Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables

one to answer stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same.

The importance of ensuring accurate and appropriate data collection

Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data (quantitative, qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the integrity of research. Both the selection of appropriate data collection instruments (existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring. Consequences from improperly collected data include

inability to answer research questions accurately inability to repeat and validate the study distorted findings resulting in wasted resources misleading other researchers to pursue fruitless avenues of investigation compromising decisions for public policy causing harm to human participants and animal subjects

While the degree of impact from faulty data collection may vary by discipline and the nature of investigation, there is the potential to cause disproportionate harm when these research results are used to support public policy recommendations.

Issues related to maintaining integrity of data collection:

The primary rationale for preserving data integrity is to support the detection of errors in the data collection process, whether they are made intentionally (deliberate falsifications) or not (systematic or random errors). Most, Craddick, Crawford, Redican, Rhodes, Rukenbrod, and Laws (2003) describe quality assurance and quality control as two approaches that can preserve data integrity and ensure the scientific validity of study results. Each approach is implemented at different points in the research timeline (Whitney, Lind, Wahl, 1998): 1. 2. Quality assurance - activities that take place before data collection begins Quality control - activities that take place during and after data collection

Quality Assurance
Since quality assurance precedes data collection, its main focus is 'prevention' (i.e., forestalling problems with data collection). Prevention is the most cost-effective activity to ensure the integrity of data collection. This proactive measure is best demonstrated by the standardization of protocol developed in a comprehensive and detailed procedures manual for data collection. Poorly written manuals increase the risk of failing to identify problems and errors early in the research endeavor. These failures may be demonstrated in a number of ways:

Uncertainty about the timing, methods, and identify of person(s) responsible for reviewing data Partial listing of items to be collected Vague description of data collection instruments to be used in lieu of rigorous step-by-step instructions on administering tests

Failure to identify specific content and strategies for training or retraining staff members responsible for data collection Obscure instructions for using, making adjustments to, and calibrating data collection equipment (if appropriate) No identified mechanism to document changes in procedures that may evolve over the course of the investigation .

An important component of quality assurance is developing a rigorous and detailed recruitment and training plan. Implicit in training is the need to effectively communicate the value of accurate data collection to trainees (Knatterud, Rockhold, George, Barton, Davis, Fairweather, Honohan, Mowery, O'Neill, 1998). The training aspect is particularly important to address the potential problem of staff who may unintentionally deviate from the original protocol. This phenomenon, known as drift, should be corrected with additional training, a provision that should be specified in the procedures manual. Given the range of qualitative research strategies (non-participant/ participant observation, interview, archival, field study, ethnography, content analysis, oral history, biography, unobtrusive research) it is difficult to make generalized statements about how one should establish a research protocol in order to facilitate quality assurance. Certainly, researchers conducting non-participant/participant observation may have only the broadest research questions to guide the initial research efforts. Since the researcher is the main measurement device in a study, many times there are little or no other data collecting instruments. Indeed, instruments may need to be developed on the spot to accommodate unanticipated findings.

Quality Control
While quality control activities (detection/monitoring and action) occur during and after data collection, the details should be carefully documented in the procedures manual. A clearly defined communication structure is a necessary pre-condition for establishing monitoring systems. There should not be any uncertainty about the flow of information between principal investigators and staff members following the detection of errors in data collection. A poorly developed communication structure encourages lax monitoring and limits opportunities for detecting errors. Detection or monitoring can take the form of direct staff observation during site visits, conference calls, or regular and frequent reviews of data reports to identify inconsistencies, extreme values or invalid codes. While site visits may not be appropriate for all disciplines, failure to regularly audit records, whether quantitative or quantitative, will make it difficult for investigators to verify that data collection is proceeding according to procedures established in the manual. In addition, if the structure of communication is not clearly delineated in the procedures manual, transmission of any change in procedures to staff members can be compromised Quality control also identifies the required responses, or actions necessary to correct faulty data collection practices and also minimize future occurrences. These actions are less likely to occur if data collection procedures are vaguely written and the necessary steps to minimize recurrence are not implemented through feedback and education (Knatterud, et al, 1998) Examples of data collection problems that require prompt action include:

errors in individual data items systematic errors violation of protocol problems with individual staff or site performance fraud or scientific misconduct

In the social/behavioral sciences where primary data collection involves human subjects, researchers are taught to incorporate one or more secondary measures that can be used to verify the quality of information being collected

from the human subject. For example, a researcher conducting a survey might be interested in gaining a better insight into the occurrence of risky behaviors among young adult as well as the social conditions that increase the likelihood and frequency of these risky behaviors. To verify data quality, respondents might be queried about the same information but asked at different points of the survey and in a number of different ways. Measures of Social Desirability might also be used to get a measure of the honesty of responses. There are two points that need to be raised here, 1) cross-checks within the data collection process and 2) data quality being as much an observation-level issue as it is a complete data set issue. Thus, data quality should be addressed for each individual measurement, for each individual observation, and for the entire data set. Each field of study has its preferred set of data collection instruments. The hallmark of laboratory sciences is the meticulous documentation of the lab notebook while social sciences such as sociology and cultural anthropology may prefer the use of detailed field notes. Regardless of the discipline, comprehensive documentation of the collection process before, during and after the activity is essential to preserving data integrity.

Field Data Collection in India One of the key components of Market Data Collection in India is the expertise and experience to effectively perform Field Data Collection in India. eMpulse team is considered one of the best for Field data collection in India.

Many of the market research projects include a critical step of primary data collection customized for the specific project. Data can be collected using various techniques including :

Face to Face Interview Data Collection Focus Groups Depth Interviews Computer Aided Telephone Interview (CATI) Online Data Collection in India Secondary Research Mystery Shopping The field service team of eMpulse that is headquartered in Bangalore has an extensive pan India network of field data collection teams. We engage these teams

and manage them to provide a one-stop-shop to clients for field data. We also have mystery shoppers who can provide you anonymous data collection of the Indian market.

We have offices or partners to deliver services in the following areas;

Field Data Collection in Bangalore Field Data Collection in Mumbai Field Data Collection in Delhi Field Data Collection in Chennai Field Data Collection in Kolkata Field Data Collection in Pune We also have capabilities to provide Field Data Collection Services in Patna, Bhubaneswar, Hyderabad, Kochi, Nagpur, Mysore, Hubli, Mangalore, Gulbarga, Ahmadabad, Chandigarh, Ludhiana, Jaipur, and all other Indian Cities

eMpulse executives can also help clients design questionnaire for collection of field data if necessary. Our questionnaire designs are very innovative because it benefits from eMpulse's experience in the end to end Market Research value stream. For those clients who use eMpulse's Mysore analytics team, we offer a seamless project "handover" from the field services team to analytics team.

Our capable data collection network will effectively serve your market research needs of field data collection in India. We ensure the highest quality output.

Data Analysis and Compilation

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After gathering the information from desk and field research the raw data must be compiled so that the taxonomic analysis can be performed and data can be broken up into respective parts and segments. This can be achieved in the following manner:

1. Keeping on revisiting and focusing on the ultimate objective of the research and modeling all the processes accordingly.

2. Dividing the actual objectives into sections and emphasizing on divided sections separately by involving analytical techniques. 3. Arranging the questions in the questionnaire properly so that the analysis can be done efficiently. 4. Putting the questions from the questionnaire to each of these sections to get analytical replies. It is possible that questions in the questionnaire could be multiple times assigned to the segments so that it appears at more than one place. 5. Grouping up the answers in numerical format for all the questions in a predefined scale. For example if the questions is How will you rate the services offered by the company and the answer or response is 6 points on the scale then putting it as it is. Normally big organizations have large data to be analyzed and the scale substantially goes to 10 or 12 digits. It can be reduced to a scale of 3 to 5 digits to reduce the complexity and time taken in analysis. But accuracy on the other hand will be reduced as the figures need to be rounded off in case the scale is reduced. 6. The survey questionnaire may contain the comparative responses with other competitors. In this case the responses can be arranged accordingly by analyzing the responses and calculating the weighted average of the response and comparing the average with benchmark figures. This helps the organization to determine which division or service need to be leveraged. Data analysis and compilation also includes data cleaning strategy before the further analysis is performed. This cleaning is basically validating the data for any error or irrelevant data. Its a separate process for data cleaning performed before the analysis which is very important to fetch desirable results. This process also includes determining the missing values and inputting the most appropriate values in place. It is also important to maintain the quality of the analysis and compilation

for which the ideal key is use reliable measurement techniques. Data sampling is also one more distinguished approach to decrease probability of repetitive data elements. It includes creating subsets of information according to a specific variable value and managing them as a whole. More the data is relevant the more accurate the results are.

An organization must define all the objectives in accordance to market requirement. The results from the compilation and analysis of data and information are very important and significant for the organization and shows success factors. The result of the process also depicts the trend of the organization by determining weak and strong points and how they stand stood in the market. Hence, every organization should have an organized and sophisticated way of compiling and analyzing the information.

Problems in the collection of maternity data in English NHS trusts lead to inadequacies in the quality, completeness, and availability of the information. These problems restrict the use of the data by the NHS and may impede the implementation of the NHS information strategy.The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control1

We found that the NHS maternity units collected a substantial amount of data, but many trusts used different definitions for various data items. This limits their use throughout the NHS because of the difficulty in aggregating and comparing data that have been collected using different definitions.The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control15

There may be justifiable reasons for not collecting data for the indicators of success listed in Changing Childbirth,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control16 but the lack of these data makes it difficult to assess the policys overall impact. This information may be collected on a sample or ad hoc basis for health authorities, but our survey of health authorities found that only 58% monitored the implementation of the policy.The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control14

The combination of computerised and paper methods commonly used by NHS trusts to record data can make linkage and management of data difficult, restrict their use, and affect the flow of data through the NHS and to the Department of Health. The duplication of data recording is wasteful of time and NHS resources.The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control15 Improved linkage is needed between computerised maternity information systems and patient administration systems to ensure that data are recorded only once.

Although computerised maternity information systems are supposed to make it easier to record and use data,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control17 many problems persist.The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control18,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control19 Eleven of the trusts in our survey reported that it would take two or more weeks to obtain data that were not immediately accessible. Unless information is readily available it cannot be used effectively to inform NHS decision making.The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control1,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control6,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control9

It is of concern that 28% of the trusts analysed their data manually. This is laborious, time consuming, and limits the extent of analyses. This can impede the use of data locally and the forwarding of information to NHS systems. If the NHS information strategy is to be successfully implemented, these issues must be addressed.

Evaluating the quality of data will soon become mandatory in the NHS,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control1 but 24% of the trusts did not routinely audit their maternity data for accuracy. Conducting regular audit of data and educating clinicians about how to audit their maternity

records can improve data quality.The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control10,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control20 Feeding back data to those who collect them is also associated with improving data quality and clinical practice,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control20,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control21 but 33% of the trusts did not routinely provide these data to clinicians.

Most trusts produced statistical analyses of data not routinely collected by the Department of Health. This suggests that there is a local need for these analyses, but their use is limited by a lack of comparable national data. Although maternity data were often made available within NHS trusts, the availability of data to others was limited. With the emphasis on sharing information in the NHS and the provision of information to users of the health services,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control1,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control2 availability must be improved.

Conclusions

Most of the maternity data missing at a national level are widely collected at a local level. Variations in the ways data are recorded, and many other problems, contribute to inadequacies in the quality, completeness, and availability of this information. Lack of computer systems for recording data in some trusts and lack of linkage between stand alone computer systems and hospitals patient administration systems in others are major problems. These problems restrict data use at all levels of the NHSThe following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control15 and may impede the implementation of the NHS information strategy.The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control1

NHS trusts can do much to improve the quality of their maternity data by conducting regular audits of data, informing clinicians of the need for accurate and complete data, and feeding data back to those collecting them.The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control10,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control20,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control21 Now that the Department of Health has started to publish comparative HES maternity data,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control11 trusts will need to ensure that their data are accurate, complete, and up to date so that their services are accurately represented in comparisons with other trusts.

At a national level, the Department of Health has committed itself to a revised maternity dataset.The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control1,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control22 Once implemented, this should ensure that data are collected according to agreed definitions, making it easier to aggregate and use this information throughout the NHS. When the maternity dataset is agreed, the Department of Health should allocate resources to maternity units for computer systems that will enable them to collect data in a consistent way and which can be linked to other NHS computer systems.

It has been suggested that contributing maternity data to national systems has a low priority at a local level.The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control8 Now that it has begun to publish maternity data,The following popper user interface control may not be accessible. Tab to the next button to revert the control to an accessible version.Destroy user interface control11 the Department of Health should consider making it mandatory for maternity units to contribute data to national systems. When new policies are implemented it is essential that the relevant data are collected locally and aggregated nationally so that the impact of policies on the maternity services and their benefit to women and their babies can be assessed.