CONTENTS

NO. 5.1 5.2 5.3

TITLE Soap and Detergent Food additives Medicine

PAGE

5.1 : Soap and Detergent

Soap

Salt that are formed by neutralization between a fatty acid and an alkali. One example of soap issodium palmitate, CH(CH)COONa. It is formed when palmatic acid is neutralized by sodium hydroxide, NaOH.

CH(CH)COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) CH(CH)COONa(aq) +HO(l)

Detergent

Salt that are formed by neutralizing analkyl hydrogen sulphatewith analkali One example of detergent issodium lauryl sulphate Detergents may contain many other substances in addition to thesubstances that does the cleaning and also to make it more effective. These substances are called additives

Biological enzymes are catalyst that increase the detergency or cleaning power of a detergent. Whitening agents include bleaches such as sodium perborate. They release chlorine and oxygen that remove stains and make clothes become whiter and cleaner.

Preparation of soap by saponification

1. Soap is a cleansing agents produced by the reaction between sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide with animal fats or vegetable oils. This reaction is known as saponification. 2. Fats and vegetable oils are large, naturally occurring ester molecules. When fats or oils are boiled with concentrated alkalis, such as sodium hydroxide, saponification occurs and the ester molecules are broken down into soap and glycerol. Fats or vegetable oils + concentrated alkalis soap +glycerol

3. Saponification is the alkaline hydrolysis of ester using alkali solutions. From the chemist aspect, soaps are sodium salts or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids (with 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule). 4. Some examples of soaps are shown below.

a) Sodium palmitate, C15H31COONa b) Sodium oleate, C17H33COONa c) Sodium stearate, C17H35COONa Additives such as perfume, colouring matter and sometimes antiseptics are added to soaps to enhance their marketability.

5. Glyceryl tristearates are naturally occurring esters commonly found in animal fats and vegetable oils. When the ester is boiled with concentrated sodium hydroxide solution, saponification (alkaline hydrolysis) occurs and mixture of sodium stearate (soap) and glycerol is obtained. 6. The soap produced can be precipitated by adding common salt (sodium chloride) to the reaction mixture. i. The sodium chloride added reduced the solubility of soap in water. As a result, precipitation of soap occurs. ii. The properties of soap depend on : 7. The type of alkali used for saponification 8. The type of animal fats or vegetable oils used. 9. Soaps produced from sodium hydroxide are hard, whereas soaps produced from potassium hydroxide are soft.

10. Animal fats (tallow) from cows and vegetable oils (such as palm oil or olive oil) ae used for making soap.

Preparation of detergents

1. The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with chain lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps. Step 1: Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid. Step 2: Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution.

2. An example of a long chain alcohol is didecan 1 ol, CH3(CH2)10CH2OH. 3. The detergent prepared from dodecan -1 ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate (IUPAC name) or sodium lauryl sulphate (common name). CH3(CH2)10CH2O-SO3Na+. 4. Sodikum alkylbenzene sulphinates, were first used in 1940s. It can be prepared in three steps. The starting materials for making this detergents in a long chain alkene, RCH = CH, obtained from the cracking of petroleum. 1. Step 1 : Alkylation Alkylation is the introduction of the alkyl group to an organic molecule.

2. Step 2 : Sulphonation Alkylbenzene produced the react with concentrated sulphuric acid acid to form alkylbenzene sulphonic acid. Sulphonation is the introduction of the sulphonic acid group, -SO3H to an organic molecule to form sulphonic acid.

3. Step 3 : NeutralisationAlkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced reacted with sodium hydroxide to form sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate, the detergent.

The cleansing of soap and detergent

1. The cleansing action of soap or detergent depends on their chemical bonding and structures.a) The ionic head (negatively charged) is soluble in water (hydrophilic) but insoluble in oily layer.b) The long hydrocarbon tail (neutral) is insoluble in water (hydrophobic) but soluble in oily layer. 2. Oil cannot be washed away from clothing with water because oil (a covalent molecult0 is insoluble in water.

3. Lifting greasy dirt from the surface cloth. When soap or detergent is added to the dirty surface of a piece of cloth covered with a layer of oil or grease. a) The negatively charged head (hydrophilic) of soap ions or detergent ions dissolves in water. b) The hydrocarbon tail (hydrophobic) of soap or detergent ions dissolves in the layer of grease. 4. The water is agitated slightly, the grease begins to be lifted off the surface. This cause by the forces of attraction between the water molecules and the negatively charged heads. 5. On further agitation during washing, the greasy dirt is lifted from the surface.

6. Emulsifying dirt in water a) Soaps and detergents can act as emulsifying agents to emulsify oils and grease. b) The process of emulsification breaks large drops of grease into smaller droplets that floats in water. The greasy droplets repel on another because they carry the same charge. As a result, the grease is suspended in the solution. c) When the cloth is rinsed with the water, the droplet will be carried away. d) The cleaning process become more efficient in the water containing the soap or detergent solution is stirred. Effectiveness of soaps and detergents as cleansing agents

Advantages of soaps

1. Soaps are effective cleansing agents in soft water, that is water does not contain Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions. 2. Soaps do not cause pollution problems to the environment. This is because soaps are made from chemical found in animals and plants. This means that soaps are biodegradable, that is they can be composed by the action of bacteria.

Disadvantages of soaps

1. Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, water that contains magnesium and calcium salts. 2. In hard water, soaps will react with Mg2+ and thus, soaps do not lather in hard water. 3. Scum is grey solid that is insoluble in water. It consists of magnesium stearate and calcium stearate. 4. Soaps are not also effective in acidic water, for example rainwater containing dissolves acids. H+ ions from acids will react with soap ions to produce carboxylic acids molecular size that are insoluble in water. 5. Stearic acids and other carboxylic acids do not act as cleansing agents because they exist mainly as molecules and do not anionic hydrophilic ends (head) that dissolves in water.

Advantages of detergents

1. Detergents are cleansing agents that are effective in soft water as well as hard water. This is because detergents do not form scum with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions found in hard water. 2. The detergents ions (R O SO3- and R SO3-)react with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions in hard water. However, the magnesium salts and calcium salts which are formed are

soluble in water. Hence, the scum is not formed and the detergents are still active in hard water and lathers easily.

3. The detergents are synthetic cleansing agents. This means that the structure of the hydrocarbon chain can be modified to produce detergents with specific properties. Nowadays, different types of detergents have been synthesised for specific uses such as shampoos and dish cleaner. 4. Furthermore, detergents are also effective in acidic water because H+ ion is acidic water do not combined with detergents ions. Disadvantages of detergents

1. Most detergents have branched hydrocarbon chains and are non-biodegradable, that is, they cannot decomposed by bacteria. As a result, non-biodegradable detergents cause water pollution. 2. Phosphates in detergents act as fertilizers and promote the growth of water plants and algae. When the plants die and decay, they will used up the oxygen dissolves in water. This will decrease the oxygen content in water and kill fishes and other aquatic lives. 3. Detergents produce a lot of foam in water. The layer of foam that covers the water surface will prevents oxygen from dissolving in water. This condition will cause fish and other aquatic life till die from oxygen starvation. 4. Additives such as sodium hydrochlorite (bleaching agents) releases chlorine gas in water that is acidic. Chlorine gas is highly toxic and kills aquatic life.

Food Additives

1. Food additives are chemicals that are added to food in small quantities for specific purpose such as protection against bacterial attack or restoring the colour of the food destroyed during food processing. 2. Food additives are used to:

a) Retard food spoilage. b) Make food taste better or smell better. c) Add colouring to food. Type of food additives Preservatives Antioxidants Flavouring agents Stabilizers and thickening agents Dyes Examples Sodium nitrite; sodium nitrate; benzoic acid; sodium benzoate; sulphur dioxide; sodium sulphite; sorbic acid Ascorbic acid (Vit. C); BHA; BHT; citric acid; sodium citrate Monosodium glutamate (MSG); aspartame Gelatin; acacia gum (agar) Azo compounds; triphenyl compounds

Functions of food additives

1. Preservatives : Chemicals that are added to food to retard or to prevent the growth of microorganisms, so that the food can be stored for a long time.

2. Antioxidants : Chemicals that are added to foods to prevent the oxidation of fats and oils by oxygen in the air.

3. Flavouring agents : To make food taste better.

4. Stabilizers : Chemicals that are added to enable oil and water in the food to mix together properly in order to form emulsion of water and oil.

5. Thickening agents : Chemicals that are added to food to thicken the liquid and to prevent the food from becoming liquid.

6. Dyes : Chemicals that are added to food to give them colour so as to improve their appearance.

Effects on health

Allergy : MSG Carcinogenic : NaNO2 Brain damage Hyperactivity

Medicine

1. Medicine is a substance used to prevent or cure diseases or to reduce pain and suffering due to illnesses. 2. Traditional medicine are medicine derived from natural sources such as plants and animals without being process chemically.

Modern Medicine

1. Can be classified as follows : a) Analgesics b) Antibiotics c) Psychotherapeutic drugs

Type of modern medicine Analgesics Antibiotic Psychotherapeutic drugs

Examples Aspirin, paracetamol, codeine Penicillin, streptomycin Stimulants, antidepressants, antipsychotics

Functions

1. Analgesics: - Medicine that relieve pain. - Analgesics sometimes called painkillers. - Aspirin and paracetamol are mild painkillers whereas codeine is a powerful painkiller. - Analgesics relieve pain but do not cure the disease.

2. Antibiotics: antibacterial medicine. - Chemical that destroy or prevent the growth of infectious organisms. - Used to treat disease caused by bacteria. - Not effective against disease caused by viral infections such as influenza, measles, or small pox.

3. Psychotherapeutic medicine. - A group of drugs for treating mental or emotional illnesses.

Types Stimulants

Examples Caffeine, amphetamines

Antidepressants

Prozac

Antipsychotic agents

Chloropromazin

Description Naturally occurring or synthetic drugs that stimulate (excite) the activity of the brain and central nervous system. Increase the brains level of neurotransmitters, thus improving mood. Make person fell calm and sleepy. Do not cure mental illness, but can reduce some of the symptoms to help the person live a more normal life.

Reference 1. www.scribd.com 2. Tan Yin Toon, Loh Wai Leng, Tan On Tin, Success Chemistry SPM, Oxford Fajar sdn Bhd.