Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Torque Reading
Bridge Circuit
r T 2 GJ
T = torque transmitted through the member = principal strain (45 to axis) at radius r of the member J = polar moment of area of cross-section of the member G = shear modulus of the material
Tr = J
J = r 2 dA
A
vo
vref
k = Ss 4
r = T 2 GJ
vo
vref
krTS s = 8GJ
Mounting Configurations
2 1 2 1 2 1
R1
+ v o
R2
2 1
2 3
1 4
R3 B
R4
T Bridge Constant (k): Axial Loads Compensated: Bending Loads Compensated: 2 Yes Yes (a) 2 Yes Yes (b) T 4 Yes Yes (c) T
(Constant Voltage)
vref
Both axial and bending are compensated with the given configurations
Example 4.6
Consider a rigid load with inertia JL, and driven by a motor with a rigid rotor, which has inertia Jm. A torsion member of stiffness Ks is connected between the rotor and the load, as shown below, in order to measure the torque transmitted to the load. Determine the transfer function between the motor torque Tm and the twist angle of the torsion member. What is the torsional natural frequency n of the system? Discuss why the system bandwidth depends on n. Show that the bandwidth can be improved by increasing Ks, by decreasing Jm, or by decreasing JL. Mention some advantages and disadvantages of introducing a gearbox at the motor output.
Torsion Member Ks
Load
Motor Torque Tm m Jm
Ks(m - L)
Transmitted Torque
L JL
Ks(m - L) JL
For Motor:
&& + K ( ) Tm = J m m s m L
For Load:
&& K s ( m L ) = J L L
= m L
1 Tm 1 & & + Ks J +J = J L m m
1 Jm G (s) = 2 s + K s (1 J m + 1 J L ) G (s) =
(s)
Tm ( s )
1 1 n = K s J +J L m
BW can be increased by increasing Ks and by decreasing Jm and JL
When gears are added equivalent inertia increases and equivalent stiffness decreases resulting reduction in BW
Design Requirements
Strain capacity limit specified by the strain gage manufacturer is not exceeded
A specified upper limit on nonlinearity for the strain gage is not exceeded for linear operation
max
N p S1 50 S 2
Sensor sensitivity is acceptable in terms of the output signal level of the differential amplifier in the bridge circuit
v = K a v o
K a kS s rvref Tmax J 8G vo
r = L
Shear stress
Gr = L
Torsional K = T = GJ s L stiffness
L K G
Strain capacity of strain gage element Strain gage nonlinearity Sensor sensitivity Sensor stiffness (system bandwidth and gain)
>
K a kS s rvref Tmax 8G vo
L K G
Example 4.7
A joint of a direct-drive robotic arm is sketched below. Note that the rotor of the drive motor is an integral part of the driven link, without the use of gears or any other speed reducers. Also, the motor stator is an integral part of the drive link. A tachometer measures the joint speed, and a resolver measures the joint rotation. Gearing is used to improve the performance of the resolver. Neglecting mechanical loading from sensors and gearing, but including bearing friction, sketch the torque distribution along the joint axis. Suggest a location (or locations) for measuring the net torque transmitted to the driven link using a strain gage torque sensor.
Drive Link Motor Stator
Gearing Tachometer
Motor Rotor
Driven Link
Bearing Tf1 D
Driven Link TL C
Bearing Tf2 B A TI
Motor
Tm Torque
Tm Tm TI Tm TI Tf2 TL Tf1 = Tm TI Tf2 TL
Axial Location
For accurate results two strain gages at locations B and C should be installed A single sensor at B is also a good approximation since the bearing friction is small Motor torque Tm is also approximately equal to transmitted torque when inertia and friction are small
Example 4.8
Consider the design of a tubular torsion element. The following design specifications are given: max = 3, 000 ; N p = 5%; vo = 10 V; and for a system bandwidth of 50 Hz, K = 2.5x103 N.m/rad. A bridge with four active strain gages is used to measure torque in the torsion element. The following parameter values are provided: 1. For strain gages: Ss = S1 = 115, S2 = 3500 2. For the torsion element: Outer radius r = 2 cm, Shear modulus G = 3x1010 N/m2 Length L = 2 cm 3. For the bridge circuitry: vref = 20 V and Ka = 100 The maximum torque that is expected is Tmax = 10 N.m. Using these values, design a torsion element for the sensor. Compute the operating parameter limits for the designed sensor.
J=
2. For Np = 5
3. For vo = 10V
Strain Gage
Output
Slits
T
TR = FR L
FR = reaction force measured using load cell L = lever arm length.
Motor Housing (Stator)
L F
Frictionless Bearing
Lever Arm
FR
A drawback of reaction torque sensors is under acceleration and deceleration conditions the measured torque is not accurate Apply Newtons second law to the entire system
&& = T T J R L
TL = TR J&&
This can be compensated by measuring shaft acceleration
Reaction Torque TR Frictional Torque Tf1
Tf1
Motor Torque Tm
To Load
Tm = ki f ia
i f = field current ia = armature current k = torque constant.
Motor torque can be determined by measuring if or ia Magnetic torque is only an approximation of the transmitted torque. It includes the inertial torque and the frictional torque
Torque of an AC motor can also be determined by measuring motor current For an AC synchronous motor
i1 = ia sin t
2 i2 = ia sin t 3
Tm = 1.5ki f ia cos( t )
i1
Stator Phase 1
4 i3 = ia sin t 3
i2
i3
Stator Phase 3
Tactile Sensing
Typical Specifications for an Industrial Tactile Sensor Spatial resolution of about 2 mm Force resolution (sensitivity) of about 2 gm Force capacity (maximum touch force) of about 1 kg Response time of 5 ms or less Low hysteresis (low energy dissipation) Durability under harsh working conditions Robustness and insensitivity to change in environmental conditions (temperature, dust, humidity, vibration, etc.) Capability to detect and even predict slip
x
Tactile Forces Light (or Laser) Receiver Light (or Laser) Source Reflecting Surface Fixed Array of Optical Fiber Intensity at Receiver Beam Splitter 0 Position x Solid-State Camera Elastomeric Touch Pad Transparent Elastomeric Layer Light (or Laser) Source
Image Processor
Pin
Piezoresistive tactile sensors use an array of semiconductor strain gages mounted under the touch pad to measure forces Ultrasound tactile sensors are based on pulse echo ranging tactile surface is two membranes separated by an air gap
P = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4
Px = R2 a + R3a
Py = R4 a + R3a
y= a R3 + R4 P
x=
Contact Force p
a ( R2 + R3 ) P
)
p
4 3
a y
Sensing Plate 1
R4
R3
2
a
Strain Gage Load Cells
R1
R2
Gyroscopic Sensors
H2
Spinning Disk
Gimbal
H1
Torque Motor
Spin Axis
Angular Momentum H = J
Gimbal Axis
Applications: Angular orientation and speed of aircraft, ships, vehicles, and various mechanical devices
Optical Sensors
Laser, LCD, etc. Power Source Light Source Photodiode, Phototransistor, etc. Signal Processor Photodetector Receiving Fibers Transmitting Fibers
Target Object
Position Measurement
x (Measurand)
Laser Interferometer
Signal Processor
Light Sensor
Target Object
Part of the beam is reflected back to the sensor from Beam splitter A The other part travels an extra distance of 2x The phase shift between the two components
2x
Photosensor
Signal Processor
Ultrasound Sensors
Ultrasound Generator Transmitter/ Receiver Target Object
Signal Processor
Distance Reading
Ultrasound waves are pressure waves like sound waves but their frequency is higher than (40kHz, 75kHz, ~ 10MHz) audible waves Ultrasound waves can be generated by piezoelectric or magnetostrictive devices (ferromagnetic material deform when subject to a magnetic field).
vt x= 2
Pressure Sensors
pref
h p p
p pref = gh
px
Frictionless
p A F p
p=
F A
p
Measure angular displacement using an RVDT, resolver, or potentiometer
Flow Sensors
Qm = Q
Q = Av
h v
Motor
1 2 p + v = constant 2
r
Tube Bundle
Qm
Q = cd A
2 p
v = 2 gh
v
Float Motion Sensor
= r 2Qm
Displacement Sensor
v
Coriolis Torque Restrained by spring
Conic Cylinder
h Q
Qh
Coriolis Acceleration = 2v
Temperature Sensors
Thermocouple
Cold Junction (Reference) Metal A Metal B Conductor C Metal B Conductor C Hot Junction (Measured Temperature T)
Electron configuration due to heat transfer produces a voltage Seebeck Effect Two metals Fe and Constantan, Cu and Constantan, Chrome and Alumel Sensitivity 10mV/oC
R = R0 (1 + T )
Output Impedance
Low Moderate Low
Typical Resolution
0.1 mm 0.001 mm or less 2 min.
Accuracy
Sensitivity
Potentiometer LVDT Resolver Tachometer Eddy current proximity sensor Piezoelectric accelerometer Semiconductor strain gage Loadcell Laser Optical encoder
0.2 mm/s 0.001 mm 0.05% full scale 1 mm/s2 1-10 (1=10-6 unity strain) 0.01 N 1.0 m 10 bit
0.5% 0.5%
Acceleration (and velocity, etc.) Strain (displacement, acceleration, etc.) Force (10 - 1000 N) Displacement/ Shape Motion
25 kHz/
1Hz
High 200
0.1% 0.1%
0.05% 0.5%
bit
100 kHz/ DC