Chapter 6.

Architectural Acoustics
6.1 Introduction
The term Acoustics comes from Greek word akoustikos meaning "of or for
hearing, ready to hear" is the studies of sound, its production, propagation and its effects.
A scientist who works in the field of acoustics is an acoustician. The application of
acoustics in technology is called acoustical engineering.
6.2 Sound wave propagation
Sound can be defined as the mechanical vibrations due to any vibrating body that
persist through the medium like air, liquid or solids. For the propagation of these
mechanical vibrations, an elastic medium is required. Sound can not propagate in a
vacuum. When the body vibrates, sound waves persist in the medium by vibrating the
surrounding particles of the medium. Let us discuss the sound propagation in air. When
sound source starts to emit the sound waves, the surrounding air molecules will vibrate
with the same frequency as the source and the direction of vibration is the same as wave
propagation and hence called longitudinal waves. As a result, in certain regions of the air
medium, the air molecules displaced to nearby other regions. Consequently, such
condensation of molecules will increase air pressure certainly called compression. On the
other hand, in certain regions from where the molecules displaced, the air pressure will
reduce and is called rarefaction. In the medium, such compressions and rarefactions are
repeated and in this manner, sound waves propagate by means of propagation of pressure
variation as shown in the Fig. (6.1).
The velocity of sound waves is given by
B
v

(6.1)
where, B is the bulk modulus and

is the density of medium. The velocity of

propagation of a sound wave in air is about 344 m/s, while in water it is 1437 m/s. Sound
waves move out spherically from a point source of sound. Sound pressure is inversely
proportional to distance from the source. When an obstacle comes in sound wave
propagation path or if it undergoes change in medium, a portion of the sound wave is
reflected from the surface while the other continues to be propagated through the new
medium. Reflected sound may encounter the original sound wave and, depending on the
relative timing of the two, they may either reinforce or cancel one another. Sound waves
may also be diffracted, which means that, depending on the frequency of the sound, they
are able to wrap around small or medium-size objects. Sound waves are mechanical,
longitudinal waves.
6.2.1 Classification of Sound waves
Based on frequency, the sound waves are classified in following three ways:
(1) Infrasonic waves: The sound waves having the frequencies ranging from 1 Hz-16 Hz
is called infrasonic waves. Infrasonic waves sometimes generated naturally from
avalanches, earthquakes, volcanoes, waterfalls, calving of icebergs, aurora, lightning and
upper-atmospheric lightning. Few animals like Whales, elephants, hippopotamuses,
rhinoceros, giraffes, okapi and alligators are known to use infrasound to communicate
over distances up to hundreds of miles.
(2) Audible waves: The waves that can vibrate the eardrum of human being and hence a
person can sense the sound waves with the frequency range 20 Hz 20 kHz are called
audible sound waves. The audible sound further can be classified as (i) musical sound
and noise. Musical sound produces pleasing effect to our ear while the sound waves
producing unpleasant sensation to our ear are called noise. Waves produced by musical
instruments like sitar, violin etc are the examples of musical sound while the waves
produced by traffic, crackers are the examples of noise.
(3) Ultrasonic waves: The waves with frequency range beyond the audible limit of
humans i.e. waves having frequency above 20 kHz are called ultrasonic waves or
ultrasound.
6.3 Characteristics of sound waves
The sound is characterized by three terms: (i) pitch and (ii) timbre i.e. quality and
(iii) loudness.
(i) Pitch: The general meaning of pitch of sound is the frequency of sound. Higher the
frequency, higher the pitch. Thus, Pitch is the subjective sensation perceived when a tone
of given frequency is heard.
(ii)Timber: The timbre of sound is in fact the quality of sound that distinguishes different
types of sound production, such as voices or musical instruments. With the help of a
timber, listener can judge that two sounds having the same loudness and pitch are
dissimilar. Timbre is also known as tone quality or tone color in psychoacoustics.
(iii) Loudness: Loudness is a physiological sensation i.e. is a subjective
perception. It depends mainly on the sound pressure but since it is
based on the audible sensitivity of ear, the loudness of a particular
sound may be experienced by two persons differently. The loudness of
sound is determined by its intensity. The intensity I of a sound at any
surface is defined as the power transferred by the wave per unit area
of that surface i.e.
P
I
A

. If we take the point source of sound which

emit the sound waves equally in all directions, the waves are to be
considered as spherical sound waves and their intensity is given by,
2
4
P
I
r

.This means that the sound intensity for such waves reduces
with the square of the distance r from the source. The intensity of
faintest sound that we can listen is about 10
-16
W/cm
2
. The intensity I is
related to material density, frequency and displacement as
2 2
1
2
I vf D (6.2)
Above equation is obtained from following observations: the denser the medium,
the more intense the wave because a dense medium contains more mass into any volume
than a rarefied medium and hence the kinetic energy will be greater as the mass is
greater. The more the frequency f of wave, the more intense the wave is. Further, the
faster the wave travels, the more quickly it transmits energy. Moreover, the greater the
amplitude D, the more intense the wave.
6.4 The sound intensity measurement
The loudness of a sound is justified by the ear and is proportional to the logarithm
of intensity. Let I
1
and I
0
be the intensities of two sounds of a particular frequency and L
1
and L
0
are the corresponding measure of loudness. Then,
0 0
log L I
and
1 1
log L I
Therefore, the difference in the loudness of two sounds is given by
( ) ( )
1
1 0 1 0
0
log log log
I
L L L I I
I
_


,
(6.3)
Here, L is known as intensity level and is measured in bel in honors of Alexander
Graham Bell who was the inventor of telephone. This unit bel is very large and
practically the tenth part of bel i.e. decibel (dB) is used. So, above eq. (6.3) can be written
in terms of decibel as
1
0
10 log
I
L dB
I
_

,
(6.4)
As the minimum sound intensity that a human ear can detect is 10
-16
W/cm
2
, we can take
this level as the reference level and is known as threshold of audibility. The
corresponding intensity level is L=0 dB as we put I
1
=I
0
in eq. (6.4).
If I
1
=10 I
0
then on substituting this in eq. (6.4) we get,
0
10
0
10
10 log 10
I
L dB dB
I
_


,
Similarly, if I
1
=10 I
0
then on substituting this in eq. (6.4) we get,
( ) ( )
2 0
10 10 10
0
100
10 log 10log 10 20log 10 20
I
L dB dB dB dB
I
_


,
Thus, if the intensity I
1
increase10
n
times of the reference intensity I
0,
then the loudness
level L increased by 10(n) dB for finite value of n.
If I
1
=1.26 I
0
, then on substituting this in eq. (6.4) we get,
0
10
0
1.26
10 log 1
I
L dB dB
I
_


,
This means that a change in intensity by 26% increases the intensity level by 1 dB.
6.5 Weber Fechner law
Statement: As the strength of the stimulus (i.e. the sound intensity from the
source) is increased geometrically in regular steps, the intensity of a sensation by a
person varies by a series of equal increments arithmetically.
Explanation: From the above statement we can say that the relationship between
stimulus and perception is logarithmic. This can be understood as follows. The
logarithmic relationship means that if a stimulus varies geometrically (i.e. multiplied by a
fixed factor) then the corresponding perception by the person is altered in an arithmetic
progression (i.e. in additive constant amounts).
6.6 Reflection of Sound waves
Sound waves are reflected by the surface when the dimensions of the surface are
larger than the wavelength of sound. Reflection of sound plays an important role in
enclosed spaces. It is our general experience that when we walk in the narrow passages,
the reflection of sound from walls and ceilings make it louder. In the closed spaces, the
reflection of sound may lead to two important defects, namely, (1) echo and (2)
reverberation.
Source Intensity
(W/m
2
)
Level of
Intensity
(in dB)
No. of Times
greater than
the threshold
of audibility
(dB)
Audibility threshold 110
-12
0 10
0
Rustling Leaves 110
-11
10 10
1
Whisper 110
-10
20 10
2
Normal Conversation 110
-6
60 10
6
Busy Street Traffic 110
-5
70 10
7
Vacuum Cleaner 110
-4
80 10
8
Large Orchestra 110
-3
98 10
9.8
Walkman at Maximum Level 110
-2
100 10
10
Front Rows of Rock Concert 110
-1
110 10
11
Threshold of Pain 110
1
130 10
13
Military Jet Takeoff 110
2
140 10
14
Instant Perforation of Eardrum 110
4
160 10
16
Table 1. Relative intensity level of sounds from different sources
(1) Echo
If the time between the original sound and its reflection is long enough that both
sounds can be heard separately then this type of reflection is called echo of sound. Thus,
the sound is repeated in this case. Generally, it is observed that when the distance
between obstacle and the source is 17 meter or more then the echo may be heard clearly
and separately. Similarly, in the sense of time, when the sound reaches back to the ear
after 100 ms, echo can be heard separately.
(2) Reverberation
It is general experience that when a sound is produced in certain building, it
persists too long after its production. It reaches to a listener a number of times. Once it
reaches directly from the source and subsequently after reflection from the walls,
windows, ceiling and floor of the hall. The listener, therefore, receives series of identical
sounds of diminishing intensity. Thus, the prolonged reflection of sound from the walls,
floor and ceiling of a room is called reverberation. It is also defined as the persistence of
audible sound after the source has stopped to emit sound. The duration for which the
sound persists is called reverberation time. This time is measured from the instant source
stops emitting sound. The time of reverberation is also defined as the time taken by sound
to reduce to one millionth of its original intensity just before the source is cut off. It is
found that the time of reverberation depends upon the size of the hall and loudness of the
sound.
6.7 Absorption of sound waves
When a sound wave incidence on a surface, some part of its energy is absorbed,
some part will be transmitted and remaining part will be reflected. So, the absorption of
sound energy will take place. The coefficient of absorption of a material is defined as the
ratio of the sound energy absorbed by the surface to that of the total incident sound
energy on the surface, i.e.
Absorption coefficient (a) =
Sound energy absorbed by the surface
Total sound energy incident on the surface
(6.5)
As the energy of sound waves falling on an open window will be transmitted and
hence pass through it and hence absorbed, an open window behaves as a perfect absorber
of sound. Therefore, the standard of absorption is taken as the unit area of an open
window. Thus, the absorption coefficient of a material is defined as the rate of the sound
energy absorbed by a certain area of the surface to that of an open window of same. The
absorption coefficient is measured in Open Windows Unit (O.W.U.) or Sabine. The
following table contains the values of absorption coefficient of some common materials
for sound of medium pitch.
Material Absorption
co efficient
Plaster walls 0.01 - 0.03
6 mm cork sheet 0.1 - 0.2
Curtain in heavy folds 0.40-0.75
25 mm sprayed asbestos 0.6 0.7
Open Window 1.00
Table 2. The absorption co efficient of materials
6.8 Sabines formula for reverberation time
Prof. W.C.Sabine (1868-1919), did a systematic study of the problem of audibility
of an auditorium. He derived formula for reverberation times for empty and furnished
walls of different sizes. This derivation is to be called reverberation theory which
explains the nature of growth and decay of sound energy in a closed volume. The
assumptions of the theory are as follows: (i) the closed volume is vary large so that the
sound energy can be uniformly distributed in it. (ii) Sound absorption by air is neglected.
(iii) Standing wave formation is neglected (iv) Sound travels in all directions uniformly.
The various steps in the derivation are as follows:
(6.8.1) The absorption rate of sound energy
At first, let us calculate the rate at which the energy is incident upon the walls and
other surfaces and hence the rate at which it is being absorbed. Consider the reception of
sound energy by small element ds of a plan wall AB as shown in Fig. (6.2).
From the centre of surface element ds and with radii r and r + dr, let us draw two
circles such that they lie in the plane containing the normal to ds. Now consider the area
between the circles that lies between the angles and d + as shown by shaded region.
The arc of this area is r d and the radial length is dr. Hence its area is rd dr . If the
whole figure is rotated about the normal through an angle
d
, the distance traveled by
this area will be the circumferential distance
sin r d
. Here, radius of the rotating figure
being sin r . Therefore, Volume occupied by this area element is given by
( )
2
sin sin rd dr r d r d drd
(6.6)
Let E be the value of sound energy density i.e., energy per unit volume, then the energy
contained in the above volume is given by
2
sin Er d drd (6.7)

Fig. 6.2 Sound energy received by small element ds of wall AB.
This sound energy is traveling through the element equally in all directions. The
energy traveling per unit solid angle along any direction is given by
2
sin
4
Er d drd

(6.8)
But the solid angle subtended by ds at the element of volume is
2
cos ds
r

(6.9)
Therefore, the energy in the element of volume that is traveling to ds is given by
2
2
sin . cos
. sin cos
4 4
Er d dr d ds Eds
dr d d
r



(6.10)
In order to find out the value of the energy reaching ds in unit time, the above
expression should be integrated from r=0 to r = v
s
, where v
s
is velocity of sound.
Integrating equation (6.10) , first with respect to

, we get Energy received at ds is given

by
2
0
2 d

1
]

Q

(6.11)
Now integrating with respect to , we have energy received at ds
2
0
. .
. sin cos . sin cos
4 2
E ds E ds
dr d d dr d

2
0
2
0
2
0
2
0
.
. sin cos
2
.
. 2sin cos
4
.
. sin 2
4
.
. sin 2 1
4
E ds
dr d
E ds
dr d
E ds
dr d
E ds
dr d

1

1
]

Q
Now integrating again with respect to r whose value varies between 0 to v
s
, we get the
energy received per unit time at ds
0
4 4
s
v
s
Ev ds Eds
dr

(6.12)
If a be the absorption coefficient of the wall AB whose value ds is a part, then
Energy absorbed by ds per unit time is
1
. . .
4
s
Ev a ds
(6.13)
Hence, total absorption at all the surface of the wall where the sound is absorbed is

1
. .
4 4
s
s
Ev A
Ev ads

(6.14)
where
ads A

, the total absorption on all the surface on which the energy incidents.
(6.8.2) The growth and decay of sound energy in the hall
Let P be the power output i.e. ,rate of emission of energy from the source and
V is the total volume of the hall. Then the total energy in the room at the instant when
energy density is E will be E V. Therefore, the growth Rate of energy is given by
( )
d dE
EV V
dt dt
(6.15)
But at any instant, rate of growth of energy in space is given by the difference
between the rate of supply of energy from the source (P) and rate of absorptions by all
the surfaces
4
s
Ev A dE
V P
dt
(6.16)
From above eq. (6.16)
4
s
Ev A dE P
dt V V
or
4
s
Ev A dE P
dt V V
+ (6.17)
Now, let
4
s
v A
V
and therefore,
1 4
s
V v A

So, above eq. (6.17) can be written as
4
.
s
dE P
E
dt v A
+
(6.18)
Multiplaying both sides by
t
e

,we have

4
t t
s
dE P
E e e
dt v A


_
+

,

or
( )
4
t t
s
d P
Ee e
dt v A


(6.19)
Integrating the above equation , we get

4
t t
s
P
Ee e C
v A

+
(6.20)
where C is a constant of integration . Using the boundary conditions we can find the
value of C as at t= 0. E = 0. Applying this condition to eq. (6.20) ,we get
4
s
P
C
v A

(6.21)
Substituting this value in equation (6.20), we get
4 4
t t
s s
P P
Ee e
v A v A



( ) ( )
4
1 1
t t
m
s
P
E e E e
v A


(6.22)
Above eq.(6.22) shows the growth of energy with time t. The growth is along the
exponential curve shown in fig.(6.3) which shows that E, increase along the curve with
time till at
,
m
t E E
Fig. 6.3 Growth and Decay of sound wave energy
Decay of sound energy density
Let the source is made off when E has reached the maximum value of
m
E
, so that
P = 0 and t= 0 when max
4
s
P
E E
v A

From equation (6.20)
m
C E
t
m
Ee E

(Since P=0)
Therefore,

t
m
E E e

(6.23)
Eq. (6.23) shows the decay of the energy density with time after source stops. This decay
is shown by the exponential curve of Fig. (3)
(6.8.3)Derivation of Sabines formula for reverberation time
We know that the persistence of audible sound in the room after source is stopped
is called reverberation and time of reverberation T is defined as the time taken for the
energy density to fall to the maximum audible value from the initial value 10
6
times
higher . Hence to calculate T, we put E
m
/E=10
6
and t= T in equation (6.23).
max
t
E
e
E

or
6
10
t
e

or

6
10
t
e

,
Taking log, we have

6log 10 2.3026 6
e
T
Therefore,
2.3026 6
4
s
v A
T
V

Taking
344 /
s
v m s
, the reverberation time is given following expression,

4 2.3026 6
344
V
T
T

or
0.161 0.161 V V
T
A aS

(6.24)
This equation is in good agreement with the experimental values obtained by Sabine.
6.8.1 Eyrings Equation
If we consider the hall for which the entire sound energy incident on the surfaces
of the hall is totally absorbed i.e. a=1, then reverberation time T will not be there and
hence, for a=1, T=0. Such rooms are called dead rooms in acoustical physics. But,
according to Sabines formula, If a=1, then
0.161
V
T
S

. This is in contradiction to what

experimentally observed. This contradiction was solved by C.F.Eyring by giving the
following relation
( )
0.161
log 1
V
T
S a

1
]
(6.25)
In the limiting condition, above formula approaches to Sabines formula means
( )
0
lim log 1
a
a a

1
]
which gives the Sabines formula
0.161V
T
A

6.9 Factors affecting acoustics of buildings

Let us now discuss about the factors that are affecting the acoustical quality of a
hall.
6.9.1 Volume
The auditorium should be large enough so that the sound intensity can spread over
its entire volume. If the volume of hall is small then there will be possibility of irregular
sound distribution due to the generation of standing waves. It is suggested that the floor
area of the hall excluding stage should be 0.6 to 0.9 m
2
/ person. The average height
should be around 6 m for small halls and 7.5 m for large one.
6.9.2 Shape of the hall
The shape of the hall is very important parameter for the determination of
acoustical quality of the hall. It is recommended that the side walls and ceiling should be
carefully designed so that they can be utilized as reflecting surfaces. Necessary
arrangement should be there to avoid the reflections from the rear walls and floor. The
side walls should be arranged to have an angle not more than 100 with the curtain line.
The fan shaped plan provides favorable sound reflection from sides. The concave
surfaces should be avoided they will reflect sound.
6.9.3 Interior Surfaces
The rear walls should be covered with absorbents. In large halls, the false ceiling
should be covered with reflective materials and inclined in a proper way to help sound
reflections from the stage to reach the rear seats in the hall. The ceiling should not be in
the form of dome and its rear portion may be covered with sound absorbing materials.
Floor should be covered with the carpet which will help to reduce the noise from the
audience.
6.10 Acoustic Materials
Common building materials absorb sound only to a small extent. Therefore, to
meet the acoustical demands, materials with better sound absorption property are to be
incorporated in the halls. Such materials having more capacity to absorb the incident
sound are called absorbent or acoustical materials.
In general, the acoustical materials are soft and porous. They work on the
principle that the sound waves penetrate into the pores and the sound energy is converted
into other forms of energy .The absorbing capacity of the incident sound wave. The
acoustical materials can be broadly classified as follows:
(a) Porous materials
(b) Resonant panels
(c) Cavity resonators and
(d) Composite types.
(a) Porous Materials
Frictional losses contribute to absorption in porous materials. The sound waves
cause the air particles to vibrate down in the pores and resulting losses convert some
of the sound energy into heat energy. Porous materials are effective in the higher
frequencies. Curtains, wood wool, drilled fiber boards and acoustic plasters are
examples of porous acoustical materials.
(b) Resonant panels
Non-perforated panels of wood, pressed wood fibers, and plastic etc. comprise
diaphragm type of absorbers. They are mounted on a solid backing but are separated
from it by an air space. When sound waves impinge on the panel, the panel vibrates
and absorbs energy. This type of materials absorbs sound at lower frequencies in the
range from 50 to 200 Hz.
(c) Cavity resonators
Perforated panels constitute this category of materials. Each cavity acts as a
resonator and absorbs energy due to resonance of air column in the cavity. A
perforated panel is thus equivalent to a great number of acoustically resonant systems.
It can be designed to absorb sound of any frequency.
(d) Composite types
These absorbs combine the functions of all the above three types of materials.
They consist of a perforated panel fixed over an air space containing a porous absorbent.
6.11 Ultrasonic waves
The waves with frequency range beyond the audible limit of humans i.e. waves
having frequency above 20 kHz are called ultrasonic waves or ultrasound. Modern
ultrasonic generators can produce frequencies of as high as several GHz by transforming
alternating electric currents into mechanical oscillations.
6.12 Generation of Ultrasonic waves
There are mainly two important methods for generating ultrasonic waves, which
are based on two different phenomena, namely (1) magnetostriction and (2) piezoelectric
effect. Let us discuss them in detail.
6.12.1 Magnetostriction
When a rod of ferromagnetic material such as iron or nickel, is kept in magnetic
field parallel to its length, the rod suffers a change in its length. The change in length is
independent of the direction of the magnetic field and depends only on the magnitude of
the field and nature of the material. This phenomenon is known as magnetostriction. It
was discovered by Joule in 1847. Magnetostiction method is used to produce waves in
the frequency range of 20 kHz to 100 kHz .Nickel exhibits a large magnetostriction effect
compared to other ferromagnetic materials.
If the rod is kept in an alternating magnetic field of frequency f, the rod changes
in length once in each half cycle. It results in setting up vibrations in the rod whose
frequency is twice the magnetic field frequency. Normally, the amplitude of the
vibrations is small. But when the frequency of the alternating field is set equal to the
natural frequency of the rod, resonance occurs and the amplitude of the vibrations will be
considerably larger. Further, if the frequency of the alternating field lies in ultrasonic
range, an ultrasound of frequency 2f will be generated in the medium that is in contact
with the ends of the rod.
As the rod vibrates longitudinally, the frequency of oscillations is governed by the
relation
2
n Y
f
L
(6.26)
where L is the length of the rod , Y the Youngs modulus ,

the density of the rod and

n= 1,2,3, integers.
6.12.2 Piezoelectric Effect
When an ac voltage is applied across a piezoelectric crystal, such as a quartz
crystal, it vibrates at the frequency of the applied voltage. Vibrations of maximum
amplitude occur at the natural resonant frequency of the crystal, which is determined by
the physical dimensions and by the way the crystal is cut. The frequency of the vibrations
is given by
2
n Y
f
L

The piezoelectric method is used for the production of waves of frequencies

greater than 100 kHz. Piezoelectric crystals can oscillate in either of two modes; namely
fundamental and overtone. The fundamental frequency of a crystal is the lowest
frequency at which it is naturally resonant. Because a slab of crystal cannot be cut too
thin without fracturing, there is an upper limit on the fundamental frequency. For most
crystals, the upper limit is less than 20 MHz. For obtaining higher frequencies, the crystal
must be operated in the overtone mode. The overtone frequencies are usually but not
always odd multiples (3,5,7,..)of the fundamental . Thus, frequencies from about 150 kHz
to 500 MHz can be generated using quartz crystals.
6.13 Properties of Ultrasonic waves
(i) As the frequency is increased, the speed of propagation of ultrasonic
waves will increase.
(ii) They can travel over long distance as a highly directional beam and
without appreciable loss of energy.
(iii) They are highly energetic. Ultrasonic waves may have intensities up to 10
kW/m
2
.
(iv) They produce capitation effect in liquids.
(v) The wavelength of the waves is very small
(vi) The waves exhibit negligible diffraction effects.
6.14 Determination of wavelength and velocity
When ultrasonic waves propagate in a liquid medium, the alternating
compressions and rarefactions change the density of the medium. It leads to a periodic
variation of refractive index of the liquid. Such a liquid column subjected to ultrasonic
waves constitutes an acoustical grating. If monochromatic light is passed through the
liquid at right angles to the waves, the liquid causes the diffraction of light.
Fig. shows the experimental arrangement. Stationary ultrasonic waves are
produced in a liquid contained in a glass tube. The density and hence the refractive index
of the liquid is maximum at nodal points and minimum at antinodal points. Therefore, the
nodal areas act as opaque regions while antinodal areas act as transparent regions for
light. The liquid column thus resembles a ruled grating.
When the crystal is at rest, a single image of the slit is formed on the screen.
When the crystal is exited a diffraction pattern is produced. It consists of a central
maxima flanked by first order, second order maxima and minima etc
The grating period d equals
2
u

which is given by following terms

sin d m
Where,
u

is the wavelength of ultrasonic waves is the wavelength of monochromatic

light beam and m is the order of the maxima. Therefore,
2
sin
u
m

If and m are known and if is measured,

u

can be determined from the above

relation. The frequency f of the waves is known from the frequency of the oscillator. The
velocity of waves in the liquid can be found from the relation
u
f
The above method determining waves is known as acoustic diffraction method.
6.15 Applications
(1) SONAR: One of the first applications for ultrasonic waves was sonar (an acronym for
sound navigation ranging). It was employed on a large scale by the U.S. Navy during
World War II to detect enemy submarines. Sonar operates by bouncing a series of high
frequency, concentrated sound wave beams off a target and then recording the echo.
Because the speed of sound in water is known, it is an easy matter to calculate the
distance of the target.
(2) Cleaning: Perhaps the most common type of applications for ultrasonic waves is
cleaning. This includes the removal of grease, dirt, rust and paint from metal, ceramic,
glass and crystal surfaces of parts used in the electronic, automotive, aircraft, and
precision instruments industries. This cleaning is accomplished through the use of the
cavitation effect. Ultrasonic cleaning can be highly efficient for applications in which
extreme cleanliness is required. It is also well suited for cleaning parts with very complex
shapes. Cavitation is the rapid formation and collapse of tiny, gas and vapor overflowing
bubbles or cavities in a solution that is irradiated with ultrasound. The repeated collapsing
of these bubbles produces tiny shock waves that scrub the contaminants off of the
surfaces of the parts. A variety of cleaning solutions can be used, including water,
detergents and organic solvents.
(3) Measurement of Flow: Ultrasonic measuring of flowing liquids is based on the
Doppler effect. This type of measuring has the advantages that it has no effect on the
flow and can be used to monitor closed systems, such as a coolant in a nuclear power
plant or the flow of blood to the human heart.
(4) Machining: Ultrasonic machining has the advantage over conventional, mechanical
machining techniques that it is well suited for processing complex shapes because no
rotary tool is required. This technique can be used for very hard and highly abrasive
materials because the actual cutting is done by an abrasive material in a liquid carrier
rather than a bit or blade which is subject to abrasion. Among the materials that can be so
processed are soft steel, ceramics, glass and tungsten carbide.
(5) Soldering and Welding: Ultrasound can be used for both soldering and welding. In
the case off soldering, the cavitation produced by high intensity ultrasonic waves destroys
the oxide layer on aluminum, thus permitting parts to be joined with tin soldering
materials without the use of flux. In ultrasonic welding, pressure and heat generated by
the intense vibratory action of the material to be welded and an ultrasonic welding head
allows a thin sheet of metal to be joined to a much thicker section. Ultrasonic techniques
can likewise be used to weld pieces of similar or dissimilar plastic to each other.
(6) Agriculture: Ultrasound has been used to measure the thickness of fat layers on pigs
and cows as part of livestock management. It has also been used in improve the quality of
homogenized milk. A related application is pest control, including killing insects.
(7) Medical Applications: Ultrasound is used for imaging the human body and as a
means of heating tissues to treat various ailments. It is also used to sterilize surgical
instruments. Ultrasonic scanning has the big advantage over x-rays that there are
apparently no adverse health effects. For this reason, it has come into widespread use for
monitoring the condition of the fetus as it grows in the womb. The increasingly high
precision of such monitoring has made it possible to detect defects even at the very early
stages of pregnancy. Ultrasonic scanning has also become extremely useful for obtaining
information about the flow of blood through the heart and about the condition of the heart
valves. Other important diagnostic applications are the detection of kidney stones,
gallstones and tumors.