Digestive Adaptations to Varying Feed Sources

? Gastric capacity and structure ? Capacity is greatest in pregastric

fermentors ? Stomach acts as reservoir

?? Small stomach in carnivores is related to high nutrient density of the diet ?? Distribution and composition of epithelial lining varies between species and dietary adaptations

Digestive Adaptations to Varying Feed Sources

? Intestinal length and functions ? Small intestine ? Less variable among species than stomach and hind gut, but generally shorter in carnivores than in herbivores ? Large intestine ? Importance of hind gut fermentation dictates variation in structure and size ? Some hind gut fermentation occurs in most species

Adaptations of the Digestive Tracts

Stomach
Small Intestine Cecum

Large Intestine

Size = Function

Adaptations of Digestive Enzymes

?? Young animals produce little sucrase, maltase, amylase ? Ruminants produce no sucrase ? Adult pigs lack lactase ? Activity changes with age ? Lactase ? Sucrase, maltase

? Advantages

Utilizing Cellulose
? Ultra-abundant in the environment ? Easily obtained no need to hunt plants

Plant cell walls & fiber high in energy

?

Disadvantages

? Indigestible by mammalian digestive enzymes ?? Cellulase is found only in bacteria & some protozoans

Fermentative Digestion
?? All mammals have some fermentative capacity that allows for utilization of ingested fiber ?? The comparative importance of fermentation is related to the fraction of total digesta contained in fermentative compartments of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract

100

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Colon & rectum

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Advantages of Pregastric Fermentation

? Make better use of alternative nutrients ? Cellulose ? Nonprotein nitrogen ?? Ability to detoxify some poisonous compounds ? Oxalates, cyanide, alkaloids ?? More effective use of fermentation end- products

? Volatile fatty acids, microbial protein, B vitamins ? Allows wild animals to eat and run

Disadvantages of Pregastric Fermentation

? Fermentation is inefficient ? Energy ? Loss % of total caloric value Methane 5-8 Heat of fermentation 5-6 ? Relative efficiency is dependent on the diet NDF ? Protein ? Some ammonia resulting from microbial degradation will be absorbed and excreted

20% of the nitrogen in microbes is in the form of nucleic acids

?

? ?

Ruminants are susceptible

Disadvantages of Pregastric Fermentation

t ketosis o t toxins

Ruminants are susceptible by rumen microbes

?

Nitrates to nitrites ? Urea to ammonia ? Nonstructural carbohydrates to lactic acid ? Tryptophan to 3-methyl indole ? Isoflavonoid estrogens to estrogen coumestans

Pregastric Fermenters
Class Ruminants Species Cattle, sheep Deer, antelope, Nonruminants camel Colobine monkey, hamster, vole Kangaroo, hippo Hoatzin Folivore Grazing and selective herbivores Dietary habit Grazing herbivores Selective herbivores, including folivores frugivores Selectiveand herbivores

Postgastric Fermentors
? Cecal fermentors ? Mainly rodents, rabbits and other small herbivores ? Often associated with coprophagy ? Colonic fermentors ?? Includes true herbivores (e.g., horse), omnivores (e.g., pig and human), and carnivores (e.g., cat and dog) ? Horse has some expanded cecal fermentation in addition to greatly expanded colonic fermentation ?? Degree of colonic sacculation is related to importance of fiber digestion and fermentative capacity

Postgastric Fermenters
Class Speci es Cecal digesters Capybara Rabbit Rat, mouse Dietary habit Grazer Selective herbivores Omnivores

Colonic digesters Sacculated

Unsacculated

Elephant, horse, zebra New World monkeys Pig, human Panda Dog, cat

Grazers Folivores Omnivor es Herbivor es

? Foregut ? More efficient per unit volume of food ? Slower digestive process ? Animal may starve with a full belly ? Size restricted

Foregut vs. Hindgut Fermentation

? Hindgut ? More efficient relative to time ? Faster turnover

NONRUMINANT HERBIVORE Simple stornacn, large cecum

RUMINANT HERBIVORE Four-chambered stomach with large rumen; long small and large intestina

Eso pha gus

O m a s u m

Anus

Anus

Feeding Habits of Mammals & Taxonomic Distribution

Feeding Habit ? ? ? ? Herbivory Frugivory, Graniv., Nectivory Number of Orders 10 5 Percent of Species 40 4

Carnivory (Kr feeder ill s)

Planktonivory? ? Insectivory

4 2 10

12 <1 33

Omnivory

10

Classification of Animals by Preferred Ingested Feedstuffs

komodo dragon, tigers, eagles, sharks, polar bear ? Herbivore consume plant products ? cattle, sheep, goats, horses ? giant panda, gorilla, elephant, ostrich, green iguana, giraffe, American bison ? Omnivore plant and(or) animal products

Carnivore consume animal products ? dogs, cats ?

? ?

pigs opossum, raccoon, blue jays, black bear, human

Specialized Carnivores

Aphidivore - feeds on aphids Apivore feeds on bees Erucivore - feeds on caterpillars Insectivore - feeds on insects Larvivore - feeds on larvae Myrmevore - feeds on ants Mucivore -

feeds on flies Piscivore - feeds on fish Pupivore - feeds on pupae Ranivore feeds on frogs Sanguivore - feeds on blood Zoosuccivore - feeds on liquid animal secretions of decaying animal matter

Specialized Herbivores
Ambivore - feeds on grasses and broad leaf plants Exudativore feeds on gums, resins, and sap Folivore - feeds on foliage (leaves or trees) Forbivore - feeds on forbs (i.e. flowering plants) Frugivore feeds on fruit

Graminivore - feeds on grasses Granivore - feeds on grains Gumivore - feeds on gums secreted by some plants

Lignivore - feeds on wood Mellivore - feeds on honey

Nectarivore - feeds on nectar Nucivore feeds on nuts (agouti) Phytisuccivore - feeds on (tree) sap Radicivore - feeds on roots

Classification by Type of Digestion or Site of Digestion

? Monogastrics or non-ruminants ? Ruminants OR

? Pre-gastric fermentation (cranial) ? Post-gastric fermentation (caudal)

Monogastric Animals
? Single, simple stomach structure ? Mostly carnivores and omnivores ? Very simple - mink, cat and dog

?? Cecal digestion - horse, rabbit, elephant or rat

? Sacculated stomach - kangaroo

Ruminant Animals
?? Ruminant herbivores possessing multiple digestive tract compartments

for feed breakdown before feed reaches the true stomach

? True ruminants - cattle, sheep, goats ? Pseudo-ruminants - camels, llamas, alpacas,

vicunas

Rumen

Food chewed several times

Rate of passage: 80 hours

CelluJose utilization 60%

? Carnivores ? stomach (70%) > SI = LI (15%) ? GIT surface/body surface: 0.6:1 ? Omnivores ? stomach = SI = LI (33%) ? GIT surface/body surface: intermediate ? Herbivores ? Ruminants ? stomach (70%) > SI (20%) > LI (10%) ? GIT surface/body surface: 3:1 ? Non-ruminants ? stomach (10%) < SI (30%) < LI (60%) ? GIT surface/body surface: 2:1

GIT Capacity - Volume

GIT Classifications Dog

?? Monogastric carnivore with limited post-gastric fermentation ?? Simple stomach, not capable of effective utilization of forage-based (high fiber) diets ?? Unable to digest some of the substances in grains, fruits and vegetables ? Similar to cat

GIT Classifications - Pig

??

Monogastric omnivore with limited post-gastric fermentation ?? Simple stomach, not capable of effective utilization of forage-based (high fiber) diets ?? Unable to digest some of the substances

in grains, fruits and vegetables ? Similar to human

Pig
Stomach

(2 gal)

Large Intestine (16, 2 gal)

Esophagus

Mouth Small intestine (60, 2.5 gal)

Cecum (10, 0.5 gal)

Human Digestive Tract

Rat

GIT Classifications Kangaroo

?? Monogastric omnivore with limited pre-gastric fermentation ?? Sacculated stomach,capable of utilization of forage- based (high fiber) diets ?? Able to digest some of the substances in grains, fruits and vegetables

??

Monogastric herbivore with extensive post- gastric fermentation

GIT Classifications Horse

?? Simple stomach incapable of utilization of forage- based (high fiber) diets ?? Extensive fermentation after primary sites of digestion and absorption

Hors e
Small Colon (12, 3 gal) Small intestine

(70, 12 gal)

Esophagus

Large Colon (12, 19 gal)

Mouth

Cecum

Stomach (3.5 gal)

(4, 8 gal)

GIT Classifications Sheep

?? Ruminant herbivore with extensive pre-gastric fermentation ?? Highly developed sacculated stomach capable of extensive and effective utilization of forage-based (high fiber) diets ?? Extensive fermentation before primary sites of digestion and absorption ? Similar to cattle and goats

Cow
Large intestine (33, 8 gal) Cecum (3, 3 gal) Esophagus
Rumen (paunch) (43 gal)

Mouth

Abomasum (glandular) (5 gal)

Reticulum (honeycomb) (2.5 gal)

Omasum (4 gal)

Small intestine (150, 16 gal)

GIT Classifications
Avian is modified monogastric

? ? ? ? ? ?

Beaks replace lips and teeth Crop (enlarged area of esophagus) stores and softens feed prior to entering stomach Proventriculus glandular stomach Gizzard muscular part of stomach Branched cecum postgastric fermentation Cloaca both fecal and urinary waste ? Uric acid rather than urea (insoluble)

Avians (Poultry)
Mouth ? ? ? No teeth, rigid tongue Poorly developed salivary glands ? Saliva contains amylase Beak is adapted for prehension and

mastication

Avians (Poultry)
Esophagus ? Enlarged area called crop ? Ingesta holding and moistening ? Location for breakdown of carbohydrate by amylase ? Fermentation Proventriculus (stomach) ? Release of HCl and pepsin (gastric juices) ? Ingesta passes through very quickly (14 seconds)

Avians (Poultry)
Gizzard (ventriculus) ? Muscular area with a hardened lining

reduces particle size ? Muscular contractions every 20-30 seconds

? Includes action of grit ? HCl and pepsin secreted in proventriculus Small intestine ? Similar to other monogastrics ? No Lacteals

Avians (Poultry)
Ceca and large intestine ? Contain two ceca instead of one as in other

?? Large intestine is very short (2-4 in) and empties into cloaca where fecal material will be voided via the vent ? Water resorption ? Fiber fermentation by bacteria ? H O soluble vitamin synthesis by bacteria

monogastrics
2

Chicken
Beak Esophagus Crop (2) Small
Intestine (55)

Proventriculus Gizzard (2) Pancreas

Large Intestine (4)

Ceca (7)
Cloaca

? Impact feed choices ? Neophobia (avoidance of new feed sources) ? Contact testing (based on taste and other sensory

Feeding Behaviors
information collected in mouth) prior to swallowing ? Early introduction of a variety of feeds limits this problem ?? Chimpanzees select feeds based on easily digestible carbohydrate content (sugars and starches) rather than fat or protein content ?? Grazers and browser select early growth grasses and plants vs. mature growth ?? In confinement feeding situations, grazers consume concentrates first and then forages in ration based on particle size (basis for creating total mixed rations)

Feeding Behaviors

??

Impact feed intake (avoiding under- and over-consumption of feed) ?? Hiding feed in bear exhibit encourages search and gather behaviors, limiting intake and reducing the stress of captivity ? Predator behavior towards prey meals vs. bowl meals ?? Grazing animals prefer to eat forage at ground level rather than in

elevated feed bunks