MaintenanceCircleTeam Page 1 April 6th 2009

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NEWSLETTER FOR MANUFACTURING COMMUNITY

Maintenance
Continuing our journey in understanding the interesting world of capacitors………

If we can recollect our biology classes during school days, science teachers had repeatedly taught us that human body
has millions of tiny cells that carry & supply energy for performing many tasks. These tiny “energy storing” cells are
called MITOCHONDRIA which will “discharge” energy when needed and gets “charged” by digestion of food. In a way,
our body itself has quite a lot of capacitors. More the work done, more will be the discharge of energy and sooner our
body gets tired, demanding “re-charging.” Indeed, our body itself is a large capacitor bank!!

Capacitors are used in applications ranging from a simple task of starting single phase fan to complex task of
transmitting & receiving radio signals in a satellite network. Though this newsletter definitely cannot cover the vastness
of all these usages, It will focus broadly on two simple & most common applications relevant to typical manufacturing
industry: Power Factor Correction & Motor Power Factor Improvement, used on typical 415V 50 / 60 Hz three phase AC
voltage system.

Application-1: Power Factor (PF) Correction System:

Before applying our thoughts on why’s & how’s of PF correction system, we must PF or Power Factor is an
first turn few pages of electrical technology to understand the basics of power electrical phenomenon which
factor and how it affects the performance of an electrical equipment. needs to be understood in
detail. We will dedicate an
Power factor (PF), in its broadest sense, is a measure of “electrical efficiency” of a article on PF soon. Here, we are
system or equipment using AC voltage. It shows how much of electrical energy interested in how a capacitor
“input” is actually converted into “useful” output. In electrical field, the “useful” influences the PF.
power is termed as “true power” measured in Kilo Watts (KW) and “input” or total
power is termed as “apparent power” measured in Kilo Volt Amperes (KVA). Theoretically, geometric (vector) difference
between these two powers is the total electrical loss, measured in Kilo Volt Ampere Reactive (KVAr). Refer to the
“electrical triangle” for understanding the relationship between these three parameters.

Sin  According to Pythagoras’ Theorem the formula for the right

KW angle electrical triangle,
KVAr

Cos  Tan 
Therefore,
KVA
Power Factor is defined as the ratio of “true
power” (KW) to “apparent power” (KVA).
From the fundamentals of trigonometry we know the
Hence, COSINE, SINE & TANGENT angles

From basics of geometry, we know that if  =

0°, then cos  = 1 and if  = 90°, then cos  = 0.

Hence, to maintain lower PF, the cos  MUST

GET CLOSER TO ZERO, which means KVAr  Is called “phi”, a Greek word
component must be as less as possible. for representing angles.
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Maintenance
In any AC system, the electromagnetic induction plays a
If KW is equal to KVA, then power factor is equal to
vital role in transmission of power between two mediums. one. This condition exists on resistive electric heaters,
For example, the step down transformer reduces voltage DC circuits and fully loaded large horsepower motors.
purely on this principle. Similarly, the rotor inside a 3-phase THIS IS CALLED UNITY POWER FACTOR CONDITION.
motor runs purely by the rotating magnetic field created by
voltage passing thru stator windings. If KW becomes greater than KVA, power factor will be
greater than one. For instance, this condition typically
As the AC voltage is continuously passing thru conducting occurs when motor acts like a generator due to
medium, apart from consuming energy for useful work, external mechanical inertia and when too many
there will be many hidden losses which “waste” additional capacitors are installed in an electrical system. THIS IS
amount of energy. Iron loss, copper loss, heat dissipation
CALLED LEADING POWER FACTOR CONDITION.
are some common causes of wasting energy. These losses
constitute “reactive” component of the total electrical
If KW is less than KVA, which is usually the case,
system. Higher these losses, higher will be KVAr, which
power factor will be less than one. This condition
eventually reduces the Power Factor. This reactive
normally exists in all electrical systems. THIS IS
component must be reduced as much as possible to
CALLED LAGGING POWER FACTOR CONDITION
increase power factor. We will explore more on these in
subsequent newsletter dedicated to PF.

Also, if AC equipments are started simultaneously, there will be a sudden dip in the voltage level due to increased
starting currents. This also applies to equipments which have sudden & cyclic loads, like welding machines, stamping
presses, bending machines and material transport conveyors. The cyclic or sudden increase in “load,” though for a short
duration, creates an increase in input energy level for that duration. This input energy requirement is called “demand”
and each manufacturing set-up will have a “maximum demand” as its limit. If more machines are installed, these
intermittent, but sure-shot sudden load requirements should be taken into consideration before deciding on the
“maximum demand.” This will result in overdesigning of an electrical system.

By installing suitably rated

capacitors in proper locations, both
scenarios described above can be
ILLUSTRATION almost eliminated. One, reduce the
reactive component of total power
and increase the power factor.
Second, reduce the “maximum
demand” required for a set-up
which subsequently reduces fixes
costs & total electricity bill.

Based on historical data & technical

Reactive component supplied by Reactive component supported by
capacitor, reducing total demand capabilities of various components,
incoming electricity
state electricity boards require a
typical manufacturing unit – with
HT or with LT connection – to maintain PF greater than or equal to 0.92. In fact, if the unit maintains a constant power
factor beyond 0.95, they will even get certain discount on their electricity bill. For our illustration purpose in this
newsletter, let us focus on a PF of 0.95.
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As we know by now, the PF can be increased by reducing KVAr or reactive component in an AC system. So, the
capacitors used for PF compensation are also rated in KVAr only. The actual capacitance in micro farads can also be
measured, but we will discuss this point little later. There are two methods of calculating capacitor rating for power
factor compensation.

Method-1: Historical Data Analysis

In this method, the PF value recorded for past four to six months will be noted from electricity bill. A correction factor is
applied and capacitor with almost suitable rating can be selected. This method is very simple & quick to implement. It
will be useful for calculating PF correction capacitor for ENTIRE electrical system. Remember, each installation will have
a “restricted contract demand” which should be exceeded. Let us look at an example & calculate capacitor rating.

Historical Bill Details

Contract Recorded Recorded Active Power,
Month Target PF, lag
Demand, KVA Demand, KVA average PF, KW, Average
January 100 0.8 80
February 60 0.6 36
100 0.95
March 120 0.8 96
April 100 0.7 70

There is a fluctuation in the demand usage changing PF every month. For

calculation purpose, let us target 0.6 as the actual power factor that needs
to be corrected to achieve 0.95.
With a contract demand of 100 KVA and PF of 0.6, true power, KW = KVA x
PF = 100 x 0.6 = 60 Kilo Watts
A group of capacitors connected together to an
electrical load system is called “capacitor bank.”
Interestingly, like a bank where we “deposit” &
“withdraw” money, in capacitor bank, we
“charge” (deposit) & “discharge” (withdraw)
electrical energy!!

So, required capacitor rating in KVAr = KW x Correction Factor (from table) = 60 x 1.005 = 60.3 KVAr  61 KVAr
61 KVAr 3-phase capacitor will improve the power factor from 0.6 to 0.95

Table for selecting correction factor is attached in the end for easy reference and easy printability.
This method of calculation can be used as a first step of getting correction capacitors. Depending on how much
improvement PF shows in subsequent month(s), further analysis can be done to add or remove capacitors. As a thumb
rule, this method is applied for set-ups with contract demand up to 250 KVA. But, for most practical applications, this
method can be a pretty good starting point.

Method-2: PF AUDIT
In manufacturing set-ups where the electrical equipments are a
combination of conventional motors, solid state electronic
equipments, welding machines and different type of loads
(stable, fluctuating, cyclic) it is quite difficult to measure the
capacitor rating required for PF correction using historical data
method. A thorough analysis of either each equipment or the
load center (a group of machines, usually connected to one
intermediate distribution panel) for measuring current PF
should be carried out.
The “trivector” electronic meter which continuously
monitors PF does NOT measure & record it instantly. It
will derive an average value from the 30 day reading for
billing purpose. For example, if the PF was 0.6 for 28
days and 0.95 for 2 days, the average PF recorded for
billing purpose will be LESS than 0.95, but a little more
than 0.6 and hence penalty will be imposed.
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The analysis will be done using sophisticated meters, usually by an external vendor. Based on the values derived from
the audit, lot of inferences can be drawn, some of which are listed below.
Separation & re-grouping of loads based on their type, load cycles and frequency of operation
Capacitors need to be installed at multiple locations
Difficulties in improving PF due to equipment type
Re-routing of distribution cables to reduce amount of capacitor needed
Installing harmonic filters & surge suppressors
Relocation of certain equipments to improve power factor

We will understand more about these methodologies in newsletter on PF

If capacitors are installed at ONE location to improve power factor, it is known as BULK CORRECTION. Instead, if capacitors are distributed
closer to electrical loads for various reasons, it is known as DISTRIBUTED CORRECTION. Also, when the entire rated capacitor is switched on
independent of load condition, it is known as STATIC CORRECTION. On contrary, if capacitors are switched on & off responding to load, which
is done using an APFC control system, it is known as DYNAMIC CORRECTION. Interesting details in the newsletter on PF

Understanding a standard 3-phase 415 V AC capacitor

The phase capacitors used for 415V system are usually connected in delta mode with three terminals for three phase – R
Y B – connections. The capacitors are enclosed inside a round or rectangular metal enclosure for safety against physical
damages and fire. Let us understand few specifications – printed on nameplate – which are essential to understand,
maintain & troubleshoot a capacitor bank.

1. KVAr: The rating of capacitor – Remember: The KVAr increases with increase in input voltage. Hence it is
essential to select KVAr rating for lower voltage. For instance, if a 5 KVAr capacitor rated for 415V AC is selected,
its capacitance will increase to 5.62 KVAr at 440V AC

2. AC Voltage: It represents typical voltage at which capacitor can deliver rated capacitance. If voltage fluctuates,
capacitance also changes. Normal allowable tolerance is ±1%

3. Insulation Strength (or Dielectric Strength): The voltage at which dielectric material breaks down. The minimum
value will be usually 22,000 Volts AC

4. In, the current rating of capacitor. For all practical purposes, a thumb rule can be followed: A good (or new)
capacitor will draw 1.33 amps per KVAr on each phase at 440V. And, at 415V, it draws 1.39 amps per KVAr.

5. Type of conducting & dielectric material – With technological advancement in the field of plastics & metal,
most power capacitors are built with MPP abbreviation for METALLIZED (the conductor part, usually aluminum
or copper sheet with less than 30 microns thickness) POLYPROPYLENE (the dielectric material, usually less than
5 microns thickness)

6. Type of healing of dielectric material – SH or NH – SH type means Self Healing dielectric material is used in the
capacitors. When SH type is used, the capacitance gradually decreases over a period of time. The dielectric
material ruptures and “heals” itself in that area. It does not SHORT the entire capacitor. Power factor
compensation systems use SH type. With SH type, it is essential to check some parameters regularly at fixed
interval. Self-healing types are used in locations where voltage levels fluctuate more & also on specific
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applications. On contrary, in the NH type, the dielectric material does not heal and capacitor will be short
instantly. NH type capacitors can be used in distributed type of compensation method, including three phase
induction motors. They are also widely used as backup capacitors on drives, to make the fault evident instantly
warranting replacement.

7. Power loss – every item that stores energy will have its own internal losses. We discussed about dielectric losses
in previous newsletter on capacitors. This value will also be printed on capacitor shell. Normally, the internal loss
is around 0.3 to 0.8 watts per KVAr. So, on a 50 KVAr capacitor, the loss will be between 1.5 to 4 watts. For all
practical purposes, power loss value can be ignored, since it is not very high.

8. Working temperature – Capacitors generate heat during charging & discharging process. Hence good ventilation
is necessary for satisfactory operation. The working range of 3-phase power capacitor is between -30° and +50°
C. Provision for sufficient natural or forced ventilation must be given in design stage itself. Do not tuck the
capacitor in some corner of a room or panel. Capacitors need sufficient breathing space.

9. Filling material – About a decade back, POLYCHRONATED BIPHENYL – PCB – was used as filler (similar to the
transformer oil) for increasing dielectric strength and heat dissipation properties. But due to health &
environmental regulations, majority of power capacitors manufactured today are “dry” type without any PCB.
“NON-PCB” or “PCB” type will be printed on the capacitor shell. Today, all available power capacitors are dry
type, though there are a few exceptions.

10. In-rush Current – When a fully discharged capacitor is put into circuit first time, there will be a sudden flow of
current (similar to starting currents of standard motor). Based on the rating, each capacitor has limited in-rush
current withstanding ability. To prevent accelerated damage of dielectric material due to repeated inrush current
levels, capacitors must not be switched ON & OFF too frequently.

11. Discharge Resistor – When capacitors are pulled out of circuit, it will retain the electrical charge for longer
duration based on its design. This electrical charge must be discharged before attempting any work on the
capacitors. Discharge resistors should be fitted to automatically discharge capacitors whenever it is out of
circuit. These resistors can be fitted “internally” or “externally.” The discharge resistor value depends on
capacitor rating. For 415 volt system, THE CAPACITOR VOLTAGE MUST DROP CLOSE TO ZERO VOLTS WITHIN 40
SECONDS. IF THE TIME IS MORE, DISCHARGE RESISTOR
MUST BE REPLACED as early as possible.
Three Phase
Terminals
12. Earthing – The outer shell of capacitor – whether the shell
is rectangular or round – must be grounded properly to
avoid electric hazards.

The power capacitors are available in cylindrical or rectangular

type. Each has its own merits & demerits. And also each has its one
unique application areas. Larger rating power capacitors (beyond
75 KVAr) are usually made in rectangular metal enclosures.

Having understood the nitty-gritty of power capacitors, now let us

concentrate on two more aspects: (i) Maintenance aspects to
improve capacitor(s)’ life (ii) Measuring various parameters
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Maintenance aspects:
1. Select capacitors with:
a. Correct KVAr rating
b. Type of dielectric material – NH or SH
c. Voltage Rating
d. AC frequency -
2. Install capacitors complying these conditions:
a. Surrounding area is well ventilated
b. Cable of correct size is used – do not squeeze too many cables into the terminal
c. The capacitor is held firmly in place
d. Surrounding area is free of moisture, excessive vibrations, heat & sunlight
e. All cables – if a capacitor bank is installed – are properly identified with proper routing
f. Take into consideration the distances between various equipments before installing
3. Maintain the capacitors:
a. Regularly check for any external damages to capacitor & its terminals
b. Measure voltage, current, capacitance regularly (follow second aspect to understand)
c. Do not engage & disengage capacitors frequently

Measuring various parameters:

Four important parameters – which should also be measured regularly for monitoring & maintenance – should be within
the tolerance limits for efficient functioning & ensuring long life of capacitors. Also, remember that if capacitors are used
in PF compensation system, measuring / monitoring parameters is very critical to take preventive measures & avoid PF
penalty. Let us also understand simple formulae that will help in making day to day calculations.

1. Voltage
a. AC input voltage: It is important to note that the
capacitance increases with increase in voltage up to limit.
The voltage must be measured across terminals using a
“TRUE RMS” digital multimeter or a conventional analog
meter. The reading should be taken after multimeter
stabilizes at a particular reading. Do not hurry.

b. Discharge voltage: When the capacitor is disconnected

from electrical system, it should discharge the voltage,
usually within 40 seconds. Measure using same meter to
judge the condition of discharge resistor.

2. Current
a. The clamp-on meter (tong-tester) can be quickly used to
measure the current. The current must be measured
when connecting a fully discharged capacitor to the
electrical system. In a bank type system, an ammeter will Measure voltage after few
be fitted on panel with CT (Current Transformer) seconds of placing the probe to
connected, BUT it may NOT measure the current of avoid recording peak readings
individual capacitors. It is imperative to measure the
current of each capacitor regularly. In a 415 Volt system, as a thumb rule, a fully discharged capacitor
draws 1.39 Ampere per KVAr and in a 440 Volt system, it is 1.33 Ampere per KVAr.
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3. Capacitance
a. Although capacitors are designated by KVAr, its actual value is measured in micro farads. LCR meter
(Inductance-Capacitance-Resistance) or special Capacitance meter should be used to measure the
capacitance. The capacitor must be discharged completely before measuring. It is suggested to use a
suitable resistor for “externally” discharging the capacitor or wait till it discharges itself.

b. Whether it is SH or NH type, a log-book (well, MS excel sheet or equivalent spread sheet in today’s
technological world) keeping a neat record of all values, especially capacitance, will go a long way in
preventing damage control exercise later.

4. Temperature
a. If a capacitor bank is installed, it is essential to monitor the temperature at a specific location using
external measuring device. A thermocouple-temperature display system can be installed if capacitor
bank is installed warm / hot locations.

Capacitance value at different 440V & Capacitance values in micro farads – TABLE 1

Capacitance value at 415V & Capacitance values in micro farads – TABLE 2

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Formula-1
Since the capacitance value changes with voltage & frequency within certain limits, a simple formula can be used to
calculate the actual value. Let us understand with two examples.

Name plate details: 15 KVAr / 440V AC / 50Hz

Measured voltage: 425V AC
Measured frequency: 48.5 Hz

, where

Fm = Measured Frequency = 48.5 Hz in this example

Fr = Rated Frequency = 50 Hz
Vm = Measured Voltage = 425V AC in this example
Vr = Rated Voltage = 440V AC
Rated KVAr = 15 in this example

Substituting the values,

= 13.57 KVAr

Name plate details: 15 KVAr / 415V AC / 50Hz

Measured voltage: 425V AC
Measured frequency: 48.5 Hz

Substituting the values,

= 15.26 KVAr

Formula-2
The thumb rule of 1.33 & 1.39 amps per KVAr for 440 & 415 V capacitors give fairly accurate current value, the
theoretical current can be calculated using following formula. The clamp-on meter / tong tester should measure actual
current and the capacitor condition can be judged by looking at the deviation value.

I = KVAr x 103 / ( x VL), VL is the line voltage.

Example: For a 15 KVAr capacitor rated to 440V AC, I = 15 x 103 / ( x 440) = 19.68 Amperes
For a 15 KVAr capacitor rated to 415V AC, I = 15 x 103 / ( x 415) = 20.97 Amperes

Formula-3
To calculate the capacitance of a capacitor if voltage, frequency & KVAr ratings are known and the micro farad is the unit
commonly used.

C (µF) = KVAr x 109 / (4 x π x f x VL2), where VL = Line Voltage, f = frequency

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For a 15 KVAr capacitor rated for 50 Hz, 440V AC, capacitance will be

C (µF) = 15 x 109 / (4 x π x 50 x 440 x 440) = 123.31µF

At 415V the capacitance will be equal to 15 x 109 / (4 x π x 50 x 415 x 415) = 138.62µF

As discussed before, LCR or Capacitance meter can be used for measuring the value as well. A log-book, preferably with
following parameters must be maintained and readings be taken either every Monday morning or on fortnight basis.

FIRST OR INSTALLATION DATA

Installation Date Capacitor Rating Capacitor Current
Rated Voltage Rated Frequency Discharge Time,

REGULAR OR MONITORING DATA

Measured
Measured Measured Measured
Date Discharge Time, Temperature
Voltage Current Frequency
Seconds

This log book serves as a quick guide

to understand any deviation.
CAPACITOR RATING

VOLTAGE READING

Alternatively, to analyze the trend

quickly, pre-set charts can be printed
on A4 sheets for each or two set of
parameters and reading be marked at
the agreed intervals.
DATES / WEEK NUMBER / DAY DATES / WEEK NUMBER / DAY
CURRENT READING

CAPACITANCE

DATES / WEEK NUMBER / DAY DATES / WEEK NUMBER / DAY

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Maintenance
POWER FACTOR CORRECTION FACTOR TABLE

Target PF
Present PF
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Maintenance
Application-2: Motor Power Factor improvement:
If a 3-phase induction motor is not part of the centralized PF correction system or if there are few motors located far
away from each other, it is essential to fix individual capacitors for motors. If the motor runs on a star-delta system, the
capacitor must be fitted in delta side. The thumb rule is 1/3rd or 33.33% of HP rating is capacitor required in KVAr. For
example, on a 10 HP motor, a 10 x (1/3) = 3.33 KVAr capacitor can be fitted for PF improvement.

Also remember, DO NOT FIX ANY CAPACITORS FOR MOTORS WHICH HAVE soft starters, speed drives or other type of
electronic switching system is installed for controlling motor.
And, now time to see whether this newsletter made any sense to you. Try solving this simple Techuzzle on the aspects
elaborated in previous ten pages.

Happy Solving…….
1 2

EclipseCrossword.com
Across

3. Reduce this component to improve power factor

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NEWSLETTER FOR MANUFACTURING COMMUNITY

Maintenance
6. Increase this also increases capacitance value
7. Total power is a sum of this & true power

Down

1. Normal condition, power factor is less than unity

2. Condition wherein PF is more than unity
3. This is very essential to discharge a capacitor
4. This meter measures power factor and many parameters
5. This contract......should never be exceeded to avoid penalty