CHAPTER-18

SEMICONDUCTOR MICROWAVE DEVICES

MICROWAVE TRANSISTORS 18.1 GENERAL: The capacitance between electrodes play an important part in determining high frequency response. Both and acquire reactive components, makes them complex and unusable. However, interelectrode capacitances in bipolar transistor depend also on the width of the depletion layers and hence bias-dependent. Electrode inductances also play. a part and hence the elelctrode leads must be shorter. The effect of transist time is very important. The holes/electron drift with velocities across a bipolar transistor. These velocities are determined by ion mobility, bias voltages and transistor construction. The majority carriers suffer an emitter delay time and then the injected carrier encounter the base transist time, governed by base thickness and impurity distribution. The collector depletion-layer transist time is governed mainly by limiting drift velocity of the carriers and the width of depletion layer. They take a finite time to cross the collector, line emitter. "fT" is the frequency at which the short-circuit current gain in common emitter configuration falls to unity. "fT" depends on both collector voltage and current. There is one more frequency fmax, which is higher than "fT" is given by fmax = (fT / 8rB'Cc) 1/2 rB = base resistance, Cc = collector capacitance. 18.2 Microwave bipolar transistors are constructed in planer form i.e, the emitter and base electrodes are diffused from the top surface of the silicon and the collector is made by way of the substrate. The input capacitance of transistor is directly proportional to the emitter area and hence in order to get good high-frequency amplification the area has to be kept small. But the current carrying capacity is proportional to emitter area and the base resistance must be kept small. Hence a long, narrow emitter is formed by a number of short emitter sites, which are then interconnected by means of a top metallization layer. 18.3 The three principal types of geometry used are: (1) Inter digitated type, where the emitter and base strips are interleaved. (2) In the overlay type, the emitter sites are interconnected by a metalization layer which overlays the base sites. (3) In the mesh type, a higher periphery- to-area ratio is achieved through use of smaller base sites, which are then interconnected by a metalization layer (as shown in figure 18.3(a)). The overlay and mesh types are more widely used for VHF-UHF power applications, while the inter digitated type is preferred for S,C band small signal applications. The most successful MW FET is one that uses a schottky - barrier gate i.e, a metalsemiconductor one. FETs have the advantage over bipolars, because they can use GaAs, which has a higher ion mobility than silicon. Hence they are able to work at higher frequencies with higher gain and lower noise. PACKAGING: Two typical method of packaging Microwave transistor chips are metal- ceramic stripline package and TO-72. can type. (as shown in figure 18.3(b)).

FET amplifiers in 71520 (Tx)--- S8803/S2740/S2741. In Harris Tx also FET amplifier is used for the option of increasing the power from 1W to 2W.

MICROWAVE DIODES 18.4 Varactor diode The varactor or variable capacitance diode is also a junction diode. When reverse biased, almost any semiconductor diode has a junction capacitance which varies with the applied back bias. If such a diode is manufactured so as to have suitable MW characteristics it is

then usually a varactor diode. Both silicon and GaAs are used, out of which GaAs is preferred for high frequencies where as silicon for high power. The diode conducts normally in the forward direction but the reverse current saturates at a relatively low voltage and then remains constant, at avalanche point. For varactor applications, the region of interest lies between the reverse saturation point, which gives the maximum junction capacitance and a point just above avalanche at which minimum diode capacitance is obtained. (as shown in figure).

18.5 The equivalent circuit for a 'silicon variator diode is shown' in the figure Rb - Base resistance, Ls - stray lead inductance, CS - stray fixed capacitance between cathode - anode. Figure of merit for the varactor diode is the resistive cut off frequency given by fc= 1/2RbCmin Values of fc over 250 GHz are available in silicon and 1000 GHz in GaAs. But operation in excess of fc/10 is not advisable, since resistance increases due to sum effect, leading to lower efficiency.

APPLICATION : Frequency multiplication: Since the capacitance of a varactor diode varies with the applied reverse bias, the diode acts as a non linear capacitance, (like a non linear resistance) and this property is used to produce frequency multiplications. Frequency multiplier using diode require no power other than the input signal to be multiplied and they are highly efficient (90%) compared to conventional multiplies (40%). In modulator panel also, the varactor capacitance effect is used for multiplication. 7D 15 MLT-50A MLT-51A MLT-52A - 1N 5150A - 1N 5153A - 1N 5157 (x4) (1S 1757) (x2), (1N 5155A) (x2) (x2)

DTL,

- Varactor is used as frequency variation of 4896 KHz carrier.

18.6

SCHOTTKY - BARRIER DIODE (Hot Carrier Diode). This diode uses a metal like gold, silver on one side of the junctions and doped silicon (usually n type) on the other side. Since there are no minority carriers, it is a unipolar device and no reverse current with back bias. The electrons flowing from the semiconductor to the metal have a higher energy level than electrons in the metal. Mostly silicon and GaAs are used. The main advantage of this type of diode for microwave , applications is that it responds very fast to changes in bias from forward to reverse since there is no delay associated with minority - carrier withdrawal done in p-n junctions. They are widely used as detectors and mixers like point-contact diodes. The equivalent circuit is given as shown in figure 18.6. Ls lead industance; Cc - case capacitance Rs - series lead resistance; Cj effective junctions capacitance; Rj - effective junctions resistance.

Both Rj and Cj are functions of the diode voltage and this property is being used for low level detection and mixing. Noise figures of about 5dB can be achieved easily, unlike point contact diodes.

18.7

STEP RECOVERY DIODE A step recovery diode, also known as snap-off varactor is a silicon or GaAs p-n junction diode of a construction similar to that of varactor diode. It is an epitaxial diffused junction diode, designed to store charge when it is conducting with a forward bias. , When reverse bias is applied the diode very briefly discharges this stored energy, in the form of a sharp pulse very rich in harmonics. The step recovery diode is so designed to have a doping profile as shown in the figure 18.7. When diode goes from forward to reverse bias, free electrons and holes temporarily move away from the junctions, resulting in reverse current. But due to the unusual doping profile, reverse current will immediately stop at some point in the reverse half cycle, that is why it is called as snap-off diode. This abrupt cutoff of current produces rich harmonies and any tuned circuit operating at. the wanted harmonics will result in an efficiency excess of IM. The snap-off time is around 0.15ns-0.5ns. It must be shorter than the reciprocal of the output frequency ie, T < 1/f. Comparison: Snap-off diode multiply by high factor with better efficiency than varactor diode. But varactor diodes can handle more power and are available upto 100GHz, compared to 20GHz for step recovery diode. Step recovery diode (S 3015A) is used for (X16) multplications in 7D15, receive direction in ITI radio equipment and for (X4) in 7D20 -Transmitters.

18.8

PIN DIODE The pin diode consists of a narrow layer of p-type semiconductor separated from an equally narrow layer of n-type material by a thicker region of intrinsic material.(as shown in the figure). At dc and low frequencies ic. about 100 MHz, the diode acts as a normal p-n junction diode. Under forward bias, a relatively large current flows. Under reverse bias, the intrinsic layer becomes part . of the depletion region, which reduces current flow to practically zero. But at Microwave frequencies the diode acts as a variable resistance, with a simplified equivalent circuit as shown in figure 3B.18.8. When the bias is varied on a pin diode, its microwave resistance changes from a typical 5-10kohms under negative bias and around 1 to 10 ohms when the bias is positive. The Pin diode can be inserted between a signal source and a load to provide controlled attenuations. When connected in parallel with waveguides, the diode presents a high impedance in the reverse-bias state and allows the signal to pass through to the load with little attenuation with forward bias the diode impedance in parallel with the line is low and most of the signal energy is reflected back along the line. Hence the diode acts as a switch. The PIN diode may also be used to switch reactive elements into a circuit producing a phase shift. It is used as a switch in 7D15 radio equipment to connect either main/standby to antenna. 7D15 - MA 47082.

18.9

GUNN DIODES

Gunn diode works on the principle of transferred electron effect, which is the phenomenon for generation of Microwave oscillations in bulk semiconductor materials. This effect is exhibited in gallium arsenide (GaAs) and indium phosphide. If a relatively small dc voltage is placed across a thin slice of GaAs, then negative resistance will be observed if the voltage gradient across the slice is in excess of about 3,300v/cm. The electron

velocity becomes high and hence the oscillations occur at Microwave frequencies. A cavity is the tuned circuit mostly used. Gunn effect occurs in only n-type bulk material and a domain is formed per cycle, which arrives at the positive end of the slice to excite oscillations in the associated tuned circuit.

NEGATIVE RESISTANCE: Gallium arsenide is one of a fairly small number of semiconductor materials in which an n-doped sample has an empty energy band higher in energy than the highest filled/partly filled band. The size of the forbidden gap between these two is small and this does not apply to Ge/Si. When 'a voltage is applied across a slice of GaAs which is doped so as to have excess electron (n-type), these electron flow as a current towards the positive end of the slice. The greater the potential the higher the velocity with which electrons move towards the positive end and hence greater current. The energy imparted to the electrons is so high due to the high voltage gradient that they get transferred to the higher empty energy band, where they slow down. This give rise to the name transferred electron effect by which electrons are transferred from the conduction band to a higher energy band in which they are less mobile and thus the current has reduced as a result of voltage rise.(as shown in figure 18.9). As the applied voltage rises past the threshold negative-resistance value, current falls and when the voltage across the slice becomes sufficient to remove electrons from the higher energy band, current will again increase with voltage. The V-1 characteristics is similar to that of a tunnel diode. The intrinsic frequency of the diode is determined by the drift velocity v and diode length L as f=v/L for GaAS, v=107 Cm/s, independent of applied voltage. The diode is normally mounted in a cavity resonator and the cavity is tuned for intrinsic frequency of the diode. GUNN DOMAINS: It is reasonable to expect that the density of doping material is not completely uniform throughout the sample of GaAs. Hence there will be a region, near the negative end, where the impurity concentration is less than the average. In such an area there are fewer free electrons than in other areas and so there will be a greater than average potential across it. Thus as the total voltage is increased, this region will be the first to have a voltage gradient across it large enough to induce transfer of electrons to the higher energy band. This region becomes a negative-resistance domain and the whole domain moves towards the positive end at 107 cm/s velocity. As soon as some electrons have been transferred to the less conductive energy band, fewer free electrons are left behind and the potential gradient across it increases. When this domain reaches the positive end, a pulse is received by the associated tank circuit and starts it into oscillations. With the usual applied voltage, once a domain forms, insufficient potential is left across the vest of the slice to permit another domain to form. When the domain in a short sample arrives at the anode, there is once again sufficient potential for formation of another domain. Thus one domain is

formed per RF cycle, which gives energy to the oscillation. A good equivalent circuit at X-band for the Gunn diode may be assumed as consisting of a negative resistance of 100 ohms in parallel with 0.6pF. It may require 9 volt dc- bias, 950 mA but consumes 8.5 Watts for producing 250 mw, leading to an efficiency of only 3 %. Gunn diode is employed as low and medium power oscillators in Microwave receivers and as frequency/modulated transmitter in CW Doppler radars. 18.10 IMPATT DIODE: Under certain reverse-bias condition, a p-n junction exhibits a negative ac: resistance, which can be used to sustain oscillations or for amplifications. The name impatt is derived from impact ionization, avalanching and transist time drift mechanisms involved. Negative resistance can be defined as that property of a device which causes the current through it to be 180 out of phase with the voltage across it. A combination of delay involved in generating avalanche current multiplicates, together with delay due to transist time through a drift space, provides the necessary 180 phase difference between applied voltage and the resulting current is impatt diode. An extremely high voltage gradient is applied to the IMPATT diode, of the order of 400 kV/cm, eventually resulting in a very high current. Such a high potential gradient, back-biasing the diode causes a flow of minority carriers across the junction. If it is now assumed that oscillation exist the effect of a positive swing of the RF voltage super imposed on high dc voltage is considered now. Electrons and hole velocity has now become so high that these carriers form additional holes and electrons by knocking them out of the crystal structure, by impact ionizatin. These additional carriers continue the process at the junction, which leads to an avalanche. If the original dc field was just at the threshold of allowing this situation to develop, this voltage will be exceeded during the whole of the RF positive cycle and the avalanche current multiplication will be taking place during this entire time. Since avalanche is not instantaneous, the current pulse maximum occurs at the instant when the RF voltage across the diode is zero and going negative, producing a 90 phase difference between the voltage and current. Because of the reverse bias, the current pulse flows to the cathode, at a drift velocity dependent on the presence of the high dc field. The thickness of the n+ region is so selected that the time taken for the current pulse to arrive at the cathode corresponds to a further 90 phase difference. Accordingly the' voltage and current in the IMPATT diode are 180 out of phase and a dynamic RF negative resistance has been proved to exist.(as shown in the figure. 18. 10B). IMPATT diodes are made of either silicon or GaAs. GaAs gives lower noise, higher efficiency and higher maximum operating frequencies. But silicon can give higher output powers than GaAs for commercial diodes. The width of the drift region is determined by d= 0.37 X T X 10 7 where T is the periodic time of microwave signal. The equivalent circuit can be shown as below ill figure 18.10C. The diode chip consists of a resistor RD in series with a capacitor Cj, which is the capacitance of the junctions at the breakdown voltage. RD consists of two components in series, Rs the series lead resistance and negative resistance representing impatt action. The overall value of RD is a negative number, which depends on both bias current and signal current. For a given bias current and load, oscillator operation will stabilize at tile point R D = RL, but for amplification, RL is always made higher than RD. It is used in 7D17 radio transmitter as an amplifier.