
The Irony ...as that, t>e<:IUse Athens was
orcrating a blo<:J:ade apinsl Srana. the
Spart ans lhemselves never contracted
the disease, For three long years the
plague raged and carr ied off about a
qua ller of tbe po pulation. BOlh si des
were exhausred and in 42 I IlC a peace
trealy ....as signed whi ch le n .'lhens
hardly ..orse off than when .he had
started.
In 4re. sen lusting for empire, Alhens
embarked on the most d isastrous
blunder in Gree l: history- she deci ded
to invade Sicily. Thi s nnrrunarcd in the
' lege of Syracuse, It should have been
easily acc omplished but . owing 10 the
Inco mp e tence and Indec rsto n o f the
ge ne ral. Ntc ras. it tu rned Into an
un miti gate d disa st er The emi re
exped itio nary force was Captu red. the
generals were executed and the rest of
the army sold into slivery, \l<orsc shll.
du ring t he expedition. Sparta had
reopened the war in Greece to tal:e the
pressure off Syracuse. in spite of
her slaggering loss of an enure army and
li5 .hips. ....thens ...-as compelled to take
o n he r old e nemy She held OUI for
another nine years. In lhe end the rest of
her neel .... captUred. Arhens irsclf ,,"lIS
besieged and. in the face of starvation.
surrendered BUI Spa na was exhausted
and her domination was broughl to an
en d at Leuctra in 37 t by two Theha"
gene rals Epamtnonc as and Pelopidas.
Their , evolutionary theory of hoplilc
tacti cs e n" bl ed The bes to Invade
so ut hern Greece and defeat Sparta
decisively at Mantinea In 362
These Ideas were raken up by Philip of
Macedon. who as a yout h had gone to
Thebes as a hostage. On his accesston
he began to build a mighTY army.
The Phalanx
Dunng 8th IlC was a
in Gree k mode of
'Iree for all' fighting of the heresc
age was abandoned and a far more
disciplined .y$lem introduced. This ,,a.
the pllal a nx-an orderl)' ba ttle li ne
se. enJ ranb lk..p willi rh.. men in me
second and 5uc-ceeding ranb co,.. ring
tile men in the trent ran k. so thai tile
pllalana was divld..d into files of men.
one behind anot her. The phalanx ""a,
composed of many short files and nor of
a few long ra nks, Eacll file ...-as a unit
and when a man in rhO' front rank f..lI.
his place was taken by the man in
rank behind-rile next man in his fil e.
The phalan a could be drawn up In
open "'der with two per man or
doubl ed up 10 form close order , The
ne w fcrmatlcn wa, strengthened by the
intr oduct iOn o f the sh ield
probably ear ly in the 7th cen tury. This
was a round buckler which did away
Wilb rne age -old handgrip and
"I"' fastened to the left forearm; it wa,
hel d acr oss the c hest cover in g the
warner fro m ch in to "'ncO' s. In close
order . whic h ""as us ual in bal1le. rhO'
shield wu .... ide enough to
peorecnon to the unguarded side of the
man OIl lhe len.
The of !he pllabl/u "'"lIS a
gradual process and In lIS early 'IellTS must
hl\'<' gone Ihrou&h man)' The
ne'" ...emee ....as called a hopille or
armoured man. On the Chigi vase from
ue middle of the 71h crnmr)' he is slu)'lo'n
slill carrying t....o Homeric Ih rowable
spean, but me vase she..-s thai the
lDdloonal armour of cuit:l$$ and
all made of bronze. had
been adopted, Gradually the weaponry
and armour By the time of
the Persian invasion th.. cuirass
had been replaced by a jmen one ...'tuch
gave bener and was a lot
cheap'r to pro.Juce. The !hTO\\'lIblt spears
were replaced by a long thrusting spear
and a short sword, Wl\lI these weapons
lhe hopliles could a lighl formation
R,g hl
The '.rcl1.,;c IOCM.' , lhe hypolhehcal ori ll'r'I3.l
oM of !'" lrom wtliCli alllhe O1M. s
0Y0i _ . I! wa. ""'00 o! too.
MC!1 O!""-":;; was composed 01 Iii.... ot
_<111men ono .-.-..- loura(lO$l:
o ."",agos.
F..rl y d .. ve lo p ment
11 it 10 trace the ear ly
of the phalanx. We know
only lhat the s)'$tem ""as fully developed
by the time of Ihe 71h century Spanan
1)T1lCut wllo describes a warrior' s
dut)' as standing shoulder 10 shoulder
wilh hls comrades and avoid i ng in -
dividual ICIS of tleroi,m " 'hich v.-ould
d isr upt the format ion. Ttle Sp<t rtan.
criticised Arislod..mus at the battle of
I'lal....a btcallSC' his outslanding bravery
jeQpardised ltle lives of tlis comrad.., .
Vil1ually nothing is known of the early
organisation of phalanx. The fint
detail ed d esc ri pl ion is by
Xenopho n in his Consnruuon of the
Lacedaemontans wllere be describes the
Sparl an ar my at of 1110'
4t h centu ry ec. His use of the wo rd
pent<koSly. (fifty) for 3 un it in t he
Sparlan army In his own day, in spire of
tile Iact that at me time in question Ihis
T HE CITY STAT ES 800- 360 BC
T HE PHAL ANX
unn was considerably
Ibat the Spartan phalanx. and probably
rbose of th.. Greek states 100. had
evomd !rom a based on fik:s or
ei ghl men and that al ecrne ea rli er
perIod. possibly around 800 IIC. the
p hala nx WIS made up of 100- sl rong
Iltci, cadl &xhoo being composed or two
..-hich ""ere in turn di\ided
into twO ... ", i" i . Each ell"","' '-"
p robably consisted of l 3 1I0pl ite,. a
veteran feaf-tank offlcef (""' ''I"''S or
u ,gid.." ",) and a commanding omcer
(e ,."...o,,,,,.). In battle the ell ""'''';''
would usually be drawn up in three fli es
eacll of eight with the rear-tan'"
offi cer !Ianding clear af the back to make
sure that the rear ranks did their job. The
. like all the officers of the
phalanx. fought al lhe trom of the rit:!t l
hand l1le of his unit, dra wn up
eight d eep. 111 0' whole loch". would
consist or 12 fl ies. It waS comma nded by
37
GREECE AXD M,\CEDONIA
a locJwg<iJ who fought lit the from of the
ri ll: hl - hand file. T he left half of the
fIX"'" " it!> commanded by apt1tU/to"ln,
fight ing al Ihe front of tbe
righlltioond fik of his unit. So " e ha, 'e a
loo-strong 1Jws with its offiCU\ fight-
mg in lhe from rank and ils
oftk'ers standing proud allhe hack. This
,,,,,,Iated position of t he rea r- rank ortcers
is illustrated hI' XenOJ'ho n at Ihe Ii,,-
tional baule of T hymbrara. where the
light-armed troops arc placed hehind
Ihe phala nx and the ' rear ranker s' dra"; n
u p hcl ll nd Ihem to keep lhem in order.
T he new for mation wu adllJ'ted by
all t he cit y states and, alt h" ugh detalls
varied from Slate 10 n ate, t he basic
organisat ion alwa)" remained rhe same.
T he Alhenian a.-my
AI Alhens, which " 'as the largC"'1of the
city states, all Athenian cit izens be-
t ween l he agC'" of 17 and S9 "ere liable
fOf mdtlat }, .en.;o: . Dur ing lhe Slh Cl:n-
IUT)' AlhenS was abk to field ahout
30.000 hopliu:s of whom nearly half
sol di er.;. The remai nder,
under t 9 and t he 'eter"ns. per -
formed garr ison duties, These nopl iles
were d rawn from t he ",'calthier classes
as ea"h man had to supply his own
eq uipment which only lhe well-off
coul d alford . However, a sol dier wh",,,
father had been killed in battle was
armed oil public expense.
As far as can be seen, the At henians
retained the basic 'archaic IlXhos' and
generally fought eigfn dee p. The army
am.isted of ten dh' isi"n. (I" Xe..), t:";t"h
commanded by a ,ari<l,d,. One division
"'as d rawn from each of l he le n Alhenian
"
lri bes. Each 01 rnese la:..... ... ,." sub-
d ivided Into IlXhm, but we koo... of no
imermediete division betwn 1M I".n.
and 1M 1""IsoJ,
At Athens, as in all t he oemocranc
st ain. t he general (' '''' /egos) was elected.
At Al hen. len were chosen annually-
one for each tribe. In pract ice. usually
"nIl' t hree \' .. er nwuh t he army, in ...'hich
case eit her one ...as made commander-
inch ief or e"",h in rora non
on separate day. , The officers ,""em to
have served in t he front rank and eve n
lhe general, aft er giving his orders, l""k
up hi . I""it ion, usually at the righl end
ofthe phalanx
Sp a rt a - a s la le
T here was one slate that must he separ-
ated from the OIMl'5"" it d"" iared from
rhc patterns along which t he od",n
e,'Oh-ed, T h is was Sparra -c- t he ITIO't
feared Slale in Gree..-e. It ..-as a<.-O:pI'ed
lhat one Sp.anan ..as wonh .e,etal men
of an!' other slale, and flOne of the 0100
st ates. unless forced . would dareopro'"
Spa na on lhe battlefield,
The Spanans lhemseh-e. weere kn own
as Sparl illte. They formed the core of
the army. T he Spartan army was reo
inforced by levi es from the suhiect
perioed . By t he beginning "f lhe st h
centur y helots were al,o 8ervinl< wilh 1he
army as light -armed skir mishers. T he
comhi ned army of t he Sparuatcs and
p.-rioeci is rel'crred to as Lacedaernonian.
T he SpaTlans had a "range l;'<ln.tit u.
tion. Alt hough t hey were Ulmmanded
in bal tle hr' t ..X) hereditary kings who
could he, and oflen "-ere, rerno'; ed if
the people did not like them, they were
governed bl' nve magistrales
who ,,'ere c1ec.ud annually. Th<e kings
muslorigmall}' have had poIilical power
but. by l he 51h cenlul1' 1lC, the rphors
"'ere the rrue J'O"-er In lbe Slate and were
ans..-erable only 10 thei r sUCce!>SOfS.
Ea<:h king had a bodyguard of 300 00(">-
hlC'" wno, in splle of Ihei r name, mppns.
infanl ry, nol cavalry_ Ongmally
both kings went on campai gn but .
shonly before Ihe l'er, ian wars. it was
restricted to nne.
lf our knnwlcd ge of t he At henian
milita ry system sparse, the absolute
reverse is true <If Sparta, The Athenian
wl dler and wriler Xenophon spent
many years with the Span ans and
served on campaign wit h t hem. He had
a great admiration for t he Spartan mili-
laT)' system and his wrilings bristle wit h
delails of t heir rntlllal1' pr.tCIices_ F rom
his wri li ngs one can build up a ve11' full
piClure of lhe Spanan army at lhe end
of the 5th century Be. Sparta was .. ''''T)'
consen.-at;ve Slale and t he vasl maiortt )'
of his descriplK>n must hold good for
lhe I:>e-ginni ng of the o:ntUr}' 100,
E"erylhing at SpaTIa was regulated
by l he Slate. All Spartans ..cre soldiel'5.
All ot her profe..ions were forbidden 10
Ihem. Spartan land was di vided up into
st ate -o wned farm, operated by helm, .
Each Spart an wa, B,sillned one of Ihese
farms fro m whic'h he d rew his ' U" e n-
ance, whic h leh him l'n 't' 10 devore his
" hole life 10 military prowess, The
Spanan syouern was self_perpetuati ng;
il was because they were ,,'arriors thai
lhey overcame and enola,'ed the helou.
who greatly outnumbered them. and in
order to rnai mam Ihis "atus quo e';CIJo'
had to devote hIS lik to wldier-
ing 50 that he cou ld keep the do...n.
The t r a in i ng of a Sp art a n 00)'
The regulated e\'eI) 'lhmg In Ii<,.
Expectant modw:no had to
srrenuces to ensure their chil-
dren V,-en: "rong: imperfect babies wer e
pUI down.
At the age of sen,n boys were taken
from their mothers , Iheir hair was cut
short and they wer e formed into classes
where t he}' all lived , ate and ,lept to-
get her , So that all were governed h}, t he
same d iscipline,
T he Spanans did 1'101 entrust the
edu,:ali"n 01 their children tn hi red
teachers ; t hey nominaled a mature and
experienced citizen to perform t his ta,k,
Academi c ed uc3110n was min imal. Em-
phaSIS was al ways on discipline and
exercise. Children for Ihe II\Q5t pan
went barefoot and naked, T heir food
was simpkand t hem
10 sleal . .'\lloough t hey "''en: punished
when caught , the punishmem was fO
being caught, not for stealing. so l lu.t
later a wldi.,,- mighl be able to endure
famine and be a good forager ,
"\ 1t he age of 12 the discipline become
much harsher, It W<lS rC\.-ognis<:d Ihat
\loll'Snf t his age could be very unruly, so
they loa ded them with hard work and
conSlant exerci ses, The hardy TOUl in"
" f earl y childhuod was "''' ''l inued:
underdnthes were for bidden , and one
tumc had to serve for bot h ",'inter anJ
summel,
Fighting ... as encouraged among bolh
adults and ehild ren, but never in anger,
.-\ fi ght had 10 hr"",k up ",'hen ordered bv
another citi zen, T hi, IS illust rated by
the young boy who was t hrashed by his
farber, not because he had been fighll ng
bUI bccau!oC he complained that Uk'l(her
had hi t hi m,
Bra"ery ...a. considered the ultimate
virtue and cowudic<: lhe greatest vice.
After a balt ic the dead were carried
home on their shi eld. , On the olher
hand....'he n runni ng a....ay from a battle-
field , the first Ih ing a hoplile discarded
was his cumhcrsome shield, so a Spar-
Ian mother 101..1 her son to t et urn from
baul e ei ther c'a rryi ng hi. shield or on it ,
A hoy reached manhood in hi. t wen-
ti et h )'ear, when he became liable for
service . T h, fittest youl hs wer e
laken imothc army , T hose who were
rejected were graded a. inferiors ; these
may have formed a pool of replace -
menu, SInce the Spartan arrny ",'as
organised bl age groups, t he young men
continued to I;'-e and exera . e logelher ;
even when married a Spartan man li,'ed
and ale in t he barracks ",'it hout his "' Ife,
This separation of men from their ....ives
encouraged homosexuality_
The Spart an a rm)-
Xenophon , in hI, ConSlillui".. oj tift
gi" e. a ,-cry full sc-
count of the " rgani.ation of the S part an
army in hi. own time around rhe begin-
ning of the ..tit cen tur y tIC, It is unf" rt u_
nale that an account given by T hucy-
dides when he i. de.cnbi ng t he fint
bat tle of .\lamine. is somewhat dif-
k rent. T hucydides Ireety admits that
he had great difficu lly in oblaining in -
formation aooll! the Spartan arm)' and
may ha,'e tried to reconstruct t heir
THE CITY STATES 800- 360 Be
THE

r ... 1><;1,,,. ef ""'" '" 90'''11 nte battle ilOO
's la<en 110m I CeM'" vaH
t"""d It Chog. ," En"". The hg",e .t,,;.... I
'ocenwUC'l'Otl cI I "00'" hom Ib:>ul 600 BC
be"'" en me """""Iogoca,
or gani, ation from a mixture of contem-
porary and earlier infor mation, x eno-
p hon'. account i. ti r.t hand and mu, t hc
ptel"ned,
All men between the ages of 20 and 60
were liable for militar y ,erv ice, Spart an
hoplites were ar meJ in Ihe , arne fashiun
the other G reet. , hut were ea.ily
recr>gnisable by l heir uni form searlel
dooks, T hi. red duak became the sym-
hoi of Spanan militarism,
39
GREECE Al':D MACIinONI."t.
In Xcnophun' s ..la)' t he strenll: th uf
the Spanan locllOS was t 44, being
posed of fOUT 36-strong trt <t"wriai , AU
that seems to have happened is t hat the
strength oft he e"""",Ua had n.,en l1Ii:<ed
by 50 per '0 t hat the t><tSlCdept h of
the phalanx could be in.:reas.ed trom
eigh t to t wd ,'c, AI t his ti me there '''<I' a
generaltendency rowards dee per forma-
rion" prot:..bl)' sti mulated the n ",
of Thebe, which had adopted a mu.:h
deeper p halanx. One can sa)' wit h
reasonable cerl ainry that , up unt il rbe
late 51hcent ury, Sparta tOO reu ined Itt.:
' archaic I""h",' ...- ilh it' st andard dept h
of eight .
The Spartan anny 'us organised so
that eveI')' unit , 00 mail er how small ,
had in own commander. and
rear.rank commander too. The
rank offico:n (.... r<>;:"" ) may ll<)( have
been supernumeraries In t he Spanan
army and the ",'hole rear URI< of the
phalanx may have consisted of t hem.
ttW_ ;a",'as subd,,'i.x.J into three
files. and then again into six half liles.
Each ti leand ha lt file had Us best man as
leader and its second-best ma n as rear
ranker. T bc c' ,....,,<1' were coupled
into ' li bies' ( r esch wit h us
own commander ("""u """' n"). T,,'o
fift ies were Sl milatl y iOlned to fonn ;I.
lodws- t he . mallesl unu of t he
phalanx_The Iod",. waScommanded by
a ItXh",g.... The whole SparTan armv was
composed of six division. Each d i,' j,ion
( mor a) was by a !,<,I-..nh
and ccntamed four /<>elwl. I n phalanx
all the orncers and file leaders " 'ould he
in [he Ironr rank The "ar;ous olfi<.'Crs -
e"" rn<tlar<hs, pe"le"""ter. and 1(><:/r<1/:0I
- would fight at t he head of the right -
hand file of the unit l hal they com-
manded .
Allached to each me"" wa, a un it of
.:avalty- abo called a m<Jra. T h;, was
probahl y These cavalry
units only came ;ntO ""ing dur ing the
Pclcponnesien war toward, the end "f
the 51h cent ury.
T he fi rsl mor" ennt ained a unit called
t he /rippel, T hi, cnn';' ted of the 300
, , P"",,,, ,,,,1Y'
,
U,
m
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u,
u,
U,
U,
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,,,
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Ut
ttt
rtt
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,,,
t"
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f "
t
ft

The " ' Ila""U t"'O of troe S(I.-UIO.."., at tt>o

to.", 01 (. .. .... 4'0 ot"IVtV)
1 r ... ' maIlfl ' UNI of ,'" Spa"'" a'"",. Ihe
""""""'", cotr(l<lM(l of "10'" f,.... 01 """,,,,.
""'0at , ,, hallf'"" +aet> 01, moo. "W..
comfnllO(led ao enomor.-.:h r el>()m(Jt,.,
we'e <:ouple<l '0 Io<m-',. ...., , ...ch
by a pemet<tmer
2 A. Iochos. I.... b..,c uM of I.... 0.1\0100' 1\ wos
ComPOIeO of two pen,,,",,.r.,.,. Itour
.nomol''') and w oommo nO<ld l>v a
l ochagt>J
3 AmOo'" COtT1P05'<t ot t<t ur IOChOi (576 m.m)
aM oomrna""ed b,. pt}19m8lch Tho .oti"
Spa"an wo. up 01 " . mot aM
wa s 'r>e " og
l l och8</O. E .""",m . ", h
p
111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111111
hcplucs who were t he cream of t he
army, They were selected from t he men
who were in Ihe prime of life. yea r
Ihree men were by the epho",;
Ihey were hipp"gret"'. T heir job
was 10 ,eket 100 men each 10 make up
lhe hippei,. T hese ml'n ser ved on lhe
right wing of lhe army and made up the
kings bodyguard. It is f'O"ih le t haI
only those who had sons were elig ible
for lhis unit, tor the Spart ans looked
down on any man who had nO! done his
dUl y and produced Ihe neXI generation
of hoplit es, T his would fM
Herodotus' rem"r k at the battlcofThcr-
mopy lae about the Spartan troops who
had ""'S.
Sp" r t a i n Herodot u s' d "y
It see ms lil< el y that the Sparl an army
wem lhrough IWO reorga nisalio n", OHe
at lhe time of Xe nophon at t he begi n-
ning of t he 4lh cemur y,and one per h"p,
50 years ear lier . Pract ically nothing i,
known oft he army befor e t hi, earl ier re-
organ" at, on , However, fro m odd re-
marh about loch,,; and the " bsence of
the word "lOra from HerodolUs' ac-
count , cou pled with t he con'tam tra-
dilion in the ancient sources t hat there
were five fochm III t he Spart an ar my, it
does not seem unreasonable to suggest
that at the beginning of t he 5t h cemury
the Sparran army may h. ve been organ-
ised in five super loeha<. II is quite
possible t hat the suhdi vision' of t he' e
, uper h :hal were also called foc/wi - t he
w"n1 "mply means a body of men and
in Ill) way implies a fixed number. A
parallel may be quoted in the inclis-
criminate usc of the word taxis , which
In Xenuphon' s t ime could mean any
unit of more lhan one f,xh",.
These super locho' were probably
territorial levies on t he five districts or
"illage> that made up Spart a. Itl pre-
hisloric ti me' each village may have
been expected to supply one loehos.
Gradually, as lhe villages expanded , so
lhese units grew but cont inued to be
called JlJChoi . Each of t hese units was
commanded by a I",hagos who wa, ob-
vi"us ly much more senior than hi, nam.'
,uggcsts. At Plataca ill 479 , of t he
live l od wf{OI would have comma nded
about ' ,<X>O men. T hi, cxplams why t he
,\mompharel us felt that h."
could challenge lhe aut horit y of t he
mmmander-in-ehld Pausanias because
under normal he would
have been pr esent ur Ihe coundl of war.
No doubl lhese super 10<:1",i were sub-
di vided III a similar manner 10 lhe later
an ny.
!' t om t he 71h century onward s the
Spartan popula tion was eonstanll y in
decline . Iktween the 7l h and the be-
grruung of t he 5th cent ury t he army
slrc nglh droppc' d from 9,<X>O to a.ceo.
A hundre d years later it had shrunk to
around 4,0Cl0, of whom onl y abom t ,0Cl0
were Spartiates , so l hat manumined
helots and pawed were havi ng to be
drafted into the army 10 I<eep it up to
st rength, T his devaswl ing decl ine III t he
population of t he Spartan state musl
have been t he reason for t he successive
reor ganisations.
Rec r uits in Xe n op h on ' s t ime
Xenop hon insists that there was no need
10 lram a man in lhe usc of hi, weapo ns,
as from childhood one k "rn, to lhrow
up one's left arm in defence. and t hat
striking with a is al,o nator"L This
" pro b"bl l' tr ue. T he strength of the
phalanx was never based on mdividual
prowe' s bUi on operat ing wgether in a
disciplined fash ion. Xenophon obvi-
ously believed t hat practice in t he use of
spear and ,hield wa, all t hat was neces-
,ary and certainly mock b"ll leS 1001<
place. II also be true t hat every
Sparl an boy from the earl iest age must
have plaved at sold iers and lc" rned his
military craft t his way.
Ncvcrt hctess, hcplites mu,t have hcen
tramed m lhe movements and il
has been ,uggested lhat cer lam positions
commonl y appear ing in an repre>cnt
the,e basic movements. T hese are
sho..... n on p. 42 ,
I . When at case the hoplite stands with
his ' pear bUll on the ground and his
shield rest ing against his t high. Hop-
lites sorneumes retained lhi, posit ion in
lhe face of the enemy as a sign of
lempt.
2. When ealleel to attention lhc spe ar is
raised to Ihe right , boul der and lhe
shIeld lifted to cover the torso
3. From hne lhe hoplit. c" n come 10
Ihe ' on guard' posi tion by br inging the
spear forward unt il his rillh t arm is
stralghl and the spear i, parallel 10 t he
ground at waISt level. This was lhe
posit ion for t he underhand thrusl -it
T HE CITY STATES Hoo- 360 Be
'rm: PHAL ANX
AI>o, e
An "'Qu , .tely mooelled IOle 6th century
. t. luotle ,how,ng Sp.rlan .rmed lor b81tle
. nd swathe d in hi' mil.lary el"" . Tne
tran,,",,;e c'e,t may be. , 'g n ot ran.
Wadsworth Al hen.eum H8'ltord Connect 'cut
,.
GREECE A'SD MACEDOKIA
was In t his that th.. hopl ite ad-
vanced to batik. The u nderhand Ihrust
could not be executed under nm mal
conditions in close array a, one would
have to open up t he wall " f shields 10
IhruS! at ....,.i ,t level. Alsothcre would be
a risk of striki ng t he ma n n..xt in file
with the pointed butt of the spear.
The norm,, 1 striki ng posil l<ln has to
be with t he: src-"r raised above the right
shoulder stli king do"' n wards at a slight
angl.. through thc: dan-shaped gap be-
tween t he top of one's o""n shield and
t hat of one's neighbouronthc: right. 'l"hc:
angl e of t he st ..,k., sh,-,ul d ensure t hat it
pa" c. o,cr the head of the next in file.
To take up altitude from 2 would
he impossible as it would leave t he
sl"'ar butt roointing for ward . T o do it
from J is equally impossi ble ", " h a long
spear. It would be necessary to raise the
spear abo-.'e t IM. right shoulder and then
reverse the grip. These moeemems in
phalanx would considerable
trai ni ng. .... professional sol dier could
always tell a !>adl) t rained army by' t hc
untidy way they pcrfot med thi s dri lL
Training started by leaching t he new
cruus 10 march in single file following
t he leader. A Spanan youngst er stan ing
his b\lsic lrai ning would ha'e alread y
been inured 10 the Spanan tradition and
"" oold only tt:a'e needed 10 be knocked
mrc ohare ....ll orders were grven by
wurd and then executed on a t rumpet
sound . Xcnophon gin .,; a colourful de-
"cription of a Irying to train
new re",ruits, obvio",l... not Spartans,
to ma rch in single file. l Ie lined t hem "p
behind t he loch<1KOSand l hen ga, ., them
t h .. ordn 10 ad,a...."", al which..... ithout
....al1lng for 11M. trumpet.lhe man behind
11M. foclr.Jg,x $teppcd for ward and over-
loolt him. "'ith commendable palience.
l he explained to Ihe ra.... re-
cruit Ihat 1M. meanl all of thc:m and nOI
just him. He ordered t he yout h ba<:k
into line and gave rhe order a!/:ain, This
time they all overt ook Ihe
Having trained t he recruits to march
in line the y were t hen taught 00.... 10de
ploy into ra nh of various lengl h. The
of. sal, 36 men i' drawn up in
!inllk file. are numbered olf ; l he
first man (momol olr ch) commanded the
.... hole tile, Ihe Ihin eenth commanded
numbers 14 10 Z4, and the I......nt)ti flh
man commanded numbers 26 1o J6. On
Ihe order to form up Ihr cc abrel " . num-
be rs 1 10 ' z would " and fast and num-
hen IJ and 25 would br ing up their
squads on the left - hand side to form a
<: ol umn three abrea'l and IZ deep. On a
second order t he rear half of each squad
"'",uld move up ak>ng-sidc its front hal f
10 form a block six "" ide and s, x deep.
The: files <:oUld be d,."....n up e;lher in
opcn order ....ith t....o Pl'CCl bel ....een files
or c100e order wnb one pace between.
Since t here arc no mar kers. this drill i5
only practical if the leader of each ,quad
.... heels his unil to the left and paces OUI
t he d iSl anc"" he ilI need to be t rom the
fi rst file and then hed s to the ri ghl and
Je-.lds his men forwa rd umil he is le\el
....il h l he rnotft(Jlarch. Bnngmg up Ihe
rear half of c-och file is al..., lhe
....ay to formdose order from open order.
When dealing wilh a ....hole lochM of
four rnotftOlWl 11M. drill becomes con-
siderably more complex. T he di al/:ram
shows four eI1<mWliai already d rawn up
in n three ahrea" formin!/: up inw
a hlod 12 hy 12. If this was done in
open order t hen the rear half of tile
coul d be brought up 10 form a close-
order phalanx of six ranh each of
T o reform in column rIM. phalanx did
an ahout rum and t he: rear ranker
..-
A 1lOQI'" ( e 400 Bel """'" -"PO'" n-. ,,""lO
n_mo_ts .... h>'l>O'tlrhcai .",1
on POM' '''9oloo1y s!>o"M1 on Gr"", ........
1 At eue, hoeld rest,ng aga,nst n,s
ano ,oea' boH on groono, Some" """
:n" p<>$ "'on seM,d . , a o'gn 01 conwmo,
lac'r>g 'he_
2 Allent on. w,1l' h' o SOQ' ol"""G' ""'0 ohoeld
..-
l The _ .-roo tI1nllr>g pg$tloOn, '1_0 'n
It>... pCIOO' '''''' ltIal h. _"""'"" ,nlO bottle
T.. _.-m t"l<'-"""'9 _' loon
(uurtJ,rIJs) of the laOl sqlUd, .. hich would
no... be al Ihe nght end, led off and the
other units fol lowed in their correct
order.
Xenophon teUs Us how, in order 10
pTa<..'1itt t his, a '"nard! u....t to march
his recruit s to lho: II1C'SS in phalanx and
IIxn ha"e t ho:m lead off in single fil e
,,'ilh lhe nghl-hand /ocJwgIJ' leading.
\l;' ben lho:y had fi nisho:d lheir mea1lho:y
had 10 come OUI in reverse order "'-tlh
the left -hand ow' <JgOs leading and form
up again m phalanxfacing lho: rear. This
"as the formation for retreat.
Once the new recruits had completed
thei r bIlsie training they were ready to
take their places in Ihe ranks. Since the
Spart an ar my was called up by year
cla""", u.::h year'. re<:ruilS mu.l have
formed a separate unit. It is ur ahmkable
that they were called up by age and t hen
organised inm units , W' hen t he mobilis-
ation order Was given, complete unit s
musl have aSl\Cmbled ready for aCl i"n.
At the time of Xenophcn the arm,'
strength was about a.oco. Since t he
soldiers ..,r'ed for 40 )'ean t he tutn.:>\'e r
was about too a year , Allowi ng for
losses either in bail ie or from natu ral
ceuses. one mal' assume t hat about 50
veterans reached retirement each year
and that about 200 replacements were
needed. I n order 10 make room for t he
ne'" recruill one in taCh """<1

, ,
, .
could have bee n disbanded except for
ill offi cers, file leaders and ouraglJi and
lhe t So be-sl recruils drafted in to make
up lhe numbers. The rest of tho: recruits
would join lho: ca'all')' . The remai nder
of tM disbanded momOl UJ could be used
10 t he ot her up to
slrengt h. The f)C\\' t1I<>-s,i<1 wou ld serve
on l he Iefl side of the mora in t he least
honourable poo.ilion. Haying become
pal1 of the main anny lhe new recruits
could now take part in large-'<OIlc prac-
t ice ma noeuvres. They learned to use
Ihei r d rillm conj unction ...-it h the ocher
rheee Jod lOi of lhei r """".
Once agam, on a much larger ",--ale,
Ihe,' would learn 10 deploy from column
of march into phalanx. Marching ill
colu mn of t hrees the first I",hos would
come to a halt and each succeedi ng
lo.:ho. would wheel to t he left. A. t he
I",h"gos, who woul d be at the head of
t he r ighl fi le, crossed the line of th e left
fi le, he wou ld Sl art counting OUt the
pace. l hal would bri ng him 10 Ihe
rel"l pvsition 10 wheel 10 the righl a8ain
and draw up level wuh the fi rst IIXMs.
The deployment of Ihe indi\'idual l1wt
would he as lhey had learned in basic
training. To fonn up in ope n order t1.
ranks deep t he rear lodlOJ would have to
ccunr off70 paces to the lefl. The whole
...."." ",'nuld ha,'e a front of 48 men
Cln'e.i nl a dISt ance of 94 pa<.-es . They
T HE CI T Y STATES 800 360 ec
THE PHALA:,\;X
muot also learn to deploy ftom col umn
of march to face eit her left or right. The
exercise "" as basically Ihe .....me u cept
t hat each /oclws, including t he first ,
wO'I.lld simpl y ha"e 10 ...'heel to rhe left
or right , come to a hall and then
into phalanx.
also had 10 Ieam 10 performOUI-
flanking n" ",emeDls . These required
lurning the wings fo........d 10 engulf the
flanks of the enemy. These ltIO\'ements
are oflen memion<:d in ancient batl le.
bUI present a 1m of problems as it would
be impoo.si ble for a phalanx 10 ",heel .
Xenophon describes t he
maooeuvre in hi s fictional bailie of
T bymbrara. Here t he manoe uvre is car-
ried out on bot h ",jngs, t hough il was
usually only perfor med on one. The
army is drawn up in phalanx, On the
trumpet blast the two wings turn out-
wards into column and begin to marc h
away from t he main part of the army, At
a given di stance they wheel round a
marker and begin 10 ad\'ance toward'
the front in col umn. \,t'hen all the
column has wheeled on both wings the
whole arm,' begins to advance ""ith the
IwO wings like horns projecting in fronl .
'IX'hen the flanking columns dra... Ie\'e!
with the enemy line they tum i nwards
and charge. Such a manoeuvre could be
' "Cry dangerous if lheenemy anlicipaled
the movement .
,
1 A Sll....., of 36 """" ,n ""11
t... tonn"ll up _ ab' ....t and,,,-
"""-
2 A!Od>f;1S if"", omomol''';) ara_ up ""oo
m&" Ibreast mo"'''11 lo.......a' do 10 10""
pl\ata", ......"''''' w i<H!

............j .




. .. 1

...--------------------------------..1 .
.



,
OJ
GREECE Ar-:n .\1ACEDOSIA
.-
Oel>iovorq """. 1r(lO'l'l <::oI<I""' n 01 11>_ ,n,e
I 2 [.,;tI /ochos _ 10 "..
!ell """ P<lC'l' 011 "... 'luofe<l CoSt.""" e..tore
w_,..... 10 ' he lod lid.."",.... level w,l11
I.", Jochos The IncmOl''''' de plov In the
lime ",anner" , hOwo 00 tire p,eviou. P<l Q<!
111111 1111111 11111111111
1 1] 1 I 1] 1
III II
L-------'.: III III
ervocece or huts theycamped.
T he tpltors also regulaled the number
of ....sgons and rack animal. thai ...-ere
needed for lbe bagpge t rai n, .... hich had
i" own commandlOg offictt . Each
wagon carried a ,ho"el and a matlock.
and each baggage animal an u e and a
sickle. The tool! were for the U! otrhe
pioneers who were made up of reie<.g
frum the lillht infantry. Thei r ioh ""as to
dear t he way for wagons. Amongst
t he equipmenl taken with l he army
were medical su ppl ies, spare harness
st ra p for the men ' , equipment, til" for
. harpening ... eapons., for
lnmming . pear .haf" and spare wood
for making running repairs 10 {he
",'agon s plu. the neo:S5a'1' CIIrf'Cnler's
III
III
III
III
III
III
III

1III1 I1111 11
I 1]1
III
II I
a
t I
On the mar ch
Before me Spartan army set out t he
kin!! offered s"'critic'e at home, If l he
omens were a fire bearer t<;>ok
t he tire from t he all ar and carried it
ahead of l he ar m, umillhey reached lhe
border, ot Lacoma. Here lhe king .a.:ri-
ficed again and. if t be omens were "ill
fa"ourable, look lhe fire from Ihis allar
and led the annyon. This fire ....-as never
1001,. T be orficers were he ld respon,U ti
for l hei r men's equipme nt .
Amonpl l he craftsmen "" 00 accom-
panied (he e:<pedilion were smil hs ,
carpenrers and leather ....o rkas 0( mili-
IUy age. non-eomhatanlS,
l he}' were a regular part of the army.
, ,
T he Phalanx in the Field
Mobili sation
When the army mobilised t he rp!rors an-
nounced the year cla"es thaI were 10 be
up, engineers and craftsmen as
well as soldier. Everyl hing wa' regu-
lated; if t he}' were going on a campaign
rhar ....3$ expeclw 10 13$t more t han I S
dars, each soldier had to t ake ...-il h him
i uppl ies for 20 day. II was forbidden to
buy anything from outside l radas be-
fore this time won up. Each Span an was
accompanied by a !r"W/ ...-ho Qlrried his
bal(gage. A hoplite' . rations "'-o uld in-
cl ude food for hi. !reler. The dIet
was barley groa ls, of which he would
need aixJul II I,l:allons to la, t t he t ...-o of
t hem 20 day s. This was supplemenled
by cheat:, onions and sailed meal.
',Xhen staning OUI on campaign hop-
iii" wer e allwA'ed to u ke a . mall amounl
of wine "'"ilh l hem. Thi. ",-a.loaccustom
lhe stomach grad uall}' 10 t be change-
O\"CT from wine 10 ...'ater so l hat t hey
...oul d not become: ill. Rations were car-
r ied in a havenack whi ch pl"O\'erbiall y
stank of oni ons.
Spart an fond was frugal_ and not just
on campaign; il was t he surne i n the
mesSt:. at Sparu, Everybody ale t he
same food. Therewere Il<I special rations
for officers, no!: even t he king. ""hen an
ally on<.-e prepared a feast for the Spar-
Ian army. t he king ordered all i be dai n-
lies 10 be to t he 1uW1J.
',Xhen Xenophon "'-3$ . er\"lng on
CyTus the Younger'sabcruve campaign
in Asia, the (iro:ek mercenari" were un-
able to afford to pay t he inflal ed prices
being charge d f"r I,l:rain and had to live
on a mea l dict which, alt houll h enjoyed
in small quant il ies, could be no vubsti-
tute for their normal grain IOl ake. T his
t hro...-s an imerest mg i ideli ghl on the
Roman general Corbulo woo ....a. com-
pelled 10 do t be same Ihing. and .... hich
ha.< led ""me commentators to 'Iate
erroneou51y t hai Roman .oldiers did
nee normally cal meal. Rarl ey was car-
t ied alr eady ground so t hat hand mills
wl>uld not he needed on t he march.
These were acquired when rhe army
reached a place where t hey could for age
1>' buy food.
The ""ldier also had 10 carry his bed-
ding, .... hich ...as kept to a mmimum and
somenmes ' trapped 10 hihield, and
of ck>l hing. The soldias did DOl
CI."1' lent. hUI improvised. buildi ng
T HE CIT Y STATES 800-360 Be
THE PHALA;\iX (]';' THE HELD
Below
Two hopl, t"" amJ a n a rcher pre p."ng lo go on
compo gn. One hopllte ,s puttin g hi" Arg l>"
, hleld ontO it' leat her COWL The , eene comes
ir om " 5th-ce ntu ry "'. ," fo und at the Gree k
colony of Paeslum >0 sout hern Italy Paestum
Museum
Be low
A va,e pa ,n1 ing show, ng a do nkey wi1l1 a
wood_ lramOd pac, From Atnen" c .475 Be
M"s.um of F, ne Arls, Boston
l eft
Bronl e lig"" n" of a pacl P<l n,e rs
""' ''' proba bly made 0 1 wie ' . ' O"gln unknown
B"Mh Muse"m
quenched. All t he victims (hat
were likely (0 be needed on t h nrn-
paign were l akn with t he 3rmy.
On (he march the Spartan 3rmy wa,
led by (he cavalry and thc , ciriwc wh o
fanned out in a screen of t ne
col umn. T he ' C"iI UCwere hardy moun-
t3incers fro m the nor thcrn fronti er of
T hey light armed
and for scouting anJ outpost
duties. Of Xcnophon i"
d,cr ibing the of his own day ;
at t he time of PnS13n war s the
G reeks did not have ca\'alry
and t hi. d ut y would have per -
formed "olely hy t he >eiriuu . Behind t h,'
Above
A ho pllt. (c. 500 Bel we. ring a
Co" ntn ian hoimet, wh>ch ho pulls W
UNO' his face oofore goi ng , n\o batt le. I,nen
c""a,; and "nee greaves Ho is
with a lo ng ,pear and a ,word woulO
only no rmally be u, od if , ,, e spea, i.
In 'M ri g idly reg ulate<! Spar"," m<l,ta ry slate ,II
men lhe "90s af 20 and 60 were
>oldio'S Allhough lhel' we re a rmeg in the same
way a, ot her Glooh Spanan M pl,te, WOre a
,carlel cloa k which be<;a mo 1he very
svmoot of Soa r1an miliw"m
GREECE AND MACEDONIA
Above
An "'my odva nc.ng through a vnder
no, mal cond,tion,. The baggage 1<a in IS In tne
Centre and ' he pharan, in column On oithe'
"do. At the bottom the column IS dep loying
, ntOpha lan, In ' oad."e" to meel a flank
' ltt ack
cavalry screen came the baggage tram
followed by t he infa ntry, who hu rried
on any stragglers from the baggage
tram.
The army only ma rched a short dis -
tance the first day so that if anything had
been forgotten it could be retrieved.
'\-brching ordcrs were given by horn
and not t rumpet. T hese orders were
ba, icalJy str ike camp, move oft" and rest.
Howe' er , t he order to get up in the
morning was give n on the trumpet. If
the army had to pas, t hrough a defile the
illfant ry d ivided into two columns and
marched on either side of the baggage
train to protect it fro m attack , As far a,
possible each mora accompanied il3 own
baggage ' 0 t hat t he soldiers would work
willingly to clear t he way an d would
have everything with t hem when the
time came to halt . If the column wa,
atta"ked when pa"i ng t hrough the de-
file, each lochos would wheel to face t he
threat If t he ground was broken they
could cont inue to in t hat for-
mati on with gaps between the lach", or ,
in open country, t hey could deploy into
phalanx.
W' hen Cyr us the Younger's expedi-
ti on into Asia came to a ,udden end,
Xenophon and t he 10,000 Greek mer-
cena rie' serving wit h him had to make a
tactical retreat . T his withdrawal, t ,300
km up the T igris and over t he moun-
tains of Ar menia to t he Black Sea, is " lie
of the great military adventures, II was
described by Xenophon in detail in his
A>labasis,
I n order to protect themselves on all
sides thcy formed up in an open 'quare.
This format ion is oftell mentioned in
t he anc ient sources . Nlcias used it dur-
injl his fateful ret reat from Syracuse, but
only Xenophon has taken the t rouble to
describe it.
The army is divided into four parts :
two div isions marching in col umn form
the flanks and the other two parts
marching in phala nx form t he front and
rear of t he square, All t he light armed,
t he baggage and non-combatants are in
the centre ,
Each iodw, is d rawn up so that it can
march either ill file whe re the road is
narrow or severa l abreast in open coun-
t ry. T his shows the praclical use of drill.
This exerci,e allowed whole lochoi to
fall back when necessary so that t he
'Quare could contract or c"pand.
..,

.' .

;.
.. .
' ,. ....
..
" .

Be low
An .''''1' ma' ch<ng ,n defen. i squore
fo,,,, .t,on. The fre"t . nd r.or of tM ,quare
march In phal8m and thIJ in column The
,ndlv,dual /ocho; march eigh' abr east
baggage and non combala n" are place" in
tM centre
Below
When ad "anc,ng t hroug h a dohl. ,he lochoi
reduce their w,dt h '0 four. two Qr e""n . ingle
file ac cord ing to t he oa"owness 01 th<1 ,oad '0
that tnev can ,etain tneir forma1l<>n
,

On erh.'OUnlermg lhe enemy, the army

"'-ould puch camp_ The G .......1<s "ere
as c"mows as tho: Romano of the
,'alue of a fortifi ed camp. Xenop oon
g attslhatlhe Spartan camp ",'as round.
this one musl assume that the unilS
oft he army fo rmed a ci rcular peri meier
and that t he baggage [rJl in anJ non-
combaunts were In t he middle. It i.
quite clear Ihal il ", as not foruficd c"en
with a d itch. Oflen t he camp was
adapt ed to the lopography and t here-
r" re Xenophon's statement should not
be taken too literally. l>ur in\l: the da)'
cavalry uut pos, s were set up on ,-,,-un
manding hills, At mghl Ihese outpost s
,,'ere taken o, 'er by t he uiri l"". doubt
before Ihe int roduction of ca.-alry
performed t his duty in the davume 100,
Thc reason t hat ca" alr)' are used is be-
caU,"" 1M,' Can bring informalMm more
quid t.ly. Ol her ""0111' posts were also "'I
up at nighl command ing rhe approaches
to lhe camp,
The only detailed aeL'OUnt l hal ""c
"",'Cof a n on the mar"h is Xcno-
phon'. rel reat of the 10.000. In Ihis
account , in which the ar my is basicall y'
Spart an, in spil e of Ihe consr am t hreat
of an enemy altack, no arternpt waS
made to fort ify a camp, T he)' relied on
somes to keep the enemy al hay. h was
01'111.' when a long-ter m occu pat ion was
'ntended Ihal a di tch and palisade were
c<>n' lru'-'1ed.
II i. amusing 10 note Ihat Ihe Spar-
lans feared a sla"e re"olt so much Ihal il
" 'as considere d more imporl ant 10
guald t he armS Ihan t he I"' rimeter of
the camp.
T he camp had nO sanila!1' arrange-
menls and il ,,' as ms isted onl}' l hal
relieve Ihemselves at a suffK:iem
distance SO "" not 10 o!fend l heir com-
rades , Ea.:h mora encamped a unil
with sl ri<..'1 boundanes. Before breal:fasl
aod supper each day there ",as a com-
pulso t y session, Soldtees were
forbidden to take their exercise be)'ond
lhe boundaries of Iheir ",,,t.. .
T he tent was prohahly sel up
in the cent re of the camp or "n some
commanding eminence. Around it were
grouped h,s slaII officers and those who
were n.,.;essary for hi m 10 perfor m his
military dut ies. T hey were known as
'those aboul t he lent ' . They md uded
the poImw' chs, d iviners, doctors , and
three Spaniales "'ho:;.c job il was 10 wail
upon Ihe T he king' s bodyguard,
lhe musl also have bttn bi l.
Ieled fairly elose (Q hi m, T he.c were
also 1\.-0 pJl llni who could be sent to
Delphi 10 consult t he oracle Inc:t<: , lhe
lIute players who were required " 'hen
the king sa.::ri ticed, and rhe heralds
whose iob was 10 com''')' the gene l"llls'
orders d own the chain of command
when co ntact could 1'101 be pe nonal , for
example aft er haltle had been joincJ .
They were also used to convey rnes-
sages h<:tween warring st ale, . As battles
were oflen fought like duels , heralds
would somet imes he ,ent 10 arraoge the
ti me and fur a batt le,
Each morning the king offered sacri-
fice in Ihe presence of t he poleml1rdu,
Ihe l""hugOt , Ihe t he com-
mandcrs of foreign cont ingents and t he
officers of rhe baggage Irain, AfteI this
he ga,'e his orders for t he day,
bante " cas immment lhe hophtes pol-
" bed their shields, prep.arcd tnc:ir
,,' ,,"arons and combed lheir long hair ,
which HerooJotu. sa)'S the SpanallS
always di d whe n Ihey were going to put
their lices at risk.
The battl e
T he following morning t he king and all
the Spartiatcs pla"'ed garlands "n thei r
heads and the kin!!: sacr ifi ,, -ed a nanny-
goal in sight "f lhe encmy whilst all lhc
f1autl " s played . T he di" mcrs, without
"'hom no Greek general would go 10
war , read t he omens and ad"i se
the kiog whet her he should aHad , or
not . Xo pioU>- general would d ream of
fighting ifl he omens were u nfavourable.
AI Plal;>ea the Spanan general Paus-
anias refu-cd 10 tight c"en [hough l he
PersiaO$ were attacking hi s men, anJ
Xenophon freely admits thai he would
not even move his men "" bile t he ome ns
""ere unfacoura ble, e, 'en though lhey
were faci ng srarvanon. Of counoe oflen
lhe omen. were fals ified 10 suit the
wishes of t he gencral. If he then at -
tacked and ,, 'on, t he diviners would have
10 say the umens were favou rable , if he
IOSI, t hen of c" urse his impiety had
down t he vengea nce of the gods.
If the "mens declared \U be
favourable, the SpaIlLates would lake
breakfast wu h the garlaods sl ill on t heir
heads and Ihen lake up I heir plaL'es in
t he phalanx, sti ll garl anded,
""hat"" er " rders Ihere we' e for t he
T H E C I T Y ST ATES nc
" ' HE PHALA:"\ X I N THE FIELD
bailie wo uld ha"c been decided in Ihe
war by t he king and l he
MareN . At t he time of t he Persian wars
t his counci l probably included the fj"e
ItXJwgoo, which is himed al action
of the ItXhugos Amompharel us who re-
fused 10 obey the order to retreat al the
hatlle of Plataca. li is argument with
Pausanias impli es that he ,,'as nol COn-
sulted and Ihat he sh" uld have been,
T he kin!!: would gi ve rhc final orders
10 t he pale"'''''hl and t hey would pass
Ihem on 10 their !odwX"i, T he IlXh" f("j
woul d in turn pa" them on 10 , heir
pc71l eko"ur" and through Ihem to t he
e'''''''oll1 '<hs, and Ihey ",ould pass t hem
on to the men in their liles.
Each soldier would receive t he mes-
...ge and pass it on to prople whom he
kne"" personally. \li'hen the orders had
been gi ven l he officers would lake up
t hei r posit ions in t he from rank of t he
phalanx, each at the head of the right -
hand tile of his ""'1'1 unit , and ,,-ail for
lhe order 10 advance, ", hich would be
gi ' 'en on t he trumpet,
T he king passed the watchword down
l he ranks, each sold'er repealing il .
When it reached Ihe enJ of the line, It
was passed back along the ranks to !he
king, The king t hen ra ised t he custom-
aty paean, a 'Ur( of 'Land "f Hope and
Glory' aimed al ra i,i nil the spiri ts of Ihe
hophtes ; it .... known as Caslor 's song,
The trumpets !'<, undcd , the flutes struck
up the tu ne, t he h<'plites levelled theit
spears and t he army began 10
keecping step 10 the flutes and joini ng
t hei r , <.>i ces 10 Ihe king' s as he sung Il'"
paean. As they approached the enemy
IM,- Slopped singing and lhe officers
calledOUl lOthe fronl and second ranks,
shouti ng 'Come on friends, br ave men' ,
encouragi ng Ihem 10fol lowIherr leaders
in to banI., . "Iltose in the rear ranb re-
. ponded to rheir officers, encouraging
Ihem to lead on boldl y.
As t hey closed ,,'il h Ihe enemy the
trumpet sounded again and the hoplileS
raised t heir spears 10 t he all ack posirion
all'we Ihell l ighl shoulders. T he phal-
anx ,,'oul d oow usually hreak into a run
and a!!:ain t he comm.mder woul d call
down Ihe ranks : ' \'(' ho ....ill follow' Who
is a brave man' Who will he Ihe first to
st rike do.... n his man ?' T he sol diers
hearing Ihis repealed il like lhe walch-
wo rd as t hey d osed " ' uh t he enemy:
' Who "'ill folio",' ? is a bra" e man ;"
GREECE AND MACEDONIA
Then the t wo phalanxes met wilh a
gT<:at a<; shid d hi t shield. T he rear
ranh crm...Jed fOlWard, each pressing
agai..... 1 rbe man in front and su il<ing at
t he enan,' over his shoulder,
wu h his ",'cighl , 10 push the whole
ellC'my phalanx ulf halal'llX. And ailihe
while t he rear ranl<en urged lhem on.
U' hen a man fell his pi""", was tah n
the neXI in file, and so the" st ruggled on
umil lhc enemy broke.
T hIs descrlpllon is <In ''' n from ac-
counts of hallks, ...,me Teal and some
imaginar y. It is of ooursem'er-simplified
-this describes a hank. As
uflen a. not the ci rcu mstances of t he
hauk were unpledlct able, as at Plataea
where t he Sparlan. weTe attacked befor e
t hey had re....eived favourable omen.
T hai t he and subsequent ranh ,
and nol iU. l l he front rank, joined in the
fi!/:hlinll is c...'nl irrn" d by the remar k of
Cyr us al Xe llophon' s baltic
of Thyrnbrara about Ihe phalanx heing
10 0 deep for t he men 10 reach t h e enemy
with Ihei r weapons,
As long u the p halanx retamed ir.
order casualties would be few. but if it
broke and lhe hoplites turned and Ik d .
Ihrowing away t hei r shields. then t he
slaughler S1an<:<.l , Usually the Spanans
did nol pursue a dduted When
the king decided t hat " icrory had been
w-un, he gave the oecer and Ihe trum-
pelen sounded the withdrawal. T hey
would l hen collect their dead. The los
ing side would bave to send a herald to
negotiale a truce in order 10 recc.... a their
dead ; t his became the fonnal admission
of ddeal .
After l he victor y a lrophy' made up of
caplured arms and armour displayed in
the fmm of a man on a tree trunk mighl
be set up. After many a pcrrna-
ncnt victor y mon ument was set up.
Cert ain choice piece. of aTmoill were
inscn bed and dedicated in the shrines al
Olympia or Dcl phi . By Alexander' ,
ti me, captured shiel d, became Ih. ccs-
lornary dedi cation.

Greece wa' a poor country and from the
car he.1 times hopliles offer ed their '''1-
for pay, The earl iest accounts of
G reek soldiers .er\'ing as mercenari es
comes "rom E!/:ypt in t he 7th-6l h cen-
turies. They are round also servmg as
bodyguards to the earl y' Greel< tyTanl'
dunn!/: the same )Xriod. With the n"" of
I' en l. ma ny' Grech found scr\' ic<: .,.-'il h
Persian go'.eroon, first as bodyguards
and Ialer as shock troops.
The employme nt of hired soldien
withm Gree only really bo.gan dun ng
fhe:: war Spana and Athens.
Durin!/: Ihis confl ict boIh sides em-
ploy<"d mercenaries.
Af the end of Ihis long war , many'
wldien ",110 had l<nmm noorher life but
wldiering offered their see-sees for hire.
XetK>poon "'-'as one of t he tO,OOO such
men ,,'110 accompanied Cyrus t he
Younger ;n his all empt to USUTp the
Per sian throne. T he hi ri ng or merce nary
t roops both inside and outside ofGreece
hceame common d uring this pCTiod,
\XI hen Alexander inw ded Pe,,;;a he
was opposed at all Ihret or his great
balt les by G reek mercena ry infamry,
Auxili a r y rroop s
The phalanx , which was originall y seen
as the ult imate and only weapon, gradu-
ally hega n 10 leveal its weaknesses , It
was in finitely su)Xriv! t o whar had gone
before it, and for rhi. reason it was
adopled by all the Greek s tates. Ho,,'
ever , il could not be used ove r rough
ground or for hill fighling and was use-
less aglln'l ea" alry OT light_armed ski r-
misbers using gueri lla tactics. Al hens
hegan employing Scythian and CIe1an
archers in rhe 6r h cCt!lury, but it ,,'a.
onl)' t he imp'KI of lhe Penian "'-'ars that
tile Greel< Slares to
scr;'lU!<ly the use oflight-armed !loops.
Their response was half-beaned and.
I IIhough HerodolUs claims l har there
,,'ere lS.ooo Iight-..-med Mk>t j and
ahout the same number of ot her light-
arm<:<.l troops incl uding archers at Pia
taea. lhey had little or 110 on the
Persian ca,-alry who seemed 10 be ahl e
to Op<"rale at will , ch;rrging Ihe phalanx
and CUll ing the G reel< supply lines.
It see m. incred ihle lhat in no battle
of the Persian war is there memion of
e,'en a single Gre...k horse man. The
Greeks can hu dl y have been unaware
of' the effect t hat the Pers ian cavalry
mUSI have on t hem, Perhaps they were
r clyinlt on T hessall' and Boeotia to pro-
vide conl ingents of hm.emen 10 keep
the Persian cavalry husy. When these
areas fell 10 the Per sians t he southern
sl ales d id not try 10 compensate fOT thi .
When they won 10spite of it. t hey' prob-
ably U-lO\'inced themselves tha.llhey did
nol need ca\"Blr,. ea" alry and lighl in-
fanny only really Clme into use in tm
Pdoponnesian war in t he sec<.lnd half of
l he Slh crnrury. Illis ca\"Blry was light
armed and was neH:r used 10 shocl<
ac1ion Xenophon. 10 his J:w;x. k on the
an of horsemanship, ad"'>ealC'J t he usee
..I' iavelins by rhe cavalry rarhe. lhan t be
tradil ional ' I""'T.
T he light _armed soldier pa. u .u/fmu
was the p<"ltaSl. He ,,' a5 named afl his
wicker shield (ptItQ); accOTding to ....n . -
tolk it was rimless and C(wered ","-;t h
,,,,at or sheep skin. ArislOIIe ",ems to
imply that i t was TOund . but in art it is
cresce nt .haped. It appears in S<;yt hian
art and is clear ly the prime" al shield of
easlern cent ral Europe, The pdt" is
hdnll carried by t he figure. on the late
Ml' Cl'naean '\l:'arrior Vase. The pdl" i,
s<>mel imes shown with a sin!/:le
Ilrip and sOnlet imes with the double
h" plite Iyp" gTip; this laller i. pmbably
an istic licence. Such a grip would be a
p"sil;ve disadvantage to a skirmisher
","'h" had no neighbour to Pl'Ole<:l . The
pd/<J al<.. had a strap for carr ying. Xeno-
pho n gi ves a very amusing dcscnpnon
nf peltas," cl imbing over fe nces with
t heir .hiel ds on l beir backs gelllOg
caughl up on the pali ng and hanging by
t heir shIeld straps. The peltasl WaS of
T hraci an origi n and " 'ore l he trad ilional
COSIUm<: or his count ry_patl erned
doak., highboouand Phrygian cap. This
Wa S a fox-oki n cap wit h ear ftaps. He
'"-or-.: no armour and rel ied on his speed
10 gel hi m out of Imuble. Hi. ' .. .." ap<.>n
was the )a,'el in. Hi. tacl ic was to run in.
Ihm'" the ia,,,,lin5 and then run a"'ar
allain bef" , e the enemy could com e to
!/:ri ps Wllh him. The Spartans tried 10
deal " 'ith pcl t asts by oTden ng t heir
youngest age groups t o give chase.
For longer-range warfare archers and
51inllers were employed, Archers ",ere
mainly Scythians and Cretans , 1J.,t h
used comp"site bows made of wond.
horn , hone and sinew. The construe-
li"n of t his type of how IS shown on
p. SO. T he Cretan bow was 'l'gr)1.ent
"ha l'cd and t he Sq lhian dnuhly co"vex.
S,:ythi,1ll hows had a range of some whal
over Isom.
Shnger< were much used from the Sth
cent ury onwards . The men of Rhodes
We re the Mt ; t hey could easi ly OUI_
range the bow. TheiT maximum ra nee
a
was probably in excess of 350m. Sli ng
, n.0I could citn.er be of stone, clay or
lead - rn.e last was probably the most
effective. T housands of lead sling shot
have been found, includi ng tn.e moulds
In which they were cas t. L ead shot
generally vary in weight between 20 and
50g, though rn. ere are isolated examples
both ahove and below these weights,
The maximum weight in use in the Near
Easr was 18Sg. If D iodorus is to be be-
li.-'ed, the famous slingers used
weighing one m",,, (c. ascc. As
Korfmann pointed out in his article on
the sling, such a stone would be about
6.3cmin di ameter -onlyslightlysmaller
than a tennis ball, The lead shot, whi ch
arc pl um shaped, could cause terrible
wounds, Xenophon describes how t hey
elller the body and the flesh closes over
them.
Light-armed forces had always been
treated as infer ior troops used only for
T heir main purpose was to
protect the all-important phalanx from
enemy cavalry and skirmi shers, T hey
muaJly fought on the wings, hut some-
light infantr y fought from behind
me phalanx . From the latter position
[hey threw m;ss iles over the heads of the
hoplites. T his was only really effective
on sloping ground from which t hey
could see the enemy, In the fict ional
baltle of Thymbrara, Cy rus lined up his
peham behind t he phalanx and t he
archers behind t hem. He t hen drew up
his ""rago' behind tbem all to keep t hem
in order. T hese lighr-armed specialis t
troops were ma inly imported mercen-
ar ies. States normally produced their
own cavalry though t his was often sup-
plemented by employing Thessahans ,
Sparta [rained helots as light -armed
troops and Athens tried to form peltasr
units from her poorer classes. Mer-
cemary skir mishers were generally re-
nowned for their unruly behaviour , but
when given tbe ri ght discipli ne and
tr aining could produce remarkable re-
sults.
In 390 ec a young i\theni an general,
Iphicrates, with a highly trai ned and
disciplined gmup of Thracian pcltasts,
defeat ed a Spartan "'<>ra, killing nearl y
half their number This feat completel y
changed lhe Greek attitude to peltasts
and ensured Iphicratcs a place in mili-
tary In 349 At hens even sent an
army against Fhi lip of ll--iacedon that
('
-
-
I VI
was composed entirely nf pe ltasts ac-
companied by a small body of cavalry.
The Theban rectt c
Xenophon died about 354 ec, It is a
tragedy for the srudy of tbe deveJop-
menr of Greek warfare that he nevcr
thought it worthwhile 10 describe The-
ban lactics, nor the changes that took
place under Eparninondas. He tries to
T HE CITY STAT ES 800-360 Be
THE PHALANX I N THE FIELD
Above
1 r hr" ,.n. , nown on Gree k vase, PIl lt !
(left ) ",meO wl1 h IVVo i. volin< and (right ) an
Amazon d ress ed as . PIl l'ast Wit h two jaW'lin,
a nd a pella
2_4 Va rious types 01 ' Phryg ian' cap ;Mwn in
G'ek art NO. 2. wh,ch co m.s fro m the temple
Qt Apha i. on Ae9,na. sh ow, the ear tla ps t iea
bac" beh,nd the he.a
5 A teea sl, ng sho' with tM inSCf<pllDn " ' 0
That
6 A reconw uet ion of a Th' aClan pel ta't
GREECE AND
\ J
s
1 Gree k Vi ew of . . 'Ch"r f,om. plare
in tho B, il iSh M",eum,
2 A vase pain rong f' om Bologna ' how;ng
noplit" oow
3 and 4 A Cretan oow ano . " ow trQm a Greek
vase in the Louvre
!i A of. Scyth l.n . rcher
6 The , ;<N; of one of their . ' chers
from . gold CUD found " Kul Oba in the Crim""
The of. Sc,t hi.n bow was. V"' y
comple,
t
1 A small \lOld rood" 101. bow . nd a"o"," C"'"
(goryf",) 1<om " Seyt hi. n \l'"""
8-11 V.,iou, types of arrow heads found in
G"*,ce Scale 1:2. 8 ri",h M",e"m No II is
SCvlhian . nd no. 11 C'eten
show wh y the Spartans lost the batt le of
Lcuct ra but never explain- why the
T hcbans won. I t cannot be doubted
rhat t he T heha ns had a great influence
on t he development of Maccdcnian war -
fare, but , because oflhe lack of evi dence,
it '" impossible to say exact ly what. We
can only relate wh at is known and t ry to
draw a few conclusions,
T he main factor on which all the
ancient sources are agreed is that the
Thebans tradit ionally d rew up their
phalanx with greater depth t han the
other G reeks. At Oeli um, for example,
in 424 Be t he Athenians were drawn up
in eight ranks, but the Thcbans WCtC 25
deep. At t he baltic of Leuctr a where
they defeated t he Sparrans, t hey were
50 dee p. T hi, 25150 formation was aI-
mosr cert ainly simply using t he ""omo-
lIa, or pmtekoslyes in single file.
T he T hcban army had an elite corps
of 300 picked warriors called the Sacred
Hand. T hey are first mentioned by name
at Detiurn in 424 BC but may be ident i-
fied wit h the 300 first and best of t he
T hcba" s who died at PJataea. T he
Sacr ed Band appear to ha"e or iginated
in t he heroic age. They were supposedl y
made up of 1 So charioteers and t heir
d rivcrs. In cl assical times t hey fought
as h"plites. T hey were prohabl y organ-
ised imo I 2 e"">nfIriai , each of 25 men as
t heir number suggests. They were as
dedicated as the Spartans and a match
for them,
I n 3l!2 FlC the Spartans had treacher-
ousl y seized the Cadmcia, the ci t adel of
Thebes, and put a gar rison into it , T his
act brought about t he dm" nfall of
Spana, fr generated a surge of pat riotic
spirit at T hebes . In 379 t he Spattan
garrison was thrown out and Sparta
entered her last great war.
In the next few yean t he Theban
army, main ly under the influence of
Epaminondas, was convcrted into a
first -class, disciplined fighri ng machi ne.
Epaminondas must be included amongst
tbe grear ta,:tic ians. For four ccnturie,
t he phalanx had deminatcd Greek tac-
tics. All innovations had aimed at pro-
t ect ing the phalanx so t har the batt le
could he decided in t he cent re . As long
as rhis stare of affairs existcd Sparta
must Will. Epaminonda, perceived a
pei m t hat see med to have escaped all
other t act icians : the Spartan army, in
common wit h t he ot her Gr eck armies,
so
aJ"lIys had ils crack troops 00 the rill:hI
and from Ihls point th.. of t he: army
dr..... il. encoufllg,"",,"ot_ .-\s a 0.-
llus , the: strong righl " 'ing al"'a}.,; op-
posed t he weak left so lhal , duri ng l he:
bail Ie, In.. phalanxes ten<kd to rotat e in
an amid O<.- 1<"" se dire...-rion. Tlli. was
fUl1hel aggravated by individual hop-
Ii leS Ixing inclined 10 dose up on the:ir
righI- hand neighbour in un ler to gel
more proleCl ion fro m hi. shield, with
the resuh Ihal t he ri ght wing oflen ovel-
lapped lhe enemy's left , This happened
at lhe halt le of .\ taminca.
Epaminondas believed thai ifhe
knock OUI 'he crack Spartan l mol'S on
lhe righl ....ing, t he res, of Ihe J....ac"da..-
monian army would coIla!"C. I n order
10 achie' ,e Ihi. he planned 10 reverse his
baltle order . placi ng hi. own ......ahsl
lrOOPSOIIlhe right opposite lhe Spanan
kft. lining up the phalanx in hd_.
"'th In.. ....e2kest troops he:ld bad: ,
wtolSl at In.. same lime massing his besl
troop$ 011 tbe left supported t he
SIrongest cn al ry and lhe Sacred Rand,
[n)71 Be. at Leuctra , Ep;lminondas
pUI his ne.... lactic to Ihe lU I. The: mas-
si.-ell reinforced lefl ....ing nashed
through 'he Spartans, annihilating the
h'ppt i, and killing Ihe king. A. exr . " t ed
the re. 1of Ihe army collap. ed like domi-
n"". The lactic was repeated al !I.hn-
ti nea in 362:' unfonunatel y for Thehe.
Epamil'Klllda. was killed in lhe hall ie
and ...ilh him fell the chan<-"C'S of T he: han
supn:ffiaC).
Of Theban armour and ....capons " e
know nothing fot amai n. Hearing in
mllld Xeoophon' s commenlS on t he
d.-plh of lhe phalanx it i$ hard 10 con-
et"'e what ad"anlage the Thebans could
gam using 'he con,'entionaJ hoplile
"""[1011' . J ....ould t herefore lenlat ivdy
suggnl t hat rbe Tbebam used a IWO-
handed pike ",'hich "' ould make it ..""ier
for the Irc:mendous ......ighl of the
lion 10 be used. This l..-ouJd make much
more sense of the rarer .'\ Iacedonian
phalanx, as u is hat d 10 helieve that the
pike ot iginmed wilh lhe undi ....iplined
Maccdonian infa ntry rhal existed before
the lime of Philip II.
T hel e is another poim that oughl tn
be memloned: lhe so-called Boeol ian
shield. T his is a sort of cross helwe.:n a
Dipl.lon and an Argi ve shield. It is
sht:r.o.'n on .-a... paint ings as an Argi....
shield ...i lh 1\0, 0 ...mi-Orcu1ar slota cut
oul of lhe rim on ..il he r side neXI to Ihe
bandgri p. This shidd hn been , ..nerall)'
by ...,hul ars and dismissed as
an am"i<: coevemion for a he:roic shield.
BUI is Ihis . 'ie", reall)' just ined? A few
)'ears ago, ,,'lxn expenmeming ....it h
. hid d t)pes Irying to find oUl hmo' a
pikeman ....ould ha... to hold his shield,
I tried to wield a pi ke whilst holding an
Argive shid d, Ikcause of the broad
wedge-shaped l im and lhe angk of
toughl y ocl ween the shie ld and t he
pike, it was imro"ib1e 10 grip the pike
with the left hand . T his could only he
achieved by cutung a nUlch out of l he
shield rim, which i. execnv what is
shown in the paintings. or" Bo..or.ian
shields.
Ar mou r a n d weapons
T he ..hidd
T ....o rtl;l;n of shield were in use in
Greece during lhe ..a dy part: of the: Slh
ccnnrry: an oval t ype ...-it h a scal lop CUI
OUI from either si de, which is general!)'
known as t he Dipylon type afler a.:eme-
lerr al At hens wh..r.. a large numher of
represental inm of it ....ere found, and a
round type wilh a central handgrir.
T he Dipylon shidd is almo.t certainly a
direct descendant of t he Mvccnacan
ti.gu re-eighl lype whic' h di.app':ars from
art soon aft er 1400 nc. T he cia,. model
illust rated (o n Ihe left) is of jusl such
a shi eld and comes from lhe Diryl"n
cemelery ,
II has been argu.,d lhat Ihis later form
does DOt re,"nen' a real shield a' all bUI
is a heroic form used onl y in art . TI>rrc:
are IWO main ohjn:tions to Ihis : Iin l,
priminve an lSta al"'l1)"$ drew hisl,,, ical
THE CITY ST..\ T ES 800-360 Be
ARMOL'R AND WEAPONS
charael .... in contemporary coslume.
and "'"COIld. the artist .... ho made t his
clay shield knew exao..-rly ,,'hat he ""IS
making for il otl\"lously represent s a
",ick... shield wnh stret chers on Ihe
m.ide. II is inconc-ei.able t hat such ac-
curacy of t errnenl'lIion could have
sUlvi'-ed for over 600 years wilhom de-
generating into a symbolic form with.
for example, a small er""s on the back.
T his has '0 have been copied from an
actual ,hield. T he fact that i" shape
diffels qui le cons ide lah ly ftom lhe My_
Ce naean type reinforces ils authell1icity
and suggests a pattern ofevolu tion. The
earlier shields musl OO" e had a re-
inforced rim 10 retain their figure---ei ghl
. hape. bUI in the Dipvlcn tn'" the stret-
chers OO" e dictated Ihe shape. There
would be a natural lendenC}' for such a
shield to a..um.. Ihis shape: "" the ends
of l he stre-tchen. ...'hich had 10 be fitted
tight !). t hrust t hei l ....ay oul wards '0
form fOUl poinu o n t he ri m. The con-
seq uent strain on the ' pinching' at
.:elll re woul d .... it into a genll e curv..
produci ng l he two umi -ci rcular indent_
on ei ther side:. The implication
of t his argument IS Ihal ll( At hens, which
survived the dark -age invasion, and had
an unbroken connection wilh the .\1.1'_
cenaean age, the fi llure-eight Iype shield
survived t hroughout t he later .\\ v-
cenaean era and Ihc dark aile that suc-
ceeded II.
8elo,..
1 '" wd paont' ng at e l<Iy"'_ f' \IV'e -eog!1l
_Id from 1<1 ,.,....,.
2 F,o.." . bact MCtJOn ot ClBv mo<\el ot
8tn-".,,,,ury DlPVlon _ Brons/> I.A " ...,,,,,
Tn.. ....,.",. wu dsortv coPoHI hom ....
-
5'
GREECE AND
The round, cent ral-handgrip type of
shield possibly originated in central
Europe lil:e so mU<.: h of t he late My_
ceneean weaponry. Cenainly its pres-
ence in Italy as well wou ld indicate this.
It had fi m made its appearance in
Gn:e<:<: in late .\tycenaean t ime!l but it
1'.'&$ pl"Oobably the Dorians ..,tding in t he
Peloponnesus around I OSOBe who made
it l he pndominant type in the area. T ..-o
late ex.amples of Ihis t ype of shield dat-
ing from the fint half of the 7th ce ntury
have been found at Iklp hi. T hey are
both made of beaten bronze but repre-
sent two types: one has a very
pronounced covering t he hand-
grip, "' hieh would ha"e heen flush wil h
t he hacl: of t he shield, whilst the ot her
has no boss at all and t herefor e t he hand-
gr ip must have stood proud at t he
T hese t wo must represent t he latest
development of the
t ype and woold already have been ob-
solete when t hey wer e made, for a ne w
shiel d had evolved in the 8(h century
thai , in a . hort time , was to supersede
all previoo. Iype' : this was the hoplite
or Argive shield.
T hihield may have evolved out of
t he round, cemraJ- handgri p type but,
at least in t he for m of the eadiest
a.-chacological examples. it is quite dif-
ferent . In fact , ilS only is l hat
il is round. It is mw::h more convex t han
the earl ier shield and has a reinforced
ri m, BUI far more importanll han t his is
t he gri p which has completely changed.
An arm band ha s been fitted to the
centre of t he shield; the kft forearm ....",s
pUll hrough Ihis band .o l hal t he shield
..-as festened to lhe fore;o. nn. There was
;0. handgrip in rheformof a strap near t he
ri m which was grasped wit h the hand to
stop t he shield slipping down the fore-
urn. The earliesl recognisable repre_
sentat ions of the Ar give shield come
ft om mid-eth-century pottery such as
the Chigi vase (see p. 39). T his shows all
t he bask cbat acterisncs of t he new
sh ield which in no way resembles the
earl ier t ypes. If was this shield which
covered t he huplite fmm to knee ,
and mure than anyt hing else made the
ngid phalanx for mation pos sible. Be-
cause of t he placing of t he arm band in
t he middle, almost half the shield pro-
t ruded beyond t he side ofthe
..arriur and, irthe man on his lcft moved
in he WI$ proeecred t he shield
"
,
S-B ....n(. of 6'h""nl ury Arg' ve , hields
SCI(e , .J
S Pilt of Ina li m of the
hom e lri (ef no. 3 opp<J" tej
6 A , ", ry,ng ' HOp attach nt.
1 and 8 H.ndg, ip . Hech nts The ; eetoon
opPO"te ,hows 01....... ho-w these we'" fixed
to tl>e we>od.." 01 tl>e sh ",ld a "lt II .., 11'>0
th' c'n".. of ti'>o al this poonl _il>S1 aboul
'em , 1 1nd 8 0,., .11ftom O1ymp, " 01\"T'P'1
"_ m
9 A ...const,,,,,,,.,,, of a 6th-century Alg,ve
...e1d based.", , .... finds from Olvml>a
1 An on::n.oc lypO
'" Oelpho. Seale ,: t s
2 HopI'leI WIth Argive """,,1d5 _ G_ k _
'" ..... Btob'" Museum
! An __
s.... l,4-. Sa. 1:6
An ."_od01 ..........( lypO Imm .....
(1nItCot" 'lomb 01 tt>e w".,,,, '"
tc. s2s Bel T,-......, ."""')S' hlI... r-n
"""OtIO.... -.r,'-ed .. _ k..- V,..
G,.... Romo sc.I& 1 6
overla p ,,'hich lIuardcd his uncovered
sidc. One of the great problems of t he
phalanx " lIS this tendency to close u p
towards lhe ri ght. Afrcr lhe end of rhe
61h century, probably as a result of l he
Persian invasions and the increase in , he
use of Iighl- armcd rroops anncd wi rh
mi5!Jiles, a kllher curtai n was some-
times aua.:hcd 10 rhe bouom of rhe
shield ro prolecr rhc ..-llI"f'i<,,-' s legs from
dan. and arrow'S,
Aftcr a battle u"'a. cuslomary for rM
victorious general to dedicate an in-
scribed shi eld at one of the sanctuaries.
.\1an)' such shields have been found ar
Ol ympia. vary from seem to r m
in diamet er . Some of Ihese shields havc
a complete bronze whilst or he "l
have only a bronze rim. All the non-
metalli c parIS of t hese shields have dis-
appeared bUI many of the interior lil -
rings have survived. T hese fillings , such
as t he handgrip all achments, wcre fixed
W Ihc wooden core wit h nails which
werc bcnt ove r on the from so that they
could not come loose. T his nOl only "cry
convememly tells us t he Ihickness of the
shield , but al"" how it was made. T he
,, 'ooden core. probably of hard wood
such as Old. was made fi rst . All the fil -
li ngs were rhen nai led 10 rhe inside and
rhe na, ls l urned over on Ihe fronr .nct
hammered tlK 'I);' hen all the inside
pieces were fixed in place, the fronl was
covered ,,'il h bronze or ox hide. The
forearm band ha. N,o fonns: eirhe r a
broad band ,,-ith a turned u p li p (J;. or
a narrower band ( J] which would have
had a rawhide or feli backing m the
shape of the firsTIn>c. T he broad I}'pe
i5generall)' earlier, and t he narrow band
laler .
Several of rhe shields from Olympia
ha,'e filli ngs st uck directly on ro Ihe
inside of rhe bronze faci ng. These
shields must have been made specially
for dedications as they would have been
useless in bat tle. It has been sugg ested
that t hey wel e used to ddleet blows bUl
this would defeat Ihe whole pur pose "f
Ihe phalanx, where each hoplile was
supposed to prot ect hi s neighbour' s UJl-
guarded . ide , nol redirect missiles on
to it,
T here is a . uperb example of an
Argive haule shield in the Musco Ore-
gonano at the Val ican. T his shield,
which prohablycomesfrom an Err uscan
T HE CI T Y STATES Koo- j 60 lie
ARMOUR A. ... D WEAI'O:'liS
grave, has survived sufficiently imac'l 10
permu a comp lele ICSloral ion Wilh ab-
'SOIUl e ce-naimy. The complele bronze
facing has . u" ' i" cd \\;lhoUl dislonK>ri
as well a. a oonsiderable amounl of lhe
wooden con: and the thin lea ther ";Ih
,,'hich i t was lined. This shield ilJus-
IllIl es "-cll the technical difficullies of
filli ng a brome facing to an Argi" e
shield. Allhough t he front of the hronze
fa..__inll: ..-ould ha,'e been beaten into
shape before il was fined on 10 the
wooden core. lhe edge wo uld "'we 10 be
folded OVe r afterwards. T he difficulties
experien<:ed by t he u mourcr arc re-
, 'ealed in t he cross-section where one
can sec bow he has had to pad Ihe rim of
t he shield wit h slivers of wood In ifS
original for m Ihis shield would have
weighed aho ut 7kg.
T he wooden core of t he Argive shield
was unly abuul o.y cm thick in centr e
and a reinfurcing p late ",'as often placed
on rhe inside. Such plates can bc clearty
un rhe laiC 6l h---cenrury Siphnian
treas ury relief from Del phi and on Ihe
Chilli '"asc.
T here is one fealure of Ihe Argi"e
shiel d " hich only became obvious after
lell and .bo_
Tha E" " s.;an .h,old ""1h ",,,,,, ins 01 lhe wOOden
core and ',h." I;ning;n l he M,,"""
Gr&go".no, Vatican. Rome. This shield "
probabty 4tl'> ""nlury
1 The ,nside of th. ,hleld shOWi ng Inc
armband. wh,en would have l>een Iin-ed WIth
hrde, the handg" o ar><! t he remeln' of l he COt.
Scale 1.l0
2 S,oe ,iew arod section ollne . noel"
J Th... Qua".r lOp view Shov" ,no lhe e'mIJo8<>l1
and ha!\dQ" o
4 ReconslruC1>on of lhe nandg"p a!\d "'''
SP'I(Mo'ng lhe ""pS 01 ""OOd used to !' ll l he 10m
l3
GREECE AND MACEDONI A
making a copy Yal ican and
Ining it OI.It. The sbarp curve ba<;:k-
war ds on inside edge of t he wooden
rim firs snuglr over the kfl shoulder,
which lakes a 101 of the weighl of
shi eld. This means lhaf a hopli le could
march a considerable distance wit h his
shield ready for act ion without feeling
roo much of a sirain on hi, leff ar m.
The musl nOliceable fealure of [hese
shields as seen on vase paintings is their
decorative blazons. These show an al-
m".1 intinile "ariely_geome[ric de-
signs, animals bolh real and imaginar }' ,
fis h, crabs, birds , limbs. vases, encbors ,
etc. T hese probably ident ified rhe in-
dividual hoph[e, who could 001 be
rcwgnised "'i t h his belmel covering hi.
face. Leser, towards the end of Ihe 51h
century. tnne motifs were repleced by
a let te r or a hopli[e' .
cit) , lhe lambda, for example, for Sparu
i. La<:e-daemon) and the club for T hem.
Several examples of bronze blazons
have been found at These
show mainly mylhiel! bean s _ gorgons ,
gr iffi ns, eiC. They were made
for dedications as t hey "" ould
have been defaced in the firsr clash of
battle when , as the Spartan poet Tyr-
[aeus PUI Sit, ' bu[h sides dash, rounded
shield altainsl rounded shield', The
motifs on bank shiel ds must have been
painted,
Body a r mOUr
In 1953 an Srh-century grave was dis-
covered al Argos in the Peloponnesus.
I n u we re t he earliesl helmet and
"uiral1S yet found. Beyond Ihis find tbere
i. a gap in our knowledge or body ar -
II1Q\Ir slret"hi ng back 700 years 10 the
b le t5 lh-cennrry example al Ikndra.
T he Argos cuirass , like ilS forerun-
ners, has a Irene and back plate, Bolh
plales are simplr decorated in t he form
of t he anatomy of t he rorso, with narrow
embossed ridgo:s around t he arm holes,
t he waist and t he hips. Around the neck,
t hc arm holes and the hips the bronze is
rolled forward 10 strengl hen t he edge.
The breaks in t he embossed ridgehow
without a doubt that the Irom plale
fitt ed over t he edge of the back plat e at
the sides. On Ihe right edge of Ihe froAl
plate are two lubular project ion,-Ihese
were filled inro ccrrespondmg , lors in
the back ptare and held in position with
IwOpIns lJ:' befOC the ""ira.. was pUI
on. The 1\0.'0 hah'cs were sirapped {O-
gel her b}' IWOloops al , he OOllom of lhe
left side (one on the front and one om be
back plate) , Under the left arm and al
the hip the rolled-{wtT edge has heen
opened up fO for m a channel which held
Ihe front plate in posifion (4'. The
shoulders were joined in t he Of'P'l' ile
way with th e back plate overlapping l he
front . The plales were held in posilion
af fhe shoulders l>y [wo iron spikes on
Ihe from plate which passed through
eorresp<mdi ng holes found in fhe l>ack
plate ( S) .
A semi-circular bronze plate called a
mitTa (Ihis term is probably wrong but
used for convenience) could be sus-
pended from a belt to CO"er l he abdo-
men . All hough lhere ar e rome Greek
examples of these, mosr come from
Crete. Examples have been found 10
Thntcc " ; Ih la'tT \' enions of the bell
cuirass sho..;ng lha l lhe}' used
logel her.
In t he second half of the 6th cent ury
the bell cuirass ded ined in popularilY
and was superseded by rhe linen corse_
let as rhe basic hoplile hody armour.
Howe.-er, Ihe bronze cuirass continued
in m e and gradually evolved into [he
e1eganf muscled cuirass. Alt hough il
never enjoyed t he same popularilY as
the bell corselel , probal>l)' because u wu
so expensive 10 make, itlasted unt il l he
end ofthe Roman era 1,000 years laler,
and bttame parr of [he uniformofseniol
officers. T he new cuirass came in IWO
In"'S, eil her shore, fi nishing at the wai s. ,
Or long 10 cover the abdomen.
The musded cuila," was usually
joined al the sides , and sometimes al l he
shooldel'S, ,,'irh hinges, one balf of the
hinge being anached to the fronl plale
and one to the back. There "'ere usuall y
six of t hese hiniles-Iwo on each side
and one on each shoulder. I n order 10
pUilhe cuirass on, the hinge pi ns were
remo.-ed from one side (us ually rhe
right) and from the shoulders. The
corselet was then opened out as with the
previous IYpes , When fi lled t he fronl
and back plates would be drawn 10-
gerber and the hi nge pins inser ted on
the r ighl side and [he shoulders. On
eil her side ot t he hinge was a ring whi ch
was used to pull the front and back
plates logel her. A fragmem of a coilass
in the British ,\ t useum (9:' has a d ear
impre:1ISion of a buckle nexl 10 the nng
showing that a strap and buckle werr
used 10 r ull t he IWO sides together.
Some of lhese conelCis h&\'e no hi nges
and were held toge-ther wit h rings and
straps
Some haw a
Iefl- hand hi nge ""rending fromthe ar m-
pil 10 the hip. Since ir would be im-
p<>ssihle to inserl lhe pin in such a hinge
when the cuirass was being worn, one
mUSI assume rhar t he lefr side was
juineJ before il was pUI on, Although
t he developmenl of t he muscled cuira' s
can be t raced on Greek va""s, Ihe arch-
aeological finds are ma inly Italian.
In , he 4fh cent ury the full-length
mU'l<:led cuirass was adapted for
A_.
A Il<onle shoeId mo[,1from e 525 Be
1.1.... of "'"' '-_ loon<\. [hO goo-gon
_9" be"'ll 1!Ie most P<IIIUlol< On boon..
.-_ mold _ ........... ,*,,00(1


An All) '" e. 525 Be. ..... ,.. nfaro"ll
pl.,. 100'''' ....... for (he ..-m . -.
on _ ... from [hO $ol>I'ItI_ T......., II
[)e<p/'Ii. DeIp" M..-....
T HE CITY 51'AT E5 800-360 Be
ARMOUR A:'\D WEAPO:'iS
l
"
7 An ,_.naf pia'" Irom en".
1 -11 Flagmen" ,llu,","',ng !he """r>o<l eJ
le,nl"" !"" clMS'Cal muscle<! c,,"...
1 A f" II I. ng' h hl""e comple!e w !h pm
K. " " "h. M""""m,Ge rma ny
9 F'.gmenl of . c,,". .. ""lh " no ' 1I0ch"",n!
. nd ,"<0 Irnpr.n! of. buc kle (B1Il ,sh Museum)
10 A puck.. of . ,,,,.Ia, lype
11 A hmoe ..... from l/1e ;nside
1Z Metho<l 01pulling ,..., hOr>g/I ....
,

1 ..d Z h orn anrl l)k ..._ at !he Argos bol l

euor... Argos M" ,.,,, rn
3 M.,fIo<I of ' h. "ghl-ha<>d"" of lhe
CuII'53. Tfle tubu lar . "t.nalOm on t"<o eti9'l of
\M Iron\ plaIa """ . pr, shed lh,ough th. siCl'
In !h. nd . pin .n " oO on the
'""""
Uod.,alrn joini"" of ,"<0 lell . ide.
S ""lImd of joini"" ,,,, ,noul"",.
' A Iale tlek 0.."..... C 525 Be. from 0Iymp
Orvmll'O Museum
55
GREECE AKD MACEDONI A
Above
f ront VI@w of a muscl ed cuirass
from Conv@r"" no ned ' Ba, i in southern 11aly It
has 0 full. l@ngth hinge on the left side. The
mu, c11Od cu irass Meame 1'<11\ of the un ,form ot
,enior oU,cers Sa" Mu.eum
Abov@
The oack View of t he .ome Conve"ano cu ir..,
The '; ghl "de of [he eu "o" was jomed m the
no lmol fashion with hinges an d " ng, The
shoulde rs had no hing@. ond were pUIIe<l
toget he' by the , ing,
Above
A sMrt mu, cle<f coirass wi,h ,ing fa"er>ers ond
no hi nge, . Thl, 'YD<' w., otlen used by the
CO",lry Most ",ch8eological eXd mple. of
mu, cl@d ",". , se, co"", from Itd'V. From
Auvo. SOOJt h@'n ItaiV B'i li,h Mu,eum
Above
A leCOn, truCrr On of 0 full-length musc l@d
Cul<aSS rn BfltISh Museum I' i. mo"" of
b,on, e 8M i. deco'.ted wi th " lye' in, et
nippl@, It is iOlne.d.t ,hculde" and sid<>,
wllh nlnges dnd rrn g,
56
Aboye
A ho plite a musc led Cu rra" sh own on
o vase. c. 460 BC H@is_.,ing .
Thraci,n holme' h o cu,,",n h. "lI ,ng
f, om hIS shIeld to prot@ct his legs "g8inst
mi"i les P" le, mo Museum
Aboye
A ful l-length mu,cle<:t ,pee-oIi VO@S1gne<:t
fo' horseman. It is ""' Yb,o.d ' M hips to
endble ,,, we"er ' 0 , il " Only th(ee
" "mpl@, .reknown, andall(orne lrom t1aiy
P,ooably 4t h ee nlury. Bdli
3 Greo'. c 450 Be. Vat,can Museum
4 Etruscan, c. 325 Be The 01the
Amazon. I,om T"oum,. FI",encII
A,cllHological Mu..um,
5 Dell" f'em 'ho M. ", ot Tooi .... ,1>0 Votoear>
( Muoeo Gf890"."",j st>owi"", llmelll' plo,O$.
C 350 Be
' A ",. 6th-cent""" "oph'e puttmll <>II nl$ Ionen
<","."
r
1_4 Tho ''''on C", '.... on G'''''k and f ll uS<:al'

1 G<.t. c 500 Be From Vulc< Berlin

2 .,ou""n. c Be F""" Too.
101.......'"
,
,

e
,
GREECE AND MACEDOt-;'IA
me. T he bottom was swept at
the front and back "J that the wearer
could sit On a horse. Such a cuira" is
shown d earl y on t he equestri an statue
of Halbus the Younger found at
Herculaneum, now In the :-;apks ."-i u-
seum. T hree examples of t his type of
cuira" are known and all come from
southern Italy. The evidence suggests
t hat they were restricted to this area, but
wit h so few examples it would he wrong
to ''' Sume this.
L inen cuirasses had probably been In
use since lat e .'<1ycenaean nmes, but it
was nOI until lme in l he 6th century that
t hey became t he standard armour of the
hoplite. A hnen cuirass was made of
many layer s of linen glued togelher 10
fo rm a st iff ,hin aboul 0 ,5cm thick. The
corselet extended down 10 the hi ps, t he
lower part, below the wai81, having slits
to make it to bend forward , A
second layer cut into 'Irips
( pu ty ges) was stuck on Ihe inside to
cover Ihe gaps in the outer Ia' er . T he
shin, wh ich had no shaping t o the wais t,
was wrapped around the torso and l ied
together on the left side . A V-shaped
pica, fixed to the hack, was pulled for -
ward 10 cover t he shoulders. pai nt-
often show these flaps
spri nging back when untied, illustrating
t he resilience of the male rial
A few years ago I made a copy of one
of Ihesc cuirasses. I t was dithcult to put
on because of its stiffness, but once one
had got us ed to n, il was quite co mfort _
able and easy to move ahout in These
cui ra sses were ofle n made in several
and t he PletYKes were sometimes
detachable.
Alt hough the linen was considered
adequate prot ecl ion , Ihese cuiras ses
were often reinforced with scares or
plates, and Ass yrian -stvlc lamcllat pla tes
are shown on some later Elruscan ex-
amples , The great advant ages of the
linen cuirass were it s cheapness to pro-
duce, its flexibility and its lightness , The
cxample I made had nnmelal plales and
weighed 3.6kg; a bell cuirass when lined
would have weighed about 6kg . T h is
type of ar mour remained 111 usc untilt he
introduct ion of mail 111 the 3rd century
Be.
Shortly before Christmas 1977 it was
announced t hat a royal grave had been
found at \'Clgina in Macedonia. This
grave, whi ch is believed to hclong to
, t I " I ' I 'I .
I ,I I !' I . .

., , ,

,
1 A ,ase palnllng (500 BC) showing hoplltes
an"inq for batt le
2 The cut 01 a I,"en 'shff shi,,' cui .. " Thi' was
made foom laya" of line" glued 'ogethol,
3 and 4 F,onl and l>ack "ews of tJoe ioon
CUll"" recove 'ed f,om the so' called tomb of
Phil ,p II at Va'gioa in. Macedoni. Scholars
disagree abou1 the date of ' hi. 10mb, Thei,
cUirass snow, a t<a nslallon InfO "on with gol d
d""",alioo of a linen ""r""a' . " follows the
baStc des,gn in eve,Vdata il " was proba bly
WO'" Over a leather cMon "",th Plecvges at ' he
, houldars and hip, S.... the Ale,aode, mo,.,c.
on
T HE CITY STATES 800-360 IlC
ARMOUR axn WF.APONS
left
Broont flgu"'''' 01 a S(lirtan "'lniar. c. S2S Be
HI i. "",."r-.g """'r ",m gultclland 'l'Iigh
Qua-d. 1>eS.de-s!>al1Cu"..... Co,m"' ..n helme,
and gr_ eo N,l ona! _1OIoIl0Cll Muse"",.
A_
5 UPPlIf ar m guard 6tI'l -.t....
I l ..-. arm g....r<l. 6lh century
1 Ant. guard, 6tI'l -.t.... ThIs ....... ,d .......
_ bed on "'''Ill ..... I'M> ptOngS 01. l he fronl
Thogll guard. 611'1
9 f oot pt ot<>tury. It is Ikr>ged
at tile loes and _ "'.. _ Iaoed ro _
.-
S- I f """ Olymp", orv""" a t.luseum.
9 from RuYl). s""' tern ' ...... Bnl"" Mu_m
,
A_
1 _4 T... oIlte g'u,",
1 La,. 7th'''''I"" t,w como.... "" 'I) ioA,
_fl"e C.-
2 ElabcIt... 6' .. .....n.v ..... _ ._
f r"", Ot<,mpoo Oly.....,.. Iol.,......,.,
3 6m,-..urv ..... ?rooto...cc.
ul'>CMioitl T-. or lIlr<lon
4 f mtll I)ld ....,..,. .-01 a "'.. armaoc
Q<eiMII." ...... Iour>d ...,tl'l the ..... """...noCfl ..
d'spIave<I on P 61. M"""", GryPIO,e<
Philip II , ........ reported to contain an
ironcuinau. Hearing this I had
a muscled-type cuirass made afi ron. At
the Internat ion.al Congren of a .....ical
,' rchaeology hel d in L.onJon in Sep-
tember t 918, "'1. Andromcos, the ell-
cevator of t he grave, gave t he publ ic
their f rst vie.... of this L"UJraSS .... hich, )
my immense surprise, proved to be a
tran, lat ion into plat e iron of a linen
cuirass. T he torso is made up of four
plates , ftom, back aod t wOside. , wit h
two curved shnulder plat es hinged to
the bac]; plate . T he whole cuirass is
de..-orated wit h embossed sl rips of gold,
It rrc>umably had puryg.. of leat her or
some Olher pliaot material. Uofonu-
oately, this armour has nut j'el been
properl y published and therefore "-c
have only t he pil."turc> to go
ult a nd arlll guards
The full-length ],o.... er leg guard or
only came into general use in the
1th century. ,,'t first it cO\'ered the lo,..-er
leg only from belo,..- the h ee to t he
ankle, hut was later extended to cover
the knee. The n n- and 6lh-<:emury
greaves were oft en highl y decorated,
The lat'" grea,'es, like the musded
cuira.s, followed the anatomy of the
kg. ,\1any examples of the se muscled
greave. survive in both UreeL-C aod
Ital y. The mu>culat ionofthe later t ypes
i, generally less stylised than the late
6th-centur y type shown here, The
Greek greave was pulled open and clip-
ped on to the leg, but in ILaly lhe}' w'ere
often st rapped on to t he leg. Several
Italian examples ha"e been found with
rings for straps.
.\ Iany examples of ankle guard. ha" e
bec.n found ....hich co"ered not jun the
ankles but atso the heels. These are the
anklets that Homer is so fond of de-
scribing. T hey " ",", tied on. There ar e
also a fe.... examples of foot guar ds ....hich
were fi tted to the sandals, These were
made either mone piece or hinged at rhe
toes to allow more mOvemem, Although
thigh guards are shown in s<: ulpt ures,
only one Greek example survives at
Olympia. Thi s is really just an extension
of the greave and covers onl y t he lo....er
thigh. In an they ar e shown covering
the middle of t he t hi gh,
GUilN SIor both t he upper and lo....er
urn have bn recovered from t he ""'-
a "lt iom at Olympia. Some of them I re
ss
GREECE A:\'D MACEDONIA
very d<:<:oraro:d. T ho: uppo: r
arm guards far outnumber the lower. In
proba bility arm guards wen: very
seldom used and arc cenainly rardy
s ho....n in an.
All limb guards were lined with
Icalher or fabric. Thns.: made before
the mid-6tb cemury had 1he hning rolled
over the edge and stit ched through, T he
cominuat ion of this met hud of fi xing t he
lining suggests Ihat Ih"re was a con-
tinuit y in armour makinK hetween the
My<: enaean and t he Archaic era, and
then:fon: we should expect 10 lind
bronze armour in use r ight through t he
dark age. All arm an d leg guards except
greaves ....em out offa.shion all heend of
the 61h cemury and tho: greave its.:lf ....as
never as popular later m Ihe classical era
as il had been earlier .
The helmet
Thete ismuchargumcntamongscholan
O" CT the naming of .-arious tvpes of hel-
met . This conlro"ersy has nnl hing 10
add to our kno....ledge of the Greek mili-
rary system or of its development and i,
Iherefore ignored here. Terms such as
Illy rian and Alltc are med here for con-
venience 10 de note a parl icular type of
helmet and do not imply the origin of
Ihe Iype.
T here are several forms uf Greek hel-
me t but lhey all seem 10 ha" e evolved
from t""o prototypc,-Ihe Kegel and
the primitive Cori nthian.
The Kegc1 he1m ( II , whose name is
German, meaning cone or
sltitl k shaped, is the earliesl Iron-Age
helmel found in Greece. Theso: hel-
men are all made in five pieces (u d ud
ing t he cr<:sl holder). T he exampk
shu"" n hen: is from a panoply found in a
late Geometric grave al Argos , T he
Kcgelhdm disappeared at the
ninlt of the 7th century. From the Kegel
evol"ed 1""0 new Iypes: t he Insular and
the Illyrian hd mel. The I nsular helmet
(3) Was popular in CrCle ....here many
miniatures of it have been found , T he
fragmentary example II bove ,
which is t he onl y One yet found, is als"
from Crete. 11 is made in IWO halves
(incluJ ing t he crest holder ) whieh are
riveted toget her, Eaeh half f"rms one
side of t ho: helmer.
The early IllyTian helmel (4' is a ckar
derintion of the Kegel type, u can be
soecn from its general shape and rhe em-
60
"""
SflOBC
bo/;s.:d ndge along its """"<:'I o:dge. The
mai n difference is t ho: crest ri dge acT""S
l he lOp which became a characterisnc of
Ihis Iype. It also a l echnical ad-
"ana as" like t he Insular he lm"", , il ;s
made III [""0 halves. "'hich are ri "Cled
logel her al" ng l he <:resl 'ridge. By the
first half of Ihe 61h century l hcK helmet s
were bei ng made in one piece (SJ. The
type survived do"' n into Ihe St h ce nt ury
(6 and 7).
The Corint hian helme l wa, hy far
t he mos t successful Greek helmet . It
eO\' crcd t he head leaving on ly t he cyes,
nose and moulh clear . It had a long life,
beginning in Ihe 8th centoty and
evoh'ing inlOa \'er)' elegam helmel dur-
ing the 71h and 6th centuries. T he very
early hel mets were somet imes made in
t wo pieces like t he earl)' Illyrian t ype .
One of t be eri SIie!; rhat de\'eloped
duri ng the 71h ccntury was an indenta.
lion in the bottom edge dividing t he
jawline fr " m lhe neckline (8 and ,.
This waS conunued m rhe late 7th- early
6Ih-centuT)' type. A large number of
examples of this type of helmet (9', have
sut-Yived, hear ing witness 10 its popu-
Jaril y. It is known as t he ,\ l yros type
after an en mple that had t he name
Myros inscribed on it_ In the early 61h
century indentat ion was repl aced
hI' a more pusili ve dart which may have
bee n derived from Ihe llIyrian l ype.
T his remained as a characrerisri, of t he
helmet, 10 is a cross- breed between the
early llIyrian and Cori nthian helmet s,
ha"ing more l han one characteri"ic of
each. The c heck guards of Ihe Corm.
rhian helmet were very flexible so lhat
il could be pul led down overthecramum
s
500BC
,
Abo"..
The evolut,on of the Gr Mt""'t hom , he 8th
to 'h. 5th cent ury. T"" group
ar. On t"" left the Co"nth,an
Att IC group Bitt or> , roe "go, The rttd I,nes lIi..e
en appro. im..,. dating. t>ul " .....1be borne ,n
rn,nd that tvPn ..-...0""'" """.. olowly ,n some
plloceo than ot.... "
1 From Argos Argoo I,! ....."
2. $ 7 1$ . "" 17 ... .,1"""" 0Iy"""..
Olympa M.-.,rn
12 Itom C...,n'" C""nlt> "'_

..----!
,

,
"
"
13 From t"" ","crapol;. al Campo' . 'ano d'
C.mpl, CMieti Mu"'um
18 From To<l i. V,II. Giuli. Museum. Rome
9 14 1nd , 5 . re from southern llaly 20 " f,om
L. CWo's on n . ,''' ' are of unce,la,n
""g,n
8 , ,.... 10 .. ,n (he TO""lf 01 London
3 . "'" Ii . '. In 1.... Museum IOf und
Gew$<tle, Hamb'Hll
9 11 1. 1& """ 20 a", in ''''' 6rn..h Mu>flum
""" 19 in ,hot M........m 31 Yor k
T il l' CITY STATES 800-) 60 Be
ARMO UR AND WEAI' ONS
and still fit snugly 10 t he face . Iku usc
of Ihi. flexibi lity the helmer could be
up on to the lop of rhe head,
...'bere l he lkxible cheel< guanh held il
in position. bow t he hopIit(
wore il ... not in bank. .\Iany .lalun
. ho\o' t he hd met worn this ..-ay a nd
wmet imes one can also s pan of the
Io<:tK undcrcap sl icking out from under
11M. dan in the rim of t he helmel . All
metal helmets "'" inner ca p for ,
al though a metal helmet lPve pr()o
tecnce from t he cut of 1I wcapon, il ...i ll
not bru k l he force of it, so that padding
is On the earli er hetmera the
lining was oft en folded oVCr rhe rim of
tbe helmet and stitched along the e<lltC
as in the Dendra armour, but from t he
61b <;e ntury il was usually glued in ,
T he Corinthi an helmel <l icd out in
(ireece carl}' in the 5t b cent ury hut it
lived "n in Italy, The Italians during the
6t b and 5t h centur ies graduall y devel-
oped their own form of t he Corin t hian
helmet ( I ) , 14 and I S:) which de' troyed
the reaSOn fOT its crealion. Whilst
relaining t he eye holes and Ihe na'al
t hey t urned il intoacap which wo rn
on top oftbe head as shown LO Greek an
( 14). As time "'enI on Ihe eyes gOI smaller
and d oser l<>gether i l s ). Someumes l he
holes " 'ere fille d with im r }'eyes, Finally
they disappeared altogether , leavi ng
vn liges in the incised decora-
l ion. This fonn of helmer , which is
known as the Italo-Corimhian type,
wu adopted by Roman oftkers in l he
later republic and onl y disappeared in
the 1St n nturjo' AD.
BoI h t he Cori nthian and t he Illyr ian
helmer had one gro:at made
heari ng impossible. Experiments " ere
made wil h perforal ions : several ex-
amples of Ihi. were found ar Ol ympi a.
T hese 1001< t he form of a four-spol(ed
wbeel wit h t he segments belwCt' n the
. pol<C!i CUi out, or t he out line of an eaf
cUI out. Finally the area
around ! he ear was cUI away altoget her
\ 16). Experiments along Ihis line, how.
ever, had already produced a new breed
" I' hel met, Ihe Chalci di an , This helmet
clearl y evol ved out of the Corinthian
and appears on vase pai nt ings fro m the
early 6th century. T his new hel mel
came in two t ypcs : one wilh fixed ( 17)
ami the other wit h hinged ( 18) cheek
pieces. T bcre ...as a t hi r d variant of this
1)'f'C ...hich had hinged chk pieces hut
"
GREECE Al\D MACEDONIA
1IO nose guard ', 191 ; this IS commonly
referred 10 as Att ic. [ have no imentiun
of arguing it should or should
not be called that-in lhi, t><....' k an Arne
means one slm, [ar to the: Chal-
aruan but wit hout a Ituard . There
are no Greek examples of lhis t n'''';
pract ically all the surv c ome from
l ta[} ,,'here u was vel")' popular. The
Italian examples fealher
holders and often thin bronze "'ngs,
One final type ofhdmel that rnusr be
memi oned here is t he Thradan ( l O) .
This appears to have evohed from
the Thracian cap, I n some respecu it is
similar 10 the All ie helmet but it has a
peak ar thr front ,, 'hieh eXlends round
thr side, protection 10 both the
eyes and lhe: <:an. It alo.o commonly ,
though 001 inuriah[}', tw. long chl:rk
pieces usually CUI awa}' sharp ly at lhe
<)'es lUId moul h an.l curving OIItward.
along lhe jaw, These ched: pie",," " 'ere
onen hight}' dc\.-onled " Ilh. for ex-
ample, a beatd and T he hd_
m"'- gained in.:reasing popu[aril}' Irom
Ihe 51h century OIIwards.
All rhese helme" had crests of horse:
hair. In most cases the was fi xed
on 10 the cre..-n of the he lmet
and hel d in pl.... b}' a pm at the: fl om
and ba.:k. It is how this "'"as
done on l he lIl yr ian t ype , but less clear
"il h t he majority of Corimhian types.
In 'lOme examples Ihere is an at tachment
al t he back, in ","'hjeh <......, the fr om could
be held by a loop over the nasal. Some
of lhe: helmet s from Olympia show quire
a complex sl'Mem of h" oks and rings
,,'hieh appear to be slu"k on, [f IhlS is
rbe case, then we may assume that many
oft heothe: rs have lost their attachments.
Crests on a prop are a regular
feature in t he Archaic per iod ( 700- 500
IIC) in Greece and they remai ned popu-
Jar in [Ia[y until the tSl century Ao.
These crest supptJrt S were dela.:hahk
and were to Ih.: hel mel with split
pins as shown above .

The hophte' s weap" n was t he
, pear. An from t hc' dark allc
was found in a gmve at Verltina in
t all
A boaut.tully p,eS4lM,d a'3rY1l>>e 01 & lal.
6t h-oen, u,,! Co"nth.an hOlme\ j,,,,,, S' Cl IV II
was 1".,0<1 w .th the g,""...., (p No . ',
Munich GIVPIOI."

1 ... dola I o! a G.-._pa.fIlI"Il ..-.ow"........
""'" 1'1"'" d oeSl
2 '" G'ee. ' a' oed CfeSl hOI"", f ' om Olvmp...
-3 An tu.... ' ........ f'<>I"'" Both 2 ..,., 3
..... -.dI>\' Iplrl pons
11 0\11"
. - 7 rt.e ..-.,.,., "' ..... G'ee. """"'"
&nd 5 T_ Ia", I,l..,...,_ (!Vl>e II I bforve
.......,.,. lrom ..... :hN. e t 200 BC
1M ' he _Ied a .om..... >Word from Italy
I Eart,o G<aooo 'ron $WOfd 1,,,,,, 1<0<0"""005.
e 820 Be
I5a B'''''''' "and... """, a .....Ia, .....,'d
7 I,on _.,d>C-3btwd 0/ G,... . 'We "".,,,
bone .ntav tl...., the CamPO"a1ar>o d. e".mplI
"".".,.os, e 500 BC (hoet. I,l """"m
8 Iron "",,",""lid of G_ k "'". fr...., me
C&mp<..-a""" """",pal .. Ch>et, Muoeum
' B,""'eG,eek SJM!&f bull B" t h M""",m
.\1ac-cdonia wit h t he iron head and bun
" ill in posilion. T his spcar "'as about
2.3m long and "'o\l ld seem to be about
the su ndard lengl h-t hose shown on
vase paint ings appear to be between l
and jrn long , By t he end of lhe 8th cen-
t ury Ihe had stopped huryi ng
thei r warriors wilh wea pons, hut
t he practice continued in hal l' . Spears
varying bet ween ] ,5 and 2,5m long have
been foun<l in eth-cenrury graves at
Campova[ano di Camp ti ncar Terarno.
The spears sho",n on Greek va,cs have
leaf-s hape d blades, .\lany iron spear-
heads of Ihis type have been found in
hot h and I taly . These spea".
whichacc.>rdinglOT yrtacus and Homer
were made of ash, also had a spike,
somel im," made of bronze, at Ihe bun
end Mark[e, in his article on t he '\'Ia,e_
donian pi ke and spear , estimated thaI
t he weight of a 2,5m hoplil e spear "'a'
on" kilogram
THE CITY STATES 800360 OC
ARMOUR AND WEA PONS

T he hop[i(e alw ...rri ed a s....-..rd .

Find. from the d ark age .1>".... Ihat (he:
[ate My<-.: naean t ype I I swor d which
,,'as of cent ral European origin con-
tinued in use hut ....as being made in
i ron. An cxamp[e from t he Kemmeik",
has a straight <s ided . double-edged
75cm long, By t he time <If the Pers ian
..... an this had evo["ed int o a shorter
sword ..... ilh a leaf-shaped hlade ahout
seem long. Several examples
of these have Ix..,n found at Campova-
[ano <Ii Campli. T his sw" rd .....as c,"cn-
tially a slashi ng weapon. T he 6t h and
51h ct"mm ics show the gradual intro-
<lucl inn of a curvcd, single-ed ged sword
(k" pl<). T hi. wcapo n prohah[y or igi-
natcd in Errurju. T hese e"r1y cu rved
s", or ds wcre viciom weapons
wit h a huge h[ade aho ut 65"m long,
T hey were later modified into the
shorter CUI-and- thrust We"p'lD Ihal he-
came S<l popular in Spain and Macedon,
6,
GREECE AND MACEDONIA
Macedon 360- 14 Be
Introduc.ion
T he centfe of developmcn' now move'
ftom G. eece to , leeping
giant. T he rise of Macedon was due
almost cn'i rely to t he enefgyof one m' n,
Philip II. On his accession , ,, the rheone
in 359 He he sel "oout bllilding up rhe
mo" formidahle fighting machine the
world had yc' seen. It was with this
m. chine ' hat hi' son, Alcxandef 'he
(;rea" was to conque n empi. e tltol
.tTe' chcd ftom Egypt 10 Indio, After his
de' l h '\lexandd , empifc w", divide d
hi' Thc", kingdom'
i"sted umil one by one lhey WCfe , wal_
lowed IIp by Rome.
T he pf ime "",,,'e' for ' bi' petiod ,.e
Diodor us Siculu, and Polyhiu, . Dio_
dor us wtole in the lS t cemury !\C. His
wor k ha' quite jllSl ifiably been severely
cTit ici'ed , i' ha' heen ' aid of hi m thaI
he is os go" d or as had a, hi"omee' . For
one very short period of not mme than
20 ye'ts, he follows the aecount of the
hTilhan' HieHmymu' of Cordia, one of
the m" sl f chahie histm ian. of ' be
ancient world. What a I"" il i, fOT the
mi litary histori'n th"l Hieronymus'
hi.,my has nol <Xl me down to us in ils
origi nal li" m. Afrcr ' he dea' h of Alex_
ander in 323, he accompanied fi rst
Eume" "" , umil his death in 3 [6, and
then ,\n,igonu' . nd his son Demetr ius
PoIiorce' es on t hcif campaign, ' nd gives
detailed accounts of theif acrion, . Un-
forl uMtely Diodorus' accoum is incom-
ple,e aftcr 302 He and only fragments of
the , ub",que n' <urvi ,e.
Pol ybius, who picb up the story
aboul 220 HC, recount s the histo, y of
G",ece down to the second half of the
2nd <'entmy lie, U nfOl"H' ,,"l ely lhe l'lter
pan of hi, wOTk h", . Jso been lost . nd
we po" e" onl y fragments. A ' oldi er
himself, Polybius is l he best of ' he
d ' ''ic' l military historians,
T he Macedonian Wars
The r is e of Macedon
Philip wa' hTough' to T hebes as. hos
i n 367 IIC and loojl;ed in the house
of Ep,minondas. T he gre"' T heban',
tactical vic,",,, wcrc no' w. <led on Philip
He cscaped fTOm T hebes . nd on the
dearh of his brother in 360 seized the
'hrone. l[ e was 23 ye'" old,
Mac<oJon wa, racked wit h WaT on
e"e,y side. Phili p immedi. tely set .bout
his army .nd bringing i'
into the me"lern world, He ' he n tm ned
hi' ,nen,ion " , ' he invade,". In ' wo
ligh'ni ng campaigns h. subdued l he
Paeoni ans i n the north and drove lh.
IIlyrians in 'he n"" h_west hack oc yond
B. low
M.p ot the """h'''" ....".." , ho" ",g the
' . 'otion, oip 01 M, e. _ i, ' 0 its "" 'ghboo" "
was Phil ' " of M.cedon who " . ",formed ,
w,, tom kingdom '" '0 ,he most
m.';"'" pQw<!' 01 ilS d""
,
,
"
4

,
"
"
...
l "
I
, heir honk,,_H a,-;ng 'ettled t he nnnh
and ..... e't , he sel . boUl establishing
roUle, to {he east .nd south, Gradually
he captured ,he lown, along the CO"",
man}' o f which had 'tr<mg cnnncetiom
with the city ' tales, and so opened {he
roUles to T hessaly and {he Helle,pont.
In 35 3 he . nte rce! Thc""ly and t he fol _
lowing year rn,,,, of it
I n the ,ummerof35z he advanced 10-
"'.rds Thermopyl... In pamc the
At heni.n. sern a hoi ding for ce 10occupy
' he po" and Philip wit hdTew Only now
do t he Greek, ""cmcd to h.". realised
the gre. t l hre,,! that was h. tljI;ing o\'cr
{hem, but {hey were far 100 busy fight.
ing each other to do anything . ho ut it.
Philip did nn' try 10 advance ,outh-
ward again for si x years. I n ,he inter-
per iod he continued to .st. h. lish
his po'i,ion in the ca." reducing t he
' <>wn, of Ch.kidice and l he ThT""i.n
coosl. I n 350 he g.ined of much
of Epirus on hi s south-west bordcr, and
hy 34S the last of lhe Chak id i.n towns
h. d surrendncd
The Greek st ates werc becomi ng ever
more aware of the gi.nt thaI was rising
in lhe norl h, bUl l hey were not yet pre-
pared to hury t heir di ffer ences and do
anything . b<mt it. They needed a breal h-
ing space .nd in 346 signed a non _
aggre;sion Ire. ly wit h Philip. T his
treaty , "' Philip' s insistence, expre;sly
exd uded Pho" i, which was .ccused of
outTages .gain" Delphi. T he ink wa,
hardly dry on t he pape r before Phili p
pas, ed T hermopylae and overranPho-
ci, . lIe was imo Greece,
Ha\'ing established his fOOlhold ,
Phi lip wit hdrew to .'vlattdonia to '-'In_
solid.te hi s bor ders in t he nort h, west
and eaSl h"f mc cmhar ki ng on the fin. l
An uneasy pe.ce ex isted be_
t ween Ph ilip and the Greek state, f<>r
six years , By 340 th" Mac"<:d<>nian ar my
MACEDO!'> 31J.o-140 Be
TilE MACEDONIAN WARS
h. d reached the ilIad Sea a nd was be-
sieging Perint hus an d Byzantium, Ilot h
citi es had slrong tonnec" ion, wi lh
At hen" now wenl 1o war
In t he . urumn of 339 Philip took ad-
vant.ge of lhe chaos lhat ,lill persi' led
and moved in", cent ral Al hcn,
up ha"y . 1Iiance wit h her
erst while enemy Thebes and advanced
to meel the threa!. In AugUSI 338 at
Chaer onea on the norl h_we" txlcdcr of
Boeotia, t he com bi ned T hehan lAt h-
eni.n ar my f. ce 1o face wilh l he
war-har dened veterans of Macedonia.
I n lhe h. n le Ihal followed the Grcek,
were hopele"lyoutela"cd . T he T heba n
B.low
It., b"l;OO;r>9 of the grea'e" c"eo' 0 '
oo"'1u.". A' e" nde' ", osse, t ho G"o;c", .,
the ho.., 01 h.. caval", to "lilC' the P. " ,.n, .
who "'d ' o, med up On t ho oppos'le bon" with
the" C,",I," on I<on, , ,,, ph.l,n, beh;nd
GREECE AND .\IACEDONIA
Sacred Raod who were ol'l'o""d hy l he
crack Macedooian troops led by Philip's
y<lUng son Alexander, who was just 18,
remained truc to their glor ious tr adilion
and foughl to the 10" man.
After the haule Philip offered lerms
' hal were far more lenient than A' hens
e{l\lld have and t he)' were ac _
cepted. Philip felt 00 gene"" it)'
lowards Thebes, Their leaders were
execu '"dor hanished, l he prisoners were
' old into , b,'eryand a garr i"moccupied
the Cadmeia.
All the stales of Greece, wit h the ex-
ceplion of Spana, now came lo terms
with Phili p. At the congre" of Corinth
a Gr""k confedera,')' wa' ,c' up wi'h
Philip as ilS leader
T he Ma"cdon ian now announced hi,
long-cheri shed plans to invade the Per -
sian empire, and the n""e"ar)' forces
were req uISit ioned, Before the ente r-
pri,e he reali' ed, hown'eT, Ph ilip
was a" a"ina'ed and hi, N _year_old",n
Alexander came to the throne,
On Phi lip 's death l he Greeks de-
Alexander' , Teac, inn wa' so fa' l
that he re,' onquered Greece without
striki ng a blow T hen he turned to t he
north and weSI, all opl'O' itioll ,
these campaigns he was re-
ported and again revol ted
Ak xandcT tumed smit h . gain and lhe
Greeks surr endered, all lha' is except
Thebes, Alexander took the city and
rased it w 'he ground
I nvas ion of the I' e r s ia n e mpi r e
In the ' pring of a " ' mhined
donian/tireek arm}' of 30,000 inf.n' ry
. nd 5,000 ca",lry was ferr ied aero" t he
Dardanelles into Asia,
W'hil" hi' army was crossing Alex_
ander ' ailed fOT Troy. He wa, tho now
champion of the GTeeks
and, as Achilles had done [,000 ye.rs
hefoTe , he ' acriflced in l he lemple of
Athe n.
T he Persian' were de tennined to "op
Alexander' , <'amp. ign hefOTe it "arted.
l-leyond t he river the Persian
e",'alr)' were drawn up in line backed by
phal.nx of Greek mercena ries, In tTIle
T heb. n 'lyle Alexander had " Tengtb _
ened onc wing, he led himself,
T he a!laek came from lhis
.[ the head of the Companion
he charged aero" the ri ver . nd
srnashed , hmng ht he Ii ghter- armed Per_
siao horsemen r he Per,i. n c",'alry
btoke . nd fted, leavi ng the Greek mer-
cenaries 10 [heir fa,e, Alexande r sho" 'ed
'hem no mer, y.
T he folk,,,'ing year w", spent in t b.
subjugation of Asia ,\Ii no' (T urkey),
The Persian king mot ched nort hwards
",i' h a large army and Alexander mo"ed
soul h , ,, meet him. The two . rrnie, met
at I"us on the border of Asia Ivl inor and
Syria, ARain t he Slacedonian ea",. lry
,,,,., hed , hrough lhe Persi.n archers
and light _a rmed The Grea'
King did nO{ wai' to see l he hut
raeed from lhe banlefield in his chario!.
Alt hong h a[ fir" the Persian army
!i)ught hr. vell" new, of ' he king',
dampened l heir ardoUTand the)'
too <urned and fled,
Before advancing ea"wards Alex-
. nder knew that he must , eCure hi' line'
of communi,'a, i"n hy g.ining " mtr,,1 of
S. low
A'.,,"cIe" , " " ,nd ",os, oo, tly b,"l. A' , he
Hyd. ,po<,n 31 7 Be '0" Macedon.,o, _ ".
""n"ond by a" Ind"" ,,"'v w, to 100
.l eDOa"" The po, I" , , dv," ceO "," 0 locked
d"v'"Q ' ''em b, e' ," eonfo"oo

the """'st and '" cut olf the Persiam

from l heir tket. Only T yre, which was
situa'ed on an island aoout 800moff the
wast, n:fu'edto ,ubmit . The held
ou' ro, seven months, When i' finally
rell Alexander showed no mere'yto t h"'e
who had held up hi, grand he
cr ucitied many of rhe men and sold lhe
women into ' lavery,
With their 1;""" gone t he Persian
fleet defened. Alexander now ad"anced
on Egypl whi ch was quick to surrender,
and he .stahli shed t he city of Alexandria
On the coa" dose" '" Gree"e.
The Macedonian army now returned
10 Syria and from here marched ea" _
ward" c",.,ing the Euphrmes ,nd 'he
Tigris into the heartland "I' t he Persian
empire ,
T he Gtea, King had had a year and
half ,,, ""Ilect rogerher a new army, At
Gaugamela in 33t Be AlexandeT again
erashed the Persi,n wing and
again the king fled. T he Per,ian infantry
resisted valian,ly, hut when subiected
to a comhined ea"al ry and infanlry
" ,",ult it crumbled and the Pe,-;;ian em-
pire fe ll .part wIth it.
Alexander now man: hed on Babvlon
which 'urrendered. Suso .nd Persep"lis
aho Jell into his lap. Hearing tha' Dariu,
wa, at Ham.dan, Alexander hastened
nonhwatds, Once more the Persian
king tied. Riding day and Alex_
ander pursued hi m. Just south_ea" of
the Caspian Sea he e,ugh, up, hut the
Great King was by his
bodyguatd
All wa, n"w a"eomphshed but Alex_
, ndeT', rest less spirit would not let him
"op. He continued his marc'hea' tw,rd s,
baules and founding "itie, . lie
heard of oppo'i tion in the north
t urned in thi, direction, lie p"",d
Samarkand and pu,hed on into Ru" ia
tothe end of 'he known world. Here he
established ,norber town called Alex_
andria the Farthe", He nOw retra"ed
bi, 'teps southward' and went into
winter qu."er> at Balkh in what is now
northern Afgh,ni",n
In t bc early summe r of 327 II<: l h<
army crossed the western SpUT of lhe
Himalayas known ", Hindu Ku,h ,nd
descen<1<d into thc valley of tbe Indus ,
Hen: il wa, "pposed by an Indian army
with elephallls, The M.cedoni,n,
won the baule bUI with terrihle
losse' , Aft er 'he b,,,l< Alex.nder , et out
1<)< the conquest of India bUI hi' army
refused to go any fart her. II wa, dear
'hat the soldiers had h, d enough. Re-
luctantl y he l urned sollth towards the
er,." and from there returned to Bahy_
Ion. Two years later he was dc,d He
was not quite 33 )'C,,, old.
T he s lruggle fo r power
On the de.,hof AIe"nder his great em-
pire fell t<l pieces ", gene,,1 vied with
general in the quest for power. Antigo_
nu, . nd Eumenes fought for runtr,,1 of
Syria. Eumenes wa' defe",ed and exe-
cuted in 3t6 and it "'emed for a time
' ha t Antigonus, with the help of his 'on,
the brilliant Demetrius , might be able
to re-establlsh the empire . Hut in 30t
four other general " Sd eucu" Ptolemy,
Ca"ander ,nd Ly, imachus, combined
forces against him and he was killed,
W'ith t he death of Alllig"nus thc
south- ea,' of l he empi re hc", me re",on-
ably ""uled, wilh moS! of Asi. under the
<Xlmmand of Selcucus and Egypt under
the control of Pwlemy, Both ,he,. men
est.bli shed dyn. " i., ' h", b"ed until
the Roman conquest. The 'ituation was
di fferent, however, in M.cedon and
Thrace,
Af,er the defeat of Antigonus, Ly' i_
machus, whoalready" mtrollcd Thrace,
re"eived nonhem and central Asia
Minor al'o. Cassander ruled Macedon
unt il hi, deal h in when lhe
dom fell to hi' twO ' "ns. T he incvit.ble
"iviJ war f"lIowed. I n
son DcmelTius, who h, d hcen n,med
' I'oliorcete,' (the stormer of citi<' ) after
his extraor di n"y exploi" in the fid d of
' iege w"f"c, intervened and took over
MACEDON 360- t 40 HC
T HE MACEDONIAN WARS
l he thTone. H,ving ",cUTed a power
h" e, Dcmetriu, immcdiatel y began
.ssembling a vast army in order to fulfil
hIs father's dream of once more uniting
l he empire ,
Fift yye.rs earl ieT Philip II had estab-
li' hed his brother- in- law Alexander as
of 1\'lolo"ia in Epiru, on the we, _
tern bordct of Macedon. Fmm here thc
ncw king had quickly e' t, bli,hed his
aUlh ority over the whole counlry. By
the time that Demetr ius "'ok over In
Maccdon, Pyrr hus , , not her of t hose
eXIT.ordinary generals with which the
4th and 3rd centuries . oound, had taken
over as king of Epi TUs. Ab Tmed at ' he
prep" ati"n, that DcmelTius w"' TIl,k-
ing, and seei ng. chance to extend his
own kingdom, Pyrrhus formed an alli -
ance with Lysimachus and for
the invasion of .\ h eedonia. The ,\-Iace-
doni, n, h, d had enough. The popula-
ti"n was already exhausted from its
many w.rs and, seeing Demetri us'
determInation to involve them in a
nev<l_ending contli"t , the .rmy muti-
nicd ,nd deserted to Pyrrhus, proclaim-
ing him the new of Macedon, But
Pyrrhus' ",as equally , hor(lived
and he in hi, tu rn w"' driven out by
Ly'imachu" who took over Macedon
,nd Thessaly in 285 llC. Alexander's
were by now all ver;- old men
Ptolem;- died in 2 82, I.ysim"' hus was
nearl y when he w",
Be'ow
Mep ''' """"n9 A' e' aode, s o. m"" 9'" The
' 00 lioe show' t"" ,ou,. 'e'e" bv h" "mv
Af''' , ,he Hyn,,,,e, AI"end.,'s "oops woul d
go no fun"",. He ,e""oed bvweyof t"e ' Q<J t"
00->" to Be",""', wh"e toe d,.d in 325 BC
GREI'.CE AND MACEDOl"I A
ag;ain.. at the battlc of Coru-
pcd ium in and [he following yea,
Sclc""us aloo died.
Ptolemy Philadclphuo .",,<ttdcd his
falho:T ... t,,,, of Elol'l Hi. Im>thcT
CcTaunus toot ewer t ing-
Jon, but ho laded <bt Uttngt h of his
pmkcnsor and ""as unable to hold it
"'P"hcT. Thna and Macedonia WCTC
constan,ly , hn;atcncd hi" barbari.on in-
vasions from tho north which Ly..
mach had succes.fully hold in "hcdr..
So the Ceh. a nd oche, [ribes along
tho I)anuht ""","ed into Th"""" t illed
CcTaunus and O\.., n hi. l:ingdom.
They pushod nn o" h""",<1> until thcy
"'.= 6nally defcatcd hy the ' >TeCh a'
Delphi. They t hcn ret ired nonh....a'd'
ravallinll Macedon;" a. thcy ""cn!.
tillonus Gonatas, the oon of Dcmcl riu>,
who had remained in "on[TOI of the
Moced"ni on ",,...,..ion. in G'e<:<" e arter
the <:lI pul.ion of hi, father, had ncver
givcn up h"pc "r ' cgaining thc kingd"rn,
:-.I"w, during [' yrrhu" absence on his
aho't ive camPllign against ,he Rom. n,
in ."ut hern hall'. Antigonu. ma"'hcd
into .\laccdon, dofcated the Celts and
seized thc throne, Thc Celts retrcated
intn Thrace, where remained in
control of the c"Ountry fnTmorc [han 60
yean. Some nf thcm cros..,d nve, i nto
A.ia Min", and 6nallysetllcd in Galat;",
In Ma "Cdo>nia An' igun... GORa[a. set
ahou[ restorin. order aft<:< .he long
ana,d'y. His p<aMsinmincludcdTI>es-
saly, lkoeo<ia. Eubonl and the t_"1I' of
Corin'h. Aqtos, Si,;yon, :\ le-gaJopolis
and Mnscnia in , he Pdopunnesus. Bu[
pcaa: ",-as ROC SO czjlj' "'"On. When , he
TWku Pyrrhus , ...u,ned from Italy ho
laid claim", m""h of Antigunus' realm,
In 27S he in...scd and con.qucrcd Thcs-
and uM"" Macedonia. and , ben
ttuned to the Pcloponnesus. A,ui gonU$
followed him ,o.nh and
to him a' Argos. Hcre the Epirot
ki nlt "'... t illed in a stn:et 6ghl and hi.
army, " " hout their leader, returned to
I:pi",. At last , in 070 Be, the Ma",,-
donian throne " .., se-curc and a d,'na"l'
establi.hed tM' " 'a> ,n 1..[ un,il ,hc
Roman """'luc", in , 68 IIC.
High' }'eo'" \>ef",c the dca,h of P)'l-
rhus f" ur to....n. had for med a
of defence against Macedon
which WI< tn """nme known a. t he
Achaean I.caguc , Dur ing' he succeeding
, 'ca.. ,i x nt hcr town, jnined .nd in oS'
Sicynn, one of Ma<:cdonia' . keys to [ne
Pclopon........, ...... libe""ed and i<>incd
tl>< 1cal!"C. C<>rinth .nd Acrocorin, h
"'.= likc...ue dc,ached rrom the M.ace-
donian Finally T l'Oett n and
the ot her tn"n' of ,ho <:al and 'IOU, h
joined so that ,he ",'hole n( the """, horn
PeloJ-nnut ....uble 10 for m a united
front agains, Mo.oedon, AK-eond league
"'... formed by , ho: Aetoliarts in ""nnal
{irre, ,,'hKh .uc<:ccdcd in ""tending
its rontrol ewe' lkoeo<ia in ""IS , 8}' the
time nf An'iJOl'u" death in thc-sc
t" " ....It""" had g<ca[]y rcdo<:cd tl><
po""" "r Macedon in , he sou,h. An,i
g<lItU. " ua:ttded by hit son Dem...
riu. ] I, ho f.iled tn ""..iet
piraq' in 'hc Adria,ic ,,; , h , he , esuh
[ha' tl>< Ruman.....e'" forced '0in'c<_
,'ene in giving the m a r"", hold in
'hc Grttk pcninoul.
C<>nfll e t with Rom"
Den' Clliuodied in 209. leaving a }'oung
" ," wh" Wa' 10'" 10 l>ecome Philip V,
In the meanti me hi, h.lf-cousin, An-
tig"nu> J),,,,,n, a..umcd p"weL I n thc
sou, h a rejuvcnoled SpaTI a undcr its
king Cleomenet had begun to makc in
road. into ,he poolse..i,,", of lhe
Ach:ocan league, Contu'}' '0i.. avowed
aim. the leaguc turncd tn Macednn for
assistance and fonncd an . lI iance ....it h
Anti/tOn,.. I>OOUn agains' SpatU. A[ thc
""nlc of Sellasi. the Spartan. ....<:<e de_
d,;wly <kfea,cd . nd Qcomcncs dm..,n
from the thronc. Phili p tu.cettded to the
Ma 'C'donia. n throne in 02' and run_
tinucd Doo.,n', policy of oo__opcr.uion
.... th the Ie-acuc. bu, Ihi . time against
lhei . mutual cnemicf, the Aetoliarts. I n
z, SPhilip un.... ,1m;.. in hio"'" ..' ,h
Hannibal ....hieh resulted in his Ii..' ,n r
with R<;lO\'"I( . Th........ n indcci5i.., albir
in ..-hieh the Roma". "'crc primarily
in[cres,ed in t eepi ng Philip hus}' ,,'hile
they dealt " 'ith Hannibal . Tbc """T
liukd out in aos and a treatl' ".,.......".n,
hil t it " ... only a manc. nf ti"", before
'hc oonftict " resu med. Philip, look_
ing for . ne phere nf interest, turned
.... and fonncd an alliance "1th
Antiochu. , he G'ea' , [he king of , he
Seleudd realm orS,'ria
Duringthe 3rd century the , mall Slatc
of Pcrgamum had emclll:ed in WCstC, n
Asia Mino" At filSt it h. d been undCl
the , u, craint y of Syria hu' had late,
,h lOwn olf t he yoke becomc
an independen' "a'c.
Abollt z,o tIC Anal... ,he king of Per_
pmum had ......n a .",at over tbe
Celt., ""ho had mill""ted to A.ia. .\I inor
and vinuany ruled the coun,'}' , fot'Cing
i.. inhabttant. to , ri bu' e '0 tbenl.
Durine .u.cettdi"ll ynrs he had estah--
lished a """,II e mpirc OVCI" much of Asia.
Minor bu, i, ..... -.n lost to the rising
p""oer of AmiochU$ ,he Gn:a.t. :-.I.....
r....,,,,, lhe a>mbtna'ion of Philip in , ho
,,'CSt and An..<>ehus in the CUI, Analus
af'f'COlled to R<;lO\'"I( foe help, In ZOO the
lI. oman. , at las, free of Hannibal and
I'toI>ahly equally ,,'t"ofricd ahoot , ho
efJC'<:1 nf the alhanee between Ph ili p and
Amiochu. d..d.rcd ....ar, Late the ..me
.umme, a RoltUln .nny landed i n IIll'ria
and ,I>< ratc of Macedon " ... ",ak d. In
Philip "'at defcatcd at Cyn""""ph.-
I. e and r"reed ,n .oe thc Roman line,
Ant iochu to pr06, by thc
"acuum left in Gr<-.: af,eT,he fill of
Ma<-.:don. invaded Eu,ope hu' wa.
d, iven m it and defeOled by the Romans.
fi rst at Th<:<mol'ylac and later at
ne,i a in A,i a Min" , . In '7' Macedon,
now under thc cx' mmand "f Phihp' , ",n
Perseu. round it..lf at war with
Romc, The ncw t ing ..... s defcalcd at
P,'d na in ",uthe.n M:lC(:donia in t68
.nd hi. kingJnm ..... . com'ened in' o .
Roman pr'Wlll. A hundred years later
SITia also bltme Roman pro" ince,
and a llCnention af'erwards Eglo'pt fol-
......oed , "it ,
T HF. :o; F.W .\IACEJ>O:O;IA:O;
AR.\"'
TM Inr. n. ry
E>..,n before Philip's aa:cstion. <bt
.\l.acedonian cavalry ...... prnbably <bt
best in GfftOe, II was d"''''"11 f<om tho
arist..........,.. and, .. in name, the Com-
panions, implic'o. it ltUIy haw oriItina,ed
in a mounted 1'0)..1bodn;uard.
The infanl'}' , ,,'hieh " ... raised from
the pea..n'f)', " ... a f. r diJf=nt maTlet.
Iad.illjf in disciplinenining and or-
gani...,K>n. Philip imposed . n aust=
code or ,nining .nd discipline on hi.
army. , hem ,n m. ke rcjI;ular
f" lI. ..,d ..'ute with full cquip-.-
ment . nd bal/.lfage to harden t hem
again.. , he rig"u," of ....a r. He banned
thc u"" of wh...,l <d , ra", port and allowcd
one 'e,,'. nt to evety ten men to
"arr y the hand mill, a nd ropes. The
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JO.1Dd :>q. pu. """'" " 'I ' "''':1 '"
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u, p....-. f'OOJI' tuUOU!W<X>:>q' ""...
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GREECE AXD MACEDQXIA
art ick M .\laccd,' ni. n ,ari"" " cal-
culated Ihat a 'z-cuhll pikc wit h " , hah
jUst und.' r 4= ill d iameler. w"uld
. bout and PoI!'biu. laler
t 4 cubil 0... aboul Sk, . It i. mull " '011-
der t haI Pnlrloiu$ """,menU on ,I><:
greal ,,-";ghl of II><: ",nna. moking il
dIfficu lt fnr tl><: 10cal1')' 1"'1i-
..dc ...kc.
It ,crtain th.. thc .\h,-c<i"nian
were ",'1 rc' t ricted to t he
uSC of t h" ,,,.;, "'_ hUI, as de-
manJ<:d. used ,,,her "",apo" . , TI><:}'
coul d hardly"'" T1' on .iege ,,'il h
the pi ke, al Ieaot cc-nainl}- ..... a
pi ke of ,hat length. s....-erallimcs bot h
Diodnruo and Arri.on impl!' lhal 'he)'
used ia'elin .
It i. un,..," ai n h<.,W toc cOTly' .\\ 0<"'_
.Ionian Wa' armed. At thc
timc of 1'"lybius he prob"hly wore
hel mct .nd a melal
cuira... if he "'a, a h om rankcr, or a linen
cuirass if he 5eTVN tn II><: o<beT .,mh.
H" a1"" carried a round shield .boul
60cm in d..",<:'",r. The- seem.,ob<: no
real rnson for . UppOil1"8 t haI I><: " 'as
mu.;h a<rned in tl><: day. of
Philip . nd Alexandor, Cenainl y :"rri.n
"" part "r Alex-
phalanx. impl ying that
must als<> b<: a port. II
seem. puo,ible lhal 1"'- in lhe rear
ranh_ ,he _<lgO<i, ........ no
body' armour.' all
s",...,nl cumpl... of I><:J _
me" han bn found of "'hi,'h tl><
Th<acian 'ype i. , he """'I comm"n, 0 ...
m.y he , oxn <m Ihe Alexander ,aroo-
al Ist .nhuL Fou rt h_cel1luty
Thradan helmet< " hen ha" e ,' h k
piC<....,.. in ,I><: form " f . bea. d and mou-
nacl><. and Allic helmet.
al$O ron,inU! in .......nd a conical ')'pe
of I><:lmet of unk"",,'n p;uemlllC' "'Z>
al.., popuJ. r a, , hi. , ime.
Di odnru. Ott m, to imp!l' ,hal equi p-
mcnt waupplicd free. Thi, .ppr.... l0
he supporled by rhe late 3rd-<:entury
Amphipol lO inscrip,;on which Ii".tine.
10 be iml""'Cd for Ihe los. o r i' ems of
T h i. could only b<: optr.tbl"
tf II><: equipmem " 'a upplied flff.
A, C"o.., r_i"""""mg lerTi,,,,",,,, came
undr< Philip'. """,mi. "''Z> 10
inlroduce u nn. int o hi, ann)' .uch
., l ho Paronian, and latcr t ho The>_
,ali.n. , a"olry. Al Chaeronea in hc
w" ahl e '" 30.000 infantry' and
2,000 cavalry, When Ale,",, <l or i"v. ded
A,i a ye.rs hi, '''l al
had ri""" to 44.000 infa" , !')' and 6.Soo
,-a"al'). but Ihi. ""'" romin-
/t"n,. from ,ho G..,.,k ...., ....
Alnan&e' . a r m)'
DK>doru, ... a hrcakd<no'n of Alex-
. nd,... ar my : 11,000 infantr yand , ,soo
"",' . tr y were left in Eurol'C .nd
infontry and cavalry lr.n'p'med
I" t\,ia Mim", T hi, in" a, i"" f",,"e wa'
made u pof 12.000 "'''''N " nian infantry
t<lnf"...:ed 1>',' 7.000 fro... ,he alhN
Olaln. mr"..,nann. 7.00<> infanl!')'
d....n from II>< front ien of
and 1,000 arcl><" and Agnani." ja' .....
lin",," . Th= 10., .. '''"'' d....'n from
m,lUntainou. "0" horn fron, let of 1<la,,,, _
do". T he ca". lr y we'e made " I'
of .\hcc,j on iam. T hes_
han" 600 ( irook. and 'i'OO T hracian
and Paeonian .......UI .
It i, mo<1 rq<<<, ''''bJc ,ha, no... of lhe
pnme -.Kn r"" II>< perm of Phili p
and Alcull<kr N"c 1"to< main
"'0'" on i, h)' Aman. woo
1i"N more t han 400 y'ea...fler rhe
",'cOl' Ihat i, dese-rihing
' 1'he, 2.000 ,\ !:lc-edoni. n infant", ae-
eomr.anying Ale""nder "' cre ,xlmposed
of lhe 9.000 Companion al ready de-
scrihed. and 3.000 !oyptnp' SlS. TI><
to.ooo \efr in Europe seem a]", 10
bc-<n cotrlJ'O""d of phalangi'", .nd
It).ptnf'l'" dividrd in ,I>< ..
IK>n,
T he hypa,,,,,,, (l ilerally . hidd_hcar_
er1) worc infantry Ihan
Ih. f,,," comp. nion, h"t
.iu. Ihem in hallie. They w.. u.ually
drawn up hc' wttn rhe phalaml; . "d II><
ca,.lry. Th.. i. job was probahly 10 vro-
,e:-ct II><: ,..,.,' lIanks of II><
phoolanx. It see"" likely IN' 'I><y ..-etc
.nnN as ,he , ..dirional ,,'ilh
'pelOr and ArllW" . hidd. T l><: ir name
,, 'ell go ba,'k r'" prriod when the)'
formed a body of . quire. ro t he ('-<lm_
panion (a".lry, It w", I'rohahly Philip
who u.vdnpe<.l ,I><:m a, full y HodgN tn-
fan'fY uni". bin l he)' are """ mentioned
I><f",erl>< rime of Aleull<kr. The: lnipa_
,po'", ""'''' organi.."j ;nl o battalions
( c/'; I",u /';n) 1.00<:> "tong. The Ii..t of
Ih=, II><: <l,fnooa, ,,-as lhe body_
guard,
Toward, ,he ood of Arri.n, l ife of
Alexander. hc ",cmion unit in Ale"-
B"low
1"" I, ,,,," ow o" '0'0'''' _ w" nI,mo"o, pt.,..
on !he M ',om TOOo ," ,he VOl'oal' 1"'"_
G...."" ) n ""'" ()/ .m\CKI ""9"" '''''
_'htl-. _ .. _._..

-
Fouon_"""""" -.....
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I't>r;o,on _ """'" """"'."'" .. .
be..d ..", _ " laChe "om .. '0
B"'g.". ( .,e,"o, To..",, ) A'cha. ol"IJ,e,ol
"',,,,om. SoP""
2 l . 'e C.... o"". " tv,," to.,,'" _ Sol"",
B""... "'_
3 II<Id """ """"""" __, G.-. _
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GREECE AND M ACEDOS I A
eigh' dp he "'l" I"" lloo ca,...Il)'
" "uld oc<.. one ",,.It, In o, hn word.
,wo pace. are allowed pcr horse in ,h.
rank, T he mo", dep' h mu,1
h. ve bc<:n four deep.
Bo,h ' he T he....h. n .nd firk hone-
men ....,re .rmed "" h. pea.., The 900
T ltracian aOO Paeonian moun,ed ...-outs
" 'er<: armed ..i, h ja'elins. Their prime
job " .... t o ocout ahead or ,he army '0
check for ambu.heo and to make conUc't
,,tt h the e",ml' . Akx.wnder .1", uoed
,hem a grea' deal for , klrmi,hi ng. Fou r
of Balk. n lan"e" .re al,o men, ioned
a, Granicu" 1<> Anian ( Ar>
T t h"y wit h 'pe... at d ose
quaners. Aleu nder .1' 0 draf,ed 1,(XlO
Penian moun.ed . rehen d uri ng . he
A. more aOO more oriental
IIone-mm were drafted, Aleltande-r
finall y had ' 0 reorgam"" ,he a,...lry. li e
....tained l he royal ;quad"'" but formed
the <>the, Ii"e iLn into "'pt>,m;lruo, ea<h
with 0"" il<l of Companion . T he hip-
"",chy M<;ame t he standard unit of the
!"Iacedo" ia" c. "al, y, thc'l"l'iodom. di_
vide, ' he h,p""nhy in'o eijl:h, ila;, eac h
commanded by . n il",,,It, I ii. ide.lised
army h.. , wo """al r" " 'inl!', each oon-
....ing of fotor InpparelrJn,
A, the bau le: of Gau, in 3 1J DC, II
yean after lhe death of Akx.wnder,
Il'peof a,...lry called ,.".... are men-
,ioned. The)' are d..."." up in .m.1I
t roops ahmJl 30 . " , mg . Thi. may p"we
tm-i r [t.l ian origin a' Rom.n c,,'.lr}'
ItmMe were ) " 10
Arrian 'hey were moumed ;a"e lin..",
'IX' hcn Alexander di "rihuted the
after ,he batt le of Gaugamela .
.\Iao.-.donian cavalrymen reo:ived 'h....
ti..... more ''''n ,he .\ Iacedonian in-
.nd ,he allied cavalry . _
and a half nmn much. This probahly
n:dccro the oompara'i" e ra'....
In , he cav.lr), .. in ,he inf. n' ry, then:
was an order <If prec-ede nc" for e.eh d.y
and the hr.. tla 10 l>e called ou" ook up
t he po, i,ion "I' honour.
Our mai" "'uree of kn"wledge of
caval,y equIpment d uring ' he 4' h ""n_
'ury is Xenophon. who wrol e ..,me So
Wore ,he . ime of Alt-lUndc.. He
rec'OmmeOO_ I a coval!)"man _hould
" "elr a cui " ' t h proIccrk>n for lhe
,high>. jl:Wlrd for ,he lef, .rm and
Boeotian helme. ,,-i. h all_round ,-i_ion.
An excelle", example of of
hel mets, mayhe " 'en '0 on.
of Alexander'. lroope"" " ,," found in
Ihe T igris. T he .high pun,"",i..,n w.o
probabl y , he puryge., The left orm
guard, used i" ,he a b.once 1>1' a shield.
' <:em, to ha" e l>ecn in vogue onl y in hi.
own <l ay, I I . , uggeSl' ""'n,,, che..
pi al' and fao.-e jl:uard (e ham_
fron) for .he Ito..... Nn uampl", of
hone armour from Ihi. period ""'e yet
been di.....,..ered. X. nophon al", Jll"f....
lhe use of ,he ..... "'ed...," 10 ,he normal
I,,"o-edged "'''rd, and I.,elin. ra,her
,han ' pea",
On the I ..u' mosaic found a, Pompe ii
Alexander to be wearing" culr
., whkh i>, in ",me ,,,,pee'''.imil ., til
. ha, tliscnnred a' ( k<: p. 58),
cxcepl,hat "nil' l he chn, and .houlder
girdle ....,m 10 be made of iron. The
midrift io made of seal probably 110
, .... il " .... IIc:Itblc. and , he aiJm-e
i. appea", '0he mlKlc: of linen. Hi,hone
"'eo",. c"'mfro n but no The
Italian 4, h. ""mur y mu>cled cavalt y
cui.." (see p. 56) truly h""e !>een in
in Maced onia , ' here i. u nfon un.t ely no
cville n"" for or .gain" it.
T he a rmy in . h" fie ld
I n rnoo' re. pe<1 ' Ihe army of Alexander
,'arri.. 0" in much t he .ame way .. t h. ,
de. cri bed hI' Xenophon 50 yea" earlier
Orders are given hy tr u mpe'. T he army
deploy, from column of march ln,o
banle line, They ..ill do not huild Ptuper
fortilied compo, a)I"""at:h Alexander
oome.imn (OIl.truel1 duch and roll -
uJc. In ,he f..-e of ,he Penia... a, Gau_
jl:""",Ia. Aman .. .. ''''1 he ...d no
proper defenc,,", . 0 hi, ""mI' . Like ,he
Greeh a' Pl.,,,,,. he camped wit h h"
arm}' in ballie order ,
On t ho m"",h advanc.. 'c'Quts were
<eTIt out .he.d and. inc-e .hey are re-
fer red to eXI'Ii<illy a dv.n"" """"s, hy
implica' ion ,here .hould al", he tlank
"""'. \I:"hen apl' ,,*,h,"l ,he .....my
near lhe Granicus. Alaander ,lore.. out
tcrn .hn<I of ,he .nny (X>I'tSi ..ing or
.he SOOU" tt'ormnitring partie>. lhe
R.nlan Ian....,.. '00 Ii ghr-armed
troops . In ,hi, r..pecI Ihe .\Iacedoni. n,
wcre far . hu.l or the G..ek, . Pri,chet'.
in hi. ar,ide 0" 'mu,". \l uo'e, many
..ampl.. wher e "rmie. . nd
... bo.....tK1 ,.tt
... ooraoo __.. _
....... _"'_f....... "-- _
............ -0-.._11Io_ .... _
0>0'"" -"""" ..... _ """"'" but
..... ....0-'"10 __-' ,
2 H",-._hom..... __
,... "'........ -..,
3 b<t 0' .-,.... ' ""'" ",_"", I
"'""0"" A' hltn.
approac' hed each "'her undetected be-
cau,e <>f lack <>f ""outi ng or Nher
systems, The most notabk
example was a, M:ttlt inea where neil her
tbe Spartan, nor Ihe Arg;"e and allied
army knew that the ,>! her w"' Ie," than
hve kilometres away,
Sc'ou" in Ihe ",me of intelligence
,eeker> "_'em to have CXlme into use only
about Ihe time of Xenophon, but even
so t hey seem to have been litt le used in
Greece, Although Alcxandn, and pre_
'umably Philip, made use of Ihe, e
scouts , late r armies seem 10 h.,'e f. llen
back into the old ways and Ihe Koman
republican .rmie, were no b<otteL T he
cl.ssic ddea" of Ihe Homan, at the
Forh and I .ake Tras imene
could bot h h.,'e been avoided by the
,i mple" scouling, At
in 197 He the _"lac'edonian ar my
Philip V nor lhe Romans under
FI. mininu, had lhe slightest idea where
Ihe ol her was, i n spi" of , he t,'e! lhat
ool h could h.ve pl.ced SCOuls un
high ground in , ight <>f h<>lh armie,
Ihe descriplion on p, 'OS'
T he army in battle
Alexander normall y up hi, army
with the phalanx in the c'entre, the
"ronge", c'a\-al ry, including lhe Com-
panions, on lhe ril';ht and lhe wcake" on
lhe left , T he hy pa,piSlS were placed at
,he right end of the phalanx, The
,,-ing "-as fun her reinfor ced by lhe
. rchers and agr"" ,,". Tbe whole line
would usually be drawn up ohliquely
Wilh the right wing ad" .nced .nd the
lefl held hac'k The firsl au"c k would
alway, c'Ome from l he advanre d right
wit h him,e1f at lhe head
of lhe Compan;o" "a,'a lry
Tbi, was Ale,"nder', vers ion of the
I t was ad. pled especially
for use a.o; ai nst lh e fa" - tn()\' ing, lighl _
armed Persian tr"'-,p, _ the plan of
lhe hallie of Ga ugamela di, pla;'cd on
p. X2 , Arcian i, i" d ined t" unde restimate
lhe imp,,"ance of the phalanx in Alex-
anders b"tt les and to lreal the 'truggle
inlhe ""mre as a Only whe n
tbe phalanx is in tr"uhle and
manages ", relicve it docs Arri an report
its aetivilies, T his musl be b<ocause he is
Lott ond owve
1 A ",c" cd eh.mhoo t. mell., """, ,.,,
mas'ed helmet 3nd.,m Q"""' 'hown 0" 0
reli et 'romIhe "ne'"" yot A,henO" Pe,g,o,on,
Tu, y. 0 0W' at
2 8roole ""w, 1 Naple, Mu.-um
3 BrO",O chomtron. K,, ""uho Museum
2 , nd J "e prob' bty t>o, h , th C_"'ury ' M
m.d. ;" th_ ,.m. >oulh lMan "o , hop
4 Horse, we O''"9 "'.n'." ,"cO, " ' ;O' '' 'VO
,Md.. 'M"" on a pa,ntrn9 "om Ihe K."ol"
tomb on BU'g.", (, "" ont Th" c_j
360- t40 EC
THE NEW MACEDO:-.l IAN ARMY
writ ing a life " f Alexander and wi,he, 10
on the hero of his story, In
fact lhe cav.lry is only lhe sledgeha m-
mer which ; hallers the cohe';o" " f the
Persian It i; the phalanx
rou" win Ihe batt k _ may be
lhe most successful commander of all
but he can bardly b<o mmidered
the he;! He kft it to hi, gene"], t" win
lhe hallie whilst he was "if lhe
Persian cavalry. All hou.o;h he had ob" i-
ou;ly read Xen"phon's he
learned n,,'hing from the fat e of Cyr us
the Youn.o;er who was killed by. slray
arrow whilsl leading his cavalry. Poly-
hius, whilst nol di rectly c'ritiei, ing ,' Icx_
ander, '"y' thaI . gencral who Ie, d, hi.
" oop, is seen by l hcm all but , ee, no ne
of them,
For mino r expedi,i" ns Alexander
only pan of hi, army_ Thc<e ex_
peditio"aryf<>r<;" were mainly light and
fasl mo,' ing. Alex. nder normally com-
manded lhe m himself. T hey usually
consist ed of half I he Companion cavalry,
l he hypaspiSlS, ,he ag,-iams ,
and " nc or Iwo 'axei., of Ihe phalanx
Hor",m, ,, _ 0'; 09 a BO'3o,,"" ,,.,,,,,,, trom
tho Alo,,,,d., , ..00ph'9O>
6 BO'3ol., " helmotlouM;" Ih. Tigoi,
"""mOI.on M"""m_O,I"rd
7 11etmet of "", d., typo. To;, to' "' of h.,moL;,
, OOwo 00 many lal. r Holl e";"," moou ""," ",
Is"" P SO). A,hmo'. , " Museum
Som.. ,mM II><n ..tte ...Icoctood tr....n
whole Talhtt [han ..IM...
'.un., On """ <WXa<ion at kasl ht ....
[M lighl"" al1Md of lho: phalanx
and t"""= r..,,;n
,.....,cr '" m""h '" 9OI<m a
.-\ r' n Aln a nder-Ihe e lep hanu
T M m,,., changc thot ,,"'....
pl""c ,,([cr 'he death of Alrxanokr W
lhe imn >duClion of ekphan... A' ' he
h..' tle "r (;augamda [he Pe";an arm)'
W.' rei"f"rc'ed hy IS rlephan,.. T hi.
"' '' ' ' he hr" , ime 'hal European, had
""m,' up ogaimt war depham. 1" I"dia
l he .\ \.."ed""i,,,, had '0 lace up ' 0 200
elephon" al 'he halli e of t M H)'da'J"" s ,
They ,,-.,r-e li ned up a[ Jom i"",,ol. in
fr"n[ "f t M whole ann)'. T hei r print<:
chiC<.' then. a' il was la[c<....... ' " 'h'{'
[M II........ do no( like tM 011><11
of drphon". Tho: .\t:la'donian Iigh' ,n
ranII')' fin' "" acked [lie .."h
""eli.... trying [" kill ,he mahou" or
dri"en, Aleunde' ga"e ....ok"
for , he r-ear hol f orlht pholan. '0 ",,",,'e
up i"[o , he int....... t>-...-ren ,he Ii...... to
fonn b,..k......hield, r"""", ion. 1""""",.
ing ,he elephant' w;, h a rna.. "r'rnn.
and in thi' format ion J " ","e [hem t>a<k.
T ho; !;urupran. had been in[rod""'ed
to elepha n.. an d now, f'" hellrt ,,'
"'or",. e"ery ,,,If- re' pe<;' ing an"}' had
[0 ha" e t hem, For o"e, ' 00 yea.. 'hey
,,'err 'he gTea' gi mmick, Alexander
JOO of [hem wi' h hi m when he
returned (r" m I n,l ia.
The armie' of Alexander' . 'u,,,..' ,, ,,
u,ex! d ephant> ,Im""t
"""all')'. O<"",ionally ,hey We'"
u>cd in .i.Re warfare (or ."", h it"'- a'
learing d,,",n palisades. \'0><-" " up
for hallie. lhr ;n,."...I, t>-.....,.,n tM
anImal. wcre filled ",; ,h lieh[.onnrd
",",!". A[ bank or Gazo ( J IJ -.:)
[he ..... a u"il of 50 j.,'diJ"o<;('n Iinjlen
and arc",," (of " 'hom a ' hird "'CTe ho..'
II><n ) In iI ,n[r".,,). Diodorus imr! ....
, ho[ Ih he "anJard numhcr of
light 'rmed per ekphanl. The d..
phon", main "'Cllk ,pot ....... the ..<In of
ito fcet A[ 'he siege of .\ lcgalo,,"Ii. (J 18
DC) wooden rTame; "ud.kd wi,h
irun 'p, k", wcre laid in . he p. [h of 'he
ekphant>, ...., t hc hallk or Ga'a op' ked
d.,;e,"_ 1'<'" ibI}' .0I[rops _ . " nnect cd
hy chain, were thrown in frunt or t hem.
I n l\C Alexander', kin"". n Pyr.
r hu, i"" oded It oh' and int rod uce,l' he
Roman' [0 ,,,,,,,= hin. [ank ..-\. ,he:
,,'ar ..-as < ...-..l ma1fily on I.ucania.
d .. phan" rC<. '..... l he lI ' han nickname
of Lucanian 00"". All tho; clerhon[. ""
fa. mrn[ie>neJ .."rc Ind,a". Ho..-", .
ror J>Iokm). ,-'>I[ "If .. he ..... in Eg>' r [.
,uprl i", ..-" re hard I" ,..,.". by and it
" 'n no( long hef..re t he Afrie...n elephant
"'a, bei ng u",d, Ii'" h)' 'he Egyp[ ian>
and lal er bl' , h. Conhagini an,.
l>ol;-hiu in hi ' <ir'Cription of 'he
b,nle of Raphia (2 '7 "', ) rough, be_
tw", n ' he ERypt ;"n. and Syriam, men
'ion' ' ha' 'he Afric"" elephant ",a,
' ma iler [han [he India". Thi, has led '0
a ,Iorm or cont r""e.. y 0' .of wurse. 'he
",' e,..., i. " U<. T hi. wa. ofte n qUOIed "'
t1ofow
","""",,, :.,,,"'" '''''' --'"..
"""" by "'..-... _"II t.... :1m
DOn["..- tIC. ' bOO... _
. ..... ..... to f_ a""'" or ,_ ..
_. '0 'all OUt of t __" ,rna
""-
MACEDO}.] 360- '40 kC
T HE LATER .\ l ACEJ)O :"; IA:\ ARM Y
an example 10 , how t haI l'olybiu, wa,
no' "' well infor mcd "' hi , admirers
c1aimcd , Howevcr, i n Tec" nt it has
!>een , ho,,' n thaI t here was a ,pe"in
k"own as th" !" rest d eph.nt wh ich was
commOn in Nort h Afri"a in l'olyb ill"
J ay bm is now t here, T hi,
specic, measure, about 2.35m at , he
shoulder, wherea, lhe In dian mea,ure,
iU>t under 3m and 'he bush t ype
bout 3.5m, Du ring hi, ac,",unt of ,he
battle or Ib phia , l'olyb ius give, a vi,'id
de",ript ion of d ephants Ii gh' ing cach
"l her. They met he ad on wi,h l u, b
pu, hed wit h all its
weight, t r ying to compel the ot her to
give grotlllJ . Finally ,he Stru nger would
force t he weaker one ' , tr unk to one side
md then gore hi m in t hc exposed
Alt houg h t he I ndians who oppm;ed
did not ", e l owers on t hcir
elephants, t hc Indian was large
enotlgh to he fi ttcd wit h onc , TO""e"
,",ern fir" to have ""en u;cd b y Pyuhm
when he in' -a ded It aly. T hc l'ort h ,>'fri _
can forc", type wa, '00 sma ll to
carr y a tower , and ecrtainly lhc , ,,,,, ha-
ginia", never see m to have u' cJ them.
However, at R"phi a Ptolemy', dc-
pham, cenainly carricd ' hem. T hi,
,mailer elephant with its , ad dle back
wou ld us"ally h,,'e ""en r idden like a
hor, e.
I II 21H Be l he d ep han t reached t he
height of its fame when Hannibal
crossed ,he Alp, at the head of an ar my
which iJ\d uMJ 37 el ep h"n l<. Howcver
lhc heyday nf t hc elephant was pa" and
they ''''In fd l out of f,,'our.
T he tater Macedon ia", seldom o,od
ele phants and cert. inly t he y played no
signific"", part in the ir campaign, . ' I 'hi,
wa, probably bee'au" of t he diffi "ulty of
obt aining lh em,
The Later Macedonian
Army
Sl o" of ou r knowkdgc of ' hc ph"lanx
and of lId leni" i" war fare in genera l
"omc, from ,he I",er Hdlenistj " period
( 0, n o-,6H Our principa l so",ce j,
l'"lyhim, the mo" rdi abk of all t he
""eien! hi storians on mi li' ary matt crs
He gi,' e' m" ny descr ir ,ions of batt les in
whi c'h t he ,\lacedonian of phalanx
was used, and at one po int c,'en de _
, cri bes lhe basic st ruct ure and fun"t ion
()fl he pha lanx , However , he nc,' er goe,
fun her . He a separate tre at i", on
thi s subject whic' h i. n() longer ."tant,
and pmbably for t hi, rea, on did Ilc\t
elaborate on ,he sllbject in hi, hi" or y
Arr ian i n hi, AT)' "onfi, m, t hc
existence of t hi, wor k b ut no
de tails, It is un fonunate tha' l'olybiu'
no,'cr the t it le of e,'en onc " f
t he , uhordinalc offi cers of th e phal. nx .
which would gi,'e U> a fOOlhol d whe n
ex.mi ning t he wr iring, of later tac-
"Clan'
By th, ' " ,' en 'ur}' He Ilellenist ic "'ar-
fare wa, virt ually J c" d and t he stu d" of
.\Iacedonian taW ", had bc""",e a
branch (}f ph iloso phy, From t hi, pcr ioJ
,,",lme, t he wor k of A,ciepiodotus . I n hi,
t reat i, " he givc, all "CCOUnt of the sm",-
tu re, dr ill and tact ic, of an idealised
phalanx . He gi"C, a comp lct e break-
Jown of a phalanx of 16, 384 men. which
i, composed of ',024 files. each <'f 16
men T he figure of t .024 is ar r i,'ed at
bec",",e it is the te nt h powcr oJ ' '''0,
Such a phal anx as t hi s probab ly'
existe d. Only a' , he ba"l. of ['ydna".
16,000 phalanx Wit hin th i,
framework A, depiodolU' C"n project a
,

2 P,,' ted d" t, I,"", C, ".n" Campan.,

,hOW'"9 ' " 'nd,.n e,. " h,n, w<t h "',,. ,.,
O'Qbob'V f,omP,-" hu" ""' v. W" G," ' ;>
Mu""m, Ro m, "Io'e m, , m, II ,O', ,nd ' Ouno
b3C'
J '00;' 0 e"oh.nt w, m towe' ,how'n"o a " " e'
The Htm,toge. len,ng,.d
4 '" c'eo"v ,,","" Od Af,;c,n . 'eOhant shown 0'
,h, "'v.". 01, C,,,h,g,n,,n 00'" Note ,,,",
e. " and ,.dd'e bac'
I 'e".oo, " ' ;gur< ot .n . I,ph. n! w,th , lOW.'
"",ehe<! Oy eh. ,o,. Towe" we' to"t "se" ""
p, ,,"", "G';""'M Rom"", m100 Be It
woo l" "" a;fl"'ul1 oo>" 've', 1o 'aem,,, m;,,,
At""o 0' ' na;. n. f' om Pompe;;. N. ""n"
A"",,o,og;c, ' Mu,", um.
"
GREECE AND MACEDONI A
mathematical formula lor the ph. l. nx.
A' ,h" nre, are c"upkd in 'w"s, fours,
eights . nd so " n, he can reco,d th" n.me
of every unlt and officer Arrian in hi'
A" Ta ct ica a n . Im",'
aCc ount dm'in eil he< (tom Ascieplodo!lLs
or ftom a common sou",e
The basle unit of Asdepi"dotu, '
phal an x i ' , h. , yn,agma (meaning
literaily lhat which is put together) It
consi", of 256 men (16 nit, of (6) r im
rear guard " mee r (ou'ago,) , adiutant
(hYMrtI), herald (",a,ol",J.'x). signaller
and t' umpeter
(salp i ngk " ,) The'e we re all s upe r-
nu meraries a nd wer e not part of th e
phalanx. The 'Y"'aKma was commanded
by 'ymamarareh It wa, dh'ided int o
two co mmanded by a 'axiareh
Following the usual pract ice thc
,ymaKmatarch w"uld command ' he righ'
half "I ' he uni t and hh su bordinate, the
would comma nd the left. Each
' axi, was i n t ur n d ivided in", [w"
""archie< commandcd by ,,"arch ,
Each "rra,ehy w"' di"ided int o two
diloe hw i or double fi les eac h com-
manded by a di lo' hi u " and cac h
diloch ia lOllS , ubdivided into two lochoi
OT files commanded by lo'hagai A
glance at the diagram will ' how ,ha[ ail
, he' e offi c ers were r,unH ank men

Each file (10,10 0') h.d a h.lf-liie k ader
(h<t>,,'Iochiu ,) , ' wo 4uarteT.fLie leaders
(.nomorareh,) and a re ar ranKe r
(ourago,). It is interesring t" nott how
[he tradi,i""al GrecKunit, ' hc Io>ehos and
its , ubd ivi, inns, ha s ' hrun k, Th e
p,n" ko" y<> is now called a hemilo,hion
(half lochOl), the enomolia is " iil ' her e
b u' ""[,,1<,, of o nly fot" men , The
in,lividual .. nks ar e called alt erna tely
front ranK (prMo"a",) . nd Ie., ,"Tl k
(epi"a/C,). A compie'e Inman flIe would
m n,i" o( raok I, 2, epi" a" " 3,
p"",,"ates, 4, ,pi"a"" S, enomorarch , 6,
epi<ta"" 7, protosta"" fl, ,pi"'au, (who is
[bc rear ' ank omcer of t he haif filel. 9,
h,milochiu , . W , epi"ate<. 1I , proto"ate<.
12, epi"ate' , 13, enomotareh, '4, , pi",aus,
' S, and 16. ouragcs, The
"nomoran h' musr have been kn" wn as
front and " "r, as would tach _pi"ates.
S(} [h" , evcry man could ident ify his fi le
and rank In phalanx each man stood
nex[ t" m.n at Similar rank on either
, ide, omccr next ' 0 "mee" , pi,wus next
to and so on
"
S , nragmal8,ch
Asclepiodotus couples two ,y",aKma<a
1"'0 a pwtekosiarchy comm. nded by a
p"nt<kosiareh, whi ch he s i milarly
d" ub le s to form" ehilia rchy com-
manded by a chiliarch. Two ,hi!iarchi.,
formt d a m"aehy Ll nder a
adds ' hat lhis l ,048-strong
un it h. d formerly bttn c. lied wing
(k<ras ) or a compiement (rei", ) Con
se4ue nlly 1\\'0 of these would h..'e made
up " phalanx in an tarlier per iod Thi,
is "netted i n rht name for a dO!lble
m,,.,, ,,hy - a commanded
by a phalangarch (who wa,
gt ntral -stragosj A doubie phalan.
Abo, .
n.. c:c<r<=ilk<> 01 tt.. syn[agm3 , ,"" baOC "'" of
"" pM"",,, '0__.
__us "as ""ti'v " the tst centlry <C, 81 a
' ""'" '"""'" " .. """"', of """"""" ""'
"' ...... , .. ... ' of the remote _ 1>1d ,he st""Y 01
Mae""","" 1act>;O, had""""""'. ",...-en of
"""""""" ,_ t""" the """"'k<> 01 """""'"
taeOCaI rr>l<hOOs. "" ""_""
"" rr," "'".,...,_""
M C<>.Jg> the later Macede<1iao' US<>d ' '''' sa-ne
"""" '""", was _ . """'" an<) was
bya"""'!VW, The c<lit
...., ""' ..-npie( _ and was
01""-" """ consist", of
It'<.< locroi. _ """ was prolla<>i'j " .. sa-ne
L . '(}(;hOopS 0 = DI<:>c"""",
MACEDO"," 3(>0-' 4 Be
T HE LATER MAGEOO:"i IAN ARMY
I "',n,
commandt<l by a and two ",ngs
formed I command ed by a
".,,,.,...
It Ittma wonh rccord'lII all this to save
!be "'adc. hlIvtnC I(> tcfct It> !he <>nf:Inal
wort. bu' 'I>cfc probably neve, __ such
I phalan. as tbla ,_ ollhc divisioos
lod 'be .. ..
p.obably "
, n ""lma .hlt could
found and mob.., up 'host that could
001. '0 budd up I rlJjd m.,hem,,,ic.1

T h .. An.phi poli o .... iIi ' ary cod ..
In lod t9lS I r"llmentlry Ii.. of
. militlry ,elllllllioo.
bId found II Amphlpoll' "' ..
publi'hed. ThIS In.cnp'ion. v,bich
to the relgo or Phihp V (22t -118 scj.
lim. omonll otb.. 'bin",. 0 , ..it, of fine'
'0 be lmpo.ed for I"" of equipmm ' and
di" iplln. , y ma l.. " .uch a k eping
when on guard II al.o ", enlions seve", 1
lower o!J1cors I nd tlnll,. TI,C 'ym aff ma
is ,,""c, ", . n'IOll "d, no, i' it me"'iollcd
by Polyhl us, The Gree k hi st o,i o" ,
howc"", "'en,l" m a utli' called
s '1'<'''. Hc liso u"'. 'hi. word for ,h.
Roman . ,hleh ,.'a. . maile..
' "Clleal unl, of ,he legion. just as tbe
,).,,,.., .... I. lbe .. "<:hcal unll of
ph.l.n. The .pe..., 0'
irs co mma nde' ,be ,p.'""Io. i' 11.0
li m on ,he
.'mphi poll a i n.c,i plion Th. le.m
i)"'''''''' la neve, uO<'d '0 relation I<> the
arm,... of ,he G.eek penin.uLa bu' i' ia
....nl>Orled In documents relolinl: 10 ,he
Ifmi ea Eu,ope
S"",larIy. ,lit- ' IMi... Is neve.....n""ned
I h,dore ...m,
to tha'
lOU !be Greek w tllnn of the:
Ampb,poli. inscri plioo regularlY
.... ".c ....itb .pc.,d. in
sucb a way .. '0 aulQlCSl ,hat lhc former
.,ere imrDtdill'e .ubo,dinarcs of the
laltet .. he 'he
'econd Pltl of l b. Ampb,poli. code.
concludt<l bl-! comm. nlal')' by ."gge'"D>:
thal a , pd ,.. "'IS compo.ed of four
" ",,hi.. whleh _t. lOaM up of
fout I""hui. ThIS seem. ,,, be '<","'tI. bly
certain and one mo" th.ref{lte h" id in
doubt Ih" Inl<lm.dia l. officers - t he
'a xi a..h and Th e dil"chiw-menti oncd
bj' A>d.pi<><!o,uS,
11 would seem ,hat OlruC1\lre of 'he
philin. lbov. the .perT'
"... al.., "'Pnlsed on I fout -fold basis.
i.e. foo' .p.i,..i a ballalioo
ci lled I ,Ii.",.y). Ind fou,
ba".lion. fotmed a " ra",i.. colo-
maod.d by ..' ...., This h.. be.n
he . 1.0
men,iona ,b....dmlnl lin office..
Itt1Q 10form. b "'hy. l1>c>e an'
I , re.yp., lod
.yp.,.... Si ncc kno.... thol tb.
Iryp....., ...... officer
of tbe JYII'''PO'' '.pn,... tho .. ,..-IrYP"""
oulht I<> be ,he adm,n..tratiw office' of
!be banalion. and ,be l'""........... !h:Il of
,he ""'''ti'
only .."h I Nsic "",,,p'
of around m.n la Ihlt .. a,.
'0 bloc k '0,h. pmbkm.
f""St'd hy As<lopiodo,u' form"la, i.' . h"...
do you Inl<> 'wo a phalana
of , o,000. whleh wa. ,h. ha.1e of
Ihe phal. n. of bo ' b D"", n
. nd Philip V1
TWo tlnl" app. " tan"II' i" Rly in the
a nel e," a u, h"" b ul . Il h Th. ' il\'",
. hi el d, of AI" . lT dd, ar my, Ihe y arc
never cleatly Id.nTlned ARain one ge"
' he ,h.. ev..ybody knew wha '
,hey "" ere a" d ,h..e[o,e 'here was no
poi", In ,,'asring Ume lhem
The fi." i' 'he hroun .hield,. aod ,hc
other the .hiel d.
men,iona the braun .bleld, in hi.
Itcoun' of ,b. of Scllasill (. 21 IIC)
. he,e ' he, to be pa" of , h
, o.--.. ronll phal.o... but docs not
IIJVC the" ..renflh. Thttt \'C... they
&pio Ippear. &J.., Ipporen1ly .. pan of
lbe Ill.CJCO-"roOll pballn... M1ihp 11k..
}.OOO of .lIt-m (ImplylOll thli the unit .....
II,", thoro 1/Iu;) on IIi* .-in... expcd'bOOI
10 lhe Plutarch ....n_
them q:a,n al ,lit- banle 01 Pydna in ,M
.,. bu. lit- 100 add> no
.-h". ""ield> N,n up in PlUll""" ,
occoon, o f ,h. of Sell ..;. and
again In blS OCeoun' of ,be b."le of
Pydna On bo'h occasions ,hey '0
be pon of ,h. phllon... I ..ould th.refore
len,a'ively '"ueo' 'ba' Philip', pbalanx
"'as up or two S.ono' IToog
called tho wbi" and b,azen
shield. , eoch co n, b Ung nf five
..
..\ r m o ur .. " d weg poos
As ha' bee n me nti nne d he for c, ,h e
Macedonlan pbalang'" "... armed ,.i,b I
tr..ri". ) ,."hicb oaY' in
hi. mu.u,ed cubits (c, 63m)
Thi a lel\llb I. noI quI'" .., OU'fIl:COIl' IS
..,me eOmme01l 'oB ...,uld IU",,". In
Middle the Swiaa u>cd pi ke.
S.sm long. lod pIke. liP 10 S.7sm in
lcng'b ptUe"-ed in . be Sew
."""""00C$ ollhe T........ ol London.
lhat ... ...
-'ri&h1N II ,lit- hun end (presumably this
......... tha' il hod a beny ""od. !k!beo
eocs on 10 explain how it ..... bdd. Tbe
(ron, hand (lcft) 111">1'" ,lit- ",riss.. aboo,
4 <ubr.. (c t.8m) from the hull."h 'be
right l>on<l aboot 1scm funhcr block Th.
mean, ,bo, t o <ubi.. Ie. 4.5m) or tbe pike
Proiec,(d bej'Ond 'be body In ' be file
each man "a< lfllc. QDCm) from the mao
in froOl; 10 I ch0T'll' Ihe pixe. of
'he fits ' ,onlol w" uld PlOjec, beyond
,h. flOOl ' an k wi'h. a. Polyb iu. '";" .
cuhits h<'w.cn ,h tm. of poinl<,
Th. " ' art k' di d 1\0 1 tevel Ihei,
<pc"" bu' k. p' tb. m .lanTing up in The
air to hre,k Ih, lorce "f missil.,. whtl" at
,he sam. lim. "'"TR thdr to add
'0 'he to " e of tbe ch.. Tht phalanx
co" ld be d", ..'n op in ope" order
with t,,'o per lite. In d o.. orde'
wi' b on. lit e . or in lo d ed
,hield' fo,malion "'i1h only half a
PC' man, -'Ieunder. pl>olaru formed up
wi, h locked ,bl.ld, again" Potu. '
elcphanl< in India-
pik.. .-ere comt<l in the upngh,
posilinn bUi on ,lit- order '0 lnod_re
levelled and pbaIInx
A ........ve .peat bun . ,.ighing 1-07Q
and I omoIl af'Cll ' bead 0-"97Q
s'ere fouod .mong'b apona in 'lie
tomb or Pl" lIp II It in G=cr
....i'h s,,,mhaft tape.i og f.om
'7mm 11 !be polO[ '" 40Rlm '" diameter
.. lhe gnp produd a p;h .;111 a poto[
of at . l"""t the poinT
.. b.. Polybl u. u y. 'be fr on, band
obould be.
TlIe .\\occdonlln also carried I
''''''''d ..brob lit- ...,uld only"", if In> pil:e
blOk. The . ....o,d remlioed in
us<. but 'he mo01 popular ...."d of
period "' .. ,hppiJ, I
" 'capon ..."h I e""'ed blade: an .:<ample
12cm i' In 'he Alh.... Archaeological
.\luse" m,
Tbe w.. ar med ...i t h a
' mail, ",und 'bie id (",pi, ) which
Asde pi,><! nH" d,'""n"'" as lllilde of bronze,
GREECE Al'01J M ACEDO!>: [ A

,
, ,
O" QW
Mac<KlOO... .........",., Sea.. 1,8
, .,h-<;ontco, _ _0 ""'" V.... "'
~ - .
1 "h--cer>l"', ' '''''' .n ' he A'......
....c-..g"'..............
1. 001. 101 01 2.
3. .5 "'.., t>u1,. P.... .-""""">e,-"
"" prong ".0 _ 01 poke ... ""'" ,...
'''''''' 01 p,,;,... ... veo-".....
.-
loM .........., ..__"'11"'-"
..._'" "".- T....,., __
......"" _ . .,...." _ ....... llOc>YI ",
_ _ f>--7", long " ..
._ _ '" ann end ""'._l>,-
..... "'OJI
.- ... ....... 1210&_, 01 ....
_____......... n.._ ",...
..... _...-'8_ .,..,. ....
..,....01,... ..... '-._ ",..,...
_ _-, _--
..,.... "" to bo """"'" 01
-
....I ACEDON 360- ' 40 II<:
THE LATF.R MACEUO;'li I....;'Ii ....RMy
-_ .
,_ _on_
I '" on _to< __
l ' __..
...._"'Tu' 5coIoI
OA "'_ P <ong,..._ on .....
,," "'" monu ", of Aemol,u' P.... , Del""
T",............ a "ml,,, ""'" of ' ''''''' "",,, ""
A,g,,,,, O"p
S' ,OIOl ' 00"'" on '"" ,.".,J. f,,,,,, It'"
.. ",,,, " . '" AU,""a"
hs.,... 'nen much of the ..'rill[h' of , he-
g..,.' f'lke, When used .,..I<ide ,he
phalans "",hou, a pike. ,he handgrip
........Id he uocd,
repn:senta'ioD1.ugge.. , ...., ,he
[n Ih" "">e of ,he sil, hicld, brigade ,
Ihe f....c of , h, , hield "ul d have be<:n
tinn. d iuS! a, Homa n ar mour and
..... al" "" were. T wo , hicld, were repre _
"" m"d on the wall. oflhe , ,,mb "I' l.yson
and Callide, whic h IIIOS r....,mly d;s -
cover.d in .' \ acedonia, One of ,hese is
bwnuor gilded a nd ,he- oo her i. I""in' . d
...'ilh lhe ,ymbol of ,\ lacedon_ T he-
bearer of ,Iiihield maj' ha"e been 0
member of , he bripde of
l<yp,upUlJ ...'ltich ..,ncd ib the king' .
bodn:.....d--ur 0 member of the- royal
u.. of the Compan;on ,",,,,,11)',
[n hi. life of Akundcr , !,rrian of,en
ref... '0 ,he ligh" armed pan of , he
phalanx, [ t i. clear from ,he- of
Ih..e rem. rks ,ha, he i. nm 10
,he bu' to ,h. Companion in_
ronl ry. T hi. "aria' ion of ."Iui pmem is
.1", ""t; "eable in H"nnih.l's phalanx.
where group. of pike", . " arc of<c n re_
ferred ,,, h)' Pol y' biu. a. ligh, armcd, As
l' ol)'blU' d""", not ",mmem on ,hi,. one
mu., a..ume that it i, n....mal .
The Amplti poli. iMCrtplion 1i.I< a
ocaIc of fi ...... imJ'<"!.Cd on .\la.:edonian
malan,,,.. ("" 10>0 of p;eces of their
<qtuprt"lCnI, Thecuir... for lite urdilW')'
,ha' il "'a. rimles., i.e, Iha l i, did nol
ha" e Ih. b,oad ri m on Ih. in, id. edge
, h. 1 "'"' ' 0 <ha,acleri"ic of t he ATgive
, hield , 'I' hi, 'yre of , hiel,1 was a<1opled
", ;, w'" imp"" ihlc '0h"ld a ,wo-
hand.d , pea, ",hil.. u,ing an Argi,'e
shield, a, ,he letl forearm ",as held
again.. , he in,ide of , he- . hield h}' . he
armN nd and , he- ....nd """I d no, reach
,he pike. This is obviou.I) ....hy A",Ie_
piodolu.... , ...., lise d1idd most DOl
he .oo
The Aemilius PauUus \';""101')' moo.u-
men, a, Delphi ,""",. ,he ,...ide of soch
a ,iml......hield. It ha. an Argi..._..yk
a, mbolnd and handll1ip, A .., )'can ago
the au'hor made a wpy of . his shield
.... i' h a bronze fae'ing . imilar 1o , he one
found at PeTgamum, T he, hield weighed
ahou, Skg, Experimcm. ,h"w, d , ha' i t
"ould he handled ver y u,ing
only Ihe armband . nd ,''''!rolling the
angle ",i,h ,he nc.:k " rap. ,",' hen an
Argi,c shield i, being carried, , he inside
of ,he- rim fn. comfur,abl)' ' he let'!
shoulder ' ni ng ,he ....righ' off the ann.
Il ,..... ,he ahocna:: of , hi> ri dge on lhe
.'.'""""""ian t>l'C' l hat made a car-l)ing
....p Thi.....r .......Id oJ...
(
\

DO' !<Io and abo'" Hpalm. (c.

6o<m) in diameter, l -ike e"ery,lIing else
'0do ",ilh lhe Mace, h' n;" n phalanx, lhe
.hield hao ,",used mud! ",,,,flnio...
IOrqmc:n of a .\Ia.:edonian d1ield
... (""nd ar Pergamum in '!"urkCl"
n.e... oomi..ed onlj' of . he brorw:
.heath in diame,er )and .mall
frae"",n.. of , ..... had been
used ... padding betwttn ,he- ..mod and
bronze, S orlling rem,une,j of , I><: gnp,
The .hearh ...... a" ""hed 10 ,he ",ooden
hy four rectangula, l<mgu,," and a
Iin le ,,,"er ' 00 do". cuI along Ih, edge
of ,he rDeral ",hi<h "'ere folded m'er on
In ,h,' insi de,
I' lu' ar<h, d"c, ibj ngIhe Mac.doni. ns
. , ,he ha n le of Pyd na (, 1tC), ",ys ,h.,
,!>elr shield' wcr. hung on ,heir leI',
11<", Ide.... and ...'hen Ihey ad "onced they
broo,h, ,ht1n round to .he- fwnl. Thi.
has led ....... oommen.l1on ro 'uggc>'
. hMrhe .hield had no IDP. Repr<'\Cn'a_
.ions of . he ,\ t acedonian , hield ,ho",
GREECE ". KD MACEDOKIA
rank and file is calk<! a ""',!tw....
...'hcreas fot.he fron, ....nkn't ot offlttn
it i. rd erR'd '0as a ."-",, or __
."-",,. TI>e"",./tylro< has bc<!n plousibly
idcnllf1ed ".;.h ,he linen cui, , ...hil..
, ho ,,,-= and __'loor" ...., prot>-
. Ny metal pl.'ed. Th.i. d,lf""ffl i.
amphfied when one l<'llodt ,ha, the
offic..n " 'C'" fined ' '''Oc'C ao mu" h a. t he
nnk an<! file
Th. implie,,,ion of ,hi. i. , hat the
Iron, , ..nk wa, mo,e heavily ..rmed,han
the , uecceding ranks , and ;t is p'-""ib!c
thot ,he reor r. nks wo, e no body .,mnu,
., .11. The Amphipohs l'Clief menlinns
greave. , hdmcls and euira,,"s, bu'this
doc. no, necc....ily imply lhal .n ,he
rank> wo", ' hem, !l cenainl y seem. un-
likely, fo, ClWfIple, ,ha, ' he men bchi n<!
'he (mn, fiV<: , .nk> would rJoCOCd g",a>cs.
TI>e """Iprurcs . nd pain, inr of , he
period, both G.....k and E, ru..,.n 1100-0<
the ,,'ide variety of armour in a, ,his
lime. Resides . he baD; linen cui....
l)ptCl l of .he daso>cal en, quihed cuir
"'"" alto appea, on lal"" F.rruocan
"""'plu..,.. On sculplu.... """' al..,
find. varieties of pla.ed linen cui ......,
owcntd .." h ei.her scaJcs 0' ",'Crlap-
ping ",cungul. r pl.tcs (l. .....ll..). l"hf:
moa, f.mous i. , I\(, .' !.an from
T odi in 'he Mu,co Gregorianu a, the
V.uean.
The victory frieze from 'he TempI. of
Alhe"".' Pergamum in wen<rnTu'key
,hows ful1 _1e ng, 1i mu, d ed cui, a.., a
,ho"er cu i,.," which could be t he han;_
In",'." of ,he Amphipoli, in,e,ip,inn.
and par( of .. dewra"d linen , ype cuir -
.". T hi. , of Wllr"" w ul d have bc<n
J1\lOdc of in>n hke 'he ruira.. fn"" Ver_
gi.... . Thi. frieze a1... t bows Cc:llic
mail . h'r(. PoI}'bius. in hi. description
of.he Roman anny of t his period'''Y'
. ha. , he ,,'C.hhi... Roman. " """ tn.Iil.
..... he docs .... ""plain ...hat mail it, one
mun auumc ' hot ,he Greek, of his &,.
1.., """" il
The Thncian hel..... cominucd 10be
popular . nd is . """'-non lhe Perpmum
<'Clief . Scvo:r:d (}"J'CS of high-crmo.....d
I\(,lme"'Tl....hown. have
bc<!n de>'eloped as a defe....'C api..., tho
. I..hing , words of ,he Cc:h . T hi.
of h. lmet allowed fOT a g",a, deal of
padd,ng hel we. n lhe IOpollh
e
head and
the helmel , Al Ihis period, which c"O-
inc;de. wilh t he mos, ogw es. ive I"',iod
of t he Ce!l k inv.,i""" Ihe' e w. , 0
'endcncy I Oadop!. hilth--crovo'ned
helmeu.
The eo m poK" lon of lhe . r my
A' glance: , he composnion of , be lat...
Helk nioti<: annin docs ..... tttm ' 0 hove
changed much 51,.,.,.. Alen nde<', day.
The a nny of Anl igonu.
Down and Phil ip V .lill had !rypaJPlSlS,
peh. ..., s1ingo:rs and .,ehers . upport ing
lhe phalanx. Ho"",,ver , ,he"" do not
olways sum 10 pe'f",m Ih. s.m. t.,ks
a, in the eorlier I"'rio,j, T he hypa,pim
now seem , refer 10 a hoJy 01 "ajf
officers (who undr rt ,",k ' I"' c'ial ' . ,k<)
and Ihe the king ', hodyguard.
The Amphipolj"Ode ..y. Ih.. lhei r
lenlS ore 10 ho e''''''ed . fler
l OOse of lhe king and hi. immediarc
enlourago:.
The peh.... of Philip', army appe.'
.0 ho>'C compk lel y chaOlfcd. AI Cynos---
ccphalac the-)' f<>rrncd up aJonpide.I\<,
phol.nx and ,...en dntJblcd . heir depth.
lI'al bank has .uutcd, and I\<, Juts '<>
hc ri gh., . ha. rch.... "" ere in fact
ItypaJpUu. II'hc1 hcr t hey"....., armed
wil h pi ke or .par IS ,mpos,ibk to ..y as
cl\<, 50IIfCCS a", U >'Y calb
,h=poll .." "" ",,'i, ,he word used by
Desa, rOf lhe Spani.h lighH nncd
l'OOps who, if H.rmand " right, . hould
he idenl ified with Ih. lighlly d ad !Toops
wit h round <hid dbown on the reliefs
fro m O,u na in Spoin, [n 219 B{; Philip
had 5,000 of the.. pell.".,
The mo" nOlie-eahle change since the
lime "I AIc"",nde, w., Ihe SWilCh of
p,ior;';- from c...lr y to inf.ntry. In
Alexander', army the propo.,ion of
,,",. l, } to inf. n"y " .... a!>ou, ,:to.
,,' herea. in , he la'er Macedonian army
i, was around t: 20, One . hould not
make too much of , hi. _al ,he ballle of
Chaeronca in J3a . he J>rOp<>rtion " ...
1:15. The rcaoon for t he high propor-
lion of co,""" in Alexander's army " ....
,hat mobilily ...... l he key 10 t he ron_
'I....., of Pn'tia. [I ,,'as " ..II k"",,-n , ho,
Greet inf. ntry _ '"
thing Penia could produce, bill the
pholanx coul.J unly def"", ,,'ho, i, could
c. teh. It "". Phili p'. I'hol ."" ,hoI won
l he banle of Ch..,"'...a, and l he
ma"ive build_up or Ihe .\ l ocedoni. n
covall)' must ho credited to Phi lip
T h... wuld only he ""e ,c.,,,n for ,hi.
-Ihe pl. oned invi"" of Persia wil h
it' va" cavolry re.ourees , Although
-
--""..... __....
-.-<II _ Poop ......
' __euor-.

'-- nv..c-_.
_ S!ral>-on _
' $.
A,_ ,,," ,_of M ......
l __, ..."11"",;.,-<><1- 0<1<......
"""""'Y a ...."" off"... , pouoOly of ,'''
c.... v ,010 fto" n;,," . l ",-"". "'uMum
\
MACEDON 360-' 40 Be
THE LATER ARMY
-
5 ........,...- ....... E......,." ..... m,.",
_. "'d> ' go "'.-.n. fIo<era,
cl'OO8C ... _. __..........'"
.... _--
-
__

l _."" _ ,_ B<v->1OW1. in
.. Pr_DO. 3-d _'u", 8C
...""""""11 "'.-..n, $>twa
4 HOHo'''",e W 0''''"", Be Lou...
Mo""",
elf"",ive okirmishen, as hi. ttarguard.
T he baggage train was placed at t he
point (m heot from anyexpeereddanger,
If the threat WiSS from lhe fronl, the
bauale would he ... the back, and ,,'heo
rctrcatinl i. would be at l he from. J( an
artaeI< WiSS expeered from one lbnk, t he
baggage lrain would he plaoed alongoide
the phaJa.... Oft . he (lIIhe. lbnk.
\1:'ben IooLna for a I;3J'I1ping .i..,
lY<J(lIIo<.\ ,",'as cno.en whid. offered . he
best natural defences. PoIybi... enti_
cised the Gruk. for .heir lad of energy
when amp'na. eom""nng them un-
f,vounobly wi.h lhe Romano. In light of
thi, i ...,.". unlikely l hat the Romano
101 their ide.. of camping from Pyrrhu.
whe n lhey captu.ed hi. amp at Bene-
"en.urn, as u vy and l''''ntinu. rttOrd
it . \It' hen n""",,, ry t he Macedonians
did ent.ench, "pe,;ially if they intended
to stay at Ihe ..me .he for . ome time.
Li ke the Roman., they con.tructed
di. ch .nd raml' art with a pah..de along
the tol'. T he pali..de Itake. were cut
branches with ""ut sh""," . ll round t he
main stem, l' olyhiu, il ..ty crit ical of
t hose, a' he nyl t hat two or t hrce
otlOckers could logether get hold of one
stake and rip il nut . When they had re-
moved it , there w.. a gap lef< wide
enough for them to break through.
The Ma<."Cd<mian. may not have
camped .. well u,he Rotnao., but the}'
did poot pickers al(lfllthe apprNCheo . 0
the amp-a thlna t hat t hr Romano do
.- ....m to haw done. It " ... the re-
.ponsihility of the t m <U<lrUs 10 p",,-ide
these picker. and 01 the ..-rran:1s< to in-
speer them. ThIS duoy wu probabl)'
door Oft a n>U il ..... in lhe Roman
army. 'lltr Ampltipol.is code .t=seo
thal , at nil hl, inopeer;on, . houI d he
nude without a Iieh. so a .- to gi,..,
adv""", WllmiJlllto the guard.
'lltr line-up for banle wu . til l bai<:-
ally lhe same u in the pre....... period,
,,; Lh <he phaJam ,n the ernur fIanI<e-d
by . he pel....., . he hlht annrd and the
cavalry. difference now was rhal t he
key to the baltic was in lhe and
nO( on Ihe wings ,
At Ihe banle of Ra phia in U7 .he
younl Antioch... I I I of Syria, tryi ng no
doubl to emulate Alnaoder, charged
t he Egyptian cavalry and dtm'e t hem
from the field. l Ie pursued t hem '" far,
however, that by the time he returned
the battle w "ver and he hod lost ,
The ....., i n l be lield
On the march ,n hOSlile terrilory the
arm, was ltd by a rquJar nnguard of
Iigh._anned t<OOPa. Philip used his me:r-
..,ruries for this job. were llCCO/ll-
panied by p;onttn ,,' hose job was to
dear lhe fOIId, Ikhind these, came the
phalanx, with Iight-anned ' roopo in
("Irallel cnlumm on either .ide 10 ward
off anacks, If a n anack w... threatened
from one ft ank,the light .rmed would
co.er thil side only, Simil. rly, t he
rear g""rd w"' alll<l made up of ligh, -
armed """pI, Philip used hi. Cret . n.,
whom Polybiu. dco" ib.. al the most
cav.lry cominucd 10 ploy an important
pan in JUi. for about 100 yearl, al,c.
the death of Alexander ill Europe il
quickly ......cned 10 ill subsidiary pos i-
tion .. I'haIam:. Nnltd "';,h pttolam<.
Epi..... and aU . he old city ".'n h>d
.dopl:ed 1100 M.cNonian pholanx and,
siJ>Ct <be raul< o(.he NIUe d<pellded
on thi1, ;, .ct><k4 10 l:>t<;:ornc hcarit-r and
conoequcntly leu ma.-u,..,.bk.
In S)'ria and l':gypt ol d uni.. of
A1cunder'. army otiUlppeaf in .he La,c
pd and ,,*"y and ""ntury. Both Antio-
ch... and Ptolemy, .. ...,.,ld be ex_
pected. appear to have . n <It...... and "
royal iJt> of cav.lry. lfyp.upiJu, too,
mentioned by PoIybi"s, but it would be
.cmplina:falC,os,,"n. ,,-hat ' My might
be. Antioch". luo. tJV1'""", who . hooJd
have bn on the .-.hcm (ron_
tien of no doubt {hey wcre
locally but ret.ined t he t radit ional
""me of , he earlier t",op'.
Aft er t he dealh of Alexander, t he
vderan silver . hieId. regiment had come
under llie control or Humcne" on whose
death they p. ..ed to Ant igonu,. He re
we lose track of them, If they were a
per n,anent "e'eran unit . nd cons tantly
rCC"riving re<; rui t, frQm . he veferan, of
<>Iher units, they could have . urvived.
If not, they must have died out . A
hundfed yea.. later Anliochu., the .uc-
ccssor o( SeleU<;\l' who had deposed
An'igonU$, had ",ldie.. "anned
in the Mao<:<:donian fas hion" """" of
,,'hom ""rre armed ";th .il,'" .hieId._
1lfese are dis""", from his 20,000-
su-ong phalan.s and 0 ... is fempled . 0
suggm lhatthne 1r.YfJ<U,.uu. 0:<-
tainly Anlioch... has /t)1'<JSPUU in hi.
army, as _II as an tiI- ,,'Ilich is men-
tioned at the ....,., or $.ardis.
,
-
,..........""-,......... _, ..... .,
"",-. c 110 Be
I I ' , ....
A "'"-, c'1O Be 80th on_.
"
( ,REECE .. .. I'D MACEDOI' IA
Plolemy, who appeared to be losing lhe
hanle, wok over phalanx who, en_
c"uraged by bi, prC'lCnce, dr<l\' c l hc
:;yrian phalanx from l he field. By the
time that Antiochus, confi dent thaI he
had won l he relurned, Ptolemy
was in p',,,c,,i on of the baHk fid d and
Anliochu, ' infanlTy wa, ,eaHcred acTO"
t hc in Hight , Plolemy slri pped
theenemy dead and collected and buried
his own, whi lst Antiochu, was humili_
by being to retTieve hi, own
dead under a flag af tr uce.
On rare occasions lhe phalanx wa,
broken up into companie, wilh
"'>op, inlc,.,;pcrsed them. Pyr _
rhus did this in Italy and Antigonus
Doson di J it with hi, ,ih'eT ,bid d, at
Selb , ia.
Hefore bau le commenced l he general
wauld ride alottjl; in front of hi, trOOps
Wil h his officers and fri ends Tcminding
lhe 'ol die," of IhciT pO'l ac'hievements
and exboni ng t hem to fight hra,'ely,
p',inling out the advantaj1; es of "ielory,
usua lly concentrat ing on the booty lO
be won. In lhc cO'e of P' olemy and
Anlio<:hu" I><" h af whom had only
recent ly eome ta lhe lhrone and lhere-
fore could hardl y 1><",,, of the ir pa"
accOlnplishrnenlS, lhcy relied more on
, hcir promise, fN the future,
The signal for baule, possibly a flag,
was raised and the soldiers shouted theiT
war crysevcral ti me, . At (; abiene in 3 [6
Be , where two Macedonian armies face<!
each ot her , lhey rai,ed [heir war c, ie,
alternalel y several lime,
IX' hil<t ",aiting for 'he order to pre-
pare fo, ballle, each phalsnj1; ite sfood
wi,h hi, pih on lhe ground and
held upright wit h his right hand. His
shield hung by its strap around his neck
and , hc h"'k of his left shoulder.
On the order to prepare for ball le,
would swing the , hield round to the
ffOnt and pass hi, left forearm l hrough
the band, lie w()uld ' hcn ra ise his left
hand aero" hi, chest and grasp the pike
level wil h his head. On [he ordeT' !C\'e!
pikes" hi, ri ght hand would , lip down

f'e"",,,
Be low
T"e b,"'e at R,ph,' (of'e, H H. Scull , 'dl
fo"go, ""t"",.n PlOlomy 'Vand " nMehuSti l
PlOlemv 10" 0" "" 'M' ""ng but won 0" h"
"ght. r"" b.",%was won bVh" ph, I,", '" ,0.
Cot<,
Men.'.,", ,,
c8v.lty
Abo
T"" ""ttl. of Gauga""," >lte, E W M",den
AI." "",,, d'"", up h', ' ''"Vw'th the who le 01
1he C"mpon,.n cav,"" (led by"'m",'!) '" ' "
. d"anc.o 00,",'00 on H>e " 9ht W;'9 . nd ,oe
<est 0" 0. " "'" "" echelon
M",,,,,, ,, ,"'_"" ,
Med.. ,,'" Me<I"""
,n'.,,,,, Pelf..", on!am" An.'he" C,,,"',,,
- -- -

Egyp,,,,

flel ,h!,, '"
MACEDON 360- 140 Be
THE LATER .\{ACEOONIA:'>1 ARMY
until the arm wa, "Talght, then he
would loweThis pike umil il was parallel
to lhe ground., W.iSl level. T he order
to eh.rge was given on l he ' r umpe" If,
howe,'er , the ground "'a, "eey bmken
and l he army split up ., it was al SeI-
lasia, lhe signal ' 0 was given wi'h
fl ags- . white for the infantT)' .nd
red one foe ca"aIT)' _and would be
rdayed hy the tr umpelee att ached to
eacb ,peira, T he battle wa, normally
started on the wings,
When .dvancing in balt le (mk T, the
phalanx had to be deavon up in open
ord., and double depth, Thi s w",
. chieved by lhe I",,/w, falli ng
b.ck and mming into line behin<l the
fi le on their eigh t, On coming int o e. nge
of lhe enemy, I""/wi
up 10 form order . T hi' was
done bee. me of the dilliculty of ad_
"ancing through open counl ry in close
"r<lor wit h no room 10
around natural obslacles.
If wa, no room 10 the
whole army hcfore eeac'hing the batt k -
fi d d, Polybiu, sugge," 'hat l he advance
should be made in or
quadr uple phal.nx, and th. , the rear
phalanxes should deplo)' on wing
when thC)' reacbed , he open ground,
When the route to the b.ttlefield was
restricled, the ph. lanx could form up
and ' hen ,urn inl<> column of maech " ,
that all ' he o"ieees weee on one side of
the column and an lhe o!<ragoi on l he
other, Asd epiodot us memions lhi' for-
m.tlonand Po]ybi u, i' cenain])' b_
ing it at the third hattle of Mantinea in
uy/ RC, and ag. in at the ball ie of Cynos-
cephalae len years laler. At .....I.minea
the Span . n lyram .""\ocha" ldas wheeled
his column", l he right to l' lrm up in
haule ordeT, and at Cyno""ephalae
Philip wheeled his to lhe lefl to form " I'
his right wing.
Al hi' right
wa, dmwn up, Philip or dned hi,
ph. langite' and pelta," to do"ble their
depth and dose up tow.rds lhe righl . I n
order to do this, lhe allernate file' w" "ld
be wilhdrawn, each lini ng up hcbind
the hie on its right SO t haI the phalanx
wa, do" hle dcpth and the files in open
order. T hen, wit h the righ t- hand douhle
fik standi ng fa' t, lhe rest of t he wiog
lurned to the righl and dosed up, Each
succe" i"e file would toke one more p.ce
lhan the hie in fcont '" that they fini, hed
up one pace . part , T he y then l urned to
face lhe front.
If the cnemy appeared i n thc Tear the
phalan. had to t urn abou!. T hi" how-
ever , would lea"e l he ouraKoi in l he front
rank and the offi cer' al the back, T hi'
wa, rcc,tifi ed by counterma'C'hing. Any
one of three met hods coul d be "'ed to
do lhi s, T he file leaders could stand ' lill
whlle lhe rest of thc file fmmcd up in
from of them, and t ben the wbole fi le
t urn ed about face. Thi' was lhe Mace-
donian method. Aseleplodol US is "'"
very h. ppyabout thi, a' it appears to be
a re'Teat. He ped ers t he method u, ed by
the Spart ans where lhe rear r.nkers
slood fast and the resl of l he file formed
up behind ' hem and l hen faced about
T hi' appears to he an a<lvanc"" There
wa, a thied po,,,i h;]jty, t be Cretan or
Pee' ian cou ntermae,'h, where the tile
leader and lhe U'''''l0' changed place,
.nd lhe int ervening ranb di d likewi' e,
Thi' i nvolve' an adnn,"" no r a
retreat. Whichevcr met hod is used , the
problem wit h countermarchi ng is thaI
the comman<l er' finish up on the left of
their uni ts and not the right . Thi, coul d
he rectified by countermarching
ranks of each unit , Of i' w., po,_
' ible 10 co" nt ermarch the whole ph. l_
anx m wing in tbis way, but 10 do so in
the face of lhe enemy would be suicid.1
and could onl y be considered as a parade
ground manoeuvre, Any w.y, w"'
no greal dIsadvantage i n having the
chain of ,,' mmand from t he Id e l'or m-
ally, if; t was con'i dered ncce,"aey, each
speira would m(mterm. rch ilS ranks.
drawing up a phalanx <n eche
Ion, in we<lge or in eTe,eent, the forma'
'i on w"' . chie\'Cd by slaggering lhe
and not by drawing up 'he ranb
a, on angle or, e,'en w(me, on a c' ur vc,
At Sella,i. Anllgonu, ,plit hi, phal_
anx into its l wo wing, and drew them up
one behind lhe other, The attack was
inili ated b)' the fron t phal.nx hut , when
this was pu,hcd hack, Amigonu, or-
<l eecd tbe Macedoni.n, to close up ' in
lheir pee<tliar formal ion of ' he double
phalanx wi'h its ma" ed linc of pike" ,
and in , hi, fmmation drove the Lace-
dacmonians from lheir p05ition, T his
c'an onl y mean l hat he marched the
second phal. nx lmo lhe 'pace, between
the file' of the f,e" and chaeged wit h
locked ' hields a, Alexander had done at
the Hydaspes river,
Polybiu' Ii" , the advantages and di, -
advantage, of t be phalanx to expl.in to
his readers why the Macedonian, 10"
the b. ttle of Cyn",ceph, lac, Under
Ideal d rcum"ance' not hing coul d Wilh-
" . n<l thc ,'haege oflhe phalanx, BUI lhe
phalanx can only operale ""ally ef_
ficiently over even ground with no
dilche" clef" , dumps of tr ees, ridges Ot
wate r ,'our" " whic'h beeak up the for-
mati on and ' 0 desl roy its strength, Al
l'ydn. l he flexible Roman maniple,
for Ged lheir way into thc gap, in lhe
phalan x and bTOkc it up. Once this had
happened the phal. nx was defenceless
a, l he was obvious ly useless for
d ose combal .n<l , by tbeir
long pike" the .\ h cedonians were un-
able to tu rn and face an . It . ck from any
ot he r direction 'han l he fron!. To ' ignal
lh. l they wished to , uHcnde r or desert
lhe phalangi te, c'uw ,maeily Tai' ed their
sarisme into the upeight posilion,
When the ball le w., over the troop,
were recalled by l t umpet. The "ictoe
slr l pped 'he enemy dc.d and buried his
own. T he capt ueed armour was hung
up in the te mple porli co,. In ' hank> fm
the viclor y ' hleld' were u' u. lly ;n_
scribed and dedica' ed in a , heinc. Poly.
biu' , 011, the amus ing 'lory of lhe dedi-
calion of the shields . ft er l he siege "f
Medion by the Ae",lian,. T he w.,
. lmost ovet bu' , a, dec,tiom were
due, the ,\ctolian geneeal wa, frightened
he m;gbt be re placed before he h. d ""1'-
tueed the lown and so lose lhe credi l for
it , (T hl, is a very COmmOn rc. tmc i n
both Greek and Roman WarfOTe.) In
mdcr toappea, e the cunent general, but
at the same ti me not detract from who-
ever might succeed hi m, a compmmi'e
wa, reac hed and it was detcrm;ned to
In, eTibe t he , bields as being won ' by lhe
Aetoli an .nd the candid. tes for
lhe next ye.r', omce' . Embarrassi ngly
foe the Aw,liam, the ,i ege wa, raised
. nd the Medlonian' parodied the
Aetolian resolulion in amusing fashion
h)' using exactl y the ,arne wor ding for
thei r shield" changing oni y the ' by' of
the inscription to 'from' .
ITALYAND
THE
WEiiiuoo ERN
MEDI EAN
ITALY Al'D T HE WEST ERN MEDi TERRANEAN
The Rise of Rome 800-275 BC
- -
ADRIATICIlEA

SATRICUIl
..
l"'rod I;"n
T.... ri " f Rome ".-a. "'''I met.",..ic, It
"'", a .10.,,, pam"aki"'l1 I'r,',:=> f......ght
'o.-i,h man}' ""It>o..i<., It ,no ,hi10,,
proo......, au.>.>mpanicd b,' long period!.
of conoOli,Jalion. ,,'hich ...... ,he "",in
fOIl' lhe 10r'<""'Y of the ...b-
Kqumt Roman em!'i.."
1...1}' "'U lhe Ii.......1 IIYbo",><kJ
Hal of E..rop: u. be u f>c<I. S ei,hcT
Philil' nor ."In.ion.kr , nor an}' of thei.
'ue<:eUOn. fun a:>n'roI 0''-'"
lhe ,,'hole ur GIft<:e, It 'ook Rome
"""" y... '" hling lhe "'hole of
hily un.kr her """,M. Once , h.,
h.qem<>ny' h...t ho:<:n <>1.hhd,c.J, the,e
"'", """el any' Ihr""t of i, b",""ing " I' .
hen ,he ..... " a, r"..gh' belwn
R" m. anJ MI allie. i n Ihe lit ccn' ..
iIC "a. no, abo.. , "",,,,.iun b.. t ,,"er t he
,ight< ,,, <i, jz" n.hil' " f tM nun-Roman
h . lian . It took an "x' nal ..enee,
, h. ba,barian in,' i" n. more ' han half
" millen ni.. m lule" to . hat tc< 'he uni' \,
"f h . ly,
T he w<' I"mry, "rgun"a, ion and
taeti<, <>1' Ihe K"n' a" army. unlike t huse
of ,he ( j" ",k" we", n"t an inve",i "n uf
' h< R"man. hut tho re.ult of a pnx-,,,,
of ad"p'ion onJ aJa p' a""n, In orde, to
unde..la"J l he d","I"rmen' of the
Roman army il I' n... ",r} to examine
'h< J'C"' l'ko ' M K,""an, f,....ght . nd ,,,
' f}' , ... i",I.0'< wh., Ih<y I"amed f,om
each od.e"
The "",in "'un..., of .....r kn ,.-kdge of
,tu. period if. Ih. R,,,,,,"n hi rian T i, ,,,,
l.>,; u. "'lIhough L,,",' i grea' Wri'CT,
he iu r<"" hif.tMan, "'u """"""-.tive
and patriot he thro,n l he blame for
man,' of R<.>mc'. miotak"" on 10 lhe
.."..... daoon ,,'ho " ....., "ruggling for
rcJlfIU, ioro, II. regubrl}' "",,'en up
that i...nf.'..,.. ...bIe 10 Rom<: ,
.00.... lillle '1'l'Iiation "f tupography
.,.j mili...l'}' t"'"1;"''' and f"",ly' . ub-
"uu,,,, con'<111I'''...r' I........ for ancient
...... ,-'Oml'k", oJi.re-ga , J for
accu...., . ..,..t of .U, """",'cr _he
or"n ..an.milO "",;oun" t hat he must
kno,, are fal.., .
D;"n,.. iu. of l lalk . r""..... has left
u' " cr }' full accoun, " f t he .a, I}'
Lof'
Mop of n..,. ..... t"" _.." ..1an<1., 8m-J'd
,*,'",iN Be ..", """"" 0'.
"'"''''''' w,," 0 "' .... ' ''O"ll'. (kook colon'es
W,," , ' QUO'. ,. t,....,.o "00,,",., ,,,' " on
" ..ngl.
hi" o'}' of K<...... ...hh<>..gh h. record.
mIlCh ,he ..me ma'er"' l a. U"y, he has
marginally 1I",.,,,r apl'....aation or
military' t""li<-. . nd. he<:au"" oc u'"'"
Greek "'" ..., i, i. ofl"" .asier to
,i.uali... the il<111. he i .k-ocribing.
L:nfonu",",dy hi. hi......" t><corn<> fnog-
me"'''-}' in l he ....1}' 51h ""n' Uf}" ..; , h
lhe mult l hal from c. 475 to the
ou, break of.he h... I-' uni<: " 'ar in 264
... a,.., al....... ' .nu rel}., , he men.') of
I ..,,}, Fonuna, d }' " . a , ubo,aruw
""..,.J " 'hid he lp" uo to
build up a fairl,' " .. ""'" pt.."l u,e at
lea" of 'M . r r . noJ ""aponf}' of
th" carll' l'<' ''o.J,
The Slr uggle for h aly
T he ''''1}' "f Rome " . r,. in ,h< middle
of ,h. St h ,,,,n'ury_ trad i' ionalll' 753
oc, Rome <>",,,J hor found. ti on '" the
Tihc" for , h" "'0. one of a gwup
of hi lltop ,'illage. lliat . prang up on
th e lef, bunk of , he , ivel at its lowest
""""i ng po int, I' rohably in an alt emp'
to I<"y 0 ,,'II 0" ",,,,,,hants , 'rossing t h<
ri,' er to .,ad" .. it h ' <nll hcr n haly,
The T ihcr ri' e. in t he Apenninc
mou " ,.i" I><"' e A,rezzo, He", also
,""tM' , i, 'c.-, , he "' ,no. ri"", T he
Arno . .. "'.. '" tM T y'r-
rocnia n Sea at Pi .. ....hi l>l th. Tiber
!k<" ......'h f" , .ookm hef.... " 'urni ng
sou th -""" 'l<' .... in... the..,a at 0., ...,
Ikr ",,,,,n ,he... t.. o ri".n "' li trutia.
Duri"i , he Sth ,..,mUI}' t he population
or b ruri. ...... dt>perwd in,o a mulli-
Iud. of "".11 H".. a high Iron
All" cull u'" ,kn..... n \"ill.no..a n )
fIouri, hed
I n the 71h ..n' u." , ..........,nul ruling
elal.$ emct,N in Et run. A. had
happene.J in GIft<:e, the} uni' c.J the
gNUp" of "illaj(a to form weh l'O", crfui
al}' "at..... Va i. c..., an..t Ta, ,!ui nii_
The li t ru"""'" ....,.., g"",t ",af...... and
rna,' ",. 11 ha," """" to It aly hy ""a from
lhe c,,,. Tbel,..,. , . p a,n. ooon "'lab-
li. ho...J a me",.nlil. eml'ire in the
"''''' er n where l hey
e. m. in'" .... ith o.her OOn-
.. 1'<>, ,hi. tr.de : th. Phocnici,,,,s
f",m Ca r, h. ge on ' he nonh
of Africa ; ond t h. (;,,,,,10.0 wh" had
c" l<>ni""J , h. "",ut h. rn of hall'
and . .. tern Sidl y, On. ,uc' h Greek
<ohm,. ", a' t. hll.h. d . t Cum "'e't
of Napl"" T lie"" ( , r" ek> h<.' gan 1<l iIller-
T il E RISE OJ' KOME goo-n5 BC
T HIi STI-W(;(;U, I--Ok ITAL\'
f....-. " ';, h Et ru"""n . hi p" ' rading .. i(h
the en' ... hieh h...t to ru n t he gau ntlet
of ,h,i< colon..... T h.. , rade " ..r """n
.Je>.1opcJ into. l>ittu bet" ....n
, he '"'' nat;"".,
I n lhe do.ing ,....of the 7' h """",.,.
the Erru....... for,-e.J thei. "'''y' acros,
the T ib....-. "",pured l he Roman ,;1I. g'"
. nd ....bILohc.J a land roul......th
t hlough l..alium, ll'1C, ' pr""""J on
oOlnh"'ardo int" Ca.ml"l"ia. b}"PI""ng
Cumae an.J CUl1lng il otr from II><:
interior, In Campan.a they Clpu",d
""'... 1of th" to....... including
Pompeii .n.! Sur..,nto, . nd ""raNi.he<!
1.11" miILtary ,,,Iony at Ca l' u, ,US,
,,,(u h of , he ri'..,r Voh.. ,no,
An Etru",an miHla, }' I ld ...as
. " . hli.h<d .. Rome. Ij " gr po:.,j Ih.
hilltop vill. g... in",. to,.-n a. had heen
oJon. in Etruli . noJ for ' h< nu t
hund" J ," ' " under ito ' htee Ftru"". n
r uk.. K<>me llou ,i, h.d and hcc.me , h.
"hid cit y in l ,atium,
T h< Etr...e. n, " ached t he su",mi,
of th<ir I'o"'er wh.n t hey fo,me d . n
alliance wit h l ll< C.. nh.ginians against
their mutual em' ml' t he G ck> and,
in a "'. baul. "n i n BC,
fo,<, d ,he I' hoe. ". n G'ed:.s to ..handon
Ih.i, eok",}' at AI.Ii . and '0 gained
con, rol of t M island,
lIu' ,h. E"..,,:on of g1<:1' ,.-a>
. hortli,! .... h.... ugh t he}' had i....Ia1 1
Cum"" b, ' l h"i . th tu" oout h.. . rd. into
Campa nia, toc,' h...t f.il<d '0 hring II><:
G ""'" ei' ,' 10 ito k"""" I n fact
t he}' .uffe.-.:-d a ><: no... def..t "" land at
the hand. of ,he CIl......,an. FourtttTl
,...... Ia' er . I'fOl;>IlNy., , I><: i""igalion
of , he Cumaean., , he t.' in. "",,111
an..t Rom<: npelle.J he. lO' ru""", ruler
T arq u,n l he Proud, 11Ii. ""'oIt ' pell
di...... for , I><: Et nncano as the
Romano """,' elooe.J t he ri,..r crossing
10 Il><: m.
Il'ilh , I><: ...is........ of T",!uinii .nd
y . ii. Tar'!uin ,"cd to oub<lu. t he
rebel. T he "".u,ng hanl" " ..s in.Je-
bulthe f;OClthat ' he}' had . u.....i' c.J
" ,ufficien, for t h. Roman> to ,-..
hra lIi.. ml' h. [.... Po,,,,,na of
Clu.ium (Chiu.i) no Ihe fr.},
Collecting "'!Iet h fo",. of
ElI ..,ca"" ulli nd h.
m.d<. 10l'i d od," nc" on Rome, hoping
to ,' ut<h them " naw, ,,.,
T he Koman. h.,l reali , cd t h,n an
au ack ", a' immi n.'nt . nd had made
ITALY A:-iU Til E WESTERN MEDlTERRANEAN
p",p. u , iom '0 ri,.." croo;si ng.
A fore " ... ""uobli.hed OIIthe JanicuIum,
a hill on ,he Elru....n side of the river
".!tidl coo,..,1'<'d ,he aJ'l'l'<*'h 10 ,he
bridll", ond ,he rit;zws anJKd .hem_
selves 10 "i.m.and , lie anld<. In spi,e
of 'heir J>!'<'P'8I'1I'ions ,hey were cought
off pr<!. 1l>e Romans D<"I'er Sttm '0
hi,.., """'" '0 km>s "-;,h , he idea of
""""'ina, Their h;"Iory i. ",,""'WI'ed
"i,h disas,en ,hit COIIId easily hi,..,
been a"Oided by propt'l" soo..,,;ng, 1l>e
E.rusans aWOkhed unoccn, soonned
Janiculum and aohar>eed on
bridg<! In panic , he Romans turned
and lkd. pa,riocic Li' l ' ,ell. ho",.
Ho...."'.. and his '''"'' companions, who
curiously bol h hI"e E1ru!lC8'l1 names,
heroically held t.<:k ,he ene my ,,hil..
,hei, fdlo,,' a , izens chopped dolO'n tM
bridge and so ....w . he ri'y. Bu, , he
..,.,..., enli,h'ened Romans fel , force<t
10 o.dmJ. ' hat 1he a 'y fell.
1l>e army of Poneno marched on
in,o I..aIium, ad....ncing 011 Aricia, the
cent", of .he l .&fin ,..,.;.unce. 1l>e
Gtttlr.s o f Cumac, m l;"ing that Ih;"
,,'to , heir gm , opportunity, also ""li:
the field. bct'*ttfl the ' W<>
forces, ,ho E, ruscan army"'"
-"" \!:'i. h ' hei,land route cu, Etrus-
cans "'ere f,,,......,d to ma,n,a;n con,.....
wi, h . heir s",,,hern colonicl bJ' sea. In
474 ,hey suffel'<'d yet another (TIlshing
defe. ' a, hinds of the GIftk. in
se. hlnle offCumae,and.s a result ,be
,owns of Campania ""'"
iIola'ed. Ru. fate had tick '0 play;
"i,hin 30 hoch EIrus.can Capua
ond Greek Cumae had fallen CO tbe
SaIoni.es,
FOI" sbon ",hile Rom<. which had
con.rolled Lalium undeT he, Etruoan
f<>tlf:ht dnpen'e]y to hokI 011 '0
-
'-- _ . .... !""",,*, . "V ot 0..-.-
{0Nus01...."'''' "-"" "'" JanocuI.....
R.,...,. T... "I''''' EIJUOCIn5 _
......, __...11'.. _,"'"_...
....., . ..... ""'" 00f\It0l ...... -.""'" II. ..
ba l>uI it "" as tho< u n ns
who had defeated tho< Et ruscans and
noI the Roman. , At the beginruna: of
th. 5th century, find ing her poIil;""
untenable, [{om. ..... a. forced to , ign the
Co"ion treaty of allianc. with the ",her
Lltin town, a, equ.1 p.rtn. ... Th.
nex, 1Io yea.......... r. ' p"nl by .h. La t in.
llghl i"ll fOT their ver)' ""i"e""" agai nn
the usl""n hill po:opl..., . h. Acqui .nd
Vobci, who ..."re being f<:>Tttd 00-.....
""0 lho< pLoi ru; of Uti1,lm 1:' lho< ""-
pension of ' ho< Samnitn. TItnc ru.ggN
mount.in "",n hod gradually forad
tOOr .....y sou,h"""do lh:r""1lh 'ho<
Ap"nninn, drivi"ll all before ,hern.
In Ihe middle of t ho< 5t h ""n'ury . hory
bum upon ",ulh.rn It ol}', over runni nJ
C.mponia, Apulia . nd Lucanio.
In .3' Ik A.qui .....ere defea' .d by
the I...,in Leagu. and Ihe Vol ""i ..... ere
dr i.'en back. H}' the closing cu .. of the
century lhe Latin felt .",:ure
enough 10 turn itt ."en'ion to soulhern
E<1l,lrio. Tbc E.t","","",. mean....hile.
b.J been tea1"chi", for new outlet
f.... lho:ir It"Ide. Aboo" SDO 1IC an EtTUs
can a>lony had been ......blillhW at
Bologna in .ho< Po volle}' and roul.
opened up 10 Spina. a port at tho< hel d
of the Adriatic, Hut , like the r""t. to
the .out h, Ihi' ...... , ab", doomed, For
",me time t h. CeI", of central Eump.
had been forcing th.ir " 'ay through t h.
AIrs and se1llinJ in the Po valley , T hi.
m'gtau<>n ga.hered ....."""nlum ... , he
cenlU"" ad.-anced SO . hal by .he end of
u tho< Elruscaru; ""'" under prnou",
from bolh north and south. R""",. DOW
the dorn,nant pan.... of the u'in
l.c:oeue, launched an all...,.... atta<.1:. on
lhe litru>can IOWn of \"eii ...iti<h cap;lu-
IIt.d . fter a IonS si"lle in 396 IlC. The
League', p"'sturc on soUlhcr n Elruria
WI. '" hav." ba,;kla.h , he E'm' ca"
who were trying to dcfend Iwo fmn'i. ...
m.naged to ,u"ain n. it her. i.e" th.n
t.n yea.. after the faUof Veii the Ceh.
burtt inlO Euuria al\d d""""nded lho<
Tiber vallc)' ,oward. 11."""" Al the
AlI.I lhese: ...-iJd men from the north
Ct\t>toed the kgiom lhol had beat ....t
to opp>sc thc-rn and .....ud the rily on
the hiU, .
It waU' urible ....bood for Rome and
she lotI ber dominant pooi';on in . he
u t in L<:ague. Rome recovered but for
Ih. Etru....an' i, WI' , he begi nni ng "f
th nd , The had lo' t in h,t_
hold in .o."hern Et ruria and 'P"IIt
' hrtt kWDquc-rinS II . This re-
COntl ......t brought t he l .ngue in' "
colli' ion wit h T arquinii and ,everal
other "f l h. Etrmcan cili wh" were
frful "f the power
oflh. Lalins, In in 386
Torquinii ""'k up . r m. hUI f. iled 10
dri"elhem hack.
I n 359 Tar'luini i Iau.....hed an im'a_
>ion of u lin-oonlrolkd Elruria. T ,,'o
}'eaJ"> laler Falerii ioined in and tho<
l"ar ,be ....., of the E.ruso:an
fcdenllion aI... 'ook up armr.. .-\ pilil...
...-or er,.ued in ...-hich ""'h ';..1.. """ri-
1es.1}" ma...acoed pri""""", Final l)', in
35'. Ihe I.ugu. launch.d an all-out
offen'ive . nd brought T. rquinii and
Falerii to Ihe ir knce' . It w"' ditlicuh
for th. l:t ru scan, to make concert e<.l
effort "' they ...... re u nder p"", urc from
I"' ''h .ide. In Ihe JIOrth Bologna " ...
unable '" hold "", and by 350 it ,,'as in
Cel.i< hand. and t he Etruscan domina_
tion oflhe 1'0 "alle}' came to.n md,
In lhe sou,h lbe Voltri ..ere ..ill a
thrn' .0 'ho< League, which now lurned
and fO.'td them inlo . ubmi..;on. The
Lague no'" controlled all of ...n tem
It. ly from southern E'ruria to northern
Campanil . lIuI t he q...."inn " f who
gowrned La' ium_Ih. L<:ague or lI."me
- remained unre'olved. In 340 the
final , t r UU I. beg.n, Ali er a hiller war
la'ting t h"'. Rome em.rged a,
ul\di,puled mnler and ,he hi,tOT}' of
halj" ...... bocame the hi,tOl)' of Rome.
T he \tit "'"1\" ...;th Ihe \ '<>l oci had
broughl Rome r""" to faa: ,be
Samni. .. oIong . he liri> nver . Rome
had >igned a treaty ";Ih them in 354 to
enli.. lhe" ",..I aga in.. their mUlual
enemy the Vollci, I n 343 hoo' ili tin
broke "'" "", ,,ttn t he lwo nation,
'hal wer e to 1., for 50 yoar" T he fir"
so-,'alled Somnile war lOla, hardly more
Ihan ",r ie. of ,kirmi,h. , . , lhe two
protagoni". vied for conlml of Cam_
pania . T he main ",,,,!li,,! did not . tan
fo.- another 15 )'ean, but it i"""il -
able. In the Roman Iabli.toed
I a>lony II. lOreg<-n.... on tbe Samnite
tide of lhe Liri. ri""r. I n retalialion rbe
... mai""""'d a coup at "'oples
al\d <ktached it from it' Roman a11Iar>u:.
Rome haJ been lookinS for an excuse
and d.dlred "or
The tint ..rs of Ihi. war we", again
eharacteri. ed h}' many inc" nd",ive
THE RiSE 010 ROME 800- z75 He
THE S TRUGGLE t -OR IT ALY
tt,rmi,het; ,be Samni'n "'-ere rcloactant
to _ the Roman infant!') in the
plains and Ihe Roman. were unwilling
lO light t h"'" mountai n..,,, in the
hill" After ",ven ye,.., of ind..i,iv.
,kirnli,hlng , the R"man, <.I 'i<.l ed 10
m.ke a thru" int o Samnium itsel f . nd
emhat kod u pon a venl u", thaI lOl a. to
el\d in ..I i " "," and ignominy.
T be ' 0 con.ul, for the j 3Jl
oornmined lheir enti", ror 10 tbe
in"..iofl of Samnium, Thi' ",n,ure
","ulted in tho cape"", of the """''''nod
I rmy at the Coud,ne lOon.. The I"llion-
ar.... ,,-en: 'pal"ed bout "'''''' COrTlp"11cd
10Iea"e behind all their belongins' Ind.
clad onl)' in a tunic. to 'pas, under ,be
Y<l ke'. Thl' wa, I frame made from t....<l
'pea.. stuck in the gr"und and a th ird
one tic<.l aCT'''' h<>rizontally al " h"ighl
thaI compelled the R<lmans 10 cr<luch
d<,,,n 10 pass u nd.rne.th. The Rom. n.
t hem.d.,... had oflen forced .heir de-
f""ted enemi.. '0 p"rf...-mIhi. humiJiat-
ina exerei",. It " '.. lhe '--'!')' 'j'I"bol of
def""t and kindled in e--cry Roman
brcut l binl for .......e1I#.
lOor ti,-c j'''''''' ,he ROflUru; kept tbe
Coudi..., poeace' , but bj' 3t6 tbe)' could
h"ld botd:; no longer I nd ",pudiated Ihe
t",ot}'. c1aiminK fh. t t he e'OlISu), had no
to sign if, T h. war w., reopened
"n three front' with on. army opc r. t
in Campania, an"th.r further nort h in
Ihe Liris "all . }' , wh tl" a t hird "'''',ed
,he Apennines ' 0 ,he Adria tic coast
and marehed "",-"h 10 joj n fo""",, ...ilh
t he Apulians.
The S<unnil n "........, bruth-
l. klllS , p:d and oornpklely t'IUl _
manoeu,ttd .he Romall>. KC'CPine ,he
Roman armin in Apulia and .he
"alley OCCllpiaJ, Ihey brwhed a,id. the
C....mpanian ar my and Ihru' t north_
"'Ird, . The Roman, hand. dov.. pow. r
to a die"1ator who gathered .11 .,'ail.bl.
f,,,,-c. and pre"e<.l , out hward , He <.Ii. -
pat ch.d half hi. troops un<.ler hi>
deput)' (t be ma..er of Ihe 00"") 10
"""er t he coo" road (, he later Appian
Way) ",'hil>! be htrmelf .,h"nced along
the utin 'W&)' be1w..,n lbe hi ll.
The Sarnnite arm}' " 'Ilich had been
head,,,, fo.-the 1....l1n'It".y nowchollll"d
cou"", .he hill ' and feU upon
the masler of 'ho< hotx near Ter......
T he Roman Wll. wiped"'" and it.
.ommander killed. Rome'. "" uthem
allie, now reb.II.<.I, The Samni1 . S
"
ITAl. Y THE
,..han<-nl into Lallum......,royina: Cf'OJ>O
an.d ra>'aging ,he <",un'rys ide .. far a'
....rdea within )Okm " f Rome
In panic ,he R<lman Senate recalled
pan <If it> force' from l he Liri, "a ltey
T he Samnil,, ' here immcd ial cl y
, ,,.. ,ed lhe river and auaeked the
u'eakened R<>man fo" e. The Roman.
,,'cre on ,ht r un, T o Ihe ""nh Rome' ,
,,",o' Tal h ali.an allia wa>'crcd, I f l he)'
defect ed. R""",' , arm!' i n Apulia " ""Id
ht "'" ,,11
A. ,h;; p<><n, an C\-.:: nl haPl"""Cd """"
"""Id ha,'e fO"n, The Gm:l eitin
of "",nhem h al)' and Sicily had " flon
called in Gree k llCnerals ." help .hem
against.heir enemies, T he ery f<l r help
hod g<me <l uI from l he Syra<'u, ans. and
:'''O, at U' of Spart a hod amwercd , 0"
hi, way 10 Si, ily he had brietly inl " r-
f"red i" affairs in Illyria. II" had tl<lW
.rri"ed.t T ara" " , on hi. way'" Sieil!',
I'or a momen. the Samni,,,.. fal,,,..,d.
rearing ,ha, he milllhl , ur n h..
"Pin" lhem,
Their ",,"ilalion ,,-as j..... enou.h '0
. ",.nl!' . ht balantt The Romans
"""nl eTall :Kked. ' hro\Oli ng all .r>e;r
a.-ailable fo'Cn again.. ,he in"ad ing
Samni,,,,, a"d tl>u'ing Ihem, T hey had
C"me '0 near '<l winning. bUl Ihe war
w. ' '" b .. . no. her l en yea.. a, it
gradua lly wou nd d<lwn, In 3't ",wral
" f the Et r,,'can ci t ies enter ed lhe "'OT
hu' ,hey we", ea" l}' kn"eked ou" I l ow
d,fferrn' ,hing. migh' ha,-e if l he)'
had enlered ,he " ...r Ih= l"',an cn lier,
I n 3004 Iht Samnlln sued for pea<.-.:: and
""'" lefl hardly ,,_off rI..,n beror-.::
Tbe pea<.-.:: lu .ed only sia In
z96 Be, af,e" ... )-.:: a.. of , be usual
skirmishing hc Samnilcs agaIn m<Ode
a dash """hwa.d., This.ime a Samni,.
arm)' ad"an""d through Ihe Apennines
'" joi n forces "'i, h the
t: mb, iam and ( , ,,,I, for a ",,,,,wt ed
attock On Rome, IIUl by now t he Etm, -
can. were a failing f",.., In 3" 'hey
ltad laonched an a!tack nn ,be Roman
ronr... al SUlri.. m hu' ...cre ea.il)'
rrpul<e<l, l'<>I k",'itllll . hi" (:..rt""".
Pe-rupa and Arrezzo ".en: for""<! '"
sign r"",,,n of alliona::, S",,' ,hty had
.be Ol'portunlly'Omakc one las, elf,,",
This ""s Romc'. greal..1 ,..., S<> far
. ht had onl)' had . 0 f."" he. enemi...
individually. S<l'" fnr ,he fir" , ime ,he
wa' by lhc;r f".""s,
ll Ul . like t he " ,,e k,. I he It alian, f<lun d
i. al,"",,1 Impossible '0a.:t in unison
....1 s",n1lnum . he Samnlle and Gall i<:
a.mie. f"ugh, a long dr.wn ou, hauk
.gain" l he kgi"", .nd los, The failure
of ElrU,,'ans and lJmhrians 10 tU'n
up fel r thc baule rna}' h. "e <""t t hem.1I
lheir Indcpcndenc'c, Whcn Ihe Samni, ...
wcre ddcaled. ' he E'ru",ons collaped
",'i'h 'hem, During the ' i.., half " f tht
Jrd ,ht ....1 "f , he E"u",-"n
<:i. ion ""'" ei, her <TU. hN 01' for<:cd in,o
allia",-.:: ....i. h Rom<:. \"uk; rell i n zllo
and \"<>I.,n,i In .65, R"man ooIonin
" -.::re plan'cd ,n ,he ......rt land of E,rul'ia
an.d irs of grra'ncs. "'err ",'cr.
Thc hallie of Sen,inum nor only
markcd . ht en d of 'be SOmnil'" but
ai, the <lr Rome 's
purge "f 'he Cd l<, Of .1I l he peoplc,
<>1' Ihe Roman empirc Ihe Cel,s , ulfered
t he w""t during thc yea.. " f expon,;"n
northward. ,
In a. pan of ,ha, (lcncral "",,'e
m..." t>f ,be ( :':I,ic '''bcs "'hieh ..... '0
"" crth"",' . he king.Jom of Thrace ond
pl unge .\b ....,donio in.o chaos. lhe
'k.......,., , be 'lame tr ibe " 'hieh had
ucked Romc a hundred )'''''' befo.."
m,w('d ou' <>f ' hei r ' erti'or!' on 'hc
.... d.iarie ,..,." north " f Ane"'llll,
the Apcnnine; and ra ided Etru.ia, The
Roman a, my whid, nort h It'
deal wil h the in"ade" . utTt.ed a <'r... h
ing ,ld,a. ,,'ith t he 1,, <'f '3,0CiQ men
I n an ,",-1 ..f ma"i"e re.alialion l he
Roman. cr"..ed ,ht motln'ain, inl o , he
S.nonic "'""eland and d,,"'e t he en, ire
,rihc: ou t of Ital!',
'n.e Hoii. ...ho had ""'l"ured Rologna
from rht E'"""-,,n. and had ell k d in
,be area. "".... al... ..sed lhe .... pen-
ni""" hut "'err defeal ed in cenltal
Err" r ia, T ht follo",in& year 'h"!,
,t>< m<>u nl . ins . gai n anti were on,'.
more dcfe.'ed, T hey . uc.l r<lr
T he Romans, wil h t he
si'u" ion in '-"'Illral haly. aweed 1t> , h<
treat)" ".. hich [."ed r"r so )'"''
\\i'ilh , be (011 of Samnium. Romc
wrurulled almos. the ,,'I><,le " f penin.
s,,1ar h al)', Onl!, .he Grttk <:iii... of ,ht
..,."h rem.oined ou"ide , be Roman
alliontt , In order '0 he.
"",i.;.", Rom<: began ... pu t prnsu.e
on , ...... G.eek ..a' ... ' 0 Iry ." f<:tra
t he m int o alh.nce , T he immed,., e
result wa, , h. , T.ran,,, app<:akd ,,,
AIe, andcr 'he Grcat 's kinsman.
I' yrr hu. , kinl\ of ['pi.". , In "c he
,............ lhe Adrio.ic and lan.kd in
"" ul he.n Italy ,,'i, h zS.ooo ''''''J>'I
.nd 10 dephan r; , II" aim " . , l<l unlle
R<lme', enem,.s In 'be """h bu' ,he
R<lmans an' i, ip.,..l him and rushed
'<luth" " ds wil h 2\ ,000 legionari", .... t
I lendea the R<lman, b ad the dreaded
M"-.::d,,nian phalanx for ,he fin, ,ime
The>' ,,-.:: re dct eatcd h", al' ht"'l\h . he)'
k..t a ,hi, d of Ihtir arm)' .ht)'
infticfed ".eh eas uahi... "n ....
,,'ho could nor enily fCpla<'C> hi< Ios>e>.
, "", a ' l')'ntue ..,....." . h:ome .be
pto\'erbiol n p....oion fo. an """r-
gaIn.
Thc follo..., n& yca. Rome de.pa lched
40.000 'H"'J>'I aKainsl , he in,..dor. T h i.
timc I)'rrhm "a' ,upf",rTcd hy , he
' " " II",,,, 1t. Ii,Itl " T he h.mle
la,"ed for l WO day, hUl it< re,,,11 wa;
'he ",me a' ,he h"l. Dq>r""sed
hj' his I",,,,,, . Ihe king ''''cr 10
Sidh' '0 help I hc G= ks 'herr al\tlinsl
Ihe Canbaginian. , Fearing 'h....he
CarThagi man. had arrange.! a ha<.rj'
aUiantt " i ,h The Ep",,' t ....oera!
al....... dr","e lhe Canbagini.an. from
, he ..land . continlnti: lhem '0 the port
of I ,il)'hae" m a, . he " .... ,e.n "l' , Hu
r",-.::d wi,h ,ht P' '''p<:d " f a l<lnK''''II!' ,
he one" mo. c 1<. hi s enl hil,i a, m and
dedded to return h, It.ly.
I'yrr hus h. d Ix.. n out of Italy t wo
)'ea... T he R"mans had no' w...cd ,h"
pr e..i"". broalhing , pace and had ror ""d
Ihc Samnil '" and l."""nian , inh' . uh-
mi..sion, '" ,Ita, when ,he EJ'f""e
gene....1 """"",d be " .. on h" "",-n
A. l he king ,,.,..Kd rbe """"Sof
.\\ns.lnalhe Canhatttnian ftee. all.....ed
h,m and M lroyt"d ha lf hi s shiT", A. ht
marohed Ik>rth ,,i. h ' hc rem,,,nder of
hi. for""" he "'as allaeked bj' ,he
lIarri",n from Rhegium. wI><, inl!i ",ed
<'"n,i dcrable I",,,,, "n him.
When. Willl the rem l"" '" " I' his
army. l'yrrhm fin. lly
a' Taranto. h., what
"''''l'' ht could and ad,'anced n"nh-
ward. for a tina l conl...",.., ;"n ,,'i, h Iht
Roman . The Iwo R.-.nan .nnies ,,-.:: re
'''f'C' a. ing<el'an 'el)'COW" ng , he rou' n
In'O ""n,ra! h al )', IlInori ng .he arm)'
""'''''' '0 hIm, be "rue'" a, ,ht "-nit,,,.
uf ,he 'wo R<Jnlan annin " a" oned near
Ik no"e nte" tic marched 'h"'uxb ,he
I><'ping ,,, 1I. 1ll tt>< """anlalle of
I""il;<m hef",e Ihe Roman, reali",d he
w., arri,..d " .. , laIC and Ihe
T HE RI SE Or II. OME Hoo- 275 BC
THE ITAUA=" MILll.... K\ S \ 'STEMS
Roman. "",naKed '" lheir forces
bdorc he could Onc-c mor<:
l<> pin lhe ,icrOT} he ...
Ndh' "C'<:\kd. Leam,nK lha' ,he "" hcr
con.ul " .. """,,-.chinK. he retrea'ed
'" Taran", and ....... oct ...il for
Eporus ; he had nn'c,!'ottn defea'ed b...
he bJ "'" lhe " 'ar and "ilh i, l"....
,hird> of h.. army.
The ...., .. lhe key p<>inl in
Roman h....Jr}, Hanmbal
l')'rrh... as oeoond ""Il' l<>
.... leunder in hi, h"" itl' <>f le""",I.,
II i. unforrunar" ' l nu Iinl-hanJ
rcpun of hi. ,:amp'"ln, or hi,
,... military l"""lio... ha"e ,"rri.-ed, We
ha"e onll' lhe un""l i,fact<>r y ae-
roun.. <>r l'lula,ch and Di""),. i,, .
I [a"; n,l ,u"';"ed 'he Pl'n-hie "'a, 'he
1I." "",n. "etC n,,,, 'he fme-
m' '''l amo.mKlhe m,lilaT)' po"ers of the
,\ teol;' erra" ea"
The Italian
Military Systems
Tbe lfe of
T he 'nmmni, k , e, lahlished on t he
hi ll. "r Rome i n ,he M.h .-emu,y woul d
ha"e bc<. n mu,' h lhe ,arne a. ,hose of
El ru , ia, ....11 '''"e ,he
\illan<.wan c\lln.", ,, "ich. 'houg"
crn,,,,d on p"'aJ a. fa, as ,he
Pn "alley ,n the "'''th anol Campania
in lhe ..",'h
T he ""rr...... u( Ihe ,;me nr Romulu,
footh, "" f""l ,,'il h .pca.., jo.-elin.,
."..,..d>, Jawn and n .... Only lhe
"'cahhle<' ,,-.. a""''''' , "hieh .....
....tn<1cd ' n helmet and
cui.- ; ,he talte, beinl uwalJl' only a
>mall bn:-a>lrUle f.-..uncm of an
emt>.>.>c>J 1:ka\'C fOtlnd in lhe
Gro" a G",micia al Vrii. bu, as fa, as
the aUlhue k""".. Ihi, i, the <>nIl'
example from ""mraJ Italj'. Shields,
...."'II "etC all of l he """'1101 handgri p
'''pc, "v ied from la'le hody.....-m<ring
I" ,,,,,,U,,,. round buckrn,
Cha.io.. <1<, ""I .......m 10 ha"e be<:n in
u<c in , he Xl h <-cnlu,}', alt houllh , he
fa""...' ehan'" f'om ,he RcgoI;n;-
Gala"; h>mh al Caerc .bow. tha' ,hey
""ere a <"Cnlu,y lat er, T hey mal' h;,,-e
been int roJu.,,,j ; n'o rmm ' ''e ea"
os pa" of ,he <Ir,e n".h, ; nl( phase in l he
e..iy 7' h c'en,u'y, 1'", ... ha' , he " o, y
is ",o"h !'Iulareh leil. us , ha' ",hen
Rumulus killc,j 1\ """', king of ' hc
Ccn,,>cn>.c<, he rna hed in ' ri umph
, he king ', . " ,.." " as a
on .. i. , ;ghl .......lder, T he point
'0 n" t<: her<: i, ,Ila, he ..lid not ride ;n
a cha,i... a' , he eU'lOm of the later
[, ....em. lhat lh. eha,;",
.lid nol c"me ,,, fl. " m" un,i l , he Eltu> _
can <"<> nq uc" lal e ; n ,he 7, h ccnl U,y
even , hen il Was ne" e, " , cd i n batt l. but
only fo, "ere,"o nial Pur l"''' ', T he
Homan h ll >I\ ,ldi," prohably fough, in
-
._vl....-.v_...........
r.......... _vl ..__-..._
__CWr ..... _
____ __ f_....
"om aNd ""'" _nQ
>Ome Ioooc form of phalanx.
T he sword' of lhe pe-rtud . 'al)' front
lonll , b" hinK"'eap"n, to ,hon er <tal>-
bing one<, The longer are
llenerally or I he an' ennae Iype named
after in , as! h,on, . hand le Wil h spiral
horn. T h. blade, whic h i. aIm""
al wayo maJ e <If h' <l n, e, alt houg" a few
iron "ample. ha"e , ur"ived. in
lenl(l h f' om H 10 51'>o; m, T he majorilY
" f ,1Ie' e amenna. , w" , d, arc cut _and_
"
IT AI. Y AND THE \1:' ESTERN M EllI TERRA1,a:Al>:
"
"
I
"
1 8"""" __sword "om _
2 _ .-w,'""'''''''' ..-.. !toM
'- J B ' '''''' BoIDgno
...... _
o x -.f_...
__T __
- - """"'" ""-
._- .....,, -.. _--
..-...... bone toe> "om_
... __..... _,,-
'- 10 1Ir""", _ ..... oog ....
__f,.,..,_
1112 11r ,.."",.,..,
lor",,"'''
U AI-. ...."""". "''''". __'''''''

1. 8.""... I' '''' n "'''' '' 'ou,,", ,n Lat,"",
15 8,,,,,,. , y, "'''. f, om T"-Q"'o;,
,e. ,. 1 5
ha,'c been fout><!, U ke the , ...-ordnd
dagge.. ' hew could 01"", M made 0(
iron. Some 0( lUI,.., bn found in
pooi'ion in 'h< va'''' .., 'hi' ' h< length
of tho: " 'hole ..."Capon a n M rroeasured '
t he namp\el ..... 1><1......n '.45 and
.85m long Tlle .ire of . pearheads
nries enormously from elWllpies
tlKWe than hllf a mc1re In len[Uh (Ihere
io an cnmple f,om .\l ' ri"" in La,ium
measuring 56<:rn) '0 tin)' i..'elin heads
Ie.. 'han 'OCm long, The bronze
javelin h<aoJ ( ' 4' wi' h ill l"ng thin
'haft i' an an'e...d<nt of ' he late'
Roman javelin. , t he .. a noJ
t he pilu,n
.... 11 lhe Drn"u woap" n, ",erO ca"
'hru.. "-npon . Some have I<:>ni poin"
.unable only' fo< 'hruOling ,,'hil... fC",
ha,.., oJigl'nly cun'ed sahre-like blIde
'ha' could M uS<'<l only fo' . ...hing
Tht .n'ennae f)"J'C ...-ord. ""Illla'ed
in Europe and IrC do,ely
rela'ed to Ia'e .\\vcc""""n ')'pe II
. ""rd.
Th< daggcn may M divided ""'ihly
illlo 'hree 'ypes by 'ho: .hape of ' he
bl;l<\e; tho: majori'y have a leaf-.blI pcd
blade ; ."me blIvc a blade wi'h . " aight
. idc. which narTO'" about ,wo_,hi,,!.
" f , he way' down to fmm a "ilcll O,ype
po inl' and Ihe remai nder arc IrianllUI . r
;n The blades, which may h<
cilher " f bronze "r iton, .'at)" in lengt h
from 15 to 4tcm. T he blIndl e. are
made of wood. bone or e"en Slone bUI
"",..,r bron.... The handle is Clpred h)'
T ..h.pcd pommel clearly rel.tlng it
'0 la,c' .' I)ccnaeln ')'PM of daUer .
Thi. T _dUlpcd pommel i. really
dc-so;rifllion of 'ho: metal lang, "hieh i.
u.u.Uy 011 of rho: handle tha' ,u""i,'es,
I n floCl t ho: pommel nonnally takes tt..
f<>rmof. bulbou. di"".
Scabbard. ro, 'h< . honer .,,-ord. It><!
dagcn are u' ualll) n\lkk of bea'en
hron... ,,-jlh a ca" bronze chape. Tht
share of t ho: section of l hew .....bbard.
suuc". t ha' 'hcy wcre lined wit h
"'l'IOd in .imilar fa,hi on to later Roman
, wmoJ. T he)' arc . ometime. elabo.>T-
a, elycngra. 'ed but a few have a punched
de" ' ''t;"n ;n ;mit a' ion of st neh.d
leal her which w"' probably 'he com_
mone" moteT;al used !'" m.king >eah-
h. , d. An antennae . wo, d, r"und al
Tarquinii in Etluria (51, wa' .. ill
enca..,d in a fTOgmen,a l")' "x>o<l<n ,,:at>-
bard beound ,.;ct ho: r wi'h bronze wi.....
The chare of thi . ocahbard " . n\lkk
0( bronze, and indeed "".."..1 "'her
.....mp.... of bronze chaPM Mkmging
' 0 antennae . ,,-ords h",.., bn found
Thew a 'O<>dcrJ scabbard. " 'C'' proboobl)'
.....ercd "';Ih Iea'her . 'l1>e 'OP of ,t..
scahberoJ 0( both . ...-ord. anoJ Jaa<n iI
.t.... )" mad<: and iI of'en
ml..ing. Thi, mull he hea...... it .....
mad<: 0( peri.lUlble malerial .""h ..
hide <>' """",, , A f... examples in bulle
and bron han .urvived. The b....ak
in l he de 'i"e de.ign i un I><low ,he
,up of Ihe ..abl>;o<d " n ""me exompl...
(8) 'U1\1\O.lS l hal lho: baldrio "'a' tiod 10
the "a" bard at lhis poi nt,
i\-Iany bt " n, o ,pearhoad, and "un,
THE RISIi OF ROME 800- 275 Be
Til E ITALI AN MILITARY SYSTEMS
from Iron had
to be ''litO as i. ,,-as
imJ'<"5ible .0 obtai n ...lficicn,
p<:ratun: fo. II><: c"'''''1 of iron. I'll fact
bea,.... " "apon, far stronger than
<2St ones.
Some JO Villal'loO\'an ' n'" belme..
ha<,.., bct-n d_rnd in Italy. MOtt
than half of ,how ...., or the mctal
<m,ed 'nlC . :_Thi. ",a, . '11 CUll -
I""',ed f""", of central European
Wpe. h _ made- in t...." joined
aion& ,he edge of , be cn:ol. Tbi, ,,-as.
<loont hI' mala", one half ,1i,hIly la.-gc<
,han ,h. other .nd folding ,I><: ,urplu,
lIKIal ""rr tl><: ,nun.. half'o hold ir in
poloi'ion. The k".".. cdgr. of cap
at th. fro.... and tl><: bad: aloo
lal'f'rd and ri, '"cd ' Oll.tl><:r. T he
join' ".,.. n:inforcrd by ' '''0rccrongular
plat.. ",hich " '",e ri, 'eted on (see
dra", ing } I. T he", hclme..,
likr aU t he nt h", armour of 'he period,
" ere wi. h 1><,.,. T he Ihre'"
long ,pike, pr ojr<;ling frmn ,he rein -
forcing plot . ' at the from ond hack
were purely dcc"rative. The way ' hat
thi, helmel wa. "',>rn, ",i,h the , pik..
at t tle f",nt and hack. i, dearl)' ,how'll
on a figurin. fT"m Reggi o i n Emilia
(". douhle ri m at . he ba,e of
' he hclmOO1 on th. hgurine ",. m, ,,,
,how a .hi<k unckTcap. Mos. of . h.",
and .h. larer Roman Itclme"
.... ..ably "".n;zr and i' "",m,
ry likely that tl><:y all had a , hi ck
padded undnnr probably of
fdt. Anotl><:r common form of hrlme!
..... t he bo:ll' type l SI. M _ examples
110.'. cas' broruc col hoIdcn ,,' hieh
,,-nr drilled ,hrough '" ,g. a crest
pin. T1u, . ype common outsid<
hal), npecially ' 'II 1'rar>lX -.l tbr
Balkan>, onr can oJ... include: a b"
tStb........'ury ac hrlrno;, from 10' """",,
,n thi, gruoup. A uni'luc namplr from
Fnmo ncar A""""" "'" = tube
made from bronzr ' 4'
The """,t common form of body
armouT ..... t hr o.rnall rectangular bronzr
r'0ral(7and S). may ha... been
a>Cd on thr baci< .. wd l .. thr """'t.
Se,'eral . ""mpko hav. been found
,..rying frmn '0 Hcm in depth.
Hundred, of ro und p<:<:l'oral, have
been but ,b..e .eem to be
of a , lilth' ]}' la"T and aTe di.-
cu,"ed a nd.. li,rUSCan armour, One or
two cuira"e. of lhe Alpine l}'pe are
0-
1 V.t ..,.." ,.."t..:l .......', p<or>ablv I,orn
.. " "'" '" ,,," 8<.""' '''_
2 ...'" 0' "QV'''''' ,_Eo" 'O""''''Il Mw
,t>o",""'w__n
"'_ -
'" """ .-__...m <a>l bt""'"
e-t _ Ongon __ """"'...
._-
'" I'on<l'><> "' _ """' .......
_u.
"'_.... -
' f_ "'_01 _ no 1 . ""*"'11
'.. .."" lWO __
..nod "'.... . _ ,_on
4 .. 'ounol .- bt_"'""'
....... f_ f....., _ """""'"
8=10'"'
1 B' ""," _ '''01',,>m ,.",,,,",,
8 Br""", _ '''01"orn La,."""
9 8<"""' ....,c_"'"" 1....
10 P",- "on......, pIoro "orn ... AI'
",,10'
IT AI. Y Axu T HE WESTERN
I
r
I
I
.upposed to """ bc<:n foond in l,,,ly
pn>vnana i. unttrt"..... Tho:
I",,,,,,ho ' n'" cuira.. '.' .' wa.
di""overed a' in Etru ria , " WaS
f<lUnd wilh a crr",ed Vi llanovan hel me '
whi. h Honken 'uj[ge". , hould be d" ed
10 l he end " f 8, h . en ' ur )', The
CUlT... con.i. t. " r a front and ba. k
r la' e ""'de in 0"'"' pie<:e a nd held in
""'i'ion b)' 01 ..1" joining ,he fron' and
toad; pbte. under , he arm .
A fe\O' helt and 1'10' ..
bc<:n foor>d I' .nd Tel. Tho: r..tener
.,.",.i... 01. l'KI'angular pb,e "';,h , .."
or ' ltree ri ngs rivncd ' 0 ,he edee and.
rorrespond ing "i' h hoob on ,he
edge. These two> r l.,e. were 10
eu her end of . belt , Th... belt
,' 11" cvol"ed int" the , imple later
ElTu<can I)'pe . h" wn on p. 98, T he
.... of t he he ll " ., often e mhelli. hed
with de<:o.. .
.\lore I....n 8Q round bronze . h.dd.
--
Vol . ....... ""'"
a:oenl'O , __
1 T"- l,oot '" ,t>a _kl. """"" no ,,,- ..,..,,,,,
Ofto".' 000. "..".t>o-vo on<! t>t _
" 10 ho ld on ".. ".n<lll"" Sc. l.l e
01 Italilln origin bc<:n found
..yin' bee.wttn So .r>d 97<11\ in dill_
mcr , T h"" , hid d., which ' hould bee
""'lOd to 7t h ce n' ury I'C, are made
of emb<".ed bronzeand I' " ,b.blppring
from t he . am. cent ral EU"' p"an origin
,,'und centr.1 shield' of
dark-age Gree<:e. In ""nlral Europe
exam1'1", ha"e beeo found dating bad
10 ,he of 'he 5C<.X>nd millenni um.
Thes.c ohield. do not wooden
.,.,.", .. might be nl"'dc-d. bu' .he
handgnr . nd ..n r f.. an: lixc-d
dil'Kl'ly '0 , he in'ide of ,he
... t he "'" bc<:n ,,-..nc-d
50 ,hln Iha' il has holed d uri ng manu_
f.ct ur e. The.. ronSlr U<.1 ion i. similar
10 b,on'e ArgiH , hid d. found at
Olympia (p, sz) and t he y ..... clea rly
made f<lr ,;eremonial I' u rpo"", on])'.
""'he n aoout t hi. til'" " f shicld
an emlnen, llriti'h . rehaeologi"
mMked : ' Of cou"", ,he)' v."rte uS! in
2 e..e. '" ..... _ . _no".. _ p
n... t,.. ...,-,g'no .. ...
I", <:"I'''O It,..,.
J So<t>on ' '''''''' ' 09 """,,WOC_I.
Do,,,,'" 'ho hood"
bank -in an one mllh,....,
.nylhing, du..btn lid for
I na"" remar ks t hi" and 'Ul(gc-s-
, it",. t ha' ' hoy mij[ht be used to
hl"w" do litt le to uncle!_
. tanding of . "d ent ..... arfar e , Such a
, hield ..... oul d ' h",lutcly u..,le" in
h.nk. t hese mu"
ba"'d on functional ....hleh
" "rte f"')bably IM<k of v."OOd or wieker
""h a f"';ng. Rome'. UQ')'
"" It ,he Gabtni " ... i.....-rihcd on
""""""'en .hield """'et"c-d "i.h Mh'd<.
Such wooden . h",1ds may haw bttn
dttun'ed "';,h met.1 ", ud>. In fact all
,he armour 01 thi' pniod may
from or
..... ith ' l ud., which would . xpla'"
tho embos, ing,
T her< w. s an"'her t ype " f ' hicld
..... hich h. d r rol>ably tit<
ll ronu Age . T hi o" a!
body .hield "'it h a ndl..... h.pc:d 1>0..
,
T il E RISE 0 1" II.OME 800- 27S Be
THE HALlA:" .\ ULlT ARY SYST EMS
knm',n .. floe ",h"'h "as u,..d
I legionari<'$ of ,he
A >culptunl nop',"",n'a,ion of a .h,eld
whl<: h in all c.."'n'i.l. i. ide mieal '0 ,he
la'.t H"m.n ....m,m. "a, found in an
gr." e ;n Ihe necrop"h. of
P"u;" alia Guardl ' ., Ve'ul"ni . in
Elturi. Hep",,,,n" 'i" n, of , ;m;l. r ""al
,h;"M, which la.:k ......mi .1 feat Ure.
,he 'ri""d b<>oo. l>n found ,n ,he
Po and in AUSlfl.l, Thi' d,ffe'
<to<e .. impona,u .. II n.I.bliohn ,he
...",n of , he "'.. ,.... in Ital y. h . con
"nlled ..... there i. ''OfIlirIl'l<'<l by. SIh-
,-enlurl' boo-s f,om .\lalr-o<> In ,he
....' ..1highlands of h oly.
The lil r useo.Ro m a n ar my of ' he
6t h ce n' ury H"
A, ;n (iteee'e each EI' U,ean .ity h." ilS
"wn aTm,' . AI,h"ugh Ihese ci'ie' We'"
"nned in aleague, IhcyseldomoperOl.d
'OS"'her. "'hieh "ao 'heir gr ea' "'.ak-
....... S,,"'. migh' combi"" f,,,. a
"*"",,,lar ""pood ll,.,..nd lhe conqun'
ol lhe f<lU1h "'''''I been ju......,h.
,"'"W'C. .... like ,he Greek cily
"aln. ,hey .pcn. moo' of .!>ci r ellC1ll)'
ri.h"ng each Illhe.-.
In the 7th Etru""a n.
. ili>p' ed l he me,h"d of lig-h"n.
. nd "r"ani,ed 'he" arm;e, into r h.-
lanx"" One c'an say with conl;,k'nc'"
,h.. 'hey ad"r' ed .,ch. ;c t"" k",'
wllh iii ' zx Imrhle. and fou,
Thi. !iflI' e-en"in .. ,he unns of lhe
E' ru"""", R"m,,n "..re
""nlUr....
l.ike , he la'er Rorrum. , be En u....n'
relied h ,'ily On lTO"P" COn-
quered by", in wi th t he m.
Tho,e wh" f.COUI an ea,lern <!rig;n for
' he Elt",c'an, might wcll I",illl '0lhe
PeT,ian army fo,. parallel.
In , he Roma n "rmy"f lhi. period ,...
are >reing a Ettu5Clln
army. L: n.ler ,he Ii,.., E'tuoan king ,
T ""IUIIUU. Pri""", t he ... """,i"e<!
of pan" {he E, tuoa... (" '110
fOl1l'led a phal:onx;, ,he Roman. and the
L:t"ns, The latler fough, In 'hei r free r
na, i,', "}'Ie wit h spea", a. .. and
ia\'elin' on eil her ...ing.
II.>lh \.i,'y and Dinnysiu, of Ji . li-
" rn."u, give an account "f t he re-
" f Ihe Etru" "... i{"man
.rmy by Sen' i'" TulJiu' in the middle
of 'he 6, h ...ntu,)'. T he1r " inually
iden'i,aJ deocrirtion. arpea, '0 be
d,," 'n f""" l'abius Pi.."... ,,'ho., ro
hiOlOl1' ot Rome around _ Hi.
infonna'ion ....-n' '0 be based on II
genui"" docullKnt. ThaI carll'
... ''''ri", of 'hem nlS'ed i.
attested by I-'"I ,'blll' , "ho "r re'" '0
have seen ' he Ii" , Irea' )' ...i,h
Ca" ".II'O c, S09 1lC, He ,Ie,c, ih<:, 'his
as "'rinen in a'ehaic I.alin which could
only be p.rti.lly underslood ,
Ser vi", Tulli",. ,he , ..." nd of 'he
Iruscan o,'erlords.. perhaps bcca.....
Iff hISLa'in origin, "oed '0 tn' eara", ,II<-
I"' rul:o,iun '"""an",ng 'he a, my
...... v.-di ng ,,, weahh and "'"
d i"i ded Ihe I'Or Ul. ' i" n into six cI." ,
The f" SI 0' 'iehesl cI ." h. for mcd ;"'0
eon' uries '>r h'hnl, The Etru,".n.
.mu"' " ill h.," f" rmcod th e m.ioril y <If
,hi. cIa" . ...hic'h , .rmed ...i, h
hel"",'. ' hield, grell. ' cui....., 'pear
and ."-ord, Li,') u.,,. ,he 'n>rd cI,_
to, ,he >hleld "nd Uion,,,,,,, . deocnho-s
" a. lin Argolic (ArJi' -") .tueld, T here
can be no <Iou'" ,hit, hoIh ... <kscTlbina:
,he .,mou, lind " ...pons of the
and 'herefore Ih"'" 1Io cen'u,ies f...m
,he phal.nx. .>....... h.d 'n the ti'" cia..
,wo cent un.. of ar m<l u",n and
engmeet'S (jab", "' ho were n"n-
",'mbat a"'; ,
The ",c,md da.. were f"'med inlo
20 T hel' "'el e armed i n
..me fa,hion ". lhe rirsl d ... ex,..po
'ha' wore no 'OUI ..... and ,,f
,he Argi,'e ,h'eld 'he}' "*l'ried ,he
"'.. , ...... ..... and Uiodont. hoIh
imrll' lha' this . h;"ld "'" r"""'-"lrul.lr
or 1II1e2o, four-sided. This has rrompoed
",lIola... ' 0 .ugges' 'ha' lhe
r"""'angular u'u'" "f , he emr'"
... in use ,ighl , It,, ' ullh 'he republicon
pe , i"d. lIe,e . rch"",!,'t(Y has come t"
"ur aid in .. remar kable w"y,
wa, an E"u'e.n fron l ier "''''n
tn. simil .. sil uati" n '0H",ne bu'
........
....... .
'
A"" nd , i9" r
T". [t'","oHomon f d O'ffiV C ;>O Be " "'..
""._0140.,.., (cIos> I) 01...,......
_ .. ,he Glee' ,_ '0 oon"","" 01
.................. ....,II)_onl_
I"", . .....
'0__._.. 01_
.......... 11'1_"'... __
_ ..... 10--..-.. 01 .._
.,...tVl.....- ..... _._.....
__ h"....
..... V) , ..,. 01 """''''... __
on trIO ..,. '" the . ' '_"0<1 A ....... . """
or t n, oe1od """'" 9u" 0
, CI , 2 CI... II J C,. .. II I 4CI ... 1V
,
"
I TALY AND T HE \X'ESTER:\[ M EIll 1' l'.RRANEAN
on 1M nonhoem fron, ie., 1'hoe C",nos.o
","'". a Im.>nu bu.""',0( c. 8C, lA'as
fou nd here, Th i, .,,,,/.. i,
1A"h ",..-nor 6gures round
Argi,'c <hiclds. O"al shield, and four-
lidN .hicIJs, "111<= figures prohah ly
reprnen, lhoe E' t'US<.....'" and ,tw-ir
nontw-m allin and , holA' ' ha' ...
,hi: "od "ional O" al shield a (our -,ided
.hield IAhich i. prob<lbh' o nly a " orion,
of lhe ,>Val ,,,u'urn ....s in uSC a' , hi.
"me,
Th,' , hird d." was .i, d i,'ided imo
20 '"emmie, and ar med as the ,""" "d
da" hilt Wil h"", gr. a",s, T he r""nh
d . " wa, ,imilady di\' ided in" , 20
cen'"rios. According '0 ' hey were
armed only lA'i, h .pcar and j..-elin
wMrea. Di"ny'ius gr,' e. ,hem ,he
""'fum. opcar and ,word, The fifl h
cia.. lA"ere rocrnd in'o 30 ,..murin;
ac-cordlnll: 10 Li, ) 1A'.rlinge!">.
ond accordina '0 Dionl, illo both
sling"" and ia.."hTte<'n. D.onl"'u. add,
lhat 'he} fough' ou,side , hr h... of
hank. Atlachrd '0 , hIo fiflh da.. IA n c
' ''''0 "n'unn of hornhkno.rs (..,....i-
ei....) and lrllmp',e.. (f" h' er,",). Thlo
rem.,ndcrof , hr popllla'ion. ,1M: poores'
<:i,i",n "'.re cxcm p' from mililary
"".,,'ic"C. The army ...a' di" ided in ha lf
. ge , T he 'elc,. ns served a. a h"me
gund. .. 'hey did in Gre""e, and , Ik>!.c
in ,he primc of life went nn campaign,
T hi, Wa' ' he , t r ucrur e of lhe Elru<,:.,.
R"m" n .rmy wit h 2 x 4 0 li><:h", r,,,ming
lhe phalanx. wh ich wa' ' " I' I'''''ed h)'
2 x ' "enl uti e, "I' progr."i,'c1 y liltl"cr
armc<J '"'''I''' who were hoI harmed and
fnUlth, in l he "adi,ion. 1 Italian ' lyle.
' rhe di Ire...,n,"C. !>etwe<: n Ihe Iwo WU""C'
arc mln"n.l and ncc-d 01"' no doohl. on
lhlo b<l,ic accu_")' <>f ,he description,
Fabi... Pictoc lA'roIe hi, in
Gtttk and one m,ghl t..- jUSlilicd lhere-
f""c III prcfernnll l>Ion)..i... accoun,
10 , hat of Li,")',
It i. likely , ha, tM ",,-"Ond. lhird and
fou"hd a,,,,, foughl on lhc lhe
allie, had !>efo..., the Sc",'ian rdonn"
Howe"er , L j , ) , implin lhat 'he)' formed
l he "","Ond. ,hird and fOllnh li n.." .nd
certainly al " ,me I'<,inl all Rom.n
"il ;'em mU' 1 h. c' e hecn incotporated
int o lhe ce nt ral lx>Jy "r tr ool"' , gi,' jng
birth t o ,he of l he mi ddle
repuhlic whh ilS "ari",,, t ype, of
" 001'" li ghl inlt in su,'ccss i,'e line.
Ne,'enh<:l"", il i, ha rd 10 m nc,,;,'C
how thi, could !>e d"nc with a
in lhe from line, Thlo " n' urin of the
phalanx, al lea". rnu" ha"e been
di,'idc<J into fou r an
urn)' wa.' needed each c..nl uI)' pro-
,'j<k<! men in propoc1ion 10 'M loral
.... uircd: if. foc an army of
,.-a, reqUITed , each ""n, u'1'
........ ld ,upr 1y , wo -"i"'-or men.
Al l hi. earl,. P<'riod ,tw- di,-i,ion of 1M
army inlO ""n,unC'S had a, g....t a
poIi,icoI a, a m,ltla'1' purf'O"C. T he
original " ru" u rc remained in , hr poli.
l ical sphere bUI rhe . , m)' graduall)'
ad. pt c<J its . "ue, ure 10 ilS need"
When ,he " " u<cans were dri'. n oul
Bo' ow
w.";,,, (;gur., ,hown on,ot C" ' O" "tv'"
C >00 BC Th<"" , M, AOfl' '''
f oo",,,lo<" . I'd 0.","",Ids ,"",' 11 ",
u.. " , "" ...... "'... m it"" Th<' p",t"t>r,
,"""'" EI,uocoo .."", 0' , .... ""'"
Abo..
"- ""'''blow<, oOQ" "''' on ,oo _ , of ,....
Amo, '''' mltror 1M mu" ",".!>M" ," 'VPO
0' "' , " 00/ nom "",d by , ,,. Romoo, . ""
,.... O.OW", BoIoQno. Mu_
c"'co
,
I

,
_ e e ft
Abo
1 A I 'h ""n'u", b'O"", " 0""''' of . ,'"'' ''''
wo" OQ' c,""O<J WI."""." ....,""" , ..,;
e,,'.,"9 on ''' ''00 t><xtv ,"",'d
2 """_lal"'" of 71hoem"", _
=tum v..-.. i,.
T HE RIS E OF 800-275 EC
THE ITALIAN MILITARY SYSTEMS
of Rome, a large proport ion of the fir"
class mUSt have gone wit h them T hi,
would ha\'e . e<;ounted for Rome' s
much- reduced milim, y J.ivy
c1.ims th. , the round shield (in other
word, the phal. nx) rem. ined in use
until the intr od uction of p. y .t l he end
of the 5th century,
T he king wa, repla""d a, " ,m_
m. nder-i n_chief " f the army hy tWO
p.....et"" who",mmanded 'he two h. 1ves
of t he army. Around the middl e of the
4th century ,he pr.etorship w., ' upet _
, eded, The praetor who w mmanlk d
the veteran, rna)' have su,." ived in l he
titl e of p .....etor Urhanu" but his job
became purely leg. 1. Cert.in ly by the
4lh cemury Rome h. d no ' pe,:i. 1army
for the defence of ,he cit 1'_ The tw<>
chief magi" .....te' were now c.lled
consul s. The n.me of prae'or conti nued
to be used for second t.nk magi'tra, e,.
By the time of Polybim their numocr
had risen l() , ix
Ar mament
T he ",I diOT< of the ph.l.nx (the firs!
d.,,) were armed in Greek f. ,hion with
round Argive shield, b",nze cuirass,
gre.ve" helmet , spe. r and , wor d. Al-
,hough the Etrusc. ns h. d adopted the
lactics .nd arm()nr of the ph.lanx, the
native types of armour .nd ",e. p<>n>
are found in Etruscan gr aves These
includc axe head, ", hi,'h c. n hardly
have been u,ed in the ph. lanx. P",sihly
the inelu,i" n of these weap<>n> i.
rr.ditlonaL On the other h. nd they
might h. ve been u,ed in , ingle comba"
such a. that , hown <>n sculpture of tW(}
hoplites frum !'akri i Vetere, . T hese
are armed entirely in the Greck fa, hion
except , h. t one wield, a , hort curved
dagger. \);'hate\'er may be the rea,on
fOT the inclu,ion of t hese weapoll>, ' hey
,"<' rtamly m ukl not have been used in
'he phalanx
Thc use of fl. ii. n armour, which
m ulct hardly affect the function of the
phal. nx, is well att csted both hv ' he
grave fi nd, . nd in .rt. A p. in,ing'from
Ceri <how, hoplite wi, h Ch.kidian
helmet and a routld Etr usc.n breaSl-
pb' e_ Another cx.mplc from Chiu, i
, hows a hopli, c with ent irely Grcek
equipment but with It.,ion_style fea-
the," in his helmd _ 'rhe gr.'"C group
from l he tomh of the ,,'arrior . t Vuki
(e. 52 5) shows a ,ypic.1 mi xed equip_
ment : Argi,'e , hieJd, It ali. n hd met of
Kegau type (. ec p_ 98) .nd Graeco-
Etru,,:. n gr eaves
Allhough <ircck cu"a,ses were
widdy u' ed, many examples of circular
breastplates ha ve been found T hese
all seem to come from the first p. rt of
the 7, h cent ur y, p" " ibly before 'he
imrod u"t inn of the phalanx. Howe ver
thcir dat ing is very difficult as so m. ny
of them have an unknown pH",enanoc_
The painting from Ceri whieh has
. Iread y been ment ioned, and whk h
c' n hard ly be earlier than the end of
the 6th century, shows ,ha t the type
remained in usc long . lter t he 7t h
cent ury _ T hc'c di,cs are shown on
A" yrian h.s reliefs .nd later example.
h.ve heen found in ho, h Spain and
eentr.1 Europe. T heir orien..1 origin
seem, very likely T he Cori paint ing
, h(}w, the hreast plate held on hy a
ham """ prob. bly of leather . On thc
hack of these plates ,here arc usu.lly
three loop, at the w I' .nd a furt her one
.t ,he bott om for .,..ching the plate
to the harnc,, _
T he commonest form of helmet in
, SCOlotu,e ot Elf"' c, " "" "'or, ," complete
G'ee , 0'0001'1. From F. I. r', VOl er.,
2 W"no, """""9 co<njlle'e Gree, ponc olv bot
w'th ltal', " ' tvl. fe.,""" n" helme' Frorr>
Clu",m ( Ch'" " )
\
/
/
,
ITALY TIl E MEDITERRANEAN
8 e low
".'mel, I,,,,,, ....
1 (;_, 'C"'>e"loon 'v"'. ,_.
.... ""..-,.,.. Z ' ..' ..... 'Ne9ou lVI>t
Z. I",... , ... , ... 01 2 ,-.ng .... too-
st.ter."II on ""'''II Vol" G.,I.. ""_
Bolo..
1e 01. W","'" G,oe' ....."...,"""
1ru","" 'ound t><.......,. ,_C." 15 .....
Uf""" _ . 01. 'oo.ond _.""Ol.
11 Bac' '" _no
,.
s.-_(II _ (1'_.-!toM
C,""usi (C ""')
$ n_
Ii Ewoeon """'" (II G.... _ .......... 1<om
""," .. Cottoco
1 """'" of ...".1.. .-moM 01 woOO ....,
;' 00 ""'" l",",o ",,",u,,"o
8 T"" cI>o"" '" I'm,", 'WOld, blonN "",h
bone ;nl.... lIomooch Gem>on_ l ......1
M" >eVm. "".on,
9 Soch' o<l piltIm h"", V... ", MvtOO
G,"9O' ''''''. V"'.OO
10 T\'<1;0.1[ " u>c. n boll 01.,.,
'1 12. 13 r"" __01 of1100 'UN""
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11 Vdl,,,,,,,n ' wo,d I,,,,,, Eo,.
12 [ I, u, c, n , w",d 1,,,,,, AI.....n C"..,O.
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lound ;n ' hO 'Tomb 01 ' 100 W..."",' . , Vule'
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"paw"" ,,, ' IU' WI'''d' ] '!pOl
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uo UII\0'l' ' ! ' I TU,I",\,
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01 p,nUIl UOJ 0' "pnJ l3
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uodu"" JO ,dh) SI'I I ( 6 )
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' PLU["4 "<:>'1' JO Ulll "'I ' .10 "p" Ul " 4'
01 rJlp . llV ' A, nlU' J pJf '1]1 ' Iql s<od
puc 'lIt 0' u." op
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p[n,\ ,e ' OU1 .-\\ ' '11JO qu' 0.1 :lIP [UOJJ
' Id m"" 1"11 '"'
' Jg H f u, >ew n
J
JO ' Ill tq It ,,"U " 'I I
I. , u"" nJlCl " '1 ' ill ()l.l II p.1JnJdn p04
<UBS n) ",i s ' '1' r ue 'S>U' WOUI ' a
JO Uo, 0J>'Il -'q se,,,, l!
<W[ OI,' u""d,, ,"u, " J 'wn" " I, ' 'I " IUij
UI 11\011 " pu 'dWAIO PUnOj
' c." SI'WI' 4 ' S>'II JO "uo JO
IS<>W ' 4,1 'punoJ ' ,",,,
J O P q w nu " ''''1.'' .' '"I, oSn,\
U1 , t"llI h " J' IJ " ' , d.11
' 41 ' "11\ .WIl <1 41 " " nJ1 3 U1 ",n
SW3.lSAS .UIV.lnIW NVn V.LJ mu.
'["-008 rrwoa ,, 0 asr a '{RL
I T AL Y Al"D T HE WEST ERN MEDI T ERRANEAN
A complom Etruseln ponop/J _ lbw>d
in ,he Tomh or ,h. S.... n Roo m. a t
0Mt1O ..... Lake 1loIs<:na- TIll> ...........
or I 1yplCai Enusc.n mu.cl.d cui ra..,
10.. classlcll Arziw s11 ldd and I
Montcforlino h,lme' wl' h Wpl, di.c
check plec
In 'h. neld or weaponry I consider-
able cho nge had Iaken pl. " .
the hopli" . word remolned In usc lhe
,pe., w 'upersed'd by heavy lovelln
Ih lll h'
, r_ _ omno _ ..c....ot ....
"''"'' ............. un<Ie< .... noc' ---'
__..... .
...... ,_ .. ... _ t.ono .... _ot ....

-_.... ""-

Ii

,
'i\ ..
,
' -
l " c""," """ IOtm 01 ........ """"""'" ..
flo"'" Bot,"'''''''''''''
4 Root","" 9'''_ .E' , type ......."""
eo. . .., _ , A' g,.- .h;el<j
f,om lomb ., 0 ,.;. ' 0
TII poo boeca<M 1bc: primaTJ'
o/fMUlW pon or 1bc: Roman IeVoo- It
had Ion& iron shank and _ all.toed
to the wooden haft by I .ocket, .pi k,
ta"ll or not W1lI: wi' h ..... or IWO m ClS
Ibo<k,'ed 'YP' wU probl bly in uSC
e..ly In ' he 41 h c. n1ury 1hough the
. rchl,,, l"llicol . vidence i' uncerl.1n. Th'
,pi\:c . tongcd type fi r" ap r " " i n
n"rl h"n llaly In the .I 1h century. The
!YI" ..,m, to he d,plcted on
,
,
,
I
T
I
I
, W.. _"'II . ...,*""", El"**"
10............"'11 u.... '-Y",- .".)
Gog>oI, 'omb, To,,,,",,,,,
'"..,eo"",,,,,,,, ',,"n'" on 'hO K. ' ...."""
M,_ ,
a ..II painting in 1M Gillloll 10mb "
T.,qulnla. wllich do.... 10 1M period of
Rom. ', flit' coon"" with T.rquinl' ,n
,he tQid ,th century IlC. bur ,.rlies'
orchaeoloKiul nampl. d.1inK to lh.
lit.. J'd cenrury rom.. hom T.lamoo in
E'rul1' . TIle origin or ,ht. lYPO remains
obs<uro. Th. Glg]ioh "'mb prodates Ih,
S. mnll. w." m. Ki ng I' unllk, ly Ih. t the
Roman, adopted it from th' So mnll<S as
h.. ""en , uPl"'ocd
,

,
7 w.....".. ....... "" ......." 0-. _
_ _ . Ont "". 1
IIo,"'Ie, 'hO 01.... . mu""" evw_
A """" 11. 'tarrgea _ "on ',om T....""'"
on Em"I.,
THE RISE OF HOME 800- 275 Be
Til E ITALIAN MI LITARY SYSTEMS
T h Vohd a nd
peoples
Dur i ng th , ear ly ye . " o f th e 51 h
cent ury Rome c.me int o violent contact
with the hill, people of cent ral I,aly: tht
Aequi and Vol,ei Th" . wer , iu' t two
of the many ",a,like trioe. who, with the
S. hines . nd S.mn ites , occ u pied t he
vall ey< of t h e Apennin e mo un 'a; n,
which form 'he backhone of the Italian
peninsula, st,e tch ing from the Alp, in
a A 'ecoo"'lIC, 'oo of ",."'0, " om ' he c,,' '''.'
h","'.nds. Thi. tyoo 0' " moo, . od ",eapon.
".ve _ "U3.<j I>y 'he Hem"" . A" O,i
aod VOl sc,- H. wO. " . PO' """'''', _ ,
go"o,no , Oi' Ovl,,, ",e, " _"Mh"". p'".
"" ca",,,,, 'wo ,",0 " ' '''& S!"'a,no a Gr",, '
' , po'wo.-O
[It< north all the w'j to [lte toe in [lte
sout h Tlte peoples who oceupied the
centrai sect ion of these mount.ins may
be loosel y grouped under the h..ding
of O,,'ans Th, ,, peopies would have
served as allies or mercen" i" in t he
Et ,u,c. n ar mies. Exe.vot lo n, a[ t he
6'h -S 'h "e nl ury nec ropoli S", , t
Alfeden. 130km east of Rome . nd at
C.mpoval ano di Campli ne.. Teromo
on ' hc c", ' ide of [ltc Apc,," i1,<,' Itave
,
10 A Md p' ", ,, ",,"h
hiog" d $hOu'<I(" " ,"0 ',omto" 0" 0' 000'" aI
MOdeo". Mus> A O<l NioO. S<.,e 1' 6 . All
th " parrs ar. "" .k. Ow,' o woo TM r.;" g%
aM o'he' ."ac O"",o,. a a,.o mado or I, ,,,,
So, e, " 0' ' M,e M, . " ""0 fO"M In PO"""' "
on 1M s k.I. ,oo '" ' 00 gra,o. " Tho ,n"d.
01,1>. t,on' p'''. , n. hon OOCklO9
wh'ch was ", 'oppe<J ovo, ' h. adgo of ,n.
b' o",e f ocing,
' 2 " ""''''''''lICtiOO o[ the cc;"", seen f,om
t he blOC" . Th. ' .. m , ing, """-''' "'
pre,,,,,,,,,,,, 01 te, H,. , aMneve< ' u" i_. i ,
on the "'",,'" '" Co",, ", ,",'"
produc<d a wcaith of ar m, and armOUL
These finds, when compar ed with t he
[omou , 1'1 .., 0' stot ue fou nd "'
Capemano SOme 30km e, " of L'Aq" ;;.
ena bl e us to dra w up an exc ee dingly
accura" pict ure of a w. rrior o f the hill
peop le
The Capestr. no w,rrior wea" a small
r o und pectora l a nd co rr es po n din g
back pl. .. join ed by br oad
b a n d wh i" h pass e s o\' er tlt e r i gh t
13 TM w.."o.- of Cap.ostr ar>Q. ""''"'''9 ,he ,110<
bco""plat . and TM ""''''''' w,'" ,ts , ",, '
brim i5 woo' Dly g' osSly oxaggom' od
14 Back 0' , he fig" ," ,
w,
ITALY ASD T HE lX' EST ERl' MEDI TERRANEAl'
>houI<kr, On IIi , head he h... =tw
hel-. with an e"",""",," brim. He i,
... t..."O joIveh......hiell IIave
, hroWl ng Ioopo, an ne and a , word
which hc i, holding clooe 10 hi, breasl.
example, of ,hese dioc breasl-
plOle, joined by a hinged metal band
hove !'ocrn di,co,'tred a' Alfedcna ond
Camrt", . lano di Campli. Other ex_
ample, 1I.,'e been I" und., far apar! . s
An,on.o, Ca.." a in Compa"ia, and
Aleri a in Corsica. TOOe are .11 made
of 1:>TOIl7>: hacked wi.lI iron. The ex-
ample $ho"'"Il here i. fn'm lhe roecro--
poli,.' Alfedona. The di...... are
in d i.tme-ter (they are l e""nlly beI..""o
J O and ..i<k), ...'lIiell i, mucll
-
A al ..
_ ....... __50 105...
"*"'" """"""""""m It "-"""
0,," ,n Cot,""'O" .., .......
.""' .......
R'aM
1_7 S "n."""....- 'loIi.n 00' ""-..
1 I,," _ ' O<m '" ' ,,'..n "'" tool , [,ole
Vd_ """""" "'u_m" .......
__.. Rome
: " .......,.. """, . .-:0 _ "' Sest<>
e-_. a>nmon On """'*" rei
v' go"... "'-"' _
z. "" of J
:t> s.n- _ on c...ooo .......
J _110_ , P.-.lllv bOO
_ llI' .... "'-''''' of e-_ ""'"
G_,ono. Voncan
.... _ "'_u,l'o1 _ A..,....
5 __o! C.",," bOO. 10""0" _ two
."",... ,not w<InO Iovnd ...... C.....-... ,"
"-P\J "o f ,om".. 00<' """,,, "
Cn,o" M"..,,",
,"
larger l hao . I>ov.o on , he Capes_
lnno ...'&rrior. "I1lne .1,..,., ..hieh "'"
obvMlu.ll derio'w from !he earlier
ElNllQIn examples, ore " .... Ul .1CO)f_
.'w ...'ilh round houo:s and
two-headed fa" n, On ..>me eumplc.
,lie Jec"Ora,ion io in";"".1, The iron
b""king, wllich lI ad IWo . emi-d rcular
p;cce, cuI oul of 'he c-entre. is rolled
over 'lie of the dioc ,, " '0, he front
and hammered no..
The broad , boulder Nod, ...hieh ;,
)OCffl long. io ma& <JI .hltt plo'" <JI
bronze , ri mmed -;. 11 iron. llIey "'"
joined l"ll et her ,ron lI inges {hat
are rio'e, ed (o ,he pla,n . The band i,
ioi""d to , he back Ji", with a hinge
and I<) ,he front w;,h a hook. T he
cui.... w held in p'"ilion by . har n","
,omp<\ScJ of lwo h""d 'traps, ooe
pa"ing "vcr each , h" ulder and 1><'0
omaller "rap' pa"ina under u <oh atm,
b , ,
l", __
loa __.. "" 5
---
....__ofcha
__.. "_"",, y''OOO' ...a
-
.. SornoI....._ .-... '"" Cont>oo .._
II> rot*"'" aI. d;oc..., _...-.
Ie ,,_"" wi<;_ ,,_
7 eon",.1....... I,,,,,, Ope."" .....va.o'
" .0""""''''' ><. ' Mu,..;m, f"""""o
7. S,mHor "" 'n," on tno Rologn ..wi.
THE RI SE Of ROME 800--275 8C
THE MILITARY S\'STEMS
clnr l)' . hovo' n on the Capes-
nano ....... .
Many broad-brimmed hdmcu Ita,..,
Iottn f<>llnd but"""'" wi l h a rim ao " ide
.. Ihat worn by the Capcslrano ",-.rrior.
The p'cdonunanl I)"P" i. lhe 'poI'
hdznI;t ,,'h>ch ;1 fQUnd al l "'-..- centra!
and nonhem Italy and around lhe
head of the Adrialic in nonhcrn Yug<>-
.......... ll>ew pol helmc1.. ""'0'1 10 bear
"'" . 0 ,he "".liel VilbncNan
lYp"' . Exampl... <>f .i milat helmets
from Austria artod Cud..""Im'akia sug_
gnt a of di.penion .round the
had of t he Adriatic. T he ea.liest!)"P"
( I , p . 102) is in Ih. fonn of. round cap
turned QUI al the bnm. ll>ew helmcu
ofte" Itave .....11 knobt ti\'fled on IOlhe
sKIn and erat hoIde. " lhe lop " i l h
. tt ach..... n...1 l he fronl anJ Nd.. llIe
type is common in central h al y and an
"--U .....,n round ar Rome.
Number J i. a t l"P" reotticled ' 0
n,,"hem Italy and Yugosla' "ia, T he
"""" famoul nInlpk "''D found in a
,,urior'. gra,,,,., SestO Calende in ,he
foodlill. <>f t he Alps , It " .... made in
four pieen n,.."ed logethe1". like ,he
earlier htlmeu theM lu".., a cr.....
holder .1 the lop and IIlaChmenlO "
fronl and N<..ir. , Thil I)l"" is probably
.hown beina worn by lOme of the
tirrureo on . he Cenou. .,trJ".
rr
n
-
I ...... 22 _ k"", .... ,.,.,opoI.. 01
_.-
" , 2'1 _ ..... eorn"o...-.,
,--,-----
---"'.... o<g
__2D_ ....
_01_800-._
;0. 21; Sao.- __c.,.... .......,. T1'es<
_ at-. _I<>'>g'_
21 .. .....,. _ ....... c.., .......,
n _..-..
eo, _'" ....... "" ''''''''''''V"' .... __
f""" ,.,.,_at
21.0 -.._01 ... _ <I\ao'O.
25 . n,to _ """"ll QtI lOP of ....
-..:I ......... QtI p 83 "" ,
30 '''''' ""... w ... """" ...... "om
C....".,...lo<>o
31 3.2 Sw",O on<I K-OIlI>o'd. ,,.,., ...'" toor>e
'''' ov. _ , _,.... 10 '"ot """'" QtI , ....
",..,i", 01 e-""", f,,,,,, All.........
15_32 A" ..... ,:tO
I
"
t. 17
t
"
II 19 20
"1
9
a ..ow
12 W, m", ..""0<1 ...... .., nd """ jo.;o,...
Va.,. .,....,
13 Won"" ..,," """ ..-eo,,,. on<I "';nod
"""""" ,",.-d..._
, . ' ''''' ...... _V.......... ':10
n
"
-
, G_ t,,,,,, eorn"o... ....., d'
1 __ k""' ...._
10 u_ g d k"", "'_
I I g t'<ll'l -....
'"
ITALY AKD T HE WEST ERN MEDI TERRANEAN
Number 3 is unusual _ only lWO
examples have been found. T his , peci_
men, which has no p, ovenance , is in
Ihe Mu, eo Gregoriano at the Vati can,
It is because of ilS broad
bri m,- the doseS! yel found 10 Ihe
immen,e bTim of the ,--"pestrano " ",ue.
11 has a pronounced CTest cha nnel
obviously adopted from the lllyrian
helmet. T his is a very nOliceahle char-
acteti " ic of the Yugo, la\'ian pOI bel-
mcts. T ype 4 is common around the
nort bern Adrialic and in l he Po valley.
It is clearly of the , ame family a, l he
Negau l ype hut i, gcncrally mueb
broadCT in the cap,
Number 5 has received lhe na me of
'Cannae helmet' becallsc l wo examples
were found in Ihe region "f Ihe haltl e_
field of " annac where the R" mans were
dcfeated by Hannibal in 2161lC, T hese
two helmelS, which are i n l he Bri lish
Museum, were long Ihoughl 10 come
from the l>atl le and were used 10 cia"
and dale ol heT examples, Fortunalely
an exeellent speci men was found in a
grave at Campo\'alano which pb ced il
firmly al Ihe end of Ihe 61h c-., nt ury.
T he'e helmets , of aoout ten
example, exi" (half of l hem bave no
provenance) would seem 10 be limi led
10 Ihe Adriatic hetween An,'ona
and Hari. T hey aTe characteTised by an
in,el ere st channel at the front , a
pronounced wai" like Ihe l ype
and Iwo ho,"s which
are ri\'eled to the , ide. T he,e Ix,,,e'
are made of beaten bronze filled wit h
lead and backed wil h on iron disc,
T he Ccrto, a , iwl a , how, a peculiar
helmet made up of Ix" " , or dis cs
(6a), Examples of helmets of this type
have been found in Yugoslavia (6),
T hese are made of a wicker cap covered
wil h bron7.., . The gaps ocl ween
lhe discs are filled wit h bronze . lud,
Cuirasses made in a similar fashion
have also been found in Yugoolavia,
T he last Iyp< (7 ), which is shown on
t he Bologna ,iwla (7a), i, in
shape, It was nol \'ery IX' Pular and
cert ainlynO! as effeCli\'e as lhe brimmed
l ype" hut a fcw example. ha\'e becn
found T he one shown here is from
Oppeano near Verona, It is made in
lwo pieces tiveted 10geIher and has a
bron ,.., topknot. T here arc two
, mall bTonze loops on the inside for
a chi n strap, The othe r types
."
wete also held on by a chi n strap which
wa, umall, ' all ached to t he lini ng ,'ap
and is often , 'i, ihk on the ,iwla.
T he watrior of Cape'trano i, weaTing
a throat a very similar example
wa, found at Alfedena, On his upper
left aTm he wears an armband. Such
armbands have been found in POSilion
around the left hume.-", in t he warrior
graves III Alfedena, which brin.o;s to
mind the stor,. of Tar peia, t he Roman
maiden .t l he lime of Romulus, who
betrayed lhe C. pi101 10 lhe Sabin.. in
relurn for Ihe gold bracdets that lhey
wmc on their left arms. There i, so
often an underlying tr uth in the old
legend" Even l he sequel may havc a
grain of truth in iI, for Ihe Sabine,
pTOha bly spoke O""an and they may
ha\'e had diffi cuhy i n undcT"anding
what Tarpeia ""a",ed when she lX'i nlcd
to whal lhey were wearing on theiT
left arm, and o/feTed hn Iheir , hields,
T he warr ior of Cape" rano has no
shield and no shield remain. have been
found at the excavalions. It
seems mOSllikely lhat lhe non-metallic
' CUl um in one of its for ms was used.
Ad""or ated brcast dis" fTOm Ihe Ancona
area further nor th shows a fallen warrim
holdi ng whal must be an Argive ,hield.
The Ancona area ha. produced abun-
dant evidence t haI the full h(}pJi te
equipment had been adopled there,
but lhere is no similat for its
adoplion in the central area,
arm"ur wa. havi ng only the slightest
infl uence in lhe area. Of all the
exea\'aled at Alfedena and Cam-
povalano unly one has yielded any
Greek armour; Ihe unique Osco-
Corint hian helmCl (sec p. 6', ' 3) and a
6th_century greave (.ee S, p. '03)
were fou nd logelher in a grave at
Campovalano. T his greave is eKeep
lional, and l be warr i"r of CaI'C' trano
cert ainly doe, nol wear any, Further
nort h, probably under l he influence of
the Greeh . nd gTea\'cs
hecame and. pair were
found in the famous warrior gra\'e at
Sesto Colende,
A very simple upper and lower ann
guard were also found at AlfeMn. bUI
Ihe, e 100 are unique. Armour uoually
comi ' ted only of a cui" ," and helmet.
Su . pended from the harness of hi,
cui rass on lhe right side, lhe Capestr ano
warrior has an elaboralel y decoraled
swor d. An almost identical sword was
found", Alfe<lena. T his was only one
of a large numbet of ir on swords and
""ahl>ard, thaI have been found. T hc,"
SW'<>Tds are all of Greek hoplile lype
probably adopted from lhe Etruscans.
T heir hlade length, \'ary octwcen 60
ancl ,ocm. ' I'he handles and the top
and Ix)[[om of Ihe scabbards of these
, word, aTe made of bone covered with
iron . T his iron facing ofren has pierced
decoralion so l hal Ihe Ixmc ,how,
Ihrough. The handles "fRoman dagge",
of l he caTly empiTe are made in exact ly
the same way. T his and the wides pread
remains of hoplile swords fwm Ihe Po
valley 10 Apulia and from Ihe Adriati,'
[() Corsica, wilhoul ",unli ng the areas
such a, Hruttium, Lucania, Camp.nia
and Sicily which came direcl ly under
Greek influence, leave no c10uhl Iha'
Ihis wa' also the primary sWOTd used by
Rome and the I.alin League before l he
introduction of the Spanish lype in lhe
3rd century, On t he Capesltano stalue
a small knife is visible to t he
fronl of the swt>Td ,eahhard. Simi lar
knives, with a blade lengl h of 20- 25cm,
have been found lying on to p of the
sword scabbard in the gr",'es al C. mpo-
valano. Some of the gravc' eon lained
iron daggers complete with their iTon
scabbards and chains for attaching
them to , he belt. The blades (}f these
weapon. werc 25-30<:m in length
Most of these daggers ha\'e four prongs
projecting around the pommel, which
seem 10 indicale a centr. l European
origin.
A wide variely of ' peaThcads have
been betraying the many
influences affecIing Ihe cen" al It alians ,
There ore ex.mples d early of
naean, and Villanovan deri\'a-
tion whil.. ot hers are just a, clearly
from none of lhese sources, T he moot
characleri'tic of these lallet lypes are
quad rangular and triangular , haped
Thei , , ioe \'aTies fTom li ny lTiangular
javeli n lX' ints less l han Scm long to a
v." quadtangul", spearhead over Socm
in lengl h. All Ihe"" 'peaTS and javeli ns
ha \'e poinlcd iTOn butts. A,tany spear
head, and bum were fou nd in pooition
in l he gra"e, it possible to
est ablis h Iheir lengl h' , which vary
between ' .6 and 2.6m
Hefore leaving l his period . omcthing
must be said of lhe peoples of the Po
T HE RI SE OF ROME 800- 275 C
THE ITALlA:'\ MI LI TARY SYSTEMS
v.ney during the time of the Elfu",an
expan, ion north of l he Apennine"
Ailhough they may only have had a
influence on the Elruscans,
they had a g"aI effect on Ihe
Cell, who in lurn had an enOrmOu'
influence on the Romans.
Ihe 6t h .nd 5t h centuries a
vibraIlt cullure existed jml sout h of
,he Alp, . T hi, ind uded the whole . rea
of the Po valley and nort h_western
Yugoslavia , These people had a unique
art form known to as
"tula art. r he,e si'ulae arc bronze
bucket' which were elaboraldy de-
corated with embossed often
including warr iors and chariots. These
repre,en'a'ion" wi, h the wea_
I"m, and armou r thaI have been found,
make it po"ible to draw a fair ly
accurate picture of the north It ahan
warrior of the 6,h and 51h cenl uries
In the north, to<>, Ihe 1">1 helmel wa,
the mo"common form . It was gradually
superseded by the Negau type
the 51h century. Shields of all , hapes
and size> are , hown on ,he siuda., from
round Argive type' , ,, oval and rec-
tangular body , hidds. The iron shield
00.. (' 4 , p 103) undoubtedly comes
ftom a body , hield, I" sections show
l hat lhe shield w", convex. The figure
from , he Arnoaidi situta (13 , p. 103) i,
ohen identified as an invadi ng Ceil, and
indeed it i, just possible that he is., but
his heime!, Iwo spears or javelins, tunic
and spined , hield should ' urely make
him an halian. onl;' a ,hort
time later bo, h l hi, l ype of shield and
were heing used by lhe Cel"
of the Po valley and uIlq ue>tion-
abiy .dopted from ,he Italian, . Melal
euirass", do not , "em'" ha"e been u,ed
and the C" idcnec of the ,imla. suggests
Ihat "'en the linen cuirass was rejected.
Bronze s<udded eoirasses were in use
in Yug",lavia and i, i, po"ihle tha'
they were employed i n the Po valley
. Iso, though l here is no evidence to
support Ihis.
sword, . nd tilur _pronged
daggc", common i n l he Po valley
hut lhere is strong trans-Alpine
influenee here, and m. ny of lhe swords
. nd ' p"arhead, ,how central European
The ccnlral ltalian tri_
angula, and quadrangular s pearhead,
are nol eommon north of lhe Apennines ,
The ,i",la warriors e.rry one or lwo
spears and ",>metim", an axe. "" hen
two 'pears .re shown one rna,. rcason-
. hly ' uppo,e lhat lhey are lhrowable.
Ch"ri,,!S arc a regular fealUre of
warrior burials. On ' he si",lae , hey are
usually shown in a ceremonial
and il ",em, unlikely that lhey were
u.ed in hatt ie, e,pecially as fighting
hor,emen appear on the si'ulae,
T he Vace clasp show, 'wo
fi ght ing wi,h spears and axes. One
a po' helmet but neithe! h. ve
shield. A simil ar ho,",eman
arme d wilh an axe appears on 'hc
T hissuggest' l ha, ar",md
JOO Be eavalry did not carry , hields,
bu' ' he , hghtiy 1m", Arnoaldi " ",Ia
sho"-,, a .."alryman , till wearing a I"ll
helmel hut armed with two javelin,
and . n Argive lype shield,
T he Sa mn;le.
Wilh lhe defeal of [he ',loisci, who
,he Lepini ,nd Au, oni hiih
which hemmcd in La, ium 10 'he
the Latin I."ague into di r"Cl
conlact wilh lhe S"mniles the
river Li ri, . S, mnium wa, ,hat area of
the centra l highland, hmi tc d by the
ri "er Sangr o in the non h and the
Ofanlo in the soul h and it "-'as with the
people of lhis .rea Ih", lhe Samnite
war s were fough,- However, , he area
by tr ihes rd ated to
l he Samnites was for greater. Soon after
500 Re, following ' he collap", of Etr u' _
<'an I">wer in the , out h, Samnite aibes
poured down into l he coastal plains,
Outing l he sueceeding cemury they
()Ccupied lhe of the south fmm
Campania t" l he toe "I' hal l' T he
Elruscan colony of Capua fell 10 l hem
in 423 and ,wo ye.rs lhe Greek
ci ty of Cum"e, whi<'h had piayed ,u, h
an import ant part in l he defcat of Lars
P""ena a century earlier , was also
caplured, Apuli. on lhe east ",a" had
similarl y been The Samnit",
mi xed wit h ' he local I">pulation, and
soon produced independent tribes with
a mixed culture slrongly influenced by
,he Greeks who h.d colonised 'he
co",t.l area, bd Me 'hem.
In the middle of t he 41h cent ury,
prohably in res ponse 10 the rapid
expansion of the LatIn League, lhe
Samnites tr ied 10 fot ce l heir
in CamJ"lnia to join 'he Samni" fedn a_
,i on. I n 343 La,i n League, , imi larl,.
nervou' about l hc expansion of the
federalion, intervened 10 maintain Ihe
indepe ndence of Campania and so
brought on , he fir" confmnta,ion be
' ween the IWo powcrs.
8elow
Co,,'" Somnit. ", ar,.o," wito ,taoo"ds f,om
P,. stum in l uc. n . N,pl.s Mu seum Th.,
p, io,ing i, p<obabl, e,<lv 4th ",,"tu,," TWQ 0'
[h<l ",."io" rio". 'Quo" t><"nla,., M h<l '.
tt,. "0""""'" WOlO ,n"."
I T ALY AND THE W'ESTERN MEDl Tlill.RAI\ EAl'
,
I
.-
r... _ ... fo,t .... -..no "' __
.... ..,.. ....... Cad_
F..... ., 1 lI(: Thoo __ _
~ - . . . ~ _ . ' " ' - ..
_ ..... __ 01 ..
. . - _ ~ I O . _
.... _ ~ - - " ..... _,.. -
_.-
T HE RI SE OF ROME 800-17S Be
THIO IT ALIAS MILlT AR\' S \ 'STEMS
""led representations of Samnite
",'uriors. Those Sam.. ;' .....110 had
mia.. 10 ,he COlIS. i ..,o ron<act
w;. h lhe Greeb and lMir annouc
show. a stronll- Greek inll...ncc. There
hundred, of of l hese
co..'ol Samnit es ; the d ,ltieulty i' to
detnmine whi eh are (;'eek and
whieh lhe Samn i' e d ement s. The, e
pielur.. nearly always . h" w w ldie"
armed "'ilh shield. I l o"'e"Or,
lbc Ionl "-u th:a' bop.n in YO ;,;
dividN by th< hi><onant Into three
pam, t M firsl , second and third Sam-
"'on. U'"y"s accoun, of ' k fin,
"ar is.., <ho' many hi.,orians
bf<,n led to t hot no such
wor loe"" pI""". Whal i. is tha'
no lain Wa' made on . ide and in
t hi' re.ped t he wos sucee.,ful
The War l...ed only and
",os follnwed by lhe
.. beN'...,n and her alli'"
for con,rol of the 1'1>< main
"""ll"" bc:p n in 3Z
g
and
..,<h brut: of six yean, unlil 2\10. "I1Ie
hiotori<:al record of thew yeon rna)' be
poor _but th< arch-*'eiall rr<;Ord.
panicularly in reblioD .0 armour, is
far ton,"_ tho< di ili-
why <Jl dal ina: t M pieces. S""""kk-u,
il i. possible '0 draw a
of lhe wamor .
Livy a le"ll:thy l<:COun, of , I><
Samni' e army in whi ch de.cr ibe.
'hem n for ming two regiments,
" med wit h ,ilver and 'he other
,,"'ith shiel d' . '.ilv shield. '
whi'e linen 'unk. and had silver
;abba.-d. and baldriCI-, "" hi lst t he
'golden had multi-a>loured
tunica ",-j t h gold scabbards and bal drics.
111< 1IOld>en wore a brea.. plll' e ,,'hieh
L vy con. 0 ' poIlIl'C ..)" This
QOUId be in,e<pted .. mail (" """l h
this woul d be a" anachroni""l. n."y
also wore a cres,ed hd..... and a . ingle
era on 'k Ief' Iq:. Uvy goes on to
dnaibc tM . hield a' I>roe<I and 1e>..,1
. 1 lhe lOp 10 protect ,he ehcsl. and
sroul<kn bu, lape.;", ,,,wards ,he
bonom.
T hi' desc.iption be.." no relalion
to t he arli"ie or archaealollk ol evidence
ond ho, '0 he re;.. ....ed ent irely if ane i,
to get any",," of picou.. of
soldier, This se<.1io.. of lJ\"y' s
hislory is s"'ped. Uvy makes ,he
hodia'ouo dai m that , .... silver anod gold
rqiments, "'hieh are reminiooenl of ,he
:\1acNonians, "..,re fonned .pecilkall)
for lhe campaign of 309. Of ,n. res( of
,he <'qwpmcn' , he _ d\ari,.hl<
mnark lh... can ma.Je is lhat Uvy is
<hcribina 11>< so-called aJadia-
tors of his 0""" day. SCUll"u..... of l hese
glad"l.,.. have surviwd ond ' hey carry
who' i. clearly ' he ,,; , h the
lOP Cui off.
unfortun. ,el y no undi s-

ii i
,
a pa,nllll{l from Cap"" tbqo,o'S a hone-
man Cll'r);nl " clearly defined
wluch he appoean 10 ha' .., capl ured, and
Naples.how.
warriors fighl ing "'; l h ",-"I shiel d'
"'it hou l the "",.,urned rim l.<> t ypical
of t he shield. I n hi.
for bonl . "f A,eui um
in 279, Diony, i", af Ibiie_rn , ,, u,
refero 1<, t he S. mni' e 'hield os Ih"" Q' ,
which i , lhe ",me word l hal uses for

-
-
1 A s.-.. ""'" _ .. .... Bont....
...- ,.,..,. .... ..- ---""'"
l S-Am< _ ...... CotW
s... _ 3 __
s-.. "'*' ..... ...... _
__N_AoQ' , , >'Cg , __
Tho.- " "",.IOG (WI ....
.",. '" Sam G_ WO<rI
""'''' _'''' '_(_Q 111) 5 .., 5
Po"" ong& .. s-w> ,If> '''I/O
..-.-""" _I 7 Po;n,,"Q ...
"""' ''11 _ ! ' """,). 5. 5 """ 1
N."... 0.1 ".."", BA 4' " con,"", S.",",..
"" '''0'
'"
ITALY AND T HE WEST ERN MEDITERRANEAN

'"
A _
.W...... _ ..._ -.
.c._... _.............. .
... ..
...", ..-__"'"'" 1 8
,..: _ ""'9" __lib llooaOInl _
o,.ogo .. 0N0I '" , "0 _
_ _ '0 tloNo '" _ ""'"
..-....(P 1(6)-..._," '"

,
- -,,'
, :>
....
,
,
,

>,

,
-Go-
,
r

-
, T' .... dol< __"om AI"""'" ""'.. ' 8 "
"'9"'11\< """......- _ 1. 0..... '"
,"".." "' __, ...._
,_' c"'"- ...... "' .... .-. "'_
.- f A s.- Tho .....
---.....-....
__
1 ..... 7 __0C' ," "' ... _
5IN ,, _ ,... ... _ . _
-
A"""""' __.... s........
w_ _10"'" _ """'" ill S",1v
"'"" .....
__"' . _nOt ...
'" AJ:nc .- _ , " _ '" ,"" ' OP
........ _,,"'Iv _ .... """
__.... _ s.._.. boI, "'d H,.
, . _ 'M_ ""'''''Il T,," <"-"'"
""" P""Q0' !,_ ......... no G,.,..
"" '-.00 , Mmo'" " ""' "
,,,,,... """,'",.o,'"P 'Tho S"""' ,.. WON"" "
IIood OX"""" '" ,,,. i"""plOy
.,.' h,.oJ.,.."", ,od ' 0''';0 iao"""
,,"
THE RISE OF ROME 800-275 Be
T HE ITALIAN MILITARY SYSTEMS
the early Roman shield which Livy
o.lIs a ,emum. There was a tradition in
lhe laler republic quoled by Sallmt
that lhe Lucanian Samni tes used shields
mack of o' iers covered wi'h ,heel'';
hide. T his shield seems 10 be light
version of the SCUlUm. While Jl can
hardly be doubled Ihal 'he coastal
Sarnnile' adopled the Argive 'hield,
what littk evidence ' h"Te i, pmn"
, oward ' the u,e of l he ,,","urn in Sam_
nium i{;elf and also in lhe highland
of Lucania,
T he fragmel1,.ry fres"o at Naples
. 1"" show, ;a"elins with 'hrowing loors
\X" " io" are most commonly shown
e.rrying two ja"d in' , Sometime' the,e
ate rather long .nd i' <,XlUld be
' hat they are spears , bUI lhe simplest
interprelation is t hat when there are
twoshown, a, least oneofl hem must be
fot throwi ng_ Sometime' a single wea-
p<>n lhat i, unque" ionahl y a 'pear i,
, hown. T he w. 11paint ing, thal
all lhe main lypes of srearhead found
at Alfedena a"d CamJXwalano were
"min use in lhe 4th cemury, induding
the quadrangula r and triangular ,ypes.
A dCaT repre,entation of the lauet
lyre is shown on a pol1ion ofa
from Na r les, Thi s . lso shows
a kopl>, which seem, to be unique as
nonc " f t hc o'her painling' of warriors
show, swo,ds at . 11 All ofthc warr i""
depicted wear broad bell s and helmets,
usually of AHic lype, lOpped Wilh crest
and fealhcrs _S<>me wca, these
are e"en worn by l he oce..ional h'm c_
man and a few wear a breastplate. T his
is u' u. lly triangular i n form and em-
\"",,"<1 with l hrec di,e', T he 'warriors'
,eturn' f resro shows w' Him. wit h
,quare peclorals, but this is uniq"e,
Thi' painting olso ' hoI'S lype
<tanclard< whieh on maIlY (}f lhe
"as'" and wall painting' anel ore ,,"Hicd
by bolh infant ry and e",'alry_
There remain; ' mall example
that requi,e, a ' pe<' i,1 mention. In tb59
the Lonvre mu<cum .equircd a , mall
bronze statuette of 0 warrior whieh has
, 11 of ' he charac' eri"ics described
.Ixwe, AHie l ype hd met wilh holes
for ere" and fcat hec. ; triple eli", euira" ,
.nd broad belt .nd gre. ve, _ lJ nt()[t u_
nately his shield . nd javelins O'C mi"ing_
Thi' ;l atuette, which was supposed 10
"O\'e beton found in Sicily, is very
primit ive and deO' ly owc, nothing to
l he The fact that i' may has'e
been found in Sieily i' unimportant as
it rould have been taken there by a
Samllite Every,hing about
i' oul for recognit ion anel
can be lill ie doubt thaI this is our onl y
tr ue re prese mat ion0 f a SamniIe warr ior ,
Wil h l he evidence we
arc ahle ) confirm anel ' ometime<
c10rify the evidence which i, el" wn
hom paintings and seulplure
An enormous numbe r of broad
bwnee belts have been found all over
<' ent,,1 and s<,uthern h aly_ Whate ver
eh ea Samnit e, Campanian, Lucanian Or
Apulian might <>r mi gh' not wear , he
wo" ld always ha"e his helt whic'h
seemed to be the very symbol of hi.
manhood, T hese vary from 8 IO H cm
in b,eaelt h anel with l WO
h,,,,b whic'h wcre in",n ed in'o ",rre'
ponding holes at the other end of the
belt , There were uSl1ally l hree p. i" of
thcse hole, ' 0 that lh e hel t could he
adjusted. Thc h,,,,ks arc normally hcl el
to the beit by a in.l he shape of a
palmelle which is riveleel 10 the bell.
Alt hough lhe'" palme" e' has'e a variely
of fmms _ threc of whi<'h are , hown in
,
, ,
. .' .
-- ,
Above and fight
A ',"o'ed panoply hom l<;<,oi, in '00 To-we r
oj c. :17, Be. TO. Att,c has
wmg' m,c.. of "' in ' ''00' . ""0;00 '"
' ""'>\1 f, .,h. , The g<e'''''' h, ,,,, "'ao
""c" m, o"
the illust rat ion (3, " and 7)- the vast
maiori ly conform10 I his al pattern
There are few which are and
nal, Ow (4) . T he' e are nor ma lly used in
group of four or fi ve in" cad of 'he
customary two. Sometime' l he fl angc
has ananthropomorphicform and lhere
are a few be.ulifl1l examples whe,e the
h""k ha' becn made into the for m of an
elephant', heael and tr unk. The, c mu"
dale 10 the period immediately following
the Pyrrhic war , On . few occasions the
hole> al other end of thc bdl were
replaced by ring tastener< which were
aho held by a palmene flange (3) . T he
belt was lined with leMher which was
"itched in the archaic Greek
"yk
Thc tr iple di"" cuim" which
on many Campa nian "a'e' i. well
. ttested in archaeology, About t 5 ex-
amples are known, one from
Alfteltna in the centr al highlands and
onc h om !' a! um in l,ucania, ' howing
lhal they were i n us. bolh in Samnium
and on the coast . The sample shown
her e i, fmm h is complele
except f()[ one of t he ,houl eler plate'
Thi s example is f.irly represemal ive
'"
ITALY AI' '' T HE \t'ESTERN

A""
4 A0"" '0. 1" ...., " om Apol' , ,n 1h"
"' "om 5 An It.l o Co.,,, e,," e.'m,,, "0m
",. ", 'n A-y',. I p"","g 0" W'''IO' we.""g
", 11" 0 ' Co,,,,,o,.n f'ool""" "" 1f'oo Amaze"
'..-oOl'hog", l " Qoln"
Abo
A'.' ,,".d 1001' " f,om P,." om.
l o<. ' '' . c. 300 ac It """ '" of , " ;p" d;, c
, " " . ... All' , ho' """ W10 W' '''l' ' M <.",.,
hold.""",, . S,,,,,,, ,. boll P..""," M"", m
,
Bo' ow
7_10 A"'10'.""'_,,"'" C".......""", ..
......,.. e." MuM" ", Tho A" <: ....
_,... _ ,"_ """ , !b,
c no lIC
,,'ith t he .houlder and .ide plat...
attached 'nthe front and bod:; plat".
nnp and hoob. The .houlokr
pla'.....,,'hem'e. hinged
in ,he ""ntre. (TlloK on , he e:umplc
a, Kar ln u ,,", ...., false n are 1<><>
.1Ion 10 """,,h tho: bad, p1ale.) The
.JIouldn pW<:n <Ji ,he 10..,' cuirao.sd at
Sapko are not only hincro in , ho: <nl,te
but arc al!lO aU.a<hI '0, he fron, and
bad< platn by hin,es. 1Mupper edge
<Ji the front and back pIa,e .. ha. a
m ip <Ji rin1ed '"
iI, A f......upc-rbly doeoorated example>
<Ji thi. I)'pe <Ji roirass has'e heen found.
The finnl <tUmple, ""'. found
in a lomb at K>out_Sad i n Tuni. ia,
was probably taken back to by
one: of Ha nnibal' s ."ldien. The origin
"f ,hi. 'ype or " .ita.. i. ob",--ute, il
must lOJ'Jleho... be ' elot<d 10 l hc single
di<c h.c."pl .t... of the 61h ccn' ury.
il appea.. on va.e paintings in t he
middl. of thc 4t h cen,ury and th.
e. rlies, dOlahk example, ,hal from
Alfe,jena, . annul he dated t<> e.r1jer
t han l he "nJ <l r t he 4th cen lu ry. An
example in l h" Lou",. ha, only t wo
di , c" but t hi. i, I hoa" as , h. righ, -
hand d i." ha. """n removed and " i,eh-
ing hok. ha,'. he.n pu nched along 'he
edee of the rot to " s'e the ap!J"'ara""e
,ha, , hi. wu ito <>ri"nal form, I n fact
,me i. , he kft _hand and bottom
disc " 'ilh ,he lonJ(ue to which ' he .ide
plate ,,u I ll ached. Al t he lOp of ,he
kf,_hand d, ,,, i. I f""gment of , he
<cinfor.;ine plate ,hat ""1' placed llong
t ho: 'Of' of ali ,,,,,, roituK'l.
T1>c " 'all r-in,in, to"",'n "' ' , he
,,-arrion' mum' from ra...n.m sho....
........ " 'oaring IqUite bter..tp!.a'", ,,-bic:h
a.e moulded in ,he form of the musdn
<Ji , ..., tOl'OO. $eo'"",,1 n;ampkt of """"
survive. The bnl i . a hrra>l
and ba<;k plale in lho: Bri' i.h Mu"""m
. ......... in tho: i1Iut''''''ion, B}' coml-'lring
i, to , he frnco from P....,um i, i.
pouibk 10 ron"TU<:I il emnple,d}' .
II i. only 29Cm deoop, which is faT '''''
.mall for tho: mu:ula,u<c to fil to the
ton<> of a no.mal man. All , he o,he,
"""mpl", a", of imila, . i"". 11i. ck....,
therefo'e, thaI , he navel and , I>< pec-
toral mu,d ... We '" ""v intended to
fit ,h. ror.e'J'I",di ng part, ofthe w.are"
The 'wo part S were onl y intended ' 0
cover lhe hack and chest above , he
brood bell .. ,hown on th. fresco.
""
THE RISE OF ROME 800- 275 Be
THE ITAU A:'" MIUTAlt\' svs runs
,
I
Shollldtr pla'.... "" doub' similu to
'holot on 'M cri plt di'" ....., "",..,
fa>'tnc<J to I"" frunt pl.:"",
...i ,h "na- ,,hil.. . i<k pla'.....hi<:h ar<;
iu... , it.iblt on 1M frnro "..,rt .nachtd
to ,hot bao;l< plaCt ","h h".", and no
doubl 10 CM fn"' l rlatt. The
dq >!h of tbtK old< rIa'n, ... hi<:h it.
dtttrm;nM by t hot <kp(h of lhot hinge ,
it. II ,S""' . Sorno tum""" ha,t no
bad< and m..... c....rd"'" ha,..,
had inJividual o.idt pL..... All ' ....
rla'to ....... linN "i' l> Gthc'r ,,'hieh
was rolltd 0\'.... , .... fronc .nd sticched
throueh. TI'll<.-n of Ihi . art ckarly
v;.ihk. 11e...u""' of tht l:kit of an
au.....ra' t CM da'ing of 'hci.c
cui u ..to ;. ,..ory dIfficult . The wall
paintine fro m P. ...' um must datt to
I.... ,im(' of 1M Samnitt occup.:llion
WO--l 73 tM.:. _"to"l wou ld prefer
an earlie' J a't, "" r<=,hap. the euiu"","
,I'o" ld bt pl.etd in 'bt Ii"t half of the
4t h eon,u, y, ThedtCO'. tionis undoubt-
edly t he rcoult of Ore,-k in]]uence being
tra", (err ed r,,' m 'he mu ,ded euie."
Hnwevc" e'-l ually certa inly t hese cuir
a, se. in an u nmu,ded f"rm must h",',
originoted i n Ih. ,:em,.1 for
Ihi. i' undoubtedly I nati"t form and
Rom.n. WU t .. ill .. t hem al , he
'i me of Pol}'biu.
T wo L"e' enmpleo, prohably fTUm
the Samnile " '.r r<=ti<>d, arc on , ho"
at )\,;apl.... A, Ii ..., .lance 'Mse appear
'0 he from mu",led cui ...... butthej'
.re 100 .mall roe thind " ""ld reqwrc
shoul&' and .ide pl.,.... Tbc)' are
oho"" .......,.,ructC'd in , he illuS1ntion
"" p. 106
.I.t....y s.m."ebelmelullrvi,c. They
...., cnily ICalltni...ble by 'heir fra.hc'r
holden. T her .re ...ual1r a modified
roem of ,he GkCCk Chalcidian belmel
.,ith d ....l< but no nose
,..,..-d and " ill therd'....c he ",rerred '0
.. s.m.ile Allie I ' . p. ' 07). ' fbco<:
"""c copied frnm ,he coasIJI Grecb
and from IMr. IiI'efC'd inland. .'.I"",
rumple. com. from the roo".l a"",s.
A......"", Mlmel " . al.., making in
dcbul. Durin. ,he 4'h century lhe
.\ton lefor! ino ' yre of Celtic helmet
Right
A'-'''I,,' -.. ..c "",.. do.. w .... I,,,,,,
"""" "' ." So<l. T,,",... . "OW '" ,fi.
B..-"" Muooom, Ton,. ,, ' . "",I<", m.o.v of
"'",_" >" I,. n""'''01" "". To. ," " . "''''
' ,0';1..- ."",p" " N.,,,
(sec p. l ao) .. 'algnJ .... 1I1' heingadoptN
.hroughou, I, all' and on.....1. peci men.
ha'.., h<-en found ,n the cent nl high-
1anJ. . A Ii..... rumple ";Ih scaUoptd
"......k P"""" anJ iron
frat her ho:>lder Can he oren in ,he
LotI, ... It ;. "",",11 in , he
Ot> p. 06.
The d>t:d <<t . p, ' 07), "'hidl i.
one of .........1 "",.."n. (tom llm-ionwn
in IM bean land or Samnium, is i<kn.ical
in design ' 0 the tr iplt' di .... breastplale.
This ""l'C' of e toed piece io found on
Cellie .\Io'"cf....lIno I)T'" helmet .,..
pI , ...., check pieca from , hi. 'ypeof
hel m", al"'al"$ ....... onl)' a ,i ngle loop
of tne1al a, .i,he, .ide 10form the hinge
li ning. " he' ea. Ihi. eumple has a
h._loop " 'hich m.an. ,h., i'
must cwnc r,,'m an ' H>c helmet.
T he IWo ll'heo A_ A 'Ila' protrude from
the ,i d of cuira.. to hold the
raSl<ninjl:' for .ide rlale, .1",
appea' on ' he che" k piece bu, , crvr no
ouch u....rul purpow. It folio.... tllat
1M ehecl< wu der,,'ed from l he
cui nu and not " ice ' " na. rltis i. ,..,....,.
importanl .. llu. I,pe of cheri:
ha. alwo' "$ been con.idered to he of
Cel,icorigln It iij:nifican, 'Ila' these
lobe> " ....e 1M 6m chara<1crioti<: of the
tri ple di.. ched piece lha' the Cd"
ahandoned,
The ern''''' , .... , are ........" on {be
pai n, Utp are of eta..icIlI Greek tyre
and "....e "'"","II' de-ri.-cd from ,he
""""a1 Grlu. A. in lhe ca.... of lhe
helmet. ,hey liltered inland ..hc're
lbet' u.... io confirmed by thei r avvea<-
ance on lhe bronze .lalUCIte of l he
Samni'e "'arnO{ in 1M I..,.,,"TC. Ex-
amplro ....v. t urnN up In l ucania and
Apulia. "'mc of wh ich havt ring
attachmcn.. fo. " raps, a fa. h'on later
adop'ed by lhe Rom.n.
& H:ul romple.e """ of ar mou, have
heen found in Luc. nia. On. of lhe,e
pa noplies, which i. now altht T owe'
'"
I T ALY T HE \t"EST Ekt>: M.EDITERRA:-;I' A:-;
of London, co",i.. , of win,.,d helm<1,
hrea' l _ and hack plate, grean..
and bell , T hi> is an nld nnd an<!
n"' hing is k",'wn of it exc"!>t t ha t ;,
(a",d rom L""ania, T he g,ea,'.,., ",hich
al' pes' to he of late arehai,' t)'"". though
the)' are ","nainl much late. than t hi',
ha,.., ",rap fa..eni"lt' at the had, "Il>c
helrnct "of An"" 'ypeand ha, ..-jnlt' of
thin . h<xt bronze. f",,'he. hoIdcn in
lhe form of ooiled . flak... and a rai>ed
ernt holdt-r , It i. "cry .i "'t lar to t he
hel",et wOrn hy 'he Capoan h"".,,,,an
, 11<,,,,n op po, i, e, Thi, panoply "'u" be
da' ed to ' he n..t h. lf"f ' he 4t h cen'ury,
A ' ''''''nd " "n" ply, enn.iMing of
Wi nged be l"'et, triple di" eUi' a", .nd
belt, WH found in n:<:cOl years at
P.......m I.ike the pt"e'ioou. exa"'pIc
t he heltnC1 has "';ngo tNde of .h<xt
h""",e ..-hieh ha,." fea. "'" t u,,", behind
'heem, Bot h bclmet and cui,,..,; .how
.ign. of in d...ign .nd
probably date 10 tbc pc, i,><I of the
I<oman conq ue' t, e , 273 m;,
The Apul ia" , tel l much m,,'e under
the inAue......, of t he Grech ,h. n their
kin. ",en on t he "'e,t coo'! of 1t.1,', A
heutiful I""no"ly di . c<wn ed a, Con_
""....<>0 near fl,ori co"'; of .. pair of
bile G=k grn a G'e<:k
"'t..d ed cuirass, "inge<! helmet .nd.
of cottrse, a Samn"e hell , "Il>c "'.....
decoration "n 'hee side "f , he ..,
" 'hieh i. a popu l. r Samni' e mo<if, i.
ma tched h)' the eombon the cre,t of t he
helmet "'hi"h .ct. as . ere. t ltui de , Thi'
hel met is really a eros. heN ',"n t he
Samnite All k and t he T hradan tn"' ,
Like , he "'her u ampk ' t he "i ng. . u e
mllde of plate bronze and ha,.., f""t"'"
' ubes tucked . " ..y hehind thc-m, This
panoply can he d:..cd 10 ,he late -4' h ....
early 3M un,ury IIC.
Othe, G=k .. " ....e popular in
.... puli., I'ourt h-ccn' u r conk,,] helme"
ha"e been f"und and are of ten fc>t ur ed
"n t he local ,' a,e T he '0_
called hal,,_Corinthi.n hel met seem.
'0 h. ve ori,o: inate<l he..., in the 6'1'0
"""'Ul'}' (= 1', 99), I n add"",n to ,he
err",-" of ,he Greeks and S.mni'" on
,hi, area. 'he", 1", . "rong Celli<:
inlt ...""", '"he r t he Celt. in" aded
,... tl ral ..hteh rhey d, d
in , he 4t h """'011)'. ,hey u lly ended
up in the COtn fi eld. " f pulia , It i.
pos, ible 'hat ...,me even have
, e\l led the.., Several mon,o:tc1 hel me"
han lurned up in lhe arc> and in one
mi d_3rd---cent ur )' gr ave at Can",. a
mu'ded cui, . " and CeI,ic hcl met were
f"und toget her,
To , umm.ri", : the ."ut her n 1 lian
highland "'arrior in t he -4th
" '.. a fairly light]y armed ja"eltne-er or
'f'Carrnan U<i nl ligh, hody .hicld
similar '0 ,he """... All ....dicn
probahly " ' ''''' helmet. and brlt. ,
'Itoul.' h meTal CUlt..... and ,0:"".'''''
woul d have ban """ia"d to t he
" ""I' hier cia. "", T o tr y ,t> i""late the
' ''ltanisati''n and laet;.. of t he S.mnite
ar my from the jumble nf ."ntr adietor y
informati"n ,o:;'''n i n U,'y an d Di o-
n,.. ius i fr uitl.... u. k, Lh' " call. the
d"i,;on. of , he Samni'e army legjon.
whcRas. Dion""n.. call. 'ltc-ir banle Ii...
a ",,",lam. whieh is Yu...nlighfen-
ifill, In all probabili')' ne11he. ci 'hem
had the . ligh'''f idea nf ' br Sarnnn"
form. ' ion .nd t hey ,hc-tcf<"e fen back
on , he ..od"i"nal The
Somni' e ar m. men' '"ltll'' ' '' tha' they
f"ught in " k'n,e f" r m. t;on, T heir
ahility to oUlmanoeu",e and nu, ma,,'h
,he Koman. ",,,, H, m, ' hat t hey " 'e""
more lightl y . ' '''ed . nd """" loosel y
.... tlun lhe JcgX>n.. 01 f.,.- 'Iu'
_'01" the ( ired
Surpn,i"l ' hough if mal' """", .ina
l hei r Ilomrland ...... in , he highl andt,
, he s..mni,.. produced the bes t horse_
men in Italy, I n the pl.in. " f Camp,mi.
a fmmi da ble cavalr y fore o evol ved and
in the 3,d an d 2nd cent uries t he
'.-IImp. nia", f",med the t.ackhonc of
t he Rom.n ,,,vall'}', 5o"era] C.-II mpanian
and norther n Luca nian paintinll' sl>o'"
,hese I'1oon(:men, The.., li""
eumplc fn>m Cal'''''' ...hieh un_
fununa' e1)' ....' ''''"cdduring, he Second
lJ:'or ld W'ar , In t his I""inlin,o: . he horse
wars " chamf'"" , unnounted by fea_
, bers, On anoth", example f",m Pac. _
t um the ht"", wea" ,,,me frn-m of
pcytr.L Examples of h. ' th t ypes 01
. , ,,, ,,ur can be ""It at "' . ple" The
ho=men "'em to be arme<l in exacrl}'
the ....me f""h",n a., he infan t ry- . " "",
e"en "'eu grea" .., One noIi"""hle
fCal""" ;, ,he """"';"ll of . nkleu but
'hc-tc ;, ..... siCn on ci,hc. , he infan, ry
.,. t he cavalry ci ,he earlier bracrk1
"-orn on t he left uppc. arm,
,
At>o.e
' A pa iM."O '" __' '''''''
.. c. "", __""'''11''' _
_ w _ ,. _ -.o<aIlO
......... l Oll 1.. _ .. _ "'11
'-guaod (- , ... ,)
I .. _ (__...
.. ,.......... u_
) .. ........ ,.. _-
a A ","" t"'ll "'. _t_
, ... ,..., " e",,,,"'lI a R... I'ftI* ,,_ Tho
""'''' .""".', to ... ""'''''''> tv,," of """" a1
P""" um Mu.....m
T HE RiSE OF RO.\1E gOO-275 Be
THE H ALlA.'! :rl IUTARY SYSTEMS
The Celts
T he Cel" or iginat ed In southern
Germ,ny and I;-<l m ' here ,p'Cad ou'
over mo" <If western Europe, By the
beginn ing of Ihe SIh cemury Ihe y hod
overru n Au" ria, SwilzeTbnd, Belgium,
Luxembourg and part' of France,
Spai n , nd Hritain. I n l he following
century they forced l heir way through
' he Alps imo nort hern h all', The li r5l
tribe to arr ive in Ihe Po ,' alky were ' he
In,uhre, T he y " "led in the area of
Lomhardy and est ablished lheir chief
to"'n "t Mil"n . T he Ro, i, Lin!"me"
Cenomani and other followed,
conquering mo" of Po "alley and
nltimatd y dri,' ing l he Etruscans hack
across l he Apenni nes, T he 1"" l ri be
to arrive ",as lh e Semme" who pre",ed
righI on down Adri.. ic and fi nally
settled i n ' he c'oO',a l area oort h of
Ancona. T his was the tr ibe l h"t s"eked
Rome "t the heginning of l he 4lh
eemury, Our na me for , he Cd ,ic race
as " whole comes from the ( ;reek
Kelrai . However, Roma", called
th",e from the Po ,,"lley and Fr"nce
Galli ( Gaulsj. Duri ng ,hc 4,h cenl ury
,he Celt> hegan to m"ve into ' he
Balkan" and a' , he beginning of t he
3rd century, laki ng ad"antage of the
lack of strong governmen, in Mace_
donia and ow rr an ho, h
tnnntr ie, and spilled over in' o Asia
.\\ inor whe re l hey fi nally sen led in
Gala,i a. The lauer are usually referred
to a' Galata. (Galatians) ,
During 'he 4th cenlury the G" uls
moun' ed a , neco"ion of pl undering
.. ids in cent ral Italy. u sually 'hey wero
deflected by , he stronger groups- tho
Etru, can" Latins and Samnites-and
were channelled into Apuli", where it
is po" ihle tha' they I(lunded permanent
commun1ltes,
T he Romans treated the Celt s as they
, rcated no otheT nali" n, They sy,tem-
atically ma"acrod t hem in nmthern
Italy, Spain and France, T ne reCnn
quo" of the Po valley after l he Hanni
balie war wa, carried out with such
brutality , hat in middle of 2nd
century Polybius could say , hat
Celts only in '. few regions
under l he Alp" .
M"" of our knowledge of the Celts
unfort unate ly comes to n' onl y tnrough
,heir eoemies, the Greeks and Roman,
lJiod nrus, Sid li"n historian, paints
a ,'ivid pict ure of these warriors, des-
CTihing the ir colourf ul clot hes, long
mou'tacno, and h,iT that wa, wa,hed
wit h lime to make it stand up like a
horse's ma ne,
I nitially the Romans were terr illcd hy
these huge men who lowered above
them, But l"" r, whe n they were able
to ,nd exploit the C""ll ie
weakne" e" they became C'lnlempt uou,
of tne unruly barbarians, Livy's accounl
of the Celt ic wars very much refl ects
this view But contemptuou, though
Romans may naw been, under "
g(xld general t he CeI" made excellent
soldie", T hey formed half of Han-
nibal' s army which for 15 years
d"mi nal<d th" Roman legions . T he
Romans their worth and
f," cen' urio, ' hey fi lled tne ranks of t he
legio",
Most primitive societies, including
the Rom, ns and Gred s, had a
w,rrior da" . T he CeI" weTe no exc'Cp-
tion, T heir warr iors were drawn from a
group which we would describe as ,he
mi ddle and upper class. T hi, warr ior
d a" di d t ne fighti ng wnil" . according
to P iodortt s, the activities of the free
!XX" were rest ricted to squiring and
chariot driving,
T he Celt was a warrior i n the tr ue
heroic Everyth ing had to
higger ,h.n life. He lived fOT war hut
his glorifi cat ion of bra"ery, coupled
wil h lack of di scipli ne, often led him 10
redle"ne" , Diodoru, in his flft h
gi"e, an and probahly
fairly a<Xurate descrip'ion of the Celt ic
warrior. But one must remember l hat
350 years elapsed between
Rome' , fir" encounter with the Celts
at the bau le of l he Alii, and C, e,"r',
conquest of Ga ul, when Dio<!or us was
wriling. During that time manycha nges
took pl, ce in bOl h ,nd
A resume of Diodoru,' de,cription,
which is sometimes anachronist ic, is
gi,'en hefor e exami ning these
ehanges. DioJ nru<' warrior wa, ar med
with a long sword su' pcnded . long hi,
right flank by a chain. Ho also c'. rr ied
a 'pear or i"vehns, Alt hough many
warrio" preferred to fight naked, some
wor e a mail ,hi " and. bmnzc hdmd .
T his was oftondecora' ed wit hembossed
fi gure" horns or the f ronts of birds or
four l(x" ed anim"ls, li e carried " long
, hield as high a, a man whi ch might

I
Abov.
A Soooe" Ch,ol",o, C. 300 Be. 1". f'Qu' . on
the for""rou nd i,. chi.I"i" ' nd "'0'" a"
."b<J;... "" '''' ot. So,.,.a< 0' ' ""0 w ..e fO<J od
a' the "ecropolis at Moore'Mi no, ", oicn nas
Wv," 'to ",rne '0th., tv"" of helm", Only
ch.eft"o, wou' d h. "" worn ,,,ch helme"
n OVw'. "", .IIvm,d """. completely ot
" 0 0 '" of "on . od b<oOle . though , few ",ve
ooeo fo,nd .ntiroly of 0 ' 0 " ' 0. Tf. i, <h, " i",
helm", he.. "as . mult'o'e crest holde. made of
;roo Imod w ,he topkoot. Too o, di""V "'","0"
' ou" ht n. "d ,,0, ",. two <i Qu,", '" , he
backgro"od. It ",as the Son""", whO, .ok'"'
a, "'" M9i nni"g o' the 4'h cent"", '"0
b=>rne a const,ot U".at. A I"t'. ove.,
centu' Vtale. to. Ro""o, io,oded ,hoi'
horne lano io to. M"che, , ' ouod A. ico"a ,or'
" ro"" thom out 0' ' '' 'y
'"
!TALY AND -nu, \H :STER:-i M EDl T ERRM , EAl>:
be d...""" ed w"h emoo... <e<! in
hronu.
Chariots '"' u.cd for fi;:.l"il18
alt"in.. Clvall)" . lX'hen tlgh'ing from
I"s ,,...,..11<,",, c!>uil.. ,he ,nrm. ,h",,,
his ti.., anJ , I><n aligh'ed. in
H.-.nni<; fas hion, '0 filth' " ith hi.
' '''''''d. lkfnre !>Mole. "'arrion ( hett
Diodo.>r... m.... "'""champion ..""Id
..ep 0<1, ahead "r,he brandi. hing
.I>cir ..-aJ'<'M .n fron' of 'hem to
i"'ri", l etml', and dWle"lte 1M ......,
,..I;'m of 'M eotm) 10 single comba!.
If tl>< d "IlJrnllC "'a' ac<:q>ted .he
dumpi",... on , rue bart>aric f""hion.
'...lUJd break imo song. ex,oIling ,he
dc-ed. of hi. a""",,'o" and bo3s' ing of
hi. ow.....'comr!ishmcn.. ,,hil.. a' ,he
..."'" nme I""mng scorn on ,he
c hallenl!"r.
T he Ruma"s tw",'u",d . ...' e"l "f
'heir general. "'hi' had a,",er ' ed ,he
challenge and killed a Cel.ie champion
in 'i ngle comha" They "'rre rewa,ded
hy hring pc,miued !O ' he
,puils (pri ma ' f'<,lt a) i n the ' emple "f
Jupiter I'c, el,iu. , T herc "'e'C al,o
.w ndQ and I""a ,pol ia , which
dcp.:nded on ,he rank of t he winner,
Ti, u, Manli us. in ' he 4l h cen' ury,
,e ru'edly "vercamc a gigan,ic Cell and
m irpcd him of hi. golden ' ''''lue, lh u.
""'eivintl- lhe c"lt""men of T orqual u,
The mo.,., ",.. ewonhy of th... hen""
"'a' .\l at'Cll. C1ludi ....\ lo rttllt" . who
ki lled ,I>< Gillic chid l. in Viridumaru.
in single in 22: IIC. lie "en' un
'0 hecome R""""s ......, ...=sful
l!"nc,al . tl-l' ,n.. lI a nni bal during his
Clmpaill"" in haly.
\I'''''n I>< had killed hi. enemy, .""
C.d'ic "..rnor cu, " lJ his heaod and hung
i' frunt his hone's ned. He ....,.,ld . hen
.. rir l he body and Ito,.., hi. oqui,e
carry oil l he bloo.J__nerN .poi,"
..hil .. he s" ng a racan .,.."" ,hem. '1'''''
. poil s ""re ...,Ied 10 , he ....II of his
house. T he htaoh of hi s fl'lOS( dis-
ungu..hcd """"";", "...,.., cmboolmcd in
ado' oil. T he head oJ ,he cons,,1
Luciu. Poo,,,mi,,s, ,,'ho "'I' killed 1:>y
the Celt. in 'he 1' 0 Yalley in 2 [6. " 'li S
in I le...ple. The
carried ,lU' II En.remo."" ha,'C r",...,.led
lha' 'he "",'ered hc. ,Jo "'e'e far more
'han meTe , r" phies and hrt:onlC pan of
a relig;ou. r;' ual. Al En tr emont bead,
we, e in a",und a
.-.: , em"" ial ... .
llef,,' e m,,,,ing on 10 a dotai led
exami,,,ti,,,, " f Ceh ie eq uipment it
he helpful '" make a few com-
mcna alx,u' (:': hic warfarc in general
It w.. lhl: g<""..1"rini"" " f ' he ancient
o" t h"" l ha ' lite CellIt,,wod no
app' eci, ' i"n "f 1",'1;" ,,,. ,,,a,el\Y,
Polybius "''"''"'''' . hem"f h.,'ina: ""ither
a r lan ,>/' caml"'ign ,," r judgemen, in
",,,...:unna: i, . and add. ' hal they did
,,'hate' 'CT .he heal " f I"' " ion a>m-
manded. Thi .... v giYe Ihe impression
tlta' , he Cel.. f""ght a. a rabble. bu'
,he inel", ,,,n of " andards anJ 'rumpet'
alff(>nll l ite Celt,c , I>:' '''n on ,he
areh of Oranl!" ."unt. I fairly rigid
organi...'iI.... and C........ description
of pol., rteranc ,he <>Vt1'lllpping "'odds
of , he Ctll. m , rtftr ' 0 a do.c:_kni'
pltalln. ,,h...-h """ i' can""" ......,
bet.. ,he n...rmal Celt ic formalion
s........ , bar , hey could <:vcn c..... too,
banle liM. O\O'n dcacripoion
oftl>< ballle ,-'( T elamon .."",Id ....... to
s" r ",'" ,h.. v..... . Hc-rc lhe Cel..
Clugh, herWttn ,wo Roman armit;o and
hned up bod. '0 back " 'i'h ' " '' Ii"",
facinll each ....y "" 'ha' ,he army' ",..
four Ii"'" deer , is full oJ
adm,rali".. f" r .hio Ii ... " r and ...y'. [hal
Ct...,n in hi. bIer. i' was
<till a mattcr of okha,c a, '" which
army had 'he ",,.i'i,,n. for
ne" he, "f lho IW" Cellie ar",ie, <XI uld
h<: att acked f,,'m 'he rea, and wil h n"
way " f <'care the ' .e11s m", ' tigh' until
,' iC10' y 0' d.'al h r u' an end t" l h.
conflic, .
T ho K"n," no, on 'he olher hand, were
'<rrified h)' ' he tine orde' and lhe
d readful d in of , h. Cel". f" r l hcre wero
innumerahle .. a"d trum-
I"" e," and aU 'he Gaul. "'ero shouti ng
thei . " 'I ' cries al Ihc .am< 'i me . Poly.
hi" -oncl"deo hy ..ying 'hatlhe Cel"
"'ere ,nt'eri,,' ' 0 lhe Roman.only io 'heir
'"
THE RISE 01' ROI, t E 800- 2?5 pC
THE ITAU A:ooi .\ UU TAR\ SYSTEMS
urn'. hooh . 00......".,1> and ,hei..hidd.
ba"lIIln, O'ic<:ahl" 'h;o" ........ of.he
R""""",.
Thcr" a", ",pn>o;" u'io", of
,h. an""' ,,,mcIlU of wa. ;
" . nd;lTd. hOTlls and lrumpcts. T ho:
....Sl form or Ir ump"l u,,,d by
,h,' C"lt. was lhe T his wa,
in,trumem wil h it . mout h in 'he
f"rm of' an animal ', h d at righl
a"!ll... '0 t he ned: or lh" ,n"rumetll,
1"..., .. .ho.. 'n o n , he (;und,-suup
cauld'on an d on ,he ar.::h a' Orange.
... ho:ad ,,,.. found a, De.Hord
1ft Scolland. Origi nal!)' , his h.ad a
"""'..bIe jaw' anJ a ,,'O<>Ikn '<>nguc ""
,hat ..-hen " ..cas bIolA... " ,m..1J h.a,'"
em",a! " ",uc"OUl n lliina sound. TI",
'uM of" " " . f nd at Tan e._
,hall Bridge in hi,,,. The " '""
of thc '-n i. a"".."d 1' and
i, ' '''''''n O il a ",litf from ",mllio in
n,..,hcrn Italy l ie." ,I>< hornblower
i. 'huwn wit h a mund . pinod ,hiold
.imil"r 10 ,he ty pe u>cd hy , h"
T ho ,am" ,eulplure ,huw, a " and"r d
be.",r wear ing a hor""d l'elliau hel met
and carrying a Ji'l in"li,'d }' , haped
""ield, A , imilar .hield "'0 he ,,,n on
,he 'om!,one of I Roman aoxilia'}'
,,"ndard hca,-er from Il lod ril " "' Wall.
The oddt) ,haro::d .pear"""d at . he
I<JOI of the Bo<mio ..an<brd Ind ,he .. ....
oJf '.",.y Ccltio:-Iook"", ......-K-.... ,,' hieh
ore.....iouoly",..>I"a! (rum0.11 ie >1"'"...-
he.........anda,d, of I>twfiri<un' in ,he
la,e, Roman kaJ. .0t he
cunei... "", , ho, ,he .trange
heaJ or whieh ' ,'''eral "-ere f....nd . t
La Ttnc (l . .. " must "" f",m Sland", d.
Similar to the Roman arul
ani mal 'land.,d, . imila' lu , he Ruman
1"llion. , y emblem" ."0 ,h"wn " n
'he .r<h . t Orange and leave doub'
,hal l he R<>mam inheri,eJ Ihem f",m
lh" Ce l..
The..... wae fou, ')'1"" of o.lrie
sold lcr, inl ,,,,' '}', Jillh, ,nfan'')',
ea"alry and chorio",,", All rou.
.!leo,a! b}' PoIlhi .. . . The hca,"}'
infantf)', KOOI"dinl '" all , he ancien,
sourtt>. " "'" primaril}' . ..-ord>m<-n.
The " lh. inbn' ry """" prnu"",bly
",,'dineen.
Jes..,riheo ,he o.lr. ,,hi.l -
ing ,hcir ..-<>rd. abo' e t hei r he.d
, Ia.. h,ng , be ai, fmm '0 .nd
' hen , trikillg downward, al ,heir
n"e' as if choppi ng It was ,hi.
"f tile ,word t h", It' , orrifi od ,heir
opl'"nenl' . I h" , ner, R"m. 1IS soon
.. to de.1wi,h lhi<: ",,"
lha' 'he}' we'e train<'d h' 'Il e fi""
hlo'" ,of , .. ""d " n 'he , im of ,he
.h;"ld. "'h,eh ,,a. " 'i,h an
iron .. . il'. \\:bell , be ........d ..rock the
trinfor-ccd r im i . ""n, dowhk hh a
<I"ttl. T he Gel , " ... , hen forced '0
Itralgh."n hi"""'d ,,'i, h his (ao<.
,"" ...r )' , be """"n unitj.o
......-1< him ,,hil... he .. ... d",..mad. The
...k f) al", found , hal .. , he o.lr
.Ias d ,,'i,h hi" 'ord. he ,,-as able to
brc. k ,he blo,, "'i,h hi hiel d and go in
under nea,h i, to , hru. , .. ,he ..mna.;h.
I' olyhiu" ,k.cripe;"'n of , he ,..-ord
MnJinll i. prohahly Thi,
. " mcl ime. ha,'. hapI'Cned hut
C"'ll i" >wur d, wcr o better
,Il.n Ihi" I h",'. a 2.ooo-yo. r-old
. ",,,rd whicb w dr<'d!'d f",m ,be
lake of l'eucha,el a nd ",hieh i., ill<;i -
d"" lally, from ,he period Pol rbiu. i.
Jcoc"'h,ng, ""n, .1"""" douhk and t hen
8n t-l. PoIyb1u, alw mcn"on' , he
o.hic f...hion or ".",.inS . nnku in
bou" . 11_..,..",. ,he <Uues'ion .hat
I>rac."k,. or , .... ,ype round in
Hrn. sn " " '" ,,-.xn on . he ri ght arm """
'0 be ch;olknged .., ,hcy " ""Id ",-",'cr
h;ove " ayed on a man', atm. part icu-
larl )' ,he upper ar m, " 'hil,, he wield"d
hi. " vMd.
Hi"d"ru' >lro".. Ih" leng'h of tile
Cd' ;" , word compa' od to , he , horle,
. wo, d. (p, ". umably "r t he (;ro" b and
R"m.n. ). T lli, exall.!l,'ra'od lellgtb of
,I>< . .......d i, aloo rcflee,cd in 'he mller
onclenl .ource. H.. "'....... r, it i. not
" nti"' h' 1ft><." , ror a' 'hc ,i me of o."ie
. .. c. th"ir."""d.
......... ,enenJly compara,i'-el)' .!>on ..i,h
I bl ade length or .bou, 6ocm. " itich is
no IonJt<'T ,h.an , ....... "",d b)' the
E'ru....,.n. and Romans of . he ..me
I
....,.
.... ,,, , .. de<:o<ot.,.,'" "*""""" """"' ..
" ........ c......
"01_, "",,,0.. """ It>_
'-""."ot l."'. ]'d ' " c.'''',,,, ec

, XU'D'"'" hom ,......'" ., 000"9" '"
_,...... k""-",, _"lI ""'''''_ """'.....
...- ,....,.,d,. Tt_ '*"' twO...-
_"10 __"_
2 Tho _ of. """"', ..... ....,., '''''''
.. Colt>< _.......... ""'" Deu.''''''", ScooIo""

J 00><l 000<00-__n__
_ Cotk'.......... _-. ......
_ ""'-Ill .... e. ___
'_""D ]2,
5 '" "'ul"",,,, ""'" E1o" ," "" " _
""""..... eo,,", """" d ' .
"01_ " Ho....' "' 0000 _'.
,_,'''''' oJ , .... '"<> """'"" AD d'",,,,,,,,",, . ,
C.".... ""'qh"" ti"", ..n.Wo" O/'>Qw " ..kl
,_",'C" '0 to,,, nt ' hO BD"'''O
,,,",,,,,,.,.,,",
'"
ITALY AND T HE WEST ERN MEDITERRAN EAN
"

1 . " d $wo<d ...., ..,._ ,,,,," PO"

10 Scabb<l ,.. "'"''0'''''''
,-
11 '" '"d ll b Swo<d ...., I,,,,,, .-.I t>acI< '"
',"",,",d I,,,,,, [_on. C...-nt>e>10n<l
12 U . S"",d .od oc_"d fi"", v"',""""
13_1 1 S"",d 0.-.1,..
13 fl"", T""' p", Bt '''' ''''ltoo, V"' ..."""
14 f ' o m Hod H,M, Do<oo'
' 5"0"' "'" M, ,,.. vallav, F,an""
16 F,OO' Ho''''''. "'"",, '
16. Sc"'pt,,," I",", Po' .''''''"', T", kO'
..

,.
t'"""I
< >
r1
. 250 120 8
,
,

l _U ! .. _'o' t... .. . _
n 1 Z. "" J Sw<>o-d, oM sca!lt>a,,!>
!,"" '.. M"""' ...... '" ' '' ''''' 5, Genna,"
"'""um
4.5 oM 5 0__""" ",,,,,,,,, ,,I, I""" 'h.
...."'..... ot f,,,,,,,,, St G"",o,n Mu,"um
7 _ 7. 5""'Q '"0 "'obb" d "om La Tene
B.",I """'0"', Sw;t_,"""
7b boc k", 7a ,how'"9 ,""",0""" loop
70 10D'" tM co.'" of 7a
8 Co.... "I a 'W"'Q f,om ' '' "ce. < 200 BC
period. T he hlade did nol come
imo fa.hion un. il 'he la,e J.d to lOt
cenlune. IOC.
Hundred' of Cellic .word. have
bee n found of whic h a . m.1I ..mpl( is
hown he",. T hey Ofe grouped by the
t radi'ion.1 I.. Tone dal ing >y>lem-
,,'il h approxim.'e dalC$
The sword. from Lo Ttr'le I (c. 450-
250 IIC) have hlades thaI a", ,.,......lIy
55 _nd 6sem long, I,
which has a bbde of lloem. is ..,,,:epo
'ional. Th..... 'WQI"ds a", .n douhle.
edged and poin.ed and are of
thru.t 'ype. The mosl characteris' ic
f...'ure of 'hese .... Iy weal""'" is lheir
pronounced dlape.
Daggers ....... abo common dunne
Ihis period. Theei. hladt. vary from
broad, almos' . ....nlrUl.r, ...,.... fO
.hin uilello Iypes anod .... ,.........lIy
l S- JOCf" in length.
Dunng . be I .... Ttnc II period (c.
l<;O--UO lie) ,he ._d developed into
a weapon ....... csdusively for slash,ng.
The poim beam< rounded and gradu-
ally ir>crea'IC:d in length umil blades of
7S-lloem were commonplace. Such a
.....-d. comp!ele wi.h handle, would
"-cish ._1 a tilograrn. Alrl>o<>@;h the
early dlape form. con.inued in ,be
Ralbns, in .......em Europe ,he chare
was modified .o fol_ II-.: dolely the
contour of lhe ...."d. Hundred. of
'bese . word. have heen dredged from
,be lake a, Lo T t ne in Swinefland and
although 'hrte are rqoonol dltr......ncn
....hich .ho..- ma,nly in ,he scahbard, lbe
Lo T tnc Iype may he accc-pted ..
T<:J"'C><'",.,ive orlbe period. The scab-
bard., ...-hieh are u.uan) made of iron,
.'" COnslrue'led from lwo pla'eI. T he
fron! "'hi"h iIIShlly wider l hln
the back, i. folded ove. il along lbe
sidc-<. II i. reinforced by a deco.a,ed
band around the lOP and a "hare which
act. n. ",infoldng n m .111'0.. bou "", .
OUTing lhe I .... Ttll< II I period
(c. ra0-50 1lC) Ihe k nll' h of the hlade
""ntinu.d to incre... and IIOIn< u-
ample. arc a' long a' 9O<'m, Al' houjlh
pointed ' ''''lid. ex isted, the predomin-
ani Iype "'a. T h.: k'ng
,,,abbard , hown in t his group i. rmm
Britain, II, ....hb.rd . hare ile_,I)'
derived from Ihe La type but its
gre"' of ne. rl)" S4cm . ugge. ts
I bat it , hould be placed in 11'0" lat..
period
,,.
T HE RI SE OF ROME Be
TilE ITAU AN MILITARY SYSTEMS
..
e,50 BC_
AD 100
"
39 45
<. 120 -50 DC
5' Ge"."," Mu um. 38_44 5ee.,head'
the " to of Coo, o( , ' ;og< 0'
Y,'clngelO''' a' AI",a '" Cen"" f ,anc.
S, G"'rr>o," Mo,eum 45 See", 0011 " om
A."" $, G. ,rr>';" MUS<lurr>. 45 J, vel; " O<tad
" om AI",. 5t G.,ma", ",",", .m 47 J,vel",
""'" wu,n.,o 8';..;" 48.49 Spearheads
' <0"0 C,melon 5001'ond
24 "etho<> of at UiCh,ng thO ,wO' '' 'hO longe'
p;oco of to. ", (231 "jol oed lo 0"" of m
'0""" p"' e, bv a thong wh;c" pa"e,
through the 'u,"""',,," 100D " n me ""abba'"
Toe '"",'d " ploced on , ,.. ' ;yhl "''9". net the
1009'" p'oce o' cha;o p,,,", ' ouM t-eh lnd lh.
O, e.. to hook up", the " on1.
0.250 - ' 20 DC
3J 34
'"
Be
25 25
Ahov"
25- 49 Ce"'c ' P'"" . nO.,,,elin, Seal" 1 8
25_29 30 31 $po., butt>
32 J .V, ;1n 26. 29 " 0 30 f 'o", the
Mat'. are, 0' F"ooo. 51 Go"".," .M"...,m
28 f ",,,, no"hO," ".IV 27. al a2
O" gio u,,'nown Sl G.,,,,,," Mu, eum. 33_36
5",,,,ho,d, f,om l . Too, Mu,"om
]1 SpoarMM hom the M"oe "e, 0' f ,, <lCe

1'.. '- '\.

Abovo ond right

11-'9 C, It" c..It cia, ,,, Toov.", , II f,om
I " ,., "",\>
17 F,om E"" 10 oo"he'o It al, 4th_3' d
co,,,"'" Be E,,< Mesoum
18 f, om c. Ten . 1,d_2nd ",,"," ' VBf
Neooh; lol Museum
19 ' '' 'eent"" ' ype 0' hoo' ' ,,' ene'
Rom'W-.e, G.,,-o, oiseh.. Len" .l mu, eum
M,,",
20 R", 0" "om nO' ,"em lta'v
, hOW"'" the ,o"",n"o" lo(>p M,I,"
21 22. 23 p.,,, 0' ,wO'd ch."" (0< '''' '''1
hom L. Iene
T he conquest of Gaul by eacs" in
55B<: , pelt the end of the Celtic warr ior
nn t he of Europe, In Brimin
a Celtic ,urvi"ed f(}r " nol her
150 years. T he swor d hl"de, ITom t hi,
period (La T ime I V) ar e
,hort er than in t he prev ious era , "arying
from 10 75em. T he ,worel
from Emblelon in Cumh<;r land ( u a ),
wit h i" , mall t win- foot ed chape, i,
lypic"1 of p"riod.
$w(}rd hanelle" which wer e normall y
m.de of woo<J or leat her or , orne Olher
per ishable mater ial, ha"e almost always
T he t..dit ion. 1 sword
handl e wa, in Ihe for m of an X, "i tt
echoing Ibl" ",, anlcnnac
t ype, . A handle of , hi, l ypc i, shown
on the victor y fr ie, e at I' ergamum
am()fl!!' spoi ls l aken from the Gala_
t ian, ( ' 6a ). A .imi lar shape i. ea, y to
.dele," on lhc C"rl y sword from I ialstall
in Au"tria e' 6i an d on l hc La Ttne II
sword from $t .\ 1.ur le, t' o,"", i n ,he
"'Iame v. lley , l'r. nce ( ' 5). T he handle
of l he ' word fr om T horpe
in York, hire ( q ), Ihou!!, h lat c, " ill
echoe, Ihis t radit ional li )[m. Some_
times t hi s type of handk w" mael e in
t he form of a man with his arm, rai sed .
The later La T t lle IV hand les, such as
t he example from Hod Hi ll in Dorset
(' 4\ often show a <ln mg Rom" n
influence ,
Diodoru' ,ays t haI the swor d was
, usp. neled on t he r ighl side by chains
of iron or bronzc. A-\any of ' uch
ch. ins h"ve been found along wil h
scah bards. T hese us ually take the for m
of . piece of ,'hain 50- 6o<:m long with.
ring at one cnel and a al
(see 2J ). T hi, i, u,ua lty ,,'com panied
b\' a much short er piece somewhat
<imilat to a , n.ffle horse bit (21,
Diodoru,' de, cri pt ion is a lill ie mi, -
le. ding a, Ihc .rc not parts of a
,u<pens ion cha in bu t of a h<;lt from
""hi,'h t he sword is sus pend ed. Thc
longer form, the and lefl
, ide of I he bell. ,\ " rap i, 10
t he ring and p.,ed throug h l he loop
On t he back of t he sc. bha rd (24) where
il is f. ' tened to one of t he r ings of
t he , hort er of ch. in to complete
lhe bel t which i, with Ihe hook
. nd rem.i ning ri ng . Be tt, u' u. lly
made of le. ,her , in IwO
ring' were f."e ned to the scabbar d in
t ho same f"hion and a leat her h<;lt
'"
I T Al. Y T HE WESTERN MEDITERRASEAl':
n:pbccd l he dlain "";"11" daor
of.1Ine '" il h part of
.he kol he. hel" bt.:n rccover<:d
from l he 10k<: al La '1'..... . They an:
" . ually in l he fOnIl of ho"k
' 0 a . ing al l he <><hend " f l he
bell . T he bel, d !" ,oughly
"iangulal_. haf'<'J ol"len hig hl}'
J.'c" , alcd wit h IOnI[U. ,It nne end
which w., . i' eted to lhe Ie. l he' bd t and
h<....>l< allhe othe, eumpk'
from I.. -r.."" which f.n m the
La "("..... II period ' n: m""h .impkr,
and an: u."all y in the . hape of. ring
",ilh a ...... a"oehmenl ( I S" it
.... imo. mo.-c ..nal book
,.-i'h an anoehmen' pia... In ,110: , hird
reri<>d t he hook ..... oft"" lone and
'IOm<1l""" b.1I in il ' decoration
il bonys ," evoilll ion f..,m l he rinil
ra.. ...r of ,110: prr>->OU' period (I,:.
T he ..' wo,d._
m.n .nd }'.I Diodoru. d= .ibc, the
_pea.. lhal ... usN, Spear and ja,-di n
........ are abo """"anlly in
",aniot buriab. Thi_ .. a con-
>i <kn bk probkm, for if he catri<-d a
' J'C'a ' ,h<:n he 'us not' primarily a
' ......d.man. which i. a' odd. with . 11
,he deoc, i ption. in ,he a""icn! rom ce"
S"mc ha". Ihal all ,h.
'I", a, hcad< round in .he I[rove. arc in
fael i. ,'elin head . Quite apa' t f, om the
huge , i.. of ",mc of ,h .., head., th,""c
,pea" "'it h t>cad. and butt.
....e.. di """",red al La "1".."", l11ese are
.....r1y 3.s m IonR and cnul d ...."'. be
"" ",lin. To confound ma"eh r,,"btr
lhe)' 011had .......11 im!' l)ing..hat
n>en ........ orthe heads""" r...,..., .poan
and .- "',..Ii.... Thi. d, rf", ul,y _ IDS
l<> be ,murrnounlabk. for In . man ..ho
u a . pear. "'hieh i. """ di,pooabk ,
hi nrd mil" be a _dary " ...p.m.
The only ,hal .-an be dra,,'"
frum ,hi. i. tha' althoullh ,he Cell
ha,,,, hn I'fl maril y a ._doman. bt
.... nn' nd"',rtly so.
l li<odorus 'alko or . pea,lInd. a cubit
in Ie"ft' h <about .. ,em1and """n
T hi. i. no nauen,ion ; ..""ral .""at_
head. uf thi s proportion have been
fOllnd .",ming f", m .ll lh,,,,, European
period' . One enor mou, e. am!'1c r",m
La T"!\< ' 3.. : i, aim" " I>o<; m long
Thc' ' l"' . thcad, C"me in on alm"'t
infinite ....i. t y. I'h<"c Ihal are m""
, }'p;<'l lIy Celt ic ,well nUt a' , he base
and 'hen ,,, ,,..rd. the
I""nt. Diodoru< men, ion. a type or
"" ..lin lind ,,; t h an undulalin(t' ed(t'e
..hich bt .. .. "'" only ....... lhe 6nh
but '"""Itb it a. well . S""h >pear_
head. (""" .... .. ha,e hn found on borli
La T....., II and III ';1...
....r the Celt. """'" "p .pim.<
, ... Romans they .....m '0 ad"pted
,he .. type of pi l",.. , Exam!,"" or
th"", have bt.:n found a' min)" Celtic
A_a<>d ..hI
1 2 0nI ", .... -......,. d'OOlve<l ' ''''''
,... ' . ' , La r .... "eud>lI,oI "'_
Sw"'''''od
1 rho ',on' '" "... 00 ' ."'.Id "--" "<1 ,, ' . "' ....
'M "on ",.p"""" < 2SO BC. St.", 1:10
u"
t Tho _ . (II .... l. t __'" _"II ....
h"""7' p """<I> <u'''' """"..". !O "
_ !O Q'_ UmM"_. """ 'ho ....
_ ""'" Tho '''I '" " "Y
h (/","o" S;m,,,, "' "" c.,..,od "",,h ''''''
h... ....... ''''''''' ;" 0 ' 0...." oM 1"".,><1
f".. __
3 S<>o_ <:..'" ..-""'" 'ho ,
," __" f,.,,,,, ..... ""'" ll...
v"',"'" t"... 01 To,'.,.
.. Cor"" ,h,o'" c" , Oed b'y tOOl >1<1,....
",...It_on ' h C"o' ",. ",""'ord
THE RISE OF ROME Be
THE IT ALI" :'\; .\ II UTARY S YSTEMS
oil.. in sout""m Europe. Thi. milh,
explain "'hy Ili<ldonl. ""l" ,hal
javelin h""d, are I. rgcr tru.n ,,' her
pwple' word . II i. poo,ihle Ihot Ih.
' l", arh". d f,<>m l .a uo men
li"l\ed above i. f,,' m . iavetin,
'I(...,n Diod" ' Il' ""}'. rru.t Ihe (' ...hie
ohield was !.,JI a m.n, ..., i. gr"". ly
u .agge.." ng. T he remain. of Ihtoc
ohield. " 'Ore found a' La Ttne. These
are .bou. .., m Ions. Ttm ..."",ld
llj)Jlnr 'n be: fairly repn:scn,ni"e of d",
lhiclds Iho-..'n in Cd'icoculprllre ....hich,
_hen ....ing on l he ground. """""' "I'
10a hnle above Ihe ......i.t.
The ,h",e exampl.. from La T ene,
,,' hieh have now .. nfonuna'ely f.U"n I"
piece" were maJ e of oak. They wcr.
approximalely .2cm Ihkk in Ihe ce nt re ,
,apering , tighl ly " "' -OTd, lhe lide.
Two of Ihe I hidd. ha,'. an h ahan
' ype . pi ndle boos. On rhe ,hird Ihi.
pan IS m...",s T he cenl re of lhe:
. pi ndle bolO i. hollo" ied 0111 ' 0 .llow
, he hand h> grasp l he ru.ndk . This
handle i. m.Je of a sepa ra", piece of
wood u'uaUy rei nforced wi,h. ,,,ip of
iron whi ch wa, nai leJ 10 t he shield a'
eilher enJ , A reeta ngul" iron pla' e
wa, na iled . eros, .he fronl <I f lhe hoi.
' 0 gi ve fun her protect ion r.... l he: hand.
Sh;cld, of ,hio . ype have .1", bttn
fnund in Denman. and I reland. These
"" eTC hidc-<:<."."d and lhere em be
doul>r l hal lhe Ltt T ene eu mpko
...-e.. <;Oftred ...;Ih hide, Of pouib/y
felt , .. boo.. -.rood ",,,,,,Id hove sph,
",'hen . "u. k with a oJ",hing . word.
Similar I->a .. wooden . hicld. wcr 1",
found in . hi p buri.l . i n Norway. Thi,
m.kes one wonuer wl->.. her ,hield.
were moM ,p<:cially for I->u, i.l, and
other c-eremo nials a' Ihey obvious l;-
"""re ,n pr imilive Ure<:ce and It aly.
'I(' hao., is cen.in is . hal .n uncm'ered
"'"O<kIen shield """,Id be ".el.... in
bIInle . The Celli< , h,eld. ohown on , hi:
' i<:lor y al Pcrx-amum appea.. 10
ha"e hide r."ing, Thi, WOlIld have
covered bolh f"ml and !>ad I>f lhe:
. hk ld and ha"e I>c"n doubled up .Iong
the edge to reinfor"" Ihe rim. An
ample from Clonoura T ownJand. T ip-<-
p<:r.ry, in I reland , has a ri m of hide
" 'hi"h is ..",.;::hed thfOllgh ,he shield.
wmplco of mel.1rim. hav" oJ"", bcnl
round. A Ltt T en< s hield """""-'<l
"" ;Ih hide """,ld ..-eil:h 6-- 7k& (Ihe wood
at>oor 4kg, the hi de about zk.1: and l he
iron Ilo5s 250ll). The an.:ien.. mllSl have
bttn ....,11 aware .ha, oak con be hard-
ened by b.J:j na: . al\<l no doubt t he shield
wa. the 11(,01 trealment.
The or igi n of l hi. Iyp<: of . hield i,
ol->"'ure The , imilarilie, be, ween Ihe
Roman ",.m"" and lhe ('.chic ,hield are
.... rem. r kable Ih., ,hq' must
same origin, The e.rl;"';1 evidence fo..
the Celti<: ohield is Pf'O';ded bl' tltc
"
..
1 230 _120 10<:
.... M.m '" f'.....,. S, ,,",-0 ... _
11 "on -. hom foo-.. Vugosl .
12 l J 1. ' 1\anOg"" 1><",,"_ La T......
-..,.,_ _ s_.-15 """
___.... .... ."C--'._..
, ..-. .. _ .. f,...." So
- ' . - - 11<>0I from
......... So Goo"." .-... n '"
""'" of """ 11<>0I __S, Germaon
M_ .l. 'ln '_ _ """' Jw,..a
P<-1,.ca .. ' .... ll.,... Alp<- T... .-ia <:om""'"
on ..,;. 19 B',,"," bon..f". ..... l oond
" ... "", ' i" ..I<fu,;j, f 'ntsh". , Wal t> C..doH
Mu"um
. "
"_.... d._...
e-._. __"""". v_
n.. __a _
_ .... __... r- __
__bo O _
. ..... _ ...... d ........... JusI __
"10'1 .... ore <:on _ "'" hon<IlO ...... _
.... .. ... ""'
1- " , .. '" " , 11 or I" COlt"' ...
bou. 1_!t I,,,,, "" . _ I,om ,,,. M ...
" .. 0' f"""" S, G.. m, io Museum
10 EI. b""" " !>roo, . " "0 bu.. wi", ' P'.... !,"'"
",
ITAL Y AND T HE MEDITERRANEAN
A,1>o
A, Celt" ch.F"omG,"I., th ' ' ;'-1'0 of C,o,.,
". W OO" an itoo 001",,, . od "" , , h" t H"
long o,"gs 00 hi, ' igh' " ip. Swo<d' ..
to" " me ", .re o" eo " "' uco" , metre long
gohi"" oim '1>nd,. B"' ,'h Ce " "" ,h li'D"
",,,heO h,i' , k, o ",,,OPed wi" wo, d Tt-,
Q"" m' l",i" pf Ce'" wo'e 00 armo ur. T' ev
I, me ",,,hed t he' r Oa,r. oomoi"g it b." f,,,,,"
the I",ehe." to ,t-o n.,,,, of the "C' . ' 0 that it
,"", mbleOe ho" " "' ane. Th. st , Ie " 'oawn
00 ' 0"_' of coi" . ThO '''empt to m, k. t he
h,, ""d uo "'. t h" of " ang,y ,, i,"""
e" ceO<J, ngl, ",i'Di' i"" ' "d,n. y "'OV,,,. t he
"" 9' 001 he" et" " C' ",, on he l"",,,
The f<om, " """de toward' the Celt' "' "S
partieul." , 'uth'. " . w.,. , ,,,e m., ,,,, ,,y
m."oc red in ""'rhom ''' 'y. SP"" oM r..nce
Aft. , , he H,"o'ba"c "' ar ,he ",COOQ""" of the
Po va ll ev virtu. lly QOnu""d tt ", .re. 0' ( ,It"
,,,,,,", men
fi gmes shown on ' he Holst..,
c , 400 tIC, wherea' ' he e\'idenee for ' hc
SCutum preda' es t his by 300 ye.".
()nly poss ible co nclu' ion i, t hat the
Cd" adopte d ' he It alian ' hield when
the;- invaded hol y ;n t he 5th century
and from i" use f,lte red bock
. cross t he Alp" T he Hal"a11 ' cahbard
c'Quld well be an e' pon from Cel"
()f nort hern It"ly. The suggestion t hat
t he Cd " did not u;e shiel ds before
coming to haly i, as the
Cel' ic st yle of fi ghting a
. hield.
f hc ,erie, of b()s;" shown . oove
traces t he from the simple
stri p boss of t he 3rd cent ury Be '0 t he
el"borote butt er fl y oo"e, fotllld in
Bri..in in the '" cent ur y M' . Alt hollgh
all ' he bo"c, ' hown, exce p' ' 9, were
fOll11d on the of Eur ope, in
most coses s;mil" example' ha,c heen
fou"d in Br;t.in,
T he major;, y of Celt ic shield' were
oval, bu t ' he nample,
.nd t he repre""nuti om , how t hat they
could also be rect angular, hexag()nal
or round, T hes e ,.me repr esent . t ions
,how t he 'hield' wi' h sym-
bo h, anima h or design,
Diodorus elaims that t hese mot ifs wcr e
made of bronze , but i ' seems mnre
likel y 'hat t he y were pain ted. lk may
he refcrr ing to t he el abora'e t ype of
bronze shi elds tha t h. ve been found in
Britain, but t hese mUst h.-'e been used
for ,ome cercmon ial pllrpo' c and could
ne\'cc ha\'e been "'ed in hatt ie.
J)iodoru,' descri ption of Ce lt ic hel -
met s does not tit \'try well wil h the
ar ch.eologic. l evi de nce. lI is hel met'
arc of hTOnze wi' h brge embo"ed
figllre, " anding out from 'hem, whieh
gi\'e' the . ppearance of gre. t stature to
t hose who wear t hem, He goes on 10
nplain IhOI 'hese ar e som"i mes in t he
f()rm of hom' , whi ch "re att ached to
the helmet " , ., to form . single piece ,
or ln t he shape of l he fr onts of birds or
four- footed " nim.Js , Helme t' roughly
fitt ing ' hi ' descrip tion ha\e httn fOllnd
but t hey d() not ,cern to fit in'o Ihe
m. instre. m of Celt ic' heimCI develop-
ment. For conven ien"e t hese m. in-
s"e.m helmet ' will he considered fi"l
A lar ge number of he lmets h",e bee n
di",overed in t he region of It. ly (,,-"cu-
pied by th e Senone, (the Adriat ic e()''' '
between Ancona and Rimini ), T he,e
.Il h.ve a back peak to protect t he neck,
They ar. generally refer red to as 'h<
,\lont efo" i no t ype . fler buri"1
ground where were fi " t found
T hese can dear ly he traced h. ck 10
t n '" ()f hel me ' ' hat was in use in France
and Au'tria dllr ing t he loter 5t h
( I , . ). T he,e were bron ee hel me" wit h
. n "'I' knot f hi' type of
hel met may have becn brollght to Itoly
h y the Senones.
In It . ly the helmet eyoh'ed into ' he
Mont efor t ino 'ype whi"h, while reo
t. ining topknot and ba,k peak, h. d
" muc h mor e ,ou nded cop, >:l umber;
5, 6 and 9 ore from Senones graYc, and
mllst d>te to 'he period hefme Be,
when Cel" wer c d riven Ollt by the
Romam. T hey ore generally da'ed to
the lale 4t h or e. rly .'lrd cent ur y,
helmets from the graYe, are
llSU"lJy m. de completely of iron
or of iron and hrome, thOllgh 0 few
'0 he maJ e ent i rely of bronze.
Several ex.mpl es h.ve . multipl e ere"
holde' m.do of iro n fitt ed 10 the lOp_
knot (see no, 6;,. f hi' pre,"mahly held
a' the , ide' and. horseh.i r
ere" a' t he top T he cheek pi eces of
these helmets o, e near ly al w"y, of t ho
tr iple disc t ype ( Stt 6 1which mu<t have
bee n adopted fro'" t he I talian<. T hey
.re so similar to ' he Samn ite breast-
pl a,c, (, ce p. th., Ihe ir or igi n must
be Italian. J)\\, ing the 3r d , hi,
oheek piece degener ated into a triangu_
lar type wit h th rec bOSKe, . T he .\lom.-
fon ino wa, ,"pidly . dopted by
t he ot he r It alians. An exampl e be..ing
an Etr uscan inscr ipt ion wos foon d at
Bologna .nd therefore m"" da' e to t he
era before th e cvacuati()n " I' Po
,'alley by t he E"",cans i n the midd le of
' he 4t h century. Represe nut ion, of
these helme" .1", . ppear in 'he 4t h.
cent ur y tomb of t he ",lid, at ( :en'ete'i.
Both have , ca lloped check pic""e, . Ex-
amples of the triple di', t ype also t mn
up in Et m ria, alt hough they do not
Scem 10 have omli\'ed t he 4t h ce n'ory.
T here ;s "Iso an isol.ted example ()f .
scal loped cheek piece fr om ' he ."Iome-
fo" ino cemetery (9) hut t his m. v be.n
import
T he .\l on' cfon ino t ype sp read
throug h()ut the Celtie wor ld : IJ wa'
found in Yugoslavia anJ an almo"
identical G.lat;an exampl e is shown
on the victor y fr ieze ot Per g"mom.
T HE RI SE 0 1' k O.\I E Be
Tim ITALIAS MILI TARY S\ 'STE.M,S
Bolo",
1_17 Tbo ......,_, 01 ,... mot
a..o.... ,_.......... COt'>< "om on ._
.... n" _"""\0",-. <lea'
.-.-_ o.x- _ , o g 2--6--
12 ..... _ .. <Iea'
200 lie
1 """ .""'.,, " om OJ...,.,. """ nMo....,,"
En....... """"" .... """ '" I,l""'o/"",,,,,
'- ViIIoa..... I,l,-..o
IIn;.nzo _...- "' .......
........t"".... ...... Moo. 0"'" -.
"-
'0....,.,10 .......... t".... v_(........).
F."""" S, Go,mom M. _ m
11 "ouod 'oo"ood b,w". C. oo. " "o ....,mot
Cr. m"". Mu,""",
1Z I, ,,,, "._, " om CO....""10 in ,,,. 11. '_
A"", , . _ "" ",
1) ."", _"om yugoo......
,--
,.""" - ""'" ....... .......
_,,_I,l..........
1$ 80-_ ....mo, 'o.'" _ "'" (S.....
L,u.) C""'..... S_ " y"","
11 I, ,,,, .......... ' ,om Pol! "",
,w,tzo"",,1'""en M" .."",
17 Iroo _, ""'" G,,,"IOSro, Tie"'O, .. ""
S..... AJ... Z.....cn M_
1. Boonzo _ ""',., ... ' ...._
' ......... 80- _
,. __ _c-.
'"'l ....
20 kon ChH. -"..""' ........ s, a--n
",-
21 ' '''' hoi...., ._11*"""'"0" , ,,. ..en.,
O,an",. . """ 0.10 ' " noo
"

../ _.
.
100 lie
1 B,oc, . nolm., hom Som",e T"",,,,, F,onee
M, sev..
2 11<""", ........., """" 0..""_9 boo ..........
_.. ...
J __"""' Au..... V-..
"-
&on>t f ....,.
... "..,
"""""0..........
i B'""", """ 'on .......... "0"' ",.
""",,,,,,,,;, .t Mooteto" ,"" A"coo. Mo",,, m
,"
[TALY AND n lE WliS TERN MEDl TERRAl" EAN
Altl>ough Ihe Cell. had been almo;l
dri,'.n OUI <>f hal )' b)' Ih. fi",' quartet
ofille 2nd ",n1ltty II<:, ,he :.t""",fonino
Ill"< .Iill lum' up in lhe of ,lit
....Ipo. The .umplt> found htr<: ( 12,
' 4 1 ace . ""lu.i\""ly made of iron aR<!
h1\'" lilt nttk Sua.d made ..,pantely
and tlltn m..".,d on TM ehttk
lin <kgen<:n'.d oon."knb[l' from i "
o.-iginal <inign but ... " ill rtlain he
ba>Je eharaet...."..,..
The .\Iun,d"onino he[mn " .... ,he
mosl . u""",..ful . y"" ",.." . ""'ign<d. It
"..,n almost IOlal Kctp1a""" in t ho<
Roman ann)", " 'he",, il " .... u""'" ,; n u-
ally for ....arly four c..,,,'uri ....
Al a "on"'r.... liv. a,ima ",me ' h""e
'0 four milli"n or lhoo. he[rnt" mu",
h.". Men mll<k,
T he. e w ..,,,,,nd of h.lrnt'
, ha, "' vy . imita, 10 Ihe Mo nte-
fon ino ')'p< bUI 1" 'ked Ih. wpknOl
(" . , II . ' 5), Thi. i. u.".lly , . f<rred 1<>
a
.-
1 8<""", ,.,,,,, """'COl _ !rom ...." .. T""
......."on " toll.. bu' II.......... ...,....n
s.-..,., .........""',,""",n "'. ottoo<'""..,n "'"
ocl 01,"," "'''''''' ..- ...... _ n 10cnd on
'101, e." ...
2 "",n"om oli"',,., .......... 8<,', . h ... "...., m
3 A ronf, ,,," ',.nc. >how' ''Il . c.l' "" t h
11.... "'ho>d h. "
.. C."" N"O," " "'" ....,mot j, om t he Alp,
Th"" .1"'0", """,,,.1 '0'h".,,1,.,. ".1'." """
"c.p' f", ,no "0" 4. In. I<Ie the '1m 0' 4
,h. o, n" "'h"""010' ' he 'O' Om" c; p
a> ,h, CooJus In" .f... 0 '''-<:en'u')'
nample found in J'n""" Although il
".... never . , I""f"lla. n .1>< .\Ionte-
fonino'j"I>. it, "OC' bttarnt ",id..preaJ
in 'M 'st c..,mury 1lC . R<! i. apran ' 0
tIll" e bn the fot<1Un....r of lhe early
",...,..."ury Roman I<gionar)' hel -
mn. The origi" of ,he Cool... helmn
nuLl " he .. car[} " as 'M .\Ion,d"oni""
I).PC ' one ...... found in ,he &none"
graves anJ the nampk from
nuL}' M .. ""t ly ... 400 II<:.
Some helm"o have . 'll'< of "';"1"
designon the oide (...., 7. I}1. Thi ..,.,-n.
10till\"< originated in ha Ir ...... may tIll"e
bn inopiud b}' ,he ";ngs on Samnile
hdm"". Th" 'ypc """.me popular in
,he Ralhn. in ,he l rd to 2nd n'uri
tIC and i, 01.., . ppears on lilt ,io;to')
fri",,, from I>"" .mum in Asia '\Iino.
An ",ampl". Ih"ugh il M an
import , h1.., heen found . , Amf,._
ville in nor l h"rn Fr ance
5 1 ...,.,' "'._"'
....'''''' ""'" ....,n,,,, .., nthe .......
of f , Ih. " .,"". ......," ""'"
.. , <..',,"'" ec "lI'o.CeIb<: T""
"',,,. _"0'" _no 00'"", 0"""""
f,"'" .... ""'. _ ""'"'" .. ",.wed on, '"
""""''''''' . .. ........"" '" 'h. j ",,,,
N'"",. "'"_on
1 00.." of ,... "." "",pol l
8 " bolt , , ." of ,,,. ""'" wom "" ,... ",.n'",
01 G, on f,om A"" ,. ,nC"" '<:a Th" " no"
C. "'c 'vpo
9. 10 T",o """,,"0 noOd' f, om SnteA"""".
' '''Ie< N'",., "".."m
lIor""" Mime.. rca.llinl" ,hose des-
cribed hI' Dtn<l,lfU' a...hown on
' M arch a' <"-nil< U,. Bearing in
mind , he Jlurmio ,..,[ier ( p . ,hese
may be ime-rpt"<1cd OIandord bea"",'
hclmn. s..ven l helm"... "';,h horn-
like . "arh""",,, cu' out of, hin bromt
, heet ha'"e bcett found i n 1,.ly. A
. upert> eumple ofo hor"""
hellner ..... found in l he Thamco at
\t"' 1<' 1oo Rridge ( Ill . II d mcto deoor-
a'cd ,,;,11 oni m. l. .. dncribcd
llio<lo<uo Ite VCI)' t.... Only on<
<>lample hao come '0 Thi. "'..
found at Ciu...... i ,n R"mania. It io .
helm", of ,he Ra11na '}-PC: II } I ,.,i,h a
bird nn .op. Thio b,rd till. hinged ou,_
'''tlehed " "m", " 'hieh mus' h.ve
flapped up and <k>wn . s l he w..' e,
, alk'ped in.. ' bank.
Some 4th."enlu' r Celtic "a,"e, have
!><en diSUlV.."d in n,,,thern I'aly which
conla,n Elfu'con Ne,au 'ype helm""
T HE RI SE OF ROME 800-a75 RC
THE ITAUA:'" -"' fLITAR\" S\STE.\tS
Cell. adopo:td l he Scpu
mel i> wnfirlmd by ,he of
""'....al nampln c( a Cell ic for m of
S egllu hellmt in ,he c.mral All"tlC
.... ' 4 1' 11:).
In t he , . 1 cem ury IIC IWo n.w 'n'"
appellr, T hl:y are ct<ely rd ..t.l and are
generally rde" ed to a, ,h,
type, . T he Agen type ( ' 7) h., a cop
r..her like a !>owler ha, with. hri m. T he
P"rt 'n" h.. a . imilar cap hut a .leep
n.dguard ",hich iHi vetedon ( I, Bo,h
h,,,. a ....... type of d >ttk pi....., " 'hieh
...'n l,ner .dop(ed b} ,he Roma... .
Pon Iypc ""U direcl ancn'orof tl><
"I-em,ury AI> impcril.l GallIC I<'gion_
orr ( Ott p . E.umpln of
thne hcl ......., which 1I'.....Je ....'irely
of iron. hay. been foond in ",,"hem
Yugool.Yia. ,he cenlnl All""" Kgion ,
Switz.rlllnd ond centnl and .o", h_
,,"'coter n Fnnee. T he peo.;uli.. r Ihing
aboot their provenance i,"ho, il i. ..long
"
A,,,,,......... . ;ghl
II sa.""". of 0 mo" ..... _ , .....- COIl<
..... !n_, .. ""' """'" at "....,. r.... II
, """ C4oIt>c ""'"
'}""- _ .---
lJ p.. 01 0 ColI>< m;oI <IW! .. "n .. _,'"
-..... COI>O __C_..
__12 A, B. C r __oI".-og
_ .. _e-m..
D _ oI "", _
, . SIlo.. Of 0101< C .....
V......... _'_.F' _ ..
,"",..,.$lyIO ..........'"
'5 A, " . ,.....,. 01. j,,,,,, ""''''.m "or,.
"'''''''0 on >,.'.n " ",* mod on",
, &A, "'"'P'"'" of. mo" ,o"t I,,,,,, POlO' mom
., To"...,
, he fronlien of the Roman dominion>
.. l he bqinning of ,he 1st cenl"ry Be.
A , ..-emt ury Celtic check piece
from Alcoia i neentnl Fnn<..., {' OJ . how.
an 0'10.1 m,x'ur. of ,he d ....i".1 h alian
ehe.k pice. decora,ed wilh hossco harp-
ing back", the old tripl. dis<: type,
Simila' characte ri"i., appeal 00 t he
carl ie< chcck piece from nonhern Yugo-
,'avia U' .>. Helmcts of ( i reck/ltalian
conical, ype wilh Cellic . " ch
a, I . 1', I ll. have been f<l und, T hese
all Ott m '0come from 'he area of Apul;"
in .o"ll hern h al)'. The ...hed de<:ora'i<;>o
on ,op iImos' iden,ical ' 0 those
.ttolA n on .." h of
f.'.n in ",,"hem hal y 'here
find. are rommon. , he v , .....ion'y c(
Cell. "''QUld have ....orn no atnXMJr
Diodofu" tdlo u. , hat theoc ""Trio"
lime_washed llH:i. hair and
i' b.o<k from Ih. f",. h.ad '0 I h. nape of
I h. n...'k to , hal il looi::.d like '" hoI""',
rrune. s..-'cnl coi n>, .uch .. ) . p. 12a,
.tto,,' ,hi...yle. Thi. an.mpl 10 make
the .. .,and 01' lik. an an,..red alumal
i. exceedIngly primit ive and mal' po;n,
' 0 Ihe origi n of honchoir """,to on
helm. " .
Some from ..,u, her n Fr ance
IA'Cst uf the Rh6ne, shuw an extr a_
ordinar y' headgear l ike a h,,,,d wi,h "
or..t un it (see below). T he, e rna)' he
pre_Celtic and <:enainl)' .h<lw a gr eat
similari,y to ,he hoods sbown 00 'he
Osuna relief. from S",in (see p. l 50).
The uo< of hody annour &mo.>J1ltSl l h.
Celt. IA'''' probabll '.ry rare. Apan
from a f. w bronze <Loa .... h"'h coold be
eh... armour b OI ore more likely ' 0 he
tw-nc dc<:onot ion> for """"- , here io
noIllinl1: from the eor ly pe.iod (,.sG-aso
acl. The 4'h--]rd cen,ury' "al"" from
Grnan in ,he SO<J, h of Fun( s: 5. 6,
7. p, , >2 ) ....... ...." Trior wearmg .... ha'
appears 10 be eilher. ' quare from and
"
'"
ITALY T HE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN
o
,
,
tel)

...
t' ,L;_n"'_J r...
'1' " 1 (... .
, " c -

o
AbOve bO''''''
1 A " ""' '"..",",""," ""v
,oo",ng . C.",o On , ,,", "" to, do"b" Mop
" de. 0 BC
2 C"," "0"' t.... ,,,,,. of Coe.. ' , oowlng ,
C.'", ,n"'01 w,," . _ bl. />ooo ....
3. A Calt'o vot n<! "' _ ' ,om L. ,_
"'""' My""",. 0 200 ac
5_11 M po'l< of 0" '" "".., """'''''
I>."rM,,,, f"A 5' a.. n M.-...
$ I 13 ""...,_ " ..-. .1100/1..........
7 ..,,1> cap ," _n9 ...... jo;nI
1g 11 e. -.. , u H"''''
14 n t....c: ". 11 ...
I , . I .. """" of y--. ....._
back pl>lle "'hi,h is " rapped on or a
comple,e cui,,... deco,," "d in 'hi' form .
This . h l ue ",,"not co,,.i<krcd '"'
typic:olly ('..,lIie. I n fact ;\ ....y not
af .11. The hood <ype helmet ,
like 'hoac from Sainle_ Anas...ie ill the
same area (sec p . 121 ) probolbl y origin_
Ol<d """"'I , he 1b<1ia... and no\" t he
Cel... ThnrlOf" rara11<1. should be
JooIi;ed fo< in Spoon n . her lhIn France.
The claw bell fUlel>tf ,.-hi<h " com_
mon 10 .he ..-hole of ..,.,them r <anc<:
and Con>a i l prc..eclric tlo... The
""ample , 1Io.-n on p. III i. from A"'ria
in Conicl.
Around)OO Be mai l ..... In
. pi'e of , he Celts' disto"" for armour,
most of 'he ....idtnce ('lOin, s 10 them as
' he in'cmo. of ,hi< i.. mo>' . uCtts. f,,1
form. Stn bo rde." "m.il Celtic. T he
.arlie", ",main. come from Celtic gra,-""
and the Celt. were the gr , iron
WOlke.. of the andent world. Severol
statue, of w.rrio.... from southern
Fr an,,, which have bc<:n t"ought 10
'how ' >r leather cui" " ", , h""I<1
be mail.
The me "I' mail, which was very
10 makc, wa' probably te-
10 lhe .ri.l<><;r8c>y.
The variou. >lalue. "f mailed war-
rin,.. from ' olilhern h ance and nor-
lhem hal y show l WO of cuirass :
l he tin' wilh a ' hal hangs ",,,,r 'he
shoul<kn (..., II , p_ njl ; and lhe
o.eoond cuI like . Greek lincn cuir...
whh no o,",.ha n, al , he . boulders ( ' 4.
IS. p. n 3). The tirs' il probably the
mot<: u uly a..lle
Pieces of I mail , hi n ""ere di""","red
..... l h the bird helm(t in a 3rd--ctlltury
gravc at Ciumnti in Romania. T herc
appc:l' . 0 M rutl of 'wo ditf=nl
cuinun u one of ' hem (p. njl i.
made up of a1t......lC........ of punched
(A) and bUlIed ( B) ringl " 'hil" another
p;t hal n VC1cd ri ngs i.... cad of
bulled onn. Tlul il much .. ranger_
Thnc ri.... aft' 801m in di.meI.... II
is pouihlc .hal thc shin "'i, h butted
ring. """ ' ntended for <;<:remonial
PUT_"onl)' , whICh would lie in "",II
with the ul rao.dlll.ry helmet_ A,-
lached 10 l he hUll ed mail wa' a bronze
fa' tenet for 'he , houlder pic""" i,
decora'ed wilh rosene' . T he , oction
(D) .how, thor onc rnd wal riveted to
lhemail "f " ne .houl der pi"". , the
centre rn""tte w purdy decorative
T HE IUSE 0 1' ROME 800-l7S tIC
THE ITALlA.'Il MILI TARY SYSTEMS
-
---
n A-""-.0a Goooe*_c....e
_ . e:!OO BC u " tw. "'-,
.._ v :.0 .- I """" <t>onoI
Tho "" ..-..................... """""
_ !IIO<l a Ion\I "",
,..
)
, .
f ,
.......
and lhe far end must how ho<:ld
behind. similar roon.e on . he <>the<
.houl<kr pi"e".
Th.. muS! b<: from a cui",.. with
ov"rhonging ,houldcro, Th" ,houlder
flap, uf lhe cuira.. t hot Was mode in lh"
.hapc of 0 linen faoteru:d to
lhe e hc.., but wilh lhe overhanging
,houlder ftap$ such flSloni ng would
mlrie! the movement 01. .h" arms. lt
.... lherefore cucnlw, if one .....hcd 10
raise one' , ann., -""'l 10 IU lhe faslener
IO d>e f"",. oI. l hc shin , is in II""
M.h II>e fw enc", ohooo-n on the sculp-
lures from <he sooth of Frana: (see II ,
n , p. u3).
lkfore l he subject som"
"ommenl mu" be mode on Dioooru, '
Slatcment l hat ",'me or t h. Gaul. wen l
into bo"}e naked. T hi, is un'lucSlion _
ably tnk of the early pcriexl , hut """'I
of lJiodonD' dcscrirt,on refers to t he
Ialer pe1iod. At the bertle of Tcbmon
in Z2S IIC l he "-Ii, who auoocd lhe
Alps from S..iuerland 10 figh' on l he
Cellic sid<, wne noIC'M>fthy ' o Pol ybi....
!>cause they.nll f.......' in lhis fashion
t he "'her Gouls did nor. They
wore their troUOCn and light d "",ks.
TOO on<I "g'"
I I A 1:<00<0 ",. f'le b,t trom T.... Somme'
Tou' t>o ,n f"""" S, G.,.,.. n "'",""m,
eaoc 8C
II ,""' .. , bom _ In ",",ual
k lt>QO S, Gom>o," ..-..... e !>O 6C
ZCI &_ H __"om
_ en' ..-....
11 s.n. _<110<._........, ,_
U A Coor.; "",.. ,. , _
-_.... __.- -
_.-
",
I T ALY AXD THE \X' EST ER:" Ml'lJl T ERRA},IEAS
Ily' ttlc ' ''''''' of Ca<'sar , tic Olts apronr
to h.jttrt funy' d="",,, U1 slu" and

Poly'hius, In his accoun' of ,tic
up ." .tIc bank of
oars ,ha, ttlc lia.!he had 2O,lXlO
""\1llry and ehano... Thi. is ,1"0< I..,
,,, ehariol. being u<d in
un , he European "",inland.
T hey ar. nul encountered again unt il
'.-..:sar invade, IIritain in 55 llC.
Oiodoru. tell, u' ,run ehatio" ",,,,re
drown hy 'wo horse. and carriN a
dde'", and a warrior. I n hallle ,he
",. r riM ,hrew jae'd in. from hi. chariot
.nd ,hen descended and fOUll: ht on f,"'t,
Cae.or' aecoun, of 'he Bri,i.h cha,im,
i. , ,,,ry . imilar , Bo,h au,ho,," m. ke '>r.e
impor,an, poi nt: ehario.. "",re u..d
again" ""valry. Thi. sol".. a 101 of
problems, f...- 0 ... could 001 fi,h,
again. , infan' ." in t his " ",,y' Ucel" in
. kirm,.",,", Caesar CXpln'" gm, ad-
mi ,.,nion rcor ,he chariol:cen' ""ill. tie
<kscribn ..",trion runni n, along , ...
charioc rok and " and ing on . ... y'"b
aho-", l he !>onn' . houlde,,".
Ses-'1'lI1 chari<>( gnt,... !>a"e
d,ocovercd in France.
mos, or ,he ,,,,hiclM appear I" have
dlOman,led before buria1. .\\ony
ur , he me,al pan. of ehorim. have
pre'erved in ,he.. gra" ... Amung ,he
ar e art icula,ed hamessings (""e p. ' 34,
5. 6 ond t ) .' which con onl)' hav. hee n
",cd f<lr .he o"oc'hmen, of Hace rein"
T h. 1. oft t h of , he bo lt on ' h"u/tlt. " ,
t ho' ' he)' must h. ve been ollo"hed '"
,he axle. Thi. i. certainly ,he Ill";,i",,
in wh,ch 'hey were found i n Ihe gro,' e,
The ........ <>f ring'> ,ha, w.re found
In",l wi, h , I>< hones' e"'", m,..t ha,.
l>e<:n fu.ened '0 the ginh ....I' '0
,,,id. ,h..., , race rei n. These gra'...
con,a,n many mher bi, s and piccn,
linchpin' for o n tM
,,heel. I' 4. ' 7i and rei n guides
,,'hieh "",re attached '0, hr )....... .
A "cry .."' " yoke u and
wheel compkle iron lYre ' 4 .......,
o.Ircdlf"d ftom ' hr lake a' Lo in
Swi,urLond. The ''''''''n
are nf ' ariou. do, .., T he aim i. '0 " j.
10 .how l h. oon of pi.... "oed in Ih.
conSll'UCfion of a "ha, io1. Pi..,.., sand
I J, ah t.uugh uf dilT"",n. do.., obvio.. . ly
""rfurm ,he .ame f.. nction.
Un,il recen,l)' on. had '0 rely "n c"i n,
10 glv. ",mc idca uf t he form of C.ltic
.,.
ehariol. Thr-sc .hMo ""hide> "'i,h
..hat appean '0be ..-0 ..mi-cin::ular
lidn. A fe,,' "ll0 a"""....""'" """
round a, PIOd ",, ;n nonhern 1t. 1)' ,,' hieh
. b",n a ehanoc or a "miLor <:aff)'-
iog , ,,,,, men and a ,h",ld whicb ;,
" andi ng on irs ,io.l< ;n .he chariot . I n
,hi. relief bo<h oemi-cir<:ular .ide 1';.-......
are . howlI i n frun, of , hh.i-<Id. Thi.
..n onll' m.an ,ha, , h... ''''0 pice-..
reprcn, one .i de, Unlik.!}' ,hough.
,hi, may' <cern, i. i, suppon cd by ,he
arehaeological .vide!l<' , In t he henc'h
chario, bu rials ,he sp. ce between ' he
"' heel , is litt le ''''cr a which is
far Ie" , han the Cypr;" , chari,,1S (which
,'ary from' J 10 '.7m) where and
"'arrior . t<><><\ , ide b)' . id . A CeI,ic
""rrior must , herd"re h..", ,,"""
hchind hi. driver a. ,,,,,,"'n un , he coi n
of Hll5,iliu. TI>e lon, chariot box
req..i",d for this a<XmJ nts for ,he
doubk .ides and for lhe k ngth_
" "' l" of a " 'atrio. in hi. chariot, as hr
" .... in 'M French burtah.
After ,hr >nq.....t or Gaul . O l, ie
ca...lry became .hr ma,m ' ay- or 'M
Roman arm). Yet i, has ' ''lll!'CSled
, hal , he Cel.. had "" 'N. covalry and
,ha, di.""",nl.d and fougb, on
foo,- A' .hr baule of C"nna. (2 ' 6 llC)
,he Ceh. , Spaniard. "no.l Roman. ce r_
,ainly did ,hi. b", i, may ha". been
nee"".r)' beeau uf l hc exc..,d ingly
c'amped ,pace in whkh ,he)' we..
figh'i ng. T hc commcn, uf Hannib.1 a,
, he b. 111e uf Cannac curded by I.iv)'
,eem. til ",gge.' tha, ,hi, was no'
n",mal wh"n he w., lold ,hat
Paull... had o, d.'ed his ca,'al,y '0
di,moun' , lIannibal commented ,ha,
he migh' a, wdt ha,-. deli\-ered 'hem
up in ""aim . Thi. implt.. ,hat d i,-
muun,ed CI"al l")' " 'ere u..less. [n IN, h
i< i. hard '0 concci'.Ia..... numbers of
co...I., '0 fttlb' . If ,hr
Ronun. had dol"< , his, PoIl N .... com-
menlO abou' thri'lIdor<ir>n of . he Gift\:
'f'C'Ir ,,' h.ieb did Il<J' ..",...,. in ' M
charge would ha,-. I>ccn mnningkss.
The O l. ic emplo)' ed by ,hr
Roman. in ' hr early .mp". is regularl)'
depict.d fi, b, ing from """"t>ack. 11
,I><tcfore ....m. ... ..>na bl. ' 0 conclude
from ,hi, pcN"ive ,ha, ,he
Ceh. i ndeed produc. d l Ne cO\'alr y.
Many Celti. hur..bi" ha,'e bITn
fuull d. These are u'uallj' uf ,he , naUk
')'pe T hesclIlpm r. " n 1', III (u) , how,
a ""'-an !I<'n-;ng ,,; t h 'hr ,\ u....
.Ionian f"...... at ,hr hallie 0( I'yd...
( , 6lI 1lC). The round . hi-<Id...hoch n
ce..aml)' nei,"', Roman 1"10I' GrttI:.
m...1 he a C.,lIie CI\1llry .hield. The
"",Iplurc on p , uS ,00... a Cd!
ridinl( ov.r I falk n Greek. Tho, rlder_
Ie-.. h"r"" ......... ,hr or oaoidle ,n
uoe J m' >n,..' lhe Grttk... ,h;, " ",<.
The 0 ... uoed , he ..me ' j'pe of-tdl,
a. 'h. I..er Romans. Thi. ' l'pe of
saddl. ", i,h pommel. a, cornu .
.. on ,hc Gunde.. ,up cauldron
and more d r1y "n the J ulii monumenl
at S, Remi da, ing from the latc, , "
cent ury lie. Thi, e"mmem"..,.. a h,,, le
R"man, and Celt " On. "f
,he hor..,. h.. fallen and , hrown "I
rider, The falle n rider mu st br a Cel,
a' Roman triumphal monumen.. ne."
depict ,hr d.a,h. of Roman I<>Id.....
h fnll"",.,; ,hat . 1>< four_pommelled
oaoidle .......-n '" .h" "",Ipout. i. Celtic
and ""'" Roman. n.e Gundcouup
CI.. ldron al.., . ........ ,hr discs ,hoi
u"",,, 10 dceora,. O l,ie hones-.
Some of .1>cK, made of .. IWI', hov-.
bn r nd in nonhern l lal y. Thcor
f>Ir<J<u al... acI<>pled by , he
Romam.
The K.. m an- .....' i n a . m y of , he
ee n , .. r y BC
The Ca" ian Ifea, y of "1: ,ro.:o, -
Ill". ..d R"me in , he l.a,in Le ague .nd
for , hc next ,60 years ,he , hored ,
,' ommon mili ta,)' de,'dopmen, wi, It ,h,
o,hc" l.a,in " . les . When Rome mad,
her bid f"r 1 d....h1p of ,he I.uftu. in
, he l .o, in \t'"r " f 340- l.iry . "uICS
u, .ha, ,he mili' ary organioa,ion " r ,he
La'i ns and Roma", " .... iden, ical.
do..b, hr is rillh, bu' when he "l'S' hat
pn_. 1"1,,, faced pri_ pUla in , he
baule M,.,,, a link carried ......)'...
, bey "'.... ha>-. l>e<:n a' """""i,e end!.

Rut her. once ''If:ain Li,,. givn on
,n\",IWlb!e glimpoc of ,he Iqion pni-
sa''''''. All Icgionaries no.. u< ,he
Italie ""al .h,.1d (....'_l The phalanx
had been abandoned and ,hr I.......
.... now .plit up into ,hree It TlIc
rrar Ii had's companie. ( d"...
each t>divid.d into ,hre. p.'"
A, , h. fron ' were ,h. cream
or ,h. V,'.'an, (m'",,;,), Hchind , he><
,am. ,h. }'(lunger and Ie"
men (, ,,,,, , ;,) . nd be hind th ,h
'"
:)Uno<> .onon . ...., ,, peJ lit
:>,n' "".,lnIU,"" <....\ JO llOIldt.m:lp
.,n'q'IOd 01 w.JoJum 01 I! IdZPI OJ
,,"u 0." - "l.L [.." i IJO
u. 'I"'" IP I .,. ." <),><1.:
II' U\ Itl'! M' J
1" 1'1'" "l'l"'l,"d ' "<I 'I! p U""J "4 , .
tlo II p<><nd ""'I '"l '''1''1. ' !4 J" lS"'l
"41 OJ. "4':ouop ........4 "4 '.Iop
u ,"" 0... 10s>h<n "41 '" ""'>du;>S;>J> ""I
"llftWO'> PI""""
' P'04PW "... 01 Iltl "
' '''I k' r l 1"'l 1 ,( n "'l."
0>1 ', ) ''''4''10,1 .14 P"'l !JOSOP
'"'II pur (:m 0>' .Iw,"
' 'II " >OMI"" ""\\jl"4 O! Ii wJ.
' ;>11 0> ' pur ot f U'''' '''l p..xu" p
-un """IOW:>J I' Jl ..tA
"4 plnn.. " pur IURI""'"
J" Ul ..... .'wn muJOli "41
' .o.u.owH .. "41J"lU:I""'''41
'" WJOJ""" 01 " P""'= JO UOl1.1U....",
'"", ,, ""'1"'1"" '''''W

'l".\\ p'WJ. ,J.' .\\ " ''I' 1"4' 'wn,,"
,. nw pu r ' W!' "!'l l Ir ""n OJ'
"IW '''4' ' .x\ '01'''''''' pur ("/"Il
''''p.,"f P"'l ."'41 ,h I' ....oq"l"d
" I ' p>oWJ" 'u,. "..,.... pur <J4r.Nut1
"4' .""4 ..lOS lOll QOP ..... '"1 ww
000'> Inoq, lO IflO 1.",lUI' ,." " , ,,,
""" Jd wnJl ' ''''''''oq PJ"plRl' ' '''''''''I/O
'" 4,n, . " J.J,wnllJJ<j", pur
" ""41 ' '' Id ,J<j ,,'w o am
-"' nn... '''Un,U," ' I'l nop
"lq rq<>J<! ,,,'" ,,,,, n""'4..L .,, '"'" 09"M>
1'"4 'A"'l :>JOJ:>J'"l 1 ..nw ." ,, ' ....
pur ""'._0.4J" Imn '1:':-1 ." ,"", 981 f*I
""1 ""'" oql 10 "un 'I-:! '000'. ....
'I """''' uodJf "'-1.1. ' UIP-' rl l"'" Jr>dt
'II'" powrr ("'''1) sd<1OJ1 p;>!W<- I'Ia' l
N U"''''''f j O ' Id,,,",,, 4"*' 01
1" '1' "11.... "'Id","w >I OIU! I"' p' A' p "'I"
, ,,.\\ "''I./. " j'l J" ' wud ' 4' '" <In
_w"" ,,'w J" p:>>dwoo "ll" "Jm
"A<'"1""I" JJ:M\ (" .. ,....) ""'I ''''''1
"4.L J" ,""" Jd uo ","",_.(ua;n,
.... . J" ..... <>.I" " a:MU. -(""'UlluoI)
,u1lI"JU' .... 10 (!dnrrw) , . ,, '"
>1 JO dn:>prw"," ""1 'IPP'w :>q.L
'$J""wrs "'11 JO '*'41
" 14 '""'" ' I'''' pu." J<!.(,
.a"H ',,!M n""I1.'''>(') " J"Jq
1" "1'''"'' " I'"" '"O!In'''''' ' OM' '", w09
JO JO 4'0;1
P""'l ",:>q' l':>ql 1"'1"'.1.,.
"'" uop .(.,q '""eJd. 'I"'" """'''
1tH'U, "4..l. $J.UJUI ....,..,
<I'lL lU"l
\8 ptll>OJ! "I' 01'" pa./
"'l.L ' p:>qfl (O'lO Ilq 1''''1 :I.
-10,,<1 ..111ll/I llU' w'. p =J UI"' H JOI
,UnlU,", 'l It _4'.1"
JO ' \jl llulJ nr '3, , - . <1 01
U.S", OS >Wll
"'l l l"""_ p""" l' uoq. U''''l P'4 (....dIp )
PP''l' l' unoJ ""II "'1' "" '1

"'l 0 1 ..... jUl1Clidtno:> "''''*10 00'
Ol UOlld<=p _,Mn ""'"....' '''11 Ul
o,
"""J
- ............ - "",,- _ ......... -..01 __... _
... """" ..,..., puo -._..
,u""",," >,M'1 _au"" ""' ''-
J" . ,0," ,," 4"'" 0)0""'" ....., .""'''',''"'' A.-,
""'4 ' " L" u .oop "" '1 /0 . ", ,",," 4"'"
0' _oou' 1' _) 0'"'<1
......, 09 """lO "' Poow>O, 4_ U"JN<i
( OllI'noqo)opJOOUO
_Ol .....__
-_,......"..., _ "'ll ...., ""
__"'_"'1
-
s w ' US.\S AHVI T U W NVn 'l'J.1 'IIIl.
;)Of 5Lz-<XIS 3 1-'1: 0 8 ,10 ;lS UI 3 H.l.
I T ALY AND T HE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN
Ihe Allia and it was probably for thi,
rea,on that it wa, dhcm" inutd .nd the
whole ..my was ..med with t he I" g<r
scutum whieh was now reinforced with
an iron , im
The Sef\i an ",my h,d <;on,i"ed "f ",,,
p.rts. each composed of 40 cent uries of
hopl;,t , a"d 4.\ centuries of lightly armed
ttoop'- h can hardly l>e a c"incidenct ,hal
Uvys iegion, from which 'he hopl;te, had
di"lppeartd. eonsislS of 4S units (1.\ Q,di""
in 'he line and 15 maniple, t at h in Ihe
middle and fronl line),
Allhoug!l the veSliges of the old class
'y" em " iii remain. cI. " es onto'wo . nd
three seem now 'n he grouped '''gether
. nd divided by . ge and not weaith; the
younge>! form ,he hastati, those in Ihe
p, imo of lifo t he pr incip"." d t he
oldesl the "iari i The rorarii <till Seem
to be ,h e old fo uTih c1 . ss and t lie
au<n,i and lev"" wll h lh e ir pr o-
portionately higher mm h.." m.kt ll P
the fi fth cia"
Tht , ize or lht ce," uries , houid nol
SU' pTLSOono In ' ht ea rlier army tile
size of the centuries v3ried with tho ,i'e
of ,he army. Ille centuries of the ,,.iuri;
i n POl yh iu" li mc wcre ' l ill only 30
strong,
In the new army the prime offe nsive
weapon of tbe must by now
have hoen ' ho hoa"y i3ve iin (pi/urn ).
r he oid spear men still existed in t he
triar;i, rorari; . nd ace, nsi Ii Ul now
ove r a t hi rd (If lh e army had been
moved up 10 the fr ont, pmb3bly armod
wilh p;/a 10 br eM, up the adva ncing
enemy.
The t hre e lin e, aro drawn up in
q uinc unx for mali on, li ke tho h la ck
, qu ."s on" chess boar d The 15
eon' ur ie, (If ha.<ta ,i art at Ihe frOil t with
a gilp between eaeh, Tho princ;p,.( are
drawn up similariy covering t lie gaps,
The uni ts or ,he " or li ne simll .rly
cover th" g3 p' in 'he line nf pri" , ip".
The battie stor ts wit h t he , kirmi. heL'
(lev,,) Hying lO br ea k up tho onomy
f",mation with tlleir light lavelln, As
the enemy advance. the lightly armed
n oops wit hdraw thr ough tho gaps and
IItC ha"ari char ge, their heavy
iavelin, and rhen dn'i ng in wi,h thei r
swords, If this f, ib to broak the enemy,
Ihey retre.. Int o the g.ps between the
p,;ndp, ",hn ' imilarly eh'lYt. If both
lines are beal en, they wilhdraw <>n the
/riar;; . nd retire ' hrough lhe gaps in the
line. n ,t ,,,jar;; 'hon clost the gaps 3nd
t lt o who lo army retreats . Livy ',
suggestion that the rriur;; ai, o charged
i, probably .n attempt to disguise the
fact th3 t t he e. rly Rom an army
somelimes lost h' ttles The old Roman
adage. '10 ha"e come l o ' he , r;ar;;' ,
mo. " t ' hat things had reached. terrible
state,
\X'hil' l the ha" u,i aod p"'ncip,, wore
Ihe triar;i knelt on one knee
"' ;th their left k g forward. Thei r large
oval shi eld , re" od agai n" Ih<ir l or,
shoulders covering t hem from enemy
mh, ik,. Thei r spear hutts were 'luck in
the ground wil h t he 'pc."
ob liq uely forward , Livy says, ' li ke 3
p. ii>. de. ,",0 1 unless all eise has f3iled
di d t hey enter th< hall ie I' i' no le-
worlhy lhal lhe " 3ndards were with the
r"r iint . so th. t i f lhe units operating
oul fmn' wore ' cattered. lhe)' knew lhe
o,din" on v.'hieh to fail b, ck. Livy doc,
not tell us whet her there were one or
' wo cen ' uri on, 10 e ach m. nip le of
pnnf;Jf'" and or in r'e! nOnC
Dur ing Ihe firs t 20 0 years of t he
republic Rome prob.bly suffered m3 ny
dereat> palriOtit Livy usually says
lha t bad w031 hor '" opp od pl ay' ' 0
account for the Koman, not gaining a
vicror y The of lhese defeat'
was Iho d i, a" or at the Allia ( 390 Be).
These defeats , , nd t he Ali i a In
p. n icul.., m.y 3ccount for the mongly
detens ive eh araCler of lhe 4th-century
kginn Tht mort mobile tormalion of
the p,ine;p wa, prob"hly . n
answer to lhe fasl-moving ar mies of the
Cdt> and $amnites The I,,'elineers at
the f", nt m3Y have beon p. Tl icul..ly
designed 10 wi lh ' tan d and h'eak t he
force of the Cdtic char ge
' "
W",,, t'" """,,";,Ml'"nc'ptiS we,e Iogot'09,
'''' l,i3,i, . """ 00 '"", ogn, ,,,to too<
' peors $10<><"9 arod too' .hields
' 0' ''"9 "1lainst U...... t<tn ,hou'ders to D'olect
te..m f<om "'"i1.,. 0 o,, " te.. "'''3".nd
orinows ,,"'. defea' eO WO"1d ' hey eotel the
battle Be' ow 'e11 . A le\>oo dlO'" uP ""'<:'Y to,
o,,' 1e ",h 9' P' b' w_ ".o"0' It,. un ,,, to
"" 0" the " '" '0 ;,t10,"n""ge. II ""aMn, ' ''''
orint'''''' 3nd ,,""31' " ",' d w"no'3w dOwn ' ''''
"'-,.,. ""'''OM ''''' "'dines 01 '''3m, . "Na", arod
aceemi. The OfI1ines would , _ close ,he
g",,' 3nd ''''' army oould "" '",,raw_ ,nd 3
""ogo of _a'S. How the OfI1"",s
m,ghl close Ine gaps by ,rlO"';"9"" t he 'e81
000' "00>
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.qmam

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r"."i

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p,,,,,,,,,,,,
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Has"',

,,"
Rome 275-140 BC
The Roman Army 160 Be
On :1 June tM Ie the Romans defea'td
.he Ma cedonian. a, Pydna . nd reductd
,h. homel.nd of Philip and "'ltunde,
'0 a Roman pro' i"" . ,
"'flor the battie a n" ,nb" of Grteh
who had ' ided wi'h M.e. don w...
'0 Rom. fn,
.\monK rile...... llIe hb'onan Polybios
H..... placed in ,h. cu..ody of the
SdplOfo. clooe mend of Scipio
.'>fmilianund accompanied him on
hilt CMBP8J1tBS In orde, ,ho, bi. G<ttl<
rnckn miP' undenland me """"lIP
of the Rom.n army Polybiu. tool< the
trouble 10 de.cribe ov.n ,he .01.110$'
del.lls-somethinK ,h., "or " ,her Kleal
'oure. , C. e' .., do not d" .' he
'''"mes th, ' hi, rc.dcrs al,eady kn"",.
thi.lllformation The .ccoun,
I. taken almo>[ .n,I'ely fmm Pulybiul
Kccr u; t meDl and o rga o' ''' ' ; oo
A' 'M bcpnn1"l of nch y...r """ cblC1'
"'.,i....... (con.ulo) . 'ere el. cl.d
V. d.. no, mal c' , cumOlance. u cb
consul _uld b..ov .. llio di.pooat twO
1, , 10no ' 6-ao.000 infanny and
t. Soo-2,sn" caval,y Abolll half 'he
infan,ry ond on'-Qua".. nf 'he cavalry
w..e Roman cllizen. Th e r... ' w..e
drown from Rome'o ailies, In tim.. of
eW,' mc danger the "",,,hilled con, ul. ,
..ml.. were pu' "nd. r ' he eo""ol of a
d,c"'"r wb" u.ually h.ld olft"" f" r .1.
mon tb. A ..co ndi n-comm. nd
(...t .." .... e,,'.,,) .... 01>0 nOmll>lt'ed.
uo.wly by 'M d>C>ltlOf
AI,.. , h. ir .leeUon tbe consu la
oppoinltd mill",,,. .l1bunts. T. n 01
tlint ","', rnbuon. .-i,h ar Ieul
ltn mrs ..,rviC", 'h. OIb.. J 4 n.od only
,,, have ....,n fiv. yean Th. fi ...
two ..n,o, "er.
"pp<ll"!<d '0 'he fi", ,he nul
to ' he .econd. Ihc nu l two to the
third . nd the 1. " lhree I" ,he foullh
SimUarly. ' he n", four junior " ibun
OWr. I ppoinled ' 0 'he fi .., legion, Ih.
nexl .hrtt 10 the otC<>nd and so on, .. .
raul! . a<h letion ll.,;l loil 'ribuJ><S.
As _ ' he Grttb. i...... a priYiLt.,.
... in !be army and only _ ""'"
o.. n.d ove, a ce rratn ..nouo, "e,e
IlalM loT >Cf\I1ce. 0I'l an .ppoin..d day
etCh y. .. . 11 cIUz. n ligi bl e for
milit..y .... on ,he
Capllol Helt 'hey were divIded
"cord ing ' n p",pe"y The p'''" '
dozens _'. Itn, ... na...,.. 'The ""XI
group -";tb ""...... or 0 ....' 400
d..cbm ) ..,,,,.d in the 'nfantry, and
th. rich. " io Clvalry The
1,200 men needed for 'h e ,"volry
,.Ie"ed hy Ih. her".. Ihe
Th ree
hundred of ,helt we re . "ached 10 eh
I'gion. A ca,,"lryman b.d to ...... fo,
ten ye..o and an Inf.n,ryman for ,6
yea.. before h. reached 'be.,. of 46.
[0 um. or danger a.. infantryman
migh' ho.... 10 ......, lor ao yeats.
thooe .UlPbl. fo, 'nfanny >ervi""
hod be.n .epar,u.d 'hey ..... divid.d
in,,, "U>.. F,om n ch Inbe four
m. n "'ere ..Iled of about Ihame
age and build . nd btoogh' before ,be
trlbll"es. Iftbunes of lhe n",
had n", ChOice. , hen ' hc ,,,'ond and
third, tb. f" urlh legion taking one
that wa. !tn. ..cond gtoUP of
f"ur was brough' fOnl;a, d tb...cond
I'Kion hod nUl cboice ond th. firs,
legion look ,he man that "'.. I. ft. So
... ronhnutd 4.200 had
been d ....n lor each Iepon, In lim..
of n ceptlonal danKer lhe legion
.,rt""h .... raiKd ,,, S.ooo. II m... , bt
p"in'ed Oot lhat .Is. .. b... Polybiu.
st"te. ,hal ' he leilon ...... 4.001I
Infantry and 200 c..alry and ,h. , ,hi'
was raised to S,OOGinf,ntry .nd 300
c, ""l ry In lim of gre.. It
. ..ms unfair 10 day that f'olyblu, i.
con" adicli ng him.elf, U 'he.. flKUIC.
mus' ha\lt' ... ri.d con.idenbl,.
Once . hnrolm.nl had b....
compled . be oalh . 'U r. ken One
m Iec ted bJ rio. t" b.. nts to
com. r" d ond ..... r ' 0 obey hi.
office nd .."".... th.i, orde far
.. in hi. power. The o'he 'hen
com< fo""a,d on. 01 'imnd ''''Ort
th.t they would do ' he . am... th< ftrst
man ('Idem in mi l Th. ,,' hunc. then
g. Y< a !>IO<'e and d" e where .ach
was ' 0 ...embl. '0 that ,h oldlers
co..ld be a.. to lh.i, .. nl..
WIlliS! 'he I ...,. ",os .. plo"" lb.
con.uls .100 ..nt ord... '0 lbIli.d
clli.. 'he numbe.. or trOOPS
..d and rhe d.y .nd place " r
....mbly 1lle """'I magi'"'''' chost
the ftcrull. and .. at Rom. OWOIC 'h.m
,n, They tb.n appoin,td a commander
.nd. paym.>Ier and despatched 'h.m
When 'h. y anived a' 'b. rend..vou,
Ihey we.. " ncr mort divIde d Int o
groupo ..cordi"l '0 __I,h and _ . In
each . lellOn lh. younK'"
and 1'00"" 1.l00 fo rmed lh.
armed (wlim), Of ,h. o,her 3,000 ,he
UOO formed th. first line of
h vy Inf, ntry (ha" M i) . tho. e in th.
prime of Ilf. form. d th. second line
(p. ine;pe,) . [.0 ."ong and tb.
otdeS! formed 'he ' hlrd line (,,".rii or
pilr) _ ."0.... ... of lh.....
ot lbe letion. the .ruori; weft al..ays _
..",ng 1lle olh.. 1rOOpf _ft increaoed
prnporti(>tuoltly.
From .och of th.... voups. -";,h ,bt
ncepllon of ,h. . ,he 'nbune.
. I"",ed 'en crn' u" on......o in tum .ach
nomlnoted 0 p. rtner who ""as .1.0
called 0 centurion m Were caUed
p, ia. 0"0.1 po"" i" r, ' he elH ' ed Ce n-
turl"," helng lilt p. ;o, centurion), The
fin t centurion .ltcted In the
(p.;.. . . , il".) had ...., wit h 'he
tribune. on the milillry cnu ncil. Th.
cen,urlono "He cbn..n for lh.lr
....dine... Th. cen' .."on. aI' _
po' nted a ....gu..d Om etT (.....ri.. )
Polyblu. catt. ,Ilem .quati.. g
them "lIh the ...' ranke.. in ",. Gftd
..m,ca.
The and crnlOriou. divid. d
.ach d .., (Jt4Har;, " in, ;, .. and
"i4d;) into lt n unllS (m. nlpl .. )
wh l<h were numb. ..d one ' 0 ,. ,1. The
,;eli, .. were dl'l ri bu te d ev. nly
amOnKS! tbtse manipl.. The
comm.nded 'he nn, man, ple of
,h. IT;a i.
Tbu hl v, a legion of 4,l OO
in(onlry divided in,o 30 "",nipl 'en
......., ... Itn and Ita ' ...4 ......
The '''''4,i .nd p";"".".. had tbe urn.
COmpoaltion, lao h.o...,. ,nf.nny and 40
IIgbl-a,med ""Iiuo. The '''4'';'' had 60
heavy Infan,ry . nd 40 V"i l" fo ch
manlpl. w eompoa.d of two cenlUrl
but th. y had no " 1' ''''' S1. IUS Th.
, malleS! I. ctical oni, w.. ' he monipl. ,
Th. cen' ur ion' "Ppolnt. d ''''' 0 of th.
be .. and braveS! men uanda,d
beare.. h .. .... ) The Etr u" an_
Rom.n a,my h.d r.. o cenruri of
trump u .nd ho,nblo..en ",hi ch
all o d lust obou. on. ce o' uf)'
Th I. no men,ion or ' hio gro.. p 'n
Polyb' u. dcK"f"iOn but h. rtgulorly
memlnno nump..... (, ,,bi,"u.) and
h",nblowe.. II ... . m.< likely
that ch mani!>le had a 'ru mpeter and
a ho,nblower
'"
(k.a>ionally one mample '" ha>ta'i, " "e
of and on. of 'n' a, ii "l"'faI.d
10gClh.. a, a uni ' ca Il .d ""horl.
PolyblU' and Uvy bolh lhl& .. ,m fo,
lh. lin , 'im. In Ih. lal.r (If lh(
. ond Punie ..u wh... il io <I .,ly
describing a 1:1<'I1<:11 unll '" In
2nd ntll lY 'M I<tnl IS ,>I'lcn U><d for
a unil of .1Ii.. ' .1 ohon of .\ \0..1,
""bon from C...mooa <1<; .
How don t hIS Jnd-e.mury 1(l ion
compa... ..i1ll ' hoe i<Iion 0' ,hoe "me of lhoe
Loon wu
Po lyblUo' um1 io divid.d Into )0
manipl.., ,.n lIa..a,i. tt n pn>Kip<1 and
"0 ma'" old ", ,,,,ii h.n dio
rcduci1ll1llo: 'tmIC'h
of ,II< Iqion ll'om .bout 5-000 to ..IOO
1b< l.zoo 1idI'-onnW """,.." i and /nn,
no..- .. .. dl.t ril"".d
d>< }O ........pl<s.
TI>< ...nipln of 'nan; .... stiI 60
The p.i. c.p.. and 1I.. " .. ,i have
doubled. rdler'i n, ..,...U,V<
opi n ' of the ..lI lch 10 no
filhtin, for ilS Hry bu'
<OnQU<finc Illo: W<JrId
Al'mou. and pons
UV<>nan.. .....,-d OI1th a ","-and
th",.l _ d (xIad,.' 11""........ ,,.1 1b<
r..-o oartirsl rumpko dahllll 10 abou, I1S
-.; <:om< from nill<l In SIownla. Thetor
b.v I>I.d,n 61em and
66.m Ion,. It, impliu, 'hiO
.....mn originaled In 5"",n. rrobably
Iong-poim..... ,..,tsIoQ of ,II< ,..,llIC .........-.:1
The adopllon of thi ....ord muot h.v.
occurred dmi,. ,II< SOIId runic .... u
, ,,'nrdrc <I.a rly nol
lhruoting """l'Ofl dM<:tihrd by Polyblus
u..d in ,be G. llie ..... of HS-HO ",-,.
Hn.. .. 'hey li , pcrf""tly th. cUl-. nd-
!h""'t """,rd capable of ..,..,rllll head ' "
R;';"
,,_'" O.2OO-Olf<lnol """'" .-.._ 0,-
... .-........ "' ''''"..-_01
.."'_..... n
'" too _.
"'""" C4' '" """" ......... -"' ''' 'QOOOd 01 1wO
"",,' c<i<II. 1M__thO _
. """", ""' ...., '" "'" "'IJ"", Eort1 _ '" ,....
rriant oonoisloo '" tlJ _ .... P'-'" 00'" ,.,; .
_ I,The"""""""' 01 ""''"',"""-... Old>
""""""" of , ;>0.......... """"" piuO00_,
C s ",nil'" 0 . 01>""
guUing a nJa[] described by Livy in the
' econd .\ \ acedonian war of 200-197 6<:,
Polybius doe' not mention daggers. but
,evernl examples whIch are clearly de" ved
Irom Sp"nisll prolOlypt, ha\'e bnn found
i [] the laler 2ndeen1\lTYRom, n camps
e,,'"voted around ,,'umant;a In SpaIn
The "",<lJ,i and prin" ip" also ear rlcd
""''' long I""ell"s (pila) Tilere wer< LwO
basic type> of pila in me ali bi, timc
differing in Ihe m"'hod by which the iron
"' as attached 1o the woode n haft. They
were either sockete d or had a nat tang
" ,ctired wil h o [] e or two ri " e" Th e
, ,,deted type h. d , lon g hi' IOIYand
widespread u, e , Exampl es have bee n
found in Cell;c g,",'es in Non hern I[aly
and i n Spain, Roman Iypes vary from
a,l,m Lo um long, The w ry , h,," tYI><' i'
pTObahly ' he i" 'elin of the "eli", (haHa
",li' a, is ) which Polybi us desc ribes as
bending on impact so Ihal il c. nno, I>e
thro" n back
TI,e e. rlieS! ex,mpl.. of the n" ' tanged
type were found at Te l' mon in southern
Etruria, probably from the banle tought
there ,,, n s >lC were ;,ery d lOrt
weapons , o, - 35em long, Similar s hort
"",ap<J n, w,n found al Smihel ;n Slovenia
(c, 175 BC) and Ephyra in Greece (t 67 .d ,
Longer e""mples up '0 ;7cm were aiso
lound at i;mlhel and . n cxamplt 740m
wa, found a[ in Sp. in
(153-133 "C! , Many of ,h" e have the ' ide
,dges of the flat tang bern over to lock
,hem i",o the wooden hall The earliest
"amplc, have J . n <!Laped poin" ", il ieb
'ppe. r to ha,c gr. dLl ally ,'''olved in", the
ttaditional pyramidal head well known
from the early empire. The po int was
oIlen barbed, The long pilJ were ckarly
designed to pierce a , bield and ,,'olmd the
man behind il. The ,hort fl at-tanged type
must have had " d;{ferent fun cti on It
seems likely that i[ lS pilam mamlis.
courller " i"ge wcapon u"ed for fi ght ing
from ramparts
.-Ill the heavy infa",ry u, ed the scu l um. a
I. rge curved shield two . nd hall' leel (c
l scm) wide a" J I'our feel (c. I.2m)
A"cording to Polybius it "" dO made of two
'heet' of wood glued toget her and
covered flr" wirh cam'", and Ihen c. II
" od .bovo
Rom' " w poo, of ''''' 20<) ';<'("u" IlC
Sc, le ' ;8
, ... FI.' -'o"g." oihJ , ," '" $0""",'"810,oo,a
No, l ;, p'OMbl, . pflum mu'a'"
skin, This type of shield is shown on
seve,al mOJ\umt l\lS of [he re pubtl can
period A., in the ear lier p<:ri(Ml it i' """I
"'ith a spi ndle sh, ped boss and a long
spine, .1 shield of this 1)' pe "'"OS found a,
Kasr El Harit in the Fayum in EgypI I[
wa' iJ e[l [iHcd ", Celtie b'1I i' undoUbledly
R" m, n
This shield, which i' u Sm long and
635cm wide. is made of I. mi" aled birch
or tbin pls nb of birch wnod
varying from 6 to JOCm wide were laid out
lengthway, and sand",iched bern'ten ,wo
I, ytr> "f narmwt'r "ri r' laid hnriwn"lly
The, e three I, yers Wet e glued together to
form the wooden core of ,he shield .11
the ,1m i[ is ,Ilghtly less ,ha'" "emm,etre
thid, -, welti ng ' 0 'bml1 '-t ern in t he
ceoTTe The whole shield " 'OS cove red
with sheep's wool felt which wos doubled
O;,er . I"" g Ihe JI,d "itched [hmugh
'he wood The sh ield h" a horizonTal
handgrip which i' held with an overgrosp.
Th is grip is 11iustrateJ on m, ,,}' Roma"
, eulp' ure, Po ly- hiL" . dd, that the , hield
had an iron bus' and an iton edging on
,ts upper and lower rim,
Somt }'eo" I made .n exacl copy of
e
o
j
S FI.' IO"lI"d pdum fromRorwa Dlas " Spa 0
5 "",""" """" '" " pikim [' om R"""""., In Sp" o,
7_9 SocM' od p',a from Ron,ob' . slN, maor,. ,n
Spa,"
No, 9 " proM b<, a ""st. ,ol,t.,,,
RO.\\ E n S- I40 Be
THIi ROMA'\ A R.\l Y "i""e
the F,yum sh ield whic h weighe d
somewhat over lo kg ThiS wtlgbl wa,
Jed ared [0 he riJieul"'" on the
Iha' nobody h' ndle a shield of thi,
weight. Recently the remain, or. ' hleld
we", round a, D!>"ca,,"r. A r<,on" ruction
orIhi' I\,m<d o\]t to h,ve a ' imilar ,,'eigllE
The Roman sh iel d of t his period was
essentially a body ' hleld, It was nOI me"n'
' 0 be wi eld ed Whe n t h" leg ion" ry
<harged, he generally held his shield wi,h
a ",aigb, arm and wi,h hi' left , houldcr
ag"i n" it. Wh<n he re"Ched the
<nomy- , he hit him full-on with his shield,
throwing the whole of his body
. gainst it, . " d tried '0 kn(x:k hi' , d"e" , ry
He would Ihcn ro,t hi' shield on the
ground ' nd, crouching down- fLght from
be hi nd it The fo ur foo t shiel J """
proba bly Ihe regulatio n , i ,.o SCi piO
Aemili ,nu, " ,"' erely reprim, nded a soldier
du[ing the siege ofN umamia for an
o\'ersi'e shield.
Til e ar mour o f Ihe p,i n, ip " "n d
<ons ist ed of a s ma ll sq ua re
brea"plate about 'ocm square t ailed a
he art (p , ,,o;al.) and" greave
Th i ' wear in g of o n ly o ne g, ea ", i s
'0 A""onWuctioo' ot . has" veMoo's, a tl."
'aogod P"'''' aM a sot'kotao pI/urn
' -12 Two gl'di' his""niens. s ' rom Sm,he! ;"
81o,"",.
13- " D,gge< " ,d , cat>ba'o "0'" Numao" .
,"
ITALY AKD THE WESTERN MEDl T ERRANEA};
Abo
e Scu'p,"" "om . '''' ' E" ytcOo " ' " hom
V"" .". V"".". My"""", , < 1!>O ae Th"
,hews , n ""0' o ho' .... """"" .t
.... C,." .M...,.." Th., WPO we>uld n_
o.. " m U'O '" , "" Rom." .,my .. ,h" po" od

1 1 . <11 _
__.... <_.. t_e-
__ Tho __.. , :... ....... _
.. _"' ...... "_<11
t-;to on _...-. '. _
.... ... __
__'CJ<Il ,.,. _
--v"t ...... _ .... __

__
... -...-_-- _-
..,-.g _ ... - .........
So<:1>on '" _
5 ,0, Moo k,,,, ,, __e-oIo
I"\>gIio. c 200 llC .......... _ Tho
_,... ' 10_....
""'" .,.. u.- .... __ .. _ """" _
_ ""Il ',a, "- _ ..__
..-...... __,._10__001_
__I CI
\

J

-
7 F..,... _ ..... _al_
_ .. (loIpIooo T _ .-...g .......
.... ,., .... _"' ...

-J
,
."
<:onlinn.d by Anian in hi. A'S T""liaJ
...hen he " )'1, ' . in Roman Ityl. one
gra.vc to p<OCecl the kg ,,'hieh "''as
tllnJot r..........d in lighung. Thil iI, of
<X>Une, lhe left Iq, T he il
deooendonl <Jl t he 0<1""'" bretilpla,.
0( the 411l oetltwy. SOM 0( these: hilv.
bttn found but rem.ai... ol a cirruIar
')l'C wen: found .. S"tnantia. WeaI-
'hier Iqionaries _. mail oItin. "Ibe
<:UI' or lhew ohi.ru, whidl is ";milar 10
the linen CUU--, is """"'n un , he
000<}" .......,,,",,,,u <Jl Acmili ... Paull".
at Delphi in Gret'. 11Iil '"" let up
dt.r the Roman dd..t of ,\ I...-..donia.
in , 68 (1(; . Thew mail I h,n l wen:
heavy, weighing abou'
11>eir immen... weillht i. re-
lIect.d in l he ...-coun' of ,h. ban i. of
Lake T .....imene wh.re ,he ooId;"...
who tried 'u I wi m 'u ..fety were
drowned by t he weight of , tw:ir armuu,-
T he h,"'''li and primiMs wore a
bronze h. lme, decora'.d with a ri ng of
three upright bl.,k or purple feat her>
abou' 4scm high . Polybiu, ,aY' ,ha'
,hi, wa, tl> make every man h,k twice
hi, normal heigh t.
The helmet in use at the
time ...a. the Mon' d .....' ino type <Vol"ed
from t he Cellie helm.ts of t he 4' h
and 3rd cent uri .... A lin. eu mple lKIW
in ,he K.rloruh. M u>cum in Germany
...... found al Co_ di Puillia. h ","' as
to this t"""n ,hiI, many of t he I.gion-
aries fkd &f,,,, the di....t.r .. Connac
in . ,6 11<;. Thil helmet appean '0be
CIa<1ly risht for the da'e and i, is
a"rxtive to thtnk ,hat it belonged to
one 0( ,he Can.- Iqionlries.
Thil 'ype ol ltd met had a hole in the
,opknot. "Ibe ' '''I'l-nut: ..... filled ..illl
lead and a pin 10 hold. honehatr err..<
..... i .......ed ,n ,he 109. Bomeallt Ille
peaked ned- guard ... a .iouble ring
.."",hment. Two It raps ,."..., a,,,,,,lled
to these rines, .. hich <;tOIIed ...nder tile
eIlin and a"..-:Ilcd ' 0 the hook. at the
bonom of the ebft,k pieces, holding the
helmet linnly in pooition. The monu_
mentl lhow lhat lhe halo-Cori nt hian
helmet wao trm in u"" Ind ,he di .-
cov.ry of a Samni'. Attic helmel ofth.
tot century AD .t H.",uloneum .hoWI
t hat thi. Iype of helmet wo. al", still
in vogue. A I'Odded ClIp " r lining wa,
WOrn under t he helmet. A Celtic type
of Monter" r t ino helm.t in t h. mu.eum
at Ljubljiana . till ho. t he remains of
felt ca p inli<k. Fell "",uld cenainly
m:oke , he lnO$, . ffici. m furm of pad<kd
lini ng .
The ,,.;,m; II..,.., anned in cucrl)' lhe
ume fultion .. the .....'atl . nd prUoaf'
excepc tha, in1lead of pJa they caTried
Iona: .pean (........).
"Ibe ,,"Un Wft'C .nned with s...,..d,
ja"eli... and round o.Il>eld lJ'ar-I)
about ')Oem tn d.......er, "Ibe javelins
(.....,... od.,.ulJ) an omaJler vcniom
of ,he th.in ,w,.,. They have small
head . S- JOo,; m ....... "Ibe wooden shaft
is n.,cuhits (e. 9O<:m)Ion&md a finger s
width in br,,"Jth. The ... wttrr J1I1
armour other ,han p1a' n helmet
some"nte'I cover.d with . woWs . ki n,
Or a o.i mi lar d iot inguilhing mark, so
t hat the centuri"n. oould recognise
them from a d"tance and judge how
", . Ulhey fOUl ht.
Ca"al ry a nd I he a llies
The 300 caval ry W<fe divided into ten
lurmae, each 30 . " " ng . Each turma had
three decur io" . , e1ect. d hy t he tribunes
and t hree rear-ranker. (oprion. , ). T hes e
ten -Mr"ng unil, mu,t he
file, and on. mu.l ,hetefo", condude
that the eavalry Ii r>ed " p . it h. r r.n or
he deep depending on circumst.'ln.:e:t.
T he Ii"t ..,le<:ted deeuri on of each
'ur"", commanded t h. unil. The horse--
men ","'.re arm. d in t he me f..hi" n
as lhe G re-eko lI'it h ...i and round
.h;"ld (parMa "IW""' )' Th.y carried
a Iturdy opear lIi , h a bun l pi k. ,,'hich
could be "",d If , he lpe.r brolr. .
Roman cavalrymen olto'. .. n on , he
'"icl0I)" monument of Aemili ... P.ull".
. 1 Delphi (168 eel " e wearing mail
oItiru al..-I identical ro tltoloo of the
Jeg;onarin excepc for oplil . , lhe
rhillh 10 allow t hem to ";t on a hone.
"Ibe di"inetiv. Italian ca\"ol.lry . hioeld
ca.n be seen on many 0-."......10.
H..ing orde",d tlte legionaries to
arm {hem",l...,. in acoordance ...i thtlte
ullin in whi<:1t tltey ........, ",mng, the
<rib"""" dilmio..,d ,hem 'u t h.i r homes.
"Ibe allies ... ..mil arly formed into
hrigades 4- S,OOO I t",ng 1'1.... . bou,
900 cavalry. On. of these briga""" was
au.ehed '0.ach legit,n I<> t hat ","'h.n
" ne ref. n '0a legit", un. m.an. aoom
to,OOO infon"y and 1,. 00 cavalry.
Polybi uo doc. not describe the hreak_
down of , he aUied uni ts hut t hey were
probably . imilar '" l he Ruman units.
ROME 27S-140 Be
'mu IH l M-A:'" ARM Y , 60 Bl.
-- A _ ""' " or
_'UI Dolp". te$ 8e He ,.
",.d ,"n""" .., ,,," "".m"01,..
li... bu, , pht .t ' " "..go 00 .. <-On
'ow
-
, ... ""'_ -.on.
' ""'" ... Looa e...- '" F"""" ..
R.",. ... _ ...- _...,.,
"""'a
01>CaI ....... _ 1
1.1.1.1.1.1. iot. 1.1-
' ;;" 1.1.1.;' 1.1.1.1. 11
"1Ji 1.1.1.1.1.1.t,1, 'it."
.... bo " ,.",... 01 can '... _ 01 ,'-'
_ <I'1H, '" I" ... _0 "" I
dec",,,,,, who ""''''' MI E",,, m. ..oo ....., .
'"" ..n' . , '0 , _ ",<lor
II ,." ron..,
'"
I T A LY AND T ilE M EDITERRANEAX
a. _
l a. R_ ...
... ..... , ... co"", The __.... '''''
'Q ",oje<f '''''''''''''''"' g<><l ..,., m.'
"'" ",.,n ...."" t+>e c...,,,", ,, T......."o'.
.... II ',om D"" '''''"di".
b' o".....""h. wo. k,h"" . , Po"" ..,;. whe"'"
hid booo o tokon to bo ..p ....d
2 A, F,.U5COO "om 1""'''''1 ".n,""
8C Viii. Gi..i. M_ An _ , "",otical
....n .... t>t .-on t+>e otu.....,roo ''''''' Oouno
.-
One m.... assume l ha' ri,her .. ' -an ""
ra'JUlIrd ,he 600 CO\.lry of ,he ' x"""
cr"""',, .."<tt di.pn-wd .nd t<:Outi n!!'.
The t w'Ok gion. and tbe right aod kf'
,,ing o( alii". ""chang<:<! JK>IIi' ions
on . lterna\< day, '0 'ha' or>< dl}'
wing aod 'he Ii'" led and
on I he ncxt t he left wing and Ihc ""m nd
lOKion wer e at , he from, Thi' manoeuvre
enahled each i n its lurn t" lhe
adva n,age of t he frt .h w.t t , and foraKe.
I n lime of dang<'r whe n the ground
" ' U <lpt Ihe Iull'a' ;. aod
,......" marched ,n 'httt panolld
column. If an a"ad; was npecled
fmen .he right, 'hen ,he INn,,,. """'ld
,. up t hi' posi' ion wi' h .he".-iwipa
tin, '<> ,hem $0 ' ha' , he-y could ,urn
;nlo billie orde' wi'h lhe Itt:u/a'i fonn _
,n, ,he fronl h"", the """"'''' lhe
""""'d .nd 'ria"i , he rear (....
r . ' 41). In ' hi' co", ,he ba__ would
on , he left . iM of ul.'h If t he
Genalnl)' l he: u.in allin had the_
orpnioalion as lhe: Romans, I n a
normal t..'O-1egion arm)' , he: kgiom
fO"i11l in l he: ttnt ", and , he: , .." aU;ed
waom... ) foughl on the:
wings. he:ing calk d right ""ing
and lhe other Idt . f.."h "'ing WaS
""mmanded b}' nomi n_
by the oon,ul, Fr"m t he all ies t he
hest thir d of the eO\'alry and t he best
fifth "f infantry sd e..'1ed to
f<>lm a picked unil called lhe <-"lra_
",di",,"ii . This w.. a force: ""'d
("" sptrialas, ignJn<cnlO. They 01$0 made
up ,he (OWTi ng for for lhe legions on
lhe march-
Orilfi..... ly soIdien had snved ..i ,h-
OU! pay but lince lhe """ drn,-n OUI
oiq:e of Vri ; a' t he beginnin!!, of l he
ct'tl' W")' lie Iet:i<>nariea had been
pa,d. A Komaninfan, ryman ;n Polybi u.'
<lay Iwo cN1i. a <lay. A .,.,n-
lurion Iwitt a' mu<:h and a
cavalryman . ix oi>oIs a da}', The lI."m. n
fOOl .ol dier got an of aboUI
3S litre. "f corn . mont h and a horse-
man ' 00 litre' of whea' and 350 lia e'
of .\ Iost of thi., uf "uune, wen'
10 feed hi. ho= and groom. A hed
for Ihi. ,,-a. from , he
pal' of bo'h l he infan,ry .nd , he
caval ry by the _ ,cr. Deductions
"4: also mad< for c1o' hi ng and Tq>Iac<:_
ment ann.
The all ;ed infantry olIO lhe
35 liu".. of rom. bu' 'hor _ 'alryman
onl }' 70 IiI,.".. of "'hao, and 250
Ii,m of batley. thi s Talion
"11' fTC<: of to t he allia
l'... l nl ng
On thdr a,,,,mbly at the place and da' e
>ti pul ated by t he . on.u!, lhe new
l.-cr c pu t th 'ough a rigorou.
,raining Nir><t y cenl
of them would on ", ,,,iC(: befol'(:,
bUI e\'eo ...... would bttn nul of
p, .aia. The new rttnli" mu51 al50
ha,.., ...... ' hrough some ..,.,. of bI'ic
".,nina. During , he = 1"-'" r<:crUi1
_ l rai ned to ligh' ' , he ualte' wilh
............,i&h..."'"porn and no
doulto oomething .imilar 1001< place
during r<:puhl ian ptriod. Polybi us
Ifi" '" u. a good of t he I'(:t raining of
<llre.. .., Scipio cop-
turcd in U>9 RC, hc
a r rng,amme for his
arm}'.
'"
0.. ,he 6..... doy , he ooIdicn had to
run oil ..".. in f\ll l armour. On
the oeoond l hey po!;.hed t hei T armouT
and weop0n5 .nd had .m.. ; n.pecrion.
On ,he 'hird da}' Ihc}' On
founh d.y had ".... pan, drill,
'wor d was done wil h
swords oo"ored wit h loat her
T o avoid acci don" ' ho , wor d had.
button 00 ' he poinl. They al'o prac -
ti..d lhmwing Ihe ia"elio. which
Iarl}' had a bUllon on On
,he 6fth dal' lhe'" w . il_
kilom<t'" lTaini"l!' run in full a""""r,
On t he .i.,h i ' ..... '.pi' and pol ish'
ap' n. On lhe se>'CIl, h they had a.-hcT
...... day, and SO on.
On t h e lDan:h
1l'hrn- the r-ct,..inin, proeramme .... .
cnrnr l<ted lhe arm}' 0C1 oul 10
COolOcl wi'h ,he enemy. \t'hen breU:.i"l!'
camp ",...r}" hing wn done in a di ...i_
rlined Upon lhe fi .., hi." of
t he lTumpets ,he l ent. of con, ul and
t r ihune. were struck. T hon t he , ol diers
l ook down theiTown ten.. and I"' co.d
On .oood ' ignal l he
p.ck .nimals and ona ,h; ,d
the column ...t out.
I n addi' ion ' 0 hi ' own
..... ""peeled to carry a
of pali.ade ....... A. Pol}bi...
ta}'l. .hi' ....' DOl: d, flicul' .. their Ion"
ohid'" hung from IhcTr shoulden b}-
leat hcT ""PI and lhe-y only had 10
carry t hei. jo,..,lins in 'hei' bondl. '1'"",
0' fou, palioade >lakC'S rould
he " -rapped in . hundle .nd on
lhe . houlde..
The ""lumn wa, ,,,uany led by
oamc t he r ight
wing of allies and t hem their
animals, T he}' followed
by Ii'" legion wi' h il5
hehind. S OXI Ihc oecond
followed by its bagga!l" 1'1... ,he
of ,he Itfl "ing of ,he allies ,,'hieh
formed the n:ar[(U"N. The a>rI'ul ..i ,h
hio bod}lluord, ma<Ie u p of un;' uf
hurw and fooo: .pecially odted from
, he ,.,._,.........., probably rode at the
head of ,he legions. The ca.al <)
t imn b>ughl up l he rn., of its ov. n
t....g. de and at ,imn rod.. on ,he
R.nko of !rain 10 k..,p ,he
. oiml ls Mgelher and to ocr..,n
If dang" was from the ",or
the formed t he
,
. naek "'.. , hre..encd ftum thc loll , t he
....',,'i w,""ld foem up on thc left a n.J
baggagc would Ix on the right. T hi '
oppeIn '" Ix a of l he:
..... ,l'umi"l into blink
line could bc5t ..., adlieYed if the
maniple.. man:hN not in tile but in
rank_ a. ,he ,\Iacedoni.n. did when
going in, ,, 1>."le_ :, Ihat whe'n thcy
t urne-d to f..." ,he the fron t rank
"',," i n position and the lil... did no(
hI"e to dcpIo}'. If the: CCfl'Uri h:od a
ten file six rank basi< fonnation (sec
1'. 141), t he: n the S<>Wicn would maceh
six ahee..t, ", hich is """,,'Iy ,,h.. ' hey
d,d durinR t he cmpiC<' The . cmy
covered . n a,-er.lle of ahout .1Okm
d. y, bu' when I,.""''''t)" ,oul<.l m,,, h
much fUrl l>CT th:on ,hi, . Am"ng.t ,he
pionecn "'00 a.:<>.>mpanicd the nn_
guard ro make sure the mute "-as dear
..'C'e sria1i... in building
PoIyhius mentI",," t""'" ",I><n Scipio
efO:lsed the T iei"" in ,I>< "i nt er of
ztgnc.
The ca m p
As the o.>Jumn app","ehed tl>< enemy
puoition one of the nib""", anJ u..-
of ,he Offlturiom ...-Ito .."re spccilkally
eho.ll"'! Wl.h the duty of sclting ,he
site of 'he e"""",pment ""Cre oent on
, head to .uryey Ihe ground and mark
ou' Ihe c. mp. They would h,,,k for .
suitabk .. rel<h of open land .bout
800m ........re, preferably on ...ise<.l
groond. T he site should no( .>lfcr CO'"Cf
10 l he .......y and had to be dose to
.'alCf.
H" 'ing decided ",here the <;antI'
,hould be sited, Ihey oelccleoJ t he Spol
which h. d , he be" general view of the
l"C>' of ,he comp and plan,e<.l whit.
flog on 101' of ;t. T hi. would be t he ,il.
01 tM """.ul's tcot (p'M,,,,'i,,,,, ). T hi.
"""'" .....".)1> , he period " 'hen t he two
cb;d' rnagmra>:es " "re called prac1on.
Around t his while lIog on ...... . bou,
30m sq....r. ,.... mca.u.ed o/f,
On , he , i<.le of ,he p,at' ''' ;'''' best
, uit e<.l fot w. ,erinll on<.l fon ging red
lIag wa. pl anled, T hi. ",,,ul <.l be , he
silk ..'here the k gtom ""eTCto enc:unp.
Fihcen """res from lhi. oi<lc or til<
oquue moehe. red flog ..... pbnled,
"""king lhe line of ,he: tribunes' ten".
n...... tcn.. were pit cheoJ w" h t heir
bach tt> , he A hu nd red feet
in flOnt of the ten" anmh
e
,
red 1I. g .... s pl.n' c<.l . nd a line .... s
t. .." d 001 p.ll.all.1 to l be Ii "" of the
,rib""",' ten". Beyond , hi, line the
Iqion> encamped. A, the cen,,,, of Ihi.
line the l ribune ><:'l "I' h;' .......")'''1
"",rument W_l t" mca<..re oot the:
re.. of t he ,'Omp, T hi, i""uument
enahled him to du... up a ree,. ngula.
gri d and ", m.ck ,,,n,,' it h 'I"" c, ,he
t wo main st reets . T be lirst "f Ihese (V ia
p,,r!Cip.;Ji,) un he....,..n Ill< Iinc of the
. rib.......' ICO" and . he line ak'ng " hieh
l he k gion. ""CfC '0 he d no"n up,
divi ding the camp Iaterall!'. The >Und
..,tt, ( t' " prat,,,",, ) un from the poi n'
whe.e , h. lro"", w., pl..,d in front
of the .t , ight . ngles t"
t he "' h"r " ccel, d"..." t hh,ugh the
middle of the camp. On,,, t""'" ,wo
","ds ""re .,..tahli.hed he could ma.k
OOllhe It"" for ,he dllCh and rampart.
mudling camp " .....
surroun<lcd by a oJ"rh aboo' a me,re
deep. T he eanh "'0' pikoJ Ul' " n , he
in,ide, f""ed wilh l\lrf .nd k '-elled off
to form . low .aml'''!' T he ,wo legion.
eon"'ucled t he f. ont . nd rear defene",
of Ihe amp a"d the alii", 1M b 'eral
defeDtt>. Each maniple "liS ollourd
OCClioon of l he lkfencn, The a nt ..rion>
rhecked tlu. the: wod " 'as done pr....
pe.ly " 'h, l11 t"" tribu"",, supe.yise<.l
,he ''''crall ,,,,notrueli on " f each ,ide,
When r nca mpinll in t he face of t he
. nemy , for more imr<" ing defcn,,,, hod
to he eon>tructed
T he hagpge InUn " 'u plactd behi nd
l be line of the rampan (""/' _). The
wli..., ""',ahy and half the heaty
infan,ry, drawn up in blIn le array,
were placed in fmm of the line. Ikhind
t his human rampalllhe ot her half of the
he.vy i nf. ntr y Se' to work throwing
up the: defence.
The kxionarles dUll a I",nch , h=
me1res deep anJ foor " i de. The earth
fr<>m the dileh " ... pIIcd ur on l be
imide and I,,'dled off . , a beigh, of
abou t t ,.sm. T hc f.onl of the ram",,"
wa, faced wi t h the t urf fmm 'he <.I iteh,
Thi , ditch and .amp' rt (agger)
" ret ched for all\' ut 700m A, the
const.U<.1ion of Ihe r.mpart pt"OCe<:drd
,be consul .."",Id ,,'i, h<lra'" ,hc infant r.,-
maniple h}- maniple, bu, ,he """ If}'
...CTe "'" broughl i n .. nlil l be f .......
facing the enemy .....0. <>.>mpleted.
Each ",Id i.. carr ied t wo 01" th.
" akes which he emb<ddr d i n the to p
ROME 27S-' -4" B<:
TIl E RO,\tA:"i .".R.\l \ ' .., 1M'
" f t he r. mp... 10f",m a fence, ( I n. c.m
port wi,h ],ooom ein.uil 40- S0.ooo
.. ake....."uld all",,' hcl,,n t 3 and ,6
to a """re. 11>csc >takes "'CTr cuI from
trees and usually had I"'" Ih"", or at
lbe mool fool Ia'....l branches. all
..." h sharpened poi nl>onone, ide.
wcrr pl ant ed '" Ihat t he ..
intert winc<.l in such a way , hal ;t w.'
not easy to "'" which hranch !>ci< ,ns ed
10 which ..ake; no. "... i, e.,y t" I'u ll
'"'" one by itself. A. the)- "'t'rc planted
,efl' dose toget"'" il " .... difficult for
more lhon one a"ack.. to .... hold of
. he same .. ake , and the!' """,ld g:osh
,heic ""noJ. , rying to oJ<> '0
OO"e the d. k ncc. wrre 'ecure, t he
w ldi.rs could set up t hr comp, The
of , he ",,-ml" w"' alway. lbe
... and ",'er)' man kne'"
" 'here 10 pi'ellll;' te nt. 'T1Ic IWO IcgX>no
encamped beyond the !",'lCip.>Ji,
and on cit"'" .ide of ,be 1"-'''"''.
The eavalf}' ,,'cIC rnc"",ped ,,""" b)'
' ur""" f.ei ng , he the Ii,,,
W r m a bei ng neacost thr prueluri" m and
thr tentll neKt '0 tbe rampart_ T he
""",', "'ere encamped bact '" hack 10>
,he ca,..lf}' "i,h II>< li", manipk
"""'est tbe ""atl....t_. Th... the JWi.....
,,1... of .....11 Ieg;.,n Wt>Uld be the
nearnt centurion 10> the general'. trnt.
In ftunt of ,be Icn" of ,he """,n ran
anot her rood 15m wide . long which t he
.. were <Jrawn up facing t he
' .....' i i and hack to hac'k with tbe ""'<I,lli.
Simil at a di...""" or a furrher , sm
. nd facing .he ""',,'i. "'"CfC l be all;ed
ca,-alry . nd bq....... t hem the allied
inf. ntry. When Ia)'ing out the camp
a soft ' pa,.. was left between t hc lift h
. nd ,i"t h m.niple. i /,m"". ( , he,e were
R-om.n feet, about 2<,><: m), Tlti. for med
anothe. latrr.1 ","d called Ibr <, a
qJ<J"'''''''. All of these "'ccl> were
marked out "i tl> .pea...
The space beh,nd t he t ribunes' ICO"
on ei,he. side of the 1"_'''''''''' "....
used ror , he markct ([""",) on one ,i<k
.nd for t he olliee or ,hr quu"'''' , wh"
was '"'I"'mi blc fo' , upplie' , on t he
",her.
The oelcct f" ...... of e....lf} and
inf",u')' frum ,hr .xma"'Jiowrii ,,Ito
ma.:Ie up tbe con,ul'. and
also ,..,juntce" ,,Ito ""'" serving a, the
,-.>nsul', ""l.ue>t wcre encamped ""yond
'he ..,,""'''' and I"'h'" on eit her
side. They wo" in " "" tant attcnd.n,,,
'"
I T AL Y ASD T HE WESTER!>: MEDl T ERRAl'EAS
on the T he ""t or the
and infant ' y or the exmwrdinarii w...
encamped behind 'he /W!Utorium ; n I
similar fa, hion '0 [he Ofl><.. [I\(
"""olry faci"i . be 0<11'....1 road. On
..,her side 0( lbe u""_.n-.tf, in 'wo
reat" comen of tbe camp. any fOf'<'ian
" OOPS or l lli.. who come in
e"""mped,
For . , my of ,_
4,200-st , ong lellio,, ' plus allies . , poe,",
100ft sq ua, e w. s al1"ll ed to each mao-
iple or [U' ''' a. T he /ria, ii were allowed
only 100 h)' s of', Fo, leaion. which
.....,.., 5,000 s'rona proponi<matel}'
larger was .llo..-ed. "I1>e first I....t
at ri,l\(r end of"",h manipleha[ is
ne:l1 to II>< d, was occup;e.J by' ho<
cen'urion. If lbe lwe consuls comt>ined
forces. Ihe two a,mies en""mped back
to bad wi'h Ihe IClIio"s a[ eit her end of
t he comp,
T he of manIple block. 01
Numantio ha. given u' " ,me idea (If
how [he "",ni pl.. cnutmped. r he t WO
cent uries en,:amped facing inwards
along ritbcT <ide of the square. The
"",mals ......., lled II .he i ....de end
Mlny f1lll: 0( .tttrt haY<: bcaI
fO\f nd on imperill camp sit... is
no ,ea...., 10 SUPIX'SC t hai these Wi:
any diffeTent from t hose in use in t he
, epublic. i.e gi" narie, ' ten," were [en_
"
::11:
.....
...
.."w
,
.
.
. , , m,_

.". ,
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.....
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.... ..
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... ..
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.. .... ......

",'
.:. ..
..
......
.. , , ' -'
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h
,
c,
,
- .
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r"

<
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" ..
,
.. ., .,.. .
.,... ,>

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." ...
.-,
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.. ..
.. ....
- -
, ,,.,..
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--- ., .,
---
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... . .
-,'W,
.....""
. ..........' !I'!
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....................-
...... p -
... " -
-

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'-"

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--

-
.........; .." ..",,- ..- ,.. .,. ,., .
...." ' n!;; M .,..
","
n .....- "u. .. , _ . ,
"'----:'f'''''' . ... '.'
_ . .u.-.,... _ . . ' ..
_ _u. ,_. , '/ ___
.... ..... ... . - .. .. . ,. / . g.. ..... ' .
--""Il' r "'- " . . . . . . . ..... .::.;,.,
... .
... .
.-"..,.!: .... _ I.. ..
. . . . .. . . . ' r,;, . ' r ..
........,,, ,..-.._ , .
,.. - , .
,

...._.., .......
.. .
..........
l '1!

_.
."
ROME 275- 140 Be
T ilE ROMA:'O ARMY c. 160 BL

""
1 _3 TM 'h,,,,, m,," "pe, of <>"' p. en",nce
""" d by th< Roman, ThO ,.moan i, light . M
th. ditc h " " , O,<.>Wn 1 CI, o;C" '" 2 Ag""", "
3T","' u,
Abov<l 3nd below
J TvP!" 01,ent< , "own 0" 1,.,, "',
Col"mn. Ei got -m3n I. Qioo", y t.nt. 6 Oft. 'oe"
' ent. . J Gon. ,.", t. o, a Two ",on t. eO' _ '
from Numa"'" Rom" ch Gorm, o;,ch"
Zon" , lmu,eum, Main,
Abov<l
4 T"" j ,It " man,pl. o' h.,wi " om the second
I. gion e"oamped ;n an are. , bout 40<0 , quO'.
The centuri"" , ' ' On" (" d) .,. " ,.,. head of
,h.""' "'"".,
CB"'W,O/l','
"'"
,
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"
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... .. ......" .
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.... ..... _.....
. 4: . ".. . u..
....- - " .
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., ..
... . ,
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.. ... .. ..

.. .... ..
.. .. ..
..... ' . \
.. . '.1 .
.......
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.... .-,

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n
-
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S. 'ow
Ac, mp for ' wo 5.000 " , oog ' eg,oo, .,
d<"" ,jbe(j by Polybi", It "os .boo' 800m
"""'''', It throe " ," " " ,,', " ( V'8pM",,' i,
,i. ,nd vi. Quin r8M ) 'nd I"", .""
(P"". decum8na. pat,. "",,, c,fJ'ji,, de,,,.,
pMa pr,oup.J'S " "",,. aM pal'"
T"" lOb of gu.,ding the"" . " " wos oe"or",.d
try the "''''0.<.who we,. QuO" erod wi," , h."
man," "" . 01lw gu.'"du, io, w,". ""ri ormed
by t he o..vy ,nf, ,,,, y. h eh 'ent .. Id oigh' moo
As ,boo" quO' ,", 0' ,o. man,p", ""OS , 'way,
"" d"tv on'V .00u' 20 te n" were ,equ i' ''''
.......
",J
.............
........ "".
.........."".. .
.. , ......".-
.
m _

""' .
u ....-._
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."
ITALY AND 'HIE \X'ESTERN MEDITERRANEAN
,
"--,-""--
.-
_"--'_...""'"9 _
..... .,.....,_......... -. -...
_ .... ,...-._ 1....
_..., .. _--,-
1 -) lio'o.on<I __'" __block> ""..
.._ .. $o>WI T... _ _ ..
-_ __ ........
................, - .., ...
R ..hoeloon 01 ono 01 II.. __block>
""'" .._, S<>a<I H !ego.,.,..... ore
bol_ -.g .-_'h "'" Cl1uOOno '"
..... -..'''''' T......... to< "'" bowoIJe
...__a' .... I>a<t.
' _7t ..... _ <II ,.....,..,
, r.... 01 "... _",;ng __
. .... :1>"0 "me> '" .... lacao 01 ..... -...
7 ... """" '''POn hom N"""", ;. >pa;"
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,
,
,"
"l ua.., ,ncludlng IU)' ....'P"'. T I",y
"'..,.., m:odc of and Mid men
and 'MIf "'luip"",n" Otti,..,n' ,en,s
'" ",-ell", ' huoc: of 1qJonor.... are ,ho""n
an Trajan's Column
Al'O\Ind , he .. a",. marked ou,
for ,he ....mp a,. d, .. ance-of zoot, from
lb< 'en', , he dneh :and palnak "'..,..,

Cam pdu.;oes
Ai l... en,,,,,,,,hlng ,he amp,he lribu.,.,.
admini..ered 'M o," h indi" idUlllly '0
ill ....i, hin , he camp includ,ng ,he
Each ....n .""'" ,0 >leal ""' hi ng
from the camp .nd '" hri ng
It< fou nd '0 the ' rihu"", . camp
dUllC'S ....ere d1\'i<kd "u, amonro' 'he
m.>nipl '" nf p.i... and 10..>,,,,,. T""
manipl", from e"'h leg,,,n ",n e re>-
pon, ible fo' 'he "''' p.,-"",pal"
d.an, a, 'he ""Idie.. ga' he,ed in , hi.
l oo- fl -wiJ e ,hn'nughf.., d u, ing the
d, y. rhe ' w" maniple. had [0 "". 'ha'
it wa< " "epl and w",e'eJ carefull y.
Th' ,"" of l h,' remaini"g I man iple'
wero a,,;gned hy I", '0each of the
lribune. Th",,, manipl.. a"endod l he
,ribune in lur n " n a Ihree-day w la.
T hey we, e ,..,.ponsihle f'" pit"hing hi,
lent and levelling 'he g,ound around it
The)' had 'n ' ound .ny of hi'
baggage tha' nJed p'<>ltt ,i ng and
. upplied gUll,ds f"r ,he fron' and ,..,..or
of hi. ten, where ,he tt.>nes uwe kept.
Each ....n'pJe of ,n.,.;; h.ad ' 0 supply
al"""d r"" 'M , ..""" of "" ..If)' behind
it . Beoidn keepi ng a ll"""'" Iookou',
this kep, an el"e ..... ,he hones ' 0
see , ha, 'My did ..... iniu,.., ,he"""I,''''
bceorne , n ' heir .<-then or
Ioose.nd ell...... dJ..u_'" in ,he
camp Finall)' each manipk in 'urn
"""""ed suard.........t ,hecomul's"'nt
The "'00 "'''''' free from ,he
dut.... of 'he he.,")" infan[ry ('S'en , hough
' h<)' we'e t>tJle'ed ..." h 'hem., ..=
ttlpon.. bk for gUll,d,ng ,he ramran.
The C3ffi1' h.ad four , l he
ell,,,,,,,i' ies of """h of 'M [.....,. main
road. At each em."",.., , he,,, ".,,, a
guard of len "," us. IIe' ide>. ,he guard,
. tread}' men' k,ned, . , nigh, ,he,. "'e'e
u,ua ll)' th"", pieke.. gua,ding the " ore,
" the qu" ",,,.-iu,,, and ,wo a' the [e"l>
or .ach of t he I<'Il"te. aud ",he, mem_
be" of 'he milil ary ""unc il. l'olybi'"
due' not id"ntlfy ' he"" tent" but t hey
wOre p,,,umal>ly behi nd the tr ibu nes'
,e" .. . ""' ''g', , 1>0 v"lun,een 'he
... and 1_.... A gUllrd ""'"
21$0 1<1 over eaeh m.niplc: . Each guaed
""".i1ted of roo' .....n. one r" e .ad, of
tM four mgh' 'ntelln.
...., . uppor." ..... _ heven,ng, he horn-
I>kno..... (c....-.....1 :and Irump<'cn
( r....a:.u.) .......n.J<.t ' hotir 'tl>lrurn<nl1
ouls,d< ,he -.oul't'em. On 'his signal
lhot ,,;uu d ftorn each nuni['le "'00"'"
, ,, ... nd 1M hnl ..-.,eh " ... brougl>l 10
the t<Tt t 01 , hot du'y ,"btl"" bl" 0"" of
the opti<otu> of h,. man,pIc: . The- 'ribtlne
ga, 'e each gUllrd. _mall ", I>Ie, (u n...,, )
",'i, h . n ind,,idua.1 sign on i' and dis-
miucd him to hi, ""', .
On. m.n " .., .d.'Cted from [ It< , en[h
manipl e of e."h cI.... 0( ",f. n[l)' . nd
[he temh ,urn", " f 'he c",.II)', . 11 " f
which we'e hille'N a, ' he I.. end " f , he
camp undc' ,h ampa", T his man
"'as relie"ed of .n dut i... Each
e"eninRat " ",'el he eepm' ed to the
duty tri hune ,,, recei ve the " ate hw"rJ .
"l'hi. w., in",ibe,l " n a W'k>den tab l<' t.
He rel u rned ' 0 his maniple .nd passed
lhe tablel i n fl\ml "f wi,ne"" w [he
chi d cen,u,i"n "I' , I>c next maniple.
I. ikewi'" he il on 10 t he next
maniple umil it n ""hed the commander
of , he fi " t manipl" Of ' UT", ,, , who
'''u,,,,,d II ' 0 , he !rib" "'" b<;rore da' k.
Th. ehief dn.",i"n "f 'he /i"t,..,......
of caval, y in eac h kgion h.ad given
o.den .... Iy in 'he !1"k>rning 'o .....e of
hIS 01''''''"' I" "'leel f"u, ,,""pen '"
ins pect ' M nighl guard . Th.a' ...'ening
the _ rna.n had '0 g''''' noli,.., '0 lhe
leading dent'ion of the- ,...- t h.at
i' ..... hi. dUll" I" P""'id<: , he gword
r"" , he ... dol". The fOW'
" ........... d..... lou (Of l hei r ""pccti,..,
"..,,,lin . nd .hen .....,n' '0 ,he n i bu...
to M:<'ive "Tillen ""de.. from him
.I.,,,il\(l ..hal .....,k>n. l hey ""e'" 10 vi';,
and .. ,,'ha, ,i"",. Afl er Ihi. ill four
er..,."..,.;! , he ",,, pl....pah. nd ....ited
out.ide the ten, .,( ellM' tM p""""
",u.. or h" feU" " , een'urion. "'00 ,001<
it in turn '0 10Und l he night ".t,,hes.
At the appointed ' i"'" a hor n ""' nded
t he beginning "f "", h ",a, ch.
Du'ing ,he fin ' wal ch 'he 1""'(>Cf
"'hose du' )' i' """, ",'OOmpanied by
some fr iends wltne' ''''', made the
rounJ" ,'i,ili"g 'he 1""" men, i"neJ
i" his orJers an d ."lIc'<:'ing 'he ""-
""'" from eoch gu,,,1. If he rounJ a
m. n .,Ieep or a"'ent 1'",,,, hi. 1""' , he
ROME J75-[ 40 Be
Tli li HIH1.A" ARMY , 60 O(
called hi. friend. t" ,,'nne" i nd W<Ttt
on wi' h hIS ",,,nd. I.i,")". probably
folloo.-i"B gi..." a oery colou. -
ful de1eriPiion of a Iqional)' ..leep a,
hi. poo( "'i, h hi. heltn<1 on. hi. chin
.....'i"3 on lUI' of hi. long . hield,
!""N"nB h".nclf up",h, ,,-j, h hi. 1'iLJ-
I"'-y "')' , hat ftorn ' his 'i"'" on".. , d
( , 60S K ) ""', .... "..,n for bi4.kn to
<:arl)' . hiel<l1.
The ",he. guard in.p....:t..... ".., nt
their round. in . he 0100 " al che1.
,i ,;' ing ",he. poo(f; . , dal'''''''''' , he)'
I"tJ'Clned back 10 Ihe 'ribune. If t h<)o
had all ,he ' he)' "..,n;
di.mi, d " ',Ik.,,, q u","'ion If 'hi'
had no< hoen done, ,"hune could
ident ify b)' , he siltn. on which
one ",... m" "nlt. The ' eibune then
'ummoned the ,..,m".ion of the ,, /fend_
i"g manipJe, who h"",ght wi'h him the
men who " ..,re on picket duty, and the
"001"" ".lIed hi ' wnI\C>SC' ,
T he tribune imm"diolel)' ."embl ed
a court martial of all ' he l ribunes, anJ
th e gu. , J wa, tr kd, Iffound guilty he
wa, conJ emned '" ,uner t he1"81""""'"
He wa, led oul and t he tri bune touched
him ..... ith a cudgel. IIi. comrade' 'he"
be.[ 0' .toned hi m'" d.ath. If ' he
failut< to eon"", ' he It..... w.., t he
fault " r the troop<r h , he
j".."""i"", in.....d. The ..me puni,h-
ment could (all on the "p'io or b<kt
of the ,..,."'" if they h.ad failed '" give
prop<' ord<n 0. '0 info' m the
"""t ''''- l ha ' il ..ahoti , , urn 10
.uppll" ,he PIll"'/. Poll"bo\U remark.
dryly. ',he n,gh, _.1In of , he Roman
urn)' at< """" 1C1upulou.ly kePi' .
The / ...,......_ al$O ,he punish-
mert , for 1l...:ling t the C3ffip,
bean"3 flOl .., .... , ....., t"" . tteml"'''3 to
...-.de: du' y by ..,Jfinllicled """,nds,
and for brine """.i<:ted of the >a.....
offence- th.... tim. This punisluncnl
",... . Iso """ed ou, for """,...dt ee, for
th""'ing a"..)' one', ' '''OI'd or . hidd in
banI Of f'" . hou, one', OOU'ase
in b<I" le to , he tribu"".
When . ",hol. uni' " . fou nd
of eowordi,.., in , he f"'e ,,( tbe eru:m)' ,
thel we" , uhl=eJ 'odeci mation. T he
trib"ne..."embled 'he legion and led
forwa.d ,1>".. who .....en Ituih y of
le.,'ing the ,ank. They were lined up
. nd l en I'e, "ellt " f t hem were selected
by In' '" he heaten "r ,"'ned to doat h.
T he rest we," ("reed '0 ea, h"r1 oy
'"
ITALY AND T HE \'(' EST ERN M EDITERRANEAN
in"""d of "'hea, and 10 pi1<h ,heir ,en..
ouI1ide l he ,am!"'n. on an unpro,,,,,,ed
'poI. ,"feer tbe bonk of Cannac ,he
.un-i,",," "'e.., all pOl' on a ra,ion of
and f......"e\I 10 camp oul all , he
,'""r ':""'nd, Tribu..... a1... had lhe righ'
io li..., <kmand ."retie< and Bog 1'0<
m,nor offences.
Dnpile lh;" ""Ah d,scipli... , not all
,he a>mpul on a Roman 10 do hi>
d.. ly"..-te of a p li'e 'n"'. Like ,he
.\l.Kc-doniano lhe Roman. had a
of "",,'ud. t'o< u'..,..,... plJ.amry
aloo g","" JUld "",,,'no. Tl>t:-oe "."..,
a,.-a.<kd '0 lhe fiAl man '0 mounl the
" ...11 "'hen a......hin' a lo,,'n (cor"""
"""ali. ) or ,,'hen a... ulllng a camp
(cOO''''''' ,-alit,"', ), Af,cr ,he caplure or
Scipio ''''ankd """""
mll rali, '0 a and a
mar ine who .imuhaneoud)' reached
t he lOp of ,I>< wall. A man who ,",cd
the life "f anolher ,oldier . wh et heT
eit i>;en or all}', wa' ,:",wne d wit h an oak
wreath (carmll' h )' t he man he
ha<l ,", cel T h,' "" cued man had to
revere hi . , aviou, a, he would hi, fa,her
for the re.l.,f hi, life , 1.i,'y d aim, t ha'
,' l in" "i u, Rufu" lhe ""'IIi,,,, . qui/llm,
did thi. '" the elk, a"", Fabi" s !'laxi-
mus , afteT hi. elerivera""e fwm lIan-
nibal al Gerunium in a t' 1lC. Thc man
who bael .. an ar my, " Fabi.. s bad ,
wa. " . ...lh' . warded lhe cMona oini-
J,"..,ui,. Thi. ",,,,,'n, made of grass,
,,'.. ,he "--' cow"'d of all ,he "",,':u-d.
Plin)' ,he FJd..... ".,.",nl in lhe t..
<:n',,')' could name only eighl
pc<>JIk who I\ad ""-.,,ivcd it.
TM.., "-'-", also ",,,...-.u gi,'cn '0
....., who had d, .. ing"ished ,herr=h'C'!I
I..... r COlI'" in .ktrmi'...... A man
..:"", had ndoed an n>otDy on such .n
" .... ded peat. An
infan,ryn>an,,'hohad t illed and ..riJ'PCd
an e...my =ei\'! cup. H....... t ...p-
pins> ""..., ."..r.tN to .he ,,",.11;' for
.imilar f"",o,
The d.y o r
E"el;' a, da....n lhe tribune ..,-
""ned al lhe con.ul', 'enl. \ll'ocn ' ocy
had ",ceived hi, ordc.. for t he day,
thc,' lhcm 10 l he centu rions and
....ho " 'ere waiting at , he
tr ih.. ne' te nts, T hey in ,heir t u rn
tran, mill ed lhe c'On. ul'. orders down l
t he rank " nd tile lr<N'p'.
l .ikc the Urcck Ihe con, ul
'"
"""ld otter _ r,fie""" each morning and
ha"e lhe orom> r""d by ,he aug........1to
...... "t>m!"'nied lhe ;ormy bcr""c offering
banle. \I'hen t>auk had bo<on do<:i<kd
0<1, .....rln dorok. lied 10 a .pur, ....as
di.pla}."d oulsidt' .he ..-011'. lenl 10
warn lhe men lhal bollk ...... imminenl.
\I'bon . he ""do:-r " ... Ifi,."n, . he kgions
as...",hIod inside l he ramparl a' the
fronl of l he (llft'Ip.nd.-m<qe<l by lhe
I'<1'la 1''''''_, The allin ...",bll
,he I"" <ide rantparl'
their onnmrmcn.. and paucd out bl'
lhe I'<1'la pnJf<Tpal., on each <ide, 10
lhal each bripde """,-,Id he in i.. cotTeCI
posilion """ilk lhe camp ....i'h ,he
lejtion. in Ihe <:entre. The ,,"valry
emerged fro m lhe pur'a and
pTO<:e'Oded ' 0 Lkploy on lhe t....o \\;ng".
T hc Roman t....' k up IhoiT
po<il ion o n Ihc right "'ing and t he allied
cavalry for med up on ,he lefl. When
two eon,,, lar armi wc.., comhined,
all the legion. mu,t h. ,' e ..r"Cd in the
centrc,", ' m. " ive hlow in 'he cent re
w., t hc ha.le Roman tact ic. T he iT
dismal perfmman, e 'K.i n't l1annil:>.l
and his en,eloping mo""men" which
wa, ,perine.H)' de.igned , ,, de.1 wi,h
, he . how. , hal up '0 Ihi. point
Roman RCl>orol. newr con.idered . ny
Nher I&<,ic. E..en .f'er the time of
IIannibal il w nul abandoned, as it
""'l"i",d no lacl........1 ability on . he pan
of ,he gc.....l. Roma n armies WO f)
baltIC'!! rhe lelionary " ... lhe
""'I soldier.
\I'hen d","n .. p 1'"" boltk l he Joa.'all
made "p lhe linl li , lhe ,.-...cip6 the
oond and l he , lhe thiTd_ All in
lhe Iqion dC'!Icr:ibN by
Livy, PP' "-ere Idl be,,,n ,he man-
ipk'Oequal 10 lhe "wlh of a maniple 10
har , he li.... """It! inlc-rchange_ The
,,"valry ...,,", ' im,larly d ,,'n .. p ,,;,h
'.-eo bet....".,,, .he , tV"ing lhem
room in whi<h 10whet-I d ma""".......,.
Th< .pa..-n bet,,-..:n the mani pl"
prcscnt the """'I oeriou. di fficulty in
undeAI.nd,n, ,he manipul.. forma-
,ion. Did l he """ali and ..,ally
fip;hl wi,h gal'" in lheiT li nc Polybiu. ,
by default, ""em. 1<> , .. m did t hc)'
d ose t hc gap... di d the Inarii d=ribed
bl' Livy (.., e p. 118), Some commen-
tato" have . " gge\1cd l hat , he ",Idle.,
in eoc h manlple ', huffl ed' outward , to
fill t he gap. , Thi, i. com plet ely un-
accepta hl. In l he ftro, pl" 'e tlie ten_
dency In eke up loward. ,Ix: ngh'
.......h n """gh, .he proteclion of
hi. nc-illhbou.o .hield (a n, urion. """'"
ehooc:-n fr"m ....., who """,-,ld Sland thr:O
gro<Jnd10.lo,,,hi. happening). Second-
I)' he soldic:-r-< ........Id '0
from the ......my.nd ' "".. m..' bact again
hero lhe li could inlc-r<:hange.
When lo.....ing r Ih.c: "","'er to ,m
p"'Mom. .- dtouId consider ,he m<-
l hod uK'd by Polyht ... in explaming
Roman pra<"'lK-n. \I;'hen ,he Romans
01"" som<1hing emirdy forrign 10 lbe
Gt=ko, pul}'btu. upLoin. i, ,n grnc
det ail : for uample, their infantry'
.hield., l..... r ""ml'" and lhe boarding
plank......-d "" their .hips. B..t ,,Iton
thcy ",", ,he G....,k .ystem, a. ,Ite) do
for example Wilh cavalr} equip"",n"
Ite doc. nol prO"i,k an}' dC<c<ipt iotl
TIte upl,,,",;,,,, proNhl}' lie< in tbe
G..,ek .yOlem, Thc G ru h would h, \, e
filled t he gap hy lhe . imple cxpodien,
of up lhe rear hal f of t he unlt,
E.,h wa' ",l ml"" ed of twO
""nt UrI", Polyhi,,' tell' u, th.. t he
se nim cent urion " ,'e d on the r ight
11owe, 'er, we know from ot her source,
that con,uri"n, were named fmnt (pri",)
and (pM'"""' ). They cXlUld h..-"
been e.lIed righ, and len as "'cre tlto
alliCl:l hrip"'" The problem wo.. ld
ee,uinl)' he solved if lhe c""'uri,,, w.rr
lined .. p ...ne hehind lhe OCheT. wi,h tlto
..,ar cenl.. f}' mnvtnl up inlo lhe gap to
form .n .. nbroken Ii.... as sonn as lito
NUIe bc-pn, AI lhe Nuk of Co........
Pulybiu l llal lhe .i<:plh of tlte
manij\ln " man)' Ii....,. thei< widt"-
S""I> dncnl"ion ........ld he ino;:on-
",,;vabk irthe ""n,uriM......" d...,,'n 01"
.ide by <ide bul q .. aca-pu.bk ",hen
' hey arr fronl and bod. .
Th<e m . n; " I... in b.ttle
.ucmpl ,,'ill he made ho:n:- to
r=nnstNCl a ..an<lard t>allie sequeno:.
On mte<J'inll rrom ,he camp """h
legion f<>rmN up in 'hr unbroken
Ii .... lhe ""nl .. rie> . ide h)' .ide
Ikfo", bailIe ,he ""MOll """uld add.....
hi. ''''''I'', rcm,nding them tha. the}'
" 'ere fillhlinll for lhci, fann. lITld rr -
ealliltjl lheir Pll'l vi<"lOrios. Hc wouid
", uall y hdinlc lhe enemy, pointing out
lh,,;r defca.. at ,he hand, of t he
Roman. On a ,i Knal the ",,"triM
cent uri es t urned ahout face and feU in
hc hind t hd r pri"r cent uric<, <>pcning
ROME 27S-140 Be
THE ROMAN AR.\1Y ,60 Be
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Ph... 3
II <he n""Oli are "",ng roeq"'YheM led. thei'
pos,e',oroO,,' wio, di"'" g,ge . od 'oo""n " .
gaps The h.",,,,' heo w" M,"w ""oogh
to. g. p' in ' 00 1'''00'1>'33. woo ' 0 tum 010'"
' ho" g' ps . od CI",1I"
Ph 4
If tho P-" ""'''''' a' 1", be.,oo, the" !>Osterior
ceotu' i.s ,. """" "* g, p, They ca" Mw ' '' he'
<h."g_ ploce, w"h the h8stali '"" let them
o, ve aootoo<go or w""" " w th' Qug" the ga".
'0 'oe "'Of". Af," , 'h" m,ooouv,o tno po" ""or
cont o, io, o! 'he "i""" move .oto ' 00 gap' 00
fo<m, , oM p". ..ox aM tho wholmy
' '''.a'' in gOOd o.de, ""h'''d the" ,pears
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1
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1 v"",.,
.. .. .. . . ... ... ..

=J=) =) =) =) =) =) =) =) =J

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Ph..e 2
The oo,,' e i, beguo by , he , . 1"",, who /Iv to
Oie, ' op , he e""mv fo<m",,,,, .' " ad.. ,,,,,,,
The, . h," ' . 'ir. ' " rough the gaps: /he oo" a,i
close the g' P' and ch.. ..,
The ct ic
Ph. ... 1
The leg.oo "d"wo op on th" . I," " w,H, the
N.II"""' """'",,., a!oog, ide t he ",iOT eeoM 'e,
l he h.,,.,, . '0 " tho 10 0'" '"" ,no Id.ni" too
'e" 0 " , "" G,".r the ooSl.nIX ceo""e,
w'thd ' aw ."d fo<m op ""h,od thO" {mo<
eeotu, ie" Ie" .og gap, ' 0 , he I,ne, Th< ""I,tes
I.". tt,. " "" ".pl.' .M form up i" f,ont of
too leg'oo
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A m. ' wl. of " i",ii " ,>wn " p io " " .d.,d
10'"""0" w,' h, " 00' of te o B. fow A m. n,p'"
of ha".,; "rown up '" ","d,," fo, m,1'O" w't"
, hont of '<0 "lXmOpe, mao,p' e would , oon'
the " me format ion
'"
ITALY ASD T HE WESTERS MEDITERRAS EAS
up tilt gaP' in , he I",.,. It"hcn .he
"anal '0 for I>ott le ",as aiven,
. he ",hits lef' .lItir manipln, paOKd
. h",ugh . he gaps and , an fo,war d to
han." .he advancing enemy, hurling"
,,,In"an' shower of ja" elin, . The pur-
l'<"'" 01 thi, wa' '0 try to b'eak up ,lit
enemy format ion in anticipation of lilt
eha'i<' of lhe !>eavy ,nfantt'}.
dn<:rit:>n , hi. mal"llXUne at .he bo"k
of Tebmon. ''"hon both 'ideo had
ligh.ly am>ed . ""'P' in fron., 'hi< ,..;tic
..... ""utn.lised and . ho hanle bepn
",ith a ' kinnish. ,he enemy cam<
wi, hin range of.he !>eavy infantry, the
lrump<t= !IOUndN ,he recall and . he
"'liltS retreated 'hr"ugh 'he ga!", T llty
then rd ormed beh'nd the tria'ij "r
w,re di,pateh,d (0 th, wing, 10 join th"
ea"alry, Here , hey we,e eu" ,,,,,a,ily
di' p<rsed in 'he lIap. bet ween , he
,....-..
The ""', eenourin of ,he Msft"i _.
"""'N up '0 e"- ,he ga!" and bq:an
dashing rhei , J'i1<> api_ . heir
as if impaOen0 gel to gtip" " i' h ,he
e"'my. Therrumpn.bbred, .heMs,,,,,
n.,w 'hei, ,,-at cry and, cheered on by
'he In. of . he army, ru.hed in hu,ling
lin' ' heir thin and then their ' hi'k "il".
In the eonlusion . hal lollowed thi' hail
" I' heavy ;a,'elin., .he Ii..>l ali drew thdr
s"'ord. and charged into the enemy,
throwing the whole weight of . hei,
bodi .. again" ' heir .hield, in an a, -
temp' .0 knock 'hei r OpponenlO olf
balance. Then, allowing ' heir k>na
. hidd, '0 rest on ,he JfOUnd ,,'hih. ..itt
leani ng . heir k f. ohouJdcn .,.;",.
.Mm and 't'}ing .0 [orce .he
bad, 'My foug h' from behind 1M
. hidd.
Sometime' . his fin , charge "'.. suffi-
eien, '0 b..ak .11<: en. my line. If i' railed,
.he trumpets .ounded the recall a' "'" n
...h" moment um w", dissipated, T ho
""SI"w.- centuries di""ngaged and
began to ,ctrca' un,il they " .."..: level
"'i, h ,he rea' of ,be " .....'eent uri.. ; ' hen
'My turned . 0 ,he right, p....cn' ing
'heir .hield ';dn .0 lhe "",mI' and
movN ...,..,.. behmd lheir """"
. uries. .he whole: Ii"" retoea,ed
and .hrough the in .M
Ii"" . The who
'he cream of ' M now d .....d ,ht.
aa", and on the ,rumpe' bla"
in , h" , arne way, thi' wa' . utft-
"lent to , haller the cnomy, who ..."uld
'"
turn and run. TI>t "",..Iry and ,-.Ii",
.....,.,ld 'Mn hunt o;k,w'n 'M
. nemy.
If, h" .......er, thc ",m""" wo,.
roughly hondlo,l ,nd the h. " le 'cemed
to be I" ", , tho wO\lld
t"nh, pa" lhrough ,he in , he
'",,,ii and rcfl>tm behi nd 'Mm. NO'"
,be " ,i,...... "",,uld be gi"on tho "'okr
on ,he ltumpet to ret '"", .nd w""ld
..copen ,he gap<. ".,..ld then
..i,htl... " , throul!'h 'M '""no, "'00
"""Id """'e up .0 make lhe- retr",,'
easier. Ono..., .hroul!'h the In''''''. ,he
"rutO'",. would fill 'he PP< in the Ii'"
of T he """en,,, ""ntu,;" of , h.
, he would now mo," up 1<, d o..
. heir rank. and the wh,M . , my would
",,,o.t in K,,,>tI " rde. heh ind " of
' pc'''.
If du, ing ' hc haule "f 'M
maniple< bec.me ....ttc<ed. ,h. 'IOIdi...
"-ould <e(",m a"",nd 'he" ..andard<
as .bey did., G..-""illm in ZI711C.
qumion of ,he okpth of . be
man iple< <emain' unam"..,red. ''"ith
60 hea,")" infan' f)"o a """'Uf)' ' her e are
only .h"", p...,:tical forma,ions-three
deep, si" deep and u deep. These are
each rorm<d by d"uhlitlf{ , h. pre" """
lorma,i" n, T hi. 6 x to hasie [ormation
. eem. t o he ""nflrmed hy th., <tandard
m. rchinS "r,ler of ' ix "h'''a, t (. oe
p. 135). If the ".ndard wa, ,i x deep
a"d 'en wide "' he,, thc 20 were
added, one arri,cs at .M llood old
standa.d of .-itth' men '0 a lik, " 'hich
..... a sllb-uni, of .be R""", n
"""'........_01. len' (ul, 1Mmemben
of file muM ha,.., ,barN. lent , ,,
et>COUlag<: comradnhip ; modern mili-
'af)' manual. call thi. ',mall -lfl'OIIp
d)'nomi",' . l''''''h m.n had hto regul a'
placc in , he ra nk and fi le h. had
in thc camp. Onosande. " mfirm, thi'
when ho . ay' how wonder ful it wa' to
, ee lhe ",Idie" run and '''ke up their
place. in lhe line, A, he WI' " 'rit ing in
the '" een lUI"}' AD, he COIIld hardl .. be
de...-ibinl!' "'M' than lhe
Roman .rmy, ' 1M man ,,'ho Kn'ed in
,he from ",nk, a J'O'i 'ion of honou,.
".... prot.Ny'."" , he <mior toIdier of
the ten.
\rhen , be lelfJon st " "llI,h woo rai5<'d
to 5,000, ,he a.ddi'ional Il<>Idien wcr.
pmhahll' u>ed to inercc 'he depth 01
the fi le. "I lia,'ali and p,j,,,,p<, f, om
' ix to On ' he .hr"e o,,,.,ion,
,,'hen "'e .ha. ,.ooo-stronl!' Ie'gIons
UoN_ Tela"""' . Conn.. and
legion. d, lIer had to "'i, n_
... nd I particul.lly violent charst ,,'
h" P<'<l.o break t hr""gh hy she" force
of numl>crs,
The maniple """ld he d, a"" n up in
open o,de', allowing .ix f"'" per man,
or orde' "'i' h ' h"'" feet pe' man
Thednll'olorm e"-order from Of'en
order ..... prot.bl y ......."1ly tM Am<"
.ha. of ,he Gn,dt._"",,-.ng 'M rar
hal( of...,h lik in'o.he .f'"CC' bel,,'ttIl
'M file<. It i< clear lrom PoIy'bit."
contpati..", be, ,,,,,,,n ,be phalan, and
,n" legion ' ha' the
f"ught in open or,je. wi' h ,i x r"", per
m.n a, h. , ay. t ha' each Roman n. d '0
f. "e ten pike" 11 folio.... , h.t lh.
fl. " n,." d "'" ",d.. wa, thd . oquival, nt
ol.he ,\Ia""donian h.ked ' hidd', "'helt
'he" " ... a hoplite .0 one and.
half feet. Although Pol}'biu...... '0 be
cor""" ahou. ,he .,,, feet pe' man, ,,'hea
,he Roman, ",,"' f'" 'M .....sed breaIr-
'h""'f:h, hey did a' the T and
a, Can My m...' fonn! up
In do,", OT"der so 'hal ,hey could ....
.he" ,,',,;gh, .0 it< e-tf..."
Some, hing "ill '0 be saId
"hou, tho thro"' inlll 01 th. ,,' Ia. The
. llgge, lion 'hal 'he neovy p,I.,m "',.,
'1uek in thc ground while the
Wa' ,h lown, and , hll t hc Icgi"n.ry ron
h""k 10 It''1 i. , i' .00 ludierou, C"en ' 0
be di....,,'..d. He prot.bly carried hi>
!>ea,'y' "u- in.ide hIS ohield " i ' h the
hroadened pan, a' ' M ;Unction of.he
met.1 and 1''00<1. hoobd over ,he ' OP
of 'M sltield, The haf. could be held In
agoi".' ,he 'hield "i ' h ht , Ief'
'humb. I have . ried Ihi. The hmo>dcned
j'>l nt "",ms to he d..illned for jll" ' h"
purr<-: , Huwever. i' mu" be
th. t i' wa, vc' y difficult to h"ld ' he h.ft
in pt" o with my thumb, Perhap. th,,..,
Wa' I thong on . he pi/u,n, or perha!"
,he . trap "n the .hield Wi<
"'rapped round . be ",IIIm and gra.ped
in ,he shield hand,
''"hen ,he pJ ....., ,trro..'n,.M IMa
'hIA iron .haf, npectN .0 """'It
<Ill impa:! so 'hal .he enemy could noll
.hro'" i' ",",-"",. If.he pOb<M mi<ocd lIS
mark and ",uck in a .hield.M ba'hed
hca<I p",'cn' N i' from heing pulled out
and rendered ' hc shield u"""ntrollaMe.
THE GREAT WARS
no.. ' """, ,,>lIed , he " 'hole of
renin.uw hal )'. The Iqtions .... d
up to the .\I...-edonian phaLlnx undn"
the DJmmand of one of , he e rro.,n ,
ge....r.oI. of tbe a"'-->en, ....,.-Id a"d had
.hI,,,'"tha' they "'e'e ellUal '0.")'thi ng
Ih., wor ld '''old p, ,>d o, e. In the ..lUth
,h" Roma" , n"..' p;,,,,d .e,,,,, ,he
"rai" of ,l,tn,ioa to Si.-il)', h .....
ine...i,. hk tho' Rome'.npansion..,."h_
..-ards """,Id Mna: her inlo heood-on
..',h , he gtn'n' .......1 """,,0<
0( ,he <!al' . Cartbag<- , ..-hieh noc only
."'ntrolkd ,he African roast "' f.r
he . ITait. of Gih" l " .o"th-st
Spai" and Sardinia (on which .he had
live coIoni... ), bUl al", W""ern Sicil)',
The e",,' .nd of 5i.ily " '.s con,rolled h)'
,he S)TaCU..n. and bond of former
k_-.. ... ,he !"Iamen'.......
.. ho .....1 """"d the ' ''''''' of .\In., .
quan., of. """,,,ry .., her.
The S),,",",,"'o, had dcko'.d the
Mameninc, and wc, e ' 1ll lh e !,,>i"t of
1. )'i"g .iege 10 Me" i". when the
ea"bagini.n. .... ho ...e re a""iou. to
p.... the "rai" frum falling into
Sl""""""" hond., came 10 the aid or the
th", ened town and threw a gar"""n
into it. At this point ( 264 IIC) the
M.meni...... tIOI ",.hina: to he OlX\If'icd
either I S)ucu.. or em.,.,.. nd
""';"1 """', much f=dum the I""'n of
Kcggio on the opposite .ide of tlte
., rails .n;O)"d member of the
Roman . llianee, ,,,hmill ed '0Rome.
Romc knew tha' '0accept ' he . " h-
mi"ion " '.s tant.m<><>nt to decl.ring
"'a, on boIh S)ucu....nd Canhagc
btl, nn....he1c>. deri<kd to go .hQd.
A military , n bu... acwmpaniN 1' a
lmall for"" Knt ouuth by se. to
e.,n""n tlte I" n. Th. Canhalinian
...ho," fte. t Wa, p-". rolling t he "rai1>,
.... tc , d o,'IOn, '0 ru.h into ....r an d
m.de only a half hurted attemp' to
SlOJ' l he Ruman, entering the t",,'n.
On.." ,he K<>tnIns had arrind ,h.
M.meni..... ,hre..' ou, , he Canlta&,nian
carmon. Car111agc re' ah'lled by seflding
n .rm} to lhe i.land, ,,'hieh m.n:hed
.lunKIhe .ou t h roast , fo""s ,,' it h
i er"while cnemi.. ,he Syr. cu, ans
and ad,'on""d on M<,l ina , M, an...hilc
aooo,,,l., .rm} .....1 ...i'ed.1 Reggio
.nd " '", ferried """"" Ihe o" . ito. The
"""no ..... no..' set for ,he Iona:a, and
,....-
(JIIfl'"",,A'
.,GAH, ,. .:.
, ,,ySOI UM .
(""", .,Ai
'.
RO.\tE Zn-l40 Be
TilE RO.'IA."i AR.'I" ' " e c
hiHere" wa, in Rome' . hi story. O"'er
t he next 120 yean K<>me "'as to " '''l';e
Ihrtt ,,'an apin.. ,he Canhaginians in
....... h she: ..... 25"PX' ""'n and ,,'hieh
ended in the compkle ""'rruclion of
Can""!:,,.nd he, popul.tion.
T he e.rl;"'1 accounl or ,he......n is
liven by ,h. ('H,e k hi"OTian Polyhi"s,
who wrol e ah<," t the ti me of t he thiTd
"'ar. Polyhio. had con.iderahle military
.nd a dear onde1"st.nd,ng of
" '"' eg}. ndlactics. L:nfonun.alOly large
portion, of h" ..-od Lis")'
liy... an almosl """tin""". account of
""ento from the beginninK of the se,,"Und
I' onk war in 1 do...n h' 167, ho' af,er
t h., his work is a1 , 0 I"" A' ha, hecn
pointed ou, oarlior l --i vy was an a, m_
chair hi"orian ,,'ith no I<ra.p of str.tegy
or l:>.:tics. Much of his ....teri.1 is dra...n
from PoIyh,..., bu, he of,." suppk--
......... ,he G...,k tuuoriao from ",her
inferioT """rca .nd 'his """,."tI"at..
htow
M." 'M"" OQ '''' ,M.". of to. Iorot Puo," w"
Rom< 0:0010"" _ ,"I.. l<aIy, "," ;1$t C' ''N9<
""",,_ """'" ...., Soc;"' .....
Soo-d>n.. R_ 's _d _
.........
'TA.. rrs "F

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p",n "'-l U", <Ill ' ,' WO}! JO
l UnO"" " ' uv pc," '4l
(l! '0\1," ue!ddv U"!"'l" \1
''ll pJ!'I'" '! ' ''\I,L " uu,,"', " "4
NV3NV"tIli3U03W 3 H. 1. (lNV A'lV.LI
T he follo"'lng ) 'eaf an by
Romllns 10 k"""'k ou, I}Kpana
mulled in an<! t he 10.. of
nearly 100 "",..h,pa. The .;uuuJ <S<. 'Or1_
ina the ...pp1y 1\1 fdl foul of the
_til a f.. n her ' 10 hi""
and some lIoo Otlpply v Or>ct
apin Ron<: _ lrlt ..... hotIt a navy.
I'r<wioiom "-d 10 be "-'kd t he length
of Sicil y. r.. nning lhe Cart hagi nian
p ..n,lct. 10 fc-ed lhe armies beoiqing
Lilyt.norn. I n an aucmpl to """ify
matt.... l he Roman. lauo.:hcd an a" ad
on Mounl Er io<e, .. rion
DKpana. and a plured iI, , hu. OO'-mng
lhei r ",,-n . uPflly alonlthe north
coo.. an<! the dKadcd Car-
' hallinian av. lr y from "I"'nl in,l fr=ly
out of t he p.>n,
Bo'h "d", an<!
t hroUilhout 148 ... to hol d
'heir . Bu' in f"I1"...i ng as
part of a ... to break l he
deadloxk. Cattholliniam apl'Ointed
Ih" brilliant I lamikar B.,,'a as
comm.nder on t he isla"'1. lie rcali'ed
that it ...ould bt: imro" ibk to di' h lge
'he Roman fore('$ h\ockoding the two
...",!em 1'01",", h..t by roidilti: t he Italian
c"'"'" he h<>p<d ,,, be abk to draw 'hem
' ''''aj' fro m ' he bl""k.Jc of Li lj'Nc..m
and Drcpana. l'aihnl in ,hi. <.c;zed
hill on l he no"h .. b<;, wccn I'ok r _
mo an<! I}r epoln. from which he co.. ld
carT)' on l he .... , .1 ..,a ha.- lhe
pp1y lina. r or ' Ilrtt
lU " he ble to coru.h",t "1"" """""
from , h.. ,,;'al ."atqic voi nt ,
In ' .-4 he ma<k a <Unlti: anadon l he
Roman J'O'N''''''' on .\I""nt Er icc. The
Romano had bu,lt a fon on the wmmit
and "-d pIao<d ........... ....., .. <he fOOl
of the mountai n on . he ...,.", h-..'otem
sidot 10 m i n... ........-..nnll in and 0111 of
Drcpana. Ham' kar manared 10 ntab-
boh him..,lf bn"ttn lhe . "" fort..
"I'Iilling t he I"" foro:a and culting
off ."pp1ies 10 l he gu;oon on lOp of , he
mounla,". For ' '''0 yean he mai n'ained
,hi. rerilou. pooltion and ..... onll'
forced '0vacale il " 'hen i nd ,fference
.nd lad of " f hi.
hrough' t he ..'ar 'o . n

T.... 0' ..... _ p......., w., 'he
_"<:o<>lIo<:I in _ -, " ",""'. r>oW
COO""" II.....,S,," v, S.."' o" ...., C<><. 'C.
C", ,"_ <:o<>'"lI. NO" " ""'co """h ."l.,n
S.."."" '"" B,,.,,,,, "10'''"
of . .......'n. in the " ..r w"
ha,;ng a dc..-.ltoing clftct at Canhagc
falli nll ""'. in
, he "",""ion of , he <lOD1-
miuaria'- The bekaguered garmons
"""" began ' 0 f..,1 l he pinch as lhe
c:q><cted ... vpheo failed to arrive. I n
con".... R""", br""'l'd hcnc:lf (or ,he
final d fun . n<! k..,b (or a """ Reel
laid do..." , In t he mmer of 24Z
.....11' nay)' of lOCI ohips nchcJ
and sailed ..,." h, The Canhagi nian
na,"y, ..na""'.... of R""",' . ....... 0..,.., had
..i.hdra..-n to 10 neon lhe
Ionll over due ... rpJy ships, ..i l h lhe
m"ll l bat , he Rom.n....e .... to
..,izc ,he halllonl "' Drepana_ \l'hen
fina lly , he '''rpl y 11..,1 arrived off , he
end of Ihe i,lan<! i' " '",
b)' lbe H. " man fl..,t ....ar t he
Acog. ' ", i,l. nd nd d","o}'ed (24 '
RC). T hi' woO,he ;o<;. i"n of l he
"'ar , The sl"Ying go,ri ...,n. wc,e 00'"
at the m<rcy "f lh. H.om.n, and ,,,r-
rendered H.mik. r held otil fur 'he
he" "" .. Id ge ' h.. , ' he Car-
we,e f,,,..,d ", make a t reaty
agrtting to voc., . Sidl )' and
pa), a I..ge war indomnny_ The k"" ",
. uffored on OOI h . i<1<: . had b<X:n o",-,r-
mou . I'ol)'bi.. . lhot the Ro-
m.no 1",1 .b".. , 700 warshi.,. duri ng
, he conll'CI . nd ,bat ,he Canhagini.",
s"ffered I"""" of .hou.SOO.
l he "'0' the C..arthallinian
ROME Be
Tll ii GH:EAT WARS
<;>;nari .. who had been ocrvi nll in
Sicily demanded their pay, a nd when
il "'as not fort h",wrnnl m.. , inied, The
Cartha[l1nian rovt'rnmen. <lOD1plnely
mi'ma""llcd ,he Oitua'ion, and b.. , for
' he >kill of Hamikar llarca ...,.,1d ha,..,
been .. u....ly ddUIN Hamilar rul
dovI-n . be ""th .. n cr nnhln........
I n .be wnfuoion RooM anr>n'ed Sar-
di nia in q nical dioreprd of t he 11'Cl1}-
lhal she had j\lOl .worn. Canhagc's
sit ualion ...... S Ol only had
. he loot .n her off ,he Italian
""""' but in .... 10 KUin her
posi.ion in .be had been com-
10 diven all her reoouroeo 10 , he
and ,n conocque""" 1"'1 her
<ffipirc in Spain "'ith i,. va., rnouroeo
or man l'O...." . nd mi I.
H. mi lca, Barca, d i'Il tcd "'i, h ,he
poIicie. of hi o ...hich had
, he ar my i n Sici ly, " !f"'ed hi.
serYi"". f"r r<.'<. "'nq.. " f Spain. In
237 lefl hi ' naliye land, ,.king hi'
,,'" II"nnibo\ wit h him, He never
returned , . nJ mc, hi o dea' h in acti on
eigh ' year, la' or, ofter roc<>nlj ..ering
'"ulh-e." of lhe I be'ian pcnin.ula_
The Grock "f Mo"ili. (.1.1", -
in ."..th. ,n r ,a"" 1", had
in'e,n ," in Sr ain. T he ..jlio'.. had
been a' Ic"l port ially r",pon>ibk f.,.-
Carth. ginian k..on in Spain.
colony ..... in . lloa......, wuh Rome and
l h=can boo 1",1e doubt 'hal had
'"
IT .'l. LY Al>. 'D T HE WESTERS MED ITERR AS E....N
ell<:Ol.ll'aflC'd ,he .\ \a".iliol. in ,hei ,
Spani.h ..,n'lHlI:. Thi. m ha..., had
a comide, ahk elfee< on ,he .,., in
Sicily and may bee n , he cause
llf Cart hage' , ,nabil;t y to her
mcrce n. r;cs afte' t he w.r. . , the
Pun;'; armies , hru" nonhwaTd. in' o
the Spani. h hinterland, the M, ,,.jliol..,.
found lhei, ",,"tal t rading Pl>SIO eul off
from ,he in,enor. I f lhe Canhaglnlans
were ' 0 hc)'ond the Ebm, the
Ma"i\i<>t e at Rhod c and Em-
poria<: (Ampuri..) ju' , oout h <If the
I'yrenen .."uld be thru' ene<l, T he}'
appcakd to Rorne .0 in,ctWnC. Al_
lhough ,he RomaM "''C<e heanly com-
minC'd to their preparations '0 meet a
Cellic senl an emba..y 10
Spain which managed to pe ," uade
H.mika r', , ....'tt..." , ' h,dlubal, to
1=1'11 rat her in""""""". t reat y all:rec
i llll no! '0 Uy to "",end hi. empin
beyond ,he Ebro. Thi. ,.,.. ..
ea, i ly made ... the Eb ro lIow. in a "",' h_
leO" inll: per
of Spai n open '0 conque,t , Fi ve ye. "
la' er lI..drubal ,,' 0; ......ioo' ed and
Harruk.... SOIl Hanni t.ol, "'ho had
come ""th hia father 10 Spai n as I ehild
16 }"nn earlier . was elected general by
lhe t r",>pI.
Meanwhile i n haly Rome con, inued
het gr. dual eKpamion n<>n hw.rds. The
legions t he Ar"", and ad.' anced
&pinS! the Ligurian who OIXlJpied
. he whole of ,he ....hoo, d from . ""
AtnO' 0 ,he Rh6nc:. By n o ' '''' Rom....
h. d g. i...d control of the roo_t a. far
a. La Spez;a.
On lhe ea.t "".id", t he
,,' hich had been foundcd .1 & 00
Galliar (Scniplli,) ,bOll, SC<'Ond
!lad been ..... blishe<l ("nher
nonh It Ariminum ( Rimini) in 268 ,
During Ihe I. te 23"" ' M Roma'"
Mdded to .ett le t he . rca v, cated by Ihe
Senon"" some '0 ..n; Mfol(C, Resenl _
ing , hi. ad....nce of tM Roma'" t",,-..rd.
,he Po valle).. I"" Cel.. bepn pre-
pttI.lO... for a mn';"" in.....ion of 1M
ren,,,"ula. Thi. w"' held up by intCTllal
strife, bu' by ,,6,hei r pr ePllration.
were . lmo<1 <"<l mp1e'e, It wa, In th,'
face of this ,hl(Ca' 'hilt , he R"man.
scrured 1I0sdrut.ol' . ag.. e""nl ' 0 'M
Ebro treaty.
I n t"" Cel.. <t'OOOCd the Apen-
nine, ", it h a n limy of 70,000 mcIt . h
was had ,imi ng for 'he Celt . a, the
Romanftee of . ny other commi llnent ,
"'=c .bk 10 drtooe ,,,",ir en,ire re-
.o\"en to , he Wlr.
The Romans were t horoughly
. 1armed at Ihe but h.d had
plent y of ti me to prePll"' . Four armies
we", put into the field. l'-ch con. ul had
I four legion f""", con.i..ing of I bn le
0\"'" 5o.tlOO inran"y and ) JOO ca'llry.
One of ,""'" . rmies " ... deu,ned in
Sardini l whereit h.dbeen camPll'Ini n8
T he other wa' di. patched '0 Rimini
'0 c,wer t he Flaminian ro ut e ..'u,h. A
, hird Ifmy of a , imila, .i"" l uorded
k ome ilselr ...hi l, t , rou" h, compooed
of 5o.tlOO fOOl and 4.000 l1one, dra",,"
from l he Sabin....nd Etruscans under
, he command of one of , be ptae' o..,
Et ru ria and wa' pro!.h1y en _
camped near Arezzo. Here for , he fi,,'
l ime ...., .... the immense number of
"""I" . hal Rome w.. OIJIOlbk of
fio: ldinll
The Celts d id not " .. ke at Klmini , ..
had becn C1lpeeted, but b" rst ' hrougb
the Apennine, into Ellur;a and a"acked
,be arm)' lhere , T"" legion . from
Rimini , rri..,d ill" in l ime . 0 pm"'"1
I and t"" Celt . ",i 'hd",,,,' .0
the ",,"I with lhe arm)' from Rimini
hOld on their """I, . On reach,ng t he
coast t hey start ed nott h ,nd '" Iheir
astoni , hment t he ir advance rOtage..
fell i n ,,it h Ihe army of ,he ot hcr coMul
..ho had cros..-J ""er from Sardi nia
' 0 pj...nd " ... marchi ng ""'th I""...-do
Rome. Near T ebmon. I-Iokm nonh
of Rome, -10,000 Celt . feU fillh,i ng
hra,'ely to , he c nd ,
T he , hrcal nf yet a!k., he. ,n"aSlOn
" .-.. ovCt. The koman. """,-",j it "-otlld
be rhe ..... T he legions now invaded
the Po ..aile)' i...lf In ,he fi ",. campaign
,he Roii. who Ii"ed SOlIt h of the Po,
we,c blOu8ht 10 'Mit knen, T M
follnwing year ( U 3) ,he eon' ul F1a_
mm,u. , ",ho " 'a, later killed by Han_
ni hal II t he baule of l .;de T rasime... ,
croose<l t he Po . nd brouf:h' t"" I n-
. uhr.. ro bay ""'" lk'l!:llTIO, wipin.
oul 'Mir army. T he ",r"",d .o
accepl t he Gallic plea. for pe. ce on any
<>t her ter m, than uncon dit ional . ur-
",ntkr, T lie nc'" ]0,000 (;...... i
(t"" <>net ,,'ho rough' nakl ) croucd , ""
Alps to assi" their ki nsmen in I"" Po
..alley . The RomaO$ I.id .iq;e 10 , he
I n,ub.., n ' OWn nf .."r ,h of
the 1'<1, In an atte mpt to dra w off , he
Io-giom , he Cell. '''dC'd t"" Roman
. upply depot I t "'W
of pjacenza. One or the con....l. , :\tarcuo
Claud,us M. " :,, lI u. . ru.hed 10 ,he
telief of t he ",...n wi, h h.. cavalry .nd
light _ar med tr<K'1" P uring con
fti Cl Ihe Gallic chieftain Viridomartl.
challenged him to .in.le ..-..mbat and
. lll'Ollgh M""",llu. " ... narina: hr
, he chal l.... ... and killed
Viri<io"'"rtl'.
HO\' ing olf the a"aeke"
Marcellu. r"""",ed Po, ioineJ
folCeS "'i,b hi. ..ho had
tal<enAcerneand logether t heyslorm!
.\ t ilan. Wit h t he fall of r>rtncipal
,own . he I...ub.... . urrender<:-d un-
""ndilion.lly. In 'M rnllowi ng '''0
yea" expedition. ...ore ..nt to dcal ...-it h
pocke" of re.i" ance at tit<- hea<l of t he
Adrial ic, hut h)' tM end ,>( n o
Cl<ccpo ,he hay 01 Gc_ ..... unde-r
Roman control. The conquest " ...
consolidated by t he "tablishrncnl of
I"" colonie> al,mg the 1'0 ; on. on t he
nort h hank a' Cremon. in t he
of , he In' ub.....nd ' M ot her o n ,he
"",t h bank at Placen' il in t he terrilor)'
011"" Boii.
Since the anncxatK>n of SaNrnia,
Rome ha<l complete cont rol of
Ihc T )' rth<onian Se . \'(-'it h her
n.-'y_ the leg.cy <If her ...-. r with
Carthage _it "'0., a na' ural Olcp to
seck 10 pacify .he Adriatic. n.e pn>ple-o
of the eastCTll Adriatic. of ",.""", ,Itt:
JIl,'ria... ""'" ,he larges'. we..
acc'''I<>med to Iivin8 by pincy and l hei r
light "aI 19 ' (I, mhoi ) " . re the ....
of trade.. in t he lTe. During tM .e<;-
ond half of t"" 3, d century the p<>"=
of III)'ria !tad hc-R-un ' 0 in<.n.ot and
...ilh il l he art'tlpl't<:t' of ,"" piralCS-
None of ,he {; t eek "" e>. whote ...
power had decli ned tragically dunne
Ihe 3td wa. of deal ing
...-ith , he ,i, ultion Even .\\...edonia.
, he ,radi,ional peacekeer>or of thc ""nh.
..... both incaJlOlole .nd unwilJi"8 ' 0
int ........ . Rome ..........IUCIan' 10 he-
_"""" a ' lt ual ion which .....
n" mOle , han. minor
but und. r COn'tant pr...ure fro m l,. lian
merchan.. sailing"u' of I\rind i.i, ...-hose
calgOCS ... bei ng Io<>ted, ."" sent
.mbaHadnn to Ill)'" 10 advise ...._
'raint . IXlten thlS embau, ..... "'butJI
bl' the Ro....
in,.ded (229) and gai""d cont",l of t h..
part of JIIyria lying opposite Brindisi
which is roughl y oqui valen t '" the
c'OOS! of modern Albania. This wa,
Rome ', fint real acquisition
andopened t hegare, t(} the Greek penin-
sula. II I.-aS to he im,.luable in yea" to
come, In 2ZQ trouble again Hared up in
myri. whieh invol ved both lhe consuls
, nd was not ' enled until 2 19 The
scene wos now set for the momentous
.,'en" of 2 18 Be which plunged Rome
into the greatest war in her history, The
war with Hannihal i, the w",e"hed of
Romon mi litary his tory Rome entered
it as juS! another Mediterr.nean state
but emerged 16 years l.,er as the
greatest milit ar}' I",wcr in the worl d,
II was the climax of Rome' , military
achievement, Never was , he pUl
t" , ueh a tc."t
The p. epar a t io ns fo r . he
second war
Hannihal wa, d eCIed commander of the
Carthaginian in Spain in 2 2 1 Be.
He wa, about 26 years " ld, For yeats
his fat her Hamikar had dreamed of
C' mt inuing the war with Rome. With
hi, th ree sons, Hanni bal, Hasdrubal
and .\ lago, muS! have >a, up lare
many a night around tire
di,;eu"ing tactics and how the migbty
Roman legions could be '"
their knee,. In the'e di,cu"ions a
had begun to \X-'ilh
Ilamikar's deat h his plans were , u'-

Hi, Hasdrubal had been"
man of di plomacy hUI Hannihal was
ca" in the same mould as hi,
For yea" ' la re,'anc he' had been planned
and now, with most of Spa in secnre,
Ihe time of rccknning was approaching,
Doubtless if Hannihal had ocen in
in 225, he wou l,] have in_
vaded Italy dur ing the Ceil ic war , He
knew that if the Romans invaded Spain
they could ,upp"rt from m. ny
of the conquered tribe, whic h ",'ul d d"
great damage to lhe posi
tion. b -en if the C. rthaginian, won
they wOllld gain lilt le. On the ol her
hand, if he could march a Punic army
into h all' the , ituaIion would he re-
' -er",d .nd he c'ou ld expect support
from Rome', traditional
Ceils, Samnites and Elfu<cans, . nd ""
up the fedet ation and isolate
Rome Since th", war Rome hsd main-
tained undi , puted mastery of l he sea
But this was of litt le importance as
there was only one route IO the Po
"alley, ,,' hcre H.nnihal could expect
most support , . nd thal was hy land
Before he could all empt thi, he h. d to
ck.r up lhe coa" to the
I'yrenee, .
About z;okm nort h or
was the loft y hill to" of
Sagunt um (Sag-unlo) which cont rolled
ROME 275- t 40 BC
T HE GREAT WARS
the e""<lal route. It presented a .eriou.
threat to the line. of eommunication of
any army invading nort hern Spain, and
h. d to be taken. II was vilal to prevent
the Roman. from u.ing it "' a base and
it from the sea, In . ome way
lhat none of lhe ancient authors explain,
Sagumum, which was qokm "" ut h
of the Ebro, was " nder the protect ion of
Rome, It is possible lhat it had
links with Marseill., and thaI once
.gain it wa, the .\h"iliote, who had
canvassed Roman , ,, pport, Hannibal
can hO\'e been in no doubt that attacking
the town would m ntlier
with Rome For Hannihal ti ming ,,'as
all- imp<mant . He had to a"oid being
pre-empted by the Romans, who had
the abilit y to put an army into nort hern
Spain befor e he had I. unched his
,m'a",m
l n the me.nt ime il wa, imperative to
hi, pO'it io" in Spain, He
launched lWOcampaign.
highla nd., nort h-west a' far
.. the horders ()f mod em Portugal
Returning from the ""wnd of these
campaigns in the autu mn "f 220 ,
Hanni hal must have learned of Rome' ,
im'olvcment in Illyri a_ \'(' hen b<lth
consuh for the year were
commiued to thi , war he knew that hi,
opp"rtunity had arrived and launc'hed
hi, as,"ult on Sagunt um, From thi.
moment he wa< eommill ed IO the war,
There can be lin k doubt that th l> wa,
pan of an overall strategy Hannihal
mu" ha,'e alte. dy planned hi. march
on l taly; thi, was not ,,,mething that
could be done on the 'pur of rhe
momenl, as so many commcnl . ](m
hO" e but required
matc planning. The .. of SaguntUm
in 2 19 was the hr" of thi. plan, In
the . pring Hannibal a full-
,cale anack on the town and after an
eigh t _month , iege it fell ,
The Roma ns sent an ulti mat um to
Carthage, " ",as reieeted and war was
declared in the of 21S.
I n the autumn of 21 9 Hannibal hod
gone into winter quart er, al New
He had di, mi,,;ed hi. Spani. h

A '".ze'''0'' '" 9 C.,moq,","" . " ,,, hom.
";ump,,.t mooumont found ,n Tvn" " Th.
Cu ;"" i. p,pb, bl,- 01. ,1 The , " 'eld O"' he "9"'
" No" " Af,;o.o . nd prooobiv w" ",ed by
t ho l ,by Phoe n" ion ph. lan,
'"
IT ALY " I'll T il E W' EST ER" MEDITERR" " EAN
fOTc.... '0 '....i.o...n ,o...ns for ,he ,., n,tt
and prepared 10 han,J .,.,..". l he go.-ern_
ment of SPilin '0 hi. younge. br ot he.
Hud. ub..1.
He fin! tna<k prtpoOn,ion, for , ....
01 Coonha!tC. 'It'I'l<hng q'&50
Span"h ,nfan'ry. ca'.,.)ry 2nd
&70 >IiflllC" from lhe Ilalcaric i.lando
10 Africa. 1' I.... <kfe""" of Spain ....
Icl", hi. brorhn' wit h u. '5O infantry.
500 Ilalc:oric >I,fIllC", a.55O <::oval!)' and
a , elcphant>. 1bc IOCCIlrac}' of these
figurn, and ",hen, innte<l by
PoIyhill.....ho found ,lttm inscribed by
Hanni""l on bronze I. blet on , he
Lo.cini.n promontory in oouthcnt haly.
H. nn,""l "".,I .lready "",de oontaet
...i,h , .... Cdts in , 1'0 v.lley. lie ita<I
1.1"" ma..k <;Ofl'1.Cf i,h , Celticchicf.
in .Itt Alps '0en,ure hi fe pa'oage
thn"J Rh l he moun' .in. In lhe earl y
opnn... hi, m""""nRe" . elUrneJ to lell
him t ha' th" CdlO had promi",d hd p.
Hannihal no'" a" emhlcd a va" army
of 90,000 infant ry, U ,OOO cavalr y and
ahout 40 clcphonts and p.epared to
hulldoze his woy ,ht uulf h nort h.rn
Spain. Polybiu, do"s no' lI' i"e a break_
down of thi , army but it c"ntained the
nud"us with which Hanni""l intended
to invade It aly; t.... ,emaindcr must
have been expendable. It can ,he,dote
be calclllated ..'ith . e mable a" UTan""
tha, lIanni""l". a. my made up of
approxima,dy :>0,000 African infan,ry,
1OPOO Span"h inf.n,ry, 6,000 Swni _
dian cavalry an,J 6,000 Spani. h "",'alry,
the expe-ndable ekmen,a being Spani.h.
The "",jon'y o f ,Itt 't'OOP' lighting
f.,.- tltt <:.an""',n;'ns "'ffe foreign
"'""""""' There "-ao, hmo.",..". a
n",,1nn bOIh infanlry and cavalry
..Ito..-tte 01 half-aste Liby-Phooenician
Mod.. Thi. informa,ion i. given by
PoI)"bius , b,u he do<'s _ oay Ito..
many. The .n."", lie in ,he
l>arrad<. for :zo..ooo inf.n,ry .nd 4,000
ca,....ry ,,hich. "';x:olJng to ApptaIl,
_ b,,,I, into lhe ...U. ofCanhage. In
,he 4' h ""n,ury Canhage possessed.
ci'i""n fo= includ,ng S<:t'C'd Ba,-
,alion hich "'U a,500 st rong, bu, ,hi.
" 'as d,d nded af,er ,he def..,
a, ,he banle t>f t he Crimi.u. ri"er in 339
IIC, I't"<Im t hen ,m Cart hage enlm"ed
her defen,.., ent irely '0 mcrc'Cnar;e.
Unlil very rece ntl y not hing "...
known or Cart haginian ar mour , but in
t he Pl." fow ye. .. a monumen,al
,.,
build,ng h... been di"""''''Te<I a' Clttm-
' ou in T un"ia whieh ..'as decora,ffi
...ith frieze t>f cuir.....,.. and .hidds.
The cui......., which are ai m"," cer-
tainly "",ii, .re t>f the .ype worn by
Hd lmjS(ic offict-n, The . hield. are
oftwo typn : lhe .....1r""m tlKd by ,he
0.1,. and SpIlniud. ; .nd hilheno
unk"",,-n .....nd form """","'ha, simil..
10 tltt Arci'" . hidd bul wilh .n imct
..1 dioc and cun'C'<! rim, n..hcr
, han the .ngled lCClion of .he rim of
,he A..'...., ,hield. lltew .hield. are
.imil.r '0, he crudely depicre<l
dian .h"'ldhu..'n on Tnjan. Column
nd on African 1"......,"""" and
must ,ukly he the 'ype uoed by lhese
hoAc11len. 11""""0'. on l he Chem,,,,,
monumen, the}' ak ,I><,..'n in ,Itt form
of , roph",. an,J are OOviou.ly .upposed
to ",present ,..ptuk1! arm. T he monu-
ment i. prooahl y a "0/'<'0'<'" cdebu' ing
' he " ictory of the Numidi an. and t heir
Roman am", <lVcr the Cart hagin; an, i n
146 "':, If th.. i, , n t he rou nd shi eld ,
mU' l I:><: , h"'e u, ed b y t he Lih y-
Ph""n;,ian"
T he Liby-l'ho"nician infantryfOTmed
a Macedonian_, y!", phalanx OrRani..,d,
if Polyhius i. ' n be l aken literally. in,o
'P<i .",.. Whet her ont: accepts , hi. or not ,
il mu", ce"a, nly ha"e been composed of
uni.. of ,hIS .i"". The phalan.gil e would
hI."'" u.w tbe weaponry of ,he ' ypical
Hellenist ic infantryman. On OC>'eral
ncc",ion, Polyhiu' n:-fo... In lhe lightly
.......,.j pt kemm in Hannibal' , anny.
Thnc ........ ....,d to perform jobs
.-maIly rn,ri",od 'n ,Itt lightly armed
troops. On , he ..... hand ,hi,
n:-lIe<:t lhe tilthter armamml 01 lhe <nt
...nb; on ,he <liM. ,he fact that it " ...
onl) , he heavy piu ,har made the
pha!anl{i'ecumbc""""' , Af.... . hebanle
of T.............. (a l?) Hannibal armed
hi. Africans "';,h ,Itt ...... ohltt am>oUr
cap'urcd f...... , he RomaM_i .e. the
mail .h'n.-....:i l'C' PoIybtus ron,in"",
'0n:-fn '0 lillht-.nne<l pil<cmen, >he, -
iflll , hal ,hi. don noc impl}' tha' it .
light pIt. lan, .. 00 many ha"" .uppose<!.
On , he tculptod Carthagiruan
.hu..'n on p. no ,hen: i ".n<lard
cm..-ncd a dioc and c"""""n'. This
,}mbol'. r",,,lkn, . ppc_..""" .ulfll"'S"
tha' i, ......Itt "anda.d of Cart hage, It
canno, he a coi nci de "'."e , ha' the><
.ymhol. ap""ar <In Homan manipular
..anda.d. in the iml"' ria l period . nd
mi gh ' sURlle" , he orillin of !he Roman

The bulk of , he Car,haginian "my
was mad" up or f" re ign mercenaries.
T hey f",m many sources: Cells,
Sponia<d" II. le. , ;c i.lande" (who were
f.mou. for l heir l. igm ian. ,
half-c.. Greek. (mainly de..,ne...nd
m na.... ,Iavc'.) and lhe elemen,.
tltt A(ri""n. Can ha.,inian di ...
cipli"" must hoove been imposed ""
Abo A._ 0"''''''''''' (II. " "",oj,...,
_ 1>000<1 "" t ho ,,"..f< T"'j'o',
W ....., ,,," _,,,_'" P_. ,...
"""" '_bod.. "'" .., T,," _
__'" """"" t" ,," ...... 'hO
.............. ....., _ ..., log'" - ...
___. to ....
'Mh-......-... .......... ,__
____.buI __
,, __,___._.01._..
_ ..... ,_..
_ ......... e.:-...... _ ..
" __0f'C0 ..-, ' '""
too- .... s..on- _ CotI> ..... ,.,.,.., ..."..,
-.."... _.-
_ ....
........... ........ llC ..y ..,
__""T ".'- T,,"
__.... " "0 o><:eIlt _ " .
....... ,"" ''Il_," ,op"P", ""'....
,,01"'<""0 AIl_ t,," "' ''',''''''' '" ,,,"
" "' _ _ 01od. , _ ""
"'gpo< ' 0 poe ... T"" _ 0 w"h
,,, ,",, .01<10 '" , 0. "onh A'","" 'ypo Tho."
'''"''' mod by.,,,,,,,,1e,""" Nooth M,.o
"'"'p,"'"
troops IltId one ,"'OUld ""'e
npected , ban to ......e " nde-r Co,,"'-
lin;'n <>Ili<xn. i. i. dear
(tom PoIybi...' o.:,:' ""n' oi<g< oi
Lilyr-um, fin, Punic '"-ai' , t hat
m<nxnarics ..,rved "nd<: h<ir ""n
ufficen, .. tlot: . u!'<'no. m.,,,:-enory
offi.-e.. lried 10 ht:tray . Iot: t",,'n to , lot:
Romon. From Ih i. i, "'ould !lm , hat
.1>< Carthagian. only at
hanal ion level , much as . he Romano
"'et'e 10 do in the la,e' repuhlic. The
remarkable .ucce.. nf ll . nnihol, who.e
army 10" 50 per <'ent Celtic, is a great
tr ihute to ,he .y.tem, No
o" empt "' maJe ot unif"lmit y; each
...., ive group foughl in its o",n way and
had to he u>eJ 10 its m,
Han nibal'. rela. ion. hip ",i, h hi. troop>
..... . ema.....b... I n .pit< of lheiT
lIi,'cn<c bad<groutMh they .. ....-k "ilh
him fo.- 'S years " ';110 .......,r wh;"p-erof
mUl iny. T I>< ic"'''''''''''''' IWO)' told
by Dio<\<lnJs, . ...t In 20) Ie Hannibal
..ho" 'ould
I><lI crou over '0 ....frica "ith him, i\
f"J.." Hannibel <:oUld ......"..
Ito,.., . hir pc:d .....,.,.e ,han. fe..' of hi,
men .0 ....frie. u ht- had no ....vy, E''en
wi,h tl1 he wnuld not
C'\ClI pc:d b)' the Roman n:t,.y,
The Roman. probal'>ly t>lfered l erm. ' 0
the btll k of Hannibal' , . ,my wh ich had
Nen lef, heh ind and , hen , Iaoghtered
,hem
ROME Z7S-'4C111C
THE GREAT WAltS
Apon from . he .....
.1>< African '1'\Xlf'O tha, Cartbag(' f't-
cnU.ro in .""",n' numhcn " ..,..., , he
rernukabk Sumidian covall1' Numi-
dia roughly <:ot'Tnp<>ruh "ith noodo: rn
11M: camel had not )'et bn
in'rod....:cd in,o S onh Africa and tlot:
ho....., '"-IS ridden ""et'jo,...l><re , In fa"
I"" "'>mallie ,ri "",m<n livro on 1><....,-
bo<:k, T hey use<l no hridle or bi, and
TOole bar. had:, Like lhe lnJian. in
AmeTi. alhe}" made super b lighl caval ry,
In fae, ,hey We"'" good , h., wh,,,,vcr
contro[[oJ them would win a :.J"rlh
....fricon war, Sci pio Afci.anu, ' gr eate"
a. h;evcmen, wa' 10 persuade t he Nu-
miJian. l<I change , ide, at Ihe enJ of
t he "'ar ,,'it h H.nnibal, The .... ,
deci,i"e.
lll' l><n ., , he end of lhe znd ntul1'
Be Rom< be<:ame in.'oI. ro in a " '" ", ilh
,he Numidia"". ' hey PfO"<d "" hard .o
cnnq"'" ,ha, careen of more .Iton
one It........ JCncraI ended in humllla.
.ion bca...e 0( hi. inobi li.), 10 i nti""
deci.i\.., def"., on t hem.
co"al'}' ",."..e """leu ..
, ho<;k ' 1'\Xlf'O, b.n li ke . ht- A.:1oliam
" 'ere ' u!,<,rb in a olrirm;.h <W In , I><
pursUIl oi. fleeing e...my, ....t t he batik
of Cannoe .hey ""'I" u....ble '0 break
Rome', allied caval ry , but Ihe momom
that thi s had bn achie"ed by , he
Ce lt , ond the I'ur>uit ", as Icr,
10 t he Numidian.
",
ITALY AND T HE WEST ERN .\1EDlTERRAI' EAN
gr ou pcd under l he ge neral head ing of
Sp.ni,h in Ha nnibal' s .,my ,wor ds
men, i. velineers .nd T he
latt er <' ame from The Baleat ic i, land'
" ff the ea" ma" of Spain and werc
renowned for l heir ,kill i n
heav}' stone' , Polyhius " al e' ,n., t he
were wiTh a larg,
shield of Cd t i<' type " nd > , horr ,ul
and-t hrust sword, They wore , hoTt
white tunics bordered Wil h pur ple (by
,hi, he probably mean, cr im, on),
Scu lpl Ure, from Osuna in , ,,ulhem
Spain show "-"Trio" ,,-ho fit Polybiu,'
description well. A seoond type of
infant ry who were probably iaveli neers
are me"' ioned hy D; od oru, _ are
ar med wit h round shi eld' a" d "ppe"
to be the s.me as t he light ly ar med
troops c.lled w n rw i by C.e,.r, Li,'y
usc, l his wotd to describe !he pe lm",
of Philip V', ",my_ T he, e are ai'"
shown on l he O,una relids_ Their
shields h.-'e a eentr. 1 bms and ' hey
wear louse moics which come down to
ju<t above 'he
T he Sp,ni,h ,word gained immor_
mli'}' when il W", . dopted by t he
Romans, The ,word, glaJiw
"

)
)

,
wer e like mounted
pelt ,,". l"c'T; c wa, to dart in close
to the enemy, t hrow iaveli m and
then ret re.t, su re ne\-el to c" me
in,o co",acT. Again .nd the
Cart h"ginian' u, ed The to
d' aw enemies on to unf, vou rable ground
or into an amhush,
The N umid ian" . re !X'r trayed on
T rai"n', Column in Rome they
are seen I).c;.ns , T he ir horses
but a neck "r. p, The
r iders h"w a round ' hield . nd short
t unic but we"r no armour. Sample, of
iron ;.\'elin heads and " sword with a
hlade approxim. ,d y 60cm h. ve
been found in . 2nd.cent ur y tIC pr ince' s
gra\'e at b S"uma... in Ai ger i"_
,\fter lhe Afr icans t he s"ldiers mo<1
\,.Iued by ' he were the
Spaniar d" These were drawn fro m
' ou' h_ea<1e rn Spain and , hould more
exact ly he referred to a, C.e ltiocr iam _
mixt ure " I' Spanish and Cel' ic m,,'k.
Spanish infant ry and c.-'alry for med a
, mall bUT important pan of Hanniba l's
"rmy Of ' he 20 , 00::> infanTty who
rc", hed Italy, 8 ,00::> were Sp" ni,h
T here were t hree l yres of inf" nt r y
B. ,ow
12_15 SCulptu ' es " om O,un, In ""-"hi'"
Sp",o ' 2 wito Ce ll;C!'lDe , h,.16
.,,,, "" ,,,. cop. 13 C,p 01 " '" ,,"'" t,pe
,_ "''' '' O' wiT" SpaOI'" 1.le'" , , "
"oe'''' hoOO , S HoOO " I " ,oil'" t,De
, 6"''''''0' 'OOw' on , ""e hom l l'"
,
t c
,
Aoove
, 1 Tom"" o',e of , Sp. n,, " merc. n.,y 'how,og
h" , Cr <ld hel"",,- ,worOan" '''''' """ " "om
Tuol,; a
e
Abo","
Sp,""h we,pomv 4'" _lnd "',,",'., BC
1 A"'un,on, ' o.' vy ,"'" i' v. '," w" h b"""d
omnl f ,om Almed,o '''.
2 Pi lum t, ,," ,.,"'nhe,,, hom NcotU'Q'
3 S","he,d hom A' med'" ''''
4 " om Alm. dlolll, (CQldOb,)
5 Su.,go, (gliJdius
h, swmenN) " om Agoll., de Ang ul1a
6 100," Almed,",II .
7 Sp.n"h dagge, " om Nom, o,' ,
B '''d $oe" be'"
10 Ko'fe of ,h. 'V,," 10" WOS f" M '" , he
1, l e." ".o""d
All we,ooo, 'cole T'8
,
'"
ROME 275-<40 BG
THE GREAT WARS
Abov. ond I" h
21 Reeo' ''' "O' oo ot , S03n" h Inf" "ym,n 01
,ne "me of H. oniDa I H.oo",, 1",embled ,om<
70.000 SO, n" h ,"'.nt'y" t he "'" 0' hi,
c,mp.ign. h.s arm,-' moot exoend 'OI,
elomem He "",." , " new h(H)d "" ," """ohai'
", eS! . nd. w"i ,o tuoie I' imm.d " .t" cnm,oo
He " .,med w"h. Ca",be,i. n ,p,o.d "".1
,hieLd . 'pe".,"unioo , od 1,lear. He m, o"
."e, o" ,v",v h, v. ""'" "'" >1"'9' ,wo edged
Sp, ni, h ,wo,d
22 ,M 23 Two type, 0' S""oi, ,, ,o,m. OIl
found . , Ago," " , Anq"". ,n weth'''" S".io
A bo
20 R.con"ruc,ioo 0" SO""" "o, ,,, m. ,, af
, ne lime ot H" n' b. 1. H, ", e"" , ioow c, p
"n'" woi<e tuoie v iermed w,," O,m' OO H, i,
" med w"h . ' Gund G"",,, I Modg, iOs hi e'd
' p,,,, . no falca,.
Abo
11 " ' Ome figurine Q' 3'd con,u'y S""oi, h
"" ' '''1m" _"''"9' , ioo", c,o , nd " me"
", "h lOuM 'hi. ld ,ed 1,1",,,,. V. leooi. d, Don
Ju" " us" um, M, a"d
18 , ,"''' ".--IV of 11 ' hOW'h9 , " und 'h..ld
" "h ,en" , 1M,"'wiPona b'o,a ",,11
19 Sou'pt "' e 0' 0 110"" , ,,,,,,,,i09 i" b,ia li ng
, nd ",, ' d'. brao,"t F,om EI C'g." He,o. 41 h
"",tUI\I Be. 5' EC""''',dD Colleo .on. M,,,,,d
h" pani, mi" was the point ed ",,.,,,d ( ~ j .
However, tin: commone" t ype found
in Sp. in "'as the elegant cur ved fa/caw
(of) Thi , w" a cu t-and -t hr U'1 wC'pon.
T he average lengt h of " fa /caM hlade
wa, on ll-' 4s cm. It i, d car frn m a frag-
ment of a statue (not shown here) t ha,
Ihe sword was suspended on t he left
side. The, e ' wotd, ",metime, h.d
,hon knife .,tac'hed to t he , c.bhard
A l.rge numbe r of d. ggers ha\'e also
been fou nd (6, 7). T hese are t he fore---
r UnnelS of t he Roman dagger T he
Sp-.mi,h al,o u,ed shon pilum but t he
mo,t ext ra,,,dinary "'e. pon was the
,mmion I '), T his was. barbed javelin
made emi rel )' of iron,
Some of , he ,o ldie" on , he O, una
rdid, ar c wear ing a most st r iking
cre"cd he.dgear, T he Greek geogra-
pher S, r" bo tells u, l ha, ,he I berians
wore cap' of , inew f hi, i, mo" likd}'
what i, , hown here T he ere" prove'
t h. t il c.nn", be the soldiers' hair.
These hoods are very similar 10 t hose
shown On sculpt ures found in , outh
we" France (s"e p. '22). The G' p'
shown on u and I } seem to be a , impli-
fi ed versIon of these hoods, T hese are
'"
ITALY TilE WESTERN MEDl T ERRANEAN
worn by the A few bron7.c
belmet, have heen found, but they arc
\'ery ra",
Spanish cavalr y, like 'hal of l he
Roman< and Cell', i' rather m nfu,ing
to a modern reacler for it is quite dca'
lhal l hese horsemen ofte n dismounted
and fougbt on foot , Sometimes a horne
would carry two ancl w(}uJc!
jump <>if to figbt T he Sp.ni,b hor, e_
man used a small round , hield wi'h a
ha ndgri p IikerhaIof the IU.<
(, ee ' 7 and . 8, p.
rider i' like an infantry-
man and appears '0 the
sametype of headgear. I n hi, righ' h. nd
be hold' a/alca,a.
borse (19) , ho w, l he bridling and
a .addle blanker held in plac'e by a girt h
slr ap. Slatues also sometimes ,how rhe
Hellenist ic type of saddle. Horscbirs
are u;ually of [he sname type and come
in many fonn,. ring ( z}) and cre; -
cent (zz) types are l he most common.
II is dear from the many representa-
ti(}n;of elephants on coins
'ho' war used hy lhe
Puni,' .rmie, were Afric.n. T he C.r-
th. ginian' hunted the fore" elephan'
in I>Iorocco and . lso on t he edge of the
de,ert at the ""'is of Ghad.mes
some 800km so u, h of C.rth.ge. T he,e
elepha nts were introduced du, ing rhe
first war wllh Rome at the li me of the
'iege of Agt igento in 262 8t: and were
used inf. ntry a, well as caval ry,
T hey shattered ' he Roman morale and
for a long lime the Romans would not
face them, Tbey won burel, in
255 tmmpkd Regulus'
legion' in' o the dU81 on the B.grodas
plains Fi nally, d"' ing lhe siege of
Paler mo in the Romans caplured
some of lhese heast' and " , regained
' heir confidence. The'e elephants, like
the larger African bu,h elephant , hod .
saddle b.ck .nd th" Carlh'!finiam rode
l hem like a hmsc.
Having ,ubjugated l he area north of
lhe Eb ro, llannib. 1 left H.nno 'here
Wilh . g.rri",n of to,OOO foo' and J,OOO
ho"e 10 keep lhe road open, Leaving
behind . 1I ' he he.,'y haggage, induding
his siege equipmen' , he pu, heJ on
.cro" 'he Pyrence' wi' h so,OOOinfantry,
abou' 9,000 cavalr y and the elephant s,
T he Romans also planned 10
the war o\' erse. s on two fronts, and
two cons ul' for 2t X 8e drew lots fm
their pnwinccs. Tihe,iu, Sempronius
Longu' drew Af'iea .nd l'ublius
Corneliu, Sci pio drew Spain. \'\' hilst
enrolling thei r legion; the y ga\'"
for l he "'t.bli,hment of ' wo ",lonies in
Po valley at C,emona and Placent ia,
Each of l hese reui\'ed . boUI 6,000
colonist s who ordered to report
, bere wit hin 30 day' , The two colonies
had hardl y heen e' tahli ,hed when the
Roii and Ins ttbres, in .tlticipal ion of
Abov.
Tn. ,e",,' ," of. co< n jmm the
"me of H, en,bo' '''''''''09 '" Af"e," el.oM01,
. " "y ,de"" f;. ble by '" " ,ge eO', . nd " Mle
wek. f . om ( ",.ge"
Be' ow
Map '''"'''' ''"9 ,"e camp" go o' Se'"'o ,od
H, on,b. I ;" the .uWm" 01 8 (, T"" Po
vallev oil<! onl, I"" """n cooQ",,'Od bv,he
Rom, ,,, woo o,d e" 3bl,,_ ,wo new colon''''
., P'"',m,, aM C,.moo.
,"
Hannibal's arrivaL rose in re" olt and
anacked the legion thaI was slalioned
lhete under lhe command of a praetor
Polyhim rders 10 this legion", the
fourth. It can therefor e only b<: l he
legion of thaI number from the previous
year which must have been otdeted 10
winteT in Po A, this i, lhe
hr, t legion ment ioned in connection
",il h lhi , war, for l he , ake of d arit y it
",ill be called lhe fir", and all , ubse-
quent wiJJ b<: numb<:Ted
"uti" ely in the ordeT of their enrolment ,
h is possi ble lhat Hannibal engin-
eered the GaJJic revolt 10 h"ld up
S<'ipio' , preparati ons. T he consul wa,
obliged to dispat<-h one of the legions
he was enrolling (t he second) to the Po
"alley and raise a replaeemenl from lhe
allie<.
Roma n, ' manp"wcr rc,ou",s
werc enormous, and lhcsc were 10bc the
decIsive fae,or in lhe war , During the
threa, of the Gallie in" .,ion in 226 lhe
Senalc had o" Jcreel a survey of
n;",urc", which lOa, Teco rdcd by 1'011' _
bius, T his showed that Rome could
dra", upon a pool of 700,000 infantry
anel 70,000 <' avalry , Of l hese 150,000
infant ry and "a'-aITy "arne from
the regions of Samnium, Lueania and
Calabria, all lhree of which were IOSI
to Romans ,he hallic of
Cann.e.
It was early summer before the two
armIes , et oul. Longus, with t OO
saileel for Lilybaeum in
Sicily wil h his l wo legion" l hc l hird
and fourt h, ready for lhe inva, ion of
Africa. Sci pio, with 60 galley" sailed
along lhe cooS! of Liguria 10 Marseille,
>TIel dmppcd anchm off lhe
mouth of the Rh(me with the hft b and
, ixth legions ,
The m a r ch t o Ital y
H. nnibal' , roule fT<Jm Spai n to h all' i,
a ' ubjec, of fierce contention, I have
' pent many year> tracking down the
",riou, possible mule, and hn c con_
cluded l bal, wilh lhe exception of a
considerable deviation al tho beginning
of hi, march into l he Alp, he wa,
"ying to lo, e Scipio's army, Hanni bal
"'ok the slraighlf",ward route from
Spain 10 Po valley , up lhe vall.. of
lhe Duran"e and down the ,'allev ,i'he
Dnra Ripar ia 10 the ate. of T urin
A reconstr uction of t hi, cr",sing is
given first , wit h a full in
ju" ification" the end,
Scipio had arr ived al the mouth of the
Rhfme whi le Hanni bal wa' ., ill hghting
hi, way nort hern Spain, Here
he ",aited for intelligence of lhe , ilUa-
lion north of l he Ebro. He knew tha I
Hannibal had crossed l he river , hut
lacki ng rel iable intelligence he felt
una ble to all empt a landing, The nex,
informalion ,h., Scipi o m :ei,'ed wo>
thaI Hannihal had cTossed the Pyr ence,
and was advancing across ,outhern
Gaul, apparently to att ack Marseilles
and knock Oul Rome', halfway home
Scipio de<:ided '" remain where he wa,
and meel the invader i n fr iendly terr i
tory, wil h Marseilles behind him and
wilhoUI his line, of
communication with hall'
Hannibal, meanwhile, was following
lhe coast ro.d loward, lhe RhOne, This
road skirt ed l he m. rshy COast a, far .,
Lunel , where il vttred north_ea" to_
w.rds Nlme, '" avoi d lhe marshe, of
the RhOne delta before turning due
east to approach the at
From hete the road foJJowcd the ' -alley
of ,he Durance in lo the Alp" crossed
MontgenevTe pa" and descended
l he ,-alley of lhe Dora Riparia into
Italy. Hannibal's spies had infor med
him tha, Scipio wa, "' lhe mouth of t be
Rht>ne, and in order to .void encount er-
ing him while he was to cross , he
river he continued in a
planning 10 cwss ncar ;>,vig_
non and <!, plae'e the ri"er Durance,
whic h ft owed into the eastern side of
the RhOne, between him,elf and Scipi o.
On reaChing riw r the Cart ha-
ginian< bo ught up all the a,'ail able craft ,
of there was a great number as
the natives carri ed on a m.ritime trade ,
In l WO da y, , hey h. d coJJe<',ed a va"
number but hy now the far bank of l he
river wa, lh ronged wit h hoolile natives,
Hannibal re. lised tha, he could nO!
make l he crossing in taee of m ch
formi dahle op!"" it ion, and on t he lhird
night atier his arr ival , e", off a delach-
ment of his army wilh guide, 1<l
cross further upstream, T he,e , oldiers
marched alxlUl 40km up the ri"er and
"Tossed whe'e il di,' ided, forming an
island. He,e they rested for a Jay, "
look them a furt her lwo nights 1<> gel
imu po,ilion '" all ack ,he for"e on ' he
east side of the river.
ROME 275-!40 Be
THE GREAT WARS
A lill ie hdorc dawn on the fifth nighl
H. nnib. 1embarked his men, filling l he
hoo" with his and l he
canoe, with his liglu infan" y T he
lorger boa" were pla<'ed upstre. m to
break l he curr enl. T wo men al the back
"f cae'h hoot held the lead rein< of ,is
or seven horses which were to swim
behind,
barharians , aw lhe
Carl haginians to croo>, the;-
poured out of l heir camp and thmnged
,he river oonk Ih soon as lhe pre-
arranged smoke signal appeared on the
op pmite bank, Hanni b. 1 or dereel hi,
soldiers 10 pull out l he curr ent ,
T he reS! of l he army cheere d on their
comrad.. whil" the natives on the f.r
hank 'C'rcamed l heir war erie, and
pranced around br. ndishing their
sword, and bragging oft beir pa' t deeds.
As l he ooats the shore, part
of lhe det. ehme nl already on the far
, ide of l he river a!lacked lhe Ceils in
lhe rcar whilst lhe rest SCI fire to ,heir
deserted camp. T.ken "omplclcly by
, urprise the barha rian< Hed, lhe
landing unop!"l",d,
During lhe remainder of day
Hannibal managed w gel the reS! of hi,
men acru" . nd pil<'hed "amp on the
eaS! hank of lhe river. There remained
only the problem of gell ing the ele-
ph. nts across lhe Rhone. T he following
morning he di'pat<;hed 500 of hi,
!'>: umidian c'aval, y with orders 10 eros,
lhe Durance and check the whereabout<
and numbe" of l he Romans
Meanwhile Cchic chieft ai ns
who had ","'sed l he Alps 10 meet l he
army we' e introduced 10 lhe soldie".
They the trOOp', telling
them of the welcome and lhe Ixx,ty lhat
. w.i,ed them beyond l he Alps, and
pfOmi'ed 10 lead them by an ea,y wule
across ,he mountains, Amid conHicting
Teport' Scipio had , ent our his c",'alry
I<> reconnoitre. When the Kumidians
encountered them lhey naturally wilh_
drew at to p speed to repofl to Hannibal.
T he c. ,'alr y, interpreting lhi ,
wit hdrawal a, Highl, claimed a ,' ietory
and pursued the :-J umidian, to within
sight of the camp on lh e ea" ,ide of the
Rh6ne befor e returning at to p speed to
make a Teport lu Sdpio,
Hannibal , b<:lie,-ing lhat his !'>: umi
dians had fallen in wil h lhe
, a een advanci ng ahe.d of the k gio""
'B
ITALY Al" D THE WEST ERN MEDI T EIl.RANEAN
" '210 '0 mne. '1ui<k dcci01Ofl , II
,,-as euenlw ' " hi. "'-cnl1 OI",'eK}' ,"",
",""hc-d Italy hIS urn}' in'-.;'l .
He could no! . lford '0n .k """Ie in
Roo.., valley. Full}' . ......re
rou" ...-as "","' ou, of 'he
qUC5,ion. .1"" f.,.li>Cd ''''', i' ..... .
imper,",i"e ,''''' Iooc Sdri". So he
ordered hi. infantry, ,,-i,h ,h. hlllQlllll"
' '''in. 10 pre.. on up Ihe RMnc a, lin'
lithl , He ,hen <I re'" "ul hio (a"al ry
'he north hank (Of 'he
wi' h OTdcro'0""I' ' he Rom. ns ...".int
'he , i,cr. \X'i,h their p"'irion
' hc)' oc' . hou ' lhe ckph.n"

T h. d ephant' "'-CT, ' err iliC<! of th.
ra' t-flowing river which i. betWocn
200 and 500m wid . Th...pf'<' n had
huilt . number of VCTY " ,lid r.f.. ohl>..,
,."en metre' wide, T he}' Ihcd tWO of
these toget her , ide hy . ide and m,,,,.cd
thcm 10 the rive' bank, By p.i"
."
Bol o w
Tho _ "" t>e"'11 ,,_0<''''' ,... -...
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and "'_..,,_.... ,. 'h." Quo" _ ' ...
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ITALY T HE WESTERS MEDI T ERRA:SEAN
pas""d t ne Cel 'I rongnold' aI
and Embrun which had been pai d off
(he previous winter and was approach-
ing t he junction of (hc (iuil . Here t he}'
were met by native" fmm higher up tht
"alley, olive branche, and
wrea, h, a, signs of friendsh ip, T hese
were pmhal>l y wi llow which
arc plenti ful in t l> i, area wherea, oli.'e
lree s are not . The nali, 'c, otfereJ 'n
guide the . rmy along t he part icu -
larl y difficult st retch of l he roUle ,
Hannil>al wa, , mpicious bUI felt il be st
to (I> eir offcr. A, a precaut ion
he placed lhe ca"alry.t (I> e head of (he
co lumn and l he infant r y at t he
wi (1) , he I>aggage t rain in (he ce ntre
For , everal day' (he ar my had been
marching l hrough open I>U(
now the mountains began to in
again . On (he eighlh day of the .,,;ent
t hey the poim ju,t nor t h of
modern I'Ar gcnti ere_I. _lk osee, where
t he Durance passe, t h' ough a narr ow
gorge, Here t he road take , to the hill_
, ide' and once more lhe lroop, were
, t ru ng out along a narrOw path,
T he ar my wa, carr ying wit h it an
imme nse amount of gold Hl P" y for lhe
mer cenarie' Hannib" 1 planned 10 hire
in Italy, For t hi, "'as l><: ing
conveyed by lhe Af, ican infant r y. Tbe
nal i,'" had obviou sly got wind of lhi,
anJ c'ho,e t hi, spot for an amhu, h,
\X' hen t he and mU<'h of t he
were alr eady t hrough lhe mo,t
diffi cull seclion of t he g<>t ge , lhey
attadeJ fw m ground, lh row
ing slone' anJ Hllhng hou ldns Jown
the hillside. Beyond t he go,ge l he road
ag. in descends 10 (he valley, bUl here "
huge meky 'pUT iut, oul from (he
eastern ,ide, k ",'ing <mly a narmw
pass.,o;e. When t he cava lry and l>aggage
had passed ,his point and was
l><:ginning l() fall, Cells charged
down into thc vaHey, t he army
in half and leavi ng lhe infa nt ry, and
Hannibal Wilh it , trapped in the defile ,
T he nighl wos spent among the b..e
rocb. On the following morning, in
fear of t he ( n e Cd t, wi,hdrew
and t he ar my drag,o;ed itself \l P to the
broad open summil of t he pass w me
20km away. Here t hey encamped for
twO Jays to allow slragglers l()
catch up. The ascent had taken t he
Pu nic ar my ninc days.
Snow had alr eady gat hered on lhe
summit and m",ale was very low, To
raise their 'piTi" Hannibal poi nled
down the other , ide of 'hc pass t" ward,
h all', indi cati n,o; nol onl y t he di, en ion
of t he Po valley, where t h. Celts
awaitcd t hem, hot also l hat of Rome
itself. In later year<, ,hei r memories
undoubledly c1o\lded hy (he lrauma of
t hei r lhe soldieTS belie"ed
t h"t t hey h. d act ually been able to see
hall' and even Rome itself fr om lhe
w p of t hepass,
The nex, day t he ar my b,,,k,
<'amp and l><: gan , he descent. T he pat h
was naHOWand once "gain ,hey haJ to
pass lhe edge ()f a ravinc. Fro, h
fall, of ,now had covered the lrack and
all who t he ir fOOli ng were
da,hed he.dlong down t he precipice,
In pl aces fresh , now had f. llen on "'p
of lhe snow which remained h om tho
previous wi nter Here l he " ,ld ie,,' feet
a . t" ",
The Me 01the '00000 w,,,,,.
t ho D""o"" p" "" ,hrough , 0." O'W " O'go
The ",." . ' pu. i, on lhe ' . ft. Thi , wos
"'hero H.o' ib, I, " my wos 00' ,n 'wo by'
d.,. , mi """ C.., ie .ttack
'unk through the thin ,'-",ering of fresh
, now and slid on the packed snow
beneath, In contrast the hoove, of the
nim.l, broke through the packed
,now .nd they b<ocame trapped there
Funher down prohlems multiplied "s
the path h.d been carried away by
land, lip over a distance of 300m.
Hannib.1 .n
but thi , pro\'ed impassable .nd the army
"'as forced to camp along the ridge
while the road wos rebuilt. The Numi_
dian, wne , el to wmk in rdays and
",ithin a da;- they had made a path
suffi oiently wide to get the horses and
pack ,n,mals down. These were turned
Il ut t<l on l he lower ground,
wos free from snllW, but il was
another three day, and freezing nights
before ,he road wa, wide enough to get
the elephants , no"
From the foot of lh e the
going was comparatively easy alld three
da)', later the ragged remnants of the
great arm;- ' hat had sel ou, from Car-
tagena five mont hs befor e >laggered
imo the valley of the Po.
The cli mate
Before Hannibal's route
l hmugh ,,"'t hem Gaul and aw)!;s the
.-\I!", olle must cIima,e of
the period in ordn t<l jU>tify
[aktng Hannibal over a , 'ery high pa'S,
it has t><."n claimed thot,he climate was
mu,h the same a, il i. toda;-. B UI i, thi ,
claim justi fied,
In 1966 selttted papers of the djs -
m..eoroloRist H, H, Lamb
were publi,hed under the litle The
Ciumg;ng The", give u, a
differem picture of climatic conditions
in the of lIannibal and are of
particular , 'alue a, auth"r had no
interest in Hannibal's cro" ing of the
Alp" In brief this is Lamb' s pict ure of
in ,he pre- historic and anciem
period,. 4000 and 2000 BC,
in the wake of the ret reati ng ice of the
I."glacial epoch, there wa, a warm dry
Ikfiod known as the 'post -glacial cli-
matic oplimum', Outi ng thi , ,ime lhe
wor ld temperature ro,e to 2-3
Centigrade above the p'e,em nmm.
In l he , ucceeding mi llennium, how-
cyer, the dim" e
Iktween '/00 and 5= tIC the tem_
perature fell rapidly to abou, 3 degree'
CemlRrade below its presem level. Thi,
wa, f"lIowed by heayy ,ain. T he rain-
fall rcacheel hcigh" ullknown , ince the
lee Age. [n the sou thern Medi terranean
the arid land blossomed, but what was a
blessing for Greece, It .ly and Spain
wa' a di, a"er for the rc,t of Europe
r he rainfall reac hcd a di max about
400 Be. At first the lowlands became
mar,hy, then the y flood ed, T he pre-
hi, w ric tr ack; impa" able and
Iran' !,,"t \I) The much
lower temperature not onl y caused a
lower rate of evapotation al low Ie\' els
but also caused a , imilar dttrea,ed rate
of de_i c' ing at high A, a
whik the marshes adva nced m t he
valleys l he glacier, increased on the
heights.
I n Switzerland the eI\ormou' rainfall
thxled the II<x1en,ee " )Se ten
metres, an almost in,'redibk amoum
when it is consi dered thot it feed, the
Rhine. T he lake dwe ller, were for ced
to aba ndon their \'illage, and
ret urned. .... II over Eumpe tribe, d riven
from l heir homelands began to move
,ou,hward" breaki nR in a , uccession
of on Europe.
Celtic j"""ion of Spain and h all' w'"
the most stri king result of thi s move-
memo T hi, mi Rtali on wos not halted
unl il the conq uest of Gaul by in
the "t cent ur,' He. hom thi, period
on \\'ards there was a gradual increase in
temperature which reached a climax
betwee n H= and 1000 AU, The tem_
perature then began to drop again,
on the ' Littk lee Age' which
occupied the period between the t 6th
and 19th centurie, .
It is q<tite meallillgless to
examples of medieval mine" or for
that malter Roman one, that have been
,mcovered by the retreat of the glaciers
an er the ' Li ll Ie Ice Age' , as there i,
now no that lhe temperat ure
d<tring the Roman empire and later
w" warmer.
The situalion in the 17th cent ur y
wa, pmbahl;- 'luite , i milar II) l h" of
Hannibal', time. Polybiu, him, elf ,up_
pon, this when he says that the pa"es
of ,he Alp, were snow- covered all the
, 'ear round Thi , statement ha, to
refer to the lowe", passes a, are
the one, that must have been tn use.
lie .1'0 tells of ftoocled marshlands
Florence which Hannibal had to
cm" when he invadeel eentral Ita ly in
RO."I E 275-\40 Be
THE GREAT WARS
217. All this filS in well with Lamb',
descri ption. It is again" ,hi, hack_
ground thaI One must examine Han_
nibal', route to It aly.
The historians
T here ha\'e h<oen many acccltlnts of
Hannibal's march from Spain to It aly.
Each "fthe' e, wi,h its own axe to grind,
take, Hannibal by a different mute. The
quality of t hese account> \'ari es from
the , cholarly to the ridiculom , T he
C"tntnerllaWrs yary widel,' and
suc h people a, Mark Twain, Napolel>n
and Sir Gavin de Heer, who was once
Director of the Natural Hi,wry
Mu>eum in London. The aUlh"r ha,
'pent many ;-ears tracking down th" e
various itineraries and feels that the
time i, ripe for a new approach to lhese
'ludi""
Both Pol ybi u, and Livy gi\'C an
accc'unt of the CfO" ing. It i, gellerally
agreed ,hat Li\'y's ,"coull! i, corrup,
and that he is pmbably mi xing two
c<mlradictmy , ource, . h i, impo" ible
to rccon,'ile l'olybi<t s and Livy, Li vy' ,
acco"nt h.. therefore been reieCled and
l his study i, based exclu, ively <m
PI>I,' bi<t,
Hefor e beginning a study of
Hannibal's march all commentalor,
should carefully read Polyb,us lll, 47,
6_12. In thi, pa" age the hi't(}ri an
di, mi" es all claim, that Hannib.l used
an unknown pa" , got lost or took an
difficult mute. He al, o says
' hat he him, d f had in, peeled the
pa"age of the Alp" '10 learn for myself
a"d sec' . Pol ybi", f"" her ' tate, l hal he
Call no !")int in pia,,,,,
with name, that \\'ill mean noth ing to
hi, reade ". It therefore follows that
when he doe, name a place it wa,
ce". inly well_known w l he (;reek,.
and conversely when he d,,,,, not name
a place, it i, for the simple reason that
no well-known place \\ as there ,
The r o ute. f rom Spain.o It aly
At the ti me of Hannibal there were two
main routes linkinR It al}' and Spain.
The, e were famili ar to the ancien" a,
mute' of One
1>1' the, e r"ule' led from T uscany along
lhe Lig<t,ian coast, The ol her
l he Alps from l he Po Yalle;- ' wo
mutes mel a' t he Rh" ne, which they
m"",d at Beaucairc-Tarascnn, and
'"
ITALY AND THE \1? li STERN .\ IEDITERRANEAN
then contin ued along ,hc COa >! l()
Spain. T ho route over the Alp, to Spain
was superseded in about itS BC hy the
Rom. n Vi. Domi li a. This poses the
que"ion weTe the Vi. Domiti nd the
Tome of one and the , arne '
T he suggest ion that t he Romans eut
an en, irely new route through the Alps
when they buill the Via Dmnitia is
d early ludicrou,. T bi, wa, neither
nor the lhmlan way T he
easiest way would have . Iready been
e".bli, hed hy " .vellers and merchants
who had ' ",dden thi, route for ttn-
lUries. The Romans would merdy have
improved and paved what was . lrc. d y
there. T his ro.d is the lowest , widesl
md eas;est TOu te thTt)ugh the Alp<;, I!
is also the shonest mute to the Po
"alley T ra\-d ling along ,he Via Dom-
ili. t he distance from Kime" on the
we" side of the Rhone, to C., .le Mon-
fe rrato, in the Po valloy where an the
toutes would meet, is 481km, The
,hone>! toute via the Col de Larche is
appr",i matd y 500km. Travelli ng up
the lsere '-alley and over the I.ittle St
Bornard, the C1apier or thc .\10nt
Cenis passes would stretch the distance
to over 6ookm. The,e are all the low
passes in the westeTn Alp;. T hese
fi gures OffOTa simpk cxplanat ion of the
route followed by tho Vi. l)<lmitia
For preei, dy the ;ame reasons the
toute of Hercule, must have foll owed
the ,ame cou" e. The rou'e from
Tar",con IS studded wilh Celt ,,-
l. iguri an wwn, . nd orpida, Segustero
(Si>leron), Cat uri ge' (Ch",ge,), Ebllro-
dun um (Embru n), Brig. ntio (BTian, on)
on ,he western side of the pa" and
Segu' io (Sma) on t he eastorn side . 11
have Cd tic n. mes and thelefore mll st
ha"e been l heTe hd ' >re the Roma'"
built their roule There were abo
oppida ncar Apt and Mom Dauphin
and two mm e octween Manosque .nd
Si'leron Thc,e foc'u,,, make Out an
c",e fm the exi>!cnce
of a pre- Roman route along the Via
Dom,tia
T ho pseudo Aristolle writing in ,he
second h. lf of ,he l rd BC _
loft
Th<> d<>s<eo, ',om the Mon' gen" v," p",
fol>o,.,. iog the p,"cipito", _cent there is,
perm"en' '. nd, """ or,. where '0' rno<:lom
road i, prQ,ectod t>y , ,,,nc r." CO""""
(I,tt ' M m,,,,-," of p'c'u" l
alx,ut the time of Ilannih. l_ mnl'Trm
thi , whcn he rcree. t() an Alpi ne route
on which one h, d to pay" toll to the
CdlO-Liguri, n people living along it.
J"hi, mu" be a Tefere nce 10 the , arne
sou, hern route, a, the l. iguTian, c" uld
hardl y oc e(}nnected with a nOr( her n
mute. It may the refore be st ; ted t h.t
thore wa' a wd l_k nown rOU,e from
Spain a CTOSS t he Alps u' Ita l;- which
",as in use "t the time of Hannihal and
that it followed the same route a, the
Roma n Via Domitia.
Pul ybius' tbr ee poi n'.
In hi, accoum of ,he journey from the
Pj-"Tenee' to the Po valley Polybius gives
u. three the hrSl i, the
roaJ from the Pyronees 10 the Rh6 ne;
the 'ec"nd i, a >!t etch of land called the
' Island' whi<' h lie, he tween the RhOne
and one of its trihU,"Tie" anJ the thirJ
i, the pass by which Ha nnibal entered
h al)' . Pol}'him gives. graphic descTip-
tion of the , ccond and ,hird check-
point s .nd idemifi e, , he Ii",-
I. The road t o the Rhone
Whon H. nnibal planned hi, inva, ion
of It. ly there ean be lill ie douht t hat he
intended ,,, u,e the routo of Hercule,
acTt'" tbe Alp, u, re. ch the 1'0 valley_
During the winter of BC the
tri bes the roUle WeTC conlacted
and paid ()If,
Very lin k can he ",id ()f Il.nnibars
march over the Pj'Tcnee., but aCross
, outhern Gaul we ar c on much ' UTeT
ground. Polybiu> says that tho road
from Spain to the ri,-e r Rho ne was
carefully me",uTed hy the Koman< and
markod off with mi!cwmes. Here he
unintentionally gives us an invaluable
of infmnu,ion, for hc is Slating
t hat Hannihal wa' on the , arne mute
as that lalor used by lhe Roman, . He is
" . ti ng thaI, as us ual , l he Romans had
merd y pa,-ed and mea, ure d the pre-
hi' tori c rou le when the y built the
famous Via Domit ia "'est of tho Rh6 ne.
Thi, mea, "ring of the ro.d has c. used
,,) me controve", ,- as it wa, huil, h}'
( in.eu, Il omil io, Ahe noharbu, in
tl( , which is very closo to the d. te of
Polybius' death, lIow",'er, many
' chob", oclieve tha' thi, pa" age i,
authentic .nd was pTOhably in, ere ed hy
the historian shortl y before his de. th
(d. F. \X'alhank, Commm lOry on
ROME 2" 5-140 RC
T H E G REAT WARS
l'o(,'biu' Vol. ! , p. 373 and Vol, []!,
p. 76h), rOule of t he Roman t o. d
can be d early traC'ed on the we>!ern
, ide orthe Rh6ne between ....I,mt pdlier
and Nimes. Here it follows the ridge
of high gTound ; kirl ing ,he coasta l
ma"he, .bout nine kilome tTe' from the
pre, ent coa.lI ino. \X' hen we take into
acrot",t the clim. t ic condition, de, -
cribed above, the posit ion of the road is
n", ' urpri' ing. E.'en tod. ;, the coast is
m. " hy Tbe ,'oa" line i, constan,l}'
as the Rhone bring. down an
estim.ted 20,000,000 tonnes of sill
Most of t bi, i, caTried westward,
fmming red, . nd lag()()n, . 11 w. y
along the to Spain. I n prehi" ClTic
tim.. the coast would have beon milc h
nearcr , he road,
Polyhi m gi,-e' us , et of Jistances
l m t be maTch. Cnfonu natdy l he, e aTe
very ' . guo and are only . pproxi
mations, The)' are given correc"t to the
neare>! 200 st ad". lie gives distanco,
for each part of the mut e which when
. dded up gi"e a total d," anc'e or 8,400
,.,,,d,, from New to It aly,
!-l ()wever, ebewhere he g,,'e, ,he dist -
anC' e a' 9 ,000. T hi, is prohahly hecause
his breakdo,,-n fi guTe. were . lway' an
undorestim. te, prompt ing hi m to add a
litt le at the end ", make up for it. When
de, ,,,ihing the road fmm Spain to the
river Rh6ne, Polybiu, commenl, l hat
the Romans had measurod it ,,-i l h a
mil " l,",. c,'ery eight <1",1.
I' m ,he period all ,he
gi,-en by Polybim aTe In
mu lt iple. of eight .<lades T he only
possi ble conclusion is that he is using a
Roman source and at
Slade< to mile, i.e. 200 <lad = C.
37krn, and not 8i a, " , many others
have done, Polybius' com'e" ion i. u, ed
horo,
Polybiu' tdls "' that H.nni bal
eTO"ed the Rh"ne it i, , ingle at a
distance of about four day' from
the sea, He also refe" to the large
number of forr \' boat' that Ha nnihal
wa' .hle to buy,
The CTo" ing point i, hot ly deha ted
T ho rea,on fo, thi, dohat e i. qui te
simple. After lhe Rhi\ne,
Hannihal maTched up the river for four
day, '0 a place called , he 'Island' , So
each of the conte' ta n" in the de hatc
has to move , he crossing to ' ult
hi, choice for t he ' Isla"d' .
'"
I TALY A:-!U TH 10 " ' E S T E R ~ M , EDlTERRAN"A . N
Polj'biut ' rcf"..,nce to ' abou, four
day,,' march from tltc oeo' it no! helpful.
h is dJifocuh II. ,hal Ite it 11.. "8
thi, n a _urcmmt from , Ite mou,h
of ,be R"'- '0 , be c:rown8 poi n,. h
mll$l Ihtrcf...., he a rflCTCl'In ' 0 . he
point when- ,he a....y loa. " , h. of lhe
"""-- Tlut poin. may be 10Clued ncar old
Lund, for ..... of Ihis poon. ,
abou, 5oI<m from lkaUQIJr", .he RhDn.<
delta thru......... into t he tel.
II'" Qff abo disooum ,be s.ugation
'ha' ,be army Jef, , be 00I0Sf. I' Aiguco
Monn . PoIyblus mak... U qui'e ck2r
Iltat lbe army ..a. on . he Via Domitia.
To reach Aill'un ,\tonn it ..""ld have
bc<;n nn......ary 10 ,6lrn """, h
before "an;n, back """.td.,1K RhOne.
A funhet problem i. r<cd hj' the
prcei.., e.tenl of . day'. ma.ch. Al only
on<: poin' in Poly!>iu,' acc"OUn, i. a
marching I'"c"" liven, )u.1bef",c begin_
ning Ihe ..cenl we learn ,h., the ar my
matched lIoo IIcJd.. i n ten da\" , Allow-
ing fur ",'..ee,; on III Ihe " catc", 200
' lad.. , 'hi , tepte,,"I , . t.'c of be' ween
'] and '7km pct d.y. However, I his
fig ure i. no, vory helpful .. Ihe army
wa' probabl y foralling befnre begi nning
tlte . ""enl. T be only c"""lmi" n one
can dra'" frum , hi, i. a nega'i ve onc-
tlte river CfO$ting could 001 be more
thart four day. march from old L unel.
lk Hect adV<lCllled a d'OS.ing a'
Fourqun, just above Ade.", rbe apex
of,,,,, del.., li e,," hit choice of Aiguct
.\ionn .. lhe poim when- tI>e arm}'
Icft lbe .,...t, U"",'ever, ,hit ' hcory
hcgs a number oil imJ'<"1aIt. q"""tion>.
I. 1l>cre .-.dinl P'J'M here
. hieh Pol ybo would turd}" ha" e
mentioned.
1. Suc!>. prcritc """",phial poin. ..
rhe apex of t be delra """ld hardly have
failed '0be r:ordcd.
I ScVaUC<'nfh-<:cnlury maps show
Iltal ,be area bc1""",n Ileau".....:: and
Aries ..... 600dcd, Ikarinl in mil>d lhe
c!ima,ic WnoJ Ilio at lhe lime of
Honrublol hit undoublcdly its
aJk.icn te. 1I' lKn ,he Roma"" huill
'he' d frum t'imu. o At..... il had 10
be ""..... the ma..hn on a via-

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hom "'; "' ""'001 'M """.....
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ROME Be
TIlE GREAT WARS
h low
M"""", IN" pl , .... fI-ont ""',. _ no ,....
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Spo.n (,oeI) , -.-.""'" "' ....
_ r.g to ..... !Icvon<l
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I T AL Y Al>: D T HE W'ESTERl>: MEOI T ERRANEAl>:
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01.0, ...
J
du,'. S" n:maino bu' in
Ik'h <:nI'''')' il 'u,. "-ell -kr,own
fn'un: . T he ..... soulh-,.-est of
Bdl<p..de and" comrnnnon,C'd in ,he
000., of arm. of ,ha, ,.....-n, ,,'hc'n: i, is
.Jxn.-" ... t,.'\)-",ched .panni"ll:
,he manhc>, TM lnx length of this
bridge i bl' its name ' Ie Porn
d<-o Arca' (flo< Hndge "" Ard,). The
""mher "" the . rd.n irn_
pn:cd the Iuca.I population i" of
the fact I.... ,he Pont dll Gald, wi. h i..
complex .. l1ICIII..., "r a",lIn, .."2> less
,han ls.km ....y, " bridgc hn,.-cr:n
and Ar ln i. to in the
4t h.-ant u. y Hordeaux or
Iti"",,"ry undcr nom. of P"".
A.rariu .
on lht .ub;c.., or rk llctr' ,
RhO"" "",ine, i , i. ",mt h commcn'ing
on hi. 'ugg."ion lhallhe river DuTane<: ,
", hi,'h "0'" 11<,,,,, imo the RhO". iust
."ul h of A,ign"n, j'llined it sout h of
Ari es . 1 ,he time or Hannih. L T he
Cra", Ihc .re. ><lUt h_we" of ArI.., i,
. ,:alt ered w;l h " " nc, T hi, ha, led
U> lhal Ihc Durane<:
one<: H"wed Thi, WI ;' .nd no doubl,hey
are righl . T he '1u"' l i"n i. , whcn' The
.ncien" .1", lhe.. " " ",,", . nd
many ....pl.",ni"n. "-ere pUl forward
fm lheir pn:..nc"", It i. nOllhe . ... plana-
Tion. lIun an: inlc""l ing bUl ,,,,-
" '00 !p'" lhtm. Amo,,!!,,' 'he lis, are
Ancb}'I ... (525- <4 56 IIC) and AnSlotte
(314-322 I'IC), rros'i"ll bel'ond doobt
ThaT The had .handuned ,m.
......... hefcore their tnnc.
h iI " n lln that H."nihal di d DOll
ttuI& , he Rhl>ne south of Beaucairc.
PoIl'bi... ... lhal lhe di.tan<:e from
Emp:..'x (Arnpuriu) '" the RhOne
was , ,600 .....us. He abo "a'n that ,be
Via Domi.ia wnl of lhe Rhl>ne had
be<:n _urC'dcarcfully by , he Romans.
Thy, lhen, docs he DOll give ,he
occul'll.e bu' wnlinun to '"""""
To Ipp.mllmalion. ? .\ 1001 scholars be-
lieve lhal lhe ,"Ommenl aboUI ""n:rul
mea.'u.c-menl ....... Iddcd ...h>cquCTltly
by Pt>Iyhiu. h,m..lf or a la'e.
edi,or. Thi, rails I" convi""" at Polybi ...
did no, h. njtC or 1,600
0'
,---,--,H.
o
R;g ht
Tho R,*,< ",,, _ ,I>< doH. ' 0 ""'"' t ho
pas,, "'o "01""11 P<H"" !let",. "'" t>u,ldo"9
of 'M Romon "."",:t (, nown ' uh>e""eotlv.,
I.pont d,,, """.)" would h, bwn ,,,,,,,,,,it;.
'0 0.. >outh 0' 6. ,"0.i,o To"""""
,"
1Udt., """ di d he ".,e ,ho, doe
csos""d a, , he "1. ' cros' IRBplace,
The di..a "C' from f.....pooiac (Am
pwia ' " lkaucaire can be p " ged
from lbe Roman imperial iti nerann.
It i. ' 9'J R< n ml ln ur 295km.
S,n bo, ,he ""'n' J'C'''' npher. eo.l i-
mates i, aI ' 94 Roman miles. A' ";gh'
u4&n ,,, a R........, mi le , hi. is ,.,.,2
u<><la, S,....,. P<>I yb" .. approltima'"
ligur" of , ,600 rur a
.......'ion of 9'J ""'Yo ,""
t'O\lld boo as m""h as another
2OItm. The """, P'J"ibk ",,-,"ina pbc<:
..""Id be Aramon. l>u, , hi, " 'O\Ild """'"
'" olfe. no advan' a,., over Ikauo.:aire.
Above ,hi. i, ,\,viII""'" wh",h i. ,Rkm
funhcr ,twn lleaucai re. Thi> brings u,
,othe ah. ..I,, ' e Iimi, of Poll'bi". fillur"".
II is j Ul! ove r ;rokm fr..m Ol d Lund_
re.wnable four day. mah. The
.....,n fn. I lannil>al' . choice of crossing
poinl a' Avignon he. in , he movement
(or ra,her la"k nf m,>Vemcn') or Scipio.
Poiybiuo ,elis us , hal Sci pio ,c' , ail in
carly , urnmer and II,", i, took hi m five
dOl" l<l ",il rr<' m Pi,a'" 'he Rh6ne,
A"cordina ' 0 Varr". who 10" a
cun'cmporar y of Cae..' anJ who lOa>
f.miliar wil h l><>t h lhe newl}' introouced
Julian t'Ok-ndar and ,he earlier Ro.....n
on. , ,"mmer I><: , an on ,he 23'd day
af,.... [he . un had en'"",d tl><: ,,:<,. 'S[ella-
nun uf T auru. and enJc-d 94 da,.. La' . r.
"rhi. " .... olfu. ....lly 9 May [0 " Augur.{ ,
"".n 2l"""i ng rur lhe o f doe
r-cpublJcan caknJar , ....rll sommer' can
be pu<hc-d f"",'ard no bo' er ,lUIn !he end
of J"ne,
A_her problem .. puoN by ,be
limine of Ihnn,I>aI . am,-"I ,,' . be
RhOne. Poly"'''' .. ,...., he reached
!be sumrn.i. of t he AI", 'doo<' on . he
",,-[i ng of . he Pkiadn. Th. is anothet
aotronomical J.o,e and ........, &pi n \"arro
liv" III a Janna for i. .Inert: are 57
day. be1" ...n 'M on.in, or .he Pkiadel
and [he ",n[e. ool.",..,. The on.ing
of[he l'Ieiadn mU<l. , herefore be ,,' , he
.nd of OcIobe-r , "nd Hannibal' . arri,'a1
n ,he .urnm" of lhe Alps arou nd , he
middle of ,hal II\\,"' h. By bad arackin!l
one can pl..." I lannll>ool a' , he RhOne
ClOMin, a"",nd ,he end of ,\ u8m '
Polybiu. ai".. u,.he ;ml""" io,, ' ha'
Scipio arri ved ., ,he RhOne deha at
appTO:<ima' el y 11'0am. lim. as Han-
nibal w"" c,,"',il1glhc river. [lowever,
,here is a dcHdt "I' IW" mon,h,
I b nniN I ",ok he mon, h, [ 0 reach
Italy from Car1a,na. ll e [hererore left
C--anagena. abou[ [he mi dd l. or May.
'Iocre is ... , " ...y h" wuld hn e kaCbc-d
, he RhOne by e". ly J"I)'. A' "." di. _
ru<..-.l earliotf Pol)'''' ''' 1i>'Cd in , he
houl.e or s..-i"", Amllhanu., the adopoc-d
great , ....nd..... o( ,hi, lie
. herefore rell ,ha, he had '0'0<: ,he
familyline. 1111. Scirio.nJ Aeonil,""",'
...,unl grandfa, he Aeoniliu. Paull""
" 'ere an in[etlral J'forl or ,he d",..,er , hal
oven.><>I;. Ro. ne in ,he early of . hi,
war , 8.., ,he family t. aJil ion, " 'OIlld
_ "''I",p[ I'C'<\'OIIIil'oiht y for ,hex mi. -
!aI<.. and :a pq....,. had 10 he found,
A' [he N Il Ie of , he T rehhi. and a[
Can""", .. wO , ha ll lICe, .he o[hcr
conoul wa. I>LamN.... [ the Rhone and
al T i"inu. histury had '0 be r...ri nen.
.0 p,>!yhiu" I b nni l>ool did
not hear of Scipi O" pre""ncc a' t he
mOUlh of.he RMne un'il afler !>e had
w.,ed ,he ,i"er , I lere h. i. on"e ag. in
r<l ll"wing [he S"ipi" " ic fa",ill' 1Iadi tion
which tries ,,, "wer S"ipio', failure to
stop Hann ib.1 al ,he HMne hy ,ugge" -
ing ,hal h,' onl t' mi"ed Ihe Cartl 'a
gini a" bt, a hair ' , h,nd!h. If Scipio
reached [he Rh6"" earlier , !!>cn Han-
nihal knew al><IOI u alld for [hi. reason
cros""d.!>c RMne al>o." e in
,,'i,h ,he Dora......, ' n place , ha, ",'cr
he'''ttn him",lf and [he Romans.
1. The h,land
"" hen HannlNI'. Sumldi.n. fell in
",,1'0 5<.'1';0" ...".Iry H.nnibal m",'
....,,, belie>""" [hII, tbe lq:ionI "' . re close
lxhind . hem and rur [hr. raoon he
hi. rlan ... rol""" ,he rou,e
or Hen:ule-o anJ ,"" ead .umed up-
..,.."m '0 . ry '0 [hr",,' off Scipio.
s..-iP;O arrived a' hi. eamp ,h"""
af,er he had k:f, II and a <Loy la.e.
Hannibal '. IC<'UlI augh, up " ,, 1'0 him
and wid him .lUI[ Sci pio had ' umed
ha<k [ u [he coot<I.
Thi, f""r..hl' march brough, t he
Can!la&lnian. ' 0 a I"-"n, ,,'he!-.: [he
RMne ,,'a. joined hy ."",her ri,'er
wh",h Polybiu. call he Skar... 'Ilte
a"'a C. ughl be["'""n , Itn<' [wo rivers
",as ,,,lIod . he 1. land. It ,,a. a popu-
lou. di . Ir i<1 p"",t""ing an ahunda""e
of corn and deriVing it s name from its
,itua[ion. It w imil.r in , hape and
, i2. to the E!ln'l ian Della, [h. princi pal
differenc" I><:i ng Ihal it> haseline wa,
ROME B(;
TI lE GREAT WARS
form.d 1'0) ' an 'aIm" .. ll1KCC'l>si bl.
range of ""'un,a,,...
The ' loLand', l,ke ",'cry Dt he:-.-
or Hannibal'. ,, '. ne. hat co....... mass
or ron'roveny. 1\ '1u",k gla....,. at . he
map ,,.H .ho.. [hI"here i& one oo"ioos
can,bda",_. he """" ""'''''''''' ,he RhOne
and , he I ....... ..... ""wra!
commen,a,on ha.." arguc-d lhat . be
are-a lay .....Wftn l he hgun and l he
Rhiir>e. Thei. main "'gumeT11
on old namn , he Eyguel. among
,,htdt ia l he name fobri. "h",h is "cry
u milar '0 Skat... Ru[ il m.... be
pnin. c-d <>U[ ,haI . he I.a ll n name fur ,he
l"Ore ..... I........ ..hlCh i, ju", as .imilar.
Li,) olfe.. "'" help in ,his maner for he
,,,lI. , he river 11'00 Aror, [he La[in name
for ,1'00 S.....,.,. T hi, i. ' l'p"'al of Li,) '
...ho h... exchanged a name , hal he
kno",< 1',,, one he J.x," nn. ; Prof".""
H. H, Sculla.d It ". 0 d,"' .n 0 . more
. xa",pl.. of [hi. in relation to Spain and
,\(rica 111 hi, hook Scipw
Aj,.i"",u"
One can . 1'0 list oj
tri be, , hruul:h which II .nnib. 1p",scd.
Au e", pto havc I><:en made to lomte
!hc", hy comparillll. hem ' u !hc arc.. ul'
G. ul Juring , he R,,"'a" "mpire . Thi.
i poillll... u erci.. a. t !>ere w., a
ron,in",,,,. do"'n t!>e Roo""
\'Illq .. tri be pu.heJ. he nex, une
f"rth.r do,""n T he. e muS! ha,'c also
been in.er- lfiN I ...... A. ,he of
HanniNI .... ca n"", e"en be cen ain
,lUI, , he IId "e[ii had o",:up;"d S..itzer-
land ..,i, h [he " phno,' a1 , ha[ IOu", haee
a"""
Hannibal in'w ned '0 ""..Ie a dio-
pone in ,he ' ls1anJ. This hi. led oome
""""""",,[on wr"",,"1 [be area bn"...n
,he I ...... and t he RM ne .. duri nl!:' , he
.m('li", ,his ...... , he hoIne or , be
.-\llobrt:>in. and Pol)'billl
".... ,ha, Hannr l>ot l later had ,rouble
,,';[ 1'0 [he .-\llottrogn. Hu[ a. " " ....,c
"""n, i. is Im!'<JN,bk "'). ..-here , hese
tribesmen .... .. , he l imo or HanniN L
So i. be.:"me. a """,.ion or dc><:ri p-
[ion, Pol,bi" . ,,,, mpa,,,,, , he 'IsLand','
. ize ' 0 [h., of [he Delta. " 'hich in
hi. <by had an area of abou, SQ
km. Tho aroa I><:,w""n [he RhOne and
. he Ist r. i. al>o.,ul 5,000'" km and [he
ar." be',,-een [1'0" RM no ond t he Aigu""
is onl;- abuut 100'" km, Tho d.fenders
of [he ...igu"' h lalld' ",gue unmn",n
ci ngll' !hal oi n"e """c "f t he e"n' endc,.,;
I T AL't' AND T HE MEDl TERRAl'EAN
-
1ho __""' rNvonl_.. _"' ....
M .... Ii ,. .... __ ( a __2(Ikm)
N. __ Dur..,. __
_ CW h""" _ '"9"..-_
, ,. _ OUI tho _
-.__, ,"'" (AI OUI on<! .......
,,. ,00<1 o""v wO' f< _
" ' 0 f_ """"..... H "oboI '"
11<00_ ou,,..-.:I 'ho'ot> oj , .... p ,."
wno,. no c,m""" h twO dO'"
..-

-- ,.<
,"
'-
.,

,
" jew 1"'1 I'" '00"" \e><el ....... f'f')bahly-
.""", Ip:x>m 1o...,C1' . han il i' .oday.
TherefOk HannIbal's pass. which .,ill
lbe ... }"nr's.oow lyi ng on
iI, d, .... 001 10 be hllth.
I' ,>l yhi". c1.im. Ih., I>< himself
e'o>""d " he paso' . II i' de ript ion of
Ihe .ol,l ief< Oil congealed
, n" w corroborate' t hi' ;t is 100 \'ivid
to hoc , ""'nnd- hand .
l'rom t he Greek hi"",i.n, ...;o" n'
uit I"",ihle 10 d ... .., du." Olhe
iden, ilY of II>< pa,", The ' ix main d .....
are h'led helow'
I. T he ...... should Ito, ddik ...i l hi n
do)" , maKh 01' i.. ..."''''il _Th;, mUS!
be ..... lhan :t<*'" as all l he """""" 10
be di"'.....a- ....ilh l he nc<t"ion0'-''''
C<>I de 1.ardIe_ltow a SlUp cli"'b
bet"", .....hinl Ih<
,umm".
a. T I>< 101' of Ihe p;o" . hould he
e"''''lIh 10 .now an 10pilch camp.
}. T he ddeent 'houl d he at lea"
porliall)' nml h . ' , now and ie.
wer e on Ihe dc,eent ,
4. T he 1" " should prttipitous

S. T he far ' ide of II>< p;o" . """ld he
Ihlft ma... h from II><
fbI l.Ind ,
" 0 ... ' hould be aN< '" OC'C haly frum
l he I"" of , ... pus.
Only Ih< """en main claiman.. need
onbe ...d here.
( A ) The Col de La..,he (alt , 1.9';tt m) til'
only ..-I,,;"'" 2 and S. h. run.
fmm nort h_....... .o IlOUl h-eI.
, II;, C<>I la T r.'. roelle (alt.
2,914m). T hi. i. lhe <lnly pa" from
which Ihe plain of l he 1'" can he seen.
il filS one "t her . " ndi_
Ii"", no. 4 It d". , h."e a defile (Combe
de Que)"r), but t his ihoul 35km
from l he . umm;1 and a<ecnt i.
e."""di n",lySleep. l lannihl l .... . m ..,h-
inll l hroulh ho<tile countr)" and ...'OUld
"....,.... I'" Combe de
Que}n . Thi. it l"'"le ...i lh p.-cci-
ril..... 'ideo OIfC'lehi", f.,-, I along
I'" ..alley of t h< Gu iL I b oniba' ..'.... 1101
..... h.J 10 ""'e been a man,*, 10 cake
hit army l his .....y. The: Slronge'Ol
<>hieclion 10 this pas. i. il. allil uJc _
m'..... than ',ooom higher lhan . ...
..e . T o .., h II>< Tnversetl.
0 '" h.. ' 0 1"" lhe ml.lCh lo.. ('..01 dt
I. Cr"ix (alt. 2,27,l m). top "f l it<:
T rn e,"cttc i, a na " ow hIRe wilh
ro.. II>< ....nd .. btg a. t l>< S il<
l lelta II>< oizc an I>< illnorN.
11 " impossi ble '0 com"",n. on ,I><
P"f'tlla. ion-o"" con only poi nl 10,1><
A, fo.- abundantt of cum,
il must I>e l h:.>t l he
Aill"e. a,..,. is mo"e fert ile, l se..
arca, t><."ause of its a far
gr.'Mer yiel d and in Roman limes it
suprort ed t he powerful and nume",oS

T I>< lUI and """" imporlanl part of
I' ol)'b,u, ' dcsaipl ion i. to
an i, " nd. Polybiu. sal" il dc-ri"ed its
"""'" from i.. '''UlI1ion, T t... Is. ", it
one ohl>< Ihftt """n . n hularics of I'"
RhOne ; It... SaOnc ....., II>< l>uranee:
Ixi", IhI: ...1tcr lwo. AU It... 0Ih<r1 are
i"'illni!ican' cotrIl"'",d 10 Ihtw, The
Ai, tlcs i. a " .....m ...hich prll<"! iclllydries
up in Ihe . ummer. 0 ... con .....lk:ocr<>5> i.
anl::le <leeI' . A. for II>< . Imool inacces.-
ihle' ,anlle of moun,.i .... Ihey do nol
eKi" i n n:1. ,ion 10 ' he ,' igue' , It,
lal k vaguel y " r Haronnie,
but do ""teKplai n how Ihey lill'olybiu,'
de,eripli"n a, they are e""sed by a
muh i'ude of pOlh. and pre,ent no son
of bart" r. lhe l sere i,land
is a vinua l fon \loot of t he In_
. nllular area iurrounded b)' It... l sen:
or l he RhOne. The l ap beo..ft1I It... 1"'0
i. blocked h)' II>< Chan........
;\b..if and II>< .\ Ionl du OUt. In
addilion i. .. p....ecIed by II>< of
Bout,n and if< ma.."'" ..-hlCh "'en
today ocrveh 10 . h< bonk. of Ih< R.........,.
] . paS5
Every 1"''' frum Ihe (;,,1 de La'ehe 10
Simplon in Switler land ha' bee n
.dv,"'. ted, It would he I><' t h bori ng and
fruitl e.. 10 examine aU l he cl aim.
Relw"en Ihe yea.. and 1973 my
wir. and I .,oo.cd and e"ami ned aUl he
pa.... ,,'hi.h been ."gg.. and
all II>< mmo.. fIll"OCII ..hich been
pUI f.......-..rd as. . t... .i,e of It... linu
ambo.h.
fi..l ... muot deal ..ilh I I>< heigh.
of Ih< pau. PoIybtu> sa), 1"'1 tl><
"""... of the Alp' ...-.:K '''''''''-em'CKd
. 1I 1h< )"CI" rou nd. " ...n hi: mne-s ' hit
.. h< mool be incl uding ....
10..''''' ras-scs , u.h as t he .\ l onlge"",\"Te
and Litt le S, Iktnat d a, these an:
l he only passe, in Ihe Alp' t hat
we knn'" in u," . 1 Ihi. time, Thi'
w"uld accnrd well wit h I I II, l."mhs
,"
""""",I}' ro"m fo, ,en J1eOl' le '0""'"I'
Icc, aJon.o an a,m)'. h IS also "eIl'
ddficull '0 I", ,,fy a ' ''rtt-day march
from.he: . ilk to 'ho:
lUI "..,.."d, 0 <h..onee of onl)" 1d:m.
ben ;f """ lakn , ,,,. '0 meln rig"t ou,
inIG,he: Po valk)" , il " .,,11 "'rdl)'
l!>an )Ol.m.
c: 1M (all. IJly:xnl.
Thit il lhe: pass ...........I\ic" the: Via
D<lmi,ia paued. It is lhe: _ d \o1o"n(
of ,Ito: passn. It Ii.. all ,he: conditions
ttl."'J'l no. . II .... 0 ddik a f....- kilo-
m,,, h of a,ia"...,., and at>ou,
th of ,he: pau. Tfn. ddiJe has
..ttply slopi". . id", along ..."i<:h ,ho:
rood runl. 11 il f.irly U') '0 J"LSS but
..""Id ho: v.".y dang.".".,1 "'ith an
e""my on ,he ,1,,1"'" obove, Of all ,he
delil.. diO<;\OOKd this bnt filS [he
dts<rip,;"n of ' rolhnll' down bo"lde.,;
00 the Canhag;n;an "my,
There i. ample room '0 camp an
..my on top "f ,he pOl", Only t his "nd
the Col de I"EI.. hd lc havc a "lU,h-n"" h
ax", II is ac,,, . tty we, ,.,o,, , h-w.,, ,,,
c", north-eaot , Thc dc,cent i, pre<oipi-
to,,< and i, foll"wed b) a permanent
land,li de orCI ,he modcr n wad
ha. to ht:1'"""",<:<1 b)' OC<lflCre,ecan0l')
From ,be far , ide of , he p"" to Su," is
] 7km. 0"" c<,,, ld "' )' , he flat llround
5lon<:<l 0 k, lomc1"" ht:yond thi.
From S ' 0 , he I'lain of ,be Po a,
Miglia i. o"",ber 3<*m.
D, Tbe Col de r Ec""lk (oil . ',166m).
Thi. i. , he ""'nt _ in , he w..
.-\1",. h i, an a1,.motivc '0 ,ho: :\ton,-
.. i. also join. ,be of 'M
Durance and , he: Dora Ripan.. This
ht: lhe: _ Poml"' Y on his
.. to SpAIn, iOS ,"" ancien. au.,-,"
Uttply ' ha' he did not UK , he .-mal
pas. n.. dtltance by l hil _ io only
s1i&h, ly """" ' ....n by I""
I, is just po&Oihk ,hat ,he p",-Roman
routc " ..n, ,hi, way. It fi.. condt ,ions
n.. ...mmi' of'he:pass
" I link from ,he: defile:
men,K>net! in ",lo,i"n '0 I"" .\lon'-
ge""'""'. The", il i,," .bou, room for
H.nnibal,,, camp his onny on ,he p"ss,
The axis of ,he pas l il direc,ly """,h_
non h. It has an u,,,,mell' precipi'ous
de..en'.
,E) Col du Clal'ier (olt. J,4NJm), Thi,
fits only c"ndi,;,,", and J T he
,,,,,..ing i, made t",m ,he nor t h- we" 'n
,out hc",' . H t he I' rcvinu, year's , no".-
<lill rcmai""d on ,he: oocllh oide: of , hi.
paso,'bm il " ld 1uI,c been impossible
'0 climb Ihe 'ttdingl)' nonh
..de .. i, WOttld lui,. been rompktdy
iced up. I .ned '0....-ou ,his paso in
J""".968 beron: ,he 0"""''0 had cIo:an:d
bu, could 1>01I di mh tM pa,h up 'M
d ill f..... from , he valley of ,he Ambin.
It has I Sleq) bu, no;>( I""ciri''''''
. .\\y and I ..... ou, ....).
Ihi o pau In .he a",,,mn of
'96lI, fin.oll y ... by- , be dried_
Ul'''''''''' b<:<l>. from no poin' on ,""
lummil is i, poslibloe ' 0 ...., ,he Po
'alley. Onl)' by lrekklng along ,he hill-
side .o :\ 1"",. Aria i. this p.""iblc. One
"'alk fwm 1M for . ide: of ,be pass
lo , h. ' II.. g,ound' in 0 f..... hours. b 'cn
if one 'fIa, ground' to
mcan Ihe plain "f P" , it canno, be
more Ihan Hkm di "am and is on , he
fl ...
(F) T he ,\ h'nl (a lt , J,oll] m).
T hi. p' Ii .. unly no. J. It i,
t" t he d" Clar ler and in alignmen'
is similar, Th,,,e who h'e arllued ,ha'
Ilannihal Ihe CI.pier must
uplain why he did n", u,e t he .\\on,
Ceni. which i. ho,h lo,,-..r . nd
nm dnco n"" ha,' c '0 pol" ' hmugh
defile 10 reach it. Evcn if H. nnibal
h.d "'" off Ih"'ugh ,hc Ambin
and bod <Iimbed "I' thc cli ff l:.cc, be
"."..ld 'hcn .. ill have found il easier
10 e,ol' Ihe l -ill loe .\\onl Cenis (al' .
2, ,8>01) .nd dc:oc..nd bl' [he .\ lon,
Cenio rou' c " 'hich .urcll' be would
d.orK. 0 , I"',bop>. lik. ml'sdf, Hanni bal
... n. <:<I'o 110 ' <>1"" Oal'''r bcc:msc be
had been IOld "as I good ,iev,'
of h al y,
G 'IM l-ill loe S, lkrnard 101, . ".88m).
T hil lito condlt ;""1 ' . z and j . It is
ahotl, ')Ol.m fro... ' M fa, ..lk of . ""
pass IG,"" l\M " ound, ,,'bi<:h is '00 far
for a ,hrtt-dal' ","",h.
I n ,he sum"",r of 'm an exl'Odilion
of army un<kr.he """<knhip
of L. R.A,.\1.S, .\ ld " n ma.k z
of , be o..picr - Cenis. ,\ Ion' gcn;;'-",_
l' l'.ehd k and T...'erw11e pason. T heir
conelu.ions much ,he ...me as my
own bu, ,hey .dded , ..., it would ht:
, inu.ll y impos.iblc to get dephanr;
Ul' 'he Trovc..,l1Cht:eausc of , be "'tIT
or dnwn 'he n, h"r l id. beeau,e of j ts
I'ro<il'i",u, nalurc , T hey
rui<:<l " n' ,he docnt f rom 'h< h,'h<lle
fo, the <ame ,".,,'n,
ROME J 75- ' 40 tIC
Hili HEAT WARS
Hj' a I',o<n. of climina' ion . , he: mos'
likly pass i"he",f""'I"" .\\ontgenri....,.
,he uoN by both the Roman and
prr--Roman 1'OIOd" ' 1'11.0' i.,f OMau""""
. bot !be view ,be 'or io
Hannibal probably poi nted ' ;ogucly in
, "" dircclioo of ltal)' during. speech
<Jl ..........,...., and in lhe
sokben. looI<,n. _ on ' hn . itna(rined
I"'du ps , hal ,!toey ...... """'" lhan , bey
mlly did.
"I1le", i. ano;>(M. t nt. Accordinll to
[MznO.", ll""flnpher S'rat>o. PoIyt>;",
knew of only r ' rou,es ,hrough ,he
Alps, .nd "" Ii ,bern,
, . "I1le ,hro"ll:h ,he I.igurians.
2. rou' c ' u ,he Taurini which
lIannibol uoed
3. Tho: "",'e ,h"",gh ,he Sal ...i .
The ,b"'ugh the 'crri"'ry or
lhe Rhae,; .
All allrtt Ill... Ihe.., pa are listcd
{mm ",'u'h '0 n"rt h_,he fi , being , he
"" ....1 ,",ute (i,e, , he ",,,, ,hern branch
of rou'e of and t hc , hi, d
the Lill k S, Ilernard. T he rOUle th. t
llanni!>;>1 "<cd lie, he, ,,,,..,,, , hem,
1' , Wi , 1lI;-' l lhank, in hi,
on l'olyhiuI, doim, , hal
,he mulc '0 ,he Tlur;n; can onl y ht:
'hc .\ \ <><" ('.en; . Ihe Clol' ;er or (he
.\ \on'lIenevre. h,":.uK unl) ,be><: thrtt
pa.... Ioe. d '" ,he Taurini. It is
unthu'k.oblc lha, PoI)'hiu,. ,he g....,
tra"dkr and e!\\lui"" . should be ig-
"",ant "f 'M "",Ie of Fur-
,he,,,,,,,,,,, he only k""".. of """ rou'c
'0 [he T.unnt . It folio.... ,hat his routc
' 0 ' M T aurini mus, ht: 1"" roole <Jl
H.".cuks. l .. " . ha'e....", earl .... , ,""
route 0[ could """ he O\tt
ei,her ,"" Cbrer or ,he ,\10", Cenil.
"I1le.don: rou'. z "'hieh H.nnibal uooed
mu.. be ow, , he .\ Ion' cgc.......",.
HI" ' ''' ('lItabhl hcd ,ha, ,ho: ' h lond'
" as p.obably beI ......n ,he I..... c and
Rmn.. and , ..., ' M _ " 'as almost
certainly 'M :\Ion''''.......",. "'" Ioef,
,,'i, h an aPP".-.ntly in,urmountablc
problem. 110,,' did Hannibal lie! from
""" '0 ,,, he,? T""'" il fairly
"raigh,{or",.rd {rom
.t , he ""Slcrn end of thc i,land to
at ,hc f,,,,, of , he ,\ Ion,g. n;;'-",
but ,hi. involve. . ..,ing , he Col dll
(all , Thi, i,
difficuh 1"" and I' oi)'hiu' <xpre"ly
"a' e' t h. , I l. nnih. i di d not ' ake a
dilli, ,, 1t or un kn"",n route , There is
ITALY THE "'ESTERS M F.D1TERRASEAS
onoIhc-r roult ..hieh a, fi...,
...,..Id appnI' unl ikd)' rnor il ;",-,,1,....
"""h...,... G<t...>t>k and
,he 10'" fIoI )'a,d (all . ',248m)
0' Man", (alt , ' ,263m) pa"t < and ' 0
, ht Dur. ",,<, ,' alley and 'he
rou't of Hcr..-uk . The app....,h '0
both ,t- .........., <>J'On tie-l<h.
From ,ho 'hland' ., ,he: ju...,.ion ol ,ho
I... t and Rho.\nc Hannibal h:od
onl)' ' '''0 p'.., ihle roUte' ' 0 haly: fi", ' ,
1" oontl nuo up lh o I><'ro ". llcy and
c""'. h)' ,ht n.pier, Monl Ceni. 0'
Linle S, Ber"".d: or. >ceonJI)'. ,,, ' ur n
""'-'Ih and ....;o;n .ho rou'e ol llC1'CU1n
and cr_ , he He elea,l)'
ct""", ,he Ialler.
T he only ol her IX' i", . thaI 'tmain 10
he identiti eJ arc l he . ite. or lhe t wu
ambu.he. .
Af' er \eo,"nt: ,ho 'hland' .ho ann)'
marehed !loCl ".wes ( ' 4Nr 18km) In 'tn
day, a k>fttl: ,he: ri,t, . .... hccn
maJe of ,he ri ,'e,. Some " 'an, tU
make i' ' he Rh6 ne, "l hcr< 'he Sh r. ,
and o' her< a mix,ure of l he RhI\ne and
at>O! her ri ver , T he JI""",n, " ri,,... . Wi lh
110 l<ta,er ju<"lka,i"n . han anI' of ,he
oth<-n, ouu<"''' .bat ,he anny followr:-d
, he Iw<t from it< ;"n<'fKm .. it h the
Rhi>.,., '" rar Grenohle "'he<t i, i<
joined hy th,' Dr"e and ,hen lollowtd
this , ive, in", . he mount.in. Since
aI......, 100 "<JJn " 'ere allo,,'e<l from
.he Rh<Inc: """",ing.o ,he 'hLand" and
gi,.... ,he 'OIai from the .-roo<_
,nil: '" ,he Mlli nni nll: of . he a<crnl ..
t ,400, i, f"U"w, tha, . he p;m of the
iourney from the 'hland ' to lhe beg;n-
ninil of the ....-em . ho"ld not M more
,ban 110O .....u., or P<>I )'bius ' correae.!
..""Id ..., , .600 and "'" ' -fOO.
s." lIannibal ..a,'a....--cd "'" more ' lun
befo'e ' M :o=n"
Thi. ",,, uld him '0 , he r<gi"n of
La "'lure, He. e l he ge.. ditlkult
.. , hoc ann)' i, rorce.! 10 march along thoc
l>ilI. i<k ahm,<, , hoe of ,hoe l lrac.
II i> imercstinil ,,, note ho... od.",
oommc-",alO" Iu,-e been ron--cd to w e
Hannibal <We' unn",'('>,-"ry p""" in
orde, to lind p<ll r", , h. Ii", mhu, h
as ,1><.' " is .... , uita ble , ite al"og ony " f
,he ''''''"",, Those woo c""""'" t ht
lwrc_AK """e Iuve '0 claim .Iu,
ri,he. ,..., headland ot ,hoc Vercon a,
'iorcppc 0' the ju....'tio.m of l he I" re
and ,he Arc wa. moh) and , I>c",fote
the "",d had t" go over the hilk Dc
Ik-er ,at ... lIonnibal ,"'er , he Col de
Gri"""", in 'JlUt ot ,hoe fa<.'t tho" if he
COI1u nuai along .hoc om"", vollc)-
he ,,"uld get '0 , he ..me pi..." by a
much e..icf, I<lWef and . h"" " mul<
I n ,,,.le, '0gel to lhe Dut' ''': e vaneI'
from , hoe I,,".., . H. nni....1 hod 110 o.Ite,_
"",i"e t>u, to nq"' io. e ,hoc dilficull
gorge< ol t he Drac and il " as ........., ,lut
, ..., Allob""lC' 'occupied ,he t t y poin',
ab,"'t , hoe vinc. F.om .he .. "I
the Drac t he a. my made go"d
u n'il , he f"url h da)' wht" lhe}' we",
mel l>}' ambo....Jor. r."", ,hoe .ri"""
..... , l he 10f' . ' Illi. ,hree I"
fou, da., ..' ....reh ..""Id Iu"e !>rough,
t hem do,,n in,o lhoc "allty .r ,lit;
Dur. ..... I"-",.ihl)' nca r Eml>.un _ .
di stanc"" of ."" " t 9Okm. From I", .\ tur<
10 , hi. poin, lhe m.rching "'''uld h"" e
been CD)' and mai nl)' <>J'On

For ' '''<> da. y. more thoc army marched
on witoou, , n,uble, Thi. would ba"e
hrotl ghl lhem '0 ,he lJurance Jenle ju<,
no"h " f I'Afgenti"'e-l.H-e...:e abo",
further "p lhe ,'aile)'. Thi. "'t
is ideol for ,hoc second ambu.h. Tltc
road 'ak.. I" ,he hilk ond run. alon,
.he h,lIoi.le at",,"e t hoc gorg<:, AIonIL
, hi , ",ad the . , m}' would hn " h<;cn
'''' Iohed ou' "v.. lI ere 'he
Celt. al{aeked and ' oiled bouldc....
down tM hill.ioc. 11c)'<>nd t he If<'tllC l hoc
road apln dnttnd< to, he ,.lIe) and i.
immeJialdy flinched ..,. pn, mas
of rod tbo' ;ut> ou, from the caSlern
hill. T hi. "'" uld be 'he IX'int . ' ",l>ieh
l hc af my "'a. cuI in l>alf. It i. "''''' h
climbing up lhe "'C'S' em . ide of ,he
,'alley.nd . iuirll on ,he hill_ide ,he<t ,
he...... ihe defile and 10 , he ........h one
can K'C ,he Mo,ngtnn-f e pas. a!>ou,
. okm . wa).
P"lyhi u' give, u' the di' t. noe f' om
the of l he . <cen, 10 the flat
gmund in lhe Po ""Iley_about 1, 200
,,1J4.... Ht .1.., . 'at... ,ba' , he ascent
began lIoo ........ of'er the Punic army
"" ou, from.he ' 151000'. ... ..uming, ..
mo" "' her< 00, ,ha, l l annibol en-
camped a"he junui..n "f t he and
Roone, and lhal i, ..... fmm he , e l h..
hoc ..., out . gain. , he d i"an"" fn' m htre
'0 t he flo, ground .hould ..., 2,000
,,<JJ..., )]llt m pl us or minus ,nm.
T he dia",... from , hoe iunc'tio.", ofthe
Rhoo.\ ne and I,,' e to in ,he
plain of the 1'" i. on" ut One
alUM argue tlu' thoc lb. gn>und of
Polybi u. alUM be k>co.'e.! anY"" hc-r<
bey"""<l Susa as Ihi. i ..-bert ,hoc
opcns ou,; ...n ain ly , here coold be
no """tad e, heyond l hi. I"-,im. Thi,
",oul d red u,t ' he 1<>'al h y 3okm , All t ho
di"an,:...- fn,m Eml"-",iat '0 , he RhOne
c....ing. from tM Rho'o"" n"".i ng '0
, he ' lobnJ' and from , he 'Island- ,,,,be
lIa, lI"",nd-a.e at , '''' muimum of
Po' ybiu. ' "" ima'''''. This ....IJ ac_
Counl fo' ,he fae, ,h.t I'ol yhiu. ' , ,,,,,I
di stance rrom Cart aKena is <;1 .000 m;4"
and ..... 8-4ot1, i. 'M ""01
ol the individual .lis.....,.....
Th.. b.nle for t he I'o ..a ll .. y
It took Han nibal t S days 10 en,.s ,he
Alp" nurinlf lhi . time he had I"",
nearly l>alf his army and even n"'<t ,0/
his animal<. He had started
ou, f...... 'ho< RhOne ,,ith )RDOO fOOl
and 8DOO ho.>rsc . He rc<XIl'dcd ,Ilt
numher ,ha' ....... hcd Itaty in an ,n_
sc,ipti"n on .. column a' Lacinium in
lhe t, ,,, of Iraly T here wel e 12 .000
Af, ican and s.ecc Spani<h infa", ry
and not more ,han 6.ooo ",' al..,- . The..-
..-ere l>y 110 """,n. all .,..uahies_.hcr<:
musl ha1tC hccn many d...ertiorto_
Tht anny "':L' phl"ically exhausted
and mmale was low. I'len and ani mal.
n""ded ,e<l .nd ca re. The I,"'al tri l"<: .
,he Tauri ni, Ott ing , hoe mi""r.blc at'
and .ite of ,he eanhalri nian arm)'. " " re
undcn.anda.bl)' uncon"inced ,Iu, Han-
ni""l .... . he ""iou, "'110 " .... roi ng '0
lead ,hem ' 0 ,-klO'} tht Romam.
lI" nnihal tr ied '" fea",n ", i, h tl>e m
whi l" he r ' ed hi. men, \X' hen all
rcnua.ion failed he lounched.n auack
on Ilonr chid '0"'" and .......-.ro , Ilt
porulalion. It rnwr:-d a ...:Iutary Icuon
and att the other lo,:.t ,ri""" l\ocke<l,o
hi. " andard. The Cart haginian knew
, hat , he moo, effeet ive ProP"Ra nda f'lr
his ca",", " '",,Id be . qukk <kfe.t of the
Romo. n t"""f'< in 'he orea. Wi, h . hi> in
mi nd he ,.:I......ced ",,"I> bank
of ,he Po.
"",.n",hilt" Iud <ailed l>ad
' 0 I' i.... , e' "".ed t ht Apenni nes and
taken ovcr ""mmand of . he t wo legion,
(firs, and ,ond ) in . ht 1'0 ,alky.
Scipio.\'. aim " 10 hold Han.. ibal un,i]
,hoc o.rrr.-aI of hi. coIlcague, ..'110 had
already"""" .-calle.! from SfCll)" h
wo' decided '0 check ,hoc Cart hagin,. n
advano, a' lhe Tiein" . i,'er. T his i
powerful .ri bu.ary of Pu which a'
Ihi, of "'uuld pre-
.. nted a comiderable obs.ade, T his
p'"ihon is reinforced by 'pUT of ' he
Apennines ",hid l iu," OU' ' owor<l , ,he
Poon .he s<>Ulh . ide a. Slndella.
unll' a nar row plain be1""!l .he riVtt
and ,he loU.. I n lhe p<niou. the
Rornano had founded ,_ militaf)'
<:oIon... in ,he Po ealle}'_ al ere-
mona and one at Plaanria ( P,aanza).
Some yean alO T en ney Fnnk put for_
wOld a ...d case fOT plocing
oril;Oal of Placenti a a. SIr. J ella,
30km west of ml>dern Pia"en,. The
co,ny ,,- be"egcd by lIaodruh.a1 in
.nd by the GrIn i n 2>.
, he R""",n. .be
area a f",,' ) 'an Ia'er lbe colony " '30
re-ftlabl;.Md. FrarU:. .uqesn .....
..her\ i..... rn ett led il1 mlh'ary irn_
ponan= ,,-ao ku crucial and ,berefore
i. ,,-.. rcfouno.kd in the plain in the
,..,nlre of the cemu. iated far m land.
The prehistoric roUle acros. n"rlhern
holy ran in 0 " ..ighl line fro m Ihe
Adrio,ie "'>0" ""or Kimi ni tn S,raddla
,,'here il musl Mee Cf'OoC<I . he Po
bcr",n t be junct'ons of t he Ticino and
T anaro ' 0 Lomel k, (Roman Laumel-
Ium) ood then oon. inued alung lhe
n"rth side of Ihe Po 10 join up wil h Ihe
r"ute "f Hercule. nea r Turi n. T he
'I re. ch 'o f . he 1' 0 hetween .he TicilKl
and TonaTOia .he must convenienpot
for a ri"er """,",nl. ; at any ", her point
i ...,.,ld also ineol.., ""'inlr: ' 0 """"
ri, her ,he T ici no ... the Tanaro, ..... 01
lbe major ,ribu. otin of t he Po, TI>r:
obvious posi, jon '0 place a colony ....
0"1 ,he ri ver """",ing to . be
("",It. , endinK 0 Iheir
kin, men "n . he ",mt h side or the Po
Wh en Koman. t",i11 lhe Via Aemilia
al Ihe beginning of t he z nd century
I'C, ,he rou,,", of .he old road was
follo"..,d from Rimini a. far o.
rrom ,,-hich poi nl a.pur COMl.ruc-
' 0 link i . ' 0 , he colony a,
.........
It IS har<l 10 bel;"'.., ..... Pla<xnt ia,
if i, "..,re , il ua..'" in <>poeD plain
where Piacenza nuw "and. , could "'ve
Wilh' lood Ha, J ru h.a!' s , iei', Further-
more, Ihe pl,... of Crcmono al the
""legi, po;iliun al Ihe iUnCli"n ofl hc
p" a nd ,he Adda . upposes l hal Ihere
. hot.ild be a . imi lar colony al Ihe
...."''''''''''''
RO.\lE 175- ' 40 DC
T HE GREAT WARS
m.. ..raleaie pus"ion al .... june'!;on
ur Ticiuo. Whil.. i. muol be admincd
.hal I here i, no justifica_
.ion fur a colony 01 St raddla, mi litar ily
I'" allumenl i. VOT}' " " "'g _A
of ooltOC of Rome', Ol hel flonl""
colonieo, , uch .. Sin u..... and L.oc<:ria.
""un" thaI .... could hardl )' ...
ignored a pooit k>n like Stndoolla. Fur_
.her.......... Jl PIacen. ia .... al Pia..-.:nza.
Polybi ",' "' n. of lhe a" bocqucnl
hatlk of mak... no """",,.
On Ihi. basi s , be aUlhur has no hesita-
l i"n in al S"adclla.
who had mMed up ,n Pla"en_
lia, buill a bridgc "f 1><",,, " ,,"'.. Ihe
1' 0, and hi , ltOCn to
..l NrU:. of . he Ticino. Wi lh I'" 6,000
a>k,o"" holdJnI I'" """l h . ide ur ,he
" ,..,. and ,be "",in arm)' holdJnll: ,he
lI<lt'1h be Rotnano appcarod ' 0 be in
an impregnahle puoi,jon. If Hanni bal
crnoocd ' 0 , ........' h "'nk "" could
S. low
1,", Po " Ilev ""h t ho d;""oo""" 01 tho
CO' ''e " ;bes " ," ".. "", . Rum, " r_ ..,,,,""
".. "'-'"""'". Ulno W'v to thO Ad" " '"
.,.,..1., Ai"",. Be "'" """"'"" lough!
lul l "'" __" "'" Celt<
ITALY AND T HE "" EST ERr-< .'VIEDITERRANEAN
Scipio. To unders'and "'ho' hoppened
one mu" look a' ,lie chorocter of
Scipio He had heen made to Im k
u!te rIy incompc' ent at 'he Rh6nc and
lie w., determined tha, i, .hould "'"
h.ppen again. Scipio kne.. lho, Hanni_
bal .... ad.....,.;-ing by ,he rou'e alone
II.. ""nh bank lou' hi.
!tad bttn ... un.demtined by , he ......,nll
the Rhbn< dun he mlnf """" ho\t'C
(<=1 , hoi lIannihoJ ..-ould """""how
b}-pass him, cmo. , I>e Apenni.....nd
in.... de Elf".ia, So, in"ead of holdi"<l
hi. una...il. ble posi'ion on 'he Ticinu,
he bridged , he ri...er .nd . d.... nced up
,he Po. The d.y . f'er c""" ing 'he
Ticino 'M 1I.0mans learned from 'Mi,
KOU' s ,ha, the CanhaclRlan army " ...
dose and , t..y pi'cl>ed camp a bout
10-JOl,m _ of ,I>e ri\t'Cl" - probo.bIy
;lnf CUI. of Lomdlo, N",,' momi,.
Scipio ,ook h.i. ca"alry and .-diu. and
ad...nc<:<1 cau,iously.
The ....,... "a' now K' for a cla..ie
H.nnib.li c ambush of ,he ,ype ,ha'
o,..took Grac'Chus and Marc-ellu, later
in , he war. l'olybius . ay. th., Hannibal
w.. also ad...ano:;ing ..i,h his c....alry and
,ha' 'he ,wu armin fell in wi,h .,...h
", her. Here <>na: again poI}'!>ius i.
whi'owa.hing Scipio' . hlun"e... Poly_
hius admi .. ,ha, the R"man , \\/'Cre sO
surpri, ed ,loa, ,he , li' tJ had n" , ime
'0 ' hrow ,h<:ir i"'eli", b<fme ,t..
Canhaginion o"'alr y Wa' on ' OP of
,hem and ad<Is l ho, ,I>e Numidlan.
outflanked ,t.. Romano and a"acked
' Mm in ,t.. l'nr. This suggeso. 'ho,
in f...: ,he NumidiaJu, ......, aI... pIaccd
in hidina. The oonsul "-a. woundc-d and
his cavalry rou,ed. PoIyh".. a..ures u.
, ha" hey inllio,ed ...."n i rea..,los..,. on
[he enemy! The Romans ned for ,II<
T icino, c""..d over and ".rted '"
break up Ihe hridge. Ha nnibal pursued
,hem a. far ... , t.. ri...er bu' gave up
wh<:n I>e found ,he unllHble.
Scipio no" oompk,dy lost his lKl"W,
He gave up his posi'i<>fI on , he r lci......
crossed , hr Po and camped .. PIar:ent .
.\IC3IIwhile Uannibal, ,,'100 rnIised ,ho,
i, " " ,,10.1 be impossible '0 <TOSS the Po
in {he fac" of Roman '>J'l'""ition, "'_
''''a, ed " p.'ream .nd cr"..ed , he
o'" of ",ach of , he Romans.
All the local Celts no", U""ked to join
, he Cart ltaginian army, T",o day. la'e.
Hannibal appeated before Placentia and
0.1",..- "I' hi. army in bailie order. \l;l>eri
Scipio ref" sc'" baltle , he ("..arl haginian
pitched ""mp .hout ten kilometres we"
of ,he minny,
Sh"... ly before d.wn on , he foll"",in.
"""rning. ,ho (".drs ",rvi nll' ",i, 1s Scipio
de... ...ed 10 ,he enemy. In typicol
Cel," .. yle. before rhey "'Cn, [...,.
killed ....... of ,he Romans and cu' oil"
' hei r J>ea,h 10 rake ..'n h ,hem. '11Ie
Roii . ...100 ,,,",, pied tt.. area .o,nh of ,he
Po immedioldy behind x i pio, now
,Is",,,, in [heir 10' ",i,h
Scipio realised that his I""ilion ..-OJ
,,,mpletely "ntenable, If [he Hoii mo,,"'"
"I' behind h,m he was !rapped,
T be foll" ",ing ..-nillJl . ju", before
daybreak. he hroke camp and ret roa,ed
'0 , t.. Trel'ol'oia river lu" wnl of Pia-
,.......... F...... hne.ihl>e....... ltapper>t<L
t.. could escape "'.",. 1I>e Puw> llclla
Scoff.... ' n (ie...,. and ,hen along ,he
"0'''' ' 0 T "OClt ny.
h [ow
M, p of m" " .. "",weeo l onltllo 'no f;deOlO
t he """ 0'< """ ,I",a"". d S""""' Ia
r ... "' .nomo" , <>ad ' 0Il '" c'. .... ",_0>.-
"'_, ... Po __ oons o! .....
r""",,, on<! Toeono
...
ROME 27S- 140 BC
T HE GREAT WARS

_ Punic
.od 1he all ,.O""v. I,, 00 me 'et, w,ng
" 00", 0" Il is e.l" aM Sp,o'"d, io the
ceOU' w"" tM. '. Oh , o" '" tront 01 , i'he,
Ib n'. He pl<>eed oi, AI' i<on, he h' M the c.,.' ry
on eith. , ", iog
J TM c, ,.' ry ""' 0 tt ", Hom. o
w'"g' bar. , e,.arioq "" WoY tor 'h. At,i,"o,
[Q " "". the . II <ed ,nt, o" y QO tM1[,"" '0
' o,t. oJ M.go', 'H,C> homthe 'eO'. tho '"9''''''
moo.goa to b" , k th'ough tho '.'''' od
. ' co""
- -
A lii", Le9"'''' A lii ...
,

\"; '<i
1
, -r-,
,


J
W s
,
>
\
;
;
%
\
/V
I,
a
Abovo ond bolow
I Mop 'how,og " . ,.,,,,,,,, po>,t,oo. ot tho
C, no, gini, ", and Rom, o, 0 0 tho T,. bp,OTh,
eight ""to" th, ...w. H, nn,"", pl, c," 1.000
meo ;o ,mbu'", "''''0' 'he of 0"
"'""* M,go. be[",.eo [n. [",0 mps ""y
the to"o", inQ""""'"g h. "' 0' h" Numi"io"
cov" ,yto ""'" the Rom. ", Q " (
2 The Romo", ",. ,e d,.,.m up os "'0, 1"' ''"
' M109,,,,,, '" '0. ceOUe , nd [ho ,II, 00 the
"' 01" The Ro",. " c, ". I,y 'NO" 00 tho ' igo'
a
As ., lI.nnib<tl re. lised what
had h. PI>encd he sent out hi. Numidi. n
,'a"alry i n pu", uir. It wa, fort u nale foe
t he Romans thaI the l"umidians stopped
to bum tbe deserted Roman camp
bdme st.n ing theie punmi t ; mos t "fthe
Romam managed to ceo" t he river
befNe t he Afeican horsemen caught up
with t hem. T his retreat on t he T rebbi.
would be inconcei,'. ble if PIa"cntia
at Piacenza , for t be T eebbia i,
. bout five kilomet res west of t hat town.
The Romans now encamped on t he low
hills west of t he T ttobbi. ne.r mo,k rn
Rivcrg"o, c(wcring tbc ir line of
ret reat . m,wed up hi s
and pitched it aboul eight kilomet res
west of t he Rom.n posit ion . A few
doy, laler Sempronius, wit h t he thi rd
and r"urt h lcgion. , Scipio',
camp, ha\'ing c<wC' ed an in," edibk
1,780km from Lil ybaeum (Marsala)
"ia Rome and Rimin i in 40 days, an
. verage of 44km per (by. To
t his thc army had di. bandcd and
told to meet at Ri mini by a certain date .
Some ti me later oneof t hose cumula-
t ive skitmi,h., lOokplace in which
side keeps <l ut reinli"c,,_
men". Hanni bal, realising Ihat t hi s
wos t he sort of I hat could out
of hand, recalled his men. l i e warned a
pitched Mule where hi . supeeme abi lit}
as a tacti cian would dC"idc t hc day
T he Roman, considered the Car-
t haginian wit hdrawal an admiss ion of
defeal and started to d "m()ur fot "
fulkc"le encountcr. kncw
[ ha[ t hc t ime was ripe and that Sem-
peonius wou ld respond to a lill ie
T he space between t he
<amps, alt hough fi"t and lrC", leos" was
,"ounod by ",", veral w>1en; oursc. If he
ofkrcd hallIe here t he Romans would
have 10 ad\'ance int o l he plain wit h
theit left wing resting on t he hil)'
Dur ing t he ni ght Hannihal , en t out
t.poe infant r y and J ,OQ() cavalr y undet
the command of his bf()t her
to hide "long the >leeam bed.
where cntcred t he hi lh
At da;-break he , en t out his
'''' \'alr;- to heat up the Rom" n camp and
then ordered hi s whole to break-
fast and stand b y t heir . em,. Hi , plan
was to draw out the Roman, and
cipitate th e full-" alc ball ie for which
ho was prepared and they were nm, l i e
could har dly ho,'e expected his pion lO
,"
. ESTER:" MEDI T ER . Ar-;D T HE W ITALY
. ful a, it w"", d and hi,
be as , ucce" 'II inC"paWale and,
- ...io W"' sl, . full comm
. had o,er . :-.!umidian'

advancmf fol!(}wmg up ' nfamry,
hi, ca,'a the no-
.'ellte< an 'dian' rerreatcd a le ionarie'
r he Numl d D"v.n the g f the
mons follo"'e .. lCV "ate" b,
d Into tHe hc s"ollen
plunge L,ch had 'e n , hl",, -
.. W II Sn"" wa
I ' Cv the n,ght bled
ram durm>: os thev slUm "heor
the ",m" RmR a
mRm I 'he " mer droR ogam and
, hIng e, , d"" n unnl
J he, p,un
b
1 mer
k g, nugh' 0 tbn
agam tntO the nd sh,,'c nng.
'oake" a k
al last. d p the far ban h Romans
clamhcrc u hal ,a" that t e ard a
Hanm h' threw fo'"
d mer e ,kemen
hod of about 01 h"
d..", "I' t
I gers anu
o"d s thIS screen. hiS mfamry
nibal u p . camp Till'
Han "rom " j h". . ,f ahoul
m in , ' 1' lme (
1 500 d f a ,mg C j
con"'le : niords. Cells f' onl of
hi' elephams Irv be\'ond
He " ' he cava _ ,
' a"u eithe' wmg
'"
j S nN
J>oh-hius ,oe . h-
Al'hough . h. "e wl!
lhem I he mu" nO" !'h ' l' lkemen
menttOn ':o,ermgfo,"-.: ea,aln on
drawn h" up hehmd lhe \.re <e nt
were d, a" : hlht the ahead
each \oRhl'" armed ' r n,mean-
to JOI n I e Ime I he Hom. Polv_
"
hc mfant", lhelr loree' . I
o dra" n up Ihelr ' l'Ua
" h,le had' hat the, CltlZen
hm, i' ",""h t e mthe centre
order, t ul 16.000 men,' ooo men)
legIon<. aho Ill ed (ZO' hlCh had
ondthefou'a I he e. ,alr y, ,, ' ursutl
h f lillie" I
on I e ailed from ," r awn upon the
heen m, d," ns . ""' dT n hor<emen
"I the u I he Roma b h " as a
k \\lng' \\ ,,' e
,,,e "b< ,u' 4.000, .., hceause
mhcre" "
nu r S!.. , .. u, h A" .., UI
litt le unden l he earhe' z:have !>een
of l","e, , , them "0" " ..
cent 0 der a" lCu
PC' d the remam In \\ere
Homan . n Roman cO, a and the
T he lhe riRht veliw a,
dr.wn on the infanl ry
3.000 , , d auea v must
I were p' ac >d l here lue,
us"a
h
Rom. ns st"'- h d happened 1o
A, 1 C d whal a he;- had
ha,'e ,I>"'t whtle ago and
them, On y up , Now. soa
hcen getting
,
lhoeir piw in' " ,he rna.. of Celt,
and Spaniard. ,
S""' lhoe ma.. 'Upon<>< Car-
rna,;inian &I"" uri rring
<he ftanl<. of ,he, 1qJon. bn<: The
African p;kcmcn and ,he, Sumi.dians.
.-110 had bn d....n ur behind 'boo
ca,."lry, dashN 1""" ,hnf<" .- n men and
.,_*cd . he Roman flank>, Hanrubal
knc.. .haI hi. cenlKcould nol hol d ou'
long api..... ,he, mighl of lhe Iegiom.
Tho S um,d...n. and Arli<:1m had &1-
'boo p off " inl"
S o,,' M :ogt>' . 1 .000 ' -alry and infamr)'
came our ..,( hidi ng an.! ,he
Roman ,",u, . hl'<>' .' ,"g . ho: 1m"
con(u.ion , 1-400 Inani ",ould
ha,'o abou' I" r'1lft1 'boo an""k,
T he Il. oman> 10 mai nu in lhoe
conl e" in ..,nl..." bu, ""
,he "'ing, , . ".cke d by 'he dephan" in
f",n' anJ . nd S umiJian.
in Hank>, . toaJ ily back
","'ard' l he
In t he cen"e tho Homan. fi nally cUI
' hoir ",ay Spanish and
Cdti,' infant r y, Seml' >" iu" "' ho "'a,
in hero, tht>ugh l ' ha' he had
won bUl ' hen fou nd him, d f cu' off
from lhe K" " I' ,II<: .tmy'. h "'''
raining and ,i.i bili,y "...
poor, A. ,II<: Roman. could Oft no " "l'
0( back '0'heir comp, ""poociall)'
,,-il h ,he 'icf.......... Conha[tlnian "''''all)'
roaminc . he fidd , 'hc-l' ,..,.ired in do""
orde. '0I'laom'i.a.
Of . he In, <It ,he . nny' ""'" ,,=c
j;il lN by.M caulry and 'M dq.han"
a. ,I><}' u ltd .0 . ...ro , he ri,'CT. ...
,ioIen' norm hlId bknton ur ,,'hidl
l he R,...... n ""Kal. and '1lC
Canhaaini.on., lind,n. lhe, ru" ui' ,""
dlffi<.'u h , ...,.u.fW<! '0 lhei r camp 10
I<:b ,
Pol}'bi'" i. ... I><r ' ";I,j!"e abuu' "ha'
lhe Li, 'j', 00" '-
<, .. 'dl. u. 'ha' of. .. nigh' fall Scipio
. no.! th. ,.mnan" " f arm}' r"'roMed
Iho T,.bhia an.! a<h .! Placon ti. ,
Findi ng ir cr"".kd 'here, they <:"" ' 00.1
Ihe Po and heaJed d""' n, ,,eam 10 Cre-
m"na , Roman. h.d I'<rhap, I""
as many a' 20,000 men ;\I, hough
Hannib.I' , ca,ua hits were light , he 10"
a ll but 01\0 "f hi , elephants in t he ""rm,
of cen. ..llt.l}"
T he IfuO, it u.' ion In t he 1' " valle>' "'as
RO,\i E llC
THE GREAT WA RS
n", immedi.o'd)' kno"" Rom. '"
S=r ",mu' haJ claimed a 'iClOI'}',
but i' ""'" oto"iou> a' , he '''-''
annie-> ,hUl tip al Pla<:enlia and
Cremona. A, long a' ,he c..nhagmian
""....11'} could ",rnain in tl>< field. , Ix:
t" ." armioe'a .....ld l1<lC and ...pp1ie's
had to be brought "p .he Po in ships,
In Rome f.........h ptqW"lIlions " .....,
beIng ma.k ' 0 li m" , I>< c..rthaginian
. ....... ..... , .. ...n, '0 Sicily'
(....-cn'h and and s..rdin;"
( nint h) '" stop .he c..rtha{l<ni.ons 'I'}ing
10 K-e>lablish ,hc:m... ' h<re. anJ
plli",ns ... ru.heJ to Tal'm'o . nd
"' he r pons "r loyaI.y in
'hel' .hould de(C'C1, alk>,,; ng Punic
" ""!'" '0 be: in'" ",ul boorn

A, , he .. e"n,ul, I'OT the
",mi ng y'","r f"T , he
or eentr. 1 1'.1)' . t"c" t roops "'ere
cnT<l lled . nli " ore. ""nl In Rimini and
B. low
1ho """" " ,,". 0' , ... T""mo"e ..en j ,,,,"
t h< e. " " do Tr>t p'omOnto<v ,n ,"" coo'" i'
Po"."",,,,, Tno s,to <.."".od bv tho autho. too-
tOO b"t1o " bo" '"" ,no "'''''''''',,'' v 00
' no "',,_ 01 P"'''l''"'''' now ""","
'"
ITALY AND THE WESTERN MEDITERRAt-:EAN
Arezw, where lhe 11"0 {()
lake up ' heir positions. Polybiu, ",ys
nOlhing more of ' he lr oops a, Placemia
. nd Cromona. Livy, if hi, ,CCOunl of
'he winter ope ralions can he helic\'cd,
' hat 'he troops from Placentia
crm;,cd thc into Elruria
.nd lhose at Cremon. made their way
to Rimini, In the early , pring ' hc two
con<uls set oul 10 take up lheir postS-
Flaminius at l\ rezzo and Geminus al
Rimini,
T here were oniy two routes by which
Hannibal could enter centr al It aly , by
cros,i ng the Ape nni nes inlo lhe Arno
,'.lley ; or by marching down the Po
vaHey 10 Rimini , then following the
Metauro valley into lhe Apennines and
<,.", ing l hc Vill a ('.oldecanali pass (all.
559m) inlo the v. lley of the Tiher. T hi'
was the roule of the Rom. n Via
Flominia and was the easier but by far
the longer ,,'ute. There are aooul half a
dozen p'",ible mute, from the Po {()
the Am" v.llcy. T be casie" and most
hkely is lhe old Elruscan roule from
Bologna "i a Ma rzaootto to l he low-
lying area between PislOia and Florence
which was probably Rooded at th is
time. Fr om long experienc<: of dc. ling
with Celtic i nvasions the Romans knew
'hat l hey must posr lheir armies a,
Bimini, "lVering the exil from the Po
valley, . nd at Arczzo in 'he Am o
valley,
Hannibal had made deta iled en-
quir ic' into t be !",,'ible rOute' 10
central Italy. He f. vourcd rhc , bort
route into Etruria from Bologna bur
was warned thaI the Arno valley was
II i' guides, however, assured
him that the ground benea' b the water
WOS firm and it could he crossed.
I n the spring he broke winter qu.rters
and cro" ed 'he Apennines wil h aoout
45,000 infantry and 10,000 cavalry
(these figure, are ba<cd on the ,' onvic_
tion lhal he mu,t h. ve had more troop,
than he had al Cannae a year laler),
hoped 1<) Fbmi ni", and
defcat bim befor e hi, colleague could
join hi m /Tom Himini.
T he Punic army . dvanced soul h-
ward, wi'b the African and Spanish
infantry ar lhe fr ont, the bagg. ge rrain
mingling with them. Behind tbe'"
were placed the Cells, Wil h the cavalry
hri nging up the rear Hanni hal mm
manded the "a nguard the only
'"
remaining ele phant , and his brorher
Mago 'he rearguard, The Celrs had
been plaeed in ' he centre as lhey wete
the most unreli ahle ,nd here
the cavalry coltl d m. ke , m e 'hat
did not desert .
T he ,\pennines were ctossed without
pmhlc m' , but i' wo k 'hree d. ys .nd
nights to rhe swamp' . Mo" of l he
hai:gage animals . nd died
in tbe mud and al nighl the soldiers
made u, e of the' e dead animals by
climbing up on to t heir packs <0 thal
the" could sleep ou, of the mire
Hannibal had severe altaek of
ophthalmia whi tst <'w>sing lh e m,,,,hes,
BUl lhere was no ti me 10 "op for
treatment as it was essent ial to get the
army Oul of lhe unheal thy "rea as
quickly a, p<"" ib!e. A' a result he lost
an eye. Once marshes the
army camped for a few day' while ' he
scouts undertook. thorough , un'e)-' 01
the surroundingcount ry, Hannih.l used
the opportuni,y 10 make careful en-
q uiries <"OIKerning ,he charaCler of lhe
c<,mul l'Iaminioo. PolybiU< , ay' tha' he
foltnd hi m to he a dem.gogue_ . n
over-confident mob or ator Wilh no
ta lent for lhe practical md ue" of war.
lIere again Polybi", i, reHeeling
the view of the f. mily. Muc h
has been made of the rashne" of
Fl amini us but most of i' i' pmbahly
l\( , it iou, . In 22) HfO Flami niu, had won
a gr cat over the I nsubres,
Polybius was una ble to deny the victory
bUl gave the credit to the tr ihunes, This
baltle is sign i1l<'anr a, rhe Roman' did
not u, e rheir hut oppo'cd
the Celts with a front rank of spearme n,
T he credil for lhis innovalion must go
10 the c<>mmander os it could hard ly
have been earried out by the tribune,
on lheir own ini tialive,
In fairness to Flaminius he was
probably no beller or worse th. n the
average Roman commander of hi, day.
T be princip.l weakness of lbe Roman
ar my throughout lhi' war was l1S
ineffi cient system of scou,ing.
Flaminius seems 10 haye been en-
camped be' wem Fie",le and ArelZO,
Hannihal up the Am o ,'. lley
toward, the Roman position and when
t be refused balt ]e b}'p. ssed hi'
camp and pusbed on ' ou thwards, laying
wa" e the " mntry,ide . nd huming 'he
farm' in an endeavour to draw Flam_
ml\l Sout. r he who bad alread)'
sent word 10 his colleague to join him.
now gave or de.... to break camp . nd
follow the Cart h'gini . n. Pol ybiu, ,",,,
that Flaminiu'- tr ihune' begged him 10
rem. in where he was until hi, <"lIe. gue
arrived, A man of Po lybius ' experi. n"
moot have known that lhi s was non-
",n",. Flamini'" had ", remaIn in
cont""t wit h the C.rt haginian
bUI avoid a ballle before his colle. gue
arriwd and this is clearly what he tried
to ,10
T he Greek historian ,ay' thar H, n
ni bal was advancing . long the road to
Rome, with Con ona and it< hill' on hi'
left and Lake T ra'i menc on hi, right.
The road ran th roltgh a narrow str ip of
level ground with a range of hill s along
either side. T he head (}f thi s defile was
oycrh ,ked hy a ",ecp hill whieh was
to cli mb, Belween the lake ' nd
t he hillside was a narrow passage gl\'ing
access to the defi le and here he prepared
an "mhu'h. T he fir" pan of thi,
i, only p'",ibk if Hannibal
i, on rhe nort h , hme "f l he lake
Recent ly the Ital ian archaeologist
G;ancarl o Susi ni made a , horough
' urvey of 'he nort b , hore He was able
to ,how rhat mu ch "f the low_lying I. nd
al the north-we 't corner of the l. ke
was under waler in Roma n t; mes, T he
level of the lake wa, !owned when.
, "nal conncering the lake with ' he ri"er
Nestore wos buill in ' 421. The shore-
line has been furt her eXlended os >
re, ull of silt ing the " ream,
that !low int " rhe north ,ide " ft he lake
When these factors .re taken into
consi deration, l he hroad plain al l h.
nortb.." corner of lake a,"umes >
quite dilferent ,hape The 'pur on
which Tuoro stands i' now in the
centre of the plain bUI in Roman time'
it jult ed oul 10 the wate r' s di\';d-
ing the plain in tw<>
I .m grateful to Lt . .I.klvin . nd hi,
learn for bringing to my attenlion . n
old map covering the are. from Arezw
1<1 Lake T ra,imene supposedly drawn
up hy Leonard" da Vine'i pr<lhahly
towards the end of the ' 5t h c<: ntury
This not on ly show, Lake Trasimene
a much larger are., but ' hal
mo,t of rhe Chiana valley, wbie'h r un,
n"rth ro Aren<l, wa, all<O tlo(}ded. T his
has led w me Io<;al to
' uggest that the Chi,na valley and
ROME 275- [ 40
THE GREAT WARS
M ONTW H

"
-
,

-,
,
,
l AKF THASIM[ Nf
}

'- -' c" m

.. \.. ...
.,{
I )

Righ!
The di"',b, ' ,o" ol Han ",b. I', trOOl'S " ong "'e
MI, ioo, \0 , "" Sl of TuOIo " , ..m, on' ,..,y
",,' th, Ce"""g,n,," wou' d Mve drawn up hr>
force, i" M eMed li oe . ' ong th, h,l" " "' """.
"' ""y ,no,, " , hQwn he,e, he concea led ' hem
" tOe v" ' ey, out 0' " g"< o. , he Rom,,,,, H.
could h" d'y ,el,M M.he mrst th. , ' 0'"
op " om,o. I, ke ,n , he . " Iy O1Ol" i"g, ood
wou ld oe",' ", ve deployed oi. troops" oll ,f
i, n", """0 , 0.," d"" "9 ,he ",ghr
Con' ..
M,O at"i boted to LeonO<O o ," V,nO' wh,, "
snOw, l . k. T, ,,,,,,eno ove,flo""og ,nto ,od
f1 00d,ng tt,. v, II e, of Ch" " , T"'. , ,, ",,ion
,"o'd "'''v e, i>! if the height 0' the " ke was
2<)6", in" e,,' o"he p,e.. nt 268m. as the
'o'mo, i, .he of the waters"ed . , , ""
"",th _"" ""'"," of , ne ' ''e

A model of " , nonh ,ho'O ol l eke T""m<>ne
p...' of tne pl"o of COItoo, The ligh' "
,''ow, the "" " ,h" we', 0""" 0""'"
w"" Tne "'. o' tne battle i, berween T"010
,no p= ,gn,no
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S'r:IS V"lI"lI3.LI W1W 3 H.L cxv x-r....LI

An ,-.. .".,t ' ''" t""" 04 H..,"' boI
Only ""001, wouI<l ..... _ 0""'mot, .,'" m.
ohio,. r... """ ","'v CeI' 04,0<, p."oo. ' h<>wn
bc-h,,..j ,110 ' "",go' .,,,ppo;d '0 tM
",. ' it ",,"g oNy"" ' "IOId t o'
1CC1TI5 cq... II)' unlikol )' ao lhe narr<>l'I'
plain al , he "".1 el><!. which would ha,..,
'0 b<: Polybius' defile. (5lU1d hardly b<:
aaid t o have Conona ""'" i" hill. On .hI::
kft. Thio lea..... IhI:: "np of bnd
bn.......... T.-o and PaWanano. If IhI::
r.-I did lake 10 IhI:: hill. 10.,..... thl::
P_inano promonl<>f). thl::B thi. could
just lil Pol ybi... d<5cription. h :01"",
mak.. ..".....m<01 action<.
\l;'tx:n lIannit>.J . urvcy<d thl:: Vound
hi:: muot han ..al iO! lha' .hI:: tx:ol
place t o K1 an amhuoh lay in thl:: na<T<>oI'
TIt<rT1lOM'la<'n>< pau tx:yond "-ig_
naDO. Hul h< kr......' lha. ,hi:: Roma...
..."",10.1 nn'. r . nl'" thi. wilhoul lint
ocoulinl i On IhI:: ",h..
hal><! th. y ....""10.1 n<V'" , u' pl an am
bu'h in IhI:: much mo.. "ron ground
bd".., .he dang.' <po< W50 r eac1><d.
'fhi . ,,,,uld """"um for Flaminius
blundeTinll .... ighl imo the Irap laid
for him, fOT he must have ant icipated
an ambus h further d"wn Ihe road.
lIannih.1 pi lched camp "n the hill at
t he ea,1 end "f the plain overlooking
t he deli le. Flam;nius ....ith hi. for ce. ,
consislio ll of t he tc nth anJ eleventh
legions plus t he remnant s of t he third
and fourt h, al\out 30,000 men i n all,
arrived at the l" ke very lat. in the day
and may we ll have c..mped on .be
Borgheno .pur. He maj' even ru.ve
be<:n "ble.o .... Ihe Cart ha&inian camp
on the hill eighl kilom",r.. further
alona lhe ",,.., h .hote of thl:: lake.
F1aminiu. k_ 'ha' hi< col league ......
ad..... t he- way and
mUl' ha,.., rell elaled ... he to
ha,.., Hann,bal lrappe,J bnwttn " ......."
ann;'" ilm .. ,he Cd" had been a'
Telamon eigh, yea.. b<:fan:. During
the nigh' HannIbal moved ou' of camp.
It ...... probably a .....".".wt nigh b<:
felt obIiaed t o t;ODCI01Il hi. """, ,,,,-
.\lding detou. alont the far side of
the hill... he hi. pik""",.. (e.
8,000) and h.. "ing.... (c . l .oool in
ex'ended li alonl t he '\\ont eg"'o
.pur on , -.th .ide of I .... defile
....ilh the I.ke behind I....m. Similarl)"
he "",'cd hi. can lr y (e. , o.ooo) and his
Celts (c . lS.oool alonll .h. hill,id..
thl:: lake and ..re<chi ng as far as
the Tuo<o .pur . T he ..mainder of , he
ar my, t he Spani,h infanlt) (c . 6,000)
and the Afri can Iilh. a. med (c. 4,O:X
we1< drawn up in fro n' of Ihe camp.
Be"Cau,e Ihey were gning 10 fight on
ROME Be
TIlE GREAT WARS
. Iope lhe mi ..ik .roops
(ianlinn al><! , Io l1&<n ) "-ere pro-
ba.bll placed t><hind.he heavy infantry.
TIt< follow;n, morning Flaminius.
...-tolUna ' 0 keep a>nlaCl in an'i.:ipalion
of iii, col league'1 arrival. cr.....d .1><
plain and pooaoN lhe- Tuoro . pur. A
heavy mi .l was rioi... from lite lake
...-hich obocured'he hilkidc, Hannibal
could llOt han <:oUnled on ,iii. and
<hc-rd"'" i. """Id llOt ba"e inll"""""d
hi . plan. When ,Ite R......n. rexhed doe
far end of lhe plaiB and .....ed the
:o1ant. ,ltej' found lite African> and
Spaniard. bloclr.;ng t heir path. TIt<
Roman "''''Illn, 1yole m ....... 10 ineffici-
ent tha"he n l>;wrJ.......-uwho mode tip
the Roman ,..nguard c:amc in,o conlaCt
...il h lhe Canhaginian foro:.-. bdore ,hey
reali..d lhaltlte)" " 'cr e ' here. At I1nt t he
Roman, thoughllhallhey had fallen in
wit h the "unic ..,,,rguard . but Ihen
trumpe" echoed along Ihe hill s and the
"'a' CI)' ...... raised on all . ides .s Hanni-
b. 1 relayed d" wn lhc Io nc Ihe order to
cha. ge,
The fronl of t he Roman col umn " a,
e.ught in an 'aull fro m Ihree side.
but somehow manaiff'd 10 break
through, The reO{ "f Ihe col umn w. s . t
Ihe mercy of the cavalry. T hey h.d no
. ime to form up in ballk ordCT or
probably even 10 . hrow lheir
bdore lhe horsemen Were upon lhem.
U vy gi ,... more credi' 10 Flam,nius
'han lie oaY1 lhat Jolaminius
lried ' 0 bnnaordcr ' 0 ,Ite lqiom. hurry-
ina '0lhe point <.. her< l he IOldi en ......e
hard prnscd and utiing iii. men on.
Finally he was recogni1ed by Ducariu"'-
one of . h< l noubnan ca valry. TIt< Ill-
. ubra ,hinuIII for """'Dge after
Flamini ' cunr-ilm in .heir bomc-
lando ynn earlier. Shouting 10 iii.
axnradco., Ducari daohed ,owardo the
consul . TIt< ur. armour bearer
,h"",,' him..,lf i n front of Jolaminiu. bu'
...... (\I' down. Then DU<1riu. 'urned
on I.... Rorna.. commander ""'" ran him
Ihrough. The Irian. rallied aro1lnd the
dj'ing a>nsul t o ' lOP .1>< IllSubreo
deopoilon8,h. body.
T .... Roman, held on f" .thr"" houn
bUI the Celt. bad cu, off lhe li ne of
r et.... 1.tlhe T""ro . pur and .he... was
n"e""oro,
Gradually Ih.y wer e d r;"en bad
t" ,,. rd, t he ma"he. a. Ihe water', edge.
II.... , ami d'l the cwaking frOlls , they
'"
ITALY AND T HE WESTERr<o MEDITt<:RRANEAN
....mbled in rttd. ar>d T he
eanhollinian. ,hor,ed in """m
"""ing ,hem down as ,hey 51i,ltcn:d
around in ,he mud. Othen '.".ded
fanh<-r ou' un'il only 'heir head. wen:
,he ",a<c. and here ,hey ...ai,ed
M'eoudy fOIl dao'h ' 0 "'""-11 'hem. They
held up ,Iori. hondt btgginJ ror mcr-cy
but round none. SooM !lied 10 ''''m
f.. n .... our in,o ,he lake bu' ....,n:
by liw ...-..ich. 01. . heir mail.
1lw Roman yanguard, abou' 6,000
Slmng, had broken 'h""'lIh lhe enemy
and pusbed on un'il {hey teI<:hcd
,he <:rc5l of ,he hill. II'Iwn ,he mist
dcared .nd ,hey "'e able '0... , he
""ten. of ,he di.,,,.t , 'hcv rcITeated
,,.
.nd ' ool< .helle. in an E,ruoo:;an villalle.
On the foJl owinll day 'hey wen:
.urrounded and .urrendered.
Hanniboll hIId Ion abou. '.5"" men,
mai nly Ccl... Abou' '5,000 Romano
had f.lIm .nd oimilar number had
bcc:n lab"n JltISO'Wf. Hannibal rcIeaoc-d
all lhe PI iMN.... 'Iri,bou. ramom.
""inr , ... hi. ..r ... with ,tic
RomaM .nd nol .heir allies. He had
done . he ...... af,er lhe boInle .t ,tic
T ..bbia. hopi"ll' in , hi ....y 10 ..nder_
the alliance.
Ar.... ,he boInle Hannibal ordcTcd
..",,,,h .o be made f('l r ,he ocnior Roman
"""""" "" thll' he mi.h. pry thoMn , he
las( honoun. About 30 ....... r=m.....-cd
bu' ,he...... IKl tr""e or Flamini.. ..
Maybe , he Ccl" had ..ripped t he body
and ..moved hi. head, or pc.ha"" ,he
/T'<tTl' had drlllB"d it in'o the wa' ....lId
the'" In it ..nt , wei,bed down by i"

'IIlwn ....." 0( the disaU... """'hcd
Scno'e "TIC ......bIe '0 conccaI
or , he ,*,",' . '11>00 ci' y pract'"
...mrnoned ........,.. or .he people in
,he forum, """"'tl ,he ","rum and
said oimpl y, 'We hllve been defea'ed in
a Mtlle' .
1lw <:TO\O"<I .....11 lhe """" "",on!
as . he Romano had nol o.. .uch
defar .,""'" ,he ti_ or R<f;IIh.., But
the.. """01llClfe to cnmc.
..., ,he <'lIhe. cono.. l, ...-as
.Irc-ady on ,he ma",h '0 join hi.
.... , lie had ocn. ahead (he <4,000
cay,lry 'Iu" wen: ocrvinll ...-i,h hi' army
u ,hi 'a.th. arm in whieh Flamini ...
arm)' s ......kes t. Hannibal as .. , .. al
had hien.. ," " .. t and b,oughl him
new' that t he ea valry ..... r. ad ,' . nein.
down Ihe Vi. Flaminia. Hannibal im
..n, ou, Maliarbal ....it h t he
pikemen and part of cavalry. Poly.
him ",yo ne, mOlC ,han ' hat ,hey ki lled
aboul half the f" "'" in t he fin' an.ck
and took Ihe ",he" pri",,,,,r Ihe (" llow_
ing day, L,vy i1 even leu enl ightening
H ...yo only tkat . hey fdl into ,he
hando of the C.rth.gini""". It "",nd
. .. . piciou.ly I' ke .noth<-r amtm.lt. The
nc>n of Ihi ..-.:ond d' ...",r arrived at
R""", only three days the fint.
l .ivy ",110 ... or the rdati""" ......ting
al t he p'''' 01. lhe cily """'nJ for TlC'A
of ' Iorir loved ....... ' One """"",n ..ho
had been loid of .he dao'h 01. he. "'"
....red .0 her 10 Jive ven, '" her
"""",,". flu' .. to oI.'en ha.ppcn5 ,he
report _ """"1I , When her ..,.,
artiftd home ,he .....n ...... '00 much
for h<-r and ohe <bed ,n hio. arms.
1lw F.rruoano did not f\od; '" ,he
Canhasini&n ...ndard .. Hannibol had
hoped, Thei' mani.1 .Mri' ...... k:>nI'
dad. l1e had f..- grc hopes for
""",hem hal y. Tkn: m have ben!
...",e ,he.., who rememhered , he ..
of I'yrrh.. o M yean before. Fmm the
Lon
M"" 0'''''''''.. '' ........."ot'"\i " " """',,",9" '"
211 Be, TN> m.., ,,*"... mor'od., bII>o
H. " nlMI ' . more,," _ ,",<>Ugh It. ... to
Apuh .od ,_' " C. mp.nlod Oar' ".
",,,kod .., <od
Truu"c... Iakc he continued IUs rnan:h
...........do lO join .he Ranu"",n \I'ay
and .hen w v&n<>:d 11........ ,
!..ivy ..y> l hal lot Iri<-d .0 toke Sro6eto
bu. ..... A. Terni , 15km
"",,",h of 11........ , he ,urned .....lh......l .
cros>ed.he Sdla di Comopau owr .1ot
Apenni..... and arrwcd a' the COlI" ....r
p....,..,., he r"'ted hi.....n and
much_needed anenlion 10 hi,
",,",,", ",hich had suffered
from t h. exert ion. " f , he previou , year.
Al Trehhino.! T ra,imcne Hannihal
had caplu red an enormou, amount "f
Rom. n . r mour . nd ",eapons, Selccti ng
t h. most f uilah le pieces he rearmeo.! hi.
Alr ie. "" pri"" ipaJJ)' ,,; , h ar mour but
abo """"iN)" wit h ...-urdo.
A. """" as . Iot Pun;,; ann)' had
ropera.ed .ufficiornlly l hey con. inued
hei r <nar<:h dool'n . he cw.. in. o . he
fenile plain of Apulia ,
In . imeo of ex<reD"IC danger .he
RomIno resorted to t he .....-;enl ro>1om
of pla<.ing ....al po..'e < in tlot hands of
one T he man ""'" choo<-n for
Ihi. onerous ta, k ""' Quint... F.biu.
M. ximu. lie .... I1UIde di <"tOtor for
.i x monlh . H. had ,een ..rvice i n Ihe
firs, war ", it h Cart hage, and , ince Ihen
he had heen oon,ul l",k. and had he.n
. ",. , eled a t riumph f" r hi. vk tor y over
t he Ligurians , At t h. time of hi,
Ji<1atorshi p h. wao about 60 y. ... old ,
RO.I.1 E 27S-t40 IIC
THE GREAT WARS
lie .... a caulious nun aOO!hi.
heavily in hi. appoinl"""'" The
of .he army had reached a ''el1' low
ebb. aOO no doubt bef<t he let. R.......
10 tah up IUs eomrrund t he s.n.. had
him noc to allemPl anythtng tOO
audllciouo before the army had had
time .0rtt<WC'l",
Fal>iu. "''' given a. hi. """""d_in_
in-eommonJ (ma. ter of t he co,'al ry)
Marro. Minuciu. Rufus, who bad
h I"""
Mop ol "",11" '0 C, mp.o" '"""""Ill'" "'. ,"
'0'"' ' ,'" ""'" ,mpo'''o, 'owo,. T"
Roman ood L. ho 001""" , .... mo, ''''' '0 ,""
><. oo,n. , , , _ 'no p l..o"".... of
P.. ..,-
ITALY ,'''D THE WESTER:s" MEDITERRANEAN
Aboy.
Mop ot the """ leOOi 09 from Cam"""ia to
,he vau", of H,. Voltumo .. P",..v" " no
Hoooib, I', t.'o, "',th the o, eo i, , ho",o with
, bmw" o" ow, th. """ , h, us' w"h , ,,,d .",,"'
, ion '" rdme ha"k hu' w follow the
( :art hagini an around, hum ing t he erop'
and cutt inR off foragers and straRRlers
and ,hus gtadualJy down 'bc
Car, haginian arm;- whih t at the ,arne
timc "i,ing t he strength and morale
of hi, own troops, many of whom h.d
only enlisled, II would be
wrong 10say tha, they were raw teerui"
since mosl of thcm would have <cen
previou, s"H'iee in l he Cd'i c WafS But
they would h.ve needed and
di,ci pline.
Hannibal ra"aged lhe coun,ry, ide
. ", und Fabi m' camp, When it became
d car thaI the w", not to
come om, he broke camp and lr ied
same t. el ic ,hat he had used with '0
much ' ucce" again" Flaminiu, He
marched straight by Fabiu, and re-
crossed lhe Apennines as far os the
Roman coiony "' Ben,,'ento, He then
followcd the nort h hank of the Calore
river a' far as the lown of Tel..ia
(Tele, e), which he ,acked in p"" ing,
and descended imo lhe FalCTni.n field,

o
nort h of t he Volwrno ri"er, Fahiu,
followed one or two day,," marc h I:oehind,
Hannihal l:oelieved thaI here i n Cam-
pani", which ",as de nsely populated
",ilh many wwn" Fahim woul d not be
ahle to Ie, him hurn and with
impunity, He was wronR,
Fahius took up his posi lion on 'he
hili, overlooking th" plain '" that th,
allie, would no' think l hat the Roma",
had entirely de,erted the m, bu' h,
refu sed 10 de,cend int o the plain.
Hannib. 1 did his be" w the
di ctalOr down and laid wa<tc lhe whole
"f the plain north of the Volwrno.
II was now autumn, they
hod collecte d a vaS! amoun, of hooty,
lhe <lfchard, and \'ineyard, of the
Falernian plain hardly ,u"ain l h,
Canhaginian army throuRh ,he win" L
il was e"emial ,hal l he;- get hack to
Apulia, Bu' whe n tri cd to rclu'n
hy the way they had come, lhey found
the route blocked. PoJ)'hius says tbat
Fahius hod p'''ted about 4.000 men
blocking the route hy which Hannihal
had the pl. in whil st he him;elf
encamped on a hill overlooking the
pass, Ilannihal arr ived he en
c.mped ' >n the Ie\'el ground beneath
the hill, He reali sed a, once the d. nget
of his position and >raye Fabiu, no time
(
]
,
7
serwd " con,ul i n n , bL Fabiu'
immedi.. dy hegan four ne w
legion" t he 141h, 15th, t6,h and 17lh
A, a< , he Canhaginian, had
m(wed oill of central haly, F" biu,
or dered Geminu, to march sour h and
join him ", Nami on lhe Via
Geminus had wit h hi m 'he t 2t h and
t 3' h legion, plm the remnants of
Sci r io's firsl and second (c. 30,000
men), T here was no co.'alr)"; l he, e had
been I" " afler l he hatt le of I'ra,imene.
F>hiu, marched non h 10 meel him
at t he head of l wo of l he hasli ly rai,ed
legion<, the '4t h and '51h. The otheT
,wo remained at Rome. r hi, i, the
aee"unt given hy l. ivy, but Polybius
,ay, he 'ook all four new legi ons. This
cont radiction between our two SOUTCe,
has c.used much confmion fm it affee'"
not only ,his year bu' . 1,0 the
one. l.i,'y and 1'()I"biu,
on two ditlerem bm il seem,
possible thaI bm h lhese SOure"'S h. ve a
wmmon or igin. Polybius ' Source kne w
,ha, the dicta' or had the nud eu, of ,i ,
legion, in his army but failed 10
mention Scipio's defeale d lroop, .nd
l herefore gave lhe diclalor all four new
Icgi(ln' Livy', on the other
hand, ac""unted for t he remnants 01
Seipio's and therefore only
had to rai,e lwo more. The diffi-
cully is tha' Liv;- ptomptly f",gel<
Scipio's legiom and ta lb of four legion,
at whe re the army wimered.
Fabit" look ovet Geminu,' leRion"
which Ra,'e him a IOlal of around
47,000 i nfantr y and 2,500 eavalry . Hc
,e n, the eomul on to Home with OTdCTS
to ' ake ",'er the navy and o'gani,e the
defence of lhe co. st, of southern Itaiy,
to Li vy, Fabius n",-" led
hi, army ac",," countr y to Ti\'oli and
Palc<' rina to ioi n the Lati n Way south
of Home. I'or some unexplained re"on
he wished to by pass Rome, Wa, this
beCfi.u,e a Rom.n commander w" nor
allowed to en' er Home at the head of
hi, troops and f'ahi us wa, obeying , he
lener of lhe law? He .ppea" to ha\'e
followe<l lhe Lati n Way and then the
Appi.n Way, noosing the Apennines
,'ia Bene\'en"" and pi'ched camp in l he
f(X)t hilb nea, Aecae (T roia) a!>oul nine
kilometres from Hannibal'. pos ition
The Carthaginian immediate ly led out
hi, army and offered ban le but ,he
dietalor declined. It was Fabiu,' inten_
'0 nplolt " SummonillJl the com-
"",no;k. of the army IICrvan. ... heordercd
him '0 p 'her .. many faggo.. ,..
pol4'bIc and .........l>k ahou' Z,OOO of
,he .trunsrt' pIouah oxen from , he
many ' ..... they had "*PfUl'<'d, "lbco,
a1lina (<>get her (he ann)' ......an. ... he
poInled out a hillod. between hi5 camp
and .he r-' ,ci h", , hem (ha, ,,'hm
,,,,,,. , bt ordt. ,hey""",.., '0
lhe <>Un up (I.he lOp of . he hi ll
as .. (hey 001I1<1
Hannil\al or dttN h.. ooI<licn '" ha..,
,heiT , u l"PC" and ,.."i,.., ... Iy, T "",'ar.r.
<he of ,bt ,hi rd ' eh (ahou, l am)
be otJ=d ,he "" 'an.. '0 bind l he
faggOl. '0 , he horn. (If . he (lxen and
hgh, 'hem, T he fr illh'cocd animal.
....=.hen driven up , he hill.ide. Ikhind
'he oxen he "'d hi. light-armed
wilh orden '0 M Il' 'he ......an"
'0 lie' 'he . nimol> mo,'inl! b u' ,hen '0
!Un alonl! "n ei, her . ide of ' hem and
keep ,hem "'ltether, On reach-
ing ' he high IIr"und 'hey wer<
10 ""euPY , he ridl!" ;n order to 'hrow
blKk .ny H"",.n .d.'ance. Meanwhi le
Haoni!>-al h;m",lf a, 'he head of hi.
heavy_armed " 001' " mod. 0 dash for
'he pa... They we,.., rol lowed by ,he
e"'olry, (he n ,he ca", ured conI. and
finally ,he Spa n,ard. and Ceh.
\'l'hen ,he Homon. in , he PO" " er.
. ...>kened by .be" ""Ollie>, Ihel' saw
tlte maos of ,,,,,,he> charging up ,he
hill .nd ad..nced '0 meet .hem. He'Te
lItey ......... . hrown ,n,o complete con-
fu>i<Jn by 1/'1<' . nd lhe oxen.
Fabius coul<l do Ilo> ..-e ,han ,,,h
from hi. amp. T rue . o hi.char er he
n:mained .'here he _ un,il daylight.
.\Ican.-rule H. nn,bal, w""- dl'-enion
had been more ....::Ul'..1.ban n'en he
could Ita,.., h<>ped. foreN hi . ...-..y
lhroua:h ,he poo" .... 'i.., bol-h his afTllJ
and hooc)' Ihr-oua:h ,n,act . "Ibc fin l
light of do...n r",..1ed ,be Romans
from lbe pus dn"'n up on ,he hi ll
the p, kc.... n. H.nnil\al imme-
dialell' ><:nt bad: """e or hi. Spaniard.
10 ....i" lhem T hcoc a" ,""ked ,he
R""",n, . killi ng ahl'ut , ,000 of ,hem
and .U"...' ng . he pikcrncn to wi. hdraw.
Thi. i. 'hc gi.. "f 1' " lyhiu" =un'-
The problcm i. I' olyhiu. > vaguen ,
. boUl wher e (hellC evenlS look place.
He implies that lIaonibal len lhe Fal -
orn;. o p1.,n hI' lhe . ame r oute he had
tn ente' it, Unt'"rmnarely he i.
very on t hi. poi",.
He >al" t hai aftc. k avi ng Samnium
HannlbaJ Lra",r>ed t he pa.. ncar .he
hIli call ed "'nhianu. and """"loped
he<jde lhe n"", A,hymus (VoI. u"",),
Enbianus. 110",,,,',,-, is un_
known.
1'; , ") rb<'n , he Cart haginian'. rou'e
Ihrough (he d' <l "",S or AIM.. (AI,fe).
Cabt ia, and Cales (Calvi). Cab,ia is
obviou>Jy _ mi>take, as i. io . i" ...cd on
,he ",her oide oJ the Vol tu""" in
cen. ral Campoom_, He m;,h, be referr-
n ng 10 Caia, " (Carano) 0.- Callif..
(Cal, .,.;) 0.- ..' me unkn""'n town of a
.. mila r na.... . Ao SO orte n " ; I h l..i,"),
...e arc kf. in .he dark. T he Roman
hi<tonan fUrl her <l at e> ,ha, lI annihal
....'anted to g" ' " (' .a,inum (C. ..ino)
bm Ihe mi 'undcrolOod and led
him '" Ca,ilinum (Ca pua). T hi, ,eems
highl y unlikel y and Po!ybiu, certainly
oot ment i"n ;, . T he tTu, h may be
lhal lIa" oih.l ...-.' tryi ng t" c" nvince
Fabi u, l hat he ...-a, morehing on kom.
and headcd up t he Voh urno valley
,hroullh the J i" ri" . of Caiauo and
Alife C. ..in" . When Fahiu<
rrfu.cJ t" he drawn he turned '-Outh-
we", pa..inll th""'llh ,he hills ju>!
oon h of ,\ lon'c .\10"",,, 1010 the
Faler nio" rlain. lie (hen ...""",d .he
' crri."r y of Ca lc. (C. lv;) and finany
camped on . he ....nh . ide of lhe
VoIlUrno. In o.-der '0 solve ,hi. problem
one q.....ion has 10 be a>1.cd. From.he
nonh .ide , >( the Calore rivc...... i.
pouiblc '0 ,he Falernian plain
by a diT1 'ou.c?
Both Livy and PolybLU' ola,e ,ha,
Hannibal took TdeoJa ITdco" ! ,,,'lUch
os un , he Al.... h.ide of ,he CaJor., ri,....
a""".......,n kilomenn from ilS jur",.-uo..
"'; Ih lhe Voltu"",. In order ,o ..t,a:x:c
iolo lhe F_lemian plain along t he nonh
hank of ,he Volturno he ..."",1<1 ha"e
fir>( .0 ........ , he Volt.. "",. h i.
ful t hat ,here ,,u . ,.,..j along ,he nonh
..dt of , he Vollurno. A opur (Mon. e
Il.aggdo) iu" out from the main range
of hin, at ,he non h .ide of .he VoI. ur""
and pindleolhe " vcr al the poin, ...-he,..,
it emc... lhc plain, H.. ...'ec n herc . nd
C.i...", .hcrc i , ..'me very lo...-Iying
ground ...-hich hn now been drained,
Thi. make. it unhkely firs, thaI lhe,..,
wa. a ,oad anJ .,,,,,nd , hat Hannibal
wou lJ ha"e co",c thi. way , lf lh i, i, '
t he n Hannihal had "" olternal i,-e hut
RIC
THE GREAT WARS
'oenter lhe plaIn from , he nort h.
Livy All'" llUC' ,...mpktcly
He rb<'n ,he R..man. hIo<:king t he
road to Calhnum (Cap,,"! with Cap,,"
(Sanl a .\lorio d l Copua \ "",ere) ...be1.,
boock. In ", her ...""do HannibaJ ......
, '); ng '0 '" ......t h...'atdo, hut afl er he
broke l..ivy puIS H. nnibaJ in
a mI' .. AMe p km fun her up ,he
VoI.u""" ThIS IS "''Y " Ma.isf"",,,,,,,,
bu, Ahfc io ,he unly " d "",n
ha,..,. At'er Hannibal bad eocap:d Li....
sal" ,hal Fabi us .1... .....,.., .hrough
pas> and elk.1lmpcd in _ Iof,y si rong
pooll ion a""'" Ahfe.
s., 'c mu.. 10.... ro.- . hi. pas' liomc_
..... he,.., ithi n aboul 'skm "f Alik T he
most lik. ll poo;, i,," i. the gop i n lhe
hill. at Pic"o,'ai ra"". A. this i. ,he
....i""'" and co.."" roUte " .... 10 he the
"nc Fabiu. blocked Ilut there are
se"eral o, he r ", '" ' e. , IX' hy Hannibal
nn, u,. onc of ,he. e ? The anliwer may
lie in the ...."rd. "f Polybiu" 'F. hi u<
' hought that gt I<g" he woulll I>c al>le
l capt ure t heir If Hanni bal
....aOlcd '0 hang " n t" lhe enor ma u,
.moun t "f !Ix" h. h.d . m.,sed, ,hen he
had l<> take an ca,y r""' e. Otherwi he
might find hi. arm}' .t retched out and
al the ffierCj' " f t he k"mono.
The Roma n de,achmeo' of 4,{)(l()
",'ere probabl y encamped on . he nonh_
wcot . pu r of MOOle I' "",, (.\ \ont",na
di Bruno) ""., looking.he pa.., and , he
maIn army a, . he "'CO, end of .\-ion,c
Caicvola """ering , he Via Lallna. Han_
ni bal mus t haye camped on the flal
belo...' Mon, e Caic-,-'uIa and dn"en hi.
di yenionary " xcn UJ> ,he .".nh-.....,. .
' pur of .\-IOllle " ..... The Roman gam-
....., """';nl .....nd '" in,en:ep' t he oxen
..."",1<1 ha,.. rJaced t he""",,co bet..""n
,he pi kemen and HannibaJ", final posj-
lion ",""r Alire, T o ,..,li",.., his pil:emen
lhe ean....m.n """. ou, ru, Spaniards
'0 a" "",, (he Romano fn"" l he reaT.
Hannib.al "".... """"",oed t he Apen-
nine. , moreh,.., 1"'"' .\-Ioun, Li buntOn.
No moun'ain of ,hI< name i. k""",....
Howe',-cr, i, ha, bcc-n ougg",tcd , hal;1
,I>ould read T illur non ( Lal in T ife,nu. ).
.\I on. Tifernu. (m,>dcrn Mon.agna del
Mot""' ) ri se. ahlwe Alife. I, i, the
highe.. "",untoin i n , hi . an: . of .he
Apennin",. In rooi, ion and . i' e ooth
, ugge", , hal it i. l'" lyhiu.> Liburnon.
Ilannibal h.d hecn lold lhat he
woulll fi nll ab" oda", earn a",unll
.,.
""' :"''''' ''
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Lueera, whic h probably foll ows the
tr.ck of the ancient road, This would
cenainly accord wiIh Polybim ' topo_
grap hy for the ens uing c'ampaign, T he
easiest to get here from Alife is by
skirt ing thc north side of Ihe Monti del
Mate;e by way of !semia and Boiano,
and then taking thc road to Campo-
ba"o and clescending the vancy, or l he
Tapino and FOrl ore.
As usual thc Rom. ns followed, keep-
ing lO the hi.o; h ground. From Campo-
basso l hey prob.bly foll owed the roUle
of the modem SS S. nnilic. ( Rolll e 81)
along t he hillwp',
'\'\eanwhile Hannibal had encamped
ncar Gerunium. The town;people re-
fused his offers of alliance, .nd he
"",med the town pUlling the inhahi_
"n" '0 the ,word, Be di d not de' troy
lhe town but kep' its walls .nd houses
intact so lhat he could usc i t as a corn
m.ga"ine. He lhen c".bli,hed his
winter quarlers in front of the town,
fortifying the eamp with a trench and
palisadc. Having ' horoUjl; lily defended
h" po,ition he sent ou t , wo_thirds of
hi, .emy w ga, he r in rhe corn. T he
o,her ,hird of the army guarded l he
camp and covered ' he foragers . Thi,
was normal praclice. Caesar did rhe
,arne Ol Alesia,
The Romans had now arrived in l he
area. F. bim had been ree.lled 10 Rome
10 preside o\'er , orne religiou, cere-
monies and his master of the cavalry,
Minuciu; , had laken over comm.nd,
Poly'bim ""y' tba' when Minuciu,
bcard lhal Hannihal was encamped ar
Gerunium and foraging in the disl ricl,
'he turned and de",,"ded fmm the hill,
by a ridge rh" slope, down to tbc town.
Arrivi ng . , a height in l be terr ilory of
Lar inum ( Larino) called Calena, he
encamped l here .' . Just befor e the
SS Sannilica re.ches Casacalenda it is
ioined by road which f"lIows the
cre" of the hill '0 Hon d '" (all. 606m) .
AboUllhree kilometres beyond Bonefro
there is a spur jutting Out 10 lhe south_
e",L At the end of this ,pur i, hill
called Monte Calvo (. Jr, 409m) , T hi,
hill ovedooks the Fortore river and is
, e\'en and a half kilometres from the
suggested site "f
l' olybiu, "a'ed that this hill was
called Calena and wa, in lhe lerritory
of Larino" In nonhern Campania lhere
ROME 275-'40 BC
THE GRE I\ T WARS
was a Roman town called Cales with an
adjectival form ofCalenum ( U vy VIII,
6) . T he na me ha, been corrup' ed 10 the
modern Calvi. It is hardly ,tretchin.o; Ihe
bounds "f po" ihility to suggesl ,hat
Caleno hos bc...,n corrupted to Calvo. It
i, al,o to nole town
at the olher end of this ridge is called
Ca.acalenda Larino is I 7km from
M"nte Calvo (ts lerritory wos pm_
hably bounded by !he Biferno and
l'ortore rivers, in whic'h "",e Monte
Calvo would be just wilh in its borders.
The model show, the are. between
Monte Calvo and Colle d'Armi (( ",r u-
niuml.
The manoeuvres that follow are .n
object lesson ill a leXI book
le" on "n how 10 draw an opponent
from an una"ailable po,ilion fir" aer""
a river and secondly into an . mhush.
Leaving one-l hird of his soldiers to
forage Hanniba l ad\"anced 16 <Iud"
Betow
v .." at , he vallev " I ,"" f onore !'om the
;;,. of Geron,um " 'OUC;"" f;," csmp I, In
, I>< d"" ,,e (c eo, ,") . Hs "",bar, ,econd =op
w" . " abl, shed '" ,he m;odle 0;" """ ot
the o'c'w"
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NV;INva aa.r.rctaw Nlf3.1S3,1l'. " H.1 (INv A, v.L1
man ner of a w m<ade saved fmm deat h,
,hm himself under Fa bius'
aut h"rity,
The C.anhaginiam meanwhile erec-
red a """kade ,fOnnd the hill and dng a
di tch berween ir and the ir camp. T hen,
a garrISon on the hill , t hey
hni, hed , heir prepara, ion, for t he wimer
undi" ur bed.
Cann ae, Rome's g reate.t defeat
Wime r h.d arr ived. The . ix momhs of
Fabins ' dict atorship weTC over and
p,-",'er w", rew rned IO the consnls. The
de.d ",mul, Flami ni m , had bee n re-
pl. ced by .\Iarens Atilin. Regulus, the
sonofth e famou, Regulus who had been
ddeated by t he Cart haginian> in the
fir" war _. n ominou> choi ce. Two new
consuls were elected for the f.t eful year
of zI 6 nc, I ,uci", Aemilius P.ullm and
Gaim Terentius Var m. I'aullu, waSt he
of Scipi o Aemili anns and is
a memher " f the of people whom
Polybiu, will nur criticise, T horefore
Va"o becomes ,he sC'p"g"al for l he
impendi ng disas' cL So much malice
sur rounds ,he name of Va"o , hat it i,
impo, sible a' t his di"ance to reco o"
st ruet a rca l pcrson, All one can do is to
point out thc <at hcr ob,'ions Ihw, in ,he
ancient account s. h Iw'uld be pointless
'n c"mmen[ on Livy's . ccount of hi.
election as it is angled "' p rovi dc a ,uit-
. ble ha<'kgmnnd '" hi, sub..qucn,
public di 'g-race.
T wo praetors were elected in , bcir
. hsence, for bot b men werc .lre. d y
..r ving in the field. r be,e we.. the
f. mou; Marcus Claudin, Maell us ,
who was given C(}mmand of lbe fif, h
in Sic'ily, and Luci u; Post umin,
Alb,nu; , who was ,en' to ,he Po \'alley
wi, h or ders to kee p tbc CeI" occupied,
Tbe comul fur lhe pr evi ous year,
Geminu" wbom t he dictator bad sent
[0 command t be flcet al l.. ilyb.eum in
Sici!>' , was recalled . Hc and Regulus
were' apfX,imed and placed
in command of ,he . rmy .t Ge ru nium
A Ie"}' was "ailed to rai se t he
l<gions '" t heir full srrcng' h and ", enrol
four newone; , 16and 17 wb ic' b
h.d bec'" enrolled after T rasimene .nd
had been nnder g- oing <raining al ROl11"
were pr oba bly po'ted to Gerunium '"
bring t he numbe r of legion, , here up '"
four for ea"h consul ' r wo of t he
new Iegiom OH' b and '9' hj were di s-
patch ed to , he 1'0 \'. lIey under tbe
praetor Luci us I'ostumius i'l lhinus and
tbe 1.0, h and 1. 1S1 were left al Rome for
tbc defenC'e of tbe ciry
T bis massi ve display of 'treng'b wi, h
t 6 legions (c , '50,oooj in t he field can
on ly mcan l h.r t he Rom,ms had decided
'0 figh' a pitc hed baule wit h Hannibal
whcneve< a fa\'()urahle opport nnit y pre_
; e",cd itself, There can be lill ie t r mh in
, hc rradition of conniet between
I'aullus and Varm, , he lall er wanr ing '"
fight an d t be ( )fmcr wi,bing 10 m n_
,in ue Fa bius taclics
h was well int o t be summer wbe n
Hanniba l broke ca mp and left Goru-
n,u m. He marcbed , ou, h_ca" abou'
l ook m to t bc river Aufi dn, (Ofan' oj.
lIere he seized tbe cit adel of C. nn.e
which ,he Romans were us ing as . food
" ore , "an,ferring , he supplies to ,he
C.rt baginian camp as t hey required
t hem, \X' hen tbcy hear d or l bi, t be pro_
con,ul<, who were now wit hin a day and
a balf', march of J[annib. I's position (c
40-S0km), , ent me" . g-e, to t he Senate
to as k for in"<uction, . T he Senal e had
alread ,' decided that " deci;i\'e b. tt le
mu,t be fought; ordering , he procon,uls
to remain wberc , hey werc , I hcl' di;-
patched the t wo con, uls '0 join tbe m.
l'olybim tell, us l hat tbe}' had nevcr
befor e bronght eight legions inw , he
field By ,bi, be me' Il> ,hat this was the
first timc , b. t t wo con,nJ. r ar mies , <ach
RO.>'I E 275- ' 40 kC
T HE GREAT WARS
of l'lUr legion" bad bee n cmnbined in
one ar my. l' olybi u< records ,hc us e 01
coIlS \llar ar mies du ring t he
Gallic invasion of 225 Be.
stony commen[a"''' h" 'e cr iticised
l' olybi u" hg ure<, arguing tba' thc Car_
army coul d never ba\'e , ur-
rounded a kom. n a, my of 80,000 me n
at ,hc bank of Ca nnae. Bu' l'olybi u>'
fi gu res are cnt irel y ,'(l", i" ent and no
one w"' bener equippe d 10 e<lima," ,hc
comp" r", i"e . bili,ies of the komans .nd
Cartb. gini am _ cenainly nO! a modern
histori an. One may add , b. t ,he Romam
could bar dly have implemcnte d , hcir
;aMegy of ' crowding' Hannib. 1and rc-
"rie<ing hi; before the battk
unlc" , hey ou,numb-cred him,
l' olybiu, add, th., the legion; we..
each raised ' 0 a " rengt b of 5, 000 and
<I,., t hey had ' rat her more tban 6,000
cavalr y' , T his I. ll e, is ent iTeI}'
co"';<t en' for Gemin u, had 10" ,he
cavalry att .ebed 'n, he fir", wcond,
12, b and 13t b legions, I"" wbicb
would ha\'. pr oved di fficult to repai r
I l."i ng addre"ed "be ar my to pu t
,bern in the Ii-amc of mind, [he
8. low
A 'OO""' "O"i< map 0' the .,eo """",,"" S.n
, od C",n... Toe cootoo" 0" "
1m,"'. ,v.I, . The dykes '0 coo[<'" [he 1[oooiog
0' the nve' ". m ked io '00 The blu.
I" ", m,," the oo",blO 'lid eo"' '''' o',M ,j,..
The ',oe ,Iooq ",",ch ".. Rom. ns dw up ' he"
fo":,,, i, O1.. 'ed w,t" 0 b'Qk." "'><0 , "0"
ITAL Y T HE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN
cornul. broke camp and ad,-.nced on
Can...... On lhe oeoond da)' they <:am<:
in .igh, of Hann,bar . posi'ion and en-
camped . t distance of aboul eight kik>-
mol"'.
T he of tho en,uinll ca m-
pailln and hall ie depe nd, on two r,,,:l<ln,
lhe . ili ng of Hannibal" camp and lhe
posi'ion "f l he river Ofan'o.
A range of low hill, . p....d. oul -
>nrds from ,he Apennines at the 111.
omend o{ 'he plai n of Foggia, The ri\'Cf
Ofanlo, after IeoIving .he Apenni......
l\ows. alone the north edge of t hnc hills.
The cit:adelof Can..... . ir. upon a hillodr
at .he.--ohem ediC of this range owr_
looking t he river , T he difficul,y i' en-
cou nlered bocau.., 1'01}' bi u, quite dcarl}'
place. the ball le near Cannae on l hc
" ml h . ide of the ri vor , As lhinl!"' . re
looay . hi, i. impos.ible for t he river
al"""" lap" , he hill . T he o r.n,o has
changed i" cour", m. ny u..... and i' i.
.herefore me.ningl.... to auempt tn
delerminc: . he ';,. of.he banle by r<fer
t<) i.. PTnetI, """"". The: map on
p. ' 83 .........
he con
' oun of t he Can.....
plain at live-metre in'......a1. Tbeoe
omt""....ho\t.. .....,ral othe' pos.ible
river beds (.....' ked "'it h a broken bl""
line). The e,nent "f t he ri"er' , !lood ing
ihown by the , eri.. " f dyke. " n lhe
oor'h ,ide of the ri"er (marked in red) ,
Fo, 'he purposo. of descri binll ' he
Nll ie t he eour"" mar ked XX has be<:n
", Iected a. 'hee mosl probable bed of lhee
river. Thi. would allow fora pw n about
t wo kilomet ..... wide bet",-..=n , he river
and t hee hi lls.
Havil1ll 'hee ...... the Romano
decided ' n m<We l heir camp rilht up ' "
, be ri""'r 10 reslriathe Punic: fonee...
Il annibal counlered by ..nding Oul hit
ligh' ....rrned lroop" and """all)' 10 ha. ...
l h< Roman. a' l hey l ried '0 theeir
way u p to the nonh bank "fthe river ,
Varro, who' e day il wa, I" comm. nd,
' hrew fmward ,,' me of hi ' hea"}' in _
f. ntry .nd 10101 also hi. wlila and
""v. ll)' to ",a, d olf . be Carth"l1inilon
a"...-b. Thio appe.... to he the ...ual
Roman <X>V1<ri"l force for e",,"mpin, in
,be face of l be a><n\y. The .........
reached tbe riv... and under CO' of
'heir ..r.-anced JU"'l"d dug in nu, '"
, be for d.
T hi' manoeuvre wa. dearly in, ended
10 cro"'d the Cart hagini. n I""i' ion and
make it difficult f'>r ' hem to fo'ake on
'"
, be """h';de of , he ri ver . The follow_
ing momi"l !'aullu. " .... in command
We a", !<lId l hat he had opposed Varro'l
.. 100 danger,,,,. bUl he no",
moved one_, hil d of hi, t1"OOf'5 K-'-OS' 'he
river and ea" of ,he ford
.boUl lhrce kilometre' fr" m t he main
camp and ' at hor more fn'm Hannibal '.
e'"-mp. If Hanni bal were encamped
IOUt h of t he rive<, Paull",' .... "'lion would
appear ....en more dnpen' e lhan Var
ro'land yet Polybi us doa nor ....en MllJ'
[Jest 'ha' H. nnibal " ' e d 10 . top them
o ' abli,hi", a second (2Mp. The impli'
cation of l his, and t he di5l......, hco>'""n
lbe ""mpo, , uggesl lho' Hannibal' ,
camp lay north of lh< n,..,r. Certainly
Polyhiu. place. i' on , he no" h . ide
, horll y hefore the banle amI nevcr men'
lions ll annih.l t he river ,
So, a,"uminll t hat I l annibal wa, in_
deed " n 'he nor, h .ide of ,he river ,
whero 1"", hi. <:amp) T he Cart hagini-an
had ar rivcJ a' , he Ofanto ,,-..=ks before
the Ronuns and tbererore would hove
had plenty of ' ime 10 ..1ecI lhe """"
ad""n'......... pos.;tion for hi. C3J0p
Hannibal ,,'as a highl y intd l igen' gen-
enol , and although he " ... aI"-.ro "i lhl1ll
tn O>lpk>il hi, enomieo' mi ..ake<, be
. 1" 'oY'lried to make l ure lhal hi. o",n
posili" n wo. ' ecnre. Ikori ng ' hio in
mind, there i' only one , ile on ' he north
,ide " fl he whoro he would have
campod, T hi' is t he spur on which , he
<own of San Ferdina..oo di Puglia now
>lando. This io !la'_,opped wi'h . Ieep
';dea on l be """11.......1 and ....rh-east
which is Iarred b)"the ri ...... The """....
..... lido IIope<,..nd)" doom10 t be plain,
gi vi"ll .....y 1Io<:U'5' r...- hit ""....Iry. F......
hen: hecouJdlorage,,;th impunity. The:
Canhall:in;.n could hardly ""i"ed
such a si' ual ion, fO! no' only i. il
. trongly defended whil" giving e..y
'e'CO" I " the plain, hu' it al'o covercd
' he valley of 'he Of.nlo, hi. line of ' e-
tro.l if any, hinll wont w",ng.
Wi,h Hannibal ><curely encamped
hen: i' is now ",,",ible ,,, sile tbe Rom.n
camps (.... l be mop). The positioning of
the (2Mp on l he .....'h bo.N. rIOw mak..
....,.,. i," ,o " op Hannibll f...-agil1ll on
,hat ';de 0{ . he ri""r and is clearl y put
of tbe CNOnIll Roman Ifra,OJ}' . Thi..
makoo "'",, ..... of t be , bc-ory 'ha' , he
t",o con,ul, ""I<: in bi ller confliCf.
H.nnib.1 "... now CUI " ff from l he
plain on b" th ' ide' " f t he . i,er and it
..... only a manor of li me before hi, pro-
vi.ions ran ou" The time hod come lO
!\gll'- He a..e mbled hi. a=y to ,i'"
lhem ,he u. ual encoulaging .pooch al><l
l hen moved for ward hi. picke" and . d
,.nce defencc' to .ocure hi ' aCe"''' to
l he plain. T h< f"lIowing d. y the Car-
lhaginianponl poli.hing ,tH:it armour
and their W<"'pon. in an, i'"
I"'lion of the NIlIe, The nexl mornil\l!
Hannibal led ou, hi. army .nd offem:l
bell k on t he north bonk 0{ lhe river.
Thio would ho... allowed unlimited
""",e to his """"IT}" and t he Romano
wi",l,. r<fUKd .
TIl.<: following """"ing (t he ancie'"
hi'lorian. all My il "'", Varro'l day of
command) Pa ullu . led the Roman. out
of lhe c.mp on l he notl h hank lind
c,o" ed the ford , On 'he '<mth hank t hey
woro ;oinod by Var ro and Iho ren of,he
. rmy .nd for med up in line " f hallie '"'
tbe narrow . tr i p of I. nd hel w""n t he
and th< h,lIs wi' h <heir right wi",
......i l1ll on ' h< and <heir W, on , he
hi lls. H...e l he Conhagin;.n "".......,
would l>O'l be al* to outflank t hem
Pol)"biu , 10 corrobonIe t hi'
ch<>ice of . ite hen h< ...,.. , hal t he
k"",an. pl"""d ' heir mani ples c.......
,ogel her rha n u.ualand made l he del'lh
of ""'niple many ti me' lhan
i.. flOnl. Tho , h" pooh "andard ha"",ij
principt m.niple he fore 'he gap' Ofe
ek....,d vary from . ix rank. "f 1(> ' 0
14 ran k. of five. It must he lhi. I."
figure, 24 ""nh of li"e, t" ,,'hi<:h Poly_
bius is rd"cr-ri"l. I f lhe legion Olrength
_ 5,OOl), t he depth <>l ' he 1t<u'<Jli and
,.,..apa maniple< probebly in-
<TOa'Od ,,, )0 ra Sinoe- they ......
dearly goinll for a breakthrough, the
legionaries mu.1ha"e heen d""wn up in
elo<e or der wi'h , 11.1 Roman feet per
man, A maniple would t herefore be
ahom '5ft wide and . Jellion, all" wing
for lhe gap" aboul 3oof1. T he t"lol
wid'h of t he inf.nlTY, incl udinll . 11i<"
would lherefore he about 800ft (c.
t,50011
Sinoe- .he job of ,he Roman ...............
..... to hold t be c.n"-ginian ,..'nlI.,. ..
all........, t hey would have been d""W'D
up to maximum depth, i.e. len deep,
Accordi l1J 10 Polybi.... drawn up n ght
deep, ' here """,Id be 800 ""....IT}" '" a
"ad. or .lillh, ly under 1"'0 mettn per
h" ..e in , he ""nk. 'Ine Romans had
",'m.what more than 6""", horse whi<h,
ROME 275-' 4 BC
THE GREAT WARS
AbOve
Th.....lI!<'je'd of C.oo,e ,..n Iro," ,ho ",.
of , o< o'd 0"' '''' of C, on... , Toe mod,m
" II,ye of SO' f. ,",n. Mo, wh." . K.ooib, 1
",,"nodC''"D," "" , e. lo" , ,,,.. ,n ,o.
d.,,.,,o. to ,0. let, 1"" >""lIe, Aoman camp
woo l" h,.o ""'. " " fl !Othe "gh< , M the I. ,ge'
c,m" '0 the di" , nCO " O,he ' ight l h. Rom.ns
d'." up tho" f",co, be_on Coooa. ' M ' M
S. n fo," io.ndo "pu' wi," ",. i, , ig"t w'" g
,,,,, kOd on, he " YO ' , od mo" left 00 the oill, to
oouo"" , no C,,, ,,"', ",, ,, <av.lry
Ab o
' tie bat tle'i<ld" C" m' . 'howmg lh, old
oou,,. '" , ho "ver Of, ot" H, oo.",r , e<rnp
"p'tc",d 00 the low ,p", 00 lh, I,f, " here lh.
v''' ,qe of S," fe' dmando 00'" ".nd',TO.
'"" 0 ~ o m a o cam p i, olo.. !O" 10 t" .." th,
Ca"MQ''' ,"" f", ager,.nd "'a'O'i09 parties on
the oo<, h , de 0' to" ' ivor , TM I..,., ~ ' ' ' ' ' ' O
camp " 00 to, ' 00' 0 " d. of t tl. ,,"", (, ight) to
prove"' Hann' b. I', " ""p. fO" Q,oQsou, " of , oe
ri ,." C,"n.. ,, " the 00,"",0 TM Rom,,, aro
oo "'. " 9ht f, ciog sOo' o
ITALY AND THE WEST ERN Ml::[)] T ERRANEAN
.-
" ,"
- ----

__c__
0- - -'=- -
,
,
,

,
I
T.......... "f e-.....
-,
............'.-...... "'-_.-
..... "" h. \AllIe s-.>
"""'_ <I'OOCe"l T ",0_
..._ - .... _-
I
-- --==
I
- ,
T _ 10\1"1 __
n -. _ ..............
_boc> .....

-.-",=;;;i>1
- - -- P .. -
,- :e=- - ---_ -
-
--
-,
'n .... '*'" , """""'" 10 DoNI """"
.... s"' c...o ,..........,__
_no to """' .. 00'" _1IlJ"f_
.... '"'''' s_ ceor.c: __bf9tI
to do ' ..' _0"""" 0aP
.. _ up _ ,,.. I;ottoc: ...., ....
""""""'" ,_.... IJOP .... 'oil ....
' " ot ' hod ......... ....-. _ .. .-
, combo_ and.

.. _-..,-.."U_"...,..a
- - 27=
I I
Ph....
'n t he ce"". " ... log ,,,,,, O"",,,nUO '''''' " , ,,.
thoy .,., ,,",, 0'" bo'''''''''" ,... """.n,
The ood SP' " " " c".>ry "OW char",, ''''
" 9' 00' ," the ' ..'
.ph, in pr"' ' ion of ,hree all >ed 10 ""'"
Ronwon k1 break OO..n 10 lhoul
1.600 K nand 4.1loolllied. Alloooing
for glps bd....,..... , hot ...-.Ihot Roman
<lvaJry ....,. lId ,hctrlore ha,'c
abou' SHm and
ll>e lOIal Ro,nan fronl """",Id ha,.., bttn
a lin" <>Vcr 3,OOOm. The pla,n had a
""'>.imum wid,h o{ .bou' , wo kilo-
The " 'id, h of ,he Roman 1'0'"
,;ould I>c ;t\."OOffirnooaled if Ihe Ruman.
lined up diag,mally fad ng ",u,h ( k .
map). P"lyh,u, do", indeed pl acc , he
Rom. n, , ou, h. Ten ,hou'.nd
I(oman' were left to guard lh e camp
"'ith (Irde," '0 a" ack 'he Carthaginian
camp during lhe b..tlle. T he <ria";; Were
"u""",anly aiven Ih i, iob . The'e,""uld
I>c 9.600 0( Ihnc in II>c anny and Ihi,
.."OUld >Cern '0 fi, in ..ell ,,'il h PoIjhi...
appro.i"",'ion. Contra..,' '0 popular
opinion hoIh in ,he oncicn, and lhe
IIloO<icm .....,.-\d he Romar had no
n;n<lQ In wppooc lha, lhey ..'OU1d .......
,Itis blu". All .he od,cr defeat . had
bern caUKd bj' ,he ra;.hncu 0( l he
eeocnl. In lhe pt'CKTl' ,i, ......""", ,he
Roman. had odcacd lhe ..Ie of lhe
boolt". allo..'. nll: Hanni bal "" "",por.
Nnily lu lay In amb... h. In the ""her
banln Hannibiol had .d.'tN. ,he .i'c,
Furthermor in d><>o>ing , hi, ute , he
Koman, I>clicv.d Ihalll>cy ....d ....ultal -
i..d Hlnniho.l'. e....lry ,
The d,vi,ion of comm. nd i. m,,,'
rc,n li"ll: , T her" w<te ,wo pu,ilion. ur
honour ,n 111.,- R"m.n <cpublican ar my ;
one wa, at 'he head of l he ci, i'en ".,'.lry
and ,he'" her in charge of III.. legion. in
, he""nlr. , Sin.., VITro ...as ,upl"""d ,,,
be eom"",ndcr_in_chid otIe would .,...
peel lu find him in "ne of ,h...., , .."
I""l' ium. As il ....... Reguluo and Gcm-
111"" <;Ommandcd 'ho< trD're, Paullu.
lhot ril;h' ..'i.... an<l V arro .he lefl . The
onIj' condw.ion lhal can be dra..n frum
, his is lhal Pwllu.and DOl Varro ..'IS in
cnmmand. II folio..... , ha, i , mu" ha...,
b<cn Varro who dcdincd a booule on ,he
"""-h >ide 0( t he n n :r .he da) ' b<:fotC.
\'I'1Iom Ilannibal >a...- ,he Romano lin_
ing up he senl hi and p;kc..... n
"""'"" 'h. , iv.r. drawing lhem up in I
line ""''''.. ,he plaIn. Ikhind ' hn c.""..,r-
Jl1tl force he dTCw up ,he re.. of hi.
lroopo. On 110. lighl. u nder ,I>< hill nd
OI' I",";tc alli.d hOlse, he pl ac..,d hi.
It i. p"" ible to make a
fairly accurot...t;m>lc of ,hei l num_
ben. When heam.,cd In haly.lbnnibal
hada ' Ola! of 6,ooocavalry, part Spanish
an<l part r-.: umidian. 'Tloeir number can-
DOll have i",-..-eased 100 ..nee lhot :-Ou-
mid.."" ..ct. 10 ,he allied
cav.lry n"rnbcnng .boool l hey
can"", ha.., bttn much Ina ,han , his
number . A reawnablo: esl i""". would
be 4.000. Th. Spani. h caval'j. ,, 'hieh
mu," herefor< number .1x,tIl 2.000 plus
' M Celtic CO"al,y, which, hi. 101>1
caval lY numl>ered 10,000 muM ha,.
Ix", n 4 .000 SllOng. wc,c dr.",n up nex'
'0 'he rivel , Becau "f , heir numbel .
which ,,' as four ,ime. l h. t " f l he " 1'1'" s-
ing Roman canlr y. they muil have becn
dr...," up in fou' line., T he Cartha-
ginian infantr\" con.i..cd "r liul. mo, e
lhan 40.ooo ..... n of ",-'hieh alx"" u ,ooo
""re African an<l g.ooo Srani,h.he re_
"",inder being Cd ". From Ihnc m,, "
be dedU<:lcd ,he light-armtd 'rooplo ,,'Iso
probablj' mad. up , he ....... proportion
<Ii.ho< whole infan,ry In ,be Icgioono.
i.c. l liuk under 30 PC' """1. Wc ""'y
Ihcreforc ..,ume , .... II>c phobnK .....
.hou, Slrong. lhe Spani.h."",,1,.
men abou, s,soo an<l .he Cellic . "",do-
.....n aboul ' 4.000.
Polybiu. lha, l lanni""l linro u p
hi. Spani,h and ('..hi<; ' ''"OI"d.m. n in
ahernale Once bef".c P"I)'biu'
me n. i"n. Ihi, 'ype of {orma.i on wheT<
'wo unequal for ce. wer. lin.d up in
.I'erna'e ,pei,,,i. T hi. wa. a" he banl e
"f Sdlasi. , wh. , e thc I lIy, i. ", "nd
Maced"nia" 'h,",en ,hield, f<>rmed up
in , hi, f., hi"n, 0". m"'1 . " ume tha'
in this con' cx' i. u,ed a. a general
te,m fo, company. bu' c,'cn "" i, must
....,. a .i,e Iimi" Pol)'hiu. UK> il ,,}
rk...:ribc maniple--. (...cn of .ria.ii ),
,herefme i, could be a "",11 .. '00 men.
n o..'",,"'. he could har(1)' u.. u for a
uni, as Iargc IS a lhou...oJ, which he
.......Id ha,.., called ,1aJia.,Ity. One
ohould probably 1"" In u""'ord limil of
ahoul ';OO- Iflhe Sparu>h uniuwen: J'UI
. , oonv.niem . It..... h <Ii 100, l he
Celli<:uni.........1,1 ha"" 10 be aboul
H""" vcr, l'oIybi", may be OV. Aimpli_
fying. T o Hanni hal, he 0.1.. "",re , he
mo>t expendable of hi. 'roups, 0., -
'ainlj' he ...., ""all)' ,i me. a. many
0.11. in Ih< ban i. a. hi, Spani.h and
African e",u. hic. ,'Ombi...d. 1, is Ihcre-
fOT< proposed , h. , pc , h.", half , h.
CellS fOlmed t he cen". "ft l" line .nd
, h. t t he alternaIe companie. "r Spani_
ROM E II<.:
THE G REAT WARS
...<hand 0.". rnadcuPlhe flanks , Once:
he had .Ira..." up the Cehs and Spani_
ar<h. hot a.tvanccd .hei, trD,n1 <;Om-
pan... ' 0 form a """"",,'-,haped
formarion ..i ,h , he ce"'re aoJ .he
Ibnking <;Ompanin gradually bcQoming
Ihinner ,......rd. ,he poi n.. of ,he an-
cenf. TI" . for"",.ion had onlj' 0"" J"lr-
puoc : ' 0 break ,he of 'h. Roman
charge I>cf",. Ih. ctllek Afrian , roops
wcre h"'Ullh' in'o "",tion. pro" ing k-
yond a ""ul>1 l hot Ihc Roman f" rc",
g,eaI1y outnu mbn.d the Carl haginian,
The Afri,'.n pik.men, who u p ,ill now
had i><. ",n drawn up wi'h ' hc ligh'_alm.d
troop, ahcad of 'he .rmy 10 " " a
covering fo", weTe wi,hdrawn and
formcd up in col umn behind tl>c caval'j'
on .ach ..'ing ..'il h Ih. fil. leade.. in each
a .. formi.... ,hot inside file 00 l ha, <lOCh
column could ,urn inwnd. '0 form I
phalan>. , I n 'h.ligh, of lheil .ubKqucnl
""'noeIl'.... 'hi. i. lhe only "",..N.
inl crpn:\ltion. Cannac onl y .......... nne
face 0( Ihis unoquc ban " f...-ma,IOC'!. bu,
il aho had "' I'<I b <kf"",i,'c quali';"" as
.he ...." .. could turn o," wardo
10 rnccIllIank a"ad:: or turn inwards to
In p a break.hrough in lhe cen" qui,
apart from i.. pOl.mi-al for ml:ing .n
allack from III.. rear. Han ni bal had uo.t<i
, he ..m. h"mallOn a. Ihe Trebbio bu,
had pref. rred ' 0 go for a quick view,y
on ,he Winll' ,a,her than I. info, ce hi.
<enlre, lI .tlUibal himself, wil h hi.
hrother "". go, c"mmanued 'hc elu,,;. 1
po int in ' he ce n' TC whi l" Ha,drull.l
command.d lh. Spanish and Cell i,'
cav;ur}' on 'h. I. n and Hanno ' h. Nu_
midian, un ,he righ'-
Th. hallie WI' begun .s u......l bj' ,he
ligh,_onncd on bolh sid During ,hi,
ini,ial conflict Paullu strud:; a
heo,) Slor.. from a Bolcarie .linger and
..."..,rely """,nded. The figh, ..... ooon
lat.., up by .he Celtie and Spanish
hone ......g l he ri,'" bank. TIse Roman
ca,al..,. fough' bra,'.ly bul l hey ..ttt' no
match for l he Spani:ardo and Cell, and
" 'c r. J"l,1>ed "cadil)' t-:k along lhe
n'... The Romans d ragN. ,heir ad_
'-cnane. {rom, heir hoAC$an<l'1ruu:lcd
..i,h lhem on ,he groond bm "",hing
could ...m l he ,idc. On , I>c ",her w,na
,he Numidian. , ki , mi,hed wi, h ,h.
aHied c"'al,y, t""ing 10 draw 'bern awoj'
from ' he kgi,ms hu' wit hou' ' "eC....
T he Rnman, now dccidcd '" 'hrow in
thei r ICllion, het'o", lhe , ituali on on t he
'"
ITALY AND THE \l;'EST ERN .\ 1EDITERRAt-; EAN
right wing gm out of hand. T he trum_
pets " mnded the recall and the
began to retire. The now
to clash thci' pi la against their
shields whilst they waited f", the or der
to Charge , Hanni bal also ordered the
recall of hi, ligh, _armed tr oops, a nd the
Celts and Spaniard, hraced thems elves
for ' he onslaught. Once the vdire, had
po"ed through the gaps , rhe advance
wa' ,ounded and the rea r centuries oj
the liaS/a'" movcd up to do,e the gops ,
The tr umpets SOll nded t he charge, h"' h
, ide, raised 'heir war cry, and amid"
the deafening cbm(Jur of horns, tru m-
pets and campo" the twO infantr y
forces rushed for ward T he Cd" and
Sponiardsraised their shields and brac" d
them' ch'c' to receive the first "olley of
{nla which wa, qll; ckly followed by the
seCQnd. Shaking t heir , hields to dis-
the bllekled ja,-d in< the Cd" and
Sponiards threw themselves again" the
legionaries wi'h 0 re"e rbe rat ing thud as
shield hit ,hicld. For a while the Celts
and Spaniards held t heir formotion, but
borne down by t he weight " f the legion>
they gradually to ground
On the river bank the Roman cavalry
were boi ng pu,hed rel entlessly hack
until at last they werc soporoted from
the k g;on, and a "'-as opened . T he
rear for mation' of the C. rthaginian
c.v. lry, led by Hasdrubal, hurst t hrough
the gap, Le.ving t beir front line to com_
plete ' he rOut of Ihe Roman" t hey gal_
loped round behind the leginns and
t hrew them, elves on ' he re. r of the
allied ca"alry . Shatt e,ed hy the . ".ult
' he Itali.n horsemen hrokc ranh ond
' "altered.
T he legion, hi' deepe r and deeper
into the Carthaginian celltre ; the con-
,'ex formation disappeared ond the
wholt line was now boi ng pushed b.ck
T he C' entre hegon at first to buckle and
then, as the legionari e' crowded int o
the 'alient , to ca"e i n. Paullm, when he
saw the hopeless , tate of his right wing,
reali'ed , h., all hope now lay with the
legion<. He rode ol,mg the h. ck of the
line and di' mollnting t hre w him, c1 f into
' he 'hick of the light . Hannihal, WO,
knowing thot . 11 depended on the contre
holdi ng for just . Iin le longer, enlered
the Jr a}' ' houting encou,"gement to his
men. Step by step the Celt , and Spani-
. rds were forced b.ckward , . Hannibal
hacl acoompli' hed his m. Sler Dian, T he
legionarie, had pushed his centre hack
'0 far that they had p.,,,d between the
African pikemen ()n eit her wing. All that
rem. ined wa' to e' ecutc the CQll P de
grike. T he pikemen now faced inwards,
turning from column into ph.lanx, _ncl
ch.l)(ed the Roman Ilanh
T he Roman cO"al, y "'-as now in fljght
on !>()th wing1' . the 0l umidi.n>
to mop llP the ltali. n>, for which thev
were best fined , Il..druhal recalled hi;
Cel" and Sponi.rcl, and cbarged the
reaT of thc legions. The mani ples were
forced to turn to meet the a"ock ftom
whatever direction ;t came. In t he , entre
the pr",,,,re wos " If ond t he Celts and
Sponiarcl, were ahle to counter.n.d. It
was the bloodie't day in Rom. n hi" ory.
Paullus died in the ranh . T he
proconsuls Gemi nll' and also
fell , .s did ' he former master of the
horee, Minllciu, Rufu" who probahly
held the rank of a tri hune. He'ide' the'e
both Ihe consul' s quaestors .nd 80
sen_"", were left on the field,
I n pressing forwarcl'" far the Roman,
had lost contact with the for d and there_
fore the 10,000 men left in the la'ger
camp on ,he other side of the river CQltld
do not hing to help them. The enormous
ca,u_ltic<, which arc ,'or iou,ly' report ed
ot figur es between ju<t under 45,000 ancl
70,000, su,o;geS! that the legions broke
and ran. It ' eem, incredible thot ,hey
could has'e their g"", nd and
fought to t he hine, end ", l'olybius , ug'
gests , T he di"ersity of the casu. lt y
figure, rellen, the disa,o; reement abolt t
the numhe" involved AccOTding to
Polybi", the tO,OOO left to gll ord the
latger c.Olp were captured the day .fter
the h. ttl e, A furt her 3.500 inf. ntry . nd
370 c. ,'al, y esc.ped 10the n. ighbo",ing
lOwn> Unfort unately the ""cc'Ceding
part of Polybius' account is missing so
that these figure, c.nnot be CQrrobor-
.ted by , ub,eqllent e"ents, Although
Livy'" f,gure, are eonfused, they do ht
in with t he ,uh'e'l "ent <tory. Afte,
giving oonft ieting accounts the Roma n
hi'lOri.n elaim' tha' <0,000 ' ur_
vivo" gathered at Canu,i um (Can",a di
Puglia). Thi, i, ent irely consi, teot as
they were later for med int o two
If Lhfs account of the deba" over the
fate of th< pri"' llle" in ' he Senate i,
basically correct, then about 7,000
Romans fell into ll. nnibal', hands. One
must ",sume tha' thc allies which he
'clea' ed witholl t ran'Om made up ,
simj lat numocr. T hi, woul d bring th,
tot al surv ivo" up to a!x,ut 25,000 and
the death roll down to around 50 ,000,
which wa, the tradit;onal fi,o; ure. Among
those who e'C'apcd wa, Gaiu' Terentiu'
Varro.
Polybill' , in the crue llest of epitaphs,
once again r<llecting the family line, this
time of the Paulli, say' of Varro tha, he
dis,o; r.ced himself by his flight and in
hi, tenure of offi ce h. d been most un
p'ontable to hi, country. Vorro', nam,
was ne"e' d eared and he remained th,
sc.pe,o;O"t for the defeat at Cannac. And
yet Livy records th. t t he Senate "' ent
out to meet Varta when he reltlrned to
Rome and gave thanks '" him for not
de'erting the slate. Fu rthermor c he ro
mained in office, albeit in a , econd"y
eal' oci,y, the W at.
T he loo g st ruggl e baek
The new, of the di,a"er , h,x,k Rome to
its very foundatio ns. Never before and
never o,o;.in were Romon' to suffer such
a ddca" In three ban les Rome h. d lost
a,.,und tOO,OOO of her he" T h<
st reets were fined with women and
children for the ir loS! 'ons,
h'01ners, f., hers and hu,h.nds, T he
Senate wa, at a I" " and foc ,e,'era l day'
nothing w"' done. I't any moment the)'
expected Hannihal to appear bone.th
the walk As so often ha ppeM in these
,i'uation" the moh in its an,o;er and fe.r
' e""hed for a scapegoat: two ve"ol
"irgi ns were aceu,e d ,,1' breaki ng their
, 'ow, _onc committed suicide and the
ot her wa, buried . Ii"e, Theyalso turned
to that m,,,t ahhorrent of all pmpiti a-
tions, hllman , ocrince. A Celtic man
and woman anda Greek man and woman
we, e buried . Ii"e ;n ,he cattle market.
Rome did not remain ;n Ihi s , ta te for
Gri n ing thei' t<cth the 'ena",rs
re, olved to reiect .lIte, m, and nght it
out to the bitter end.
A man wa, needed who could in' pi, e
the tr""p' , and fate had ,upplied th. t
monoThe ,\Iareu ' Claudius
Marc' d lu' , who "'as the praetor in ",m
Oland of the Ileet, w., at Os tia. He wo,
ordered to take charge of the remna nts
of the Ca onae kgi,m' . He immediately
de, p.tched ' ,500 mari ne' to the cit,. to
help with its defence and sent a legion
of mari ne' to Te.num Sidicimtm
(Tcano in nortbern ( :ampania) to secure
II", l.aun It"a}' in cue l lanni bal . hould
marc h .'n Rome, He 'hen b.ndeJ ewer
, he ,,, Publi,,' I'" ri" . Phi lu. and
"" " ,,' overland fmccd ma", he. ,,,
Can",i um (Can"'a di Pugl i.), where
' he remnant s of the ( ;.nn legion. h..d
ga,hered. lea"ing Varr" frce ,,, ret utn
t" ,he CilY A diclaI <.>r ...a. named. lie
orpn,oed a ,,( all , he men <>Va , he
... nI " and , ..." OC''"' legions " -ere
ro.-t (22nd and 2}1'd ).
In ,""'" di re "nns II>< Senate de-
cided on a ........" re '''''itt COIU-idcnd
bd"....." They cnrolle<l t..." legion. nI
vol"n,eer d a,'os ..110 were prom;"'d
fr""dum and ci' izen.hip in re'urn fOf
",rv".", Six tOOu'\;lnoJ crimi nal, ...,,'"
.1", rd ca.cd on 'he '\;Imc oondition.
,\ftcr his "icwry Ibnnib.al immed i,
.. f=d all 'k . llied prisoner in
k:ping ..i,h hi, p" licynd olfe,e<I,o
..... " m ' he Roma n' f"r a ran""" ..,nd,
' ''II ",prncnL..i,es oi ,I>< prisone...nd
on amboouo<lor '0 R""", ...i,h ' his oIfcr
ond ,....... for _.". 1bc diel a' or ....'
"", liclor t<> """" ,he Cuthalini.n
.... bet,,", he rcachc.J Rome.
""'" """- ,,, , I>< .mba..-lnr ..__ ,he
..me a. that gi' ."n "' p}'rrh"s 60 yea..
bcforc _ ' Rome ..ill n,,1 <l i",u.. 'er m. " f
pca<. ' . with a enemy "n 1, . lian
,,,ii ' , A, for ' he captiv 'he Sen.' e in-
f",m.'d them t h. t R"m., had no usc fn,
",Idie" who had ."",:nde",d and re
fu>cd ' 0 acccp' 'hem, e"en 'h"ugh ,hey
..."re pr-cparcd '0 pa)' l heir ovm ran""".
HonniNJ sold them to t he Gred o!a"e
dc&Icn bu' more 'b.n zo Ia,n
...-httt Grcctt amt 1,Indcr Roman in_
ll.""<o<e. man} nI. , hem "we redccme<1.
The conscqllCn.:cs nI Can..... ...",-e
fill" ""'''' shattering ' b. n ,he dcfea, .
Pra-:neall}' 'he entire ",.nhcm Apen_
n1"C a' ca T he wh,,1e of Lu-
"ania and ' he Bruttii (Cal. bri.) ...ent
over h> the .ide, M"", "f
Samni"m t(,I1"wcd ' " i' and in Apulia
,he ke}' 'own. " f Ar pi, Salapia , A"'-'oc
ond Ilerdonca ....e<Icd. Thi' defe.:ti" n
rcd......,.,J Rome', ..,..,......... of
liflb ond her cavalry b}' ncarl)'
[lord , kornc's only """rx ..-.. ' 0 adoop:
Foiun ,.....i<1. aWJodlllll pilchcd ballies
ond tryi ng 10 ....",.,. the Ca"!J2ginians
001. h ..... said nI Rome lha' he-f"re
CanI1ilC her armie' m......hed ou, '0 banIe
bu, ..f' er mar, he<l lO ...ar
De' ermined to " rike wbil e 'he ir" n
'..' h"t, Hannibal m""hod 'he
bor<kro of S""'nium and Lucan.. fn!_
""" i"ll ,he Ofon,o to ;1. "'''fal. The
mountain """,gh"l<I of Comp.a (Con-
zaJ 'hre w ope n ito g>t" , ,, him, 11_"n;-
b.al, apprC<'iatinll the "f its
,itua' i" n, lef! . 11 hi' b"oty and <'ce"
N IIII_lIe he..", Ile n"w ,pli, bi' army in
"''', I"""i"ll one h.lf '0"",-," te l he alli-
ance of ,he highland, ,,hil.t he took lhe
<JI her half and sl i" ed t he nonh.ide of
II>< Picm' i"" .....,."'.aino, I>nc:.rndi ng
;nt<> Campania he- made <bah on
N.pIes, hoping t hat ,he pori mi ght
defect to him'" lbat he COlJld oren <:orn-
munical ions ,,'ith Ca"hage. The Nea-
polita'" ek><cd 'heir ga'es on h,m.
In .11 the lOwn. "f 'here ..... a
e" ", ' an, bc' ...ccn 'he ..ehic
r uling pan y (...ho "'ere 'UPI" " tod by
Rome) _noJ 'he c" mm" ", . By f,"tori ng
' he democra'ic u u"" I Janniha l h<>(>Cd ,,,
he a hle ' 0 dcr ach ,he ,,,,"'no of Cam-
pan,a. Thi. explain> hi. appa",,,,I)'
poi n.les. da<hn around Campania as he
tried lo get '0 the right . pro!.' , he- ri,h'

His di"'J'P<>I nlrne n' a' :-Japles ..__
mi' iga'ed by the defection of the """'nd
city of h al)' , Cal",a. " 'ho", ,he J'l'I'Ular
ROME 27S-'<tO IOC
T Hl> GREAT WARS
patr y 1" ""0.1 , he UP:'ndlIncy and 'hnw
open t heir ga'es. :-Jol too, ...,me<1 a
candidate bUl at Naple' the
olig......hic p. rt y ,hu, the S. ,e, on him.
....I n...hile M. rcell u. had ,.ken ",,'er
'he '''''-'I'' a' Can", . , f"'mcd ' bern in",
, ..." and then ",,"" ed the Apen-
nine. into nonhern Ca mpania, linking
wi' h ' h<o legion of mari"", , b., he had
",n, .0 T e,""". From hi. poii'inn on ' he
olnpct nI th<o cs'inct voleano. Monte
San,. Croce.....' ...-.:ell... hoped 10 he-
able ' 0 confiDe Hannibal to !he . ....
-.,h nI . he Voltumo.nd",OI' hi m ad_
n""ing on Rome. Th<o colon, a ' Sin.. _
...... ( Mondragono:) ctwered , he n.rT""
pa" l>e, ween Mon,e .\ Ia" ioo and l he
<e. by ....hKh t he Via Appia p. "eson i"
.... y t" H"me . If Il _nn ihal . "cmp' ed
hre.k,hT<lngh bn c, M.rcellus "",,10.1
cily scnoJ reinf" ...."mcnu o" er,1K: k,w
pa.. be,...".,n .\I:on'c San,a Croce and
.\Ion, e .\I..,,;"'" ,,'hieh ...... covered by
-
_ vn..ty ... _-
_ y.,.,.....,"' - --
....' ..' 01 Gao......, "' _
_ ng R...... _ .. "'" tumo
'" Cann_
...
"-'
'"
I TALY AND T HE \l:'EST IiRN
,he oolon)' al Auru nca ( Scua
Aurunca). "1M ""Iy bridlt" KTOSS the
Vollurno ',.-a al Catilinwn ( ll lOdt il'
Ctpua: ..llIeh held by a g&rn><ltl of
aho:ou' ,.<100 Italia \t'i, h his
-..",d " 1..ooU ..,..,Ied down to a"'''n
the d...u"'.. arrival_
Soon afTer hi. arrival .\IarttIlIlS ..-as
approached b)' eTwoys from Nola .... ho
",.rned of , he d. nger of a pop"I., up-
rising whi ch ....ould ,urn the town ()\Ierto
Hannih.l, Unl il the dictato, arrived,
l1<'we,er, !I,b,cellus could do nothing.
At Rome Ihe dictator, .\ larcu' Junius
Pera, had ,,",en fra nti cally t ry'ing 10 ,ai'e
'ullieienl ro,"e, 10 meet the cri'is , Onl y
the t wo legi"n, ,.i,ed f'" Ihe defence of
the Cily l he p,,,,iou .he >0<10
and 2 1st. " " '" In.i,,,,d He
added to t hc'sc lhe f<ll"CCof 11,000 "",,,,led
cnmi ""I., ..ho although they ""'" no!
In.t ....d could toe u_ as.hey....,'" n _
pendabk. AI the I>c3d of lhi< fottt of
about 2S,OOO men he oct out for Cam'
poon...
Dna Iht d ..."taw.. had arrived M.r_
ecllus " ':ils fr '0 acr.. Ctmpania had
an aUy of ROllI<' si""" the cen-
tury and the I"" had IIC"er bn at .... "
wilh lhe rn.,1t thaI nocoloni... had bn
...lahli. hed sout h of tht Volt "'''''.
& "erol rok>nin eo,-cred , he "'"tn
..,ut h in'" Campania and the'e " ' ,"'"
col" ny al Ilcnevemum (Rene""nlo) in
the he ., of S.mnillm. A.loni" R"me
had f'ie ndly t"w", immediatel y ,m"h
of the ,i"er, in pa"ielliar Calatia nea,
M"ldal" ni 40km f, om ]knevemllm, it
wa, ",,,,ihle to march imo S.mnium
wi'holll fea' " f " ital lines of
rommllnTca"On . A .imil", s}'stem of
colonies and friendl)' towna n i.ted in
Al'll lia, t he colonies bei ng . , !.ucer ia
f Lucen) Venu. ia (\! enosa) and 8 ru nd ,_
sillm (Rn ndi. i). These Ramon
llrfIlics 10 penetn te deep into (".a.n"',
ginian-held tcmtOf)- " i t hout J"lll ing
their .upply It..... at risk, bc<:amc.
okcisj,,,,, facror in .he "'.",...'1.< , he Cam-
panian 10"' ns <>f Capua and Cabt;",
,,'hi.;h had (ol lo".-ed Capua' s lead, ......,
in <:anhag,nian hands. the roll te 10
Ik""""nto ..... broken. Thu. "'ben
Marcellu ..,.. oul 10 relieve: he had
t....ofold pur""",
Nola eOllld nol be 'eached b)'. di ..ct
route-lhe road soulh of Ihe V"hllrn"
wa' in lhe hand' of 'he Carthaginian.
wh<> enjoyed a ma" ive ,upe, i<>, it }' in
''''
",",..Iry. To confuoc lI. nn,haI , .\Ia= l-
lu, "ithdre.. from T ea"" and prubobly
u king.he rou' e .hi<h t he c.nhaginian
had u>e<l . he: Pf"'You' )--ca, . """"""'d rhe:
hills opposite Alt re, d",.:endtng the:
Vohurno to Caial,. , COt_..n ). Her<: ht
....... the: ricer and lhen follo"i ng lhe
"alley <>r lhe Iliferehia marched behind
t he hill ' to Ihe cast ,)/' CapItO, passing
th rough l he termory "f Sat i""la and
-rrebula and imo l he: plain at
.\laddaloni . From here he er ,,"sed the
Via Appia and dug in on t he ridge ah".-e
Can<'ello ,,'hieh O\'(tlook, Ihc . neient
Ca mpaoi an 'own of Sue"" la ah" m
u km f,om N"I . T h, Appian Way to
Hene... mo " 'a, "" w ""-'I"'ned. T his "'as
a " " tegie move "f pa,amount impon -
.""", perhal'" lhe single m"" significant
let of the " .". This camp . bo\'e Can-
cello, " 'hieh became k"" " 'n .. Castro
ClaudTana after i" founder, p""'-cn,ed
Hannihal tiling O\'er the " 'hoI<: of
Campania .nd ""'oud rommunica-
tion' "'ilh 1Icne>"",0. 11Ie camp ..-r.;
<>CGlp;ed pemu....ntly until Ctmpania
,,-r.; n:ciplu,ed,
\'{"i.h M.,oonus enampcd ab<,.."
S"""'ula. Hanni bal rcali...d ' hoI .here
" ... li ll ie ehan,,,,, of N<>Ia defn"ling and
'" decided 1o m.ke a",,, he, a" e\llpl on
.., But on .pp,,,,,ehing l be port he
f"und lhat lhe Roman, h.d mO"ed a
gatTi'on in h )' se. T he Roman control
of Ihe ,ea wa' a maio' fae'"" and in
, pite of the general dd<'<.'li"n in t he
"'"th ali lhe main p"rts remained " nder
Roman control
Hannihal "''',/ lll,ned 'out h to NII-
<-c' ia (Nocera) "'hi<h he _ 1:.ed and
hurned lie then adn","'" " n ,,"ola
again. but "larcd h.. ontieipa' cd hi m
Ind lIlO\-ed into the: ' ,," 'n. Reali'ing t ho.
the lime ..... no! ri gh, lIannibal " 'ith-
.Ire..' once again from N.... and thi .,ime
attacked Accrrae. about ' ''m ......, of
X"'", ..ilich be al'" --":ed and bu.-ncJ.
........1 cenai nll' t>ea...., he had i.....f-
1":ieltt t lOOJ'S 10 p ,nson , hem. Marcd-
I... mcan..-hik no:cuted , he: ino' iga' on
of ""...., at Sola and lhen reti"' d t" hi.
camp abowe S.......,la "'hteh ht (onified
hef"'" . he o"",,t of ,,,nl er.
T he t wO roads from k""'" to",," t her n
Campania. the Via Appia and the Via
I.a,ina. co",'erged at Cal.. befo," . he)'
c,ossed the \! "Iturno at Ca.ilinllm. T hi'
"'as Ihe only b,idge .,'''''' tlt e VOltll"'o
.".1 wh,,"ver hel,1(:"ilinum eonm,ncd
the m ...... 11Ie ancien' ,,,,,"'n OC1C\lpocd
rnughly , he ..me position .. TIS tt><><trnT
ootllltct'f'll". Clp"". on lhe ....' h bonk
of .ht Vol' ....-no ,,'hioch nestle> in a oharp
bend '" the ,i'er. "1M conf 01
......... it brou,hl about t>ea ancitm
c.pua ..... Jeauuyed by .he S...-... ill
the 11th centul')" and its inbabitanlO
emiRroted 10 Ca,ilinum, ' aking lhti'
""me: ,,'il h lhem.
H.nnibal now mO\'rd " I' to the to"'n
and whe n ho , aw that t here w.o no
chance of l. king il a"alllt he drew
, iege line. ",und it to prevent suppli..
in, Then. leaving ' ume;ont
f",,-c, 1<> hold t hc' c linc,. he W"m inw
wint er q u."e,", at Capua four kilo-
mel ''''' further d" ", n 'he road, The
legend that lIannibal". lroop' wem ooft
dllr;n. thei r ,,'inter in lhe of
CapItO hoo heen dehunked '"
lUlt". lhat i' " 'OII1d he pointleu le' .1 11
on il ,""", "I1>e-y ....." r won anoo.....
..cal bank simpl y' beca..... lhty ........,
"""'" Ii,,,,,n """,her "l'f'O"Iunily.
In lhe carl l' opri ng of 21S Hann' ha1
rdurncJ to lhe:.ic-Ke ofCasilinum, Tht
bl"':lr.adoe ..... beginnTng .0 ... tIS
dfn"l and the " a...-ing garn..,n ......,
.......hing rht end of t hei r endurance.
The di.., al<>r had """,ned 10 Rome a"d
1"iheriuo Scmpron iu, G"",chuo, t he
ma" e' "f the 11<'",e, had taken "'-cr. H
w., " nwtlling lo ,i<k an eng. gement .nd
was redll<""d to waKhing helplessly, He
tri ed lh,.tinll jars of groi n do wn t h,
river at night '" Ih.. the defende" <'ollid
t hem f"'m the r i"cr a< they d'ifted
1'.".hut t ho """n
"" 10 this and kept wat ch fo' them, In
dc'perat ion the Roman' ..ied
<.I<, ,,'n nut., hilt the Carthaginianocoun
tered hy plac-ing hurdl.. made from
...."lina: in , he r iv er last , devoid 01
hope. the sunc-n<.kred
Hannibal "'Icaocd lhem and pul ;n I
1'0'>01""'1 pnioon of hi , """'II .
Livy's _ n' of l he """,to of .ht
year 31S it .., conru>e<l and impbuoiblr
that one is tCfllpled to belie.-<: lha. be ""'
made them up. "1M consulo ....e'" (,........_
ehu., , be m..t.r of.he hone from tli<
pn:vious y""r, and Luciu, Poo,"mi...
....lbinll', whoa. 1"""1'" for the ptC'\'iou.
..... still serving in lhe Po villey,
He w in hi, ah>cnce hut no
",,,ncr had he been elected th. n he and
hi, tW<l legion<, t he t 81h and 19t h, wcro
wil"'d ""t in (:ehie amhltsh
.... 0lot <>f ITI<InO''''''ring I><hind ,he
......'nc., F. biu' Wi" ,eplace-
men, fur Albinund ."'I.",ellu, the
",he, <. ndida'e w., made p"""'lIS uL
The rhn:c com.... ,<>Uk up rhei r
_iriom in Campania ... rh .\u.-""lIu.
01 Ca.I'" Oaudillno, The s"nore had
dea<kd.o Mrush rhe , .."'0 legions
up 0/ t he """."vn of c.aru- ol'ld ao:;-
cor di rcl r rhe)' had t-" setU '0 .he
R""",,, pt'<>\'i".:cot Si,"'ilr .nd
10 Cllmpom in Ihe open unlil rl>< w.t in
halj' wa, ove. T II<: ir wa, takm
by rhe two k gion. fro m Sicily (7rh .nd
Gra""bu' up hi, p..,.itinn
ro\'cring the Appian "" . y a' Sinue. ..
(.\ I"ndraw>ne) ..'irh ,he t" ,o \q:....... or
voIunreer ,10..... , !'abin, . he l"klal'er
' <><>l< Pen'. ann)' . nd ,he
1..0' i" lI'oy ., CaIeo So fa. , his i>
",_bit. bu. ..ha. toappe"" nell i<
ludicrou._ In . pore of t he r...r ,hat the
Catthaginiam held ricer cr....ing at
Qo,ilinum, Livj' matches F.biu. or.1I
p<"ple ac. o," rhl; Vull urno and then
under H.nnibal' , n""e to Ca. tr o Clall-
di.no. where he di.pl.ced
"'hom he ordered to garrison N..lla. The
. t<>ry of .\1 ...,11... ,.ic't0f")' Hanni _
bal bc-neoth ,he ..-all. of S'oIa is "'lually
t>o:t" ...... .. Pol ybi ........-no 'Nt ,,'hen
Hannib<d kft he had nee", ....t.
bo.nk. Ie ..,.,"" ,hat Li,)' has Il"t hi.
ehr<>nology " '"mg, and b""au.., he n.r-
ratc> his hi"",), year by he found
him""lf wi, h an empty ye. r fo, 2', and
hod tn ]""k aroun,l for somet hing ,,, fi ll
tlle gap. At all 'he . i'u.tinn in
Campania in ,he ou' Umn of 2" had 00f
sinox . he .pring.
T,,,, did tue J'lacr
...h"'h ..ere ' 0 0 mome-n.ou. dfCCl
"'" t he .."'. l'Iulip \" of.\l.ai:c'dnn rlU<k
a t"""r of .1Ii ...,. -"';th Hanrubal, and
Hiero, ,he k-itli of :;rr.ocu"' , "00 hod
bn Rome', raithful aUr ,he be_
ginning of the fitst Punic w.r, died
Philip 's amb. ... do" fell into t he h.nds
0( t rn, Romans " 'ith t he r", ult that t hey
knew obou' ,be bef or e H, nnIN l.
A. 0 precaUtion ,he number of ""..hip'
Taranlo -as f*ise<! 10 ' 0'0J'TO'-ect
the Adriztic .
A, amumn al'f"'<*.i>cd Hanniballefl
and """,oed ,he Apmnines to
."'PI in Apul... Gracchu. ,,'nh hi. . .."
>lave .lcgi,m. and wen, in'o
qua" ... al tIM: Rornon colony of
Lucctia ( Lu..ra) .
!'obi"s . nd .. " .... el"'"Ied
<,m.ulo fo, the f"nowlng
Hanni h.1 had heen held in ch""k 'he
p revious ycar alld it w. ' d<..ided to
make a erro" to tke "I'pe'
""nd in "'ar. In aocor dance ,,;t h
Fahiuo' .. i , "". agrttd to open
Upthe ...... on ... ""'.., . fron' . ... poosiblc,
knnwitli tha' Hannibal ..-j,h hi> limited
<nnlIrc:n ,,'OUld no! I>< 10 protect
.11 hto allies. Six AnI' kgion. "'l:
nioed, bri nging the ,..ul to 20, . nd lhe
k l. of tOO "".. ohips laid dl''''n.
.g.in hI,t h oollsul , Were to
op" rate in Qompania. .'..-Io. ..llu, was
gi ven tbe nnd ;md 23, d leg ion . and
Farnu. 'he 201h and 2 ' st . I'. hi" o ton,
... p.......r , " .... ..,nt '0 Apulia ,,-j , h ,he
7th and 8th Iqion> .0 j..-.in Gracch",
"" 00 ..... already tl><,.., ..-j. h ,he I""
Iqions. This hrough. ,he n"mber
0/ \q:ion. in "",,'hern Italr to The
Po valle)' had he<:n lef, "itho", r""""
,in,.. lhe dea,t> of I' o" umiu. Albinus
t he previo", yea.: t WO new kgions
(nt h and 2Rt h) we,.. , ent the,.., to keep
Cehs b"sy and . 101' them ... nding
to Hannibal . The ' '''0
Can"",,, legioo. in Sicilr .nd a
funhe. legio" had t-n ""oed
' be JlI"C"iouI summer and sent ,.. join
nin,h in Sard,nia which ,he Ca,-
thalJ'nlanOw.... l"CCOVCT. Vatro,
whi> had he<:n to Picenum " n lhe
Ad,i,. i....ick or l lalr north.., ,, of
Rome, h.d ,.i",d a legion locally
1\ fun her legion (2, t h) was I'''' ted to
i"i n lh. Ad,iat ic H t whi<h w nnw at
8 r und i. iurn ( Brind i,i) 0" furt l><r 1''''' -
cautio" again" an in"asion b)' PhiliJ'_
Two of the new kg;IoRI and )OIh)
wn"C hdd in ....."'" a' Rome.
The of lhe .... .........
J",innt and no could I>< round
t" for ..ilnn 10 mao ,he new ships.
T o meet , he ,n ,he w..
agreed '0 provide and pal'
,a ilor..t their "wn expense.
T he Capu.ns , al" med at ,he
'ti"no being made It and oon-
,ill<.--cd ,ha. ' bey we", tbe of this
ma.. hui ld_up, ..,nt tneSSC"i<"n '"
Hannibal bcUing him 10 corrot ' 0 ' heir
aid. In res.,......, Hannib<d tttfCI>OCd lhe
Apennines and Pllet.ed camp ......
.\\ount Tifl'a. 1loIh de Sa"''l l> and
t hi> Cllmp on tlte hill.
iu. t to ea" <If .1.1"..n, Tifo... which
...." m. t e. sonohle for n,, ' onl y d,,.s it
RO.\-I E 21S-140 lSC
T HE GREAT WARS
,ive h,m ' " the p1aJn bUl i, .Iso
''''''''' bold " >U' e h j' which Ma,-
cdl u, had ea"r. Claudiana.
He hod taken up this ..me r<"itk", t he
pre,'iou, and hod dis-
rupred the Roman .uppll' Ii..... ..'ith the
"",,,I, th.1 F. hi" . had massed . upplies
at ea..", OaOOJanll in the a"tumn ...hen
HattlUbal had re'l'fC'd '0Apuha.
Fal:>i... "",t "-ord to Graa:h... ' 0 hand
O\'Cf hi. position at ,.. lhe
F.biu. and '0 up ' " the
Homan colony at Bcn....enrum. , hus
cuning Ha nni bol]'s supply Jin"s, Hen:
fo, the fir" 'ime we see th" Rom.n
of oonrainmcnl.
s',on after a. ri' in, . , , hi,
.... !""Hi off H.n"" ,,'i,h
an a.my of ' 7,000 infantry. mainl}"
B....m iam and I......nians, and ,,200
l':""h African caval,,, ,,'as a,h'anang
doIo'n ,he valley of ,he Calore, prnom_
. b1r '0 a renda,,,,,. wi, h H.n-
niboll in Camp. nia , It w.s ,II<: ..t op-
po,tunity t h.t the Rom.n, had had to
port of H.nnibal", f","c, wi,h-
out t heir famou' Hanno en_
camped on ,he ,,,,,,h bank of the
a bou t <4skm n., ...- Ikne'<Tmo. Grac-
ch... ttl<"Cd hi>camp "I' '0
wit"in I,snnm"'- Honno', J'O'ition and
J'l"CJ'OfC'd r.,,- raised ,he
of the . Iac.... promising .hat if ther
fought .. ft'C"Cdom would he , lxin "
foll""'ing murnlng ,he Iwo
., mi". engaged. The st a"ed well
for Rom,n' hu, ground to a h.lt
heca u>c the , I.v.., who we", p,,>hahly
of Celt;" " rigin, stopped figh' ing to eo<
off , he head, of their a,
proof , ""t 'he}" had killed t""'" and then
tried to con,io.." ..; ,h these llOfY "",.
venin t ud-od "...xr their righ, .......
he reali..,d what " -as happening,
Gracch". promtsed tl><rn freedom
on ,ke ' PO' . SO . ha, could on
wit h ,he fighting. With
the , Ia"es raised their war cry and t hrew
themselves .gainst the Carth,ginian"
dri" ing t hem h.o<: k on theircamp. f' illOlly
inln , he comp it..,lf , killi ng
C'<'Cf)'lhing t hat >lund in theit wa)". Arre,
the banle. ,n accordance ...; .h his pr..-.m_
i.... Graceh", frndnon ... , hem
all reprdlns of ,hei, """ion, in lhe
bank.
In Campania flannibal made
an" , her to Nor. , but onox
.ltaln .\I . , edl"" who "'. s enoamped.t
'"
ITALY AND THE \'(' ESTERN M EDITERRANEAN
Sj'racusan, in fi, of .n,i_Ruman rer_
vour had .Ieeted . , leneral. Hannibal',
.......Iffl", Hlppocratn and Epieydes.
and 1Ift>' ""t .000 me.. under Hippo-
craIn 10 <kfmd lho: terrilory'" Leontini
(Lenlini). a S)"T..,....n ....... nc1r . to<
boNe. '" ,to< Roman province ahout
}OIIm """I>-'*C'S. '" S)"DCUW. Hipp:>-
cra'", "....j these roren 10 ...VIlt'C the
bordenof,1>< Roma4 province, deliber
.tely 1<)1"1 10 provolre ......r that orouJd
lale onme '" ,to< prnturo otr Hannibal
in Italy. .\brttlluo probabl y arrived iu
Sicily in Ito< .utumn '" at . and spen'
II>< "";nler Irying ' 0 a ....k-
ment . In . to< ,prinl <l' l><n lbe Syra-
euoans .. i11 ,..,mained obdura'e, Marcel-
lus and the Pr"OClot Appiu, Claudius
Puk he, ....uhed ,he ,o""n or Leon, ini
and sadi;ed iI, Twn ,hou",nd Cartha
Kinion , ympal hi.., ......ho ""ere captured
when lhe to""n were seoufged and
h<: headed. Thi. a"', a. u.""l , wa'
h ' ow
Map ,11 ,"''' hng"'" ,.",,,,n ot ,he w" to
G,.., oand S,e,'Y T... man"<l"d '0
. _ Ph,'ip V cl "'_ ltuov" ""'" ' ,nl,
""" by 1",,,,,"lI "" . 1I 'anet cl", 0<ltIm;', io
,,-
,
r;jGE
am" aoud,o"", ","""ged '0frustro.e off from , he ..,. , The Macedonion king
him. T1>cCanhoiPnion had corlier heard wu for<!. in, o ,he humilio,ing position
tha' he might tit' .ble ' 0 Eel pos=s;on of having ' 0 ....rn hi. f1tt'l and """',"
of T....n'o,. far grcalU pritt, which over..nd ' 0 The R"",,,n
,muld open his lines of communication tI<e1 spoenl ,he winter at Oricum. The
wi,h boo:h Can""e .nd Macedon. He .,.,., had spread ' 0 Greece.
left Campania in the .utumn and The rollowine year ,he en ure of the
mardtcd east "","8f'ds <he: Grttk port. ....r in h.ly ' 0 <he: 00ll."""". '""
With Hannibal eonc lhe 1_ consul. Hannibal made l'C'JIQ.ed elfort ogain
...hon a"nrnl of T......' o. The Romans had
siqr;c repined 'hisl:cy position. pul . ...... prrison into the lov.-n and
Mean....hile Philip ...... . to open felt su", , ha, , hey could keep.he port
up .ho: l11yn.n cou, to ,ha, he could "'" ofCanhqinian hands.
IIft>d Ir<X>I'S lI(:I'OSS to Italy. He had In Sicily even" had I.ken. 'urn for
sailed in, o Ihe Aegco.n wi.h. f1eel of 1:W , t>c ..-<>nc. H,ero' s grand---
ligh' ll"ileys .nd rc..:-hcd ,he Bay or """ Hieronymus asnded , he ' hronc.
Aulon""",..i'e Rrindi.ion the Alhanian Byskilful dirlomao.-y H. nnibal
cno", Th,. olfC1'Cd large "",u.."l har- '0 detach lhe imp",ssio""hle you'h from
hour ideany sUi'ed ror , ... nsponing his , he Roman .lli.nce and open up. ne""
men """",s u. ,he heel or hal}'. He", he rron, in S,cily . This """0beCarthagc's
.., ized ,he ,o"'n or Orieum and then "'ar , all ,upport "'a' '0 ,;ome f" m'
rowed up ,he river Aou. (Vios;o) '0 lay Africa, leo"ing lIannihal free '0deal
, iege to Ar<,lIonio, lX' hen ,he new, wi,h hi. in",..,o_ing prohlem, in hall',
roached Br indisi . he praetor M. rcus Hut har dly had ,h e war begun ,han
Vakrius Laevinus emharked , he 25. h Hieronymu. wI' a"a"i"'ned. It wa,
legion, c",",ed .he Adria,ic and threw . Rome' , chance '0 re"erse , he ,i tua,ion
relieffmC<'of ' ,ot>Oin'o. hebele.guered . nd ,he Senat e di_pa,ched Mar""llus
,own, He .hen hlockaded .he momh of wit h the n nd and 2)rd I.gion. to 'he
,he Vi""a wi,h his ganeys, Philip i. land . T hey had '00 , lowly. The

'"
counterproductive and only 'erved to
harden ani'ud,-"" lX'hen Mar<'ellus ,aw
,hat ' he Sy,"c'u, an, were " ill not pre-
pared to come toterms, he gave hi' men
five days to prepare and then m(wed in
on the cit y, He divided his fmce' , which
were ,'ery limi'ed as hc wa, forbidden
' 0 bring the Cannae legions OUI of the
Roman province, giving the command
of the land ope rations to Pulcher whil"
he took over 'he fleet. With only two
legions a full-scale blockade was im-
ptl"ibie so he de<:idedto launch a ,imul _
taneous a"aull on the ci,y from land
and ' eo, Puichet wa, 10 attack fmm 'he
north whila! !\,ja'cellus came in from ' he
;ea, Their attempt> were foiled by the
genim of the grea t mathematician and
engineer Arehimedes, who had spent
the latter year , of hi' life improving the
defences of hi, adnp'ed city with ' he
r",ull ' ha' ' he wall> bristled with mach-
ine' ' bat wrought havoc the
besiegers, A full aGcoun' of ' hi' epi, ode
is in ' he sec,i,," on scige warfare
(1' , 294)'
Marcellu' left P"kher to carryon the
a, best he could whilst he set out
wi' h a third of ' he atmy 10 recover the
other ' <l WnSnn ' he island whi ch had de-
fected The Cannae Ieginns, wi ,hing
only to dear their name, appmached
Marcellus begging him to make u, e of
their 'ervices, The general forwarded
their reque" to the Senate who ",plied
they co"ld only be used outside Italy,
Subsequently they must have been
brough, into ac, iM when the Cartha-
gini.n, landed afore'e nf25,OOO infantty,
3,000 c",'alry and u elephant' on the
i' land. The,e were joined by 10,00<)
infantry .nd 500 cavalr y from Syracuse.
The ' ituation on the i,land was aggra_
vated by yet another massacre, thi ' timc
of the cllizens of Henna, The .trocity
drO"e many " f t he SiC'ilian' in,o ' he
c..rth.ginian camp,
During 'he wimer or the following
'pring (2'3-2' 2) Hannibal finally
gained entran<'e l<1 T " anto, Hostage,
from ,"veral of t he Greek ",wns nf 'he
",uth had been held at Rome, When
tho," from Tarantoand Thurii escaped
tn<y were r'--cap'ured, ""ourg,-x1 and
then Hung to ' heir dea'hs Ii-om 'he
T.rpeian rock on the Capitol. Once
.gain Roman brutaHty wa, counterpro-
ducti,'e and hot h T aranto and Thutii
be'rayed 'n the CaTl haginian, In
' he ofTaranIOthe los' w.s not tot. l
a. 'he Roman garri, on 'here took
in the citadel whieb ,rood at the end of .
peninsu la and blocked the entr. nce to
'he harbour . Hannibal's attempts to
' ak< 'he citadel were fruSlr.,ed as it
could he supplied from 'he sea, Finally
he th,ew up an earthwork ""mounted
by a wall across the peninsula to cut the
citadel nlIfrom the rest oft he lawn, The
T arentin., were forced '0 drag 'heir
, hip, across the peninsula '0 get 'hem to
the sea,
The oon'ul , for 2U were Flaccus, a
contemporary of Fahi'" Maximu, who
had been consul twice before, and Pul-
cher who had been released from his
du, ies in Sicily by Marcellus so that he
could run for 'he supreme magi' ltacy,
Two new city legio", (34th and 35'h)
were raised, bringing the total number
in ' he fI eld up 10 25, a quarter of a mil-
lion men, T he twO legio", which had
' pen' the previnu, year traininga' Rome
wcre ptl"ed to Etruria in casc Ligurian
reinforcement s tried to reach H.nnihal.
The r..oure'" of ' he ,We were so
" rained that the c,,,,,,,1> h. d grea'
ditticuhy obtaining t he reeruits ' 0 hring
tbe exi"i ng up to strength, let
alone form ' h< 'wo n<w legion, .
The t ide 'urns
For three yea1:' the fiel d, of Campania
had been hi d waste as Roman and Car_
' haginian 'ystematically destroyed the
cmps ' 0 deny each other forage , As a
result Capu. was beginni ng [0 feel the
pinch and sent n,.",engcro'" H.nnibal
begging for supplies, Tbe C.rthagi nian
sent H.nno north wit h orders to gather
in suppli.. in 'he ,'alley of the Calare
near Beneven' o where the C.m!",nians
were to collect them, Haec'u' m:eived
int elligence of this from the colonists at
BenO" ento and marched inlOthe Apen-
nines , If the Camp.ni an, had , howed
mme energy in collecting their supplies
all would have been well, but before
they could tran,fer 'be , up pJi" 10 C. m-
pani a Fhccu s w"' on tnem, Thc con, ul
" mmed Hanno' s camp, capturing tbe
' upplic' and ' aking pri soner many of
Hanno 's , oldier' and Cam!",nian"
Capua, depri"ed of suppli.., faced
" arv.,ion, and the Roman' were quick
10 exploi, the 'ituation, Pulcher joined
hi' colle.gue a' Iknc.'ento and with the
20th, 2"t, 29th and 30l h legion, they
ROME 275- 140 Be
TilE GREAT WARS
moved down ;nlO Campania intent on
destroying the corn, wnich " '" now
and i"" esti ng the city in the
plain
If they were to operale in the " p<n
they would be al the mercy of Hanni-
hal', cavalry, ><' m","ges were sen,
to the procCl", ul Gracch"" who was
still campaigning in Lucania wit h hi'
legions of ex-,Iaves, begging him to join
them wit h aU hi' ea" alry and vel;"s.
Gracchu, ,<t ou' but on hi' way wa,
amhusned and killed, Th<, lavc legions
which had served him fai,nfully for four
ye.rs fell that ' heir "nligation, "'ere ful -
filled and di' per..d,
A, <' pected, without CO,' er [he Iegi"ns
' hat mo"ed in on Capu. were constant ly
hara"ed by rhe CaTlhag;nian and Cam-
panian cav. lr}" witn losses of over ' ,500
men, Hut they persisted
nim"lf crossed the Apennines , True to
the Fabian strategy ' hey ,nen withdrew,
Flaccus '0 Cumae and Puicher into
Lucania. Hi s objec, acnieved, Hannib. l
returned 10 Apulia, No ",,,mer had he
left tlian 'be legions returned. The
eon,uls ..m word to the praetor Ne...,
a' Ca"ra C1audiana, telling him to join
tnem wit h his legions, and [hey began '0
dig in around ' he cit y
The ptlrt of Puteoli (PozzuoJi) had
!>een fort ified by Fabius !vlaximu, a few
years earlier ' 0 as " , en,ure ' upplies
reachi ng 'he armies operating in Cam-
pania, Now a" other fort ified ptlsi, ion
was established al the m"uth of the
Vollurno. W' i, h [heir lin.. of ""mmuni_
cation secured from t hree directions,
, ...,i linum to the north, Puteoli 10 [he
sou, h . nd the fort at the mauth of ' he
Voltumo 10 the we", 'he "" ,,"uls set
about 'he inve" m<n' of Ca pua, T bree
camp' were estanlished round thetown,
presumably to the north, ' out h and we"
on the supply routes, and joined by
double lin.. "f ditch" and rampaft, :
' he Ii"" 'n keep the Capuans in and the
' econd to keep Hannibal out .
Meanwhil e in Sicily the , iege "f Syra_
cuse cominued The R"ma,," were
finding i' dittieult to prO"cnt the Car-
thaginian, running the blockade
tnere seemed no chance of assailing
Archimede" Regular di,-
cussions wokpla<-ebetween the Romans
and 'he Syraeusan, ahout the exchange
or ran'oming of prisoners, During [he, e
meet ings one of 'he Roman " ,ldiers
'"
I TALY A:" D THE WESTERN MEDI TERRANEAN
lhal a J"lrl of, he " "all ".,IS "'"'"
hi gh as il and by co" ming l he
COlI...... or ,he "'''''"''' he ...... abl<- 10
""ima,c its oolh'. ,,'hich " 'a> ...-ell
wi,hl n rnch <>l 'M1<>rw:s' ROIIl1I1 Iad_
de... On informillll Ma rce11u. of ,hi. a
n;lh, ."....it ...... rJanncd for l hot f""i.... 1
of Diana ...hot n """" of ,hot .",,,,.;.,.
would "'vc been Thi. ",guh
...... a completc . uccns and Mareell...
p ined con,rol of , hot Epipolac pIa,nu,
Cu, off rrom ,he: ,....-n. ,he Eury""''''
fort I""> ., lhe ...-a' cnd of lhe: pIa' n"
"""" .urrcn<krN and Marcellu. " ....
flft In hc:oiqlc Achro.:hna IOc hich b y fO
l he """,h <>f lhe pla' n". The Cartha_
ginian a.my had tJ1<>Ytd up ' 0 ,he oou, h
>ide of ,hc cily, r re"cming Ihe ROm;ln>
from >urround inll n. BUI rlallue broke
""I ;n Ihe l'unic camp, whi ch W'IS In [hc
"nl>eah hy mar"'y atea. and , he ann)'
...as al"""", wired ou' whi)" l he Roman.
on ' he plale. " were nol ..riou,)}" alke -
'ed, Th. made a 10"
onem)', h\ relieve ,he l<>...n and scm
a Luge fleel of 130 and 700
'''1'1'1)' .hil'", bu, ,,'hen lhe ROm;ln flee'
"""'ed ur 10 in,erttf'l,l>em ,he Ca"ha-
ltl",an .......hip.. w ctt\OI-S fO
he comr1eldy "'e by the Roman
na'"y, changed cou for T ...nto and
,he l ramJ'<'f11 ""umed 10 Arrica, ....n
hope of "'lid ....1 ""'" gone and soon
af'('RItd> , he- S}-roo:tnam<>pened '00.
pi'" '0Marcel l....
\'{";Ih , he f.n of S)'r....... IOOIt of , he
",her di..i<kn, '0""" xnt arnbas""",,"
'0 MarccllUi ...,king pea<;e-. TbI: arca.
around Agri ltC'fl' o , ,,'M... the remnan'.
of rhe Co"haFtn[an and Syracu"" n
had pthertd. """",incd in a" ... .
.\ Iareen,, > advanttd in' n ,he arra and
defu[cd the m near t he ri....r Himera.
T he ron(lwinll: yn r, 211 , the aIm}'
" renglh " ... again b"'''llht "I' 10 25
ICl ions , T his ",,,ui red repl aci ng , hc
[wo , Iav. Iellion, whi ch had de""rted. I,
i. Jilf,,"ul, '" be liev. lj, "}, when he
cloim. , hal Ih. 7' h and g, h kllion. were
deSIroycd hy I l annihal in Apulia [he
pt...ioul j..,..r ... Ihi. "'O"ld require the
lev}'inl nf fnur more '0brinl' ,he fO, aI
uJ" o as, an al"""t imponib1c la,kcon"
sidering Rome"IOlrained re-sourccs,
TbI: rrime nbie<."Iiv. for [he ynr 2"
..... ' 0 bc Capua ,,-M... ,,;x Iqion. "tt<
concenlra'ed. H"", <>i N I, ; n an art"",,,,
10 ,he ,he Armni....
and n:occul"'"'d hi. old p""lion bchln<!
:\-1..... Tib,a, He maAaFd ' 0 "'" 1
_ in, othe- ' ",om ' d l_
ing 'hc:m ,he , ime of hi. attack to lhat
Ihc:y could a>-ord",..c ,heir .....wt. bur
by now ,he- Roman. wne pKpO-rrd fot
him. Thcy . pl n 'hc:ir infan'ry in lwo
...;'h ..n....If ' 0 lluard ,he inner lina
"nder lbe J",...:"...ul Pukher ",h;l.. lhe
consul Centumal u. defended , he ou[e.
Ii..... """in" f bnni""l The ca.-alry " ...
Bel_
,... '''''''0 of , .... __ of C....... w",<" nao
,...., 11"" '" ' 0""""'1.., ,,,,, of , ;, 1<o;I00n,
wa, H. ""' ".,tIC>PO' ob,ect... ,n 11t
llul " '" C. "ha9'"''''" """,.,"'" prO'ffld
"".""co"f'"
'"
sent OU, in,o ,he allied to the
nonh uno.kr the C<lmm.nd of and
the citiun ca,..lry '0,1M: .. "" h uno.kr
Fbccut.. Hannlbool led hi. army ,k..m
in,o ,he pl.un and Iaur>ched an a"ad:: on
. he ou'"" linn " 'hil" at .he ..."'" ,i"",
,he ('"..apuam _led , he Inncr, Bo<h
Uta..i<. ""'" ,hnw.'n '-1<, RaJi";ng
ha, he had Hannil>al
",-;,I>.1n:'" Ilis foron. ""' ina their
'n,,,' ,,'i.h hi> ,.....Iry , , he Roman
in ,he rbm >hou.ld 'lUa.:k
hem.
Supplyill1l hi. ""'n ..'i.h day"
"nion> he f......;.,d lhem the \"01-
' urno during.he nigh. and ad n,-....l up
l..a, in '''....rd. Kornr , hoping
'0 dra... off .h. ICllions t h., " r" . ur_
rounding CapUll, When of t his
. rriwd at the cit) .here ,,a rr.mie
debat" i n lhc Sen. ,e a. man)' "r 'he
mem""" cri ed ou, for of Ihe
legion, . Ru' h l-iu. M..im". read t he
.it"ati"n ""recl l}' .nd . ent a me"a,ll;e
to the ,,,mman.t<-n al Cap"a tell ing
t hem to hol d h" 'k a , ,, II;eicn' for ce to
maint ai n lhe and send t he res, fo'
the defen,.., "r the cit)' , l'laceus imme-
di..d y di'pat"hed me"enge.. to the
IOwn. al"ng t he Appi an ,Ii' . y. tdling
t hem to ho, 'e . uppliC1l rrady. an d then
""t off post ho"e to race Hannibal to
R'Kne by ,1M: much Ionlt"r rout" .Iong
t he _. lIut I bnnibolr. ad"ance .. .. .
."", he " ........,'in' ,1M: ...
.. he .. 'ent. ""I'inlll ' 0 t he
all..... The Roman wloni Ioog t he
""}' cut ,Jo.. n , he '0 him
do..'n ,,hils. Flaecu. and hi. men raced.
aIona the ...... . As , ht Carthaginian
aprorood>e<I ROM<' ht o;k>''''''ro . he
bunTina. sJauahtmng . nd
",lLagi"", - dotng all .ha, "..s in hi.
p"""r '0 for"".he Ruman. '0 """'"nul
...d dorf"nd ,hei r 1'C'DJ'k. Flaccu tl1C2T1 _
"..hile. had reached , he rit}' and pitehed
camp bet......." , he f.squih"" and Coll in"
p tes on the c-ut .id" of.he ' '''''n, Han-
nibal tl'KWW up ", , he n ycr "nd
camped al'.>o.o, ""ot of ,he ei, ),
L vy'. d "im ,ho, l-1a..=,,'i,.., orJ"r"d
ban k '0 lIanni""l and on bot h 0<.""-
.ions the ""a, her J'Tcvcntcd i, i of
eonr s<. I'if"io, ic non","", . Thc Cartha_
ginian knew , ho, hi. hlurJ had been
( , lied and n: tur ned 10 ""ut hern Italy,
leaving Cap"a t<l ito fale. In Capu. the
,ituati"n w., despc ra' e , T hc p" pula'ion
had t he (hoi nf " .." . ti" o ,>r Ihmwi0l'
them""I,..,.. o n me'<")' of.he Roman.
" ."" haJ not .""" n much deme,' c}"
el.... 'ooe, A nf .he Capuan
Sena,,, " ..alled . nd the ..... ,-or.ed
for . " ..... ndC'T. s.omc, a8of,hem ....hohaJ
been he"'ill' in,nt.ed in the def<xtion
rommittw ... The fol lo".-ing da}"
.he J upite, p .e "n ,he not . ide of lhe
,o".-n " ' h.......n "f'Cn.nd the Rnm:rn
' rtfOP' rnrerrd, Th<l- """';no.kr of ,he
Sena'c " ......, annlw. T".. nt j'-eight of
t hem " 'er" oen' '0T""no and a funher
a s to Cales (Ca!>'i). "'here , hey " .....
publ icI)' o.;ourgrd and heheaded try' ,he
liefo"" ""i,h. he (aUof Capua .he (l(her
Camp,onian ' ''''n. "hich had ddect"d.
Cal ia and A.dla Iso . urrenden: d.
Seven,ee n of , heir Kn. ",rs " " r" e"e-
(uted and , he rna.. o j' the ('"..aml'ifnian
l",pul ation eit her di. plao;ed or !l()ld in'o
,la" er y,
T he e"hilara,ion fclt in Rome o"er
the reeapt"'" of (;ompania was marred
hy ,hc new' fmm Spoin 'hat t hc tw"
Scipi" It r" th,' " had heen killed and t hei,
armie. ,' irtually ,,'il'ed out.
" ""ill he remcmbered that when
S" irio mi"ed Il annihal at the he
had hi, hr",her (J oaeu' with m,, "
oflhe lice. and ,,"'0 legion, on to Spoin
Gn. eu. landed at th e .\Ia" iliot e oolony
of Emporia< (Ampuria.) j" .t ",...h of
, he I, i. ,'el1' diflic,.h to <--om_
m<: nt on 'he caml'ifiltn. l ha t follo" 'ed
ltecau"" Pol )'h iu. ha. rollo"'ed the Scipi-
onie tradnion and U" y ha. fol lowed
PoIyhi" . It i. clnr ,ha, , he Roman.
had ....... ' ....'CO but n. i. un_
eat",n . , i. I"'>bahle that the for""
"'hich Hannilt;rl haJ Ief. ", hold t he area
<>Ot1h of ,he F. hro ","M......-. hu' ,o.ug-
gn' ,ha, i, " ... deri.iycl!' bora'en in.he
. U' umn of ..,.,.... highl)' unlikdy,
M,,,r ,he ,,'i, hdra_ 1 of , he Cartho-
gi niaru ,.hli.ht<i. permanen'
boise at T.rr"""'" (Tarragona). The fol-
.....in' .um"",. lIasd,,, boJ Ba.....
Cf"C>M<:.i , he 10m ,,'i,h hi. 8ec, of
follo",.,ng him up the """" ,
Scipio .he cha""" to k"""k ou'
the Canhaginian !leet . launched a sur-
pri se att.ck .nd defea'cd , hem off . he
mou,h or , he F. hro. de,"o}'ing , ix g"dl_
Icy_and cap' uring 2S, Later in the year.
after r,, 'm Ihe wound , u,-
tai ned al t he amhu,h ncar .he Ticino,
Puhlim , ailed t" ioin hi, hr<>thet with
20 more galley, and x.ooo men T he
'I"r y Ihat .he t w" Rpm.n hn)t hers
ROME Be
TilE GREAT WARS
croo>r<J ,he Ebro.nd t he au, umn
ad...nced far oouth a. S...."ntum
""""s improbahle. I n anI' ..n' . in " S
thel' are .ull campaianing norTh of the
Ebrn " 'herr the}' .." .uJ'P""l'd to ha"e
gai ned. a re.1 ,ic"l'.-y ",..,r Hasdrul>al
Barca. I. i. i"'''.....'in. '0
tho.thi. " It", only ..... jor ....' ....., tha'
lIalidrul>o. l ff...."j bdOf<' hi. dea,h a
, he ..uru. "ij(hl )"""rs Iat... . E,..". , he
grn t s,'ip;., Africanu. ,,a. unable '0
def""" him deri ly.
Shonl)' .f' rd. Hasdrubal " ...
co.Iled '-i< '0M ric1l l o pu, """'n a XlI -
mi dian r..."It , li e"'.. rrum Spatn
for three }'e. .. and d"ring , hi. , ime the
Scipio hro,hers ma)' ... ha"" made
ron,iderahlr inroad. into Pu nic Spain
and r",..p' ur ed
H. '>dr uh. 1 wahle '0re_cnte. , he
fray in Ihe of 2 t. and th" for-
tune, of th. Scil'io. changed. They had
split , hei, ar my to m. ke . l""o -p"'n;:<d
thru" deep int o eart h. ginian [<..it ml'
T he t".." armi., wcre cnll'lIed ",pa 'atel l'
hI' t he P"nk fo'ce,. bo t h "'ere wi ped
o"t and thei, ,' ommande" killed,
Much prai'e ha' heen I.\"hhed on
Scipio, for preventing Ila,dmhal fro m
hringing rei nro""mc n.. '0 hi, hrother
i n hal l' , II", ,inc.. Hannihal hardl)'
needed rrinfo"..,m"n.. hefore 21.4, aod
lla>-druboll "'a' ahocnt from Sl'ifin from
21.4- ' 12. ,his argument ...,ms ba..I.... ,
Th" r"",nants of , he Rom"n fo"", re-
t n"""d '0 ,heir ltir"" nonh of t he Ebro
and ,he posi'ion. n:"ened to ..-hat 'he}'
had been ....en )"ars
Afler ,he fall of Capua the praetor
Xer o """,i,..,d ordo... (romthe Sena,,, .0
..,Iect 6.000 inf""'I)' and }011 ""nIl'}'
frum ,he ' ''-0 ....ion. lIno.kr hi. rom_
mand and oIli" f rom Pu,eo!i for
Spain,
AIf";.. on .Iw ", her oide of ,Iw
Adria, ic had I' roern>ed .........-ha, dif _
fen: n,I). I n 1 '1 Phili" agai n in,-aded
""d managed '0fight hi. '""y to
the ,uo" .. here h" ClIp' Un:<!. he to"'n of
l.i..u., I ....'in.... ",ho had ltecn en_
camped on ,h" Ill )'rian .." .., near Apol -
Ionia since h" had dri"en Philip out ' ''-0
)''''''' ....rlier. now ("rmed an alliance
",i,h . he Ael o]jan. I he t raditional "nem-
ics or the .'Iaccdoni.n., with the .im of
keepinK I' hilil' occu pied in Gn:ece so
that he ",-, ,,Id not interf"re in the w.r ,n
I' aly, I n Ihe late ."",mer or 2' t .In
ag' ecmeot Wa_ , wor n,
'"
I TALY AND T HE WESTERN MEDI TERRAl' EAN
.\lorw. Ooudnl. .. r<1umt<!
10 Rom< al l ho: end of 211 and .....
ekct<'<l <:<>m..1 for .ho: fol lowi nl ynf.
Hi. oolk.... ".... M.n:u. \'alai...
I.-,.;n.... and Galba l he wno..1for ,he
p"",iou. year had 10 be """ U r>-
con...l lo lll yna.o him.
For l he: Ii",. ,ime ..n"" Hannibal had
"",er<'<l haly l he: Roman. fdl . " ffid-
endy ronlidcnl of filllli vi<..,ory 10 dis-
""me of lhe:i, longe.. _""rv;ng
l ' O\' p!I. T he numbe, of legion. "",ving
; n Caml'l' nia, which up to now t>e<:n
t he of war, wa, hal "cd,
T he Iwo (22nd and 2 3, d ) . e, v
ing in Sicily were Tw"
new cily lellion. were raised. h,inlling
Ihe num""r of legion. ser ving in h al y
and 1M Wia<" nl i.la nd. ' 0 2 ' .
The ""n,,,, of .he: wa, n' ''''' """"d .o
Apuba. " 'hieh .\ b ,cell ... received a' h..
province. Looevin..., . m, othe:r con.ul .
..-n,l,wn lhe: job of moppi nll .. p lhe: ....
cerll"COof in S;aly. He com_
pIel<'<l lhe tasl. by l he end of ,he: sum_
mer when he Clp{"red Agrigen. .. m ond
hrooJghl ahooJl lhe . .. rTender of lhe resl
of Sicily.
Twnormies ".,,,. set abou' ,he: reron_
Ques l of Apulia, """"'" and Ar-p; in , ho:
"""h had Ilttn reo;:aroured .-be-. and
Manrn,.. IJOVIi m od< SaIoJU 011 l he
Adrialie ...... 17km """h" "'1 of
Can...., before .......inl ;n. o S.omnium
..-OOe "" cap{"red ,_ of Hannibal'.
. upply baxs. A _d army of ."'"
Ioginn.' (71 h and Slh) "nder Gnaeus
F..lvi... Gonl.. mal" . mov<'<l agoinst
1I 00nea (Ordonl} wh, eh. like Sal:opio.
had defecl ed after I he !>ollIe of Gon"".
.ix yeo" bef",e. Hanni!>ol. heoting t haI
Ce nt umal us wa. al Herd""., rac-ed up
f",m l he toe of h ol y and cough' the
Homan unaware' , wil' ing nu' ' he ..my
and i" geneu l T he Iw," ICllions had
been in ' cr'; iee . ince 2'7 . nd . penl
. hc lost .ix yea.... in AI' .. lia. T he rem_
non" of . he CSCOpe<l1O ioin M.,
cdlu. i n Samnium hUl were lal.r dis-
gra<;ed and 'Cn' 10 join lhe: Cann,..
\cgion. in Sicil y.
Marcell... now advanced into Lu-
anio. made CO<t'.;l wilh n onnihal 000
rrom f"U"..'ing him. tJ<irmi.hing
oll lh.c" ..y. Liry. IoCalUn.. offull_scak
hauln belWttn Ma' ct'llu. and Hanni-
bal boo.h ,hi. year and 1M fal", .
\l'hen Hannibal """,<'<I lo,....' d. Apulia.
.\Ia",,"l1 ... follmvcd. Here ' h.c Conlta-
!tinian "'t'n, in'o ..;nr.r Quon.... and
.\Iart't'llt.. remaIned wilh hi.
do'C by t hroughou' !he ..;n,,,, .
The 1_ ""","uI. for >09 """' bnlh
old men, I'ol>i ....\Iaximu. obIained lbe
"'P'"",e mqiotracy for lhe firlh time
and fresh from hi. conques, of
wa. mode comul ror ,lie
fou rt h lime. Two new legion. ....r. rc-
'I ui r. d '0 rerl."" I h. h and h.
and "",cord ingly 'I""'.' w.re d.manded
f.omt h. l .al ln and Rom. n COlOnie. f'0{
len ye. " a mi nimum of Iwo legion . 1, lu,
recrui .., '0 hring rhe eXi. ,i ng legi" " , "P
to , t rengl h. hod been demanded annu
ally. T he ... te w.. exhausted and II of
t he ""Ion... ..d tn .end lheil
Qoo,a . an C110nnou. efforl Ihe """"'"
....y lmopo were rai",d and '''''' ""...
kgionJ. . lhe: and 4'" '0 be called ur
during lhe .....r. ""'" into Irai ning II

-
n... ...- '" l .......,.....", ...... .... _
___ _
....... ""'-"""""""' ..... -... -
.- _ no<..,,,,- b.<, _ """"" ......
town "" .... _ ""'"
,'"
T his year;' was ",s"ked to complete
the rttonqoeSl of t he Adri at ic' ,,,,,,,t
Marcell us kept hi , command and Flac-
cu, re'umed to hi s . rmy in Campania
T hese t wo armies wete 10 launch a two-
pronged inva,ion of l.ucania to keep
Hannih.1 whilst F.bius laid
, iege '" Ta,anto, Marcellus, followi ng
his tact ics of the ptevious year,
t inued to dog Hannihal', footsteps,
skir mi, hing with him whilst Flaccus ad-
along the valley of the T anagw
taking Volcei near Duccino.
Wit h Hannibal prcoccupi ed Fabius
ad,'anced into t he heel of It aly,
the Carthaginian_held town of Man-
duria and t he threa t to hi.
,upply lines from Dri ndi,i . He thcn ad -
"anced on T.ranto, whic'h he besieged
by land and ,ca, moving hi s
"'eapons up to t he walls of t he lown on
, hips a, Marcell us had done at Syra_
cuse. JUSI as lI.nnih. 1had rcc,i,'ed the
town by SI,.lIh "> it was betr ayed to the
Roman, T he town was s.cked .nd
JO,ooo of its populat ion sold into sla,'ery
Hanni bal mar ched t u the rdid " f t he
city but arrived to" late. Hy sheer per-
, i"en"", t he It om.ns had now regai ned
half oh heir lost territories and Hanni bal
was restric,ed to Lucani. and Brutt ium
No . "empt was made to rai se any
legion, the following year, .....\.rcellus
w"' elected cons ul for the four t h time
. Iong wit h T itu s Qulncti us Crispinu"
who had served as praewr in Ca mpania
the previou' year.
Maccd lus returned to hi s old ar my,
the 31st and 32nd whi ch h. d
been wimering at Venu,ia . Cri,pi nu ,
took ,Wet t he 27t h and 2Ht h in Cam-
pania and thcn crossed the Apennines
and lO" k up his position about 4km
sout h- eas t of Marcellu, . Li v;" , d aim
that he laid , icge to I.ocr i i n the very toe
of It aly hefore joi ni ng Marcellus seems
moot un likely. However, Locri wa,
probably lhe Roman aim. lX' hil" l he
two consub occupied Hanniha l in Lu-
cania, t he Itoman fleet wa, order ed 10
cross over from Sicily to hes iege Locri.
The strong garris on from T aranto,
which had been Ie! there hy Fabius,
was mdered to mar ch down the coast
and attack t he town fro m t he l.nd , ! lan-
ni",, 1detached 3,000 cavalry . nd 2,000
inf. nt ry who lay in wai t for the It"m.n
column, was advancing wi t hout
,cout ing in fashion, .nd
. mbushed it bene., h the hi ll of Petelia
( St rongoli), kil ling 2,000 and c.p'uting
l , y :", ; t he rest were scattered in Hight .
Hanni bal w.s in north-east Lucan;.
and t he two consul; were dogging his
fO"' Sleps. They were <'arryi ng out I>br_
cdlu,' policy of t he previou. t wo yeaTS
- cr owding Hannibal by moving t heir
ca mps as dose as possible to hi; po,i,ion
10 re;trict hi, for agen< . T he Cartha_
ginian had <' amped one e"ening .nd t he
t wo crm,uh had ar rived , oon afte r him
. nd encamped oppo site, Between the
two camps was a wooded hill. Frompast
experience Hannibal knew that the
R"man, were likel y to try to occupy t hi,
hill as it was nearer to his camp. During
t he n ight he sent ou t some of his Nu-
mi dians to lie in . mbu; h near the hi ll.
T he following morning bot h c"n,uls
rode out from the ir to survey the
ground. I n incred ibly slipshod fashion
t hey took Wil h t hem. t iny e".ort _
Polybiu; say' t ha t i, crm,isted or
cav. lry and about 30 plus the ir 24
hcwrs. T hey rod e up .nd over ,he hill
to exami ne t he par t of it th.t wa, in_
"isibl e from t heir camp' T he Nu-
midian, <' limbed t he hill obl iquely to
get b<hin d t he reconnaissance party and
cur them off before closing in. I n t he
.llack Marcellus was killed and Cris_
pin us ,e,'erel y wounded. T he injured
<Xm' ul managed to break out . nd get
ha<; k to hi s camp. t he he
retreated into more mountainous <'<mn _
try, sending orders to Mar<-.:llu,' army
10 wi thdraw to Venus ia. In t he con-
fusi on Hanni ba l tr ied to Sal.pia
but failed , He t hen wit hdrew ,,'ut h_
ward s to t he relief of L"eri whi<' h t he
R"man tleC! wa, "ill b<;,iegi ng,
Cri,pinu, sent word to the Senate
telling them of the situation and t he
Fabiu, w.s immediatd y di, -
pat ched to take over the legions at
Venu,ia and 10 keep an eye on T arant o
in Hanniba l tried to regain t he
town,
Crispinus wit hdrew wit h hi, ar my 10
his or igi na l base in Campania where he
named T itus Manlius T orquatu' dic-
tat or '" that electio", eo uld be hel d for
new consuls. Shortly afterwards he died
from hi ; wound"
T h e fi na l t e. '
Ner o arr i"ed a, T arraeo CT arragona) in
Spai n in the autumn of ZII. He took
ROME 275-1 40 Be
T HE GREAT WARS
over comm.nd of the remnan ts of t he
Roman force; there and dur ing t he fol-
lowing year remained in a strictl y de_
fen,i,'e ['",i tion. The Senate determined
to 'end a gene ral with prr><: " n, ular
author ity to take over the war in Spain,
fearing t h.t Ha,druhal might lead a
second arm;' in", Ital y at. t ime when
t hey were just b<ginning 10 jf"in thc
upper hand , Elect ion, wer e held but
none of the for mer <-on,ular generals i n
Italy' seemed to be ,'ery keen on accept _
ing t hc responsibility. When Puhliu,.
the 25- year - old ,on of Puhlius Corn-
elius Sci pio, offered himself for election
he w. s adopted unanimously. Some in_
form. ti"n rdating to t his extr.ordinar y
deerion must be missing for Scipio had
held no previous p<" it ion and "'as far
too young for t he joh. Yer the Senate
rat itled hi, appoi ntment . nd gave hi m
twO further legions .nd 1,000 cav. lry
with whic h to prosecute t he war.
Scipio pr obabl y .rrived in Spain in
t he autumn of 2 tQand spent t he winte r
traini ng hi, lroc>ps and raising the ir
morale. On rece iving t he inf<>r mat ion
t hat t he t hree Carrhaginian armie, wer e
in widely dispe rsed winter quarters,
none wi t hin ten days march of the
capital New (Cart agena),
Scipio emha rked on an exploit worthy
of Hannibal himsel f. Marching out of
camp earl ;- in the 'pring of 209 and tell -
ing no "ne where he was headi ng, he
made a dash south and arrived under
the walls of New Carthage bef", e the
realised what had hap-
pened, I n One day he to" k the town and
completely r""ersed Rom.n for tunes in
Spain, fOT the impression that it m. d,
on the Spaniard s c.n hardly ha,'e been
less t han that made on rhe Ca rtha-
ginians . It w"' a hr illiant stroke which
raised tbe morale of t he legion, to ,uc'h
a pitch that they wou ld now follow him
anywhere,
Duri ng t he ,ummer Scipio launched
a diplomati c offensive to win OVer the
I,><: al Spani sh t r ibes , he advaneed
,outhwards ag.in the j(>llowing year he
did so from. secure power base and was
now 'upported by Spanish . lI ies, Hi,
maroh probably followed the COO" as far
as Valencia and then Cut ac'''''' l he
heights of Chinchi ll. and de,"ended
into the valley of l he Guadalquivir .
1I., druhal Barca had taken up hi.
p<" it ion d ose to Baecula (Ba ilen) 12km
'"
IT ALY AND T HE WESTERS MED IT ERRANEAN
" "., ",f I.ina..... near the Spanisll sil"er
mi ..... He IIod been planning tojoin his
broTher and IIod been ""t>cring in ,he
mi""...l of Spai n befOe ....-
ti ng ou, f.". l ' al y. 11Ie Punic umy had
, al:en up a "ron, pothion on a tun "'"eT"
Iooling , he ri, .... Guadiel.a tribuw-y of
the Hasdrubal ...". ron_
sidcnbl)' oulnumbn'ed by Scipio's
f"""" and "'hen ,he Roman tried to
draw him in,,, Nllie by an ou,flanki ng
D><>'/(Cn>en' "'-;Ih II, ....Ii.e>, Haodrubal
and .... north",m:l.
Scipio """, Id e1a,m tactical ...ictory bu,
,he WIl y Conllallinian had not only
""""ped alm""t un....thed but had also
oultna"""uvred Scipio. wllooe princi pal
objective ...... to k... p him tied down in
Spain, Ila. druN I now headed for ,he
c-cn,,,l re/t'un of Spain and Scipio ""a,
in nu po.i tiun ,u follow lIim. T hcre were
twu P' ,..ihililie, upen to him , fiTS! , 10
retrea l tu t ile roo" and roce lIasdruba l
to t he Pyren.... ; nt. , ec" ndly, 10 ignore
him and CunCe nt rate on hTeaking u p the
I"' we r base in Spain.
Right ly ur w,,>n)!l y, Sci pio elected t u du
the latt er.
S ew, ur H..druhol' , . ""ape from
Sci pio and hio m..ch northward, must
ha..e Rome by tile autumn of
208 T here """Id he Hnle doub, as 10
hio in,en"",no. It could IIot dl)' 1Io"e 1Iop-
perled at ""one mument f.,,- t he
Rumans . Wi th Fabiu. and J-laoccu. well
past tlte ./te for ener(tC'lic campaigning
ond ,heir onll' . ..........ful field rom_
mandrn, Marcdlus and GT-acch=, both
dead Ii",)' "'-ere hard pressed to find
leaden car-ble of dcahng "ilh tI>c sifU-
a, ioo . 11Ie tas k fell to .\wcu. Claudius
S er o ond Marcus I",iu, Salinat"' .
Sero had !lC'ncd under ,"weeU", and
as p<aclor had been in' "",,-cd in I Ite.iege
of Capua Af,er l he """th of lite Scip;o.
Ite had been ""n, . 0 Spun and IIod prob-
bly 'pent lill ie O'<CT a )-.::o. r t hcr-e. It
"'asobviously r.". this reason rhat Ite """
eleaed, for Ite ....on Ihe only Rom. n
gene...l wllo ha<.l had experience of lIa<;-
drobo.L II .. colleague Salinator, the
Senate' , ",,,,ice, had been ron,ul wit h
Paullu, in 2t9 . nd had been involved in
t he Ill)'rion c..mpaign. On ret urning to
Rome lie IIod heen ",-'eu.e<.l of mi'''ppw_
I\f t ho booty. In indignat iun ho
had willldr"wn to tllo c'Ountr y and re
f" <c d to take ony f" r l her part in public
life , In 210 .lIe cun, ul, MaTcdlm and
Lac"i nu, had in....e<.l 'N[ he remrn 10
Rome but acc:ordi ng ' 0 1...,., he refused
to sha..e or trim his hair and ,,'Cn' .boo[
in tattered d ot hing. Inexa.pe...tion t he
censors (Ifdcred hi m to . ha' -e-, """,rn to
lite Sena'e and . 0 perform hi. public
du.y. Thi, ..... t he man wborn . he
Sena'e ehuoc as colleague ru' "'ern. To
make malter. " 'OCK the t"''Omen ha' od
eadl other but j ...ti6cd this by ..
. hal they Id each u y .0 "",,)0 rhe
"'her in t he ice of rhei r countT)'o
N",-en heles. , tlte Senate tried 10 effect
o ..ion her"", ..t out for
thei.ptm' il>CC5.
T...,nt y-.hree legions ,,-e-re bTOught
intu the 6cl d for til e romi ng campaign.
The ,w t.ul. hod t....o e""h, T here " -cre
four ;n Spain un<.ler Scipio ; Ihe [WO
Cannae kgk,n. Wer e otill li,'ing uut t heir
exil. in Sicily ; and [he 9th and 24t h re _
mai ned in Sardi nia whe.. l hey had heen
, inco 2 faclthe 9t h had been ther.
. in"e 2 t 7). In l laly it,e1 f ther o woro I S :
27[h and in Bruttium under Flac_
cu' , and 37t h near T a' anto anel
2", 11 at Cap"., T ile co",ul Ner o wa' 10
toke o,'er ,lie tw" kg;on. , 31" and 3znd ,
;n Lu".nia. T h i. meant t h.t ,lIere "'ere
""ven k /t;"n. to hold Hannibal in lhe
""uth. In the nnnh were , ,," in
Etruria : Varro'. rommand , tlte 3Rt h
. nd 39,h, <Xl\-e-ri ng tile route Ihmugh
Eu uri !-l aminiu. had done ten ' ......
bd _ ; ''''0 ,n .lIe Po ,..Iley ( 34t h . nd
and fu"her t" ... u ndet t he
suI Salina..... (<4ot h and . t..)_The.. last
lWO Iqion. had had no militar!" .,.peri_
...... nd had <>nly been enrolled t" ",
) 't"2n bcfune. since ,,' hen . hey had been
.... inned at Rome. '1''''0 ""'" legions.
. znd and <4}rd. " -ere enrolled for the
prn<eaioo of t he ci t), U'"l' . lso sa'",
.hat ,Ite . Ia..e volun,een ,,-cre recalled
to t hei r ...ndard. , bu ' t his i hee,
fiction
N"",,,, had been brought from ,\ w -
sciUe. the rvious ' ut unt n t ha, Ha. -
d roNI ...... re<ruit ing in sou, hen> Gaul
. nd l.iguri., flu, Ihe Roman, "'CTe
romp let ely unprepored for the ,peed
wi,h wllich he (lO!Iscd t it<: Alps. U vy
makes i[ q uite dear ' hot he r" nowcd the
route U'IC<.I by lIannibal, h)' whic h he
m,," meon up tll o Dur. nce and
over [lie Mont/te n""re pa". T h. cros. -
109 wa' modo "ery earl !" in t he
P' ><.; bl y "' ca rl)' a, May, which r uk .
om any n,"t h-",,,,h pass , ,, ell a, the
.\ton t Ceni, ",r Oar'"" for Iltese
impa... ble 50 e..ll' in the year, The
.\lon,gent\"re and the Lan;1te are thl:
onl )' praclicable rout... a' this t ime of
t lte )'ear ,
On III , he Po ,..ney Has-
drubtoJ laid 'iq<: ' o Plattnt;". prnblbl!"
'0encou"'JC l he local Celts. but rai led
ro take the oolony. He had ....t four
Celtic horocrncn and I"... Sumidians
IIOIIt h ...ith ter r", hi . bro<hcr
u ran/t' ''lI: to him in t:mhrio.
,\In nwhile thnnibtol had come out of
wInter quan in the loe of Italy and
bopn . 0 .d ...., nonh",.,.rds . Scro
pressed soutll ' u ....... hi m. 11Ie tWO
armies came int ocon'acr at Grumentum
(Gru menlo) in t he "alley of lite Agri.
Nero moved hi. c..mp to ",ithin I ,s oom
of flanniNr . P'..it ion, cover ing t be
TOU[e nort h and hampet ing hi. foragen.
Aga;n !.i ,'y', ooxou n" of full-""al .
ball l are gTl",.ly exagReTated , but
, kirmi.h.. mu. l h. v. taken place con-
" antl y ., IIannihal tri ed t<l break
Ihro"lIh. IIannihal w"' obvi"",l)' 1, ,1
the ,",ute uf t h< later Via Her _
culia ,,'hich ran n,,,,11 via Anxia (Aul i)
an d Potentia (pulen, a ) IOward. Apuli .
T he Punic /tenera l managed to d ude
Nero b)' a ni gh, marcll and reached
Venu. ia b<fore !'ero caughl up, From
here tile Cart ha/tini. n mo"ed nonll-
..... to Conou in .he ..Ki nit)" of ('.anna<
and awai,ed ..........gers from IIi.
broThel ,
1lte six It<>rscmen IIod made ,heir
.....)' lIOII.h 1010 Luca.n,a. but heari"!i
Ii..t lIannibtol had al read)' made hi. ....,.
nunh t hey had tcied l o fol .......' him. Poo
. ibl y beca.... "'ero rm y " ... DO'"
folJow;n, Hannibal . t hey had """,-cd
down ."",..rd, . he coasr , where ' hey fell
in wi,h'he Roman lroop1 near Tar,tnto
and aplured. 1ltey " -ere imme--
diately ""nt under strong guard [0
NCTO' . camp. Nero "",<.I Haodru ba/ '
le"er .nd wn. i' on to the Senate, a<hi>-
ing ' hem to re<alllhe legion from Cap...
nd to dispatch it OO;i t II tile "'... ne", city
10 "'arni. ( Nam i) 70km nort b
of Rome on the !-l aminian Way.
now embarked on a dari nll feal
uf .rms. Tllat nigllt, ",lect ing 61JOO
crack i nfon"y and t,<>oo c&\'alry, tdli ng
t hem to take unly l he ir arm" he se t " ut
rrom hi , comp. lie lIeaded up t he Ofam"
"a lley to"'ar d, l.uconi., informi ng hi.
tro" p. that they were g(\ing to ott ack t he
nnr..1 Canhaginian-held . own in Lu_
cania. 1X"hen he Ilad pul . ulficia n di._
bet....ttn him...lf .nd Hannil:>al he
,old IIi. ""Id ie,-,; ,he "'..,...,
mar clllng nonll ' 0 ioin up wi, II tile oilier
"on.ul al Sena Gallica (Scnigallia) al>ou.
400km up ,he Adriat ic <"..t. Hef"' e he
'ct ou , Ncr<> hael , en, m"" enlt"r, '0 ,he
tr rri",ry of La rinn and <>f ,he Marro_
,' ini , Frent ani and the I' raclu" ii along
hi. line of marellidling 'hem
'0br ing .uppli.. do",'n 10 lhe roa.hide.
The fao 'Ilat Lu""u " 'u omitted from
rhi. Ii.l indicates , Ilal S a o in.ended ' 0
m,,,,,II ,II,,,,,gll ,he Apecnninn and 001
dcsand . o.he he had rachcd
UrInum ( l .Mino) from ""11,,,11 poi nt he
>Uld rnar<; h ,jo,.'n lhe of .he
Cigno_ B}' t his rou' e .he di".ncr from
Can"... 10 Scnig>llha i, aboUI .P 5km.
AII.long ,1>e rou'e pecople brougll'
down '0,he l'1:lIOJ ,ide !IO. ha' the
'o ldie," would no< Ii..c 10 h.I, in . hei r
r",e nort h...arel, . EvnY"ne reali'ed t hat
,hi. wa. ,he most criti eal a<.1 of ,he war
. nd Ihere w'" immcn. c ent hu.iasm f",
the ' cnlurc. Along .he rou'e re, ired
,c, cran. and young..e.. eager '0pr,we
,heir "...nil fell in behind the ""Iumn.
S"cr-o a1l1ha, "..,re tit for OCT_
,ice. On and on ,hey dad,ed. Soon lhe
MI. ...... bellind lhem and lhey
...-.creed on lhe roas'. They pa. sed
under ,he height>of Vas.o ermm ed b}'
,I>< ,,,"'n of 1I..",ni um and on along t he
endlc.. roas. mod. A .f'er Ihey SCI
ou, lhe}' were approa<:hing Se... Glltli<.'O
Sali""IOr wa. camped wi, h hi.
..my, Ncro di.pa,,,hcd mn""ngeo ro
sec whe,her hi. colleague wi.hed him 10
cOme imo ,'amp openly "r , eeretl l'.
Sal inator 'em baek telling him to c"me
in under cover of darkne... It wa,
a"an"ed th at ea,'1i ""I dier should be
r= i"ed in,o rhe 'enl of . man of .imilar
rank so tllal l here . hould h< no increase
in l he .ize of ,he camp. Al""""'y four
legk'n, .., ote "'c'3JJlped the..., as ,he
.w,h and kgion. had ,,,. hdrown
btf"", Hasdrol:>ar, ad.at',e" ro join up
..,.h . he consul. HasJrul:>a1 hlm..,l f had
prn.$'ld o n ,jo,.'n ,he """"t . nd " .... en -
camped onl y 500m a" 'ay, I n or der DO<
10 Iosc: rhe ad.-.nrage ,Ilat they had
pined the con,uh olfered hallie 'he
following mornil18, lIasdruhal imme_
diately guesseel , h. , 1<' "
wmng. Hi. immc"'e experience ,ol d
h,m lh at the army had re..i' ed
"" nfora:mcnts . He oen, ou, """U' 1 ro
5 ,f , he Roman ....... p Ilad been en-
la'led hut ..irh neg&' ive rnul' 1. H",,'-
.....,r . ' nighrfall hi. ........IS broogh, in
the , igniticam informal io n tha' til.<: call
for Ihe sell ing of the eveni ng "'a,,,he,
had heen ,",unded onc'" in l h. praeto.'.
camp hUI t",iee in the ,,>n, ol, ' camp,
The neW, "'.. ou1. T he Homa n. , who
were ..icklers for for mali ty. had given
Ihe game
Under co<-'er of d:orkne.. lIasd ru hal.
",1>0 mu.. ha,,, belic>..,d ,Ilal ......nhing
had Ilappened 10 hi , brother, broke
camp and . toned 10 ret ..... During lhe
march hi , guides dncned him and II.<:
..... u""l>Ie 10 ti nd ,be ford IOCfUSS lhc
,\ In.u"" Ii.... . It ",us, ho, lready
been " 'ell inl o ,he founh a,,,h and
Ib '<lr uha l ordered hi, "",n 10 "",",e
along ,he ,oUlh hank of the ri,..,. un, il
d.oyligh' when tll.<:}' >uld find Ihe road.
A, h... ligh' the Homan. I<C' olf after
I l a.drubal raced ahead ", ir h t he
ea,' .lry an d must have ea" ght "p wi t h
' he "..ar t haginian, by mid-morning,
Some ,imc la' cT, he light-a rmed "oops
a"i"ed under t he command of 'he
pr.eto. Licino, . Reali. in, ,har he coul d
""t COII.inue hi. ma"h ,,'hile under
""n,l an, . "ack from .he 6.000 caval'l'
and .he 13.000 ligh.-armed 'roop>. Has_
druboll tried '0 pi,eh camp on hill
O""rloob ng ,II<' ",ct. \'lllcn Sali""tor
, urned up ..il h rhe heavy infan,ry, prol>--
ably i n l be early afla"""n. and ad_
". ",..,d "'i, h hi. foru, dra",n out in
hallle line, H..druha l ..,alioed that he
had h> light. A rr"gmeDl of Polybius
...,.'O.d, , he ly,,"le but we h..'e '0 on
l. ivl'" thoroughly "",ati ,fa",y ac' -
,'O"nt of t he topography f,,, ,he lo"a, ion
of the b. u l. , ile. The mos, likely I""i-
tion i. on I he so" , h .ide of th . ri ,.r n.ar
,\lunlemaggiore, but , hi, i, hy no means
O<'f1.in. Polybiu, "'Y" ,Ilal Ha.drubol
d...,,, up IIi, Celt. and Spaniard, on
"er'" nann", fron' ,,'i, h . he 'en elephant>
in fror.. of them. In thi. f"""",;on he
fell upun lhe Roman lO
<:O"'l ""r or di". TM Roman rigll, ,,-jng
,,'hieh. beausc: of the di"""ul, charaa" r
ofthe If'onnd "-''''' unable '0 dose " i ,h
th" Canhagi nian Idl. e,rcl"d behi nd
Uasdruhal and att acked from rh. r. 'If.
T hc "Iephams, whkll had got out of
romrol and ...CTe ca" sing hav,," in th.ir
",,'n ranks , had to be killed hv ,heir
maho"" who "arried . mallet and ehisel
ROMI:: 275- '40 Be
THE GREAT WARS
. pttl hcally for , hi. purpose. TMehi..,l
wa. hammcrc<l in allhe of rhe , kull.
H. '<lrobool in the th"k of .be hattie
and with him died rM La" hope. of win-
ning , he w",.
Afle r rhe vier",}' , h" Roma n, norm.d
the Cart haginian camp, I'nl ybiu, .ay,
,hal 10,000 of the armv
were . Iain in ,he battle . l1d 2-000 of , h"
Roman" Livy pu" the Cart haginian
,",uallie. al mo..., th an fi"e ,ime. t his
numbet
T he following nigh. Nero ... ou, for
Apulia, He regained h.. camp on t he
d.y. being .ble '0 l.b rhe more
dirt route bad, Hannibal hod 001
('S'en rnlised ,ha, he had At Rome
,he nh,Lara,ion wa. olmosl unconlrol_
lab"' . Fo. , t .. rhey had ,,-..iled for
, ,,,, II a vierory, At tirs, only a rumour
.-.achtd the "ity. then II"I<>CC ""nai n in-
formation . lI'hen finally ...,," came tlla,
legale, from ,he vic",,,i<>u. arm, ' were
eoming down the Via Flaminia rhe
cntire population pou..,d <>ut of the "ity,
They lined the rood for near l}' fi,'. kilo-
met...,. as far as ,he .\t il, ian hrid". and
mobbed rhe Jcg:a' .. a' they en,e...,d , he
cor y.
In Apulia !'cro now st ooped 10 an"",
of panicular callo"'..... . lie had
bl'ouChr "i'h him ,he ......"..,d head of
Hasdruhal "'hieh he ,h..,.. before tl><
""tposts of Hanni bal's C*mp. H. nnibal
in<kspondcncy ...i'hd...,,,' inlo Brunium
whe", he remai""d for the "''' of rhe .
"'ar,
Sclpi o trl umph. n'
T he Ce ntre of opera' ions nt1w mm'.d
f >m Italy. In Spai n Ha<tlrubal Gi, g"
reali , ed thot an y chance of winning the
war dcponded on Iii, tlcf.atin.o; Scipio
and . upplyi ng Hannihal wi,h ,h. re-
inf<>ruments he in 1,.lv. I n the
corly .um..... he left hi, wint.r qWlne..
a, Gade. (Cadiz) and mo'"cd ..." nh, r-.;_
<:roiting as he went . H" encamped at
llip.o ju,., nonh of modern Sc>;lle.
Sapo<> -.J'anccd ,jo,."f1 Iht yol ..y of the
Guadalqui"ir and encamped "Pf'O"i'e
him. The Roman arml' consl.."d of
45.oooi nfantt]/ and 3.oooh".... of wbieh
a little .... ,Ilan Ilalf " ..,'" It.lian. Ha, -
drobool Gi.go may h..'e . lIgbtly OUt -
numbered rhem.
Gi.o;" regul_rly ol fered hatti e fairly
la' e in t he J ay wi, h hi , l. ihyan. in rhe
,'enl'" an d hi, Spani, h allies on the
ITAI. Y AND T HlO \l' lOSTERN MlOlll TERRANlOAN

laaaa
=11=
. L: I
i
I
.. II
l
..
-
_, """'-"'lI "" ... "V'"
----"'-
.,.. T_

---
, ro.o logoDn .............. _ .........
___oIt '_
' OO __......
___",_n._
- --- ..... _""....

, 1
a
..
...."J' d....n ur l'><hlnd .hr d el'han"
I n .....""""" s.., ri<> broup:h. <JU' hi.
'"""f'I and linN I hrm up " 'ilh hi
Icponn . .... ""n, ,,, and h.. Spullardo
Oft , he "''' flu. he d, d. to. 10 b ,...n
be ...,. , .... ,here .... 1" .1e ol
<iitco 8CO."C'J'I '''ll.hr chaliomll<".
Sciri<> had bun prnm' a, boIh .hr
T rd>bIa and Canna< II.. had Oludicd
Hanrubel' . t.l.1e ......... carrlully and
.... 10 Inm. 1lIc
... """,. ' u a.brt .hnc la<.., io 10 ,he
Rom.on Icp>no, ..hoch dod ...... figh. In
phaWa. ,,..,...n _hine ,ha. he
"""ld ha"C ' 0 Iea.n by nrcricn<'e
H,..' n.....'abh.hed I n"''''>e " 'lI h Gilogo
....... rudy, lO. , ly in.hr ""..... "ll:. no
Juub' ,,i.h lhe T",ht>io in mind. h.<
bTe-A fo"ed hi, men . led ' h.<m ou' of
""mrand dro.. . hrm up in Ih" O(fposit..
",de . ' " ,he p.nk",. daY'. Th" "'"..
t he I"ai"n. ...... " n .he ond ,he
Sp"mord. in ,he: ....nt . H h. n ",n'
nu, hi. covol. }' and ..d "''''PO;
'0 bu , " I' , h .aml' , Lik.. S.m-
proni", u y carli... Un
d. uha l ....' ..d i n ho ou' hll
a. m)' bd"'" II.od ..a'..n Ind draw
inK ' tlcm "pin ,tlci. ulual f"' mation
S.:ipio tlcld h" ,..",nd. I..... , tic
CIvll l)' I nd lia hI.......<1 ,mol'" ' " oklt
m"h. U..... det""",,,,,d.o make H..
fn. hi, im"",uo, i!)", keepi ng
him un.kr .h......' olllla<.ir. to
,ha. he could """ cha nr:<' hi. ronna,ion
A. ,he da}' -.lvaneed and .he ol
......,rntunm, !"qt.n 10 ,..II on lhe Ca.-
' haainian ,....'1'". s..' P'" rcalled hi,
liah'-arn>ed ' fO<'I'" and cavalry ",.!to
I""'oed , h..-" h , he l'><no.....n.he
......,rk'> and rrl.........d toehind l he
Iep>no .... . h . he Nltln ,n fron' and l he
I
a===i==- - - - - J
111 11 = = = 1 1 =

' 00
hol'$C1'T1en bcllind. A' fin" he began 10
ad\'ancr di="1ly on """i_
tion, bu, ..hen he .... aboul1OOffi from
w enemy he or<krcd lhe infanU)' and
cavalry on1M...n,. .n turn in,orolumn
10 rir"'t and k f, and """"",,do
from the main column and lhen "'hcd,
in Spanan faohion, 10 outt\anl:; lhe
enemy. So far PoIybi.... aauun, makes
...noc, bul in of the ",Unn<r5 of
I fail complclely ro
Uttdenrand the J'IIIl'O'M' of the
qucnt by . be infantry which
could have been lIieved much mo<e
.imply by adva in line of boltle.
Funhennore, .. nee ,hi. i. a sttaighl-
forward G,,""k parade UOund ma-
n""'....." ..hy don I'ol)-biw; b",""
j>Tecedent 'uexplain it ?
Aecordi", ' 0 I'oly"'i... the two
culumn. adva""ed ,apidly on Ihe Car-
line whilS! the Spa niard,
moved f"rword .I<'wly. A. the wing,
Balow
"'a",11 ,,,,,, ..,. Sc,p"" , ;OY,, "'" 01 A' "",
T!>o ,_, "" I<>r;,j9r ,,,,.,,,_ 1,, ,,,,,
C.., ", no ,.. ""ed
("' ) _110_ at Cope ..,,,,,, ",,,,,,,
not"" 01 Col'.,.
approached Ihe ""emy the infamry
...hetled in and lhe cayalry and
ou' d. , " oulllank Ihe Outha-
linian winp. A. far as the heavy in_
fanlry i. concenl<'d Ihi..."OIlI d have
oettIIi,a,O'd lurniltJ the column in--
a-ards and , hen depIoyi", into lin<
Ihroug'" -s", f...- itthey . imply ...heekd
from a>lumn into bn< tbe , riarii wrouId
fini.h up a. lho: front and tho: Aoo>,,,,i at
the back. On ..., ",her hand, if .he
cavalry and wlr..., "'''''''Ied in column,
. hey ...oll1d fini.h .. p in thei r correct
onkT; if ,heydepluyed Ihroulh ' hey
woul d finish up hack '0 front, ...uh their
officer. on Ioof, in.,...d of the right
and wit'" Ihe wliu, behind . hem. Thi.
i. exactl y whal happened, for Polybius
"'y' thai i, did nol worry Scipio much
''''at the<>ld. r had be. nrcve....d. What-
ever may be ,he ru l lru,h behind Ihi.
man""uvre, the Carth'lIinian fore
wcr, lOuted <'n t he wing. and driven
hack to their camp.
T he p,uhlems ('<"cd hy ,hi, battle are
enorm"" . Wh.re, fot ex. mple, were
{h. C. rt hogini. n cavalry w...il. thi,
extr.ordinary man"" " \',,, was toking
pI.." on the winll'? Thi., like all Poly-
ROME '75-'40 Be
THE GREAT WARS
bi",, ' billie. in ...hk h a Scipio ....., in-
"ohrcd, lea,," many llnan.wrrcd ques-
l ion. , lhe l'I:Sulf of . h. IUs-
forian". peni.,ent marriageof the Scipi-
o:nic uadiUOIl ..., h , he f aa .
T1>cTc remained only ,he mopping-
upoperalions as lilt' Canlqini1... had
DO army Ief. in lilt' field. By lilt' end'"
206 Scip;o ..... ready .o return 10 Iialy
and detnaIld fMI:OtI..,I.hip. During this
rime in Spein M had mad!: t:OOlaC"l
the Numidian kinr Sypha:< and a princr
calkd '\ bsliniua. Once more lit' nted
l emula, . Hann,,,,"l. Hi. plans ue no
leo. than ' 0 cross 0"... . 0 Afri<:o and lead
a Numidian reyolt api..., Carthage_
In It aly Hannibal had remain<d
omonl, he Rr,," ;; Ihroughout Ihe year.
H. had not ,.ken the field .od the
Ruma", h.d betn ClOref..1 no, to pro--
vok. "'im. The Luc. ni. n" reali, ing ,h.t
the Cllllhoginion. would no longer com.
to ,heir . id, . urre ndered, l.aving only
, he ' '''' of h aly " ill in
.... nd'
Scipi" returned to Rome in the
aut umn. He wa, the darl ing of the
people and when he let it be known th. t
h. w.n, ed the <;(In,ul.hip, with Afrie.
.. ...i. province, his wi, h woo gnnted.
But many mc: mbers of ,h" Senate ,",,,re
opposed 10 ...i. plan. The opposition
,", ',", led by Ihe 'lins Fahi... Maximu.
and FIaccut. For 100 many year. ,he)'
had foug"'l a defen.ive ....r and they
....".e'C1TIfied Rl lhe prospect ofa second
Regul ... lytnl dad on the sand. of
Africa. They could hardly stop Scip;o
in the face of popul <kmand bu, ,hey
could "';' hhold lilt' troops lhal he ",.
quind. Bel;"";nr , hal the). "''CJ"e com-
pktdy fnmm inl hi, plans they &an
him Sicil yas his proYincr oIonJ ..;,h the
forea thai were in il-th" two d;'_
paced Canna< Iqions and ]OW1lnhips.
TI>t:y ad<kd _dono<:ally , ha, he had
permi"';"n10 invade Afri<:o if he: "'... fi,.
Ho...-.:wr, lhey granled on" COII",,","ion ;
he coul d accept yolunt..".. .nd =i..e
aid from the .lli... . T he I'I:Sponse 10 hi.
appeal wa' tremendou . H' ruri. and
Umbria p, omised to buil d and man a
!letl. The ketl. of 40 ",an hip. were im-
m.dia' ely laid down . nd within 45 day.
th. . hip. launch.d and Scipio
. ailed fo, Sicily with 7,000 volunt....,
The Cann"" legions were the
hackbon . for Sd pio" army. He had
hcen wit h th.m at nd he under-
ITALY AND THE WESTERN MEDIT ERRANEAN
stood the,. pli. ht . yean hod
' 0 . 11ow ' 0
lICtivt poon in ..... and now
tho' ,hey "'ere '0 n:ttivc!he chance '0
dear their names rnpondN wi'h
....asm. The rnf .. ,he rcar ""'"
tpns' in prepoo""ions for ,he expediOon.
MtaJI"1Wc Hanniba" ,
broIhc. Mas<' oai..d from the Balearic
i1lInd. withan Iftny of ' 4.00<> """'.
CIf'Iun'd Gt-.- and flied ro open a
oecond f""". The Romans. wit h four
lqions in , he Po val"y and t ....O in
Eturia, .0 hold . heir lines
. IM:..., for the preM' nl. AI'hou.h Mago
n:ttiYN .. from
..... unable '0 oIl in any help from
,he who Wff t "ill from
,1M: crushing dcf<-.., 01 ..uru, .
Thi. also . aw . h. wd of ' he war
aiai"" Ma.:.d"nio. which Rome h.d
only eorout.gN to Philip o<cu-
pied, No lonier fun ni Macedoni.n
i,,\..ion the R"man. lefl ,hei 10
' heir fa'c and . wo.e unilalel peace
with Philip.
10 the .pri ng of 204 Scipio sel sail
from Lil}'baeum. Throughout the w.r
' he Roman lice' had maM raid. 00
African cou'lo , he Carthaginian.
bu' }"1 home .nd 10 p....w, , he,m oend-
in ..,inforcemen, o Hannibal . On OTIC
of thNc raids in Laffi nu, had en-
coun.ercd and deslro)'<'d 11M: Punic
1Ieet. The Carlhq;nian nom dut-
inI the ....t hoad been dis"",l and tm.
""'. the!inal blow. When Sci pio ..ile-d
to Arne. .nIh a guard of only 40 quin-
'1lKiC"'''' 1M: .... no! laking an lind""
risk. 1mat my landed .. Cape: F arina
aboor n km norrh of Canhoge. Scipio's
hope:!. Ihlt Syphaa ...." .Jld join him had
been duh<'d, Hu dtubal Gisgo had
managed 10secure an .lliance: ..i, h , he,
Numidian tin. and _led it with . he
hand of hi. MUliful dludtter Sopho-
nisba. the Salome of Canhage. How_
eye. , Matsi ni... jrnncd him"i' h a troop
of 200 c.....IIY.
Scipio ha.J an ini' ial . uccc", when he
managed '0 lUl e Hanno into.n . mbu,h
and killed 2,000 of hi, 1' {l<lP' , hut an
important coup him. Summer
waowd l adv. need when l. id siege to
Urica hnth by lan.J and ' Ca hoping to
i ain . ,eeute ba,e f,, ' the winter . Hc
e" abli' hed hi. camp on promontory
' hat jutted oUt inro the sea just sout h of
the {own an.J ,,hich become known ..
Cu,", Comelia, Here ' '''' his 00.....
" e dashed he ...a, forced '0 wilb-
dn " 'IM: n 11..<1",""1 C;;. go . nd Sy.
phlx wi' h two armin mo>-<'d up from
,he lOII,h and c-nampc:d about , ot::m
.""'y. Scip;o_ fora:d ' o abandon lhe
. iqe and mire i....o winter <juan...
withou,. occure basc.
Dunn, ,1M: ,.;n. ... he made !he ""'-
tence of tSeflOIia!in .-hil...waiting the
opportunity to In . he spring he
launched a ,u.prise ni",htalla:k on the
,wo Cartha.,n..n amps, ,,",ling ti. e III
tltem and in rhe confusion wiping 0111
""",,,t of lhe lwo armin. G;sgo ..,01
SIphl . ...:.pe:d ....ilh small body of
men, and ";thin a month the Cart ha-
ginian' ........,hlin8 my in
the Grea, Plain, abou' l20km to ,he
we.. , T his is an open, lozenge_ohape.J
ltaCl of land al>o.,u , 30km long and t 5km
wide eau2h' belw..,n the mountain, on
1I.'ow
1"" G , Plo,,,., 100" "" .,,,,h ""Il' 500k, I
(homo. In,. ' "'''''" p i, ," """""'00<l by
,,,II . '" ,,," vo, 01 ,"" Mod"""" (""",""t
a ...,o. odn ) H Se,poo 0.1..,,,,, ...
G;ooo ,n 10] Be , ,n M ' "'' 000,"" ,;etOO/
ROME a7S-''''' Be
THE GREAT WARS
--
--
Ha nnibal had probably moved wc",
hoping . 0 pthrt more Numidi. n cav-
alry. Scip;ohad also moved ..-.::a. IOmeer
J',lasini<sa ",'boo had inheri,ed IIw king-
dom of Syphax aM was flO"" able [0
l upply 6,000 infantry . nd .. .ooocavalfJ_
Acco. d ing to Polybiul, afler muking a
rendezvou' with M. " ini"., Scipio ad-
"a""ed to a lown called Marg. ron which
cannot be idcn,ifird , U"y call, , he: plaa::
Naragara (Sidi Y"",wt on border
" 'it b It may be l bar PoIybius'
nome has I>ttn bu. il i, ""...
likrly . h. , U vy h:.. a
he kno",.,. fo. 0 "" Ite docs n"'.
I h nnibal "dv. nced 10 wit hin 6km of
Scipio' s camp .nd . frer a n . borr ive
mttline bet"'-.::en the ' W<> comm.nde....
, he: bank ..,," foughl.
The .ile oi. toa,tk i. unknown.
Kromayer and ScuIW'd .dvoca,e. si,e
u km ..,."h..-est oi. FJ Kr f which filS
IIw ba..l.. ,opognphy "",II. Tlti, i,
shown in l he phologr.ph on p. l Q.l hUI
it remain, fur from cert. in.
Earlyon I morning afrertheir meet-
ing hol h <ire.... up , I><ir .rmi... in
.he: plain b<1Wttn Utei. campo. A<:<urd-
m, 10 Polybi"" ..'hc>oc acwunl of any
Scipioni<: bottle . houI d be Irnled ';rh
caution, H. nni bal drew up hi. army
in lin.... I n , he (ron, line "",re
11,000 Li gur ian, C' ,tlIic, H" I... ric and
Moori, h mercenar y in fant ry. T he.e
muU ba"e been mainl y<:offipooed uf the:
. roops ,\ 1810...... bad; ",I><n he
d,ed. Pol l'billS gives flO dctailo of how
IbeT ....,..., dn ...n up.nd <be prcsorncc: oi.
Ralr2ric shngcn amOftI Iteovy inf. nuy
""""' , _S""",wba' oye' 80 de
phan.. placed in fronl ofthi. fir..
Hne. T he ,c cond line was c"mpooed of
,.. "'''''II.' Ro<No co."", . .........,,_,....
"'no> 01 .... e.t""<l'''''' _ "" ""'" the
CoIo_ "".., -'" Sapo_
"" " _ on .... __
--
Ceo ....

Th. ba 01 ,,'" G. .., PI. ins, Tho
.-,... ""'"",1 1o<mooon
ThO "'""'"_ e-.....
.... .,..".. _odbo "'" _ _
roqnc
lh.n 's yran and wOO O<>w 4S old.
Polyhiu, implie. ,hat he hrotlghl lar ge
number of hi> ,ere.ano oul of I,al )' but
Ihi s """m. highly unhkely. HI' no.- I>is
army was rrollably r-.::duccd to ohour
20.000.. Si ....'" 207 he had been con tined
lu l teo RrUlIii, blocka"'ed hoth l.nd
"nd ,ea. I n . 11 pro bahili' y he
It> AfriUl wi,h only Ihe remn"nU of hi,
Aftican troops, pe.hap. 4.<>00 of lhem.
"' Zarna hI' '-.::trran., ..-ho f<>rmed , he
1ft, hnr , Ihtir pkn .0 MOf' t ho<
Carthaginian frollr Ii"", f,om falhng
back on . hem, Provinllbal they"""", in
fact hi. Afrie'"n SUMeq""n'
eve n" . how l ha' hi. Numidian cavalry
WCle no,," pra<:f ie. lly non-exi", ,,n!. Dio-
do"',' :tCCOUn, of Hannibal'. m
uf ' he merce.... ies " 'Iou "''QIlld """ <:f"I>O'S
""'" '0 Afria wi.h him is obvkxnly
f.1x for llwy bad Itim fairhfull)'
fur DlOtt 'han 'S yean and Iti. oo:her
Il'OOpO ..-uuld ",,'e. ha.'e agre<:d , ,, kill
,heir COmr"Jcs , H"",-.:: vcr. ,hi. " or y
maycom. in . ger mof t ruth . Ihe Romon,
pmhabl yolfe",d ' e'm. to lhe
of Hannib. I'r my and 'he' n mall$a<.'1'<:d
,hem. Certltnly ...., .re """r. , old by
...ha. 10 rhem. n.c
lfO<>p1Wl had been ......;ng in liguria
Hannibal' . youngest brot l><.
Mago 01.., bad 10 Africa. Mago,
who had been heforr he lefl ,
died on the
Hannibool l. ndcd .luplis Minor near
JI\Odcrn Sou_ nokm ,oUlh of Car
lha&e ..1\ere he' ""a joiMd by bOO)' of
1,000 Numtdtan cavalry. f"TOm her-.:: he'
"""",d lin r '0 Had",merum and rhen
inland, c..... pi ng nea, " pia"" ""lied
Z"ma fi ve d.y. ' jour ney ( IOO--lS0km)
we" of GlrlhaSe,
,1>< upper of Mierda ti,,,..
A. """'" as I>< learnl nf ,he Canhagi nian
wnoenlraliun Scipio Id. fW'I c( hi.
r",en 10 OOftlinuc <be . iqc: oi. Ulaand
0C1 ou. wi,h tal up 1M
Qlley.
Scipi" a,h.ne",d inh> Gr('a' Plain.
and dre,," up hi, .. ahoul 1.4oom
from t he Can haginian T he
nnies . kirmished for '''''0 do), before
dra';ng up in bornle ."""l. Scipio
up hi, 'roopo in ..... _I faohion..-jt h
,he: lotH,,,,; in ,he: (ron' ,lhe 'n....ii . ' <be
back, hi. l l. l;" n ca"alry on the ri,h, and
,he !,,,midian, on the k f" The Can ha
gini"n, plo"ed their Celt iberi. n. in the
con" . with }.lumid ion, "n lhe left
and ,ho<: Canhagi nians Oft the ri,hl,
The halian cav.lry and ll><ir
Iftidian .llies char&N in and "ripped
II>< Carthoaini,m ..iDllS_Once ' hoor were
(In r Scipio his .nd
,n'an; on the "';ng., surrounded ,hr
Cellibrri .ns . nd CUI Ih<:m,o in
lr ue H.n nihali c;t ylr , T hi, wa,
fi ....' dedsi.. t riumph, T hree
,ilDoCll he had tried ", duplica,e Hanni-
bit'. oult\anking movemc-n',.' Ibccula,
Ilipa and ...,.. al lbe Cnn, Plai.....-\r
10>1 he had f"",nd .he' ...."'-.::r-llOI lo """
lhe wing. of hi. infanlry bur 10 deploy
his .nd /n'an'i.
Afrer , he balli e Sci pio deejded 10
di.'i d. his l'rt P. rl of lh e
arm)' ..... 10 complele rhe
cIef""r o( S)"J>bax, ""hilsl Scipio. af,er
omdinl hi. booly 10 Cas.... Comc:li>. ,
aJ.'aDCCd "" Carthol" i'self and ""*
T"mi . This etreclively cut Canhage's
Ii"". of "ommunica,ion with i n
l<rio. T he ' am. move h. d made
by t he Sy. oeu,"n 0 hundred
yean bd'o. r and aJoo by Regu lu . From
Tuni. Canhage could be ,'rangled,
a.peciaIly a Rome controlled ,he ..... A
conoerted elfon br lhe: Roman, rhi>
"""""nl would brough' the: ...... '0
(I""".
Canhos e had ydecided,,, recall
H. nnibal and an w"' di,
pa' ehed .o him. Thr win' er of 103- 202
.... spen. by the Carthaginian. in peace
lIqOIia'i<>nI ""hieh ........, panlr poi""
and panlr an .nanpt '" buy .ime in
an,icipllion oi. Haruu!:NoI' , =<um_Tk
Car! baginianaencul pI"<lNhly ld, It alr
in the corly .pring of 202, hoping a' Ihi.
eorl y 10 . void the
Ruman He had teocn in h aly more
'0'
ITALY AND T HE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN
and nati "e Cartha_
ginian" no doubt forming a phabn, . At
the rear, anll mor e than 200m tim her
'wa, a third line m. de up of Han-
nibal's vetera"" It is thi, third line
which causes Ihe greaIeST probl em ", we
cannot whether , he,e were the
remains of Hannihal'. (c. 4,0(0) Afr i_
can" The Cart baginian <'. vatr y were
placed on the right wing and the 2,000
Numidian, on the left,
T he Roma", were drawn up in their
normal three lines except that instead of
beilljl; in quincunx formati on wit h the
middle line (primi"., ) covering the gaps
in 'he front line, the maniple. were
drawn up one behind the other leaving
through the legio"" T hese gaps
were fill ed with the veliu, from all three
lin". I.adim wi, h the Italian ho" e wa,
pla<-.:d opposite the CaTl haginiao cav-
aIry ; Massi ni"afaced the other Numid_
ians whom he omnumbered ,wo to one.
T he Roman forc'e, prohahly numhered
ahout 30,000 infantryand 6,000 ca"alry.
After the Numidian horse had skirm-
ished for some ti me Ha""ibal or dered
'he d cpha" ," to Charge. Scipio had heen
waiting for thi, hefore he made any
move himself and now or dered his
wli"s to ad"anee 10 meet them. The
hlast of the trumpets ""d horns which
signalled the charge of the vdius frigh,.
ened several " ft he d ephanlSwho turned
and seallerett the Numidi a", who were
them, Massini"a, ad-
vantage of the confusion, raced i" and
the Carthagini.n light cav.l r}' hroke
lea,'ing their lef! wing exr<,"ed. T he rest
of the elephants charged the ""lilts who
retired through the gaps in the legions ,
dr awing , he ekphant, with them.
Othe rs to the wings were mel
wi,h a showet of javeHns from the ca,'-
. Iry . nll fled the field in termr ,
Ch,,,,,,ing thi , moment of m nfu,ion
l he Itali an ca" alry charged t he Carthag-
ini an horsemen who also broke a" d fled.
T his m. y have been part of I l"""ibal' s
plan for he wa, greatly outnumbered by
Scip io' , cavalry which now left the
field in pursuit of his horsemen. T he
infantry line; now moved in o n each
<>t her , wi, h the exception of Ila""ibal's
rear line which remained where it wa,.
When they came withi" range, the ha, _
<a, i in the Roman front line raised their
war cry, d ashed their pila ,heir
, hidd, a" d charged, T he Ron, an rear
rank, followed up d o",ly on
the ha.<1ari. The fi r" Carthaginian lin<
held for a while and the" bro. e and
' urned on their ,eeond line which had
failed tn. upport them. Since this second
line must have been a phabnx the pic_
ture is a little confused . T hc ",cond line
charged the IwSUll i but the centur ionsof
t he primi"" , seeing their comrades giv-
ing ground, added thei, weigh t and th<
second Carthaginian line i n their t urn
hroke and fell back on the vetera", who
lc" dkd their pike' to , top them break-
ing up their for mation ."d f(}l cing them
to retreat toward, the wing.
Sd pio recalled the ha,'lali who w...
following up the C.rth.ginian and
regrouped hi. mcn for the f,na l assault
He removed hi, own wounde ll from the
field, then , d<ploying his principe> and
lriarii on eit her and clambering
over the bodies which Iiuered th,
6 e' Qw
The pI" o to tOe , ootO of Eo Kef ",en f' ()rn the
h,' " a""". the town. Th" i, t"" " te l, voUiOd
bVScull.,d ood K,oma,.." OI ,he ",,"'. of
Z.ma, whe' " Scipio "",.."' d
101 ac S",p,O 9' ;0"'" " ;umph to' 'Oe ""0<\'
ROME 275- 140 RC
TIlE GREAT WARS
ballkftdd. M ad,'o.n<:c<I on Hannibal' ,
Pol )'bi uo ,mplin tha'
bar . ' "e1........ rouahl y equal in
oumbe. '0 ,he .........., ...1>0
tlxm.I.bou, S,oooMrong. Thi. wuld be
COITecl but tM ,rue probably is
much ""'U. The plwlanx manag<:d to
hold ,be .......... at M)' un,il LIcliuo,
""urruoa wi, h 'M Roman ca,...Ir},
tun>e1J 1M ,Ide- ohM haI,k.
\'l'hen he ..... ,ha,all ........... . Hanni_
wi t1cd wi, h a (ew IIonemen '0 Hadru-
"""um. PoIyhiuo ' ca. ...ll y list , 2(1,(10O
Canhag'nJan. ckad an.d ...mila. num-
be. ,. Ir_ly CLIIUC"".ed to
gkxif )' Scipio. II i. I""hly ,ha,
<here were OO)'" 'M''' nea. ,hi. number
involved, AC=l"'ing 'M figur. of 12,000
for ,he frolll line and auming a .imila.
number fo. 'M sond line. the ,oul
Ca haginian inf.ntry numbe.ed les,
t han ] 0,000 . n<.l . hcir
numbe,..,d M m",.,han 4,000, Polybius
gi,' ,,, ,h. Roman I,,",c, a, mote . han
t ,500. flc " lTc.. no expl. na' i" n of
Hannih. I' , S".lc'gy , N" "e of the geniu,
tha, had wnn C.nnac "ppe... in his
"",<"unl. Could ,he ha,tlc h.vc been as
simple.s Ihi . ? Was U.nnihal pen,
fn. ee ?
Old ""'''''1. a re
1"hc Roman, had won i '''''' nCl<>r)'
and the Canlnoi: inians sued for pe"",,,.
Scipio ..'as received ....pI"."...I) nn hi
"""rn ' 0 Rome and i",nd . ,numph.
Ru. for hi, army , be .....t ...... not 0\'''.
Tho: Canna< kei<>n-""" had not .......
their horneo for mon: .han ''' )"COn bu'
Ihey ,,"'.., ' .......ferTN <.Iirectly to (0Teece.
....1........ as 000<)0 as ,he .....r ,,'i,h Hanni
bal WI.' "".r , he &na.. had staned 10
in.crle in Gred pol i.o. i....i"!': ..Jti_
rrw-a to Ph,hp " 'h>ch "",.. I.ed in ,he
declararion of , TIle people had noo:
..."'.<.1 anudlol bu, ,..",.. finally
pcnuaded in,o i. in . he . .. mmer of 200,
In .he .u,umn or t he same rear , wo
""'er.n lqions, rTl*k up mainly of
, 'OIun. ecn' from ,he African army,
Ian.kdon lhe "f..nulf",-
ing ",'me inilial K.b<o<b, the Roman
army un<.l", T il u, Quinc"'tiu. F1ami n
inu. in,adtd lM...ly in Ihpnng nf
ton. Phili p "",,'.need ' 0 "'cr' .hem a,
PM.ae we., orVnlos. T hc ground
....., un,uil.hle f". a hanle and . he two
a,,,,ie' ....It hdr. w westwards, FI.min-
inu. ' 0 the ""ut h and Philip lO .he
nnrth or . he Ch.lk,>J"ni"n hills. After
following p lld rou lc' rnr 'wo d.ys
J-hmininunc. mrcd probahl}' ne. '
Ph....lu. ( l'a, ..I.) and Philip near
SknlOu..a. I. had rained he" 'ily during
Ih. nigh. and ....hen Ph,lip Kt QU' again
he found 'M 8"in8 diff...... 1t owing ' n the
mi.. ,hat ",,\,,",d ,he hjll. , H. p;,ch.d
camp again, di,pa'chi,,!,: a """eri ng
fnrce .oncrupy 'he . ummi.. of,he hill,
whkh ..,para,ed him f....m Flamininu"
army. Flamininu., meon..'hile, ,,"Sen-
camped j ...t .he ",her .ide of.he ridge
bul bolh "u . una....... of the ",her',
prnence, Dunn8 the morni"!': the
Roman d i.pa,ched )00 """alr}' and
..bou, ',1)00 reconnoit.." "Il>oK
reaching , he lop of.he pau f. Uin ...
Ti.. Macc-d<>ruan f<Jr'<'e and a
. ,.he lopoflhe hiD.
When , he Romans bepn 10 be puohed
back down ,he hi lll-lamininu' t ou.
SOO IIone and UXIO foo< to ppon
, hem. Thi. I't'\"ened l he sit uation and
Philip was (<>reed .0 ...nd up Rimnra:-
"",nlS. T ...... in ,heir ,,,rn d"",'e <he
Rnmans back from.M ,ummit . A, t he
mi" .......clrari"!':bot h ,ides now decided
' 0 hring up , h. res' or , hei . forces, Th.
Romans ...... e ",.", n" .0 ,he 1"" and
managed 10 deploy Ihei. fll"'" ....hil..
Phili p ill hriniin8 up hi. Only
hi, righ' i ng had , ..ched l he .np of
. he paIS and since he had d rawn i, up ;n
ban i. column , 11 he had '" do was '"
wheel." the I.ft '" d. aw i. up in line. A.
t he left wing ..... ' begin ning to come up
he d<>uhled his phalanx and pella,lS
(. he, e ....ere proh.hly Sl"'"men and nnt
ja"eh n,,,,n) '" lhe .ijthl In h,I"e t he
Ieng.h nf.he line .nd make room fn. his
Ief, winl. The " " 'al. y and ligh. arm.d
who ....... al",ad}' '''lI'aged w... wi, h_
dra,,'n and formed .. pon , be .igh. ,,ing.
Flam,ninu. place<l , he ek phants
,,'hkh " ,.,.., " ';,h hi, in front of his
.... ........ _.... ._....
". '"'$

.I.I I II.I II I . ---- ..

...
-, '., ..........., ....-
_______ .lfI.< _ .... "'_...<>ugh ....
_ .. 'ho"" rho....,."" -..,........
_ oH..... ConhOGo"'" __ """ .... '"-'
__rho _ """'. tho twO Imol .....
"''"'''0 ....... t>I<Io on H..."l>oI', _ ....
ThoM , __1'" 10 _ 'ho tug;,,,,,,,
from dto....",,,,,, "- ""........., """'''II -.n
"" on to ,Nt _ S<:,,,"O ""'" _ hOi
/'"'''' ond """,,_ on , n\lf ,,, ""non,
'ho C.., ......' o.... f",... , hold on
un","'00 '" ,..,. .. 'ho fl_< lty
1:_ 1
.... bitt.. o' z-. Tho __ '4'
-_....... _,_.."' .,...
'" ..... coni.. llano<Id _ fI.. _
__ - - "" "0_..
.... Cortftogo _ """ II on
"'''0"' , ;' _<lr.-.""_....
-" "'.... lO_g__" .........
r __f.- .-o... H ...- d,_
..... u"",," ,. ' ,,,'.. ....
.,..,....., ,n f,o.'. ">tn , L' ..PI'o;>tn....n.
on<! e-" ', " "'. __..
........ 'n f."", _0 OIOO"n" ",,'OgI1<.
.,roo<! tr oop>
ITALY AND T HE WEST ERI'
right wing, tol d his troops there to
sland fa" and advanced with his left
wmg. Philip, realis ing that events had
over token him, ordered his phalanx to
lower thei r spears and charge Here
Livy make' one of his class ic blundc".
Misunderstandi ng Polybius he says Ihat
Philip ordered hi, phalanx to put down
their spears and charge. Then, realisi ng
that this is rather strange, he fed s
obliged to explain wh}' , on to ,"y
thot their pikes were too loog to be of
any u, e.
The charge of the phalanx dro\' e the
legionaries back down the slop" . Flam-
ininus, seeing the immine nt de" ruction
<>f hi, left wing, threw himwlf at the
head <>f hi, right and charged the
Maeednnian left wing which was still
forming up, T he half_",semhled Mace-
donian line crumbled befor e the on-
slaught <>f the elepha nts, The Roman
left wing had h}' now been pushed ",me
way down the hill, ide hut the right had
reached the summit , One of the tTib_
une" seizing t he initiati ve, took 20
maniple_ of the triam, faced about and
charged obliqud }' d<>wn the hillside into
the rea r of the Macedonian ri ght wing.
T he action w"' decisive; the phalanx,
unable t<1 t ur n, was cuI to pieces. T he
Romans followed up the iTvictory, cut-
ti ng down the Mae<:do nians where the y
,,,,od even they raised their
pikes to surrender. Some had not e\'en
reached the summit <>f the pa" but the y
were also slaughtered by the lcgi<1n_
aries. Philip escaped from the field with
a few horsemen but the of
.\-lacedon was ovcr . Pol}'him ,ay' tha t
aho ut .\-Iaeedonian. were killed
and at least 5,000 As this
battle does not im'olve a Scipio or a
Paullus, these are hkcly to be
coTrecr, T he Roman losses "'CTe about
' 00
T he Romans had no wish to occupy
Macedonia and by t94 all the Roman
were evacuated, Hut within tw<>
yeaTS of Syria, tr yi ng to capit-
alise on the "aeuum lef t by the fall of
Macedonia, invaded ( ,reeee and the
Rom"ns were compelled to Tet um.
drove the S}'tian king from
Greece and the n ",'eTinto Asia
Minot .nd defeated hi m decisively at
in I'jO,
In the Po valle, ' the Romans had set
about t he final C<l nque" . Hannibal' s
agent Hamik ar w"' sti ll in northern
Italy when Cart h.ge surre ndered and
he refuse d to aee<: pt the peace of 202. In
21XJ he orga nised a Gallic revolt to C<li n-
dde wit h the beginning " f the war wtt h
Macedonia and 'ac' ked Placent ia whie'h
had survi\'ed ' 0 muc h in the last ,8
years. Rome fought a defensive war
unt il maUers were ' ctt Jed in Gree.'e and
t hen hegan the reconque" in eamcs'- I n
' 94 t he JnsuhTes capitulated and in t 91
the Boii followed suit and were driven
right om of Italy to sd tle in Bohemia.
.\10" of the C'enltal area <11' the Po valley
was ", rned over to Roman settlers, The
we al,o conqueTed during
the next decades, so that hy the middlt
of the the territories of Rome
and Marseilles were contiguou' ,
Hannibal, meanwhile, had tr ied w
lead a political life at Carthage but hi,
' D.;ial teforms gained him many ene-
mie. In t 95 hi. political opponents , in
collu<ion with the Roma"" drove him
out. He fi rst of all .hdtet witl1
Ant iochus and was even in charge of th,
Syrian ACe! at ,he baIl ie of
After thi , he Acd to Crete and ,hen 10
Bithynia, but the Romans hounded him
where\'.. he went .nd yoars aft er the
Mule of Zarna, ra.he. than fall into
R"",an hand., h. "",mrnin.d suidde.
In M:oced<>n P"'hp Vdied in 179 1nd
he "'ucceeded by hi. oon Perwu.
..'110 tried to th.","" olf ,he Rumz n alii-
.nce. He "" a. defeated lIy Aemiliu.
Pl ullu. , .he oon of [h. ,.,nerol a. Cann...
in ' 68, and .\ l...cedoni.a ...a. broken up.
Ew n $0 .\Uced<>ni.a made one Wot efron ,
but after the final defeat in it Ioo.t it.
tndependence en,irely ani became I
Roman provin.oe.
Carthage remained at peace ...itll
Rome for more ,han half I cenlw"y. bu,
in 149 a. ,he inuip,ion of MaWni...
and , he Roman ttMOl" CatO, ...ho " ...
an i"'......... enemy of C..anhage, Rome
declared a completely unpnwolr,ed ....r
011 lhe Phoenician city. At..r I , hree-
<iee' i ullmy by
Scipio Acmilian , . he c...-d>on ot , he
Paul l... otCannae. "T1>eci.y " ... plough-
ed into the ground and i,. popula'ion
sold inoo
Although toad driYttl .he Car-
'I\;>ginians 0'" of Spain, i , ..... a fun,,"
two cen,uries before lhe peninsula ....
fmally poocified. Three ...."......, fOUl ht
,n Spain in <he an.! ttmury ....Im"lll' in,
in ,he Sum.nu"" " 'If of ' 43- '3) K .
'Itl>en the '.-n ot S umanlia " 'IS 'aUn
by Scipio Aemili.anu. I fter alon.lls;"'"
in ' 33, orpm<N. rni<Tance in Spiun
came '0 ancndand ,he C..hibenans <ub-
mined. However, nonh-wnlern Spain
" ... no( finally .ubdued until the lime
cl Augustu.
l hoo banI. of C\I __
1 1.. _ ... II. ,""',"' h
...-..._01_ _'-CI ...
h. "" ""'" ..... t .. FIon>o _ [0
_ , __t",,,.. w'''OJ PM,p ""'"
"'"""lI"d l<> got .... "I ""........ "" '" [.. [OIl
'" ,.. 'odgO
2 ....... ,"'.... "0 al' "I Col on h.. ''9"l
_ _ "" '" "0"' _"Il '" ""........ """
""-'ird t" Romon '""
1.. Macaoon"'" I",,,,,, t.. A_....
_ . _ the """" f ' ...."'nu. OOYnTOl
.!t.,,,",, , ""I lor","" "'aca<lo<"on 'el l a"ll
,t ",,," 0 '" 'ho ,,,"".... . , ""'"0 ,...
' M;" ;" , too. ,... <na", I""" ,.. "":1"""'"
Roman "lIh' w'"g . "11 " " ,'''''' ' ... M..,_ " on
(;lIht l,om boho"ll
l a ft ('"pl
T"" ,""'" 1<:><><;0\1 notth ',om a_. '""' bol,.
Ph,' ,p, ca"", wa, ""'on" ' ... ' ;dOO ," t...
" ;,,,,"'" H" pi "." w". on I,," ' ;000 ,n tho
ee" " 3nd , h. """,,. w.,lough' "" "It ,,""'".
oolow Sal<>w Map 01 t"'.,.a
HOM E Z7S- 140 He
TilE GIUiAT WARS
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T HE EMI' I RF.
The Empire 140 BC-AD 200
Inlrod" <;t;oD
Ounng ,he second hair of 'he 2nd cen-
'lOr; 110::, Rome made f...., I""";torial
gaIn. Her grip ,i,lh'enord on Spai n,
S,>rth Africa an,} G,eece and ,he con_
4UCred southe'n Gaul to ..,c",e t he Ion,}
,,'ute to Spain, A 'e,ie, of milita, y ' e-
f<l,m, a1 lhe end ofthe 2nd "entury 1', 0-
dU<'ed a ncw lype of arm;' m mposed of
long-..""io: ,.,)die" who we' e loyal no'
1(\ t he stat e bUI 1(\ l ltei' general. Thi.
led to an age of ral'id "'''''l,,""t punc-
'''''ed w; ,h ci,iJ ",on fough,
Out of ,hi. cMos m<<<ged ,he
Roman empi re, often lI"'-e-me<I bj' an
eml"'fUl",,' 1>0 " ... Iin le """" , han . ,,'O,.
lord ,,'1>0 eolObli;he<I dynn',' " 'hich
Iaole<l umil ......., new ll:ft\Cf-a1 repbccd
il w11h hi. _ 'n.
T he p<rio<I f rom '40 IIC '0 AD ' 00 i.
vcr; .....,11 do<'UJt1.enl N .nd We e" en hI"e
Cacoa,'. own ac<,o " n..of hi, campaign.,
Unfonuoately aher ,he dcal h of Cae..'
w'c havc 10 'ell' on ,uch . ouree, a_
T adtu,. Jo, ephus , l ew wh" lurned
l r.ilO! 10 hi , "wn 1><:<' l' le during 'he
Jewi 'h ""'Oil (\f 66-70. and Vege'ius.
,,'h(\ ''''rote a manu. 1 " f milita'!' <:><Id
menl. t"",...d. the end of l he 4th cen-
t" ,!' T he'" i1.... ' P<cudo-
Un :in,, " . ,,'110 " TOle . manual on ,he
oc-ttll1Jli DUl of camJ'O J'f"babl)' in the 2nd
a n,uCJI AD.
T adl"'. who..rote. h..,<><'Yof l he ."
cenlur; AD and aJ.o.l><><*on Gcn nan)'
duril1Jli l he oarne l'C'"io.>d . i> the """,t lI'-
li.1l>1e sou'ce. He ..... sonin---I. .. 10
. who ... . """cr n,,r of B'itain
f(lf .even yc.", and c... mpk'ed the <'On_
quc" of l ha' counlty, All h"ugh Ite
wrote a life (\f hi , fOlher - in- law, he fail,
1" . how any c1 ea! in'ight into milil a' y
maUe.. and all 100 ohen f. lI, baek on
""i ue gener.l;"a,;on, and Ita :cptffl ' er_
minologJ.
j OKl'h",. who " 'rol e .n ltCCOUnt of
lhe je,,'i.h ",,"Oll, i. "'" I rel iable ooura
. nd ,....d) e>:a&etft' es. espttially when
dn<."ti !>mll: his _'11 nf'loj" "iain<' , he
R"""'n< bdo<e he eha"lle<l s.idcs. He
does. """........ , make ........, wry uod'ul
obKn. ,ion. on ""I'" or Roman m,]i_
'ltCJI practice ,,'hi<,:h impr-n<ed him .. I
fo"igner. Th... de'"il. a" ent irel)'
locking in the Rom. n .. lhe
I...lin writ..., felt no nd to expl ain
Ihe c"Ommonplace ' 0 'hei f " oder-<
VCll"t ius i' .n h;' ''>ri. n Wilh til' _
1'01"=' mind .nd h. , 0 1" 1 in ( ommon
""h .he b,e He lleni' ''c ,..:ticaI "Til"'"
(, hi, i, .,.,cndcd '" n...lude Atrian). He
"If",... mao, of un"bted fact. colla:ted
f" \II) oil period. of R,,,,,.n hi"or}" and
c"n ' herefOfe onh' he u""d 10 , uppl)'
de, . il.
Pocudo-H}'ginu, gi"e. t he m<>" de_
lailod .ccount of (."Ir. memat ion ,in<'O
p"lyhiu', l ie descri he. a ",. 1or im. gi
nor y f(lfce whie'" included vit!uaUy
e"ery 'l'pe of Uni l in lhe Roman a'm)'
.nd gi,..... 101 of inf'>r mation, o(ten
d'flkult '0 in,erp"" . ab<>u' ,he organi
..'ion or t hcoc um" .
From .-\D' OO I" AD 200 l here is no
adc-quole hiOlorical "",,-..d. I nd e-'en fo<
,he otlld, 0( T roian', "'"
10 "Iy al"""" " 'hol l)' on ,he ' ri"m_
pltal coI"mn ,,'hich he set Ul' in 11.""""
T he """"" . pi ral 'elid on lhe coI"mn
......' ..d, ,he emperor', campal,l{n.again<t
lhe Oa<ian' and giv... a """.. of
detai l a!>'lUI 'he ar my "n campaign.
T he hi""'ieal nar rali"o i
by 0 wealth of o,'idel1ce,
Alth"ugh thi, i . '1''''''' for Cae,. , s
t ime. fro m t hc !'C, i"d of Augu",,,' .
,,'hen !'Crmanem campo are heing e<t.h_
li, hed akmg 'he Rhi"" and I"" D. nu he.
lhe .rchaeological ...,.".d i. ,ul'Crb. Ilti.
eilknce. ,,' hich 'dis us 110 much ..boo,
milil. CJI inslallot;on. and eQuil'men', i.
,ul'f'Icnx-nted by .n
fund0( i......'t'tplion. ....hich. oouI'IN" i t h
lhe mas. or milnary documen" "Tin""
"" r-P)'ru, di'COvaed in ,he .\1iddle
F..." h,..,." enabled "'....>1... 10 build up
"eCJI .e''1Jratc pict ure " f t he o,gan;-
"' ion of the a,m)' du'inll: , he empi,e,
T h. '''''l i<>n, 'In ' he " r g. ni, ation of l hc
R' ''llan impe' ial army h. ". hecn W';l1en
by l wo leadi ng <eh" I"" in ' he Held, Dr
Bri an Doh'on and 0, Toml in.
Conquesr of t he Wor Jd
Dy 14b IIC Rome f""nd hendf'inuall)'
in oontrol of the " 'hole of , he .\ 1edi'ff_
ro......n "".... " i'h La..,., r-n. of Grcccc.
Spain I nd Af rica tmdc-r hc-r direct
conlrol. Thi. W20 IUIt"" mull oloonx
, ra. plan bUI had e<>n>e .bout hcca.....
or ,"" i",,:t'edible ,.....-cess of l he anny in
waro ,,'hich a' lea.. r""" 11.""", ', poi'"
of view were not of he. own making,
Wi, h the deo"uel i"n of in
' 4b 11<: lhe lC..ilor y "r l" umidia, unde'
l he rule of 'he pr"ud do,"ondants of
.\ \""i ni"a, w., eX'ended. hut i ' was
only maUer of lime .....r""" the)' como
inlo conflict with Rome. H",nllllCl
brokeou' in", and i' .... ""'eral yean
before 'hey ""<ld he b""'lI:h, '0 a,,,,,
conel".ion, [lte main Inte. ...t of
lhe war fOf u, i, ,h.. it b'ough, 10 'Il<:
f",d,ont a oew 'ype "f R"man geno, . 1
and a new t ype nf army, T hi' geoeral
"'.. ( ;aim Mar iu, w' h" carne f' om a
""01 hae. ground .nd ""'" 'o 1'O"'e,
Ih",,,gh oc"'i"" in 'he arm)'. ,\ lafiu, w",
a finl -c1... general and ",,,'ed hi,
countr} "'ell. ddnllng .he German
lnhoesof the 'lcu'".,....nd <:imbri when
lhe)' in"ade<I .....,he.n Europe ., ,he
c-nd of.he 200 c-.-n,u,! IOC..
In 9> IIC ,'''' h . lia......1>0 had for .
Ion& . ime bttn &gi,a".. for eQual " gh..
wilh the Romano. ,001< "I' ann, 2nd ,he
.....i.1 wa. began. .\Iariu, " ... no"- in hi<
mid."x,ie., bUI It<'Venhde.. he offe'ed
hi. ....... ic'" and I' I. yed ign,lkant p.n
in lhe , uppTe"ion or the !evolt . AI_
t he haliano we"" dd eated, aft",
l he wa, 'here wa. " gcm' ,al eXlCns ion of
Rnlt, .n ci'izen,hip In ali luliaIl' south
of ,he 1'0.
Mar iu. " .' rClJ"",s iblc for faT_Teach
ing rerorm, in'he arm)' "'hich laid the
bas.. f,.. ,he profcsoional ...ndil1Jli a.m)
of ,he ad)' prindrlll1e. .\tati",, mili_
lar}' is marred by
hi. <:ontlicl "ith lhe ....."""'. Sullo
,,'hich resulted in lhe finl of R""",'s
ci'il "It"'. He die<! hef,"" lhe c-nd of lhe
"'ar and Sull001< control a' 11.""",.
[n llo 110::, he: ""ired 10 Campani.1.
The r-ue.n had bttn "",I and Rome
hccame 'he prey of he'/tt'neral,. Lueu1_
lu. aod P"mpey, a general who
had ' e"'ed unde' Sulla, ,et oul on
"arcor< of conquo't in l ho "a", Llleul1l"
dd'e ltled Mit h' idat e. t h,' king of p,,.,lU'
(n"rlh-eo" em T ur keYl in ?l and , he
(olk""il1Jli '."ar invllJ<:d Armenia. In 66
P" m!'C'l' .l>CCded ,(\ Lucullu. com
....nd and ooml'kted h.. opn1Itions in
,he E.... brinllin, SlT1.l and Judaca
under Roman control , On hi> ""urn '0
h.l)" hc "'.. granled. lriuml'h bul mel
oomidct-able oppooi'ion .0 hIS pbns in
lhe s..""'e..-\. a mull hc formed an alli_
ance k"""'...... lhe fi...llriumvirare " i t h
,he n'mg r->Iitician (ia,,,. J uliu. Caco.a,
and the w.al,h) bu.inc..man era..".,
T hi' . lIionee ...,:ured lhe con.uhhip for
Cae.ar in 59
I n lhe la" q" arl er (\f lhe 2nd ""m",\"
" p"", inee had !>ccn c"ahlished in
"""'hem GIUJ ,,'hidl had IHuuSh' """""
dqtr"" of oecuri' ) 10 nonh"nl h.ly
and enabled R"",e '0 elo' abli.h a land
rou,e l(J Spain, T he Cell s rema,ned a
",,",,an, 'htea' , h""'<I'et, and ., 'he
lime , hat Cae""r re<;eil'ed hi, comul, "i p
,-em,.1 (;.ul "' in , umull and
,he pr""i ..... ." "a. ,hrea,ened, Cae...,
m.naen!1O>.e<:ure 'hoe provine-.: of Gaul
,he .,:ampaigning arca for hi, pro-
comubhip a nd .....ly in he set "'" on
one of lhoe greal co""," of <:o<I<lunl: , I n
'hlft campaigns hoe O\-ernn <be . ......
of Gaul, in lhoe folJoy,ing
launched ""pedil io.>l'ls '0 Hrilain and
German)', boIh of " 'hieh had a puli,kal
ral he r Ihan a mili, ,,y purpose and re-
,ulled in nu p<:nnanenl >eulemcn,- T he
Gaul, made a eo"corled eflon under
Ve' cingelorix '0drive ou, ,he kgion.
bu' ",or e b, oughl '0'heir knee , 'hoe
. iegeof AI'-"S;. H)' S' Gaul had bn
dllCN 'u ,he ""e of.
The relalionship beI ...""n Caesar and
Pompey had bem " 'ained for """'"
""'" and now Pompey side..t ...-i' h 'hoe
Scno'e. "'-ttich "'... Irying 10 Iimi,
Canar's ever-i.....,."...,ng po"..e r, pre_
"' l'i"'"ng a second civil " ."r , The ...ar
""n, reO on IlI yei. "" I><-re Pompey had
"" up his "". dqu.ne.... . C..a<.-,;ar """"""d
lhe AJ'ia' ic and loid ,iege '0 " " mpcl" S
army a, l)yrrhae'hium ( Durres), W' hen
Pompey b1'Oke ou' Cae.., fuU" ...ed h,m
illlo T he ly .nd dcfco'w him nell'
pha, ...I in 4a. II ,,,,,k him a fun her
. ".., yean 10 complcle ,he ",enh1'O. of
I'" remaining Pompeian forces. like
Sulla. Canar """. hadeomple'e """'rol
of , he empire. bul like his pre<kcnoor
hoe "" ,", noc 10 en;o)' i' fur long and in +I
he ...". "'.....ina' ed.
T he murder of Canar ''-"Sulled in 0
pu"'e, ., euggle 'ha' w.. n", full}' re-
",I"ed until 3' , when (kla,' ian defealed
Mark Antony al Ae,ium on 'he ...e"
COlI" " f Gre" "" and beeame the Ii'"
Roman emperor, h,ur ye. .. la,er he
tn-eived ,he litle of Augustu . b}' " 'hieh
he is aenerall}' known.
A....... u. inhoer1led v.., and un-
"leidy empire ...hich M se, aboll'
rMionalisinJ. AI,,,,,,,,h rw.n.e had wn-
q"""-'<l,erriIOl'}' frum ,he Euphn.cs ,n
, .......1'0 Ponugal ; n ,he " ''-"S' from
AfIJCl in 'h" soo,h '" lk lgium in lhe
north. ,her-.: ,,-ere .. ill end",,'cs " f mi.. -
anc. ....i'hi n Ihe empire. ind uding " n.
wi'hin the modern houndaries of haly
Ilself. 'The SOW";, " bo uocuplC'd , he
Val dAo..a in ' he hal"n Alps, ,,-er-.:
" ill in arm. Augu", u. pu, dovo n ''''''''
poeke," of re.iSl anee, complet ing , he
conquest of Spai n and the
flOn,ic,", " f " 'UIhern Egyp'- T he va"
area .ou, h of 'he llanu!'oe w al""
blOugh' uo>d<: r Ruman con,rol.
Al1emp" "'e.e made 10 u ,end ,he
empire be}'\>nd 'he Rhine u far a' , be
Elbe, bu' in 9 ,be R n ,enera!
Vvuo ",i. h IIIIft legions "' amhushed
and hi. fOKe ",'iped _ , in 'he Teu'Q-
burg fon:>l , Aug....l u. " 'i, hdre"" h..
'mops he hi nd ' M Rh;ne and 1Od"ioed hi.
. ..ec",,"o' T iberiu. nUl ' 0 Iry 10
, he empire funhe.
hi. 'eign August u, reo, gan_
i. ed 'he army and put il On a p"rmanen'
profc" i" nal Msi. , lie di e'" li"e yea..
.fle, Ih. Teu,uhurgcr....ld d,oa"er . nd
T iberi u. , "IIC '0 hi. predecessor'. re_
'1 u'-"S' , anemp,ed no fun her """""""'-
Thco final aeninns
I n 41 Cbud,u. hearne emperor and,
f""li ng 'ha' ht nttde<I some mi lilar}'
i....lificalion foe h.. pooi,ion, decided on
,he oonquelo' of Hri' ain. The limi' ed
poo'ih,I" k s inhe'enl in ,he 1\' ;li.h ,' en_
' u... pmhahly oon\'inced 'he cau' ;ou'
(:Iaudi" . Iha' ,he expedi,;"n would nol
gel om of hand. In 43 lI,i,", n w.s in_
,'.ded by four legion. and a ne.... prov_
ince hli d, During Claudiu. '
...ign , he ' ''''0dien' kingd"m s "rThr. e-e
and .\!aure' ania ",-.:re undet
direct """'ro!. ,h... bri ngillj[ ,he ""hoIe
of EUl'OJ'" .....'11 of ,he Rhi ne- l >anube
line and Atria ",-j,hin , he em--
""Although "0 lirm f""," en "-er,,
es,abh.hed and fun ber CO,,'1....., .....
al....ynvi.. 'he legi"n. had no",
come 100 hall . long 'he lin. nf ,he Rhi ne
and the Danuhe i n the mmh where
perman.n' camps had becn e hh.hed,
Allhe end of, l><- la.. eivil r Augus-
'u' had inhe rned a!>ou' 60 legion. H.
reOue-ed ' his numbee lOla and . uboe-
'1"""fiy lost 'h''''' in ,he Teu,ohurge, -
""oW dion' e. By ,he end of Nero'.
<rip> (AD 6lI) ,be: numhe' haJ again
risen ' 0 lll. of " 'hieh l5 " -.:re "a'ioned
alung .he f,,,n, ie" of ,he empire. I n , he
Ea.. ' h"'" (' '''' Ullh ,here ,,-.:re no'mallv'
four) legion. "'ere g.rri""ned near An_
'ioch in Syria . nd ,wo m,,,e ...cre
sta,ioned in Egypt, T hre, I< gion., in-
THE EMPt RIi ' 40 Be- AD 200
CO :"Q l:EST O F THE wO RLD
dud,ng ,I><- fourth S)..." l.gion. "-.:re
on ...., i'e .er"icc in Ju<bel pulling-d.,,,.,,
,he Je"'i'h re,"Olt , T here ",a. 0.... fun he r
legi"n in Afriea, I n Eur<>pe 12
leaion. wereencam ped . i,mg ' he Rhine
Ihnube fmnt;.r. l'''i'Cd '0 in" ode
no" h-"o' l Europe. :\ ' 3th wa, I'<""ed
in Dalmatia (Yu[l:<" la,ia). Of .he r-.:-
maininll .ix kgiuns Ibn:<:
four) "" ere ....iotled in Bri'ain. <>rIC
prriwned in Spain. and lhere """'"
Iq:io:ono- in Gaul (Ihe f""rt ll fIn"'h
lqion)and Italy prepu;ng for an Eat-
ern campaign planned b)' hu,
" 'hieh "",-er came off. These f,""'"
,,-etupplemen,,,d hr a roughly . imil
number of auxiliar}' , rool'"' drawn from
' he I'<'pulal i" n ' he f' ont iers ,
T h"rc "'a, a . cl oa,k in Bri 'ain all<,u,
Ml N;, wh.n ,wo of ' he native tribe. r"..,
in r.....ult unde' ,he legenm.ry Qu""n
Roodi"." and sacked .....eeal Roman
'O"" no, bu' ,he rebellion was ...il)' .up-
pressed. In 66 Rome had 10 deal "'"h
, ... much If'l(JfC ocrious ' .....-j'h revoll .
.nd t be emperor :"ero d"p"' d .ed Ihlft
legions undet lhe command of \" eo-
r-ian '0 qllCll'he in.urreetion, I n 6lI
Sero commllled .uicide and . no,h.,
"",,-et " m ggk hegll n in which ,he
E"le,n and W""le, n kgion. eame in",
The Rhin,' Ie gi" '" supp.. >rled
the jt<wernor of I."w German)'. Vi,e!_
!iu. , and pmd . imed him emperor " n
2 J.nu;l1'y 69 Si . mon,h, lale' , he
Eastern Iell-ions h.iled V",pa;ian "" em
pcrt>r and g.. ned ,he .upport of ,he
l >anube legions . The ''''"0 armies met a'
Cn:""""" in n<>rthern Iw )" and af,er a
bailie ' ha' la"ed ,Itrough lhe nillh' ,he
Eastern legion. ,ictoriou. and
Vcspa".n he<:ame emJ'Crot,
The ne w emperor lind hi, ' wo ""n.
r uled umil '16 bu, did n'" eXlend ,he
empire. T w" years laler the last "f ' he
gre'l Roman mn4uer<>r' . Trojan, came
to the 'hrone. Hef",e hi' aec""ion he
h. d heen g,"'e, ,,,, , "f ..'u,hem Ge,-
l1'I:l nv' and prefe11"Cd 'he mililary 10 ,he
poli,""1 Io fe. In 10' he ,he
Danube in.o Dacia (P'IO<.krn Romania)
" 'hieh had been in conllict "ilh Rome
for some lime and ," fi," }...".... reOuced
" ,u ,he ..a".. of a province. In 1<>6
he annexw Arabia. ,1I.. s romple,,"ll
Rom. i rcui. of ,he .\tedi' err:anean.
The Ea" had been Ihre. 'erted M'
Parl hi. for ne. rlv' tw" cemurie' and
T rajan decided l<> ,eule malletS there,
THE RO MA N EMPIRE
In 1I S he 'ook Annen..., <ben CfO!IOC<i
,he Tigri., <:aptunng ,he Panhian capi_
,aland n:kh;ng the Persia" Gulf. How-
",.".,., he died bcfo he could consolidate
hI> cor>qUC'Oto ,
Fron';....... e-,.blialwd
Traian was by Hadria" ",'110
embarked on an en,i.ety differen' poIky
of ,he borden '""'" aban_
do.ung prm-incn ."",h as
lbose beyond ,he E"phrat.... Hadrian
Jnllia"'d ,he building of <he wall in
fIOTt"",, " 'I\i(:h be.... hi. name
and ...Iabli.hcd fixed fron,"'" along
lhe Rhi",,-Olnube, joining rhe "'"
ri ......... wilh. pali...x.
An,oninu. Piu. .ucettded '0 lhe
'hro"" in 138, hu' d""pile hi. exl en";on
of rhe Rrit;. h fron'''''' up in,o &O,l.nd
whcno ,he An""'i"" Will w.. built, and
tho- pulli", do...n of revolt. i" ,,,linu.
I"In. of tM empin-, no si&nifican. cam-
l"Ii.gno """" During ,be
reilln or his ."""".... M"n-uo Aureli""
( ' 6 ' _' 110) ,he Romo" annie> agai" ad-
vanced ;'1' 0 MclJ'O'*"'ia and made: i'
a Roman vr<Xf/CWl1l'e, oocc m<ltt driv_
ing had. , he Panhiano. Bu'. f"", yn"
b ,er ,he r.c......... broke Ihrough , be
D.nube fron'ier Ind ;n,-.dcd northern
haly. Thi only ,be filS( of mony
.uch ;n' iom 'hit " 'en-
,he b"cr orlhe cmp;re.
The ad"a""" " ... hllted, T he cm-
peror.........,d 'he Oonube inlending 10
pacify cenlnl I " d c..'ern Europe, hu'
wa, r"'<:cd "> modify hi, plan. bcCIlu,",
of ''''''hlc in ,he F........here a rival cm-
pn-o. had bftn proclaimed. A
promi... he formed a buffer e in the
Oonubc I1'CI by ....ding i_R........n_
ioo:d tribcomcn 'hcno ... ho """'" undc'r
ot>lillalion '0 defend rhe fronticn.
M.rc\d ucoecdcd. by
hi. _ O>mmodus ho.bIndoncd rhe
problem. oi the empire in flTOUr of
more p!aoural:>k """,,ito Ind fell '0,be
......in'. blade in I \U. ....f'c' hi. dea'h
thcno ...... _blc for power ..hich
..... only broullh' I.. an end in 191 ahcr
S"l"imi... ScvcnI., lhe CO''Cmur of
UI'J'Cf Pln""",ia, marchcdon Rome and
dd",,'c-d ,wo ""he, daiman.. '0 'ho-
Ihrone, the Il''''ernon of S)Tia and
Brillin, s..",n ar,c. hi. lCCC>.ion the
Panh;.n. again ;nv.ded Ihe Eo" ern

..
..
EGYPT
" ..- " . "......
, '..-"
" .. ....w,,""
' ..."V""' .....,.,,"'''"
' ".'VIG_ .,N.
' '''''' ' 0.,....,... ", 8'
, ,.""",,"M.,.,,,,,,,,,.,.,,, _.,..
,"""'",,,._,,'"

'.'"""",' ""-"
n ." ..,...,.", ..... """'.,. .."'v c...-
" , _ ", _' """"' __
'" . _ ._.,_N ,._ -..
_._.,'_..-
- --'
,
T HE EMPIRE ' 40
. "
R;9M
t ... cOllor!" ''''' ""'" ol C...., to. ""' ,..
"ovo been 'l>OI"_ AI, Iag ;ona"a' ... naw
"mod ,""," aM ",to CT "."'" """.
o OP',0, S "!J''''''' C e<>r" ,COll
T wb'C<o
0 "
....., '" ,.. ..", on ,.. I" _"'"
AO """"""lI ,00 ptov..'>COI and , .." ol>I<' "",
oJ.he """"",",61 AO n _ """"'
Vospo, .." Itwo Syr.a" and o<>t Egvo'''''l """a
<-om<>"g"'''lI '" J""..., 1>V""'Il<'Ow"' J....,.,.
""OI'
and in retali.ofi"n Meoop<>-
,amia "'as for lau , irnt by
legions bUI allain wi,ho,,, a perma-

Army Organisation
Dr Brian Dobson
The ne..' le llio n.
Original!}' lhe of K<>me had l imp!}'
been i15 cilizens, call ed nu. 10 fiJh' " " h
fhe weaponland armour ,ha, .hey could
alford. When oome order "'"" hrou,hl
infO fhi. , a minimum propcny 'lualin-
c:"ion "'as es,ablilhe<l fO!" a
The soldier "... ottl) <:aiit'd up "'hen
nccdcd, and he IA'N <fu.cha<ge<l .. loOO<l
u the emeraen<') ..... "'",", He " 'u Ii-
Iblc fOl" servKe- be'<wcen ,he "1ft of 17
and 46, and lhe", ""'" limnalion of ,f>
yean' >erVi<x in all. He " ... expcaed 10
p""'Wt his.,...., arrnouI. Ahhough he
"'as paid small amounl fOl" his lirnt in
lervKe-, lhil ..... more in ,he ....ure of
expenses ; hi l ma.., lOUr 0( ,""""'"
1A'as his fum "" his b<W_ inl efUlS ..
....
II is hardly l urprisin,. ,hc-n:f""" lhal
he ..... "'" keen on ....., ptrinds 0( .."..
vice. e.-cquenLly re.;ruj.ina: beam<
in<:nal.ina:!r difficuh .. ,he ,heat...,.. of
..-u "",,'cd furthc< from hon>t and l he
periods 0( campai,ni", beame"""""
Those ..ho " 'CI'C ""'-nU,t(! .....,., fornC1
"Cifing fOl" di 'Charge.
T.,....rds ,he end of ,he and cenlury
BC Rom< became involve-d in a Ionc-
dr."..,-ou, "... "llairu. ,he Sumidianl.
This ...-u "'as so lha, il boo-
<:am<: al"""" fO!" Rome '"
find any reauilS for her Iqionl .
.\Uri ,he ROO'Il <:' '''" ul in
charge 0( ,he ar.....nda I""",, dilfu:uh
circumsta""es he lhe legions llpen
lOany voluntee. whoroulddaim R"",..n
c,.iunship, .. of ",hr,he. he
'"
T HE RQMAl>; EM PI RE
ownw J'rOI""' y. Tht poor tlocted '"
ioin II>< legi"n" Far from """king an
d,oehargc from II>< army' , they
hoped 'ha' ,I><ir "'rvia ....ould continue
inddi nndy. The foundation' of a pro-
fnoional anny had been laid.
.\lan..... ""...." ..er, had Wen I'"
final ",cp, a; , I>< proptT'tl. qualifialion
had """" .I read)' con.odttobl y k".......-.d.
Hut ... did gi"e an impo<1_
....,. ' 0 II>< vol un' ''''' , Already some
""'" had made rmy thei r carttr a;
",Idie. and <:\'n rion, Now .... onl)'
"",lifiCl'ion ,,,,'ha' ofcitizen.hip_ 1'1><
vol.. nt""r ..lly f"J]o"'w II>< great
gnK"..I nd idenl ified hi. fonu nco" 'il h
'ho"" of h.. leader. Fon....... " '","e made
of plunder. nol f'll)'. and ,he man who
had devnled hi. life In the had n"
farm 10 ....hich 10 relurn. T he ""reran of
,he , .. .. ry IIC looked 10 his general
!O pro,' ide him wi' h land on discharge.
Under l he "Id .y.tem Ihelegion, were
re--enrolled for e"e ry eampaign and
<oul d ncver gain. l. ' tl ng sense of iden-
rity , Mat iu. hel ped 10 change Ihis by
pn", id illjI cach ielti" " wit h a single pre
eminent " andard, the cagle. In rhe nl
cnlIury ftC legi "ns might continue in
cxi"en<:e for "'tnt ,ime. discharging
men and bei nlt made up by supple.
menl. , Ah l>Jug h Ihe)' " i lll a<ked name. ,
Cac-s:l.r,legi,,,,oallea'lcarried numben.
P')' "HI 'hought of a.
cxpen , oul of i' mOl.. rome 'he ....'
of food and e'lu,prne"l. It ""'. probably
not un,il Caeu.r douhled pa" al the
beginni", " f ,I>< ci,; 1....an tha' a soldier
made from pay alone,
It " -.. t>ou, ,hi."tnt ,ha,. funda_
"""'lal relhlnking .hou. ,he shapor 01
tl>< te-g;on Iiri. place, The manipleo of
tnQnI ..........ised 10 II>< same strength
.. . he Nul",i.nd priM!'" .nd coupled
..; t h t hem 10 form cobort. Thu. 'ht
,,'hole Iell:ion """. con.....ed of 'en c0-
hort. in.lead of)O maniples. Al'hoogh
,he !eg,on ....ained the phased commil -
ment to banle en.hrined in the old trIlln
ipular u.c.ico, tl><re ..... 110.... great","
flex,blht y' . Le ri" n. milhl be d..,,'n up
fm hll1lle in anything from one (0 four
hne. Thi. " ' p',.,ibk be"""'" the di. _
tinction. """"'i, principe, and
,na';; di,,,pl"'oroJ, All ""cre .rmoJ
wit h ,word "nd pi""n,
T he m. niple seem, t<> h. ve lo.t . ny
f'" Nule, The n.mes lived
on, n<,","" heb s , hI identify centurions
'"
.nd crnturoe&, .nd in comp and ron....
II>< crmune. ....:te .. ill paired.
After .1>< _U1 ....ar all 1t.1..". Imnl
sout h of.he riyc. Po " 'ere IRnted Ro-
man ritittnohip. Thi. mean, lhat t'"
diotin<:lion bet..-eoen Roman and allied
IeJljono " 'as abolished, From ,hn. point
one Iotgion means euctly ,,'hot it sa'"
.nd does nol imrlYan equal number of
ooId..... from ,I>< cities .llied to Rome.
.enJenq' t" eliminatc differenti-
,
j
I
I
.-
A<o oMoce< __.,..... ,'0...... "om ....
.... 01 _
"'o<1.-....e1O<1 0.00_, __a'" _, ...
" ",,' n 'I'M' ".ad.,d 'OUM oh_
T oh .,<.."'d no......"" , _ of nos
1"1>0.. I'OO"g ''' ''o<:''''C ""'d U",i'
.."" '0 I"" "", " " PO'"oc.o l CO_fl , TN
g<If\O'I'" of e emb"",>e<lby
' no '"bo''''' I of po,i."". and pi..,." " '"
.",."" oomm,od of ' ho l.g,Q() in , he "'"''' of
_,,,,, . n old.. m.n
Ition wilhin lhe legion and ber..-een
legion and .aJ.a (Ihe legion of rhe allies'
.....COlfM'd funht. by the disappearance
....,. of ,he liJh...rmed uirmi.1ten
(nli ' ... ) .nd of rl>< Iegioonary ca,..JI}_
The chanll" io ..gni"""t ; rhe old legion.
"i'h ilt cavalry.nd t he addirional CO"
alry of i<s . llied complement and lilin
infanr ry . art illery . nd enginttn. had
combine-d all arm' , .lt hough rhe
Iepon .... in """'" " ..' .. an eve-n more
2_' T"" " " ""'" .1,_ 100M oolow , ,,"
C.o,'01 I... Hd' ," R""" 1ho c,,,'. .. :2) and
t ho hOI""" 141 .r.'hooo 01 a \10""'" TO.
oanoo' Y(3) "Po"'"Iv ' oon,""on', F"" holt
01 t" _ to<, Be
efficieru in.rrumen, or ,,'at in ,he hand.
or a uch '"' ea.:-, rhere " "'"
tasu ror which "'her asaiotance had to
be oough"
, he lime of ,he Han nihalic..-;or
Rome had u.ed ,he otandard milirary
.pcciali ... of.he .\lc.:lnctnneafl_Cre_
Wi ."'hen. RaJe.ri,; S umidian
ligh' hone. Bu, "","' large numben of
ca. ...]!')' "..,..., ""IU,red, c.ev.r used ca.--
alI')' from Gaul .nd Getmany. indudi "l!'
a Ge rman ( and Sumid!an)
canll')' ",;.h ligh, infanuJ ligh' ing
alongside , hem. Spooin I''''''''ide<j ca....l"
and inf.",,,. h<"h he..y and Iigh. ,
nne ..-e'" ,,,uri,,,. ""n-euizeT1 and
non _allied ' 1"UOf".
On . he ma",h , he old arm}' h:ld al_
"'ay, been ltCOOIUl'l'nicd by' a large h:lg-
gage ' rai n, T he>e baggage ,rain, noI
on])' ol fered g",al teml" "ion '0 'he
enemy bUl al", .I" wed do"'n the army.
Marim made ' he legiunary rurry hi,
e,sent ial . upp lie, un hi' back an,j be-
cause of ,hi, legionarie. !>eeame known
as 'Marius" mute, ' . Baggage trains wer<
nor ehmina' ed, bu' , hey wcre ",du,'cd
in ,ize and belt er ' egulated
The IqI;IIln ,.,.. ., iU commanded by
.i. ,nbunn. The offic'C h:ld . unk in
impor,anc", oo,,'cver, In earlier i'
h:ld been held bl' men .. >enior as ex-
COJUul bu' il " ',", ""'" generally held
y",,"3 men " ' 00 hoof>c'd 10 enrer lbe
Senare or ",I><> .imply ".... ",.1 a ....' e of
mihtu)" hfe, The " ""e only 1JO pIaceo
a J'car .. f'IdnI"" (mi nt mum .oae ] 0 ;' fo<
men en,c-rins ,he S.:nare. As ,be", " "'"
many mote ,nhunn. ,be 'eu, all ""I......
trian. (t he 0C<lI><'Id ordn of lI.oman am-
tocrac)' ), milfh' ,,;ml'l)' like the mili,...y
life; i' " .... poo., bk to SlaJ' in , he army'
as .n ollk..". for many )"a", Abo.... the
rnbunn " "..., t he p"'fe<.n , " 'ho might
command ""nlry I.p.a<!'", _"""'1>
Hect, </"'.... ) ,,. be aides to
gene'al. (p.a4w", ! <Jb",,,, ). 11' h:l' tl\<,y
had in ",.."m"n ...u ' h:lt they we,..,
appoin'ed '0 .i nglc "" mmand, (nut in
p.i.. likc the "'bunc. ), gencr,Ur to less
permanent po'i'iun' and ar the will of
the w mmander. Sef\'k. a, tribune and
prefect f,,' med nat urol "epping >lone,
'0 ' he nex' ".ge, I,,,aw,,
The loRa'e ",-- nu,malty 'enator,
whieb in tbe 1t "emu.y "f t h. re publi,'
me.nt he muor ., Ie... ha"e held 'he
T HE EMl' lIUi 140 IIC-AI) 200
ARMY
mag-i.. ......, of ifII'Ji""'.l.i ke '" man)' of
'he pooto in t he Roman . rmy i' had bccl
in lone li me, The ngh' 10
appoint men '0 ,.,I><>m powen and reo-
pomibilitin migh' be delegated ( , he
.....e ..._d_fOOI kp'e) " '.. nonnaIly
gnR'ed 10 oomrnandc<, Such men
den"ed theil powen from 'heir
mander , The lop,... of Pompe)' and
Cac.at formed 'ilh' group of experi_
enced 1Oldien. for the part , , hougb
1ODSC1i rnn, .. wi'h 'ribu....... leu suit-
.ble peopk " "..., liven . ppoin' men....
Icgat.. for poli\iCll rcuoru;, (::acr.a.
of'en p" e a lega,e w mmand of legion.
or numlsenof legion. , or of rhe luxiliary
a....lry, or ..>me ocher c harge, There
w., "" permanen' rel .,ionship of Ieg.,c
'0 legion . bu' .ueh mcn ""re et...-Iy
more . ui ta blc 'han , be trin"n.. of Caes-
ar'. da)' to undenake leadi ng the legion
onwar,
The con,,, I, had ,ueceeded the king
Bolow
A "0"" I,,,,,, T"J. n', Col umn
'O\Iioo"i. , wl>d..... , .,i..i.. ' <on"
9""d, r"" ... or. wlC<.r b"k. ..
,,, '."""'. ,"" .' ''0I,,,,,, 'M """Co r""w. n
" .".. of 'uri
",
THIi ROMAl" EMPIRE
commal'lden-in-d,id". Norc lhot pl".-
aI-lhot republic did nO< know.
com......<k.-in-d>irl. n<:qJt in tM
direst eme,gency. E"cn in Ihc f....., of
Hann' N ] the consulo continued 10
change annually. bUl in addilion 10 the
min lhey rai.ed or lo"k <>Vel" olhe,
armies we. e kcpt in being under ex_
magiotrat e. , con. ul' or p, ""tor. wh",t
author;ty wa, 1hom
to Iht "a'mof pmC'm,ul, . propraolor.
,,,
This ox'enoion of . he """""" of lhot
oertior magi"ra'es PfO\'C'd t he ca. icol
... ..). of providi ", """",",,,," f"" .he pro-
"i""", d,." Rome hotpn.o lC<luire af. er
,he war all"iml Il onnibool. A, tM the--
aU= of war bccamt lTI<lre di.tan, it wa.
in<:rea,ingly ,he p",,--..'n,ul ...Itt, fough,
the ballles of ,he wi.h n" <:<>1_
ltag"t to h"ld him in theck. Cae,a,
w ", , uch a pmc"n<ul. who ,h...
p"",ince, and hi. new c'onque'l' in
5 r"'mn",,,",,,-uCi "..

(' .."I for len )....... wilh 'en Iq)ont.. mJ
lhen lu"",d WNI had bttorn<- hi5 01'I-n
army ap,m. Rome.
kill;"'" of early prlncl ...
T he legion of , hot <'ally w". nor
very dilf=nl f.om ' hal of Cac<ar'.
,im. Cnh"n, I I" X ..ill <:<>ol ained
around SOC> each, inw
,i. <en' urie' of about &l m.n. 1I"w<Vtr.
01 ,,,me 'ime in lhe halfof1ho "I
COhOrt / II
AI> the 1i"'1 e" hort was
10 about 800 m. n xnd r""rgani sed inlO
five im'ead of ,ix
to the """r. 120 who
a, seOulOand di' p;ltch This
brough, ,he: manpo....er of the up
'0abou' S,500.
The Iqion, con. inued 'u be
exdu,ively from Roman ci' ''eus. Ct'i_
z.... hip had bn ,...n,ed.o .JlIt. lions
at ,be end ol ,he "'PUbl ic, and .....s
,pt'Cadinll >lowly in tbe ",-.;... Spain
and 'o.." .....n e..ul, and Ihe ol d ' provin-
cia- ( P ""'e "",,j, made notable con' ri -
butions to the Iegjom in the W""ern
In .he F.... ' recrui.ing .
problem .. Roman ci.izenship
spread ther. in .he.-mt"""-y. H.... it ....
.....omary for non-ci. iuns 10 be ..-
cnnted in,o .he Iq>ons, bc1ng ,...n.ed
ci'izenship "" .nrolmen,-
"Ibere ........boo. }O of the>.e Iegiom
...-ltic:h ...-= ,he ., eam of .be army.
Their job ",.. primarily' and
th. .. ...... brought in, o ,he field roo- fue
titer oonq....t, to pur dt"'n. revolt or
to re",,1 an tn,-..ion,
These Jo-odd lellion" retained OUt
of the man)' I.gions of 'he civil wa""
we.. nowto hav ""l1\'Ulnen' existence
for. fixed ""rind of yea""
and v"lun'"".. we" Italians
increasingly eh"'e nO! 'u u' 'u
, . rv. in the units at Rome de"'rihed
below, Bur tho.. ",as growing num!:>
120 ,,,"
_"""",,,,'0' "'''''.'.
of citiz.ns in 'he of
xuxiliaries' sons whose
fat he" had gained the for
their child",n and men from com-
muni"es gran'ed dti2enship_ who
....ere prep,ared to up, Iraly gO! off
lightly. New legiun, ....ere t" be rai..,d
'he"" bu' in p,".1iee thi. rarely hap-

Many uf.be I"t!;'.." origino'ed in 'he
rival arm,... . palO'ned hy.he 10 )...... of
...-.r ,ha. raged berlO=n SO and }O
roc. roo- 'bi' Teao<>n """"" Je-eiunary num-
be......'" duplic.'ed ( tbere: ..'ere: ""-1u_
ally .h"", 11" rd Iqinns ). When. kgiun
",.. dn'royed ,he number " 'as ltevet
noed ocai n. The t h,..., A ' an Jeg;uns
XVII . XVI II .nd XIX, hidt were
dn,royN a. Teu.oburge",,-aJd in AD >},
" ............... replac..-d. The numben ran
from I to XXI I. T ...jan adJed a XXX,
hut u'et \ ' es pasian empcTon tended <0
number""'" Ic:gions I to II I ; aI oneti me
there: ""i:k fi,c Ic:cio.... numbered I II.
L"gio.... had na..... a. as numbers,
T hese miglll date Net . u ' heir begln-
ning> or be gi"en for valuur in banle or
luyally .u the em""ror
The life of . legIonary
A Iegionar)' had lu be a Ruman citizen,
though in lhe legions of the East he
migh, I'><:e" gi,'en the citizenship
on enrol men!. tf hoh. d opport unity
he wOll ld he wi' e '0 a uf
T HE EMI'I RF. ' 40 DC-AD 200
ARMV

A tot. til ooo""v AD !egooo on po,_ ThO
" <O(JIlth at tho. ,,,' ... ...., "Ie<' '0 . _,
men "' __ "'0"'" e""",," 1",0.., <:ohort
""" f"'" 0'''..... 0/-." ,&0 ..... """ the
__"I<l ... 0"'''''_of -." IIll
"""'...", -. 120 ""' ....... '
'OOK"_
CT _ ,,""-S ._0-_
T _ .. .... ..-
rn:ommendation. If """""P'ed he re-
ceived " small .um of money '0 =
tra"elling expenses to the legion. When
he amwd at ,he run..... he took rite
mili,M)' ....h. He ..... 'hen posted tu a
centUf). 11M: oath wu r<n<"'nI ..""l).
:""". Vear', o.r.
The ..... recrull """Id need much
'raining and before he could
be reckoned . he "'lual of ,he
Iegiu""r)'. ll e mil>! be taugh, .0 mareh :
during h" of "'rvioe he lO"<lUld be
cxJ'C<-"'ed ", flO on a }Olrm route march
'hree tim.. a mon'h. II " ..'a...ugh. hu",
to build a camp .nd 10'", drilled twice a
day. (The fulI)-tr.ined Iegi<.>nar)' had '0
drill une<: a da}' .) fie .....
training in stune slinging, s...-imming
and riding, H. Ie.rned hi, ... '0 n ul' on
to horsehack and tn mount and di, -
moun, fUlly . rmed, with shield, from
ei' her , ide _ qui'" fe." stirrup.
appeared.
'"
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
For weapons tr aining . st . ke . bout
the height of a man WaS set up. The re-
cruit Wa' . rmed wit h a wicker shield
and wooden sword, bol h of twiL"<: Sland-
ard weight, and all acked lhe Slake,
learning to thr u't and not slash with his
,word. Once t he fundamenmls had been
instilled, mock oo. ttles were arranged for
which hCllh sword . nd pi l urn had their
point< covered to avoid serious .c<;i-
dent' .
Pay had been raised by Cae,ar. It wa,
not raised "8ain until the timc of Domi_
' ian 150 years la, er, and then there was
further gap of a cent ury before the
next inerease, The pay was ahout th rc""
times that of an auxiliary infant ryman,
.l! hough ' he auxil iar y ca,'alryman' s pay
may ha,'e Ix;en d o'e to that ofthe legion-
ary i nfantTyman. Latge monetary
.wards were p.id aft er a vicwTy, or
when a newemperor came to the th ronc.
T hese ri .e, and gift s (donatives) are
often eritiei-ed by historians. but as
opport unit ies for booty dwindled , omc
o(",.,ional supplement s to pay might
wen be necded to make army Jife attrac-
ti ve, Soldi ers C<luld .nd did so,'e money,
even thongh they h. d to p.y for f"od,
d Cl hing, beddirtg, boots and . rm, .nd
armour oul of the ir pay, not to mention
'Chri stmas dinner' and hUTiaJ dub.
Food and clot hi og were <tandardised
payme nts ; arms . no doubt after t he
initi al outlay, rar dy h'med large,
although w ldicr' adorncd thc;r armour
I" ith gold and sil\'er Savings were
with the ' tandard bearers,
who handled ray and savings in addi -
tion to thcir otheT dUlies. Some were
whi,'h were
set off against debts for food etc., or half
of any donative' to be kept for the
,ol dier against the dayof t etirement , An
official regulation stated that " ,ldiers
were nm allowed to marry, and enlist-
ment wa' one for m of divorce. I n fact
soldiers contractcd marriage' which
were techniCltlly illegal but a'
binding by the prople most concerned,
The ,;oldiet could leave his prope rty to
his ' wife' by will, which C<lt,ld be made
Ofa lly, f ather as in modern armics a
simple form of will i' pan of a soldier's
documents . Another problem wos the
stalUs of the chil dren, Tbe legiona ry
mi ght well have married a non_citizen,
and hi' children would theref"re Jack
Roman ciJizen, hip, The legion, how-
ever, wa, happy '" the'c di'en_
" lnSoflegi"narics as
- on enrolme nt.
Service was f"r 25 or. 6 years, as di,-
charge' were carr ied om every other
year. On retiremenl the legionary wa,
given a gralUit}' , At first thi' could Ix; ;n
money or land, Originally there was a
dist inction be, ween ordinary sef\-ice,
fi xed at 16years, and in the vet er _
.n resef\'e, unden akcn by mcn who
stayed on with t be legion for four years
but h.d some privilegc' and dutie'
reduced, But the strain on t hc 'pc,'ial
trca'ury created to pay gratuitie' on
wa, such thaI , ervice was ex-
tended to 2 0 ordinary plu' fivc a, veter_
an, and even 'hen discharge was delayed.
Thi, bclped to provoke the mutinies on
the death of Augustus. Concession'
mode then were soon rc"oked and ser-
,';ce hccame 25 or 26 years , The idca of
part of thi' bei ng a, veterans wit h limi
ted dutie ' seem, to have di,appeared in
time,
Grants in land tended to die out in
t be 2nd L'ent ury 'hese took
the for m of settlement of groups of
soldier, ;n mi litary colonies they were
unpopular, as soldieTs pTd erTed to , ett le
down dose to their old ba, e" and land
was not ea,;ly "" mc by. [n IIritain two
ol d legionary forlTes""., GI"uL-eSln and
Lin.'Ol n, hccame mili tary colonies in the
" t ,\]),
Each legion had three main lypeS"f
sIandard, The aquila (eagle), whie h had
been inlroduced by ,\hriu" wa. the
. tandard of lhe whole legion, By Cae-
' ar' s ti mc it wa, made " f silver and gold,
lI e low
TM " " "'09 o' ' e9'ooa,y 'oc'ui" ," ''"' ".
quima"a. Ba' iOe' t"" roc' uits w<",
",go, ' 0 , ho<sefullv a'"""",, <Oo,,<io" bl,
fe., ""f"'" It...dve"' of "i"up"" coo be
,eon in i"",,, ation
bUI during Ihe empire il " .,,, made en
lircly of gold. The never lefl camp
unleu tbc .. hole legion 1lC'lO<l1, It " 01$
by lhe lim cohort, and ...-as lhe
opecial r=p<>Mibilily of lhe KTUor
IUrion (pri-.- piJIH).
The'" " " '" $li11 $Ian<iar d, f"r each
individual cenl ury a, Ihere had
htt n durinK Ih" rcpublk. Thelegion .1",
. arried a port rai ' of l hoc emperor (1_,,)
and ..,me<i..... a legion oymbol, ,,"ually
I .ign of .1>< zodiac. There "Off aI..,
. pccial lbgo. called w xlJl4. One hc_
Ion&ed 10 the kgion, bearing ito name,
and ol hen "" '" used by dcla<:hmcnts
",.-ving away from .he logion, giving
'hem Ihe name of vexiJ111 i"n, . "I'he 1",1",
el rrying l he ..andard. were poinl ed al
the boItorn ..., lhey could be .. ""k in the
and Ilsohad handJe>; ...;th ....hieh
to pull th<m up. I n I ron lhe OIlnd.""
........, kepl in lhe . hrine ,n tbc pnNf""'.
Religion " . povI-.:t!ul infl......,. on
tl>< life of lhe legionary. A. a I{omln
ci,i.en he wi . expected 10 honour Ih"
go,h of I{omc, p."ieullrly the g"d' of
the Capitol, ] upi tcr, J uno I nd Miner va.
Tbcir ,,",,"hlp incorpoute<! in an
official rd ;pou. f"" lhe ><>lditn,
aJona: ...ilh 1I'1t old tnd"ionaI f""ival.
orlhe cil}" of Rome. Another Important
element in Ihi. official ",ligion Wi' t he
worship of Ihe ..andl rd" In m<><km
arm;e, colou.. have trcm"ndou, . ignifi-
clnce and are p.."'nted, trooped Ind
laid up in ch.>pel. ; in II>< Roman Irm)'
the ."">dard ..-as I cult .ymbol and irs
t.- mi gh. mean . he d,.bandlng or the
un". Finall)' then: ..... to ,he
emperor and ,,",,"hip of the and-
emperor. , Their binhday., a<:<fl,ion
day. and vict or ie' b",,"me SO numerous
Ihll some had quiet ly to be d",pped
r",m Ihe ' ale n.br. T he total rift of
1111. oerie> of f...<i,aI. would be 10 im_
pnm on thl< ooIdtcr'. mind ,he r. ,"O<II"
or lhe god. 10 Rome, the sancti.y of hi
..andard',lhat 1{0f\K " ... hi. city, I nd
th.>t . he empero... " " re .uper men.
1111' the "ffieial religion, a"",,,,ialed
...ith Ihe head""."e... . hr ine and rhe
parode ground , only ponly met a man',
od. lie woul d have hi. own and' ,
"""'1'"I favouri re ew..lCIland ( R oJCfIIn
godo had been identilKd ..-j, b d>c Grm
godo. ...Ito " -en: much moce .hatply de-
fi ned). Local god' " 'er-.: also Ito"""r-.:d
by the "oldie.., and Ihey " 'e", de..ly
powe.. to be reck"ncd w;l h on ' heir
"..",--
1 Pont"." ono '" 11>0 NgIn "'" I>r
e'....... on Be Nomt,," ...... '" , ....
p".,. Po<to Augy""" '" ' '''' v.,...... An
""",Mil<. ""<ill,,,,", , cod "'I/"d.., , "0"", on
T,."n'. Col"mn
THE EMPIRE 1040 IIC-AD 100
AR." '
l.ft . "d b.l" w
1 Port"' ' d '00,," .' IIoon A.........he>
",8om
t_ .....,.., "' . _ ,t..... ....
_ on t._ ',CoIunw
J --..,.,.,., '" .., ...,.. _ ........
-..'" Go-.. lol.....
'Io<:onoIr'-"'-' QI _
5 ... ""x_ _ . tI _," 0 ......,.., _
f gWt -.,...,.110 Mu....."'. !A<>' ''il ''''
e A " Q;on " "'bO' ,' e, p"eOtn. lound .,
w_ .1or><lO""""""',w_
--
..,
THE ROMAS EMPI RE
0" 11 ground. Ofren t hey were identified
in the soldier'. mind with god. of . imi "
lar charac'trri" ic, .Jrn dy kno"n to him,
Some made t hoe lump from
loo:;.al eult to empirt'" wido ...,Iigion
Amona the ooIdien .""h ....,re lhe " "{II""
.hip of Jupiler DoIi"hm..... orig"..II)'
Syrian 10(1, and lha, of Mil hras,.1so
from lhe bu., <bough modIfied 10 .u;,
lhe Roman milit.ry I...te. ChristianilY,
in con,..... , . .......10" 10 pen."....' e l he
army. I'... , ly Chri"ian, 'ended ' 0
fi. m nd in . .. Ihere wa, Ihe tr e"
mendous horr ier of the otlkial military
rt' colenda r, involvinil' I he worship
of god.
A llnlll dernen. was underlying,urer "
stition, fear of.he ",'il eye, of witch<:rafl
and ill-Iud: , l:nderly;", .11 rt' lipous
belief, i hows i"df "hancteriSlic:ally
in <he emplo)'mcn. of , hot: ph:a11ic
bal, si gn of fertility, 10 ..'ard off the
",'il eye,
We d" n<lt know huw much , ime "ff
the legi"na' y enioye.,]. t ,ike most "mie.
t he Roman or my believed in
men occupied, and like mo"t armin it
heca me .l...k in peacetime, Thert' " " ' ,
how......,r, dearll' some ,ime off duri ng
....h day. Af,... all, there """'" ,isi.. 10
be made ro the ..'ife and family livina
outside t he fort......, and ehild"", to be
begotten, l 1>ert' mu", have bettI lime
10 ,'i,ihe ", her atlrOCli" ", of ,he d,-il
""n lement, which 'prong up "u"ide
e'Ver y legion.ry fort rc" .nd which Wa,
,irt u. lly . garri ,on town. There w,., M
"'ttkend, 1m, pre.umahly thoe greal fe."
of lhe mi litary Cliendloe included
><>me leisurt'. Lea.>"e ..... gran'cd,_"
times in return for a bribe, and a blank
lea,.., pus (on pot'ery) has been found.
Probo.hly ,he bat h""""'- ........ con-
venicnt pb<-e 10 gal her, From rhe mid-
111cemut}' M>N l h- I>ou... seem to hi,..,
been provided fOI legi"nary for "C1Isa,
and t hey also hecame "andard for
iliar y f",n, T he;' offered " Cam bat h,
and dry heat rooms, Thteam ha'h.
we lerm ' Turki, h' are descended dir-
ecdy from ,I>osc of Rome Ihrough Con_
.tantinople. There ..... also provision
for exerrisc, A later """elopmeru "'.
dub room. for junior officers' dub<. An
amphi' trt' ..... abo ptOYided outside
. he for" ..:II., bUI " 'hether {hi. ,....
used for driU and ,,!tidal o<:x::a. Km.
rat her ,han ror gladiatorial comh. to i,
no' d"ar.
The officer;
A legionary signed on f" r as yean,
might hope ,,, ri"" to the l'lm k of n_
luri"" in t hi.lim . T he c.., n' urions wert'
,he only officers who pe,mane ntly com-
manded legion:ories under l he kgionary
c:ommancler. All the higheeolfi<rn .....rt'
staff offi<:en. 1Iecau.. the}' rose from the
nnks . he ""n,urions are often rhough,
of "" oon-rommiioned ..., bul
lheir ....I"' nsihi lit j... ....,rt' approxim_
atdy , hose of a captain ",day
During Ihe re public the.. "/fi c'e,, a'
first , eem to have been .pp"in' ed by lhe
tr ibune" promo' Km remained
firmly in , he hands of , hot: army rom-
mandee. The ,""n, urions ", ert' . he bact_
bone of t he army. They w-en: ,he only
lifetime offio:en, and cm.urions of,m
"",--cd 0'Vff II... , nblip,ory 'S yea.....
ooldier ond """'UnO'L The life attracted
"' hen ' han legionary ranke'n. After
complering t heir 16 yeors of ..ryi ce
men from the Praetor ian Guard migh'
" ht ain legi"nary unturi"n' les , and a
numhor or men from ,he d a.. immedi_
ately below ""nat m" e'l"""'" or from
I he munk; po Icouncil" aI' phed for rom_
miion. as ..,nlurion. Undor the em-
pire <:mtu""",,'es ...-er-c in l hot: lif' oi .he
pro>'incialll""ernoo., IIlo:>uVI no <Io\&bo:
legionary eommanden and tribunes
could recommend met1. "' rieods ofmm
IItt kingc:omm,,,i,,,,s,,ould write = m,
met1dation, and , he emperor could
,mervene.
&Ich legi"n had S9 cemurion, . They
were ..ill named afler the ol d m. nipl..,
exc..,P' t hat , hot: ahern,nive name of pol...
W:iS preferrt'd ' 0 t,.;,m"". So cobon.l l-
X had a ....' .. ' ... pon,erior, ....,.., ...
_, """"1" ponr...-, ""'fC"'" _ .
,.ho, pont"';'" andpiJ... "..,.,. The num
ber of the COhort was pla.oed befon: ....h
name, for example di _ Io<>""',,, por-
.eribr, a traditionallitl e which in IH,i eal
Roman fa, hion t ee.U, t he long-dead
manipular Pre, umably t he Cen_
' urion wilh , he greatest ..nimi'y com-
manded hi. cohort, l hough th is i, left
obscure. A c:enturion might . pend hi.
whole , ime in ,he army in ,hot: same
legion, but i' "'...,; pos.sible ' 0 chlnge
k gion., oflen " 'hm bodies oi men ....,rt'
bei ng Innd et'l'Cd, perhaps to make up
heavy 100.... of ..ai ned ,roops, as after
the Boudi ca ,..,bellion in 6., T hen .ooo
men were . ent to bring Ihe badly m. uled
nimh up to ' t rengl h,
Some centurion, ,eryed in a numl>el
of legion" T he movement of office"
was a signifieam fa"tor in ' he spread of
new religions ,
Acenturioncould easily be rttO@:n,Kd
by his armour ....hich w. silvered. He
""'"" grea , which had fallen out of
g<:ner.oI , and the: ernt of hi. bdmet
..... nrrned ,hi, i, nn I}'
acros.lhe Imet . H......".d s """'"
on rhe left an4 hi. dagger on the right,
which i, , he opposite to ,''''''' of lhe
legionary. T hi. ha, led some poopie to
. uggest t h.tl he cent ut i"n, uid n", uroe
I h. cur ved .."r"", a. il would have been
di/ficul l 10 dn.... lhe .""""<1
from lhe Idt . Thi, wu c:enainly oor ,he
"""" in Cacur'. day : .' ,hot: siege of
l>lo".hadUuma centurion named s..e..
....hilst 'tytng to defend a redoubl re-
ceived 1:10 holes in hihield (c.:sar
expllcilly u'" , he ""{II"d ....r"m) and is
promoled from the eighlh cohon '"
1" ;"'''' 1',1". for his gallantry,
Centurions were oft.n hrul al; many
a legi"nary could sht ,w ",a.. on hi, back
from Ihe ..,n.ur;"n's vine CIne ("''''I.
This rt'fte<:1ed the ..,nturion'. di..iplin-
llt)' role, They .....,...., expected to be I>anh
di"Opli""....... and in mu,i";'" ,''''''
...... rhot: pnmt: lMge1' for ,he men',
vengeanee. On the ",her hond, it m""
be poin,ed out lhal in defeat lhe om-
. urio", .uffered.
I"""". fllr , hey we' . picked as men
who would "and rheir to t he
end.
l .cnturion. were not ahove takin,
hrihes from Ieg;onaries who wished '0
.void ....... duty_ hyntoen. fo.- .....
made by soIdiet's to lheir eenlluion.1.-l
bec:ome "" firmly estahli.bed t hat ......
lhe empe1'<Jl' fd. u""hIe ,n pu' I "or 10
i. for fear of aliena,jng . he O.,,,uriom.
T he empe-ron Iherefon: """",..,d ,he
on", from .he men by [>livi ng rhe cen-
turion. direc" , t hus , ecuring Ihe allegi-
ance of t he army
T he first OOOOrl was divi ded into 6"e
<Io\&hle cen,uries commanded 6,,,
senior centurion, " '100 ""'....nked all the
ocher eenlurions of the Iqpon and "''''''
k............ ,..;_",diJon. Wi.hio the,n.
",di.,,,, ,he asoondinll o.-der of superioo--
ity ....... followt: 10<>"",,,, POS'""'"
""IICt1" posterior, /taJ,,,,,,,, ".,ru,,!,' and
1'n", ,,, 1',I,,'-the latter being lhe high-
e" -ra nl<inll centution in the lellion,
T he rank of 1' ,im",' 1'il,,, wa, th.
T HE EMP I RE ' 4<' aC-AJ) 200
ARMV ORGANISATION

" 0..., ........,"11 ,.. .."""',"'" '- '
f Of ,.. 01 a laQ_ , "" _ ,ut,.,.,.
01 """"'" 1.tO,_'" _,,,,. Out probobIy
..... _ .,.......'" _ _ wo, '"
_""__01 ,.. I"" __hom
......... ""'" _ 10 _ pJw
,
,

- " --
'--
._.
, ,

,

..
-
-
-
0:":'
--
_.
--
.,


_.
.s:
H....M
PO' ''''''' H.o.I"u,

"O" .""r
'"
Abo". _ ''lIM
1 T... , _ 01 ,... <>On'"'''''' T Col .......
"'-u' 0' ....'.,., XVApoili"."r ,"""","<I ..,
..... CU""'. ,,,"'..... c<M' ed ....'''''',
' rod """ co"", f.om C..n",,'um
... Mu......m, Vi.""" 2 " n
op'i,,, "ng ,,,"rod " Boo" A""in""'''''
L, nde, ,,,,,' ""m.
3 To" ",,>d.. of, ,,""' /";/'If'''' """'" of ;'0"
, no b<on," found "".' S" . , bo",g
l .nOo"","_m. W,._ n . " "","u f,om
PomP<" N. pIO' Muoeum
dream of ""C1'Y lqionary, but 10 manj '
il was unattainable .. lhe to.lle 10 i'
through . ... cemurionale demanded
tdunlion and abili,y ""
....,11 .. courage. The rank ..... held r.,..
ooe )'eUar,er ...m.;,h . hecen'urion eit her
"",red or rrMWed on 10 beloer dUngs.
The mInimum ace .... llOfTtI'l1ly 50-
Some .....n KfUd for owr 40 years ..
soldier and cen,urion ,,-;.holI. e-=
n:aching , he dizzy heigh.. of .... prirni-
pib,e, Reti<emml brouahl ..i,h " a
luge gratui'y an<! an honorary ' ill e_
pri_poLms pilla) jUSl as a
form<r consul " 'as ever ar'er ailed C<lfl-
fiUh>rU. The pn_"ua>" formed an an$-
,octac y of mililary sen/icc. PJon>o<ion
migh' be 10 I'rc:fect of 'he camp, dis-
cussed below, 0' .0'he po" . of 'ribunes
in t he <:on"r" in Rome, whkh wcre
re",rvtd for t he.. ""'" experienced and
' TUSled of ",Id,e.... A few wen' on to
admi nistrative r<"'ts .sgovern"" of
province, garri",,,ed hy auxiliary t roop'
alone (lr Hcet c" mma" de... ; a handful
Teached the peak " f commandeTof the
Proctorian (Ouard .
Al:>ove Ihe c.nt uri" na was gTOUp
of semi_profei""al officers. The t rib-
une. came lir ... The..., wer. "ill six of
...... to each legi"n. T echnicall y ,hey
"" ere all ,quiW, but the senior ranking
,Tibwru.Ia",lut;i... WUf' the broad band
"'hieh .ho.... d lha' he " 'as accepted a
candidate ror th. Senate ; the ",he,.'fi>..,
tri bunes ...-ore Ihe narrow purple band.
The , ......... lolielav<... would be under
J j , ,he m,n,m"'" ac' for "",enf\ll lhe
Se....... _ .... , The tribunate """"ld
have been 1''''''' 10 him by the pnwin-
ciaI ...."ttIlOf, "'Mmi&h' be a ...,ta.ive, or
poosibty in 1np;>nK .0 a requeu f rom
the Inbu... friend' .,.. polltrom-Ihc
Roman,.",.1d ran on a reo:<>(I:ni ted 'oI d-
boy net""""" . The ,..... 1alidat>W
"uu1d ha,'. no pret'iou' militaf)' experi-
ence, and would Iea>'e . ... armj' af' er
one ,our of duty (rarely mOTe) of per-
hops one or lwo yean '" begin hi' career
in . he Senate. Ten yean later he mi ght
ret urn to thr my to command . kg;<>n,
as ".., .hall see.
T he live other ,ribunes, ""!i"""I,,,,''' ,
h.d a different carr, By Ihe middle of
,he znd century An il wo. custom' l)' for
on "",,,,tid u,,iw '0 h",' e ",,"'cd
OS r ed""t of on auxiliar)' infantry regi -
mem, A. he well have " Tved a,
, eni"r "f hi' h"mctown
THE EMPI RE
before appoi n,mem (minimum age 25
or 30) , he would he an ol der man wi,h
some military experien"' , I n the mid_
2nd "'ntury there were only 13 1 ,'acan-
cie, a, kgionary trihune for approKim-
ately 270 w mmander, of 'he 5oo-"rong
infantry or mixed auxiliary regi men," ,
enabling governors to avoid appointing
men wh" had proved to be incompetent,
The best of the 2]0, , orne 30 ' 0 40,
would have been appointed by the em_
peror 10 command 1,0000StrOng infan-
try and mixed cohot! s,
T he future career of anguSlicla,'e
tribune. will be referred '0 under the
w pic of cavalry. I n the legion they had
adm; ni"rative , esponsibilities,
" ",cerned primarily with the tr oops
welfare anddailyrout; nea, duty"lfico" ,
Above the tri bunes was the lega' u,
lel!'om" who was a senator appointed to
hi, po, i'ion by , he empe' o" not by the
provincial governor. He would normall y
be a man in hi, thi" ies, who had prob-
abl y served as latid. ve tribune ten
year, 0 ' ' 0 earlier but had h. d nOcontact
with ,he army , ;n.." In some pro\'inces
he might combine the comm.nd of
with the post of p, ovi ncial gO\'er_
nor , though in this ca," he would norm_
all y have .Iready c'ommanded a legion
d .c whcre. He would lean heavily on his
centurions, panicul.rly his prmlUs pilu"
but even mo,e on a new olflC"et CTeated
hy the fir" emperor, Augu' t"'. Thi s
wa, the camp prefect , a man who had
already been a primus pilt<, and h. d
come direct ly from , hat pOSt l<l ht pre_
fecl T he camp prefect was concerned
with the legion' s equipment and tram -
pot! and has often been comp.red to a
quart erma" er. He wa, al.o the " niot
profe"'onal ofliccc, ranking third he-
hind and l,ibunt<' lalidaviu, in the
legion" hielalehy, 0 gliZlled man in hi;
tift i" <>t 'i xt;e" with a, man}' a, 40 yea"
in 'he k gi"n; behind him.
Helow the centurionate were all the
posts and tr ad.. necessary to keep a
of which Ovel 100 ate
known, Thele were few dist ;ncti"ns
ba, ed on pay The fir" privikge a post
<>I tlade might ca,n was immunil}' from
fatigue; and ot her burdensome dutie, _
a man beeame an immt<ni,. Thenoafter
come plOmoti on '0 I! ,i me. nor mal pay
(a fr.c,ion curiously dear to the Roman
hean ) and double pay, Dividing up ,be
posts anothe r way, there wcre tho", in
the cenl ulY, the onl y admini , tr.tive
uni, helow 'be legion, those attached to
the st .ffs of the higher offieel' and ,ho,c
concerned witb other a,I" :C'" of the
life, 'ueh . , 'he ho, p;' al
The c'ent ury had a ' tandard hearer
(" l ni! ... ), who also looked aftel pay and

.-

..,
Abo.e
A ' 0000"'001' 0 0 or ' 0 au, ,,i,,y or ,ho ' YPO
most co",", oolv ,,,p' "'oo on T"ioo', Col"", o
H. w"'" 0 ma.1soi".M. h'ome c"'"
b' llCed helm. t, wll i<t' ,'. c....P """ '00 0' ,...
<U' ," O' "' g' ooo" tvpo, By th" "mo' hO
00"1" ",,, ' OQu'pm.nt h"" t>ee" " , od''''"e<!
' M ' b. y'ought .n mue" t ho ""'" "" no", ,,
'hO log' oo", Aux;, ia" units " "" . 0, iOOO311,'
" i",o tn "'" p, ov;nco, H. i, "me<! wi," 'po"
' hQ" , wQld ood ovol ,"i. 'd Beni"d h,m., 3
mooUlge of 'u,, 'i.,y"000' "omT'a"n',
Colu", ' 'oe' udiog <l i0ge"
. nd E.".," ",che"
>a,'ing., helow him , he "PI"', who
'nok ",'e' if ,he cen,unon fdl and ,....
n-.. ,,,,,,,erne.! ,."h ' rolining,
The-... " 'on both on duuNe pay, ,he
1n0 ,..compk'ed ,he ,...,.<Pi...,on
' I Ply. ,.,hoK or,S'",,1 rnpoo."bdi,ie>
"-en: pri",..,paI1y ,.i ,h guard
du,ies,
The "",.:In" m each or!Ktt'ulJ,.-as
,he _jia.." ..., ,hot bn>cll'ed
...... as , he 'hough' mas a gift,
... btw/i04...... ,. al laChcd '0 all
....... bu' onIl' ..,niur olfla,rs. do"'n '"
Ihe .-ank of ","4"'''' ,...,........... had a
""""OJ........., ..."" headed , he ,.Ti'ing_
olfla, "'hich deah "'lI h ,he: copious 110' "
of document. , h.iI. a.1cri.,ic of Ihe R""
maO army. The H. o"",n arml' &eocrated
an enormou. number of documents,
Many oflhne. " 'nll en on papyru haw
been found i n tile Middle f "" t, From
,he,e we can id"ntify d,,,,umen" relll, -
ing 10 the medical . u mina' ion of r.-
CTui". di,palch "f re>:rui" 10 their uni",
dut y r""ers , daily r""",d, "I'
wot.I,. h"ad,! Uart".. gu. rd., depa rlUres.
a"ivol. , and ",,' oal ."englh of the unil.
Annual ret urn. w"n' in tu R"me , how_
ing both perman"nt and '"mporary

A d',"","", m_at IW<> t>I"". P"l&. ,,"Oed
""'h " "9' . "",.0".,. l ""n g"OI;og c;zsn'h;p
'0 M" cu' Spft<l'o' Cor",,'. "" complot;"" ot
1; ""." ""viOO ' 0 on '0' ';;'"
accn>;OllS and o.n and ' ho: number m
effecti"es i.. WI' compiled for
each ""'n, i",ludlng hi. pay and sa"inlt'
r <Cord. h.. abu...,... from camp (0.-
du' ies, TM ,.'nllng-uJticn, m
had eo be ...If"d ..i, h derk. and
boulr.-k-pers au..ri).
'>'!.my IqJonuICS mia:h, be
'0 ' b< .......in.;;.ol to"('n'IoI}r'. oIIkc to
fonn an adtIi' ionaI >talf lhe<e, including
the ........, , n """, ionersl, __
''''''''"' (t unuren) . nd j"'-"larU (in-
. d ligencc oIfi<xn). 10..,."... (JJIIg1tIar... )
"'ere al00 The pital
...Ji""ri_ ) had II . n"' n If under ,he
OP'IO ,-ak,...J"""", T hn.e " "OUld include
bandagets and m"di...l ordrtl"'" (a , {>-
",ni and _did). T h"re " "rc ' peeiali"
offi""" , u"h d.." t.. rs (0.1", called
", .d id ) .nd In I he H.oman
""tid Ihe lall er pc.formed . he job of
,u",eym. huild"... and 'rlil
IeTy "ffi,..". an ,1 liko t ho d,><.-" '''' thero
seem to have be"n men .. rdineri ng Tanks
wit h th" ,ame ti'l" ,
There was .1", a mass of ".de,men.
wor k", in ""ne , limber. Itl. " and ti k
Thoogh there . ""m' h> h.," been.
generous .ll<><""ion of or, iller y to the
kg;.. n. any .pc",oli.o' ;"" in iI. oper.-
t;on wa<not rell ""'ed in lilies. Building
and repai,il1ll lhc " i"u. "ng;ne'" wa. a
ta.k for 'he ."'hi,,,,,,,. and hi, ".If
Finally' , there ....e..., 'ra-i.li" "... rinar)'
officers ' 0 lookafte. , hot I.gion '. anll" .I. ,
Originally .uprnn" .u' hunty' had
r..,ed ,,;th , he kll1ll: ..... then ,.it h the
con,ul., I..,.. ;,"... ""ten.kd 11) C""'CT
procon. ul. . I't&e'un and proprac',,",
They had ..milar 1""""'" e"""J'{ 'ha'
prac<ut> and l"''Pr''''"n n nked below
con.ul> and ptt>C'<M\>..I. if 'Mi. annie>
"'f"Cnted in combination, Thel' had
POW'" 0\'" cttuen. and """-ei';.e,,, in
pea... . nd ,n " 'lit' ; milit. C) .uth-
on,)' ,.,os unkno'...n. ...bo\'e ,he Icgionarj'
Iega,es came only- ,hot emperor "" Ii pr0-
consular pow , ,..""""
(. p h ..., .. f . .. ' ho. i'y) included mos, of
, he: prO\';""". (It""ltraphica.l di ,ioion.)
containing 'ro(Iro, .... and Cae_
50r h.ild on,:e <1<"'e, he <:<>nl n,ll"d hi.
pro,-inc.. by al' p<,inling l'Il . 'i, who had
'he p<,we" ..f I" 0l',oeto... (l' Ii"" Aug-
a"i prQpr.",,,. ). t" take "harge "f 'he
individual pro,'in,-"" Ea"h " f Ih",,, was
the ,uprem" and civil .o(h"rily
in hi, p"",inee, c'"",rolling the <rool"
, tatinn"d l h,'re hut lIna!>le to leave Ihat
T HF. f. MI' I Il.E ' 40 Be_AD 200
... II. M\,
p.m'i",.. "II hi. '"rm of scn';",,-on
nerage ' hn:e I" an end,
The p",.,-i""". ",,,,, divided broadly
be",,,,,n 'ht>sc Mid before lhe consula' e
.nd ,00.... .ft... In lhe lim:
,."", pnn'incn " 'i, houl legion. and
prom x n ",-jlh lqinn,
held by' men In ' hei r la,c ' hinic-> 1"""
had al",ady comnunded Iegions _ n..
p"'\'l"""" hotld .t'er 1M <X>n.uIa' e mighl
hold ,...." '" fon' Icpon.. and men
reached ' hem oflen in ' heir carly to
mi ddle foni... L:nder ,he empire men
tended '0 rn<h hl,h otIi",., ,d'i1;,-e!,'
ag...
Thc . u" m a . y IIni"
The term ....xilr.. was applied ' o.Uuni ..
other ' han the lca::i"n. and ,lie old alii""
It ineladed "a"ol,y and aU ' H"' <of in-
ranlC)'_In the corly empire the
'lowh' "h. nll<' d from hand. fighti ng in
their own f..hi,,,,, "n"" under ' heiT own
le.der>. (" unit<"f, imil. <size .nd organ_
i..ti" n, <:<l mmall,lcd '(jue" ri. ns
(eq" i/e').
T he,e units , whic h we, e called c<>-
ho" came to he m,>tlcllcdon t he legi"n_
ar)' "ohorl. i,e. "X c" nlurle.-oom-
manded by ",n'urion. _ ond oon.istinll:
of .bou' sec men. T he ir equipment
" andard"ed. and " n Tr.jan'.
Column t he auxiliary infan tC) fight in
much , he same roan""r a> th" legionaC)',
Archen " "re . lso formed inlOcohort.;
.hnltCn con"nued 10 he used. ,hough
00' in "'para.. f", mo(ion.
In ,he >e<:ond half of , he ' u ""mul)'
bia:gcr ,eniun. of Ihn.e IIni.. ,.'CCC
inlrod",-.:-d,.' .ht>tll , he same lImc 'ha'
'Mlin. cohort ,n.1c-pon .... ""'-TCaOCd
;n .ize, "!be)' ,.-en: composed of 'en cen-
turin. OOI'rnpondinl '0lhe Ii,.., double
""nlumof , he ...,modelled finl Ieg:ion_
01)' co/s"...
"me aUJ(ililC)' cohort. " 'er" origi nally
T>l i se,J In the p..o.,i...,.... Some " 'ere
ptlS,.-d bu' othen " 'er. SI."Oned
d ose '0 hom". moo, I'IUllI. blj- on the
II.hi Ol e, Adangerou. mutl" j' on t he Rhine
during the "ivil wor of6<,l1ed ' 0 " rans-
fer of uni.. . ,, 'oy f,,' m I h., .rea, bOl l he
new on ,,,.ming in "'etc up lO
'lrenglh by l"c.l rccru i,in,. "'hieh
Was "u't"m.,;, for the e"c ry-
where in the "m!,i"' , Only for the , pee-
i.lis! orienta.! "reher. were recruits
, oughl ;n t he lan d, (he uni" were
origi naily r. i<cd. Unit nam" therd ' ''.
" ;
T HE ROMAN EMI'I H.E
only' to the orig,naI.1ft of"""",i,

Iklow ,lie r.onk of ct'm"ri':m tlie
iliar}' cohort had a .imilar bUI
."...."Iu,.., 10 tha' of legion. The cen
'urion. were drawn fn'm t he ranJ:.s and
,!""nl 'hei' live.;n ..m. unit , Thi'
w. , comm. nded hy . n eque." i. n pro'
r.."."' t he fir" "ep in whi ch
lead him. vi. ' he le!,i"n' r}' tr ib
unale ' " command nf ,ooostw ng
auxili. r} to. ca,'.lry comm.nd
He come tn ,he army f..... h from
ci,ili.n life, po..iblj af'er holding the
..,n,or 1tt.af'lS<fa0' in hit hoo1<: t""..... in
hi. , ,,,,,n' ;'" DI" .hirt>('>. The ,,'as in
, he JI"In' of , he prmincialllO'-=-.
The larger unito "....., commanded bl'
,rtbtl"'" ,,'ho had prni<ou.I}' romman_
dtd n.... of ,he ""dinar}' cohort._ They
";ere oelected for t ..... p""to bj' tile
!""ror ra'her than b}' the governor and
"""10 ,n have been ,he mo" prom;'"1j(
of ,he infan"y
The .uxiliar}' infall"y'm, n ' e"'ed in
Ihe ormy for 25 yea... On disch. rge he
""ccived a gr.nt of H.omao dt;zenship
" 'as ;oscr;!>eJ on I r-air of bronze
.heel> known a. I J,pi""",. "f
ha,-e been fou nd. and ' her al<'
,he mai n """ree of our kltO"'ledge of ,he
.""jl;'r} uni... T he . ux,li.r" inflnTry_
man "'as. proboobly paid onll' about.
'hi'd of ,....mowu l hot a Iqponar}'
fttoeived.
Like the Iegiononn, I'" auxiliat" sol
.. " ....., not .110....<'<1 l<, marry. How
C-VC', did form I",'ing I.oociltion>
"' by In
and ' he emperor .""ep,ed
Ihi' by dt izen, hip ,,, 'heir
.. as wen as to the
T heir " m, Ihu, em;,led 10
enli" in t he leg;on. , ,hey
prd.. '0 ;o;n ' Ilei' fa,h....s I<'gim.n..
Du, ing . he znd cen' ",y I'" numbe' of
ci'izens . nli"ing in ,h. gr ....
..
c.'IIr} had .t..... )". bn , he "...n..,
hnk in lhe Roman .rm}' and many
ha,,1n""... Iool "". dire<:! "",,,It of Ihis,
Hannibal'. Sr-anish, ("..ellk and African
cavalry ...-cr. ,he kC'l' 10 hi. \'ie1otic:> .l
T.-.bb,und Cannat, d n vi ng , he Ro.....n
and h . lian cav.l ,y riKht olf ,he field of
haul. and leaving ,he flank. open to a
devastating attack by hi, pikemen. AI_
l h" UKh Scipio m. de Rrea' u'" nf
Num;u;an. _ ,hc key foct" , in hi. vic
'"
101')' O"er H. nniba.l - t he Romano eon
'inlloO:'d Infield .nn;'" ...i, h.n inadeq.....
...,.Iry arm. A, tM ca...lry " .., pan of
,he leginn i' hod '0 M dra",'n. '" .he
main, from infe'i'" h.li.n w ura:. In
, he >ond half of ,he znd IlC
'M Roman. ma,l. t he m"menl ou, d. ei
.ion '0aboHsh ' he leg;"nor yca.-alry and
en,pl oy foreiKn h""emen, raiseu in th.
aroas "f nren tion and led hy t heir "wn
chief. or Roman comma ndcrs (prlU/",'i
"I ui,u"'), just as the had
...
Ii)' the '51 <;t;Olury IlC Ih. praeticr " ...
general .nd " " find c.r..u
b<>Ih Galik .nd Grrman ca"'all}' uni..
-a.u", Pomf'C}' during l he .....-.
Ea, ly ,n the .mpi,e I..... cavalry
un,1O had been o'pnioe'd imn ..,g;m.n..
(0I1<u) "'hich " -cre '!'Proxim.rely 500
.. rong, A, ...ith the infan,!)', uni.. nom-
inany ' ,000 ..rong 'p!"". ' lo....' d' the
end of ' he ' " c-en"" " At>. T he..
di ..'id. d in'" ,6
uf 32 ollicers and mcn) and 24
""I'<"-I;v<ly. Each IImllU Wa, COrnman
.led h}' a decu' ion.
Und., t he repuhlie eommanu h. d
been b)" na,i"'e p,i...... bm
unde r ,1M: .mpire com..... nders were
anon d",,,.... """lu.i'e1j' ftmtt Rom. n
eq....'ri.n prefe"... Thne ........ men
"'00 had .Ireadr ......ed as prefects of
infantry auxiliary cohort nd eilher ..
lribtl..... in 1rtPon. '" 'ribtl"'" of t he
IarlJC1' -sizeauxiliary c-oh", '!'her<' ".....,
......., 90 poolS as pref... nf 0I11U in ,he
mi d_2nd cent"r}' .\1>, !>uring the """"
period lhe command. "f Ihe large'
e.v.lry uni .. on . srl..."1 !trou p
"f .ho'" len co",i " ing "f Ihe pic' k " f Ihe
m.n who had al'eauy el1 mmanded lhe
" ' dinar}' caval ry From , he
c'avalr)' JX'SlS t hey K" on to ,crve
in ,Ile imreri. 1 admini,,,.,i,,n.
I;a.;h aI" had in own flag ( ",,,, liN"')
and nc'h n,"'_ had "andol'd. The
be..... The rank of decurion in
l he ,"'_ ha," odd no",":
(.....blr-paj man) eorrnponding to . ...
..,."" in ,he etnlury; and ....,...pliurINJ
( II times pay rnan) <:or1'npondi ng to .he
.nsc......... The 'NT8U al had an exU.
offic<-r, .he ...... ...1>0. "",ponsihili.
, ito p..... umabl}' lay wilh ,he I>onn. In
all "'her ..... peC'1. ,he p..... he lo'" dea,.-
ion i n , he ....mhle impl.r vers;"n
"f ,h,,,,e "f ,he I.gi"n.
The dccuri" n wo' nor m.ll y promot ed
rrom ,he <'lOb. btl, dIre<:! commiooion>
,,, , hi. rosr ......., occaQon,oJlyobtained.
penicularly in J'f"'i....... "'here no
Ie""", "'........ 'io...d and t'"gm.-emor
hod no ""n.uri"",,,.. ,n Ki...., 'wor
c..... wa. very by (rt,r
man mi x.d caval, y in IiKht-arm.d
infantr ymen ran alnng wllh the horse
m..n. ho lding <>n '0 'he h"" e' , rein in
"'de' to kee p up. Similar were
'0 he fou nd;n :'<I umid ia and Spain, and
lhe Roman. .. had regularly
...h"eJ ...i,h 'Mca.-alry. T hi.
rnay ha,.. been th.nrig'n of lhe bod;'" of
milled t""'l"" knu...n ..e<>Iwu, IU
...hich .re found in lhe nnpire, TJx-s,r
........ made up of ,he nnnnal ..t.bliol>-
men' of the auxiliary ,nr.n.ry cohon.
.. or len CCl,urie-s, rlu, 1.>0 cavalry ,n
'Ile ' soo' uni. and 1-40 cavalry in ....
' 1,000' unit . Thi. ""v.lry i. often does
CT,hrd mistakenly .. """' nted infan.l}'.
M"unted infan,l}' ' ide '" and di,-
mount to figh' , hu' Ihe . aval!)' of the
",h,""" were hriKadcd wi'h
, h. <aval,l' of t he on , he march ond
in ha"le. T he Roman army had a
numhe' "f 'Ilesc u ni". and ' '''y
mus, h.ve pro"ed part k ula, ly ,,,I,,,,,hk
for f',,"'ier ra,rolling. The cohort
' 1'OOf'II " .."... ""' .. "-ell raid or equipped
as l he ,,">-;dr}'mCO in ,he 011_ bu' . hey
......., cav.ll"l......n.
The cohort. i n Ro m"
hum Iirot ,i""" ""","ul had u
lieton ho aet.d .. hi. penonal bod}"
guard. 'n...e men ...rritd bundl.. of
moJnd .. as. ol'mhnl of , he con.ul's
po,,' of lif. and dea' h nver t he ci.izc ns.
il w.. f<l unu Ihat thi. wa, an
in,ul1ldenT bodyguard for the
while " n ,,ti ve ",rvke, T hu. it had hr-
!,Xlm< the ta.k of 1M "'lrao, di",m'i 10
...."1 a' guard, 10 .he C<ln",t
,he 'iegeof Numantia.
endtd in 133 lIC, Scipio Aemil;'nu,
fnlTl\ed penonal bod)gu.rd of Sao
men, These became k"""'n '" the Prae
'urian CohorI, . rur ,he f!"<U'","-, the
..... of camp ,,'here , ... gn>rnI's
,en, pitehed. the end of , ...
reptlblk it ""'" ....... for.1l genenoI. '0
have. Prae'orian Cohorl .
The .mperor AUIU"'U' u>ed thi. pI<'-
ced.nt to ....hli.h an imperial body-
gUlird of nine P....."'ri.n Coh"n., some
men, He k. pt 'hree ;n Rome.
billeted in pri"a" h"",..", and stat; l1ned
T HE EMPI RE t40 Be-AD 200
.... RMy O RGA:-lISAT ION

\

A MoolOl<>nono ....". ""_t ""to"'I"
on'''''',"'oo AVRI:UVS VtCTOM . vS M' l COH
Xlt VR6_ Ao, . I,o' Voco",on u' . "'"','" of I""
1;>'h o' be" T"" ' otv,.. ' of lh" 'ype of
he'met coot;,,,,. t"" ' '''' O'tygo"m. w<XO
"'d;I,"o,' ""'01". Mo_
V.toem htow F,go''', hom the
C. ".,.IIo,,. , ., ,,,t ," ,"" V"" ,,"" '''''''''rIg toe' ""
Ilof' ) w,ln"'I"" 01 'od"" .... . "d
Pr..t"',," Gy.,_I"gnt) .... ""'''0' '"'
",,,,
reconst ituled it fro m men of 1m
Danubw. Icgion.. Henceforth .he
Guard .... "",,,i'ed from .be 1cgioJu;.
eno' o", m;ah' Lomcm lbe fate of the
youna men of Italy, IcfIIObecome brig-
mds, and blc-neh ."he . ia hl oflbc men
from the fton<;cro, btl her<: _ an
dement of kJ&K" in ,"'" chance, ap<ort
ft om l he immediate pin in o.ccuri'y' for
t he ...." . emperor . "Iltc increase in Iix-
size of Ih...nd "' her ;n .be
R""", prrioort cmp......scd l lu' an em-
po:ror nccdcd '0have IIIO<'C IIOOP' u nder
hi. immcdia. e command,
I n ito heyday , be Guard ""joy<-d sig_
",fi""n. advamaa" beyond higher poy'.
It rcctived more: l han it. ohare of . be
donativca out hy ....\1/
The men or t he Guard were wdl pla<."(:d
to ca,ch t he of t he emperor and
"'liet impo"ant people. Their uniform
and "andard. proclaimed Iheir . pecial
"atu, . Their dre.. uniform, like that of
the royal Ruard. of t<'day, wa, of . t . di_
tion.1 type, ",h"inll' l h. armour of Ih.
republi can cr O. The cohort on dUly at
the palace \l/ore "'!la. Thei r . tand. rds
carried imaReo of 'he and hi'
ramil y, CroWfU and ,k lOri..,
the Olhcn in ....;ahbouri"ll towns. In 2
I)C "'" appoimed t wo commandcn, pr__
f u:t' pr<uf"';"'. Under his
T iberi uo all ru.... conons ,,c", uniled in
ooc camp in Rome "'Ih t"'" tht"" Urban
Cobon. (occ below) under a si nalc com_
mar><Icr, ,,'100 nowout..nlr.ed I"'" prriCCl
of I"'" _ prestigious
of Ibc noa-ocnatOliai (C<l ueolnanJ com-
!naJJdo<n calabliahcd by .... U&\UIus.
Under a single commandcllbc Gund
might I"'tJ'I"CS"1' t a Ih.....t 10 ...... emperor,
and l be Gund' s inlerventiona in lhe
busincaa of mobna and lUIIIIai<ina em-
peron h..-e been ",,'erelycri l iciood. Bul
ouch inlerventions came only al times of
uncertainl y in lbe " 'hich
were few and .Iion in t he lint t\l/O cen"
ulries of lhe empire, The tinal word i n
ea<h ClSC lay wit h lbe leiions, and
Guard nomincco farol)' . urvivcd unle..,
like Claudiu. , t hey carried with them
the stamp of legil imaq . In ract legions
and Guard alike were loy'allo emperors
and the imperial fami lie. ; only when
Ihere was no d car heir 10 the th rone
could Ihey be manipulated hy amhitious
g<lleral. Prefen oof the Guard had lilde
,uo;... i n moking emperors and Ih<:y
also . uffered a hi gh casuall y rale al em-
peron' hands,
T be numbel of Praetorian Cohoru
Huctualed in lbe early empire, btll dur_
ing Ihe lnd and l rd cen. uria AD i.
" abiliocd a' <en. h is noI ....y 10be su re
of lbe num""'r of meo in each oohon ;
for a long lime it wu ahout SOC> btlt i.
n>1C 10 1.000, and perhaps even 1, 500>
in t he early l rd cenl ury. The ooldicn
"'CtC m.ainl y from Italyand a fe.. neigh-
bouring provinces, and .. a result t he
O<>hono wct"C markedly dlfferenl from
.he Icgiono, .. lbe lancr
. 'ett """"iled ft'Olll men of the prov.
in<:ca. Then: a >harp di ffettncc in
pa)', " 'hieh 31 limn l hal of lhe
legionary. There wu also shoner and
pl....uner acrvi(;t-; only 16 y'ean com-
pared 10.be IC'llionary'o l S- l 6, at>d not_
mallyin Rome-relatively fewernpewn
l ook the Guard on campaii".
T hings chang"" 01 Ihe end of . he lnd
century. The Guard had been d......n
into whal w.s only the second ma,or
civil war , . nd in an unfor grnable epi -
sode put Ihe empire up for auc' ion.
ARain their <' and idal' had no success,
and thc eventual vicwr, Seplimius
Severn., di ' banded the Guard and
THE RO.\1AN EMPIRE
Spec'i, l . 1", were the promotion pat _
tern, in the C;u..d. Normally only men
who had complered 16 ye." of service
and h. el been retained as",,""a,i c.me in-
to comieleration for promotion to <' en-
t urion. T hi, w", not the only reaw n for
rete ntion a, """ cati ; . ftcr 16 yea"
vice men "'ere stin rd alivdy and
had a "ariety (}f skills t hat might justify
their continuing in ,en'ice with a ,pe<-ial
,"nk and pay. f;vocali promoted to thc
tank of <:emurion might go to the
or stay in Rome, I f they st.ycel in Rome
they would ,en'e in turn with thc ,"giles
(see below), the Urban Cohort ' and the
Praetorian Cohorts. Po", in Rome were
guareled jealously, No <" nt urion in
Rome came from the ranb of the
legion;; only men from the Guard,
and some dir ect ly comm;" ioncd cen-
turion, trans ferred to Rome from tho
legiom , were eligible, T ho d;r""t!y
mi"ioned <:emurion, exempted
Above
A 010"90 of "om tM" '" 01
Dom,tlo, Anooo,,"'bu, ' " the lou,' . Tn;,
It p,ob' OIVhom the to"t h, lf 01" . , ,,
cen,,," Be, ,how, Iog;nn.,,", '" moil , "',,'
""""'"9ov.1,"e"
l'rom , erving with the Itast glamorous
corps , the vtgil,,,, but went to the Urban
Cohort,. A fcw 'eni", , oldiers, wh"
had served . t the head of the clerical
staff of the prefeot of the Guard or other
prefect> in Rome, were . lIoweel to pro_
ce<od to the <'entmionatc (bu' only in the
legions) before completing 16 ye."
The Praetorian Cohort s could ha.'e no
pnmuI pilu" the highe" ranking Cen
tm;on in legion, a, t hey were not a
Iegi<>n in name m organisation. Some
centurion. tes, those or ",cenari", and
princeps <ast rorum, may have ranked a<
primi ardin,.'. Men from ' he Guard who
had j(one to leginnary c-entmionate.
from the heginninj(, or those who had
a, cent urion, in Rome and then
lTan, fcHcel to ,<onim cen
lUrionate<, would vic with cent uriom
whu had in the rank< of th.
legion, or had heen di rectly commis-
T HE EMPIRE ' 40 Be-AD zoe
AR." ," ORGA:'IlISATlO:'ll

___'" "'" ' .. .,.".,., Ie
s.c- ' ,8
' Fiot , __....... v-.c..., __
2 __'" fIot __'""" _ .,
F.....,.. Ono .... .-. .. iuSl __., ,,,.

._ol ._....."._.,.,...,from
_.,ftOnoe
Soc ,"" """'" t,,,,,, """"" Ffaoce
5SM<t ooo'"" """'" (/la." ""'.?I" "'"
Oouno '" Spa'"
'.ogo<' ,,"um, ",," ""'0"'0 haId ' no
wood t, om in ,,""CO, TM"
P<O"' OIy . p' um mur. l"
7 R""od arod 'OC,"nyU" piIorn 'em.... I,,,,,,
_.,F,_.
I Dawar"- """' ........ in "a<ICfI
' 'IOCOnOI'ae1'" __''-
_.-

2 3 G
,
..
,
:l

s
I
poart promoted ttntur>onnd . ..bu"",
.""""",i,ely of lhe ...,,160 .
l1>e nr;Jn ...-etc a ""m;.mili'ary force
foolkkd by Augu.,,,,, primarily as
fire.figh.ing...,.".;ce, .Ilhoulh ''''y al""
performed 'it<:fu.... .... of nilfh'
T ...y " ffOformed imo """en 0000"',
orig;""Uj' of 500. laler of ' .000 men
each, . he ""'en being rel.,ed 10 l he 14
di",ict. of Rome. O.;gin.]])' ,hey ,,-ere
ecTuited from frced ,I. v.., the
head of 'he p, efect' . writing office had
hope. " I" promo'ion ; f,,' m lhe mId 2nd
,' emur y he could hcc<lme. legionary
cc nlUr;on, T he' e ,cern '" have heen lwo
lype. of "'''''i,e ; ""ven 1"0. the
majo,;,y, wi th a mi ",,,ilY " "yi ng on 10
bome 'Coi... ooIdie.. . nd officers be-
low centu,ion, . nd l..oomen. Cen
t urion. were d"''''n from uguard>men
,,'1>0 had become """"" ; tTibtl"'" " 'ere
former pri_'piJi. Their comm.nder " ...
,he: 1"_/'''' <-wu.... ,...ho mil;h' ha,..,
Al, M
_ ",",os>""" """....n n....

Abo
... "t...,,""",,'" ...._ 0' ,,'. ,,,'" 'Nom ",
on.,.",. _m,,_ "',_om,l ...ng<""
_.
... ,.,...,. """,._"-,....-.oa<I
__...,_en... -.
....-cd for ,n. """''''ed rank of pr.-.>
pohu . Ttli. cuncd " 'i,h Jl an endu....,
n,le of nnl '.J>n-f'J-u,
pihn. ) and , ...wity, double tha' of
me 1'"_ (Je,u"". t'rom til<' pr._pJ,
,,-ere '",,-",uned the mbunCll who QDI"Jt.
""'nded ""'-t, in Rome, Ur N n
and Praetorian. "'ere truOled men.
, ... cream of I'" centufiona'e, T h" did
no' prevent 'hem from bccominll in
volved In ",n.p",..,i,"" 'hough ",me a'
Ie. " ,"ould c1.im noble moti.' e, . IJu' l he
played Ihe pan allolted 1<,
'hem. of Ihe G uard might
begun a. ell ue" , ian otrice '" .. cen
tu,ion,. T ll<: y to the p"'t , aingle
or ioint commanders, from the p,etee.
,ure uf ElYpi' andior ' he t.;giln.
The Ur N n Culm". ,,-e", al.o
..ationed in Rome. bu' they ....,re . >Oft
of fuon under , com"",nd nf
me 6 11 pm"'" (16114 bo ). This
puN ,,-as reurved as an huoour for dIS
ti""'''1Ied Kt'UI'on at .... end of t heU
careen, 11M: l: rban Cohort. ......,
formed at 1....._ limt as the Guard.
and ,hei. oneinaJ nurnben,' X_XII . to!
Ioa-cd on from , ... Guard m hort num
ben I- I X. After. n", in numben
under Cbudiu. ''''y.."..." I'<'duced hy
V"'p....n .0 four ".tioned in Rome.
X- X n . nd XIV, oooort X Il l . Olationed
in eartluollt' unde r the procom ul of
Africa, and I, 'tat ioned at I.ugu,
dunum ( Lyon.) 10 gua rd the Irnl'Crial
min, there, I n lhe 2nd cenl ur y t he'e ',,"0
uoi,. ou"ide Rome Changed pI.."", .
T he Urhan Cuh",,, were recruited
from Italy. Til<: n umocr of men roo<:
from 500 under Augu"u. '0 ',500 under
Seve"' pn>hahi yfollo"'ing t he changes
m ,he ( ' ...rd, Tit<: ....1 10 1""""'"
lJOI"I for , he L:tban soldiers in Rome "-as
'0 ' ran.fer to ,he Gua.d. A man
applied '" Hadrian for a tn lhe
Guard. ,,-ao ked hr.....ght. anJ ,,-..
then 'old ro JOtnto .he L'rban Cohort.
If he " -" alf"O<! soldier. he """'Id be
transf....-..d in his thi'd j'ear of """"ice.
Men in , ''' ""'-t. otn,,;<k Rome m'ght
hu-e ,he OfIpot"lunny to bttome cen
turion in , ...... O\'m unit. floere ..... no
"""".. , i<> ; lhe Vrhan ""ldie.., I>o"",'er
.., ed zo her "'een ,''' . 6 year. of
, Guard and Ihe 25.-'26 of 'he lc";on.
ary. Pay , like "'tvice, ,,a. i n'ennedia,e
he' wcen Guard and legio"" half lha' of
t he Gua.d. I , 'ha' oft he legionary. Cen
'urion' aod tr ibune' wcre f", the most
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
bc<:n an equnllian officer Of a pm-.
poilu and oefVC'd in ,.......... admini.
posl. (pnXtlratonhips). Accord-
ing 10 ...... he had 10 Sl ay a"-uo all nighl.
Equipment
t:nfonUDalcly " '" have v..... little .....i
donee abo..n lhe arm. and armour ofthe
nl century tIC. Thtre i. onlyone sculp-
lure lha. unquC"' liotubly .how. legion
anC"' or lhe 1.,. republican period. T hi.
monument. kMwn 1<the Altaroflxlmi-
liu' Ah. noNrhus. come' from In un-
known huilding in Rom. and probably
dat e, 10 lhe lime or Mariu,. The .eulp-
tu'. , which i. now in ,he Louv, . Mu-
".
.-
I .. ovoIoJ,.,., "' __......,.....,. .........
_"11'" I... 'II _""" Be ond t t"
_""" AD
. _3 I .. IOC'''' .00> or CooIu. ""'" It
d...",,",' ",. ""<ldlO 01 ' ,," 1" cent.... AD
4 -7 I,," ""...... , Gal l;c 'I'?"
1_12 , ... '101,," ""'" ".n,"" ,.,,,,h ,...
M",,'ftfo<t ,no ('I . nd O" n,"\I c"""c'"''',,,,
,,"'" ' M 1m",,,, ' G, II " '" '0 pm<!..... ,....
'y,,", (' 0 12)
seum, Paris, shows a group of soldie"
possibly being di ",har ged The group
comprises four k gionaries and anofficer,
probably a t ribune. The four legiotl3rie,
all wear mail shins st ill CuI in the form
"f a Greek linen cuira.. and all carry the
large "vol """,m, apparently identical
to that used at t he time of Polybius , One
wears a Momefon ino type hel met and
the other th rc-e ltalo_Cm in, hian t ype'
T hey all ha\'e long h",.,;chair crests
hanging from lhei r he lmel', but no
leat hers. :None of them wea" greave"
All hough no arehacologieal example,
of bod yarmour for , hi. period have been
f"und, seveeal hel mets have survived_ It
had been for soldi ers to , u p-
ply their own armour , and for ,hi.
reason l he ligh,. armed velius were
drawn fro m the poorest class. When
Marius t hrew open the legions to all
Roman citi zens regard less of wealth, the
army was for ced 10 take re, pon,ibi lit y
for arming new recruits , e.pc-.;ially a,
they all n"w required t he equipment of
t he heavy infant ry. T he author iti es re-
,ponded by making avaiiable cheap
mass-produced ar mour for which de _
duction. were madc from t he ",ldiers'
pay. T his changc of i, well
illustra'ed by t he sur viving example, of
helmet ' from t he period. These have a
baltered appearance, often be ing a,
. ymetrica!. all the ' urviving
cxamples are of t he Momefort ino t ype ,
htow
, A ,. conWucM o 0' '0 bot.,. In' ''''';01
G,II;C""''''<1 fouod " M., o,
2 A p, ,,,,,,",, ,,,. ,, hokl. ' of the '"po ".. ""tn
tn;, "","",,
3 T.. II. ,,,",,-po of e,." !>old.,
r
a
f
,
.{'i9'
and arc \'ccy , imilar to those produced
in the previ ous period except for ,heir
cr udeness , E\'ery shor t cUI had been e' -
plaited in their man ufacture , t hc cheek
piece hi nge wa, of'en held to the by
only . ,ingk rivet i nst ead of the cus-
tomary 'wo, T here is an example of the
ltaJoCo rin,hian type in t he Hermitage
Museum at Leningrad which may date
fro m t hi, peri od.
The officer on the Ahenoba,bu, relief
wears a ,hor( mu,ded cuirass , halo-
Cori nth ian heimet and greaves, He al, o
ha, round , hieid , , pear and , wor d
which he appea" to wea, on ,he left , idc_
Under the mu, d e<1 cuirass he wears a
t unic probahly made of leat her with
pu"yg., (strip, of leather or fabric for
the prOIection of , high, an d ,houl ders)
hanging from the wai,t and ,houlders ,
T hi, wa, ' he t, aditional dress of t he
Hellen istic officer and WaS worn OveT
hi , military t unic. There i. a >culpt ure
in t he Louvre which ,how, <me of t he, e
leat her tunics compiete with iIs p"'yges
d raped over t he tr un k of a tree, Around
his waist the officer Wea" a ' a,h whi<' h
i, knoned a' the front with the loo, e
ends t ucked up at either side_T his is the
Greek 'ymbol of high rank an d can be
, een worn by Alexander (p. 72 ). T he
offi cers , hown on Traian', Column are
simil arly dressed, confir ming that t he
Roman, had adopted ' he Greek unifor m
in it, for , heir senior officers ,
T HE EMPIRE 140 Be -AD 200
EQUIPMENT
a olow
4 -6 Fl ee., of serl"",m. ,. I,,,,,, Co, b,;d""
Mu' . um of AotiQUi t;.' . l'..wc,,11<
4 M, m , hould. , uo;, w;'h b,on, e JiU;ng,
5 Cho" " ppe' oock u" ;,
6 Suoch 0' g;' d'. pla,o,
a olow
7 A group of log;ona,;o,
",_",.,. .hown on T'alao' , CO<umn Roc.o,
f;nd, M v. , hown ju" hOW ace"'". 'no..
f'g"'., .,. E",," .,.mpl., 0< , he c'os,- b" oed
". ' m... havo bo.o foood
T HE EMPIRE
AI[bo ug h S(lme e.. mp les (}f the
I" ditiona l Montefortino Iype, "i ll cnme
t() light in the ea rly lSt century AD, two
new type, [urn up wb ich are clearly
derived from t he helmelS t h. , wer e in
use in Ga"l in the 1st century Be, These
were tbe round capped bronze helmet
with small ncek guar d, usually referred
t (} as the Cnoius t yp e, .nd . n i r on
helmet with a deep ne ck guard whic h
in Ibe n(}rthern Aipine . " .
This is "suall y called the Port Iype . fter
an e""mple found at Port bei Nid. u in
Swi r2e rl and (see p. I , d The t ype ,
der ived from [he C(l " lu , he lm"" ,
re tai ned so me ch.rac ter is tics (}f t he
Monleforti no i nc lu di ng t he
though thi, nnw h.d a slil in i' [() hold
the crest, which W3S .mched to a metal
tongue held in pi.ce by pin passing
thmugh the top (}f the The Port
helmet, which d" veloped in[(l tht typ"
known as Ibe imperial Gallic helmet ,
retained most of the characterisrics (}f its
G. Hic pred"ce"OT e xc ept fOT .n
enlarged neck guard which by the mid-
I , t century had become characteristic of
all Rom. n infantry helmets The mo>[
s ign ifi ca nt ly Cell ic feat ur e of Ihe,e
helmets was the che ek pieces, wbich
owed [ 0 the ear li er Roman
lypes Anot her fe ature w" , reinf",,,ing
strip acr oss the front of the cap w'hich
hel ped 10 protect lh e foc e fr om a
downward ,word , loch. Thi' featur e . Iso
appears on late Ilelie ni" ic belmets, By
the second quarter of rhe , st cent ury .W ,
car gll ard s h. d be en added , . 11 the
fe.t ures t hat wer e to Ch. raCleri , e the
Koma n infamry heimel for the next two
comurks h.d now been established
TI,e hrome C,mlus t)'p" di, . ppeorcd in
the middle of the 1st cemur)', and f[om
[hen on practi ca lly all the Rh inel and
kgion. ry hel me" "'" made of jron in
t he , eco nd hal f of the centu ry
reinforcing br. ce s wer e added to tbe
erown of [he helmet. A[ fi rst the" were
ju, t two fl. l strip, of hronze. but I. ' er
they were replaced by tW(} thick b.nds ,
When the ch. rt (}n p. 228 was firs t
published there waS no example of .n
imperial G. llic helmet with tbe, e thick
bands (7) . nd one "' " forced ,() maKe.
t"nunu, connediM hetween bdme[" J'
.nd t2 on Ihe chart which c(}me from
opposit e ends of t he empire . nd are
separated hy about 30 years But in tbe
last few years several ex. mple, of the
generai Marius k 100 Be) found tbat Ihe
long flat-tanged pil urn was nor always
he nd ing (I n i mp. ", . nd lh .t i t was
be ing tbrown bad by Ibe en emy. He
t here fore removed o ne ri ve I . nd
repi aeed it witb wooden dowei wbitb
,plintered on impact. This could har dly
h.ve been . chieved if the edges of Ihe
tang were still bei ng turned over to
Ihe iron int(l th" h.fl
E. rl y i n th e pr i nc ipate s pe ci al
wot ksh(}l" al,pe", [0 have been sel up
to pm,lu armour in [h" vari"", pam
(}f t he empire, Such works hops mu,t
h ave ex i sted i n G. ul for th ere is a
d"ciJodl y new Gallic influellee pres",,,
in t he helme" found t he Rhine

A ceoon"' "",lion of 1"" C"'I>rk!<Je t>oof< t, pe
I<me8 T"" m.'n''''''''Od.' "" t a""
oM", ""'I W. MI<J ")9"'''''' """ hinq. , . A't
lhe SIlO""'''', COO".OO"PI'<" ,""e' Piece' 00
a.ch.,de "'. ,1""tM IQ l. aIOO, "'aps. Tho
two n."., "'. thon boc""" logoln",. Tho
g"dl. DI.,.. .,. <.mila", ,i""tOO to loalOO'
w.ps on """h oi,," and thon tacO<! 'ogetoor
nont orJd bock, Tho g'""'e P'.Ie>o,e;o;_ to
tl'e shou'do' unit wit l> l>0oi<>,
The French excav.tions in the , 80u's at
[he site or C .,ar's great skge at Alesia
unenvered many weapo n, .mnng which
were a d,gg" and se,""rai pi/urn he, d,
Fragments of a swo rd were found a[
O' un. in Sp"in which w"' hesieged hy
C. .., r in 46 Be, These c, n be recon-
str ucted wit h reasonabie cer tainty to
prod uce. iong-point ed , word with .
, Hgh t ly w. is te d bl. de 64- 0SCm i n
length It i s t be , .me le ngtb as th e
Smihd swords bul . bout tcm broader.
A wd i preoe" 'ed t. ngcd p ilwn k
80 oc) was found at Va lenci. in Spain,
The side edges of t he ta ng were not
tu rned up; no pil um after the 2nd
<ent UTy has t his feat ure The gre, t
THE EMPIRE ' 40 Be-AD 200
EQL:IPMENT

'"
AlK>
F>ooon"".,,,,,," 01 ' hO .._ of 0 ' " """'cry
AD <w '"", boood Of' lhO .'''old r,om DlK.
E", ape., ThO " "'" oI>iek;I, ""d . mO,.1, im
(5) ""',,... ' ha 0 ",. ,," , ape.... mplO ho<)"-
ra,,"i(jo <om OIWO on
.-
, Il<onH __..... Itom 0 nlOlVIV,loAIo
= '''''' """""'lI'o .knus D<b<I1.... wtlO
w.. if> 11<..." ",m 0 "",'..,"" from iogoDn 1'11'
Au?-"'. '" ''''' 2nd _ lory "l)
" ......-n, S<IIa
"' _O.nd 'oP 119"'
G-S Tho"" "_oIol ..... SC<iI""'t><=
GAn WOO I>0OI ....<>vol_.co'"",
"""'" or Mooinz . l .,o 'o! _ ,"'"' ac
... ,,__ r..<a,-"
1 won bOO' ;,om 0 ""u' ''''' w"h """"" ..-,
rI., ' OP .na """0m t>;, "" ""'... louM al
"'air" . tot oalll",, "' D M,tlOIm",";""",,
La_om",""". fA.",
,_.
3 F,or< -..- '" ' SCU1"'" ""'"
CUo'SQOOO;nS _"'0 _""'"
_ .-"""'"""'II _ ...- __ to
or- .. .." .. _ '"
- . ,
GaJUc 1Ytlt. u.. .. 1)-pe
but """UI crou b UI:t " .
rool"K1 Thos probably ,n rp<>= [0
book n . A J", pt";,,1 R"",.
by H Russtll Robinron in
1915. ,n .. Iuch he po",ula,ed sucb a
helme' and ..h,eb '0 hH.
p[omp,ed '0 look in 'heir
_rooms lor UIlpublWocd bd.......
Works bops io Italy con'inued [ 0
Iw:l...... wIlleb ....
a in bronz. bo""un tbe
ltad,liOn_1 and [h. n." Celtic
forms. A .uport>!)' ridial""," of
such a h.lm.' I' provided by 9 fl.l m ..
""n"nuod '0 be II.d OIl ,n tho sam y
two ""'P' ""ach.d '0 'h. neck gu.>rd
which und.r ,he chin and ....,r.
10 ,h. 1'0'0 ch k pi.ee. Mo"
imperial Gallic lypo, h.v. 1 ' I'" for lh,
in, . rt i",n of a." , upp" " which ",as
",,,"lly y ,h . ped, lhe a ..t l>< ing n"d
belw.." ,h. t"" arm' The" was u,
u. ily. l",,,k _t Ih, fmnl . nd b.o k or Ihe
heim.. to hQld It in pl,ce,
Cp until ,h,' middk or Ih, IS' century
the legi"l la' ies con'lnued 10 wear ,he
heavy m.l i ,hlrt weighing ' l -I Skg In
the EoS! It m.y havo been worn lor
much ... but in the W,,, ,he ",me
Celti< "",' lubllp' which h.d
lhe n." hdm.ts bopn III p,oduee .n
entirely ne.. eon.ep' ill body a,mour
Tbi, .... . ,h. finl . rti<ola,. d pia,.
.rmour, kno.. n a' Id"<<l ser"'u''''''
(lbts i. not Ro.... n oamol_ Tb.
oon.trueuon of 1,,";,<1 t .... bu
<Iu,.d a c'oa' dul of <ontrov. rsy
omonpt Idlolan from ..,nrul'in. but in
1964 al Corbrid,. nur Hadnlo', ..all
two co,",pk,. HIS of this armour r<:
.1CIVlIIed lbl'sc- ,lill bad ,he I i ...
of lbe lutbor .,,,,pp,nt on [b.
Re<onittuction, of ,h. t...o cui n"..
wer. by Ih. I.,. H
Rob,nson of 'h. Tow". of London and
h. "'... Ibl. '0 ,ho" .u<:rJy boo. lhe)'
...,rl:td
two """hod. of attaehing
,h. ch".. and b.ck pia,., '0
I.,..,.. part of annour. On. type " ...
the oth (nol .
jOln.d .... lIh .trlp, .nd .....bieh
"w. on ,h. outoi de "' ' ho fron! .. nd
in, ide .t lh. back, . ho,,'ing 'h., ' he
armou, hid tQ b< before it
WI' !'ut on 0" h<' th types lhe and
ch." .nd up!,," hack plate, were
loined by stt _p. ond budles, The "g-
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
l' Elo<' ,,"0. " bo<' 1"'-"'" "",h
_ 3 H",. "' u_ <10< Pl..., S_
17 B<oi1 _ "om Ai."".." Wun_o'_
l . ....".""",""m, s ,""g",
' 8A",,,,, '''"". "",,,..,., boct 8,,,,,,,.
"""-' nlOod "" I..' ...... AGZ"' , .... '0'
1'.20 e.'d'; , I."."", "om Ho"""""
21 S"'",d , od dogo-' bol" of ' .... ""y , "
=,'urv AD. Anp,Ofl "'. '.lonn!
zz SWC<" w,,"b. ldr ic 'OIl " ,ggor ""1, m'd '0
I" . '" c. n' ",y AD

8 Top of ,"" ocoobI>or<l of wor<I of ,... ""'9-

1'0'0'''' 'Y<'". '""nd., ...,,", ... 'tIOl _ n'><: ....
U""""",-,_",, ... ,,",
10 . nd 11 TOIl and too"om '" ,... KOt>t>ord
,_, ....".,'''.''0_La""",",,,_,
...,, '" 1t DocotalOod """ d_'tO!Yl
Obotommorgau P,.""'""><:",, S". ' ...mml""O
"'u"'cn
13_15 B. " """" . , pl 'od dogger f,og from
dwbIO bt", f""nd" p,,, ,,,"',><:ht
S' .." "mmlung, "'u"ich
"
1_. Aomon _p<>n. 01 ,.... 10' '*"uov AD
SUIo LlO
1 0.... of ,"" nOl1M>gO<I p;Io 1""" Obo<'odort ,n
"Ott....." Goo",.".
1. 0....' 01 ''''',unci''''' 01.... __
'_"'0.... ,_, ...., Ioo"u,"
2 W-.gh'" _ .-"" ..... C...-.....
,.....
3 lono'poIftlOod g/M1Iw of .... """ 'Ol
..0 f""" A.....
4 5<. _ to.- .lorog"",n1ed ll"Odt"" 10Ynd ,"
.... An... II"'.... "'useum
_.poIft*l _ _,
' $o<f . ,_.....,_
lM><Oo-. .....'"
7 I"", .. brQn>o .....'" ""'" '--.
_A,,_.l_
T__...... "" Ku G. Hambo<;I
,
"
"
,
.. of rhe cheal and .!loul"". unit>
we, e held wll h deco..tive
h'",.... 0.. onJWIlple 1M hiD&<: bd
brokeo and ,h. owo piece. h.d he.o
nve, ed lOllem.r, provl na wr the hing..
.... cr. purely . od h. d DO
funClloo Fragm. nt> from of
,h. ,. me d.,. 0... m c.ntury) do no,
app"" 10 have Ihe", hinge"
The n. rro.... b.nd, on shoulde" ,
..alS! and upper back "Ol' "vtr.d 10
. " . ppi Dg aDd ,h. .... ill b.nd.
..e'e ,ogtlher., ,he f,OO1 and
boKk. 11><: CUUU>tS weigh
IbourN
Or!&Inally this armour ... kliel 10
bot' f,o,," , he J nd un""1 AD. bu'
f..g....n" a.. beiog fOund On many
carb<1" oil... lioob from the wais1bao<k
rlV..ed '0 itoo. which can hlrdly
....nyrhinc h.a"" bn
found in th.. nn only be dOled
10 lhe nrsl half of lh. IS! crnlUry, Th.
olher sllllll fic. nl f'<lol aboul ,his l'IP" of
armour is ,hot find. af e no l
lO legionary camps, and u is
lItcomlnc Inereasingly dlmcult to sUSf.ln
the VIe'" ,ha, only leJlon.n.s .' 0'"
..
Early in ..t AD oval
" .. , ,.,placr d borrer
.,hlcb
sam< na IM. AI. tlrslthls ..... "'" the old
o"al " .. , .... . horn off a, lOP and
bonom. bu' 'h. "d........ also
squared off 11><: only .urvtvilll . lWIIple
comn from Dura Europos in S)Tia and is
da,.d to 1he 3rd <:en"''' 1d>. ThiS shi.ld
..... construct ed in .uclly ,h...m. "'ay
as ,he Fl yum shi.ld, lIti nl ml de oflhree
of ,h,n "lip, of plane wood abuut
2mm glued acro.. e""h " thef to
form I curved piece of plywood, Th.
b. ck .... . s sr"nglh.n.d .... Ith . Irl ps or
wood which 'O' er 1. 0 IIlued On. Th.
h.ndl e " a. formed by lh.
""n," SIMp. Th. shield -. in
!eaIMr.IM finnt .,,"" the.. cowred ",i th a
layer 01 bncn and 1M bound with
rawIIJdr sritcMd tIImu&h r!>t nus
sbklcl II touch ligh.... arid more nlmsy
than the fay1Jm and 1.I Tmumples.
...hlCh _re about lWKe as ,hick in
eenee. 11><: decoration on 1his
.hicld. on<! 'h. fact ,hat It mad. at
wn. n the rectl ngular "'m .,'
nn In ml Ym.an I!lal
thIS "' a' ,om. for m of ,udlt; o nal
, hi. ld, C.rlaloly it h.d never
hem usoed in anger. 11><:... Is a par3llel
In ,h. Praetorian Guarli "Who .till
uaiflll W 0\110I "'.., .... for parades . , 1M
.nd of 1M 1St ""nlUl'}' AD.
Durinc ,h. 1St and 2nd centuri.. AD
tht rim of ,h. teclangul.. .. ....as
C.n... lly reinforc<:d "'ltn bronu. MolOY
pi" ,.. of this binding have be.n found,
.nd th. y confirm ,hat th. of lhe
, hleld 'lol a. abou' 6mm ' hlc k. But I'
l i kel y t hat. IS In t he ..
period. shi. ld 1II 1S l hic h n. d to
I bout one c. nll m.". (n rh. ce n ttt .
Reco n. tr uc tl on. of t he ..
. n ..... , ulinC Du," .hield .. a
model and addtne b,,,,, bindinll and
" " IrOn boss.. ....,;gh s-sq. If the """'<1
(n 1M ""nlre n-re 10 be lhlckened.
...llIh' ...oul d ri"" 10 .boul 7,S k&- All
.umpl.1 o f , h. .. " ,,"
bOlh C.lt ic .nd Roman. hlv. a
honzontll handgrip ..'hich cln lit ,..,n
on mlny monumen... It I. h.ld wilh .n
ov.rerip and gen.r.lly used wit h.
arm.
The handg.ip was prot,,'teJ by .n iron
or bfOnU bos,. Th. It.n, ltlon from th.
oval 10 'he rtancul. r shi.ld h ,,. Il
in m. chanlllnc boss shape on
p. 131. Th . r.ce of lhe .hi.ld .... ..
derorated with a pain1ed dtal(tll. TaCiJus.
descnbitl& the ........J bank of CrclOOOl
In AI> "' ",lis _ 1.-0 IqIorwks pi<:Ud
ur , h. shield. of ,h.l, fllle" ..
_.
r... ,_cO a ...._ milO...,. _
,.". IOOo>t _a....,., '",,,. lOOt ond an.,.
T". ..... ...... m_ 0' ..''''" ..,.... of ",o'no,
.M" '09"'''''' aM " lQ(l ",m''00 st ud.
T HE EMPI RE '40 IIC+AD 200
F.Ql:IP.,"E"'T
and. hld,nll lIthlnd , h. m. mlnall.d ro
inllltra1e 1be b...... "Wllfre they pu'
a CllIpult ou, of Ic1lon. /u. 'his ".....
n!&h' "irll only the moonliJlI! to Itt by.
i1 $Ullll"" that ,h. lall:' 1Il0!!fs pain' ed
on ,he .hield, .... e'e a recogni, abl
tdomine. lIon .ymbol " fa unit ,
The pilurn r.mained In usc throughour
'he lot and l nd centu, ie" Re mai n, of
m.ny pllu. bulh of the and nal-
10 nlltd ,ypes, h.ve b. en fo und ....lth
h. ld. be tw n 6S . nd 7)cm
lonll. The best pre"" rved u a mpl., of
me n.Hang.d ,ype com. f,om
Obmlden in nonhem H...,
not only iron but Ibo pvr of
"""""'n sbaI'I llave .urv!.-..d, are
oirnUaf 10 rlIf: hn..,. """ ol1be previous
periods...."h m. Da' hlIII Mld in'O the
.hln by ....0 Ho" ever.
'h.y ... much In conmuelion
,h.n the cu mpl., from Numan,i., and
..... Igh a littl. Ie..
,h. n ll<ll- The ..s"ve lightening of
, h. nor.,onged pi/urn dUflng th e e ly
emp ire may have I. d ' 0 the Imroductlon
of I he avier pil"",, ....it h a round lead
...elllhi in..".d . , junellon of lhe
"WOOd and th. iron. TIll. rypt I. to lit
On r. lIef from
Ro m. in ...hich Prlelo,(an. of ,h.
f1aVlan periOd are shoIvn CIfT)'inJ them
U" fortunately ... ha ve nO certain
. rchatolQlical .p.d"",n. of this
'houlh ..l pil.. have fonnd
...hich .pi k.d lang' a"d may b.
from this ........ "'"elport
Tow.rd. the .nd of lSt """fUry Be
,h. 1<1i0n.ory ""un;! , ho" " and
by th. lItginning of the '" cenlu!}' 1d> it
h.d .voh'ed into a .hort bUI still long-
polmcd 'h'"" ing wea p"n ....i' h a blade
of SO- 56cm. Thes wofd. weigh
.oout I Ki lov.un and sc. bbard abuut
half 'hOt amount . Th. sc.bban;! is usually
mlde of ' IVO . he... o f \Y ood h. ld
togtillt' by a l>ronu froIM 11><: from of
rhc ...bbatd is on.n <OVered by a thin
of tin n.d bronu In ,he
century I "..., ..." n;! .... introd.....,d wim
""'!&hI paralkI sides and I ohoner point
1bt bladr: ltngth '<IritI from '0 "scm
11 O\llU btll. 10 the o"lIinal Spa ni.h
. ...o.d and shoul d really nO lon ger lit
..f. ...d to Ua l l.Jdi", ... ,
..1 daggers , urv!vt from '"
All ....hich var y Iiltl. in . h. p. ,
alt hlltJgh some h",', poin" th.n
ot h. " They are ,,1 11 very . Imll ar to
THE ROMAN EMP I RE
Au. m a ry "".. a iry . nd inbnlry
If "'" httn ' ,,""tcd by many authors
.har the Romans did f10I =plo!' ar-
mou",d eav. lry un, il . he begi nning of
the <..,n tury This is an O" <T_
.implic.tion, part ll' d ue to a mi .iDler_
prela ti" n of t ho: monumcnt<. T h.
Romans pa inl.d 'heir .culpl u r. and
therrf"re Ih. lad of mail .hown "n
horsemen on Trojan', Column .nd
other monumcn" . nd ",mh>' one. is not
f lnwevet, legion.ry tomb_
l htir Spani.h .tI<-'e'OIOf"S. Tit<, blad<
IrngIh ,..n... from 10 to z5cnt. Tbo
ocabbard. an made of bronze or iron
and .'" u..all)' hillhly dca>n.red "..i l h
.ilver inlly, About r"" urnc time n tho:
....... . ...".d ..... in.roduoed a di lIrrcnt
daQn ocal>hard af"f'C"". Th" i5 mad<
(rom an br....., fron. and t.d:
platC riW1N to a wooden I>ast. Tbo
o:!a&et< -.n. to haw d....pp:ared from
around ,Itt end of
the , .. ",n,ury and ,. complndy abse-n.
(rom T ",jan'. Col umn.
Durilllt the: nrly I" ""nIUl")' AD the
...".d and dowr....,.., . usptn<kd from
t wo individual btl.. t hat cro5:lCd m... al
t he t-k and (ronl tn co...boy fashion.
From w"" an apron of
m. , al di !ICS to kather "raps,
Later bell Wa< , uh51iIUted to
whi ch the and apron W<T.
att ached, hut the sword ..... . uspended
(mm a haldric on right .i de. T hese
belt. We'e wit h rectangular
plate' u'ually m.o.I e of hronze plated
with tin , E..mplc. of the.e plates haye
h<en fnund on m"", legionary site, . in_
duding Numa"'i., showing that t hey
in use o.Iuring thc and ""mury Be,
E.. or hell fro m the latc
Yillanovan period (..,., p, 93) suggeSt
tlul thc)' wc.... alwa)'s used.
Man)' or mi lira rT sandal.
havc htt n di """'"cred, Tho:
upper is CUt from a singlc J>i<'ct of
Ir-at her u'hieh ,",T'J'f'Cd round oJ.. f_
and " ... "",'n up at Ihc httl. This " 'n
..ilehed ' 0 . .....vy solc mad< of """cra!
tal..... of hi d< sbod "irh iron studs,
......vy sandal. _-agh<-d a Ii"..,
un.<k1' a kiqr.m, JOKPhus giv... an
amusi,.. dn<:nr<;u., of a "".." unon duT_
i,.. l he -.eofJtnrS>llc-mdashi ngacn>ss
,'''' P*'W\1 ltmple cotl n yard, skidding
on his iron ..ud. and falling flal on tlis
"".

,
,
,
. ... .... .-..ro""", __.... It..
..... (It 0<itI'HI0......... _ on.'" i.<luooo<
' ''' _ 1_ . T."....., _ on t....
""'"'" e- _ Th .........
........ _ """ ..... ""' ''' ..
............... 2
. I
"
,
-
""" ow:! the _ on
..,... """"'" ""'" l,l........ "' .... Po
v..... E...- 'or AD 2 3 "<oomen
_ .... T'...,.-....... _ ......... o/w1
"""" b\o 2 _ .... __'" the
_.,
'"
"ones of ,be 6..,;, h.. nJrcd)'earS of.be
empirc 01... do no( .ho,,' mail, and )"et
.h.c:rc i. no 'l\lCO.io:n ,!>at , be
of ,hi. period U"Of'C a COIl' of mail. Tbe
""nlrymcn on the Aem.Il ... Paull ...
monumcnt are surcl)' u'clUing <'uir-
a,.." i n exactl)' .he ...me f..hi"n ",
,he kgio"a,ies, who arc ccrlainly wear-
ing mail, and .herc i, a h,, ",cman on .he
Ahe""ba,bu. , chef fmm .hc time of
Mariu, wh" is w.aring dca, ly dcpicted
.....il. A .'ery de.ailed iCulp' ure fmm
Man. UlI in .be Po .... lley, da.ing f,om
Ia.e ;n tbe reign or Augunu. , .oou'. ' wo
"".,.trymcn, one in mail ""d one in =Ie
""""",f,.nJ <herc arc many t .. -o:n' Ul)'
canJry romb..ones from Gc rmany
.hou'ing bod)' armou, cu, 10 .h.c: s.ame
pallern. There areal... "....Irymc" on
theTral.nicfriczc fromthe ArrhofCon_
...nlilK' (c. AD u S) u'ho . re u'earing
mail and, int.iden. ally. ,be Cu, of .hei,
cui r.."" i, exa<.. l)' t he ..me a, , bose of
the co...lr ymen on T ' aian'. Column.
Armoured co"alry had developed in
,he Middle E.'t in .he h <J' .o. h e'cn_
. urie. 11<' , 11",,,,, arm"ur (P<' )u als and
chamfr"".) found in bo. h Italy and
G........ daling from . 1>< Sth-4th cen-
.urin 1IC, .bows .!>al parlially ar moured
a"alry u'ao tn u.., .lIrougho.>u h.c: d ...i-
cal period,
uri"a1 of the RolWlani, Sanna_
.ian <nhe. alonglhe Danube in .he Iauc.
poon oflhc '" ccn,ury AD brough. Rome
face to f... ui,h. new 'YP<' of a'...ry
u'hich h.ad en,l....'d in . 1>( !:'.a.I.
"-cre . ..,..pl..-at,i, !tea.il)' armcd ca,'oll)'
,,i. h both man:old hone awcrcd u'i,h
ar",,>ur, Romc' , '<:spatl.., ..... of course
", beg in employiog t hc,c hur",men.
Ahhough ,ume un; l. may have eX;' led
ea,licr. Hadri.n formed t he .. regul. ,
unil <Jf T he.., new unit>
...crc ormed u;,h a hca" y lance (' '''' ' ", ).
At t he <>t her e nd of ,he """Ie ,he
Roma... employ'ed NumiJi""", rom_
ple. ely unannour<:d :old rid,ng ...-; t hout
a bridle; and a1'1O """"n",d ard>c.,;,
G""' ka. ....ryhad ...-om 1....... ...i ,h-
QU' d>cck piece>or ned< It d. to allow
all-round vio.ion and hearing, Tbc R0-
man a"a11)-maD, _-c"er, wore a hel-
...... , !>al "",,-c.cd whol e ...t>d. Iea" ing
only , he cy.... nose and "",u, 1I ...i.. ble,
t he u n bring complc-1ely cndolcd, In
lnd cenlUry, like 'he hel -
me... "avalry helme" were reinforced
wi,h ""'" h'",e, Toward, t he end of
the 1M cenlUl)' a rcinforci nl ..ri p U'"
a1'1O of.en applied to the f",.., head, T1>i.
came 10 I poi nl ."he fron. Body ar-
mour ...'a. eit her mail or oco.le, The mail
, hi,.. ,hou'o nn e.,.alty ,ombolOne, nf
THE E.\1PI RE 1.-0 a<;-AD 200
EQl: lP.\1E:"iT
lhe 10 .,.n. ury!\D arc , DOl: owpn.;ngl)' ,
denvcd from {he Celt i" cuira.. wilh i "
.bouldcr a pe: (sec p. ' 2}). 'Ill i.
u-cilhed I bnu' l(,kg, The cape: WI' brld
10 t he "h..t by a pa;' of . ...; ..clling
Top lei<
Roc"".. """ .,.. ""'"
Butzr:.:l>, "' .... Darmsto<ll Musooum, _
lit. 151<:1lll 1>1J II<JrNn
oa-.,. _.""""""' ....

_
'*""" _ ,_.- -""
""'-
__ -...c..glon.. _
Tha_-""!Dr __....1I<JrNn
OC\Itll_oI .... -'Y _

."' _ Celbe __"" ..........
""""",,",," S, Remy", _<IIlW>g btJm
ju" all..- "'" _ of CI&oaor T!>G _._
"". llomantvPe _,""""tbOCa!T"'1>
Roma-n. dod no' ,how ,...., own men being
<lel, O<l ontM;' ,,;""'''''''' """"""",ot.
,,,
THE ROMAI' EMPI RE
S...hapfii hooIts which alJO...-M tho<
. lIoul<1<: t to move caoilJ. The
sllin " "liS split at the hips, as in t he
publican pcnod, to mabie the rider <0
sit a 110..... .
On T tal&n', Column <heaovair)--.n<:n
""ear a much ..mpler rorm ol""",ilshin
",i t h daru at the: .houldcn and ","lli0!.
ThIS t ype waShed onIJ about 9k; ,
F,..."..... or larninatM , Iligh guard>
made from otrips or bronze ........, found
althe: lal. I..-century fon al SC"..tead
in SoDI land,
I n the .....ly nnp,re 1Ioon<'< .."Orr _
armou' but ........, """"'""'M ..ith pen-
dant. and di sco (PlwltrM) mad. of
tt nn.d bronu. Many orth= h..... bttn
found in u cavat ions all 0" tho< empire
and ar. to he >n on numerou. Roman
"",ulpt urel and tombstoneo. Tooe are
also or Celtic origin and appear on the
Gunde' t rup cauldron (. ee p, "4).
During th r ly empi re. when th.
ma in ...u ree of ca"alcy in ,he \J;' eo' ...-a.
Celtic, the Rontan ca'lSllcyman =cd a
long ...,..d (' ''''' M ) wi' h a bI""", length
of 60 ' 0 7QOfII, which i. dnrly deri.VM
from l he Celtic lon& ' '''"OI"d, and a fiat
....al or .......' imeo . hidd
...-lUch i. equally clearly orCdtic on';n.
\J;'he:n nol in uoe t he: . hi.ld "'"II' anied
alonpidc I'" """","" oome1imeo under
t he: saddle blank . Joseph... claim. that
Veopasian'. f....tcn> ca"caIry <2'ri<:d ..
'lu iVtt _naini n& Ih..... or more dan.
",ilh pointt .. large u 'I'C"" : prnum-
ably Ihi. 'l.. ,ve. "" a' at uched . 0 , he:
hone and not the: r ider.
The saddle . uddc nh for t he:
tinl time on Roman "",,,Ipc".... of t he:
early empire. 1I,,"'evet , i, can he . hown
that the ..ddl. , like moO! or . he othe'
eq.. ipment, wa. I lm"'t cen a inJy of
Celii. or igin, In hi . commentar y on the
Gi llie wtr eo , ...... lIy 'emarks thll
Ih. ('",rmln' "'med ,he ,,'e "f ,he
Thil WI' I ' I li me w!>enCaesar
was almoo' n d u, ;ve ly employing Cel t ic
"''lSIlry .nd the",forc implieo t ha. t he
Cc,h...oed the: oaddlc. The J ulii mon....
ment at 5, in """,hem Fnncc,
which dat" to very . hortly .Ita ,he
ofc..-. un-
known benk inYOl vme Romans and
0... of l he ocuIplurco .now. a
",nlry bettie in wltich one of t he: honn
has falkn and 'h.....n in rider. nee
""""'"' unq"""ionIobly has a saddle or
Roman 'n"" wilh f<>ut pommel, . nee
fallen ride. m,," he a Cc,1t, fOT Romam
d id 110111'00* . heir _ 'n men bei ng killed
on their triumphal monumcnto,
S'irrups ....re not in "oe in ,heancien,
wor ld. Att empt. 10 "'Cia'c , he: in' tu-
d UCIion (If tM ..ir",p wil h . he: Sanna-
tian. ar e to ,u'ta;n, The
d lim t haI I <o'oph"'"t.., could not ride
wi,h""t <t irrup< would involv. moving
back t heir intr<>duc,i"" by at le. st three
" , __ " .. 10 noo>.. .. ,""""";n no
wt>><"l __ hoO'''' or> '0 ,1>0 t>a<. oJ ,....
A, .,mplO ,,'w "".....
5 So POnd. n, w"h ""d I,,!>oId ;1 '0 ' ....
h.",... ' Pood. n,
.
3 a r ,o"",, ..""'" -"no.. """'""
, f .." ,,,,,,,,,,, H_. Yor" h;' . Y""'h".
MuMYm, Yor' . Sealo 1-1
3. 3. F,oo, .od _ . oJ Oho"". n..
,
-
, "'-A__CooIbc _Il1o ... _
w."._.s--.._
Z'-, ,_ '-"' .., N... '
Tho -'"'" IlOt _ .. ... ......... .,., _
_ IlOt _

7. ' Tw<I I)"to...," ' 1'0"' ol """ hom Mo;",
RGZM. Mom,
9 H",..._ t,om W....nbu' g In B..,,;,
10 H.""",.nd" c","",,1'" w;th ""'.... hoOI on
' M meu", " S, (l.,m"n
,,0
T HE EMPI RE 14C 200
EQUlr>MEST

c.....,, __n .._.c175All

Sl_ "'''''''0- _n Thoo
_ twor.lo _ ......... II.. ""'_01
-.""" ...... coulcl onlY "- boi<In9o<' to

"

11 C' OSS_IOC" "" 01. e<>m<><>o"o ""'"
12 Hom noc' Scoto_
13 Porl of . ,_.,'ow. t>d two .,,,,,,, _ .
f,om D",. [ u'''''''' , c 3W AD
14 f " .!>r. nd . "ow"'od I, om Scotl.""
I

----'
-
i ... 2.... .... -. _ on'"
_., _ .. fIo<onco Thoo ..
.... ..-._on T,_', Cooumn A,..,.....
,.... ,... __ -".... .,.., "'" off

B'""", nu'""'" w"n ""rve<l end ,n to.
Rn"n;",Oo, l.ndO'"'".." "" Be>nn n...,o ,"", '
....." , o,II. ,on' wpo, of Rom. n "" """
" umPi' Toi , moY 1>0 , ho " po of COVO' ''I
""",po' c. IIM . "'U",

fa"y C.",Omod w.. m_ ot , "o<nate li oe, 0'
""nohOd ill , no bo1t"" ""0' Ou" "O It",
emp"o ,h. buotod ""0' WO" rop,"""o "" , h
much . "on</." "YO' oo "0</ ' ,2 1 The C.".
w.,.Oto., ;'on wo,k. "
Abo..
EII"",o su'o "mou< se."" .,o 100"" ,n mony
,i ,.. ,,,y' og be .......n I ,no !>em ''''''' ' T1>O
"'010' .....". W".., '090'- '''''n sown ' 0 ,
l, br le ' '''''''Oh tl>o con,.. "",.,
Seal. I \
T HE ROMAN EMPI RE
cent uries, for Antiochu, the Great em_
ployed WlaphraCli , T he re is no Roman
sculpt ure or painling that could possibly
he interpreted a, 'howing a sl irrup, T he
fir' t mention of them i, in the S trategi _
kon of Ma uri ce, the By,anti ne emperm
( AD and ,he firsl example,
were f" und in 7lh _cenl ury Avar ,o;raves
in Daeia T he earli e" O\'idence for "ir_
r ups come, from China in l he Sl h cen_
t ury AD , T hey WeTe probably brought to
the lX' est by the T ut h and A,'a", per _
haps arri,' lnl'; in Europe in Ihe first half
of the 6th century. Spur" in C(ln".,t,
were in m e t hTOughollt the empire, and
m, ny examples have been dIscovered,
A large number of horseshoe, (}f Ihe
lradi lional nailed-on lype have a!so heen
found, Example' weredi,cm'ered al lhe
Bel gle 1,,'eJ at Colchester and il mal' be
."umed , hal th..e were of I. te Cellic
origi n and adopted by the R"mam .
T here wa, al,o a type of detac'h,ble
horseshoe known as the hippo-sandal
which was s" apped 10 the horse 's hoof,
T he pur po"" "r,he hippo_, anclal i, un_
clear. Hmh typc, "r , hoc are mainl;-
fou nd arou nd civil settlements and were
the refore probably used for drau,o;hl
anim.ls,
Tl1ere were two 'ype, o f bit in usc,
thc ,naffi e type with two ring, to hold
the rei ns and l1arne" , which was of
t z
"
,
sland"d <>ea,." 0' ,.. ",,"'00 It '. un""," ,"
w,,"the' thO "0"''''''. '' aM o",nblowe"
p' e""ded '" f"" ow"" , ,," , ,,M,,d b, .." as
) o, . "h,," ' wO'ccouo," ditte, 00 tht> ooiot
TMy M "'al'S ,oow'n i" tmot on T"j.n,
Column. Beoi"d the "umDe'e" and en"9"'
c,me the '''II'''''' ''''' ",,,Ching ab' . '" and
,eOl ,n ",de' by """ , ""nlOnon'. JO' . """'
, e,<"IIv;a1'S 0"" co"'""oo, t ut , 1I0w;og ,
mioiMum ot two".ces ' "'' "X men e,ch legion
"" .."0 be "'U"QOUI "",,,,, ' e. " ''''0 and.
h,lf "I"",.",,, '0 ,h.. one cootu" on would te
,mahl. to ' p 0' <1&' Each tegio" was
'ollOW"", tty its 0"' 0 t>agg.go tr,in 000" 011""
by to. ' eg,oo's s.,"'"". Tho,e 001 m.ndiog the
, mm,l, m",he<l "ehi,," 'Mm. 11 The
,"""". coho,,,. ac" p'.'urn ,hly I.d by ,t>
51,nd.." """..". 12 The ,,,,,g",," oom"",,,,,
of light an6 "e,,,,, i"',ow 3nd, co",,<!e<, bl.
booy ot . u" ,,.,,, ,,"v"" y. T"" c'm" 'oil"""""
wo"l o na.. ben tound at , "" .." ot the ..my
keepm" d o'" to t,," ..my toe protoction. T""",
wooI6 ",Ve ,nc' ud. d pto"""'.', Common _'1fW
wive', .,.,. <>ea'e" .., &y '0 buy uo the
o",one" oJ wa' , nd' at "",'co,""
ot . 1I ..' ods

,

".
,

T" Roman "my on I.. Mo' ch " de, w bd bv

toe Jew"h h."",ion Flav,", Jo>ephU5
1 Con1H>gent> of ,.. li ght '''Med mt,m,\, , nd
cav,l,\, """'ch soout '''ead " , p' ecoU1'On
og.'n" .mQu,", 2 The vongc" d COMpO'OO
01 one legion plU' , fo"e of e,",I,v A, '"
Polybiui c1,y. to. I. gion, d' ew lot> 6, ,,. to
dec''''' wh'Ch On. ' 00016 f",,,, ' M v'"9UO'6
3 TOe c'"'o ,u'Yel"''' compo,oo ot IOn m.n
hom.>co CeOl u'Y. Tn i. mo" m,,"" 00< m,n
"om eo"" ten,. E. ch m,n co"'. 1 " ,' owo , ,'
Olu' 'OO i"' ''om. n" O..,."MV f o< m"kinQ ou'
,he c,mo 4 Toe 0'00'"'' c"'o' who," job"
",os ' 0 c1. ar 0' b, ia go . ny ""u,.1oOmcl.,
5 The '1"""",', ".,wnol oM "," of
lio" . o. n" .coom""oi.d by, " ",og
mountoo e'co' l 6 Tho gene' a' "d.ng w'th h"
bodyg, ,,d "'oicl1 ",os 6..w" t' OMtho 'ao'" at
t he 'u..Ii ,,,, c,"al,y . n6 i"'an"y 7 T,,"
comb'"ed ",,",onary C'v"' Y. TOe'e we'e , 20 of
""" 0 to o.ch I. gioo S The mute'
6" m, n". 0 , ioge oog,,,"' _to,,,e,,. '3m,
ealaOu' " etc. 9 T,," ""'"' offi, .,,_IOjJates,
" ,buo", ,od ,,,",..y P..t.ct> w'th en ."oo,-r, at
pck.d "oop, 10 leg,on, E' Ch logion w"
he,d, 6 by ,,' Qui"'., 'otrOuod. d by the ot,,",
,
THE EMPIRE t 40 8e- AI) 200
Til E ARMY I N TilE FIELD
Celtic on"n, and an Ital ian In"" ...hich
i. far <00 (:Omp,"", to de-scribe (""" illu,-
.rauonon p. 2J6).
The auxiliat) infantry vHied from
lighl-armed troup< ,,,,,h .. . he !>lingers
.00...... on Tn"an', 0>lu",n, "'00 " -ore
00 armour at all and. if the arti.t is 10 be
t>clin..,d, 00 shoM ""h<:r,IOfully arml
troup< ...hoo,e armour " .. idcn.i.c:o.l <0
lhat 0( t he lqioonarin but of inferior
q...lity :.he onl)' " .. tile USC
of oM lb.. ,at her lhon t he """,_.
scak a"""", made by oc...-_
ing ........lapp'n, row. of ",...al soli... on
10 a undotprment. Sales " aried
in siu from 0 .... to long.
CuI of CUl t aSS ..... much t he
,,""'e .. the mail .hm. ........
u.ually bronze ""...ion> of .he
k,iony Iype. The
of th. ..moo d i nfant ry u,uall)' "
.word , imil . , 10 t he glu<Jiu,
. ndo sbort . peo"
Arche", who ore ",ually of Ea"ern
or igin, arc sho"' n on T,aian', Column
w.ar ing mail . hirt. which ate just a
longer ve"i"n of t he eavalt, ' type They
used the how wbich "'.,
much .maller t han the English longbow
and '.i" of wood on
the inside of with horn and on
tbe wit h ,i new, A pair of bom
nock. to which the ..,i ng w.. anached
",infor ccd Many of
thex nod,.. bttn found on Roman
sit....
The Army in t he Fiel d
0 .. mar<:h
The J.....'i.h h,st........ J....-phu. In hi.
_ .. t of the J.....,.b orvolt ( AD 66-
c. 73,' a rcmarUblc _nt of d..
Roman arm)' in the tield, .. i. remark-
abk beausc il.oo- the <ilt...... COII-
.......us m of the k oman. Although this
account " 'lOS ... """" 'han :lOO)...an
after .he tunc of Pol ybiu. and i.
no! frum hi. work, " is
alm""l
Each mornin, at do)' br eak t t>c c-co_
tunon.. still to n ibun",' "0"
and Iben go> wit h tllem to tb.i,
RighI
A....... 1,""" T,...o', C",,,,,,,,
""' <C"'''Q W ' 0<"'''. b<<lo;jo o'
""'... T....v mo<c" lull>.,mod ono W 'Y too,
,."",no' on 0 ""I. 0". ' "", I<ft
,h",,_
from t he ",,,<toJ. They then
rctUT" 10 lhe.. ccn' un..., ,,'1>0 ... . ""_
SoMItbled "1lJ.l"'ll '0 t hei, ,,'Ott:
or denfor lhedoy.l fil has btto decided
10 bmok camp, they " 'Ii , for lhe si gnal
10 he .. by the t rumpn=_ 0 0 It>c
fint t rump"" hlo.. t he ... Slrud
and . he soIdien gather up l hei r equip-
ment. On the second t he tenlSand <Khcr
surplus Jo.dcd on ' 0 lhe
mul ... ; lhe ",mai n"'ll ..-ooden strue-
lIu" in lhe (amp burnl and lhe
so!din> usnnbk fo. lhe march.
J.....phus d...,:nption of . he legion-
ari es ' w <y mU<h retI...... . he
..fo,m. '" .\I ari ... who, nearly 1" '0 ccn-
turin had compelled sold i....
to carry lhei, equi pmenl, from ,,'hich
'he)' rccrivood ,he "' .' Uri",
mules' . Eac ll kgiona.)" had .0 cart). a
...w, ba.krt, p",un (dol. ,,;, . ickle,
Iea, he. sttap, and a ehoin. To lhese
,houJd be adde-dan tool and
l un cuner, but It ........ld be " TOOg 10
.uppos.c: . haI each soldier carried oJi '"
. hese i ...,. Besides these he had to
airy ,II""do).. ' . attonS. on
the nuu-eh sbo\O,,, on Ttajan', Col-
umn (0 below). "I1>c-)' airy <bc:ir
shidd.on t he Ief, silk. prnumably .us-
from a .houkk, ..rap as in
Pol)"biu.' day. The .hield, are .ho....n
so ,hat lhe <keota.;"n be
Ottn, bUI " '. know from eae..ar' . chron-
THE RO!,IAN EMPIRE
!
I
t
,
l
id 'h. ' hiel d haoJ Iea'he. OOHr.
"",'er. 1 examples 01 "h,.h h..,. .....n
found, T hn e ha,'. a round lK,k a' ,h.
f""ll t<lT 'he b<."' , r h,' legionarie' " I'
'hc '''ln mn ma,ch harchea<Jed "'i' h
'hei ' hdm.ts "'"1'I",d 10 [h." flghl
, hould. ," ; o'h. , wi"" ' hq are
a,med, 0.'., h,. kh . houlder "h
lep>na'Y CI.ri... I ",ok "'i'h a cros.boo.
a' , he lop [0 "'h",h hi' .. ,ic,J,
A""......[ can Ixidenufie.! a
III' ("..' n ,,}, eot.'ng pol or huo:kn
and Iea,he. bag " " h a handle f...,'
Cl lTyll. clothn and pcnonal hek"'ll-
",g. , Th. sad:; . , 11>< "'p pr<>bahl , ' h"ld.
hi..." on. ",hieh in an emergen..,'
ha,' . '0 be CDI>ugh for ' 5 oJay. , Th"
",'Idi," " has ic' die' "'h"n "I' campaign
"'I' "'heal haked in ' h" lo,m of ",1,,'le-
meal h,<cuilS, Thi, ",as 'uppl.men,.d
hy .....un, eh""", and oour " 'in,,, all 1' _
.....-ed 1)'1'''' of food, lX'ho:n in camp 'ho:
soIdtcr'<din "-as m""h "",..appoot l<lDg
b ,'2"a, ion. I[ m,lllll)' ,i[... ha,e re_
HIIr-d """'" from ....." munon. p,d
and ",be. meal< ton..k< poultl)', "JP,
liw. I><llli.h and I grea' 0 ' Iruil
and "<gnablcs. 1'01 [0 m.n, ion sail.
", h...-h "'a, oon" oJeted a ""'-'-">'>1 y
(I n [he third ltum!""" , iR",, 1[h" "rall -
glce> ru,hed '" ' "ke " I' [hci r p",i' i" ", i"
'he r.nk>, IId"r" "'!l ing OU I , a herald
, ' . nd ing 10 hi' righl of l h. genera l ,' 1'-
qu lt"d Ihrc. l imc' ,,'1><1her ' he sold",,"
"'er. for ,,'a' and [h,,,,, ....... Ih
..sld..... ,.....",-..1, ' W. a,e rca.1)",
in 'hel' .nlh...,i;tsm. """,oJ ' hei, rijr:h[
l ,m<lna, "', ,hen ..., ou'
"'''h .I<:h 1' hold"', hi' p"'lIion In
Ibc tanh,
The ca"al,)' anoJ infantry
pc,f,,,-,,,,,d lhe ioh> Ihal in I'olyhiu'
um" "",.1 10 he d"". h,' lh. ex"",...J,-
",,,,, _"'oul ing ahcad "f [he a" ny and
" li ng a, I><, dygua rd I"r It
i. inlriguing to 1\1>1,' 'h" ,,"'<lan' " f
n" n-H," m.ns tQ 1"',1'<', m 'hi' la,' 'a,k
The .. bKah l,,"' n of [he ", Je, "f
m""h" l:,,'.n in lhe <1I.1'"on ",hich .._
00ITI1'IflJ lhe on p , 23H
T he .... <xpec1.d 't> 00\'.'
JOkm PC' day' under normal..-.-l".......
al'houxh '",,<:cd ""'''he-s of 5<Jl.m PC"
"..
... , ,. .. . Cal"""' """"' ''\1
''''''''''l . ,, _ C...., """" TOo
. ""' , Ih. ""'" hOI ofl , ,,,, ,,
,""y,no h" hel""", 0"" ''', , wm" , nd CIOI" '''lI
'" h" u"'", 0".' "'. "'","
and m<>... ar. recorded , The pi"n_
".rs ,, 'c, quil'ped II' deol ",i' h all
(lh>[aclc., ' f'h,-re "CK [h",. mel h,"is of
"''''' ing ' i"cf' , If a 'i"er ",a, f,"dablc
bUl r"1-I1"", ing. halfth" ca" . 1' y"nlered
Ih. ",atcr ul',,,eam and ' h" half
downst"..m, 'l' h" glOUp UI"'I, mbrok.
,h. of ' ho: "'hil" lho><:
do.""mtrnm <..ughl the men or ""luip-
menl earned by' [he ti",,, , If ,he
ri".r "'-as '0" deel' '" f...-d. ,he hrid",
h"'l.kn .., ho rr...-cheJ " 'i' h II>< pi"n-
ttn , u nCj'.-.! 'he peoblem and d<-I."ided
"'herhe' It> "" n....U<:I a I' lk hrloJge or a
h'idge of 1><"15, \l:'h.n a "'I'll ,.mpaign
"'"' en,'i,ag"d ,,'i[h ' ho aim " f h'ingin.o;
the arca undcr direc' and l,,' ,manenl
THE E.\t I' IRE 1.(0 DC-"" ' OO
THE ,-\ R ,"," I '" T ilE H ELD
",,,,..<>1, a more perma".,n[ , ..
mig!\! be huih, '''ch a, ""n"ru,'1"d
hy T rajan '" cr"" 'he Danube "' Ih.
It"" (;a'c" This "'"' ' ,500m IOl1g and
"'a, huih "f zo ma"i". ""nc piers
high and .omwide , ul' l'orl ing a
' uPC" ""''1u," The "'"..normal hridg"
was ''''''' ''''''1ed of w"oden pileo ram-
me,j m[o lhe ri ,'.,. bed i n pai .. ah",,[
"m af>lrt , 'I1Ie-se ....... joined by' ,........._
heam>'" f""'" a ocnn of u n[leo " 'hich
.ul'P,>ned ,he mad"...y, Caesar". hridlt<
.......... [he Ithi".,. " 'h",h ...... probahl,'
a' Cohk nz "'he'" II>< Il.hine i'
half a kil<>met, e wide and up [0 e, gh,
mel"'. deep. ,, '. , of Ih" 1)' 1'<', The regu_
I.,,, '." f the'" hrid ges i, attested hy lhe
'"

THE ROMAK' EMPIRE

Abo
6 Le3',,"' ,,",old 00""' "om ",,"'.-.ott
7 Tont 'eat"e' hom [ho AOlan'"" Wall
6 P, Ii,ade ""e "001 Had, "', W,II
10 6uo'" a"d moss ,.n " omC'omana
11 f. qu'o. ,gh' ch.,n I.om Nu",.nt,.
Abav.
1- 5 ."'!'on"'''- tool, 1 $,o.,o l,om "" ""n, ,.
2 Pic'". Idol"bra ) 1'0'" c,""",,,. 3
t n"."Ch'og tool "om <."",, 4 f urt
cu'lo' hom N"",,,d 5 Reco"" ' '''''' ''" of ' ''''
d,gg,ng tool.
"
,
,
,
,
,
In batt le
Little can be , aid of the basic legionar y
tact ics of the ea rly empire, A' long a,
the weap"nry remained ,he ..me One
mu ' t .., ume ,ha' the legion ar y con_
tinued to fighl i n the "me fa,hion,
Ait hough lhe shiel d had been , hortened
squar e, pl u' two feet for guy_rope" and
held eight men {a ccm'ub,miurnj, T he
c. mp di ffers co",iderably f",m that
de"-'ribed by Polybius . Many perma
nent legionary fortre"e' ha\'e been ex -
c. v"ted which gi \'e . n idea of t he basic
l. yout. Ah hough the centurie, are " ill
encampe d i n pair<, rec.lIinj( lhe old
manipular ,y'lem, and no douht ' he
prior and posterior centurie, are , til l
the barrack blocks
form t he perimeter of th e c.mp, Thc
barrach were buill ah<,ul 30m bad
from the rampart, well out of range of
mi ssiles. Eac'h ce nt UrVblock wa, com-
p'"ed of ten OT cln'en ,," of d"uhle
which OCC\lpied .h<,ut two-third,
of l he block, Each double room con-
, iste d of a bTge bedroom ahout 4Sm
, q uar e hol di ng cight legion"ie' with a
, mailer room for lhei, equipment . At
lhe "ther end of l hc block were the cen
tury office, . " d the cent urion' , living
q u. rt ers .
A, in 1'01ybiu,' day t he camp was
divided down the middle hy the -via
which led st raight from the
p<,"la pra<ta" a. The ot her end of t his
road , which led U> lhe poria dewrnan",
, o. called because it wa, nex' '0 t he tenlh
manipl.. i n l' olybius' camp, was called
the , 'ia dwmrana, T he camp wa' st ill
di \'ided laterally by t he principaii"
where the , oldier' had for medy ", -
semhled, but no wa ,p.'<.i. 1 the
",-incip,a, which was pl.ced on the via
f"incipaiis facinl( down t he via Jeam"",a
and back {(I bac km , ide by side wi, h t he
pr""",i"m. wa, provided OS the opera_
tion< cent re of the camp. T he tr ibu ne,'
qtt an cr< 'l ill ttl.l ned t heiT!(,r mer posi -
lions along l he v w principali.'. These
pe rmanent camp' were orij(;nally l im_
beT_buill , but hy thc mid_" t cent u ry
M> i n (;er many, .nd by thc end of l he
cent ttry in Brit ain, t hey were being re-
builI in stone, Thi, i n " one
reHec" lhei r accepted pe rmanen ce and
nOl , orne new threat . T he,e were
like smail town<, completel y sclf,ulli"
cieIll wit h ho, piral. , wOTh hops , etc
di,eO\'ery of the supporting pi les at
l h. n one point on t he Rhi ne,
Sc\'cral iron point s from t hc.e pile,
were di",,,vered in the Rhine at H<.mn.
A det. iled descri ption of t he const r uc-
ti"" of Caesar', hri dge i. gi \'en in the
capt ion 10 t he illm trat ion on p.
If the cur rent was not tOO strong, or
if the w"' too deep for a pile
pontoon bTidge could be buill. Arr ian,
in hi s A nabasis a/ Alex ander, de",ribe.
bridj(e over t he I ndus wilh
the comment t h", he doc, not know
what met hod Alexander used but th"l
he wHl describe long-eSlohh.hed
Roman met hod which wa, used to
bridge ,he Rhine, Danube, T igri, and
Euphrate,. !loats, he adds , ar c the
quicke" met h,\d of
At a given the hO.ll ts were
al lowcd to dr ift down strea m "ern first
wilh a rowing boat cont rolli ng them
again" l he cu rren, while thcy wer e
ma",,",,uvred int o p' "ition, Pyramid
shaped wicker " ate , filled wi, h Slones
were l hen lower ed from the hows of
eac h boot to moo r ,hem t he
"ream, As each !x,a' wos man<lCUHed
into po,il ion at thc Ulrreel int en 'al
(prob. b l}' alxl u[ fin met re' ) .nd an-
chored , li mhe" were laid l<l ,pan l he
gap and ,ecured by crossplanks 10 form
the mad, Ladders were laid along eit her
, ide of! he road way to make il ..fer for
t he hor, e, and ani m. l.. T his
type of bridge is dep icted on Traian's
Column
The great advant age of hmh ,he
tr e" le and p" ntoon was t hat they
could be exte nded across a r i\' er wit hout
an ..t. bli,hed bTidgchead on the oppo-
,i'e b.nk,
At lhe end of the da,. , march an en -
campment would be estab li, hed, foni_
fied with a ditc h, ramp. rt and palisade
iu' t .s i n I'olybi u" time Many ex-
ample' of ' take" five Rom.n fC"e1 iong,
poin'ed at ei lhe r end and wa' ''ed at the
centre, have bc-en found, These have
been identified a, pali, ade stakes, T hey
ar c qu ite differ ent from lho'e de, crih<od
by Polybiu, and if l he y ore indeed for
p. li, ades l hey , how . complele changc
of empha sis; th e)' c'.n har dly have been
ver y otlect ive, fOf when embedded in
the lur" of the ramp.rt the y woul d only
ha\'e pt'Olruded abOUI a metre, ,\'-lany
fragment s from k at heTtents have been
fou nd. These tent, were te n k ornan feet
"
'rue EMPI RE ' 4(> llC-M>,OO
Til E ARM Y IN THE FI ELD
-
12_'. T"' _ ""
12 , ... , __<II Ion ....... .......
\'11__ _ """'" ""
Bnon_ ,J -."' .,....._
'--' _"" 0_"'''' _to lI' '' n.
"""'" """"'-'_ ""- , lI' '''''''' w .. _
1. A,..,.,.-...._01' ..,..,., "' .... "'"
,_ 0..,.._.. .... Ion ..
.-, ""' .-al,""'-'w.. .... -..
...... _ _ """", ,"" 10 '>II __
,-
-
T... '-al""" ><VI .. _
1_1 "_..
_010"0_
1, ..........._. _ w_l
Z L..,.. J
J _o_' 1,__
'0_ ._11 ........ "... (_)
l Z Go" _
Tho _kb _1On\I "",,_... .,
--_ _.,-
-
' ... _lOOfIII .... ....
.....,.,._.. ...
f ... _
......... _-...,. ... -

ThO ;n..' ,"""". <,," o<y "." .,. bloc' ""th
'1000" ,"""" too "'" leg",,,.,,, to. 'ar oM
T'" co,,,,,, ,,,n', qllo" , ,, oM ,,,,,,," ' . off,,,,,, .,,,
","" r,,,,,,
T HF. ROM.... K EMPI RE
"''' ,I..Vcrow"",,
1 C"""", C<""" "'_ of 0" ...
ZC"""", obsi<fton"", "",do! of g' ..
3 COfOM M,,,.I,, Corona
S C",on' " "",,, 3-5 ... gold
.- 1--4 1<1 cenl..... __
I _"""" __ ..
... .....-. Os.....,.,.
2 l ....... "'"""""' ,,_
3 _ _ ' guool_II_...
_ _-""t",,,,_,
, o )-d- "e"'"", __
A 5" ....."0. _'.
' f '_ ",..' ,,"'"
7 Bad 01 . ''''''''' "'""'", ',"'"
'" '' n",ooc. "', ooooloo"''' ,,", ><Ouri'
Ho= p """ I,,,,,, C" "unlum
9 O,agoo st,oo.,d f,o", N, . " ..b;ebe, Cob' en,
Muse" m
10 ( M",f,oo "0'" S' " "b,og
in ..." ' st .,....'01) ",", ,houlder guards
had boom ootloped '0 comrenu't. A,
lim ,hi, _ probably doM by "'''".d-
i "l 'Mmail sh.irt ,orowr ''''' ,houkkn,
bu, la,,,, i, ;>o:;h;.,..td by ,he: in...,.
duaion <>f,he: 1o<U" ","h in
.utieula'td shouldt . guard .
AIt"''''8"h .he armycould nowligh, in
ont or ..,...,.allinn, ' hoc linn nil! had
'0"" ablt '0imtrchangt and this m,,,,
haVt \>ten dont , h ilhdraW1l1or ,....,
po, ....,...... c.n' ut i . Th mi -cylindrical
t<u lu m ,,,,,m, 10 havc Ix",n ,,,,,,,ifically
to co'.r bolh ,he fr" nl . nd
side of ,ho ",Idi.. whon ,he gars were
ope ned, and i, do"s nN ,",em un",a,,,n-
able .up"""e that tht "banJuni ng of
tl>e >",t u", i n 'M 3rd ""nrury mark , t he
tnd of.his mt' hod of changing linn.
[Juri n8" Caoosar', si.S" of AI""ia ""t
"",,'M pJ,,,.. heing used as a drltnsi,.
w""'ron, ""hieh a derp:-r insight
,n.o,"" RomanpOJ....and sword n>nh<>d
of 11= Caoosar 's Jq:;onarin
art ,ryi"l to hold bad ,he Gauls ...""
anbtnki"ll throughthe:drltnca, "I1>c-y
have obviously th"""'n rhe:ir light.r pol"
""d an: us,ng ,he heavier onet a. ,pea.,
'0hold .he....myat bay un,il ""nfuror-
men.. an be brought up. \I;'''''n , his
hapP"n, ,he:y 'bro.... rheir po'l" and dooc
in wi.h , hti . ",vord, in ,h. ,,"ual la,hi""
One ,hould no,"ssume that thi' .... ony
o,her "I th-c auivitit, of ('--,,<,..'s army
a innovatiom. T his defen,ive m h"d
"f t1gh,inll had probably been dev<lored
to comren'ato for the los, of ,he ' hird
lin. of ' reat m. n (" 'i,,,-ii) ,
On. advantage of the n.w
composition of the k gi"n "" ", .ha' a"
individualltllion could he ..d in a
varitty of f"rmations. Vege1;u, ,alk! of
d.....1ng it ur t"" ""bora dp ",i, h the:
fin, ' 0 li(' h at ,be 1Ton, and . he Ol x,h
' 0 ttn,h a, ,he: reor, Aformation . hat Ii..
idoeaIly boIh Roman tactics and ,he ne",'
, m -enho:>n is ,he 'btnk'hmugh'
f""",,, ion k........ ' 0 ,he sold"," n ' M
' pic', htad' . Thi. _ fooncd wi,h one
cohort at 'M fron, (presumably ,he
tim) with ,he second and thltd in ,he
""",nd line, ,he fourth,lif'h and oixth in
,h-c ,hird line and ,lit 01""" four ""horts
,n .ht r....r line form ing a ....dgt.
In IItne..1one must a..ume l ha. tht
army .onti n....d ' 0 ligh. in 'implt fur-
malion" a, ' h. y had in the rcpuhlk
The (If comma nd pr.c'i ,od hy
. he N"ma." durinll the eorly prin<'ipalc ,
".
in ,,-hieh QIlly , h" r"lular profeMional
office.. comman.kd a[ century ",...,,1,
precluded pooaibililY of imaginali..."
-.K:S tbl"ll larll" hadI<'S of <mops.
Roman commanden rdic<l t>u,ilyon
uio<d and ,n,..ted [lOClia ..'hieh Uliliocd
..... vast npoericnc<: oi ,he centurions.
\"<tICI, ... .......n tao.'tia, ..hieh invol..."
complicl,ed mM>OCIl'Tn, """", ' 0 be
dn"-n """"'" ffOnl t .... apb.. oi
lI" ll l uch .' Scipio and c.e.a, than
, nonnal pncticc' of ,.... army.
Aflu tbe b.nl"
Aft"r. Nlll". 1<.....1eu",omarilj' "'-
" ..rded wldi",," whoo.c p<1'form.1nc<:
been "x"mplary. I n ,he ",publiesoldi",...
could loot for "'ord 10 ' ....i r .ru.re of [I\<:
qui,. al"'rt fro m decoralion, for
'-alour . Iluri nlli Ih" "mpir. this had to be
modi fi"d .. , .... ,,, w"r. far f.w.r oppor -
luniti", for r" ward, uf d,h., It
became cu,h,m,ry for t he empcw" in
order '0 hep hi, m,op, happy, '0give
pca""1;m" pay-ou," (don.,i ,''')' often
[h. equivalent 10 live yea,,' pay. Such
I"'ymc nt. wcr. made when a new em_
pcw, came to [h" thronc, I n the ' u' m"il
f"l1"winlli 'he dea, h of N"ro, when four
empcroro came '" I h. throne in , wift
,u."Ceo.ion, lhe do"_,iv,, played a very
lffiportan, rnk. T he Proo,;am were
olfe",d 'en yea.. P"'Y ,,, support Galba' ,
elaim ' 0 ' .... thtone, \l;'l\<:n ,he bribe ......
not fonhcomi"ll ,hey murdtred him

!"""""ona o! ".. ....,"'''''' M..c.... , ....'" 01
'Oll"'" XVHI , onow... _."00.' corof'd
.,"".._H. "",,1iH ,na ''''Q_ ',"",oj,
WI< >;I 1ed ,n ,'" v"u' d,.. " ..
afte, a reign of onl y fuur mon,h,
Om ing lhe repuhlic mihtar}' de"or a-
t;ons had been wun tarad yon indh'idual
merit regard Ie," uf rank. Dur ing , he
empire ",,"aill were
10 eo" .i" rook . and lhe tradi,ional
reasoll for 'he award was often ignored,
T hus Ihe e",,"'" .""",/i, could onll" b<
a..'arded to men of ron.ular rank and
no had any connection " i,h
,he>e:oOf .h,po. T he , ...."""<Jb"'.Ji<m4hs.
a,.-.rd<d for ..,-inl! all army, "'as b}' i"
THE EMPIRE 140 Be-AD 200
TilE ARt"'\' 1:"1 THE HELD
,-
A..,,,, _ .. 1_"""""''''' Go<m.nv
... ...- '" ,, 1_ "",,, IlO'<l ,nlOy
App..ontly of c."", ",.g'", f!>ay __
.w"'_'0<>om"""" 0014,..,
.-
G".."..... 0... ,"", ...0<1 ..
'"'\IOU 01 _"" "l7l'
d.-nn>y -"'" _ .. __"" h, ..
0>0\100 m lOng ........ fike .....
--
T HE ROMAN EMPIRE
Abo
A "li, 1f,om tho> T","pi<t of k>oIlo So,.,"","
Rom< , '><)'Wi"" , " . "" hom " iump" . 0.10
Be. I'>' i<o""" of w" are . ',,"gOO " ouod ,
" ophy w"' ch" "'en , ""ul"", " ,q" by
. ight Ieg,oo, ,,,, On the rigo, is . lUbic."

A ",,"e I, om the triu"'pool . ,, " 01T"", . ,
Rome Comrt" rn ", " "'g h" ",cto'Y over 10.
J""" In ,he " ' "mph, 1woc"" i"" ,00
"'<>' 0 ' '' "' " e " , i"9 tne ".O''''. f,om 'he
te", ple . ' J.", ,, I, m In ' '''' ", nl' e ell" be_n
t"" , e",," O' ongOO T"" placard,
being car, ied ,n ".. _ kq'''""d would nave
""'"" 0" " ' 01>0"' of ,oe " o'b'" All to"
, oldie" " e onar"""" ond " 0"" W","",
T HE EMPIRE 140 tI(:-AD 200
THE AR.\l l THE H ELD
A......
T.. v'''''''''''.,e" 0' r"<I' ot """", "wo,
otoctod '" commemor..e h,. " 'elQ<Y 0"0< ,....
Jew, w"-eh <u"''' "" ", ," ,..., ,ock,"" ol
Joru" 'o", ," 70 AD
-
l

I
'"

I..

..

a.tow
T.... """",,,,,,,, "" 0 cuo t,om B"...,.....
.. C. -.. l".,.... Mu..um !le?n,,,n\l hom
" .. iOh. "'" ..,.,.. __t"" _ rrx.
ll<'S"b>v T, ,n ... _"" 'n h...... ""...
.... os _"II t.. "'_ _ h on _ iO
...... M "II'" on _ tword1 a.,t.l"1l hom
,_ __"II 0 "'''''''''' """' .., .....
"'-<Ii .... _"" '. "'" .....',,..., ""
_10<1 "'" "'" "' (__l """' t
_""' ,!". T I>IJt'I ._ ....,...
tno .....oboo 01 _ 01 J_
c...-... Of' c.."" T... _
("'11>"'_ -'\I' _ "'"
,, t>r ",-....s. '""'", ....
.-
The triumph
During the repuhlic. rornmander ...hu
had ...'Oft. disi"e could expe<'1
ro be ."....ded. Inurnph. This ,ietO<}
celebno'ion ...... enshnned in the "cry
binh of Rome. ,houj;h i, ",,"Cd much of
its delail ' 0 , he Ernnam, AceoN.ing
bu. mi gh' aloo ha"e heen "''Ofn for
.ports, Since mOll Ieg>onal)' hel me"
haJ cret. h<>lden. even though cres ts
........., no worn in hattie, i. ""'m'
probabk . hal SIanda.d helmets wi t h
cre-to .....,re "''Ofn for paradoes.
The ",",.,.11"}' sports (H .I'P'<" (ry_
""""I abo"e .....".e highly
skJlJe.i d colourful exhibi.iom rer-
formes! by tho:: """alf)' u,inS d umrn)'
ja"elins, Fo. ,hnc cxhibi'ioo,.....hi eh in
"""'" tnpe<;t, membkd medics'al
tournamen". hoch horK .nd man ""ere
elabi,utely a.""",red , A mult it ude of
hi. ca" alry . por .. e'luipmcn'
from all "'.., . ,he empi.c. Thc g=>'est
lind of , hi, 'yre of e<jui pment eOm'"
from a . ite at Straubing in
B;s"a.ia. Thio oite h.o. p. oo uecd 'everol
helmets, a reaves and hunc pi""",
in . emark.ble ".te of preservation.
Hel mets .... hi,h ha,'e been foun d a, far
ahel d a, Britain and I" ael come in male
and fem,lIe per hap,
th "l lhe Con' e'lant> represente d Greeks
and . Thc drawing on p. 245
repre,-ent, th,' in t he
lrd century All , I , Ken" highly unlikel}'
,h., ,hIS p."'i,e ....ao of Roman origin,
T he appearanee of a , po n , hel mc' on
Ihe rehef at Pc.gamum ' ugges ts
' h.or it ",IS e"her of Celt ,,' or Ea."ern
ortgtn,
or di.honounbk di""bargc. Tho: grea'
",t di,honour .ha, could happen to a
...bolc untl ...... d..bandmcnt . "I1I.ishar-
pencd ' 0 four of ,ho:: C>CIInU1 kgion.
...'ho:: n Vnpa..o.... <amc '0 tho:: tbronc
.t'cr 'ho:: dcf..t of Vitellius,
Paradn a nd spo",
The hand",S '>' U of .wards ...... per_
formed bdon: ,ho:: whole army and .ooO;
pia...., in fron, of a furmal rar- Jose
phus dncnbn sud> parade, adding
,ha, ....,h man who "Ci,cd an a ard
,",,,, ob,..ncd . f\$C tn nk. The Je ;,h
hi"",;an al", Si,..,s an "",-oun' of a fou.
monthlj' pay paradc during.he ,iege of
Jerusalem, He ", obviousl}' "e.y im-
pr...sed b)' it: ' A , Ihei r custom, ,hc
''''''1'' ,,,,>k ,ho::ir ar m. f",m ,hc ca,e, in
whic h up t ill nuw they haJ h<:<:n ' t." ed ,
anJ aJ v.need d ad in ma il to be paid,
The ea"al.y led ' heir horse , ",'hieh were
riehl y capari"' ,"ed , , . ' he ,,-ene gliu er ed
fa. and wide wit 10 , il"er and g<>ld' . T he
pay parade lasted f<>ur d'}', - prob. bly
one day fur eac h (>f 'he four
Jo<cphu. impli.... ' hat the Roman, had
,pc"ial p.,ade armOUr. I f ,his was ",'
"cry lilt le of it rcmai n. too..' .\tany
face-<:m'erine helmeto .... hieh have rome
<0 heh, "" c' e on,'e con.idercd ' 0 be
parade armour hut arc no.... known 10 be
"",,",ry sport. equipmen', Howe..r. the, e
is Cry elabon.e hebntl wItieh, if i,
..u e.., worn. could only """ be<:n
U>Cd for puade . I . os nciden'III)'. ,he
la,,,,, s...,.'i'inS cumplc of the tr-aJi
tiona! halo-Conn,h,an 'ype helmet ,
s.o.n., of body .rmour from rhe
lrd oen'lU)' .u>ha,.., su,,"'I'"Cd. These arc
prubabJ)' from ",",...Iry parade arTnOU.
T HE ROMAN EMPI RE
the famous l<1l' end , when 1{'\Inulu.
killed ,\ n on, king of th e C.nin,n" . , in
ingle he 'tripped t h' d..d
chi drain of hi' armour , hung il ,,"or an
<III k hraro:h ' 0 form a ,rophy, .nd tl><n
crow""..! wi, h. laurel wT<a,h rai ""d ,I><
t rophy .... 10 hihoulder and kd hi.
mm in f"'OCC'"'Iion . ingi "ll """lI' of
t numph. Thi. " ... Ih, origi n or lri-
umph. Tho< Euu5am in'rud.... II><
CNnoo: in'o I I>< procn...... and -"" ,I><
basic <1Tno of II>< m_ f'lw' fW,
also ....p<>mibk ror l l>< name it...lf
.Ad for II>< ' l'pe of 'NI
...."<>I" N.
U'il h eJlP"'!' ion of t l>< . 1><
lri umph J ......,lopeJ in and
pl,ndour. Ahhough d". il, m,ght ,'ar)'
...it h ditr,..,n, "i"mph"",,,. ",gular
f"nn.t " 'u follo....d. AI of II><
pr"....,"ion the magi,,,.te. anJ I he
",na'o"", They wer" f" llnwed hy h<,o,)-'
la k,n from the enemy, wi1h '"
,."
model' of l he hOll ie' an d Ihe "ar 1m,d
"ilie, . Then the <a<;Tifi"ial white
f"Uowed hy th. pri.on".., som.-
limeo earri.d .ooulder hIgh on pla, -
forms amidst Imphi" " f '''ptured .t_
mour, lkhind t M pr i"""",.. rudc ,hoi:
It"""r.o.l in a ,ild"J ctu riol d.....n by
four 100""", elot l><d kin, "';Ih his
f... rN. I n h.. NoJ, I>< carricd
"""ptre aoJ . n oIi bru><h a" d behi nd
him in , I>< chari<ll ' ode a ,,'ho
...hi .p"rN. ' Rctn<1l'Ibe, you are i...1 a
man' ,
The chari<ll ..... fol ..,d by thol:
llOldien oIi"e -n:atm and
' houti ng, . /" T....-rJot'-behoid tl><
triumph.
Th" procn.ion "'''und through I I><
"red, of R'>me, p...ing t hrough tl><
t""O ,iTOU"" coming rounJ th"
Pa1aline hin and up 'he SacTed '1lia;- to
th" Forum, I ler. the ,hief pri" mer .....
nor mally led ,,11' to ......Ieon"
Abo...
I ... "."mph 0+ T" u' <N" t"" jew> H."oo;)
wo>u"," ,to wav ' '''ou-;;IO tho ",,,,, 0' ,..
l'","no.." """'" "" , "" SK,. V" '"
f",,,.m 10 It>eloot of IDa Caoilol H..... boog,..
to <OW"(> .... CI_ '-'''''.....
while ,he! p"""",ion cli mbed rl>< Cap;-
toli "" hill and I><re w-ai'N forlhe "'....
INt tl>< priooner had bftn ex""uIN
T hen ,I>< J"nenJ oacrificN ,I>< ...hll
01" n ou..i<\e ,he Temple of Jup; ,.,
1be of ,he n-iumph ...... re-
OInctN 10 ","'nd' ,,'ho had '""'" a """'_
pin, \''''01)" "'.",. a r<Jre181' n>nny
l >Urilt/l lhe empire only , he emperor
and hi. family ....,,,, al.......,d Ihi. honour.
There """""..,r, a Ieo""r f I...... calltd
an ",.,., i " . " or this lhe! gton.-ral ....,.,_
lked on , he! Alban moun, ...,." ral md..
."uth of Ihe ,iIY, and ent.red Rome
.il he r " n hor..had or on f""t the f"l-
I"wing morning 1"'le.J of an "I iv,
",r lh he ",me a crown of my"le
The Later Em pire All 200-450
THE MOBILE ARMY
The Mobile Army
Dr Itoger Tomhn
The Danubian ..... ars of Mareu, Aurellu,
exposed Ihe ..... eaknesses of lhe defensive
he had inheriled. Ne..... legion s
had to be raised 10defend haly's non h_
ern approaches. 'field armies' had 10 be
;mpr",'i,ed, officer; found and pro-
mot ed Valerius M,, _
imianus, "ne " flhefe..... senalo" 10
from Pannonia, is a forerunner of l he
gr eat Danuhian emperors of Ihe 3rd
cent ury : he .....a' an experienced
officer decorated by MOTeu, Aurelius
for killing a bar barian chieftain ..... ith his
own hand" ..... ho rose '" be of six
legion, in lu rn . The tirs l , oldie,,' em_
peror, ho..... ever, Septimius Severus, had
seen no aCli ve service untii the Danu-
legions hi m in ' 93, bUI
the need lor miblOTY ,uppon took him
on expedilions far beyond the front iers
of Syria and Brilain, On his deal hbed
he i' said 10 ha," advised his sons to
'enri ch lh e and de'pi'e eveTyone
el, e' , fk inc'rea,ed , oldier;' pay
, upplemented il Wilh donatives : their
were n()W recognised;
'he righ' w a gol d ri ng
symbolised lhe opportuni'ie, n()w
opened 10 them of into the
beyond, even in,o the ad-
mini strative po," tradi'i<mally held
equestrians. The legionary army was
ina eased by one- temh, by raising lhree
new Par/h,"" legions commanded (like
tbe hy equestrian
fects ..... ho bad been primu, pilu, lwi,e.
T..... o of them garri soned Ihe ne..... prov-
ince of (nort hern) Mes()polamia, bUI [he
wa, "a'ioned in a fortress ncar
Itome. T he "ld Praetmian Gu.rd w.s
disbanded fOI having procbimed one of
Sevcrus' opponents; il was replaced by
<en new cohort> of double (mini. r)' )
strength drawn from legionaries, most
of them the Danubians who seemed ' 0
uncou' h lo ,hc Ruman sena'orial ari, _
'""racy The new <iuaTdand the Second
Pa"hica, equi"alem in numbers to t bree
legions, formed a mobile re..,,'e to Ihe
fmn[ier armie' _ whe' her i[ wa' '" re_
inlo'e them, or ' 0 nu,h an u,urper.
Severu s founded a preeario"s dy na'ty
which lasted a quarter of a century, In
,he,e years, de'pi'e 'he fiw legion'
added by bimself and Ma'u, Aurelius,
the fromiers be<'ame strained t" break_
ing_pOInt In Ihe existing
tr ibes coalesced imo lwo confederacies,
bolh distant anceslOrs of modern Euro_
pean nati,m" ' he Frank. " n the Inwer
Hhin e, and , he Alamanns to lhe east of
the artificial front ier (limes) l hat linked
the mi ddle Rhi ne '0 Ihe upper Danub<:
East German people. like the GOlhs and
Vandals moved sout hward from lhe
Hallic , pressin,o; othe r tri be, against 'he
fron ' ier, and the m' e1ve.
'hreatening Dacia and the lower n an-
ube . In lhe ea, t lhe ramshackle Parthian
empire fell to an aggres,",' e Persian re_
,'i"al , whic'h ied to an im'asion of Homan
Me.o potamia and Syr ia a. l he first ste p
towards the rec(",ery of lhe we" ern
terrilories of Dariu"
Alexander 'he grand'on of
' he great Sever u,' sister- in-l. w, was
murdered by his troo ps at Main' in 235,
.fter 10 cha" ise ' he Alamann,
Hi s suece" or , Maximinu" bad b<:c n a
Danubian pea'anl . He was lhe first of
'he ' Illyrian' emperors , men of obscure
bm undoubled military geniu,
who doggedl;' fought invaders .nd each
,,'lier '0 rest" re a measure of Slability _
but at. fear ful cost. During 'he period
235- 84 Ihere were alm')';t 20 empemrs
who m uld claim to c"ntml 'he capilal
Rome, nol to memion nomi nal col_
leaguend countless u, ur pe r; , hu' ex_
cept for D<..:iu" who fe l! in !>anle
against 'he (i",hs (25')' Valer;an, ..... ho
died in Pe"i.n hands (afler 259/60),
C1. udius, who died of (270), and
Carus, who wa' " r ue< by a t hunde' bolt
perhap, of k gi0nar;, manufaC!UTe (2g3),
'hey wereaj] killed by thei, o..... n soldiers,
or someone else' s, Much l he longest
reign ",as tha' of GaJlienm (254 a
man of , om, cult ure (he fou nd time ' "
patroni se a phil osopher ..... ho was plan-
ni ng an utopian cily on ,he Bay of
Naple' ) During ,he'e '4 years lhe
Al,manns conquered tbe territory he-
Iween Hhine and Danube, and 'he
Goths Dacia, 'he \'(' eSlern pro,' inees
prodaimed lheir own ' Gallic' emperor;
in lhe Easl, l he Persian, lhe capital
AntiOCh, and were "nly Out by
ini'ia' ive of a Roman pTOtcc"oratc,
lhe , ara,'an of Palmy,a, Gallienu,
controlled lillie mor e 'han h aly and its
nor, hem approaehc', ,he Danubian
prm'ince' (i ntermitt ently), and f\frica,
h'" his 'refor ms' forged
the weapons u'ed his successots in
a rapid military r""o\'Cry , A medie,'. 1
source credits him with being the
first 10 form units, " he Hmllan
army ha"ing becn pre,' iousl y
famry' . This is an inde-
pendent cavalry for ces had c()ntribuled
to S..'erus' "ieI",ie' in , ivil war. Hut we
now hear " I' a at my under a
, ingle commander; and gold eo;ns were
struck al Mil an to honoUT , and no douh'
repay, ' he " r lhe Caval'y' ,
T hese <q"ile' induded ' Dalmatians' and
' Moors' , It can be no coi ncidence 'ha'
units of '1I1}'rian' Eq",' re, J)almQ!Q<and
E4"i ,,, Maur-:' arc 'ptemalically dis-
tri bu' ed among the fw n' ier
armies on lhe Danube and further ea",
' ''gether with ' IJJyrian' l ,quire, l"' omO/i
and &/"il<' SCUlarii . T bcy must deri\'C
fr om an 'Illyrian' <'avalry .rmy r""rui' ed
from D, lmalians, Moors , promoli (de-
tached cavalry) and ""'arii
(apparemly a reference 10 their use of
Ihe ,"mum shield), which wa' suhse-
quent ly dis persed, A similar distrihu_
tion is also found among uni ts of
m" unted arc hers and 1!quile$ SiaM' Slam
(perhap, Ihe mounted legionaries p"" ed
10 provincial governOT'- bodyguard' ).
T he infan' T)-' "f the new mobile ar my
con,i sted ofthe tradilional detachments
(,,<xlllat iones) from front ier legions,
which are anested hy in,,'rip,ion, of
in nort b- west Ma<-ed"nia
(Sec'ond Parthica and Third
and at strategi c point s in Pannonia, Sir -
miu m (lhe Get ma n and ll ri' i,h legions
' with ' heir a" xilia' ) and Po""",i" (, he
tw" fmm Da,i. Hipensis, and probably
Ibe fOUI Pannoni an ones a' well). The
virtual "f the' e de,ach_
ments from 'heir parenl legion, is re-
w aled by 'silver ' coins struck by Gal-
lien'" in 259/60 which honour Ihe Prse-
tori an Guard, the PQrlhica,
legion, on ' he Rhine and Danubc wit b
lh e ci"il- wa' rille ' Dutiful and Loyal'
(pia fi ddi,). T hese coin" however, are
nut fou nd on Ihe f"'miers _ ..... hicli Gal_
lienu, did not 'hen <"n' ",I -hut in
nort bern h aly and its m>rth- western
approaches: they were .urely paid 10
legionary detachments ..... hieh remained
I"y al after their parent "ni" proclaimed
us", pets,
' Senaw' ial' sources are hostile to Gal _
lienu; , hecau'e from c. 2[)o he
cea'ed '0 apr<,in' ,he
ary legales; instead, alilegiom are no"
commanded by eq ue" Tian prefec'" like
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lfUlP", " IICO'U'I JOI mLt
"u()I>bl ,snJO''"S JOJ"''l l
aai awa NV\-liO}l C1H.L
raised by Diodetian and to the
comi"''''s : th" e are the eadi e" >eh,,1(u
(m" unted (iuard,) and the crack Hqt<ire,
f' , ,,,,""i and liqt<ite> Comiln The per-
manent field force' of Diodetian and
his colleague" howe,'er, weTC ,man hy
bter st andard" hut the y could he sup-
plemented as req"ired from lhe t\(,w-
reinforced fromier armies, Th", an
Enplian papyrus " f 295 record' the
issue of fodder nO! only w the Cmni""
but al'" to a, many a' ten pairs
ary detOC'hmenrs, probahl y incl Uding
lhe pair f", m Daeia Ripens i, ( XIII
ti, ,,, ,,,o and V Afoadoni<a ). T hese l wo
are also found a, the garr i'on
" fDi"detian' , new Egyptianprovi nceof
Herc" lea, and were prc'"mably p<,sted
there hI' hi m, The impli ca' ion is Ihal
Diodetian, unlike allienus perhaps,
did nOl regard legionary detachment> a,
permanem, and returned them to fron_
lier dUlies when con"enien'-
The logi'li c, of the army were part of
rcli "m, wbi,'h lasted l he
lale- Roman period, Durin g the 3rd ,'en_
wry, lhe c urrency (and 'he Te laled
' ystem uf taxation) had collap,ed; lhe
arm}' re4"i' itioned laoour and suppli es
., needed, .t a 'fai T priee or n,me a, all ,
Diod etian regu1arised lhe "y"em 01'
le,'ying lhe food' t uff" raw materi. ls
and manufaC'l ured g,xld' (clol hing for
example) required by lhe army in 'he
form of laxal ion, hased upon a , urvey
of [he empire's resource, . The I'rae_
[o,ian prdect w uld 'hen Teekon whal
wa, needed fm the eoming year, and
calculale wltat each laxable unit "ught
!O P",Y; ordeTS could the n he gi ven
through the provinci. 1 g"verno" to
1<"'ally eleeled offiei.I" who eolle<oted
the taxati on i n kind and tr ansported it
10 whe,e it ,, "' "' anted. T he .ptem
a huge burea",,,acy (which
. 1", h. d to be ted and maintained), hUI
i' worked, T he army was no" paid in
' al ions , ,,,pplemenIed hy ca, h pa}' -
mem, for , aJary and donative, on
imperi. 1 oecasi"n, like Diodelian',
birt hd.y (22 Ikeemher), There is a
vi"id glimpse of the 'y"em in ' w(} f,. g_
men" Ii-om [he til", of .n Egyptian
." islant g,wernor at P.nopolis, T he
firsl collSis!s of copies of leners , ent oul
him in September
to prepa, " ion , for ' the .us-
piciously impending vi'il of Our Lord
the Emperor Diodelian', but o!hers
alll horisi ng the bsue of mHi ,.r)' ration'
Thus "Ilkia]; are to pay a
g. "i""" which can he identified as lhe
ala / Hib<m",m, two mont h" rations "f
b.,ley and "'heal : the totals are given,
and sugge't thaI ' he ala nu ml:>ered onl y
tl6 me n and l heir horses. T he seconJ
fragment c'on,i'" of Idler, received
from the pmcuralor of the I.ower T he_
baid. many of them . uthor ising cash
paymen" '" mi li'ary unils in ea,ly 300 :
thos on 30 Jan"ary the procurator wrme
to Ihe m aregu.< (who recei"ed hi, lett er
on 9 Februa, y), o, deri" g hi m10 pay the
a/a lllibero"'''' 73,500 denarii (pay) and
23,600 dma, ii (i n lieu of rations) due on
, January ti" the I. " li",r month, of
299, The mill ' g",und , 10"-' hut ex,'eed_
ing fine: Ihe m altgus even ackno"--
ledg'" a re4 ui,ition for hides 10 repai, a
e.valry ti)rt', g. te" and inf' ltm' the
beater th. l i' has been ' nihhled hy mice
and m",ilated' .
Diodet ian had dominaled hi' 001-
When he aodicated in 305, and
reti'ed 1o a fort ress palaee on Ihe Dal"
matian a serie' of civil wars fol-
lowed, ti-om which Con" an!ine 0 06-
n }, lhe , on of (; O"'1Onliu" emerged in
.124 a, ,,,Ie emperor , A eam-
paign (312) elimi nated ,\laxemi us, ' he
"'" of Maximian, wh" had hd d lIa ly
e"en again" (;alcri", . ( :on" .ntine, who
had used only . fraelion of hi, avail.hle
for ce" gave the credit 10 lhe Christian
(;od. "lore p"" aicall)', he
a new infantry uni', the auxili""" which
was 10 provi de the ' hock troops of the
la' e- Roman army, T he firsl aux:ilia were
proo.bly rai'ed hI' O","an, iu, or "Iax_
)I1n. n the y weee the Corn",i, ' he
' horned men' who are apparent ly de-
piu ed on ' he Arch of Cons<atlline, and
the ' armlet-..... eare ' , the Hra eehiali.
I ,",er we find them, . nd anoth" crack
wuiliu", pair, lh e Im'ii and View""
' ai'ing a Gertnan ..... ar a y od o' e the y
eharge. There i, gwd rea, on to ,upp<"e
that 'he formid.hle auxili" were rai' ed
.nd 'ecruited from Rhine-Germans,
whdher vol" nt eer, or prisoners of war ,
or ' he young men of I'H'" 'ett leme n" of
'\lomi"i"e ( 'erm.", e<taoli'hed hy
Diocleti.n and hi' on dere-
lict land in Gaul.
Con"antine abo rai' ed new legio""
but a more import ant , ou'e of new
' mo bile' units were t he exist in front ier
legions and lhe of olhe'
T HE LATER EMPI RE An 200-450
THE MOBILE ARMV
sl ralegic point s. detachment<
were wi'hdrawn for good : some of
[hem kept their ol d name, the
Quinta M"cedoniea, the longe" -lived of
all legion' (it w",' part of J u"inian' ,
army in the 6th cent ur y), other> 1(x,k
numeric.1 name<, like /'t';mmli or Un-
Mcimani, 0' names from a pre,'iolls
>t . [i"", like the Di"i"nst', whic h h. d
been a delachment of S<"Cond l"' /ita
' t.tioned at the Cologne hrid gehe. d of
Divit ia, ' Pair ed' with Ihe llititen,., are
'he FU"K"C""i, which had presumably
been the garrison of T ongr.. (Tungri) .
T he old Praelo, ian Guard was' di,s-
banded, no doubl because it h. d fO\l ght
for .\iaxemius, bu, also hecause il was
now OO" )Ie,, theT< wa, new mohile
army. The ' ok of imperial gnard' was
now filled by l he $Cholae, crack cavalry
uni" 500-'lrong (at lea' l in 'he 6l h
century), of which a dozen
by the end " f the 4t h cenl ury T hey
,,-ere followed by eaval, y
like Ihe elile CQ",i"s and !'ro"'''''' uni t>
drawn f'om 'he ;arne a, 'he
wailia (Equius Con",'; e'e.), .nd m. ny
uni ts wit h title, al'o found in lhe fron-
tieTarmie' (lla/", arae, S labl" ia"i etc,)
which recall lh e army of G. I_
lienu' Some of the latter helong '0
numhered , equence" lih lhe well- paid
trooper of VI S tabltsiani who di,_
"ppea,ed wil h his , plendid helme' into
a ' wamp in c, 320, or h. ve ti tles which
"Ca ll a time in g.rr ison (Equi ,,, D<li.
marae Pa"",entiaci), T he mo>t likely
expla""tion is Ihal th..e are frontier
"nilS d,awn from C,allienU<' ,,"al,y
army, which were withd rawn once more
01' Con" .nli ne to s"'ell hi' mobilearmy.
A hostile critic of Co",,.ntineae,' U""
him of reversing 'he " T.regy of [l io-
cletian, which had m. de lhe f"' nt ie"
impregnable : mo" of lh e army w",
wil hd rawn from thefrontie" .nd posted
in cili e' which did no' need . garri''''' ,
ourden ti" the eilies concerned, and
demoralising for the lroop' , Thi' cril i_
cism misrepresen" the new ' tr ategy,
which w", abo ..",nti. lly that of Con-
"ant ine' , , u,'ce'"',, . It was impossible
to hold ' he front i., line all attack,
Si ll"" external enemit , retained the
initialive and could alw.y, COncentrale
,upe, ior fotc,., l""a[[}'. !n"e. d, Ihe
, ereen of g.rrisons ill the frontier zone
woul d _ in l heo'" at le",t -eheck minor
incu rsions, and hinder maior inva, ions
'"
THE ROMAl' EMPI RE
by bolding fOTtified 'own, .nd ,upply-
b.,e" .nd of . 11 kind'
lhe lines of communication, Thi'
would prot ect tbe civi l population, den)'
h ld to t b, .nd g.in time to eo n_
cenlrate mobile forces for counter-
. tt ack, T he in-'aders would eit he r be
forced to di, p,,,, c ' WeT the countTyside
to where they could be hunted
down piecemeal by ' mall mobi le de-
laehments; or if the y ma" ed togeIher,
they could be bwught to hallie, wben
the Roman mobile army, bener armed
.nd discipli ned and regu larly pro-
vi' ioned, had a good chance of winning
against odd,. Once defeated
in the ficld, inv.ders could be pur,ued
into their homeland, and reprisal' would
follow until l hey made peace, For the
emperor himself, this "Tategy had an
impo rt . nt ,ide_elf""t : he could retain
personal "on tTo l of the empire's best
troops and lOsure himself
usur pers, T he drawback. were the
dangn ' hat ina"tive tn,o p' , whelh"T on
the I;-,}Otie.. ,>r i n reserve, would de-
teriorate ; and the slowness of communi-
cations . No army, h"wevcr ' mohile' ,
could move faster i" infanlr)' ""uld
m.r"h (. pproximatel y m; les a
d.y). [n. vit ably, mo bile armies multi -
plied durin.o; the 4th cent ury: ' his , hon_
ened the empiTe', re.ction time, hut
di"i ded its strengtb and ;n"reased lhe
Ti,k "f . n usur p. t;on.
Const. nt ine wos succeeded by his
sons, Consta nti ne II (337- 40) in th,
We", Const.ns (337- 50) in Iwly,
Constamius II (337-6 t) in lhe Ea' t,
Co"'ta'" SoOn eliminated Conslantine
II , only to succumb 10 one of his own
generals, lhe commanding offi cer of the
! (JI) ;am and ll"culiani, whom Om_
>tantius Jdeated aftcr "cry blo<ldy
"ivil w.r Thousands of comi,aume<
were killed, and the Frank, "nd AI._
manns seized the c1,.nce to im'ade Gaul
en In4He, O ' ''' tanti"s II , a consde,,-
tiou, but ungifted with an un-
fortunat e reputation for winning "ivil
wars and looing foreign one" appointed
hi, c"us in Julian as his junior
in Gaul (355) while he purs ued the
Persian war he had inherited fTOm hi,
father, ju[ian, " would_be phil')';opher
who'e studie' him reieel hi,
r"mily', Chr i't;an beliefs, turned out to
be an i nsp;rilljl; genera[, afler dd ealing
an A[amann army Stra,hoUTg
(357), h. successfully in"aded i" home
terr itory , before re helling ag.in' t bi,
cousin (360) . When CO""antiu, died of
na tUTal c. m e" j uli"n found himself
,,,Ie empen," (36, - 3), I ns tead "f 'oking
oUlSlanding probl ems on t be Rhine and
Danube, Julian decided 10 te. ch the
Pe"ian, a lesson by . llacking Ctesi-
ph"n: the cxped;tio n was a disaster, and
j"lian loot his life in a ski' mish dUTing
the re" eal. The new empeWT, jovian,
extr icated the army by making con-
"e"ions to Persia, but died a few m,mth,
later , T he army repl.ced him with.
dour fron tier emperor in the tradit ion
of lhc Jrd_,'entUTy 'Illyrians' , Valen-
ti nian 1 who co-opted his
younger b10ther Valens a,
Eastern emperor. \\:-'hile Vale'" m.dc.
dcmo"'tr.,i"n .gain<l the Visigoths on
the low", Danub. and checked Pers ian
interv. ntion in Armenia, Valentinian
and his generals campaigned in IIritain
and on the Rhinc and middle Danuhe,
Valentini.n', abrupt deat h- he died of
apoplexy on by b"..ing b.r _
barian Valen, to
bungle gr eale" militaTYcri,i, of the
"cn tUTy. In 376 the H" n, drove a stream
of towards the [ower D.nube,
them Os"ognt h, from the
Ukrainc Vi,igoths. V. lens gave the
Vi,igotb, refuge, and in the conf,, ' ion
tho (lstrogoths crossed as well. I{"m.n
ma ltreatment ,oon m. dc the Goths
rebe l. After limit ed oll "n, iv", had failed
'" m ntain them, Valens decided to
mob; l;se his full force and aC'1ive
command. T he e",uing di' a' ter, the
bau[e of ,\dri"nopl e tv A"gust 378),
crippled t he mob;le a,my and haile d thc
mi lilaty ' ecovery weh."e been"udying.
Sour ce. , 4th ce ntur y All
Our knowledgc of the army of
tine .nd hi' s" "cessors depend, on two
"' lUrce" the survi,' ing Ixx' h (thcy,'"vor
353-78) of the History " f Ammianus
Slarcellinu" and the which call<
i" c1 ft he NOli'ia Ammi.nus
wa, a Gree k-speaking()fficcr in thearmy
during lh e de<:ade 353-63, i n which he
,aw a"tive ,.".-i"e from the Rhine to lhe
T igri, . In ret itemenl at R"me in the
NO'S, he began to puhlj,h a detailed
history in IInr id 'Ciceronian' Latin, on
"scale unequalled by any Rom.n writer
since T acit us, lIe is more fair mi nded
than Tacitn, _ or p<;rh.ps less skilful at
c"nc-ealing hi, mili-
tary hi' tor;an of more experi ence, Un_
for tunately he saw him'e1f as a 'da"i",,!'
historian, whicb i, why hi, b. nle , cene,
are full of blood . nd c1O<lds of missi le'
in t he style of Livy, and why he avoid'
co ntemporary terminology, he u""
'l egions ' and 'cohon , ' of
"""il ia and ("av.l ry) ve"illatirm", fo'
c",.mple, . nd ",rmae indilferently of
"a" alry and infantry , T he :'>'mitia i, .
' list of high office", . n illu' lr ated manu-
,cript of e. 395 wbic h s" ,vi v" in severo[
( indirect) copie" whose internal chron_
ology and purpooe are still malte," for
di,pule. [t i' arranged by "haple"' , . ach
one devoted l<> m.jo, offi"ial. wit h a
,cbemat i,' piClU, eof his responsibi[ities ,
thus the Mast er of the Offi ces, who wa,
responsible for lhe scholae and the ar m,
factorie" is prc,cnled by spears,
helmets, m. il coat s and othor
armOUT With in these chapte" the
,"'otil ia list' offkes in b"' h h. lves ofth.
empire, including the commanders- in-
chief of tbe mohile armi es wit h lists "f
t hci, regiments (ar ranged 010", or Ie"
hI' ' enior ity and type of unil ), .nd l he
f10mier gene ral, with Ii", of l heir regi-
mems (and wheTe they are stationed),
Both Eastern . nd W.sternch'ptc" con_
lOin a gTeat deal tha' is earlier th. n
(when the empire w"' divided in thi'
way), but only the Weslern lists
been ' updated' the' e.fter, d uring t h<
, upT<;ma<;y (395-408) of lhe gtoner.Ii, _
simo Stili,'hQ, and e"en [aler , The Wo" _
ern chapters include . n uniq ue fealUre,
a breakdown hy army of all mobile uni "
T he, e points suggest t bat our COP)' of
the ,';'oti,ia might have come from the
file, of the Western mmm.nder-in-
chief ' his "afT issued offic.rs wiIh their
eommi" ion" for which they received.
fee, and wo" ld have needed . Ii, t of
appoimments , T he fi nal dr.ft su,vives
of a petition to the empcTOT by Abin-
naeu', th< newly-appointed prefect of
an ala in t he Egyptian Fayum Ho
complains to Constanti m 11 (337- 6t)
,hat , alihough he h.d been appointed bv
the cmpcrm him'c1f, when he present<J
t he ' ..cred len..- ' to hi' immediate
SllperiOT, he was told tha' other men had
already presemed , imil.. len ers of
appoinlment to ' b< sam. command
Thcy had heen obtained i1liei!ly Ii-om
lbe central b" reaucroey, Abinnaous "'''
confirmed in his appointment (c, 34')'
THE LATER EMPI RE AD . 00-450
T HE .\ I O Bl LE AR."l'

,
,,,
-
Tom"" "' ... ....... l uc.arus _ ....
_ 00' "","", __,he .._ 00"'''''
B.low Tomb"""" oj on "o""own sokl... I,om
I".nb"' c.o.O 214
Cladma,,,,,,..,,, , . nd at><'ul t ,OOO in each
of t wo Iegi...n. , These 41h-cent u r}' limi,
aNi " -.;rc grotlpc:d in,,, arm..... OOVeri ng
one or """"'II J'<O"i nccs, under l he com-
mand of duke (d.".-J, cXCCJ'C in """" " f
Africa, where t he frott li.... ( n'ain
m.ssifs '" sem,-de..,,, !r""" ) di vi
ded into , ecu" , u nder prar{)(l'l/; tim;li,
, uJ1C,,"'i""d hy a (cumtl) wit h.
p<>Werful mobile ar my. T hc li,,, ",'hich
.u",ojvc in the SOlitia ar<: full of chrono-
logical probInnso thus l he garrison of
Badnan' , \l;"all ...,m. 10 ha,'c
yj"uaIly onl""l from the ca rly 3rd cen
' ury, w'heru . the g. rri.on. " lt he .\ laim
""etor cannut l'>e earlie r , h. n c. 31\8
The Jelle," ,".-cd by Abin"oeu, con-
tai n vivid glimp",. u( t hc dUl ie. of . n
officer of 11_-''''''' in the 340'" no, ,hal
wc can auume the ';n,cmal sc<uri'y'
f'COblcm, of l he Fa)'u m w'erc 1)' MeaI of '
the =pi'c as a wholc, Y.... r vahance,
m}' Ioo-d " '''cpo"',,,,, i. "'-onl to Tn, ...in
tile rohl'>eriei and u. urpation, commit_
ted in t he luc aliti e, hy ' he lOU " inHu
enli. l men ' , ...rit c. a petit i' l()er, (Abin-
naeu., a ooIdier of">mc 40 years' ellpc:ri.
enee, " ' al.... a man of propc:ny "i,h
""""'" rcn" in Alexandria and farm
stock of hi, .....-n nd ,"clearl)' .........fthe
uhi,! ui t"". 'palrun. of
...><;i e'y,) IIc recei ,.. appeal, (rum the
v;,, im, uf hu rglar;e' , fro m "",'pie who
ha"c h.d ,hcep ()f pill' "ok n. One "fhi,
" wn men i. aileged 10 hav'c been drunken
and violent , anoohcr to havc IN a png
....hich .,oIe the ,,"001 of( I J sheer', t-:b
.nd d",,c off si" P'P, A dergym.. "
int....ceoo for a soId,er ur ' he same namc
....1>0 has dcsc"ed: Abinn"",,' should
excrci", hi. Christian dut y of forgive.
ness, .... no t he r clergyman a.k. li lt a I"an
"f the nets ker l a, he.dquartc.... , to cal ch
SauJIcs which hav'e heen eating the
crops, Offiei al lct tcn""luire Abinnacus
1<> provide es<:ort . for Itt eoI1c<;oon. l<>
k>ok aftcr 1...-0 craflSln<'n CUllinl limber
f,,, a ca... lry <-c"ill,,'i.. , to help <"Ofttrol
Ihe ilJici, traffic in ..>do. T hcse intr iguiltll:
d".:ume01' , h"uld nut he ",,,,I, h" w
,'cr, lu ' Ul' l'o rt the "Id-fa.h""'cd idea
uf the 4t h...-cnlUry I,,,,i,,,out' as an hc",d-
;,ary 'pcuan' mili' ia' . Gallic p m sons,
" i. true, coIlarrsed duri tt ,he early
350'" but the fron,ier legion. tral'J'Cd
in Amida "n , he TIgris iD H9 fough,
wi, t< slill and detetmination ..gaIn.. , he
Persian,. l.i... f,,'m the
ing pf<lvincc uf ( h , h,"'nc " " ,k pa rt in
fo" Unald)' for U'. I><
lett"'" he ,ubsequtnlly The
crovo'n of hn arttr, onl)' ach;c...N al,....
J6 )"*'"" """'u, occup;.-. Of><' in
the En'....n .'"..,i,i.>; 0.., H ,34. Aid
Praela.-'uro,.,. nwm.iw1d,
T he 'official' i. by
coin" a few and
all by the T beodo,ian Code, a
lVeat comrila.ion of n "ac>' fn.... im_
pcriallqi1ia,ion (Conot. minc to Theo-
dosius II) arrangN chfUOl>looe:ically by'
'.-.pia in t6 b<l<*., R.><* \ '11 i. devoced
to Iegi.lallon . If...... i.., anny, .nd to
a t",..ury uf regulat i"n. and
Il;<lC>d inten,ion" A . inll: le cha pte r, for
e..mple, comain, I ' ext ra,,,,, rela, ing to
' dnc""", and ,hose wh" harbour them'.
Ammianu. iuppkln<' n'ed by. num
boor of inf..nor htSloria.M. includIng hi.
cun'=poruy li u""pi us ' Grtti a:wunt
of , he.. 'h..,noury. whi<:h partly
. , >econdhand. a fa,,,,,ri te
li terary ge nr e, s"me-
times helpful. , hu, Li bani", ' ob ;tuary
of ,I>c emperor Julian use.
aero"n" of hi. wt cam.
PIlgn, .nd S'ilicl>o. publiciSl . ,he poe'
Qaudian in . he
na..... of ""'"C'O mobtle ...-guncnl1 ,,' hich
,uJ'J""'$'Cd a re'"oI, In 398. l mporlanl
detail, t u'n upi n unlikel y 1'1"".. : a mm_
pkte list " I' n"nmmmi"i"ned ranks in
a un il/" ,i" i. j(i.-en hy SainI
Jerome in his against ,he
Hi1hop of JCN sak m.
11M: la. t-Moman a r my. An 337-78
Coosta""... , as ....c ha"e ...,n, d"idcd
lbe anny imo mobilc f' lK" (c-..,,, ,,,,_
,., ) and r",mier lro0l'S (limi'''''n). The
lalt er, wit h the hel p ,, ( inferi"r t" " ,p. in
tl>< ubiquitous smail st rongpoin" (bu,
,.). garri'''ON fon, .nd fonified to"ms
in!be frontier zone&. \l;'i, h a cxcep-
lion" ,hey <>D... of new.. yle uni<s
of <"",'n ("""""'i..... raluad '0 "'.....
on the Danuboo) and ""xr/" or oldstyle
legion. , "I", and w l.uns.
ally there i, gTOwinj( . ,'idenee Ihat late
J(oman for". ' " a' least their ga " i.uns,
...-.;.e oflen .maller t ha n ,heir <Unt er
1"'"' of the carl}' emrire, I)i oclcti
ani<: aI", . ,ttich apparntd}' numbcttd
, 16 (or t '8) men has already been roc,,
' ionc<I ; , he same ......rc-c ' UUCSts lhat
' herc, were 77 lToopc:" in a Icgion.
I:"qui,,, ITo",,";, ' ll in an u ni t of l:"'I"i",
-""II ;IW' ;;. , 1\4 men in Ih. Coh"" X l
,;n."""" .....
.u,;,;.
....
I---J!C!'.".... A"";

"
Court lll
"
""""I') " , 1..,h" ,..

"

n....., ..

,
..
,,,-
,
..
Low.. O.....
, ,

.. .. .. ..
I') _,. .. A..",..
" S..,hol ';"
" "
,

"

" " lJppo< 0., ...

"

.-
..
"
,
T.......
, , ,

"
B,o"",

, ,
"
..
"
..
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
the Persian (3"3), and ,hort ly
afI erwards units made redundant by
J(wi . n', ' utrender of lert ilory '" Persia
were aJded to l he mohile army of l he
East under the cumhef"ome , itlc of
legIOn" p,'",uUJc<>miU",,,,es, A, late .,
the j th centu ry, , orne 30 gar,i,on unil'
from (,aul, m"" of them sun'i,'"" of
the collap,e of 'he Rhine fron, ier in
406/ 7, al,o ,o;ained lhis lille, but ,hi,
mu' l ha. e been by now . des perale
expedient
lhou,o; h ' he y mi,o; hl well
have famil ie" did not h,,'e fixed sta-
liom like l he limilan. i. Unln , they
were on campaign, l hey were billeted in
lown" where they were entitled lO onc-
l hird of lhe ,,'. ilable .ccommodation-
a sy"em lh at ca"sed friction wi,h (heir
ci,'ilian 'hos ts'. Con'lant ine ercated two
commanders-in-chief, thc Ma"ee of
C.valry (m"!li, ,,,,. , qui lu"') and Maslee
of Infantr y ,"' ''gi''er p,Jitmn ), who ab_
,odx:d (he Praetorian prefect' , military
funC'li" n" although the prefect re-
mained responsible for p",,'i, ion and
supply. In practice it wa, nm po"ibk ' 0
keep all mohik lnx>p, a' t he emperor',
immedia'e disposa l: we soon find 'reg-
ional' armies, lhe most import ant bein!i'
lhos e of G.ul, Illyric"m (he Dan" hian
prOVince, ), Eas l (based on Anti-
och), commanded by Maste r of C,,'-
aley in l he absence of lhe emperor.
Sm.ller mobik fm ce, wcre detached a,
required, u' ''ally under the command
of a eoum (w me,) , like l he four units
' ent to Bri tain in 'he emagcncy of
367, Africa acquired a mohile army of
its and by t he time of t he NOIi, i"
theTe were ol he rs in Brita in, Spain and
T hrace . Thc"Odo,iu, I (379- 95) gamped
the E. "ern for ce, in'o five aemie', two
of t hem a' hi, immediale disposal, all of
them commanded by " .'vla"er of Sol_
diers mili",,,, ). Hi, purp"",
m. y havc been political, 10a"oid
single cx,mmander-in-chief, of the sort
thar de"eloped in the We", where S(iJ-
icho (. s Master <If Infantey) made him_
self l he ma"er of the whole mili lary
hieeaTC hy. The "a riou, mobile armies in
lhe ti me of,ll e X",i,;", th", i, . c, 395 in
the East , and in the West, are
ta hulated on the chan.
In the Ea' lern a,mies, Cf.tv.lry pre-
cedes infant ry; in the , hey arc
lisled ,ep.ralel)'. The (i,1e 'palatine' ,
applied '0 all new-Slyle mobile "uxili"
'"
and ,orne legion, and
seems 10 be an honorific ralher lhan of
str alegic , ignilicance. Since lhe lists
con'ain many "nits of re...enl dalc, i,
is ['<,,,ihk to e"imate ead ier army
' l rengt h" ahhough unit strength' need
nol h.ve been con"anl. 19norin!i' p, ,,u-
dacomifa''''''' and ,' fTiean uni", Valen_
tinian I rna;' ha" e found ahoul (50 "ni"
at his accession (364). Some check i,
pos, ible on the .'II01i" " liSIS, Many units
.,e ol he",'i'e known; and wc happen to
know tha' Stilicho musteeed a' least 30
uoil' in north Ilaly i n 405, Hi, apparem
weakness in cav. lry, however, and its
.hsence fmm ' be " pper Danuhc, i,
p" zzhng he may han mohili""d units
of "quires from lhe fa>n tier armies, as
seems 10 have been done earlier, when
required, T he powerful Spanish aemy
is abo p"zzling we bear no' hing of it
when ' bere was fighting heee in 407 and
late r, Worsl of all, we know litt le about
unit strengths, The onl y certain ft gu'c
i, thal a "th.cenlur)' Ic""l" n" mhered
500 men, Ru' lwo Danuhian c'.val,,.
uni ls in ,\ te' opnt amia in totalled
only 700 men ; and a mohile c,,'. lry "nit
"f ' Unnigardat' in l. ibya in ' be early
5'b een'",y onl y 40.
figures ,hould he compa,ed wit h , he
Diodet ianic ones from E,o; ypt : Equi ,,,
PrDffUJf i of abo ul Iiqw'res
and an al" of ahou' ' zoo Infantry units
"'ere e,' ideml,. larger , T he s. me
suggests ',000 for a pro,' incial legion,
500 for. detachment. At ,' miJa in 359,
Ammianu, (who was ' he' e) e" ima'e,
the bc,ieged a' 20,000 in n"mber, in-
seven The ol d legions,
already weakened ill lhe coutse of (he
3rd een(ur:'i_ h;' ' ht ,i me of the ,\'orill a
have been broken up into numerous de-
t.chments : Third j wlita, for ex. mple,
g. rrisons four fort' as well a, i" old
base al Rcgen,hurg, in addilion 10 pro-
" iding a ' legion' for the neorest m<>bile
a, my. Ammia" u, twice menti" ns Je
ta chment s of 300 me n from (um pe.: i_
fled) m"hile " ni", once 500 from
'legion,' T he emperor (395-
423) is said to have withdrawn f,,' e uni "
from Dalm.tia whi ch lmalled ",000
men; ,ix " nit, of i nl,m' ry, however, sen!
to hi, aid Ii-om the Easlern empire
shordy . fteTwaed" tNalied only 4'<XIO,
The impression one recei ve> i, that
infant ry un", may have been
between 500 .nd t ,ooo men stmng, and
cavalry "nits weI] 500, wi,h [he
c,cep' ion perhaps of lhe " hoi",. T hi,
impression i, reinfor c" d by Julian', ""If
al t.king 1.000 Gcrman
pri sone" ' in two hanle, and a sie,o;e' ; in
lhe , iegc 000 Frank, were painstakingl;'
stan'ed oltt oftheir refuRe in l wodeed i,"
fons, and sent to Consl anli us for seevic"
in lhe E,"em arm}'. Elile units were
,m.ll anJ peeciou,. J ulian' s army at
Sl rasbourR(357) numbered only ' 3,000
men, in 363, wit h l he whole empiee ' 0
dn.w upon, and no ot her commitments,
hi, I wo aemic, foc (he invasion of Persia
totalled only " 5,000, fiRure, for
fits t- ral c tTWp' a'-e of course onlv
frac, i,m of ' he empire' , paper strengt h
e.low
Un.! 'treng,", of t he lore . " ...,. , e 395
,cco,d;og '0 "w NOli", Di gnim"m. wh'ch
co",, '", 0 b..,kdowo <>r ,11 ,he moode Un.!' '"
the W. , .. Po, .. bly 0"' co,", ;, the t;le,
of tl'e We,"'n C ;oC
lire have a 6,h..:cn,ufj figure for ,he
am'\" of D""'kl1an'. r"'ltn(da, e unspeci-
tied) of 3l!<,1.704. The . , h_eem ury maxi_
mum is likel)' '0 ha,-c been ,n ,he I'C(tion
of anodlCr 6rh-ccn,ury .""ima'e for ',he
old .....1'....... 645.000
Son. had folJ,o,,"Cd 'heir fa' hen in'o
,he arm}' S1nce ,I\< arly empire, Di<>dc-
tian made h<udl1ary mili.ary KfVicc
oblip.ory. and ' n addi'ion k>icd re_
'nU" from landowncn as a kind of ,ax,
lbc difficuhy of lindi...- rccrui.. made
Vak n.inian red""" ,he hciCh' 'lualilka-
' ion from ,'0 (Roman) '0 f7"; he
found hi. ",,'n ....d..... ""re harbooJri...-
men liahJe '0 mil"ary oc""ce under , he
guise of ....b llve.. or ocr..-am". Among
Ab,nnoeu" wrre.pondel>CC i. a d erg}'-
man' , pica f," hi. brol her-in-l . w, , he
son of a ",>ldi "'". ,k-cca>< d and , he
sol. , uPJ'<'" of hi. widowed mo'her,
\\' ho has beeo call.d up. Relea' e him. or,
failing 'hat , 'plea,e ,afeltua.d him from
going ah,,' ad wi'h 'he d'af' f", 'he
comilwUl, and may (,od reward you for
your chari,y', The army al,o recrui,. d
non _Roma,,. . m, ,,,lly Ge.mans. Some
of ,h.m We'e pri",ne.. of war like
Juhan. 600 F. ank. h", many We'. "01-
un, ,,,,," a" ""'ed by a much higher
"'andard of Ii.inll, Some of them rose to
high rank. 0 ,I\< command of <q:imen..
and a.mi... : <>ncof Valen.' g. ....-aI. w...
an Alomann ki...- "'00 had been kid-
....pped a' a d,n...r pany by or-der of
Julian ; ,he ""a. S,iJid.o hnn><lf w...
,he ton of a Vandal ClI,-"Ifj' officer
Frankj.h <>l'Ikcn at ,he """n of Con-
.....'i"" II in 3H proI...,ed .ha, ,hey
"-ere 'men dc-voIed '0 ,I\< empltc', and
i' is ........,.. bu' 'fUC 'hal ,,-c almooI
nc-vc. hcarof, ....... hery by German-born
so!d;.n, Th. chatlllCdafter Adrianopk
( 37S), wl\<n a dcspcr;to'e of
,,.,i d soId'e," f"'<:cd ,he Roman g<n--
er n' '0 enlis, buba.ian cont.n..
(I.dna") under 'heir own chid'ai"',
The"" did"'" ha"e ,I>< ..me feeling of
' belongi",,, and ar'er became in-
creasingly """""iou. of 'heir political
and m,Ii'ary p "'er . " 'hich ,he}' u><d .0
UlOr' f..od and land from ' heir
an' hoOl',
I.. ,e_Roman ...,Idie.. did nol ha.' e to
pa)' for ' .....ir a.m. and e'l uipmen, and
unif",m. , which were i.. ued l<> 'liem,
Tlicy WC' e , I", i.. ued wi'h rations
which increased a. t lle)' ro,e in , . nk. h
was , ugllC'ted '0 V. I.n,in;an and Valen.
'ha'" migh' he w......h rell ting men woo
had achieved quin, uple ..' ion. , to " '-C
and enoouragc tc.:ru;,men1.
Tlo. pap'lCn, ,n k'nd w.., ' upplcmcn_
' ed O}' the ...,..l>rr l>rry (" ipntdik_)
paid in ,he bronze 11 change minted
in ..a.. qUllfl(i.induri...-the . , hccntury.
and O}. d<>na,i ,.... paid by .1\< emperor
on accnaion and live-}-nJ' anni,..,n-
alin. lbc ...-en.ion """",i"e became
sranda, di..,d in 360 as a """nd of .il' -cr
and li.e ""rJ. (the b'e- Roman gold coin
li.e-.ix. ... ,he weight of the old ""'.... ).
and live ""iJr .her..,fle. Imperial g>f..
10 oIlic-cn "-c.... abo manufaclurcd , in_
"nbed .ilver pb"e. cold and . il.e,
-mcd-alliono, gold and .i I'-c, beIt-finifig>
and hrooche.... ma,k. of 'ank-and
special ,i l.e. coin. I'.ol>o.bl) for ,emi,_

Sain' Jerome u... all Ihe non-com-
mi..io...d . ank. a, me,al' hor of ,h.
di"anc-c he' wc.., n a demon and an angel:
reuuil . rrwper 'ir'ilo', hiar _
clrus, '""'mar' us. ""e",,,ri,,, , , malor,
prio,ie",". , ""mm.nding ollieer
Thcruit "',e , lowly. by ni-
ori,}' wilhin ' he " nil. A late_Roman
"emel <f)' at Conc-o'dia in nOrl li-ea..
lIaly comained the "one coffin. of
about 30 mohile arm)'
sionedoffic-croand pri,.. 'li q- include
a bWrcm.. of 10 yean' icr. a ,mlm-
an", (22). , wo ""' 'ii (10, 2J), .wo
'"" ores. aged -to .nd 60, and ,he drill
,nsrl'llC1or (, _ pt4o><,,,,) of ,he lldldt'
.........._whodlCd af'er 35 }-can' """icc
at ,he "C" of 60, Abin " ',," a
.".;." of 33 yean' ia in a """'alry
<><rill."", h<f,"'e a mi...,.. 'ook
him '0 """"...bcrc he 'adored t he
.....TC<! pwpIc' , Ii)' ki...... the hem of
G>nolan"... prrnm. he aut"""'tica.II)
beam< a I""'tetor Jo-t"ia<>' .he 1"....
,te,,,", rrom' he ....ign of Diocktian be-
came a kind of . IaII college in whKh
ocniot ",Co. p.epared for <q:imen<al
command>. Afle. ,hree )ean Ab"m""u.
beam< ,he p....r""l or an "'a_,,' licn he
found ' ha' hi. ,'Ompetitors had used
inll""n"e 10 'ake a ."".t-cu'. T hu, 'he
""nior memher (pm"i..-,-'''' ) uf , he pr....
,,,"'..., in 3">3 w 'he f,,' ure emperor
Jovian. a' , he alte of 32-il "a n be no
win,';den,'c , h.. hi. father had just re-
tired a' 'hcir ""mmand,ng officer,
Co",,, /l"","'''"",m. Ammian'" him_
self, who wa. a p"'h'cl"r in his . arly 20',
mu" ha. e h. d e"" nect;"ns. The ,arne
T HE LATER EMPIRE 200-450
TI lE M OLll1.E AR,\t y
i. lrue ',f higher command., Job ...;us
.' Iemonu., ,he c_. of ,he Tangiers
ann}', had '''''ed 2S )-can in ,I\< /"""",
lleforc he hccame ap<"''''', The rU' UTe
..... peror Valen" n..n. tK"" ..'er. " 'OS aI-
read)' command",. a ca.-al." <>erilLuU>
a he age of 36, and ,he fu....... empecor
Thcodooi ... ..... a .axa' ,I\< "Ite of.!>ou'
28 IkoIh ,,-ere . 1\< -., of gcnc..l$,
\'alen,inian' , fOlI><. <.iTalian, like ,' Iem-
"'ius. i. <>nc of ,he fe.. pri.ates 10
adu....'e ,he rank of
Offiee.. could make 'heir fonune
(Gra, ian, a pea..n, ..hen he enl isred,
beamc a Iandowner), bu, mus, tc<.nulS_
,f ,hey 'u",i _ed ye... >enice,.
"'OlIld re' ire wil h a rnodcot compet ence
at .e,eran. Ve' ..an. were e"'-'Ouraged
10cul" ""ederelict land, for which ,Ii..
tcc-cived a .mall IIranl. T he.. "1,,,
eei"'d some , .. "",..ss;on., indudi ng
a limiled ex. ml" ion ft<>m the Ii"e-}'early
,ax on "" mmere. which wa, used to Po)'
dona,i of 'heir " Id
arm. , A numher "f l<II cr< tecei"cd hy
Aliinnaeu h"w VelCtan. I" hc m.n of
,uhSlanc-c , there are ' wo . equ."" on.
from a ' landown. r'. , hat he te" local
oMk'ial ' I" make them p,,><1uce pen"''''
guilt y "f ht",,,,h.eaking: ,'eleran's
doughier, an," her 'landowner',
ac' ion allai"'t a dd.,or "'00 ha'
hr. up " 'i' h 'hr hell' of ' he "ill ....e police-
man \I'hen 'he demanded ,he mone}' he
ow-cd her; a "eteran promi.... '0 reim-
bUfW Abinnacu. ror an)' money he rna)'
ha'" '0 Ol ""'" '0 .c,.-ure , he
pmn>OIionof hi...... ,,;,hin , he local "'a,
The . rmy in .Clio..
lbc ann}' " .. the uh,mate,th0u8-h "'"
,he only, " of pol" oarl """,-cr and
puhtic "'y. Thi. "...pnholiscd ill
the aca-uion ...-c<cmonin dcocribcd b>
_-'unnuanu., Valenlinian. "00 had bee;'
"hoocn in condaee b} oc.. iot ottic:cr>; and
ci.il ... ,,'an... \I", p<cocn'ed 10 the a. m}'
on parade: he " as .......bimed A,,us' us.
clolbcd 'n purple and c,,,,,'net! wi'h a
dilhicm. hefore makinS a ' p"""1i and
lea"i ng for ,he 1'. 1.....,. 'hedged in by'
eagle, and "andanJo. al. eady an objec,
of fear', There i." .plend, d " j
Con... n' iu. II makins a "ale en' ry in' o
R"me, Hc ,,>de hy him..l!' in gold.n
carriag. !lhlleri ng wi' h iewels, wi'h
pUlpie .il k droll'''' "a" dard' hissing in
'he h,cc"c' ,"....l"' ''d, Armoured infan_
try and dih,m",ii , <...al,)' , h. , looked
,,,
THE EMPI Il.l'.
Iikt """""" '<at ",,", marchtd t i. ""r
Amid.t a ..arm of al'f'Lo""" Cono-
tan.i... pzed liudly i n front of him.
""",inr hi. had only to how a. I""
paoKd unokr an arch. 1l>t em
I"'ro. in his full robco or bonlNfn5.
ftanktd by hi. guard i. a f'YOuti,.
m<lI,f ,n la,t Roman an, on. ih... d.......
rrltd. and """"i,.. and illum,na' C'<!
buob. .\l",-. ,han So yean ""fo.t Co.>n. _
'antiu. t tll . y itllo R"me. Aurdian "".,-
awed a (;e.man deleg;ltion by r.,..
it on a pl'lll<"m with his ar my Urawn up
in acrr,c. nt on either sidt ; hi,
We're "n th.i r h"r""" . nd he hin d Wet e
the impe.ial Slandard" ' gold ...
pietu.e. of ,ht empemr, the nam "f
u a:,menu picktd OIl' in gold lelle.., I II
"f " n . il,... _pJattd II """" ,
IntrHiltOn, eml"'m.... ad.....tiotd th.ir
ol hei. men. Julion l le ror-
tida:t ' n a common ooldief ...,.,ld
ha, piscd. S,<>I'iM ........ tol d of both
Comantiu. II and Thcodosiu. bru:iflJ!:
a ....,.. of bread i n a moment of <TiIi.,
\"alm, inian. leading a t1yinr col umn
............ ho:tr nrar modern l'ranlr.fun ,
oIcpt i n .he optn uruk. a blanUl , Tho
Ia" ... son Gratian ( 375- 83) los, tourh
wi, h h.. army by a I"'-'\Sion f". hunli"-l .
and fa.......titi.m for a l"'nieular rqi -
ment "f Alan. hi, arm}' abanduned him
for ,\Iuimu., th. rommandrr of . he
a. m,' in H, illin, whosr filSt en i n. (" fli ck
a[ to pay hi, lir" '''1'1'''''.'')
poimed iy imitated the euin p<,,".it of
Valenti "i.n, T he sur vival of t he ,on, "f
T h""d,,,i,,, . Ar..d iu' ( 395-40K) . nd
l i"n",-iu. 3). i, all , he m"'e . " r
theufo.eince th.y ill:n.d a.
figuuhead. wilho,,[ mi h,ary Ibiltt}' ,,,
inte..... t ; a critic compo..... Areadiu. in
t ho: tUn""h_haunt C'<! okpth. of hi. palact:
' 0 I dp-WI moI1u,",.
On campaign. t he .th..... nt u.) arm)'
, ried '0live up ' 0!he . ,andard. of '''''
early emptl'<:. Ammianu< mak...
ioca.l oornrJai nt<aboo[ its
V......inian. nyi "-l column p '" the
&&nW' ......,.y by looting and .....
fi..... _ but on ,he ...-hoIt .hi. i. boch.d by
hi. no....' i.... Tb. CDMl ,.. I[iven
lI""d I.adership. would tight te....."i
"". Iy and u.""lI y " 'i, h . uccns allain"
ndd.. \ll' ha[ " .. hear ofthe ma,n[tna"""
of di scipline mal" no[ be [ypi<al. The
an[i<.lua,ian_minded J ulian di. " iltuted
Cf<\wn. and wrea, hs ".."oli,.
ci,'iw. af'er a victor;' at the
",
-
t ho: p'... of a ...,l'hon , ho: II"" ' deci
ma, C'<!' a a,.IT}' unll . a punIShment ho:
may have mi.undcn.ood. " Dee ho: selec
tcd 'tn "' ctim "'" I "n,h. \'ak'lIinia"
I"",her ancien. puni.hmen.,
according to an un...liabl. b)'
making tho: &101 eflCll mp ""..ide.
Hi. g.neral Thcodosiu. (t he fa[hrr of
'he emperor) 'trll ed Aftican uni,. VCr)"
harshly for I'oli.;".,.l di. k>yahy ; cavalry
officers had . he i. hand. lopped off. ,ht
. " rv iv"" of a lell:ion worr c1ultbcd [0
dea!h 'i n the anci.", fa. hion" des. rter<
wer e bur", alive M l". t t he ir hand, .
Ammianu' . wh" nor mally condemns
' inclemency' when h. find. i' eem.
embarr a'scd at having to defend t hi,
'...luII'} vigour ' . I nd <.I""' .' a cri[ici.m
of t he: '''''11[. in"",...ti"ns . La,t
Roma" ItKi.la,ion i. full of such th ;
but .. a ruk . .. .
'00 "a)""ble '0 be .....[ed ,,-j[h indis-
crimina'. brutal it y"They ..ill enlrench-
t<l ' ho: m........ in mal'<:h,nl[ campi ""h
roaJisa<k< and bu, 1t I"C'f1"Inrnt fort. in
..one. Tbey ..'.... ' 0 carT}" :lO
.. n'iono"They I>ti dllC'<! , be Rh.inc
Danube and F.uphnt... pontoon
hridges. and handled . mall _IS . kil_
fully rnough 10 make a nigh.-landing in
Alamanni. 0 "0 hun. down Sarmatian.
in ,he manh... al Ihe Danube- T hei,..
ron"uence. Julian mu"ercd SOO mt"
'who fmm rly ehildhood w. r. lI"glt,
in their na, ive la nd. to en.., the g.ea, ..t
or all , i..."" like Ih. Bat a"ians of 'he
ear ly empi re ; aft t hey had ",e " red a
hr idgehead ...o.. th. T ig, i, . [he re" of
[he ar my follow.d on .aft '" lIsed the
local method of int la, ed , kin"
If ,ht 4' h.....n'''.} <o... wer t
a[ lea" crunpanltle ,,'il h [he au xiliarico
of ,he carl }" rmpire . .. 'h)' [ho:n ...... , h.
Persian expedition ( 363) . ""h I failure ?
After """,-joonll tho: Pm ia"" [ha, ""
"'... coming do..n the T igti Juh.. n led
h.i. army d<wo'n ' '''' E"pllntCl in lI""d
ok. " ,. h .. ca..a1ry ICfttn in fronl and
on h.i. Of'<'n ftank . A ti.-... fIttt of more
,IIan a ,housand _ ..IC<XNItJ'l."icd him.
carT}-jng 1",,,,";.,.,,,,, and ."" .iege tnnn
which enal:>lrd him "' reduce a serin of
funified [0""" on ,he "'ay. Oropi" de-
Ja}.. due to ftouding . ,h. army reached
O ..iphon in[ac' , T he main P.",ian
fore.. ""ere <till .."". whe u p t ho:
T il[. i . Ye, J ulian de<:id. d not to .,,"ult
Cle, iplt(m a, C.'U. had done. even
[hough he had a t rain for
-
,.,.._.. "' s. .."'_
X[ C_ F .....-. __.....
_'"l"-""" """' 50"_
__-.10"'0_
l>I' 0 ""'*_
, he putp",e, Instead he burnl hi, r..",,,
(Iilerally), and tr ied 10penetrale furthcr
ea, t , The,e were so extra-
ordinary thaI le;:. nds were soon In-
venl<d to explain Ihem. il i, true [ha' il
would have becn hard for the HeCI 1"
negoliale the Tigr is againsl lhe current,
bUl its cargo proved indispensable, for
lhe Persians n"w .d"pled scorched
e.rt h I. c, ics, which i. preci.dy the t. c_
lic' .d"pted hy R"m.n, in nOTthem
.\l esopotamia lO deny fodder lO in".d-
ing Persi.nc.valr y, ] ulian was forced lo
ro<re.[ up ,he Ti gt i" hara" ed hy Ihe
main ['e"ian army (which had n"w
appearcd), unlil a from an
Arab irregul ar in the Persian service pm
an end to him. [n ,he rdre. , l h" Rom. n
inf. nlry gained an over the
but it wa, ' larving, On. c. n-
n,,' ac'qui l J ulian of slralegic misc. k ul.-
, ions . nd lack of an,ici palion, Did he
remember l he campaign ag" inst the
Frank> in ass. when bi, army ran out of
biscuit_only 10 find it wa, tOO "arl y in
,he for tbem to be able w live off
t h"
T he poor performance of the ca"alry
is a marked feat ur" of lhe Persi.n e. _
pediti on, In tbe advance to Cle, ipb"n,
J uli an puni,bcd cav"lry uni"
which h. d broken when c. ught by sur-
pri ' e, Ihe f"" hy 'd<"imation' , ,he
",cond by rcduci ng the m '" inf. ntr y,
i, more laboriou, . nd lower in
r.nk' , Shortly afterw.rds lhe infantry
act ually C<l mplai ned of the Terr;aci,
wbi<'h had given way a, the infantry wa'
penel raling the P"rsian line: tbey were
mode to march with the c. mp folJowers,
ond f"m other cavalr y tri bune, werc
ca,hicrccL Thi, i, ",rpri,ing, , in<' e the
Nr>litia and other make it clear
that c.valr y WaS regarded. , the seni",
",,,,,i cc. In 355 the Alamann, attacking
a m' H:hing camp dr ove ba"k a sortie by
lhe Scu/ar" , only to be dedsi,'ely re-
puls ed when i, was reinfor ccd. by a
, <-con d ,choi a and the <T<l ek liqu;l<s
Cam;/<., and PrOf"",i , In 370 an ambus h
"f a Saxon rai di ng band would h....
t urned to disaster, if a uni, of lighl_
.rmoured cavalry (caw phracl i ) had no'
uncxpe<,tcdl}' inlcrvcncd. In 359, on t he
"thcr hand, a M.8tcr of Ca,'olry and his
s,aff ( Ammianus included ) nearl y fell
into persi.n hands becau, e , he 'wo
Danubian <' avalry units . lrcady men-
tioncd had de'erted their post; the
' eow""h' Ie, through a Persian army
unoh<erved. In 357 Julian, with an army
of t 3,OOO men, an Alamann
host of 3'; ,000 nea r hut his
men and their generals were confiden,
of winning. Thc I/."man ea,'alry was
massed on the wing, opp"sed by
Alam.nn "avalry sfiffened by light in-
fantry, a lactic which , ,,,<"'ar had learned
from t hcir an<'e" o" !hc Sucbi . """hen
the arm;e, met , the ,ribunc of the Cala-
phTac" w.s wounded, . nd the I/.oman
cavalry fell b. ck upon the infantry in
confu, i,m, (After ,he ba"le J uhan i, ""id
10 ha,'e humilia!cd the uni t e<>ncerned
hI' paradi ng it;n female clothing.) The
Alamonn infant ry now made a serie; of
charge" c' ulminaling in " ne hy 'a tiery
hand of tri hal nobility, king' indudcd' ,
which cuI ilS way 10 the I'ri",,, ,,'. This
however , stood its ;:round like
the inf. nlry ' wall ' later rec<>mme nded
by thc wri ler Vcge' ;u" and Ihc Ab _
manns faltered and gave "a}'. [n their
retreat to the Rhine they suffered
'everel y.
Stra,b"mg wa, an infantr y ,iet or y.
T he Alamann, wcre higger, Ammianu,
comments, but the I/."man, were bett er
di;ci plined, Late-Roman infantry wa,
" ill "eady but ada pta hle _whether
mopping up Isaurian brigand, on level
ground, stor mi ng hilllOpSin Alamannia,
or charging the Persian archers hefore
they had ,ime to rhc famou,
hcavy_armoured (cI;ba" ariiJ , on
the other hand, , cem, to have been in"
elfecti, " and eXj)<nsi,'e- the ,'im, na
list, fout f. ctories which manuf.ct ured
thei r plate armour. Cli/><>,,,,,.ii _de,i"ed
from a word fm oven, 10 their
appearance or what it felt like [0 wear
one of their suits_were tits' u<cd in
It aly in 3[ 2 agains' Con" ant inc; hi,
army simply opened rank> when l hey
charged, ,hen surrounded them .nd
knocked them 10 Ihe ground wil h d ub,
Thc unit wa, anni hilated, Constantiu,
JI is said by several source, to have
taken a personal imerest in them : Li -
bani us maliciou, l y con' ra"s hi, cager_
ne" to outdo the Pc" ian, in t hcir own
armoured "a"al ry wit h lhe failure of his
coumer-offensives, There is in fact no
evidence , hat d,/><>,wm werc effe,,
ti"e .gain" di,<'iplin<'d " pp,)';ition ; "'
how",""r, lh e}' made a
deep impressi,'n upon Amm; anus and
the PC"" Claud,an, W' ithout "irrups and
THE LATER EMPIRE 200- 450
T HE MOBI LE ARMY
unde r- horsed, a feeble ami ci-
pa tion or medie...l "hi"alry.
The battlc "f Adria""ple ha, b<:cn
,ecn a' a of cav. lry ovcr infant ry
and a revoluti" n in warfar e, Unfortu-
na tely Ammianu,' narrative eke' ou'
, orne vital faCl, with m.sse, of 'm lour ,
and it is difficult to;"" whal rcally hap-
pened. First Valen, madc the mistake of
deciding to fi ght before his nephcW'
(;ralian arrived with th" Weste rn army.
Faulty int elli;:ence have under-
e,t imated Got hic numbe", _ Valens is
"id to ha"e been jealou, of hi, ncphe,,'.
,\ , at S"",bourg, the I/.oman armymade
a long march in lhe heat of the day and
aHi"ed, and thi",y, withi n sight
" f lhe Gmhic wal"'" cirde. Thcre wa,
a while thc C;"th, rcnewcd pre
" iou, negotiations, if only to l\l1in ti me
for the return of their c.val,y (O"rn-
goth' and AJans) which w", "ut forag_
ing. S\eanwhilc the Roman army ad
vaneed in its ,ighl wing olm"'t
the left win;: SIil l coming up .,
fast. s it <'QuId, A truce wa, being ncg<>_
tia' ed, when ,orne Roman <'a,,"lry (pre-
, umably on th" wing) m"de an
insubordinate anack which colJap,ed,
bec. me general, and a' thi,
momen, ,hc Gm hi" ,'avalry arr i"ed
Ammianu, unfort unately does not say
where it s first blow fell, <>n Il' that the
Ruman left wing had now reached the
wagon>, when 'i t wa, de<ert cd by the
re" or the <'avalry, overwhelmed by
wcight of numbers like a coll.pSl ng
r"mpart, and thmwn back. leaving Ihe
inf. ",ry T h", <lUltlankcd, rhe
Roman inf.ntry wa' envel"ped (' they
h ,kcd round and saw no means of
e,cape 'J, its line w.s hroken in a hhldy
melee , and the ,urvivo", wcre pu"ucd
until darkn<,,;, fell. T wo-thirds uf the
army were killed. The I",,,,s were
equalled only by Cann.e, Ammianu,
comments. l ie", thc I/.oman ca"alry
had been d ri,'cn fi-om the field , .nd the
legions cm'doped "nd crushed , T he
prime of disa "er at Adria""pk
woul d seem lO have he>e" Ihe dcci, ion to
assault . fi eld (which i, what
the wagon circlc "i rt ually was) while the
encmy', p\lwerful ca"alry was une'Om-
mined T hi, 'd""ision' w.s forced up\>fl
Valens by the undisciplined and incom_
petenl ca"alr}' on hi, right wing. T he
left wing, advan"ing haMill' , was caught
un prcpared by a de"as,"tin>: ch. rge <>n
T HE ROMAN EMPIRE
ito flank or ..... from behi nd . Iea' ; ng
the infantry. alrtady deployed in a
crncenl round the wagon circk and
fi8:h,ing hand-Io-hand, tn.ppcd. We
knnw ftom Lillani... lhat tM'" ""ere
pool "","em. P 'c'Mdi.anc, and that
cowardice or lad- n( lr.I.ining ..,.., Mld
,.,.p;>nsibk. TIm would """'" 10 be a
fair oomment-on tM Roman ca,,,l.,
..hil;h bt 1M bank.
TM dKli_ of Ihe ROlDan
AU
The In ,rwd ,nfan,ry lost at Adrianople
wuld not be The new em-
peror Theodooius I (379-9Sh " .I>ooc
desa-ndant. " .,,-e fi8: urehead emperor>
in En' and \l'"" un,il l he mid- sth cen-
,he Gnrh. to setl le in t he
Danubian provi""", under ' beir own
chiefl ain. , Whcn T beod<><i u. died, Ihey
wCle " n Ihe m,"'e again_we" war d ,
again" an empire which wu we. kened
by t he civil war. ,hat followed 'he deat hs
of Valentini an '. son, Gralian
. nd Valentinian I For a 'ime
Stili" h", "I' T he" do'iu", gener al,
and Ihe guardian "fhi. ,on Honoriu, the
new We" er n emperor kep,
them in che,;k. bu' he wa. fa<a lly di . _
c",diled by t hc of the Rhine
frontiCl al 'he end of 406, ,,'hen eaS!
(..io;mta n peoples, followed ,be Ala-
mann. and Fn nb, flooded across Gaul
and Spain. The V;,igotm invaded Italy;
..hen 'Mir demands were ignored by
HorKWl u1, 'My 1&Cked Rome (4 ' 0).
powt'r ...... in 'M hand. ohhe
Western <:omI'l\OI\<.kn_in-chicf. notably
Cons,an" Acti... (43<>- 54)
and Rio;i r who llied 10keep
h ai r and foo<hoIds ehc..-he-re b}' playing
one barbarian penpleo ll" , another,
bu' 1M wI real hope n( -ny di...
appeared in 4Z9, whe n tM Vandals
<n>saed , h S'ni,. of Gibraltar, 10 pur -
.ue an "'II:y of conq......, acros, , h ...,
intact J'f'O\'lnces of lhe "" ..,,,", emp;",.
In 4-4-4 Valen' inian [II tbe
grand'OnofT heodosiu" admiu ed econ-
omic and military lIank.up'CY:
for ",cNi.. nor for the vetC' an can
' hose supplo", suffice lha t are del ivered
wi ' h ,he ire. 'eo, difficult y by , he ex -
hausted taxpayers, and il seem, ,h.,
from ' hat ."uree t he supplies 'ha' an:
nec-e" ary f"r rood and clot hing cannot
he furni , hed . Un le.. 'he ' oldier s should
be ' \lppor lCd which is un
worllty and . hameful for an armed man.
,hey can scarcely be vindico' ed from ' M
peril <Ii hun,... or from 'M dcs' ruclion
of cold ... ( yet) if we ",quire thC1e ""-
penon ftom , h laooo""",., in addit ion
'0, be ""penon which he fumio-hes, such
an eu,:tion <Ii lUeS "'OU!d e:..ingunh
hi.lasllCn""",...-u"",' . "''hen VaIen-
" nian was murdered in 4S5, lhe Var>dal.
deaa:ndcd on Rome .oJ sacked il again.
The Eastern emp;", ",,,"i"ed ,he crisi.
<Ii 1M cenlUry : i ' " ... <x<>n<>mically
.. and its lerrilot) escrpt in
Europe ..... v,nuall y f"" <Ii in' ...ion. It
interwned ftom 'ime In 'ime in ,he
West , bUI ,,'i'''''''t laf,'ing The
'IX"",tern emI"re '"'.' bleeding,0 dca' It as

it los' l he 'erruory which alone could
. uppon . rqular army, and '""" forced
' 0 rel y more and more upon barbarian
I N ",lri. The"'t years We-tt very roo_
fusal . 10nI before ,be no.... _bar_
barian army <Ii haJ y deposed ' M I_
W..' em emperor , Romulus ' Augu" u_
I",,' ( 475-4), we calch a glimp;c <Ii'he
....1'_'_00 l he uPf'N Danube. The
c..4o>r. IX &,-.. , be pm..,., <Ii
P.....u, oen, --..., n back t o Iulv ' 0
draw back-pal' fOl' .he uni, . S o More
" ... hard <Ii the-m, un,il 'hnr hodi..
came fIoaling d<wo"n ,be finT. Tbe unit
disappeared. ' \x' hile 'he ROJD;1In emp;",
.. ill ..ood, 'Oldie.. we... mainla'ned
....i' h public pay in many l o,"'n. fo. , he
u ..
Ono." .... teO" f""""'" Dco,
E"'"""s.",o:l 3<0'*" ...... AO. T...... _, '" t'"
" """-,, <II, ca"".,'w '" el,__", II ..
m_ .,. _ .. lCOIfl _ GO'o , t.",,,, "'"
I .,...., ,,,.. "' f,,,oO OW' ",. "",..'. b.>c. ,;,.
' _ 'e bI, n'e' t .. ""'. ,n ,00 m'l"," w.'
fo' <!, Bo IOw A O" ff,I o of.
C!,,,,"n. ,,v, Ito", 0..." '"'OI'u. TO. , _ wOO
0'''''''''' ,npl... """,u' T"" e".ph<,c' WOle


c. t.""",,, """"'"11 ""'O_scole COlI"
>hown ,n w," paom"'l! "om ' ''''
.. 0..... E...""", n.. f_o on .... 'eft _ or,
..... """" Bolo c"'Y ...Q9OftOI....-
.-
THE LATER EMPIRE 200-450
EQL'lP MENT
l."
One of ,.... 10.' ""eo ", ..":I. 'ouod a1
SC,,., 14 T.....
,..,,"""" "m " 'le t>o<l "" ''''' 1><"",. ,h,"," 00"
wh,eh" O",m ,,," '.me "''''' ot ,"i.'dw' S
lou,"' " 1,1 ,,", S,.,It",e"., M","um
w,. , ,,. o",,
a rim reinf""",d "-ith hide .nd not the
btonu-. Thi. " ..s sti lched on
in lhe man...... of the Farum shield.
From the jrd the use of body'
annou. declined Thi. may lone been .
","ull of , he slad:ennta: oi.disripli"" ,l\al
a.ccomparue<llhe on nud1y of much
of . he Ct1"\'Uf). TIle complaints of\"ege-
. i", .hol lhe soIdien of hi. day had.
I:>eoome 'oo tol, ' 0 belr , he ,,-righ' of
lheir arm<IUr may ....,11 been equallv
'rue 0( ,he j rd -
BooJy """",,r seems to have be-rome
rntricfed t" the heavy cr.'alry " 'ho <:un_
tinued .0 ..."ar """I . nd ;2k shins:
Iong-ol"""ed kt>ee-Ieng' h e:<amples can
he seen "n ,he ,,'. 11 paintings from ,he
at Dura, Sc>mc ,,( ,hese a..
hoolde<l .nd rq'" ,,,,nl ' he ,rrn",,<
Simila. hooded cui r_
"'''''. t" I>e 'o:cn in.
o ( V",gi l', Am.rJ, C. taphr. ct, ,n scale
, him . .. . 1.., , h"wn " n t he Arch of
Gun.latltit,. >1 H"m<. where , he,' arc
Ihe "niy . "ldie," wi, h ' he exception of
" lIi"e" we.rin" bl"l<l \' . rmour, and on
' he or O. ler;u. al S, I"ni ki. Sellle
or m.il , hi.. , " f knc-e ieng,h w,mld h,,'e
10 be splil a1 , he front or , ide, in order
,,, oi, hor"", Cui.,e, _ph, up the
frun' can be oeen .monp ' lhe . rmour
ohown "n the "tilot er " fl he 0Ific<:s illUJ;_
tr., i"n from , he """,iti,,
Thnc hoolded cuir "'ere
,.....}' similar t<l , 1><>50 orn by ,he Xor_
man knighlO, 01"" have weighed Z5 '"
JOke. TIle ,,,,,,ph,,.,,... sh<>uld be dif-
fettnl-,-",eJ from , he d iNJaori... or ' ",.."
man' ,,-ho "'a, far more armed.
hein, oo,.... ed from head to fOOl in
combi...,i<>n of and ....1earmour.
Three ''''1'fC" from either "",,,.
pM"''' or >Oett (<lUnd in ,""...
19" Dura. These "'....., mask in . ,,'"
main piol.-.:s con"'"ng 0( bnlRze or i ron
""aIn ",-ired. ' ''l{C1he. and .,itehed to a
linen ba<.:kin" . These ' '''<1 pie<...,. co,....e<l
lhe ,i.\c!, <If the 10,,1'-" and ,,' ere I.... -cd 10
a ""ntfal lea,her .. rip ..-h"'h rom .Iong
,he ba<.:k " r,he ho..... lea"ing a hole for
,he sadJIe
Si milar pi""", 01 ",1 h.ve e",,,..d ,he
hor",'s neck and hcaJ . The
soo..-n in a "eT)' im."ina'i;-e ..-ay on
Tta;an' , C"lunm "-ear rerforaled
g" d . 'he,e were u. ed hy the
Rom. n for Iheit ' 1""" armour ,
it seem, likely ,h. , ' hey WeTe al,o used
hy the "",,,phm"' ; an,1<lib",,,, ,;;,
-
.._....-.,,-
Fl>_...... ","'-"". &no t "
2"" '" _ )od 'osnoury -. _
.....-01 ... __.. _ .......
clNfty ... 'st,*""",...--""
'10'''' ........... R_ A .......
.......... '''''''' Ii ON....,"' "'" 1<>un<I
_ ," ...,,,, ''''' 4,,, "..,' ,,_be. 00
""",""",P "" ' ho '" ",po.
armour " '....e al\and"ncd. TIle scmi _
qlindn.:.l u;J;U"" Ix".n to be pl'1ascd
out dunn" the 2nd Ct1"\tury .nd by' the
middle of ,he }. d i, had disappeared.
alwgell..... ' 0 he by ,he onJ.
a""dial)' .hidd. A, the same time as this
chanle "-as ,akin, pia<..., and .lmost cer -
,ainly connected ,..,,1'1 It . , he posi,ion of
,he SOIbbard ..-as "",,'ed from , he
riJl'l' to the left side.
Round shields af'r'nr on :se>-enl of
the monumen". T hese are sorne<ima
""""ia.'ed " "th"andard belren, ouch as
on .he tombstone of Lcpon'i...., 2Jtd
",ere , he trad"ional . hield of ensigns.
H""agonal shiel d. are . """... on , he
.)nagug...., paintings from Dura Euro-
pos in Syria. These are n ."eptional . nd
be pa" of , he ajuipmeo' of ' he
Fin ov. 1,hield, " " ying
bell,,"en ' .07 and t , metres in length
,,'rre f" und a, Dura, T he.., . re generally
Hat bu' " ne is d;, hed with a )"". vity
of abl'ut 'l<' n, ;n , he ""ntee. The " mum
Dura (I' , 2}') i. tlle la" st
e""mplc "rthis typ" . nd m. y ha,'e been
int ended for ",' remonial purp<,"cs. All
,he . 1I;<'Id, ., ,h i ilC h,,'e
Equi pment
From ,he , ,,ne 0( ' 0 the m[lI1
oi. Seplimi". SeY<:1"U> i, is possihle '0
' ....., a con, inuous <"'Olu. ion 0( Roman
milit.ory ajU'f'IT'C1I' . TIle Anoh of Septi-
mius SeYenas a, 1l.<>fIX i> , he
monumen, shov.in, 1DrK" SlfJWN'''''',
an.J" marb the endof an era in Roman
mili'ary hist .....y. From the middle of ,he
znd ..,n'ury , he nm. "" km" ""socia,ed
",i,h ,he 1"'Ii-mary b"l,i n ,,, ,.lisappear.
1'1.., by pi""e ,he old ".",pons and
defer>oe 0( ,he t"",,,er, but "'hen ""'t
CIIStom lapoed the milita.y uni,s "'Cre
abollshe<! " 'ith the fmntie. ' .
T HIi ROMA:-; EMPIRE
TM ....d ..eologic;d C\;<!cnce for in-
(antly helmeu d uring , he 3rd (ent ury il
.....-y Ip.nt', uncn in rhe lucaedi",
an,ury helme.. <qul....ly appea. apin.
,hey or an en.imy di fferen, ')'PC' and
....e clea.ly totheea.lie. form. ,
l1tc Ia.,,ype of Icgionary hel me' ...bich
,he OTigi nal for m i. Robinlon' l
imperial h alic type H ($C. p. Th i.
is a dear derivotiveoft he imperial Gallic
and Italic f" r m" e. e'ep' ,ha, ,h. nec k
guard lui. bee n dee pened, maKing i,
. imi)a. '0, be 2nd.century "a" alry hel-
me," , T he nexl infantry helme'" c" me
fr"m mOT. Iha n a hundred yca.. la,er,
The", may be grouped under the head
ing of the [ntere; ... 'HlC. after a , itc in
Hu ngary where no 1e1i< , han f"u . of
' bern found. These helme.. hear
no """mhlancc '0 ,he earlier legionary
helmets . Thej' nude of iron and
or v...-y Cl'Ude con<truetion, ,he cap
bei", made in t...o pieces joined aklf'll
thcant .1l>e}' ha,.., a "",,11 ncct luard
...hich i. made as a >q>anll< pte<:C ... ually
Olnched . 0 . toe lining and not d'rect ly
auached '0 ,he helmet. TM chttK
p;eee., which . imil....ly anad>ed ' 0
the lini llll. come down dit'C<.'1ly OVer ,he
ears and ha"" a ""mi-circular piett ,'\It
00' so t har , toe """arer can hear, ''hesc
helme.. rnay hl'. been in, rod....,eJ ;n,o
,he ar my by me.e'enari e< of north
ca"ern ,,,igin en'eri ng t he empi. e from
t he Danut><: region, Many .. f the m""u.
n,ent, , how what at firs, glance al'l"'ar
to he heimc" similar '0
anJ I kllcni,tic t}'pe' whi,'h cur ved Ii,, _
,,'a. d I" he '''I' in ' he for m of a Phrygian
cap, Vegeti,," mention. , he Pl n",mil n
k l ,he. cal'" worn hl' Ihe soldien, and
,hil i. otwiou.lj wha, is being lhown in
wch """...... as ,be Red Sea cr....ing
from ,he ca'acombo on the Via La, i...
and in , he church or Sama Mana .\t:q[_
gion: a, Rome.
Sc>'Cn1 .....-y elabora.e of
, he Inl ere; .. ')l'" of hel""" been
f""nd. 'n.e.e have chttk pieces ... hieh
completely cover the ears and a.edearly
all elval ry helmet., The-j' well
,he . """....lor . ra,OI het...-e-en the legion
nd the ",,,'airy. I ' """ml moll IiKell'
, hat this type of helme, ""a, OI' igin. lly
adopted hy ,he ca" alry and was I" e'
adap,ed '0Ihe nude form ", ed hy , he
inf.ntry, T he.e helmc" are ba,i<' all y of
t hc 'arne c" nst ructio n as Thc infantry
f". m: th. cap i, mad. in ,wo pie"e,
;o.ned along the '"Tnt. The ned:: gua. d
n attached to t he cal' 1))' .. raps and
t>uckles - , he budk at.....yo bring on
, he ncct guard. lIy l be beginningor'be
cen'uC)' the caps or '''''"''' belmell
...""" being made in four segmen..
riveted to a fra me, ......... illl! a de.r
evol o, ionary line.o t he SI'<'''II...ndm or
, he ea.ly medi..... 1period, Bot h the in_
fantry and cavalrl' . ype l u, ,,ally have a
sli, along t he c.own uf ,he eap '0hol d a
cte" .
During , he la' e and early }rd
ce nt uries ,he Wa, gradualll'
superseded hy lh e A"c<" d ing '0
Vegetiu" hl' the time of lJiodetian al
the end or , he 3rd cenIU' }' ali legi<mariC1l
use<! ,he .palM. i. a fine 4t h
ccnmry ....mple from C.<, k>gne at , he
Lat><ksmuoeum in [\<,., n ...'i,h a blade
kngoh of T hi. il a fairll' stan-
""rd kllll,h, alt hough there i. an
ampk from Camunt um ..."h a hlade
kng'th or The scabba.d or ,his
s"""d is no( or , he ROlJ'um , !'pe but is
baled on ,be .... t'Ilt C,n....anic t}l'"
",'i, ha Geltic !oopr.'her t han , be Roman
. illl! ralleners. "['be dagger. ",'hicb di.-
appeared a' . he he"nning of ,he 2nd
cnltury, reappears in a much e'TUder
form I< pan of the ... uil'ment of t he
auxiliar;";,
During ,he 3.d the <mlru/am
(t he milita ry belt ), the .'ery " 'mhol of
, h. sold ier, was al,o Ji,catJ . dto be . e-
Abo
, ... ....... .. . I'll"'. I ."", , .... . UO<I
..,ooph.ogu. ,n ' ... Mu..""" '" Son
SoN"i."", A""",. nu. ,t>ows ,I>e PO""""''''
OIl' " .. worn bv I,ll"....., >n v.""t<",
,,,
.-
1 Ono 01 ".. ",_.on "".n.... -._
., 'n,,,,,,,"."u"'JO'V." be" no ....,,""...'"
' Q " " "'" ""'...., z r l>e .....,...,. l)r<>No
<I,,'" _ 1<>ox>d ,n . bog" Deu,.....n
..,;
.-
A ..,_."' rv ""''''." Cone.... '"
Au"'. n 'M " ....,_ ,.
._t,.....od to ,.... ""'" mod,.."
S"""QOnl""m. being mode 0' _ ,
" Q"", o" ,,""'.... 'Q' 1..01.
THE LATER EMPIRE AD 20<>-450
EQUIPMENT
zz
10 V .... .._
__
12 11<,....
11-1. 01 __ """
"""...... em- _ ."' ........
11 .. Jod .__.. t.oI"'lI'

I ' 20 --......... '" a 3o<l'''"''''''y_
__c_J010oo I'
21 --.....",01. J<d.,...",.. """
D """""""""""",, 01 . ..... _ .... _
,
"

"

r
e
f
eo
la,'
i

I
I"
I

..__ d ' '9M

1_1 AlI ' .ce<>! 7..., 8
>eaIe 110
1 I " ltd'''''''"", _,,,...., ....... fiom Ken,
l it PO''' ot ltd ..,..., ."" """"d hand ,.
2 2. _,,,. t,om CoIoQno
3 3" " """10" ""- I,om <."."<""''''9
4 5.5 l ' d """I"", <....... I",,,, ' "''00' ",..
7 4Ih'''''"1"'' en..,. from CoIog". (1 .2 oj
8 PlvmbalO from W'o , ,, (1 2.2)
8. SecMn of tho ",,,I w"g h'
9 H..""" ",.,,,,,, "f plumbo,.
pla..-..d "",1'0 a lea'her belt " flen "'.....n
around the luI" ,a'her .h;m ,he ",-";st .
The .WQt"d "" as .u.pended from a b""""
baldric about ....iox , I n tho> -lt h <"cn_
tury, mlluenad by tho> mass,ve inll UJl of
bubulan mctnnann. hoch belt and
_Ii<; .hotr><,lon.,d in fa_..,..r of tho>
belt .
,n other a""", ; ,he in-
rant')" of v day "tt<: still armed
"i. h thl'<n.-,ng "'..pons. ,he .
........-_.nd/IU<......... all ,h"." of ,,'hicb
"'tt<: pos"l'ol y derived from . he pihmI.
The . ".cvJ" ... l'oa.d.n iron htad ,,;,h IIi_
angul.1' """ion RIM Roman ino:;hes
( 22an) Ionl{ .nd shaft 5,5fl
(c. r .6m) long Thi. i. the
", l'o;ch i..h".... n on....'eral lOmb-
"ones of 'he 3rd <'Cn'ury . Althuugh
Tough!}' fini nl{ Velte' iu.' d=rip'ion, il
ha' an weig ht , pl'e, umably of
lead . bd lH'Cn Ihe wooden 'haft and 'he
shon irun he>d.
The v<ru lUm. whIch ",a, o,i>:i nally
coiled a v"i<'lll",,,. had > head , u rn long
and a I"" " ,k n shah .... hich measured j U' 1
""'1' metf<, Vege'i"s unfortunately
dues nu, ti" <1"ihe' he third weapon, Ihe
pI"mbdld. H. ti<>c. howeve" lell of t l' -o
Ill y, ian legion. "'hu untin Di"d<ti.n
and Mallimian gained thitle uf M a, _
li<>ha,,,,,I; "r.!>cit skill " 'i,h ,his
" "'>1'<"1. T he t,,o na""'" imply ,II... i'
".n btlrbed ....e.pon weighted ,,-j,h
lead nd wi' h much ius'iti-
,,,,.ion it hao bftn ide-nt im d ,,-j, h the
barhed ""..pan with lead ....-righ.
which hao bem round on many JTd- and
.. .Un. An example from
.. OXlmpklc "-;, h barbed iron
head. Icad "..,ilht and panof,he "''<lC>do<n
shaft ,,' hich i. >boo. one centimetre
hid. Ncutron nd>oenph hew.. the
head "'....phl lOde1ed. b.arnpln ha' -e
alsobeen found ",,1'0 opiked 1_ . Vege_
'ius .. ,ha ....,;h IlOIdic. arrilli"e of
these in .he hoIlo,, of hi hidd. R<:con_
"rue1""" ""ere made 11.,' ,he lat" R""""U
Rubin....... and cxl""rimen, hew...,d ,hat
,he "'capon handled m"", cffici "l}
""-'ilh a f1e.;hed .haf. 'l4Cm long. I ' a.
also f"und 'hal lhe rang. could l>c
gf<..l)' l'oy the u.e of a thong,
mal' l>c righl in hi' d ..,-;p-
lion of the an d , p;,ulum, whi.h
weI'. in u'" i n hi . d"y, bU! in regrelling
,h. 10., of the p, lum h. ' alb uf i' having
a head long. Th;, i , d ead}'
not the pilmn " I' the .. empire.
".
AI'I'cl"DI X ,
war at Sea
Naval "'mare pbl'ed ....... important
pan In . he hi"ory of
and,., 10'lL" in ,he Ollc", 1 lrd century
1lC, of Rome. Wi. h<>u, her A,he:m
" " uld n",..,r h.'e been ahle '0form he:r
ove...... ' empire ,
T he . hip, cl<,elik d by H"mel in ,he
(JJy>,,-v are almo" e"'ltainly , hme "r
ni. " wn day, t he R,h cen tury J\C. These
,hil" or. offwo types : fa" ,hip, "f
zo """ and heavier ,, 'a..hip, wit h 50
oa.. ( pntu lwn u "j. T h""" arc un-
galley, anJ not canoes a.
thole I"n. Iea,he:r Ioors for holding
<bt o-n arc of'en mentioned. They ha"e
benches for , he: oanmen ;
drat!' ...... of hi. drunken comr......
aboard and lea..,. him ' heneat h the
benches' .
make< hi. 100.11 from pine-
II'<lO<l and hi s "".. from po.>li,hed spruce.
\\' hc n . t ..,a the boa. could he ancoorcd
wilh . large ,tone .i.J tv a rope, Stone
anc h"... wh ich were u'ually ju" a ,i mple
cur " " ne with a hoi . in it fnt " ' aching
,he cah l<, h. d .xi"ed oince ,h. 1lr<:m'C
Ag . An example from ha, a
larlle 1>"le for toc h;"'"OCr and two.maller
hoi.. wbich wer e fined wi,h . h.orpcncd
.rake<, Th""" "ould dill in,o ,h<;..,a bed
and 00 ,he , hi p . '<'CUre mooring
TIle much more efficient admirah}'
nchor ,,-u introduced ahout 600BC bu.
d ,d _ ous' rhe ........ ' l-pe
,,'hich continued in "'" rillh, do:<-.. un,il
the Bel leniic age.
At night , "'he,,",,,er p<>M,hle. ,hip'
" vuld be dragged up the bea<h "ern
fim. Hore the)' were propped up wi, h
"on.. nr pol... Like all galleys I lomor'o
, hi ps had m.", .nd 'quare ,ail, which
,"
could be u..e.t ,,'hen ,he ..-.nd "'*'
i n lhe right di......-.ion. The mao" which
" .., made of .pruu: , " ... . ....'w in.o a
box lined to . he ked of the , hip. The
rna... and ... il were al"o)', taken down
hef,,,e If'"ng into ballle, When ,he ,hip
w.. n"t in use ,he rna" an d rigging
wcr. taken from t he , hi p and >tored
0. 1"" . l.ike , he , hip. r">,,, T hera.
II"m,,', , hil" were .te..,nd hy one or
two .. ern oars and had. r.m at , he
fronl. The . hips in .he OJ.,"uy arc
moo, frequently d=ihed as hlad, but,
on ,he OI. her hanJ , t he po.>,,, ..."""'Iimes
refen .o t hem a. red_ or hl ue_f'IIinled.
1b< hl. d , probabl y refen' o.he .arring
or ..... ked, ,,he.-cas ,he 01. ...., colou..
..... )' .ses... -.i be the pan. of t he , hi p .1>0>."
.he ,,'. ter ""el. One mu" I"I<'t fort<Cl lha,
the earl y GTen.. ,,-ere more accu.uomcd
' 0 <inll 'hcir .hi!" d"''''n up on t he
,hu.. tho n at ",a . nJ ....ould . herefor e be
mure f.mili. r ....ith the part helo.... the
....." rHne Ih.n "'e . '".
The st)'lised ,'. " oft he
St h een' ury " hen depi ct . h;p. Not a
greal deal can he learned r,,>mthem, but
.bey in.'ariably . ho.... a curved Olern like
<corpio,, . t.il,. tam a, ,he fton' and
ahn<e .he pco,,' a great S-.haped loom.
Home, de<criheo Achilles' . hi!".s ha.
inlt t hcoe upright hom. , >am<
cha'.o;teri."O$ . 1", appear on fire dof:
m..J< i n , he form of a pllcy from ,he
S.h-a: ntu'}" " ..rrior. grave . t Argos,
Tl". liTe dof: adJ. one ....... 11 p;eee of in-
(o""ation ; it .hov... tha, ,he p""" hom
" 'aingle and 001 double . , had pre-
l>:n.upposed. Theohip< . OO...-n
on Ite.,metri. !'Ott.,y a" ce"oi"l)' gal -
ro....ed hy men whn face th. rc.r of
..... . hip. Orten . hole pin. Ciln be <n
in ' he poUn.ing<.
T he in' crpr....' ion of t he grometric
. hips i. vcry Ji/ficult . It <m,
m"" th. , ,he ani.. i. ' f};ng '"
.1"'.... hoth ,ides of the ohip at on,.., . The
..>nfu,i"n j, evengrea... whe n he appar _
ently ,h"..... cowers al Iw" le,'el. Thi,
" "'uld prOhahly he in"' r prcted a. on.
level of "' at .ach ,ide "f the , hip,
I n "ther ,,,d'. lhe ani.. i. depict ing a
gal ley ,,; ,h a . ingle hank of oa .. and not
bireme. The .itualion i, aAA'"".,ed
b) .he fact tha. lat e in .he S,h
cen, uf} . he hi"""e ..... inven' ed_-m i.
plley ..-i1ht"", hank. of OiIn " ....1.......
"""doped hy. he I'hoeniciam
and later the G'ttk . Then:
i, no.-.-,n to bel;"" , ha, , he Greeks
hi. primiti,-.. "age in ,he;r """elop-
men, invented the hi,emc, This im-
provement i nvolved ..-coM
"II" "f oar> operated by 'ower. at a
. lightl y higher Ie-d. I\c<;au,c of th.
la,' k "r evi dence , he J,.. il, nf thi , . "'-
le m . re impos.ihle to w,,,k " Ul. II rna,'
have been just the ...me., ,he later <ri_
reme hUI ....ith one Ie.. bank, The large",
Greek galley a' , hi. period sti ll had only
so nan , 00 the aim bo" e been 10
produce hone. more ....TIO<U, ....blt
craft .
Ar' e,.he col lapse of the ........
,;,'ili...tion t he I'boenician. be<:am< lhe
ma;", Meditertanean ..... po.>'\tt, '"""
late. ,00, lice.. be<:am< 'he .....im ' a)
or ,he Pc",ian navy. The Phoenician.
....ere . 1..,.Y' ,he pr inci pa l enemies of
t he Greeks at sea and t hei r ma.i,ime
cnl" nics ".... ron"antl y at wal o,' cr
trod. al" ng lhe ",h"le of , he
8 . ,OW
A,.....,,,,,,,,,,,,,, '" on B'h,OOO' " rv
110'''''' It "''''''''0_ ,am _ .
f<JlOCOS'1o l<> "" _''''
I.l __1lO1 r"" _ ..... '-01 .....
_.bod bv H""""
WAR AT SEA
l 8,h ",""MV t". 00g. '" 'ho 100., '" 0 .....
' ..... ...-goo
as p w-..o
S S.......
' 6Ih,"""'-"V -""'ll "' ..,..._
1 liM......._ on '" ._ """IJ' The<o
..--""'" _ '" IlO"o>- wo'h
-... _--
Zf,_ "' __......
__....h _
Abo
"b"..... in ... !,""' . '-' " ' y , ...
po;o,;og "no" tI., ,n ,no '"0,,. of , !Joo<',
".,d,,,,. crow Of. too ,,,I
.\Ied""rn.nean. Peace bet"..",n ,he ,,,"
....,.,. " ... es lObI" heJ only af' er , hey
boch f,,11 under Roman ruk. At.", .he
lint P.........n im'asionof Gr"""" in IIC
A,he-rIs bca""" mvolnd in a n.a..-.l_r
,he ..land of Acgin.a in ,,'hi<:h.he
""m" off wont . Thi. ''''ult to AII,,,n"n
pride promp'ed her '0di""n her re-
'0 'he building of modorn
llox, . \'('hen ,he P""ian. in,-ll<.kd again
in 4lto. although 'h" could no, maleh .h.
' kill and . xpericn"e "J 'he
>camen, AIhe,," could put ' 0 'ea a na" j"
of 200 "f 'he l.. trirem,", Thi.
wa. more lhan all ' he "' her <lrcck
>ta'e. """'bined, \X-' ithoul , be A,b .ni.n
Hee' 'he Pc",ian na,-y could no, h..,.
bc<:n " 'i' h<t nod and ""ilh Pc...i. in ""n_
'rol of lite ><:. oolhi"g could ' '''f'-
pcd . hem in"ad,ng ' he P.lo[>Ofl........
Afl<r the defea' of lhe
....,he". formed a Iuguc ,,'i,h ,he m.ln _
,int. ".,.. of.he Acgcan k"""'n .. ,Ite
Confc-dc-nc}- of Delos. .:o.;h """mber of
thi. oon,nbul<d . hi['l. . rnor-c
0(,,,,, , -I '0 con,in"" .he " ..r
agains' f'o, n;.. The resul. " 'ilS lb.'
A,hen. built up no.' lItt, a, ,he u-
pcn>(' of . he ",Iter memben of the 00II-
feder";lI_By IIC , he .....,nlt'lh of Iter
ftox, had ''''''hed 350-
Th" 'lUlln' i'ie. of 'imber n""d.d for
Ih. building and main' ena"",,, of ,hi .
H"", p"'Nbll "au>cd the defo'."a'i""
of c.n"al Grc'e, and ' he '''il c'''''ion
",hi,'h i. l h" perennial curs. of Ille
mode' n ( ;r eek fa,me, "'"' no,i,.'ahlc a,
". rly a. the t;m" " J 1'1' 10.
Alhen' ""nlrol of t ile "'. la""d f"r
H ye'l> .nd the ...,nown of he, ..II"",
..... '0 .ha, of the Phoenid . n.
.oJ
APPENDI X I
"

_ _ ............ _01._
2. n.o -.. oIa __an.. E...-
_Go.tIIo-.on-
:s. CCWO " ".., SoMo "'
_ , Eort, SIt> e..-vOC-
. Ccwo -_oI.
_ _ ,. ....00<1 _
5. Ccwo ..--....
_01.'.. _.c 3OO1C-
lb. , ri m
. som. tun. during ,b. b'b nm.y a
thi,d banI: or "'.'..... had been :lddcd 10
the bi,.m. 10 p.oduc. ,h. fa mous
,h..,m. By , hnd of the cen,ury the
" iTem. had h,cClm. the stand..d
""",sh ip of the Me"". r..n,"n
Th.", i. "'ill 0 VClt deal ...y
s utlClundiog tb. tri m. but c"l ai n
f"",m" or. c1.I' It IIIIS ......" d a' ,h"'tt
levels lIIith cone man to each CIa' From
,h. ple, ori. 1 evl Jcna alone it is
ahundomly c1e.. thai the trireme \IIa,
ro... ed . , th ..e level s and a cha nce
rema.1: hy Thu{'ydld,', - 'I, wa, decided
,ha' .ach ,.ilm tal:ing hi' n.,. cushion
and " . , ., trap,,: _l'rovcs that ' hcre was
on. man ,,, 01\ "a , W. learn fr"m
A,henia" n. ... 1 ,ec",d, ,ha, ,he, e " ar,
,,'ere betw.en fou' and t, sm 1""1(. Ship
shed' ., ,h. Mhenlan ha, oou, of Pimeu'
hI " been . xcavl ted and Ih... give
maximum dime",lons fo, ' he 'hlr". 37m
long and 3m "i d. a' _om. in<:,,,,,,ng
'0 I ..-i d, h of about om "' OU1'igger

.""eoN,ng to ,ecoru' ,he..,
... .. n .--... itu) .ach "de a,
,he 1 ' I.v.l The en .-.m:.d
t/kif 'tu-ouah porto- A1'bouth lItn<
..... nor r abo'o-. _te. level ' he)- must
t>e.n . , a .lInkl.n, b.ip,t above
,be wat.rlin. 10' hd" ",.-ing boa.. to
.hp IIndc""""b tllcm Thi' is ,be lXtic
the Syracuuns .mploy'" to an. cl: ,h.
,.,..... It tllcir be....... duling
,he lICIl" or Syracuse The ocrond binI:
of ,o"'-'e" (ay,,,,, l ..... al,o 17 in
numbe' Th. ' op ban I: of Oa.. me"
"'''''''r/) .....-cd ,hrough on out-rigge'
Thi ..-n . n ext.ndon beyond 'he ,i.l.
of the 'hip "'hleh g.ve le""lage
' n ,h. 01", The.e '.-cTC 3' 'hani"
ro""'''' on ....h ,id., As in 'he previous
cra. ' he .hlp , cr.......d by hlO,d
b. .. at th. 'u' Each had tv.-o
a""h" ", ",hi"h rr" m the c'Iheads
on eiIhe< bow, "nd '''"0 I.nding ladders
which c, n "n. n h,' 'cell . t the , ear of
'he , hlp
'-.
Wh. n comprll.d 10 raioe ,h. ' i.g. of
Srncu.. 1n >h. had 10 ob2ndon half
her no..,. Th. nn.ol humilialing defeo,
cam. t.n yoots la'er It Acgospotamoi
Thi. defea' "'. IlOl ca....ed by any
of but ,h, ",tI...".... Wh. n
....h.o. finally f.ll ' b. Spallon. coo
foscatC<l aU .""'''' IJ of her ,Ii",ma
There were 200 men in a tr ireme',
cr eo; of whom ]70 "' ere rowe,", These
were d" "'n from lhe poorer cla" es but
l he,. ",ere noo , laves. A( l he ballle of
Sal.mi> each sh,p h. d 10 m.rl nes and
four ",chc", The new also illduded
nauti ' t, who piped lime for lhe TOWeTO,
and 15 deck ha nd" The ' hip ,,'.. com-
manded by a Irierach who wa, appoin-
ted by ,he . dmiral.
O,'eT rca, o,u hk dista[] ce, a"d ur\ der
f",'ou" ble condi t io n, a tr ireme could
hope 10 cover 12km per hou r. There are
numcro us cx. mpk , of dlSl.nce,
bc ing covered a t hen er l h, ,, Rkm per
hour . O" e r ,uc h di st.nce s th e t h ree
banks mus t ha ve taken i l i n l urn s 10
row, Acnc", Ihe T. <: tici. n. ",riling "' lhe
4lh ce nt ury. ree'ommeod, ' hip, " t he
quicke " merhod of mo" ing troop" The
rccomtruttcd trireme. buill in 7 =--
the 1980'" in ,pit e of a , Iighl d,"ign -
faull, achieved a speed of nearly 13km
per hour ove r 2km wilh an eslim' led
top ' peed of r8km pCTbOLlT
The main weapoo of the trireme "'as S"QW000 oppo, I' .
I" b,onzc -pla <e d ,a m. b ut w use ,his
rC4uired gTe. 1skill, During tbe Pcl opon- tr,,"rr;e, Sealo ' . ' 60 " S.oo v,"w, 9 PI"" " OW
"es i,n "'or the Cor int hiom, like t b.
WAR AT SEA
Abov.
6, So $1"" . ' '" '.", '''''''' 01" 'com
3"",,""9 . "ai" snowing ' 00 00'''.09 01 1M
"_"'9 caL 7 R, 01 "9'" gall"v rrom
l "tO' lS, RhOdeS, c.2oo , e
APPESDIX ,
b le. R<>man., f"", n.J.1 -.oIY<>f """,,,,1;'-
inc , he p<rior ocamansltip <>f , he
A. he n They reinforced , he bowt...
of .hei.galk)"O I nd crnhed . he m 1n' 0
, he bghle. A, henian ship',
v.ill wi, h bru.e force.
The Grttk . hips ,1Ia. foughla.
mi. ;n 480 lO-.::'e almos. lotally unpro-
'''''''ed. They "'tTe ""ly partially dcdled
I nd, if ' he repr=nla' i"". I re no, mi._
I. ading, .h. row,ng bend....s of II 1t"'1
tke uPP<'. bank "-.::'e complet.ly " pen,
l'r<>tecled onl y by the decking ab.>Ve,
There WI' nO.ail ing along the . ide. of
, h. d..k_ thi, may ha," been to make
b<>a,ding el,ier. fly the .nd of .he
cen' u. y, . owers must ha,'e had ....".
prote<;1ion .. . be 5)..."....n. had.o gel
.. nder l he oars 10 auad: lhe A.henian
""""'" . Ilroueh l he .., IIooko.
n ri _rnl ..' .
I n lhe Hd leni1fic 1"...00 . he function of
galley. ellanged ; . " ips WttC increas_
ingly dC1igned a. hea", ly armoured
tioa. ing pla, fonn. 10 carry catapult s and
m.ri ...... T""'e . hip. " -.::. e full y decked
I nd thei, sides eo mple.elj' bln,:ked in.
About 400 Be we firs. he.. of galkY'
wi.h greater ,owing c. pacity than the
trireme. Accmuing to modoru , the
development of Ihe.e galley. w.,
pioneered in lh. ,ci.ntifi" wlrflreest ab_
lishmem, of Di..,ny' iu ' I at Syr. cu, e.
The Grttk " ""d for a Ihrtt-banked
p llty was S ow . bet-.:: Ippeared I
w _n Ind I !",.,u r.., i,e. f"",._ and
tie -l>anked <.Tlfl , ' Sixe1' make an
appearantt lboul 350 tIC and by the end
of .he ""n, ury l he number of bank. IIad
" oen pr"8"iti"ely to 13 t'.arly in the
3. d century ,,-.:: en...o un,er a ' . ixteen
.nd by the end of th., .""tury I 'fonj' .
Thi. multiplication of bank. or 00." ha.
mystifi ed o<:"ola" for centurie. and "';11
no do.. hl "" n, inu. to do 10. T here i,
ee"ainly no difficulty in r..
them On paper, In t864 (ir..er pul'>-
lish.d hi. I) , V"trum Rt .... in
which h. illu"nted hawaII the.e gil -
ley. could be rowed. lie multipli.d
--no'"
, ........... ,01 .'...-'
..... - _......-
- -...g--"" ....,...g -.....

I Sowonol I .. _' ''-'''11''''_
-,_ --
_oncI .............
_ 01 .... -.
__Mel"'" '" .....
Meo,_ ", .. ...... "'""'" .. I Tn.. goO'"
_ l<>o"Q .nd 19m W><lO Tho " ""'" '' 01
1...... 110'.... ""'. .. ,,,- ,..I ....
5 Tr.o _ 01 . " ..""",.,,; \>0''"' I,,,,,,
S.mo'hrIlCO, c.200 Be The ... , po<t> ' n '''''
OUH.Q\I&' " 0 ,n "".., . "', $Iaq"",'" l,.",.
"'u,""m

.he bai< principle of.he tnmne so ttu,.

,n hi. .fO-banker hi. tnp "",-en sat
abuut Ism abo'..e waler 1c'o...,1 and ..,c1d_
.d OIl.. abuul 7Sm lU(\jl Laughabl.
thuullh Graser. l!>e"rie. maj' be, Ih.
altornalive ad" anced b)' hi, crilic, i,
equally ludicrous. T h. y . uggeSled Ihat
n"ne " f lhc,e galley' evcr had more lhan
une level "f rowe" and lha ' ' he rem..'
"r ' rei,' refers to the number " f men
wI><> pulled each o.o.r. Thi. i. fine for
anythi ng up "'elgh' but become'lotallj'
rid"",I""" a' figur... a, " r hej""d . 6.
The ..... ....,r to the prohIcm hao 10 lie
lIomev.-"""" bc't...".,n . he t..-o ooIutiom
Sculpluln of Roman galle)" .""""
dearly ,tulhey " ""e ""''Cd at """'"'
than one ""..,1 bu' 'he)' ........,r .J>o,..
more ttuln ,Itrtt bankllofoa",. Here maj'
lie ,Ite keJ' Thcoc ,h,l" are iu't larger
ve..ion. " f'he bireme and trireme, It is
probable 'ha' n" 'hi p ever ""d more
' han thr"" bania , The numbo.. refer
til Ihe h>l al number uf n' en rowing each
"ertkal group of ".n : fllr e.ample, a
' , ix' could be rowed in the .a me fa. hion
. , . trireme, " 'i' h 1\<'0 men per oar, ur
a' a bireme ,,'i th three men per o.o.r, [n
the '7,h and 'H' h cen,une. i' ,,'a.
found 'ha' eighl ...... a rnuimum num_
her of men ...ho could handle a single
oar ellio:ien,lj', On ,he tnmne pnnciple
_ ,"-...'),.f....r .. ''''refOf'C <:on<:t:inhle
,hou.h *,nuttedly unlikel)". .,,,., moo'
f.........lly menlioMd " f.""", gion.. ;"
.he ' lix.cen'. Pencu., .he las' king of
.\h,..,don, had iuot .""h _ gallej' ahe
rUg.hip of hi. no,'}- Thi. t)'pe i' m<>s'
a.:ccplat>te a, a t>ireme "'itll eigh,- man
""n , Such a galley ",,, uld have '" be at
lea" u m wide ,exduding the outrigge',
T he galle,-, di"""ercd in Lake Nemi
in Italy are tv.' ,e Ihi. widlh and may
well h. 'e been these juggern.uts. The
galley reo.>nstrucr;on ,I>o"n here is
ba..d on I",, bank, of eighl-man 00f'>,
Obv"",.lj' a f<><t)' ....u,In ""'"'" funher
reorganisation. Casson Iw. made ,he
' ,,"""ion .h,1.I i. tuld , .." hull. and ao
_ l"CMllt ,. ,"'refOf'C _ dooNe ,,,en,)'.
Sc->.....Iteprcocnla.ion. from ,he Hel-
kn'''ic period sh<>vo' gallej" " 'it h t"'o
bank. of .,.,.., boxh ",.""ng from ,he
.......ilQlC1' . The mus, fa.....,... of lhese i.
.he hue of ,he Victory of Samothraec.
Thi. "". an outrigger wi'h oar I><>le'
grouped in staggered pai.. _one up,
ono d""'n, Thi' w"' prot>. hl;' Ihe
."anllemenl for lO. ll"ys.

The booule tactics of ,he Greek
" ..,re compa"ni""l)' .imple. Victory
" ally depended on the abili ly of ,,><ii_
,'id 1.hip>, Herodol... h.. '-.ry lill ie
gu. p or ' ho principle. of naval warfare
and hicCount of Ihe banl e of Salami'
lac.s in,ight , However , 173 yea" laler a
!>;onl e wilh exactly thme namc wa,
fought olf the town of Salami, in Cyp-
rus. Thi' bail Ie, whkh w. , rC'COrded by
Hlemnymus "fC..ordi., . nd the bail ie " f
Chi'" in 20. for " 'hich ".., have Poly-
biu,' ...-.:oun" gi"e u. _ romiderable
imighl ,n,o galley ,,'arlare, lJnf<><tun-
aiel)' Hieronprun ' a-;oount of the baul e
tul. only wme oo"'n 10 u. 'Ii. lJiodoruo.
In 307 lie Demeniu. PoIlOl'<-"CItl " ....
l.ying .ieae.o Salami. in Cypru. ,,' hen
Ph>lcmj', king " f l'.ll)' pl , approached
,,i,h. lIce' of ",me ' 40 1l.1ley. and 200
transpon. carryi ng more 'han 10,COO
.oldlen in an allemp' , o rooi"" the ,ieg. ,
AlIl't" lemy', galJe;-' wereeither quadri-
reme, '" quinquere me" Demetriu, with
abou t 1'10 ships launched hi. lI oct and
prop. rod to m"'" Ih" ana,' k, The ma;or-
i')' of hi, ve.sel, would appear '0 """e
been trireme. " r .maller galley, bl)(
he al", hada fair number ofl. ..", . hil".
Ikfore puning 10..__n ,he nutng " ...
""""""Cd and m.... "'''ercd. On ,he
"""'.. of hilIip> lkmc1riu. moun,<d
boll_.ho<>ttng catapult. ca t>le of di._
dlOrJln,arrov;"ssem inle h. Heal><>
put ""..,ral stone-.hro"e.. _borI.rd and a
,uppl)' of mi..il.... T hen . Ie""ing len of
hi. qUl n'luer "",co 10 hlockade , he nar _
rowentrance to Sal. mi, h.rbour." 'hal
th. 60 galley, in there could no, ;.oin th.
h.lI le, he pI)( to , ea, Dilldoru, give,
d,I. il, only of Dem,tri u, left wing
which Wa, made up of two lin wilh 30
A' henian quadrireme' and ""ven Phoe-
oki.n ' ..,'ens' . , Ihe fronl and ten
qui"'lU<:remtl and len Ii . ... hehind.
Deme, ri"" ""mmanded thi. " 'nJ in one
"f the on'ert". The ligh,er . hip' fortTloCd
.he centre and . he In, of the hell,)' p l_
le)" made up.he ngh. "'ing,
Prnuming'ha'lhcre """" a'<lUnd SO
shIp' "n the Tight " 'ina , one maj' ""Ii-
ma'e lhe ligh'er cen're to <:on,i.. of
abo"" 7S "ire.........nd hghter gallers.
l' ' lem)' placed hi. tran,I"'''' in 'he
re.r, 'mk down hi, ri811 ing and lowered
hi' ma't . He pl"'ed .11 hi. quinquer-
elne' Iln hi, lef" where he cIlmmanded,
hi' quadrirem," to face the
\X'AR AT SEA
cen... and Demetri",' m.....h he'''ier
kit wing. When .he flee" "'ere dra..'n
up in battle Older booh lid... offered
praj''''' to ' he god. be""",hing . helt
help in the coming N Ule, the . ilnalmen
leadi ng th. prayers and 'he erew, join-
ing in the re'l"'n,... \X'hen Ihe prayers
were over Ihe two Ike," to ad_
"anee with rhe sign.lmen . ounding out
'he " mke to the rowers. \'(-'hen about
soom separaled lhe l1oe" Demetriu,
<lfdcrcd 'he pre-arn.nged .ignal to pre_
...re fot Nlt le-a gilded .h,eld . 0 he
rai..-d on hi' flagship. .ign;ol " ...
rq>cated """'n ,he lint in ..La}... A.im-
iLar .,gnal ....a' ""';l\C'd b;' Ptolem)' and
the l..-oReer.cJ<.ed. A. they apP'<*'hed
,he 'l\Impeu """nJed ,he eharge. b<><h
.ide> ""';..-d 'heir ....ar eri ... and the ....-o
II"".. duhed upon oach other. The
"Millery and the archen """ned ,he
N llle and, a'the}' came in,,, ranJ'" the
iavdinee.. . 1'0 ' heir mi, -
, ile., T he 5<,ll1iers <In 1100 deck crouched
d" wn . nd bra,'ed tnem.d"e. for 'he
,ho, 'k of Ihe ""lti 'ion whil,t. urged on
by Ihe , ignalmen, lhe r"wen . trained
de.peratdy al ' heir oan. $<>me of the
,hi p. met prow t" pro,,' and ....
forced to had< " 'a' er '" 'ha' . he)' could
.-in. A. do.. quarters lhe
....Ti""" ",..,re ahle ,,, rake I'" dec.. of
,he encmy ship ,,-;.11 I....r ml..iJe..
\X...n a galley manaecd .0 ram _n OJ>"-
ponent amidohil" and t'" ,am had
bccome lirmly lodgcU, tM man""" lap<
aborl.rd Ihe ..riden .hip to light i .
hand'ohand. Someti..... 'hem. ri n of
.ueh . ,hip m.n'lI:<'d to board
their att acker and cap,ure it
f",m one ' hip to the "Iher ....a. not wilh -
out it> reril , and many a ma'ine mi, _
judged .. he leapt toward. the approach-
ing enemy ' hip and f.ikd I" Jet a lirm
arip on tM rail. Thooe whu mi.sed Ihe
rail "r 10'" ' bet r fOOl:inl on tM ,tippery
fo.o.m-_ked ded< ,nl" ,he "'"
" 'here Iltey ",..,re di...."hed h)' ,he
<pears oft!>n>e on lhe .h,p ab<n"e ,hem
Somcoh'po. ",-oidinll,he hcad..,ncharge
"f the enemy. ' 0 'heir
"'""n. around and , ...".,p off ,he oar< of
,he oppootng galley', lea"i ng il p""..,r-
ko:o. Ilcrnetnu< soon II:"t tM upper
hand and broke . he Ell)'p"an ,,'iog,
When !'tolemy,awhi. right "'ing hea,en
by Ikmelr;u" heavy galley, he ll""e up
Ill' winning the battle .nd with -
drew. Demetriu. dec' ked nUl hi' "i etor
'"
APP ENDIX I
iom wit h bo..... and , tern orna-
ments and towing the captured
tian gaiky, ret urned in triumph to his
camp,
The battle of Chios, fought ,06 years
later het..... een Philip V of Macedon and
Atulm I of Pergamon, adds some fur-
ther details. T he t..... o fleets induded
'tens' , ' nines' , "eights' , 'sevens' and
' sixes' as ..... eli as the more oon\'entional
q uinq ueremes and a host of
ships , Alt hough Polybius gi,'es no de_
tail, of tbe line-up <>r of the prelimin_
aries to the bat1 le, and even the result is
in doubt, there are some very
ing descriptions in his account . The
most noteworl hI' performanee .....,,, given
by the Rhod ians who were the able' l
sailors of thei r day, They had perfected
the manoeu\'re of breaki ng the line. To
do t bi, they would charge head on and
at the lasl mome nt \'ecr .way, pa"i ng
along one , ide {)I' the enemy galley and
if possible off its oars, Thi,
manoeuvre necess itated shipping theit
oar<; , A, they came Out hehind the line
' hey would rely on , heir gr eat er , eaman-
ship 10 enable them to t ur n their ganey
faster than their opponent s so that the y
could ram them whilst they were st ill
turning, catchi ng the m ..... ith a, hatte ring
blow in the unarmoured flank or e\'en
in , he " ern,
T he Rhod ians had also developed a
, echnique ..... hich enabled them 10 dip
their prow" and they uo<cd ' hi_ tech_
nique when chargi ng head on. Unfo rtu -
na,e1y Polybius does not explai n ho.....
this manoeuvre was performed. One
can only assume ,hat just hefor e
the y must have plunged in their fron t
,e lS of o.,,", iffor. back stroke so that
the stern ofthe galley lifted and the front
down under the ram of the
ship wit h the result lh at any
dama!:'e to the Hhodian , hip ..... as above
the waterline whiht the enemy ship
, uf!ered its along the bott om of
the keel. These ' ..... 0 techniques
bined must h,,'e had a effecl
"' their oppone nts did not know which
one 10
the batt le Philip', flag,hip, a
,'a" ' ten', charged a ,,-ih, miolia whi ch
was in its path. T he,e , hip, were a sort
of light undecked trireme, T he huge
g. lley ramme d the vessel with
gr eat force in the fl ank. UsuaJJy such a
light galle}' would have heen , hatte red
by the impac' and probably broken in
two, but on this occasion ,hc prow of
the ' ten' stuck fast undet ,he outrigger
that , upported the "'I' bank of oars of
the smaller ' hip, Di ' abl ed in this way
,he was attacked b}' two tri reme, and
sunk,
Things were e"ened up when one 01
the opposing admira" charged an
enemy at full 'peed but badly
his collision course, lie missed hi, target
by the narrOwest margin and "' he
swept past caught his ri ght-, ide oars on
the stern of his intended victim losing
not on ly all hi, oars but his tu rrets too,
Anot her galley suffered the indignity of
its ram whe n it charged, lea"ing
a gaping hole in the prow. Such damage
w.. of ,' our,e fatal and i, could only be a
marler of minutes befor e the , rippled
ship sank, Th"e two ac<"un" gi\'e a
con,i derable in, ight int o ancient naval
warfare
A bo","
A. ". , v,ew of t"" h.. OO"' " e. " C. "Mge
" >oW''' 9 ' ho ho<, o, h"" " ,0 lo, oogo , h. """
pOnd" Th. ...., whe,. t he oot,,"" QO. > '''0
se, ",all "'ve 'UO"C3n be ",,,n ,n 03" 1><"0
Muc" of th" "e, hO' t_ n ' ",v..,.d . nd
. 'co",,"" , nO""' v;M;c.,.d , he o.,cnot;oo
of ,"" G,,,,,' "'''o".n "-",,,.n
Petow
A ,.coowuc..d p'.n of t he ,, " "" '" tt><
m"""y ,,",Wu' . 1,., 0 , Hu" r. o, c'v";oo, In
, t>< m'dd'. "e t h<> a<fm;,.I' , ""m"""" ,T""
' ;00'''. ,",p,ned, TlHl '''01"al rem, ;o,
". 'Mwn in h' ",'

'.

..
0 "
Reconst ' ucted ",1 v;o" 'hO'Mng At""", , nd
he ' h.,,,,,",,,, c 400 Be
1M.m h.,oo", (ra" "",,,,,)
2 'ono, h>'",,",' 3 l e. h. rt:-oo , ,
4 'A"nye";, h., b"",
H.. ..bo.. n
f. ndoocd harbounaPJlC'lr ,oM"c dcvd-
oped in ,he Mcdi,nnncan d..ring ,he
6t h CC1l'..ry IOC_Hcrodo<u. tn<n.ions , he
harbour ., Samns ,,'hid........ cndoocd
by molc .boul 400ffi long UICndl'"
OU' 1"10 "".1<. 30'" deep.
During Ihe 6,h cen,uryIhe A,hen;"' ns
beached .hei, . hi ps in Ihe open bay <>f
Phalcrum iu.t """Ih Oflhe Pi,xu. h.. ,
,atly' in 'M a, the inst iga' i<>n <>f
Themi"odro, , h, harbour was mov,d
'0 , he I i. a,... . On , hr nOr1h , ide "f,hi,
I' ,,'m"nt<>ry i IOTge inl " which
I>o.:came Ihe commercial harbour Can-
,haru. and "n ,he south . ide ,he.e o, e
,wo m""h , ,,,,,lIer inlets , Zea and Muni-
chia, which t>.me ,he mili'a. y har
boun . T he ...hole arca was . "'......nlkd
by ......11. or heavy' limesfone blo<b. T he
harbour en, ..nces ....re ...rro...'Cd wi,h
moles >0 1M' , hey could be d oocd ...'i, h
c,,"ins. The moles .....re . .. r""'K.n. ed by
"",lis wi, h ....."". a' , be end. The en_
Ih""" 10 fhe Z... harbour " .... reduced
10 only 35m. SlUp shed.. ,,'hich ....re
reilly covered sbp.-.. ...-c bu,l', n . he
, wo mili,M}' hart><>un. Tl..-.c: shed.
..ttc grouped in foun o. eights. Thoc)-
.....re juS! under 6m ... and ..bou.
-som long ..nd ....re OCJ"lf"l<d by ro...
0( col umns. Each p"ir was "",,"'ered by
u.we roof Thc shedI<ofoed down .0
, he " ''''cr' . edge ,n , h ,he . Ii ,... u-
tending some ,Ii....""" in,o ,he ,cr.
The galley. '"'ere d"ll3Cd up 'M slip--
,"''' )' in, o the .hed, probahly' .,em firs<-
T here were oe..r1 y -400 nh hc-sc shed. a'
the Piraeu. in ,he . ,h cen'ury . The
main mili'ary ha rbour wa' ''' 7...,a whe re
,he na\-al 51o'e, were kepI, T o romplete
'h, for ' ihcat;o", I(lng wall, were ron_
" ' ucl<d joining ,h. I'i .a.", to Athens,
T h, grcat harbour "f, hc 3. d een, ury
He ...a. ,hat of Carthage. T his douhle
harho" r, one 1"' '' ' (lmmer"ial and , he
' >l Mr mihla, y, i, dcscrihed by 'M Greek
hiSfor;"'n Appian who i, p,,>hably d....._
ing on a los, "".. of P,>lybius ' IU""'Y_
The ," ... har bours ..""e rlaoe:d Ooe be-
hind fhe orher, ",,,,,.a' ed by a double
.....11 . The front roo "" lIS for commercial
shipping. II had.n .... tr.nce abou':>om
...-ide ...hich could be c.....d .. Iron
d ""ns. Behind .he a>mtn<rcial port
....... t he mili, M}' harbour "'hieh had
xcn. ' 0 . he ..... ,hrough . he mercan,ile
"""
WAR AT SI::A
In .he of the military harbou
'on> .n island o n ...'hich ..GOd .he
Idm".l's headquanen, hi gh
,he surroundi ng build, .... and
fornfiano.... and """bling . he "",'&1
oorn"",nder .0 ..... ",hat " ... going on
out ... ...... Rot h ,he island and the ha.
bour it",lf .. lined ",i,h .hip .hed.
.nd >to."..ufficien, for 200 galley... T .....
column. stoo<,\ It 'he entrance ' 0 eac h
.hed ...hich gave the appearance or
.-
....... 01 . *"",-u<:Md_
SI\Od .. Cao1 .. 01
.... __.. ....
a _oI l).-H R H...... ...,S C G_
APPENDI X I
cominuou, portICO ' 0 bo,h ,he harbour
and ,he island .
Thc,"" arc ''''0 ronds , one
and , he <>l ite, a' ,hc
!IOUl h-co.. """",,of, he'''cof Can....gc.
hove Iong .....n though, ' 0 mark
, he SJle of the ancien, harboun. Bu, in
rttnlt )..,.,.. much doubl ho. .....n cu,
on ,hi,. A, ... t \l76 ,he Ia,c
French npct1 on Clttlulgc. Pic1Tc
G n, ..., publ..hcd t he .........d voIu...., of
hi .U_I Ptm._ in
,,hieh he pooreJ -..:om on Appian"
dncrip,;"" ar>d alw on , he ouggm ;""
, ...., ,he 'wo pondo m.orked lhe site of
, he .n,;enl h.,tx.",rs. BUI eYen heforc
,he book ....,n' 10 pms. Brili.hnch........
...__.....
' ... _ 01 __on c ""..........
coon ""'" Spa... c ec e.-""'"
....,..,ng ' ho ''''''' of lIt' _
tho do>< ..... _ don """"

w:
I
01
-1 ..... 01 "'" '-" 01 .... ,".. 01 ...., c... _
lot" ........ , ..... 01 tho ' .. ot .....
_"'C' ''''''''''''''ol ..
_"""' 111 .....- ",
_ _ ."' ,...
. ... f SotcIoon 01 __tot> F Secnon 01
birr> nt> ..--.. o/"'0"'ll .-'" ""'" "lI
..... .... G ..... H Stoc-. oI .... ' ..
___,.
J S- _ oI t _ -...--..
_ .-.t -...0on '-" '" """"" ...
' '.-..- 0/ ' dl_.
5 -....... "-""l '_ng ..,........
",0
logical te. m under the kadership of Dr
Henry HUrSI was beginning excO".-
tions in l he cent re of lhe hor.cshoe.
Pierre Cint., dicd in July 1974 beforc
",cing ,,'en the ear lie, t results of the,c
exc.v.tion, which esl.bli,hed lhat the
mili ta ry harbour ".s indeed lhere and
vindic.ted l he des",iption of Appi.n, 1n
the ()f the hm"",hoc Dr Hurst
unc"()"Ored t he foundal i()n, of large
building wit h row, of stone
blocks radi ating from it. T hese row"
arc 5_9m ap.rt, can ()nly be the
foundati on, of ,hip and the large
huilding is the admiral' s HQ_
Over " hundred year> ago , he French
.rchaeologist Beuk found , irnil.r row,
of hlocks on lhe north ,ide of the p'>nd _
T he north edge ()f the I. rer lI." m. n
har!><.lur ha, . Iso been found, If lhi ,
with t he earlier quay,ide l hen
l he harbour would have h. d . ciTeuit " f
over 1,100m, , ufficient fOT . h()ul t60
. hip . hed, . A, thcrre 30 on the i, land
II ,upports Appian's daim th.r lhere
were ,hed, for 200 gallcy,
T he fleet. or Car'hage
c.rthage', powerful fleet g",' e her
control of ,he west eTn Mediterranean_
'We know from Pol}'hi m tha t the pTinei _
pal fighting ship of l he Cart haginian
na\'y in lhe 3rd century wos lhe quin-
quereme, Ihough lhe Carthaginian, a], o
u.ed ,ome trireme' and 4u.driremcs_
One of her Heets h.d a ' se\'e n' , which
had been captured Ir om Pyrr hus during
his i"" a, ion of Sicily, a, f1"l<, hip.
T he militory harbour al Carthage h. d
sufficient hou.ing fur 200 ship' hu t dur_
ing fiT" Punic war Ihe Ca rt hagi nian
na\'y wa, oft en well O\'or lhi , strength,
In z56 was . ble to put to sea a
neel of 3So decked w.rship" T here
wne pmhably , uhsidiaTy fleets peTma_
nc ntly ,lalioned al ,uch place. as
Paler mo and Lilybaeum. Cerlainly a
milit ary hahour has excavate d at
the early CaTlh. gi nian c()lon yof Moty.,
off the west coast of Sicily, which was
destroyed by Dionysi", I in 3n ec.
One of the mo.t remarkable features
of the tleelSof CarIhage . nd Rome in the
3rd century Be was the enormous .peed
"' which lhey could be con.trueted, In
261 Be Ihe Rom. n, buill their fir" neel
of 120 , hip' in two month, _Seven years
I. t" Ihey huilt a .." ",d tleet of 200 in
three mont hs _ In 197' t he hull of a
C"rl hoginian galley was discovered in
,hallow water just nonh of lhe port
of Lilyhacum T hi, , hip, "n d
which wa' nearby, have ocen
carbon dated 10 the period of the firsl
Punic war , T he matly
m..king, on lhe , imber, which are " ill
"i ,ihle impl}' that the pieces were rna"
produced, offeri ng an explanation of
the speed with which fleet. could be
assembled,
S()me of lh e pieces of l he lwo ,hips
from l.il}'ooeum are , h()wn here T he
large piece (. ) i, the stern of the first
.hip discow red, lhe other piece (z) i,
pan of lhe rom of lhe sewnd. The ked
is of maple, t ha ib, of ookand pl.nk_
ing and t usk_li ke pieces of th c ram are
of pi ne, The . hips were carvel built, i,e,
l he oulside planking was ""emhied
fj"'t and the rih. "ft",ward,
T he planb were ioined ",geth" with
n. l we<>den tenons which were held in
place with wooden dowel s. All the
ships so far foun d
asse mbled i n this way. The planki ng
wa, nailed to l he rihs fr om lhe outs ide
, nd the nail bent o\'er on the in.ide, T he
joints were eoul ked Wil h puny- like
suh"ance and lhen Ihe hull wa' oovcred
with Ie.d sheeting and the r" m ..d
i n bronze, The excavator Honor Frost
believes lhat bol h these galley, were
liburna., the type ()ffast light , hip' used
hy the Illyri.ns . T his type appe.r, to
WAR AT SEA
ha\'e !>ccn adopted by Philip V during
the , ccon d Punic war. There i. , how_
ever , no liter. ry e\' idence which indi-
cale, l hat C.rthage u, ed these types in
lh e , rd cent ury . T he fa" vessel
!>clonging to Hanni bal, ,he ' Rhodi.n'
,,' hich , o",tantly ran the R"man block-
ade of Lilybaeum, was . quinquereme,
We Can dedu,e thi, Irom the fact Iha'
the Roman, constru cted. Heel of quin_
quereme, u.ing l he 'Rhodian',' ,'""e1
a, a model. Quite apart from this the
estimaled . i. e of l he l.ilyhaeum ship-
approximately 3Sm I"ng and sm wide
without the outrigger- is very large
The , hip sheds al Carthaxe which mu"
have held qui nqueremes were only 5_ 9m
wide,
The main interest of the Lilybaeum
ship" of which only the keels ' u"i,'., i,
their . l ruelUre , Thi s has u.e d f{)r
lhe reconstruction ()f a 4uin4uererne
shown below, T he superstructure i,
oo.ed ona Carth,ginian coi nfrom Spain
and carving from hot h
, hown here, T he,e , how unmi,t akably
an ju" ochind the eye with a
deck it . T he coin . how, oval
shields, no doubt Cdliberian,
along lhe r.iling, The ram ,hown on
bol h lhese repre'entatio", i, the Greek
l ype whi ch wa, atlached to the
" Tl ngers T he type u.cd on Lily_
haeum wreck more do,e1y ,",emhlc,
lhose shown onTmian', Column, which
probably aCCOunts for the assumpti on
, hal ,hip is a
Polybi us impli e, tha, CarthaginIan
ship, earried the ,arne numlx:r of n ew-
me n as the Roman ship, of the ,arne
period-300,earnon and 120 marines-
a . low
Aol;c! of a gal' O, ,,'nth1M"" oook, of "''' hom
0", . c )() " coold "" . oomo,,",.me. '"
D;q,,.,, ., all tn. 0'" COffi<! from ,no O>J ,,;gge,
h 4 4' t-(-
'W
APPE"'Dl X I
....hotn ht .. , ,,,,-, t htir fItt' of 3S0
galle).. Md a <;n"- of ISQ,OOO. n..
method of rowing a Canllaginian l
Roman qU""l""""",e has cauoed e.-
........ """' 1'O\"1:n ). !l """,, certainly I'lO<
rowed aI one Je-'el ".-j,h Ii,." meTI ' 0 an
oar as T tfn advocales ; eq""Uycerla>nly
it "".""" rowed a, fi,." Ienl . T hot.... a'"
..ve",l ....p......,n' a' ion. from Ihe Roman
republican period which ,how
rowed aI l wo or 'hr"" leve"
T il<: l rire me had '70 oan wit h 61
rowe.. a" he highest level and 54 at eae' h
of lh e I","" " levd ,. [ t i. known from 'he
excavati"n. of , hip . hcd, ' ha' quad-
rireme. and q uinquereme' '"'<Ie much
' he 'arne .ize I. trireme. [t theref" ,."
come. u ",me .urprise to find au, t""-,
'he 00'" fot a quodri,.""", cos , .... 'han
'hose for a , ri ,.""", . Thi. ,",'I' poin'ed
au. by "'orrison and Willilm. ;n thoti.
book (i tn . DatuSIri/'" . T he only C(II\ _
d ...ion ,,,,,-, ' he)' could draw ..... , N , a
quadrireme had less","" than l ui,.",."..
From t his one must ded""" .ha, it _
rowed at onl y . " ... Je-."Is .."ith ."... men
per 01 . 111. m'u",l progr<:"SJOIl from
,hi. i. ' 0 , u"",' ,hat" quinq"",.""",
was rowed It lh= Je-'eb "'"i'h t_men
each .0 .he OIn of l he upper banko.
..-beTe ,he boa' ...... WIdes, . and one per
wr at . he 10",.. kvd.
Since atlir Md I c,.".. of :we:> or
which 170 "'''' n , one """-lId ex-
pttt 170 of . he JOO cr.... member-. of a
quinque,."me ' 0 be """"n. 'me re<:on_
..ruction . hown on p. 170 has "1 t,.,o-
man oars (S8 at the hilfhestlevd ar>d S4
in ,II<: <cc<>nd blo.nk), and 46 one-man
oars at the lowe" level, givi ng a tOlal of
2'70 rowe..,
The r ly Roma n li e
Within thr"" .. "I' !hc ,tart of the
fi rst wor with Ca rl hage i' hamc ob-
viou, tu t he Roman. th. ! ,hey wou ld
I>o'-e to build a tleet . Up until lhen t hc:y
had made u.., of . hiJ'1' belolllfi ng to lhe
allied ".t.. of "'a,na G. aceY Ind
Etruria. Bill none of t llocK " a, es "" as
u.ing Tho:: Roman<
modelled ' htir galley. on " Cartha_
ginian ship tNt " ......randed on I red'
and cap<ured .. ,he very ou,.." of the
"'ar. So the fi,,' Roman tket of '00
q uinq""tet".. Ind 20 tli,."""" ...
built. T he CI'C"''' WC1'C taugh, to ro on
land ..hik , ,he . hips ........ being buil.
.- A __.... _ .. w",, _ .._ ,
.... "'><l and "-from *""""_..
..... ...... n _ _ 5 r.... I<If>g o.eiu<lo<>g _
-
__
_ .. _ n...- _
,.......... ocoor. '-a
H .... _ ..__.... """- ....w ..

w"" ...... _ .. 01""". ..... __
'"
ThooK tint ships "''Ue .10", an.! d um.y
an.! ,I>( Romans realioe.i tha' , hey ...""ld
be "., match for the Punic ..,amen. So
t he)' eompeTWlted by d" nloping a
h,,"ding plank ....ith a Iona: iron .pike at
'he end ....hieh s"'ivelled on a pole
moun' ed on the pro.... of the .hip . T he
.ail".. nicknamed Ihi. the ' raven'
(. <>...".. ) ;"'><: au<c "f i,. "".
The h<.. rding plank w aboUI t
wide and 11m long .... hil the pole
around .... hich it s....ivelled ""as ahou l 1m
hIgh and :wem IhKk. '1'1>< ' plank' had
a knee- high fence runninl along each
..de. and ...-as raised by a pulley anoehed
'0 the top oi the pole. As . he gallc)-came
dooe to an enemy ship , he ' plank' "'-as
swivelled round and dropped on 10 the
. hi p ""here lhe . poke >luck in
he dc<.:t. and loct.cd the 1"''0 sbi", '0-
ltCther , The mID.... t hen motImed the
plank, ""t ing t he rim. of .hei r . hj.,Jd.
on Ihe knee hi gh fencing i<l 'ha' ,he}'
we comple, ely prot,"'ted. Thi' de,-i ""
tu rned a na" al baule in'" a Jight be-
Iween mari nes whic h 'he sUI",rb Roman
infantr)' WCTe bound to win.
Ahhough ,he "OI'I.'r.. won Ito"", '.
early na.al bau l... " mildc , he ships
e"en I.,... seawOO1ly . han bd ote and
may have been the ca...... of the di..._
t"",s "'"'" ...hieh Rome sulfered from
the elements. Cn-uinly , he """"" is no!
menlioned aft er 'h<: li nt "",r ""rh Car-
' hage and .....,er again did she ..,lfer
oucll appo.lh"ll \oo.sn.
Bnideo ' h<: q uinquel"l:1l'lCs Ih<: Ro-
man> al"" built two <.i"C'O' "'hich , hey
u...l a. flagships. These we", proba bl)'
"", . i,,,, quinqueremes ....i'h 1...0 ro"ers
at ea"h "f the t hree le,'els,
When t hey emhaThd on ' he im' asion
of Africa in 256, the Roma'" d re" up
'heir . hips in four lines, calling ' hem 'he
ft , >(Wnd , t hir d and fou'th legion.
T o " f the: lines , each ltd b ) ' a ' six"
formed a dart " i th a sligh' (lOP a' ,he
fronl , The t hi rd line formt'd 'he base of
'h<: Ina",le. Behind , he thIrd li ne ,,=e
pIace-d .he hor-se lhn5pons an.! hehind
Ihcoc " .. lhe founh lin< of gallelo-.
..-hich ""erlapped eit her end, "Ilte
Romans q uaintl )' called .his fuunh bne
,he /";"ru. \'('hen a""'en' lI...s .,,, ou'
the)' we.., al" ..y. prc.."dcd hy Iigh'
..aft "'hich acted a. scoul$. Each ganey
ltad a jolly boa' whieh w.. ,,,wed a,tern,
T hi' II"", of 330 decked .......hips wa,
t he la'l(e" ' hat ' he Hom" n, ever pu' '"
sea. Al thoulh Rome ....1111 aher fleet
' o.he clemen,he corned on dogged!)'
unlll she finally ,",""'lied OOI1. rol of . he
oea fro m the Canhallinians _T he (' ..... Ita
ginian navy " 'er e !IO humiliated b)' ,he
Roman. dur ing 'he lin t ,,'ar that the)'
neVe' regai ned their contiden,.. . In the
I lann;!>alic war th" Cart haginia n navy
tried '0avoid coming in'" eonHi", with
r be R" man ficc' c. en when ,hey enjoyed
nume,;':.l supeno",y Philip's be
hav i\lur ...-... . imilar. Hc sailed in,o the
Adriatic with '00 liblmwt i n the .,.,-Iy
oummer of bu t t urned and lied in
di_der " 'hen .he Romans dispa,ched
' en quin<.!"""' mes &pin.. him.
Rome ..aned , he W<l<>I>d ,,"'....i,h
Can hale "i' h n o . hi ps an.! l>C''Cr st ood
i n ,he ollgh,co' danger of b Ing "",,,oJ
of t he >ea. I'or 'he tir .. half of ,he
cen. ury Be the Roman. "'lained a . ub-
. ' an,i. 1 noV)'. but aftc' the destruction
of 'hc nO\' al power of IU,, >\k, and Syria
(hoy s. w no point in main' a;n ing a Ace'
a, the Medi ' enanea " w' " t pea"" ,
From Ihi. poi nt she began Il' r"ly almost
enlil'<l y on t he Greck "al e' of 'he e."
'0supply h<"h .hips and c,ew' ahe
needed them. This genenl decline in
no"al .. renglh encouraged .he r ioe of
p..a.,y. B)' .he fin, ltalf of , he ' $[ ccn
",ry IOC ,he eao' ..... 'el"f<>rioc.i by
Cil ician pi.,,,,,,, and in ')'O-6lI t he)' ra'--
ogc-d t he ..-to of lIaly. sinkinl a con-
su la, lk-c' a, Ostia and copouri ng ,,,-0
praetors ...i' h 'hei. li"',,". Th" ""ulted
in a purge of rhe pirates by Pompe)'
,,'hieh ""to..,d peacc to 'he Mediter-
ra""an, The gall eys wi'h which
Pompey petformed 'hi sra, k mu>l ha""
bc<:n . upplied by the Gr".' k . t.te' . Dur-
ing Ihe civi l ....ar' t he 11c.' Ia, like the
legion., mult iplied '" that after t he
bailIe of AClium in 3' tic. A"ltu5lu, wa,
left with .h<IU' 100 ships, Ahhough
Ant ony had had gall eys up to a 'ten' in
. i"", AUILUOlUS "ioel)' kept no!hing
la...,r .han a ' six' ....hich beamc hi sflag.
shi p. This may '"'..II 'h<: ship , bar is
oIoo'.'n on.h<: Prae i"" rebd.
The R OlDan imperi a l navy
0..1a,i ll$ uoed 'hcoe .h,l" as , he ba....
" f a ..andlng na,y which. healu.e of its
orig"'. " 'as Greek in cha. ...1e'- If ,uch
a st. nd ,ng no,')' had bc<:n f'"med ZOO
}'ea... ca, lier, it would have t>c..,n Car -
t hagi ni.n in characret . Captain, wcrc
called after the c" ", manders
\1l'AR AT SEA
of G..",k tril"CtnCS. lkauoc , he lI...s
........., of foreign ongin . I>()' we.., not
orpniocd as legions hu' ... au"ilial)'
uni .. and for t his rea",,,, ' emained an
inferi." .., ..,icc.
Augu"". "".hli, hed 'htee penna_
ne", na,'al has,"" o"e at ]''''''01 Julii
( Ftt ju.) near Slarseilles t<> cont rol tho
",,"at, "I' Gaul and Sp.in. anothet a'
Mi"," um at the nort her n end of Ihe
of Naples to Cm-er ,be !IOu, h w",' and a
, hir d a' Ravenna '0 rover.he Ad,iatic.
The Ital ian lI...s """n superseded ,he
tIcc1 at rOl"um J ulii "'h,,,h ""'s gDduall y
ru n du,,o.
ThooK lk-c. s ...-erecommandoed b}- p",-
reas ,,'1>0 rc.."Ci.ed thc:Ir
orden from 'h<: emperor and not (rom
, he Se"" e. There is no .....idence , hat
sla"e labour ""s uoed in the galleys.
ei ' ber in 'he ..,public "r the empu e .
Seamen we", also soldie... and proud of
n. The HeelS we.., in much
'he ..nte fa,hi"n as the au"iliaries. T he
.ail",s ' en 'ed f", 26 years and re",,;ved
gram " I' Roman dtin'hi p on di ,
cha,&", Mari ne,. wh" were .1'0 au, ili
or;"', were commanded in 'he same
fa.hion a' leg;"na,ies and "",rc di,-ided
into cent uries commanded by
turion, and "I" I<mU. l' .Mly in ,he empi.e
provtnciallloo.illas '"''Cre C'O' ab!ished off
S)'fia and r,g}'l". 'Tloe.., ""er<: abo ' u l>-
oidoary tIcc1s in . lie " lad. Sea. !he
Channel and on tlie Rhine and
Danu....
I ndi ,-hiua! ships "=e commanokd b}'
mn-""h.; ,,-!uadron. ....e.., commanded
hy "",,,,,eI,. T his name had or iginally
meOnt a ,ap' ai n of a (,rcrk ship but b)'
the time of l'olybius it was ,,'c<1 gcner
ally f"r " "-1u"dro" commander olld as
,u,h thc term was inhe'ited by the
Homan.
Quin"lucrcmcs feU ou' of favour in
the impe, ial llee... ahhough ,hey con_
'inued in use. The quadrireme beame
"""'" common but dunng Ihi. period
t he muot p"pular . hip " ,.. t he .rireme.
T he n>le ollibf<nt.u. or light ..,
in ,he Roman l1...s is uncie... .. the
" "ot<l heal.... sy"""y""",s "" i'h gallc)'
and it is impos,ible '0 di. ll"l!:W.h be-
t lO'cen ns "",ri,-.cd or general
One ...,,,,ld e" pect ' 0 tind Ii"",,,,,, in 'he
RIi",e and Danube fl ee... ",me "f 'he
ganq , from the Donuhe 11"", ,hown 011
Trajan's Column ore in all p,obabi]it y

m
APPENDI X I
Fortifications and Siege \Varfare
OI a'"
I',,"ifiauion. and oicge wartart art In_
exuial>ly combined. 11'>c <!c'v't:Io....."'m
of one i"",ilal>ly S1imubles changn in
'M "'Mr, and lhc1'efon: 1M 1_ art
'rta'ed r.,hu here.
Early Greet: fortificol ion, oorly
denved from ,heir Bronn Age pn:-
dc.."C"SOn and i, i. n=...ry 10 go bad
'0 ' M ei,.dd. <:>f I he .\ Iyccnll (an er.
T he.., eiI.deIs wu e nOTmoJl y buih on
hilllnp, and . ur rounded by w'U. whi ch
followed . he c" n' nur< of ' he hill , My_
ce nae i1 self has wall, which . re l ypical
of . he aRe. T hey ar e on .veraRe 6"e
metr.. thick and huilt of m..,i" e or one,
somOlime. weighing as much .. 'en
mnn. T he wi n, are pie rced h)' tllm
gl'es, bol h built a' ri gh' angles 10 . he
....'all so .hahe e"",my ",ould come
under aua" k from t he ....'all before .he
e"le could be reached. A bootion .......
buill OUI from , be far side ohhe go" 10
.h,,, .M tkfcnde... could bombard ' M
e"",m)'-, unshielded .ide. 11'>c ......n. art
oJ... p;e-ra:d by "0'0 narrow ..lly port.
from which attach could M matk on
,he enemy wi,houl opening , he main
p .... The ",..ll.ofTiryns p llcrics
wi.h vauhed roof. buil, infO ,he "",II.
which also .how evidcnccof mud brick
halliemen.. ,oppi ng ltu:m.
Wi,h"u' , he stimulus of ma' ure .iegc
warfare 'he 'ySl em of fOrlific..ion.
, howed no deve1opmen" in t he 6cx>
yea.. ,h.. followed the fall "f M yce nae.
T he f,>co l point of town de fene", ..... as
" ill the d tadel or aeropol;, . T he , . h-
ee n, ury ...... 11 , of Emporio on .he i,l. nd
of Chiore .1""", ideo,i.al in con,:ept
'n 'hooe of Ihe Bronze Age h u. in tM
. Irengt h nf.he fnn ificalinn. are inferi,,,.
Only in , he 6, h <:enlUry wert seriou.
" ''''''p's made 10 funify whole IOWno.
Under pn:nure fi..., from Ly'd,a and
lben Pc-nihe Ionian Greeh ....re
compelled 10 imprm'e ,bcir f,," il>ao_

When l raci ng ou, ,he ..-:oil. 1ocncom-
pau a ''''''n 1hc1'e "''0$ lendency '0 'ry
1o make u. of no. u,,", defe......."",h ..
dilf. or "I' .Iupes. Thi. of'en m.....'
incrcaoing lhe area of , he ' own. These
wall. ....".e u.ually pierced wi,h narrow
sally I'"r" enabli ng Ihe defendero h.
launch ."'....k> un .he bes.iegers.
!'-u lie r wall, were ()f
ruhhle maoonr y0' " 'e n mu<l , hu. hI' . ho
6. h ""nt ury ..efully cut rectangul ar "r
polygonal of .'one ....".., being
used, allhough mud hr;':lr. proboobly re-
mai""'" in use for bo"Iemm...
The pnncipol inl><>'ill'ion ... .he
inlrodUoClion of proie'<ting I""',,".
Although hu,ion. had be-en in usc in
,he era, Ihe (arh""l archoco-
logical for . he usc of.<>lO'Cn
rom.. frum ,he I.,. 6.h-ttn' ury .i'e a'
Burunkuk on , he "''''ern coast of A.ia
Minor , A' fi... 'owen wc only used at
weak poin" and at galeway. bu, b)' the
cent ury regular ly .ps<;e<l, wo-stor ey
' owers were 'he norm, These lowers
enohl ed the de fenders ro p<,ur down a
great", coneen".. i"n of missiles on
.tu:ir anad ,en .
After .he retrea' of 'he Pe" ian"
A, ben, sel .bout rehuilding her wall"
It ..... . ""sen.i.1 In A.hcn. , Ita he
occured communica'ion...',h her r>CW
ltarhour a' Pineus. To accompli,h ,hi,
,he AIMn;"n. bu,lt a ......i' e ....II round
,he Pilantnd linked l he horboor ...ilh
,he '0'''' by '-Ione ,,'all. f,,"ificd a.
inte...:oI. by' .......non:y '0....,.,.. These
long ...-:011. encluacd a corridor .boo
oom ..ide and long,
OtheT G reek m.",ime .'a."" . "",h ..
<:orin,h fnllu...'Cd . he A,henian lead, but
ahhough ,hi. ')'pc of defence might be
elfecti"e . g.i nst Spa"" i, oould h. rdl,
have wi. h",:w;xl co"""nlra,ed Pe"i.n
"'Re.
Duri ng Ihe laIc . ndearly 4. h Ce n-
l uries A.hens huill a series of front ier
fOTI"''''' .0 her ," mmun;""t;on,
. nd "' a Ii,..., line of defence again"
anack.
T he for" e.. . t Eleut her.e (Gyph'n-
ca"ru) i. ,}'pical " f .uch fOil . II i. built
'0 crown a "ccp-sided hillnclr. <:>n ,he
SOlllh side " f , he ra' he'''''ccn Moun'
alhacron and Mount P....., guarding
,he t'OIId from T hebes 10 A,heno. h
... n. , wbich arc 'W(> met.... 'hid. are
fa....d ...',h nxtangubr block> " f gre y
"one and filled wilh rubble, A series of
r........on:y 1o,",," proiect in..-ard. an<!
"",,,'..-.1. from . he "",II. '1'''"'' con_
centra.ed mainly on lhe north >ide
wllert . he . pproach ..... e..iesl, 11'>c
,"".." were en'ertd from , he iMide of
,he fun by a d""" 1,t><"<1 leveL T ...0
doors.I firsl -""or levelled nul on '0 Ihe
haillemelll' ei,her ,ide, T he SCIll'}'
walk could 01", he reac hed by step'
direcI ly from . trcc' leveL I n t he early
41h <:ent ut y th e !(}w.'n would h. 'e had
,
.-
I ... ...., .....ft _ at .....,......... _
T.. __... ... c<av. Tho""",at_
_ ...... 01..-
I RO<o\JI' CUI ll'>fv9On01 " .",..
2 c...I"' .. <", 'oelongo,", " .",..
-
A -.-on ""0U\JfI_ ...... .. 1...... _ "11
_ ...... _ ""'" ,,"ok _
' ... moo' _",,,,,,'1 at ,... M__""
tort " ... .."'"
-
_at __............ _,... .-.
Gooo"""_,",,, at_
1IfI ............ ron_.. ,_OtIC_
FORTi FICATI ONS AND SIEG E WARFARE
ft a' pla,fmm, wi' h c"rendla' ion' a' 'hc
1('1' T he ' ower marked X on 'he plan
faces direc,ly up the pass and h.s. loop-
hole in the nort h w. 11 giving. perfec'
view oithe head of'he p'SS. T he founda_
' ion' of 'w" w.,,,h towers have been
found iust to 'he west of 'he road a' t he
summil of t he pas<, The,e woul d have
given an cxeellen' panor.mic" "iew of
'hc plain of'hc A",pu,; any l roop move-
m"n" oould have been back to
l he fOr! and from lhere , ran,mined to
Alhens .
Signa lling hy firc '" ,moke had been
used fro m t he earliest limes ,
fire signals had been reSlricIed 10 a
simple heacon which announced 'ha'
some expee'cd event had happencd.
Acnea', t he 4,hcentury wri ter on tac-
'ie" had a system by which
'O"e ral different me'sagc, coul d he
"ansmined
Thi, m"hud e<lUld on ly he used for
' ignalling from a fixed lookoUl post and
was hased on a li me del ay sYSlem. T wo
large earthcnware i... of exae, ly 'h"
,amc , i,c Were prepared Each had a
hole in l he oo11om which allowed water
to flow oul at a given ,peed A e(}rk ftoal

A ,"oon, " "" ;"" of pM of , he w.II, . no "".
of 'he 'owe,, " Gyp" """' ''" No" '0 ,he
,owe, ,, ...I' v poo1 Th. ",n"y w.,k could b
mounted MhO' hom ' 00 lOWer", 'he Q'oo"d
wilh a ro<l stuck in il which was marked
otT in seclions ahOUI 3em wide waS
AOaled on top " f the walcr . Each nft hc'e
"'Cl ions rd err ed to one of lh e po"ihle
thaI coul d be sen!. One of the
jars wilh its rod an d fto., was placed al
thc ob"''''., ion po" and thc ,,, her a' lhc
receiving pom'.
To send a lhe lookout rai sed
ligh'ed wrch an d wai led for ' he re_
eeiw r w Ta i,c hi, ,or" h '" , how th.. hc
was readywil h hi s jar"Then t he signaller
lowere d hi ' lorch .nd lhey ool h Ie' Ihe
wat er run OU' of ' hc iars . the
appropriatc mark on t hc rod sank ' n the
level of thc ri m of l he iar , thc signaller
Taised hi s torch an d lhe receiwr
read off t he message from the sinking
rod in his iar , which should be in c,"et l}'
'he samc pO' ;lion
Thc znd-centur}' historian I'olybius
was not ver y impressed wi' h ' hi' s}stem
. nd de' CTihe, me' hod dcvi'ed hy a
ce rtain ,,'upk called Cleoxenu s and
nemodeit us which, he say" he had
perfec,ed. If Ihis is fr ue, il was prob -
.hl}' u""d hy 'hc Roman Thc
,y"em requi rc, five hoa rds, each con-
five lenets of 'he alphahet , The
n,ght
l"T,.".,., ' ;90, II;og T.... po' (A)" f"'.d w; '"
wate' ' nd ,h. II, ,, , {B) pl'ce<l IO " On. s,gn, 1
,"" w.,e, i' I., 0"' ,nd" . ,"co,.1; ;go.1
>!o OP. d . Too ",'''''g< '' "'0 ' M,od
a
Abov.
t PI, " , .... W, ",,"'" 'y ' ''''' '' c", 'on, w,'h
p,oJecting 'OW""" Bv'vn,,,' _L,,i.. 2 PI," of
, h. " h"""",, y AH,en"n l,on,,"' h ' "
Gyph',,"." '"

Betow
Bar . "'" loc' f'om ' he " 0" G.,, Md.",s TOe
b., (A) i' r>u,1<td ''''0'' fr om it> ch.nn. ';o t he
oppoSlt" w, II (B) 300 " 0".0 ;n'" (e)
Tlle loc, ;"') b3' (VI" "". d oy" <AI . nd
,10". 0 ,"to hoJe IE). Too lock P;o IF) i'
p", hed down. loc' '"Q,.... ' WO"'r> 'Oge'M,
'"
API' E:-J lJI X 3
in ,hi. ca... U'C' {OKlo...,
"'hich he ,ai<C<i in groupo al,cma[ely on
.he and ri&h' ' 0 ' 00""' fin ' ...hich
board and occond " 'h;ch knu on 'ha'
board he i. Inn.milling. If. for u-
ample, he ""lies .0 signal ,he
pmma he niocsonc 'orchon the kf' '0
.........ha, i' i. OI"J , he Ii"' board and
lhen Ihroe: OI"J ,he ril{hl '0.""".il i. lhe
'hird In,,,,.
For Olgnalling Polybiu.
recommend. lhe ...... of ."... {(Ibn
,hrough ...hich .he can look.
Thcst .he unof ,i.ion and pre-
,cn,cd ,he rt1wr ronf",ing (he len-
and righ'-hand .igna!. Of COU"". [hew
method. could nne he u.w. by an a,my
on hul mighl he u.ili",d b )'
' he pid'e"of an t n<;a mprd .,m)' 10"'. rn
of ene m)' rnt>Teme n".
Vcry I;llie ad'anet .... . made in
w.y de' ign Iief" re .he 4'h cen' u')' The
ol d .....I yeenn type. wilh modifi c.-
,ion. T<mained i n u,eueh as [he over-
l ap t ype of[en o.! efen, led wi' h a tower at
l he end " f the nUl,i,le "'all , T hi' form
was usually o.! e, ;gneo.! to expo, e the
enemy'. unohi do.!eo.! righ' side. When
gate' were cu t <t raigh, through 'he
wall. lhey were u,u. II)' defended h)' ,me
or ,wo I"""'r< ,\( N<t i" n,.
T he ga'e. were made of li mber
and dosed b)'. bar locked in b)' a
C)'lindrical pin ,,"'hich " ... dropped in'o
a hole in 'he bar ""'king it 10 lhe iamb.
The pin di..rreared Iielow ,he top of
,he bar ondcould....x be KmO'>-cd ,,-j' h_
oul key.
Aenea., , he taeti<.ian ...riling in ,he
cen'....-y IIC, ...m< of Ihe method<
uoe4 b)' ,ni,on, ,, ""hodn..- ,he pin and
ins;". lha' commander mU<' insert
{he pin h,m..,lf 10$ had been
kno,... n.o file a ....xeh in ,he pin and tie
' bread around it ... , hey could pull i'
ou' La.".. Oohmhad . prinkled fine ""nd
into {he cra.;b around the pin and {hen,
by .hakin& ,he har 1I01<eI...ly, ,he ""nd
had wor ked n. w.y d<m'n so . ha, , he pin
rose. ""'>ther melhod " '0 hi' , he
ulkknide "r the boor wilh malleI 10
make 'he pin lump up. On many O<."CI -
,ion, one read. of t he ba' !xing ""wn
thmugh to let in. host ile force.
Siege , a e , k " ,he e1' y . ....OS
The complexil y and , ize of the .\-Iy_
cerulea n fon ifieatj " n. , uggest an eq"ally
,ophi"i,'a' ed ' ;<I: e me' hod. Unfort u-
",
natel}' no ' ........, 01, hi<le1t1ain. and onlv
,...,... hint of oophi>lico'cd la<:1ics
appr." in HOlner.
"has been,_'cd tha' 'hc"-oodcn
horwby "'hich the Gre-eko gained
,0Troy ...... It iignifi-
can, ' ha' pan of ,he wall had 10 be
knoo.--kcddo>o'n tOJr' , be horw,hrough.
Piclure. primi' ive banering ram: a kIOlg
beam "-ilh a rt"'fon.-ed head ....pended
wi,hin """'<kn fnmr ""h foo r <turd)'
legs, the head of the n m
from the front .nd , he ropn by " 'hich
. he ram " ,as pulkd back trailing oul of
the ",,,r. h i< hardly ,.,rpri.ing ,hat il
'010.' calkd horw. In la'n- , irnco all
.iege .......1""". """re gi"en .ueh name<.
T he ballerin&romfinl . ppear< ollihe
",,)'rian ,dief. from Ihe palace of As-
,,,r na, irpal ill t he 6..., ha lf of ' he 9[h
ce nt" r}' IIC, Thi' . how very complex
box_.haped " ruel"re topped b }' a tower
T hi' sune . h" w, , ha[ I he 9th een-
l ury ' ;ej(e warfare had hcc<>rne qui te
sophi'ticated In (ir.." "" howeve"
", hal eve, knowlcdj(c hao.! ex;<ted "'a,
I"" when t he dark aj(e enj( "ifed t he
gliu<Tinj( civili.a' i"'" of My.. ",,, .e. T here
;, no furl her ev idenee of ' ;egc [. .. '1ics in
-
'-' of _OV.-"' .... ....-".;oo
1 Gale __"" __
2 Gal. ft ..._ t> __
Oeo\op - -...
,
--0_
,
D
s. [_
A .......... _ ...001 _"Il
M,ojoj lO __ toe __01 .... _
T _ ..-. cow<ed _"'"
' so , w""_ .,.,..... 01 "'-. '"
__,_ ,... _, 1_ ,,,,
bI,,_t. T... dolo,.... . <at '" bit
dtOOP'''Il wh.. _ .r '0 bI pol. of on ,,,
tho ,. m. 00_ MfonOOr' " .... m>aC,lC(l ,,,
c.,e" hoI<! of ' ''" '"'' w,th ,h.,n,"'" "'.
"",,'"";, op W""" [WQ .t1""'." try to P\J II"
dow" . o" n Mnwh,l. IWO """. '''d;"" ., .
"n...,m,",,'g II, ,,.,,,. T.... we'.
<ompl.[ v ""'oown ' " a,,,,,,,,, ,t 1M "me ano
""" como '"[0 u" ," t"" 4th cooMy.
",ay. __, ""... _ n ' O<>'Wf1 '0 tho [Ole
"'"""n...n.
FORTIFICATI ONS AND SIEGE WARFARE
"... noIhing """el in thi. taerie - t he
defender re doin, ...oct ly ,he ..me
thing in the 91 h.,;en, ury A" y"rian bao
",lief .......n Of'f'O'"i.e. T he dcfcnden
aloo hu na: ,reat bam. <We, lhe ba,lie_
men.. ,,,,,pended from poles by d-...i.....
Theo<: .. dropped On the ramo in an
a.. "","k " lh Mi r heado.
I n dnpention the Spanan. no'" uied
10 lire l he t .... n bj' Iobbinl bundles 01.
b....h.."UOd from . he mound ",-.r lhe
..-all> and then t hrowin, in sulphu r and
before ..,.Iing them on lire. "I1>e
..i nd carried Ihrough , he ,o"'n
and t he Plat..,..n.....re onlj ...ved. b)'
opport une , hunden'orm.
\Jl'hen l heir attempt, ' 0 l he citl'
failed. Ihe Sparlan. g"'e u p all hop<: of
raking II by "or m . nd to 'he
u.ual G=k ..nd R"man taer ie or build_
ing a ...all "ound the t"wn tn ,I''''e il
(lU' T he}' di ,mi. sed Ihe I.rgor pa rt of
their arm y and hegan the
trend, , Fi r" Iwo ditch.. were dug
.Ix"" eigh t "'etr apa,., On ,he inner
, ide of . aeh dit,'h a wall was hu ilt of
mud bricks made from t h. ea,.,h
cavated fr"m th. ditch. T he 'p.eo
between ,he t wO 11 ' ...., roofed over
, ,, for m .., nllY afk alx"' e and living
Qu. rters bek, w. T h .., ntry ...alk .....
fort ified wi, h banlemenll on ei,he, . ide
and ' ....o-..orey '0"""....ere c""" rueted
at in......I$ .\tOOt of t he P1at..,,, ns
had ......aped bef",e the siege began "nd
-
e->."",_ at .... __....
_ """'" __10 __ .... l 1 _ , ..
..... '-"'" "'" .... '" ...., .............. ____ _ , 11'00 _
_ .. __ .... coo ...' ..... ....
f'I,oo....,. tlrick>
(" ""' __1_ . -"
,,_Z ,_...., ,' .. '_oct ""'"
""'" __....at .... _ ,,,
_ _-
..-
A _00<1 _tr""""" at _
_ at 1 a ",,_tog , """' ."......
_"II at .... ..." hod 10 ",,_on
_10<,101 __,_1_
-
. _-.--' ..
. .. ..
-- .
..

GkC<;e un"l ,he cen, ury. I n

,he u>t the: Au yr.. n !ladnion. w=
continued by tho: Pe.,;Wu. Thei.
mound. and m'ne> ate "",ntioned
.....era! """" by Her<>Jol us .
I n G'ee the..., as DO.;gn of enho:r
of t hese t...-til.::> bd e the >econd hai r of
l ho: cenlury. t hen t he
soeg.o t...lle of the Guri::....... tho:
bIoda<k.
The Iinl ....idcno;e of G= k 5iqe
tact;..... comes durin, lhe Pe!opooncs;"n
,,-:ar ",'hen the Spartan. laid siege 10
Alben. ano;;ent .lly Platae. in +'9 DC.
ThU<")'didn ,ivn ,i.-id deocri ptinn <>f
the .iege in ...hi<h tlte met hods applied
"''CTe en",<:Iy Persian, l ni , i.ally , I><
Spartan. el"leJ. " ocltade around the
town 00 , hat nu " ne could escap<:; then
tltey I><g..n to r..i.., a huge mound of
earth agai n" , he w..ll, Fi rst two ron-
taining w.lI , uf ,imbers l. id like lall ice
wor k were con>t r ucted 'u <XI nt ain the
mound, Thi , Iyp" of timb", wall can be
, cen on T,..jan', Col umn. 'he
' p"'-'e h<;t,,"een the timber wall, wa,
tilled wi th earth, r ubble and wood. The
ronst ructi " n of this mound, from which
the Spart an. I>op<:d to ", orm tile ba" le_
ment>, ,,,,,k the Spart. n, 70 d.y. and
ni,h...
The Pla,""......"""mor.d by heighten-
i"ll the furtitications ....ith ....ooden
framework wit hi n ....hi<h t hey e' ttted
..-:aU u>Jn, bri<b from the near".1
Itou..,.. T he OI...... "lu.e an'ere<! ..ilh
hideo 10 proIe<:l tlte lr.men .nd '"
"op fire a""",... "'""/tina: . he ",-ood...-od.
"I1>ey aloo ' ned to hinde. the buildi n, of
,he mound by kno...king a hole through
,he boI..... of the wall ...he..., rhe mound
tuuched it and drawi ng ,he earth intO
t he I....n, \Jl-he n,hi{ Sp0rUn5di,<n.-ere<!
this and bIoded the hole, the)' dug a
tunnel under l he ...-all .nd beg. n re""", _
ing eart h from,he bn"omofthe mound.
Feanng t hai thi, woul d not ..up t he
be>iegen the:y <n'''trueted a = m-
, hap<:d emer",ncy ...11 heltind the ....,a
t hat ...... under ."..:It.. The buil ding " r
a loCCOnd ....n became une ur the . ta n-
dard features uf """nler-.iege opero-
""n,
T h. Sparta", now brough, up b."e, _
ing ram, ....hich .hi",k down the , uper _
strue"tUr. that t he 1'10'.e.n, had neCl.d
on lOpor , he ....all T he defenders roun-
,,,red hy lo....ering the b.nle_
ment s and p ulling up th. r. n" . T here
APPENDIX z
onl)' a gom..,n " f .(llo mm, a" d ' 10
W('lmen ." p..,pa.., f<><Jo<1, rvrWned in
.he ''''''"Tl .T he)' held ""'I f('lf ."'" l"',.....
Half lilt carrioon '0 neape in
""""M of , he oiq:e by climb--
ing ""cr 1M Spanan $W: lIe ..",11$ one
dart: rainy nigh" b<lI'Mremainder held
""I in ,he pa'hetie held ,ha, .he
A.!><fuam \O'OOJ.ld ..,1",,-.. , hem. I n the
cod, facN wi, l> ana.X>n, . !>c)' sur_
..,ndered. vn.kr pm."",, from .he
"I1Ieham, ,he Spuum
survivo.. and told ,he "''''"'''''', woo
along ...i.b ,he _ n had all 'M
rigou.. of long into sl..,ery.
yea.. .. , he fall of Plal,""",
.....hem dtcilkd 10 .. Sicily. The
upedi.ion culmina'ed in of
",'hich .hould bttn """ily
accompli. ...d hu" " ...ing ' 0 .uper-
sti.ion, in,,,mpel'''''' and ind.c"ion of
'he A.henian Ni,'ias , 'urned
in,o an unmi.igar<d disa" cr ,
T he A,h.nian ar mada beached at
u"ani. and !,r'!,",ed for an a, sault on
Syracuse, to ,he ,omh , At firs, rhe
peopl. of Syracu, e did nolhelin '. , ha'
,heir ci.y wa, ,he Athenians' pri ncipal
obje,.. ive and Ihercf<lre ">ok no pre-
c.u1>on.
The A, henian, made a hrilli;ml . Urt ,
drawin, Ihe Syracusan ca v. lr} north-
wards ""hile , hey sailed oouth",'ards f" r
a ....b<'lrne ,nv.sion. Hili in spile of
';ct"ry in the Nttk tha, f" lk>a-.::d, Kicias
'0 npl"i, his succes. and ",;,10-
"'"'
It ...... not un,il lhe follo..; ng Sum_
mertha' S icia. again apJ>rt*'hed Syno-
ctnC. Anlici "",nng an A,heni.n _ult
.he S)ncusans a ............. of
' heir ,rtI<>p$ in , he pWn """Ih of ,he
Epi polac p1a'eau. Siciao heard of ,he
.....;...- and ,he night before il " .... due
' o W e plaC\!: hecmb.art:ed hi$'roops . nd
...i kd .0.I!h.....rds.
..pin the Athenw.. made a
br illian, Itarl . They t hei r arm}'
jus. tlOrtl> of the plal"'U and while t tl<:
parade w..s tu ing place '" . he ..,."h
S!"nned.he h,1L
One. ",tobli.h.d on Ih. pla,eau, .he
Al heni.n. ..' al><'ll" .......ring , he north
and s",,,h a"""nl' . Th. y bui lt tw" fort"
,h. Labdalum and t he round fort, from
,he latter the Ath.nian, hegan I" con_
strw:, douhl o lin. s <If dilch.s and ",.11"
lio:e th,, "t I' laraea, from soa to "Ca io
or der to CUt " ff the city from any help
from the in, <ri<'lr . The w.ll ...... planned
' oexl.nd nonh and ..... f rom round
for . a<:rott , he plal..U 10 lIIe
Troe:ilu. harl>our .nd oo," h across Ih.
manhe"'o . h. G1'\"ll' Harhour. Here . IIe
lried 10 ,he ,,'O<k
"'; Ih lheir cav.lry, bu, .'hen ,hi. failed
the}" a'lnSfructed counl.r ...-all across
, he Ii.... of , he Athen..n .....11. on
mapl. The Athenian. ur_
pri....tt""k and, catching ,he
cusano "ff ,...rd, captuf'<'d ,he count.r
.....11. Th. they di.mantled, using the
mat. rial. 10 <:on,inl,lt ,IIei . ....n ",,,,II
""". h.... rd. Apin the Syra<:Utllns tTi<:d
10 hind them, this lim. wil h a dilch
..nd palisad. ( V- V) ......... ,h. manhct
at t tl<: c.Jg. of the {;1'\"llt H.rl>ou. The
At tl<:ni. n. again a" aco:I , carrying
doors and I' lank. '0h. lp ,hem as Ih.y
e",..ed Ih. marshe. '0,h. palisade,
On,'e mort" t he A, heni..n. ",.rt" .u",,,ss-
fuJ and Ih. Syracusans ..,ired wit hin
,h. ",all . of the d, y, leaving Ihe be-
sieg.r, to ,hei r lines undi,-
' u rbed. At Ih. ">t1them cnd the 'wo
wall, di"erged h> ,x>nl.in , he Arhe ni.n
naval bas. "n ,h. edge "f t he Gre.I
Harlxtur. Pil" wetc dri\'en in,o t he
h.rbour bed 10 I'mteet the . hip>. gainst
. n ack from ,h.....
Now , h., , he A, h.nia n, "'.r. i n ron-
trol of ,he ..,a aod had i",Ia,c.J Syracuse
from tit<' inlerior, the ,;ty's fa'e ""as
$C<1l1ed Hut in anact "fincredibl.
stupidi ,y, 101 the S)""",san. off , lie
hook . Convi .....-..d , ha' ,h. cily ","OUld
.urrcn&r, It<' r..led to completIIe,,. n
""""" ,h. Epipol.. p1at...u. S)-...cu;.e
.ppealed I" Spana ...hich refused 10
..nd .n army hu, di d ..."d a llCneraI,
Gllippus. He landed in ",,"hem Sicil}' ,
managed ' 0 g.....r ahour 3.000 irregular
troops and ad,.nced"n , he hekagucrcd
city. H. "'.". pr-.:: paf'<'d '0 fit;h. bul 10 hi$
asmnithm.n. he ...... noI: opposoed.
Unde, cover of nilh, climbed , he
Epipolae hill and S}-...cu;.e.
From , hi. poinl ever}"thi ng
wrong r"r rho A, henians. The Spamn
immediately ,ook "v.r command of Ihe
Sl"",u..n . that ' he
Al h.niao ." ut hern Ii ..... w. r. impreg-
nobl., he ron,-.. n' ra,.d on [he unfi nished
" ..II . aCt"" ,h. lil'ipoloe plateau and
launch.d 0 , urpri. ...ttack on the hill,
cap,uring the I.d >Jalum fort . He rhen
con' t r uet ed w.1I iZ- Z on [he skelch}
a<'''''' the' hi llt " !,, m..king it impossible
for Ih. A,henian, t"oompl.,. their ",.,,11.
T he Athen,anhould now have pt.d
up and eone ""me hut , hey decided to
_ it throultl> ' 0 the
I n '!'it. of t-.::eriving
lhe Alhenian. failed to mri<:ve lhei.
pooi.ion. They "ttC def....ed by .1><
Synocmans boIh on 10m'" .nd in a sea
""ttk inside lhe G1'\"ll' Har hour . 1M
S}racusan. capluf'<'d lhe AlIIenian ..
t.on (N . N. :'II I ('lfl the 10Uth .ide of lhe
Gm, Harl>our and...1<d i, offb,dtain-
ing .. Ii'lt of .hiP'!' across .he ..""".
No... ,he Alhcnw......re un.kr .iege.
In dcspt"'tion the Athenian ftccl tried
' 0 break ou, hut ....., ronrl)" half their
.hiP'!' in Ih. The decision " ....
mad. ,,,ahandon the tI<c, and ret r...1 by
land. Th. ar my ..' ou, in a wes'.rly
di.es;, ion , marching in a hollow square,
They w.re conti n""u. attack hy
,he Syrae u..n ca"alry .nd ligh' armed
troop" !'inding ,h. roul. impass. ble
t he y turned ""'t h, marching , hroug- h
t he night. T h. n. xl morning the Syra _
cu ncavalry ea ulfht up ",'i,h , hem .gain
and 'hey surr.ndercd, Of ,he 50,000
men who had set out on . he exptdi' ion
onl y 7,000 rema in.d. The Syracusan>
FORTIFICAT IONS AND SIEGE WARI'ARE
execuloodl he and lhe In.of.he
ar my ..... shu. up in li>e quarries , ..here
many dlood i n appalling condll....... The
MUVivon ....d inlo
1l>es.e '''''' excellenl ill...,,,,-
.ion. of . he of Grttk " ..
in lhe S.h cccn.Ul)".
By . he lx'glnni ng of l he . , h cccmury
ti ....
in .iege lechniques , advance.
",.>1< M t in or Gr= hUI i n
Sicily,
lhe Penliam invaded Greece
in 11<: l he Carthaginian . had
launched a simult aneous and ....l1y
vain al1a<k on Sicily. Soon .. . he
deslrU,.. ion of the A.henian ar my al
Can haginian. allaln a. _
.""'ptood ' 0 t he island. T hey
had and improvood ancienl
building hug<: ll'IO\'abl<
low.... which t he ..... 11. of
the towns lhey besieg.:d, From .1ocK
.hey rUood tM ba,<I<mcnt. "" h mis-
1i1n 10 dear ,hem' of dcfcndcn to . hat
,he ram. could be broughl " p apin..
lhe ....II . ne'" method. made l he
COUQlc-rn>e,,".,1n ,,'hich had "oed
.. Plal_ impoasiblc.
s."...,n )'<'lO afler . he def...., of the
Athenian he Syncvoan. el<cr ood mo-
nr ' .i u . I ural.,... on a prnnancn' ba>i1.
llti. man 10 fC\'t>lulionise Grttk
siege tact .
Dionysiul lcin n ilic war-
fare bboralone. al S),,,,,,,,, offering
large for new T he
....uJl .."u l ha. when he lai d 10 t he
Cart haginia n port of Mmya in 397
wa, .. Wilh mo<l .o phi" iC-lu ed
, iege weapon. of da) . MOlya lay on
an i. land ahou. a off t he west
coa' t of Sicily and was linked to t he
mainland b) a na.,ow . au,"wa;- which
the Carth"ll inian. hr.. up on . he
approach of . M Syroc u.an army. Dio-
ny.ill' and widt ned ClIU",, -
'''''j' in '0 bring up hi.
These of 10" ''''' si.
"0fC)' <all " hich on ..'heel., and
[he La,.., im..,n.ion, cala
pulla. TIM: copull ..... DOl
ne"" il ..... probably .-d by tM As_
')T\ano and may ha.., been inlroduced
in,o Sicily by . he Canhaginiano. The
00.. of ,1M: <by wa. of COII-
lUUClioo of wood tcinfor-tt<l by
.. a"d hom. 1kca..... of ' Mi. <am-
.truction ,locK bo" .. could I>< made .0
""en croortnouI po"..... Tfx;f only fail-
In, ..,," ,hat nn W2S 1U'Onll ......,h
.0 d r.w t hem. In i .. euliel. t orm . he
calapull .......intpl) a croosb",. .._
"""Ie.,hltn.lly a I><lly bow).. It acqUIred
,to. beau"" . he ..ock " ... placccd
apinot stomach and l he _" h. of
. he body ...as w;cd ' 0 force h-.ck ,he

T ht mdimum r ange of compo_
, i,e hand bow using a wor arro...
..... prob.ably in 'he region "f [So-
200m, although it was claimed t hat
m"r e , ha n ,his ..as
...i[h spccial ligh, .rro..... E. W. Ma.._
i n hi. Gr.d and R"",,,,, Ar/ iJ(try.
'UllllC.t. Iha. [he g",,,,,ph<lr' had a
fa" 8e of abou[ 250m, iuS! . ufficienl t o
OII[ ... hand 00.... of [he
The
U.i", ....and
and a ....nch 10 dr a,",' the unng. , he
-
___oISoo_ __
;:,
y -y "",, _ .. " -
,.,
APPESIlIX 2
po..'e, of .he ho... ",...ld he i""Teascd
ma..i,...ly. Allhough ,he", i. "" di rect
.uPf'OI"''''fl: C"tdence, il i. p<mible l tuol
. """" latter .......e Dionysiu$ ne'"
" -UportS,
A.,he Syrxu..n. widened 'MelIUse_
..... hrou.Jth. UI' . hei. I",,-.:n, pre-
ol1lTUlbly ...'ilh l he elIlapullS in .hem
(ah hl>ugh I>;o&,,.u. does no( sa}' fO}
and kerl Ul' a ",,,,...n, "l"'ins'
[he defenden on . be t>attkmen.. '0
""... ,he .."",ken on lbe mole, As lhe
S}Tacusan. d",... """=, ,he .\ IOlyans
erected rna,.. on ,he w.lI. ..."h }.",-d-
ann. ,ha, . ..." nJ OIl, ,,a.d. high above
, he 'o"'en. Al l he end of ,,,,,,," heams
" ...re ho.'lI-,ings from which ,he derenders
,,,,,Id hu. 1on [0 ,he ' O"'eTO ligh'ed fire_
brand. and bu.ning low willi. ri'ch.
\l'hen ,hey "'ached ' he island ,he
SYTOcu' a", b'oughl ur ,heir 'am, and
unde. ""ver of lhe '0""'-'-' managcd '0
breach ,h. wall, . T he dc ti:ndc," re-
Ir' ed ,olhe hou' e' and 'he Sy eu,ans
m"w d lhei, , iege 'oWe," , ighl into , he
Wwn. ho.",rding b.idges wc
r un out fr,' m , hc "'wC'", wbich wc'c
.ht,u' 'he 'am. h.ighl as ,he houses, so
lhal , he .o ldi.,," "ould ge, " n 10 , h.
building" .\ I,,,)'a f. 1I wi,h , hc mu. 1
,I.ugh,...nd onl}' ,J>o.e who sough'
in ,he '.mr l.. , u,,i.-. d '0be
sold in,o sl.."ry. An)' Grerl:. found in
,h. ' o" 'n " ..... erucir>N.
It i..., he url' n.ing ,ha' ,he new
'ech",,'og}' di oj no, 'I'f"'l'd more Quieti}.
II seem' '0ha"e lUlined imro' u' only
under Phtll r II of MIlCC'do., n, \llIe,n , he
.\\......&.>oian. P"", n,hu. in 3-40
IIC., ,hel' wn"-rucled ' ''''''' '' Ilo cubit<
(e35m) high ,,'hich ""'" a"""', lhe
''''''''" on . he ,,,,,' n ......lIs. " ...11.
.......e brough' d<w<n a oomhlnanon of
hattmng ram. and underm,ni ng. 11",,_
""cr. for all hi. Use of ,he la",,, 'ech-
ni 'lUCS Ph ilir 's f.''OIlrite " ....ron "'as
bribery, When f..."'d ,,i.h ,mrret/;nable
fonir>cattOflS, Phll,l' . ,ked iC gold could
=1. "' .....n. ' n , hi. w. yOl yn'hu. felL
The mosl im",>nant de,.IOl'ment i n
..,.,fare Wa' , ho: U. e of fo.
deren<' a' well a. offence. T hc Pmo_
,hi"n. h",J no ..' ill..y of , hei r " wn but
horro...e,J ri"" f,,'m H}'zall1ium, Hl'
m'''' a n. ... 'Yf'<" of c.tal' ult had ."ol ...d
,',,' h)' a 1>"... bu' h}' ' pring> "f
, ...i"ed , inew '" h"i . T ho,e was . Im,,,'
no limit h> l he , ixe " C,he, e ' orsi" n
machine. "nd ,he ,.me r,ine' ipk c"uid
be used 10 .ho..... bolts or ..0 ......
l'""ion ..0...._' 11. .0..... moke ,heir fi ..,
a!'PCara",.., during Alexander". siege of
Halicarnu sus in 334 Th. mai n rur
of ,he ca,arult. " 'a. '0 keel' , he-
def.ndcn off ' h. hanlctncn". \l;'ho:n
,...... Ia'e. Alcxander lai d siq:. '0
...} U h. (Ked by . imila. prob-
Inn.ln , hooc nl<1't'dby ..i...
a, .... T r n- i' ua,ed on an
island olf , he e-, . 00 Alcundor . ...-ho
did "'.. ron,,," ,he- ..,.. " 'as forced 10
build a mol. '0 en OIl' '0i'.
T he Tyri........ho had ..;, h..00<1 an
A..yrian ''''l'' ,..' ing 3 y...... beliC\..,d
,tuo, Aleunder ehance of car--
'uring ,he ci'y...hich h:od ca,apult.
ranged along 'M e ntin- ei reui, of , he
...all.
A. Alexande. . mol. came ..'il hin
rang. oCthe .... 11' he huill ,...., ,owe,..,
armed ...i[h ". " pult. at ' he cnd "f i, .nd
ker ' up a c" n," '" bo"age .gai n" ' he
h, " lcmcnt ' as Ili,,,,y,iu, h.d done .t
,\Iotl'a, l Ie . i,, >b",ul(h, up hi, " " nc_
,h",wc" .n,t \"cd ,hc'c '" , haKc 'he
...,,11, . '1'" ,," ulll e. , hi, th e defende..
crcLled mult i-' I">ked wh.e1, on the
.... lIs ...hic h" " ., ed mechank. lIy. T hese
'ri nlti ng ..'11..,, 1. dc. t ro ycd, dclk<:led or
h,,,,e III.. f""e of 'ho: bolt. fro m 'he
ca'al' ult., T hey . 1,,, r 'aced r.dding on
,he .... 11 . ' 0 ..,ften , ho: ellec, of ,he
, ,,,.,.. . No, "''''l<n, wi, h de(c...."" ,heir
ca'arult -armed ,hil" an""ked the
" m en on ,he moleand Alexander ......
'oe....... rali....dM'0 rrotect them.
\l'hen ,he mo.>I. to ad,.......,
, he prepatrd a fire . hir ",ing a
ca"al l)' ,r-a",J'Of1" fined "'ilh I"" masts
., , he ffOll ' A double } rdarm .....
a"ached .0 each !nU' fn"" hi<h .."' '''
hung cauld.ono filled ,n,h ,ha,
" 'Ollld i"".....<CC ' M fire.
.hip ...cre buill ur and ,1>0 hull fi lled
",'i,h dry b.an<""' .....00<1 , tuo"t!lp. pi ' ch
and .ulrhur . 1,.., ,"cr n of , ho: . hi p ......
..''';ghl<d do...n"" a. to rai.. lhe bo",".
\"(' hen . ho: ,,'ind "'a' blo"'inl': in lhe righ,
,ow.d it OIl' . od ran ;,
. ground nn . he .nd of ' he mo.>Ie. The
eTC" of, he fire . hil', tuo"ing se' il aligh,.
. ...am 'o.. A. , be burne d Ihe
cauldron...,nal""<1 in", ,he fltc. in_
erea,i oK ,he hl. , c. ,\ , ,,"ult cd a coo_
" . nt h.il of mi " i1o, fmm , h. 'I' y.i. n
.... "'hi ps .. a, fo,"ed '0 wit h-
draw and watch hik ge to....rs hurn.
J m ' wlt"n hi, 11." 1' of t.king Tyre
seemed a' ,heir k"' 1'01'0, AI. ....nder
tuod an .Imo.,,' unbell blc .. .-oke of
Iud. P....... n flCfl oom]>OSCd
of Phoenician .hips; "'hen ,ho
........ heard 'ba' mo" of Phoenicia had
sufTendor-ed. ,he flee. d,';n'egr.llled and
,he Phoenician and C}l'floI squadron.
oIIetcd , ............ion 10 Alcunder.
N",, 'ha, 1>0 con,roIled the ..... Alex-
ander ahotl' w>.knin" ,he mole so
,ha, i, ld hold ....,... '''''"en and
enp eng' ..... ......., oon"ru<:ted
Itn ,he- 'pOl of ,hem .....ng place<!
on Inn.", , .hopsand , he """aindcr on
, he heavier (fl.e....... '' be nall ...-.. read}'
'he engi..... wer. b.ough, ur 10 lhe end
of Ihe widened mole . nd . he .""d
began again,
T he T yr i. '" in , be meanl ime had
.. 'o"'e.. on ,he
ba nlemcnt. facing ' he mole and
dr orrod bouldcr; inlO'hc . h. llow water
ne"r , he fo", nf ,h. 1".11, to "or 'he
, hiI" "I>minlt in do'e, Th. t rying
'n dea, t h"' e r<>ck,. which had ", be
"ncho, ed unde r 111. < .... 11 <'. me unde,
attack from ht't h lhe 'own . nd from
..m"ured galle\, s
which br<\ke th rr>ugh t heir ,ables , mak_
ing i[ iml"",.ihle f"r ,h.m '0lic c1mc
unde, 'he ..,.U. AI. ..nd.. r",,,,mdod
bl' covering seve l of hi. 30 ""red
" 'i, h r'"t"".,i\e armour .nd
plac",d ' hem in (r<>f" of t hc .hip' l ba,
.....re rotric>'ing .11.. rocI< . -n.e T yn an.
rounl<red hy send, ng oo..'n di ,... '"
<u' ,he- ..-..tng e.hlc-., forcing ,he
.\ Iaccdonion. ' 0 reJ'l""" , he-m ..; , 11.
chain. Alexander'. men man_
agt'J to 1IIlf< ........... around ,he rocI<,
...d drag . hem on ' " , ho: mole, ..here ,he
courur........... ......, '0fltng 'hem out '"
$OS. \1'i, h ,1>0 .....y clear ,he .\ 1"",,-
donian. brough. up oJups ..'i,h rams
moun.ed on ,hem '0 ,..., . he ..--alls, A,
fin' ma<Ic Itnle imr....ion. bu'
finally .hey manall"d 10 hring down ,he
..'all on ,he """I II. sid. of,he I",,n. \llIe,n
, he br.ach Wa' wide ....,ugh ,he <hips
wil h ,he rom. wer. wi,Mn ...-n and ' '''0
"'he.. cafTymlt d b.idll"" ......
m.wed ur One oC, 11. " 'as manned b }'
.nd ,he <"her hy 'ax" of [he
phal.nl . I I... i. an cxomrk wherc ,he
rh. l"ngi' .. >uld nol ha"e be<: n med
w;l h ,he .
The ,,, II... ,hil" wcre ordcred to
I"unch .."' rt.d att.ck .g.in" o, hcr
I", int ' nn , hc ,,",. il ,I> di,perse ' he

AND SIEGE WARFARE

Abo...
I I. "....' e.,_"- m. """V bow
19"' lfophol"..). II .. ""'" "'.. Orawn Oy pl;><,"Il
)( '0""" tho """'y, Yon '''' g<Q"nd. oo u"''Il
, .... o! 'ho boOv 10<'" _ . t ho sI _
B _ ...".,. ," "0'" All.. E W "'..-...

..... "_,, d thO
....-. _ r _ '00 ''''"'0 "" "
'" _ . .., , _ "A<l to ,,", w _
_ (w......-.
<!erende,... the dr.,,-bridges lo....ered
into the 1'1,..,,,,,1'1 .he .\l",-"cdonian.
pined a f"",hold in 'he city_ The
Tyri;on ulfn'N ,IK u.ual ano";l;"" in
the aflermath <>r the siege. Arrian ...
lhat lhe)O,lXlO sur;;\,OI"S ......, ....d into
.l....,ry ..-1'111" lliodo.xwo claim> ,hat all
the: men of mililU)' age crucilkd
ar>d the rnt ....d ,n,o.l.vn')' .
This sie, . pro',iOn a illU>lra-
.ion of , he u>C 0( """.pull" arrovo'-
ohoolen on . he ,o,",'oro to k.,.,p tho:
.... from the t>ankrntn.. and
OIOM-lhlm',," Mma: used from the
[UUUnd ,o u..ke . he .....11. Catapults and
battering ram. lA'ere 01"" moun,ed On
'hip". an inAO\'.ti"n fOf'<:<:"d b ) ' , he proo-
km. or besie,in, an island r,..-trC'.
The Hr ll eni . t ic P\' r iod
After l he d. al h uf Alexande r, a, Ihe
gen eral, r"ugh l for . upremaC}', gr.al
a,hane'O. wcre maM in the
of ,iege mac'hin... When Demet riu,
J>" lim.e' .. (T he llc. ieger) laid , iege to
S.lami, in C}'pru, he hlli lt a tower <;>0
cubits (alklUl 40m) hi gh wi, h nine
"ote)", T he base of Ihe l"wer was 45
euhilS (c. 10m) "'l Uare and il rrw"ed on
four ""lid wh""J. eighl euhils (c. 3.5m)
high, Thi .-a, l lowe r ,,'as nicknamed
1I,I,poIi. (l h. ei lY de.lrO}'er ). The (o"'.r
"'a. lillN ,,'ich . aupuhs: hea,)' Slone
Ihro"'e.. ClIl"'hle of throwing ston..
"'Cighmg lhr"" lalenlS fe. llolg) "'ere
plad un che k........ floors; he''',' bolt-
shome.. in lhe middle ; and light
arrow.hoo<e.. and $lone-th"",,'e.. al
lhe: lop. The t"",,, required :lOO men
juslloopenue che: madun... The t>ea,,'
Slone---chruwe.. lore a""Oj' lhe banle-
menu. \ea"log .he oenll)' " 'alk
uf'<"'SCd II' lire, '
Pouihll' the ..-c mle......ing and
be-sl-de..,n hN .iete in lhe ancienc
",urld "''31 Demetriu,' anent", to we
RI'Iod<;s in An accounl of both
lhe siCj[C uf Salami. and Rhod.. i. giwn
b}' Diod"t"U. r<JIlo"" llg . he C}'e"ilr>ess
aowum or Il ien ml 'moln or Card ia.
For l he ,iC\le of Rhod.. Demetriu.
prepao.red c""o penlhou"", one for hi.
"Melh"...'Crs and Ihe other for hi.
hoh.hoo1.l ng c,uapuh., Each of lhe",
"'as mOlJnted nn l WO cargo v.....I, fast -
ened " 'get her. li e . 1"" huil, ' wo four-
"ore}' lOwe" which " "..lOpped Ihe
lowers of lhe harlk'ur and , imilarl y
mourned Ihe.. on I"' i" of b"alS A
floa li ng wos ..d of
Ing> s. udded wi, h spikes to
prevern l he e nemy ships f, om ramming
those . h( ","chine,. De-
mel riu s' aim was 1<> .apture .he harbollr
and eu' me Rhodian>olffrom their co,n
.upplie. roming in h}' ..a,
In . nlieira, ;"n or .he -.iege .he Rho-
di an. had begun hei ghlening fhe " ...11.
along l he haroour . T he}' pla<;<,d 'wo
pemho..... o n 11M> mole and Ihree upon
cargo .hips near ,he boom or.he .mall
barbour. Iillin. lhe... ",;.h boll- and
Sloneh,..,..'Cn of all <ius. The}' abo
pLaced pla.f",.... on earlO .hips in.he
harbour so fha, ca.apul" could he
mounted on ,hem
Duri ". the nil<ht l>emetnu. tnarlaf:ed
to ..ize lhe end ohlM> mole about 150m
from the .....11, lIere he csubl;.hed
an aniJlef}' bauer}' ,,'i.h ..,x> men and
ca.apullOofall In"' A. <!a)'break ur>der
OO"er of .IM> ballerl' on Ihe mole he
broughl hi. oeahorne entrines inlo .he
harhour. Frnm Ih.... he u..d hi.ligh.
bolt.hoolen. "'hich had . he greatest
range. 10dri"e nlf .he "<>fkers ,,'ho ",'ere
heillh lening lh. " aU. , Then. usi ng hi.
''''''e.h,,,wers. he de1;.royed t he enem}'
machine, and Ihe wall ,,,,,, . hey
huildi ng across l he mnle .
T he firs . allempt 10ta ke the ha,bour
proved lln,ucc'C" fll l . nd one of .he
floa, ing was destroyed by fire,
D.me'riu, wa' fore'Cd 10 wit hdraw 10
" ,
APl'El" D IX z
",pai. hio m..,h",,,,. I>c re' umed
'0 the a"lId<, and i, omed ' hot he
migh, take ,he ltarbour , , he Rhodian.
Iauncltc:d a dnl'C1"' te .....uh against hi.
d...tt ",mo"''''1 !loo'ing VIginn ",i ,h
their tltrtt o_t Soo"''e",d
""th miooi!n they craohed 'Itrough the
opiked boomo. and by "'l""'1c:dly ram-
mini ,he lioo"n, enJinn managed tn
oiM. ,,,,,,ol,hc:m. The 600.tingma<hinn
were manoc:uv",d ""thin the harbour
bl' rom and , he sUoC<:tt<kd in
pullin8 bokk . h ,h"d one_ , he
Rbodiano p....hd on in an effort to oi nk
i', one of , hei r . hi p. wa. ""ptu",d bu,
the OI her 'wo. ahlmUll h .....'e"'ly dam-
aged, ma""ged '" CSClp".
DioJoruo, ell. u. Iha' l >erne''' u. now
built an eno.""",. tIoo'ing Nne. y Ihree
limeo .. ' all and ,hr li mc:o a. wid. a.
Ihe l' ",vioUl one" l>1ll i, was w,ecked bl'
a SlOrm as h. wa. tTying 10 b,i ng it inlO
,he h.rbo u" During lhe "", m, know-
ing Ihat Demo;u. '",uld be unable to
send in ",i nfo'"cme n", lhe Rh,>dians
launched an alla,-'k un the bauery at the
end uf the ", ,,Ie and capt ured iI, thus
regainil1jl; c<>n ' 1'<l1 uf I he haroour .
Demel riu. no", gave up hi, auemp"
to lake , he eily from the 'co aod c<",,,,,n-
Il aled on the mo", oo.wemional land
.....ult T kc word 'oonventiona!' i. use<!
wil h r"",,,' alinn .. un<: ha rdly
refer .o anl, h,n8 , hot l >emetriu. did a.
ordiJUlry. li e """" constructed onot:her
<,'en 1a,It"" thon Ihe one he
had used a, Salam.. , In hue w"" almost
SO cubi.. (c. urn) "'lUlre. The frarne
"'.... CI;>lt!I.rucled of sqUired limbers and
bound ",'ith iron, Rors "''C1"C p[aa,d
across lhe a n"e 0' one cubi' intcr.-.al.
'00110",' opace (or lhe men ..1>0 "'''''''0
push .he tOWC' ("""'ard. It "'... mounted
on eight oolid " 'heel eaeh nev1y a
me're thick. ..hlCh were W'..::n::d "',h
iron plaIn. The wheel , wen:: on pi'VI'
so thahe machine could move in any
din::c>ion. 1lIc framework of the to"'er
""" made orr<>tl' u!,nght timbtls nearly
100 cubi.. (c. 4Sm) long placed at each
corne, of the ....'" and .loping in"'ard.
so that the tOINer taIlOred '0about
cubi .. (9m) sq....r( al the ' op. It woo
di ,id( d in,o nine n",eyo, T he f, ont and
. ide. were eovered wh h ;,on p!at(S
nailed lln ,,, pr"l eCt the I"wet ftorn fire
missile, . Ther( were po"r" al the front
at each level e,wered by shull ers which
were 'a" cd mechankally. T hese shut
,"
... bO "vht
1 n ,_oj, ,,_ ,........ uHd IIy A., ..-
1... _ wM ,,,,,..., IIy """'" m_
""'''od ".-- Of '
2 A cuI _.., to 0I\0w ,.... "P""V'
3s.-n.o. ""'9"''''. uto",, " " ,'" Itom M,,,,,,.
,n "". '
0,5 ' '''' "on "'mO,", of. ,m. II ,,,. H. ll eo,,t,c
c" . Pul' IO, n<l " Amp" " .. '" SP.;o
I
FORTIFICAT IONS AND SIEGE WARFARli
. I
.en "......, from hi<ks .. l<J-
gnher and stuffed " i , h ,,<>01 to provide
nccllcn. proo.ccUon agaJR>' .tone mlS'
sileo , "..... h SlOtt}' had ' '''0 . i de air
"",), _ upand onoc do.l1. T!>c .owe.
,,'as mewed by 3 ,.j00 men, some ,noide
and 0I1>cn pu.hing a, , he bad :, All"",
inlt ' 5em ca.:h for ,he ...... of , he
hot.. ..:n ... tbe hot..., "" ere Ofl C
c'uhi, "part , it ...ould be poosihle '0
squceze littl e o,'e. 30 ." <lr men
im ido , h,' h",c of 'he w cr, and "'
60cm pcr man one would similarl y ltC'
just ovcr 30 men to ' row, Therefore lhe
w,.1number of men pushing imide' he
m""hine could hdly cxcced ' ,O<Xl ,
Either 1);".1, ,, ...., ' ligures arc ",,,>fig O.
hi. reprc-scnt>.hree ,hifts.
Ac-.:ordintl ' 0 . he Roman enlti""" r
Vitruy;u. ,hi. ' O"'cr " .... dcs;atICd by
A.benian a",hi. """ Un
fortunatel y he gi , "C$ a differen'
. ion .... . hc ._..,r, ..., 'ing that i, ..... I1Sf,
and 6of, ,,-ide. ,,'Cighing ahout 110
tOfUlCt" He 1oJ,d hat i. ...... """"red wi. h
p ul<in and undr""",d hide .., tha. i.
could ."hOland , he hIovo, of ClI.pult
..ann up ' 0 360lb
!>a. ob"i<>uoly goo hold of , he Y.-n ' na
dcs<.'Ti plion. Thi uuJd far bener fi.
the Salami. IId q>t>lu , Pe.haps the
Roman engn_r d.d no< r..ai.., . ha,
,hen:: .-erc n.., machines_
\'i. ru,'iuq""', na rrom a Ios[ wod by
.he en,;nccr Diadc. who accompanied
Alnantkr on hi. ampaian gi\'C> [I><:
ideal dimensions of . iege t_,,,. T he
. mallest to" ..,r, ....hk h len stOK}'S,
.bould be 60 ( c, 27m) high and
r7 .. (c. 7,sm) wide . , , he b. se. T he
lOp should be 20 PC' cen' narrnwer t han
,he base ( c , 6m), T he up,igh' limbe"
,hal form , he frame uf the tOWel shoul d
be ahou' 22<; m rhi,'k at 'he ba... 'ape.-
ing to 15<m ' lthe wp, Ii i. large", lOwe,
i, twice thi, height , with 20 and
ho, a boa.. 23.S cub". wide ....i' h
" mila. con[ r",:t ion of 20 pcr ccn' at .he
top, The uprights ha.'e to be 3QCm at
the bonom p in con" "",ina '" ' scm
at [he .op. Th;. :W->lorey lOYl"" , ,,;,h
it. b8c leu lhan one-fift h of il1 height ,
...,Id he Yer)' unotablc , Deme.ri u. '
1<,""", with i.. ba... half " . hei.eh., seem.
far It'lOn:: r..ai" " . l)iadn' [0",..... ,,'hk h
were """'en::d ,,'ith n ,,'hide, had baJ-
conics . round e.ch Sl Of'C)', He . dd, an
interest ing detail ,n , ho[ , he-se ''''', R
wen:: collapoiblc and could be oaken on
....mpa" ....
Demelriu. w.o prefWed pcn.hotKn
to prot"", . he men ...hile .hey filled , he
and 10""""" .he t arn.
pa....gcs "......, constructed in """,.ble
"""ion. ready for [he .....ult on [he
w.II , . VClt'fuu" ..-ri. ing in , he 4' h cen-
'U ' )' Ml , " }" .ha, ,h= co\'cred gal-
lerie. were huil[ in ..,..ion, 'jm long,
25m high and ju", o\'e. 2m wi de, and
there i. no !'Ca.on to , uppu.. rh ,hey
""mid he different a' ,he of ,he 4, h
c""' ury \x'hen every,hing wo' !'Cady
,he hesiell'<'"' cleared an orea oh<.'u'
600m wide leading up to [he wall" ex_
p",i na ""ye" to"'e,, and [hc in[crven,ng
""" i"", of wall, Thc)' 'hcn !>egan
ing up the cngines. pl""ing the Hd<P<>li,
in the centre wi.h four pent hou..,. on
oi.her ,ide con",,",ing , hem ..,;.h , he
Ct>\'Cn::d 50 . ha[ , he ..,Id'en
could llCt (0 , hei r post, in sarety. The)'
w.o broullht up 1\0'0 eno<mow pent_
howe. in . 'hieh ,he battenn, tom.
. 'ere """"n[ed . Once again Demelnu.
had built , be biggest and the he-sl , E....h
of the ram. " .... [20 CUbilS (c, s.. m) Iona
.nd ,heathed ,,'itb iron (Diodoru. com_

__. ign.
a A " 'J)IIl,...- """ "-' "om 0 "a
...... ot _01 .... ' n """"", ........ "" 'lI U
to. (lO<I "" --" in :US 8e Eln, "'''''' _
1 A 'K<l<"4,'.(;t"", 0' 'Oe A"'4'U' co""""
,_ ...... co-.... _. COI'"<1
><:<><"'''''.
eA "'" ow"' ot , he " 1' ''"0' ' Tt,. .. wo,"
by '"'Olrlg '"" 0'00' . ", b ,""",,"
"rig' .,m. too ."., oottom
APPEr-:DIX 2
pare' its blow to that of a ship's ram)_
T he ram wa' mounled on rollers and
powered by 1,000 men. T his dcscrip
lion has met with e<m,iderahle , cept;.
cism, hut what tbe critics ha\-e nol taken
into con,ideral;on is that the ram moved
on rollers and t he primc purpo;e of its
was to increase it , momenlum,
As it was nOl suspended there wa. little
chance " f il
A dc.cTi ption of a ram of this w rt
moving on rol lcTS, abo drawn from the
wrilingsofAlexandcr'sengineer Diade"
i, gi\'en by Vitr uvi us. T his ram had a
housi ng 32 eubi" (c. '4.501) l"ng and
aoout 8m high with a low pit<' h
which was surmounted bya tower about
2m ,quare ,nd high with three
storeys, The lower l wo "oreys held
IXIts of WaleT for extinguishing fir..,.
while lhe top floor contained a small
c,.tapuh.
I n' ide l he hou,ing ' hc rom itsel f,
whic h wa, pulled backward, and for
wards by ropes., mo\'ed on rollcTS_
Ear lier ram, w"ul d ha\' e been sus
pended hy ropes or chai ns Ii-om l he
roof of t he homing and operaled like a
pendulum_ T hese primili\'e ram, had
a limi ted stroke with a deCTea'ing mo
menl um al lhe poi", of impacl. Roller
rams had a " m"ant moment um and
much greater pcnctral i"n. T he hous-
of the,e machines, whi<' h were
called ",rwises, were co.'ered with
plank. of ,,,,k or ,orne other low-com-
bustion wood <werlaid wit h a la)'cr of
green wan le, T he housing was <,,,,ered
wil h seaweed or st raw soaked in vinegar
and 'andwichcd be,ween two layers of
oxhidc
Vil ruvim .Iso include' a dcscri plion
01 a ma"i\'e lortoi ' e ram bui h by
Hagetor of Byzantium It wa, 18m long,
4m wide, 11m high and mo.'ed on eight
whttls each 2m hi8hand 1m thick. T he
ram, whi ch operated like a pendulum,
was suspended from a frame 12.Smhigh
and operated by ropes, It was over 31m
long and made from a squared ti mber
3oc'm wide and 22_5 cm deep at lhe
front , increasing to 37,5 by 3<xm al the
hUI! , The head was covered by a beak
of hardened iron and l he 4.5m behind
l he be,k were ,hcal hed wit h iro n plates.
ThTee rope< thick ho und t he ram
from head to bUll and these were bound
10 the ram by Ol her ropes, The whole
ram wa, then wrapped in rawhide,
B. low
Too Helepolis ' 00 9" .' uQn_c,od siege to_
of Demel""' POhQ'Ul'" It "., mo", ,","_Om
nigh , nd h. d , t>a,. 21m squ'" "w.,
dh'ideo onto no"" '",,''''' ct>mmed wit"
cat. p"I"
Diade" engi nes also included
hme" which were u, ed '" kn'lCk holos
through the wall, a, oppo""d to Tams
which shwk the walls down, Diade'
oorer was housed in a IOrIOise aooUl22m
long. The horer i"elf, whi ch was a long
beam pre,umably with an inm point,
moved on rolkrs along a wooden trough
and was operated by a windlass and
pulleys,
\1;'hen lhe Rh"dian' ,aw which part of
the wall w.. to <Xlme under anack, they
immediately building the cu',
tomary internal wall. T he be' iege"
undcrmining lhe outeTwall
and the Rhodia ns responded by diJl; ging
dO"'l1 on the inside and into
the mine' , prcvenli ng lhe ""ppe" fmm
doing an;' furrheTdamage_ Hut the force
of Demetrius ' machines was irresistible,
and under remo"e1ess pressure fmm
the engine, the walls began 10crumble
The rna" of boll., hooli ng c'atapuh, in

FORTIFICATIONS AND SI EGE \lI-'Al<FARE

-
1 ,,,_, ronoooo ' .... "".1>0<1 "" y..........
1....... __0".-. _
__"" rwo _ til __ _"11
"'os """'" 01 __..... _
l "_ ,
A"",v.
v", vv",,' ","I rOo, "'" ,,,. ,, ' 0 "'O'CO""'""'
'",,,,,go"'0"' "..... 2, m!or'Il.od "'os
"PO"''''' b, . ...,,,,,n

"_"'lI , bvYnr...-s Tho

__... d1._..."' __
,-_,_, .... __"..red
..... _---..,-,.......-
-
the H.I."",.., the back
from lhe bI,. "'nu:nl. and, a> at Salamis,
lbc havy <;:&l. puh. in the Iov...,r .,<>feY..
of ll>c tovo..,r sl ri Pf'<"d lhe cr<:ndla,;o".
from ll>c ...'all. The l..-gesl oh hc OC"cn
...-..1110"'''''' t hal had <:onIC unoXr .<lad;
..._ brougl>I do..-n and .".1> il a whok
Slr ttel> of t he curt . ,n ...-.11 .., .lut . he
defcndcn a>Uld no Ioongcr """" c along
the ...ntry ...'alk from one pan of the ...-.11
to &nOlhcr , 1M Rhodian. Iaun<:hcd an
a11-OU1 ."...,k on the HJopoh, onunoon-
Ins nigl>l . bul faikd ' 0 ..,' lirc '0 i.
Dcmelriu. , fcarl ng for 1M saftt y of I>i$
""",..roo. off' prlng , pullcd i. back oul
"" rangc. Bu, as soon u il " ""l-cp<lirffi
he ",",urncd to ,hoi assauh. \)I'l>ilc hc " .",
prtp,oring 10 ,he a..",uII .he
Rhodian. buih a lhird creseem wall 10
Nek up an ' hc PM'" of thc ou,cr ....all
tN' ....c.. in a danll:erous wndi, ion and
dug a dp dilCh hehind Il>c p,orI of . he
"'all tha' had coll apsed 10 SlOp ,he
engines he ing hrought into t he town,
Once when the lI<lepolis ap-
proached t he wall. , ,he <atapul" c1cared
the rampa" s uf defenders and ,he ram,
overth,c...' Iw" m",e conseeulI".
" ..,eh.o or the curtain waU, isolating
one uf Ihe 'owc... . T he l<hodi.n' fought
dcsperatdy in thc lOwer . nd in spi te
of . u. l ai n1ng l errihle los..,. foi led all
Dc"",u,u" . llcmpu 10 ,.ke it.
lkrnc'nu one IUI.ssauh
on the I,, '"'n : . unil of t,SOO piclred nu:n
bunt inl" the t"...n throual> the breach
in ,he ...",11 durinl lhe nighl, bul al
.hough a despera,c ."cmpt ",'as madt
l o uk<: the ci ly lxMh by .... and land, .he:
follo "" nl it ""a> ha,cn bad::
and Dcmelri...' commandos dri'..,n out
""In. Dcm<1nu. had >hot Iu. boll and
und<:r from .he: ... her Grcd
Slatn carD<' tolurn. with t he Rhodians.
Vilru,i... ...w. somet hi ng lo Ihi.
S1nf)' , , ,,,,,,*h " m.y .....,11 be: apocr)'pIW.
Ac<;onl' ng ' 0 hi_ accoun. Diognctus,
who had OfI...., bttn the t",,'n archi.CC1
of Rhodes, wu bcgg.:d by lhe inhabi
Ian.. . 0 d....i.., a m<thod of capturing
11><0 1I</opoh, .lIe k.-ked. hole ,Ilrough
lhc 'own ...,.n "' t he: poi n, ....I><on: .he
H.I. """ , wa, e. pcs;tcd to a{{ad::. He
.hen o,dc...,d the l< h"d ian. 10 c,oII.... " a
gr. a' 'l uanlll Y of se..... g., ..... ,.. and
mud channdled il oUllhroogh The
hoI. in the wall thc 50 Ihat
.... hen t he t".....r ..... , mowd up i, he-
came st u,' k f..t i n Ih. mir .
AP PF. NDl X 2
c" " " mary 60m "f , heir walls . nd [hey
' " n endered ,
The and en[ . mho.. tell u. of many
way. ofdeah ng wit h mines, The ear li..t
of .line eomeS f",m llerodnru. when
he i, de<cribi ng . he .iette by t he Per -
Na", or Bara. in around 600 IlC.
\ll' hile .he Persians un<krmined . he
.....1... omi1h ..... oen' ........nd . he inside
ef [he .....n cbpping I>runze ,hickl
againot lhe pound. h liNd dull <hud
OYer ooIid earth, bu' cwt' r . he place
where l he mines were bei nrdug il rang
_ hiJ(her noIe, AI t hi. poin[ t he de-
fenden dug a counlerm, ne and managed
to d rive O" I . be sappers ,
Aeneo . ' he .ac, ician wri. ing .hortly
"r.er 31\0 oc, ,ugge'" .hat deep 'reneh
, h" uld l>e d" g in fro'" of I he wall , '0
that t he sappe.... could 'I,,' gel to t he
wall wi. hou. revealing . heir po!lition. He
furt her lIdv""",.. . ha[ a ......11 built of
l>eavy ""''''''' r)' be erected in Ihe di.ch,
I f , hi, lut ""nnol l>e done .he defenden
.hould collect together upply of lop.
and rubbi.h. \ll"hen . he m,......rrear in
the ditch [he rubbi.h .hould l>e tJtrooa.n
into , he l rench.....Iith. and t hen
"""ered <We"osmoke OUt the sapre"
These coun'ermeaoures had been
g.eal ly reli ned by lhe bq(lnn,ng of . he
2nd ce ntury 'i\' be n in ' 1l9 IIC [he
Roman. laid ,ieitS' '0 Amlmao:;ia in
Epir u nd tried [0 "ndermine I he w.II"
at li"t t hey romo,'ed t he . ar t h in secrot


hall eri, Iwo of ..oneh",we," and l he
ot hcr pre' mn.hl ;' "r h" lt -shomers,
UnJcrgT<l und pa" .geway, led from [he
c_mp to r om , hed. onJ golleri .. and
fro m lhere ""tended toward. [he .own
"'all , Oroce 'hese ...x..-k, "..,r. romple<ed
.he ram. and sappers i:q:_n I" """,e up
.0 l he " ...n, l:ofonunately PoI;biu. tell,
us no _bout .hi ""ce-pllho.
lhe eI'y ,urrcnd<'r<:d II"..".".,., . he
IlOUr1t gi"es an ""oelle-nl descri. p<ion
of Phi lip', preliminary .icC" met hod,
The "",; n ""in" of Phili p'. ' l ra[egy " ....
I"l"l lothe wall . so . hal herould under
mine [hem. He " .... lhe rna.... of . he
mi ne. II i, general ai m wa. '0under-
mine a 60m ,"e[ch of woU he
' '' Pl'' lr leJ wi. h pi, prop, "nlil he had
got hi , ' . Pf'Crs out He t hen Hred t he pi t
pro!" ond I he wall co lla!" eJ Thi. Wi '
normal prac.ice. followed hy both the
Greek, and .be Carthagi nianiroce a,
leut . he end of the and
u..d long before by t he I' e..ion._ Pbili!,
....m. to ha' e developed il tO. line art.
AI l1\ebes . he 60mef wall " tte under
pinned in only t hree .. and
buhe)' col lapsed lItf,,", .he r ropo
could he fired. A he . ieg.e or Prinassus
Phill!'. who ,,"'. al,,' aj"i willing I" . :de a
p mhle, exploi[ed hi> rep!J'.IKm hy
rai.ing great pile. of ex"h during [he
nighl , When Ihe ci, izen. saw Ihis I he
rollowing morn ing , , he king informed
them t haI he had undermined the
, I>< siege . he Rhodians ".." di d
Demetrius b,- oelhng hIt C'fl[IJR<'S and
using .hoe money 10 one of tIN:
&ven lJl'onders of ,he World, the
Col....... of Rh<><ko. This enormous
bronze 1". of Apoll o, whkh ",as over
30m hi;:h and look U yr . .. to . rect,
. wIld at t he entranc, 10 lh. har oour
whkh Dom. " ; ,, , ffil d tr ied ' 0 hard to
cap!",.." It re mained su no.l ing for only
years before it WI< . haken down by
an u Mhquake. The " alue lay ;n fr ag
men,. f<>t near ly . t housand y....... b<,fo,"" ..,..
' hoe .....bs capru",d the IIland ar>d !iOld
it olffo. scra p ;n 672 AD. T radit ion hu 1
i. 1M! il ..... 0010.1 ' 0 . J_ from mesa '
....ho ,hen carried . he ptecn ... on t he
bad. of 900 carnch.
-n.c SIeIJC of Rhodes ma.b ' he end of i
anera, N ...,ragai nwc"' .. _
mad"""" u>ed. Ninety )""n later Philip
V " ...hh and t he more ron_
,-.minnal form. of . iege warfare . He
gene. ally drcumvalla' ed. lown wilh .
ditch and palisade hero commencing
t he , je;:e. When h. laid ,je;:e 10 T hebe,
in Pht hiol i. (ZI 7 Be), he di,'ided his
army; n th ree and joined the ,hroecamps
wiIh a '",nch and douhle I'OliU<!e reo
inforced ..'ith ,,""""" n ' o"'e n e''Ory 30"'.
A' Abydu. ' 7 l"e'ars later he .ucettded
in ""n inll'he .000'n olf from ,he ..... by
dr;v;IIjt piles int o ,he harl:>our
Once 1000'n " ... w r rounded Philip
used hi. cl.lapul<s .nd . Ione.hro"'....
.0 hold back . he defcnder$ ..1\il.. he
moyed up hiiegc equipment. A.
F.ch,nus ( 21 ' Be), haYing e....'ted '0
make ho. ",ul. oppooile IWtl 'owen. he
" u p a ram romple'e wi. h a ' helter in
fronl of each toweTand cr e;;ted a gallery
from one ram to ,he " , h. r ru nning
tu Ihe w. ll; thi , en. hled his
men to move frum one PO" to the ot heT
wit hou. coming under fi", from , h.
won., T he.. WOTb looked Y.ry . imilar
10 . he " ...11 l here "'ere " 'id erwor lt
lOlA"" . !><we Ih. ram shed. a nd also
wider boonlements alon.tt . he ' OP of , he
gallery. From lhe ground tIoor of lhe
ram .hed, men k>'On.d the "ound so
l ha. , he rams could be fonnTd
On .be floor abo'O, in addition ,,, .... ".r
ion . nd (l(her fin. -fight;ng ' Quipmenl.
there were e.capult., AI lhe lop, ....d
w;lh the " ",'n lOwers, IlOldi.... we",
poo.ed 10 p. even. the <Jot. nd. rs int.r-
r.r ing with Ih. ram, T he whole ..r ue_
luro wo, de fende d by l hre<: calapult
FORT IFICATIONS AND SIEGE WARFARE

I ... f...-_...... _oo'll__

........... r ._
_ IOP ol'" ...-... """'"
"""_ --_ .....
......... _ ...--dOICh _ I ...
_ f _ _ .... popoIao _
......--..... -"'p ..
,.. _ .... loIt_ol .... _ _
_.... _-
by an und<reround f'a'ugc",ay, bu'
linal1)' thoy could no di>gUiuc t ho
,.;,in, matlnd of from t ho to"'.,,',
inhlbi'ant., The defende... immedi -
:nely dug ' rench .lone , he imide of
,he ""all and lined the .ide nooarntto the
.....11 ..;,h """y thin pLo'noi bronze; by
p!acine ,he,. an agai...t the pla'es ' hel
"-ere able ' 0 ....r 'ho mine.., 'IlIey 'hon
dug a 'unnel under 'ho ..-.II .nd broke
inlO the mi ...... When , hey unabk
,n d";ve , he <aPr"'" OUI t hoy jammed a
larp: corn jar IY' I1& on itide imo t ho
'unnel ' ho ..... U. J... of , hi. size,
<We. 1.5m in ma)' be o=n a'
Pompeii , Thi. in hid been prepared
wit h a hole in ,Ite honom and an iTOn
-
lid wi'h holes in it over 'he 'op. The jar
...... filled with fine feal he.. and p;etts
The defender, 'hon
lilled ,n , he 'P*'"around , he jar, tea,ing
only r,,-o 1'1<>1... , hrough which pikes
" -ere thrust to 0l0J' l he ROInan5 gc"il1&
near. An iron tube ..as titled in,o tho
hole In ,he bonom end oithe jar and a
bellowo a"klted. \1:'i,h lhi' tho de-
fcnden pumped smoke
through lhe perfora'ed iron lid into tho
mine and m.natred to d";,-e ou, lhe
""-
Ace_ aloo I UI& nany mc-rhod.
oi dealing ..i th e otginc>. Bcoid""
the 1011&",",ahli'hed ploy of c,uchi ng
l he ram in a noooe and dra ing il up, he
.1.0 ,ul&""" .u.pendi ng o e r ' he ....allo
huge boul ders a"ached '0 heam, h,'
grappling h<>oh. TIuc", to he
aimed "'i, 1t lona plumb lines also at
tachc<l to l he beams . nd ",ere onl )' '"
he rcle.""d "'hen lhe plumb Hne 'ouched
'he 101' oflhe ram hou,i ng. He al' o , ug-
ge.ts u, ing " r.m on 'he inside of th e
w. lI 1<> counler",,' t he enem;' ram
T o"'ers ' hould he un<l.. '0 'hat
lhey ' ink inh, 'he ground and become
immovable , He 0100 gi..... t he recipe for
pr eparing incen<li ary homhs : pilch. sul_
phur . '0....,granulated frankine"'n'" and
pine ...wdwt p,ael:ed in,o "",1:0. T he
fire to ignite IItnc would be car ried in
polS. Dun", , he o",1t' of l.i lyNeum the
Carthagln,an. ma<k partIcularly elf=_
live we oi pine brand. and '0...- 10 lire
l he Roman c!liioeo.
It would he imp<Uihle to Olorm a
town ..' , hool l he moo, primi'i," of all
siege ..",.pona_laddcn_bur 'he>c arc
no< ....mplc ... they may seem. The)
muOl be euclly the ";ght length for
particular wall. If l hey are too Iortg l he
defcnden ca.n ptnh 'hem "",'" bad_
",,,,ds ""h. foded .tid'- Tbr; bdden
mu" reot &pi...t tbe " -all at such an
angle Ihltthey "ill ..."her O'o'erhalaoa:
on ,he one hind not break under ,he
",-cigt" of .he climhen On ,be Olher.
1 'hc)' m"'taloo he " rong in
relation to t heir lcnglh. Atlhe siege of
Cattagcn. ladder< "'-ere so k>ng
.ha, ' he)' broke under 'he ...-eighl "fthe
d imbe... . T here are many instances " f
soldie.. ",,,, nti ngthe courses of "One,
in a "'all to "'ork OUI ' he height. Poly_
hiu, pnin" oUI Ih., t he heigh' of a wall
can be worked nul with the use of
t rij(Qnomct ry and ,hal once having
API'El"l)]X z
I
,

<" T ,
,
"
s..e,,,,,, '" t ! """'''' ",,,..,. "'.'" at V.. '
'n 1 w.,,, T58-1 00:lm 'hod
7 I... 'oe< ul t'" t." w...., V.. '
,-
v__w_".to "
"",..- ..__...... -
.. s-.r _
_h...... '... ._01
.-
,

.' -
,
. ..
) , >
, I '

I
r:
,,*.l.- V':-\.
z-:
,
Abo
T... """ h ..t , Sal "',..
001W<>< " ,: B "".II..v bon"", )
An "oc_, "",,,,,"0got,., At",n,
5 T". (P'"O''' g... ", Svrocu..,
O"twor k.... roO" "" ' 0 "."
,-
A '0C<lft>""""'" '" _ 01 .......... _
_ .. p_...... (_K'oodwnl r
.........---.-_ ...
M "" on '"
-
He lle n i .. k fo r ,ill ea tio n,
T here " a. onl" one an, wer '0 ,he:
new ,i'1Ic ,""hni,!"," anoJ t hi, ,,' as 1o
kee p ' he enemy awa\' f,,' m "'all , ;
",,,-.: he w" I' UI , he "all, defence w.,
h" pdc" , T he' iml' ,,!\,emenlS th., took
1'1.,0 on th" 411'1 .nd , ' oJ ""R' uri", RC
,,'etc m," nly wilh kc><: pi"l1
t he al " ,I;,t" ""e,
C. laptlll ' "" " loJ 1>0: ",ed for defe n"e
as ".,,11 a, otfen"e. _noJ fm m the miJJ k
of t he 4th ",' nl tI,)" wall' an J ''''''0'' were
dcoignClI to h.,]oJ ."i lle'y, Ik>l h W eTO
pierced "it h h11'ho,lo:'l and . " illell'
po''', The u'wer< "tien as manl '
a. rou' II I Ii"e ,,,,,ey' . hil h with ha,' ..
art ille')' k>'d and hghte",
piee-na' ,he '"l', The hi ghe, the art illety
,uuloJ he: ta,,,,,oJ ,he " 'a' it' ,atilt<' ,
... T'n"hed " ..,f "''''. ...plac",J th< u10J
"",nel1atl(1n. a, th< "lJ' o f ,he '"""n.
pnmartly ,,, ['1\>1"'" 'ho: .kfcnde,-;; (,,,m
,he ",_ " 1'1",,,-.:,-;;, T h< t""" " ha.l
p<>stem !r..... ,h,ou&h ,,'hieh ...11i...
<XKIloJ M ma<k ,\1 keep , h< e""",y' a" . "
rmm ' M ".U" A di tc h. (or- ...-ri<-s
of duc ) " ' oJUt in fron' of , h< ". 11.
"''' j , a!I a pr:II UtlOll againo, "'1'1'<"
hu, alo<> '0make" ol,ffieult '0l>,ing up
"""e e"ll'...... The outer dltc..... " 'e-re
,",ualll' fron,,,,J "'11'1 p.oli<.aJe> 0.- t hom
The ,nner """ "'a< prot cet",J
h)' """",,'" I'lch,noJ " 'hieh "'ere
emrl"",,mento, Bq ,,,,d ,he
lrend>c' " " re ",,,'e.-.:d hole. and art i
fi cial ma"he. ,,, ""I' t he machine. ,
T he cily' wall . "'ere ,hid.ned and
' I' he o ),j ,'",ndlated h. "le-
men, . were "'1'1""oJ hy "' '',n ,,.. 11.
,,'ilh . hutto",oJ art illery' 1"-"" ."d loop
link" Va ult ooJ remi ni,eo", of
hcillht of the ,u ll t he
LaoJoJe'" , ho uloJ he: 20 I"' r ""n'
5<>. if nil i , cubi.. high
, h< Iadd<, . "'-,. doJ I'lc ' 2 cubi.. to allo,",
for ,h< anlll< uf inehne, Th< G,eek hi.
tdlo ",-", th< brill"", h" ,
Philip \ " ....... " rfe.-.:oJ th< " ha.... of eap-
'''''tllt .\ l d i' aQ ' I'<'a<hety,
raan"..,J 'ub"neh . ",prise attack
al'lou' m,oln'llht bu, hi. man; h
'00 ",rly anoJ am.. he:fo ,he inhat-;-
tanto ha.J ll'_ h' 1'lc.J, Reali.. ng , hal if
he "'-.:'-': ' 0 ...lam the of .".-pri""
he ",,,,,1.1 han ' " anad: imme.Jia'c1l',
he otdeted 1'1" boJoler bea..... for".ard
to hnol to 1'1" ...a'l"' tation t ha, the
la.Jolen ...-.:re u." '''''fI,
'"
"
FORTIFI CATIONS AND SlIiGE \l?ARf' ARE

A .....1._ 01 to... Elf........
'own '" VO' i., ' .. ,.,.. 01 ' .. Rom _
. 000 Be ' n 'own is.n ,I><
_ , on 'ho "-';100"""
l.n
I 0<1 10 H....".,.(".. sect."", of to... , ,.,,. Rom<; c YJJ Be
, _ , of ,,,,,,,, , Walt , V.;i
' T... IVPO ulO<l "" ... . , 9'",,0<1 n,. wool i
.., m,o. ' "",Q'" of nh _
'"
9 T... ty po u'" on g' O"nd -....
10 , .. ' V.. u'" "" "I,,., To" ",ff I.co i, Cu'
' W", . '" '0. WIll "".,, On ' op r "" ' poco
' no WI" t, ""o<l w" h ,"bbl' . nd "" ",
Ilig hl PI. n. of Vo,i ,nd Homo \lV, II, ".
" "'0"" blown ,nd "" o,.ed
'"
APPENDI X 2
Above
[J''Il"m 01 , .,. lome" ,owo at M,n,u' "
tvP;c.. Ron',," COIooy Oppo.I'e C....,' .
block"'. lin. , .."untO A<..,., ,.. p 193 '0"
compl. " d" ""Pl; OO01 th. rOCM1"., "I
b'C"cum" ".Mo
Ear ly forti fication, in It al y
Most ofthe vilbg.. of 8th -cent ury Italy
were ,ited on hilllop' just as l hey were
in lhe resl of Europe. T hese vill ages
co\lld usually rely on Sleep , jopes for
l heir defence , and lh i, wa, often re-
inforced with pali,ades and dit ches
Hundred" of ' uch villages crowned lhe
hills of Etruria. Wit h the rise of l he
Etru,can ru ling class in the 71hcent ury,
group, of ,i11.ges were united into for -
mid.h!c 'own, and the rampart ' of l he
earlier period were grad ually replaceJ
by le..ace wall,.
Exc.vat ions . 1 Veii, 12km north of
Rome, have re\'ealcd 'e\'eral stretch"
100 m
;ng cat.pul" which, because of their
elevaled pos i,ion, could outrange any-
thing l hat l he enemy hrought up. The."
faced westwards along l he 'pur by
which an enemy would have 10 advance
in order to auack the forlre",. T he
,y"em w" not C(}mpleled when lhe
Roman, captured l he lown in 2" Be.
Even , o, ;t is notewonhy that they nevee
mode any allempt lo capture the fonre.,
or the Epipolae gate.
In f"mt of the geeal hauery wete
l hree rock-cut trenche" the furt h"'l
being about , 85m from the bauery.
T his was " ",bably 01 lhe maximum
range ofthc catapuh, so that an enemy
would have to cro" thi, under fire bUl
out of hi, own arti llery', range. From
l his poinl he would ho,'e 10 cros, two
more di lche, and wall., e.ch defended
by catapull" before reaching l he m. in
banery. Tunnel, were dug connecting
lhe Epi p(}l.e gale with Ihe forward de-
fen,",, ' "0 th. l t he defendees could wilh
draw to lhe fort oe the town if t he ou ler
defence> were tokeu,
c 1 2 3 4
OriginoU}' it had a tr iple portal , hUl one
or lwo of lhese were I. ter blocked off.
A , imilar blocking of I';ates . ppea" in
lhe fon, along HaJtian', \11;'011. The
Epipol ae gate was lhe weakest poinl of
lhe Syracu, an defences and wa, re-
inforced by a fortress, the Eur yalu"
buill on a 'pur juu ing oul from the
plateau ju,t ,outh of lhe gale. T he out-
works in front of thc Epi polae gale
forced lhe ollackers o\'er lowards the
Euryalu' fon , bringing them unde r fi re
from the anillcl)' h.lteri.. there,
Li ke the I';.te, lhi , '-ortre" wenl
lh mugh ,eve,"l stage, of de\'elopment .
The last i, prohably lhe work of Archi-
medes, the greale' l engineer of the
ancient worl d. T he famom scicnti. l had
been gi\'cn the job of impro\'ing the
fortificalion, of hi, !Own and covered
lhe wall with a wide range of ingenious
machines which will be di,cussed when
dealing wilh lhe Roman , iege of Syra-
cuse Archimedes ' grealesl mi litary
aehie\'ement is probahl}' lhe Euryalus
fort re.,. T he centrepiece of the fort is
a massive calapult balt..y raised on five
solid stone pylon, t 1m high On top of
lhesc were mounted huge Slone-lhrow-
Abov'
COO"" c 300 Be which w., , .'" larg. ,
c""erio g two sq"". >;10"'",," Below M, p o!
Oncr oo, C'OU. ,how,og t he r<Md. , "" p" h>
th.. ", II follow t he R"""," """'""'''On9"d

Tiryn. wen; built into the 1".11, for lhe

troop, quarters , and at Cartbage ",' en
elephants were ' tabled in lhe wall,.
T he gate' were massivel y reinforced.
T he norlh gale A' Selinus in Sicily ho,
a e<>mplex ,y"cm of outwork'! for cing a
would-be attacker to eun thc gauntlet
before re. ching the gales. The entrance
to these outworks was defended by an
anilkey battcey The mo<t mmmon
form of gate wa' l hc courlyard type
which involved indenting the line of the
wall, to form a courtyard in front of Ihe
gale. T hi, was often enclo."d hy a
second gate at the outee end. A line
example of. c100e d oourtyard gale de-
fended hy lwO towers is found on Ihe
Pnyx_Mouseion , addleat Athens. When
Dionysiu s I became lyrant of Syracu,e
he constructed a long w.ll , urrounding
lhe Epipoloe plateau '0 that it could
never ag.in be u,ed against the cily os
it had bcen hy the Athenian" The weSl
gate of lhe plateau wa, a simple wedge-
, hoped courtyard lype gate with on
open outer enJ , Later, under pressure
from the Cart haginian., it hod been
strenglhened with outer croo. wall, '0
that it could not be appro. ched di rectl y,
Abo.e
' ''u,co Hom. " . rch.d Q''' ,at San.. M.",
d; F, II.", 8 elow W, It 0' po'ygo". 1m.,O"'Y,
SeQo" ~ . o 'h" m.,omy w" u,"".Qatew, y,
o" eo h.d , 'op,og s;"., ''''' we 'e e"her po;oted
. t the top or h.d , 'Qog "nte' oc<O"
,',
Ul pUI '11'0 I. uld. ou
p""".! "'41 '"'1 ' II"" , ,,<II'
u.''''l 0,' "4 ' WO}( J<I . U....lw..
PI"
' 41JO ' P" '41 1"4,'1""
4'14," '11)M P'"""J u.,1<""J
"4' p,p,," "14"'1'''0.1
''1l '''H 06, UI sl l'0 ' 'I I <>I 11".\ I"U
P)P 1"41 ' 41 )0 uw .IM II
: I'P"II, u' '1 ll1'1j :>IIIIOlldIQ
p,," 'o:..,,,,pp )0 sn"nulluoo
:>110 " MOl lug ""l"" ,,,.,,.nJIt!
...." II ',un,u,,-' 418 "'II
) 0 J ll!I/ puoo:>s "'l l UI s nlnw<I}( JO
u, ' '''pup P'" ...1'"'1.... 11'1"" P"!l
-,uoJ "-U... slJlll "",,,,.. dlQ :>U V
',,"'Iqld "'Il ,nlulJOI(J 01 JUIPJOX>V
. :>ql
WJOJOI ... .. pull
p"'dnnoosl" """" UR"'ll to' '11111 J-:lIlto
OO</ I lnq 'JOO</'.L 0<[1 JO 'PI "'I' 110
""l0JlW "'I I JO ,no -., '1"'11" 11'4 JVll
- Ipd "'I' ...... JO ... pullJuu J<U
""If'oJ.[l. 00111'4 )0 dnoJlJ I JU ItlO ...->d
M(I "'"'" UDall ,:! "'ll
.tn" .)J:>...
><jl :>.10<[... 'I ,I.. p""."""
so." punotUI !Un"llllnq ""'A II
p tonoJ """'1<:>'\ U:>'''''' )O U>lJI OK

'4' j Oono on' "'l HI P0'l ""W'Pwo.

4-"'1'" ,m".!","'1" iP'I"'" P""'I,lI"", ,,
"'"" "'.''''pp "",,' nJ1'l ,w"S
' " P'lI1l'PlXl u''I' '" II ' 0.101 uo l(mq
SOM 11"'" ''I' pUI " '4' II H1
111' , ." "'1' '.'"J Jill-' '1M ' ''4'
J' "' 11 '" ''11 "0 '11"1"10.1 ' '11 )0
urnrnn, ''I' '1"MJlO 01
U"'II pUI "P"lt''1 '4' UMI>p "" ""'''P
"llll( p' P""."o" ' " M It"", ><j l :><1"1'
0.1".. I ... "'><j,XI
II llu"(I'\U 'PI<! II punow
pUI dn l'llJn<uq "'I 0' "WI' "'J 'In,
- !y'p U i ""W 01' \\OJJ ><jl II dWl' d"
'1 ' 1" "'''-'' ...
lJu'pnp", ''Ill'll WR J, pun ,ml "[[I"" '1"11
..... If''''OJddl ><j l "''''l.Xr. 'Juo, wg, "
0' dn puo llOI""'" U' w:> X lnoqt'
"""" JO "'PUN J'"lnlJul""" JU p"J.-..uu
-UOJ :>JI UlWOli IftIlJ "'P
::>JOJ:Hl,ml '.0,,,..,,, 'I'> O<[ 'JUpow"'ll 01
"""lL 'nnl-t<! "'-II JO WlJ ><j' Juop
'IUIO<I .. p:;>J:w>:>lJn U,.... """'I
'P"II rn80'z- S>" """J h "UI.. "".1\
'<IUIOO ....,J I ''''Ill'' ,. Pdofo d:n
" .........,. un '1''''1'''''
'm-"", ",,:" n-":-I J"'l><>,(UIW I ' ...."0'
"""""13 .'-lRUJ 01 UOWWO:> lJu',p."
10 WJOJ ""b'"n ' . 11. .. :>ql )0
,
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e

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.I' '1 IP ""." UOIJO
"osn ,'Jl'<I'OW l"unlHI'><!
In'l 100"' 1_
Wnll Ul pu. ul
u! nfl' "HI
'","UI"
'"'II
puy "'II .I" ""rdo:>d "II
,sll"uOWll -wnur I "'''L1'3
UI I' ""n AJUO<l!W JO W'OJ UOWwo:>
100U1 "'II J"1nlhnt1H
'OopL. wof dp WOI
,''1 " Ill ...pu In:l!l'1i1! ""
uuoJ 0111" PIJR "a,'I WOI ....
-wu DR.(q "'II
wl/-f ft." I ! ..... II....
.1<UU,1 R .(11:> 00/1 1" 'P!S
.. "'II -Iuot W"O' t
1''''' t"L u""'''J'''l pu. uoS<r' t
.'<1 '13"1 tu:109 eJn. JO'lpOfq leJ'UhrolJ
YJ """ 'P'll," ,lr-,r.
...,..",j '.(l"11 u, l"'tIY
.'-[<\"'lOJd SI." _II "'ll II 1l:J!q."
PI''''I Ol ul'bq "'IWO}I gL{
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aql ,x>C'"",>80/ 0
."1. '"

aoars ONV SNOllV:JIdl.Ll:IOd

tradi tion 'hat 'he siege ofVeii, like th.t
of Troy, ",ok ten years and the Roman'
are supposed to have only finally cap-
tured l he town by digging a runnel
under Ihe walls. Therc may be " gT"in
of tTuth in thi ' 'tory for the walls of
Veii were undermined hy many drain-
age tunnels (cuniculi ) which t he Et ru,-
CanS ' hemse!,' es had built and hh:ked
olf when they con'tructed the tcrr ace
waHs. It is quite poss ible tha t the
Romans in through one of ' he.e.
The earliest siegc for which we h. ve
any accurate <lelalls is that of Agrigen_
tum (Agrigento) in Sicily at the
nlng of the first Punic war in 262 Be. In
thi' , iege l he basie Roman me thod of
hlockading can be seen alrcady fully
de\' cloped '('hi, was the technique of
bkircumvallation, which was a develop-
men! of the teehnique u,ed by the
Greeks during the Peloponne'ian war.
Several camp' would be est ablished
around the besieged town a, some dis -
APPENDI X 2
the land, they conquered which ,en-ed
"' both military and trading outpost"
The ulins and Romans followed 'his
praclice but the prime objecti,-e of their
colonics W", military-to keep a foot-
hold in enemy terr itory, The largest and
most famous of the Etru,can colonies
wa, ' .-apua i n Campania. Li ke other
Erru,,-an .nd Roman colonie., Capua
was built on a recrangular grid, II was
large, covering two ' quare
kilomel re, . It is inconceivable that the
original set tlement waf; so large : It is 80
times the size of typic-.l R"man colonies
, uch a, Minturnac and Ostia.
Lat in and Roman colonies were
usually placed at "r>tcgic points i n con-
quered territory, often covering routes
inro the area. Although Li vy hSl' 40
colonic. in I talyat the time ofthe second
Punie war, they were not placed sys-
tematically ; after the w"' many ncw
colonies were established, especially
along rhe e,,,,,, , giving Rome quick
aO:C55 to any parr "f It aly, the
second Punic war Rome's c"l "ni" were
"ne "f the mo" significant str"tegi"
factors fOT rhey enabled Roman armies
to operatc deep in CaTthaginian-held
terri tory without breaki ng their lines of
communication and provi ded strong_
holds and storeba'es on which the ar-
mie' could falll>ack. However, colonies
had only been e"abli.hed in oonquered
territory with the re, ult that at the time
of Hannibal there were none in C"m-
pania which up 10 that time had not
been at war with Rome. This caused
serio'" complic"tion, for l he R"man<
when Campania defected to the Cartha
ginian, af'er the battle of Cannae i n 2 16
as they had no 'safe hou"e' in the area ,
During the repuhlic when every
eligible citizen was a ' oldier, l he""lonie'
were established from those on thc
mi!i[,jry ",II bu, later lhey were formed
from retir ed ,"eterans, and the di" ribu-
tion of conquered land among the
'oldiem was one of the rewards of ser
vice. T he colonies of the imperi al period
had the added purpose of Romani,ing
the "rca. When a C<llony wa, formed the
land wasdividcd up into lots aboU17oom
' quare (a untuTia) which was farmed by
four familie. T hi' 'cenl uri a' ion' of the
land w.. practi'ed OVeT the wh"le of the
Roman world Even today the syst emof
, q uare plots shows up on acrial photo-
graphs and may sometimes be scen
clearly in the T"ad ,;-"em, on maps, It
can be seen "cry disl in"tl}' around
Capua, which was colonised after it was
recaplured by the Roman' in 2t I.
Early Roman s iege t echnique.
We know practically nothing of La tin
and Roman ,iege warfare before the 3rd
"entury Be when Pol ybius take' up the
'tory, but it wa, proh.hl;- ,-cry .imi lar
to the Greek method. There wa. a
,
,jAY;;
, .
Bo'ow
Ca.,ar'. lines of bic"cum, a"at ioo .,ound
Alcsia bose on to. recem ro_.',"va' OO of the
' ito. Tn. ,.so number 01 ObStac les '" fron' of
the ,"","",t . nabloo . ' 0 be heklt>y
comparat"ely few mM
Abo..
t Ao iron6p' k. ",omAiesi, To".. w<l re
Nlmm.red imo s oM tog, aed " u, ied in 1M
groued ' 0 10.1on.,. tM poi", orO"""oo. 2 A
<. ,1rop ',omAte",. Th" hOd " si","ar Pl" ",".
FORTIFI CATI ONS AND SI EGE WARFARE
tan<:e ftom ii, T hese "'"OUld joined by
linn of t""",hn ar>d rampan, cunina
tM town off ftom lht ' urrowtd.ina
<XMlnuy and anyone from
ao:aping. I f tM"" "'... no e""m)" ann)'
in 1M field lhi. would be, ,ufficienl, but
if tbm: "'... any poosjbWty of "'lief from
the ""...x sccond line of rampan.
and dnchn Id be, e..-abli5hed facing
outwardo. Bc1 n """ lWO lines 1M'"
..... a br.-.l thoroughfare, often "",,-en!
hur>d.-cd mel "" ..;de, facili t. ' i ng rapid
lroop rnow:menu '0 any pan of 1M
fonitica'iom. Fort. and pidc. pool'
"""" placed at int ervaU aIon& the ...hole
51> tltal point of . he Ii"""
.........to;hcd. The Rom. n. "'",'e keenly
a"'are tltat it ..'as a' imponam to bonle
up the whole popul., ion wi' hi n be, -
. icged . own a. il was to help
from re""hina 'hem, The more peopl<
there were wit hin the lOwn t he quicker
the pang' of hunger ...oul d begin to tell ,
T hi' pu," int<> pers pective Caesar', 'e_
fusal to allow the old men, women .nd
chil dren to Ale.ia, fot t his could
only 1cnllthcn Ihe , iege.
Bici t . umvonation t>ecame ' he "an_
dard Roman l YlIem. lt admirably , uited
, he dogged Roman . n...."! and .....
uoed a' t he lI..at ,ieg.. of LilybacUln ,
c.pua, Nuntan'U1 and Ale,ia, U,ually
an .ttempt ..... made '" We Ihe 10000' n by
storm .nd ... t>en Ihi. failed i' .....
".rvnl OUI . Unle.. he ....nted. quid<
ICSul Roman <;Ommandc, prefe.,.ed
lhe loiter ,e.;hniqUOl' ; if ,he ",..'n sur-
rendcrc:d ,he boocy fell into IU. h.ando,
....hctno if " ..... stormed . he
plundered i,.
110 hen bes><'a>ng a pan such as Lily-
_urn Canhage i ' ..... '"
clooe , he Ii...., AI Lilybaeum , he Ro-
mans lried ' 0 fill up ,he harbou' en-
lrance ..;th canh b.n i ' ...-as carried
.....y by lhe cuITen' . IX'hen Sci pio
Aem.hanu. laid .iege to Canhagc in 147
he conot,,,,,ed his Ii..... of
..-ross Ihe iothmu. whi<:h ;ain, <be a ,y
'0 the mainl.nd . nd then ' ri ed to con_
"ruct a mole Ie""S , he harbou r en-
trance. T he Con hq:inia ns <XMlntered
thi ' by opening a nc'" en, ranCe ' 0 , I><
harl>ou. on the U"' ' ide.
T he only compl ete description t hat
we have of hicircumvanal ion comes
from Cae,ar', . ielle of Ale"i. in centr al
Gaul in ,2 RC. Ale.ia w.s . i' oated on.
lo",ngc_,haped plateau I,500m long,
',ooom wide and I,om high. The <Own
il..lf """e..d only ,he ...... ' em end
of ' M pla,eau, l he ot:her half being
<><:cu picd by Veranlet"';,'. anny of
abou' Ilo.,ooo men which had recendy
broken OU' <Jl tA......,;. and retired 10
lhe appermdy position .,
AIesia, 110hen c..e....- arrived he <uli>ed
l hat , he pooilion ..... unauaibblc and
dcOded .... a blodadc.
llle hill of A1ffia i. pan of a much
platea" "'hich Ita. been eroded by
tWO .. ream. lIo\O;na to t he oonh and
ooulh of , he ' O\II' n. 1l>c1e ha"e Iefl l" "
d p .alle}.. "'hjeh .."...."e the IOwn
from Ihe .urroundi na lUll. To , I>< ...... ,
of , he ,,,,,'n Ihe Iwo valle)', merge into
a br<>ad pla.n, Cae1ar encamped hi.
legion. around the to...'n and traced out
the line of hiicge wo.-h. T he inner
line. ,,"' .. dra wn along t he fno' of t he
hill. ' 0 ,h. ""rth and the ,outh of the
,o...n and t hen ocro" t h. plain at the
west end a",' ut ] ,skm ftom the IOwn.
T he outer line. e, tend",.l along the 'op
of the hill> tu the north and 'ou, h and
ao;:m" t he pl. in o"" ut 200m beyond the
inner line. , luving ampl. room f ot
l roop mo.'emen". Along lhese line,
c.e, . r ron"ructod 23 for.. to cover
hi. worke.. hefore orders to
begin digginltl>< ttenches. T he legion_
ar i.. first dua a vcoical-.idcd trench
abou,';x met"" wide ......,..the pl aina'
the fooc of , he plateau, This "" U to p..-
ven( any att... on ,he ooIdi hil"
tMY WClC ert'Cling ,he main ""k. in
lhe plain , Four hundred me,,,,, behi nd
11U. t..nch , he lqionariCl d ua I""
ditches fi"" """"" ..."ide and itere
_ible filled , he inner one with ter.
"Ibew , .... t"""'hoes wete c:x..Ddcd all
the W")' along II>e fOOl of .he hills that
wrrourtoo:;kd , he , own un,illl>ey formed
a <;Omplete ciKuiI 16Ln long. The eanh
ftom these ditchn " 'as piled up beyo nd
the au t..neh 10 (o<m a oampan
which "" lIh a pah..doforti-
h)' 10000'on 2sm. Poin' ed
" ake. .."'re embedded in , he top of . he
rampart 10 In.t l hey proiC<-"ted Jtori-
zon,.ny to prevenl an y attempt by the
enemy 10 ..ale i', I n or d.. to free Ih.
majorit y of hi. n o0l'" fmm ' he joh o(
guarding t he line. '" tn., t hey eoul d
"" ll""t forage and ti mhe r, Cae..r con-
. t r ucte d a ..ri., of hoohy t rap, ahead of
the lino. , T hoy d ug trenche' I ,sm deep
in which were '." shar pe ned h"nch. ,
to form a of .p.m. I n fronl of
lhey d Ull eight row. of circular
pi" .."h pot n'ed stakes ""'htddcd in
them. llle toldien nidnamed 'hese
' li lies" beca.... of their .imilarity to the
lbv.-tts. These ..'tIC 'hen COVCICd ...; ,h
brush,""",,- 10 tude <hem from <be at_
oaden. Similar pi ta ha'", been dis-
CO'V<red in fronl of t he Antoni"" 110aII
in Soocland, Fi nal ly. in front of II><
' lilies' the IOl<hen plan,ed .......u logo
abou' 30CllI Iona which bri..kd ..;, h
barbed .pikea. 'me... were buried 50
1n.1 ....ly the tptke protruded ( rom <be
ground, T he""ter lines which werecon_
otructed in a .imilar f..hion tm:'ched
for ""er 19km and wen: .imilarly boohy-
tUpped.
T he Roman. ' unp"rallekd , ue"""s in
Ihi . for m o( ,iege w.,f. re wa' due
mainl }' 10 Iheir perseverance. Becau, .
t hey neVer iave up a siege once it had
been ' t. rted. ' he be, ieged knew 'hat
they "ood no chance of winning .nd
were u,u"ll yquick 10,ubmit, T he story
goe, 'hat a Roman commander , when
informed by , he amh",..dot' from a
town he was .b1'ut '0hc-!liege ' hat t he)'
n.d food e""ugh for ten ye..., rephed
",,,\lOlly ' ho' h. would take it i n Ihe ' t t h
ye. r, A. a .esult of tlUs rem",k 'he town
capilulated immedi.tely. Thi. altitude
...... the .ingle mosl imponant factor in
Romo-'. ,U<;ttU in Ihe field of .iege war-
fore.
An in" ""tina of ,he te.;h-
Rique <Jl hidrcumvallation i, ...,n in
eac...,' " emp< ' 0 enclose Pompey'.
army al [}yrntchium. Pompey ..... en_
camped on the hil b aJon,: <be """", near
O).-n-..dtiu m ( DulTC5) in Albania. Hen:
,he....... no qUCSIion <Jl c..e....- ""nina
off hi , <>J"POf'C1'1' "ppI...... Pompey
..... beina wpplil daily from . he """
..hich he """trolled, Pompc)'" anny
...... superior in coval '}' and 11U, "'...s
makini it dlfficuh for Cacut'. trt><>p< to
fonge . ea...r d<:rided to circum.-allate
hi. position, He hellOn by con"ructina
for ts .... the hill. around Pornpc)'"
pooi,ion whie h would he ;ained wilh
rampart. and ditche. . \t'hen Pompey
realised wltat Cae.., wa' doi ng he estab-
l ished 14 .-cdouht. al a. great a distance
a, I'<",ihlo from hi, ca mp to form a d,-
cu it of . hou, 23km, knuwing th.. Caesar
wou ld have \0 incl ude t he"" wit hin hi,
line., rompey', aim was t wofold. First
it him a .man . rca in which to
'"
API' EKDl X
f0<all"" and oewndly i' fo""d C........r
to his hn.., As eae..a,'.
t'oop> dug thei' , ampa,1S so
bogan inne' line" tr ying to
occupy a, many hill , a, possible and
Cae"'t ' lIain t o hi s
lineo. The of t his ma"''''u' 'rinll
and countenna..oeu'ring by' n.-"
uperie-nced gcner-,do "'a, that Cae...
inuit the oc'emallt .... Pompey 'he
in.emalli....<Jibiri...-um..:alb.ioI.I.
I'omM'-o :utempt. '0 make c..e..,
"",n'reteh hi. Ii .... paid off and he .....
ultinutdy able t" hreak out.
I.. t hoe scien'ifie t.-.:hnKj UCll of ""tn-
oi". sioge warfare t he Roman. fell"..,n
. ...."t of t he lI . nd.rd. by the
ea, ly Ilelleni't ic m"na rch ie. , T he Ro_
m.n. MI)' adopt ed Helleni"ic ma-
chiner, ' ", hen " ..,re operating "'ith
G,..,.,kall ies, a. at Ambracia where lhey
u<e<I m.-.:h.nically orerated
hook. 10 (l'Y ' 0 pull do..'n 'he battle_
ment. , but they made little err,," ' 0
undentand"" dc-\..,k>p theseted>nKj....,
The}' preferred methods ,,'hich oc
t he boondl.... ntCIf;Y of tt",
lceio.,tu')'_undcnnini ng and the build
of ,amps-. nd in t hi' ar... they f.,
ueelled t he Gr..,b ,
The Roman. pr<' h.hly came int o I;<.lll-
ract wit h ' cienr ifi c for lhe
ti " l time ,,-he n l hey Sid)' and
mu" ha"e much from t he
(Oreek. and Canhaginian, d u,in,
fint Punic "'a" Thel' u<cd ",m. " 'hen
srotm,ng Panormus (l'alerrno), and boI h
, ,,,,,," .nd ",m. " .... used in the
<>f I jJ)'haeum. .,.., IWman. expericllol:Jed
their veate.. problem...hoen bes..-pnl
p>rt. B and S)Tl>CUse
...here. with 'heir inferio' technical
k",""ledgc, {hey found it ",
do"e t he h.rbou, Thei' only
, uccc.>e' again" . uch low", in bm h the
fir., . nd second Punic wars were when
lhe town was eithe' . urprised by I . ud_
den ult ""h a, at Plnormu. Ind
Carthage, or "'a, in ""me .....}.
bet no}..,d either b}' luity "f , he gua, d.
'" by u noigh' forwa'd trea<:he')', It " ....
""Iy in t he 2nd c"'''u'1' t ho' their red>_
nKjUon ....,,.., suJliOentl} to
enable them ' 0 eI..... harbour "'i'h a
mole.
.,.., Ro""'ns' ..ther un.occ-.-.. ful at _
te mpt' a' wa rfa,.., a,.., well
illu, tr ated at ' he of Syr ac'u"" in
zrj , T he examrle i, pe,haps. litt le un-
".
fai, .. rhey " ..,re t')ing to ..ir h
the g=u"'t scientific brai n of , he en.
ATC himede., Dio.m,--o;iu. 1 had walled i n
the Epipol.. pla'c. u a' t he beRinninR
of the 4rh ,'ent u ry, but t he defence' had
been bruultht up Iodat e by Archimcdc<
wbo bad pl...-.d . hos t on and
within t he "'III.,
The Rl""a.... now in complete
trol of the sea, had decided on a . imul_
ta"""'" t.....rrongc-d allad, by sea and
land. Marc-ellut .,,:oded f""" ,he ....
..ith 30 qurnquocremes podcd with
archen lin(f<' n and ....n ...""",,
job wa 0 clea' the boll lemenlS. The
m""t nur io.. -... hle fca,u'" he'" i. Rome' .
lack of "" ille'1" Eigh, of the quin-
q uereme. had boen la' hcd in
pair" 'i de by . idc wi th Ihe" a," removed
from lhc , ideo t haI were in On
each of lh..., pai.. WI' a I.dde' aboUI
' ,2m "i de ,, 'hich. wbon e.....ed. wa,
rhe same height a, the .....11 . A breao.".
wort. ...... fined along either oide " f the
IaJder and a p1otfonn pJa,j at , he 'Of>
proIected at t he fronr .....J sides by
screen. ..it h room for four
soldie.. w""'" fob ",.. 10 d ri"e away t he
defenoJen while the ladde' Wa. being
placed in p<"itiol1 agaimt t he wall. .,..,
ladde' WI< l. id horizontall y .1"nR t he
dou ble R. lley '" , h.. il bo-
yond lhe prow R" pe. were a"ached to
the fo,ward end of t he ladd., and it wa,
n i..d inl" p<"'ition b y pulley. ll1ad>ed
to t he top of t he r,,'o "",.IS, Once the
ladder ..,.........cd t he dotIble [!;Illey
" .... """'ftI up to t he ......1. by the J'Ol'I'ert
on either side, Thi. dc-\ice ...... nick-
named a ........... by lhe saikln bear......
of its . imib rit}- ' 0 the harp-like mu<ical
i....."""'n' of that ...""'. A, """" .. it
... moved inro pooi'ion the soIdien
pulled down t he wir;ker screen. on the
. ioJ " f the pl atf"'m . nd mounted rhe
"'I ll. whi l" the , eOl nf the ''''''p' fol_
I" wed t hcm t hruugh t he ,amhuca
The Rom.n< had not allowed f'"
Archimedes, for a' they approached the
..,.U. t he}' ...... delu(f<' d with missll...
from , he cuapulrs tturl , he great ocien-
.i" had pbced on t he ,,-:ails. 1'bese
"'""'hi.... threw .1"""" at fixed nonges.
some long and "'"'" short. subjecr ,"f:
the Romans ro a wnstanr bombard
ment a' t hey advanced. n.... brough.
rhe Roman ad, ,.nce to hilt, forcing
Ma,c"' ]]u. to b' ing hihips up under
"'Wet "f darkne.., I n thi' way he man-
"lied 'n get imide th e fi xed range orthe
he. " y . n iller y at Ihe top of the wI ll,_
hut Archimede. had . Ikowed for thi.ton
anoJ turd pierced ,,' all, ,,;,h I<>ov-
holes at the .....,1 of the .":oders. 1'bese
...... m. nned hy ",chers . nd .null bol, _
ca," pull. nio.:t.nomed ' 1COl'_
p.or,,.
In "pi tc of the continual barrage of
m;"i1", ,\Ia..,ellu. tried '0 n iw hi.
...""",,:tU, Xow cra"", which hilhe"o
had bren out of .iiht tcared up above
t M wan, and oul 'l>eiT. r mlike
bo.m, dropped huge " " ne, .nd lum!"
of lea d on to t he ' a",h" w " The bri m.
were , wu ng Tou nd on and the
Imvc,..,d by pu ller. at the end
-
A_ _ ........ ..-.....
- 'oong
_ e-.. "' __
'--"to bon , _
I'ORT I I'I CATl Ol':S AND WARI' ARE
of tho< bnms, T hn.c c'OUld be man-
ocunN ' 0 hit It..: "''--',d '" Iterec'er
'M Romans inN lO flU'" tho<m. OthN
enlr'fIn hll rlo:d 01.-. large et>OUgh to
tM told ,en boock from the pr....
of 'M . hi p and lhen lov.ercd gianl grap-
pling ""'.. . a"""bed ro eh.:oins. Thc>c
took a lirm IJflpon the . hil'". ..'hidl ..-e.-e
then ul'"'dcd by counl",.t>.lanccs. l1'>e
gnlrP!ing """"". were: lhen .-ekasN 00
'hltt lhe 'Jnl'" feU eirher- cop-
sizi ng or lilling ..-j,h war",.. ." :oreellu.
..... otlleLo..,d but made
of ,he . i. ""lion .. ' Archi -
tnedc. ....,. my >hi p" to ladle ",a ,ut",.
inro hi. ...i"", C"UI'", but my ...mbu<.o.
Nnd i. Out of the Nnq...,t in
disgra< .
The koman. fmeed 10 a!>andon
their at1emp" to 'ake 'he lo"'n by
. . ..ul! and in the end they acce>s
'0 'he ''''''n by ","ahh
Scipio' , a"auh " n Ne'" Cart hage
(Carlagen.) tltree yea.. later is part;cu
larly n,ll beca use of "ny new
'echnique hul b<.",au'" it pr",'ide, the
tl", d <ar pict ure of Roman m<t ho'h
aft eT a ,own had been ' aken. Polyb;us
m.kn il qui,e dur ,hat 'he Rorllim,
followed n,,,.mal pr""'",e at Cart agena.
Wh<n the .nldie," broke in'o ' he 'O"'n
they killed e.....ry living 'hing ; not onh'
human' bul doll' and ot her domeslic
an,mal. were <u, in half and dismem_
bered, IX'h,le ' M maoqcre ,,a. at in
Might , pilla"n, wu forbidden. When
lhc general ""....dere:d that l herc: had
been .uflkint, .Loughter, ,he tnlmpeu
""'nded ,he rc....ll . SoId ien " '" '' ockc_
tN from ea.:h manirk (SO<llCl ittlC'O
""hook manipkt ..-ere ,,"""'nj ro CUT)'
otl "he pillaging . N...-er more .han half
,he army .....e pormltlw ' 0 lake part.
l1'>e ....., .,DOd guard in """"."""" .....
a counlCuurl, All ,he booIy " ... <1-
1l.ed ' ''llet hN, wid oil" and . he pro-
ettd. di .tribuled ......,Iy arnongot t he
....dicn. 1'1", a>ntrol led pillaging pro-
'idn a llUph,,, 'llu ation of RotrI<ln
di "';phne and u nderl i Ihe 'uperiori'y
of 'heir ' j'Olem, So many othN .rm;'"
...o uld ltave bttn <:aught olf balance by
a mun''''.ttack " 'I><n Ihey "'et'e pil -
laging
T hi' reign of ,error . ft er ",Idier<
h. d hroken in'" lhe HI", n i, ai,,, ""en in
' he ,'ormi ng "f C.rt hage in T h<
R"man, int" the cit y Ihrough Ihe
h. rh\)u rs and capt ured forum area,
/''''''' launched an "n.ek On
th< d,.dd I ll yrs.), 'I'here "'ere Ihree
naTrow st r<c," lined with six-storey
buil ,l;nll. leadinll from Ihe forum '0 Ihe
Byn a, T o reach l he ' i' add tt>e legion_
aric. were forced Ii>captuTe each huild-
ing a. wenl, T he "",Idien fough'
from l>"uK ' 0 house u, ina: p13nks to
ero.. from r<J<>f . o roof high ahove lhe
Rarro'" alley"a)' . On,:e reaehed
the Byna they ",' tire 10 all ,he hou..,.
.hr"" .If""",The fire sp"",d
and the ooldlen pulled down ,he ho""'"
who<re t>f 'he old people and
children had 'aken rduge. Some " -ere
burned and <lIl><n fell into the """'"
and ..-ere burifd und lhe rubbk. l1'>e
OIr-eeI . had ' 0 be clearcd 00 lhal . he
I""'P'" could """'e freely and tho<
"'.' ....' <kd ......., . Iuna inm pi" tCJg'ethN
..;,h.hIt dead.
"-or . i>; dol" .nd nia:h.. 'hesc """"'"
of 'error cortlt nuN ,,'i,h.he lcgioonarico
fighting in . hif". lI'hen the I'll.... " 'as
finall y 'aken of lhe remaining
Canltal,n,a... burned lhemsel,r:s .Ii.....
in ,he 'e"'rle or Acoculapiu. The .-col
"ocre ",Id into .Lovery The "'hole 'own
wo. de'lfO}'ed and ploughed into lhe
ground, and ..1t w" ""'Wn "'" as to make
l he llround unc'ulti".ble, Thi. puni, h_
ment was al." melcd out to Numantia
' 3 yea.. 1. ICr, and to Jerusalem in
70
T he la.... " f ",arfare eh. nged
litt le Ih""tlth"ut hi,""y A f. i lure to
'urrender hef"r. the hatt. ring ram
tuuched the w. ll lef! a town eomplelCly
at ' he mer cy of lhe be, iegers. No on. ;n
' I>e town w., ;n .n)' douh. .. to the elln_
Bolo,",
A 'OCQfIolr"",,,,,, '" a _, 0' Hodr...... Wall on
_ne.-".," _ng, 'a ..-.l.,..'"
caollo .. wr.eh" on thO "' ,n "'"
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". iif.:.. r a a e ... :;<" ... ",!lj" ::r ::r il a e s

FORTI FI CAT IONS AND SI EGE WARFARE

loose tn. foundatiu... <>f tn. and
bri ng it do1wn.
By In. middle of lSt century /IC
.......' ofln. "vtli...d ....."ld IlaJ falkn '"
RorrK_ I n Europe tn. only re:-
maining in arms ....re: tn. barbarians <>f
tn. nonh. ,-Ith ,n. ....ul l t haI , of
tn. >iqn ""'" , he ""'KI cen,"')' re:
aga;nsI. hi llfonl _
Cacoar gi,.... I full iIoOlXJUnt of lhe
,echniq...,. he UI<'d 10 one of lhe
hi Jlforn of cel" ....1 GoouL Thi. ,,-as
A,aricum ( Bourgc-o). ,,h.i<; h ...... lil U-
aled on I . pur juning oul into l he
mltd.CK. Thil ' pur fin' I Iope> down
I"",....d. t be mll'$h and l hen ti.... '0 a
hi llo.. k at ill end, T he to..'n i'liClf , I ur_
rounded by " 'hat Cae...r calli a Galli..
wall (.....no. Gallia<, was on t hi' hi l
lo<:k_ v i llic Wi ll Wa' b uilt wi'h I .<one
f. ..ing al front and b. ..k bu. wi'h ' he
<:entre: filled with .oi l or "' hhle and
l. ""d wit h timl><.. whi..h were built
inlo .he .toneW<>rkat the front .nd b. ..k,
T he "" ft filling .nd l imber lacing made
it vi rt ually iml"'rviou. to batt ering
ram' , The inhabitants , believi ng that
t il<: ,,,wn was una" ailable, were pre--
pared 10 defy Cae.or, but t l><y h. d not
l aken into cull1idorat i"" Ihe en.crgy of
the legionary. Cae..r'l " oops alla<:ked
llo"ll 'he . pur, filling up 'he dip be_
tween Ihe hill and Ihe ",wn witl> a v,",,,
ramp. Two siege ""'''1'$ "..re: oon-
s<n>eted on ,be 'pol and moved up as
. be mound lhe .....111. The
Gau," tbe ...uaJ procedure and
lried 10 undermine l he ramp while al
lI>e sarne time encting wooden tun'etl
a..-..ed wi.h luoo on ,n. ..-all' opp<>--
."e_TIley abo Ia"""hed frequcn. nigh,
a"ad" in ..-h" b l hey lried to tire . be
. imber COIllallung wall ot t he ramp_ The
amount of wood require:d for buildinll
these nmps and ocber siege equipmenl
...... enormouo_ The J... Iu"orian
JooephU1 rema'*ed tha' when the
Romano beIie,ed leruoakm nola single
trtt ...... left lIandJ"ll .. a rsdi ... ot
ISkm_
I n 35 daY' the Iegionarieo had <:<>n-
JlfU<"ted an motmo<ll anifieial pl atform
loom .. and high, filling ,he dip
.... ..-.cn tbe hill and the "".... _ From
this l hey lIormed t he "",-n and sbugh_
tered. man, woman and ..hild in it_
The e"r l y empire
Wit hout l he spur of oopl>iltial ed. siege
warfare, for tl tiution' in tbe West began
'0 d',dine fro m the middle of Ihe 2nd
<:emury IOC and lilt le advan..e " 1", made
umilt he ba rhari an invasions of the late'
empire. In the II I alld 2nd cen. uries
AD the " f both town, and camp'
u",all,- ron, i, ..d "f a w.ll '" rampart
fronted by a di tch. T he gate ' were de-
fended by " ,we," whi..h we re normally
rectangular and did not protr ude be_
yond Ihe li ne of the wan,_ T he ddenc",
W<Te of.." I trengt he ned b,- ..orne r
towe.., and IOmeti mel interval ro....n ,
which were alway, buill inside tbe Jine
of Ihe walls _
Th.ete WIS, however, one signi ficanl
adva""" made dunn&: Ihe larer
and early emp"\,. This ...... , he in'n>-
d"",ion ot t be ponrolli$_ The d ' annels
for these gatn an be "",n dearly on
Roman '''n,ar NI...... , AosLO and
T Iier, for The origin of ' his
, -tt}" ......... inflO".tion iI unk"""'-n_ It io
tin l mentioned during the seoond Punic
war whe n lOme GanhaRinian soldiers
"'00"""" Iryin&: ro reaprure Sabpia in
Apulia l fter u IlaJ to the Romano
were ' lOpped , he portrolliu nd lho:ir
eoape rot 011'.
From t be runeofHadrian' he Rornaru
hepn to t hink moee in defe""i"e ' el"lll$.,
bul ""en 10 t he fortificalionl of ,he
period are tT"IOI'e ,mprc-ooive for ,n.ir
oale than 'betr Slf\'t1I1h. From 'bio
period come Hadnan' , Wall and t he
,__t ..hain of CtltTlPI and fonl along lhe
Rh me - Danube hne. Hadrian's lX"all
sh<J,... no advance in defensi,e ,I>inking
O\'er Ihe cenlury ac. but i ' ......
adequale for t he I'Urp<>le for "'hiel> il
was built , T he Ihiekn.... of t his wall.
..-hi..h otre:lched for nearly l wi<m,
,.ried het wt<: n iu" under Iwo and iuot
OVet Ihree motre. ; it mu't originaUy
have bee n ab"ut five metre:. high. It w.s
defended Ho 'mall mile_c''' le bout
.p"rt and o.hou, ,60 ."r",,,
Two "f Ihe"" "'oro placed bel wee n each
mil e_<'lStlc .ht' ut 500 m apart Along
Ihe front uf the woll t here wa, a broad
berm and " dilch d gh l melte> wide
and about Ihree deep, Behind the wall
was a ,paceiboul Hm wide bounded by
.. di... h lbout 6,5m deep known as the
.'all"",. T his di"h has no mil itary sig-
nifiance . nd mu have been dug '0
s"'l' civi lia"" approa<;hi ng tlte .....ll and
fota: lbem 10 u lhe au. horised ap-
pr"""h. Tl>e n fun berSlre:ngth-
ened by fon" ,....raIl) buil' as tride Ihe
..""l.,approolmao.ely l okm intervals_
Along I.... Rhine a Itring orton. ......
<:omlfU<"ted 10 defend lhe ..",t hanI:.
111ese ......., integra,ed wi'h tbe
.. t>ov. ' ;aM
A te,.",... (,..,v<to)!o<"'<l<l by 27 leg,,,,,,,,,,,,
r... Iou< ' 00"' ... '''owo '0 o,ft.,. " w'ou"
Th" for"""ti"" ,, t"" ment' O""" b'I Po;yb,u.
comO... . ,t to 0 I"od 'oot
At>ovo
A """,_""..' od go ller, .. do"",,*, b'I
VOQ. t;u, II " 0' om I"""" 2 h'O" oM ju",
0_ 1m w,,," Th..o goll. "o, _ <0 u",d 10ge'
" p IQ tno w" " o"" og . ' >0"
'"
APPENDI X "
at}' fonr.....,. along. he ,,-n, .ide of l he
ri,.." , T., ch.nd ';gnal " 'Ct'C' al",
SO,ha' l he ,,'hoIc ri'..,r (rom
Bon n .0 l he ..". could he ' UP"'l"nN.
The rivC'! Danuhe ,,-as ,imilar ly (oni -
lied from '0, he' g lad< Se. ,
A dnch .nd pali.. ""nor""".-d
from. poin, ius' sou, h of Bonn 10 onl'
.... r 10 join.he 1"'0
Th... fonifica.ion. " n,'ched for .I><>u.
4sol<mand like Hadrian' . Wall
info,ced by a rOrt e"ery eigh' 10 len
In pla"e" a' il approached
the llanuhc, l he pali,"de "'", rq,laced
by a ", . 11 ",it h lu reelS similar ' 0 .he
Bri, i, h ",.11,
T he ear ly p r i ncipa l.,
R"",an . ieg< technique in urly
prineip."., i. 00, by ,he
, ieges of Vnpa.ilI.n "nd T il u, d urinl1
.he J.....i.h ....It of .'D66--c.13, Thr
of l hese, Ioui'll&. Jen=km . nd .\ la-
>ada re- described in .........,<kr.bk
det.il h)' l __phus. Apan from ,he u'"
of arIillc-ry. in aU ,br s.iqn , he
Roon.m lo . he age-old """,hod
of mound building. J""'Ph.... "'hoann-
mand.-d Ihe Jewi.h for-ceo .1 J",apa, . ,
<;om"",n.. on Ihe ddornlalion of lhe
afell '0I'mvide ,iml>er ro' , hese e.nh-
worh.
l ,napa' a ", as" mounlain fort r.,... in
( ' alli l.,., ", hich underwenl a so-day
, iege. The . iege "''' underl aken by
tllree legion" V X Fre-
1m,;, and XV Apal/inan'" ,uppol1ed by
">Tiou. auxilia' y regimen" . A,' :LlTding
to Ihe hi"orian t he Ruman. had
,60 ealal' ul<. varying fr<>m n l' id bol<_
, l>ooI ing m""hines to one-Iaknt (e.
4Oke) stone- Ih"",," . T he Roman. re-
f.....,d ' 0 boll-.hooti ng mxhin.. as
"",,1*1'. and 10 "one-Ih"",,"," .. NI-
lis"",,, Ho",ever, during l he empire- ,he
......n'''i of l hese names ,,-as I"e"cned,
so for daril y , he}' "ill be: n::r.....,d 1o ..
boIl-.ltoooi:e.. and
eliu, "")" 1"'" io hi. <\a)' <ach legion had
55 p;een ofarlilkrr Thi'.Pf'I'O'l,ma,n
, "ct)' closely 10 JOKpb",' . 60 pi""", for
lbr legion. V<-1pcasi.D """,..,d up hi.
firsl 10 keep Ihe defenden otl'
lhe: haulemen.. ,,'hilll the mound .. 'as
being buill becau.e Ihe Jew. wete drop-
I' ing I><>ulden on ,be ,crn, (pl u" i)
under which the mound buildc.. were
wor kinl1. The. e ,creen. were ma<le or
wicker probably <;overed wil h hide, He
u..,d lhe artillery in 'M same " ..y
'0 pro<ect hi. ram ,,'bJeh " ... of tl><
primi,i,'e . ...pem.ion lH"" JOKJ'hU5 is
keen 10 ducrib<: 'M etrea of lhe Slone-
,bl'OVl"Cf1 "'bich carried .....y lhe banle-
""",,, and broke a"'ay ,he angle1 of ,he
lo" e"'. A nun " . nd ing on , be ,,-all, had
hi s head orr and the force
carried il a di..an<:c of Ibr ..i><hs (e.
ssom). A pr"llnanl wonun w.. hil in
,he: "omacb and Ihe bah}' ",as flung half
a mul. Thackcray, ,he lra n.la'''' or the
Loeb edilion, ,aw fill" add a fOOtnOle,
' Josel' hu' i, prone ", exaggcra' ion'.
T he defende.. us<'d lhe welI_'Ticd
melhod, of counleting the Roman as-
..uits: Ihe " 'an, were heigh,e""d, wil h
Ihe wo,king hehind VAli<ades
cr...ered ",ith fT.,.h hide" and sacl<$ of
chaff " ..".., lowere-d .he "'aU 10
break lhe force of Ihe ram.
i..ia.lly, J""'Phu, claim. ,hat these
<:<>Un'errneasUT"" ,.",.e by bim-
..If 10 meet l he
"Il>e ram " ... proIea.-d by hurdle1
and would h.a'e been app.neche<! in tbe
.-mal fashion .h.oogh gallerie1
A'". '_
B 11>< _ _ aJ__
C 1h1t_,o_
(n l . A b.eao:h "'OS finally opened in
lhe 11 and p np" }" ........-d up
inlOlhe gap j.... . . Aleunder had done
.. T )TC, V..pasian Ol'<k-m:I a eenenl
."ad< 10 he made on ,he ...-.al l. 1o draw
10Itle of lhe defenden '''-'Y fmm lhe
hreach and ,hen m,wed up bis men on
.on";.., (onna. ;on ( ' <'<1udo). Thi. form-
alinn. "'hich wa. Ii.... descrihed b)' Pol y-
hiu. who ap, ly <;omp:;lTed i, t" a roof of
lik" i< iIIu'l .oled on Trojan' , Column
[I i. , hown on 1'.297 formed by 27 men
in rnur "''''' , The fTOnt TO W "f six meD
crowh d"wn behind lhe shield< or the
mi ddle rour men, whi,'h held ri m to
rim, lhe ' wo men al lhe ell<l lurn
,hei hicld. oulwards, The ,""",nd,
lhird and fourtb rOWS or seven men .,ach
upin I similar way, hm .he middle
"",n i n rank hold ,heir , hiel d.
.bu,.. lhei . hto>J. , This rorrna,inn can
-
o..,g,.. _ _ "' _ on
A070O"W'V _..,..,.. _
"' -....
-_-.._.. --
-
FORT I FI CATI ONS AND SI EGE WARFARE
be for med up by numher of men as
therc is onc less in the front rank
than t hc subsequent ranks, There are
.rorics of chariots being run aero" ' hese
formatioIls to tc.r st rength
poured boili ng oil o\' er
tortoi se to break it up and ti pped
boiled fenugreek (foem"" graecum) ove,
the gangway, rendering it too slippery
to negotiate.
After the fall of Jmapata and
phus' desert ion 10 the Rom.n" Ves-
pasi.n wit hdrew from the ,,' ar to devOle
him,elf to the struggle for the throne
and his son Titu, in charge of the
W' r. W'it h his army reinforced by an
cxtr. legion, XII Titu, .d-
vanced on Jcrusa lem. So many confl icts
raged i n j eru.alem th. t there woshardly
time to fi ght the Rom.ns , Group, of
rel igious fanatics h. d entered the Wwn
and were fighti ng wit h each other ove r
how the war , houl d be woged, Duri ng
the, c 'l0orrcls port s of the city werc
borned The IJ.me, engulfed thc gr on_
ories and ,'a" hoa t d' of li'od were
destroyed. [t wa, only when Titus be-
gan the o"oul! thot any a" empt was
made to unite the Jewi,h for ce,
P
'00,"' b
[j,oc' ,,"' n', Da l,ce .. SO'" 0""" " . 11 " ,to
t" '.. got" ono p'oioc"ng toW" . Betow
All;"""u" f",' of D,onvs,., (Du. " Qu",um)
bu'" l>Y D;ocl. ,;. "
The cit y was compo,;ed of live parts,
each with ilS own wall. T he fir" of thcse
parts was the oid town, which was buill
on spur with steep cliffs to the east and
south. Above thi s 10 the west wa, the
upper town where 11etod the Gre.t had
buiit hi, p. lace. T o thc north of the old
town wa, the massively walled temple
enclosure, and adj oining both , he
temple and the upper town wa, l he
mi ddle to wn. Ikyond this sprawled the
ne w town. T itu , mo"e d the camp of the
5th, 12, h .nd t5 th legions up to the
walls ofthe new town .nd here laune'hcd
his . "aek We. kcned by internal
" l u.hl>le. among the defender!; , this
",,,, or soon fen int o his hands. The main
camp was then move d withi n thc wall,
of the new town. days lalcr the
middle ' mm ai,,, fell Tit us now di vided
I>is force" with two legions to anack the
old town and two the ,emple. A' 'he
point whe re the town "'all ioined
thctemplc, Ha oJ the G'eat had ereded
for tr e," which he had name d Antoni.
in honour of his bend adOt Mock
Antony.
At Ii "t Roman, tried to construct
earthworks in order to get the siege
machines up to the 10\cJ of thc for tress
but the dd enders undcrmi ocd t hem
. nd the}' coil.p'cd.
Tit us now surrounded the city wi, h a
rampart aod pali,ade ; once he had
secured the whole circuit, he beg. n to
re-erect the earthwo, k> .g. in" the An_
toni. fonre," T he defcnders failed in
an o"empt to fi rc tl>c earthwor ks and
' he batteri ng rams were brought to bear
on the walls, T hat night the w.1I Came
down ., . rem it of the C',m'aot b.tte, -
ing and the net work of tunnels th.t the
defenders had dri,'en under [heir own
fortific.[ions in an attempt to
earthwor k>. !'o" ceing that ,hc wall
might be breached the defenders had
t. ken the norma l precaution of e..cting
an inner O" e. For two days legion_
aries 'truggled in ' ai n to take thi s wall
which defied direct assault and the
bringing to bear of rams, On the ' econd
night a small party of k gionaric., in-
duding trumpeters , ,e.led the walls ;
thcy disposed of the sent ries and
so\tnded lheir t",mpets, giving the
signal for Tit us to le.d.n attad on the
w. 11. T hc defendcrs, believing thot the
w.11 had already been taken, left their
posts and retreated to the temple, Mo, t
of the fortress was now desttoyed <0
that a t .mp m uld he pu, hcd stra ight up
to the temple platform and the toWets
. nd ram, brought up. For five weeks
the temple held out. T it us endea,outed
to sp.re i, bu[ when . 1I ., temp" to ob-
, . i n a , urr cnder had failed .nd the bat-
tering ram' b. d proved impOl cnt, he
gave oTde rs for the g..os of the tempie
eoclosure to be fired, T be fire to
the porticoes and much of 'he outcr
endosure '1'"' dest royed, T wo days
l.,"r, . f'er vicious ha nd-to- hand fight -
inga'ound theout er COUrt of the tempie,
the Romans burst in to thc inner <,mrt
Dur ing the fIghting 0 Ilomon , oldier
th rew . forehrond ioto the temple, ignit-
ing the furniture and drapes within
the shri ne, .nd the wbole buildi ng
was reduced ", ashc. From herc 'he
Rom. n, were . blc to o"i" ,he ' wo
legion, hesieging the old town and it 'w
was copt ured Only t he m. ssively de-
fended upper city remained in the hands
of the insurgents. The legionari esr.ised
c. n hwork< on the wc" , ide wbib t the
. uxiliar ies COndUe1Cd a similar .,so ul!
from the east, I n t 8days the works were
compicte, 'he engine' were brought up
. nd the town stormed Thc siege had
last ed five momhs and the popul. tion
had experienced . ll the rigours of starv-
ation. I n the last day, mothers ate said
hy Josephus to h. vc coten thcir own
children.
T he cit y was turned over to the
w ldi et< .nd wben they h.d we.tied of
, heir killiog and pilb gi og it was set ,m
fi re. Titus then ordered the rema ins to
be razed, leavi ng only t he three highest
towe rs and p. " "f the w.11. T be w.1I
was fOTthe enc.mpment of the g .,ison
. nd the towers to remind the people of
the stature of the city tb. t had once
' 1<>od there.
Aft er the fall of Jerusalem, Tit us
returned to Rome lea' i ng to successive
Rom. n g,,,,crn,,rs the ,.,k of mopping
up the rcmoining "entre, of rcsi"once
The last of thcse was the fort of .\l asad. ,
perched on acolumn of rock ri sing 400m
. oo\'e the western shore of the Dead
Sea. The job of reducing thi s mountain
fastnc", '1'"' gi,'en ' 0 legion X Fret msi"
which was re infor ced with aoout 4,<XXJ
.uxiliaries. T he Rom.n legate Silva first
sur rounded the hill in the normal
Roman fa, hiM wit h a w. iI ne. riy two
metres thick fort ihcd with to wers evcry
APPE:-lDlX z
II i. diopc=d in
,,;ghl caml'" around ,he Moe of Ihe hill.
The,' ,hen oe1 .boul lhe tuk of con-
an enonnou, ramp on the
....,.t >.ide of ,he h,lI up ,,'hi<:h t!><1'
" 'inched II"", .....e The de_
fendcn. ralher ,han h< aplured by lhe
Roman.. oomml1led,uicidc. Thio.iege,
lhough wry m,,,,,,, in oaok. tlzo left be-
hind the claom:! in tbe ",bole
field of ..........t.oqe ..v fare : although
unn<;ll.vated, tM hn.. of circumvalla-
uoq, lhe campa Ind t he <ernaim of.he
ramp I re for all 10 !I.
Fortl ficadon.. AI)
( Roger Tomli n )
When Ihe empero. [)iodCl i:o n oN i,a' cd
in l05, he ret ired ' 0 .. ha' OUT "",rees
<all. 'vill.' on , he Dalma'ian """". Hi,
col k"-l(ues aloo buill po.lae.. at Ihei,
birt hpl"""" anoJ o'her late- Roman rort i -
fied ,ill. , are known, but Diode,ian',
.. Srlit i. th e gronde" of them all , a
recta n!tul. , ."mpkx 1.'; he,"a", in ,"ca
_ almo,t the _ize "f Ihe contompo, a,;'
legion , r y fortre., "f K. iserallgst no",
fu<,I._en d ""od b;' t"wered wall of
lim"",ne .shlar '7m high. One can "ill
wal k lbrough , he no"h gate wil h il'
arcod.dgaUe ry and inoof octagonoI
"'w.... down the t ''''' p'"",ori<l 10 a
colonnaded piazza. On Ihe t igh' i. Di o-
dClian's",hapd.on l he k:f, a mau!IOleum
,,'hi,h i. ""'" Ih. athedral; in fmol i,
lhe pedimonted enlrane-e to lhe imperial
apan"",n......hioh " .....,heoJ tM .."ire
length of . he OOUt h .ide. raiocd abo\'e . he
... on . hei r ....uhed p1.lfonn like. dill
Thi. " 'U filling reI ....t for lhe ",If_
OIl'led Fa,her of a Golden Alte "'00 had
filled the frontier -;,h minia,ure
of hi. f ,.".. f'Ob<;e.\\"";,-e
foru, ....ith stone w.. U. al
least thr"" met"" thick, proiecting
to..........nd hca'1ly defended p'''.
"""'times (ilpl;,;;,I)' daled to Diod..ian
by ..n i"""riplion or literary
an be found in North Africa. S.. ...r-
r.noJ, and on D,odc"..n. R"",oJ in .. ,
which linked n.m,...... and P:tlmj'u
wi,h ,he Euphu, ... T he fort or
,i.. in !'aj'um. where
Abinn..,u_ wa' in t he
340',. is D".d"i..nic , il had a singlo
!f"' C, and lowe.. projected 01the corner.
and al in'crval, along a stonc wall ncarl y
four metro, Ihick and at leasl ,e ven
mem" hillh. t he .bsence of
"n" real t h " ond the pnce'
ful- na,ure <>f Abin u' mu'in< he
"reng<h 0( Ihe defe""" i, rem...-kable:
it i, an "'" of internal umes' but
of 00'" "idely rrincipIM "'ere
applied by lliodet"n,.nd , he def....i'e
men,al"y 0( r.leKom.on Olra'ql'.
Tbi. OI""esy hal been .ummarioed
al,eaoJ)'. Diodelion and hi. coIleag....
""tored . he ol d ["""ien, ....cepl for re-
,renchment be)-ond the Rhinc and
Danube, in 1O<lthctn EtlI'P( and in w..._
ern .\ loure...ni.. . T o hold line of 4.<X1O
mila ""oJ more &pin" ....hat a 41h-
cenlury " ntegi" c.all, ' ,he of t he
noti"" peof>l.. howling a,,,,,nd the
Roman Ihodetian and hi. _ue-
ce..on to V. lemini. n I ( 36.( - 78) em-
balked On ..n en",mo" , p"'gra mme of
and reeon" " .el ion . [)iocl..i..n
envigeoJ powerful fro nt ier a, mi", of
nowe.."a iTy" nil _, Ie8ion" ..nd i
numbors "r dlu( and e"h,)\l' , all of
which needed f"rtif,ed l>a",. Con"an-
tine weakened Ih.,," ar mi.. in o,der w
<trcng!hen th e mobile ",,,,, rYo, !he cami_
faun"", bu' hi s ""' logy still ",quired
rhe "mo kind of f' onticr lOne : defonce
in doplh oon' i" in8 of of s""ng-
points . Iong tnr fron'iel , ond down the
lincs of commun ica, ion in t he hin'.,-_
land, t hat ..-ould proteet food,mff, and
mili tarj' " ore. (and <i,'ilian.)
during ;n,ui.nn and .peed , I>< mobile
anny' , .., Late_Roman fortifiCll -
ti.nn i, defrn.i'e. Thi. i.
not a ,rui.m, Mauoe ,he fortified I""""
of 'M rll' often made lhei,
,..all .. p;>Uit>k:. and built
p'" tha' "-ere rublic monumenU, 10
ad,-eni", tMi, J""ooperit y. 11>< fort.
"'ere aloo . i, ed ' 0 ",,",roI
lTJO\..,men" ..i .h .. thaI p>jec<ed
abo\-e IMir ramra"' for ot>oe.....'ion.
no( ,hem for enfilading The
anny of t he early empire "a,ned to mtt.
i .. oppono:-n.. in t be ticld, in the I..te
empire . hi, role ..... r......-ed fo. the
C<l"ff'I<lltKU., i, "'hy fortilkalion.
" 'ere """. inlCnded for tk-
fe",--e. are. of rouT", ...rialion,
in teclinique di rected to lhe ",me end:
thu, towen almo" innriably pro;"",
from the ourt ain , but they rna;' be round.
semi_circul ar , D-.haped, fan_, haped,
pol ygoru<l "" reclOnj\ular. Somechanges
in outline or inlernal I..you' ma l' be
, illnifi cam f,,, dali ng, 'hough i, would
be uo..-i' e to .. them: i! ,cern. to be
,lie u....l p......;.,., af'er .he rci[<Tl of Con_
"anline to..,t internal building, againsl
lhe perimeter " 'all , in lhe manner of.
medie>'al ....Ie. haile)".
J u", U 'Mf"",n... ",,,,,et}"
a defence in dep<h. 00 ..... it the ' icof
"",,,groi n" to k""f'
an" as far '"11)''' Jl<>Uible. S' fort.
,iled on dt,,ed ground, ..,-der.
ably a pr.,,,,,,,, even if i.. irregulaT "",-
lin< ,m",_d the .."'" <>Utlin< on the
-
o
Abov.
h.,of In'..e,.., Duo,pon' I., ",,,,,ga ry, w;!I'
'an"Mood '''''''''' 1M ...... g., . 101..
"""',,",,'O<! on,o I ''''''''' by COO," "!"'"
-
""" <11 ...... .... t-..., ...
_-"I _ ... V_", :wl
-
Corl_"", _ _ """" __
_ on "'Y__
,
r1
L.J
FORT1i'1CATI ON S AND SIEGE WARFARE
... rm... di'eM
of ""I<: ,ureo=dcd b)'
..ide tlal'l>uIlOmN dilchel.. lIoo,k d if
pot.Oihk. M:1 runher from ,he ,,all.., ...
'" <:a,e a ' killin, """",' llke ,I>< bs" of
medr.'al .;nile. In , he H)'ZlIlnune
period one find. dooubk "'alls-,I>< 5t h-
cenlury L.nd '".lls ,hat made Con-
,ul1Iinopl< ,mJ>h:, ...blt fuf .., man,
"",,,urin ..... , he n-. fan-.. _ and
even. bn:as,.....,..t; Ofl , I>< inne-. faa: of
,t>c di'ch. An n rly imt.l>CC <><XU" a'
It>c sic,c of A'ludcia in 361 , " 'here the
derenders defu,ed .n alternp' '0 c-roo.s
the duch by makin,:. undcT ""'...'
of 'a ,uri f<U\l p"n in fro'" of rt>c lis.
La,.._Roman """USa l"", rt:qUiTro a idct
bcTm for ..abi lit y : 'My ......... no' , t>c
"" 'elled .. of 'he early' em-
pire, bu' ,hick cu rta in ...all s of conerere
rubble fac"Cd ",i ,h ma.onry', agaIn like a
medi eval ea"le, T h..r.. is a ",ide >'ari..,y
of ' <:ehnique,' brick facing,
like Aurdi.n' , walls at Rome; small
a,hl. r ",ilh h<'nding-eourse, of bri ck,
, ee n ar its m,,,,r regular in ' he Diod e_
lianic ",ail s "f Y,nk; . nd nften m. "mr y
,It., i, fr.nkly The use of
" !\-. ged ma, erial is cx,mmun, induding
monumenl al ",-'ull" ure. and '",nb-
" onM, Ci l y ",ails in p.r1i cular betra,
i mp, ,,,,,...'ion . " d h e. by' """'eri ng
d,." icall l reduced i..,
110 more lIun a '''''add' , or bl' ir>coT_
pont,in, earlier buildmgo, like the " ..ns
of Rome. Some G.Uic perimele.. i,, -
co'po""e lhe ompI11lt>c.II<: kind of
bastion fe. ' ''1<: ..hidl,. a1fddl' found
a, T ric-r 'here , he latllC encein' .. " ...
buill .tlct "C in ,he late and centutJ.
Thts amphi'hea're .... Ihe ri... &lid fall
01. 'he Gallic mobile army: heft: in 306.
...hile Trier " -as his line< <::II pi''', Con_
stan'i.... 'hr...... ''''0 Frutkish king. to
the " i ld bcas,.;. century Iale, . in the
of 406-07. i, ...-as the lasl
of.he l'Of'ulation l>' lI"el<:n, '<:ehniqucs
arc found " 'l1h,n , he &lUlle ci'cuit. At
lhe Saxon shore fon of Richborough.
Diodetianic in Slyle b.. , da"l\Jl; perhaps
'0 , he reign of Probus. 0... c",n stt
dunges of panern In ,he ma.onry be_
,ween Ihe work of Ofle building g.ng and
. he ne><' . In l he mai n walls of Ni"".a
( h nik), or alx' ul lhe ...me do[e. one can
see " ,me D-.hared I" w"n of ,imher
laced c"O"ere fO<.'e d ",ith bri"k, on a
roundo"on of c<>i u mn drum., others
,ha' ate ,c... hecau.e they ", ere
buill of magnificenl hl. r l.ken from a
public buildin,:, pe'hal" ,he l hea're.
T he pfOjtlna bas, ion, ,,' hich domi_
na[e .., many l.le-Roman encei"'....
sometimes a ' modc-rnisal ion' .dded (..
in Brilain) ' o . n u;'11n, ,,-all, pro>idc<I
enliJadin. fi,e ond ad.-anccd f<>Sitiorn.
for anillcr)' . \ll'hen J.. lian rt:bmh a
Troiani<: ou'POO' ,n Alamann 'ern.o'T
in 3n , he " .. .,.reful ' 0 install 'an il leT)'
for lhe ..'all,'. . .." kinds. (he
haJli.." and ,he """ pion'. Tht haili"a.
me,.1 pa"s of ....hich han hccn found in
'''-0 late-Roman OU' POOlS acTOS' ,he
.. ... ,he ..me ....he 'field anil-
I..ry nf Traian's ('.olumn ''''n-armed
lonionenglne l hat hTCd bol .. ;
liring MJI",,, .....m. to h""e been obso-
le' e in , he [..c_Roma n period, .bolIgh
pari. of 0 ... dal ing from Ihe lirst half or
lhe 3rd centu,y have !>cen round on ,he
II-le ""l'<"amian f",n,i,r., H ra . There
is a lo"g .uny in Grr<k ,nur..., of
gunner in lhe of Probu, ",ho . hot
a man peering out or. I',,"ern gale,
Anecdote, or "ear mi.", in Ammianu<
confirm ,ha, bal/i'la ",o<.n effective
",eal'<,n : ol\<,h .imed al Julia" killed a
" ,ld ier hy' hi s . ide; a d ien' king or the
Persians klOl hi. son in l he me ""y a'
the siege of Amid . A' ,h, ..m, , iege , by
mO" ing 'liltht' /odlli'I"'. lhe Romans
.. e re able '0 gun down 70 Persian
arrhers " hu had ..,i:ted,meof I 1<" .-......
The idenlily- of lhe gunroc.. remain. a
prol>lcnt : lhel<: are ....."sol laIC-Roman
unu. of lul",,,.,i. b,u " 'e 01111' hear of
, hem .. an [nranlry' csrort of J lllian on
a haurdou. ,.......-country jou""" ., and
on a fragmen,.ry hulldll\jl: inscription
from , he Crimea. Tht Dilher <::IItapuh
found in Iale-Roman . i<'gcs is an inno-
'a.ion , lhe ..,.".pion' (or ' ''''''get' ) " ...
a one_armed ' .....ion el\jl:iroc ,ha, huried
a Iarg.. st""" ball . like lhe medic"al
mangonel. Amm""nu. has a gruesome
"Dry' of an engi"""r ,,Ito ..ood behind
one ,,'hen [( ba.:l:lired. and "'''' "n..,!>cd
10 an unTCCOln'..hle pulp. Tht 'scor-
pion ' .... crucial.l l he .iege of Amida
beea""" il reduc" d ""'eral Persian
",wers. hUI ito drawhack " ... Ihe Yi b",_
rion, ..'hich meanl II had 10 hc liT,d on a
",lid, . e. i lien, pl., fo,m.
.\ l a" l rorl' and fonre..es "'ere simpl y
hrough' up 10 <l aIc' b)' lhe
exi.. in. der.",... and pe'haf" moder _
nising [hem , Th,,, alm"'l all lhe old
ro", on lhc l'. n"o"i,,,, f",,,,ier rece ived
new 'l'pe (If Ing:le ' """ r in , he Tcig:n of
Con... n,in< whi ch ,......andard to """'.
fon ., ,I>c fan-.hared 10"'er (it looks
more Ilke .n""ehead) lhal projectro f.r
enough 10 pro"ide enfiladIng: lite down
boo:h >ides, .. arrhacol<>gi<::lll ",i-
de""" of many roc,,' fons being built.
and<>QCasionallyan " 'i lnes. a<:n>oJ nt.
Tht emperor V.lens in e. 3611 decided
to plug a gap [n lhe """,,, !>anube
I'' OIItier , ",hel<: " ..... for rai<lc",
' 0 ",.de ,he I, _'ann' " y' slippi ng """"'"
a bgoon. fie .........-cNcd in a
..'hieh had defeatro one of hi.
ptrocecssor. bee .., of , he <lillKul'y of
lran,p""'n,: S\o b.,ck ond lime; hi.
parocllY ri.,. wlto "'as lhere, claim. to
ha,'" sc<:n chamberl.in. and g:ua,ds men
hringi ng lheir of ,ile (a
or hydTO ulic ""men, t ha'
",ould undel ""'er). I n lhe same
hi. h,ol he. Valent inian "'a, forti -
fying. new site on Ihe middle Rhine. a,
." Itrip , Ammianu" <>r more hi,
i nfor m"nt , ,a", ' t he di .ciplined " ,Idie"
often ", or king ur 10 ,heir neck, in ",'ate r'
[0 <c ,'e, lhe fon ",i lh ,,,,k heam. and
pi!c.
\j;' e hear or fOr1ilied dol'''''' like nne
hI' I..urian hTigand,. 'a ...alled
end o' uTe l he .... , where supplies
ar....ill ' ..",cd 1',,, di.",hulion '0 [he
soIdie.. defending ,he ",hole l..urian
sector' . h mu.. han """n lik.. Vddidrna
ncn Inn.hruck. quadrangle ,om
>quare wi'h ,"""....nd a
.ingle fortiiicd PIC, roun-
la.d ,,-jlh large I ..... on ..;,bct . ide.
Per ha ps . he mos, ehaTa<1cristic feature
of. la",._R<'ImOn f ron' ;"1 i. ,he /JvrgIH. a
frcc-. "'nd' I\jl: ""."'. of ..hidt
ha"e been U<::ll.... ro , he S..is.
Rhine, , he I)anube hcnd nortb of
A'luineum. and .be Iron Ga,... sector.
lill ,he gaps he",'een fons. each
DIIC in .ighl of the ....,,,. like lhe ....
'"""rson an Iron Curla," fron,i..r. They'
are.mall .."""u...., soIidlJ built.
and mon: lhan one "orel' high. ,ince
,hey nflen ,"Onlain lhe ba.... for ftoor-
,uppons. On< "I' . he la'l""', which
happens '0 he mentioned Ily Ammianu"
i. Robur on the bank
,,,,,,,,,,i'e Ha.le: il ",. [3m sq ua. e with
lu rrets al l he corners and ", all . 4m [hick,
buill on a 'raft' of ""nCrr," and beam"
and mu" ha,'" h'ked like " medi eval
"">tIe kCt' p. Some are prolected hy
an oulcr hrea't",ork like a m<d ie" aJ
'"
API'El" D1 X 2
' ....U' for cxampk ,he ,_".. on
, he S<'lnh )'.,.-k altil. Of course the
bin,... " ... no! a Iotc-Roman in,"C'Il'Oon.
Its n ,ioN.le emerges from ino<."ripliom
of ,he Danuhe ""'<:t.,.- south of Aquin.
cum; CQrnmodus in ' SS 'fortified , be
whoit' bank with cn'irel)" and
"rongpoints in .uitablc pbcn. to pre-
vent d andcollne crossingo by ra'de...
It "'*' In nllCntiaJ clemcn, of bord
con,roI. whi<h had the mer it of being
fairly cheap, in 37/ the ' Com'
(' whic h is why it was built' ) l<MJk
a wor king party rrom ,he Fi r" M Url'.
legion 4Hdays to bui ld. A ,peeia l kind
of ,,'metime, found em t he enemy
hank " r t hc Rhine and Dan ube ron,iSl,
of I ""nt ral tower wi th two wing. wIll,
end ina: in ' Utl'Cf', which proi"" in,o , 1>0
ri va, It occm. to hl"e been inlcnded "'
I llnding place, presuml hly f" , the
pa,rol hoco,s men,;""w by Ammianuo
and ",he, ..,.,ren. Then:: is an e),,-
wi'...... k'COUnt of one bci ng built oppo-
u'e ,he ton at A1trip: ' '';th bolllcmcnts
s.urrounding i , . . . and frequent open-
lnp t,om ",iti<h arro.... can he fi,ed
under The 'OP of ' I'lc ."...",. is
gilded ... ;t has Ioping roof of lead
platn hkc armou,'. This sombre .oonr,
Iikc 'Commcrtt' and Robur .he ..-k of
Vl len.inian, " .... one uf .he I..., tunifi-
ca.ion. to be addc<l lo . he f, ontie.. of
, he WCllcm cmpire,
Slcgc w"rf"re, 4. h ec n tur y
( Rogcr Tom lin)
In sr ite "f . noihilat;ng the 1i0'1 K"ma n
m"hile ar my nc ar Adrianople (378), lhe
Goths Were 00' ahle ' 0 ,,,,,-m .he c; t)"
neM' day, Af,.. a futile a"empt to in
filtra'e . he dcfm cctl ,,'i, h de<crte.. fr"m
lhe R"man army, . hey resonrd to
massed anach agai ns , , he from
...luch s'one> . nd ot her missiln "'CfC
hurled upon them. Then:: " .... panic
,,'hen a Roman 'scorpion' diocllarccd a
Slone ball, "'"C'Il tbough no one " ... hll.
Aflcr tM> .hey P''' up, regretting
they had noI follo,,'C<! Ibcir Icader's
"""ice to peace with walls' . This
cpisode is t)pical ofbMbarians' inabIlity
to taU fonif\cd ,""'.". by siege : . hey
ta...itcd .... 'e<:hnology (.... C",,1ts had
been rcdllCCd 10 firing bock Roman
. " ows) and t hey lacked ,he ' e<: hniquc.
Ammi anu\ Ian: cIlin"" <lUr princi pol
sour<;c, ,.I:<.thi. for grantcd. In wint c,
356/7 J ul ian was trapped in Sens with
'"
,,-en garrison, hut rallied il against
Aloma"n anod:: ; afl" mon,h ,he Ger
mans P'"C up, 'mullen", ,hey "''CfC
fool s 10 havc ,"""'&h. of a
.",,-n'. The Danubian ..pi lOl of Sir
mium " .... ""1) " eakly defended in 374.
when ,''' Quadi .nd Sarma.ian. o..c r-
tan Pannonia, b.lI . ... guvrtn<>r ck3n:d
0'1' .he ditc.... and rcpooircd ,he ,,-.l is,
and . he invadcn. ' ,,110 had Iinlc skill in
these refinements of "'artare' , t ur ned
aside. Valent; n;an's pri nci"",1upronen"
t he Alamann ,\ I",'i. n. was par
,jcularJ;- for midable because 'hc would
even atte mpt walied t"wn' .
)'e1when Ju lian wa" pl'"in<c d Caes.r
in November 3SS, thc ncw" br""e , h. ,
Cologne had fallen ", the I' rl nks 'after
a stubborn ,ioge' . (C" n,,,,u cl y, a raidil\'(
band of 600 I' rank. held ou' in 'wo
derelict Roman ft>f1s f"r ' ''"0 mont h, in
mid",i n, ... 3S7 'S, bcf<>lC "a"'a.ion
f",,,,, d , hem 10OIl1t'Cndct.) \l'hen J ulian
arri"cd in Gaul , some 4S G.lli<: .""-no,
as "",II as mi.- fon. and ''' '''en, had
fallen to , he In"aden: comparc . h;' ,,;.h
. he 70 ''''''-no resrorc<l by Prohus, again
according to Julian. presumably after
t'" grea' in"" ion of 17S. 'il"c arc nor:

f_'''''''' "on'- . ... o"d toI>._..... ..
otched " '"'!rom , C"""ob.al,,,.. lou,"", , '
0,,,,,, ., A 01 ,....
0.",.. Che,toboIl",. , I,.. D,.',,"1t B ."
tuld "'hy the Gcrnu.ns were ..,
fuJ. Some I"".... "''CfC strong enough to
resi.1 "".filhl .nod::, accord,n, ' 0
Julian'. poIl'lq)'riSl Libani..., but ,herr
inhabitanlS could DOl """.Utt' outside
the ....11.. inoidc whi<h . he)' "'CfC""'"
forced ,0 1fUW <:<><n. At Au'un the Ger
mans followed I...ir ' us ual me,hod' of
,ryinlt to """Ie lhe " ...U ....r an un
guordcd p te ; the p m """ wo,
'p;onlytic', ...-.:ording to Amm,a"us, hut
locII "et<ran. r.llied t" the t",,'n's de
fer>cc and hel d il until J ulian arrivl
w;'h re lieving for ce. In 36g, on ,he eve
of Volent inian's offensive , AI.monn
roide.. were ahie to hreak int" Ma, n,.
duri ng" Chr;" ia" fcsti , 'al hecause t h. ..
happened to ... no garrison. It seem"
c
(<<t"'''' at a" 01'..
I. W M..odon IbolIoml n. , p" """''' _''''''
" .. ,"tr O<l uel, o t"" .. .. I. OM ""'"
<>nO .,m_ ""","",' "one, '01_" '" mot'"
FORT1Fl CAT JONS AND SIEGE WARFARE
therefore, that the barbaTian invaders
lacked sophisticat ed siege 1C-chnique"
and were forced to rely upon , urprise,
blo<:kacle, and ,he demoralisation of
",,,,md- rate garr ison,.
The Western province s only '"w real
,ioge, during civil war, like Iha' of
Aquileia in 36'- Thi, ke)' city, whose
in Z3Hhad hrought down the
emperor Maximinus, was held again"
th" usurper Julian by soldiers loyal to
Comtanti m II Its survivi ng defences
are no more impre" ive than tho,e of a
legionary fortress of 'he early empiTe,
and it is difficuh to appreciate the diffi -
eolty the oc,iegers found in approach-
ing the wall,. Tbey tried in, tead to at_
tack 'he riverfront, by buildi og wooden
siege towers on three boats lashed '0-
gether; but the defenders fired inc"ndi_
aries whicb set tbe towers on fire, and
they fell over. After furtheT.esi"ance,
AquiJeia surrendered only when its de-
fenders had ocen convinced that Con_
" antiu, was dead.
Almost all the sieges de, cribed by
Ammianus occur on M..opolamia,
wh"re both Rome and Persia were the
heirs to eenturie. of experienee. Tbe
frontier was rougbly midway between
the two capitals Antioch and Ctesiphon,
rellecting the difficuhy bot h sides ex-
peTienced in advancing fTom theiTbase,
into the opposing network of fortihed
towns and mili' ary strongpoint' , A
cam!",ign like the Persian offensives of
359- 60, <IT Julian's olfensiv" of 363, en-
tailed , iege war fare. The met hod, were
an well-tried, with no great margin of
superiori, y on either side, The Pers ians
med elephants, with great moral etfff,.
Ammianu, alway, Tefers ' 0 tbe," ' walk
ing hill,- with disgust , but tbey were of
Iinle real use; at the siege of Amida they
were driven off with firebrands. The
Romans may have had the edge in artil_
lery; the Persians a' Amida were using
b<>/listat 'hey had captured from the
Romans I t years before , and do not
seem ) h",' e had the 'scorpion' , But the
u,e of l he'e weapt'"' w", , ubordinaled
to the prime of gell ing dose
to storm o,'er , or break through,
the enemy" walls. There were four
pTimaryweapons_ allofgreat ant iqui,y,
with appropriate countermeasures-
which could take a walled town. They
were battering rams, siege mounds,
siege and mining. Ideally l hey
were used in conjunction, rhe Tam being
pcrhap, the mo" elfecrive. The problem
was to bring i, safely to the angle of a
tower. At the Pers ian siege of
B"zabde (3&0), a Rom. n barrage which
included iTon b.,ket, of burning pitch
hurled by ' scorpions' made this . Imost
impossible, At last the Persians gm
ram into position by it with
wet bull hide, demoli, bed ,he tower and
broke in. The Romans in their attempt
to reCaPlUre Hezabde the s. me year used
a huge ram which had been emplo}'ed
b;' the P"rsi.ns a eentury before ", de-
stT()Y Ant ioch, and abandoned during
tbeir retreat. It was elaborately fire-
proofed with wet hides and malerial,
and by sm"aring the timb<ors with alum,
but the defende," neutralised it by las-
sooing l he iron head, Asuccessful sorti e
set the other engines on fire, So ,he
Romans concenrrated on raising ,iege
mound" the two b<>lIis"", mounted on
each had gi"en them a deeisive superi-
ori". in hrepower when 'he Persians
mad" another sortie and succeeded in
setting ,he mound, aligbt by . tuffing
burning coals into tbe bTa nches and
reed bun dles they contained, Siege
towers eould be used in much the same
wa}' 'he Persian, at Amida mounted a
ballisraon lOp of each. In Julian's siege
of Pirisaboro (363) pre!"' rotions for
building a siege lOwer reduced lhe gar_
ri, on to , urrender. Certa in featuro, in
Western fortifie. tions -,he u, e of pile
foundations and the raisi ng of floors in
t"wers_have been seen as precautions
again<t mining, but it is doubtful
whetbeT GeTman im'aders had the
nffessary expertise. The Persians, how
ever , h. d used the teehnique at the siege
of DUTa in the mid-3rd century, A
Roman mine w"' , ue,'e"ful at the siege
of Maiozamakha (3"3) in the " h'a nce
to Ctesiphon; when the sappe,.. had
reaebed the foundatio"s of the wall" a
diversi<mary auack w"' launched above
ground , enabling them to break into a
room and kin 'he sentries on l he wall,
T he gre.t siege of Amida (359), which
has been m"ntioned already, illustrat'"
most of the >iege tnbni'l ue, praUi,ed
in tbe mid-4th century, The detailed
narr.tive of Ammi. nus, an im'olunta ry
parti cipant , bffomes even more vivid
when <me see, ,he b",;a1t waHs
still surround modern Di}'arhakir. This
dusky enceinte has been enlarged and
repaired 359, but the
east face, ' beneath which yawned roch
so precipitous that one could nol 1m .
down without vertigo, suh" antially re-
mains the wOTk of Con'lant ius, In 359
, he Pers ian, WeT< a new
" rategy, by a Roman def",,_
'or , of by!",ssing the frontier fort To", of
Nisi bis and advancing up the Tigris '0
descend on Syria from 'he north-east.
The Romans were decei' ed ; but un-
fort unately for lhe Pers ian strategy_
and for Amida- a Roman gunner aimed
his bull"'a at elient king and killed his
son who rode h,. his side. The Pers ian
arm}' was bound by its code of honour
to ",' enge his death_ at the c,)';t of
30,(lOO dead and 74 day, delay, which
sa,'ed Syria, Amida was strongly held,
by ;t, regula. garr ison of the Fifth
four other frontier legions,
and a pair of auxiha which had heen
drafted from Gaul f()T , upporting the
usurper Magnentiu. The latter played
no real P' r! in the siege (Ammi.nus'
description of them as ' legion,' i, a
literary archai sm): thei, sort ie, were as
destr uctive to them, d ve' as to the Per-
sian" T he five legions, howe"er, fought
tenaciou.ly and skilfully, and migh,
have saved Amida but for bad luck
At first the Pe,.. ians tricd to ,torm
lhe waUs with the help of elephants,
' hidwu, with their wrinkled bodies.,
m",t gruc.omeohigh" ' . They began to
raise siege mounds . nd iron-plated
'owers wilh a balli,w on top, T hen a
Roman deserter betra}' cd an under
ground passage which led down to tbe
Tigris from one of 'he towers on the
ea" side. .<\ of 70 Pe,..ian archers
erept into the tower at nighl through the
passag"; next they opened fire,
",vcring an attempt to storm the walls,
bUl were dri,'en off by balli"a liTe. The
Romans achieved another,ucee" wben
the fire from their 's<-,o,pion, ' hrougbt
down the Pers ian siege towe" Bu'
disaMcc " ruck when a mound raised
inside their wall, _ t" counter ' he Pe,-
sian mounds-collapsed , bri dging ,he
gap between the w.H and the Pers ian
mound. The Pe"ian, thtew in all their
IT(X' P' and stormed inw Amida, Street
fi ghti ng all d. y, but Ammi-
anus prudently lay low until nightfall,
when he , lipped ou, of an
pt," ern and ' returned beyond all hope
1<l Antioch' .
APPENDlX l
Roman Military Cost ume
ThIS...nes <>f pamlinp, 10 illuM..,te Ihe
devdoprnen. <>f Roman m,Ii'H)' cos-
oome (rom lhe u ...,mury a<; ' o .he 3.d
<:en'u')' .\P, "we pain.ed by . he auu-
" ,th the help of If, Ruuell Robinson
for . he RomlSCh-Genn.onis<:hnZmlral-
mu""..... a. ,\\lUlll' and = on eli.pLoy
. heo. Sumbcn . 8 and I' have been
added 10 'aU l he series through 10 lhe
bcyinn,n, or l he Sl h ...,noory, l'umbe..
1- 1' _ pI.Ibh.hed I>en, , he ki n.! per-
miWon of .he Romis<:h Germanitchet
Zen.ralm",,",um,
po..ible Ihe reoonSlTUoinm
_ haW;<.! on arcMeoIogial ,,-,iden...,
and ",nfi rmed by .""lp.ural or 0100
.ni. , ic Th. archa..,logical
evidence incre..... in quali. y and q""n-
up un[il . he "",ond lulU of . he ."
century .nd . hcn decline. rapidly 50
that for ,he be'l pet i"d we know cvery
<let.il of the equipmen, including beh. ,
baldricnd .andals, whereas for the
3rd centur y . he evidence is very , parse
in<l ee<l . Aft er the middle of the 3rd cen
tur}' very lillie hody atmnut wa, worn,
so i. did not oeem wonh,,'hile
" ructing an infln. rj'man from Ihi,
period,
A cenrurionof . heearly empir ealway,
"e,,,,, hi "..,..d on the lefl and dagger
on the: ri gh, . whereas the: lepooH)'
wean ,hem rhe OIhC'r wa j' round, With
,he il seem, .0be op{ioniI
,,'hich " 'ay round he: "'ea" .hro!. Doher
.undard beaten """r l hemon the right
The anilTllll K 'M ..urn b)' sundard
Mare.. seem .0vary according 10 rank ,
-aIm wnr bon loki M and ",hen
" 'ear bear ski ",. Prac<Olian
"andard hearen """1' lion ,kin" SIan-
dard heatnt a m round , hield. One:
can he ,"0 ,".n, _ .he boo..* of the

Se--eral i,em, of equipmenl mn..n
he:re are nor: included in Ihe rlUlin
of the boot . The helm... worn by the
ca"alrylTllln I') i, r"""n..ruCled from
pie..." found It Koblenz- Bubenheim in
German)'. The helm... wom by the:
archer ( I ') i. from Bry."""et, (Karaa-
a""h) in Hulgaria, The cuira.. worn by
,he legionary (141 i> recon"ruetcd from
frAgment. found at l'ewstead. SeOllan<l.
The belr Hllina:' On the ""volry officer
come from Tene,;n N Africa,
'"
Righi
Lo t. 'OOUI>h<:. "1Oogl""0'l' " mod ;,-Itn o,at
,"V' Hm , o' v,1o M,,"' ofo'h"" n. '01M, "'",' , ""' ,
, ;,-" pl i. 'M,wOta
\
\
, ~
~ ot ' .. I.. "'" 01 .. lSI ........... All
_ 0<Vfum _ ott .. "'" ond
_ c-.. fYPt __IIWI._
---
" ~ .
,,_"' ,.. -.-"0_
""-"" __. ~ ....
... ond -.. cres_
_....... "' ... ,-
ROMAN MILI TARY COST UME
,
APPESDIX 3
~ .
.... __01 -1.. -./>1) ...
.,.....,. """II" 01 _ '" - '" ....
f.......- r ,"""",,""""'" - "" ....
_ ,0<>0 of ," " ,"""';M " eN""'''
ll ogh'
.... __", _ _1.. "'"""""AD .......
........... 1.-- _ ....
_ ....... IOIt .. __ ....
_fG.-.. Ol,-... _ ..,.
Oppm'.
.............. ~ _ _"' .....
__'.. _AO_ _
..........,-... '" l\o>.I$ ....
'" ,..".,....." "" ,... __01 F........
,
,

,
APPEl"DlX 3
~ ,
... ~ .... 01"" __"''''''''
.......... .0.0 n.o.e .. __' ; ..
_..., E-.
.,..., ...-, -.... """"' ........ ""
""",,,,,,,,,,, "",,,",",,",
R,;'"
A" " , , " , , , " , . " 0,,"'1"_2""""""'" AD
- "" -'"'"""""""*" --....,.,
-----_ _.-
...-01... -

T__at ..... 1bno;Joo.

__...-at ..... . . . , . 2 ~ __
...... ..,T....... _
ROMAN M ILITARY COSTUME
' "
API'ENllI X 3
... """"""'" ...... ~ of ,.,. _ ... 1",;
............ _""r.,..,.CoI....... rho
""'.......... """"" "" .... ~ ,."n ... ""
~ - - - " .. _"".-
" ' .........-
"
L.U \6
... p,....,."" 11"._at .... Zr<l -
" ,,,,,, . .... , ...... ' " .... Loo"" M_"",
1........ no .-..:0"" ....
....'<1
00
.......... , ..",d ' rod bOl' '' '"

Il ,g'"
... _ '" c 100 ..0 6'/ 0Q0N n"
,"", ",. """......... - ......
""",n.oI<l ..,d ' '''' ."",,0 mo-' ' 0
,fie _ 1... ..,.doOnOO "" ... CYO'_ Os "....
...
,..
ROMAN M I LI TARY COST UME
"
'"
A.,.._"' .... _ - ) r ~ -""'_
" ' _ ~ _al .... _
..,.,. "- So-outotog >l.. _ .. _ of tl>t
.... O""E......"..
- .......,...0<1 of , .. ..... . 30" """..... _ ""
.... ''''' "''''110 P,,,,,, OU," f",,,,,,,, ROgh' A
e...,rv o!l.co' e.4CXl AD .... to "', H.. "'Ply""
01 S,,'''''''
APPES Ol X )
'"
Acknowledgments
TI,e ' lllhor would like [() ,ha<l k
Profe" or F. W, W, lbank, Dr B. Dob, ,, ,,
and Professor A, ,It Snodgrass for
roading <110 [ext and for thei,
many sugge" ions. The . uthor "' ould
also like 10 'ha nk the foi!owing for ,hei r
"ssi,mnct and muchv. lued advice
Professor II. II, Scullard
The late .I-\ r H. Russell Robinson of the Tower of L<mdon
Dr G. Rirc hic
Dr 11, Hurst of the Briti' h Carth' ge Expedilion
Dr U. Schaaf! 01' the Romisch Germanisches Zentralmme um, ,\ \, im
Dr L Srcad or ,he Rom.no-Bri[ish Der aUment 01' the Ilritish ."Iuse"m
Dr V, Maxfield 01' the Uni' -e" ity ofExcrcr
Dr D. J Breeze
Dr E. Kun, 1of the Riimisel\ (;ormanisches Zentralmuseum, M..inz
Dr H, G. Horn of the Rhci ni,c !Jcs L"ndcsmu, oum, Bo[m
Dr K V. DecKer of the Mitlelrheinische' l.,nd.smu,eum, ,\ l. inz
.\\r .\\. Hass.lt of the Insti,ute of Archaeology
Dr M. Rox"m or the In,,;,u' " of Archaeology
.\\r M, Macdona
The Greek and Roman Department of the Brili' h M",eum
The SOCiOty for [he Promotion or Hellenic Studies
The S" oiny for [he Promotion ofRmnl rt S[udie,
Lieutenant R A..\1 S..\\d vin and the membe rs of Exp<:dil inn
Alpino Ekph. lH
All photographs are by Peler Conno lly
oxcept the I'ollowing'
I JTL Snark International
4' \Vadsworth Hartford, Connecticur
62 S,""<l icht Antikensnmmlungen und Glyptolek, Munich
1l s". I.
1'1 ,l1 us.. du Bardo, Tunis, photo \'(.'illi.m (;ra ham
I47,148.I 50IlL Khdnisches L. ndesmuseum
161TR ,\\acd"nald Educn< ionalillaymun l);'lIliams
196 Servil io Editoriale Forogranco
n6B Holford/Brili' h Museum
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; ' ,
Index
Poge " umo. " '" '>o' d ' ef", to ,II""" ,,,,, ,
M,n"ev' 2,2_3. 155
Abydv' . , ;ege of 186
_ ",,'i116_7. 127.1 18 128 130
A"" nae. "ege of 140
ACh,,,,M,193
Aeroo 148
Ac, opOl" , the 11, 15
Ae'o"," ' of Sp" " 90
Ad,;aoop lo, "'1:le of 251, 15' 8. "ege ot 302
Aeg"e, " I, od. """. of 145
A"f);n, 12,lGJ
Aego,powno" u-.",. of 164
A""u, B9. 101
Aet,u, 158
Ae' ol',n l . , gue 6B
"')em.> 10. 19. 00. BI
agge' (ramo"t) I 13'l :143
"1Io'.nes n BI
AIIf; ge" ," m {Agr geoto) " ege 01 I 44
196. 192 - 3
Aheoobarbu' . Go,,", Dom,"o' ' 59
114
81ae sociO'um 134
Alaman ", 149. 250, 152 . 251
Albro", . Lv, <uS P"'tum"" I B3. 190_1
AI.," , ;eg, of 111 :191 :19:1.
Ale<"de' " ,. G,." 06_ 7. 69. 71. 72. 12 73,
74. ' ''''Y 70_4. 80. 81, " "tl" ta ct ;", 280 _1
Ale" od'" 01
AI. " od';. lhe F.,the" 67
All " . "''''. of '00 117_8 118
Allob,oge, 155
AI",,", 13
AI" R,p. fo" 300 . 30'
AIt" of Dom,t,", Aneoob>rbus 226 118_9
Amb"c" . ,;ege 01 286 ]
Am,da, """" ot 303
AmomohareM 33-,. " 47
Amph,,,,,, ;, m,';"'" <X>O<l 77. 19_BO 81
, "cl>o" . G' ee, 162 263. Rom, n :172
" o" , "";c'" 69
.ngusPcI,vi,I2'-1
p>lh 20. 21. 2l
AO" Q""" 67. 81 83
Ao,;och u' III 68 . 81 2. 200
Ao,ooy. M", 211
Apo""";', "ogo 0' In
Aw , n 144
ADU';' 105. 'eOOOo ""t 01 I 96
A.qu,'.,.. ''''9<' ot 301 , 30 3
.q,,<li"" 304. 305
A,,"; , 211
A" ad ,u, 2, 6
A'ohaean Le8Qoe 68
oreM", C,.,.n 4S, 116 G' "", 45 Rom, n 2
308. SOV"'''" 48. SO
AreO; mde, 193, 190. 294
.,co, ,,,,,,, 213
arcoype"H8S 77
.,g>">sp'df,,. "'" ; ,1"., ,Mid'
Ar;m;"um 146
A" "'de' 26. 19. 32
Ar;"tOdem" ,14
An""",, 110. 111
a'milla. 245 146
An ',o 70
. now !lead' C' etoo 50 G,",,' SO Scyth,," 60
Arta' ,.,u' 36
Anem" lum. b""o at 18-10, 20. 24
A,". p,,,,,,,,u, 7, _6
,"
A" I. M,oo' 66, 68
,,",opus va""" 14 . 21
AtMo, 11_1 1, 13, 25, 29. 36. .,my 38
fO'O;ficII1 ;00, 274 0' '''' 161_8, ,,_'"C"O'
178_9
Analu, sa. 268
An,," I I
August'" 211 n 4-0
A" ,. ' ;.n 250
A"'e" " . M, w ' 112
'uX<li. 215, :122. 123-4 241.15' 309
Av,,, w m. ".y(> 01 297
a"'. [ " u>o' o 97 0 ' c, 0 103. IOo
B.by''''' 67
8.g-,6" P,"" ". b, " l. 01 152
bal/i" a 301
6"". H,m,lc" 140, 147
6arca, H" d' " b,1 187. 148, I 07. 182, I 87. 18 8,
19" I B7_B
6ar " , , ;. ge of 286
b" """ 274
b,"er;og "m, l'! 6. 277 280. 283_4. 285. 2B6.
187,303
o.lt, cingulum jeD. Rom, ,, {;mpar,, ') 232 134
R" m,o (" '0 1 160_1 261 S. mo,,, 108 109
10&. 110
",,, ,oIiCl8r,us 123
6e<gamo, " a" " of 146
6e"bde. ' ,.ge of 303
b,c"cumv, "' '' oo 291 292 _4 :192
b,remes 161 . 263
b" ' . C. " ;o 124, 1:15. 126. Romao 236 238- 9
bod, " mou" see ou,,"",
6000,;. 14
ao" 90. 113. 146, I 52_3, 168. 206
6ologoa 90. 95- 6
bolt-,hOO'." 29B
bo'." 184. 285
6000'0.111
bow-s . C' etoo 48. SO Pe,,,, n 13, Rum.n 237
239. $cy,";," 48. eo
Brl>CChi.,i 15 '
bra, on , h;eld, 77
b' .."olat",. 101_2 101 E' M co Rom," 91,
O". n 101_1, 101 102. ",,,,,O', le I 31. 13 3
ROO'," 13 1. 133, S. m";,. 105
107. 108, ' 09. 109. " 0_11 V,II,nov," 91
et
br;a ges, Romao 240 14 1- 2
B" ", n 111
burgi 301-2
B,,,nl;"m 55
C" " ". G,;"J"'; "s 110 2' 1
196.197
caw8,,80
C,I,"-,. 18B
C, I" " ' 90. 19,
C"';"h.n., 69
C"ore v, II ey. b.,,, . on 19 1
,"I1 ,Op, 74. 292, 193
C,mp, o;, 105. 112 . l B9. 190 19 1 1. 193-
1
camp, . Rom. o I 35-80. 138. 242, :143
$p,""" 47
C.no,e. bat tle of , 16 . 149. I B3 B. 183 185
".
C. p. " " oo w.,,, o, ' 0 1_1. 101 104
e . pu' 105, 189, 190, 191, 19 3, IB4_0. 200
1nl93
CO'" >' 11 4. 11S
C, rt,goo" ' 08 Now C"'h,g.
e"th.ge. " at Tle " 144, oe" 'u<""" by $o, p,o
A. m;r;.nu' 101. deleat ' 0 $ 0"0 195. 191 8.
' 99- 10 1 f,," Poo,o wa, 14 3_5. ;"va<,on '>y
Pu""u, S" p'o 101- 5. n, ,,,, 271_ 2,
' ecooQue. t 0' S"",,, I 147, <0<0""
Pun'" war 147_205. , ;_ of 193 295. ' ;01/0
tact ;O' 179
CaM 149, 100
C"i';o""" , .""e of 190. 192
( ",.nde,67
C,,,'.O 116
( " ' ''99;0, "''''0 at 146
C.180l>r8O" 135, rae-a. 259. 259, 313
,"" pull' 179_80. 281 18 1 282. :183. 288
( "0 :t07
C,"d;ne Fo' .,. b<ltt<e of 73. 89
c, v, l,y. ( , mpM,.n 111, 11 2. ceu.c 125 116
oonMes eaui,.l"" n 4. G<eek 4S
M""",,oo 'an , "'" eom""n;on. Num," ;'"
148 149. 1' 9 50, 11 ' . 114. 135. 0 ", ,,
100. Rom" (C"",ar;.n) 214. Rom"
(;m""".I ) 114 . 234. 134 _9. 307. Rom.n
1"'0) 249. 254. 2578, 31:1. 31 3. Rom.n
lrepub' ,c, n) 119. 133, 134. 140, 214. 234
Sp,n,," 150; 151. ThessaH"'9
( elt, 08. 113_20. dot., '" R""", 90. 146.
213. ;ov.,; on by Ro"", ' 46. 125, jo;nio9
Haoor " " 168. ,evo" ' 0 Po v'II 103.
of Rome 89. ",so se e S' Wlb
A, noat d;
Ce"omanl113
Coo,"m.'"" Gn.." , f ulv;", 194 lBo
"' "'""00' ' 19 140. 120-1 221
Coo, 20
C.""o" 68
Ch,b<;" 30
( ha""""a. b"t1e of 60- 0 10.00
Ch,lc,d;c. 65
( h>I<,. 12
ch.",,,o" , 112 11:1. 235
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