NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key CS1352 Principles of Compiler Design University Question Key Nov/Dec 2008 PART-A 1.

. What is a language processing system?

Source Program 1

Pre-Processor

Compiler

Assembler

Relocatable Machine Code Library, relocatable object files Executable

Loader Link/Editor

2. What are the error recovery actions in a lexical analyzer? Deleting an extraneous character, inserting a missing character, replacing an incorrect character by a correct character, transposing two adjacent characters. 3. Eliminate left recursion from the following grammar: S->(L) | a; L->L,S|S. The grammar is left recursive because of the production L->L,S. The rule is A->A | can be converted as A-> A and A-> A | . So, we can write L->L,S|S as L->SL and L->,SL | . So, the grammar after eliminating left recursion is S->(L) | a; L->SL and L->,SL | 4. What is CLR? CLR stands for canonical LR parser. It is a bottom up parsing technique. L stands for left to right scanning of the input and R stands for constricting a rightmost derivation in reverse. 5. Translate the expression a-(b+c) into three address code. t1:= b+c t2:=a-t1

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key 6. List out the three functions that are used to manipulate the list of labels in back patching. mklist(i) creates the new list. The index i is passed as an argument to this function where I is an index to the array of quadruple. merge_list(p1,p2) this function concatenates two lists pointed by p1 and p2. It returns the pointer to the concatenated list. backpatch(p,i) inserts i as target label for the statement pointed by pointer p. 7. What is constant folding? Deducing at compile time that the value of an expression is a constant and using the constant instead of the expression is called constant folding. 8. What is DAG? What are the applications of DAG in compiler? Directed acyclic graph (DAG) is a useful data structure for implementing transformations on basic blocks. A DAG for the basic block has the following information: A label for each node. For leaves, the label is an identifier and for interior nodes, an operator symbol. For each node, a possibly empty list of attached identifiers Applications: Determining the common sub-expressions. Determining which identifiers have their values used in the block Determining which statements of the block compute value outside the block. 9. What is a flow graph? A flow graph is a directed graph in which the flow control information is added to the basic blocks. The nodes in the flow graph are basic blocks the block whose leader is the first statement is called initial block. There is a directed edge from block B1 to block B2 if B2 immediately follows B1 in the some execution sequence. We can say that B1 is a predecessor of B2 and B2 is a successor of B1. 10. What are the criteria used for code-improving transformations? Must preserve the meaning of programs Must, on the average, speed up programs by a measurable amount Must be worth the effort. PART B 11. a. i. Discuss about the input buffering scheme in lexical analyzer. (6) Determining the next lexeme requires reading the input beyond the end of the lexeme. Buffer Pairs: (2) Concerns with efficiency issues Used with a look ahead on the input

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key It is a specialized buffering technique used to reduce the overhead required to process an input character. Buffer is divided into two N-character halves. Use two pointers. Used at times when the lexical analyzer needs to look ahead several characters beyond the lexeme for a pattern before a match is announced. One pointer called forward pointer, points to first character of the next lexeme found. The string of characters between two forms the lexeme. Increment procedure for forward pointer: (2) If forward at end of first half then reload second half forward+=1 else if forward at end of second half reload the first half move forward to beginning of first half else forward+=1 Sentinels: (2) It is the special character which cannot be a part of source program. It is used to reduce the two tests into one. e.g. eof Increment procedure for forward pointer using sentinels: forward+=1 if forward =eof then If forward at end of first half then reload second half forward+=1 else if forward at end of second half reload the first half move forward to beginning of first half else terminate lexical analysis ii. Construct a NFA using Thompsons construction algorithm for the regular expression (a|b)*abb(a|b)* and convert it into DFA. (10) NFA:

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key The start state of DFA is -closure (0) -closure (0) = {0, 1, 2, 4, 7} = A The input symbol alphabet is {a, b} -closure (move(A, a)) = -closure (move({0,1, 2, 4, 7}, a)) = -closure (3, 8) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8} = B DTrans [A, a] = B -closure (move(A, b)) = -closure (move({0,1, 2, 4, 7}, b)) = -closure (5) = {1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7} = C DTrans [A, b] = C -closure (move(B, a)) = -closure (move({1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8}, a)) = -closure (3, 8) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8} = B DTrans [B, a] = B -closure (move(B, b)) = -closure (move({1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8}, b)) = -closure (5, 9) = {1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9} = C DTrans [B, b] = D -closure (move(C, a)) = -closure (move({1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, a)) = -closure (3, 8) = B DTrans [C, a] = B -closure (move(C, b)) = -closure (move({1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}, b)) = -closure (5) = C DTrans [C, b] = C -closure (move(D, a)) = -closure (move({1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9}, a)) = -closure (3, 8) = B DTrans [D, a] = B -closure (move(D, b)) = -closure (move({1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9}, b)) = -closure (5, 10) = {1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 17} = E DTrans [D, b] = E -closure (move(E, a)) = -closure (move({1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 17}, a)) = -closure (3, 8, 13) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17} = F DTrans [E, a] = F -closure (move(E, b)) = -closure (move({1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 17}, b)) = -closure (5, 15) = {1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17} = G DTrans [E, b] = G -closure (move(F, a)) =-closure (3, 8, 13) = F DTrans [F, a] = F -closure (move(F, b)) =-closure (5, 9, 15) ={1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17}= H DTrans [F, b] = H -closure (move(G, a)) =-closure (3, 8, 13) = F DTrans [G, a] = F -closure (move(G, b)) =-closure (5, 15) = G DTrans [G, b] = G -closure (move(H, a)) =-closure (3, 8, 13) = F DTrans [H, a] = F -closure (move(H, b)) =-closure (5, 10, 15) ={1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17} = I

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key DTrans [H, b] = I -closure (move(I, a)) =-closure (3, 8, 13) = F DTrans [I, a] = F -closure (move(I, b)) =-closure (5, 15) = G DTrans [I, b] = G Transition table for DFA: State A B C D E F G H I* Input symbol a B B B B F F F F F b C D C E G H G I G

* * * *

Transition diagram for DFA:

(OR)

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key b. i. Illustrate the compilers internal representation of the changes in the source program, as translation progresses by considering the translation of the statement A:=B+C*50. (8) The process of compilation is very complex. So it comes out to be customary from the logical as well as implementation point of view to partition the compilation process into several phases. A phase is a logically cohesive operation that takes as input one representation of source program and produces as output another representation. (2) Source program is a stream of characters: E.g. a =b + c * 50 (4) lexical analysis: groups characters into non-separable units, called token, and generates token stream: id1 = id2 + id3 * const The information about the identifiers must be stored somewhere (symbol table). Syntax analysis: checks whether the token stream meets the grammatical specification of the language and generates the syntax tree. Semantic analysis: checks whether the program has a meaning (e.g. if a is a record and b and c are integers then the assignment does not make a sense).
:=

:=
id1 +

id1

+
id2 *

id2

*
id3 inttoreal 50

id3

50

Syntax analysis Semantic analysis Intermediate code generation, intermediate code is something that is both close to the final machine code and easy to manipulate (for optimization). One example is the three-address code: dst = op1 op op2 The three-address code for the assignment statement: temp1 = inttoreal(50); temp2 = id3 * temp1; temp3 = id2 + temp2; id1 = temp3 Code optimization: produces better/semantically equivalent code. temp1 = id3 * 50.0 id1 = id2 + temp1 Code generation: generates assembly MOVF id3, R2 MULF #50.0, R2 MOVF id2, R1 ADDF R2, R1 MOVF R1, id1

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key Symbol Table Creation / Maintenance Contains Info (storage, type, scope, args) on Each Meaningful Token, typically Identifiers Data Structure Created / Initialized During Lexical Analysis Utilized / Updated During Later Analysis & Synthesis Error Handling Detection of Different Errors Which Correspond to All Phases Each phase should know somehow to deal with error, so that compilation can proceed, to allow further errors to be detected
Source Program 1

Lexical Analyzer

Syntax Analyzer

3 Symbol-table Manager

Semantic Analyzer Error Handler

Intermediate Code Generator

Code Optimizer

Code Generator

Target Program

(2) without

ii. Construct a DFA directly from the regular expression (a|b)*abb constructing NFA. (8) Syntax tree for (a|b)*abb#:

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key

Calculation of firstpos, lastpos and nullable for nodes in syntax tree:

Calculation of followpos: Node 1 2 3 4 5 6 followpos {1, 2, 3} {1, 2, 3} {4} {5} {6} -

Now, the start state of DFA is firstpos of the root So, A= {1, 2, 3} Consider the input symbol a: Position 1 and 3 are for a in A So, let B = followpos(1) U followpos(3) = {1, 2, 3} U {4} = {1, 2, 3, 4} DTrans[A, a] = B Consider the input symbol b: Position 2 is for b in A So, let B = followpos(2) = {1, 2, 3} = A DTrans[A, b] = A -8http://engineerportal.blogspot.in/

NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key Now continue with B, Consider the input symbol a: Position 1 and 3 are for a in A So, followpos(1) U followpos(3) = {1, 2, 3} U {4} = {1, 2, 3, 4} = B DTrans[B, a] = B Consider the input symbol b: Position 2 and 4 are for b in B So, followpos(2) U followpos(4) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = C DTrans[B, b] = C Now continue with C, Consider the input symbol a: Position 1 and 3 are for a in A So, followpos(1) U followpos(3) = {1, 2, 3} U {4} = {1, 2, 3, 4} = B DTrans[C, a] = B Consider the input symbol b: Position 2 and 5 are for b in C So, followpos(2) U followpos(5) = {1, 2, 3, 6} = D DTrans[C, b] = D Now continue with D, Consider the input symbol a: Position 1 and 3 are for a in D So, followpos(1) U followpos(3) = {1, 2, 3} U {4} = {1, 2, 3, 4} = B DTrans[D, a] = B Consider the input symbol b: Position 2 is for b in D So, followpos(2) = {1, 2, 3} = A DTrans[D, b] = A The position associated with the end marker #, 6 is in D. So, D is the final state. DFA
a b a A B a b b C b D a

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key 12. a. i. Give the definitions for FIST(X) and FOLLOW (A) procedures used in construction of predictive parser. (4) First(X): (Apply the following rules until no more terminals or can be added to any first set). (2) If X is a terminal, then first(X) is {X} If X-> is a production, then add to First(X) If X is a nonterminal and X->Y1 Y2 .. Yk is a production, then place a in First(X) if for some I, a is in First(Yi) and is in all of First(Y1)First(Yi-1) Follow(X): (Apply the following rules until nothing can be added to any Follow set). (2) Place $ in Follow(S) If there is a production A->B, then everything in First() except for is place in Follow(B) If there is a production A->B, or a production A->B where First() contains , then everything in Follow(A) is in Follow(B) ii. What is an operator grammar? Draw the precedence graph for the following table: (12) a ( ) , $ a > > > ( < < = < ) > > > , < > > > $ < < Operator grammar: A grammar with the property that no production has on the right side or has two adjacent non terminals is called operator grammar. Construction of precedence graph and functions: Create symbols fa and ga for each a i.e. terminal Partition the created symbols into groups f( and g) are in same group because of = relation Create a directed graph: if fid > g+, place an edge from fid to g+

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There are no cycles and so precedence function exists i.e. f(a) is the length of the longest path beginning at the group of fa a ( ) , $ f 2 0 2 2 0 g 3 3 0 1 0 (OR) b. i. Write a note on error recovery in predictive parsing. (4) An error is detected during predictive parsing, when the terminal on the top of the stack does not match the next input symbol or when non terminal A is on the top of the stack, a is the next input symbol, and the parsing table entry M [A, a] is empty. Panic mode error recovery is based on the idea of skipping symbols on the input until a token in a selected set of synchronizing tokens appears. Heuristics for choosing synchronizing token set: Place all the symbols in Follow(A) into synchronizing set for A Add to the synchronizing set of a lower construct the symbol that begin higher constructs Place all the symbols in First(A) into synchronizing set for A If a non terminal can generate the empty string, then the production deriving can be used as default. If the terminal on top of stack does not match, just pop the terminal and issue a message saying that the terminal was inserted and continue parsing. Phrase-level recovery is implemented by filling in the blank entries in the predictive parsing table with pointers to error routines. These routines may insert, change or delete symbols on the input and issue appropriate error messages. ii. Write the LR parsing algorithm. Check whether the grammar is SLR (1) or not. Justify the answer with reasons. (12) S->L=R | R; L->*R | id; R->L LR parsing algorithm: set ip to point to the first symbol of w$ repeat let s be the state on the top of the stack and a the symbol pointed to by ip if action[s, a]=shift s then push a then s on top of the stack advance ip to the next input symbol else if action[s, a]=reduce A-> then pop 2*| | symbols off the stack let s be the state now on top of the stack push A then goto[s, A] on top of the stack output the production A-> else if action[s, a]=accept then return else error() end

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key Canonical collection of sets of LR (0) items for the above grammar is I0: S->.S L->.*R S->.L=R L->.id S->.R L->.*R I5: L->id. L->.id R->.L I6: S->L=.R R->.L I1: S->S. L->.*R L->.id I2: S->L.=R R->L. I7: L->*R. I3: S->R. I4: L->*.R R->.L I8: R->L. I9: S->L=R.

Consider the set of Items I2. The first item in this set makes action [2, =] be shift 6. Since Follow(R) has =, the second item sets action [2, =] to reduce R->L. Thus the entry action [2, =] is multiply defined. So it is not SLR (1) 13. a. i. What are the various data structure used for symbol table construction and explain any one in detail. (8) A compiler uses symbol table to keep track of scope and binding information about names. It is searched every time a name is encountered in the source text. Changes to the table occur if a new name or new information about existing name is discovered. (2) Data Structures: (2) Linear lists and hash tables Hash tables: (4) Open hashing is used. Open refers to the property that there need be no limit on the number of entries that can be made in the table. There are two parts to the data structure: A hash table consisting of a fixed array of m pointers to table entries Table entries organized into m separate linked lists, called buckets. To determine whether there is an entry for string s in the symbol table, apply a hash function h to s, such that h(s) returns an integer between 0 and m-1. If s is in the symbol table, then it is on the list numbered h(s). If s is not yet in the symbol table, it is entered by creating a record for s that is linked at the front of list numbered h(s). ii. Let A be a 10 * 20 array with low1 = low2 =1. Let w=4. Draw an annotated parse tree for the assignment statement X:=A[y,z]. Give the sequence of three address statement generated. (8) In case of a two-dimensional array in row major form (row-by-row), the relative address of A[i1,i2] can be calculated by the formula Base +((i1-low1)*n2+i2-low2)*

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key Where n2= high2-low2+1, low1 and low2 are the lower bounds on the values of i1 and i2, n2 is the number of values that i1 can take. Assuming that i1 and i2 are the only values that are not known at compile time, we can rewrite the above expression as ((i1*n2)+i2)* + (base-((low1*n2)+low2)* ) => ((i1*n2)+i2)* + constant, c Where c can be determined at compile time Here, n1=10, n2=20, i1=y, i2=z, =4, low1=low2=1 c=base-((low1*n2)+low2)* =base-((1*20)+1)*4 =base-84 Expression: (y*20+z)*4 3AC to access A[y,z] is t1:=y*20 t1:=t1+z t2:=4*t1 t3:=c //c=base 84 t4:=t3[t2] x:=t4 (OR) b. How would you generate the intermediate code for the flow of control statements? Explain with examples. Flow of control statements: S-> if E then S1 | if E then S1 else S2 | while E do S1 Semantic rules for if E then S1: E.true:= newlabel; E.false:=S.next; S1.next:=S.next; S.code:=E.code || gen(E.true :) || S1.code Semantic rules for if E then S1 else S2: E.true:= newlabel; E.false:=newlabel; S1.next:=S.next; S2.next:=S.next; S.code:=E.code || gen(E.true :) || S1.code || gen(goto S.next) || gen(E.false :) || S2.code Example: Statement: a and b and c if a were false, then we need not evaluate the rest of the expressions. So, we insert labels E.true and E.false in the appropriate places. if a goto E.true goto E.false E.true: if b goto E1.true goto E.false E1.true: if c goto E2.true goto E.false

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key E2.true : exp =1 E.false: exp =0 Semantic rules for while E do S1: S.begin:=newlabel E.true:= newlabel; E.false:=S.next; S1.next:=S.begin; S.code:=gen(S.begin:) || E.code || gen(E.true :) || S1.code || gen(goto S.begin) Example: while a<b do if c<d then x=y+z else x=y-z 3AC generated is L1: if a<b goto L2 goto Lnext L2: if c<d goto L3 goto L4 L3: t1:=y+z x:=t1 goto L1 L4: t4:=y-z x:=t2 goto L1 Lnext: 14. a. i. Explain peephole organization with example. (8) Peephole optimization is a simple and effective technique for locally improving target code. This technique is applied to improve the performance of the target program by examining the short sequence of target instructions and replacing these instructions by shorter or faster sequence, whenever is possible. Peep hole is a small, moving window on the target program. Local in nature Pattern driven Limited by the size of the window Characteristics of peephole optimization: Redundant instruction elimination Flow of control optimization Algebraic simplification Use of machine idioms Constant Folding x := 32 x := x + 32 becomes x := 64 Unreachable Code An unlabeled instruction immediately following an unconditional jump is removed.

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key goto L2 x := x + 1 unneeded Flow of control optimizations Unnecessary jumps are eliminated. goto L1 L1: goto L2 becomes goto L2 Algebraic Simplification x := x + 0 unneeded Dead code elimination x := 32 where x not used after statement y := x + y y := y + 32 Reduction in strength Replace expensive operations by equivalent cheaper ones x := x * 2 x := x + x

ii. Explain the DAG representation of the basic block with an example. (8) A DAG for a basic block is a directed acyclic graph in which (2) leaves are labeled by unique ids, either variable names or constants Interior nodes are operators Nodes are also given a sequence of ids for labels to store the computed values. It is useful for implementing transformations on basic blocks and shows how values computed by a statement are used in subsequent statements. e.g t1:=4*i t2:=a[t1] Dag is
[] t1 * a 4 i t2

Algorithm for the construction of DAG: (4) Input: A basic block Output: DAG for that basic block, having Label for each node where leaves are identifiers, interior nodes are operator symbol. for each node, a list of identifiers to hold computed values 1) x = y op z 2) x = op y 3) x = y Step 1: If node(y) is undefined, create a leaf labeled y and let node(y) be this node. In 1), if node(z) is undefined, create a leaf labeled z and let that leaf be node(z) Step 2: For 1), create node op with left child y and right child z, after checking for common sub expression For 2), check for a node op with a child y. If not create such node For 3), let n be node y.

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key Step 3: Delete x from the list of identifiers for node x. Append x to the list of attached identifiers for node n found in step 2 and set node x to n Applications of DAG: (2) Determining the common sub-expressions. Determining which identifiers have their values used in the block Determining which statements compute values that could be used outside the block Simplifying the list of quadruples by eliminating the common sub-expressions and not performing the assignment of the form x: = y unless and until it is a must. (OR) b. i. What is a three address code? What are its types? How is it implemented? (12) It is one of the intermediate representations. It is a sequence of statements of the form x:= y op z, where x, y, and z are names, constants or compiler-generated temporaries and op is an operator which can be arithmetic or a logical operator. E.g. x+y*z is translated as t1=y*z and t2=x+t1. (2) Reason for the term three-address code is that each statement usually contains three addresses, two for the operands and one for the result. (2) Common three address statements: (4) x:=y op z (assignment statements) x:= op y (assignment statements) x:=y (copy statements) goto L (unconditional jump) Conditional jumps like if x relop y goto L param x, call p,n and return y for procedure calls indexed assignments x:=y[i] and x[i]:= y address and pointer assignments x:=&y, x:=*y and *x:=y Implementation: (4) Quadruples Record with four fields, op, arg1, arg2 and result Triples Record with three fields, op, arg1, arg2 to avoid entering temporary names into symbol table. Here, refer the temporary value by the position of the statement that computes it. Indirect triples List the pointers to triples rather than listing the triples For a: = b* -c + b * -c Quadruples Op arg1 arg2 result (0) uminus c t1 (1) * b t1 t2 (2) uminus c t3 (3) * b t3 t4 (4) + t2 t4 t5 (5) := t5 a - 16 http://engineerportal.blogspot.in/

NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key

Triples (0) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Op uminus * uminus * + assign arg1 arg2 c b (0) c b (2) (1) (3) a (4)

Indirect Triples Op (14) uminus (15) * (16) uminus (17) * (18) + (19) assign

arg1 arg2 c b (14) c b (16) (15) (17) a (18)

(0) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5)

Statement (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19)

ii. Construct the DAG for the following basic block: D:=B*C; E:=A+B; B:=B*C; A:=E-D (4)

15. a. i. Explain about code generation algorithm. (8) It generates target code for a sequence of three address statements. (2) Assumptions: For each operator in three address statement, there is a corresponding target language operator. Computed results can be left in registers as long as possible. E.g. a=b+c: Add Rj,Ri where Ri has b and Rj has c and result in Ri. Cost=1; Add c, Ri where Ri has b and result in Ri. Cost=2; Mov c, Rj; Add Rj, Ri; Cost=3; Register descriptor: Keeps track of what is currently in each register Address descriptor: Keeps tracks of the location where the current value of the name can be found at run time. (2)

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key Code generation algorithm: For x= y op z (2) Invoke the function getreg to determine the location L, where the result of y op z should be stored (register or memory location) Check the address descriptor for y to determine y Generate the instruction op z, L where z is the current location of z If the current values of y and/or z have no next uses, alter register descriptor Getreg: (2) If y is in a register that holds the values of no other names and y is not live, return register of y for L If failed, return empty register If failed, if X has next use, find an occupied register and empty it If X is not used in the block, or suitable register is found, select memory location of x as L ii. Explain the various storage allocation strategies. (8) Static allocation lays out storage for all data objects during compile time Stack allocation manages the run-time storage as a stack Heap allocation allocates and deallocates storages as needed at runtime from heap area Static allocation: (2) Names are bound to storage at compile time No need for run-time support package When a procedure is activated, its names are bound to same storage location. Compiler must decide where activation records should go. Limitations: size must be known at compile time recursive procedures are restricted data structures cant be created dynamically Stack allocation: (3) Activation records are pushed and popped as activations begin and end. Locals are bound to fresh storage in each activation and deleted when the activation ends. Call sequence and return sequence caller and callee Dangling references Heap allocation: (3) Stack allocation cannot be used if either of the following is possible: 1. The values of local names must be retained when an activation ends 2. A called activation outlives the caller. Allocate pieces of memory for activation records, which can be deallocated in any order Maintain linked list of free blocks Fill a request for size s with a block of size s, where s is the smallest size greater than or equal to s Use heap manager, which takes care of defragmentation and garbage collection. (OR)

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NOV/DEC-'08/CS1352-Answer Key

b. Why do we need code optimization? Explain the principal sources of optimization. Code optimization is needed to make the code run faster or take less space or both. (2) Function preserving transformations: Common sub expression elimination Copy propagation Dead-code elimination Constant folding Common sub expression elimination: (3) E is called as a common sub expression if E was previously computed and the values of variables in E have not changed since the previous computation. Copy propagation: (2) Assignments of the form f:=g is called copy statements or copies in short. The idea here is use g for f wherever possible after the copy statement. Dead code elimination: (3) A variable is live at a point in the program if its value can be used subsequently. Otherwise dead. Deducing at compile time that the value of an expression is a constant and using the constant instead is called constant folding. Loop optimization: (6) Code motion: Moving code outside the loop Takes an expression that yields the same result independent of the number of times a loop is executed (a loop-invariant computation) and place the expression before the loop. Induction variable elimination Reduction in strength: Replacing an expensive operation by a cheaper one.

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