Archaeological Monitoring and Data Recovery at Kualoa Regional Park, Kualoa Ahupuaa, Koolaupoko District, Oahu Island, Hawaii

Oahu Island Tax Map Key (TMK) 4-9-4:01

Prepared by Mike T. Carson J. Stephen Athens

Prepared for Haitsuka Brothers, Ltd. P.O. Box 30625 Honolulu, Hawaii 96820

INTERNATIONAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. APRIL 2006

IARII 860009

ARCHAEOLOGICAL MONITORING AND DATA RECOVERY AT KUALOA REGIONAL PARK, KUALOA AHUPUAA, KOOLAUPOKO DISTRICT, OAHU ISLAND, HAWAII
Oahu Island Tax Map Key (TMK) 4-9-4:01

Prepared by Mike T. Carson, Ph.D. J. Stephen Athens, Ph.D.

Prepared for Haitsuka Brothers, Ltd. P.O. Box 30625 Honolulu, Hawaii 96820

International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc. 2081 Young Street Honolulu, Hawaii 96826 April 2006

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ABSTRACT
At the request of Haitsuka Brothers, Ltd., International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc. (IARII) conducted archaeological monitoring and data recovery during road realignment and associated landscaping at Kualoa Regional Park in Kualoa Ahupuaa of Oahu Island, Hawaii, in a portion of Tax Map Key (TMK) 4-9-4:01. This investigation provided additional documentation of a previously known subsurface cultural deposit. The primary cultural deposit yielded evidence of general habitation debris in both prehistoric and historic periods. Prehistoric artifacts include mostly basalt flakes and shatter and some volcanic glass flakes. One basalt adze and the tip component of a two-piece bone fishhook were also recovered. The faunal assemblage includes mostly marine shellfish remains, fish bones, and a few other animal bones. Firepits, postmolds, and stone pavings were found throughout the area. One canal feature was also documented, probably linking Koholalele Pond to the ocean. The earliest use of the area was cal. AD 1040 to 1280, prior to substantial southward progradation of the peninsular landform at Kualoa. The radiocarbon date is from a firepit at the base of the primary cultural deposit. The firepit was extremely dense with food remains, and it was associated with a narrow occupation zone oriented east-west along a south-facing beachfront. From other proveniences, another four radiocarbon dates range cal. AD 1270 to 1400 to cal. AD 1660 to 1950.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................... LIST OF FIGURES........................................................................................................ LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................... INVESTIGATIVE PROCEDURES .............................................................................. PHYSICAL SETTING................................................................................................... Geomorphology................................................................................................ Water Sources................................................................................................... Vegetation Communities .................................................................................. CULTURAL TRADITIONS.......................................................................................... TRADITIONAL AND HISTORIC LAND USE ........................................................... ARCHAEOLOGICAL SETTING ................................................................................. PROJECT AREA STRATIGRAPHY............................................................................ SAMPLED LOCALITIES ............................................................................................. Monitoring Sample Area 1 ............................................................................... Monitoring Sample Area 2 ............................................................................... Monitoring Sample Area 3 ............................................................................... Monitoring Sample Area 4 ............................................................................... Monitoring Sample Area 5 ............................................................................... Monitoring Sample Area 6 ............................................................................... Monitoring Sample Area 7 ............................................................................... Monitoring Sample Area 8 ............................................................................... Test UnitS 1 and 2 ............................................................................................ Test Unit 3 ........................................................................................................ ARTIFACTS AND MIDDEN ....................................................................................... Basalt Flakes and Shatter.................................................................................. Volcanic Glass Flakes ...................................................................................... Basalt Adze....................................................................................................... Bone Fishhook Point ........................................................................................ Historic Materials ............................................................................................. Marine Shellfish Remains ................................................................................ Vertebrate Faunal Remains .............................................................................. Charcoal............................................................................................................ iii vii viii 1 5 9 9 16 17 19 23 27 31 33 33 33 36 36 39 39 41 42 42 44 47 47 48 48 49 49 50 51 53

TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued)

RADIOCARBON DATING .......................................................................................... CHRONOLOGICAL SYNTHESIS ............................................................................... Temporal Component One ............................................................................... Temporal Component Two............................................................................... Temporal Component Three............................................................................. Temporal Component Four .............................................................................. Temporal Component Five............................................................................... Temporal Component Six................................................................................. CONCLUSIONS............................................................................................................ REFERENCES............................................................................................................... 55 59 59 59 60 60 61 61 63 65

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LIST OF FIGURES
1. Location of project area. Base is portion of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 7.5-minute series Kahana quadrangle map ....................................................... 2. Physical setting of project area................................................................................ 3. Photograph of Kualoa, view across Kneohe Bay to northeast.............................. 4. Schematic model of sandy coastal plain and peninsula formation .......................... 5. Photograph of eroding cultural deposit on east side of project area........................ 6. Schematic section view of east side of project area, showing position of cultural deposit relative to regular tide levels and recent storm surge levels ... 7. Photograph of recent storm-surge deposit on east side of project area ................... 8. Archaeological sites in Kualoa................................................................................ 9. Distribution of monitoring sample areas and controlled test units .......................... 10. Profile of Monitoring Sample Area 1 ...................................................................... 11. Profile of Monitoring Sample Area 2 ...................................................................... 12. Profile of Monitoring Sample Area 4 ...................................................................... 13. Profile of Monitoring Sample Area 6 ...................................................................... 14. Profile of MSA-7..................................................................................................... 15. Profile of Test Unit 1............................................................................................... 16. Photograph of sample of basalt flakes, basalt shatter, and volcanic glass flakes .... 17. Photograph of basalt adze, from MSA-5, graded surface of Stratum II .................. 18. Photograph of tip component of two-piece bone fishhook, from MSA-4, firepit in Stratum III.......................................................................................... 19. Density of marine shellfish remains ........................................................................ 20. Density of fish and total animal bones .................................................................... 21. Probability distribution of all radiocarbon dates from Kualoa Regional Park ........

2 10 11 12 14 15 15 28 34 35 35 37 40 41 43 47 48 49 50 53 56

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LIST OF TABLES
1. List of land grant, royal patent, and land commission award records for Kualoa Ahupuaa ........................................................................................ 2. Archaeological investigations and recorded sites in Kualoa ................................... 3. Summary of archaeological materials recovered from Monitoring Sample Area 4 ............................................................................... 4. Summary of archaeological materials recovered from Monitoring Sample Area 5 ............................................................................... 5. Summary of archaeological materials recovered from Monitoring Sample Area 6 ............................................................................... 6. Summary of archaeological materials recovered from Test Units 1 and 2.............. 7. Summary of archaeological materials recovered from Test Unit 3 ......................... 8. Detailed identification of marine shellfish remains from selected proveniences .... 9. Radiocarbon dating results ......................................................................................

23 29 38 39 40 44 45 52 55

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INTRODUCTION
At the request of Haitsuka Brothers, Ltd., International Archaeological Research Institute, Inc. (IARII) conducted archaeological monitoring and data recovery during road realignment and associated landscaping at Kualoa Regional Park in Kualoa Ahupuaa of Oahu Island, Hawaii, in a portion of Tax Map Key (TMK) 4-9-4:01 (Fig. 1). The field investigation recorded information about the chronology of Hawaiian occupation in the area. The results were coordinated with coastal geomorphology and oral traditions. The investigation involved monitoring of trenching and other land-altering activities to accommodate a realigned entry road and associated new landscaping for Kualoa Regional Park. Where appropriate, samples of archaeological material were retrieved from exposed profiles. For data recovery, controlled manual excavations were conducted in areas containing cultural deposits significant to describe the nature and chronology of prehistoric occupation. The project area is in a portion of the ahupuaa (traditional Hawaiian land unit) of Kualoa, listed in its entirety in the Hawaii State Inventory of Historic Places (SIHP) as Site 50-80-06-5281) and in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) on the basis of its mythological and legendary significance (Newman 1974). More specifically, subsurface cultural deposits in Kualoa Regional Park have yielded important information about prehistoric Hawaiian settlement, land use, and cultural traditions (Gunness 1986, 1987, 1993). The present investigation recovered evidence of human occupation over several centuries, spanning prehistoric, historic, and modern periods. Postmolds, firepits, stone paving remnants, an artificial canal, food debris, and discarded artifacts reflect the range of activities. The earliest cultural deposit dates within the range of cal. AD 1040 to 1280, and the most recent deposits contain post-Contact materials of the AD 1800s to 1900s. The earliest date (Beta-28136) is from a firepit in a general habitation context, and it ranks among the earliest known in the region. A geoarchaeological study provided better understanding of how human occupation related to the formation of the peninsula at Kualoa. Substantial geomorphological transformations occurred during traditional Hawaiian use of the area. Various natural and cultural processes have affected the form of the archaeological deposits, and some of these processes continue today. Oral traditions reflect some of the major events and processes of the geomorphological sequence. The creation of principal landforms and the effects of high-sea events appear to be encoded in the language of folklore. Integration of this information with archaeological and geomorphological data yields a richer understanding of the natural and cultural history of the project area.

Figure 1.

Location of project area. Base is portion of U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 7.5-minute series Kahana quadrangle map.

The following sections of this report include: a) description of investigative procedures; b) presentation of the physical setting and its implications for archaeology; c) summary of cultural traditions of potential archaeological significance; d) assessment of traditional and historic land use patterns affecting the local archaeological record; e) review of archaeological investigations in the project vicinity; f) overview of stratigraphy; g) discussion of sampled localities; h) description and discussion of artifacts and midden; i) radiocarbon dating; j) synthesis of the chronological sequence; and k) conclusions of the present work.

INVESTIGATIVE PROCEDURES
The project objective was to ensure recovery of significant archaeological and historic material from expected subsurface cultural deposits that would be affected by realignment of the entry road and associated landscaping at Kualoa Regional Park. Monitoring occurred only after extensive test excavations had been conducted throughout the park (Ahlo 1980; Barrera 1974; Clark and Connolly 1975, 1978; Connolly 1977, 1978; Gunness1978, 1986, 1987, 1993). Many of these prior excavations were precisely within the project area. Monitoring was considered an efficient means to document the spatial extent of known subsurface cultural deposits and to identify possible isolated remains that differed from the prior documentation in some unexpected manner. This project has been considered among the more successful implementations of monitoring in Hawaiian archaeology as a secondary discovery procedure to supplement primary discovery by prior subsurface testing (Athens 1994). The general approach was to monitor construction activities and to conduct controlled manual excavations in specific localities as needed. In all monitored areas, stratigraphy and cultural contents were recorded, and samples were retrieved where appropriate to characterize deposits. Controlled manual excavation was conducted in representative locations containing clearly defined postmolds, firepits, or dense concentrations of artifacts and midden. The field investigation included 44 days of monitoring and nine days of data recovery from March through November 1986. The work was conducted by J. Stephen Athens, Patricia Beggerly, Michael Kaschko, Kanalei Shun, Farley Watanabe, and Stephen Wickler. Jo Lynn Gunness provided important information about prior archaeological work in the area. Original mapping data were generated in 1986, and additions in 2006 enabled compatibility with current state and federal geographic information system (GIS) standards. A 1986 transit map was created to record locations of the new roadwork, monitored areas, and controlled excavations. In 2006, a survey-grade Trimble Pro-XR global positioning system (GPS) was used to record locations of roads, parking areas, and the coastline in the project vicinity. The GPS data were collected with real-time differential correction for sub-meter accuracy. The 1986 and 2006 mapping data were incorporated with other information in a GIS, using Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Zone 4 North and the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD-1983). The controlled excavations were conducted with trowels and other hand-held instruments, proceeding in artificial levels of 0.1 or 0.2 m within natural strata. Sediments were described in terms of color, texture, consistence, structure, matrix, and lower boundary. All removed material was measured in volume, then screened through 1/8-inch (3.2-mm) wire mesh, using water to remove sediment and to maximize visibility of archaeological contents. Artifacts, midden, and charcoal were collected and placed in bags with individual catalog numbers and

appropriate provenience information. A field catalog list recorded more detailed information about each bag number. Profiles were drawn of representative excavation areas. At IARII facilities in Honolulu, the recovered archaeological materials were separated by material type, and the resulting categories were weighed and tabulated by Patricia Spears in December 1986. The 1986 laboratory work also involved identification of shellfish remains to the genus level from two key proveniences in the project area. Artifacts were assessed for probable function based on morphological characteristics and similarity with other objects of known function. Charcoal was dried and weighed. In 2006, the artifacts and the vertebrate faunal remains were identified in finer categories, counted, and weighed. Photographs of representative artifacts were taken in 2006. For radiocarbon dating, charcoal samples were selected from five proveniences important for understanding the chronology of prehistoric occupation. The samples were analyzed with standard radiometric dating and 13C/12C isotope correction by Beta Analytic in 1988 as samples Beta-28134 through -28138. In 2006, the dating results were calibrated at 2 sigma (95.4% confidence) with the OxCal program (Bronk Ramsey 2001), using standard atmospheric data (Stuiver et al. 1998). In general, a possible in-built old wood effect could cause slightly older dating results for unidentified charcoal if the dated samples happen to be long-lived specimens (Dye 2000). In 2006, wood anatomist Gail Murakami identified the plant taxa in retained portions of charcoal from the two dating samples that had yielded the earliest dates. The identifiable specimens consisted entirely of Tetraplasandra sp. (ohe), an endemic Hawaiian shrub or tree. In 2006, the project area was assessed in terms of its geomorphology and potential natural and cultural formation processes, following a general approach designed for Hawaiian beach sites (Carson 2004). Five sets of observations were made on three days, each six days apart: 1) Where cultural and natural deposits were exposed by erosion, basic documentation included color, texture, consistence, structure, matrix, and lower boundary to compare with the 1986 field observations. Wind direction and approximate speed were noted and verified with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and effects of windblown sand and other materials were recorded. High and low tide levels were recorded in relation to the elevation of the adjacent project area. Locations of recent storm-surge debris were recorded. Onshore-offshore and longshore current directions were noted, and relative intensities were estimated.

2)

3) 4) 5)

These observations were considered in the context of the low-lying, sandy peninsula landform of the project area. The results provided a context to interpret the depositional context of natural and cultural layers as recorded in the 1986 field notes and in other investigations at Kualoa Regional Park. The 1986 artifact and midden collections have been prepared to return to Kualoa Regional Park. Arrangements for transfer were being made at the time this report was being prepared.

PHYSICAL SETTING
The project area is a calcareous sand deposit, between 10 and 215 m from the shoreline and 1 to 2.5 m above sea level on the windward (northeast) side of Oahu (Figs. 2 and 3; see also Fig. 1). The associated landform is a sandy peninsula, accreted southward from a narrow coastal plain. Low foothills are about 100 m inland of the project area, and steeply-rising cliffs are an additional 500 m farther inland. The physical setting is described in terms of three topics: 1) geomorphology; 2) water sources; and 3) vegetation communities. The geomorphology of the area relates directly to the potential for land use and the context of cultural deposits at different time intervals. Water sources are a clear determining factor in human settlement and land use patterns. Vegetation communities have changed significantly due to pre-Contact and post-Contact anthropogenic influences.

GEOMORPHOLOGY
Particularly in Hawaiian sandy beach sites, incomplete understanding of geomorphology and site formation has contributed to faulty interpretation of both site function and chronology (Carson 2004). After providing an instructive case study for the Wainiha Beach Site in Kauai, Carson (2004:115) challenged: A growing understanding of sea-level changes, site formation processes, depositional contexts, and human behavioral patterns in coastal settings will certainly contribute to more accurate interpretations of these and other beach sites. Peterson (2005) has answered this call with a geomorphological model of Holocene landscape dynamics in coastal Waimnalo, windward Oahu. Carson (2004:102) suggested that Kualoa Regional Park was especially deserving of more attentive geomorphological and geoarchaeological study. The present work responds to these concerns. The footprint of Kualoa Regional Park coincides with a small peninsula of calcareous sand, modified on its west side by an artificial levee enclosing Molii Pond (see Fig. 2). The northeast portion has been eroded, and some of the eroded sand has contributed to accretion at the southern end of the peninsula at Kualoa Point. The west side of the peninsula is sheltered from erosion on the shore of the enclosed Molii Pond. The sandy coastal plain and peninsula formed around the volcanic core mass of the Koolau Mountain Range (Fig. 4). The sand of the coastal plain was deposited during a period of higher ocean water, and the landform was exposed by a drop in sea level. Both of those events occurred after the Koolau Mountains were formed approximately 1.8 to 2.6 million years ago (Macdonald et al. 1983:303, 420). The peninsula at Kualoa accreted some time later.

Figure 2.

Physical setting of project area.

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Figure 3.

Photograph of Kualoa, view across Kneohe Bay to northeast. The project area is in the coastal plain (center of picture). The cliffs and foothills are inland (left side of picture). Mokolii (also known as Chinamans Hat) is offshore (right side of picture).

The coastal plain is less than 3.5 m above sea level, and the sand was deposited during periods of higher sea level. A Pleistocene highstand of 8.5 to 12.5 m likely created a bed of calcareous sand around Oahu shores approximately 120,000 to 138,000 years ago (Muhs and Szabo 1994). More recently, a mid-Holocene highstand of 1.4 to 2.8 m began perhaps as early as 5532 to 5295 years BP and ended around 2239 to 1940 years BP or possibly later (Fletcher and Jones 1996; see also Calhoun and Fletcher 1996; Grossman and Fletcher 1998; Jones 1992). The sandy peninsula at Kualoa is 2.5 m above present sea level, and this landform must have accreted after the formation of the coastal plain. The coastal plain itself is mostly 100 to 400 m wide, and the peninsula represents accretion of an additional 900 m southward into Kneohe Bay. Accretion of the sandy peninsula began when a nearshore current transported sand southward along the windward Oahu coast, and the material settled upon reaching the sheltered, shallow waters of Kneohe Bay. A similar north-south longshore transport is active today. Given its low elevation above sea level, the peninsula probably accreted mostly during and after the mid-Holocene highstand, possibly overlying a bed of Pleistocene sand. Except for its most landward portion attached to the coastal plain, the peninsular landform did not exist above sea level until after drawdown from the mid-Holocene highstand. At least some accretion occurred after the drawdown, and it continues at a slow rate today.

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Figure 4.

Schematic model of sandy coastal plain and peninsula formation.

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Today, longshore (parallel to the shoreline) transport appears more intense than onshoreoffshore transport (perpendicular to the shoreline) around the peninsula at Kualoa. The northsouth longshore transport is eroding sand from the northeast shore and re-depositing it farther south. Meanwhile, regular onshore-offshore transport in itself has no net gain or loss of sand volume along the shore, but a potential state of equilibrium has been overpowered by the effects of longshore transport. Erosion along the east side of the Kualoa peninsula gradually has removed portions of a weakly formed beach ridge. In 2006, the beach ridge was just 3 m landward and less than 1 m above mean high tide level. Periodic high-sea events and regular park use certainly have been eroding the ridge, causing its incremental landward migration. The beach ridge is more stable on the south shore of the peninsula. The sandy peninsula is 1 to 2.5 m above sea level, and it can be altered substantially by only minor sea-level fluctuations and low-intensity formation processes. The majority of these processes shaped the shoreward areas and had little or no effect on the landward portions of the beach. Nonetheless, no high, stabilized dune is available for reliable long-term use. The shoreline on the east side of the project area has been eroded continually for at least the past several decades (Fig. 5). In the eroded beach face, cultural deposits are clearly visible 0.1 to 0.8 m deep, and portions of these deposits have been lost to erosion. This erosion may be attributed to three factors. First, the ocean current is at present very close to the shore at Kualoa, and a north-south longshore transport removes sand from this area to be re-deposited farther south. Second, periodic episodes of oceanic overwash (for example, during storm surges or tsunami) may discharge layers of coarse sand and coral debris, but they also may disturb or even remove portions of beaches close to sea level. Third, regular park use has entailed both intentional and inadvertent alteration of the beachfront. The present condition of erosion along the northeast shore has occurred only since the southward accretion of the peninsular landform has brought the shore close to the north-south ocean current (see Fig. 4). Earlier, when the peninsula was smaller, the beach accreted with no significant erosion at this location, and erosion may have been farther north along the coastal plain. After the peninsular accretion created a substantial north-south-trending landform, this landform was subjected to erosion at its northeast end as seen today. The erosion of an ancient cultural deposit at this location suggests that this particular locus had been unaffected by wave erosion at one time, and the presence of eroded stone pavings indicates long-term residence prior to the onset of present erosion conditions. Once the longshore transport conditions had eroded a substantial portion of the northeast beach, this area became exposed to potential effects of regular onshore-offshore transport. The basic mode of operation of onshore-offshore transport is to establish equilibrium of sand movement, in this case carving a slope into the northeast shore and eventually creating a more or less stable ridge. However, high tides at present can be very close to the cultural deposit at the northeast border of the project area.

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Figure 5.

Photograph of eroding cultural deposit on east side of project area, view to northnorthwest. Scale bar is in 20-cm increments.

Concrete groins or break-water barriers have been installed a few meters from the shore to minimize immediate threats of erosion by onshore-offshore transport along the east beach of Kualoa Regional Park. Unfortunately, these barriers appear to have increased the intensity of longshore transport occasionally through a narrow foreshore channel, and erosion continues at a slow rate. Also, when high-sea events occur, their intensity is magnified landward of the artificial enclosure. The seaward portion of the cultural deposit is 3 m landward and 0.1 m above the regular high tide level, and it is 0.1 m lower than most storm surge levels (Fig. 6). Some oceanic overwash levels may be even higher. The regular high tide level is about 3.5 m landward and 0.45 m higher than mean low tide. Parallel to the north-south-trending shoreline on the east side of the park, elongate piles of marine debris mark the landward limit of recent high-sea events (Fig. 7). Modern flotsam and jetsam (including plastic and rubber articles with manufacturing marks post-dating the 1980s) are mixed with coarse-grained sand in a broken line about 5 m landward and 0.9 m above regular high tide level.

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Figure 6.

Schematic section view of east side of project area, showing position of cultural deposit relative to regular tide levels and recent storm surge levels, view to north.

Figure 7.

Photograph of recent storm-surge deposit on east side of project area, view to northnorthwest. Scale bar is in 20-cm increments.

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The low-lying and nearly level landform could support pond and marsh environments, and three known ponds include Molii, Apua, and Koholalele (see Fig. 2). Sediments have accumulated gradually on the bottoms of these ponds. Potentially, other former ponds and marshes may have been completely filled. A portion of a waterlogged cultural deposit had been documented previously in the east part of the project area (Gunness 1993:60). Molii and Apua ponds were modified (probably in the late prehistoric period) with stone walls to stabilize their perimeters and to control water flow with the ocean. Calcareous sand deposits such as in the project area contain only very thin A-horizons of initial soil development. In areas of long-term human use, organic debris probably contributed to thicker A-horizons. Some of these soils may have been altered or possibly enriched intentionally for crop growth. The project area is exposed to northeasterly trade winds, ranging 8 to 18 knots (14.7 to 33.1 kph or 9.2 to 20.7 mph) on the three days of observation, and these winds probably contribute to significant site deflation. Where vegetation cover is minimal or absent, very fine (less than 1 mm) and fine (1 to 2 mm) grains of sand move northwest to southeast. Meanwhile, larger particles settle without significant horizontal movement. The net result is deflation of areas exposed to strong trade winds, entailing removal of small particles and over-representation of medium and large particles. In seaward areas, deflation has slowed the vertical accumulation of deposits. Also, scattered and very thin veneer-like lenses of fine sand may be deposited in some landward areas. Anthropogenic site formation processes relate to successive re-occupation of finite space in a loosely consolidated sandy landform (see Carson 2004). Several centuries of human occupation at the project area resulted in compaction of living surfaces and scattered pit intrusions. Artifacts, midden, house pavings, postmolds, firepits, and other features from unrelated events of different dates may be condensed in one or a few thin layers. These effects are compounded in areas subjected to deflation. Substantial coastal transformation occurred during the period of prehistoric settlement in the region. Human occupation in the Hawaiian Islands was definitely established by AD 1000, and smaller scale use occurred around AD 700 to 800 (Athens et al. 2002; Carson 2005; Masse and Tuggle 1998; Tuggle and Spriggs 2001). The emergence of the peninsular landform began after drawdown from the mid-Holocene sea-level highstand in the first centuries BC or AD or possibly later (Fletcher and Jones 1996). Significant southward accretion occurred in the first millennium AD, and it has continued at a slow rate. Noticeable geomorphological transformation may have been witnessed by the first generations pf Polynesian settlers. Certainly, storm surges, tsunami, and other events altered this low-lying sandy area during the time-span of human occupation.

WATER SOURCES
In Kualoa, fresh water is available through catchment of regular rainfall, but no permanent streams are present. Permanent water courses are in adjacent land units, and they may or may not have been accessible by Kualoa residents. The coastal ponds contain salt water.

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Kualoa itself contains no defined valleys or permanent streams, unlike the neighboring land units of Kaaawa (to the northwest) and Hakipuu (to the southwest) (see Fig. 2). In fact, Kualoa occupies the northeast seaward portion of the valley that defines Hakipuu, east and southeast of the primary ridge that separates Hakipuu and Kaaawa. Rainfall is ample and predictable in this windward setting in the humid tropics, with little seasonal variation. The coastal plain and most of the foothills receive slightly less than 1500 mm (59 inches) mean annual rainfall, and the remaining foothills and inaccessible high cliffs receive slightly more than 1500 mm (Giambelluca et al. 1986:138).

VEGETATION COMMUNITIES
Present vegetation at Kualoa Regional Park reflects historic and modern alterations of local vegetation. Bermuda grass (Cyndon dactylon) is the dominant ground cover in most of the park, and rows of trees have been planted for modern landscaping in the 1980s. The areas around the ponds are overgrown with koa haole (Leucaena sp.) and some other trees. Historic land use involved industrial-scale plantations for sugarcane and other crops, but the anthropogenic transformation of local vegetation communities began centuries earlier. Paleoenvironmental investigations around Oahu have shown a consistent pattern of lowland forest disappearance very shortly after initial human colonization toward the end of the first millennium AD (Athens 1997; Athens and Ward 1993; Athens et al. 1992; Athens et al. 2002). In selected areas of Kualoa Regional Park, attempts have been made to grow native plants and Polynesian introductions, including candlenut (kukui or Aleurites moluccana), kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum), coconut (niu or Cocos nucifera), water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), wiliwili (Erythrina sandwicensis), hala (Pandanus tectorius), and milo (Thespesia populnea). At least some of these taxa probably grew in the area during the pre-Contact occupation period.

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CULTURAL TRADITIONS
The project area is in the ahupuaa (traditional Hawaiian land unit) of Kualoa (formerly known as Palik) in the Koolaupoko District of Oahu Island. The older name Palik referred to the vertical cliff characterizing this land, and the newer name Kualoa refers to the long back of a moo or moko (giant lizard) slain by Hiiaka (Pukui et al. 1974:118,177). Kualoa (or Palik) is mentioned as a place of special significance in Hawaiian traditions, and the project area can be understood in this context. Kualoa is situated in Koolaupoko (short windward) District, near the border with Koolauloa (long windward) District (Pukui et al. 1974:117). This distinction refers to the short and long ways around the island during the annual makahiki procession that visited and collected tributes from the ahupuaa (literally pig altars) of each land unit. Kualoa Ahupuaa is now in two sections (Kualoa 1 and 2), and the project area is part of Kualoa 1. Ideally, an ahupuaa supports a variety of economic and other activities in a spectrum of ecological zones from the mountain to the sea (Lyons 1875:104). In addition to its economic practicalities, an ahupuaa carries implications for social and political organization (Malo 1951:142). According to Hawaiian mythology, when Kualoa was formerly known as Palik, the goddess Haumea and her husband Wkea were the progenitors of the Hawaiian people, and they made their home at Palik. This place can be associated with the beginning of human life, the founding generations of certain Hawaiian genealogies, and the formation of traditional religious practices. Handy and Handy (1972:447) offered:
The land now called Kualoa was formerly Paliku (Upright cliff), for its salient feature, the great cliff at its back. It was here that the primordial goddess Haumea battled alone against the warriors of Kumuhonua in legendary times preceding the great tidal wave that inundated all the coast from Kualoa south to Heeia. Here was built the high shrine to Lono, the god of storm, who saved Wakea and Haumea in the flood.

Palik is recognized as the place of the first heiau (traditional Hawaiian religious temple), during the time of Haumea and Wkea. When a great tidal wave swept Haumea, Wkea, and all of their followers out to sea, Wkea was instructed to cup his hands together to represent a heiau, then he caught a humuhumu-nukunuku-apuaa fish [a form of Kamapuaa or Lono, god of storm and rain] and stuck it head first into the cupped hands to represent a pig (Handy and Handy 1972:449). The followers repeated Wkeas actions, and then the sea washed all of them ashore. In gratitude to Lono, a temple was constructed at Palik, and an order of priests called Moo-kuauhau-o-Lono (literally genealogical line of Lono) was responsible for religious proceedings at this temple (Malo 1951:159, 210). Handy and Handy (1972:447) reported that the priestly order known as Palik performed rituals at temples called mpele.

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Kualoa is in some traditions remembered as the sacred land of Haloa, referring to Haloa as the first human being born to Haumea and Wkea, presumably when the land was still known as Palik (Handy and Handy 1972:447). Haloa is also associated with the origin of taro in Hawaii. The newer name of Kualoa relates to a battle between Hiiaka and a moo or moko. In ordinary speech, a moo most often refers to a lizard, reptile, or dragon-like creature (Pukui and Elbert 1986:253; see also Best 1988). Metaphorically, the moo may refer to an older lineage that was overthrown, as the word also refers to a genealogical line (Pukui and Elbert 1986:253). For instance, the Moo-kuauhau-o-Lono (genealogical line of Lono) was the ancient order of priests in this area when it was known formerly as Palik. In many parts of Polynesia and elsewhere in Oceania, lizards are perceived as ancestors (Best 1988). After Hiiaka killed the formidable moo, she reportedly set up his flukes as a landmark which now forms the rock known to this day as Mokolii, and she disposed the body in such a way that it formed the coastal plain and foothills of Kualoa (Emerson 1915:91). The offshore islet of Mokolii (literally little lizard, today also known as Chinamans Hat) represents part of the lizards tail. The coastal plain and rugged foothills represent the broken and flattened long back of the lizard, giving Kualoa its new name. Raphaelson (1925:30-31) offered a story about a strange demi-god in the form of a shark, the son of a shark and a human girl at Kualoa. The shark gods son would act kindly toward people as long as they fed him fish from a pond at Kualoa. Eventually, a new chief refused to feed the shark. When the shark father learned that his son was starving because of the chiefs refusal to feed him, then the shark god flooded the land with a tidal wave. The people escaped safely, but the pond and the selfish chief were not seen again. At the point of land marking the boundary between Kualoa and Kaaawa, the placename Lae o ka oio (literally point or cape of the night marchers) presumably relates to traditions of spirits marching at night. Near this same place, Kamakau (1991:38) describes a spectacular cave called Pohukaina:
There is only one famous hiding cave, ana huna, on Oahu. It is Pohukaina. The opening on Kalaeoaoio that faces toward Kaaawa is believed to be in the pali of Kanehoalani, between Kualoa and Kaaawa, and the second opening is at the spring Ka-ahuula-punawai. This is a burial cave for chiefs, and much wealth was hidden away there with the chiefs of old. On the Kona side of the island the cave had three openings, one at Hailikulamanu - near the lower side of the cave of Koleana in Moanalua - another in Kalihi, and another in Puiawa. There was an opening at Waipahu, in Ewa, and another at Kahuku in Koolauloa. The mountain peak of Konahuanui was the highest point of the ridgepole of this burial cave house, which sloped down toward Kahuku. Many stories tell of people going into it at Kahuku. Within this cave are pools of water, streams, creeks, and decorations by hand of man (hana kinohinohiia), and in some places there is level land.

Lae o ka oio also was the traditional ending point for the annual makahiki circuit around Oahu, described by Kamakau (1991:20):

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After the akua paani came the akua kapala alaea, a god painted (pena ia) red with alaea earth. On one side he was kapu, and on one side, free. After him came the akua loa, who was the Makahiki god, and most of the other gods. The akua loa made a right circuit of the island. Afterward the akua poko appeared with the female gods, and his procession went to the left, along the beach of Waikiki. The akua loa and the akua poko met at Kalaeokaoio, the cape of Kaoio [the dividing line of Koolaupoko and Koolauloa districts] at Kualoa and Kaaawa. This is the reason for the names Koolaupoko and Koolauloa. At the spot where the companies of the two god-images met, the images were furled up and the kaupu bird ensigns twisted around (papio ke akua a owili ka hae kaupu).

According to Kamakaus (1991:20-21) account, the tributes collected at each of the islands ahupuaa were amassed at Kualoa for direct consumption, indefinite storage, sacrificial offerings, or redistribution. Pohukaina Cave somehow may have been involved in these traditions. At Kualoa Point, very close to the project area, the pig-god Kamupuaa is said to have secreted himself when chased by Pele. According to Raphaelson (1925:28), his hiding place is called Halo-a-pee, literally run and hide. After exiting his hiding place, Kamapuaa is said to have went through the mountain, making holes in the cliff face (Sterling and Summers 1978:183). Pohukaina Cave and the Kamapuaa story may relate to the notion of Kualoa as a place of refuge. Kamakau (1991:18) remarked that Kualoa was one of a few ahupuaa regarded as a puuhonua (place of refuge or sanctuary) in its entirety:
The puuhonua in ancient times was an ahupuaa portion of a district (ahupuaa okana), like Kailua and Waikane for Koolaupoko District on Oahu, and also Kualoa, which was a very sacred land and a true puuhonua, where persons marked for death were saved if they entered it.

Kualoa is revered in Hawaiian traditions for a number of reasons, and the respect for this place took a variety of forms. As Handy and Handy (1972:448) reported, this land was so highly esteemed that no canoe could pass by at sea without lowering its sails. Perhaps this practice reflects the manner in which Haumea and Wkea were saved from the sea by creating a proxy temple for Lono. According to popular belief today, Kamehameha I is said to have observed this custom. Also probably out of reverence for Kualoa as a special place in Oahu, it was reportedly a place where the children of chiefs were trained in the arts of war and the ancient traditions of Hawaiian chiefs (Raphaelson 1925:28-29). Presumably, Kualoa was perceived as possessing and potentially imparting a sense of deeply embedded sanctity suitable for high-ranking chiefs. The extraordinary significance of Kualoa Ahupuaa is unmistakable in Kamakaus (1992:129) account of what happened when Kahahana, ruling chief of Oahu in 1773, asked the advice of a Ka-opulupulu concerning a suspicious request by his uncle Kahekili (chief of Maui) to be granted the lands of Kualoa. As Kamakau (1992:129) recounted, Kualoa was essential for the ruling chief of Oahu, and Kahekilis treacherous request was unequivocally denied:

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The kahuna bowed his head, then, looking up, said. O chief! if you give away these things your authority will be lost, and you will cease to be a ruler. To Kualoa belong the water courses of your ancestors, Ka-lumalumai and Ke-kai-hehee; the sacred drums of Ka-pahu-ulu, and the spring of Ka-ahu-ula; the sacred hill of Ka-ua-kahi son of Kahoowaha of Kualoa. Without the ivory that drifts ashore you could not offer to the gods the first victim slain in battle; it would be for Ka-hekili to offer it on Maui, and the rule would become his. You would no longer be ruler. Had the country been yours by conquest, it might be proper for you to reward your uncle, but your authority was given you by the chiefs because of your uncle Ku-mahanas mismanagement. Any other requests of Ka-hekili you might have granted, but not this. And be sure not to conceal from me any further secret messages that Ka-hekili may send. Having heard these words of the kahuna, Ka-hahana and the chiefs and counselors congratulated themselves upon their escape from losing the dominion to Ka-hekili.

The Palik and Kualoa traditions convey a sense of chronological change of the physical landscape and cultural perceptions of the landscape. In particular, these traditions may relate to substantial formation of the sandy peninsula at Kualoa very early in the human occupation sequence. Gunness (1987:250) remarks that the older Palik traditions refer to Haumea and Wkea living on the cliffs (emphasis in original), whereas only some time later did Hiiaka create the foothills and lowlands of Kualoa. Also, occasional high-sea events affected the lowlying coastal landform, and these events have made enough of an impression to be incorporated into oral traditions (Gunness 1987:250). Specifically, high-sea events may have filled some former ponded areas, and certain of these events caused memorable devastation. The Palik traditions are associated with origins of people and cultural practices, overlain and to some extent replaced by the Kualoa traditions. The older stories concern Haumea, Wkea, their son Haloa, and the god Lono in mostly benevolent terms, although the god Lono clearly has the potential for both nurturing and destructive forces. The newer stories concern Hiiaka, a monstrous lizard, Pele, and Kamapuaa in violent confrontations.

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TRADITIONAL AND HISTORIC LAND USE

The project area is part of a larger setting that combines several favorable conditions for traditional land use, according to Handy and Handy (1972:436):
(a) bay and reef coast line which make cultivation feasible right to the shore where coconuts thrive; (b) extensive wet-taro plantations with ample water; (c) swampy areas where taro and fish were raised; (d) sloping piedmont and level shore-side areas well adapted to sweet-potato farming; (e) ample streams whose mouths are ideal seaside spawning pools; (f) fishponds in which systematic fish farming was practiced; (g) upstream terraced stream-side loi; (h) accessible forested slopes and uplands, for woodland supplies and recourse in famine times.

In brief, the surroundings were ideal for traditional food production. Hawaiian government land records of the middle 1800s indicate several family residences and cultivation plots in Kualoa, including some in the project area and vicinity (Table 1). The records include one Land Grant (LG), 33 Royal Patents (RP), and 32 Land Commission Awards (LCA) in Kualoa Ahupuaa (Waihona Aina 2006; see also Makekau 1986). Land records pertaining to parcels in Kualoa Regional Park include RP 0492 (awarded to Nawahinekaunu), RP 0620 (awarded to Mahiole) RP 6952 (awarded to Kamakai), LCA 02296 (awarded to Nawahinekaunu), LCA 03011 (awarded to Mahiole), LCA 03043 (awarded to Kapiipo), LCA 03044 (awarded to Kamakai), and LCA 05614 (awarded to Kepaa).

Table 1.

List of land grant, royal patent, and land commission award records for Kualoa Ahupuaa. Data compiled from Waihona Aina (2006).
Record Number Claimant Swanzy, Julie J. Kamalii Kepaa Kailihewa Konaaihele Pupuka Kau Kukola Poohiwi Kuewa

Land Grant 7997 (also in Hakipuu) Royal Patent 0290 0291 0481 0482 0483 0484 0485 0486 0487

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Table 1.

List of land grant, royal patent, and land commission award records for Kualoa Ahupuaa. Data compiled from Waihona Aina (2006) (continued).
Record Number Claimant Kanakanui Kua Ululani Konohili Nawahinekaunu Nalino Kamakaohao Kekihe Maalea Kae Aihulu Mahiole Keliikuiau Mahoe Aweau Kauaiwahine Maliu Keanu Kamanu Laumania Keliookahonua Kamakai Maalea Laumanea Nawahinekaunu Mahiole Kapiipo Kamakai Keliiokahonua Kamanu Kauawahine Kekihe Konaaihele Kuewa Kae Namakaohao

0488 0489 0490 0491 0492* 0493 0615 0616 0617 0618 0619 0620* 0621 0622 0623 0624 0626 0627 1126 1431 (also in Hakipuu) 6950 6952* Land Commission Award 02786 02987 (also in Hakipuu) 02996* 03011* 03043* (also in multiple other areas) 03044* 03045 03046 03047 03048 03056B 03058 (also in Hakipuu) 03066 03115 (also in Hakipuu)

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Table 1.

List of land grant, royal patent, and land commission award records for Kualoa Ahupuaa. Data compiled from Waihona Aina (2006) (continued).
Record Number Claimant

03118 Haole 05597 Keanu 05598 Kanakanui 05599 Kua 05600 Konohili 05601 Kau 05613 Kamalii 05614* Kepaa 05916 Pupuka 05917 Poohiwi 05961 Mahoe 05962 Maliu 06037 Aweau 06095 Ululani 08007 (also in Kaaawa) Aihulu 10388 (also in Hakipuu) Nalino Note: * indicates land parcel in Kualoa Regional Park.

The land records provide a general picture of settlement and land use patterns in the middle 1800s in Kualoa. Houses were described almost exclusively near the beach, including some in and around the project area. Sweet potatoes and wauke (paper mulberry, used for bark cloth) were grown in the coastal plain, and some loi (irrigated ponds and terraces for growing taro) were mentioned. Farther inland, the mountain slopes were described as places for various tree and root crops, and additional loi were probably present. In 1850, Dr. Gerrit P. Judd purchased much of Kualoa from Kamehameha III, and Dr. Judds descendants have owned the land since that time, now comprising about 4000 acres of Kualoa Ranch. Although not directly related to the project area, potentially informative historical references about the Judd family may be found in a biography of Dr. Judd (G. P. Judd 1960) and in two Judd family chronicles (A. F. Judd 1928, 1930). Three ponds near the shore undoubtedly were fishponds, and these include Apua, Koholalele, and Molii close to the project area. Molii Fishpond is by far the largest of the set, but all three would have provided reliable stocks of fish. Specifically in the project area, Gunness (1986:9-10) described later historic land use:
Beginning as early as the 1860s, and continuing periodically for a century, the area was plowed for agricultural systems. Then, at the beginning of World War II, an airfield was constructed parallel to the beach by bulldozing and grading a strip 6,000 feet long,

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and 150+ feet wide from Apua Pond north, across Kamehameha Highway, and a short distance toward the mountains. Coral fill was brought in and laid down as part of the construction process. Local residents have reported that in bulldozing for the airstrip, a number of human burials were disturbed; but unfortunately, no records were kept concerning their discovery and disposal. Comparison of aerial photographs taken in 1945 and 1974 show that coastal erosion has brought the beach edge along the northern section of the east beach to within a few feet of what was the eastern edge of the airstrip. The present park road follows on top of what would have been the approximate center of the airstrip.

In 1986, local residents recalled houses and gardens in the project area in the 1920s and prior to the World War II (WW II) airfield. A family of Japanese farmers reportedly occupied part of the project area. At present, the project area is within Kualoa Regional Park, managed by Honolulu City and County Parks. The City and County of Honolulu began condemnation proceedings in 1966 to acquire this land, and the process was complete in 1974. Part of the mission of the park is to preserve its natural and cultural resources for public appreciation. Regular activities include recreation and landscaping maintenance. The traditional and historic uses of the project area suggest widespread cultural deposits relating to family residences and cultivation areas, although these deposits very likely were disturbed in the late 1800s through middle 1900s by large-scale agricultural plowing and substantial WW II activities. Late pre-Contact and early post-Contact deposits probably have been disturbed or entirely removed. Earlier pre-Contact deposits may have been deeper than the historic plowing and WW II intrusions, but they may have been affected by other cultural and natural processes in the late pre-Contact and early post-Contact periods.

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ARCHAEOLOGICAL SETTING
The entirety of Kualoa Ahupuaa (including Kualoa 1 and 2) is listed as a historic district in the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), and at least eight other site areas have been identified within the historic district boundary (Fig. 8, Table 2). The project area is in a portion of the historic district (Site 50-80-06-528) that has not been assigned any additional site number. The Kualoa Ahupuaa Historic District was listed in the NRHP as Site -528 in recognition of its legendary and mythological significance (Newman 1974). At the time of the listing, archaeological surface ruins and subsurface deposits were known in the area, but they were not part of the official site register. The first island-wide archaeological survey in Oahu recorded six sites in Kualoa (McAllister 1933:166-168), now listed in the Hawaii State Inventory of Historic Places (SIHP) as Sites 50-80-06-307 through -312 (see Fig. 8). 1) 2) 3) Site -307 refers to the legendary Pohukaina Cave, although its entrance has not been documented. Site -308 is an artificially faced terrace with two pieces of coral. Site -309 includes three rock formations, said to represent a woman and her two children who metamorphosed into stone when struck by sunlight after a long night of collecting crabs. Site -310 refers to Niuolaa Heiau, which no longer exists. Site -311 is Mokolii Islet (also known as Chinamans Hat), representing part of the tail of a giant lizard slain by Hiiaka. Site -312 is Koholalele Pond, an artificial pond a few meters west of the project area.

4) 5) 6)

More recent surveys have focused on small land parcels or corridors of planned construction work or where natural erosion has exposed cultural material. About 500 m inland (northwest) of the project area, two surface sites include a complex of historic walls and one long wall (McIntosh and Pantaleo 1997). All other archaeological findings have been in subsurface contexts in sandy coastal deposits. Several archaeological investigations have included surveys, subsurface testing, construction monitoring, and data recovery throughout Kualoa Regional Park, and much of this work occurred within the project area (Ahlo 1980; Barrera 1974; Borthwick et al. 1999; Clark and Connolly 1975, 1978; Cleghorn 1996; Colin and Hammatt 1997; Colin et al. 1995; Connolly

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1977, 1978; Goodman and Cleghorn 1991; Gunness 1978, 1986, 1987, 1993; Hammatt and Shideler 2001; Lee 1994; Meeker 1991; Perzinski et al. 2000). The prior investigations documented widespread but discontinuous subsurface cultural deposits, dating to pre-Contact and post-Contact periods. Some areas had been severely disturbed, but others were intact and exceptionally well preserved.

Figure 8.

Archaeological sites in Kualoa.

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Table 2.

Archaeological investigations and recorded sites in Kualoa.

Type of Work NRHP nomination Island-wide reconnaissance Sites or Other Findings Site 50-80-06-528: Kualoa Ahupuaa Historical District Site -307: Pohukaina Cave, entrance not found Site -308: artificially faced terrace with two pieces of coral Site -309: three rock formations associated with oral tradition Site -310: Niuolaa Heiau, no longer existing Site -311: Mokolii Islet, associated with oral tradition Site -312: Koholalele Pond, few meters west of project area Complex of historic walls One long wall Widespread cultural deposit throughout Kualoa Regional Park

Reference Newman 1970 McAllister 1933:166-168

McIntosh and Pantaleo 1997 Ahlo 1980; Barrera 1974; Clark and Connolly 1975, 1978; Colin and Hammatt 1997; Connolly 1977, 1978 Gunness 1978, 1986, 1987, 1993 Cleghorn 1994; Colin, Borthwick, and Hammatt 1995; Douglas 1990, 1991; Dye 1995; Kawachi 1990; Pietrusewsky and Douglas 1989 Lee 1994 Dye 1996a Dye 1996b; Spear 1996 Borthwick et al. 1999; Cleghorn 1996; Goodman and Cleghorn 1991; Hammatt and Shideler 2001; Meeker 1991; Perzinski et al. 2000 Colin et al. 1995

Surface survey Surface assessment and subsurface testing

Extensive subsurface testing Inadvertent discovery of human remains

Widespread cultural deposit throughout Kualoa Regional Park; one area with waterlogged component Burials mostly near eastern border of project area

Discovery of eroding deposit Inadvertent discovery of human remains Inadvertent discovery of human remains Monitoring

Cultural deposit eroding on east beachfront of Kualoa Regional Park -5361: burial -5376: burial Widespread cultural deposit throughout Kualoa Regional Park

Data recovery

Cultural deposit with firepit and postmolds in Kualoa Regional Park

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In scattered places along the sandy coastal plain and also in the sandy peninsula of the project area, at least 50 individual burials have been exposed by natural erosion and by modern construction activities (Cleghorn 1994; Colin, Borthwick, and Hammatt 1995; Douglas 1990, 1991; Dye 1995, 1996a, 1996b; Kawachi 1990; Pietrusewsky and Douglas 1989; Spear 1996). Some of the burials are clearly of post-Contact age, found in wooden coffins or with foreign clothing buttons. Specifically in the project area, prior excavations documented a single cultural layer, usually 0.15 to 0.5 m thick. In one area 1 m below the surface, a waterlogged component yielded preserved organic materials (Gunness 1993:60). The cultural deposit had been disturbed or completely removed in some locations. At least 40 of the more than 50 known burials in Kualoa were found near the eastern edge of the project area. The discontinuous cultural deposit in and around the project area yielded artifacts of preContact, early post-Contact, and modern time periods. Fourteen radiocarbon dates range from modern to 420 70 years BP (Colin et al. 1995; Gunness 1987:264-266). Eight are modern, and another four range 50 60 to 230 90 years BP. Only two dates (340 80 and 420 70 years BP) are clearly of pre-Contact age. Five new dates from the present (1986) investigations are reported in the Radiocarbon Dating section of this report. The project area appears to contain a rich but irregular subsurface cultural layer with components of varied time periods. A number of natural and cultural formation processes have caused site deflation, disturbance, and partial removal. Waterlogged deposits may be present in scattered loci more than 1 m below the surface. Burials may be present almost anywhere in the sand but especially in the eastern portion of the project area.

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PROJECT AREA STRATIGRAPHY

The monitoring and data recovery documented four major stratigraphic units, with some horizontal variation across the project area: Stratum I: Dark grayish brown (10 YR 4/2) manufactured road fill mixed with white (10 YR 8/1) crushed coral; weakly cemented; very abrupt, wavy lower boundary; no roots; 0.15 m thick; modern road fill, possibly mixed with remnant of WW II airstrip

Stratum II: Dark reddish brown (5 YR 2.5/2) sandy loam; moist, friable consistence; slightly plastic; very abrupt, wavy lower boundary; common roots; 0.05 to 0.2 m thick; post-Contact agricultural layer Stratum III: Black (10 YR 2/1) loamy sand, fine calcareous grains; dry, soft consistence; non-plastic; clear, smooth lower boundary; very few or no roots; 0.1 to 0.8 m thick, mostly 0.15 to 0.5 m; pre-Contact and post-Contact cultural deposit Stratum IV: White (10 YR 8/2) sand; fine and medium calcareous grains; dry, loose consistence; non-plastic; lower boundary not reached; no roots; at least 0.4 m thick; no cultural material The horizontal variation involves five stratigraphic combinations: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Strata I through IV; Strata II through IV; Strata II and IV; Strata III and IV; and Stratum IV only.

Stratum I corresponds to the old park entry road in the middle of the project area, possibly mixed with a remnant portion of the WW II airstrip. Manufactured road fill clearly relates to the former road, overlaying and partially mixed with crushed coral likely from the WWII airstrip. Stratum II is a historic agricultural layer, documented in scattered portions of the west side of the project area. Land records and local residents indicate sugarcane and other industrial crops at occasional short-lived intervals from the 1870s or 1880s through the 1930s.

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Stratum III is the primary cultural deposit, representing several centuries of occupation. It is present in most places, but its thickness varies 0.1 to 0.8 m, mostly 0.15 to 0.5 m. In one known case, a deep (below 1 m) waterlogged deposit formed a lower portion of Stratum III (Gunness 1993:60), probably in a former ponded area prior to filling by sand. Stratum IV is in all parts of the project area, and it represents the natural formation of the sandy peninsula at Kualoa. It was interrupted in some places by cultural deposits. The formation of each successive layer had disturbed and in some cases completely removed its immediately preceding layer. Very abrupt, wavy lower boundaries for Strata I and II indicate disturbance of underlying deposits. The underlying deposits in these areas are consistently thinner than in other areas, suggesting that they were partially truncated by the overlying strata. In some cases, Stratum III likely was removed entirely. Several subsurface features are evident in Stratum III, and very few are in Stratum II. Their vertical distribution indicates use at different time intervals during the formation of Strata II and III. These features mostly are postmolds, and a few firepits were documented. Pavings of waterworn basalt and coral pebbles are rare in Stratum III and absent from Stratum II. In one case, an artificial canal feature was documented in Stratum III. Also within Strata II and III, scattered lenses of natural marine sand indicate periodic, short-term episodes of natural deposition interspersed throughout the extended cultural use of the area. Continued use of Strata II and III, however, obliterated these sandy layers in most places, and only traces of scattered lenses remain. Where they are present, these intermittent lenses provide a means for chronological distinction within the cultural layers. The sand lenses are generally fine-grained or very fine-grained in landward areas, whereas they are generally of mixed grain sizes in seaward areas. The landward sand lenses probably are the result of windblown sand deflated from seaward areas. The seaward lenses likely are from high-sea events. In some cases, predominance of coarse grains and coral debris suggests high-energy oceanic overwash, perhaps from a powerful storm surge or tsunami. Artifacts and midden indicate pre-Contact and post-Contact associations for Stratum III and entirely post-Contact association for Stratum II. Stratum III contains tools and food refuse typical of residential areas, present in variable density horizontally and vertically. The firepits, stone pavings, and numerous postmolds also indicate residential activities. Stratum II appears to be a historic agricultural layer, and it contains very few material remains. Stratum III corresponds to the primary cultural deposit documented by almost every investigation at Kualoa Regional Park. It exhibits the same general characteristics as have been reported previously, including multiple pre-Contact and post-Contact components, scattered artifacts and midden, postmolds, firepits, and stone pavings (Gunness 1986, 1987, 1993). However, no burials or waterlogged components were exposed in the project area.

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SAMPLED LOCALITIES
During the archaeological monitoring, eight monitoring sample areas (MSA-1 through-8) were identified as containing cultural deposits representative of the stratigraphic sequence. Three controlled test units (TU-1 through -3) were excavated for data recovery of significant posits for documenting the nature and chronology of human occupation in the area (Fig. 9).

MONITORING SAMPLE AREA 1

MSA-1 was the south face of a 2-m section of a trench for a water sprinkler line, excavated 0.75 to 0.78 m deep (Fig. 10). This 2-m section displayed Strata II, III, and IV. Stratum III contained remnants of a stone paving. Some of these stones were set on-end, possibly around former posts, but no postmolds were evident. The Stratum III stone paving may include two horizontal components (one seaward and another landward), both built after Stratum III had already accumulated at least 0.05 to 0.1 m vertically. The pavings may have been constructed after 0.2 to 0.25 m of Stratum III sediment accumulation, intruding into older portions of the deposit. In the seaward (east) part of MSA-1, two sand lenses (lenses i and ii) overlay Stratum III, emplaced probably around the abandonment of the seaward stone paving feature. The grainsize distribution suggests oceanic overwash from a high-sea event, such as a storm surge or tsunami. Both lenses include mostly medium and coarse calcareous grains. Few fine and no very fine grains are present, indicating probable deflation by wind. The deposition of Stratum II appears to have involved disturbance and partial removal of Stratum III, as indicated by the very abrupt, wavy stratigraphic interface. The sand lenses between Strata II and III suggest that the deposition of Stratum II may have removed more extensive lenses or a more widespread sandy layer.

MONITORING SAMPLE AREA 2

MSA-2 was the south face of a 2-m section of a trench for a water sprinkler line, excavated 0.4 to 0.52 m deep (Fig. 11). This 2-m section revealed Strata II, III, and IV. Stratum III contained several small sand lenses and one large firepit.

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Figure 9.

Distribution of monitoring sample areas and controlled test units.

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Figure 10.

Profile of Monitoring Sample Area 1, view to south.

Figure 11.

Profile of Monitoring Sample Area 2, view to south.

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The firepit was identified by its dense charcoal and ash content, fire-altered heating stones, and surrounding fire-hardened sediment. It was a basin-shaped pit, 1.1 m in diameter and 0.2 m deep, originating at the base of Stratum III. It contained at least 30 basalt cobbles that resembled heating stones, and at least ten were fire-cracked. Five sand lenses (lenses i through v) were identified in the south profile of Stratum III. Their vertical distribution suggests that they are the remnants of at least two and possibly three oceanic overwash episodes, such as from a storm surge or tsunami. The grain-size distribution is mostly medium and coarse. Very few fine grains and no very fine grains indicate probable deflation by wind action. Continued deposition of Stratum III probably removed more extensive lenses or a more widespread sandy layer. The very abrupt, wavy interface between Strata II and III indicates disturbance and likely truncation of the upper portion of Stratum III. The effect appears greater in the seaward (east) portion of Stratum III. However, the landward (westward) thickening and incline of Stratum III are consistent with the Stratum IV incline, and these conditions could relate to a former beach ridge about 92 m from the present shoreline. If the truncation of Stratum III was consistent horizontally within this 2-m section at MSA-2, then a former beach ridge is very likely to have been at this location. The possible former beach ridge would have existed prior to the inception of the Stratum III deposit. It could relate to the initial emergence of the peninsular landform above sea level after the drawdown from the mid-Holocene highstand. The distance of 92 m from the present shoreline indicates substantial coastal progradation since whenever the ridge had formed.

MONITORING SAMPLE AREA 3

MSA-3 was the west face of a 2-m section of a trench for a water sprinkler line, excavated 0.7 to 0.8 m deep. No profile was drawn, but field notes indicate the presence of Strata II (0 to 0.2 m below surface), III (0.2 to 0.5 m), and IV (0.6 m and deeper). This portion of Stratum III reportedly included at least two postmolds.

MONITORING SAMPLE AREA 4

MSA-4 was the west face of a 4-m section of a trench for a water sprinkler line, excavated 0.64 to 1.41 m deep (Fig. 12). This section disclosed portions of Strata II, III, and IV. In one area, Strata II and III were mottled. A firepit was in the base of Stratum III. Artifacts and midden were visible in the exposed profile of Stratum III, the firepit, and the mottled area of Strata II and III. The Stratum III firepit contained the densest cultural material in the entire project area, and it also yielded evidence of the earliest human activity.

36

Figure 12. Profile of Monitoring Sample Area 4, view to west. Stratum III intruded into a portion of Stratum IV, and it included significant variation within this 4-m section. The north portion of Stratum III at this location may have been on the seaward (south) side of a former beach berm. The south portion includes a step-like outer edge, possibly reflecting gradual southward expansion of the Stratum III occupation between the lower and upper steps of the deposit. The mottling of Strata II and III is confined to a 2.4-m section, and it could represent a third step in the southward horizontal expansion of Stratum III. In other areas, a very abrupt, wavy boundary between Strata II and III indicates disturbance and partial removal of Stratum III. The mottling in this particular locality suggests intrusion into Stratum III but not its removal. Samples of artifacts and midden were retrieved from the exposed west profile of the mottled Strata II and III, Stratum III, and the firepit at the base of Stratum III (Table 3). From the mottled Strata II and III, a 64-liter bulk sample was wet-screened, yielding 55.9 g of charcoal, 29 animal bones, 236.9 g of marine shellfish remains, and 20 basalt flakes or shatter. From Stratum III, artifacts and midden scraped from the exposed profile included 33 mammal bones, two Isognomon sp. marine shells, and five basalt flakes. From the firepit at the base of Stratum III, a 37-liter bulk sample was wet-screened, yielding 16.6 g of charcoal, 9.6 g of charred kukui (candlenut or Aleurites moluccana) nutshells, 18 mammal bones, seven chicken bones, three Rattus exulans bones, 114 fish bones, 288.6 g of marine shellfish remains, six basalt flakes, and the tip component of a two-piece bone fishhook. The firepit originated from the base of the earliest portion of Stratum III. The firepit was identified by its dense charcoal and ash content and by fire-reddening and hardening of surrounding and underlying sand. It was 0.6 m in diameter and 0.2 m deep. Artifacts and extremely dense midden in the firepit probably represent unusable remnants of tools and discarded food remains.

37

Table 3.

Summary of archaeological materials recovered from Monitoring Sample Area 4. Mottled Strata II and III 64-liter bulk sample 55.9 g Stratum III Scraped from west profile Firepit, base of Stratum III 37-liter bulk sample 16.6 g 9.6 g 9 6 33 3 11 236.9 g 20 3 18 7 114 288.6 g 6 1 Beta-28136: 840 40 years BP

Material Charcoal Nutshells, kukui (candlenut or Aleurites moluccana) Bone, pig or dog Bone, Rattus exulans Bone, unidentified mammal Bone, chicken Bone, unidentified bird Bone, fish Marine shellfish remains Basalt flake or shatter Fishhook, tip portion of twopiece bone hook Radiocarbon dating sample

2.7 g 5

From the firepit at the base of Stratum III, a sample of 15.1 g of the 16.6 g of charcoal was submitted for radiocarbon dating. Sample Beta-28136 produced a conventional age of 840 40 years BP, calibrated (at 2 Sigma) in three possible ranges: 1) AD 1040 to 1090 (7.4%); 2) AD 1120 to 1140 (2.1%); or 3) AD 1150 to 1280 (85.8%). This result is the earliest radiocarbon date for the project area, and it is among the earliest dates from secure archaeological context in the Hawaiian Archipelago. The apparent step-like horizontal expansion of Stratum III involved a narrow band along an east-west axis with three components: 1) 1.6 m north-south by an unknown distance eastwest; 2) 2 m north-south by an unknown distance east-west; and 3) 3.2 m north-south by and unknown distance east-west. The earliest component is associated with the date of 840 40 years BP. The later components are of unknown age, but absence of post-Contact materials suggests dates prior to the AD 1800s. The Stratum III occupation in this part of the project area probably was elongated eastwest, parallel to a south-facing shore. The east-west extent of the occupation is unclear. Possible horizontal expansion may have followed a prograding shoreline. Mostly, the progradation was due to southward accretion of the sandy peninsula.

38

MONITORING SAMPLE AREA 5

MSA-5 was approximately 1 by 1 m in an area grubbed and graded to a depth of about 0.5 m for road realignment. This activity exposed portions of Strata I (ca. 0 to 0.1 m below surface), II (ca. 0.1 to 0.25 m), III (ca. 0.25 to 0.3 m), and IV (below ca. 0.3 m). A firepit was reported in Stratum III. Historic and possible prehistoric materials were recovered (Table 4). No profile was drawn. Imprecise documentation was probably due to discovery during mass excavation that disallowed clear horizontal and vertical control. Table 4. Summary of archaeological materials recovered from Monitoring Sample Area 5. Material

Stratum II Stratum III Graded surface 15-liter bulk sample Charcoal 15.1 g Marine shellfish remains 3.8 g Basalt flake 11 Basalt adze 1 Stoneware ceramic plate fragment 1 From near the surface of Stratum II, a stoneware ceramic plate fragment, eleven basalt flakes, and one complete small basalt adze (less than 5 cm length) were recovered. The plate fragment appears to be of early to middle 20th century age. The basalt artifacts almost certainly pre-date the middle 19th century. From the reported firepit in Stratum III, a 15-liter bulk sample was wet-screened, yielding 15.1 g of charcoal and 3.8 g of marine shellfish remains. Nearly all of the shellfish remains (3.7 of 3.8 g) consisted of crab claws, possibly intrusive into the deposit. The firepit characteristics, dimensions, and position within Stratum III are unknown.

MONITORING SAMPLE AREA 6

MSA-6 was approximately 1 by 1 m in an area grubbed and graded to a depth of 0.4 to 0.48 m for road realignment (Fig. 13). This activity exposed portions of Strata I though IV. Stratum II contained materials of mixed age, and Stratum III contained a definite prehistoric deposit (Table 5). Stratum II included numerous sand lenses. Stratum III was present in scattered pockets, and one pocket included a firepit. A 1 by 1 m portion of the mass-excavated area was cleaned manually to document west and north profiles.

39

Figure 13. Table 5.

Profile of Monitoring Sample Area 6, views to west and north. Summary of archaeological materials recovered from Monitoring Sample Area 6.

Stratum II Stratum III 30-liter bulk sample 15-liter bulk sample Firepit Charcoal 11.1 g 13.2 g Marine shellfish remains 32.5 g 1.7 g Plastic fragments <1g Beta-28134: Beta-28135: Radiocarbon sample 410 40 years BP 650 40 years BP Material Apparently from near the surface of Stratum II, one basalt flake and one flaking core were recovered during monitoring of the mass-grading. A 30-liter bulk sample from Stratum II was wet-screened, yielding 11.1 g of charcoal, 32.5 g of marine shellfish remains, and less than 1 g of plastic fragments. The plastic fragments clearly are modern. The other materials are of unknown age. The multiple sand lenses in Stratum II indicate periodic short-term interruptions of Stratum II, possibly relating to periods of inactivity in the historic era agricultural fields at Kualoa. The grain-size distribution included mostly fine and very fine calcareous particles, few medium-sized grains, and no coarse grains. The sand probably was wind-blown from the northeast during multiple events. The scattered small remnants of Stratum III suggest large-scale removal by later natural and cultural processes, probably during the emplacement of Stratum II. The abrupt, wavy lower boundary of Stratum II indicates partially removal of whatever had underlain it.

40

A 15-liter bulk sample from a remnant pocket of Stratum III was wet-screened, yielding 13.2 g of charcoal and 1.7 g of marine shellfish remains. These materials likely represent general habitation debris. A firepit originated at the base of Stratum III, about 0.6 m in diameter and 0.1 m deep. It contained dense charcoal and ash. The surrounding and underlying sand was fire-reddened and hardened. No heating stones, artifacts, or midden were reported. Two charcoal samples from MSA-6 were submitted for radiocarbon dating. From Stratum III above the firepit, sample Beta-28134 returned a conventional age of 410 40 years BP, calibrated (at 2 Sigma) within the range of AD 1420 to 1530 (71.8%) or AD 1550 to 1640 (23.6%). From the firepit, sample Beta-28135 returned a conventional age of 650 40 years BP, calibrated (at 2 Sigma) within the range of AD 1270 to 1400. The radiocarbon dates from MSA-6 indicate at least two prehistoric occupation components in a rather thin (less than 0.1 m) portion of Stratum III. The dates are in stratigraphic order, and their 2 Sigma ranges do not overlap.

MONITORING SAMPLE AREA 7

MSA-7 was approximately 1.5 by 1.5 m in an area grubbed and graded to a depth of 0.68 m for road realignment (Fig. 14). This activity disclosed portions of Strata III and IV. Part of a canal extended from the surface and intruded through both strata. Multiple sand lenses were noted within the canal feature fill.

Figure 14.

Profile of MSA-7, view to west.

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The stratigraphic origin of the canal feature is unclear, but it may have been toward the top of Stratum III. The upper portion of Stratum III may have been removed by grading or other land-altering activities. In any case, the canal feature intrudes through the remaining portion of Stratum III and part of Stratum IV. The multiple sand lenses in the canal feature represent intermittent, gradual natural filling of the canal. The lenses almost certainly were deposited after abandonment of the canal, or else they would have been removed during periodic cleaning to facilitate water flow. The sand grains are almost entirely fine and very fine, indicating windblown deposition. Observations at MSA-7, MSA-8, and TU-3 collectively indicate that the canal feature was aligned east-northeast to west-southwest. The canal may have connected Koholalele Pond to the ocean.

MONITORING SAMPLE AREA 8

MSA-8 was approximately 1.5 by 1.5 m in an area grubbed and graded to a depth of about 0.75 m for a road realignment. This activity disclosed portions of Strata III and IV. Part of a probable canal feature extended from the surface and intruded through both strata. In this area, the canal feature was unclear, and no profile was drawn. documentation was achieved at MSA-7 and TU-3. Better

TEST UNITS 1 AND 2

TU-1 was approximately 1.15 by 0.6 m, excavated manually prior to grubbing and grading for a road alignment, placed adjacent to a partial backhoe trench. TU-2 was about the same size, and it was essentially an expansion of the same excavation area on the opposite side of the backhoe trench. The excavation was 0.64 to 0.66 m deep, and it revealed portions of Strata II through IV (Fig. 15). Stratum III contained a firepit and a few postmolds. Stratum III included three components of step-like horizontal expansion, incrementally expanding eastward. The lowest component was partially disturbed by a sand lens. The next component included three small postmolds. The upper component contained the firepit and one postmold. An eastward expansion of Stratum III suggests probable eastward progradation of the beach at this location, reflecting a localized irregularity in the shoreline. The overall accretion of the peninsula was southward. When the earliest portions of Stratum III were deposited, the former shoreline curved slightly landward in the area between TU-1 and MSA-4.

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Figure 15.

Profile of Test Unit 1, views to west, north, and east.

Sand lenses in the south edge of TU-1 reflect at least five oceanic overwash events, probably in the context of a south-facing beach. The sand grains are mostly medium and coarse, with few fine and no very fine particles. In the lowest components of Stratum III, three sand lenses indicate close proximity to the former shoreline. The lowest lens (lens v) is mottled with the black loamy sand of Stratum III, indicating disturbance and partial removal of the earliest component of Stratum III. Stratum III produced artifacts and midden typical of prehistoric habitation debris, collected in four internal artificial levels and separately from the firepit (Table 6). Virtually no vertical change was evident in the excavated assemblage. The artifacts included basalt flakes and shatter, one small basalt flake with slight polish, and volcanic glass flakes. The midden included mostly marine shellfish remains, some fish bones, few mammal bones, and one Rattus exulans bone. Charcoal, non-charred kukui (candlenut or Aleurites moluccana) nutshells, and firecracked rocks were also present. Radiocarbon dating at TU-1 included one sample from the lowest component of Stratum III and another from the firepit in the uppermost component. The lower sample (Beta-28137) produced a conventional age of 530 40 years BP, calibrated (at 2 Sigma) within the range of AD 1300 to 1360 (29.1%) or AD 1380 to 1450 (85.8%). The firepit sample (Beta-28138) returned a conventional age of 150 50 years BP, calibrated (at 2 Sigma) within the range of AD 1660 to 1950.

43

Table 6.

Summary of archaeological materials recovered from Test Units 1 and 2.

Stratum III 0.1/0.2 to 0.3 m bs (105 liters) 452.6 g 0.3 to 0.4 m bs (75 liters) 41.3 g 0.4 to 0.5 m bs (45 liters) 17 g 0.5 to 0.6 m bs (30 liters) 14.8 g Firepit, 0.35 to 0.54 m bs (190 liters) 247.4 g

Material Charcoal Nutshell, kukui (candlenut or Aleurites moluccana) Bone, Rattus exulans Bone, unidentified mammal Bone, fish Marine shellfish remains Basalt flake and shatter Basalt flake with polish Volcanic glass flake Fire-cracked rocks Radiocarbon sample

3.5 g 1

11.8 g

26.4 g

13.5 g

19.9 g

1 6

11

192.9 g 10

133.3 5 1

63 g 4

26.4 g

242.8 g

3 1113 g

1 434 g

3 324 g 1385 g 3170 g Beta-28137: Beta-28138: 530 40 years BP 150 50 years BP

The dating results support the interpretation of an incremental horizontal expansion of Stratum III. The 2 Sigma ranges do not overlap. The early and late components of the deposit may have been separated by a few hundred years. The earliest component was probably close to the former south-facing shoreline. In the latest component, the firepit was used probably after the beach had accreted significantly southward. Also in its latest component, Stratum III had expanded eastward, over a bed of Stratum IV sand that had filled a slight landward curve in the shoreline.

TEST UNIT 3
TU-3 was approximately 1 by 1.5 m, excavated manually prior to grubbing and grading for a road realignment. The excavation was about 0.75 m deep. It exposed portions of Strata III

44

and IV, and a canal feature was evident. No excavation profile was drawn, but field notes indicate it was consistent with that of MSA-7 (see Fig. 15). Observations at TU-3, when combined with those at MSA-7 and -8, revealed that the canal feature was oriented east-northeast to west-southwest. It may have connected Kohohale Pond to the ocean. The stratigraphic origin of the canal feature was unclear. It may have been near the top of Stratum III. However, it clearly intruded through Stratum III and part of Stratum IV. Multiple sand lenses in the canal feature represent natural filling, presumably post-dating abandonment of the canal. When the canal was in use, the sand lenses and other accumulated sediment would have been removed during periodic cleaning to facilitate water flow. During the controlled excavation, sediments were removed for wet-screening, including 128 liters from the upper portion of Stratum III, 80 liters from the lower portion of Stratum III, and 224 liters from the canal feature fill (Table 7). No significant stratigraphic variation was evident in the material assemblage. The recovered materials included low frequency of charcoal, many fish bones, few other animal bones, a fair amount of marine shellfish remains, few basalt flakes or shatter, and few volcanic glass flakes. Table 7. Summary of archaeological materials recovered from Test Unit 3. Stratum III 0 to 0.1 m bs 0.1 to 0.2 m bs (120 liters) (75 liters) 6.8 g 2.5 g 1 5 1 3 1 30 8 245.1 g 11 5 90.7 g 2 Canal Feature Fill 0 to 0.65 m bs (210 liters) 8.9 g 2 9 57 343.8 g 3 7

Material Charcoal Bone, pig or dog Bone, Rattus exulans Bone, bird Bone, fish Marine shellfish remains Basalt flake or shatter Volcanic glass flake

The materials in Stratum III and in the canal feature fill are typical of prehistoric habitation debris. In particular, the presence of Rattus exulans and absence of historically introduced rodents suggests a prehistoric age. Most likely, the canal feature fill was eroded from the adjacent Stratum III deposit, which actually pre-dates the construction of the canal. Nonetheless, the absence of historic and modern materials suggests filling prior to the historic period and probably prior to the middle AD 1800s.

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46

ARTIFACTS AND MIDDEN

Stratum III yielded nearly all of the artifacts and midden collected during the 1986 monitoring and data recovery. The most frequent artifacts were basalt flakes and shatter, and some volcanic glass flakes were also present. One small (less than 5 cm length) basalt adze was recovered from a disturbed context during monitoring. One bone fishhook tip was found in a controlled excavation. Historic materials consisted mostly of small fragments of glass and metal, and one piece of a stoneware ceramic plate was recovered. Midden included mostly shellfish remains, and few animal bones were present. Charcoal was collected from in situ concentrations and from wet-screened bulk samples.

BASALT FLAKES AND SHATTER

Basalt flakes and shatter included 76 specimens from the monitoring and data recovery, comprised of 31 from MSA-4, 11 from MSA-5, 20 from TU-1 and -2, and 11 from TU-3. The material is medium-grained to coarse-grained basalt, less effective than fine-grained material for production of adzes or most other tools. Flake or shatter length ranged 5 mm to 6 cm (Fig. 16).

Figure 16.

Photograph of sample of basalt flakes, basalt shatter, and volcanic glass flakes. Top row: volcanic glass flakes. Middle and bottom rows: basalt flakes and shatter. Materials are from TU-3, Stratum III, 0 to 0.1 m below surface.

47

Only one flake (from Stratum III in TU-1) exhibited some polish, probably removed from an adze during use or re-working. None of the other flakes or pieces of shatter display diagnostic characteristics of modification or use.

VOLCANIC GLASS FLAKES

The controlled excavations recovered 21 volcanic glass flakes, including seven from TU-1 and -2 and 14 from TU-3. None were identified during monitoring of mass earth-moving. Flake length ranged 5 to 15 mm (see Fig. 16). Of the 21 flakes, 14 were from Stratum III. Seven were in secondary context in a canal feature fill, but they likely had eroded from the Stratum III deposit dissected by the canal.

BASALT ADZE
During monitoring, one small basalt adze was found on the graded surface of Stratum II at MSA-5 (Fig. 17). The specimen is slightly less than 5 cm long, 2.5 cm wide, and 0.5 cm thick. It may have been re-worked from a larger adze. Its present form is suitable for fine-scale work, possibly for bowls or other small objects or possibly for artistic details of larger items.

Figure 17.

Photograph of basalt adze, from MSA-5, graded surface of Stratum II. Left: front view. Right: back view.

48

The provenience of this adze near the Stratum II surface does not necessarily indicate historic age comparable with Stratum II. The deposition of Stratum II involved disturbance of the underlying strata, so the adze may have originated from a disturbed prehistoric component of Stratum III. Also, this particular specimen was discovered during monitoring of mass earthmoving near the surface of Stratum II at MSA-5. but it may have been re-deposited from elsewhere in the project area.

BONE FISHHOOK POINT

The tip component of a two-piece bone fishhook was retrieved from a firepit in the base of Stratum III at MSA-4 (Fig. 18). The specimen is about 1.5 cm long. The associated firepit produced a radiocarbon date (Beta-28136) of 840 40 years BP, calibrated most likely (85.8%) in the range of AD 1150 to 1280.

Figure 18.

Photograph of tip component of two-piece bone fishhook, from MSA-4, firepit in Stratum III.

HISTORIC MATERIALS
During monitoring of grading, grubbing, and trenching, historic materials were observed mostly in Stratum II, and very few were in Stratum III. These materials consisted mostly of small fragments of glass and metal, and some pieces of plastic were also noted. None were collected. The single historic material collection was one piece of a stoneware ceramic plate, found near the surface of Stratum II at MSA-5 during grading. The piece weighs 22.8 g, and the complete plate would have been about 20 cm in diameter. The top face displays a blue on white hand-painted pattern, representing part of a floral motif design. The bottom face displays the right-hand end of

49

five type-face stamped lines: 1) stoneware; 2) daisy: 3) detergent proof; 4) table, and 5) pan. The decoration and the writing indicate an early to middle 20th century date.

MARINE SHELLFISH REMAINS

Overall, the marine shellfish remains were typical of a sandy Hawaiian coastal setting, and no significant stratigraphic variation was evident in taxa. The most abundant taxa included Trochus sp., Turbo sp., Nerita spp., Strombus spp., Hipponix sp., Cypraea spp., Conus spp., Brachidontes sp., Tellina sp., and Echinodermata (sea urchin). Overall density of shellfish remains (grams per 100 liters of sampled sediment) provides a useful estimate of the intensity of human occupation for 13 proveniences where total sample volume was recorded (Fig. 19). In eight of 13 cases, the density ranges 88 to 204 g per 100 liters of sediment, and this range represents the general intensity of human activity for the project area. Stratum III at MSA-5 and -6 appears to be an area of low-intensity activity, with 11 to 25 g per 100 liters. MSA-4, however, produced unusually high densities of marine shellfish remains, ranging 370 to 780 g per 100 liters.

Figure 19.

Density of marine shellfish remains.

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The densest marine shellfish remains (780 g per 100 liters) occurred in a firepit at the base of Stratum III at MSA-4. This particular firepit produced the earliest radiocarbon date of the project area, cal. AD 1040 to 1280 (Beta-28136). The association with abundant cultural material and intensive occupation is especially important to define the context of this early date. During the 1986 investigation, marine shellfish remains from MSA-4 and TU-3 were selected for detailed analysis. The analysis allows comparison between the high density of material at MSA-4 and the more typical density represented at TU-3. Two noticeable anomalies include: 1) an exceptionally high frequency of Conus spp. shells in the Stratum III firepit at MSA-4; and 2) a high frequency of Brachidontes sp. shells in the upper portion of Stratum III in TU-3. Otherwise, the results disclose no significant difference in the range and relative frequencies of taxa. The exceptionally high frequency of Conus spp. shells is likely due to food preferences in the context of the Stratum III firepit at MSA-4. These shellfish probably comprised a main component of a meal, or perhaps they were a preferred food item for the person(s) using this particular firepit.

VERTEBRATE FAUNAL REMAINS

The vertebrate faunal assemblage reflects a subsistence emphasis on fish, supplemented by pig or dog and bird. The bones includes ten of pig or dog, 18 of Rattus exulans bones, 52 of unidentified mammal, seven of chicken, 16 of unidentified bird, and 242 of fish. Most of this material was collected from MSA-4 and TU-3. The count of 52 unidentified mammal bones is skewed by 33 fragments totaling just 4.1 g, scraped from the Stratum III profile at MSA-4. Discounting this occurrence, the relative frequency of mammal bone is rather low. Of the 242 fish bones, merely 18 identifiable elements were of Carangidae, Diodontidae, Elasmobranchii, and Scaridae. Each of these taxa could be captured in nearshore areas, but some also could be captured in deeper offshore waters. The presence of Rattus exulans but no historically introduced rodent suggests that the sampled deposits pre-date the AD 1800s. Indeed, associated radiocarbon dates suggest prehistoric ages for the sampled areas. This pattern differs from other investigations at Kualoa Regional Park that have for the most part sampled deposits associated with historic or modern radiocarbon dates. Plotting the density of fish bones and total animal bones (specimens per 100 liters of sampled sediment) provides a means to evaluate the relative role of fish and also the overall intensity of food consumption at 10 proveniences where fish bones were recovered from samples of known volume (Fig. 20). The results show that fish bones are consistently the dominant faunal category and sometimes the only category represented.

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Table 8.

Detailed identification of marine shellfish remains from selected proveniences.

TU-3, Stratum III MSA-4 0 to 0.1 to Mottled Strata Stratum III, 0.1 m bs 0.2 m bs II and III Firepit (120 liters) (75 liters) (64 liters) (37 liters) 0.2 23.2 42.7 3 15.7 7.5 0.9 30.7 9.1 3.9 0.7 4 0.3 < 0.1 4.2 1.4 4.4 0.5 66.3 0.6 1.2 1.5 12.9 0.8 3.4 4.4 1.6 245.1 0.1 4.9 14.2 0.5 8.5 0.6 8.8 5.9 5.9 1.6 0.1 < 0.1 2.3 0.3 1.2 0.4 27.6 1.8 0.2 0.6 2.5 0.1 1.3 0.9 0.4 90.7

Taxon Gastropods Crepidula sp. Trochus sp. Turbo sp. shell Turbo sp. opercula Nerita reticulata Nerita polita Littorina sp. Strombus spp. Hipponix sp. Cypraea spp. Natica sp. Cymatium sp. Drupa sp. Thais sp. Mitra sp. Conus spp. Terebra sp. Unidentified gastropod Bivalves Arca sp. Brachidontes sp. Pinctada sp. Isognomon sp. Ostrea sp. Lucina sp. Cardita sp. Periglypta sp. Unidentified bivalve Echinodermata Mouth and body parts Spines TOTAL

7.3 55.6 1.7 8.9 0.9 36.6 9.7 2.9 1.8 0.4 0.1 38.2 5.3 0.3 28.9 5.7 13.8 1 7.2 0.5 2.2 4.8 3.1 236.9

1.8 53.6 1.3 6.2 1.4 48.8 6.4 1.3 1.8 0.3

123.4 1.3 0.4 1 16.4 1.3 7.5 0.5 9.7 1.4 0.9 1.3 0.6 288.6

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Figure 20.

Density of fish and total animal bones.

The firepit at the base of Stratum III at MSA-4 is identified clearly as the locus of the most intensive food consumption, associated with the early radiocarbon date (Beta-28136) of cal. AD 1040 to 1280. To a certain extent, the high density of material is due to the context of a firepit where food items tend to be discarded. By way of comparison, however, the firepit in TU1 yielded very low density of material. This result is consistent with the density distribution of shellfish remains (see Fig. 19).

CHARCOAL
Charcoal was collected from wet-screening and from point-provenienced in situ samples, primarily for potential radiocarbon dating. The total charcoal assemblage amounted to 903.2 g. In 2006, the retained portions of charcoal from the two contexts of the earliest radiocarbon dates (Beta-28136 from MSA-4 and Beta-28135 from MSA-6) were identified as consisting entirely of Tetreplasandra sp. (ohe), an endemic Hawaiian shrub or tree. The previously dated samples most likely consisted of this taxon.

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54

RADIOCARBON DATING
The 1986 monitoring and data recovery contributed five new radiocarbon dates (Beta28134 through -28138), adding to 14 others reported for Kualoa Regional Park (Table 9, Fig. 21). The results reveal a significantly older occupation than has been documented by other investigations. In particular, the date of cal. AD 1040 to 1280 (Beta-28136) ranks among the earliest of the region. Table 9.
Beta Sample #

Radiocarbon dating results.

Measured 14 C Age (Years BP)
13

Calibrated Calendar Years Provenience (2 sigma or 95.4%)* MSA-6, Stratum III, upper AD 1420 to 1530 (71.8%); 28134 component 440 40 -26.7 410 40 AD 1550 to 1640 (23.6%) MSA-6, Stratum III, lower component, firepit 28135 690 40 -27.5 650 40 AD 1270 to 1400 MSA-4, Stratum III, lower AD 1040 to 1090 (7.4%); component, AD 1120 to 1140 (2.1%); AD 1150 to 1280 (85.8%) 28136 firepit 780 40 -21.3 840 40 TU-1, Stratum III, AD 1300 to 1360 (29.1%); lower 28137 component 540 40 -25.6 530 40 AD 1380 to 1450 (66.3%) TU-1, Stratum III, upper component, 28138 firepit 180 50 -26.7 150 50 AD 1660 to 1950 Note: * All calibrations are by OxCal (Bronk Ramsey 2001), using standard atmospheric data (Stuiver et al. 1998).

C/12C ()

Conventional 14 C Age (Years BP)

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Figure 21.

Probability distribution of all radiocarbon dates from Kualoa Regional Park. Calibrations are by OxCal (Bronk Ramsey 2001), using standard atmospheric data (Stuiver et al. 1998). All samples are charcoal of unidentified taxa.

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The radiocarbon dates reflect considerable temporal variation within the Stratum III cultural deposit throughout Kualoa Regional Park. The complexity of Stratum III involves several factors: a) b) Activity areas expanded horizontally in gradual increments, following a prograding shoreline. Continued use of a limited available space disturbed and partially removed underlying occupation layers, resulting in a succession of thin, truncated deposits with little or distinction between adjacent occupation periods. Intensive use of the area may have compressed the sandy substrate, compounded in the most heavily used loci. Particularly in seaward areas with little or no ground cover, strong trade winds caused deflation by removing small sand particles.

c) d)

The early date of cal. AD 1040 to 1280 (Beta-28136) is especially significant for its associated context. Many other early Hawaiian dates are of ambiguous context. Sample Beta28136 was from a firepit at the base of Stratum III at MSA-4. The stratigraphy indicated that the firepit was in a narrow beachfront activity area, aligned east-west near a south-facing shoreline, prior to substantial southward accretion of the sandy peninsula. The firepit itself contained extremely dense food remains, consisting mostly of Conus spp. shells and fish bones. A few discarded artifacts were present, including the tip component of a two-piece bone fishhook. The density and range of materials suggest intensive activity at this early date. The dated charcoal was from a discrete firepit feature, where retained samples consisted entirely of Tetraplasandra sp. (ohe), an endemic Hawaiian shrub or tree.

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58

CHRONOLOGICAL SYNTHESIS
The basic stratigraphy (Strata I through IV), when coordinated with a geomorphological model for the Kualoa peninsula, indicates a relative sequence of site formation. Oral traditions may refer to certain events in this sequence. Radiocarbon dates and materials of known historic age provide an absolute time scale. Six major temporal components are proposed.

TEMPORAL COMPONENT ONE

During a period of higher sea level, calcareous sand began to accumulate on a former ocean floor, and this bed of sand was the basis for the coastal plain around the mountainous mass of Oahu. The sandy landform emerged above sea level after drawdown from the mid-Holocene highstand of 1.4 to 2.8 m around 2239 to 1940 years BP or possibly later (Athens and Ward 1993; Fletcher and Jones 1996). The Holocene sand could overlay an older Pleistocene sand bed, although this possibility seems unlikely.

TEMPORAL COMPONENT TWO

A north-south longshore current transported sand southward along the windward Oahu coast, and the material settled upon reaching the sheltered, shallow waters of Kneohe Bay. By gradual southward accretion, the peninsula at Kualoa formed. This accretion must have begun after the coastal plain had already been established, probably during and after the post-highstand drawdown. Coastal transformation may be inferred from oral traditions of an ancient cliff-lined coast, prior to the development of the low-elevation coastal plain. Haumea, Wakea, and the first Hawaiian people lived in the rugged cliff setting of Palik. The low foothills and coastal plain were more recent creations, made from the body of a moo killed by Hiiaka. The new landscape was called Kualoa, replacing the older name of Palik. Metaphorically, the Hiiaka tale could relate to the overthrow of an older lineage, replaced by a new order. As the physical world changed, cultural understanding and explanation of the world adjusted accordingly. The first human settlers at Kualoa occupied a beach that was substantially farther landward than it is today. Archaeological evidence reveals that the earliest occupation zone was a narrow band aligned east-west along a south-facing shore, around the position of MSA-4. This occupation zone was a beachfront setting, about 850 m landward (north) of the present southern extent of the peninsula. From the base of this occupation deposit, a firepit with dense midden produced a radiocarbon date (Beta-28136) of cal. AD 1040 to 1280.

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TEMPORAL COMPONENT THREE

Throughout the second millennium AD, continued southward accretion of the peninsula was not necessarily uniform. It involved some localized irregularities in the shoreline, such as small landward or seaward curves. It also created stranded ponds. Controlled excavations at TU-1 and -2 revealed a slight landward curve in the former coastline around 530 40 years BP (Beta-28137). The slight landward curve was approximately between TU-1 and MSA-4. By cal. AD 1660 to 1960(Beta-28138), this area was a stable backbeach, and the active shoreline was probably a few hundred meters farther south. Between TU-1 and MSA-6, the former shoreline may have been roughly north-south, or a stranded pond may have been between these two loci. Evidence from MSA-6 proves human use of this location as early as cal. AD 1270 to 1400 (Beta-28135). Koholalele Pond and Apua Pond represent low-lying areas, stranded as the shoreline prograded southward. Other ponds and tidepools probably were much smaller, and they were more easily filled by sand and debris from periodic high-sea events. Other investigations at Kualoa Regional Park have documented a waterlogged deposit beneath the primary cultural layer (Gunness 1993:60). The waterlogged area may have been a stranded pond that was later filled by sand. At least one oral tradition mentions a former pond that was destroyed by a tidal wave. A high-energy storm surge or tsunami could deposit a large volume of sand, filling small ponds or tidepools. Several sand lenses indicate episodic oceanic overwash or high-sea events, especially in seaward (or formerly seaward) portions of the peninsula. These events occurred throughout the prehistoric and historic periods. The primary cultural deposit (Stratum III) appears to have expanded horizontally in gradual increments, following the prograding shoreline. Many associated dates are modern or historic. A few are clearly prehistoric. The eastern and southern edges of the peninsula clearly are the most recent parts of the landform. Other investigations have documented several burials along the eastern beach. At least some of these burials are of post-Contact age.

TEMPORAL COMPONENT FOUR

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, a widespread industrial-scale agricultural layer (Stratum II) disturbed, truncated, and in some cases completely removed the underlying cultural deposit (Stratum III). Various crops were grown at different times, and sometimes the land was fallow. Residences were scattered among the fields during and between active crop-growing periods.

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As the southward-accreting peninsula approached its present form, its northeast portion became exposed to erosion by the north-south longshore ocean current. Erosion of post-Contact burials suggests that the erosion conditions probably did not exist prior to the 1800s.

TEMPORAL COMPONENT FIVE

During WW II, an airfield was constructed approximately along the alignment of the present park road. Construction, use, and later dismantling of the airfield caused massive disturbance of archaeological deposits.

TEMPORAL COMPONENT SIX

Since the 1970s, park use has involved inadvertent and intentional alterations of sandy deposits. Natural erosion and accretion patterns continue. Cultural deposits and burials are exposed periodically, especially along the eastern beach of the peninsula.

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CONCLUSIONS
The major archaeological findings relate to widespread habitation debris in Stratum III, deposited over several centuries. Historic and modern materials and dates were prevalent in other study areas, but the 1986 monitoring and data recovery documented a clearly prehistoric settlement. The earliest radiocarbon date (Beta-28136) is cal. AD 1040 to 1280, ranking among the earliest in the region. This date is especially important for its established context in a firepit dense with midden, in a beachfront setting prior to substantial southward accretion of the Kualoa peninsula. The monitoring approach proved useful for secondary discovery in a large area of mass earth-moving. Primary observations and data collection already had been completed by extensive subsurface test excavations in the 1970s and 1980s. A number of other monitoring investigations have occurred since the 1980s. Many burials and at least one waterlogged deposit had been reported previously along the eastern border of the peninsula. None were discovered during the 1986 monitoring and data recovery. A basic stratigraphic sequence has been established for the general area, wherein Stratum III is the unit of primary archaeological interest. Stratum III contains considerable variation horizontally and vertically. Human occupation was continuous over several centuries, spanning prehistoric and historic periods. Stratum III was deposited while the Kualoa peninsula was accreting southward. The Stratum III occupation zone expanded in gradual increments, following natural changes in the landform. However, the trend was not uniform, due to irregularities in the coastline and stranded pond areas. Attention to relative sea level over time, intermittent sand lenses, and other factors will be important for future studies. A canal feature was discovered, aligned roughly east-northeast to west-southwest, probably linking Koholalele Pond with the ocean. The canal was built either toward the end of the Stratum III deposition or very shortly thereafter. It could be of early post-Contact age. This investigation has been exemplary for coordination of geomorphology, oral traditions, and archaeology. Creation of landforms and major coastal transformational events are represented in oral traditions. Also, archaeological deposits can be understood in relation to several natural and cultural processes of formation, disturbance, and erosion. These three perspectives constitute different systems of understanding real events and processes, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. The current work emphasized the archaeological perspective.

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