Introduction To Radar Systems

Introduction to
RADAR SYSTEMS
>21
McC RAW-HILL
Introduction to
RADAR SYSTEMS
MERRILL
I.
SKOLNIK
Research Division
Electronic Communications, Inc.
McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY,

New York
San Francisco
INC.
1962
Toronto
London
PRESTON
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INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS

Copyright 1962 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Printed in the United States of America. All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 61-17675
57905
PREFACE
The subject matter of electrical engineering may be classified according to (1) components, (2) techniques, and (3) systems. Components are the basic building blocks that are combined, using the proper techniques, to yield a system. This book attempts to present a unified approach to the systems aspect of radar. Although the subject of radar systems is of particular interest to specialists in the radar field, it is also of interest to a much wider audience, especially the civilian and military users of radar, the electrical and mechanical components specialists whose devices make up a radar system, the operations analysts and systems engineers who must plan for employing radar as part of larger systems, as well as practicing engineers and scientists in related
fields.
This book originated in the notes for a graduate course in radar systems engineering taught for several years in the Graduate Evening Division of Northeastern University (while the author was a staff member at MIT Lincoln Laboratory) and, later, as an off-campus course at the Martin Co. for the Drexel Institute of Technology. Since most electrical engineering courses are usually concerned with either components or techniques, a course dealing with electronic systems (in this instance, radar systems) broadens the engineering background of the student by giving him the opportunity to apply the material learned from his components and techniques courses, as well as introducing him to the techniques, tools, and analytical procedures of the systems
engineer.
The book may be divided into four parts. Chapters 1 to 5 deal with subjects which are characteristic of radar per se and include a brief introduction and historical survey, the prediction of radar range performance, and discussions of the pulse, CW, FM-CW,
the subsystems and major components constituting a radar system, such as transmitters, modulators, duplexers, antennas, receivers, and indicators. The emphasis is on those aspects of components of interest to radar. Only brief consideration is given to the operating principles of components. Many books are available that can provide more detailed descriptions
MTI, pulse-doppler, conical-scan, and monopulse radars. The second part, Chapters 6 to 8, is concerned with
than
possible in the limited space allotted here. third part, Chapters 9 to 12, treats various topics of special importance to the radar systems engineer. These include the detection of signals in noise and the extraction of information from radar signals, both of which are based on modern
is
The
communication theory and random-noise theory. This is followed by the environmental factors influencing radar design, for example, propagation, clutter, weather, and interference. The last portion of the book deals with radar systems and their application. Several brief examples of radars are given in Chapter 13. The book concludes with a chapter on the application of radar to the detection of extraterrestrial objects such as planets, satellites, meteors, aurora, and the moon. Although mathematics is a valuable tool of the systems engineer, no special mathematical background is assumed here. Where mathematics is necessary, it is reviewed
briefly in the text.
To
and
its
attempt to treat thoroughly all aspects of a radar system, its component parts, analysis is an almost impossible task within a single volume, since the subject
vi
Preface
of radar encompasses almost all electrical engineering. Extensive references to the published literature are included for those desiring more detail. Radar has been used on the ground, on the sea, and in the air, and undoubtedly it will be used in space. The environment in which a specific radar operates will have an important influence on its design. Although an attempt is made to be as general as possible, when it is necessary to particularize the radar environment, a ground-based radar is assumed unless otherwise stated. The function of the radar systems engineer is to utilize' the available components and techniques to evolve a system that will operate in a particular environment and satisfy the objectives and requirements desired by the potential user. It is hoped that this book will serve to aid those involved in this process. Merrill I. Skolnik
CONTENTS
Preface
CHAPTER
1.
THE NATURE OF RADAR

Introduction
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
The Radar Equation 3 Radar Block Diagram and Operation Radar Frequencies 7 History of Radar Development 8 Applications of Radar 14
References
19
chapter
2.
THE RADAR EQUATION

Prediction of Range Performance Minimum Detectable Signal 21
20 20
2.1
2.2
2.3
Receiver Noise
23 25
2.4
2.5
Probability-density Functions
2.6 2.7
2.8
Signal-to-noise Ratio 29 Integration of Radar Pulses 35 Radar Cross Section of Targets Cross-section Fluctuations 50
40
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12 2.13 2.14
Transmitter Power 56 Pulse Repetition Frequency and Range Ambiguities Antenna Parameters 58 System Losses 61 Propagation Effects 66 Summary 67 70 References
57
CHAPTER
3.
CW AND FREQUENCY-MODULATED RADAR

The Doppler CW Radar
Effect
72
3.1
72
3.2
3.3
73
3.4
3.5
Radar 86 Frequency-modulated 103 Airborne Doppler Navigation Multiple-frequency Radar 106
CW
CW
References
111
CHAPTER
4.
MTI
AND PULSE-DOPPLER RADAR

113
113
4.1
4.2
4.3
Moving-target-indication (MTI) Radar Delay Lines and Cancelers 119 140 Subclutter Visibility
4.4
4.5
MTI
Using Range Gates and

1
Filters
151
Pulse-doppler Radar
53
4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9
Noncoherent MTI 154 155 MTI from a Moving PlatformAMTI 157 Fluctuations Caused by Platform Motion Effect of Sidelobes on Pulse-doppler AMTI Radar
References
159
162
CHAPTER
5.
TRACKING RADAR
Tracking with Radar Sequential Lobing
Conical Scan
1
164
5.1
5.2
5.3
164 165
vii
66
V1U
Contents
5.4
5.5
Simultaneous Lobing or Monopulse

Target-reflection Characteristics
175 184
and Angular Accuracy
5.6
5.7 5.8
5.9
5.10
Tracking in Range 189 Tracking in Doppler 190 Acquisition 190 Examples of Tracking Radars Comparison of Trackers 195 196 References
192
CHAPTER
6.
RADAR TRANSMITTERS
Introduction 198
198
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
Magnetron Oscillator 199 Klystron Amplifier 216 Traveling-wave-tube Amplifier

Amplitron and Stabilitron 227 Grid-controlled Tubes 233 Comparison of Tubes 244 Modulators 248 References 255
225
6.6 6.7
6.8
CHAPTER
7.
ANTENNAS
Antenna Parameters 260 Antenna Radiation Pattern and Aperture Distribution Parabolic-reflector Antennas 269 Scanning-feed Reflector Antennas 277 Cassegrain Antenna 282 Lens Antennas 286 Array Antennas 294
320 Cosecant-squared Antenna Pattern
Pattern Synthesis
Effect of Effect
260 264
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8 7.9
329 330
7.10
7.11
Broadband Signals on Antenna Patterns of Errors on Radiation Patterns 336

343
7.12 7.13
Radomes
References
Focused Antennas
349
347
CHAPTER
8.
RECEIVERS
356 Superheterodyne Receiver 357 Receiver Noise 361 Noise Figure 363 Effective Noise Temperature 365 Environmental Noise 366 RF Amplifiers 373 Crystal Mixers 385 IF Amplifiers 388
Displays
391
356
8.1
The Radar Receiver
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7 8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
Dup lexers
References
395 403
chapter
9.
DETECTION OF RADAR SIGNALS IN NOISE

Introduction 408 Matched-filter Receiver 409 Correlation Detection 418 Detection Criteria 422 Inverse Probability 427 Detector Characteristics 430
408
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9
Performance of the Radar Operator Delay-line Integrators 445 Binary Integration 446 References 449
439
Contents
chapter
10.
IX
EXTRACTION OF INFORMATION FROM RADAR SIGNALS

Introduction
453
10.1
453
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7 10.8 10.9
Phase and Amplitude Measurements 453 Review of Radar Measurements 455 Statistical Estimation of Parameters Likelihood Function 461 Theoretical Accuracy of Range and Doppler-velocity Measurements Uncertainty Relation 474 Angular Accuracy 476 Transmitted Waveform 482 Pulse Compression 493 498 References
462
CHAPTER
11.
PROPAGATION OF RADAR WAVES

Introduction
501 Propagation over a Plane Earth 501
501
11.1
11.2
11.3
The Round Earth

Refraction
506
11.4
11.5
506
Anomalous Propagation
11.6
11.7 11.8 11.9
509 Low-altitude Coverage 512 Radar Diffraction Screen 516 Attenuation by Atmospheric Gases Microwave-radiation Hazards 518 519 References
517
chapter
12.
CLUTTER, WEATHER,
AND INTERFERENCE
521
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7 12.8
12.9
Introduction 521 Ground Clutter 522 Sea Clutter 527 Clutter Reduction 534 Meteorological Echoes 539 543 Attenuation by Precipitation Visibility of Targets in Weather Clutter Angels 551
Interference
545
554
559 567
12.10
ECM
and
ECCM
References
CHAPTER
13.
SYSTEMS ENGINEERING
Systems Engineering
570
AND DESIGN
572 582
570
13.1
13.2
13.3
Radar Parameter Selection 571 Example Aircraft-surveillance Radar
13.4
13.5
ASDE
13.6
13.7
579 Airborne Weather-avoidance Radar Bistatic Radar 585 Radar Beacons 594
References
601
CHAPTER
14.
RADAR DETECTION OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL OBJECTS

Introduction
603
14.1
603
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5 14.6 14.7
14.8
624 Observation of Ionized Media Detection and Tracking of Earth Satellites and Space Vehicles 634 References
Radar Radar Radar Radar Radar Radar
604 Echoes from the Moon Echoes from the Planets 610 618 Detection of the Sun 619 Detection of Meteors 621 Observation of Auroras
628
Index
637
THE NATURE OF RADAR

1.1.
Introduction
is an electronic device for the detection and location of objects. It operates by transmitting a particular type of waveform, a pulse-modulated sine wave for example, and detects the nature of the echo signal. Radar is used to extend the capability of man's senses for observing his environment, especially the sense of vision. The value of radar lies not in being a substitute for the eye, but in doing what the eye cannot do. Radar cannot resolve detail as well as the eye, nor is it yet capable of recognizing the "color" of objects to the degree of sophistication of which the eye is capable. However, radar can be designed to see through those conditions impervious to normal human vision, such as darkness, haze, fog, rain, and snow. In addition, radar has the advantage ofbeing able to measure the distance or range to the object. This is probably its most important attribute.
Radar
Radar
Antenna
Fig.
1.1.
Block diagram of an elementary form of radar.
An elementary form of radar, shown in Fig. 1.1, consists of a transmitting antenna emitting electromagnetic radiation generated by an oscillator of some sort, a receiving antenna, and an energy-detecting device, or receiver. portion of the transmitted signal is intercepted by a reflecting object (target) and is reradiated in all directions. It is the energy reradiated in back direction that is of prime interest to the radar. The receiving antenna collects the returned energy and delivers it to a receiver, where it is
velocity.
processed to detect the presence of the target and to extract its location and relative The distance to the target is determined by measuring the time taken for the radar signal to travel to the target and back. The direction, or angular position, of the target may be determined from the direction of arrival of the reflected wavefront. The usual method of measuring the direction of arrival is with narrow antenna beams. If relative motion exists between target and radar, the shift in the carrier frequency of the reflected wave (doppler effect) is a measure of the target's relative (radial) velocity and may be used to distinguish moving targets from stationary objects. In radars which continuously track the movement of a target, a continuous indication of the rate of change of target position is also available. The name radar reflects the emphasis placed by the early experimenters on a device to Radar is a contraction of the detect the presence of a target and measure its range. words radio detection and ranging. It was first developed as a detection device to warn of the approach of hostile aircraft and for directing antiaircraft weapons. Although a well-designed modern radar can usually extract more information from the target
1
Introduction to Radar Systems
[Sec. 1.1
signal than merely range, the measurement of range is still one of radar's most important functions. There seem to be no other competitive techniques which can measure
range as well or as rapidly as can a radar. Radar was the code word officially adopted by the United States
Navy in November,
1940, as the designation for what had previously been called, among other things' radio echo equipment. The United States Army Signal Corps, which also did pioneer work in radar development, used the term radio position finding until it too adopted the
name radar in 1942. The following year radar was substituted by the British for their own term RDF. The origin of the R is obscure, but DF is supposed to stand for
which was purposely chosen to hide the fact that a range-measuring device was under development. Shortly after the term was coined, however, means were devised for also determining the angular position, so that almost immediately
direction finding,
RDF
usefulness as a code name. In France, radar was known as {detection electromagnetique), and in Germany it was called Funkmessgerat. It is
its
lost
some of
DEM
now
almost universally called radar. The most common radar waveform is a train of narrow pulses modulating a sinewave carrier. Although the pulse is normally rectangular in shape, it need not be, and could be one of many possible shapes. The distance, or range,f to the target is determined by measuring the time taken by the pulse to travel to the target and return. Since electromagnetic energy travels at the speed of light, the range R is
*
The
cAt
(l.D
velocity of light c is 3 x 10 8 m/sec, if R is measured in meters and A?, the time duration for the wave to travel out and back, is measured in seconds. One microsecond of round-trip travel time corresponds to a distance of 0.081 nautical mile, 0.093 statute mile, 1 64 yd, or 492 ft. The accepted unit of distance is the nautical mile
(n. mi.), which is equal to 6,076 ft, or 1,852 m. The radar range is also sometimes given in yards, especially for artillery or short-range missile fire control. In
is secondary to convenience, the radar radar mile is denned as 2,000 yd. The difference is less than 1 per cent. Once the transmitted pulse is emitted by the radar, a sufficient length of time must elapse to allow any echo signals to return and be detected before the next pulse may be transmitted. Therefore the rate at which the pulses may be transmitted is determined by the longest range at which targets are expected. If the pulse repetition frequency were too high, echo signals from some targets might arrive before the transmission of the next pulse, and ambiguities in measuring range might result. Echoes that arrive after the transmission of the next pulse are called second-time-around (or multipletime-around) echoes. Such an echo would appear to be at a much shorter range than the actual and could be misleading if it were not known to be a second-time-around echo. The range beyond which targets appear as second-time-around echoes is called the maximum unambiguous range and is
some
instances,
when measurement accuracy
mile
used as a unit of range. between it and the nautical mile

is
d Kunamb
(1.2)
where f r = pulse repetition frequency, in cycles per second. A plot of the maximum unambiguous range as a function of pulse repetition frequency is shown in Fig. 1.2.
t Range and distance to the target are used synonymously in radar parlance although, in artillery usage, range is the horizontal projection of the distance. For aircraft targets, slant range is sometimes used to represent the distance from radar to target, and ground ranee is used for the projection of the J slant range on the ground.
Sec. 1.2]
The Nature of Radar
Although most radars transmit a pulse-modulated waveform, there are a number of other suitable modulations that might be used to fulfill the functions of target detection and location. An example of a very important type of radar which does not use a altimeter predates the application Although the altimeter. pulsed carrier is the of radar and is not universally considered a radar, it nevertheless operates on the radar transmissions Even simple unmodulated principle with the ground as the target. have found application in radar. The most familiar is probably the radar speedometer, in widespread use by many highway police departments to enforce automobile speed
FM
FM
CW
limits.
radar employing an unmodulated

10,000
CW
transmission utilizes the doppler
TTTR
10
100
1,000
10,000
Pulse repetition frequency, cps
Fig. 1.2. Plot of
maximum unambiguous
range as a function of the pulse repetition frequency, based
onEq.
(1.2).
presence of moving targets. The doppler effect causes the signal reflected by a moving target to be shifted in frequency by an amount
effect to detect the
/*
where
vr
X
1.2.
= = =
y
target,
d- 3 )
doppler frequency, cps

relative velocity between radar and wavelength of carrier frequency,
m/sec
m
t,
The Radar Equation
power of the radar transmitter of Fig. 1.1 is denoted by P and if an omniis used, that is, one which radiates uniformly in all directions, the power density (power per unit area) at a distance R from the radar is equal to the trans2 mitter power divided by the surface area AttR of an imaginary sphere of radius R, or
If the
directional antenna
Power density from omnidirectional antenna
Pt
477R
(1.4)
Radars usually employ directive antennas, instead of omnidirectional antennas, to

channel most of the radiated power
into
some
particular direction.
The gain
of

is
[Sec. 1.2
a measure of the increased power radiated in the direction of the target as compared with the power that would have been radiated from an isotropic antenna. It may be denned [Eq. (7.6)] as the ratio of the maximum radiation intensity from the subject antenna to the radiation intensity from a lossless isotropic antenna with the
an antenna
same power
mitting gain
input.
The power
density at the target from an antenna with a trans-
is
Power density from
directive antenna
Pc * =
reradiates
(\ 5)
The
target intercepts a portion of the radiated

(1.6)].
power and
it
in the direction
of the radar [Eq.
Power reradiated
in target direction
PCn
*
'
(1.6)
the radar cross section of the target and has the dimensions of area. a characteristic of the target and is a measure of its size as seen by the radar. The power density in the echo signal at the radar receiving antenna is then
It is
The parameter a is
Power
density of echo signal at radar =4
7(47r/? 2 ) 2
\
)
(11) }
^
The radar antenna captures a portion of the echo power. of the receiving antenna is A r the echo power P received r
,
If the effective capture area
at the radar
is
Pt \j r A r <j G si a
t
(477/? )
This is the fundamental form of the radar equation. Note that the important antenna parameters are the transmitting gain and the receiving area. Antenna theory gives the relationship between antenna gain and effective area as
ArrA t
AttA t
where the subscripts r and t refer to the receiving and transmitting antennas, respectively. If a common antenna is used for both transmission and reception (as is usually the case), the reciprocity theorem of antenna theory states that G = G = G and A t = A r = A " r Using these relationships, Eq. (1.8) becomes
'.
PtK*
4ttA
or
Pr
= (4tt) 3 7Z^
t
P G 2tfo
/?
4
(1-106)
The maximum radar range i?max is the distance beyond which the target can no longer be detected. It occurs when the received echo signal P just equals the minimum r detectable signal Smin Therefore
.
R,
(_PjAbJ
\4TrA 2 Smin mi 7
J
'
(1.11a)
or
P G2X2 a
t
(1.11ft)
.(AirfSram-
Sec.
1.3]
The Nature of Radar
Equations (1.11a) and (1.116) are two forms of the radar equation which describe range performance. The above simplified versions of the radar equation do not adequately describe the performance of practical radars. Many important factors that affect range are not explicitly included. Because of the implicit nature of relationships between the parameters that appear in the radar equation, one must be careful about making generalizations concerning radar performance on the basis of these equations alone. For example, from Eq. (1.1 lb) it might be thought that the range of a radar varies as A*. On the other hand, Eq. (1.1 la) would indicate a /H relationship, and Eq. (1.8) shows range independent of wavelength. In practice, it is usually found that the observed maximum radar ranges are different from those predicted with the simple radar equation ( 1 1 1 a) or ( 1 1 1 b). Actual ranges are often much smaller than predicted. (There are some cases, however, where larger ranges might result, for instance, when anomalous propagation or subrefraction effects occur.) There are many reasons for the failure of the simple radar equation to correlate with actual performance, as discussed in Chap. 2.
. .
1.3.
Radar Block Diagram and Operation
typical pulse radar using an oscillator such as the magnetron for the transmitter may be described with the aid of the block diagram shown in Fig. 1.3. Consider the box labeled "timer," in the upper right side of the figure. The timer,
Duplexer
The operation of a
JL
ATR
Transmitter
A
Modulator
Timer
w
RF
amplifier
Mixer
A
IF
amplifier
Det.
Video
amplifier
LO
Fig.
1.3.
Block diagram of a pulse radar.
which is also called the trigger generator, or the synchronizer, generates a series of narrow timing, or trigger, pulses at the pulse repetition frequency. These timing pulses turn on the modulator which pulses the transmitter. Although the timer and the modulator both are switches, they are shown as separate boxes in the block diagram since different considerations enter into their design. The modulator must be capable of switching the high-power transmitter and might be a rather large device. On the other hand, the timer is of more modest proportions and only has to trigger the grid of a
vacuum tube or
miles might
thyratron.
A typical radar used for the detection of conventional aircraft at ranges of 100 or 200
employ a peak power of the order of 1 to 10 Mw, a pulse width of several microseconds, and a pulse repetition frequency of several hundred pulses per second. The modulated RF pulse generated by the transmitter travels along the transmission line to the antenna, where it is radiated into space. common antenna is usually used for both transmitting and receiving. fast-acting switch called the transmit-receive (TR) switch disconnects the receiver during transmission. If the receiver were not disconnected and if the transmitter power were sufficiently large, the receiver might be damaged. After passage of the transmitted signal, the TR switch reconnects the receiver to the antenna.
[Sec. 1.3
portion of the radiated power is reflected by the target back to the radar and enters the receiver via the same antenna as used for transmitting. The (anti-transmitreceive) switch, which has no effect during the transmission portion of the cycle, acts on reception to channel the received signal power into the receiver. In the absence of the
ATR
ATR, a portion of the received power would be dissipated

the transmitter rather than enter the receiver, where it belongs. The and the are together called the duplexer. If separate antennas are employed for transin,
TR
ATR
mitting and receiving, a duplexer may not be necessary if the isolation between the two separated antennas can be
made
sufficiently large.
The radar receiver is usually of the superheterodyne type. The RF amplifier shown as the first stage of the superheterodyne might be a low-noise parametric amplifier,
a traveling-wave tube, or a maser.

first stage,
Many microThe mixer

signal to
wave radar receivers do not have an

the mixer as the
-4r.
RF amplifier and use
or front end.
and
local oscillator
(LO) convert the
RF
an
intermediate frequency (IF) since itis easier to build highgain narrowband amplifiers at the lower frequencies. typical IF amplifier might have a center frequency of 30 or 60 Mc and a bandwidth of 1 or 2 Mc. reflex klystron is commonly employed as the local oscillator. The RF pulse modulation is extracted by the detector and amplified by the video amplifier to a level where it can operate the indicator, usually a cathode-ray tube
(CRT).
cator.
Timing
signals are also supplied to the indi-
Target positional information is obtained from the direction of the antenna and is used to properly display the coordinates of the target location. The two Fig. 1 .4. (a) A-scopepresentation most commqn forms of indicators using cathode-ray displaying amplitude vs. range tubes are the A-scope (Fig. 1.4a) and the plan position (deflection modulation) (b) PPI The A-scope displays the presentation displaying range vs. indicator, or PPI (Fig. 1.4b). target amplitude (y axis) vs. range (x axis), and no angle angle (intensity modulation). information is shown. The PPI maps the target in angle and range on a polar display. Target amplitude is used to modulate the electron;
beam
intensity (z axis) as the electron beam is made to sweep outward from the center with range. The beam rotates in angle in response to the antenna position. The block diagram of Fig. 1.3 is only one version of a radar. Many variations are
Furthermore, the diagram is by no means complete since it does not include devices normally found in most radars. Additional devices' might include a means for automatically compensating the receiver for changes in radar frequency
possible.
many
receiver circuits for reducing interfering or unwanted signals, rotary joints in the transmission lines to allow movement of the antenna, circuitry for discriminating between moving targets and stationary objects (MTI), and means for allowing the antenna to automatically track a moving target. Monitoring devices (not shown) are usually employed to ensure that the radar is operating properly. simple but important monitoring device is a directional coupler inserted in the transmission line to sample a fraction of the transmitted power. The output from the directional coupler may be used as a measure of the transmitted power or to test the fidelity of the transmitted waveform.
(AFC) or gain (AGC),
A common
form of radar antenna
is
a reflector with a parabolic shape fed from a
Sec. 1.4]
The Nature of Radar
point source. The parabolic reflector focuses the energy into a narrow beam just as does an optical searchlight or an automobile headlamp. The beam may be scanned in space by mechanically pointing the antenna.
1.4.
Radar Frequencies
Conventional radars have been operated at frequencies extending from about 25 to 70,000 Mc, a spread of more than 1 1 octaves. These are not necessarily the limits since radars can be operated at frequencies outside either end of this range. The early radar developers were forced to design their equipments to operate at the lower frequencies, for the rather compelling reason that suitable components were not available at higher frequencies. The CH (Chain Home) radars employed by the British to provide early warning against air attack during World War II operated at a frequency in the vicinity of 25 Mc. This is a very low radar frequency by modern standards. Although higher transmitter powers are usually easier to achieve at the lower frequencies, the poor angular accuracy and poor resolution which result with antennas of
Wovelength
1km
-*
100m
10m
*
10cm
VLF
Very low frequency
i
*-
< LF
Low
MF* * HF
High frequency
VHF> UHF
Ultrahigh
SHF>
Super
high frequency
Cenfi metric
<--
EHF^high
Medium
frequency
frequency
Very high frequency
Extremely
frequency
frequency
Millimetric
My riomet ric
waves
Kilometric
Hectometric Decometric
Metric
Deci metric
woves
waves
waves
waves
waves
waves
waves
Decimillimetric waves
Band 4
Bond 5
Bond 6
Bond 7
'/////////, Radar frequencies ''/////////,

.
Broadcast
band
L *tter designo ions
II
L
1
Bond B
Band 9
Band 10
Band
Band 12
Infr
X Ku Ka
1
Aud o frequenci
Microwave region
Video frequencies
30cps
300 cps
3kc
30kc
300
kc
3Mc
30 Mc
300 Mc
3Gc
30Gc
300 Gc
3,000 Gc
Frequency
Fig. 1.5.
Radar frequencies and the electromagnetic spectrum.
reasonable size are not suitable for most applications.
The antenna beamwidth
is
inversely proportional to the size of the antenna aperture (measured in wavelengths), and the lower the frequency, the broader will be the beamwidth for an aperture of a
beamwidth can be obtained with a paraAt 25 Mc, an antenna diameter of more than \ mile would be necessary to achieve the same beamwidth Considerations such as this stimulated the development of components and techniques at the higher radio frequencies, known as the microwave region. The place of radar frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum is shown in Fig. 1.5. Some of the various nomenclature employed to designate the various frequency regions is also shown. The radar region is shown extending from about 25 to 70,000 Mc. Very few modern radars are found below 200 or above 35,000 Mc. An exception to this are radars that operate at high frequency (HF), about 2 to 20 Mc, and take advantage of ionospheric reflections. Radar frequencies are not found over the entire frequency region. They tend to group into separate bands for reasons of economy, both in terms of dollars and frequency allocations. Early in the development of radar, a letter code such as S, X, L, etc., was employed to designate radar frequency bands. Although its original purpose was to guard military secrecy, the designations were carried over into peacetime use, probably out of habit and
size.
given
For example,
at 70,000
Mc, a
1 ft
bolic-reflector antenna approximately
in diameter.
[Sec. 1.5
the need for some convenient short nomenclature. The more commonly used letter Although these are a convendesignations are indicated in Fig. 1.5 and in Table 1.1. ient form of nomenclature, they have no official status and there is not always general
agreement as to the limits associated with each band. Two other methods of naming frequency bands shown in Fig. 1.5 are based on frequency subdivisions and metric subdivisions. Their use is not very precise, and they define only general areas. For instance, the designation ultrahigh frequency (UHF) usually refers, in practice, to frequencies from about 300 to about 1,000 Mc. In radar parlance, L or 5 band would be used to designate the UHF frequencies above 1,000 Mc.
Table
Radar frequency band
1.1
Frequency
300-1,000 Mc 1,000-2,000 Mc 2,000-4,000 Mc 4,000-8,000 Mc 8,000-12,500 Mc 12.5-18 Gc 18-26.5 Gc 26.5-40 Gc
UHF
L
S
X
K
K
K
Millimeter
>40 Gc
The "band" method
for designating frequency as adopted
by the
CCIR
(Comite
Consultatif International Radio) in 1953 is also shown in Fig. 1.5. The frequency "band N" extends from 3 x 10* _1 to3 x lO^cps. The number of the exponent of 10 which expresses the upper frequency limit designates the band in question. For example, the band extending from 3 x 108 to 3 x 109 is band 9. The microwave region is that frequency region where distributed-constant, rather than lumped-constant, circuits are employed. Examples of distributed-constant The characdevices are waveguides, cavity resonators, and highly directive antennas. teristic of the microwave region is that the size of the components is comparable with the wavelength. The transition between the microwave region and the lumped-
UHF
constant region is not sharp. The lower limit of microwaves is shown as 300 Mc since waveguide components and power klystron amplifiers are commercially available at The upper end of the microwave region is difficult to specify, but this frequency. beyond the millimeter region, microwave techniques are more profitably replaced by
optical techniques.
Also shown in Fig. 1 .5 are the audio frequencies, which may be defined as the range of frequencies audible to the normal human ear. The video frequencies are also indicated. These are taken to be the range of frequencies that may be displayed on a cathode-ray tube. The video-frequency range is quite arbitrary. It extends from zero frequency to the order of several megacycles in most radar and television applications, although it
can be considered to extend even higher since frequencies of several thousand megacycles or more may be displayed on cathode-ray tubes.
1.5.
History of Radar Development!

full-fledged technology did not occur until
Although the development of radar as a
the basic principle of radar detection is almost as old as the subject of electromagnetism itself. Heinrich Hertz, in 1886, experimentally tested the theories of
II,
World War
Maxwell and demonstrated the similarity between radio and light waves. Hertz showed that radio waves could be reflected by metallic and dielectric bodies. It is
t Much of the material in this section concerning the early development of United States radar based on an unpublished report by Guerlac. 1
is
Sec. 1.5]
interesting to note that although Hertz's experiments
The Nature of Radar

were performed with
relatively
short wavelength radiation (66 cm), later work in radio engineering was almost entirely at longer wavelengths. The shorter wavelengths were not actively used to any great extent until the late thirties.
In 1903 a
German engineer by the name of Hiilsmeyer experimented
with the detec-
waves reflected from ships. He obtained a patent in 1904 in several countries for an obstacle detector and ship navigational device. 2 His methods were demonstrated before the German Navy, but generated little interest. The state of technology at that time was not sufficiently adequate to obtain ranges of more than about a mile, and his detection technique was dismissed on the grounds that it was little better than a visual observer. Marconi recognized the potentialities of short waves for radio detection and strongly urged their use in 1 922 for this application. In a speech delivered before the Institute of Radio Engineers, he said 3
tion of radio
:
Hertz, electric waves can be completely reflected by conducting have noticed the effects of reflection and detection of these waves by metallic objects miles away. It seems to me that it should be possible to design apparatus by means of which a ship could radiate or project a divergent beam of these rays in any desired direction, which rays,
first
As was
shown by
bodies.
In some of
my
tests I
coming across a metallic object, such as another steamer or ship, would be reflected back to a receiver screened from the local transmitter on the sending ship, and thereby, immediately reveal the presence and bearing of the other ship in fog or thick weather.
if
Although Marconi predicted and successfully demonstrated radio communication between continents, he was apparently not successful in gaining support for some of his
other ideas involving very short waves. One was the radar detection mentioned above; the other was the suggestion that very short waves are capable of propagation well beyond the optical line of sight a phenomenon now known as tropospheric scatter. He also suggested that radio waves be used for the transfer of power from one point to the other without the use of wire or other transmission lines. Apparently Marconi's suggestion stimulated A. H. Taylor and L. C. Young of the Naval Research Laboratory to confirm experimentally the speculations concerning radio detection. In the autumn of 1922 they detected a wooden ship using a wave-interference radar with separated receiver and transmitter. The wavelength was proposal was submitted for further work but was not accepted. 5 m. The first application of the pulse technique to the measurement of distance was in the basic scientific investigation by Breit and Tuve in 1925 for measuring the height of the ionosphere. 4 However, more than a decade was to elapse before the detection of aircraft by pulse radar was demonstrated. The first experimental radar systems operated with and depended for detection upon the interference produced between the direct signal received from the transmitter and the doppler-frequency-shifted signal reflected by a moving target. This effect is the same as the rhythmic flickering, or flutter, observed in an ordinary television
CW
CW
on weak stations when an aircraft passes overhead. This type of radar originally was called wave-interference radar. Today, such a radar is called a bistatic radar (Sec. 13.6). The first experimental detections of aircraft used this radar principle rather than a monostatic (single-site) pulse radar because equipment
receiver, especially
CW
CW
CW
was readily available. Successful pulse radar had to await the development of suitable components, especially high-peak-power tubes, and a better understanding of pulse
receivers.
The
1930,
first
detection of aircraft using the wave-interference effect was

It
made
in June,
by L. A. Hyland of the Naval Research Laboratory. 1
was made accidentally
10
[Sec. 1.5
while he was working with a direction-finding apparatus located in an aircraft on the ground. The transmitter at a frequency of 33 Mc was located 2 miles away, and the beam crossed an air lane from a nearby airfield. When aircraft passed through the beam, Hyland noted an increase in the received signal. This stimulated a more deliberate investigation by the NRL personnel, but the work continued at a slow pace, lacking official encouragement and funds from the government, although it was fully supported by the NRL administration. By 1932 the equipment was demonstrated to detect aircraft at distances as great as 50 miles from the transmitter. The NRL work on aircraft detection with wave interference was kept classified until 1933, when several Bell Telephone Laboratories engineers reported the detection of aircraft during the course of other experiments. 5 The NRL work was disclosed in a patent filed and granted to Taylor, Young, and Hyland 6 on a "System for Detecting Objects by Radio." The type of radar described in this patent was a wave-interference radar. Early in wave-interference radar was demonstrated by NRL. 934, a 60-Mc The early wave-interference radars were useful only for detecting the presence of the target. The problem of extracting target-position information from such radars was a difficult one and could not be readily solved with the techniques existing at that time. A proposal was made by NRL in 1933 to employ a chain of transmitting and receiving stations along a line to be guarded, for the purpose of obtaining some knowledge of distance and velocity. This was never carried out, however. The limited ability of wave-interference radar to be anything more than a trip wire undoubtedly tempered what little official enthusiasm existed for radar. It was recognized that the limitations to obtaining adequate position information could be overcome with pulse transmission. Strange as it may now seem, in the early days pulse radar encountered much skepticism. Nevertheless, an effort was started at N RL in the spring of 934 to develop a pulse radar. The work received low priority and was carried out principally by R. M. Page, but he was not allowed to devote his full time
CW
CW CW
CW
CW
to the effort.
attempt with pulse radar at was at a frequency of 60 Mc. According first tests of the 60-Mc pulse radar were carried out in late December, 1934, and early January, 1935. These tests were "hopelessly unsuccessful and a grievous disappointment." No pulse echoes were observed on the cathode-ray tube. The chief reason for this failure was attributed to the receiver's being designed for communications rather than for pulse reception. The shortcomings were corrected, and the first radar echoes obtained at using pulses occurred on Apr. 28, 1936, with a radar operating at a frequency of 28.3 Mc and a pulse width of 5 âsec. The range was only 2\ miles. By early June the range was 25 miles. It was realized by the NRL experimenters that higher radar frequencies were desired, especially for shipboard application, where large antennas could not be tolerated. However, the necessary components did not exist. The success of the experiments at 28 Mc encouraged the NRL experimenters to develop a 200-Mc equipment. The first echoes at 200 Mc were received July 22, 1936, less than three months after the start of the project. This radar was also the first to employ a duplexing system with a common antenna for both transmitting and receiving. The range was only 10 to 12 miles. In the spring of 1937 it was installed and tested on the destroyer Leary. The range of the 200-Mc radar was limited by the transmitter. The development of higher-powered tubes by the Eitel-McCullough Corporation allowed an improved design of the 200-Mc radar known as X AF. This occurred in January, 1 938. Although the power delivered to the antenna was only 6 kw, a range of 50 miles the limit of the sweep was obtained by February. The XAF was tested aboard the battleship A'en- York, in maneuvers held during January and February of 1939, and met with considerable success. Ranges of 20 to 24 kiloyards were obtained on battleships and cruisers. By October, 1939,
first
The
NRL
to Guerlac, 1 the
CW
NRL
Sec. 1.5]
The Nature of Radar
11
orders were placed for a manufactured version called the radars were installed on major ships of the fleet by 1941.
CXAM.
Nineteen of these
an interest in radar during the Signal Corps work in pulse radar apparently resulted from a visit to in January, 1936. By December of that year the Army tested its first pulse radar, obtaining a range of 7 miles. The first operational radar
early 1930s. 7
The United
States
Army Signal Corps also maintained
The beginning of serious
NRL
used for antiaircraft fire control was the SCR-268, available in 1 938. The basic patent 8 describing the prototype of the SCR-268 was awarded to Colonel William R. Blair, a former director of the Signal Corps Laboratories. The claims contained in this patent apparently cover most of the basic ideas inherent in pulse-echo radio ranging and
Although Colonel Blair's patent may legally make him the originator of pulse radar, the spontaneous and independent development of pulse radar by several investigators in this country and abroad seems to make it difficult to assign sole credit to any one person for its origin.
detection.
The SCR-268 was used in conjunction with searchlights for radar fire control. This was necessary because of its poor angular accuracy. However, its range accuracy was superior to that obtained with optical methods. The SCR-268 remained the standard fire-control equipment until January, 1944, when it was replaced by the SCR-584 microwave radar. The SCR-584 could control an antiaircraft battery without the
necessity for searchlights or optical angle tracking. In 1939 the Army developed the SCR-270, a long-range radar for early warning. The attack on Pearl Harbor in December, 1941 , was detected by an SCR-270, one of six
Hawaii at the time. 1 (There were also 16 SCR-268s assigned to units in Honolulu.) But unfortunately, the true significance of the blips on the scope was not realized until after the bombs had fallen. A modified SCR-270 was also the first radar to detect echoes from the moon in 1946. The early developments of pulse radar were primarily concerned with military applications. Although it was not recognized as being a radar at the time, the frequency-modulated aircraft radio altimeter was probably the first commercial application of the radar principle. The first equipments were operated in aircraft as early as 1936 and utilized the same principle of operation as the FM-CW radar described in
in
In the case of the radio altimeter, the target is the ground. In Britain the development of radar began later than in the United States. 9 " 12 But because they felt the nearness of war more acutely and were in a more vulnerable position with respect to air attack, the British expended a large amount of effort on radar development. By the time the United States entered the war, the British were
British interest in radar began about the possibility of producing a death ray using radio waves. Watson- Watt concluded that this type of death ray required fantastically large amounts of power and could be regarded as not being practical at that time. Instead, he recommended that it would be more promising to investigate means for radio detection as opposed to radio destruction. (The only available means for locating aircraft prior to World War II were sound locators whose maximum detection range under favorable conditions was about 20 miles.) WatsonWatt was allowed to explore the possibilities of radio detection, and in February, 1935, he issued two memoranda outlining the conditions necessary for an effective radar system. In that same month the detection of an aircraft was carried out, using 6-Mc communication equipment, by observing the beats between the echo signal and the directly received signal (wave interference). The technique was similar to the first United States radar-detection experiments. The transmitter and receiver were separated by about 5.5 miles. When the aircraft receded from the receiver, it was possible to detect the beats to about an 8-mile range.
in early 1935,
Sec. 3.3.
well experienced in the military applications of radar. when Sir Robert Watson-Watt was asked
12
[Sec. 1.5
an aircraft target.
had demonstrated the pulse technique to measure range of experiments This was almost a year sooner than the successful with pulse radar.f By September, ranges greater than 40 miles were obtained on bomber aircraft. The frequency was 12 Mc. Also, in that month, the first radar measurement of the height of aircraft above ground was made by measuring the elevaIn March, 1936, the range of detection had tion angle of arrival of the reflected signal. increased to 90 miles and the frequency was raised to 25 Mc. (Chain Home) radar stations at a frequency of 25 Mc were successfully A series of demonstrated in April, 1937. Most of the stations were operating by September, 1938, and plotted the track of the aircraft which flew Neville Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister at that time, to Munich to confer with Hitler and Mussolini. In the same month, the CH radar stations began 24-hour duty, which continued until the end of the
By June,
1935, the British
NRL
CH
war.
were not that ground-based search radars such as guide fighter aircraft to a complete interception at night or in bad Consequently, they developed, by 1939, an aircraft-interception radar (AI), weather. mounted on an aircraft, for the detection and interception of hostile aircraft. The Al radar operated at a frequency of 200 Mc. During the development of the AI radar it was noted that radar could be used for the detection of ships from the air and also that the character of echoes from the ground was dependent on the nature of the terrain. The former phenomenon was quickly exploited for the detection and location of surface ships and submarines. The latter effect was not exploited initially, but is now used for
The British realized quite early
CH
sufficiently accurate to
airborne mapping radars. Until the middle of 1940 the development of radar in Britain and the United States was carried out independently of one another. In September of that year a British technical mission visited the United States to exchange information concerning the radar developments in the two countries. The British realized the advantages to be gained from the better angular resolution possible at the microwave frequencies, They suggested that the United States especially for airborne and naval applications. undertake the development of a microwave AI radar and a microwave antiaircraft The British technical mission demonstrated the cavity-magnetron fire-control radar. power tube developed by Randell and Boot and furnished design information so that it could be duplicated by United States manufacturers. The Randell and Boot magnetron operated at a wavelength of 10 cm and produced a power output of about 1 kw, an improvement by a factor of 100 over anything previously achieved at centimeter
wavelengths. The development of the magnetron was one of the most important contributions to the realization of microwave radar. The success of microwave radar was by no means certain at the end of 1940. Therefore the United States Service Laboratories chose to concentrate on the development of radars at the lower frequencies, primarily the very high frequency (VHF) band, where techniques and components were more readily available. The exploration of the microwave region for radar application became the responsibility of the Radiation Laboratory, organized in November, 1940, under the administration of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
In addition to the developments carried out in the United States and Great Britain, radar was developed independently in France and Germany during the middle and Other countries such as Japan, 14 Italy, and Russia apparently did not late thirties. enter the field of radar until they became aligned with either Germany or the Allied powers.
13 radar system was operated against aircraft in December, 1934, t Schooley points out that a 60at the Naval Research Laboratory, but as indicated previously in this section, Guerlac 1 states that this
Mc
attempt was not successful.
Sec.
1.5]
The Nature of Radar
13
At the close of World War II most of the scientists and engineers engaged in radar development returned to their normal peacetime pursuits, and the pace of radar development slowed considerably. The radars in operational use during the decade following the war were, for the most part, based on designs initiated during the war. The AN/CPS-6B, the AN/FPS-3, and the AN/FPS-6 height finder were the primary radars used for long-range surveillance of aircraft in this country during that period of time. However, by the early fifties, some new developments became available which increased the capability of radar. One of the more important of these was the introduction of the high-power klystron amplifier. The high-power klystron amplifier was first developed not for radar application but for the linear accelerator at Stanford University. This is but one of many examples that illustrate how basic research can unpredictably contribute to the advancement of practical technology. The advantage of the klystron amplifier over the magnetron the only other high-power tube used for microwave radar application up to that time is that klystrons are capable of greater power output than magnetrons and their stability is far better, thus permitting better
moving-target-indication (MTI) radars. Another component in which considerable advance has been made is the receiver. Advances in crystal-mixer technology and in low-noise traveling-wave tubes improved the sensitivity of microwave receivers by an order of magnitude. The parametric amplifier and the solid-state maser further improved receivers to the point where external noise and losses in the transmission lines are more important in determining receiver sensitivity than the device itself. During the thirties, radar development was restricted to frequencies at or lower. During the forties, most of the significant developments were carried out in the
UHF
trend,
microwave region. Inthe 1950s, however, there was a reversal ofthe upward frequency and a large amount of radar development was again carried out in the UHF
region, especially for long-range search radars.
Another advance during the fifties was the closer integration of the radar system to This was made possible primarily by the development of electronic computer techniques during this period. The AI radar was developed to the point where most ofthe functions of aiming and firing of weapons normally carried out by the pilot were taken over by the radar and computer. The integration of radar and weapon was even closer in the guided missile. In the area of air defense most of the functions of recognizing and plotting aircraft tracks, normally the function of an operator, were carried out automatically by electronic digital computers such as those in the SAGE (Semiautomatic Ground Environment) system. The post-World War II radars were more accurate and of greater range capability than their wartime counterparts. The accuracy of tracking radars in the fifties was an order of magnitude better than those ofthe previous decade. The further development of monopulse tracking radar also came about in this period. The need for accurate tracking arose mainly from the requirements of guided missiles. In the late 1950s, with the advent of Sputniks and intercontinental ballistic missiles, the range required of radars was greatly increased over that required for aircraft detection. This resulted in the development of radars with very high power transmitters and large antennas. The development of radar was sparked primarily by military needs. However, radar has found many civilian applications, especially in air and marine navigation. Radar technology is still in the process of growing. Although it may leave much to be desired in many applications, radar is still the only means of detecting and locating reflecting objects at long ranges and will continue to be used until a better substitute is
the weapon.
found.
Before this section on the history of radar development
is
closed,
mention should be
14
[Sec. 1.6
in nature. The porpoise and the bat are both known to use ultrasonic echo-locating principles similar to electromagnetic radar echo location or ^ ultrasonic sonar. 15 17
made of "radar" found
The ordinary bat contains a built-in ultrasonic "radar" enabling him to fly through dark caves with impunity and find and catch insects on the wing for food. 17 The bat emits a series of ultrasonic pulses about 2 msec in width at a repetition frequency of the order of 10 to 20 cps under ordinary circumstances. The repetition frequency does vary, however, depending upon the state of activity. A bat at rest might emit pulses at a rate of 5 to 10 cps. In flight, for periods of time of the order of several seconds, the prf might be as high as 50 to 60 cps, or even higher. The shape of the transmitted pulse is not exactly rectangular, but rises to a maximum and then decays. Even more remarkable is the fact that the bat's transmission is not a simple pulse but is more like a frequency-modulated pulse or an FM pulse-compression waveform, as discussed in Sec. 10.9. The frequency-modulated transmissions emitted by one species of bat start at a frequency of 78 kc and decay to 39 kc, on the average. The average frequency at the peak amplitude of the pulse is 48 kc. Note that the length of a 2-msec ultrasonic pulse is 70 cm, suggesting that the bat must make use of the frequency change to indicate the target distance, just as do the FM radars described in Chap. 3. Bats have been observed to detect obstacles as close as 5 cm. The ears of the bat act the same as an antenna to give the bat's radar directional properties. It is found experimentally that the intensity of the emissions is much reduced if the bat's head is pointed 45 or more from the normal (assuming that the ultrasonic receiver is observing the bat head on). Another interesting observation is that hundreds or even thousands of bats issue from caves in flight without apparent difficulty from mutual interference.
1.6. Applications
of Radar
Radar has been employed on the ground, in the air, and on the sea and undoubtedly be used in space. Ground-based radar has been applied chiefly to the detection and location of aircraft or space targets. Shipboard radar may observe other
will
ships or aircraft, or it may be used as a navigation aid to locate shore lines or buoys. Airborne radar may be used to detect other aircraft, ships, or land vehicles, or it may be used for storm avoidance and navigation. The nature of the vehicle that carries the radar and the environment in which it operates have a significant influence on its
design.
Civilian Applications. The chief use of radar outside of the military has been for navigation, both marine and air. Air-trafnc-control radar monitors air traffic in the vicinity of airports and en route between air terminals. In foul weather, radar is used
with
GCA
(ground control of approach) systems to guide
aircraft to a safe landing.
Commercial aircraft carry radar altimeters to determine their height above the ground and weather-avoidance radar to navigate around dangerous storms. On the sea, radar is used by ships, large and small, for navigation, especially in bad weather or with poor visibility. Radar has also been used as an aid in surveying over very large distances. One of the more important applications of radar is in the detection and tracking of weather disturbances, especially tornadoes and hurricanes. Perhaps the application with which the reader has had most contact is the speedmeasuring radar used by many of the highway police. Military Applications. A large number of the civilian applications of radar mentioned above also apply to the military, especially radar navigation. In addition, radar is used by the military for surveillance and for the control of weapons. Surveillance radars detect and locate hostile targets for the purpose of taking proper military action. Examples of such radars are those in the DEW (Distant Early Warning) line for the detection of aircraft; the BMEWS (Ballistic Missile Early Warning System) radars for
Fig. 1.6. AN/FPS-24 long-range search radar. Electronics Department.)
(Courtesy General Electric Co., Heavy Military
mm
Fig.
1.7.
Portable surveying radar
MRA-2
Tellurometer system.
15
(Courtesy Tellurometer, Inc.)
Fig.
1.8.
AN/SPG-49
Talos missile-tracking radars on board the U.S.S. Galveston.
(Courtesy
Sperry Gyroscope Co.)
Fig.
1.9.
AN/MPQ-10
mortar-detection radar.
16
(Courtesy Sperry Gyroscope Co.)
Sec. 1.6]
detecting
The Nature of Radar

and tracking intercontinental
;
17
of the
SAGE
ballistic missiles the long-range search radars (Airborne Early system; shipboard surveillance radars; and the
AEW
Warning) radars. Examples of radars for the control of weapons include the acquisition radars and
tracking radars of air defense systems such as those of Nike, homing radars on guided missiles, AI (airborne-interception) radar used to guide a fighter aircraft to its target,
and bombing
as a
radars.
The use of radar measurement tool by research scientists has vastly increased our knowledge of meteorology, aurora, meteors, and other objects of the solar system. Radar can guide space vehicles and satellites and may be used for
Scientific Applications.
the exploration of interplanetary space.
In addition, the techniques and components
developed for radar have been put to good use in such basic research as microwave spectroscopy, radio astronomy, and radar astronomy. Examples. Some of the many varied shapes radars may take are illustrated in
Figs.
1.6 to 1.12.
The AN/FPS-24
(Fig.
a large frequency-diversity radar (Sec. 12.10) for the surveillance of aircraft. Its antenna is 120 ft wide and 36 ft high.
1.6) is
The reflector, pedestal, and feed horn weigh more than 135 tons. A beacon interrogating antenna (Sec. 13.7) is mounted on
top.
This large radar
is
contrasted with the

Fig.
1.10.
30-lbMRA-2 Tellurometer surveying radar

(Fig. 1.7), a small portable equipment capable of precisely measuring the distance
RDR-1D
system antenna.
airborne-weather-radar(Courtesy Bendix Radio.)
between two points (Sec. 3.5). Figure 1.8 shows two AN/SPG-49 missile-tracking radars mounted on board ship. Their function is to automatically acquire and track targets for the Talos surface-to-air missile systems. The two smaller dish-shaped radars are the AN/SPW-2, used to guide
the missile to the target.
Fig. 1.9.
mortar-detection radar, the
AN/MPQ-10,
is
shown
in
Figure 1.10 illustrates the 22-in.-diameter antenna for the RDR-1D airborne weather radar system (Sec. 13.5) designed to be mounted in the nose of an aircraft. spoiler grid is shown in the upper half of the antenna to provide a cosecant-squared beam (Sec.
7.9) for
improved ground mapping.

.
Fig. 1 1 1 is a three-dimensional (3-D) pencil-beam radar. Elevation coverage is obtained with electronic frequency scanning (Sec. 7.7), while azimuth scanning is obtained by mechanical rotation of the antenna. The antenna beam is stabilized electronically to compensate for the pitch and roll of a ship at
sea.
The Frescan radar shown in
An example
7.7).
The sloping
position
of an electronically scanned array radar face of the building measures 50 by 50

is
is
ft.
ESAR
(Fig. 1.12
and
Sec.
The antenna is
fixed,
and
the
beam
controlled electronically.
Fig. 1.11. Frescan 3-D radar (Courtesy Hughes Aircraft Co.)
mounted on the masthead of the
missile cruiser U.S.S. Galveston.
Fig. 1.12.
filler
ESAR, electronically steered array radar. radar.) {Courtesy Bendix Radio.)

18
(Radar to the
left
rear
is
the
AN/FPS-18 gap-
The Nature of Radar
19
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Guerlac, H. E.: "OSRD Long History," vol. V, Division 14, "Radar," available from Office of Technical Services, U.S. Department of Commerce. British Patent 13,170, issued to Christian Hulsmeyer, Sept. 22, 1904, entitled "Hertzian-wave Projecting and Receiving Apparatus Adapted to Indicate or Give Warning of the Presence of a Metallic Body, Such as a Ship or a Train, in the Line of Projection of Such Waves." Marconi, S. G. Radio Telegraphy, Proc. IRE, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 237, 1922. Breit, G., and M. A. Tuve: Test of the Existence of the Conducting Layer, Phys. Rev., vol. 28, pp. 554-575, September, 1926. Englund, C. R., A. B. Crawford, and W. W. Mumford: Some results of a Study of Ultra-shortwave Transmission Phenomena, Proc. IRE, vol. 21, pp. 475-492, March, 1933. U.S. Patent 1,981,884, "System for Detecting Objects by Radio," issued to A. H. Taylor, L. C.
:
Young, and
7.
L. A. Hyland,
Nov.
27, 1934.
Vieweger, A. L.: Radar in the Signal Corps, IRE Trans., vol. MIL-4, pp. 555-561, October, 1960. 8. U.S. Patent 2,803,819, "Object Locating System," issued to W. R. Blair, Aug. 20, 1957. 9. Origins of Radar: Background to the Awards of the Royal Commission, Wireless World, vol. 58, pp. 95-99, March, 1952. 10. Wilkins, A. F.: The Story of Radar, Research (London), vol. 6, pp. 434-440, November, 1953. very 11. Rowe, A. P.: "One Story of Radar," Cambridge University Press, New York, 1948. readable description of the history of radar development at TRE (Telecommunications Research Establishment, England) and how TRE went about its business from 1935 to the end of World
War
12.
II.
:
13.
14.
15. 16.
17.
Watson- Watt, Sir Robert "Three Steps to Victory," Odhams Press, Ltd., London, 1957 "The Pulse of Radar," The Dial Press, Inc., New York, 1959. Schooley, A. W.: Pulse Radar History, Proc. IRE, vol. 37, p. 405, April, 1949. Wilkinson, R. I.: Short Survey of Japanese Radar, Elec. Eng., vol. 65, pp. 370-377, AugustSeptember, 1946, and pp. 455^163, October, 1946. Griffin, D.. R.: "Listening in the Dark," Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn., 1958. Griffin, D. R.: "Echoes of Bats and Men," Doubleday & Company, New York, 1959. Griffin, D. R.: Measurements of the Ultrasonic Cries of Bats, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., vol. 22,
;
pp. 247-255, 1950.
2
THE RADAR EQUATION
2.1. Prediction
of Range Performance
The simple form of the radar equation derived in Sec. 1.2 expressed the radar range R max in terms of radar and target parameters
maximum
P GA e a
t
Smin J transmitted power, watts t antenna gain Ae antenna effective aperture, 2 a .= radar cross section, 2 minimum detectable signal, watts Smin All the parameters are to some extent under the control of the radar designer, except for the target cross section a. The radar equation states that if long ranges are desired, the transmitted power must be large, the radiated energy must be concentrated into a
where
Rr,
P G=
_(477)
(2.1)
narrow beam (high transmitting antenna
gain), the received
echo energy must be

gain),
collected with a large antenna aperture (also receiver must be sensitive to weak signals.
synonymous with high
and the
In practice, however, the simple radar equation does not predict the range performance of actual radar equipments to a satisfactory degree of accuracy. The predicted values of radar range are usually optimistic. In some cases the actual range might be only half that predicted. 1 Part of this discrepancy is due to the failure of Eq. (2. 1) to explicitly include the various losses that can occur throughout the system or the loss in performance usually experienced when electronic equipment is operated in the field rather than under laboratory-type conditions. Another important factor that must be considered in the radar equation is the statistical or unpredictable nature of several of the parameters. The minimum detectable signal Smin and the target cross section a are both statistical in nature and must be expressed in statistical terms. Other statistical factors which do not appear explicitly in Eq. (2. 1) but which have an effect on the radar performance are the meteorological conditions along the propagation path and the performance of the radar operator, if one is employed. The statistical nature of these several parameters does not allow the maximum radar range to be described by a single number. Its specification must include a statement of the probability that the radar will detect a certain type of target at a particular range. In this chapter, the simple radar equation will be extended to include most of the important factors that influence radar range performance. If all those factors affecting radar range were known, it would be possible, in principle, to make an accurate prediction of radar performance. But, as is true for most endeavors, the quality of the prediction is a function of the amount of effort employed in determining the quantitative effects of the various parameters. Unfortunately, the effort required to specify completely the effects of all radar parameters to the degree of accuracy required for range prediction is usually not economically justified. A compromise is always necessary between what one would like to have and what one can actually get with reasonable effort. This will be better appreciated as we proceed through the chapter and note the various factors that must be taken into account.
20
Sec. 2.2]
The Radar Equation
21
A complete and detailed discussion of all those factors that influence the prediction of
is beyond the scope of a single chapter. For this reason many subjects appear to be treated only lightly. This is deliberate and is necessitated by brevity. More detailed information will be found in some of the subsequent chapters or in the references listed at the end of the chapter.
radar range
will
2.2.
Minimum
ability
Detectable Signal
of a radar receiver to detect a weak echo signal is limited by the noise energy that occupies the same portion of the frequency spectrum as does the signal energy. The weakest signal the receiver can detect is called the minimum detectable signal. The specification of the minimum detectable signal is sometimes difficult because of its statistical nature and because the criterion for deciding whether a target is present or not may not be too well defined. This is especially true if a human operator
The
makes the detection

Detection
is
decision.
based on establishing a threshold level at the output of the receiver. If the receiver output exceeds the threshold, a signal is assumed to be present. This is called threshold detection. Consider the output of a typical radar receiver as a function
Threshold
level
Time
Fig. 2.1
Typical envelope of the radar receiver output as a function of time.
of time (Fig. 2. 1). This might represent one sweep of the video output displayed on an A-scope with the receiver gain turned all the way up to make the noise level visible. The envelope has a fluctuating appearance caused by the random nature of noise. If a large signal is present such as at A in Fig. 2.1, it is greater than the surrounding noise peaks and can be recognized on the basis of its amplitude. Thus, if the threshold level were set sufficiently high, the envelope would not generally exceed the threshold if noise alone were present, but would exceed it if a strong signal were present. If the signal were small, however, it would be more difficult to recognize its presence. The threshold level must be low if weak signals are to be detected, but it cannot be so low that noise peaks cross the threshold and give a false indication of the presence of targets. The voltage envelope of Fig. 2. 1 is assumed to be from a matched-filter receiver (Sec. 9.2). A matched filter is one designed to maximize the output peak signal to average noise (power) ratio. This is not the same as the concept of "impedance match" of circuit theory. The ideal matched-filter receiver cannot always be exactly realized in practice, but it is possible to approach it with practical receiver circuits. A nearly matched filter receiver for a radar transmitting a rectangular-shaped pulse is usually characterized by a bandwidth B approximately the reciprocal of the pulse width t, or The output of a matched-filter receiver is the cross correlation between the Br ph 1 Hence it does not preserve received waveform and the impulse response of the filter. Other receiver design techniques must be employed the shape of the input waveform. One such if it is necessary to reproduce faithfully the shape of the input waveform. technique is the least-square smoothing and prediction theory of Wiener. 2
.
. .
24
[Sec. 2.3
that it exists. A discussion of the additional noise sources given in Sec. 8.3. No matter whether the noise is generated by a thermal mechanism or by some other mechanism, the total noise at the output of the receiver may be considered to be equal to the thermal-noise power obtained from an ideal receiver multiplied by a factor called the noise figure. The noise figure Fn of a receiver is defined by the equation
important except to
know
is
in nonideal receivers
Fn
where
,,
=--
kT B n Ga
N
2
noise out of practical receiver
,.
noise out of ideal receiver at std
temp
(2.4a)
N =
Ga =
noise output from receiver available gain
The temperature T is taken to be 290K, according to the Institute of Radio Engineers definition. The noise N is measured over the linear portion of the receiver inputoutput characteristic, usually at the output of the IF amplifier before the nonlinear
Table
2.1.
Comparison of Noise Bandwidth and 3-db Bandwidth!

No. of stages
1
Type of receiver
coupling circuit
Single-tuned
Ratio of noise bandwidth to 3-db bandwidth

1
57
2
3
1.22 1.16 1.14 1.12

1.11
4
5
Double-tuned {
Staggered triple Staggered quadruple Staggered quintuple
2
1
. .
1.04
1 1 1
1.048 1.019
1.01
1
Gaussian
065
t J. L. Lawson and G. E. Uhlenbeck (eds.): "Threshold Signals," Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 24, p. 177, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., York, 1950. X Applies to a transitionally coupled double-tuned circuit or to a stagger-tuned circuit with two
MIT
New
tuned
circuits.
second detector.
ceivers.
The
receiver
The
available gain
A",,
kToK
is
the input noise
Bn is that of the IF amplifier in most rethe ratio of the signal out SB to the signal in S and t in an ideal receiver. Equation (2.4a) may be rewritten as
bandwidth
Ga is
r-
_S IN
t
S IN
(2.4b)
noise figure may be interpreted, therefore, as a measure of signal-to-noise-ratio degradation as the signal passes through the receiver. In Chap. 8, noise figure is shown to depend upon the configuration of the first few input stages and the frequency of operation. In general, better noise figures occur at lower frequencies. Rearranging Eq. (2.46), the input signal may be expressed as
<j
The
_ kT B n F n S N
(2.5)
If the
ratio
of ouput (IF) signal-to-noise ratio (S
minimum detectable signal Smin is that value of 5, corresponding to the minimum /N ) m m necessary for detection, then
= kT B '1j
This assumes that the input receiver noise
is
/ \Ay v </min m in
.
(2.6)
this
kTQ B n
For many radar applications

only
assumption
is
satisfactory.
However,
it is
strictly applicable
when
the receiver
Sec. 2.4]
The Radar Equation
25
input is at the standard temperature 290K. When the receiver is connected to an antenna, the temperature seen by the receiver may be lower or higher than 290K. With relatively noisy receivers, the effect of an antenna temperature different from 290K would hardly be noticed unless the temperature were high. However, with low-noise receivers resulting from the use of the maser and the parametric amplifier, the An alternative description of effect of antenna temperature is important (Sec. 8.6). receiver noise, especially useful when dealing with low-noise receivers, is the effective
noise temperature discussed in Sec. 8.5. Substituting Eq. (2.6) into Eq. (2. 1) results in the following form of the radar equation
n4 __ maX
PfiA e o (47rfkT B n F n (SjN
<2 j.
) mln
Before continuing the discussion of the factors involved in the radar equation, it is necessary to digress and review briefly some topics in probability theory in order to describe the signal-to-noise ratio in statistical terms.
2.4. Probability-density Functions
The basic concepts of probability theory needed in solving noise problems may be found in any of several references. 4 8 In this section we shall briefly review probability and the probability-density function and cite some examples. Noise is a random phenomenon. It cannot be precisely predicted any more than one can predict the name of a card blindly drawn from a shuffled deck. Predictions concerning the average performance of chance events are possible by observing and classifying occurrences, but one cannot predict exactly what will occur for any particular event. Phenomena of a random nature can be described with the aid of probability theory. Consider a Probability is a measure of the likelihood of occurrence of an event. particular experiment in which there are n different possible outcomes, all of which are
""
times out of a possible total of n, the probability equally likely. If the event E occurs of the event E is the ratio mjn. For example, the probability of drawing the ace of 1/13, spades from a deck of 52 cards is 1/52, the probability ofdrawinganyaceis4/52 The scale of probability 1/4. and the probability of drawing any spade is 13/52 to l.f An event which is certain is assigned the probability 1. An ranges from impossible event is assigned the probability 0. The intermediate probabilities are
assigned so that the more likely an event, the greater is its probability. One of the more useful concepts of probability theory needed to analyze the detection of signals in noise is the probability-density function. Consider the variable x as representing a typical measured value of a random process such as a noise voltage or Imagine each x to define a point on a straight line corresponding to the current. distance from a fixed reference point. The distance of x from the reference point might Divide the line into small represent the value of the noise current or the noise voltage.
equal segments of length Ax and count the number of times that x The probability-density function p{x) is then defined as
,
falls in
each interval.
p(x)
,.
(number of values
total
in
range
Ax
at
x)/Ax
, .
lim
Aa->o
number of values
=N
(2.8)
centered at x
The probability that a particular measured value lies within the infinitesimal width dx The probability that the value of x lies within the finite is simply p{x) dx. range from x x to x 2 is found by integrating p{x) over the range of interest, or
Probability (x x
t Probabilities are
<
<
x 2)
p(x) dx
to
1.
(2.9)
sometimes expressed
in
per cent (0 to 100) rather than
26
[S ec
2.4
definition, the probability-density function is positive. Since every measurement must yield some value, the integral of the probability density over al 1 values of x must be
By
equal to unity; that
is,
p(x)dx=l
The average value of a
density function, p(x),
is
(2.10)
is
variable function,
<f>(x),
that
described by the probability-
(<t>(x)) av
<f>(x)p(x)dx
qo
(2.11)
This follows from the definition of an average value and the
The mean, or
probability-density function.
average, value of x
is
<x)av
= m x =\
= m2 =
/
xp(x) dx
(2.12)
and the mean-square value
is
2
<x )av
x 2 p(x) dx
CO
(2.13)
The quantities m 1 and m 2 are sometimes called the first and second moments of the random variable x. If x represents an electric voltage or current, m is the d-c comx ponent. It is the value read by a direct-current voltmeter or ammeter. The meansquare value (m 2) of the current when multiplied by the resistance! gives the mean power. The mean-square value of voltage times the conductance is also the mean power. The
variance
jx 2
is
defined as
((x
a2
mi )\ v
=
v
(X
mi )
p(x) dx
=m 2
m\
(x
2
) av
{x)h
(2.14)
QO
the mean-square deviation of x about its mean and is sometimes called the second central moment. If the random variable is a noise current, the product of the variance and resistance gives the mean power of the a-c component. The square root of the variance a is called the standard deviation and is the root-mean-square (rms) value of the a-c component.
is
The variance
We shall consider three examples of probability-density functions, the uniform Gaussian, and the Rayleigh. The uniform probability-density (Fig. 2.2a) is defined
p(x)=
ik
[0
as
fora<x<a for x < a and x >
putations.
where k is a constant. A rectangular, or uniform, distribution describes the phase of a random sine wave relative to a particular origin of time; that is, the phase of the sine wave may be found, with equal probability, anywhere from to 2tt, with k = 1 I2tt It also applies to the distribution of the round-off (quantizing) error in numerical com-
The constant k may be found by applying Eq.

p(x) dx
"
(2.10); that
is,
=
Ja
k dx
or
oo
The average value of x is
m 1_ 1 =
t In noise theory
it is
- x dx
~b
=
1
b a 2
J.
customary to take the resistance as
ohm
or the conductance as
mho.
Sec. 2.4]
The Radar Equation
27
This result could have been determined by inspection. mean-square, value is
The second-moment, or
2
2
and the variance
is
+b
[
Ja
dx =
,
, 2
+
,
ab
m9
a
m.
12
standard deviation
2^3
a*
(a)
Fig. 2.2. Examples of probability-density functions, x2 (voltage); (d) Rayleigh (power), w
(a)
Uniform;
(6)
Gaussian;
(c)
Rayleigh
The Gaussian, or normal,

in noise theory, since
probability density (Fig. 2.2b)
is
one of the most important
many sources of noise, such as thermal noise or shot noise, may be

statistics.
Also, a Gaussian representation is often more convenient to manipulate mathematically. The Gaussian density function has a
represented by Gaussian
bell-shaped appearance and
is
denned by
p(x)
=
sjlna-
exp
-(x
2 )
(2.15)
2o-
where exp
function, and the parameters have been adjusted to ] is the exponential [ of Eq. (2. 10). It can be shown that condition normalizing satisfy the
ij
=
J
CO
xp(x) dx
m2 =
2 x p(x) dx
x%
a2
^2
=m m =
2 1
a2
X
(2.16)
sum of a large number of independently distributed probability-density function no matter what the Gaussian approaches the quantities individual distributions may be, provided that the contribution of any one quantity is
The
probability density of the
28
[Sec. 2.4
not comparable with the resultant of all others. This is the central limit theorem. It is the reason that shot noise resulting from the impact of electrons upon the anode of a vacuum tube can be represented by a Gaussian distribution, even though the electrons are emitted from the cathode with other than a Gaussian distribution. Another interesting property of the Gaussian distribution is that no matter how large a value x we may choose, there is always some finite probability of finding a greater value. If the noise at the input of the threshold detector were truly Gaussian, then no matter how high the threshold were set, there would always be a chance that it would be exceeded by noise and appear as a false alarm. However, the probability diminishes rapidly with increasing x, and for all practical purposes the probability of obtaining an exceedingly high value of x is negligibly small and may be regarded as being almost
impossible.
As an example of the Gaussian density function, consider the problem of determining component at the output of a linear half-wave rectifier when the input is thermal noise. The probability-density function of the input noise is assumed to be Gaussian with zero mean. The probability that the input-noise voltage will lie between x and x + dx is
the d-c
p(x) dx
exp
x
2
V27ror
2a
dx
oo < x <
is
oo
The output y of the half-wave
rectifier for
an input x
= ax
>
between y and y dx when x > 0:
j=0
x<0
will lie
The probability that the rectifier output y > as the probability that x lies between x and x
P(y) dy
dy
is
the
same
= p(x)
dx
= =
exp
îirao
f2a a
i i
v 2
dy
for
>
The probability of obtaining y is the same as x 0, which is exactly \. Since negative values of y are not permitted, the probability of y is zero. Therefore the probability-density function for the output of a linear half-wave rectifier with a Gaussian noise input is
<
<
P(y) dy
exp
yjliraa
2a 2 a 2
_v f- dy + \d(y) dy
2
>
where d(y)
erties
:
is
the Dirac delta function n (impulse (imj function) and has the following propd(y)
/0 + e E
y
1 e
^
>
6(y)
1
dy
Note that/?(j) has both a continuous and a discrete part. The average value, or d-c component, of the output y is
(y)av
00
yp(y) dy
1 = -=-
y exp
'-<>
Jliraa Jo
v 1 f dy + -f2a"cr 2J-oo
2
\
d(y)
dy
IT-
~ aa
ex P
TT
0=^
V2^
probability-density function is also of special interest to the radar systems engineer. It describes the noise output from a narrowband filter (such as the
The Rayleigh
Sec. 2.5]
The Radar Equation
29
IF filter in a superheterodyne receiver), the cross-section fluctuations of certain types of complex radar targets, and many kinds of clutter and weather echoes. The Rayleigh
density function
is
p(x) dx
2x =
<X )av
2
x2
2
exp
\
I
dx
>
(2.17)
<X >av/
The parameter x might represent a voltage, and (x2 } av the mean, or average, value of the If x 2 is replaced by w, where w represents power instead of voltage voltage squared.
(assuming the resistance
is 1
ohm), the Rayleigh density function
is
p(w)
dw
= exp
w
dw
>
(2.18)
where
is
the average power.
A typical plot of the Rayleigh density function for

in Fig. 2.2d.
is
shown
deviation of the Rayleigh density is equal to the mean value (x 2 ) av in Eq. (2.17) and w in Eq. (2.18). Another mathematical description of statistical phenomena is the probability
in Fig. 2.2c
and for w
The standard
distribution function P(x), defined as the probability that the value
is less
than some
specified value
P(x)=
J-oo
p(x)dx
or
p(x)
= P(x)
dx
(2.19)
In some cases, the distribution function may be easier to obtain from an experimental set of data than the density function. The density function may be found from the
distribution function
2.5.
by
differentiation.
Signal-to-noise Ratio
In this section the results of statistical noise theory will be applied to obtain the signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the IF amplifier necessary to achieve a specified probability of detection without exceeding a specified probability of false alarm. The
IF
omplifier
Second
detector
Video
omplifier
(%)
(By)
Fig. 2.3. Envelope detector.
output signal-to-noise ratio thus obtained may be substituted into Eq. (2.6) to find the minimum detectable signal, which, in turn, is used in the radar equation, as in Eq. (2.7). Consider an IF amplifier with bandwidth BIF followed by a second detector and a video amplifier with bandwidth Bv (Fig. 2.3). The second detector and video amplifier are assumed to form an envelope detector, that is, one which rejects the carrier frequency but passes the modulation envelope. To extract the modulation envelope, the video bandwidth must be wide enough to pass the low-frequency components generated by the second detector, but not so wide as to pass the high-frequency components at or near the intermediate frequency. The video bandwidth Bv must be greater than 5 IF /2 in order to pass all the video modulation. Most radar receivers used in conjunction with an operator viewing a CRT display meet this condition and may be considered envelope Either a square-law or a linear detector may be assumed since the effect on detectors. the detection probability by assuming one instead of the other is small (Sec. 9.6). The noise entering the IF filter (the terms filter and amplifier are used interchangeably) is assumed to be Gaussian, with probability-density function given by
p(v) dv
exp
y/2iry)
v2
2ô
dv
(2.20)
30
[Sec. 2.5
where p(v) dv is the probability of finding the noise voltage v between the values of v and v + dv, y> is the variance, or mean-square value of the noise voltage, and the mean value of v is taken to be zero. If Gaussian noise were passed through a narrowband IF filter one whose bandwidth is small compared with the mid-frequency the probability density of the envelope of the noise voltage output is shown by Rice 9 to be
p(R)
dR
= - exp (filter
dR
Equation
lie
(2.21)
R is the amplitude of the envelope of the of the Rayleigh probability-density function.

where
output.
(2.2 1 )
is
a form
The probability that the envelope of the

and
noise voltage will
V2
between the values of
Vx
is
*
Probability
(Vx
<R< V =
2)
'
\
- exp
(-
dR
(2.22)
The
probability that the noise voltage envelope will exceed the voltage threshold
VT
is
Probability
(VT
<R<
oo)
JvT
R R exp -
I \
rp
\
\
dR
(2.23)
2y> !
exp
(--^1 =Pfa
\
2wJ
(2.24)
Whenever the voltage envelope exceeds the threshold, a target detection is considered to have occurred, by definition. Since the probability of a false alarm is the probability
that noise will cross the threshold, Eq. (2.24) gives the probability of a false alarm,
denoted
{iX
The average time
interval
between crossings of the threshold by noise alone
is
defined
as the false-alarm time\ 7},
T =
ft
.Y-ao
UmYT JV*
1
=1
Tk is the time between crossings of the threshold VT by the noise envelope, when the slope of the crossing is positive. The false-alarm probability may also be defined as the duration of time the envelope is actually above the threshold to the total time it
where
Time
Fig. 2.4. Envelope of receiver output illustrating false alarms due to noise.
t This definition differs from that given by Marcum, 10 who defines the false-alarm time to be the time in which the probability is J that a false alarm will not occur. comparison of the two definitions is given by Hollis. 11
Sec. 2.5]
The Radar Equation
31
could have been above the threshold, or

A'
Pfa
= = kN
__
Wav
<r*>, */av
(2.25)
XT*
where
T,aB
The average duration of a noise pulse is t k and Tk are defined in Fig. 2.4. approximately the reciprocal of the bandwidth B, which in the case of the envelope detector is B 1F [It does not matter in most applications whether the bandwidth is that defined by the half-power points or by noise considerations, as in Eq. (2.3).] Equating
.
Eqs. (2.24) and (2.25),
we
get
1
Tfa
expBif
(2.26)
2y
plot of Eq. (2.26) is shown in Fig. 2.5, with V^j2\p as the abscissa. If, for example, the bandwidth of the IF amplifier were 1 and the average false-alarm time that could be tolerated were 15 min, the probability of a false alarm is 1.11 x 10~ 9 From Eq.
Mc
(2.24) the threshold voltage necessary to achieve this false-alarm time
is
6.45 times the
rms value of the noise

10,000
voltage.
15 min
Threshold-to-noise ratio
VT/Z
i//
Fig. 2.5. Average time between false alarms as a function of the threshold level
VT and
receiver
bandwidth B;
y> is
the mean-square noise voltage.
32
[Sec. 2.5
The reason for this quite small. that the false-alarm probability is the probability that a noise pulse will cross the threshold during an interval of time approximately equal to the reciprocal of the band6 width. For a 1-Mc bandwidth, there are of the order of 10 noise pulses per second. -6 Hence the false-alarm probability of any one pulse must be small (< 10 ) if false-alarm
The false-alarm probabilities of practical radars are
is
times greater than
sec are to be obtained.
The specification of a tolerable false-alarm time usually follows from the requirements The desired by the customer and depends on the nature of the radar application. exponential relationship between the false-alarm time 7>a and the threshold level VT
results in the false-alarm time being sensitive to variations or instabilities in the threshold
level.
For example, if the bandwidth were 1 Mc, a value of 10 log 10 ( Kf./2y ) = 12.95 an average false-alarm time of 6 min, while a value of 10 log10 ( Kf./2y ) = Thus a change in the threshold 14.72 db results in a false-alarm time of 10,000 hr. of only 1 .77 db changes the false-alarm time by five orders of magnitude. Such is the nature of Gaussian noise. In practice, therefore, the threshold level would probably be adjusted slightly above that computed by Eq. (2.26), so that instabilities which lower
db
results in
the threshold slightly will not cause a flood of false alarms. If the receiver were turned off (gated)for a fraction of time (as in atracking radar with a servo-controlled range gate or a radar which turns the receiver off during the time of transmission), the false-alarm probability will be reduced by the fraction of time the
On the other hand, if the radar output consists of more than is not operative. one independent channel, the false-alarm probability will be increased accordingly. However, these effects are usually not important since small changes in the probability of false alarm result in even smaller changes in the threshold level because of the exporeceiver
nential relationship of Eq. (2.26).
The formulation of the false-alarm probability given above is only approximate, Errors in this approximation are 1 primarily because of the assumption that Br not serious in practice because of the exponential relationship between the threshold and
&
the probability of false alarm. An equivalent interpretation of the false-alarm probability is as follows. On the average there will be one false decision out of n f possible decisions in the false-alarm The average number of possible decisions between false alarms is the falsetime rfa The number of decisions nf in time 7>a is equal to the number of range alarm number n
.
intervals per pulse period
t]
T jr
r
r r, times the \jf
number of pulse periods per
second/,., times the false-alarm time 7>,
where t is the pulse width,
Tr the pulse repetition
the pulse repetition frequency. Therefore the number of T{ll rfj T{Jr. Since t IjB, where B is the bandwidth, possible decisions is n t \\TiA B as before. If n pulses are added \\n s the false-alarm probability is P fa together (integrated) so as to improve detection, the number of independent decisions
period,
and/r
1/7;
is
f =
in the time
Pfa
= njn,.
Tu will be reduced by a factor n. The probability of false alarm will then be Whenever appropriate, Pia will be used in this text instead of n f How.
and Swerling34 pertaining to integration loss presented later in this chapter are given in terms of n f rather than P It has been shown that, in theory, the false-alarm probability due to Gaussian noise may be reduced to an insignificant level by the proper selection of the threshold. In practice, other sources of noise can enter the receiver and falsely cause an alarm to be excited. Such sources of noise might be local-site noise due to ignition systems, power-line surges, electric razors, microphonics, etc. These can be avoided only by good engineering design or by recognizing them as non-Gaussian noise and not
ever, the data of Marcum 10
til
.
signal.
Thus far, a receiver with only a noise input has been discussed. Next, consider a sine-wave signal of amplitude A to be present along with noise at the input to the IF
Sec. 2.5]
filter.
The Radar Equation

.
33
The frequency of the signal is the same as the IF midband frequency IF output of the envelope detector has a probability-density function given by 9
p s (R)
The
dR=*
Wo
exp
(^
X*^)JM) dR
2ip Q
/
(2 .27)
\ip
where I (Z)
is
the modified Bessel function of zero order and argument Z, defined by
/o(Z)=
For
,lo2^!7!
is
Z large,
an asymptotic expansion for / (Z)

/(Z)
"
-L=
JlirZ
(l
\
+ +)
8Z
/
When the signal is absent, A
and Eq.
(2.27) reduces to Eq. (2.21), the probability-
density function for noise alone. The probability that the signal will be detected (which
is
is
the probability of detection)
the same as the probability that the envelope

.
R will exceed the predetermined threshold

(\
VT
The
probability of detection
Pa is therefore
{"
->v t
Pa
= ("
JvT
Ps(R)
dR
=
A
- exp
y>
X*A)ljM)
2rp
I
dR
(2.28)
\y)
'
This cannot be evaluated by simple means, and numerical techniques or a series approximation must be used. series approximation valid when RA/y) 1, A \R A\, and terms in A~ 3 and beyond can be neglected is 9
>
>
(VT expi-^
- Af
,
-'('-"
^)
72^0
_
'
2fo_
2 N/277(/l/ x/t/ o)
X
where the error function
is
_ Vt~ A
4A
z
.l.
1+(VtSA 2/y>
-4)
/Vu
(2.29)
defined as
erfZ
2 L = -^
C u* du [ e~
graphic illustration of the process of threshold detection is shown in Fig. 2.6. The probability density for noise alone [Eq. (2.21)] is plotted along with that for signal and The noise [Eq. (2.27)] with Ajip\ 3. threshold voltage VT \\f\ 2.5 is shown.
crosshatched area to the right of VT \\p\ under the curve for signal-plus-noise represents the probability of detection, while the double-crosshatched area under the curve for noise alone represents the probability of a false alarm. If VT \y\ is increased to reduce the probability of a false alarm, the probability of detection will be reduced also. Equation (2.29) may be used to plot a family of curves relating the probability of detection to the threshold voltage and to the amplitude of the sine-wave signal. Although the receiver designer prefers to operate with voltages, it is more convenient for the radar system engineer to employ power relationships. Equation (2.29) may be converted to power by replacing the signal-to-rms-noise-voltage ratio with the following:
A _
fl
signal amplitude
V2(rms
signal voltage)
/
\
signal
power V
power/
/2S^
rms noise voltage
rms noise voltage
noise
\N
34

Noise alone
0.6
[Sec. 2.5
We shall also replace

Eq.
(2.24)].
Ff./2y by In (1/Pfa ) [from Using the above relationships, the

is
C.5 ~
\ Threshold
probability of detection
plotted in Fig. 2.7 as
0.4 -/
\
\
l/77-^Signol + noise
a function of the
signal-to-noise ratio with the
0.3
0.2
0.1
/%yy>K
(^
= 3)
probability of a false alarm as a parameter. Both the false-alarm time and the detection
probability are specified by the system requirements. The radar designer computes the prob-
*x....
2*3
w$4<ZY///fr>>.
5
Wo"
Fig. 2.6. Probability-density functions for noise alone and for signal-plus-noise, illustrating the process of threshold detection.
ability of the false alarm and from Fig. 2.7 This is the determines the signal-to-noise ratio signal-to-noise ratio that is used in the equation
.
The for minimum detectable signal [Eq. (2.6)]. signal-to-noise ratios of Fig. 2.7 apply to a single
radar pulse.
desired false-alarm time
For example, suppose that the was 1 5 min and the IF
bandwidth was
Mc.
Thisgivesafalse-alarmprobabilityofl.il
10~ 9
Figure 2.7
indicates that a signal-to-noise ratio of 13.1 db is required to yield a 0.50 probability of detection, 14.7 db for 0.90, and 16.5 db for 0.999.
There are several interesting
facts illustrated
by Fig.
2.7.
is
At
first
glance,
it
might
seem
that the signal-to-noise ratio required for detection
higher than that dictated by
0.9999
0.9995
0.999 0.998
0.995
0.99
0.98
.1
0.95
0.90
"D
I"
0.80 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40

0.30 0.20
0.10
I0
false alarm
10
io
I
'icr
12
0.05
L
16 18
10 12 14 (V/yl), signal-to-noise ratio, db
20
ratio
Fig. 2.7. Probability of detection for a sine and the probability of false alarm.
wave
in noise as a function of the signal-to-noise
(power)
Sec. 2.6]
The Radar Equation
35
intuition, even for a probability of detection of 0.50. One might be inclined to say that so long as the signal is greater than noise, detection should be accomplished. Such reasoning may not be correct when the false-alarm probability is properly taken into account. Another interesting effect to be noted from Fig. 2.7 is that a change of only
3.4
db can mean the difference between reliable detection (0.999) and marginal detection
Also, the signal-to-noise ratio required for detection is not a sensitive function of the false-alarm time. For example, a radar with a 1-Mc bandwidth requires a signal-to-noise ratio of 14.7 db for a 0.90 probability of detection and a 15-min falsealarm time. If the false-alarm time were increased from 1 5 min to 24 hr, the signal-tonoise ratio would be increased to 15.4 db. If the false-alarm time were as high as
(0.50).
I
year, the required signal-to-noise ratio

2.6. Integration of
would be
16.2 db.
Radar Pulses
The relationship between the signal-to-noise ratio, the probability of detection, and the probability of false alarm as given in Fig. 2.7 applies for a single pulse only. However, many pulses are usually returned from any particular target on each radar scan and can be used to improve detection. The number of pulses nB returned from a point target as the radar antenna scans through its beamwidth is
nn
= -4lr=Mr
2.30)
where dB
r
= = =
antenna beamwidth, deg

pulse repetition frequency, cps antenna scanning rate, deg/sec
f =
0,
antenna scan rate, rpm m Typical parameters for a ground-based search radar might be pulse repetition frequency 300 cps, 1.5 beamwidth, and antenna scan rate 5 rpm (30/sec). These parameters result in 1 5 hits from a point target on each scan. The process of summing all the radar echo pulses for the purpose of improving detection is called integration. Many techniques might be employed for accomplishing integration, as discussed in Sees. 9.8 and 9.9. All practical integration techniques employ some sort of storage device. Perhaps the most common radar integration method is the cathode-ray-tube display combined with the integrating properties of the eye and brain of the radar operator. The discussion in this section is concerned primarily with integration performed by electronic devices in which detection is made automatically on the basis of a threshold
(o
crossing.
Integration may be accomplished in the radar receiver either before the second detector (in the IF) or after the second detector (in the video). A definite distinction must be made between these two cases. Integration before the detector is called predetection, or coherent, integration, while integration after the detector is called
postdetection, or noncoherent, integration.
is
An example of a predetection integrator a narrowband IF filter with a bandwidth approximately equal to the reciprocal of the time on target. (The storage device in this instance is the inductance and capacitance constituting the narrowband resonant network.) If, for example, the time on target were 0.05 sec, the bandwidth of the IF predetection filter would be approximately 20 cps. This is rather small compared with that of a receiver designed to optimize the signal-to-noise ratio of a single pulse (which is of the order of a megacycle or so for radars with pulse widths in the vicinity of 1 //sec). Predetection integration requires that the phase of the echo signal be preserved if full benefit is to be obtained from the summing process. On the other hand, phase information is destroyed by the second detector; hence postdetection integration is not concerned with preserving RF phase.
36

this
[Sec. 2.6
is
For
convenience, postdetection integration
not as efficient as predetection
integration.
If n pulses, all of the same signal-to-noise ratio, were integrated by an ideal predetection integrator, the resultant, or integrated, signal-to-noise (power) ratio would be exactly n times that of a single pulse. If the same n pulses were integrated by an ideal postdetection device, the resultant signal-to-noise ratio would be less than n times that
of a single pulse. This loss in integration efficiency is caused by the nonlinear action of the second detector, which converts some of the signal energy to noise energy in the rectification process. The simplest form of postdetection integrator might consist of a low- pass filter made up of a resistor and a capacitor in the video portion of the receiver. Because of spectrum foldover produced by the second detector, the bandwidth of the should be about one-half the bandwidth of the predetection filter that same number of pulses. The IF filter used ahead of a video postdetection integrator should be the matched filter designed for a single pulse. In general, postdetection integration is easier to implement than predetection
low-pass
filter
integrates the
It is an easier task to obtain a narrowband, low-pass video filter consisting simply of a capacitor and a resistor than it is to obtain a narrowband IF filter, or more precisely, a comb filter. The Q of an IF predetection filter would have to be large, and instability of the transmitter frequency might make it difficult to maintain the frequency of the echo signal within the narrowband IF filter. In addition, the predetection integrator requires that the phase of the RF or IF carrier oscillations be maintained coherent over a time corresponding to the time on target. By coherent it is meant that the phase of the received signal must remain constant with respect to the phase of the transmitted signal. The design of the predetection integrator is further complicated if the target is in motion and produces a doppler-shifted echo that lies outside the passband of the integrator. To circumvent this, a number of similar integrators, each tuned to a slightly different frequency, can be used to cover the frequency region in which echo
integration.
signals are expected.
The comparison of predetection and postdetection integration may be briefly summarized by stating that although postdetection integration is not as efficient as predetection integration, it is easier to implement in most applications. Postdetection integration is therefore preferred, even though the integrated signal-to-noise ratio may
not be as great.
The efficiency of postdetection integration relative to ideal predetection integration has been computed by Marcum 10 when all pulses are of equal amplitude. The integration efficiency may be defined as follows
,()
iMk
n(S/N) H
(2 .3,)
number of pulses integrated value of signal-to-noise ratio of a single pulse required to produce given probability of detection (for n 1) (S/N) value of signal-to-noise ratio per pulse required to produce same probability of detection when n pulses are integrated The improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio when n pulses are integrated postdetection The improvement with ideal is nEt (ri) and is the integration-improvement factor. Examples of the postdetection integrapredetection integration would be equal to n. tion-improvement factor l (n) nEt (ji) are shown in Fig. 2.8o. These curves were derived from data given by Marcum. The integration loss is shown in Fig. 2.86, The integrawhere integration loss in decibels is defined as L t (n) 10 log 10 [l/E^ri)]. tion-improvement factor (or the integration loss) is not a sensitive function of either the probability of detection or the probability of false alarm.
where n
(SjN^
= = =
Sec. 2.6]
1,000
I
The Radar Equation

I I I
I
37
l|
M|
ii
1/|
if
100
^0><Pd-O5o/
stg&^Pd =0.90^=10*s' -
10
s\^ *
Jr y^ ^ *"
i
^ ^ JT
J&r
Zz^s /%?/
'
^ s1
1
^ /
i
-^
il
10
n,
100
1,000
10,000
number
of pulses integrated (postdetection)
(a)
III
ll
ll
ll
10
100 n = number of pulses

(A)
1,000
10,000
Fig. 2.8. (a) Integration-improvement factor, square-law detector, probability of detection, d false-alarm number; (b) integration loss as a function of n, the number of pulses integrated, P d nf and nf (After Marcum, 10 courtesy IRE Trans.)
P =
38
[Sec. 2.6
would be expected
respectively.
Also plotted in Fig. 2.8a are two straight lines representing the improvement that if the integration-improvement factor were equal to n and to -,
An improvement
It is
factor proportional to n applies to the ideal pre-
hardly ever achieved in practice. An improvement factor proportional to n h fits the experimental data found with an operator viewing a cathodeWhen only a small number of hits are integrated postray-tube display (Sec. 9.7). detection (large signal-to-noise ratio per pulse), the integration-improvement factor is not much different from that which would be obtained from a perfect predetection
detection integrator.
On the other hand, when a large number of hits are integrated (small signal-to-noise ratio per pulse), the difference between the postdetection and preThe slope of the postdetection integrationdetection integration is more pronounced.
integrator.
improvement curve approaches the slope of the n k curve for n large. If the operator performance were actually that specified by the n l curve, proper implementation of automatic postdetection integration could offer an improvement in detection capability over that of an operator.
-
Figure 2.7 relates for a single pulse (n 1) the signal-to-noise ratio to the probability of detection and the probability of false alarm. It may be used to determine the required signal-to-noise ratio per pulse (S/N) n at the output of the IF amplifier when n pulses are integrated, by applying the following procedure 1. For the specified average false-alarm time Tt&, receiver bandwidth B, and n/TtaB, or number of pulses integrated n, compute the false-alarm probability Pf a p{a nlTta,frf], where fr is the pulse repetition frequency and rj is the number of pulse
.:
intervals per radar sweep, or pulse-repetition period.

2. For the desired probability of detection and probability of false alarm as computed above, enter Fig. 2.7 to find the signal-to-noise ratio (S/AOi for single-pulse
detection.
For the desired probability of detection Pd number of pulses integrated n, and number n, = njPu = Tta B, find the integration-improvement factor nEf(n) from Fig. 2.8cr. 4. Divide the signal-to-noise ratio (S/N\ found from step 2 by the integrationimprovement factor nE (ri) to obtain the signal-to-noise ratio per pulse (S/N) n required at the output of the IF amplifier for the specified P d and Pf a The radar equation (2.7) taking account of integration may be written
3.
,
false-alarm
o-4
maX
P GA anE {n) {^fkT B n F n {SIN\

t
(2 3
Exponential Weighting. Most practical integration techniques do not sum the echo Practical integrators such as the pulses with equal weight as assumed above. resonant circuit, the recirculating-delay-line integrator, and low-pass filter, the the electrostatic storage tube apply an exponential weighting factor to the integrated
RC
RLC
pulses; that
is, if
n pulses are integrated, the voltage out of the integrator
is
V= 2 K exp [-(n-i>] =
4 i
(2.33)
refers to the pulse stored the longest. the last pulse to be received, is given a weight of unity, pulse 2 is attenuated by ~ 2,/ and the Kth pulse is attenuated by e~ in 1)v In a factor e~ y pulse 3 is attenuated by e~ period and is the pulse-repetition TjRC, where 7 is the an low-pass filter y resonant circuit, y niL/cy/R. In a In a narrowband filter time constant.
where V = voltage amplitude of i'th pulse exp ( y) = attenuation factor per pulse Consider a train of n pulses, where the nth pulse
i
Pulse
1,
RC
RC
RLC
Sec. 2.6]
recirculating-delay-line integrator, e~ v
is
The Radar Equation

y
is
39
the attenuation around the loop (loop gain); a factor describing the tube operation. Exponential weighting of the pulses results in less efficient integration than uniform weighting. (The optimum weighting function in a radar system would be one which duplicates the antenna scan envelope.) The efficiency depends upon the number of pulses integrated, the weighting factor, and whether the contents stored in the integrator
and
in the electrostatic storage tube,
("dumped") after n pulses or whether the integrator operates continuously An integrator with dumping might be used with a step-scan radar. dumping. without (In the step-scan radar, the antenna remains stationary until n pulses are transmitted and received, after which it is discontinuously stepped to the next position.) If dumping
are erased
ny
Fig. 2.9. Efficiency of an exponential integrator as a function of ny, where n e~y is the attenuation factor per pulse (y is assumed small).
number of pulses and
were used in a continuous-scan radar, some targets might only be seen with half the number of hits. An example of an integrator that dumps is an electrostatic storage tube that is erased whenever it is read. Another example is a capacitor that is discharged on read-out. The weighting integration efficiency p is defined as the ratio of the integrationimprovement factor with exponential weighting to that with uniform weighting. For
a
dumped
integrator the efficiency
is
12
tanh (ny/2)
n tanh (y/2)
(2 34)
This is plotted in Fig. 2.9. As long as ny is less than unity, the exponential integrator with dumping is almost as efficient as the integrator with uniform weighting. The efficiency given by Eq. (2.34) was derived by comparing the average signal-to-noise ratio for the exponential integrator to the average signal-to-noise ratio for the uniform integrator, rather than by comparing the probability of detections as was done in the case of the integration-improvement factor described by Fig. 2.8a. The dumped integrator is not the general rule in practice, since there are few applications besides the step-scan radar where it is known beforehand when the integrator is ready to be dumped of its contents. In most cases, the integrator is operated continare best, but this is not optimum In the dumped integrator values of y -> uously. 0, noise in the continuous integrator with the continuous integrator. When y
builds
up
to
an
"infinite" value
and detection of signals
is
not possible.
This corre-
sponds
to oscillation in the delay-line integrator, or to a zero bandwidth
and a vanishing
40
tube.
[Sec. 2.7
small output in the
RC and RLC integrators,
and to zero read-out
in the electrostatic
The efficiency of the continuous exponential-weighting integrator may be shown to be

H
l-exp(- H y)
[n tanh (y/2)]*
K
'
For y small, tanh (y/2) is replaced by of ny = 1.257. If the number of pulses to be integrated is known beforehand, the value of y that maximizes the efficiency may be determined, and the optimum bandwidth of an integrating filter, or the loop
y/2.
A plot of this equation is also shown in Fig. 2.9.

The maximum
efficiency occurs for a value
gain of a delay-line integrator,

2.7.
may
be found.
Radar Cross Section of Targets
The radar cross section of a target is the area intercepting that amount of power which, when scattered equally in all directions, produces an echo at the radar equal to
that
from the
"
target; or in other terms,

reflected
:
power
toward source/unit solid angle

;
:
incident
power
density/477
= hmx 4mRr
,.
(2.36)
r^
where
R=
distance between radar and target

reflected field strength
E =
r
Ef
strength of incident field
targets such as aircraft, ships, and terrain, the cross section does not bear a simple relationship to the physical area, except that the larger the target size, the larger the cross section is likely to be.
For most common types of radar
object is illuminated by an electromagnetic wave, a portion of the incident absorbed as heat and the remainder is reradiated (scattered) in many different directions. The portion of the reradiated energy scattered or reflected in the back or rearward direction is of chief interest in radar. In some cases, however, the energy scattered in other directions may also be important, as with a bistatic or waveinterference radar, where the receiver is not at the same location as the transmitter (Sec. 13.6). In the present section we shall be concerned only with the backscatter
When an
is
energy
CW
cross section.
Scattering and diffraction are variations of the same physical process. 13 When an object scatters an electromagnetic wave, the scattered field is defined as the difference between the total field in the presence of the object and the field that would exist if the object were absent (but with the sources unchanged). On the other hand, the diffracted field is the total field in the presence of the object. With radar backscatter, the two
same, and one may talk about scattering and diffraction interchangeably. In the case of forward scattering in bistatic radar, the scattered field -and the diffracted field could be quite different. In theory, the scattered field, and hence the radar cross section, can be determined by solving Maxwell's equations with the proper boundary conditions applied. 14 Unfortunately, the determination of the radar cross section with Maxwell's equations can be accomplished only for the most simple of shapes, and solutions valid over a large range of frequencies are not easy to obtain. The radar cross section of a simple sphere target is shown in Fig. 2.10 as a function of its circumference measured in wavelengths (27Tfl/A, where a is the radius of the sphere and A is the wavelength). 15 The region where the size of the sphere is small compared with the wavelength {l-najl 1) is called the Rayleigh region, after Lord Rayleigh, who, in the early 1 870s, first studied scattering by small particles. Lord Rayleigh was interested in the scattering of light by
fields are the
<
microscopic
Sec. 2.7]
particles, rather
The Radar Equation
41
than in radar. His work preceded the orginal electromagnetic echo experiments of Hertz by about fifteen years. The Rayleigh scattering region is of interest to the radar engineer because the cross sections of raindrops and other meteoroSince the cross logical particles fall within this region at the usual radar frequencies. -4 rain and clouds are essentially section of objects within the Rayleigh region varies as A The invisible to radars which operate at relatively long wavelengths (low frequencies). usual radar targets are much larger than raindrops or cloud particles, and lowering the radar frequency to the point where rain or cloud echoes are negligibly small will not On the other hand, if it seriously reduce the cross section of the larger desired targets. were desired to actually observe, rather than eliminate, raindrop echoes, as in a meteoro,
logical or weather-observing radar, the higher radar frequencies

(Sec. 12.7).
would be preferred
10p
-i
0.001
0.3
0.4 0.5 0.8 1.0
20
Circumference /wavelength
2-na/X
Fig. 2.10.
Radar cross section of the sphere, a
radius; A
wavelength.
At the other extreme from the Rayleigh region is the optical region, where the dimenFor large 1). sions of the sphere are large compared with the wavelength {2-irajX 2 the between In tto cross section optical the approaches section 2-na\l, the radar cross The cross section is optical and the Rayleigh region is the Mie, or resonance, region.
>
The maximum value reached is 5.7 db oscillatory with frequency within this region. value, excluding the Rayleigh region, minimum greater than the optical value, while the
where the cross section goes to zero in the limit of infinite wavelength, is 4 db below the (The theoretical values of the maxima and minima may vary according to optical. 15 the method of calculation employed. ) The behavior of the radar cross sections of
other simple reflecting objects as a function of frequency is similar to that of the sphere. 13 1416 21 Since the sphere is a sphere no matter from what aspect it is viewed, its cross section The cross section of other objects, however, will depend will not be aspect-sensitive. upon the direction as viewed by the radar. Figure 2.11 shows the experimentally measured backscatter (radar) cross section for a right-circular cone as a function of 5. aspect. 22 Three different sizes of cones are shown, each with an apex angle of 1 that cone A, and The diameter of the base of the large cone is 2A, that of the intermediate the the small cone 2/2. The radar is assumed to be in the same plane as the axis of
'
of
42

12
[Sec. 2.7
-12
-16
60
80
100
,
120
deg
160
180
Aspect angle
Fig. 2.11. Experimentally measured backscatter cross section for a right-circular cone as a function a, relative to a 4.75A-diameter sphere. (1) Large cone (base diameter 2A); (2) intermediate cone (base diameter A); (3) small cone (base diameter A/2). {From Shostak and Angelakos. 22
of aspect,
Measured
Calculated
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Peters, 23
90
Angular orientation 8
Fig. 2.12. Backscatter cross section of a long thin rod.
(From
IRE
Trans.)
cone, and the polarization

line
is perpendicular to the plane containing the cone axis and the of sight (vertical polarization). The abscissa is the aspect angle. The angle 6 = 0 corresponds to viewing the base of the cone, and = 180, the apex of the cone. The ordinate is the radar cross section relative to a sphere with a diameter of 4.751 (Measurements were made at a frequency of 9,346 Mc.)
Sec. 2.7]
The Radar Equation

2.
1
43
a plot of the backscatter cross section of a long thin rod as a function of The rod is 39A long and A/4 in diameter and is made of silver. Both theoretiaspect. If the rod were of steel instead of silver, the first cal and measured data are shown. maximum would be about 5 db below that shown. The radar cross section of the ogive 23 In both Figs. 2.12 and 2.13, the plane of shown in Fig. 2.13a is plotted in.Fig. 2.136.
Figure
23
is
polarization
is
perpendicular to the line of sight but
is
in the
same plane
as the longi-
tudinal axis of the object (horizontal polarization). The cross sections of some typical simple scattering objects for particular aspects are 13 These are valid if the dimensions of the object are large tabulated in Table 2.2.
Table
2.2.
Formulas for Radar Cross Sections of Scatterers of Large

Characteristic DiMENSiONst
Scatterer
Aspect
Radar cross
a
section
Definition of symbols
7ra
a
6
=
=
radius
Axial
a a
A2
tt- tan 4
107T
cone half angle

apex radius of
curvature
Paraboloid
Axial
= A^l
2o
= = = =
=
Prolate spheroid
Axial
<r- a
l
a
b
0
semimajor axis semiminor axis

half angle of target
Axial
Circular plate
.
.
a a
=
=
tan * rz~ \6n
Incidence at angle
to
normal
na 2 cot 2
4t7/4
2
/47TO
6 Jl\-j- sir )
radius of plate
plate area
Large flat plate of arbitrary shape

Circular cylinder
Normal
Incidence at angle 6 to broadside
A =
sin 2
al cos 6 "
(kL
sin 6)
1-n
sin 2 6
L =
radius cylinder length
t Mentzer.
11
compared with the wavelength. When the radius of curvature of the reflecting surface geometrical optics may be is large compared with the wavelength, the methods of applied to compute the radar cross section. The geometrical-optics cross section is
a
TrRyRz
where
i?j
and
R 2 are the two principal radii of curvature with respect to two

on the surface.
2
.
orthogonal
curvilinear coordinate directions
In the case of the sphere,
R l =R2 = a,
where a
77a the radius thus a The cross sections of simple scattering objects are of interest not only because of the insight they give to the scattering properties of more complex radar targets such as aircraft, ships, and surface objects, but they are characteristic of such important targets as meteorological objects (rain, snow, ice) and certain classes of space objects. Complex Targets. The radar cross section of complex targets such as ships, aircraft, and the radar frecities, and terrain are complicated functions of the viewing aspect computers, or digital aid of the with computed may be sections quency. Target cross
is
;
they
may be measured
experimentally.
The
target cross section can be
measured with
full-scale targets,
but it is more convenient to
make cross-section measurements on scale
44
[Sec. 2.7
models at the proper scaled frequency. Most radar cross-section information concerning complex targets is obtained in this manner. The theoretical computation of target cross section was pioneered and developed by Siegel and associates at the University of Michigan Radiation Laboratory. 24 A complex target may be considered as comprising a large number of independent objects that scatter energy in all directions. The energy scattered in the direction of the radar is of prime interest. The relative phases and amplitudes of the echo signals from
31.0
Measured
:
Points calculated by optics Calculated curve due to traveling waves Calculated maxima due to traveling waves
30
40
[6)
50
60
Angular orientation
Fig. 2.13. (a) Dimensional drawing of the ogive; Peters, 23 IRE Trans.)
(6)
backscatter cross section of the ogive.
(From
the individual scattering objects as measured at the radar receiver determine the total cross section. The phases and amplitudes of the individual signals might add to give a large total cross section, or the relationships with one another might result in total In general, the behavior is somewhere between total reinforcement and If the separation between the individual scattering objects is large compared with the wavelengthand this is usually true for most radar applications the phases of the individual signals at the radar receiver will vary as the viewing aspect is
cancellation.
total cancellation.
changed and cause a
scintillating echo.
Consider the scattering from a relatively "simple" complex target consisting of two
Sec. 2.7]
The Radar Equation
45
By isoequal, isotropic objects (such as spheres) separated a distance / (Fig. 2.14). tropic scattering is meant that the radar cross section of each object is independent of the viewing aspect. The separation / is assumed to be less than ct/2, where c is the
velocity of propagation
With
and r is the pulse duration. assumption, both scatterers are illuminated simultaneously by the pulse packet. Another restriction placed on / is that it be small compared with the Furthermore, R x on distance R from radar to target. R2 as R, The cross sections of the two targets are The RF voltage assumed equal and are designated a received at the radar from each target of cross section a is proportional to
this
.
Sphere
target
f* "
Sphere
target
Vt = Kyja
where
cos
-^
V2
= Kjo cos AttR,

Radar
Fig. 2.14.
Geometry of the two-
scatterer complex target, which includes the parameters involved in the radar equation. The echo signals from the two reflecting objects add vectorially. The resultant signal depends upon the phase of each echo signal as well as the amplitude. The resultant voltage from the two objects is
K is
a constant
Vr
Ksjo^cos,
Lav
\R
2 cos
sin 6
cos
- sin
/J
')])
by trigonometry
cos
A+
2 cos
A+B
B
cos
so that
Vr
= Kjo
2 cos
4nR
cos
I cos 4"R = KJa, V

A
s
(2.37)
where
ar
= 4<r
=
2
1
cos
or
+ cos
(2.38)
The ratio aJaQ can be anything from a minimum of zero to a maximum of four times
cross section of an individual scatterer.
the
Polar plots of crr /cr for various values of //A are shown in Fig. 2. 1 5. Although this is a rather simple example of a "complex" target, it is complicated enough to indicate the type of behavior to be expected with practical
radar targets. The radar cross sections of actual targets are far more complicated in structure than Practical targets are composed of many individual the simple two-scatterer target. Also, interactions may occur scatterers, each with different scattering properties.
between the scatterers which affect the resultant cross section. An example of the cross section as a function of aspect angle for a propeller-driven The aircraft is the B-26, a World War II medium-range aircraft 25 is shown in Fig. 2.16. two-engine bomber. The radar wavelength was 10 cm. These data were obtained experimentally by mounting the aircraft on a turntable in surroundings free from other The propellers were reflecting objects and by observing with a nearby radar set. of the order of 1 to 2 kc. modulation a produced and measurement running during the
46
[Sec. 2.7
-9
-90
-90
U-4A-J
Fig. 2. 1 5. Polar plots of <t t /ct for the two-scatterer

(c) /
complex target [Eq.
(2.38)].
(a)
A;
(>) /
2A
4A.
The cross section can change by as much as 1 5 db for a change in aspect of only |. The maximum echo signal occurs in the vicinity of broadside, where the projected area
of the aircraft is largest. Figure 2.17 compares the theoretical and experimental cross section of the B-47 bomber aircraft as a function of aspect angle and frequency. The theoretical data (solid curves) represent averages over a limited aspect angle; the fine structure is not included. The accuracy of theoretical cross sections is claimed to be from 2 to 10 db.
Experimental-measurement accuracies also are of the same order of magnitude. The frequency dependence is seen to be slight. Siegel's cross-section-computation technique lends itself quite well to the analysis of the relative contribution of various target components to the over-all cross
Sec. 2.7]
35db
The Radar Equation
47
Fig. 2.16. Experimental cross section of the B-26 two-engine bomber at 10-cm wavelength as a function of azimuth angle. {From Ridenour, u courtesy McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.)
University of Michigan
330Mc
Evans Signal Laboratory !50Mc Ohio State University 195 Mc
Radiation, Inc.
600 Mc
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
Azimuth, deg Fig. 2.17. Comparison of the theoretical and experimental cross section of the B-47 jet aircraft as a function of aspect and frequency as obtained by various investigators. (Courtesy K. Siegel, University
of Michigan.)
48

10'
I ! I
[Sec. 2.7
X
it
A
/
10'
.^ s
J
Leading edge of
stabilizer
A
\
Trailing
edge
~~
of stabilizer-^
^
10'
\-rv \ ^.
J
V5
\
.&
/
<b
/
/
/ /
/ J\\
7 A
"
/A\
Jf\\
10
to- -\
,
yn
//
1 1
\
\
1
10"'
10"
'
'
'
L"*
Azimuth angle, deg
off
nose-on aspect
Fig. 2.18. Radar cross section of the components of a typical large manned jet aircraft at a wavelength of 0.71 m. (Courtesy K. Siegel, University of Michigan)
0.691
0.695
0.699
0.703
A,
0.707 0.711 meters
0.715
0.719
0.723
Fig. 2.19. Cross section as a function of wavelength for the nose-on aspect of a large jet aircraft. (Courtesy K. Siegel, University of Michigan.)
The effect of the various components is shown in Fig. 2. 8 for a typical large manned jet aircraft. 24 There are many significant contributors to be considered, but no single component dominates over the entire range of aspect angles. The variation of the cross section as a function of wavelength for the nose-on aspect is shown in Fig.
section.
1
2.19.
The radar
cross sections presented above apply for horizontal polarization.
Most
Sec. 2.7]
The Radar Equation
49
search radars whose prime targets are aircraft usually employ this type of polarization. An If vertical or some other polarization is used, the cross sections may be different. example of the difference between horizontal and vertical polarization is shown in Fig. 2.20. The radar scattering properties of a target for any polarization may be described by a 2 x 2 matrix of <r's corresponding to transmitting each of two orthogonal polariThis zations and receiving with the same polarization or the orthogonal polarization. 13 26 " 28 is known as the polarization scattering matrix. Most cross-section data, either theoretical or experimental, assume the target to have a smooth reflecting surface. Apparently considerable surface roughness can be It has been tolerated before a significant effect on the value of cross section is obtained. reported 29 that the roughness depth of a sphere's surface can be as large as 0.01 A without
-
causing a change in cross section of more than 0. 1 db. The "roughness" to which this statement applies are surface irregularities distributed at random, but in a statistically uniform and isotropic manner. The surface slopes are assumed small, and the minimum radius of curvature of the mean (unperturbed) surface is assumed large compared with the wavelength. Radar cross sections can be considerably reduced by properly shaping the target or by Howcoatings that absorb, rather than reflect, electromagnetic energy (Sec. 12.10). ever, absorbing materials have little effect on the radar cross section when (1) the radar wavelength is large compared with the target dimensions (Rayleigh scattering) 30 or (2) the target is observed by a forward scatter (bistatic) radar whose wavelength is small
compared with the target dimensions. 31 The measured radar cross section of a man has been reported 32 to be
uency,
as follows
Mc
a,
m2
410
1,120 2,890 4,800 9,375
0.033-2.33 0.098-0.997 0.140-1.05 0.368-1.88 0.495-1.22

i i
i
50
...
J
40
M In A "f
It
ii
i
ml
= 301
vliil
IHl
ill lJU
''HI
i
in
1
T3
/>
'
v/
J
In
\K-
^~
20
10
polarization
polarizotion
20 40 60 100 120 80 Aspect angle, deq measured from nose-on
140
in
160
180
plane of wing
Fig. 2.20. Experimental cross sections for a large aircraft at approximately 75 polarization and aspect. (Courtesy K. Siegel, University of Michigan)
Mc
as a function of
50
[Sec. 2.8
The spread in cross-section values represents the variation with aspect and polarization. The cross-section data presented in this section lead to the conclusion that it would not be appropriate to simply select a single value and expect it to have meaning in the computation of the radar equation without further qualification. Methods for dealing
with the cross sections of complicated targets are discussed in the next section.
2.8. Cross-section Fluctuations
The discussion of the minimum signal-to-noise ratio in Sec. 2.6 assumed that the echo from a particular target did not vary with time. In practice, however, the echo signal from a target in motion is almost never constant. Variations in the echo signal may be caused by meteorological conditions, the lobe structure of the
signal received
antenna pattern, or equipment instabilities. of variations in the target cross section.
But the chief source of fluctuation
is
that
Time, sec
*
from a Meteor
jet aircraft flying
Fig. 2.21. Pulse-by-pulse record of the echo signals radar. {After Hay. 33 )
toward the
cross sections of complex targets (the usual type of radar target) are quite Therefore, as the target aspect changes relative to the radar, variations in the echo signal will result. typical pulse-by-pulse record of the echo
sensitive to aspect.
The
from a Meteor aircraft (British two-engine jet fighter) flying toward a radar is represented in Fig. 2.21 Hay33 reports that analyses of records of this type show that the period of the fluctuation varies from several seconds at long ranges to a few tenths of a second at short ranges. The fluctuation period also depends on radar wavelength. The degree of echo modulation for this target varies from 26 db to less than 10 db for different
.
aspects of the aircraft.
Similar effects occur for propeller-driven aircraft such as the
B-26 (Fig.
select a
2.16).
for a fluctuating cross section in the radar equation is to lower bound, that is, a value of cross section that is exceeded some specified (large) fraction of time. The fraction of time that the actual cross section exceeds the selected value would be close to unity (0.95, 0.99, or 0.999 being typical). For all practical purposes the value selected is a minimum and the target will always present a cross section greater than that selected. This procedure results in a conservative prediction of radar range and has the advantage of simplicity. The minimum cross section of typical aircraft or missile targets generally occurs at or near the head-on aspect. However, to properly account for target cross-section fluctuations, the probabilitydensity function and the correlation properties with time must be known for the particular target and type of trajectory. Curves of cross section as a function of aspect and a knowledge of the trajectory with respect to the radar are needed to obtain a true description of the dynamical variations of cross section. The probability-density function gives the probability of finding any particular value of target cross section between the values of a and a da, while the autocorrelation function describes the degree of correlation of the cross section with time or number of pulses. The spectral density of the cross section (from which the autocorrelation function can be derived) is also sometimes of importance, especially in tracking radars. It is usually not practical to obtain the experimental data necessary to compute the probability-density function
One method of accounting
Sec. 2.8]
The Radar Equation
51
and the autocorrelation function from which the over-all radar performance is determined. Most radar situations are of too complex a nature to warrant obtaining complete data. A more economical method to assess the effects of a fluctuating cross section is to postulate a reasonable model for the fluctuations and to analyze it
mathematically. Swerling34 has calculated the detection probabilities for four different fluctuation models of cross section. These typical situations bracket a wide range of practical cases. In two of the four cases, it is assumed tjiat the fluctuations are completely correlated during a particular scan but are completely uncorrected from scan to scan. In the other two cases, the fluctuations are assumed to be more rapid and
uncorrected pulse to pulse. The four fluctuation models are as follows Case 1 The echo pulses received from a target on any one scan are of constant amplitude throughout the entire scan but are independent (uncorrelated) from scan to scan. This assumption ignores the effect of the antenna beam shape on the echo amplitude. An echo fluctuation of this type will be referred to as scan-to-scan fluctuation. The probability-density function for the cross section a is given by the Rayleigh
.
density function
p(a)
exp(-
<7>0
(2.39)
where
cr av
is
the average cross section over all target fluctuations.
Case 2. Eq. (2.39), dependent Case 3.

as in
The probability-density function for the target cross section is also given by but the fluctuations are more rapid than in case 1 and are taken to be infrom pulse to pulse instead of from scan to scan. In this case, the fluctuation is assumed to be independent from scan to scan case 1 but the probability-density function is given by
,
p(<r)
= êxp(-^)
#av
V
(2.40)
Om l
Case 4. The fluctuation is pulse to pulse according to Eq. (2.40). The Rayleigh probability-density function assumed in cases 1 and 2
target consisting of
applies to a
many independent
fluctuating scatterers of approximately equal
Although, in theory, the number of independent scatterers must be number may be as few as four or five. Cross-section fluctuations of objects with dimensions large compared with a wavelength are also expected to approximately follow the Rayleigh probability-density function. The majority of radar targets are probably of this nature. The probability-density function assumed in cases 3 and 4 is more indicative of targets that can be represented as one large reflector together with other small reflectors, or as one large reflector subject to fairly small changes in orientation. In all the above cases, the value of cross section to be substituted in the radar equation is the average cross section a av The signal-to-noise ratio needed to achieve a specified probability of detection without exceeding a specified false-alarm probability can be calculated for each model of target behavior. For purposes of comparison, the nonfluctuating cross section will be called case 5. A comparison of these five cases for a false-alarm number n f = 10^ n/Pfa) is shown in Fig. 2.22 for n = 10 hits integrated. When the detection probability is large, all four cases in which the target cross section is not constant require greater signal-tonoise ratio than the constant cross section of case 5. For example, if the desired probability of detection were 0.95, a signal-to-noise ratio of 6.2 db/pulse is necessary if the target cross section were constant (case 5), but if the target cross section fluctuated with a Rayleigh distribution and were scan to scan uncorrelated (case 1), the signal-tonoise ratio would have to be 16.8 db/pulse. This increase in signal-to-noise corresponds to a reductionin range by a factor of 3.28. Therefore, if the characteristics of the
essentially infinite, in practice the
.
echoing areas.
52
[Sec. 2.8
target cross section are not properly taken into account, the actual performance of the radar might not measure up to the performance predicted as if the target cross section were constant. Figure 2.22 also indicates that for probabilities of detection greater than about 0.30, a greater signal-to-noise ratio is required when the fluctuations are
uncorrelated scan to scan (cases 1 and 3) than when the fluctuations are uncorrelated In fact, the larger the number of pulses integrated, the pulse to pulse (cases 2 and 4). more likely it will be for the fluctuations to average out, and cases 2 and 4 will approach the nonfluctuating case. This does not occur when the cross section is assumed to be constant throughout a particular scan of n pulses. In the region where the signal-tonoise ratio required for a given detection probability is greater for the nonfluctuating
I
I
0.99
5 4 2
,3
0.98 0.95
0.90
<"0.80
.1
0.70
0.60
-
1-0.40
I o
a.
0.30
S 0.20
0.10 0.05
0.02 0.01
I I i l
-10
10 15 20 5 Signal-to-noise ratio per pulse, db
25
30
Fig. 2.22. Comparison of detection probabilities for five different models of target fluctuation for 10 8 (n, n/Pfa ). (Adapted from Swerling." 1 ) 10 pulses integrated and false-alarm number n,
case than for any of the four fluctuating cases, the detection probability is lower (<0.30) than would normally be considered useful for radar application and is of little practical
interest.
Swerling34 computed the detection-probability characteristics for fluctuating targets and signal-to-noise ratio. The curves presented in Figs. 2.23 and 2.24 were derived from his report. The data in these two figures, along with the detection-probability curves of Fig. 2.7, may be used to find the signal-to-noise ratio per pulse for any of the four fluctuating cases. The procedure is as follows 1. Find the signal-to-noise ratio from Fig. 2.7 corresponding to the desired value of
as a function of Pd , n f , n,
detection probability Pd and false-alarm probability Pt&. 2. From Fig. 2.23 determine the correction factor for either cases
and 4 to be applied
single pulse.
3.
to the signal-to-noise ratio

is
signal-to-noise ratio (5/A') 1
1 and 2 or cases 3 found from step 1 above. The resultant that which would apply if detection were based upon a
If n pulses are integrated, the signal-to-noise ratio
found in step 2 for a single pulse
Sec. 2.8]
The Radar Equation
53
001
005
0.1
0.5 0.7 0.8 0.2 0.3 Probability of detection
0.9 0.95
0.99
when
Fig. 2.23. Additional signal-to-noise ratio required to achieve a particular probability of detection, the target cross section fluctuates, as compared with a nonfluctuating target; single hit, 1.
10
20
50
Number
of pulses integrated,
100 n
500
1,000
five cases
Fig. 2.24. Integration-improvement factor as a function of the of target fluctuations considered.
number of
pulses integrated for the
54
is

/<()
[Sec. 2.8
divided by the integration-improvement factor
nE^ri) from Fig. 2.24 in order

{
to find the signal-to-noise ratio per pulse.
The parameters {SjN\ and nE {n)

.
are those
substituted into the radar equation (2.32) along with cr av The integration-improvement factor in Fig. 2.24 is in some cases greater than n, or in
other words, the integration efficiency factor E^ri)
>
One
is
not getting something
for nothing, for in those cases in \vhich the integration-improvement factor is greater 1 is larger than for a nonfluctuating than n, the signal-to-noise ratio required for
target.
The
signal-to-noise per pulse will always be less than that of

.
an ideal pre-
detection integrator for reasonable values of Pd

0.999 0.998 0.995
0.99
i i
i i i
It
should also be noted that the data
III!
/
No
0.98
0.95
fluctuation (constant signal
'
amplitude)--
J
1
c?
c
0.90 0.80
I ^
0.70
- 60
H
1 1
- 50
0.40
0.30
A 1/^
7
!
/?
i i i
'y
^^
y
/-
^^~y
0.20
0.10
0.05
/
/
i
10
Mean
12 14 18 20 22 16 signal-to-noise ratio per pulse, db
-Jill
24
26
signal voltage Fig. 2.25. Effect of correlation between pulses on the detection probability; p correlation coefficient; square-law detector; Rayleigh fluctuation; two pulses integrated (n 2). 35 courtesy IRE Trans.) {After Schwartz,
in Figs. 2.23
and 2.24 are
essentially
.
independent of the false-alarm number, at least
over the range of 10 6 to 10 10

Partial
Correlation.
plete correlation
The fluctuation models considered above assume either combetween the pulses in any particular scan (cases 1 and 3) or else complete independence between the pulses (cases 2 and 4). These represent two extreme cases of fluctuations. In general, it is likely that the pulses of a particular scan will lie within these two extremes and be partially correlated. Schwartz35 considered the effect of partial correlation on the addition of two fluctuating signals (n = 2). The signals are assumed to be correlated according to the correlation coefficient,
9
(<>!<#*
(2.41)
where xlt x2 x lt x 2 i> a \
= amplitudes of two successive pulses = mean values (here assumed zero) = variances of x and x
The two variances
are
assumed equal.
is
The power
correlation coefficient
is
2
.
portion of Schwartz's results voltage correlation coefficient.
shown in Fig. The false-alarm
2.25 for several values of the signal probability is 10 -10 The results for
.
Sec. 2.8]
partial correlation fall
The Radar Equation
55
(completely uncorrelated) between the two extremes of p (completely correlated), as might have been expected. Also shown is the detection probability for a nonfluctuating target signal. The greater the degree of correlation between the pulses, the greater must be the signal-to-noise ratio required per For if, by chance, the first pulse in order to achieve a specified detection probability. pulse were below the mean value necessary for detection, the likelihood is large that all the succeeding pulses would be below the mean, if the pulses were highly correlated.
and p
On the other hand, if the correlation between pulses were weak, it would be likely that the below-average pulses would be counterbalanced by the above-average pulses and the combined signal-to-noise ratio would average to a value suitable for detection. According to Schwartz, the false-alarm probability does not significantly affect the
from 10~ 5
general conclusions concerning the partially correlated pulses, at least over the range The data in Fig. to 10~ 10 the range for which computations were made.
,
2.25 apply to the case of only
two
pulses.
When the return echo consists of a train of more

than two pulses,
it is
expected that similar con-
clusions will apply. more general treatment
of fluctuating pulsed signals in the presence of noise has been given by Swerling. 36 His analysis applies to a large family of probability-density functions of the signal fluctuations and for very general
correlation properties of the signal fluctuations. The effects of the antenna beam shape and of nonuniform weighting of pulses by the post-
detection integrator are also taken into account. Scan-to-scan Correlation and the Markov It has been experimentally observed Process. that in some instances there may be correlation between the detection of targets from scan to
0.2
0.4 0.6 0.8 V, blip-scan ratio
1.0
on a would be high that it would also be observed on the next scan, or if the target is not seen on a particular scan, itwould probably not be seen on the next scan. The scan-to-scan correlation might be due to
scan; that
is,
if
the target were observed
Fig. 2.26. Effect of scan-to-scan correlation Experimental on detection probability. measurements compared with theory. Solid lines are theoretical curves based on scan-
particular scan, the likelihood
to-scan
efficient
with correlation cocorresponds to complete p (p = independence scan to scan). Solid circles and triangles represent detection following
correlation
detection,
and open
circles
and
triangles
represent miss following miss.

;
Circles are
the slow variations of target aspect or to the lobe structure of the antenna pattern. It might
also be
trajectories.
for outgoing trajectories triangles, incoming (After Sponsler, 3 ' courtesy IRE
,
due to atmospheric
effects, especially
Trans.)
when
the radar
beam
just grazes the surface
of the earth.
correlations,
The above are essentially speculations as to the cause of for no conclusive experimental proof has been offered to
scan-to-scan
substantiate
that these are indeed the causes. Sponsler37 has applied the theory of Markov chains to describe the observed scan-toscan correlation. In the theory of Markov chains, the outcome of any particular event Instead, the outcome of any is not assumed to be independent of other events. preceding event but not on directly the outcome of on the dependent event is particular
any of the other preceding events.
on
probability theory.
38
The theory of Markov chains is discussed in texts Sponsler presents in his paper some experimental data
liX
relating the blip-scan ratio at a particular range
T with the transition probability p
for a particular aircraft
The data are attributed to P. S. Olmstead of the The ordinate is the transition Bell Telephone Laboratories and are shown in Fig. 2.26.
and
altitude.
56
[Sec. 2.9
probability /Vi, defined as the probability that if a target is detected

it
on a particular
scan,
be detected on the next scan. The abscissa is the blip-scan ratio, or the probability of detection upon a single scan, with no knowledge assumed as to the previous scans. The blip-scan ratio may also be considered as the ratio of the number of times that a particular target is observed (as a "blip" on the scope) at a particular range to the number of times it could have been observed (scans). Also shown in Fig. 2.26 are the theoretical curves that would have been obtained if the data followed a simple Markov process. The curves are labeled with the values of the correlation coefficient p between successive pairs of observations. The figure seems to indicate that for this particular set of data the scan-to-scan correlation coefficient was appro ximately J, if the application of the theory of Markov is valid. The theory of Markov chains has also been applied by Sponsler37 to the cumulative detection probability of a radar in which the detection decision is made automatically.
will 2.9. Transmitter
t
Power
The power P in the radar equation (2.1) is called by the radar engineer the peak power. The peak pulse power as used in the radar equation is not the instantaneous peak power of a sine wave. It is defined as the power averaged over that carrierfrequency cycle which occurs at the maximum of the pulse of power. (Peak power is usually equal to one-half the maximum instantaneous power.) The average radar power Pav is also of interest in radar and is defined as the average transmitted power over the pulse-repetition period. If the transmitted waveform is a train of rectangular pulses of width t and pulse-repetition period Tr ( Tr = 1 // r), the average power is related to the peak power by
Pav
The ratio PAv lP r/Tr or rfT is
t,
,
^=p f
tT r
(2.42)
called the duty cycle of the radar.
A typical pulse radar
for detection of aircraft might have a duty cycle of 0.001 or less, while a
CW radar which
transmits continuously has a duty cycle of unity.
Writing the radar equation in terms of the average power rather than the peak power,
we
get
Ri
P. v GA e on Ei (n)
(4nfkT F n (B nr)(SIN)Jr
The bandwidth and the pulse width are grouped together since the product of the two is usually of the order of unity in most pulse-radar applications. If the transmitted waveform is not a rectangular pulse, it is sometimes more convenient to express the radar equation in terms
of the energy
E = P&w jfr contained in the

r
transmitted
waveform
D4
E T GA e onEi(n) (47rfkT F n (B n r)(SIN) 1
(2.436)
In this form, the range does not depend explicitly on either the wavelength or the pulse repetition frequency. The important parameters affecting range are the total transmitted energy nE T the transmitting gain G, the effective receiving aperture A e and the receiver noise figure Fn The type of waveform transmitted and the receiver design determine B n r and, to some extent, the integration efficiency E,{n). The signal-tonoise ratio {SjN) x depends on the desired probabilities of detection and false' "alarm. The target cross section a is not under the control of the radar designer. If a constant value of cross section is used, Eq. (2.43) gives the range at which a target of cross section a would be detected with a probability Pd without exceeding a specified false-alarm
,
Sec. 2.10]
The Radar Equation
57
rate of
probability
PtB
or
more
specifically
without exceeding a specified
maximum
false target indications.
If the cross section fluctuates,
average
cr
av ,
and (S/N^ and
E (n) modified according to

(
a must be replaced by its Figs. 2.23 and 2.24, respectively.
2.10. Pulse Repetition Frequency
and Range Ambiguities
is determined primarily by the maximum range which targets are expected. If the prf is made too high, the likelihood of obtaining Echo signals received target echoes from the wrong pulse transmission is increased. after an interval exceeding the pulse-repetition period are called multiple-time-around echoes. They can result in erroneous or confusing range measurements. The nature of some multiple-time-around echoes may cause them to be labeled as "ghost," or "angel," targets, or even "flying saucers." Consider the three targets labeled A, B, and C in
The
pulse repetition frequency (prf)
at
Fig. 2.27a.
Target
is
located within the
maximum unambiguous
.
range
-R una mb
[Eq. (1.2)] of the radar, target B is at a distance greater than iJ unam b DUt " ess tnan The appearance 2/? unamb , while target is greater than 2i? unamb but less than 3J? unamb of the three targets on an A-scope is sketched in Fig. 2.27b. The multiple-time-around echoes on the A-scope cannot be distinguished from proper target echoes actually
within the maximum unambiguous range. correct; those for B and C are not.
Only the range measured
for target
is
n
L^
"unamu
n
*J
J1_&LJCJ1
i I i
t=o
t=Vfr
Time
(or
t =
*/f r
t =
Vfr
range)
A A
(6)
A_
Range -
Range
(c)
Fig. 2.27. Multiple-time-around echoes, (a) Three targets A, B and C, where A is within R unBLmb , and B and C are multiple-time-around targets; (b) appearance of the three targets on the A-scope;
(c)
appearance of the three targets on the A-scope with a changing
prf.
distinguishing multiple-time-around echoes from unambiguous 39-42 The echo signal with a varying pulse repetition frequency. operate echoes is to from an unambiguous range target will appear at the same place on the A-scope on each sweep no matter whether the prf is modulated or not. However, echoes from multipletime-around targets will be spread over a finite range as shown in Fig. 2.27c. The prf may be changed continuously within prescribed limits, or it may be changed discretely among several predetermined values. The number of separate pulse repetition Second-time frequencies will depend upon the degree of the multiple-time targets. targets need only two separate repetition frequencies in order to be resolved. Instead of modulating the prf, other schemes that might be employed to "mark" successive pulses so as to identify multiple-time-around echoes include changing the
One method of
pulse amplitude, pulse width, frequency, phase, or polarization of transmission from Generally, such schemes are not so successful in practice as one pulse to pulse.
58

like.
[Sec. 2.11
One of the fundamental limitations is the foldover of nearby targets nearby strong ground targets (clutter) can be quite large and can mask weak multiple-time-around targets appearing at the same place on the display. Also, more time is required to process the data when resolving ambiguities. These techniques to resolve ambiguities are similar, in principle, to adding one or more radars and operating them on a time-shared basis. Ambiguities may theoretically be resolved by observing the variation of the echo signal with time (range). Because of the inverse-fourth-power relationship in the radar equation, the rate of change of the echo signal from a target at long range will be different from that of a target at short range. This is not always a practical technique, however, since the echo-signal amplitude can fluctuate strongly for reasons other than a change in range. An example of the use of high-repetition-rate, ambiguous-range radars is the pulsedoppler radar (Sec. 4.5). Range information is usually sacrificed in pulse-dopplerradar applications. When used as an AI radar, the number of targets it must handle is small hence sufficient time is generally available to resolve any ambiguities that might exist. But for the general search-radar application, operation with an ambiguous range is usually not warranted unless special circumstances make it necessary. A rather unique application involving the resolution of range ambiguity is that of the first radar detection of Venus (Sec. 14.3). The Millstone Hill radar operated at a prf of 30 cps, giving an unambiguous range of about 2,700 nautical miles, but by modulating the pulse transmissions it was possible to correctly resolve the ambiguities and measure a range almost 9,000 times the unambiguous range of the basic pulse rate.
would
that
is,
;
2.11.
Antenna Parameters
all radars use directive antennas for transmission and reception. On transmission, the directive antenna channels the radiated energy into a beam to enhance the
Almost
The antenna gain G is a measure of power radiated in a particular direction by a directive antenna to the power which would have been radiated in the same direction by an omnidirectional antenna with 100 per cent efficiency. More precisely, the power gain of an antenna used for transenergy concentrated in the directon of the target.
the
mission
/-vfl
is
G(p,<f>)
m\
Power radiated per s-
unit solid angle in -2
azimuth 6 and elevation
r
<j>
(2.44)
power delivered
directions,
to antenna/47r
Note that the antenna gain is a function of direction. If it is greater than unity in some it must be less than unity in other directions. This follows from the conshall usually
servation of energy.
we
mean
When we speak of antenna gain in relation to the radar equation, the maximum gain G, unless otherwise specified. One of the
basic principles of antenna theory is that of reciprocity, which states that the properties of an antenna are the same no matter whether it is used for transmission or reception. Hence the gain and the effective area of a transmitting antenna are the same when the antenna is used for receiving. It will be recalled that this principle was used in the derivation of the radar equation in Sec. 1 .2.
The antenna beam pattern, or simply the antenna pattern, is a plot of antenna gain as a function of the direction of radiation. (A typical antenna pattern plotted as a function of one angular coordinate is shown in Fig. 7. 1 .) Antenna beam shapes most commonly employed in radar are the pencil beam (Fig. 2.28a) and the fan beam (Fig. 2.28Z>). The
pencil
antennas
beam is axially symmetric, or nearly so. Beamwidths of typical pencil-beam may be of the order of a few degrees or less. Pencil beams are commonly used
where it is necessary to measure continuously the angular position of a single target in both azimuth and elevation, as, for example, the target-tracking radar for the control of
Sec. 2.11]
The Radar Equation

missile guidance.
59
weapons or
The pencil beam may be generated with a metallic shaped in the form of a paraboloid of revolution with the electromagnetic energy fed from a point source placed at the focus. Although a narrow beam can, if necessary, search a large sector or even a hemisphere, it is not always desirable to do so. Usually, operational requirements place a restriction on the maximum scan time (time for the beam to return to the same point in space) so that the radar cannot dwell too long at any one radar resolution cell.| This is especially true if there is a large number of resolution cells to be searched. The number of resolution cells can be materially reduced if the narrow angular resolution cell of a pencil-beam radar is replaced by a beam in which one dimension is broad while the other dimension is narrow, that is, a fan-shaped pattern. One method of generating a fan beam is with a parabolic reflector shaped to yield the proper ratio between the azimuth and elevation beamwidths (Fig. 1.6). Many long-range ground-based search radars use a fan-beam pattern narrow in azimuth and broad in elevation When ground-based search radars employing fan beams are used against airreflector surface
craft targets,
is
no resolution
in elevation
Therefore no height information is available. One method of achieving elevation-angle information for targets located by a fan-beam search radar is to employ an additional fan-beam radar with the narrow dimension in elevation instead of in azimuth, as in the common
obtained.
height-finding radar.
(Strictly speaking,
a height-finding radar actually measures elevation angle rather than height.) If a fan-beam search radar 1 in azimuth and 45 in elevation were required to scan 360 in azimuth (complete circular coverage), the scanning region might be considered as being divided into 360 angular resolution cells. On the other hand, if a pencil-beam radar with a beamwidth of Fig. 2.28. (a) Pencil-beam-antenna pattern; 1 were required to scan the samevolume, (6) fan-beam-antenna pattern. the total number of angular resolution cells would be 360 x 45 16,200. Since the number of resolution cells which the fan-beam radar must search is considerably less than the number which the pencilbeam radar must search, the fan-beam radar can dwell longer in eachcell and more hits per target can be obtained. The rate at which a fan-beam antenna may be scanned is a compromise between the rate at which target-position information is desired (data rate) and the ability to detect weak targets (probability of detection). Unfortunately, the two are at odds with one another. The more slowly the radar antenna scans, the more pulses will be available On the other hand, a slow scan for integration and the better the detection capability. Scan rates of practical search rate means a longer time between looks at the target. radars vary from 1 to 60 rpm, 5 or 6 rpm being typical. The coverage of a simple fan beam is usually inadequate for targets at high altitudes The simple fan-beam antenna radiates very little of its energy in close to the radar.
t The radar resolution cell is in general a five-dimensional space (two orthogonal-angle coordinates, range, doppler velocity, and time).
60
[Sec. 2.11
this direction. However, it is possible to modify the antenna pattern to radiate more energy at higher angles. One technique for accomplishing this is to employ a fan beam with a shape proportional to the square of the cosecant of the elevation angle. In the cosecant-squared antenna (Sec. 7.9), the gain as a function of elevation angle is given by
G(<)
G(<
)-î
csC

for
<f>
<<fx<f> m
2
(2.45)
where
G(<)
<A)>
^m
= gain at elevation angle = angular limits between which beam follows esc
=
shape
This applies to the airborne search radar observing ground targets as well as groundbased radars observing aircraft targets. In the airborne case, the angle ^ is the depression angle. From <f> the antenna pattern is similar to a to <f> normal antenna pattern, but from the antenna gain varies as esc 2 <f>. </> to <f> m
<f>
(f>
<f>
upper limit m should be 90, but it is always much less than this with a single antenna because of practical difficulties. The cosecant-squared antenna may be generated by a distorted section of a parabola or by a true parabola with a properly designed set of multiple feed horns. The cosecant-squared pattern may also be generated with an array-type antenna. The cosecant-squared antenna has the important property that the echo power Pr received from a target of constant cross section at constant altitude h is independent of the target's range R from the radar. Substituting the gain of the cosecant-squared antenna [Eq. (2.45)] into the simple radar equation (1.106) gives
Ideally, the
<f>
p
where
<j>
= Pk G\<j> 3
(47r)
esc
4
4
<f>X
csc
</.
i?
cscV =K K,~^ 4
1
(2.46)
J?
K is a constant. The height h of the target is assumed constant, and since = Rjh, the received power becomes p = KJ* = K (2.47) where K is a constant. The echo signal is therefore independent of range for a conx
esc
stant-altitude target.
In practice, the power received from an antenna with a cosecant-squared pattern is not truly independent of range because of the simplifying assumptions made. The cross section a varies with the viewing aspect, the earth is not flat, and the radiation pattern of any real antenna can be made to only approximate the desired cosecantsquared pattern. The gain of a typical cosecant-squared antenna used for groundbased search radar might be about 2 db less than if a fan beam were generated by the
same aperture. The maximum gain of an antenna
is
related to
its
physical area
(aperture)
by
(2.48)
G =
where p
X
= antenna efficiency = wavelength of radiated energy
-f-
efficiency depends on the aperture illumination and the efficiency of the antenna feed. The product of pA is the effective aperture A e A typical reflector antenna with a parabolic shape will produce a beamwidth approximately equal to
.
The antenna
'
(2.49)
where / is the dimension of the antenna in the plane of the angle 6, and X and / are measured in the same units. The value of the constant, in this case taken to be 65, depends upon the distribution of energy (illumination) across the aperture.

Sec. 2.12]
2.12.
The Radar Equation
61
System Losses
At the beginning of this chapter it was mentioned that one of the important factors omitted from the simple radar equation was the losses that occur throughout the radar system. The losses reduce the signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver output. They may be of two kinds, depending upon whether or not they can be predicted with any degree of precision beforehand. The antenna beam-shape loss, collapsing loss, and losses in the microwave plumbing are examples of losses which can be calculated if the system configuration is known. These losses are very real and cannot be ignored in any The loss due to the integration of many serious prediction of radar performance. pulses (or integration efficiency) has already been mentioned in Sec. 2.6 and need not be
10
ii
: 1
iii|
TTI
\
1.0
^0.90
xO.40
1.122 x 0.497
\l.372
x 0.622
\ 1.872
o o
x 0.872
x 2.84
X1.34
,
^ 3.4x1.7
4.3x2.15
<
0.01
0.1
ll
111
II
1.0
10 Frequency, qigocycles
100
sizes are in inches Fig 2 29. Theoretical (one-way) attenuation of RF transmission lines. Waveguide Lines and Transmission Index R.F. Services Armed of (Data dimensions. from and are the inside
Fittings,
ASESA,
49-2B.)
predictdiscussed further. Losses not readily subject to calculation and which are less operator of lack fatigue or operator to and degradation able include those due to field prior motivation. Estimates of the latter type of loss must be made on the basis of considerable experience and experimental observations. They may be subject to Although the loss associated with any one factor may be variation and uncertainty. loss mechanisms in a complete radar system, and their possible many are small, there
(number less In this section, loss (number greater than unity) and efficiency other. the reciprocal of the simply is One interchangeably. used unity) are transmission Plumbing Loss. There is always some finite loss experienced in the in decibels losses The antenna. the to transmitter lines which connect the output of the radar lower At the 2.29. Fig. in shown are lines transmission radar per 100 ft for is exceptionally frequencies the transmission line introduces little loss, unless its length may higher radar frequencies, attenuation may not always be small and
long.
sum total can be
significant.
than
At the
have to be taken into account.
In addition to the losses in the transmission line
itself,
62

loss
if
[Sec. 2.12
can occur at each connection or bend in the line and at the rotary Connector losses are usually small, but if the connection is it can contribute significant attenuation. Since the same transmission line is generally used for both receiving and transmission, the loss to be inserted in the radar equation is twice the one-way loss. The received signal suffers some attenuation as it passes through the unfired TR tube
antenna joint poorly made,
used.
an additional
on its way to the receiver. Generally, the greater the isolation required from the duplexer on transmission, the larger will be the insertion loss on reception. By insertion loss is meant the loss introduced when the component, in this case the duplexer, is inserted into the transmission line. The precise value of the insertion loss depends to a large extent on the particular design. For a typical duplexer it might be of the order of 1 db (Sec. 8.11). The duplexer also introduces loss when in the fired condition (arc loss) approximately 1 db is typical. In an 5-band (3,000 Mc) radar, for example, the plumbing losses might be as follows
;
100 ft of RG-l 13/U Al waveguide transmission Loss due to poor connections (estimate)
Rotary-joint loss
line
(two-way)
Duplexer
loss
Total plumbing loss
db db 0.4 db 1.5 db 3.4 db

1 .0
0.5
Beam-shape Loss.
The antenna gain that appears
in the radar equation in reality

it is
was assumed
to be a constant equal to the
maximum
value.
But
unlikely that the
target will always be in the direction corresponding to maximum gain. If the antenna scans past the target, the amplitude of the returned pulses will be modulated by the beam shape. Therefore it is incorrect to assume a constant value of gain equal to the
Antenna beams are not rectangular hence the amplitudes of the echo pulses will vary as the shape of the antenna pattern. The total energy from a group of echo pulses radiated and collected by a practical antenna will be less than that which would have been received from an antenna with a rectangular pattern whose gain was equal to the maximum gain of the practical antenna. The loss in received energy may be taken into account by
;
maximum for each pulse, unless the antenna pattern is rectangular in shape.
employing an average value of the antenna gain, or alternatively, the maximum antenna gain may be substituted into the radar equation and a beam-shape loss introduced. The two methods are equivalent. The latter is normally used. The one-way-power (two-way- voltage) antenna pattern may be approximated by the Gaussian expression exp ( a 2 d 2 ), where 6 is the angle measured from the center of the beam, a 2 is a constant equal to 2.776/6%, and 6B is the beamwidth measured between half-power points. This expression for the antenna pattern is valid in the vicinity of the center of the beam. It deviates considerably from the actual antenna pattern at angles too far from the center of the beam, because the Gaussian function does not represent the sidelobe radiation of the normal antenna. Consider the train of radar pulses to be so oriented relative to the antenna pattern that one of the pulses is coincident with the beam center. This assumption is made for convenience, but similar results can be obtained with any other arbitrary time relationship between the train of radar pulses and the beam center. It is further assumed that a transmitted pulse and its received echo occur at essentially the same point of the antenna pattern. The echo signal power received by the radar when the pulse is transmitted and received from the beam center is denoted as Sv The total signal power represented by n pulses received with the Gaussian antenna pattern and integrated without further loss is
/2
? [~i S 1 1
+
,
</" 2 _2
exp
2 -5.55fe ( A0) '- l i
(2.50)
UB
Sec. 2.12]
The Radar Equation
63
where A0 is the angular separation between pulses. The beam-shape loss (number greater than unity) relative to a radar that integrates all n pulses with an antenna gain
corresponding to that at
beam
center
is
ft
Beam-shape
loss
(n _ 1)/2
(2-51)
2 exp [-5.55fe (A0) /^] 2
1+2 2
k
=l
This
may be put in another form by noting that A0
pulses received between the 3-db beamwidth.
= 6B /nB where nB is the number of Making this substitution, we have

,
Beam-shape
loss
=
{
+ 2^2
n -i)n
(2-52)
exp(-5.55k 2/n|)
between the 3-db beamwidth,
For example,
the loss
is
if
we integrate
1 1
pulses, all lying uniformly
1.96 db.
The beam-shape loss considered above was for a beam shaped in one plane only. It If the applies to a fan beam, or to a pencil beam if the target passes through its center.
target passes through
will
any other point of the pencil beam, the
maximum signal received
not correspond to the signal from the beam center. The beam-shape loss is reduced by the ratio of the square of the maximum antenna gain at which the pulses were transmitted divided by the square of the antenna gain at beam center. The ratio If the target passes at the outer involves the square because of the two-way transit. edge of the antenna 3-db beamwidth, the beam-shape loss would be increased by approximately 6 db over that given by Eq. (2.52). The antenna scanning speed was assumed slow enough so that the gain on transmission is the same as the gain on reception. If this were not so, an additional loss,
The techniques for computing called the scanning loss, would have to be computed. scanning loss are similar in principle to those for computing beam-shape loss. Scanning loss is important for rapid-scan antennas or for very long range radars such as those
designed to view extraterrestrial objects.
If the antenna is stationary (searchlighting the target), the transmitted pulses and echo pulses all appear at the same place in the antenna beam. The beam-shape loss in this case is simply
Beam-shape
where da
e
loss
exp
55 Zsl
xo Ba
2
_i_
ils.
(2.53)
Be'
6 Ba
= azimuth angle between target and antenna = azimuth half-power beamwidth 6 = elevation angle between target and antenna QBe = elevation half-power beamwidth
Limiting Loss. If the signal is limited in the receiver, the probability of detection be lowered, everything else being held constant. Although a well-designed and engineered receiver will not limit the received signal under normal circumstances, intensity-modulated CRT displays such as the PPI and the B-scope have limited 10 dynamic range and may limit. According to Marcum, limiting results in a loss of provided the limiting integrated, only a fraction of a decibel for a large number of pulses
will
ratio (ratio of video limit level to rms noise level) is as large as 2 or 3. Other analyses of bandpass limiters show that for small signal-to-noise ratios, the reduction in the signal-to-noise ratio of a sine- wave signal imbedded in narrowband
43 However, by appropriately shaping the spectrum Gaussian noise is tt/4 (about 1 db). 44 Results derived of the input noise, the degradation can be made negligibly small.
64
[Sec. 2.12
from an
analysis of signal-to-noise ratios alone, however, are not necessarily related to signal detectability with an operator or an electronic threshold detector. realistic
analysis of detectability should be based
on the
statistics
of signal and noise and include
the probabilities of detection and false alarm. Collapsing Loss. It may happen that the radar integrates a number of unwanted noise samples along with the wanted signal-plus-noise pulses. The noise added to the
signal results in a degradation of the signal-to-noise ratio, accounted for by the collapsing loss. Collapsing loss occurs in cathode-ray-tube displays which collapse range
information, such as the C-scope (plot of elevation angle vs. azimuth angle). The echo signal from a particular range interval must compete in a collapsed-range display, not only with the noise energy contained within that range interval, but with the noise
energy from all other range intervals at the same elevation and azimuth. Another example of collapsing loss occurs if the video bandwidth is smaller than optimum since the effect is the same as integrating additional noise samples (unless range gating is
used).
A collapsing loss also results if the output of two or more radar receivers is combined and only one of the receivers contains signal while the other contains noise, as, for example, in video mixing (where more than one radar output is superimposed on the same indicator) or polarization diversity. The collapsing loss may be defined as
where {SjN) m+n

are
is
the signal-to-noise ratio per pulse required for detection
when
there
m extra noise pulses integrated along with n signal-plus-noise pulses, and (S/N) is
when no extra noise pulses are present. The mathematical derivation of the collapsing loss may be carried out as suggested by Marcum, 10 who has shown that the integration of m noise pulses, along with n
the signal-to-noise ratio per pulse required
signal-plus-noise pulses with signal-to-noise ratio per pulse (S/N),
integration of
The
is equivalent to the n signal-plus-noise pulses each with signal-to-noise ratio {SjN)lR c collapsing ratio R c is defined as
m+
R<
where m
^^
n
(2.55)
number of extra noise pulses n number of signal-plus-noise pulses Mathematically, the collapsing loss is equivalent to the integration of m n signal pulses instead of . 10 The collapsing loss is thus equal to the ratio of the integration loss L, for m n pulses to the integration loss for n pulses, or
= =
L c{m ,n)
MÔ
is
(Z56a)
In terms of the integration-improvement factor It {n), the collapsing loss
L c (m,n)
noise pulses and the
= R ^n \ Ii(m + n)
.
{2 .56b)
For example, assume that 10 signal-plus-noise pulses are integrated along with 30 Pa = 0.90 and nt = 108 From Fig. 2.8fc, L,(40) is 3.5 db and L/10) is 1.7 db, so that the collapsing loss is 1.8 db. Nonideal Equipment. The transmitter power introduced into the radar equation was assumed to be the output power (either peak or average). However, transmitting tubes are not all uniform in quality, nor should it be expected that any individual tube

Sec. 2.12]
will
The Radar Equation
65
remain at the same level of performance throughout its useful life. Thus, for one reason or another, the transmitted power may be less than the design value. To account for this, the value of the transmitted power inserted into the radar equation should be less than the advertised, or design, power. The reduction in power varies, of course, with the application and the type of tube, but lacking a better number, a reduction of the order of 2 db might be used as an approximate value for system design
purposes. Only a receiver "matched" in the communication-theory sense makes optimum use matched receiver may of the total signal energy contained in the target echo signal. introduced into the must be loss additional an thus be only approximated in practice; radar system. The amount of loss expected with various types of nonmatched re-
ceivers
is
shown in Table 9.1.

1
A typical value of loss for a nonmatched receiver might
be about
Variations in receiver noise figure are also to be expected. recalled that the usual detection criterion indicates the presence of a target It will be whenever the envelope of the signal crosses a threshold. Because of the exponential relationship between the false-alarm time and the threshold level [Eq. (2.26)], a slight
db.
change in the threshold

practice, therefore,
it
level
can cause a significant change in the false-alarm time.
In
necessary to set the threshold level slightly higher than slight calculated, so that, in the event of circuit instabilities and these need only be which amount by level. The intolerable to an reduced not be the false-alarm time will the the receiver threshold should be increased depends upon the application and
may be
stability
of the circuits. Operator Loss. An operator's capacity for searching a CRT display and recognizing radar the presence of target echoes is limited. The information bandwidth of a human operator is of the order of 10 cps (20 bits/sec). If the operator is fatigued or not handled may sufficiently motivated, the information bandwidth that can be adequately a PPI is many times on displayed be can information which rate at The be even less. contained the capacity of the operator bandwidth. If, for example, the radar display of number total range, the in 180 resolvable elements in azimuth and 20 elements one for If the time be would 3,600. antenna the of revolution resolution cells on one By the revolution were 12 sec, data could appear on the PPI at a rate of 300 bits/sec. Shannon sampling theorem, this corresponds to a minimum bandwidth of 150 cps, which is far beyond the operator's ability to handle. This mismatch in bandwidth can Another factor contributing to operator loss result in a loss in operator performance. occurs when he resorts to guessing, as when he becomes overloaded or panicky.
Based on both empirical and experimental results, an operator-efficiency factor approximately given by the following expression:
Po
is
0.7y>
(2.57)
45
where
y> is
the single-scan probability of detection (blip-scan ratio).
This assumes a
good operator observing a PPI presentation under good conditions. Under less favorable conditions, the operator efficiency might be somewhat less. The operator Even with y> = 1, the efficiency is factor is not linear with detection probability y>.
singleonly 0.7, corresponding to a 1.5-db loss in signal-to-noise ratio. When the about scan detection probability is 0.5, the operator efficiency is 0.175, or a loss of
7.5 db.
few decibels have sometimes been attributed to the operHowever, it seems that in a large number of reported cases, other loss mechaator. nisms besides the operator were included in the operator loss. Two loss mechanisms sometimes blamed on the operator are unaccounted-for propagation effects and the It would seem better, whenever possible, to consider losses due to field degradation.
Much higher losses than a
these losses separately.
66

Field Degradation.
[Sec. 2.13
is
When
a radar system
operated under laboratory conditions
technicians, the inclusion of the above losses into the radar equation should give a realistic description of the performance of the
by engineering personnel and experienced
radar under normal conditions (ignoring anomalous propagation effects). However, when a radar is operated under field conditions, the performance usually deteriorates even more than can be accounted for by the above losses, especially when the equipment is operated and maintained by inexperienced or unmotivated personnel.
apply, to
some
extent, to
field conditions.
It may even equipment operated by professional engineers under adverse Factors which contribute to field degradation are poor tuning, weak
connections, etc. degradation, radars should be designed with built-in automatic performance-monitoring equipment. Careful observation of performance-monitoring instruments and timely preventative maintenance can do much to keep radar performance up to design level. Radar characteristics that might be monitored include transmitter power, receiver noise figure, the spectrum and/or shape of the transmitted pulse, and the decay time of the TR tube. good estimate of the field degradation is difficult to obtain since it cannot be predicted and is dependent upon the particular radar design and the conditions under which it is operating. degradation of 3 db is sometimes assumed when no other information is available.
tubes, water in the transmission lines, incorrect mixer-crystal current, deterioration of receiver noise figure, poor tube recovery, loose cable
TR
To minimize
field
Other Loss Factors. radar designed to discriminate between moving targets and stationary objects (MTI radar) may introduce additional loss over a radar without this facility. The MTI discrimination technique results in complete loss of sensitivity for certain values of target velocity relative to the radar. These are called blind speeds. The blind-speed problem and the loss resulting therefrom are discussed in more detail
in
Chap.
4.
In a radar with overlapping range gates, the gates may be wider than optimum for practical reasons. The additional noise introduced by the nonoptimum gate width will result in some degradation. Another factor that has a profound effect on the radar range performance is the propagation medium discussed briefly in the next section and in Chap. 11. There are many causes of loss and inefficiency in a radar. Although they may each be small, the sum total can result in a significant reduction in radar performance. It is important to understand the origins of these losses, not only for better predictions of radar range, but also for the purpose of keeping them to a minimum by careful radar
design.
2.13. Propagation Effects
In analyzing radar performance it is convenient to assume that the radar and target are both located in free space. However, there are very few radar applications which approximate free-space conditions. One of the few cases which might is a target at high altitude close to the radar with the surface of the earth nonreflecting at the frequency
of radar operation.
ance.
medium in which radar waves propagate can have a significant effect on radar performIn
In most cases of practical interest, the earth's surface and the
instances the propagation factors might be important enough to other factors that contribute to abnormal radar performance. The effects of non-free-space propagation on the radar are of three categories (1) attenuation of the radar wave as it propagates through the earth's atmosphere, (2) refraction of the radar wave by the earth's atmosphere, and (3) lobe structure caused
some
all
overshadow
by interference
between the direct wave from radar to target and the wave which arrives at the target via reflection from the ground.
Sec. 2.14]
The Radar Equation
67
The gases and water vapor constituting the earth's atmosphere Attenuation. attenuate electromagnetic radiation. The result is a loss of intensity over that experienced if in free space. The amount of attenuation depends upon the frequency of operation as well as the gas constituting the medium. Atmospheric attenuation is essentially negligible at the lower end of the radar frequency spectrum, but it may be band. In fact, the relatively large attenuation quite important at frequencies above of millimeter- wavelength radiation is one of the factors which determine the upper limit
of usable radar frequencies.
The two-way attenuation of the radar signal in the atmosphere is exp (2a/?), where a the attenuation constant and R is the range. Typical values of the attenuation constant are given in Sec. 11.8. The attenuation factor exp (2ajR) must be included in
is
the radar equation if a is large or if the propagation path is long. When this factor is included, the solution of the radar equation for range is not simple, because of the exponential relationship. An approximate method of accounting for attenuation is to
solve for the range as if attenuation were absent manner according to the amount of attenuation.
and reduce the range found
in this
In addition to attenuation by atmospheric gases, the radar signal will suffer considerable attenuation near the region of the geometrical line of sight and beyond (Sec. The attenuation of electromagnetic waves in the diffraction region beyond the 11.6). said to be line of sight is so severe that, for all practical purposes, normal radars may be
limited to line-of-sight propagation or less. The density of the atmosphere Refraction.
is
not uniform with altitude.
The
gradient of density results in a bending of the radar waves in a manner analogous to the bending of light waves by an optical prism. Water vapor is the atmospheric component chiefly responsible for the bending of radar waves in the lower atmosphere. The
atmosphere is usually denser at the lower altitudes; consequently radar waves will normally be bent around the earth. Therefore the radar, if powerful enough, can see around the curvature of the earth beyond the limits of the geometrical line of sight. In some cases, conditions may be quite favorable and large amounts of bending will be experienced, with the result that the radar range will be considerably increased. This condition is called superrefraction, or ducting, and is a form of anomalous propagation. The density gradient of the water vapor can also be such that the radar wave is bent upward, and the radar range will be less than it would normally be. These abnormal available. effects on radar could be predicted if sufficient meteorological data were probably expensive and data is of proper type the obtaining of However, the process cannot be considered as standard radar practice except under special circumstances. This is unfortunate, since the effects of anomalous propagation conditions can be quite
pronounced and may be the

predictions.
largest single factor contributing to inaccurate radar
The presence of the earth's surface not only restricts the line of sight, but targets within the line of sight. it can also have a serious effect on the radar coverage for arrives over the direct path One paths separate via two target the arrive at Two waves from radar to target; the other path includes a reflection from the ground. The two waves can interfere destructively or constructively, depending on their relative phase,
Lobing.
.
and the echo signal may be larger than if in free space or it may be smaller. In Sec. 1 1 .2 increased at certain elevation angles it is shown that the radar range theoretically can be at the expense of zero coverage at range, free-space by as much as a factor of 2 over the
other angles.
2.14.
Summary
.
In this chapter, some of the more important factors that Prediction of Radar Range. The enter into the radar equation for the prediction of range were briefly considered
68

(2.1),
[Sec. 2.14
radar equation
with the modifications indicated in this chapter, becomes
"max
where i?max
o4
PnvGApanEjin) exp (2aK ma x)
(2.58)
G= A=
p n
= = <() = integration efficiency (less than unity) L = system losses (greater than unity) not included in other parameters a = attenuation constant of propagation medium a = radar cross section of target, m Fn = noise figure k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x 10" 23 joule/deg T = standard temperature = 290K Bn = receiver noise bandwidth, cps t = pulse width, sec f = pulse repetition frequency, cps (S/N)i = signal-to-noise ratio required at receiver output (based on single-hit
s
maximum radar range, antenna gain antenna aperture, 2 antenna efficiency number of hits integrated
detection)
In some applications it transmitted per pulse.
is
more appropriate
to replace
Pav /fr = Pkr
by E the energy
Other auxiliary relations useful when dealing with the radar equation are
" "2?
~Bfr
(2.30)
6ft>
m
(2.48)
G
Jav
~P~t
AirAp
X2
= Tf = duty cycle
r
(2.59)
P,
B n Tia.
nf
for
(2.60)
(2.6: (2.61)
B nr
a
sa 1
most radar applications
65A
(2.49)
where nB
co
t
= number of pulses received within half-power antenna beamwidth 6B = antenna rotation rate, rpm P = peak power Pfa = probability of false alarm r = average false-alarm time = linear antenna dimension
m
fa /
Figure 2.7
may be used to obtain the value of{SjN\, given the probabilities of detection
The false-alarm probability follows from the specified average false-alarm time [Eq. (2.60)]. If n pulses are integrated postdetection, the integrationimprovement factor may be obtained from Fig. 2.8a. fluctuating target cross section requires that the average value of a be substituted in the radar equation and that
false alarm.
and
the signal-to-noise ratio per pulse and the integration-improvement factor be modified according to Figs. 2.23 and 2.24, respectively. The maximum radar range is a statistical quantity, depending mainly on the statistics of a, (S/N)^ and the propagation factors.
Sec. 2.14]
The Radar Equation
69
The radar equation developed in this chapter applies primarily to a pulse radar, although FM-CW, pulse-doppler, MTI, or it may be readily modified to accommodate CW,
tracking radar.
46-48
radar if Pav // Equation (2.58) can be generally applied to a r is replaced by E t (the energy transmitted during the target observation time t) and if the integration-improvement factor is made equal to unity. The radar range equation is strictly valid in the far zone (Fraunhofer region) of the 2 {Da a T) M, where antenna. If the target is in the Fresnel region [R antenna gain G the wavelength], target diameter, and X antenna diameter, T 49 50 Generally, the and effective area normally associated with the far zone decrease. Fresnel region is much shorter than practical radar ranges and can usually be ignored.
CW
<
+D
D =
D =
0.99
1
0.98
0.95
Cose
1 0.90
0.80
o 0.70 -
0.60 0.50
1 0.40 _ .9- 0.30

0.20 0.10
0.05
0.2
1.6
1.8
2.0
10". Case 5 is 10 hits integrated and n, Fig. 2.30. Examples of theoretical blip-scan curves, n described by Rayleigh fluctuation cross-section a represents 1 case section; cross for a nonfluctuating Rayleigh cross-section fluctuation with statistics, correlated scan to scan; and case 2 represents a ratio for a non1 corresponds to the range at which the blip-scan pulse-to-pulse correlation. R M
fluctuating target
is
0.50.
However, with a large antenna at high microwave frequencies the Fresnel region canat 8,000 Mc not always be ignored. For example, a 1 20-ft-diameter antenna operating region 2 Fresnel the gain in antenna has a value of D /X of about 19 nautical miles. The pattern antenna The range. target the antenna to the focusing can be restored by through the focal plane is the same as that at infinity. of Perhaps the most important factor not explicitly included in Eq. (2.58) is the effect in propagation of account take properly difficult to anomalous propagation. It is in order to set an assumed be factors may safety reasonable although manner, an exact upper bound on its effects. A figure of merit sometimes used to express the relative performance of radar is the transmitter radar performance figure, defined as the ratio of the pulse power of the radar to the power of the minimum signal detectable by the receiver. it is Further consideration of the radar equation will be given in Chap. 13, where
used as the basis for radar system design.
practical method of measuring the Blip-scan Ratio and Detection Probability. field is to fly an aircraft on a radial course the performance of search radars operating in or not the target is detected. This is whether antenna the of scan and record on each number repeated many times until sufficient data are obtained to compute the average
70
[Sec. 2.14
of scans the target was seen at a particular range (blips) to the total number of times it could have been seen (scans). This is called the blip-scan ratio. It is the probability per scan for a particular target at a particular range, altitude, and aspect. The aspects commonly considered are either head on or from the rear. These are the two easiest to provide in actual field experiments. The experimentally found blip-scan ratio curve is subject to many limitations, but it attempts to evaluate the performance of an actual radar equipment under somewhat controlled and realistic conditions.
Examples of theoretical blip-scan curves are shown in Fig. 2.30. These were computed from Fig. 2.22, assuming that the radar integrates 10 hits and that the falsealarm number nf = 10 8 The three curves represent a nonfluctuating cross section (case 5), a cross-section fluctuation described by Rayleigh statistics, correlated scan to scan (case 1), and a Rayleigh cross-section fluctuation with pulse-to-pulse correlation (case 2). The abscissa is plotted in terms of R the range at which the detection
.
probability for a nonfluctuating cross section is 0.50. The plot of blip-scan ratio as a function of range should not be confused with the cumulative detection probability as a function of range. The latter is defined as the cumulative probability of detecting a particular target by the time it reaches a particular range. It may be computed from the blip-scan data and the scan rate.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
November,
4.
5.
Ridenour, L. N.: "Radar System Engineering," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 1, p 592 McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947. Wiener, N.: "Extrapolation, Interpolation, and Smoothing of Stationary Time Series, with Engineering Applications," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1949. Van Vleck, J. H., and D. Middleton: A Theoretical Comparison of the Visual, Aural, and Meter Reception of Pulsed Signals in the Presence of Noise, /. Appl. Phvs .vol 17 dd 940-971 rr J FK
'
1946.
:
'
'
'
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Trans., vol. IT-6, pp. 145-267, April, 1960. 11. Hollis, R.: False Alarm Time in Pulse Radar, Proc. IRE, vol. 42, p. 1189, July, 1954. 12. Harrington, J. V., and T. F. Rogers: Signal-to-noise Improvement through' Integration in a Storage Tube, Proc. IRE, vol. 38, pp. 1197-1203, October, 1950. 13. Mentzer, J. R.: "Scattering and Diffraction of Radio Waves," Pergamon Press, New York, 1955 14. King, R. W. P., and T. T. Wu: "The Scattering and Diffraction of Waves," Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1959.
15. Weil, H.,
IRE
R. Methods of Solving Noise Problems, Proc. IRE, vol. 44, pp. 609-638, May, 1956. Davenport, W. B., and W. L. Root: "Introduction to Random Signals and Noise," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1958. Bendat, J. S.: "Principles and Applications of Random Noise Theory," John Wiley & Sons Inc J New York, 1958. Helstrom, C. W.: "Statistical Theory of Signal Detection," Pergamon Press, New York, 1960 Parzen, E.: "Modern Probability Theory and Its Applications," John Wiley & Sons, Inc New York, 1960. Rice, S. O. Mathematical Analysis of Random Noise, Bell System Tech J vol 23 pp 282-332 1944, and vol. 24, pp. 46-156, 1945. Marcum, J. I. A Statistical Theory of Target Detection by Pulsed Radar, Mathematical Appendix
Bennett,
: ' :
W.
16.
M. L. Barasch, and T. A. Kaplan: Scattering of Electomagnetic Waves by Spheres Michigan Eng. Research Inst. Rept. 2255-20-T, July, 1956. Siegel, K. M., F. V. Schultz, B. H. Gere, and F. B. Sleator: The Theoretical and Numerical Determination of the Radar Cross Section of a Prolate Spheroid, IRE Trans vol AP-4 nn
Univ.
266-275, July, 1956.

17.
"
VV
'
18.
Mathur, P. N., and E. A. Mueller: Radar Back-scattering Cross Sections for Nonspherical IRE Trans., vol. AP-4, pp. 51-53, January, 1956. Scharfman, H.: Scattering from Dielectric Coated Spheres in the Region of the First Resonance
Targets,
J.
:
Appl. Phys., vol. 25, pp. 1352-1356, November, 1954. Andreasen, M. G. Back-scattering Cross Section of a Thin, Dielectric, Spherical Shell, IRE Trans vol. AP-5, pp. 267-270, July, 1957. 20. King, D. D.: The Measurement and Interpretation of Antenna Scattering, Proc IRE vol 37 pp. 770-777, July, 1949.
19.
'
The Radar Equation

21. Siegel,
71
B,
K. M.: Far Field Scattering from Bodies of Revolution, Appl.

293-328, 1958.
Sci. Research, sec.
vol. 7, pp.
and D. Angelakqs: Back-scatter from a Right-circular Cone, Univ. Calif. {Berkeley) Electronics Research Lab. Repjt. 70, Office of Naval Research Contract N7onr-29529, July 26, 1957. 23. Peters, L., Jr.: End-fire Echo Area of Long, Thin Bodies, IRE Trans., vol. AP-6, pp. 133-139, January, 1958. / 24. Crispin, J. W., Jr., R. F. Goodrich, and K. M. Siegel: Theoretical Method for the Calculation
22. Shosfak, A.,
of the Radar Cross Sections! of Aircraft and Missiles, Univ. Mich. Radiation Lab. Rept. 2591-1-H on Contract AF 19(604)-1949, July, 1959.
25.
26. 27. 28. 29.

30.
Ridenour, L. N. "Radar Syjstem Engineering," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 1, fig. 3.8, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947. Graves, C. D. Radar Polarization Power Scattering Matrix, Proc. IRE, vol. 44, pp. 248-252, February, 1956. Pircher, G. Influence of the Polarization of the Radiated Waves on Radar Detection, Compt. rend., vol. 239, pp. 156-1511 Sept. 27, 1954. Copeland, J. R.: Radar Target Classification by Polarization Properties, Proc. IRE, vol. 48, pp. 1290-1296, July, 1960. / Hiatt, R. E., T. B. A. Senior, and V. H. Weston Study of Surface Roughness and Its Effect on the Back Scattering Cross Section of Spheres, Proc. IRE, vol. 48, pp. 2008-2016, December, 1960. Hiatt, R. E., K. M. Siegel, and H. Weil: The Ineffectiveness of Absorbing Coatings on Conducting Objects Illuminated by Long Wavelength Radar, Proc. IRE, vol. 48, pp. 1635-1642, September,
: :
j
1960.
R. E., K. M. Siegel, and H. Weil: Forward Scattering by Coated Objects Illuminated by Short Wavelength Radar, Proc. IRE, vol. 48, pp. 1630-1635, September, 1960. 32. Schultz, F. V., R. C. Burgener, and S. King: Measurement of the Radar Cross Section of a Man, Proc. IRE, vol. 46, pp. 476-481, February, 1958. 33. Hay, D. R.: The Interpretation of the Radar Cross Section of an Aircraft Model, Symposium on Microwave Optics, vol. 1, McGill University, Montreal, June 22-25, 1953. 34. Swerling, P. Probability of Detection for Fluctuating Targets, IRE Trans., vol. IT-6, pp. 269-308,
31. Hiatt,
:
April, 1960.
35. Schwartz,
M.
:
Effects of Signal Fluctuation
on the Detection of Pulse Signals in Noise, IRE Trans.,

of Noise,
vol. IT-2, pp. 66-71, June, 1956. 36. Swerling, P. Detection of Fluctuating Pulsed Signals in the Presence
IRE
Trans., vol.
1T-3, pp. 175-178, September, 1957. 37. Sponsler, G. C. First-order Markov Process Representation of Binary IRE Trans., vol. IT-3, pp. 56-64, March, 1957.
:
Radar Data Sequences,
38. Feller,
39.
40. 41.
W.: "An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications, 2d ed.," vol. 1, John Sons, Inc., New York, 1957. Cohn, G. I., L. P. Elbinger, and R. M. Leger: Elimination of Ambiguities from High Pulse Repetition Rate Radars, Proc. Natl. Electronics Conf., vol. 12, pp. 271-281, 1956. Cohn, G. I., L. P. Elbinger, and R. M. Leger: Suppression of False Range Indications in High Repetition Rate Radars, Proc. Natl. Electronics Conf., vol. 13, pp. 744-760, 1957. Potter, N. S. Range Ambiguity Resolution in High PRF Radar, IRE Intern. Conv. Record, vol. 8,
Wiley
&
pp. 65-80, 1960. 42. Skillman, W. A., and D. H. Mooney Multiple High-PRF Ranging, Conf. Proc. 4th Natl. Military Electronics Conv. (IRE), pp. 37-40, June 27-29, 1960. 43. Davenport, W. B., Jr.: Signal-to-noise Ratios in Band-pass Limiters, /. Appl. Phys., vol. 24, pp. 720-727, June, 1953. 44. Manasse, R., R. Price, and R. M. Lerner: Loss of Signal Detectability in Band-pass Limiters, IRE Trans., vol. IT-4, pp. 34-38, March, 1958. 45. Varela, A. A.: The Operator Factor Concept, Its History and Present Status, Symposium on Radar Detection Theory, Symposium Rept. ACR-10, Mar. 1-2, 1956, AST1A Document 1 17533. (Quoted with permission of the author.) 46. Marcum, J. I.: Statistical Theory of Target Detection by Pulsed Radar, IRE Trans., vo'. IT-6, pp. 82-83, April, 1960. 47. Bussgang, J. J., P. Nesbeda, and H. Safran: Unified Analysis of Range Performance of CW, Pulse, and Pulse Doppler Radar, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, pp. 1753-1762, October, 1959; corrections in Proc. IRE, vol. 48, p. 931, May, 1960, and vol. 48, p. 1755, October, 1960. 48. Meltzer, S. A., and S. Thaler: Detection Range Predictions for Pulse Doppler Radar, IRE Intern. Conv. Record, vol. 8, pt. 4, pp. 105-113, 1960. 49. Polk, C: Optical Fresnel-zone Gain of a Rectangular Aperture, IRE Trans., vol. AP-4, pp. 65-69,
pt. 8,
:
ONR
January, 1956.
50.
Hu, Ming-Kuei: Fresnel Region Field Distributions of Circular Aperture Antennas, IRE vol. AP-8, pp. 344-346, May, 1960.
Trans.,
CW AND
FREQUENCY-MODULATED RADAR
3.1.
The Doppler
Effect
trans-
A radar detects the presence of objects and locates their position in space by mitting electromagnetic energy and observing the returned echo. A pulse
radar
transmits a relatively short burst of electromagnetic energy, after which the receiver is turned on to listen for the echo. The echo not only indicates that a target is present, but the time that elapses between the transmission of the pulse and the receipt of the echo Separation of the echo signal and the is a measure of the distance to the target.
transmitted signal is made on the basis of differences in time. The radar transmitter may be operated continuously rather than pulsed if the strong transmitted signal can be separated from the weak echo. The received-echo-signal -18 power is considerably smaller than the transmitter power; it might be as little as 10 Separate antennas for transthat of the transmitted power sometimes even less. mission and reception help segregate the weak echo from the strong leakage signal, but
the isolation
is
A feasible technique for

when
there
is
usually not sufficient. separating the received signal from the transmitted signal relative motion between radar and target is based on recognizing the
change in the echo-signal frequency caused by the doppler effect. Extremely large isolations between antennas are not necessary when the doppler shift in frequency is
used for detection since the presence of a portion of the transmitted signal in the receiver In most instances it is a necessity and is required for is not, in principle, harmful. frequency. detecting the shift in the echo It is well known in the fields of optics and acoustics that if either the source of oscillation or the observer of the oscillation is in motion, an apparent shift in frequency will If R is the distance from radar. This i s the doppler effect and is the basis of C result. in the two-way path contained wavelengths A of number total the target, the radar to between the radar and the target is 2R/L The distance R and the wavelength X are assumed to be measured in the same units. Since one wavelength corresponds to an made by the electroangular excursion of 2tt radians, the total angular excursion
<j>
magnetic wave during its transit to and from the target is AnRfX radians. If the target A change in with respect to are continually changing. is in motion, R and the phase frequency m d given by doppler angular the This is frequency. time is equal to a
<f> <f>
,
eo d
2/d
where f d
vr
= doppler frequency shift = relative (or radial) velocity of target with respect to radar
shift is
=-= T - =
dj>
4ndR
4nvr
..
(3.1)
The doppler frequency
fd
where yj,
c
= 2 = 2-Î
J!ir
(3.2a)
= transmitted frequency = velocity of propagation = 3
10 8 m/sec
72
Sec. 3.2]
If/,
is
CW
f /a
and Frequency-modulated Radar

in centimeters,
73
in cycles per second, v r in knots,
and X
J
3.1.
103y '
n M
, (3.2b)
A plot of this equation is shown in Fig.
The relative velocity may be written vr = v cos d, where v is the target speed and 6 is the angle made by the target trajectory and the line joining radar and target. When = 0, the doppler frequency is maximum. The doppler is zero when the trajectory is
perpendicular to the radar line of sight (0
10,000
I '
=
I |
90).
I I
!/
T/l
>'1
II
I)
/\
y\
i4-
~
-
1,000
-
100
/
-
///// //// / / 7/// / / / y$/ / / / // // // /V/ / / y / / / // / V / / / /// /yJ'

JV
/,s
)/
1 1
/
/
/
~~-
10 10
s\
\X\
l/l
\A\
ill
Mill
10,000
ii
100
1,000
100,000
target relative velocity.
Radar frequency, Mc
Fig. 3.1. Doppler frequency [Eq.
(3.2ft)]
as a function of radar frequency
and
The type of radar which employs a continuous transmission, either modulated or unmodulated, has had wide application. Historically, the early radar experimenters worked almost exclusively with continuous rather than pulsed transmissions (Sec. 1.5). Two of the more important early applications of the radar principle were the proximity (VT) fuze and the FM-CW altimeter. The proximity fuze was first employed in artillery projectiles during World War II and greatly enhanced the effectiveness of both field and antiaircraft artillery. The first practical model of the FM-CW altimeter was developed by the Western Electric Company in 1938, although the principle of altitude determination using radio-wave reflections was known ten years
CW CW
earlier, in 1928. 1
of interest not only because of its many applications, but its study for better understanding the nature and use of the doppler information contained in the echo signal, whether in a or a pulse radar (MTI) application. In addition to allowing the received signal to be separated from the transmitted signal, the radar provides a measurement of relative velocity which may be used to distinguish moving targets from stationary objects or clutter.
is
The
CW radar
also serves as a
means
CW
CW
3.2.
CW
Radar
Consider the simple
CW radar as illustrated by the block diagram of Fig. 3.2a.

f
,
The
is
transmitter generates a continuous (unmodulated) oscillation of frequency
which
74

scattered,
[Sec.
3.2
radiated by the antenna.
A portion of the radiated energy is intercepted by the target

it
and
is
some of
in the direction of the radar,

is
receiving antenna.
If the target
received signal will be shifted in
where it is collected by the motion with a velocity vr relative to the radar, the frequency from the transmitted frequency/, by an
in
amount
fd as given by Eq. (3.2).
applies if the distance between target
The plus sign associated with the doppler frequency and radar is decreasing (closing target), that is,
when the received signal frequency is greater than the (transmitted signal frequency. The minus sign applies if the distance is increasing (receding target). The received echo
signal at a frequency/,
fd enters the radar via the antenna and is heterodyned in the
detector (mixer) with a portion of the transmitter signal f to produce a doppler beat note of frequency/;. The sign of/7 is lost in this process.
The purpose of the doppler amplifier is to eliminate echoes from stationary targets and to amplify the doppler echo signal to a level where it can operate an indicating device. It might have a frequency-response characteristic similar to that of Fig. 3.2b.
AAAAAAA
ff*
CW
transmitter
fo
Detector (mixer)
Beat -frequency
amplifier
Indicator
Frequency
Fig. 3.2.
amplifier.
(a)
Simple
CW
radar block diagram;
(b)
response characteristic of beat-frequency
The low-frequency
cutoff
must be high enough
to reject the d-c
component caused by
stationary targets, but yet it must be low enough to pass the smallest doppler frequency expected. Sometimes both conditions cannot be met simultaneously and a com-
promise is necessary. The upper cutoff frequency is selected to pass the highest doppler frequency expected. The indicator might be a pair of earphones or a frequency meter. If exact knowledge of the doppler frequency is not necessary, earphones are especially attractive provided the doppler frequencies lie within the audio-frequency response of the ear. Earphones are not only simple devices, but the ear acts as a selective bandpass filter with a passband of the order of 50 cps centered about the signal frequency. 2 The narrow-bandpass characteristic of the ear results in an effective increase in the signal-to-noise ratio of the echo signal. With subsonic aircraft targets and transmitter frequencies in the middle range of the microwave frequency region, the doppler frequencies usually fall within the passband of the ear. For example, the maximum doppler frequency produced by an aircraft with a speed of 600 knots is 6,180 cps when A 10 cm. If audio detection were desired for those combinations of target velocity and transmitter frequency which do not result in audible doppler frequencies, the doppler signal could be heterodyned to
Sec. 3.2]
the audible range.
CW CW
A
75
also be detected and measured by conventional frequency meters, usually one that counts cycles. An example of the radar principle is the radio proximity (VT) fuze, used with great success during World War II for the fuzing of artillery projectiles. It may seem strange that the radio proximity fuze should be classified as a radar, but it fulfills the same basic function of a radar, which is the detection and location of reflecting objects by "radio" means. 34 comparison of the radio-proximity-fuze block diagram (Fig. radar block diagram (Fig. 3.2) further illustrates the similarity 3.3) with the between the two. single tube operating as an oscillating detector acts as both the
The doppler frequency can
CW
transmitter and the receiver in the radio proximity fuze. The echo signal is detected in the plate circuit of the oscillating detector. As with the simple radar, the fuze doppler amplifier has a frequency-response characteristic corresponding to the expected
CW
range of doppler frequencies. When the output from the doppler amplifier is of sufficient magnitude, the firing circuit, usually a thyratron, is triggered to initiate the detonation process. Isolation between Transmitter and Receiver. single antenna serves the purpose of transmission and reception in both the proximity fuze and the simple radar described above. In principle, a single antenna may be employed since the necessary isolation between the transmitted and the received signals is achieved via separation in frequency as a result of the doppler effect. In practice, it is not possible to eliminate
CW
Antenna
7
Oscillating
detector
Amplifier
fd
Firing circuit
Detonator
f>ft
Fig. 3.3.
VT
fuze block diagram.
undesirable.
completely the transmitter leakage. However, transmitter leakage is not always moderate amount of leakage entering the receiver along with the echo signal supplies the reference necessary for the detection of the doppler frequency shift. If a leakage signal of sufficient magnitude were not present, a sample of the transmitted signal would have to be deliberately introduced into the receiver to provide the necessary
reference frequency.
There are two practical effects which limit the amount of transmitter leakage power which can be tolerated at the receiver. These are (1) the maximum amount of power the receiver input circuitry can withstand before it is physically damaged or its sensitivity reduced (burnout) and (2) the amount of transmitter noise due to hum, microphonics stray pickup, and instability which enters the receiver from the transmitter. The additional noise introduced by the transmitter reduces the receiver sensitivity. Except where the radar operates with relatively low transmitter power and insensitive receivers, as in the proximity fuze, additional isolation is usually required between the transmitter and the receiver if the sensitivity is not to be degraded either by burnout or by excessive noise. The amount of isolation required depends on the transmitter power and the accompanying transmitter noise as well as the ruggedness and the sensitivity of the receiver. For example, if the safe value of power which might be applied to a receiver were 10 mw and if the transmitter power were 1 kw, the isolation between transmitter and receiver must be 50 db. The amount of isolation needed in a long-range radar is more often determined by the noise that accompanies the transmitter leakage signal rather than by any damage caused by high power. For example, suppose the isolation between the transmitter and
CW
CW
76
[Sec. 3.2
mw of leakage signal appeared at the receiver. If the minimum detectable signal were 10 -13 watt (100 db below mw), the transmitter noise must
receiver were such that 10
1
be at
that
least
10
db
(preferably 130 or 140 db) below the transmitted carrier.
The
lie
transmitter noise of concern in doppler radar includes those noise components within the same frequency range as the doppler frequencies. The greater the
desired radar range, the more stringent will.be the need for reducing the noise modulation accompanying the transmitter signal. If complete elimination of the direct leakage
signal at the receiver could be achieved,
since echoes
it
from nearby
fixed targets
might not entirely solve the isolation problem can also contain the noise components of the
transmitted signal. 5
It will be recalled (Sec. 1 .3) that the receiver of a pulsed radar is isolated and protected from the damaging effects of the transmitted pulse by a fast-acting switch called the TR, which short-circuits the receiver input during the transmission period. Turning
radar is not possible in a operated continuously. Isolation between transmitter and receiver might be obtained with a single antenna by using a hybrid junction, circulator, or turnstile junction or with separate polarizations. Separate antennas for transmitting and receiving might also be used. The amount of isolation which can be readily achieved between the arms of practical hybrid junctions such as the magic-T, ratIn some instances, when race, or short-slot coupler is of the order of 20 to 30 db. extreme precision is exercised, an isolation of perhaps 60 db or more might be achieved. One limitation of the hybrid junction is the 6-db loss in over-all performance which results from the inherent waste of half the transmitted power and half the received signal power. Both the loss in performance and the difficulty in obtaining large isolations have limited the application of the hybrid junction to short-range radars. Ferrite isolation devices such as the circulator do not suffer the 6-db loss inherent in Practical devices have isolation of the order of 20 to 50 db. the hybrid junction. Turnstile junctions 6 achieve isolations as high as 40 to 60 db. The use of orthogonal polarizations for transmitting and receiving is limited to short-range radars because of the relatively small amount of isolation that can be
off the receiver during transmission with a TR-like device
CW
since the transmitter
is
obtained. 7
is
An important factor which limits the use of isolation devices with a common antenna the reflections produced in the transmission line by the antenna. The antenna can never be perfectly matched to free space, and there will always be some transmitted The reflection coefficient from a missignal reflected back toward the receiver.
matched antenna with a voltage-standing-wave ratio a is \p\ = (a 1)/(ct + 1). Therefore, if an isolation of 20 db is to be obtained, the VSWR must be less than 1.22. If 40 db of isolation is required, the VSWR must be less than 1 .02. The largest isolations are obtained with two antennas one for transmission, the other for reception physically separated from one another. Isolations of the order of 80 db or more are possible with high-gain antennas. The more directive the antenna beam and the greater the spacing between antennas, the greater will be the isolation. When the antenna designer is restricted by the nature of the application, large isolations may not be possible. For example, typical isolations between transmitting and receiving antennas on missiles might be about 50 db at Xband, 70 db at K band, and as low as 20 db at L band. 8 Further isolation may be obtained by introducing a controlled sample of the transThe phase and amplitude of this signal are mitter signal directly into the receiver.
adjusted to cancel the transmitter signal that leaks into the receiver via the receiving antenna. An additional 10 db of isolation or more may be obtained. 9 Another method of increasing isolation between separated antennas is with electromagnetic absorbing material or metallic baffles placed between the antennas. 10
Sec. 3.2]
CW
77
Although the use of two antennas can provide a high degree of isolation, a loss of a consequence. If the area of each of the two antennas is A, the total antenna area is 2A. If a single antenna of area 2A were used for both transmission and reception, the radar equation (2.1) shows that the single antenna will be capable of 6 db greater performance (received signal four times greater) than two separate antennas of equal total area. In addition to the loss of effective area, the use of two separate antennas usually results in a somewhat more difficult mechanical mounting and scanning problem than does the single antenna. Nevertheless, these shortcomings may be overlooked in many applications, especially if large isolations are necessary and can be obtained in no other way.
effective aperture is
The receiver of the simple CW radar of Fig. 3.2 some respects analogous to a superheterodyne receiver. Receivers of this type are called homodyne receivers, or superheterodyne receivers with zero IF. 11 The function
Intermediate-frequency Receiver.
is
in
Transmitting
^ y
CW
c
h
'
'o
Oscillator
Mixer
ht
'o
'
+ 'if,
>
o-W
Sideband
filter
Receiving
fo+f f
i f
antenna
^ >
'o
Receiver mi <er
IF
amplifier
f,
2d
detector
ft
Doppler
amplifier
Indicator
f*'*
Fig. 3.4. Block diagram of superheterodyne.
CW doppler radar with nonzero IF receiver, sometimes called sideband
of the local oscillator is replaced by the leakage signal from the transmitter. Such a receiver is simpler than one with a more conventional intermediate frequency since no IF amplifier or local oscillator is required. However, the simpler receiver is not as sensitive because of increased noise at the lower intermediate frequencies caused by flicker effect. Flicker-effect noise occurs in semiconductor devices such as crystal detectors and cathodes of vacuum tubes. The noise power produced by the flicker effect varies as l// a where a is approximately unity. This is in contrast to shot noise or thermal noise, which is independent of frequency. Thus, at the lower range of frequencies (audio or video region), where the doppler frequencies usually are found, the detector of the receiver can introduce a considerable amount of flicker noise, resulting in reduced receiver sensitivity. For short-range, low-power applications this decrease in sensitivity might be tolerated since it can be compensated by a modest increase in antenna aperture and/or additional transmitter power. But for maximum efficiency with radar, the reduction in sensitivity caused by the simple doppler receiver with zero IF cannot be tolerated. The effects of flicker noise are overcome in the normal superheterodyne receiver by using an intermediate frequency high enough to render the flicker noise small compared with the normal receiver noise. This results from the inverse frequency dependence of flicker noise. Figure 3.4 shows a block diagram of the radar whose receiver operates with a nonzero IF. Separate antennas are shown for transmission and
,
CW
CW
CW
78
[Sec. 3.2
Instead of the usual local oscillator found in the conventional superheterodyne receiver, the local oscillator (or reference signal) is derived in this receiver from a portion of the transmitted signal mixed with a locally generated signal of frequency equal to that of the receiver IF. Since the output of the mixer consists of two sidebands on either side of the carrier plus higher harmonics, a narrowband filter selects one of the sidebands as the reference signal. This type of receiver is sometimes called a sideband superheterodyne. In principle, the reference signal could have been generated with a separate local oscillator, as in the conventional superheterodyne receiver, if some pains were taken to keep the oscillator frequency and the transmitter frequency stable. Only the IF frequency oscillator need be kept stable in the configuration shown in Fig. 3.4. Since it operates at a lower frequency than would a local oscillator, the IF oscillator is easier to stabilize than either
reception.
the transmitter or a separate local oscillator. If the transmitter of the system in Fig. 3.4 drifts slowly in frequency, the reference frequency is affected by the
CW
same drift and the difference frequency (IF) remains unchanged, provided the IF oscillator is stable. The improvement in receiver sensitivity with an intermediate-frequency superheterodyne might be as much Frequency as 30 db over the simple receiver of Fig. 3.2. (a) Receiver Bandwidth. One of the requirements of the doppler-frequency amplifier in the simple radar vs (Fig. 3.2) or the IF amplifier of the sideband superheterodyne (Fig. 3.4) is that it be wide enough to pass the expected range of doppler frequencies. In most cases of practical interest the expected range of doppler frequencies will be much wider than the frequency spectrum occupied by the signal energy. Consef quently, the use of a wideband amplifier covering the Frequency expected doppler range will result in an increase in noise (A) and a lowering of the receiver sensitivity. If the freFig. 3.5. Frequency spectrum of CW oscillation of (a) infinite quency of the doppler-shifted echo signal were known duration and (b) finite duration. beforehand, a narrowband filter one just wide enough to reduce the excess noise without eliminating a significant amount of signal energy might be used. If the waveform of the echo signal were known, as well as its carrier frequency, the matched filter could be specified as
HM'-
CW
Â k^
signal energy over a finite frequency band. These must be known if an approximation to the bandwidth required for the narrowband doppler filter is to be obtained. If the received waveform were a sine wave of infinite duration, its frequency spectrum would be a delta function (Fig. 3.5a) and the receiver bandwidth would be infinitesimal. But a sine wave of infinite duration and an infinitesimal bandwidth cannot occur in nature. The more normal situation is an echo signal which is a sine wave of finite rather than infinite duration. The frequency spectrum of a finite-duration sine wave has a shape of the form [sin 7r(/-/ )^]M/-/ ), where/ and <5 are the frequency and duration of the sine wave, respectively, and /is the frequency variable over which the spectrum is plotted (Fig. 3.56). Practical receivers can only approximate this characteristic. (Note that this is the same as the spectrum of a pulse of sine wave, the only difference being the relative value of the duration <5.) In many instances, the echo is not a pure sine wave of finite duration but is perturbed by fluctuations in cross section,
outlined in Sec. 9.2. Several factors tend to spread the
CW
Sec. 3.2]
CW
a

effects are
79
target accelerations, scanning fluctuations, etc.,

still
which tend to broaden the bandwidth

considered below.
is
further.
Some of these spectrum-broadening
Assume
deg/sec.
CW radar with an antenna beamwidth of 8B deg scanning at the rate of &

target (duration of the received signal)
The time on
is
6 B j6 s sec.
Thus
of finite duration and the bandwidth of the receiver must be of the order of on target 6J6B Although this is not an exact relation, it is a good enough approximation for purposes of the present discussion. If the antenna beamwidth were 2 and if the scanning rate were 36/sec (6 rpm), the spread in the spectrum of the received signal due to the finite time on target would be equal to 18 cps, independent of the transmitted frequency. It has sometimes been stated that the width of the frequency spectrum due to the finite time on target corresponds to the doppler frequency that would be produced by 9 Although this may be approxithe velocity of the periphery of the rotating antenna. mately true for a mechanically scanning antenna, it appears to be a fortuitous result with no physical significance. The following is a qualitative argument to justify such a
the signal the reciprocal of the time
.
conclusion.
The beamwidth of a kljD, where antenna such as a paraboloid of diameter D is given by 6B X is the wavelength. The constant k depends upon the manner in which the reflector is For practical reflector antennas, k might vary from 60 to 80, with 65 a illuminated. The peripheral velocity of the antenna typical value, when B is measured in degrees. feet per second, 6 S in degrees per second, and D in X where v is in is v 57.2), Dl(2 s v v From the above relationships the approximate width of the spectrum is therefore feet.
The width of the received signal spectrum (1/5) is equal to 6jdB
.
reflector- type
6S 6B
(0.88)2t>.fl
approximately equal to the doppler frequency shift (fd 2vJX) of an object The similarity is at a speed equal to the peripheral velocity of the antenna. claimed to be fortuitous. Perhaps the most significant reason for stating that no causal relation exists between the spread in frequency and the mechanical motion of the antenna is that the scanning beam need not be generated by mechanically moving a reflector antenna. An antenna consisting of an array of elements can be scanned by electrically controlling the phase shift in each element (Sec. 7.7). No part of the antenna is physically in motion, but the spread in spectrum nevertheless exists, just as with a mechanically rotating antenna, because of the finite time on target. A similar argument applies to a target flying through the beam of a stationary antenna. In addition to the spread of the received signal spectrum caused by the finite time on The target, the spectrum may be further widened if the target cross section fluctuates. In a particular case, it fluctuations widen the spectrum by modulating the echo signal. has been reported 9 that the aircraft cross section can change by 1 5 db for a change in If, for some reason, the target aspect were to change at target aspect of as little as J. the rate of 10/sec (perhaps a deliberate target maneuver or flight instabilities), the echo A modulation of this amount signal would be modulated at a rate as high as 15 cps. might necessitate an increased receiver bandwidth if it were large compared with the spectral bandwidth of the transmitted signal. The echo signal from a propeller-driven aircraft can also contain modulation components at a frequency proportional to the propeller rotation. 12 The spectrum produced by propeller modulation is more like that produced by a sine-wave signal and The frequency range of its harmonics rather than a broad, white-noise spectrum. propeller modulation depends upon the shaft-rotation speed and the number of It is usually in the vicinity of 50 to 60 cps for World War II aircraft propeller blades.
This
is
moving
80

This could be a potential source of difficulty in a
[Sec. 3.2
engines.
CW radar since
it
might
mask the target's doppler signal or it might cause an erroneous measurement of doppler frequency shift. In some instances, propeller modulation can be of advantage. It might permit the detection of propeller-driven aircraft passing on a tangential trajectory,
even though the doppler frequency
If the target's relative velocity is
shift is zero.
not constant with time but is changing, a further widening of the received signal spectrum can occur. The change in relative velocity Av r over a time At is equal to a r At, where ar is the acceleration of the target with respect to the radar. The change in velocity causes a change in doppler frequency Af d equal to
.
2 Ay. X
2a r At
X
A filter
of bandwidth
Afd will just accommodate this change in frequency (assuming all

.
The response time, or build-up time, of Since the time At in which the doppler a filter of bandwidth Af a is approximately 1 jAf d changes frequency by an amount Afd should not be less that the filter build-up time, the
other band-widening factors to be negligible). required receiver bandwidth
is
U=
or
If a r is in feet per
2a r At
X
2a r (llAfd )
X
(3.3 fl )
Afa
{^Y
second per second and X in centimeters, then
performs a 2g maneuver a moderate maneuver for a military fighter but a large maneuver for a commercial aircraft the receiver bandwidth must be approximately 20 cps when the transmitted wavelength is 10 cm. The composite effect of the various spectrum-widening factors is difficult to predict. If the received waveform were exactly known, it would be possible, in theory, to compute the shape of the receiver characteristic which maximizes the signal-to-noise ratio by the matched-filter theory of Sec. 9.2. However, the exact shape of the received waveform is not likely to be known, and even if it were, there is no assurance that a proper matched filter could be readily constructed. Therefore approximate methods must ordinarily be used to obtain the filter characteristic. In the event the various effects were all of equal magnitude, the receiver bandwidth could be approximated by the rms value of the individual bandwidths. If one effect were much larger than all the rest, obviously the other factors could be neglected and the receiver characteristic determined by the dominant factor. In many cases, the doppler frequency shift may not be known precisely. When the band in which the doppler frequencies are expected is known, the receiver passband may be widened to include the entire range of expected doppler frequency. Although the received echo signal will then fall somewhere within the receiver bandwidth, the increased bandwidth results in increased noise and reduced sensitivity. Furthermore, all knowledge of the exact value of doppler velocity is lost. When the doppler-shifted echo signal is known to lie somewhere within a relatively wide band of frequencies, a bank of narrowband filters spaced throughout the frequency range permits a measurement of frequency and improves the signal-to-noise ratio. These filters can be in either the RF, IF, or video portion of the receiver. The filter bank diagramed in Fig. 3.6 is at IF. The bandwidth of each individual filter is wide enough to accept the signal energy, but not so wide as to introduce more noise than need
If the target
aircraft
Sec. 3.2]
be.
CW
81
The center frequencies of the filters are staggered to cover the entire range of doppler frequencies. If the filters are spaced with their half-power points overlapped, the maximum reduction in signal-to-noise ratio of a signal which lies midway between adjacent channels compared with the signal-to-noise ratio at midband is 3 db. The more niters used to cover the band, the less will be the maximum loss experienced, but the greater the probability of false alarm. bank of narrowband filters may be used after the detector in the video of the simple
CW radar of Fig.
with a video
ability to
filter
3.2 instead of in the IF.
The improvement
is still
in signal-to-noise ratio
filter
bank is not as good
as can be obtained with
an IF
measure the magnitude of doppler frequency

Filter
preserved.
bank, but the Because of
No.
Det.
.
Mixer
Filter
No.2
No. 3
Det. -*,
IF
amplifier
Filter
Filter
No.
Det.
Filter
Na/2
Det.
(a)
f\
h h U
(b)
Frequency
Fig. 3.6. (a) Block diagram of IF doppler
filter
bank;
(b)
frequency-response characteristic of
doppler
filter
bank.
the
foldover, a frequency which lies to one side of the IF carrier appears, after detection, at same video frequency as one which lies an equal amount on the other side of the IF.
Therefore the sign of the doppler shift is lost with a video filter bank, and it cannot be directly determined whether the doppler frequency corresponds to an approaching or (The sign of the doppler may be determined in the video by other to a receding target. means, as described later.) One advantage of the foldover in the video is that only half the number of filters are required than in the IF filter bank. There are many techniques which may be used to achieve narrowband IF filters. Mechanical filters and crystal A simple video filter bank may be obtained with vibrating filters are two possibilities. measurement are accomplished by visual observation. and detection reeds in which A bank of overlapping doppler filters, whether in the IF or video, increases the complexity of the receiver. When the system requirements permit a time sharing of the doppler frequency range, the bank of doppler filters may be replaced by a single narrowband tunable filter which searches in frequency over the band of expected doppler After detecting and recognizing the signal, the frequencies until a signal is found. its search in frequency for additional signals. continue to programmed filter may be One of the techniques for accomplishing this is similar to the tracking speed gate
described in Sec. 5.7 or to the phase-locked
filter.
13
82
[Sec. 3.2
If, in any of the above techniques, moving targets are to be distinguished stationary objects, the zero-doppler-frequency component must be removed.
from
The
zero-doppler-frequency component has, in practice, a finite bandwidth due to the finite time on target, clutter fluctuations, and equipment instabilities. The clutter-rejection band of the doppler filter must be wide enough to accommodate this spread. In the multiple-filter bank, removal of those filters in the vicinity of the RF or IF carrier
used,
removes the stationary- target signals In the wideband I F where a bank of filters is not it would be necessary to center a rejection band about the IF frequency in order to remove stationary targets. The low-frequency cutoff in the
.
video
filter
characteristic of the simple
also serves to
remove the energy of
radar (Fig. 3.2b) fixed clutter concen-
CW
fo
Frequency
la)
trated in a finite spectrum about zero frequency. Sign of the Radial Velocity. In some applications of radar it is of interest to know whether the target is approaching or receding. This might be determined with
CW
separate
rier,
filters
located
is
on
either side of the intermediate
frequency.
below the carreceding; if the echo frequency is greater than the carrier, the target is approaching (Fig. 3.7). The
the target
If the echo-signal frequency lies
t!
Frequency
16)
motion may also be found from the change in amplitude of the received signal with time. However, this is not always a satisfactory method, since the echo signal does not vary rapidly with range except at short
direction of target
ranges.
A relatively long observation time is necessary to.

Furthermore, within
n
Frequency
(c)
reliably detect a significant change.
the observation interval, variations in the amplitude of the echo signal from a complex target can be considerably
greater than the change in amplitude due to the change in range.
Fig. 3.7. Spectra of received

signals,
shift,
(a)
No
relative
doppler
target
no
;
motion
target;
(b)
(c)
approaching
The direction of target motion might be determined by measuring the doppler frequency as a function of time and observing whether the frequency is increasing or decreasing. This also requires a relatively long time in which to make
observations.
receding target.
Although the doppler-frequency spectrum "folds over" in the video because of the action of the detector, it is possible to determine its sign from a technique, known as the phasing method, borrowed from single-sideband communications.
If the transmitter signal is
given by
t
E =E
the echo signal
cos
(3.4)
from a moving
r
target will be
E =
where
kx E cos
[(m
m d)t +
</>]
(3.5)
amplitude of transmitter signal a constant determined from the radar equation co angular frequency of transmitter, radians/sec <o d doppler angular frequency shift a constant phase shift, which depends upon range of initial detection (f> The sign of the doppler frequency, and therefore the direction of target motion, may be found by splitting the received signal into two channels as shown in Fig. 3.8. In channel A the signal is processed as in the simple radar of Fig. 3.2. The received
k,
= = =
CW
Sec. 3.2]
signal
CW
EA =
83
and a portion of the transmitter heterodyne
in the detector (mixer) to yield a
difference signal
k2 E cos
(w d t +
4>)
(3.6)
The other channel is similar, except for a 90 phase delay introduced signal. The output of the channel B mixer is
in the reference
EB
If the target
is
k 2 E cos [o> d t
<f>
y
+
+A
(3.7)
approaching (positive doppler), the outputs from the two channels are
EA (+)
On
fc
o cos (m d t
if
<j>)
EB(+)
k 2 E cos (m a t
<f>
(3.8a)
the other hand,
the targets are receding (negative doppler),
EA (~) =
k 2 E cos (w d t
<j>)
EB (-)
k 2 E cos
ico d t
<f>
(3.8i>)
The sign of a> d and the
direction of the target's
whether the output of channel

Transmitting
B leads or lags the output of channel A
motion may be determined according to One method of

.
antenna
>j
CW
transmitter
90"
phase
shift
'
Mixer
Receiving
Channel
A
Synchronous motor
antenna
s y
indicator
Mixer
Li
Channel
Fig. 3.8.
Measurement of doppler
direction using synchronous, two-phase motor.
determining the relative phase relationship between the two channels is to apply the outputs to a synchronous two-phase motor. 14 The direction of motor rotation is an indication of the direction of the target motion. An electronic technique for measuring the relative phase between the two signals is shown in Fig. 3.9. This has been used in a rate-of-climb meter for vertical take-off aircraft to determine the velocity of the aircraft with respect to the ground during take-off and landing. 15 To simplify the description of operation, a separate antenna is shown in Fig. 3.9 for both transmission and reception, although a single antenna can be employed if proper duplexing means are used. The received signal is divided into two channels (A and B) and fed into separate detectors. A portion of the transmitter signal is fed directly into the detector of channel A. In channel B, the reference from the transmitter is delayed 90. Therefore a 90 phase shift is introduced between the
84
[Sec. 3.2
doppler beat notes in the two channels. The sign of the phase shift determines the direction of motion, as in the system of Fig. 3.8. To determine the sign of the 90 phase shift, the two signals are first amplified and limited. Figure 3.9* shows the limited waveforms (1 and 2). The waveform from
B is differentiated (3) and also inverted (4). The output from limiter ,4(1) and the differentiated output of B (3) are compared in the coincidence circuit labeled the upgate. If both signals 1 and 3 are positive, a pulse will be generated (5) from the upgate to indicate a receding target. In the rate-of-climb meter a receding target is one which is ascending. Approaching targets produce no output from the upgate coincilimiter
dence
circuit.
A similar comparison in a coincidence circuit, called the downgate,

Rate-of-climb meter
of
(a)
Limiter
(4) Inversion of
(2) Limiter
r
(b)
(5)
Up gate
[coincidence
of
'*)]
(3)and(1
(3) Differentiation
of
(6) Down gate [coincidence

of
(4)and(1)]
Fig. 3.9.
Measurement of doppler direction
as used for
VTO
aircraft rate-of-climb meter.
Logue, l& Electronics.)
(After J
A output (1) with the output of the inverting circuit (4) will indicate approaching, but not receding, targets. The pulses from the two coincidence circuits are counted and displayed on a zero-center-scale microammeter, which indicates direction as well as magnitude of the doppler frequency. Derivation of Doppler Frequency Shift. The effect of a moving target on the frequency and phase of the radar echo may be derived from simple considerations of the voltage waveforms, taking account of the time delays in the transit of the energy from the radar to the moving target and back. The form of the transmitted signal is taken to be
limiter
sin
(cv
<f>o)
(3.9)
where
an arbitrary phase shift. The amplitude of the transmitted signal waveform, as well as all other waveforms considered here, is assumed to be unity, since it is the argument of the sine factor and not the amplitude which is of importance in deriving the doppler frequency shift. Assume, initially, that the target is stationary at a distance R from the radar. The time taken in traveling from the radar to the target is R /c, where c
<f>
is
is
the velocity of propagation.
The
signal received at the stationary target
is
the
same
Sec. 3.2]
as that which was transmitted at the target is
sin
CW
_ <j +
is is

jc in the past.
85
by the radar a time R
Therefore the signal
Wo ^
fa
the
S i n (a, ot
^S +
(3.10)
The echo
earlier
signal
back at the radar
same
as the signal at the target a time
RJc
than Eq. (3.10) and
sin
(*
-2 -^- +
A,)
(3.11)
If the target is in
but will vary with time.
motion with respect to the radar, the distance will not be constant, The signal at the moving target may be written
R(t)
sin \cd
4>o)
(3.12)
where the distance R(t) is a function of time. If the velocity of the target with respect to the radar is v r and if the acceleration may be taken to be zero, the distance to the target
,
R(t)
=R T
v r (t
-g =
.
(3-13)
R is the distance between radar and target at the time t t The minus sign associated with v r applies for a target approaching the radar, while the plus sign applies Substituting Eq. (3.13) into Eq. (3.12) gives the signal from the to a receding target.
where
radar at a moving target as
sin \co
t-^^(t
c
Q +
<f>o\
sin
(l^)f-^ (R Vo) +
<o
(3.14)
The echo
signal that signal
signal received back at the radar at any instant of time is the same as the was at the target a time R{t)jc earlier. Consequently, the received echo from a moving target may be written
sin
co d
2R(tj
c
<t>o\
sin
*('*?)'
4>0
(3.15)
Since
2a> v r /c, the received
echo signal becomes

<d)t
sin
(ft>o
~ -^2-2 T m a +
t
<
(3.16)
Thus the moving-target echo is shifted in frequency by the amount co d and in phase by ^co d t as compared with the signal that would have been received from a stationary
target [Eq. (3.11)].
Radar. When used for the detection of targets at Advantages and Limitations of radar is characterized by simpler equipment than a short and moderate ranges, the pulse radar of equivalent detection (range) capability. The difference between and pulse-radar techniques may be likened to the difference between radio and TV radar, however, is not capable of determining range, as is techniques. 9 The simple radar is usually measured the conventional pulse radar. The receiver bandwidth of
CW CW
CW
CW
CW
in terms of kilocycles or less, whereas the typical pulse-radar receiver bandwidth is measured in terms of megacycles. The high-voltage modulator needed to pulse a power
tube
cycle
is is
not found in a
unity.
CW radar.
Peak power
is less
in the
CW radar since the duty

is
Electrical
breakdown
as a result of high
peak power
usually not a
86
[Sec. 3.3
equipment design as it might be with pulse radar. The average transmitter is of comparable magnitude in and pulse radars, for equivalent detection capability. transmitters are smaller in size and weight than comparable pulse transmitters. In a typical application, the transmitter can be 25 to 50 per cent as heavy as a corresponding pulse transmitter. A radar can operate, in principle, against targets down to almost zero range. The minimum range of a pulse radar depends on the extent of the pulse in space and the
factor in
power, however,
CW
CW
CW
CW
duplexer recovery time. Since the radar uses the doppler frequency shift for detection, it permits moving targets to be discriminated from stationary objects (clutter). A pulse radar also may be made to discriminate between moving targets and stationary objects by use of the doppler effect. Such a radar, called MTI radar, is more complicated than the simple pulse radar. Both the radar and the pulse MTI radar are blind to targets with zero or small relative velocities, even though the magnitude of the vector velocity might be large. Small or zero relative velocities occur for targets whose paths are perpendicular to the radar beam, that is, tangent or crossing trajectories. The simple radar is usually a single-target device. Its ability to handle multiple targets can be increased by providing resolution in the doppler-frequency domain as with a bank of narrowband doppler filters. The number of targets that the radar can resolve at any one time is equal to the number of doppler filters. There is a practical limit to the amount of power that can usefully be employed with a radar. The power limitation is different from that in the pulse radar, since in a radar the maximum power is dependent upon the amount of isolation and the transmitter noise. The transmitter noise that finds its way into the receiver degrades the receiver sensitivity. The pulse radar has no similar limitation to its maximum range because the transmitter is not operative when the receiver is turned on. Perhaps one of the greatest shortcomings of the simple radar is its inability to obtain a measurement of range. This limitation can be overcome by increasing the bandwidth of the transmitted signal as with frequency modulation or by transmitting two or more frequencies simultaneously. In spite of its limitations, radar has found wide application, especially where the measurement of velocity is important. Its use in the radio proximity fuze and as a rate-of-climb meter for VTO (vertical take-off) aircraft has already been mentioned. few of the other typical applications to which the radar has been applied include the detection of tornadoes, the measurement of railroad-freight-car velocity to control humping operations, 16 and as an aircraft navigation aid (Sec. 3.4). Perhaps the application of closest concern to the reader is its use as a radar speed meter extensively
CW
CW
CW
CW CW
CW
CW
CW
employed by traffic-enforcement agencies. 17-19

3.3.
Frequency-modulated
to measure range is related to the relatively narrow spectrum (bandwidth) of its transmitted waveform. Some sort of timing mark must be applied to a carrier if range is to be measured. The timing mark permits the time of transmission and the time of return to be recognized. The sharper or more distinct the timing mark, the more accurate the measurement of the transit time. But the more distinct the timing mark, the broader will be the transmitted spectrum. This follows from the properties of the Fourier transform. Therefore a finite spectrum must
inability of the simple
The
CW Radar CW radar
CW
>(
of necessity be transmitted if transit time or range is to be measured. The spectrum of a transmission can be broadened by the application of modulation, either amplitude, frequency, or phase. An example of an amplitude modulation is the pulse radar. The narrower the pulse, the more accurate the measurement of range and the broader the transmitted spectrum. A widely used technique to broaden the spectrum of radar is to frequency-modulate the carrier. The timing mark is
CW
CW
Sec. 3.3]
CW
87
The transit time is proportional to the difference in frethe changing frequency. transmitter quency between the echo signal and the transmitter signal. The greater the of the measurement the accurate more frequency deviation in a given time interval, the
transit time
and the greater will be the transmitted spectrum. Range and Doppler Measurement. In the frequency-modulated CW radar (abbreviof time in a known ated FM-CW), the transmitter frequency is changed as a function time, as shown with linearly increases frequency transmitter manner. Assume that the distance R, an echo at a object reflecting there is a If in 3.10a. line Fig. solid by the The dashed line in the figure represents the signal will return after a time T = 2R/c.
2Zi
<)
z^z:
Time
transmitted signal; Fig 3.10. Frequency-time relationships in FM-CW radar. Solid curve represents frequency modulation dashed curve represents echo, (a) Linear frequency modulation ; (6) triangular (c) beat note of (6).
echo signal is heterodyned with a portion of the transmitter signal If there will be produced. such as a crystal diode, a beat note/ element 6 in a nonlinear note (difference frequency) is a measure of the is no doppler frequency shift, the beat frequency due only to the target's range. where f target's range and/; r is the beat r frequency is If the rate of change of the carrier frequency is/ the beat
echo
signal.
If the
=/
fr=JoT=
In any practical
direction only.
2 -^fo
(3.J7)
radar, the frequency cannot be continually changed in one Periodicity in the modulation is necessary, as in the triangular-
CW
frequency-modulation waveform shown in Fig. 3.10Z>. The modulation need not The shape. necessarily be triangular; it can be sawtooth, sinusoidal, or some other triangular 3.10c for Fig. in shown is time resulting beat- frequency as a function of region. modulation. The beat note is of constant frequency except at the turn-around the beat frequency is If the frequency is modulated at a rate/m over a range A/,
Thus
the measurement of the beat frequency determines the range R.
88
[Sec. 3.3
.
A portion of the transmitter signal acts as the reference signal required to produce the
beat frequency. It is introduced directly into the receiver via a cable or other direct connection. Ideally, the isolation between transmitting and receiving antennas is made sufficiently large so as to reduce to a negligible level the transmitter leakage signal which arrives at the receiver via the coupling between antennas. The beat frequency is amplified and limited to remove any amplitude fluctuations. The frequency of the amplitude-limited beat note is usually measured with a cycle-counting frequency meter calibrated in distance.
Transmitting
A block diagram illustrating the principle of the FM-C W radar is shown in Fig. 3
1 1
antenna
J
Receiving
?!
<
FM
transmitter
<
'
Referenc e sig nal
antenna
.">
'
>
Amplifier
Limiter
>
Frequency counter
>
Indicator
Fig. 3.11. Block diagram of
FM-CW radar.
If this
In the above, the target was assumed to be stationary. applicable, a doppler frequency shift will be superimposed
assumption
is
not
on the
FM range beat note
results. The doppler frequency shift causes the frequency-time plot of the echo signal to be shifted up or down (Fig. 3.12a). On one portion of the frequency-modulation cycle, the beat frequency (Fig. 3.126) is increased by the doppler shift, while on the other portion, it is decreased. If, for example, the target is approaching the radar, the beat frequency fb (up) produced during the increasing, or up, portion of the cycle will be the difference between the beat frequency
and an erroneous range measurement
FM
Transmitted signal
Received signal
5sS>
fr+fd
J-
^
[b)
Time
Fig. 3.12. Frequency-time relationships in radar when the received signal is shifted in frequency by the doppler effect, (a) Transmitted (solid curve) and echo (dashed curve) frequencies; (J>) beat frequency.
FM-CW
due
to the range/, and the doppler frequency shift/, [Eq. (3.19a)]. Similarly, on the decreasing portion, the beat frequency/, (down) is the sum of the two [Eq. (3.196)].
/("P)=/r-/i
(3.19a)
(3.196)
(down)
=/,+/*
the average beat frequency; that is, \[fh (up) +/, (down)] =/. If/, (up) and/, (down) are measured separately, for example, by switching a frequency counter every half modulation cycle, one-half the difference between the frequencies will yield the doppler frequency. This assumes
The range frequency/ may be extracted by measuring
Sec. 3.3]
/r
CW
<
,
89
If> on tne otner hand,y^ fd such as might fashort range, the roles of the averaging and the difference-frequency measurements are reversed; the averaging meter will measure doppler velocity, and the difference meter, If it is not known that the roles of the meters are reversed because of a change in range. interpretation of the measurements the inequality sign between f r and/j, an incorrect
>
occur with a high-speed target at
may result.
When more than

will contain
one target
is
present within the view of the radar, the mixer output
more than one difference frequency. If the system is linear, there will be a corresponding to each target. In principle, the range to each component frequency target may be determined by measuring the individual frequency components and
applying Eq. (3.18) to each. To measure the individual frequencies, they must be separated from one another. This might be accomplished with a bank of narrowband filters, or alternatively, a single frequency corresponding to a single target may be singled out and continuously observed with a narrowband tunable filter./ But if the motion of the targets were to produce a doppler frequency shift, or if the frequencymodulation waveform were nonlinear, or if the mixer were not operated in its linear region, the problem of resolving targets and measuring the range of each becomes more complicated. In many cases the advantages of the multiple-target FM-CW radar do not outweigh the practical difficulties inherent in its realization, and consequently little radar in this mode of operation seems to have been made. or no application of the If the FM-CW radar is used for single targets only, such as in the radio altimeter, it advantageis not necessary to employ a linear modulation waveform. / This is certainly ous since a sinusoidal or almost sinusoidal frequency modulation is easier to obtain with The beat frequency obtained with practical equipments than are linear modulations. modulation cycle as it is with linear over the sinusoidal modulation is not constant beat frequency measured average the shown that it may be However, modulation. over a modulation cycle, when substituted into Eq. (3.18), yields the correct value of
FM
target range.
Assume the transmitted
signal to be sinusoidally
modulated with a voltage waveform
vt
= V sin
t
(2*/
^
The voltage received from the

vr
target
is
+ ^f sin 2vfJ\ Aim delayed by a time T =

*
(3.20)
2R/c and
may be written
(3.21)
=V
sin
2nUt
sin 27rfm -T)+f Aim

(t
T)
The
received signal [Eq. (3.21)] and the transmitted signal [Eq. (3.20)] are heterodyned in a mixer to give a difference-frequency signal of
vb
kVt VT sin
sin (tfm T) cos (^ Jm
2nfm (*
|)
l//m ,
+2nfT\
we may
write
(3.22)
where
A: is
a constant of proportionality.
sin Trfm
Since
T<
m T,
T a
-n-f
and
Jm
Vh
t
sin
nfm T s
-n
A/T
Therefore the voltage waveform of the difference-frequency signal becomes
= k V F [sin 2nf T +
r
it
AfT cos
(2w/m /
Ttfm T)\
(3 .23)
90

differentiating the
[Sec. 3.3
The frequency may be found by

to time.
/.
argument of Eq.
(3.23) with respect
= - f (* A/TX277/-J sin (2nfm - 7rfm T) =

t
77
AfTfm
sin
{2nfm t
- nfm T +
tt)
(3.24)
The minus sign obtained from differentiation of the cosine is equivalent to a phase shift of 77 radians. The average of the beat frequency over one-half a modulating cycle is
fb
TnT
1
n A/T/m
Sin (277/m/
~ ^ T + *)dt = n A//m Tcos irfm T
(3.25)
Since fm T<4
and cos nfm T
&
b
1,
A f = 2Affm T=;
MnM =
fr
(3.26)
Although the above example assumed the modulation waveform to be sinusoidal, it can be shown that any reasonable-shape modulation waveform can be used to measure
/ /
'
/
J\ -\ O\
\r>
^
\-33
\
/
/
ft \\
1
N
\
3\ \
"SA \a. \ ^ô
\ to
/ /
/
/ /
/ /
/ / /
Af
'
Time
Fig. 3.13.
*
waveform.
Example of a
practical frequency-modulation
(From
-
Capelli, 22
IRE
Trans.)
the range, provided the average beat frequency is measured. 20 21 If the target is in motion and the beat signal contains a component due to the doppler frequency shift, the range frequency can be extracted as before, if the average frequency is measured. To extract the doppler frequency, the modulation waveform must have equal upsweep and
downsweep time intervals. FM Radar Equipment. One of the major applications of the FM-CW radar principle has been as an altimeter on board aircraft to measure height above the earth. The large target cross section and the relatively short ranges required of altimeters permit low transmitter power and low antenna gain. Since the relative motion, and hence the doppler velocity between the aircraft and ground, is small, the effect of the doppler
frequency
shift
may
usually be neglected.
1
or 2 Gc) the triode can supply the necessary transmitter than several gigacycles, either the klystron (reflex oscillator or amplifier) or the magnetron may be used. Backward-wave oscillators might also be used. The reflex klystron offers the advantage that it can be
At
UHF frequencies (up to

However,
power.
at frequencies greater
CW
electronically frequency-modulated by changing the reflector voltage.
or they may be mechanical-modulated by vibrating an internal reed assembly which varies the capacity across the straps of the anode cavity. If the vibrating reed assembly had no mass, a driving voltage with triangular waveform could produce a frequency modulation with the desired triangular shape. However, the reed does have mass, and its inertia causes a rounding of the
may be electronically frequency-modulated,
CW magnetrons
Sec. 3.3]
CW
91
frequency modulation if a triangular driving voltage is applied. Mechanical resonances in the vibrating reed will further distort the waveform. Although proper shaping of the driving voltage minimizes the effects of mechanical resonances and inertia, some
distortions
still
occur. 21
the frequency-modulation waveform caused by mechanical inertia an oscillator which is electronically modulated. Unfortunately, most practical devices which can be readily frequency-modulated by electronic means also produce undesirable amplitude modulation as a consequence. It seems, therefore, that the achievement of a perfectly linear triangular frequency modulation is a difficult task. In practice, a rounded turnover cannot seem to be avoided. An example of a practical frequency-modulation curve is shown in Fig. 3.13; the modulation is linear approximately 60 per cent of the time. 22 The exact shape of the modulation waveform is not important so long as only a single target is within the view of the radar and if the beat frequency is averaged over a modulation cycle.
The distortions in
exist in
do not
The parameters of a
3.1.
typical
FM radar altimeter, the AN/APN-22, are given in Table

AN/APN-22 Radar Altimeter t
4,200-4,400 1.5 watts 70 Mc 120 cps
60
Table
3.1.
Characteristics of the
Frequency
Transmitter power Frequency excursion Af Modulation frequency fm
Mc
Antenna beamwidth Range Over land Over water

Accuracy: 0-40 ft 40-20,000 Transmitter
t
0-10,000 0-20,000
ft ft
2 ft
ft
5%
Mechanically modulated
CW magnetron
Wimberly and Lane. 23
are similar to those of the simple radar In its simplest form, the receiver might consist of a crystal mixer followed by a low-frequency amplifier and a frequency-measuring device. This is similar to the conventional crystal video receiver except for the presence of the reference signal necessary to extract the difference frequency and the range. The function of the reference signal can be performed by the transmitter leakage. better technique for introducing the reference signal in the receiver is by direct connection, as was shown in Fig. 3.11. The direct connection permits better control of the magnitude of the reference signal, and as a result, the crystal mixer can be made to operate more efficiently. Too little or too much reference signal lowers the sensitivity of the receiver, just as too little or too much oscillator power degrades the sensitivity of a superheterodyne receiver. The error in range due to the separation of transmitter and receiver can be more readily compensated for if the reference signal is introduced into the receiver via a known length of cable rather than an unknown length of leakage path. Another advantage of supplying the reference signal by a direct connection is that transmitter noise may be reduced with a balanced mixer (Sec. 8.8). Even though the transmitter noise may be considerably reduced in the direct reference signal, the ultimate performance will be determined by the unavoidable leakage signal and its noise components which find their way into the receiver by way of antenna coupling or by reflecThe noise which accompanies the leakage signal may be tions from nearby objects. reduced by improving the isolation between the transmitting and the receiving antennas. There is, however, a practical limit to the amount of isolation which can be achieved. typical installation of a radar altimeter with separated receiving and transmitting
The receivers employed in FM-CW radars
CW
discussed earlier in this chapter.
92
[Sec. 3.3
antennas on an aircraft might provide 65 to 70 db of isolation. 24 Further isolation may be obtained by proper adjustment of the phase and amplitude of a direct signal to cancel the leakages. In addition to a reduction in receiver sensitivity, transmitter noise can cause erroneous range information. The sideband superheterodyne receiver, although more complex than the homodyne (zero-IF) receiver, is more sensitive and stable and is preferred wherever its slightly more complex construction can be accepted. A block diagram of an FM-CW radar with a sideband superheterodyne receiver is shown in Fig. 3ll4. A portion of the frequency-modulated transmitter signal is applied to a mixer along with the oscillator signal. The selection of the local-oscillator frequency is a bit different from that in the usual superheterodyne receiver. The local-oscillator frequency IF should be the same as the intermediate frequency used in the receiver, whereas in the conventional superheterodyne the LO frequency is of the same order of magnitude as the RF signal. The
/&(/)
M
transmitter
Timing signal
1
(t)
fir
Mixer
Local
oscillator
f QU
)
<f (t >->if \
Sideband
filter
Doppler
Switched frequency counter
vejocity
foit) -fir
'
'
\ J
A
Low-frequency
ff
U-T)
Receiver
IF
flF+f*
Balanced
detector
\\
mixer
amplifier
amplifier
\
'
(f.=
fr,{
t-D-fn (t
Average
frequency counter
Range
Fig.
3.14.
Block diagram of
FM-CW
radar using sideband superheterodyne receiver.
output of the mixer consists of the varying transmitter frequency f (t) plus two sideband
frequencies,
one on
.
either side
of/ (?) and separated from/ (r) by

the lower sideband
the local-oscillator
frequency IF
The
filter selects
(t)
and the upper sideband. The sideband that is passed by the filter is modulated in the same fashion as the transmitted signal. The sideband filter must have sufficient bandwidth to pass the modulation, but not the carrier or other sideband. The filtered
sideband serves the function of the local oscillator. When an echo signal is present, the output of the receiver mixer is an IF signal of frequency IF +/, where fb is composed of the range frequency/, and the doppler velocity frequency/,. The IF signal is amplified and applied to the balanced detector along with the local-oscillator signal/IF The output of the detector contains the beat frequency (range frequency and the doppler velocity frequency), which is amplified to a level where it can actuate the frequency-measuring circuits. In Fig. 3.14, the output of the low-frequency amplifier is divided into two channels: one feeds an average-frequency counter to determine range, the other feeds a switched frequency counter to determine the doppler velocity (assuming r f fd). Only the averaging frequency counter need be used in an altimeter application, since the rate of change of altitude is usually small.
.
fw and rejects the carrier
>
Sec. 3.3]
CW
Its principle
93
receiver
Another example of the superheterodyne principle applied to the FM-CW radar This is known as the signalis shown in the block diagram of Fig. 3.15.
of operation
is
following superheterodyne. matic frequency control
quite similar to that of auto-
a conventional superheterodyne receiver. portion of the transmitter signal is applied to a mixer, along with a portion of the local-oscillator signal. The local oscillator may be a reflex klystron or some other This local oscillator is oscillator whose frequency can be controlled electronically. more like that of a conventional superheterodyne receiver than the oscillator of the the IF sideband superheterodyne of Fig. 3.14. Its frequency is the carrier frequency
in
(AFC)
The
difference frequency
from the mixer
is
equal to the IF.
The mixer output
is
amplified and applied to a frequency discriminator which generates a d-c voltage proportional to the difference between the transmitted and the local-oscillator frequencies. The discriminator voltage is used to correct the local-oscillator frequency so
is
The local-oscillator signal it in synchronism with the transmitted frequency. applied to the receiver mixer to produce the IF signal. This is amplified and detected in the balanced mixer, and its frequency measured.
as to vary
^ y
FM
transmitter
Modulator
Mixer
IF
amplifier
IF
amplifier
Local
oscillator
D-c
amplifier
Frequency
discriminator
>
s
I
!
Receiver mi er
IF
amplifier
Balanced
detector
Low-frequency a mplifi er
Frequency
counter(s)
FM-CW radar with
signal-following superheterodyne receiver.
In essence, the local oscillator is made to stay in step with the changing transmitted However, there signal in order to provide the proper reference signal at the receiver.
always be some lag in the local-oscillator frequency since there must be a difference between it and the transmitter if an error is to be discerned. This lag is not important since the two IF signals are combined in the balanced detector and are subject to the same error. In both the signal-following superheterodyne and the sideband superheterodyne, the RF bandwidth necessary for precise range measurement is discarded after its purpose has been served, thus permitting relatively narrow IF bandwidths. A target at short range will generally result in a strong signal at low frequency, while one at long range will result in a weak signal at high frequency. Therefore the frequency characteristic of the low-frequency amplifier in the FM-CW radar may be shaped to provide attenuation at the low frequencies corresponding to short ranges and Less attenuation is applied to the higher frequencies, where the echo large echo signals.
will
signals are weaker.
The echo
range, as
is
signal
from an
isolated target varies inversely as the fourth
power of the
the radar equation. With this as a criterion, the gain of the low-frequency amplifier should be made to increase at the rate of 12 db/octave. The output of the amplifier would then be independent of the range, for constant target Amplifier response shaping is similar in function to sensitivity time cross section.
well
known from
control (STC) employed in conventional pulse radar (Sec. 8.2).
However,
in the
94
[Sec. 3.3
altimeter, the echo signal from an extended target such as the ground varies inversely as the square (rather than the fourth power) of the range, since the greater the range, the
greater the echo area illuminated by the
beam
(Sec. 12.3).
For extended
targets,
therefore, the low-frequency amplifier gain should increase 6 db/octave.
com-
promise between the isolated (12-db slope) and extended (6-db slope) target echoes might be a characteristic with a. slope of 9 db/octave. The constant output produced by shaping the doppler-amplifier frequency-response characteristic is not only helpful in lowering the dynamic range requirements of the frequency-measuring device, but the attenuation of the low frequencies effects a reduction of low-frequency interfering noise. A typical frequency-response characteristic with a slope of approximately 8 db/octave is shown in Fig. 3.16. Lowered gain at low altitudes also helps to reduce interference from unwanted reflections. The response at the upper end of the frequency characteristic is rapidly reduced for frequencies beyond that corresponding to maximum range. If there is a minimum target range, the response is also cut off at the lowfrequency end, to further reduce the extraneous noise entering the receiver.
a
y%
12
18
c
30
35
42
0.1
0.2 0.3
0.5
0.8
1.0
8 10
20
30
Frequency, kc
Fig. 3.16. Frequency-response characteristic of low-frequency amplifier of typical altimeter.
Another method of processing the range or height information from an altimeter so as to reduce the noise output from the receiver and improve the sensitivity uses a narrowbandwidth low-frequency amplifier with a feedback loop to maintain the beat frequency
constant. 23
-
25
When a fixed-frequency excursion (or deviation) is used,
as in the usual
can vary over a considerable range of values. The low-frequency-amplifier bandwidth must be sufficiently wide to encompass the expected range of beat frequencies. Since the bandwidth is broader than need be to pass the signal energy, the signal-to-noise ratio is reduced and the receiver sensitivity degraded. The system shown in the block diagram of Fig. 3 1 7 overcomes this limitation. Instead of maintaining the frequency excursion A/ constant and obtaining a varying beat frequency, A/is varied to maintain the beat frequency constant. The beat-frequency amplifier need only be wide enough to pass the received signal energy, thus reducing the amount of noise with which the signal must compete. The frequency excursion is maintained by a servomechanism to that value which permits the beat frequency to fall within the passband of the narrow filter. The value of the frequency excursion is then a measure of the altitude and may be substituted into Eq. (3.18). A similar servomechanism technique may be used to maintain the aircraft at a fixed preset distance from the ground. When used in the altimeter, the technique of servo-controlling the frequency
.
altimeter, the beat frequency
FM
excursion is usually applied at all altitudes above a predetermined minimum. Since the frequency excursion A/is inversely proportional to range, the radar is better operated
Sec. 3.3]
at very
CW
altitudes in the

fixed A/,
95
low
more normal manner with a
and hence a varying
beat frequency.
The AN/APN-22 radar altimeter is operated in the conventional manner for altitudes from to 200 ft. Above 200 ft the frequency excursion is made to vary inversely with altitude so as to maintain a constant beat frequency of approximately 6,000 cps. Below 200 ft the output of the frequency counter is a measure of range. Above 200 ft
the output of the potentiometer connected to the servomotor determines the range. Another technique that could be used to narrow the bandwidth beat-frequency amplifier without the need for a servomechanism is to employ discrete rather than
continuous frequency excursions. The beat-frequency amplifier would have to be designed so that its bandwidth could be changed in discrete steps corresponding to the frequency excursion employed. The widely used cycle-counting type of frequency meter is simple, stable, and accurate. 20 21 26 The principle of operation of a frequency counter is based upon generating a fixed amount of charge for every cycle or half cycle of the unknown frequency. The total charge per second (current) is indicated on a milliammeter calibrated in range or altitude.
'
FM
transmitter
Modulator
Servomotor and
potentiometer
Servo
omplifier
Balanced
detector
Low-trequency
amplifier
Limiter
(narrowband)
Frequency counter
Height
indicator
Fig. 3.17.
FM altimeter with
servo control of transmitter frequency excursion.
Measurement Errors. The absolute accuracy of radar altimeters is usually of more Errors of 1 or 20 ft might not be of importance at low altitudes than at high altitudes significance when cruising at altitudes of 30,000 ft, but are important if the altimeter is part of a blind landing system. The theoretical accuracy with which distance can be measured depends upon the bandwidth of the transmitted signal and the ratio of signal energy to noise energy. In addition, measurement accuracy might be limited by such practical restrictions as the accuracy of the frequency-measuring device, the residual path-length error caused by the circuits and transmission lines, errors caused by multiple reflections and transmitter leakage, and the frequency error due to the turn-around of the frequency modulation. As has been mentioned, a common form of frequency-measuring device is the cycle counter, which measures the number of cycles or half cycles of the beat during the modulation period. The total cycle count is a discrete number since the counter is unable to measure fractions of a cycle. The discreteness of the frequency measurement The average number of cycles gives rise to an error called thtfixed error, or step error. of the beat frequency fb in one period of the modulation cycle/m is/Jfm where the bar Equation (3.18) may be rewritten as over/,, denotes time average.
.
cN A/
where
range (altitude), m = velocity of propagation, m/sec A/ = frequency excursion, cps
R=
c
96
[Sec. 3.3
Since the output of the frequency counter is an integer, the range will be an integral multiple of r/(4 A/) and will give rise to a quantization error equal to
6R
or
= -4
a*(ft )
^L
A/(Mc)
A/
(3.28a)
(3.286)
Note that the fixed error is independent of the range and carrier frequency and is a function of the frequency excursion only. Large frequency excursions are necessary if the fixed error is to be small.
200
The frequency excursion of the AN/APN-22 altimeter is 70 Mc for altitudes less than ft. The fixed error is 3.5 ft. If the frequency excursion were one-tenth this value
2 8/?
38/?
4 8/?
5 8/?
Range
(6)
Fig. 3.18. Variation of beat-frequency cycle count with phase, (a) 5.4 cycles of beat frequency; same as (a) but shifted in phase by -n radians; (c) variation of counts with range.
(7 Mc), the error would be 35 ft, a relatively large error at low altitudes. It will be recalled that above 200 ft the frequency excursion is made to vary inversely with
altitude in the AN/APN-22 by a servomechanism control system. Under these conditions (that is, A/ a function of altitude), the fixed error is a function of the altitude. However, the fixed error expressed as a percentage will be constant. The count measured by a frequency counter depends upon the phase of the beat frequency with respect to the time interval over which the measurement is made. In addition, the count will depend on the particular configuration of the counter, that is, whether it counts threshold crossings or zero crossings or whether it is full wave (2 counts per cycle) or half wave (1 count per cycle). The dependence on the phase of the beat frequency may be illustrated by considering a counter which counts only those zero crossings with positive slope (1 count per cycle). Assume that the beat-frequency signal is 5.4 cycles in duration over the modulation period. If the phase relative to the modulation period were like that shown in Fig. 3. 1 8a, the count of positive zero crossings would be 5, but if the phase were shifted tt radians, the count would be 6 another shift of v radians would change the count back to 5. The phase of the beat-frequency signal, according to Eq. (3.22), will change by v radians \f2nf T AttR\X changes by n radians this corresponds to a change in range of one-quarter of a wavelength. At radar frequencies, a quarter wavelength is small compared with the fixed range error
;
Sec. 3.3]
CW
97
dR caused by the discrete measurement of frequency. Therefore the fixed error will jump back and forth between N and N + 1 cycles every time the range changes by one-quarter of a wavelength. If a full- wave counter were used, the count would jump back and forth every eighth wavelength. The uncertainty in the count N is illustrated in Fig. 3.18c. The units of range are in increments of fixed error dR = c/(4 A/). Every time the phase of the echo signal changes by w radians (or njl radians for a full-wave
counter), the count increases or decreases by 1. The count also changes by 1 every time the range changes by dR. For example, if the frequency meter reads a count of 3, the range uncertainty would lie between 2SR and 4dR.
At high altitudes, the inaccuracy caused by the fixed error is usually of little or no operational importance unless A/is small. Normal fluctuations in aircraft altitude due
uneven terrain, waves on the water, or turbulent air average out the fixed error provided the time constant of the indicating device is large compared with the time between fluctuations. Over smooth terrain such as airport runways or calm water, the fixed error might not be averaged out and could prove troublesome. There are several techniques that can be used to make the fixed error small, if there is reason to do so. One technique, already mentioned, is to make the frequency excursion A/ large. Most altimeters are designed with excursions of the order of 100 Mc, resulting in a fixed error of a few feet. The effects of the fixed error also can be reduced by wobbling the modulation frequency or the phase of the transmitter output. Wobbling the transmitter phase results in a wobbling of the phase of the beat signal. An average reading between and 1 will be obtained when displayed on a normal meter movement. The AN/APN-22 employs the technique of varying the modulation frequency at a 10-cps rate, causing the phase shift of the beat signal to vary. The indicating system is designed so that it does not respond to the 10-cps modulation directly, but it averages the fixed error in a manner similar to the averaging accomplished by changes in altitude. Another method which has been employed to average the fixed error is to vary the phase of the reference signal ref by transposing to a frequency ref t , where f x is a 27 frequency small compared with the modulation frequency The phase shift /m associated with the beat signal will be 2irf T [from Eq. (3.22)] plus 2-nfy. The total phase shift therefore varies with time and permits the fixed error to be averaged. The above methods assume that the radar application permits sufficient time for the averaging to take place. In the altimeter this condition is usually satisfied. In other applications of FM-CW radar, such as a scanning search radar, the necessity of averaging over an interval of time may increase the scan rate and prove to be an unacceptable restriction. The fixed error is not present in a noncounting (continuous) frequency meter such as a frequency discriminator. The discriminator output is a voltage proportional to frequency and is continuous rather than discrete. However, discriminator circuits with sufficient stability and linearity do not seem to be capable of as wide a range of frequency operation as the frequency counter and in the past have not been popular in altimeter systems. Also, when both range and doppler information are required, the discriminator circuit is more difficult to operate as a switched frequency meter than is the counter. The restriction caused by the limited bandwidth of the frequency discriminator may be overcome by transposing the relatively low beat frequency to a higher frequency in an effort to reduce the required percentage bandwidth. The discriminator might be used in those altimeters mentioned previously where the frequency deviation is controlled by a servomechanism which maintains the beat frequency constant. A different method of employing a frequency discriminator to obtain both the range and doppler velocity is shown in Fig. 3.19. This technique not only eliminates the fixed
to
N+
+/
FM
FM
98
error,
[Sec. 3.3
but it does not confuse the range and doppler velocity of fast, nearby targets 28 (when/i r) as does the combination of average and switched frequency counters. The system as described in Ref. 28 actually employs a triple-conversion receiver rather than the single-conversion receiver shown. There is no loss in generality in considering
>f
the simpler system. Basically, the system up to the input of the limiter is quite similar to the sideband superheterodyne receiver discussed previously (Fig. 3.14). The voltage from the IF amplifier preceding the limiter is
vn,
sin [2-rrf lv (t
is
T)
2nf dt
+ nAfTcos (2nfm t
,
4>
T)
+
<f>
</>]
sin
(3.29)
IF;fd the doppler frequency; constant phase shifts introduced in the system; irf T m T, T
<j>
where/IF
the frequency of the
represents the various
2R/c; and the other
FM
transmitter
Modulator
Mixer
Local
Sideband
filter
Direct-current output proportional

to
Doppler
velocity
"
Mixer
IF
amplifier
Limiter
Frequency
discriminator
Selective amplifier at
frequency-^
Amplitude of output at -frequency f m corresponds to range
FM-CW technique for eliminating the fixed

Differentiating
error.
parameters are as denned in Eq. (3.22).

the signal leaving the IF amplifier gives
Ja If this frequency
O to
obtain the frequency of
~2ndt~ JwJd
27rA#m K sin(27r/m t-
<f>
T)
(3.30)
is applied to a frequency discriminator centered at the intermediate frequency IF , the output voltage will consist of a steady component corresponding to the doppler frequency f d and an a-c component of frequency m with amplitude prof portional to range. Therefore the doppler velocity may be measured by averaging the
discriminator output.
Range may be determined by extracting the a-c component in a narrowband filter centered about the frequency m and calibrating the output voltage f from this filter directly in range. The doppler velocity and the range must not vary
appreciably over the averaging period if accurate measurements are to be obtained. Another technique for eliminating the fixed error is known as the double-modulated radar. 20 29 In this system (Fig. 3.20) the transmitted signal is modulated at two
FM
'
and/m2 The modulating frequency fml is of low frequency and corresponds to the modulating frequency (/J in the usual system, while/m2 is a relatively high frequency (fm2 The frequency fml might be of the order of 100 cycles, ml ). while fmi might be a few kilocycles. The received signal is mixed with the reference signal, and an IF signal is extracted whose frequency is some multiple (including unity) of/m2 the doppler frequency fd Therefore, if this signal is amplified, limited, and applied to a frequency discriminator, its output will contain two components, just as in the system described in Fig. 3.19. One component is d-c, which is proportional to the doppler frequency shift (fd), and hence to target relative velocity. The other is the a-c component at a frequency ml whose amplitude is proportional to target f range. The double system eliminates the fixed error and permits a smaller frequency deviation to be used than in the usual system. However, it is more complicated
frequencies/*.!
.
FM
>/
FM
FM
Sec. 3.3]
CW
99
than the system of Fig. 3.19 and is more limited in both maximum range and minimum range than either the previous system or the usual system. Before leaving the subject of fixed error, it may be worthwhile to mention briefly the relation between transmitted bandwidth and accuracy. In Chap. 10, the factors which affect the accuracy of radar measurements are discussed, and it is mentioned that the accuracy with which range can -be measured is a function of the transmitted spectral
FM
width, the signal-to-noise ratio, and the number of independent observations. The wider the transmitted spectrum and the greater the signal-to-noise ratio, the more accurate will be the range measurement. Those systems such as described by
FM
Figs. 3.19
and 3.20 whose frequency excursions are only a fraction of that of the usual
Modulator f m1
FM
transmitter
,fm
Modulator f mZ
Bandposs
Mixer
90
phase
shift
H-
filter
Direct-current output proportional to doppler velocity
90
phase
shift
IF amplifier
Frequency
discriminator
Amplifier
Amplitude of output at
frequency f
to
and
limiter
corresponds range
Bandposs
-|
Mixer
filter
Fig. 3.20. Block diagram of double-modulated
FM radar.
FM
radar system must take more time or
make more
is
observations or obtain higher
signal-to-noise ratios if comparable accuracy
to be achieved.
radar if there are uncontrolled variations Other errors might be introduced in the modulation frequency, or frequency excursion. Target motion can cause an error in range equal to v r T where vr is the relative velocity and T is the observation time. At short ranges the residual path error can also result in a The residual path error is the error caused significant error unless compensated for. by delays in the circuitry and transmission lines. Multipath signals also produce error. Figure 3.21 shows some of the unwanted signals that might occur in the FM altimeter. 22 The wanted signal is shown by the solid line, while the unwanted signals are shown by the broken arrows. The unwanted signals include 1. The reflection of the transmitted signals at the antenna caused by impedance mismatch.
in the transmitter frequency,
,
CW
2.
The standing-wave pattern on the cable feeding the reference signal to the receiver, The leakage
signal entering the receiver via coupling
due to poor mixer match.

3.
between transmitter and
receiver antennas.
altitudes.
This can limit the ultimate receiver sensitivity, especially at high
4. The interference due to power being reflected back to the transmitter, causing a change in the impedance seen by the transmitter. This is usually important only at low altitudes. It can be reduced by an attenuator introduced in the transmission line at low altitude or by a directional coupler or an isolator. 5. The double-bounce signal. Multipath reflections (reflections from unwanted targets) can also introduce errors 30 They can be reduced with into the FM-CW radar system and must be avoided.
100
[Sec. 3.3
highly directive antennas and in ground-based radars by lowering the height of the antenna to reduce the path difference between the direct and the reflected rays. These remedies only relieve rather than eliminate completely the problem of multipath.
Transmitter Leakage. The sensitivity of FM-CW radar is limited by the noise accompanying the transmitter signal which leaks into the receiver. Although advances have been made in reducing the and FM noise generated by high-power transmitters, the noise is usually of sufficient magnitude compared with the echo signal to require some means of minimizing the leakage that finds it way into the receiver.
AM
CW
The techniques described previously for reducTransmitter
Receiver
t f
ing leakage in the radar apply equally well to the radar. Separate antennas
CW
FM-CW
and direct cancellation of the leakage signal are two techniques which give considerable
isolation.
The degree of isolation that can be obtained by cancellation of the leakage signal might vary from 10 db 9 to 60 db, 31 depending on the method employed for adjusting and maintaining the phase and amplitude of the cancellation signal to the correct values. To obtain a cancellation of as much as 60 db (residual voltage
one-thousandth the original) requires a closedloop servo system to automatically correct for changes in the leakage signal produced by antenna scanning and the like. Fig. 3.21. Unwanted signals in FM altimeter. (From Capelli, 22 IRE Trans.) The double-sideband noise components of the transmitter may be further canceled in the radar receiver with a simple cancellation network. 31 The received signal is not affected by a double-sideband cancellation network since a doppler-frequencyshifted signal is equivalent to a single-sideband modulation. The ability of the FM-CW radar to measure range provides an additional basis for obtaining isolation. Echoes from short-range targetsincluding the leakage signalmay be attenuated relative to the desired target echo from longer ranges by properly processing the difference-frequency signal obtained by heterodyning the transmitted
ind
CW
AM
and received
If the
signals.
is frequency-modulated by a sine wave, the difference frequency obtained by heterodyning the returned signal with a portion of the transmitter signal may be expanded in a trigonometric series whose terms are the harmonics of the modulating frequency fm 8 20 Assume the form of the transmitted signal to be
'
CW carrier
sin \2irf
+ ^f sin 2nfa )
2f,
(3.31)
where f
= m f =
A/=
carrier frequency
modulation frequency
frequency excursion (equal to twice the frequency deviation) may be written
The
difference frequency signal
= UD) cos (Infy - Q) + 2J {D) sin (2irfd - ) cos (2nfm - <f>J - 2J (D) cos (2nfd - fa) cos 2(27rfm - <f>J - 2J3(D) sin (27rfd - fa) cos 3(2nfm - <J + 2/4 (Z>) cos {2irfa - fa) cos 4 (2nfm - m + 2/ (>) (3.32)
4>
<f>
<t>
Se c
3.3]
, , ,
CW
etc.

and order 0,
1
,
101
where J Jx J2
Bessel functions of first kind
D=
R =
c
2, etc., respectively
(AfIf
J sin 2nfm R /c
t
distance to target at time
(distance that
would have been
<f>
<f>
The difference-frequency signal of Eq. (3.32) consists of a doppler-frequency component of amplitude J (D) and a series of cosine waves of frequency fm 2fm 3fm etc. Each of these harmonics of fm is modulated by a doppler-frequency component with amplitude proportional to J(D). The product of the doppler-frequency factor times the nth harmonic factor is equivalent to a suppressed-carrier double-sideband modula, , ,
= fa = 2v f /c = doppler frequency shift v = relative velocity of target with respect to radar = phase shift approximately equal to angular distance 4Trf R jc m = phase shift approximately equal to 2-nfm R^c
r r
measured if target were stationary) velocity of propagation
tion (Fig. 3.22).
fm
2'm
Frequency
34,
4/S
Fig. 3.22. Spectrum of the difference-frequency signal obtained from an FM-CW radar sinusoidally modulated at a frequency/ when the target motion produces a doppler frequency shift L. (After J J Saunders* IRE Trans.)
In principle, any of the / components of the difference-frequency signal can be extracted in the radar. Consider first the d-c term J (D) cos (2nf < ). dt This is a cosine wave at the doppler frequency with an amplitude proportional to J (D). Figure 3.23 shows a plot of several of the Bessel functions. The argument of the Bessel function is proportional to range. The J amplitude applies maximum response to signals at zero range in a radar that extracts the d-c doppler-frequency component.
FM-CW
This is the range at which the leakage signal and its noise components (including microphony and vibration) are found. At greater ranges, where the target is expected,
the effect of the J Bessel function is to reduce the echo-signal amplitude in comparison with the echo at zero range (in addition to the normal range attenuation). Therefore, if the J term were used, it would enhance the leakage signal and reduce the target signal, a condition opposite to that desired.
An examination of the Bessel functions (Fig. 3.23) shows that if one of the modulationfrequency harmonics is extracted (such as the first, second, or third harmonic), the amplitude of the leakage signal at zero range may theoretically be made equal to zero. The higher the number of the harmonic, the higher will be the order of the Bessel function and the less will be the amount of microphonism-leakage feed through. This results from the property that Jn (x) behaves as x n for small x. Although higher-order Bessel functions may reduce the zero-range response, they may also reduce the response at the desired target range if the target happens to fall at or near a range corresponding to a zero of the Bessel function. When only a single target is involved, the frequency excursion A/can be adjusted to obtain that value of D which places the maximum of the Bessel function at the target range.
102
[Sec. 3.3
The technique of using higher-order Bessel functions has been applied to the type of block diagram of a doppler-navigation radar discussed in the next section. radar using the third harmonic (/3 term) is shown in Fig. 3.24. The transmitter is sinusoidally frequency-modulated at a frequency fm to generate the waveform given by
CW
-J
{D)
12
-0.4
Fig. 3.23. Plot of Bessel functions of order 0,
2,
and
D=
(A///J sin 2irfm Rt,lc.
Eq. (3.31). The doppler-shifted echo is heterodyned with the transmitted signal to produce the beat-frequency signal of Eq. (3.32). One of the harmonics of/m is selected The filter bandwidth is wide (in this case the third) by a filter centered at the harmonic. enough to pass both doppler-frequency sidebands. The filter output is mixed with the The doppler frequency is extracted by the low-pass filter. (third) harmonic of/OT
.
^>
^\
Circulator
Directional
coupler
Transmitter
f m Frequency
modulation
x3
frequency
multiplier
Mixer
3d harmonic
filter
Mixer
Low-pass
filter
Doppler frequency
Fig. 3.24. Sinusoidally ponent).
modulated
FM-CW
radar extracting the third harmonic {Jz Bessel com-
Since the total energy contained in the beat-frequency signal is distributed among all the harmonics, extracting but one component wastes signal energy contained in the radar. other harmonics and results in a loss of signal as compared with an ideal to radar designed the superior in generally is signal-to-noise ratio However, the
CW
FM
radar because the operate with the nth harmonic as compared with a practical The loss in transmitter leakage noise is suppressed by the nth-order Bessel function. 839 to be from 4 is reported component with the J Bessel operating signal energy when 3
CW
Sec. 3.4]
to 10 db.
is
CW
103
Although two separate transmitting and receiving antennas may be used, it single antenna with a circulator is shown in not necessary in many applications. the block diagram of Fig. 3.24. Leakage introduced by the circulator and by reflections from the antenna are at close range and thus are attenuated by the Jz factor. The curve is mirrored plot of J3 (D) as a function of distance is shown in Fig. 3.25. because of the periodicity of D. The nulls in the curve suggest that echoes from certain ranges can be suppressed if the modulation parameters are properly selected. If the target is stationary (zero doppler frequency), the amplitudes of the modulationwhere or Jn (D) cos frequency harmonics are proportional to Jn {D) sin Att^RqIc AttRqIL Therefore the amplitude depends on the range to the target in RF wavelengths. The sine or the cosine terms can take any value between 1 and 1, including zero, for a change in range corresponding to one RF wavelength. For this reason, the extraction of the higher-order modulation frequencies is not practical with a stationary target, such as in an altimeter. In order to use the properties of the Bessel function to obtain isolation in an FM-CW
</>
<f>
<f>
Distance
Fig. 3.25. Plot of / 3 (Z>) as a function of distance.
{From Saunders* IRE Trans.)
quency
is essentially zero, the role of the doppler freintroduced by translating the reference frequency to some different value. This might be accomplished with a single-sideband generator (frequency translator) inserted between the directional coupler and the RF mixer of The frequency translation in the reference signal path is equivalent to a Fig. 3.24. doppler shift in the antenna path. The frequency excursion of the modulation waveform can be adjusted by a servomechanism to maintain the maximum of the Bessel function at the aircraft's altitude. The frequency translator is not needed in an airborne doppler navigator since the antenna beam is directed at a depression angle other than 90 and a doppler-shifted echo is produced by the motion of the aircraft.
altimeter,
when
the doppler frequency
shift
may
be
artificially
3.4.
Airborne Doppler Navigation 3240
An important requirement of aircraft flight is for a self-contained navigation system capable of operating anywhere over the surface of the earth under any conditions of It should provide the necessary data for piloting the aircraft from visibility or weather. one position to another without the need of navigation information transmitted to the One method of obtaining a self-contained aircraft aircraft from a ground station. doppler-radar principle. Doppler radar can navigation system is based on the the aircraft relative to the earth. The drift speed of drift angle the and true provide angle is the angle between the horizontal projection of the centerline of the aircraft (heading) and the horizontal component of the aircraft velocity vector (ground track). From the ground-speed and drift-angle measurements, the aircraft's present position
CW
can be computed by dead reckoning. An aircraft with a doppler radar whose antenna beam is directed at an angle y to the horizontal (Fig. 3.26a) will receive a doppler-shifted echo signal from the ground. The
(fjc) v cos y, where/ is the carrier frequency, v is the aircraft the velocity of propagation. Typically, the depression angle y might single antenna beam from a doppler radar measures be in the vicinity of 65 to 70.
shift in
frequency is/ d
velocity,
and
is
104
[Sec. 3.4
one component of aircraft velocity relative to the direction of propagation. A minimum of three noncoplanar beams are needed to determine the vector velocity, that is, the speed and direction of travel. Doppler-navigation radar measures the vector velocity relative to the frame of reference of the antenna assembly. To convert this vector velocity to a horizontal reference on the ground, the direction of the vertical must be determined by some auxiliary means. The heading of the aircraft, as might be obtained from a compass,
A=*-
(/>)
Fig. 3.26
with single doppler-navigation antenna beam at an angle y to the horizontal; (0) aircraft employing four doppler-navigation beams to obtain vector velocity.
(a) Aircraft
also be known for proper navigation. The vertical reference may be used either to stabilize the antenna beam system so as to align it with the horizontal, or alternatively, the antennas might be fixed relative to the aircraft and the ground velocity components calculated with a computer.
Fig. 3.266.
must
A practical form of doppler-navigation radar might have four beams oriented as in A doppler-navigation radar with forward and rearward beams is called a
Assume
Janus system, after the

time.
cally disposed
Roman god who looked both forward and backward at the same
the two forward
aircraft.
initially that
and two backward beams are symmetriIf the aircraft's velocity vector
is
about the axis of the
same direction as the aircraft heading, the doppler frequency in the two forward beams will not be the same. This difference in frequency may be used to generate an error signal in a servomechanism which rotates the antennas until the doppler frethe
not in
quencies are equal, indicating that the axis of the antennas is aligned with the ground track of the aircraft. The angular displacement of the antenna from the aircraft
Sec. 3.4]
CW
105
heading is the drift angle, and the magnitude of the doppler is a measure of the speed along the ground track. The use of the two rearward beams in conjunction with the two forward beams
results in considerable
vertical
motion of the
improvement in accuracy. It eliminates the error introduced by aircraft and reduces the error caused by pitching movements of
the antenna.
Navigation may also be performed with only two antenna beams if some auxiliary is used to obtain a third coordinate. Two beams give the two components of the aircraft velocity tangent to the surface of the earth. A third component, the vertical velocity, is needed and may be provided from some nondoppler source such as a barometric rate-of-climb meter. The primary advantage of the two-beam system is a reduction in equipment. However, the accuracy is not as good as with systems using three or four beams. radar would seem to be the ideal method of obtaining dopplerIn principle, the navigation information. However, in practice, the radar is not adequate at long ranges. Leakage between transmitter and receiver limits the sensitivity of the doppler-navigation radar, j ust as it does in any C radar. One method of eliminating the ill effects of leakage is by pulsing the transmitter on and turning the receiver off for the duration of the transmitted pulse in a manner similar to the pulse-doppler radar described in Sec. 4.5. The pulse-doppler mode of operation has the further advantage in that each beam can operate with a single antenna for both transmitter and receiver, whereas a radar must usually employ two separate antennas in order to achieve the needed isolation. However, pulse systems suffer from loss of coverage and/or sensitivity because of "altitude holes." These are caused by the high prf commonly used with pulse-doppler radars when it is necessary to achieve unambiguous doppler measurements. The high prf, although it gives unambiguous doppler, usually results in ambiguous range. But more important, a pulse radar with ambiguous prf can result in If the transmitter is pulsed just when the ground echo arrives back at the lost targets. radar, it will not be detected. Thus, altitude holes exist at or near those altitudes where the echo time is an integral multiple of the pulse-repetition period. Techniques exist for reducing the undesired effects of altitude holes, but not without some inconvenience or possible loss in over-all performance. 33 The pulse-doppler system must be coherent from pulse to pulse if the doppler frequency shift is to be correctly measured. transmitted signal might be obtained with a low-power oscillator followed by an amplifier that is pulsed on and off at the In essence, a pulse-doppler radar may be considered as a "sampled CW" desired rate.
means
CW
CW
CW
CW
CW
radar.
The Janus system can be operated incoherently by using the same transmitter to feed a pair of beams simultaneously. Typically, one beam is directed ahead and to the right of the ground track, and the other aft and to the left. A forward-left and an aft-right are also fed by the transmitter as a second channel. The two channels may be operated simultaneously or timed-shared. By heterodyning in a mixing element the echo signal The difference received in the fore and aft beams, the doppler frequency is extracted. frequency resulting from the mixing operation is twice the doppler frequency. stable transmitter frequency is not needed in this system as it is in the coherent system. Coherence is obtained on a relative basis in the process of comparing the signals received from the forward and backward direction. Changes in transmitter frequency affect the echo signals in the two directions equally and are therefore canceled when taking the difference frequency. Another method of achieving the necessary isolation in a doppler-navigation radar system. By frequency-modulating the transis with a frequency-modulated mission, the leakage signal may be reduced relative to the signal from the ground by
CW
106
Introduction To Radar Systems
[Sec. 3.5
extracting a harmonic of the modulating frequency and taking advantage of one of the higher-order Bessel functions as described in the previous section. It has been claimed
that a doppler-navigation system based on this principle can provide 1 50 db of isolation, the amount necessary to operate at altitudes of 50,000 ft. 38 At altitudes of 40,000 ft the doppler navigator can reliably measure distances over
land to an accuracy of at least 0.5 per cent and drift angles to 0.5. 38 Over water the accuracies are slightly worse. One source of error overSvater is due to an increase in specular reflection of the incident beam. Specular reflection reduces the backscattered energy, thus lowering the signal-to-noise ratio. It also causes an apparent increase in the angle of depression by favoring the returns from the lower half of the incident beam. This results in an error in the ground speed. Another source of error is the mass movement of water caused by tides, currents, or winds, which results in a
doppler frequency
3.5.
shift in
addition to that caused by the aircraft's motion.
Multiple-frequency
CW
Radar 942
47
the variation of phase with frequency,
The radar measurement of time delay or range is fundamentally the measurement of when time and direction remain constant (Sec. The pulse radar and the FM-CW radar can be analyzed in these terms, but they 10.2). are easier to conceive and understand by analysis in the time domain. However, the measurement of
KA/-H
range with multiple
CW
scribed in this section,
frequencies, 5 943 to be deis a direct application of

-
the principle that a range difference measurement.

single stationary target
measurement
is
a phase-
Frequency
(a)
Consider the problem of measuring the range R of a by using a radar radiating a single-frequency sine wave of the form sin 2nf t. (The amplitudes of the signals are all taken to be unity since they do not influence the result.) The sine-wave
CW
and returns to the radar 2R/c, where c is the velocity of propagation. If the transmitted and received signals are compared in a phase detector, the output is proportional to the phase difference between the two
signal travels to the target
after
a time
T=
lFrequency
it)
signals
and
is
A</>
27rf
difference
may therefore
__
T 4Trf R/c. The phase be used as a measure of the
range.
c Ac/>
-A^
(3.33)
4Trf
Fig. 3.27. Transmitted (a) and received (b) signal spectra in the
4t7
two-frequency
CW radar.
The measurement of the phase difference A</> is unambiguous only if A< does not exceed 2-n radians. (A phase of 2t7ii + A<f> radians, where n is an integer,
cannot be distinguished from a phase of A</> radians.) Substituting A<f> 2n into Eq. (3.33) gives the maximum unambiguous range as equal to A/2. At radar frequencies this unambiguous range is much too small to be of practical interest, although it may be quite adequate for certain types of position-finding equipment at relatively low
frequencies.
The region of unambiguous range may be extended considerably by transmitting two CW signals differing only slightly in frequency. 9 It will be shown that the measurement of range using two CW frequencies results in an unambiguous range
separate
which corresponds to a half wavelength at the difference frequency.
Consequently, the
Sec. 3.5]
CW
is

that obtained
107 a
unambiguous range can be made considerably greater than

single frequency
when only
transmitted.
is
two continuous sine waves of by an amount A/. For convenience, the amplitudes of all signals are set equal to unity. The voltage waveforms of the two components of the transmitted signal v 1T and v 2T may be written as
to consist of
The transmitted waveform
assumed
frequency/ and/2
(Fig. 3.27a) separated
v 1T
v 2T
<f>
= =
sin (2-nfit
sin
(Infy
+ + fc)
<i)
(3.34a)
(3.34Z>)
where <^ and 2 are arbitrary (constant) phase angles. The echo signal is shifted in frequency by the doppler effect (Fig. 3.27b). The form of the doppler-shifted signals at each of the two frequencies/! and/ is similar to Eq. (3.16) and may be written
v 1R
=
=
sin
2HA
/i)t
v 9J?
sin
Mh /)'
^^ T - ^2 T
c
2TTfdl t
+& +
<f>
(3.35a)
2nfd2 t
(3.35b)
where
range to target at a particular time t t (range that would be measured if target were not moving) fdl doppler frequency shift associated with frequency/], fd2 doppler frequency shift associated with frequency 2 Since the two RF frequencies/ and/2 are approximately the same (that is,/2 A/ where A/ </) the doppler frequency shifts f dl and/ 2 are approximately equal to one another. Therefore we may write fdl d2 d
R =
= =
=/ +
signal and heterodynes each component with the corresponding transmitted waveform and extracts the two doppler- frequency components given below:
The
=f =f
receiver separates the
two components of the echo
received signal
v 1B
= =
sin
(27rfa t
^^ T
is
2*fd t^
(3.36a)
v 2D
sin
(2tt//
^p> T 2-rrf^
=
Ajr^fR,
c
(336b)
The phase
difference between these
two components
2
^ = Mf c
fl )R
Hence
which
is is
r =
the
lM4-n-A/
(3 .38)
same
as that of Eq. (3.33), with A/substituted in place
of/.
A block diagram of a two-frequency CW radar is shown in Fig. 3.28.

of the simple phase-measuring device. The two-frequency doppler frequency shift.
like that
The equipment
CW radar except for the addition of the second channel and a

When
for measuring range was described as using the the doppler frequency is zero, as with a stationary target, the method may still be applied by measuring the phase difference between the two RF carrier signals. If the target carries a beacon or some other form of echo-signal augmentor, the doppler frequency shift may be simulated by translating the echo frequency, as with a single-sideband modulator.
CW technique
108
[Sec. 3.5
If the doppler frequency d mitted frequencies, that is,fd
is less
<
than one-half the difference between the two transA//2, the two signals may be readily separated. On the
other hand, if f A//2, each transmitted signal lies within the doppler-frequency d acceptance band of the other receiver, and unless the transmitted frequencies and their
>
harmonics are rejected by the insertion of narrow bandstop niters, they may swamp the doppler signals from the target. Since the insertion of rejection niters complicates the receiver and eliminates a portion of the doppler-frequency band, it is usually desirable to make the difference frequency greater than the expected range of doppler frequencies. A large difference in frequency between the two transmitted signals improves the accuracy of the range measurement since large A/means a proportionately large change
Transmitter
A^
Receiver
Range
indicator
Fig. 3.28. Block diagram of the two-frequency
CW radar for the measurement of range.
in
A<f>
for a given range.
greater than
2n radians
However, there is a limit to the value of A/, since A< cannot be if the range is to remain unambiguous. The maximum
unambiguous range
.R nail ,i> is
R unamb
2
A/
(3.39)
A/ must be less than c/2/? unamb This relationship is plotted in Fig. 3.29. Note that when A/ is replaced by the pulse repetition rate, Eq. (3.39) gives the maximum unambiguous range of a pulse radar. As an example, consider a two-frequency radar with/i = 3,000 Mc {X = 10 cm).
Therefore
.
600 knots, the maximum expected doppler frequency Therefore the difference between the two frequencies must be greater than 6, 1 80 cps if the difference frequency is to fall outside the passband of the doppler filters. The maximum unambiguous range in this case is approximately 13
If the
is
maximum target velocity is

6,180 cps.
fd =
nautical miles.
qualitative explanation of the operation of the two-frequency radar may be had by considering both carrier frequencies to be in phase at zero range. As they progress outward from the radar, the relative phase between the two increases because of their difference in frequency. This phase difference may be used as a measure of the elapsed time. When the two signals slip in phase by 1 cycle, the measurement of phase, and hence range, becomes ambiguous. The two-frequency radar is essentially a single-target radar since only one phase difference can be measured at a time. If more than one target is present, the echo signal becomes complicated and the meaning of the phase measurement is doubtful. If one echo is much stronger than the other, the system might be designed to measure the range
CW
of this target and ignore the others. 9
In addition to discrimination
on
the basis of
Sec. 3.5]
CW
109
amplitude, multiple targets can be discriminated on the basis of doppler. series of narrowband doppler niters can separate signals, or else a single tunable narrowband doppler filter may be time-shared over the entire band of doppler frequencies. The theoretical accuracy with which range can be measured with the two-frequency radar can be found from the methods described in Sec. 1 0.5. It can be shown that the theoretical rms range error is
CW
SR
where
=
4nAf(2EIN f
(3.40)
E=
energy contained in received signal
N = noise power per cycle of bandwidth

If this is compared with the rms range error theoretically possible with the linear pulse-compression waveform whose spectrum occupies the same bandwidth A/, the error obtained with the two-frequency waveform is less by the factor 0.29.
FM
CW
1!
U,W>J _
II
II
~
T3
o o 5,000
4,000
3
7,000
s.
\
^v
_
-
Q.
3,000
2,000
Q.
O
(/I
\^
o 1,000
<J
Nw
^v
\.
_
N.
o
3
a-
700 _ 500 400
^V
N.
<x>
300
c
a>
200
100
10
ii
20
ii
40 60 80 100
II
200
l\
400 600
1,000
Maximum unambiguous
Fig. 3.29.
range, nautical miles
Maximum unambiguous range vs.
difference frequency in the two-frequency
CW radar.
Equation (3.40) indicates that the greater the separation A/ between the two freHowever, the frequency difference must not be too large if unambiguous measurements are to be made. The selection of A/represents a compromise between the requirements of accuracy and ambiguity. Substituting the unambiguous range of Eq. (3.39) into Eq. (3.40) gives the rms error as
quencies, the less will be the rms error.
6R
unam6
2 77(2/A/
i
(3.41)
)
Both accurate and unambiguous range measurements can be made by transmitting more frequencies instead ofjust two. For example, if the three frequencies/!, /2 and/3 are such that/3 ft = k(f2 /i), where k is a factor of the order of or 20, the pair of frequencies/3,/i gives an ambiguous but accurate range measurement while the pair of frequencies/a,/! are chosen close enough to resolve the ambiguities in the/3 Likewise, if further accuracy is required, a fourth frequency can be /j measurement.
three or
,
110
[Sec. 3.5
transmitted and its ambiguities resolved by the less accurate but unambiguous measurement obtained from the three frequencies/i,/2 ,/3 As more frequencies are added, the spectrum and target resolution approach that obtained with a pulse or an
.
FM-CW
waveform. The measurement of range by measuring the phase difference between separated frequencies is analogous to the measurement of angle by measuring the phase difference between widely spaced antennas, as in an interferometer antenna. The interferometer antenna gives an accurate but ambiguous measurement of angle. The ambiguities may be resolved by additional antennas spaced closer together. The spacing between the individual antennas in the interferometer system corresponds to the separation between
The minitrack frequencies in the multiple-frequency distance-measuring technique. system is an example of an interferometer in which angular ambiguities are resolved in a manner similar to that described. 41 Both the interferometer antenna and the multiple-frequency CW radar are singleIf two echo signals are alike in all respects except for a difference in target devices.
Two signals of fail to make the proper measurements. appear the same as one signal whose phase is that of the vector sum of the two signals. In general, the range (or the angular measurement in the interferometer) will not correspond to either target. The accuracy of the interferometer antenna depends on the distance between the two If resolution is to be obtained, the entire aperture must be filled, as with a elements. Similarly, in the multiple-frequency closely spaced array or a reflector antenna. range-measurement technique, the accuracy is determined by the difference between Additional frequencies are added in between if the largest and the smallest frequency. the measurement is to be unambiguous. The entire spectrum must be continuous if By analogy with the antenna targets are to be both resolved and unambiguous. frequencies spaced A/ apart radar containing problem, the multiple-frequency rr A/T, and T is the will produce a waveform of the form (sin JVz)/sin z, where z The measurement is ambiguous when the transit time to the range R and back. denominator sin z = 0, or when A/= 1/T = c/2#unamb which is the same as derived
phase, these systems will
different
phase
will
CW
N
,
previously.
Although the multiple-frequency distance-measuring technique was described in terms of a C transmission, it can be applied to the improvement of the range measurement with a long pulse (pulse compression), as might be used for satellite tracking or space surveillance. radar technique has been applied to the accurate The multiple-frequency measurement of distance in surveying and in missile guidance. The Tellurometer is the name given to a portable electronic surveying instrument which is based on this prin42-44 ciple. It is capable of measuring line-of-site distances from 500 ft to 40 miles to within an accuracy of 1 part in 300,000 of the distance 2 in. The Tellurometer The consists of a master unit at one end of the line and a remote unit at the other end. master unit transmits a carrier frequency of 3,000 Mc, with four single-sideband
CW
The 10-Mc
ties.
modulated frequencies separated from the carrier by 10.000, 9.990, 9.900, and 9.000 Mc. difference frequency provides the basic accuracy measurement, while the difference frequencies of 1 Mc, 100 kc, and 10 kc permit the resolution of ambigui-
The remote unit at the other end of the line receives the signals from the master unit and amplifies and retransmits them. The phases of the returned signals at the master Since the master and the unit are compared with the phases of the outgoing signals. remote units are stationary, there is no doppler frequency shift. The function of the doppler frequency is provided by modulating the retransmitted signals at the remote unit in such a manner that a 1-kc beat frequency is obtained from the heterodyning
CW
111
process at the receiver of the master unit. The phase of the 1-kc signals contains the same information as the phase of the multiple frequencies.
Each Tellurometer unit radiates about 100 of power. The antenna is a small paraboloid with crossed feeds to make the polarizations of the transmitted and received signals orthogonal to one another. This provides isolation between transmitter and receiver and aids in the suppression of ground reflections which can cause errors in the measurement. Each unit weighs less than 30 lb. The radar method of surveying permits long distances to be measured conveniently and accurately, especially over inaccessible terrain. Unlike conventional optical surveying instruments, it can operate by day or night and can measure distances through underbrush and even small trees.
mw
REFERENCES
1.
2.
Sandretto, P. G: The Long Quest, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-1, no. 2, p. 2, June, 1954. Van Vleck, J. H., and D. Middleton: Theoretical Comparison of the Visual, Aural, and Meter Reception of Pulsed Signals in the Presence of Noise, /. Appl. Phys., vol. 17, pp. 940-971, November, 1946.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Selridge, H. Proximity Fuzes for Artillery, Electronics, vol. 19, pp. 104-109, February, 1946. Bonner, H. M.:The Radio Proximity Fuse, Elec. Eng., vol. 66, pp. 888-893, September, 1947. Barlow, E. J.: Doppler Radar, Proc. IRE, vol. 37, pp. 340-355, April, 1949. Meyer, M. A., and A. B. Goldberg: Applications of the Turnstile Junction, IRE Trans., vol.
:
7.
8.
9.
MTT-3, pp. 40^15, December, 1955. Roberts, W. B.: Rotating Wave Radar, Electronics, vol. 19, pp. 130-133, July, 1946. Saunders, W. K. Post-war Developments in Continuous-wave and Frequency-modulated Radar, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-8, pp. 7-19, March, 1961. Ridenour, L. N.: "Radar System Engineering," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 1,
:
McGraw-Hill Book Company,

10. Saunders,
Inc.,
New
York, 1947.
K.: Control of Surface Currents by the Use of Channels, IRE Trans., vol. AP-4, pp. 85-87, January, 1956. 11. Greene, J. C, and J. F. Lyons: Receivers with Zero Intermediate Frequency, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, pp. 335-336, February, 1959. 12. Kerr, D. E. (ed.): "Propagation of Short Radio Waves," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 13, pp. 539-543, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951. 1 3. Gardner, F. M. DOPLOC Uses Phase-locked Filter, Electronic Ind., vol. 1 8, pp. 96-99, October,
:
W.
1959.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Kalmus, H. P.: Direction Sensitive Doppler Device, Proc. IRE, vol. 43, pp. 698-700, June, 1955. Logue, S. H. Rate-of-climb Meter Uses Doppler Radar, Electronics, vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 150-152, June 1, 1957. Boxcar Radar, Military Automation, vol. 1, no. 6, p. 330, November-December, 1957. Court, G. W. G.: Microwave Vehicle-speed Indicator, Wireless Engr., vol. 33, pp. 66-74, March,
:
1956.
How Accurate Are Radar Speed Meters?, Electronics, vol. 28, no. 12, pp. 132-134, December, 1955. 19. Barker, J.: Radar Meter Helps Enforce Traffic Laws, Electronics, vol. 32, no. 10, pp. 48-49,
18. Brantley, J. Q., Jr.:
Mar.
6,
1959.
20. Ismail,
21
Study of the Double Modulated F.M. Radar, Inst. Hockfrequenztech. an der E.T.H. Rept. 21, Verlag Leemann, Zurich, 1955. Luck, D. G. C. "Frequency Modulated Radar," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
:
M. A. W.:
1949. 22. Capelli, M.: Radio Altimeter, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-1, no. 2, pp. 3-7, June, 1954. 23. Wimberly, F. T., and J. F. Lane, Jr. The AN/APN-22 Radio Altimeter, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-1, no. 2, pp. 8-14, June, 1954. 24. Collette, G., and R. Labrousse: Un altimetre radioelectrique a modulation de frequence, Ann. radioHectricite, vol. 10, no. 42, pp. 387-398, October, 1955.
:
25. Block, A.,
K. E. Buecks, and A. G. Heaton: Improved Radio Altimeter, Wireless World, vol. 60, pp. 138-140, March, 1954. 26. Keiser, B. E.: Digital-counter Techniques Increase Doppler Uses, Electronics, vol. 32, no. 21, pp. 46-50, May 22, 1959.
27.
Kalmus, H.
eter,
P., J.
IRE Trans.,
vol.
C. Cacheris, and H. A. Dropkin: Nonquantized Frequency-modulated AltimANE-1, no. 2, pp. 15-21, June, 1954.
112

Precise New System of F.M. Radar, Proc. IRE, vol. 44, pp. 1140-1145, September, 1956; also see discussion, Proc. IRE, vol. 45, pp. 695-696, May, 1957.
28. Ismail, 29.
M. A. W.:
:
Witmer, Kurt J. Studien iiber Radarsysteme mit Frequenzmodulation, Inst. Hochfrequenztech. an der E.T.H., Rent. 13, Verlag Leemann, Zurich, 1950. Tracking Systems, IRE Trans., vol. 30. Sollenberger, T. E.: Multipath Phase Errors in CW-FM 1955. October, 185-192, AP-3, pp. 143-148, August, 1960. 31. Bonnelle, G. J.: FM-CW Radar, Space/Aeronautics, vol. 34, pp. IRE Trans., vol. ANE-4, pp. 32. Berger, F. B. The Nature of Doppler Velocity Measurement, 103-112, September, 1957. Measuring Systems, IRE Trans., vol. 33. Berger, F. B.: The Design of Airborne Doppler Velocity
:
34. Fried,
ANE-4, F. A.: The AN/APN-81 Doppler Navigation System, IRE Trans., vol. pp. 202-211, December, 1957. Conv. Record, vol. 6, pt. 5, 37. McKay, M. W.: The AN/APN-96 Doppler Radar Set, IRE Natl. pp. 71-79, 1958. Franklin, J. H. Canton, and 38. Brown, R. K., N. F. Moody, P. M. Thompson, R. J. Bibby, C. A. System, Proc. IRE, vol. Navigational Airborne Self-contained and Lightweight J. Mitchell: 47, pp. 778-807, May, 1959. Doppler Technique, Natl. Conf. Proc. Aeronaut. Electronics Low Noise 39. Glegg, K. C. M.: (Dayton, Ohio), pp. 133-144, 1958. to Doppler Radar Sensors, 40. Tollefson, R. D.: Application of Frequency Modulation Techniques 1959. 683-687, Ohio), (Dayton, Electronics pp. Aeronaut. Natl. Conf. Proc. Radio, Proc. IRE, vol J 44, 41. Mengel, J. T.: Tracking the Earth Satellite and Data Transmission by pp. 755-760, June, 1956. Trans. South African Inst. Elec. hngrs., 42. Wadley, T. L. Electronic Principles of the Tellurometer, vol. 49, pp. 143-161, May, 1958; discussion, pp. 161-172. 43 Poling, A. C. Tellurometer Manual, U.S. Dept. Commerce Publ. 62-1, 1959. Equipment in Surveying, IRE 44. Robinson, T. A.: Application of Electronic Distance Measuring Trans., vol. MIL-4, pp. 263-267, April-July, 1960. and Locating System, 45 Varian, R. H., W. W. Hansen, and J. R. Woodyard: Object Detecting
36.
pp. 157-175, December, 1957. R.: Principles and Performance Analysis of Doppler Navigation Systems, vol. ANE-4, pp. 176-196, December, 1957. AN/APN-67, 35. Condie, M. A.: Basic Design Considerations: Automatic Navigator vol. ANE-4, pp. 197-201, December, 1957.
ANE-4,
W.
IRE
Trans.,
Trans.,
IRE
McMahon,
CW
46. Skolnik,
U.S. Patent 2,435,615, Feb. 10, 1948. M. I.: An Analysis of Bistatic Radar, Appendix,
IRE
Trans., vol.
.
,
ANE-8, pp. 19-27,

, , , vol. 6, pp. 30-33,
March, 1961.
47. Hastings, C. E.
:
Raydist:
A Radio Navigation and
^ Tracking System, Tele-Tech
100-103, June, 1947.
4
MTI AND PULSE-DOPPLER RADAR
4.1.
Moving-target-indication
shift in
(MTI) Radar 1
The doppler
frequency caused by a moving target

targets just as in
may be used in pulse radar

But,
it
to distinguish fixed
from moving
CW radar.
might be asked,
why should the pulse radar be complicated by extracting the doppler information if the
target range
only purpose is to distinguish fixed from moving targets ? Since a pulse radar measures and angular position on each scan, moving targets may be discerned by the
change in target position from scan to scan. Indeed, if discerning moving targets were the only advantage to be gained with doppler information, it would not be worth the trouble to instrument the radar to extract doppler. But doppler permits the pulse radar to discern moving targets in the presence of fixed targets even when the echo signal
targets is orders of magnitude greater. The ordinary pulse radar which does not use doppler information does not have this capability. The fixed-target echoes with which the desired target echo must compete are those included within the same radar resolution cell as the target, or those which enter the radar receiver via the antenna sidelobes. (The radar resolution cell in this instance is the volume illuminated by a
from fixed
pulse packet.) Echo signals from fixed targets are not shifted in frequency, but the echo from a target moving with relative velocity vr will be shifted in frequency by an amount given by the doppler formula (3.2),/ d = 2v r jX, where X is the wavelength of the transmitted signal. The fixed targets are called clutter, an especially appropriate name since they tend to "clutter" the cathode-ray-tube display with unwanted information. The early pulse radars did not make use of the doppler information inherent in the echo signal from moving targets Consequently, they were sometimes of little value in regions where large clutter echoes existed. But by the end of World War II the techniques and components for extracting doppler information with pulse radar were developed. In the postwar years they were improved upon, and most modern search radars usually include some means of extracting the doppler information to detect moving targets in the presence of clutter. A pulse radar which makes use of the doppler information is known as an MTI radar, which stands for moving-target indication. It is also called pulse-doppler radar. In practice, a distinction is sometimes made between the MTI radar and the pulse-doppler radar, although they are both based on the same physical principle. MTI usually refers to a radar in which the dopplerfrequency measurement is ambiguous but the range measurement is unambiguous. Another characteristic feature of the MTI radar is its delay-line canceler used to detect the doppler frequency shift. In the pulse-doppler radar the doppler measurement is usually unambiguous and the range may or may not be ambiguous. Ambiguous range means that multiple-time-around echoes are possible, while ambiguous doppler implies that "blind speeds" fall within the range of expected target speeds. The distinction between the two radars arose historically, and it is usually still applied. In many instances, the difference between MTI and pulse-doppler radars is only a matter of nomenclature. In this text the historical distinction between the two will be maintained, but the term MTI will be used when it is necessary to refer to the entire class of pulse radars which employ doppler information. Typically, MTI radar can extract the moving-target echo from the clutter echo even
.
113
114
if
[Sec. 4.1
Some pulsethe clutter echo is 20 to 30 db greater than the moving- target echo. doppler radars can detect moving targets even when the clutter echo is 70 to 90 db greater than the target echo. A type of MT) which does not use doppler information directly is called area MTI. In the area MTI successive time-spaced "relief" maps of the observed area are subOnly those objects which have changed position from one tracted from scan to scan. mapping operation to the next are displayed. Devices of this type have been successA V
f
<-
cw
oscillator
'
'Reference
signal
r tA
\\ 'J
> J
Receiver
f
Indicator
(a)
Pulse
modulator
"
1^1
Power
amplifier
CW
oscillator
ft
Reference signal
'j'
333,
;\
v
(b)
Indicator
f*
Fig. 4.1. (a) Simple
CW radar;
(b) pulse
radar using doppler information.
2 The area MTI using scan-to-scan developed using storage-tube techniques. Instead, the major emphasis cancellation will not be discussed further in this chapter. will be on MTI radars using sweep-to- sweep cancellation or its equivalent. radar such as was described in Sec. 3.2 is simple Description of Operation. shown in Fig. 4. la. It consists of a transmitter, receiver, indicator, and the necessary radar may be converted into a pulse radar as shown in In principle, the antennas. Fig. 4.16 by providing a power amplifier and a modulator to turn the amplifier on and The chief difference between the pulse radar off for the purpose of generating pulses. oscillator of Fig. 4. lb and the one described in Chap. 1 is that a small portion of the power that generates the transmitted pulses is diverted to the receiver to take the place signal does more than function as a replaceof the local oscillator. However, this C ment for the local oscillator. It acts as the coherent reference needed to detect the doppler frequency shift. By coherent it is meant that the phase of the transmitted signal The reference signal is the distinguishing feature of is preserved in the reference signal.
fully
CW
CW
CW
coherent
If the
MTI radar.
is
CW oscillator voltage
represented as
A1
is
sin 2Trft t,
where
A1
is
the amplitude
and/i the carrier frequency, the reference signal
Vre{ = A 2 sin 2irf

and the doppler-shifted echo-signal voltage
êcho
is
(4.1)
sin
Mfttet
4^R
(4.2)
Sec 4I J
-
MTI and
Pulse-doppler Radar
115
where
A2 Az
t
= amplitude of reference signal = amplitude of signal received from a target at a range R fd = doppler frequency shift = time c = velocity of propagation
The reference signal and the target echo signal are heterodyned in the mixer stage of the receiver. Only the low-frequency (difference-frequency) component from the mixer is of interest and is a voltage given by
Kdlff
Note that Eqs.
is
At
sin
{l^t
-4 -^^j
(4.3)
sine-wave carriers upon which the pulse modulais equal to the doppler frequency /^. For stationary targets the doppler frequency shifty will be zero; hence K diff will not vary with time and may take on any constant value from A iy including zero. t to
tion
(4.1) to (4.3) represent
imposed.
The
difference frequency
+A
L-
>(
Hfl
(a)
AA
(/>)
A/
W
inn
>
1/T
;
^j:
(c)
Fig. 4.2. (a) RF echo pulse train ; (b) video pulse train for doppler frequency fd train for doppler frequency d 1/ T
(c)
<
video pulse v
However, when the target is in motion relative to the radar, fd has a value other than zero and the voltage corresponding to the difference frequency from the mixer [Eq.
(4.3)]
be a function of time. An example of the output from the mixer when the doppler frequency is large fd compared with the reciprocal of the pulse width is shown in Fig. 4.2*. The doppler signal may be readily discerned from the information contained in a single pulse. If,
will
on the other hand,/d is small compared with the reciprocal of the pulse duration, the pulses will be modulated with an amplitude given by Eq. (4.3) (Fig. 4.2c) and many pulses will be needed to extract the doppler information. The case illustrated in Fig. 4.2c is more typical of aircraft-detection radar, while the waveform of Fig. 4.2b might
be
the detection of extraterrestrial targets such as ballistic missiles or man-made satellites. Ambiguities in the measurement of doppler frequency can occur in the case of the discontinuous measurement of Fig. 4.2c, but not when the measurement is made on the basis of a single pulse. The
is
more
applicable to a radar
whose primary function
video signals shown in Fig. 4.2 are called bipolar, since they contain both positive and negative amplitudes.
Moving targets may be distinguished from stationary targets by observing the video output on an A-scope (amplitude vs. range). single sweep on an A-scope might
116
[Sec. 4.1
This sweep shows several fixed targets and two moving targets On the basis of a single sweep, moving targets cannot be arrows. indicated by the two distinguished from fixed targets. (It may be possible to distinguish extended ground However, this is not a targets from point targets by the stretching of the echo pulse.
appear as in Fig. 4.3a.
reliable
means of discriminating moving from fixed
targets since
some fixed
targets
can
of Fig. 4.3. [a-e) Successive sweeps on an MTI radar A-scope display (echo amplitude as a function time); (/) superposition of many sweeps; arrows indicate position of moving targets.
look
a water tower. Also, some moving targets such as aircraft Successive A-scope sweeps look like extended targets.) formation can flying in Echoes from fixed targets (pulse-repetition intervals) are shown in Fig. 43b to e. remain constant throughout, but echoes from moving targets, vary in amplitude from sweep to sweep at a rate corresponding to the doppler frequency. The superposition of the successive A-scope sweeps is shown in Fig. 4. 3/ The moving targets prod uce, with
like point targets, e.g.,
time, a "butterfly" effect
on the A-scope.
Delay-line
>
Receiver
Subtractor
circuit
Full-wove
rectifier
To indicator
r=VP rt
Fig. 4=4.
MTI
receiver with delay-line canceler.
Although the butterfly effect is suitable for recognizing moving targets on an A-scope, not appropriate for display on the PPI. One method commonly employed to extract doppler information in a form suitable for display on the PPI scope is with a
it is
delay-line canceler (Fig. 4.4).
The
delay-line canceler acts as a
filter
to eliminate the
Sec. 4.1]
d-c
MTI AND
PULSE-DOPPLER
RADAR
117
component of fixed targets and to pass the a-c components of moving targets. The video portion of the receiver is divided into two channels. One is a normal video channel. In the other, the video signal experiences a time delay equal to one pulserepetition period (equal to the reciprocal of the pulse-repetition frequency). The outputs from the two channels are subtracted from one another. The fixed targets with unchanging amplitudes from pulse to pulse are canceled on subtraction. However, the amplitudes of the moving-target echoes are not constant from pulse to pulse, and subtraction results in an uncanceled residue. The output of the subtraction circuit is bipolar video, just as was the input. Before bipolar video can intensity-modulate a PPI display, it must be converted to unipotential voltages (unipolar video) by a full-
wave
rectifier.
Pulse
modulator
fl+fc
TR
Klystron amplifier
tf+$*
Mix
Stalo
f?
Mix
frfd
IF
amplifier
Coho
Reference signal
Phase
detector
To
delay-line
canceler
MTI
radar with power amplifier transmitter.
The simple MTI radar shown in Fig. 4.1Z> is not necessarily the most typical. The block diagram of a more common MTI radar employing a power amplifier is shown in
Fig. 4.5. The significant difference between this MTI configuration and that of Fig. 4.\b is the manner in which the reference signal is generated. In Fig. 4.5, the coherent reference is supplied by an oscillator called the coho, which stands for coherent oscillator. The coho is a stable oscillator whose frequency is the same as the intermediate frequency used in the receiver. In addition to providing the reference signal, the output of the coho/c is also mixed with the local-oscillator frequency/,. The local oscillator must
also be a stable oscillator and is called stalo, for .stable /ocal oscillator. The echo signal is heterodyned with the stalo signal to produce the IF signal just as in the con-
RF
ventional superheterodyne receiver. The stalo, coho, and the mixer in which they are combined plus any low-level amplification are called the receiver-exciter because of the dual role they serve in both the receiver and the transmitter. further description of this type of MTI radar may be found in Ref. 3.
The characteristic feature of coherent MTI radar is that the transmitted signal must be coherent (in phase) with the reference signal in the receiver. This is accomplished in the radar system diagramed in Fig. 4.5 by generating the transmitted signal from the
translation
coho reference signal. The function of the stalo is to provide the necessary frequency from the IF to the transmitted (RF) frequency. Although the phase of the
118

phase of the transmitted signal, any stalo phase
shift
is
[Sec. 4.1
stalo influences the
canceled on
reception because the stalo that generates the transmitted signal also acts as the local The reference signal from the coho and the IF echo signal oscillator in the receiver. The phase detector differs from the are both fed into a mixer called the phase detector.
normal amplitude detector since its output is proportional to the phase difference between the two input signals. Any one of a number of transmitting-tube types might be used as the power amplifier. These include the triode, tetrode, klystron, traveling-wave tube, and the Amplitron. Each of these has its advantages and disadvantages, which are more fully discussed in Chap. 6. A transmitter which consists of a stable low-power oscillator followed by a power amplifier is sometimes called MOPA, which stands for waster-oscillator /?ower
amplifier.
A V
'
Magnetron
oscillator
3 ulse
Trigger
modulator
generator
'
RF
locking pulse
t
Mix
Stalo
Mix
'
IF
amplifier
1 r
Coho
IF locking pulse
cvJ reference
Phase
detector
signal
To
delay-line canceler
MTI
radar with power oscillator transmitter.
available at
Before the development of the klystron amplifier, the only high-power transmitter microwave frequencies for radar application was the magnetron oscillator. In an oscillator the phase of the RF bears no relationship from pulse to pulse. For this reason the reference signal cannot be generated by a continuously running oscillator. However, a coherent reference signal may be readily obtained with the power oscillator by readjusting the phase of the coho at the beginning of each sweep according to the phase of the transmitted pulse. The phase of the coho is locked to the phase of the
transmitted pulse each time a pulse is generated. block diagram of an MTI radar (with a power oscillator) is shown in Fig. 4.6. portion of the transmitted signal is mixed with the stalo output to produce an IF beat This IF pulse is signal whose phase is directly related to the phase of the transmitter. oscillations to "lock" in step applied to the coho and causes the phase of the coho with the phase of the IF reference pulse. The phase of the coho is then related to the phase of the transmitted pulse and may be used as the reference signal for echoes Upon the next transmission another received from that particular transmitted pulse. coho until the next locking the phase of IF locking pulse is generated to relock the
CW
CW
pulse comes along.

cation.
1 4 5
'
'
The type of MTI radar
illustrated in Fig. 4.6
has had wide appli-
reference signals in the
The two methods described above are not the only ones of obtaining coherent MTI. The various arrangements may be classified according to
Sec. 4.2]
MTI AND
PULSE-DOPPLER RADAR
;
119
(1) the transmitter locks the oscillator, or vice versa (2) the locking takes place or IF; and (3) the echo and reference signals are compared at RF or IF. This results in eight possible combinations. 1
whether
at
RF
4.2.
Delay Lines and Cancelers
Although the simple delay-line canceler is limited in its ability to do all that might be desired of an MTI filter, it has been widely used. It was one of the first practical MTI filter techniques developed and is usually less complex than other possible techniques. The delay line must introduce a delay equal to the pulse-repetition interval. Thus delay times as long as several milliseconds are required for typical ground-based surveillance radars. Delay times of this magnitude cannot be achieved with practical electromagnetic delay lines. The length of the electromagnetic delay path would have to be equal to twice the unambiguous range of the radar. This difficulty is circumvented by converting the electromagnetic waves into acoustic waves and accomplishing the
PRF
trigger
system
Trigger
generotor
'"'
"""
|
AGC
.
Automatic balancing
circuits
pulse
Carrier
oscillator
+
Delay
line
Amplifier
Det.
Canceled
DpIo
p[
Modulator
Bipolor
Uir ect channe
Attenuation
Amplifier
Det.
Subtracter
Full-wave
1
video
rectifier
Fig. 4.7. Block diagram of a delay-line canceler.
delay in an acoustical delay line. After the delay, the acoustic waves are converted back to electromagnetic waves. The velocity of acoustic waves depends on the delay medium, but it is of the order of magnitude of 10~ 5 that of electromagnetic waves; hence acoustic delay lines can be of manageable proportions. Both liquids and solids have been used as the acoustic delay media. Mercury and fused quartz are the two media most widely employed for MTI radar application, but water, water-glycol mixtures, aluminum, magnesium, and glass have also been used in delay lines. A block diagram of a typical delay-line-cancellation network is shown in Fig. 4.7. The bipolar video from the phase detector modulates a carrier before being applied to the delay line. The carrier frequency might be typically 5 or 30 Mc, but frequencies ranging from 5 to 60 Mc or higher have been used. The radar output is not applied directly to the delay line as a video signal since it would be differentiated by the crystal transducers that convert the electromagnetic energy into acoustic energy, and vice versa. The carrier frequency modulated by the bipolar video is divided between two channels. In one channel the signal is delayed, while in the other it proceeds undelayed. The signal suffers considerable attenuation in the delay line, and it must be amplified in order to bring it back to its original level. Since the introduction of an amplifier into the delay channel can alter the phase of the delayed waveform and introduce a time delay, an amplifier with similar delay characteristics is included in the direct (undelayed) channel. An attenuator might also be inserted in the direct channel to aid in equalizing
1
the gain.
The amplification of the direct-channel amplifier need not be as large as that of the delayed-channel amplifier, but the frequency response and linearity of the two must be similar in order to effect good cancellation. Good cancellation in a typical
application might result in an uncanceled voltage residue of the order of
1
per cent or
120
[Sec. 4.2
The outputs from the delayed and undelayed channels are detected to remove the carrier and are then subtracted. The canceled bipolar video from the subtractor is rectified in a full-wave rectifier to obtain unipolar video signals for presentation on the
40 db.
Ideally, only moving targets produce an output from the subtractor. In order to maintain the gain of the two channels constant, a pilot pulse is inserted in the canceler. Any residue after cancellation is due to differences in channel gain or to the prf not being equal to the reciprocal of the delay time. The box labeled "automatic balancing" detects any amplitude or timing differences and generates an automatic gain-control (AGC) error voltage to adjust the amplifier gain and a timing-control error voltage to adjust the repetition frequency of the trigger generator. A typical transistorized MTI canceler operating at a prf of 360 pps and producing a cancellation ratio of 36 db may be housed in a f-ft 3 cabinet and operate on only 8 watts of power. 6 ' Delay-line Construction. 7 1 * The basic elements of an acoustic delay line are outlined in Fig. 4.8. The electromagnetic energy is converted into acoustic energy by a piezoelectric transmitting crystal. similar transducer (the receiving crystal) at the output
PPL
A
i
Transmitter
Receiver
c End
.
cell
-f\~\
crystal
'
crystoK cr
'
End K~\^^ _
cell
Delay medium
^Bonding material
Fig. 4.8. Basic elements of an acoustic delay
line.
energy back to electromagnetic energy. The quartznormally a high-g device with an inherently small bandwidth. However, when the transducer is coupled to the delay medium, the medium has a damping effect which broadens the bandwidth. Consequently, acoustic delay lines
of the
line converts the acoustic

is
crystal transducer
are relatively
broadband
devices.
enclosing the transducers may be either absorbing or reflecting. Reflecting cells are more efficient and easier to construct, but they sometimes produce
cells
The end
unwanted reflections which interfere with perfect cancellation. If the line is long enough and if the cancellation requirements are not too stringent, the unwanted reflections will be sufficiently attenuated by the line and may not be troublesome. For most applications the length of the line must be more than 1 ,000 ,asec for the secondaries to be attenuated sufficiently. An absorbing end cell will eliminate or reduce the reflections, but an absorbing end cell increases the insertion loss by 12 db (6 db per
transducer). One absorbing cell used in the early delay lines consisted of backing the transducer with the same medium. Mercury end cells of this type have been used in operating equipments, but are not very rugged. sturdier absorbing end cell may be made by soldering the transducer crystal to a solid material whose acoustic impedance matches that of the delay medium. For mercury, a good acoustic match can be obtained with a backing of hard lead. When the delay medium is solid rather than liquid, an additional problem is encountered in bonding the transducer to the delay medium. The purpose of the bonding is to provide maximum transfer of acoustic energy between the transducer and the delay medium. The lack of a good bonding material hampered the early development of the solid delay line. The discovery of a satisfactory bond using evaporated indium or various other cements made the solid delay line a practical device. One of the simplest acoustic delay lines consists of a straight cylindrical tube filled with liquid mercury. The transit time of acoustic waves in mercury at room temperature is approximately 1 7.5 ^sec/in. To produce a delay of 1 ,000 ,sec the line must be
Sec. 4.2]
MTI AND
PULSE-DOPPLER RADAR
121
57 in. in length exclusive of end cells. This is a manageable size in a ground-based radar, but in those applications where space is at a premium, it is of importance to make the
delay line as compact as possible. more compact configuration may be had by folding the line back on itself one or more times. The acoustic signal may be reflected at the folds by two plane reflectors set at 45 with the path of the beam and 90 with each other. Each fold in the line increases the insertion loss by about 1 to 3 db. Another method of obtaining a more compact delay line is to make use of multiple reflections in a tank filled with liquid, as
shown in Fig. 4.9. This technique has not proved to be too practical with liquid lines. The alignment of the reflecting surfaces is a problem, and it has been difficult to obtain a
leakproof construction. Although these difficulties might be overcome, it seems that the net saving in weight and space with the liquid tank is not significant as compared with the folded line. Solid delay lines were not used in the early MTI radars because of development difficulties. These difficulties were surmounted, and solid delay lines are not only practical, but in many respects they are superior to liquid
lines.
The velocity of sound in solids is greater than that in mercury; consequently a slightly longer delay path is
necessary for the same total delay time. greater beam spread also results in solids because of the greater velocity. However, the longer delay path required in solid media is not a limitation since it is quite practical to construct a solid line to obtain multiple folded paths similar in cross section to that of the liquid-mercury tank of Fig. 4.9. There is no leakage problem with the solid delay Fig. 4.9. Volumetric delay line line, and the size and weight are less than with liquid. using multiple reflections in a Thus the solid delay line permits comparable delay times in tank of mercury (also similar smaller packages. The most suitable solid delay medium to multiple reflections in solid has been fused quartz. Although the solid delay line delay lines). using multiple folded paths can be constructed with a shape similar to the tank of Fig. 4.9, a more suitable shape is the many-sided polygon as illustrated by the 15-sided polygon in Fig. 4. 10. (The crystal is made with only 14 facets since no reflections take place at one of the facets.) The signal makes 31 passes across the line. This is sometimes called a 15 MS-31 design. Solids are capable of supporting both the shear and the longitudinal mode of propagation. Since the velocity of propagation is slower in the shear mode, it is preferred to the longitudinal mode. This is in contrast to the liquid line, where the longitudinal
mode is preferred. One of the disadvantages of either solid or liquid delay lines is the large insertion loss.
The
insertion loss of a typical folded
8
:
mercury delay
line
with 1,000 /tsec delay
is
as
follows
loss of the crystals ... Free-space attenuation in mercury Tubular attenuation
Impedance mismatch
36 db
12.8
2.7
db db
The
loss
due to these three effects is 52 db. The impedance mismatch of 36 db assumes perfectly reflecting end cells. Absorbing end cells cause an additional 12-db loss. The attenuation in the tube is based on a smooth surface; rough surfaces cause additional loss. A further loss of 5 to 10 db occurs at the reflecting surfaces of the folded line. (There are six reflecting surfaces or three corner reflectors in this particular folded line.) Thus the attenuation could be as much as 70 to 75 db.
total insertion loss
122
[Sec. 4.2
Another disadvantage of acoustic delay lines is the presence of unwanted secondary which may arise from a number of sources. One source of secondaries is the third-time-around signal caused by the reflections at the receiver crystal which travel back up the line and are again reflected by the transmitter crystal toward the receiver
signals
three times that of the original delay. Further reflections can result in secondaries at any odd number of delay times. Secondaries may also be produced by such processes as conversion from one mode of propagation to another (longitudinal to shear mode, or vice versa), scattering by
crystal.
is
The delay path
from the receiving
crystal
Input
transducer
Output transducer
"Absorber material
Fig. 4.10. Multiple reflections in 31-pass quartz delay
line.
(Courtesy Bliley Electric Company.)
inhomogeneities within the medium, and dispersion effects. These may be eliminated or reduced with a straight-line delay path of large cross section. In the folded-path delay line using multiple internal reflections, secondaries might also appear at the receiving transducer because of the sidelobe radiation from the transducer's diffraction pattern. Radiation from the transmitter sidelobes might be internally reflected over some path other than the main path and find its way to the receiving transducer, where it may be detected by the main beam or by its sidelobes. The secondary responses are similar in shape to the input pulse, and they may arrive at the receiver either before or after the main delay. In addition to discrete secondaries, there is usually a continuous background of unwanted responses which bear no relationship to the shape of the input
pulse.
A comparison of the characteristics of a ,000-^sec fused-quartz delay line and a mercury delay line is shown in Table 4. The operating frequency is 1 5 Mc for both lines. The quartz line is a 15-sided polygon as in Fig. 4.10. The signal makes 31
1 1
.
Sec. 4.2]
MT1 AND
Table
4.1.
PULSE-DOPPLER
15
RADAR
123
Performance of
l,000-/<sec
Delay Lines at
Fused quartz
45
Met
Mercury
65
Characteristic
Insertion loss, db, into 1,000
ohms
Secondaries, db below main delay
40
50
6
1
50
55
Third-time-around signal, db below main delay

3-db bandwidth,
Mc
25
8
Weight, lb
Size, in. 3
25
coefficient of delay,
34
Temperature
10 6 /C
Temperature range, C
13 t Arenberg.
-100 -55 to +100
+ 300 38 to +80
passes.
line
is
The mercury delay

than the mercury
is
line
and its size and weight are less. mechanical shock and vibration as well as temperature variations. On the other hand, the unwanted secondary responses generated in the solid delay line are usually greater than in the cylindrical mercury line, and the manufacturing of quartz lines may be slightly more involved than the manufacturing of mercury lines. The tendency in most modern MTI radars using delay-line cancelers is to employ the solid delay line rather than the liquid line. Other types of delay devices which might conceivably be used for MTI application are magnetic drums or disks and electrostatic storage tubes. Most commercial delay lines have used quartz crystals as the transducer elements. The quartz-crystal transducers constitute a significant portion of the total insertion loss (approximately 36 db out of a total of 45 db for a typical solid line using fused quartz or 65 db for a liquid-mercury line). If barium-titanate ceramic were used for the transducer elements rather than quartz crystals, its higher coupling coefficient would result in a significantly lower over-all insertion loss. An experimental delay line developed at the Bell Telephone Laboratories 15 using barium-titanate transducers with a fusedquartz delay medium resulted in a total midband insertion loss of 20 db. The length of this line was 1 ,000 /^sec, and it operated at a carrier frequency of 1 5 Mc with a bandwidth of 6.7 Mc as measured between the half-power points. The spurious responses were claimed to be as good as obtained with quartz-crystal transducers. Quartz-crystal transducers when used with solid lines are normally designed to generate shear waves (to reduce mode conversion), but barium-titanate transducers normally generate longitudinal waves, which must be converted to shear waves. This may be readily accomplished by reflecting the longitudinal waves off a surface at a critical angle which completely converts the longitudinal waves to shear waves. Filter Characteristics of the Delay-line Canceler. The delay-line canceler acts as a filter which rejects the d-c component of clutter. Because of its periodic nature, the filter also rejects energy in the vicinity of the pulse repetition frequency and its harmonics.
less
line,
is
is a cylinder. the bandwidth
The
insertion loss of the solid quartz
wider,
The
solid line
less subject to
The video
signal [Eq. (4.3)] received
from a particular
target at a range i?
is
V1 =ksin(2 1rfd t-4^

where
</>
(4.4)
phase shift AnfRjc amplitude of video signal At a time t + T, where T = the pulse-repetition interval, the video voltage from the same target will be
= =
V2 = k sin
[iTrfit
+ T)-
<f>
(4.5)
124
[Sec. 4.2
is
the
Everything else is assumed to remain essentially constant over the interval Tso that k same for both pulses. The output from the subtractor is
v=h-
k sin nf
(l
T cos **(. + *)
4>o
(4.6)
The normalizing factor multiplies each video voltage since it is assumed that the power, and hence the video voltage, are equally divided between the delayed and the undelayed
channels of the canceler. It is also assumed, without loss of generality, that the gain through the delay-line canceler is unity. The output from the canceler [Eq. (4.6)] consists of a cosine wave at the doppler frequency^ with an amplitude k sin irf T. a Thus the amplitude of the canceled video output is a function of the doppler frequency
shift and the pulse-repetition interval, or prf. The relative frequency-response characteristic of the delay-line canceler [ratio of the amplitude of the output from the delay-line canceler, k sin (nf d T), to the amplitude of the normal radar video k] is shown
in Fig. 4.
1 1
The ordinate
is
sometimes called the
visibility factor.
Vt
Frequency
Vr
T
--
Fig. 4.1
time
Relative frequency response (visibility factor) of the single-delay-line canceler;

.
delay
l// r
Blind Speeds. The response of the single-delay-line canceler will be zero whenever the argument 7rf etc., or when d Tin the amplitude factor of Eq. (4.6) is 0, tt,2tt,
.
. .
f --Jd
-
nfr
(4.7)
where n
The delay-line canceler not only eliminates the d-c component caused by clutter (n 0), but unfortunately it also rejects any moving target whose doppler frequency happens to be the same as the prf or a multiple thereof. Those relative target velocities which result in zero MTI response are called blind speeds and are given by
nX
= 0, 2, f = pulse repetition frequency

1,
.
IT
where v
is
= -?
2
If A is
1, 2, 3,
(4.8a)
the th blind speed.
measured
in centimeters,
in cps,
and the
relative velocity in knots, the blind speeds are
v "
=^Mi
102
(4.8&)
blind speeds are one of the limitations of pulse MTI radar which do not occur radar. They are present in pulse radar because doppler is measured by discrete samples (pulses) at the prf rather than continuously. It will be recalled that the radar was blind to targets with zero or near-zero radial velocity. In addition, the pulse radar is blind to those targets whose radial velocity satisfies Eq. (4.8). If the
The
with
CW
CW
first
blind speed is to be greater than the maximum radial velocity expected from the target, the product Xf Thus the MTI radar must operate at long r must be large.
Sec. 4.2]
MTI AND
PULSE-DOPPLER R.ADAR
125
wavelengths (low frequencies) or with high pulse repetition frequencies, or both. Unfortunately, there are usually constraints other than blind speeds which determine Therefore blind speeds might not the wavelength and the pulse repetition frequency. be easy to avoid. Low radar frequencies have the disadvantage that antenna beamwidths, for a given-size antenna, are wider than at the higher frequencies and would not be satisfactory in applications where angular accuracy or angular resolution is important. The pulse repetition frequency cannot always be varied over wide limits since it In Fig. 4.12, the is primarily determined by the unambiguous range requirement. first blind speed v t is plotted as a function of the maximum unambiguous range If the first blind speed were cT/2), with radar frequency as the parameter. (/? unamb 600 knots, the maximum unambiguous range would be 1 30 nautical miles at a frequency
0,000
.
1
\l
X'W M
\
^\.
\.
\l
MIL
X%
1,000
\?>
X
\
N.
^
~~
^%> N^\ \o x&\ \

\^> \cx
v\
--*
\o
>
~E
~
\<?,
NP\
\^
>y _
\
INlk
10
first
\c \
X
100
i i
^v
iS
IN
1
XI
is
iS
INI
100
nautical miles
1,000
Maximum unambiguous range,

Fig. 4.12. Plot of
MTI
radar
blind speed as a function of
maximum unambiguous
range.
Mc (UHF), 13 nautical miles at 3,000 Mc (S band), and 4 nautical miles at 10,000 Mc (X band). Since commercial jet aircraft can have speeds of the order of 600 knots, and military aircraft even higher, blind speeds in the MTI radar can be a serious limitation.
of 300
In practice, long-range MTI radars that operate in the region of L or S band or higher and are primarily designed for the detection of aircraft must usually operate with ambiguous doppler and blind speeds if they are to operate with unambiguous range. The presence of blind speeds within the doppler-frequency band reduces the detection capabilities of the radar. Blind speeds can sometimes be traded for ambiguous range, so that in systems applications which require good MTI performance, the first blind speed might be placed outside the range of expected doppler frequencies if ambiguous range can be tolerated. It is possible, in principle, to resolve range ambiguities by varying the pulse repetition frequency as described in Sec. 2.10. However, the necessity for resolving range ambiguities in this type of radar adds to its complexity and generally requires a longer time on target. Furthermore, the MTI performance will
usually suffer.
It is
also possible to reduce the effects of blind speeds with a staggered
prf as described
later.
Unambiguous doppler information (no blind speeds) as well as unambiguous range are simultaneously possible in a long-range ground-based search radar if the transmitted frequency is sufficiently low. For example, a radar operating at a frequency of
126
[Sec. 4.2
100 Mc and a prf of 200 cps can achieve an unambiguous range of 400 nautical miles with a first blind speed of 600 knots. But at 1 00 Mc, the angular resolution is 1 00 times worse than it would be at 10,000 Mc (X band) for an antenna of the same size. Response of Single-delay-line Canceler. The maximum sensitivity of an MTI When the 1 [Eq. (4.6)]. receiver with a delay-line canceler occurs when sin {jrf d T)
= _
doppler frequency
shift is small,
we may
write
.
Voltage response at low doppler frequencies
Maximum voltage
where
vr vt
vr
response
T_
tu^.
.. _.
vx
= =
relative velocity
first
of target
blind speed
Equation
(4.9) expresses the ratio
compared with maximum response.
fr =
radar operating at 2,000 cps. The
between the response of a target moving with velocity As an example, consider (as does Ridenour 1 ) a a wavelength of X = 9.2 cm with a pulse repetition frequency
A first blind speed computed from Eq. (4.8) is 180 knots. thunderstorm moving at a relative velocity of 30 mph (26 knots) will produce a response In other words, if the echo from the cloud were 7 db 7 db below the maximum. greater than the echo from the target, both would appear to be of equal strength at the output of the delay-line canceler. Thus we may conclude that this type of performance Experience has confirmed is not good enough to eliminate the slowly moving cloud. that MTI radars with the type of characteristics as illustrated by the above example do not eliminate as much of the storm clutter as might be desired. The delay-line filter characteristic should have more attenuation in the vicinity of zero doppler frequency,
as in the double-delay-line canceler discussed later. If the target is assumed to be of constant cross section
velocity with equal probability,
it is
and can have any radial of interest to ask what is the probability of the target being detected with the MTI radar as compared with the probability that it will be detected with a normal non-MTI radar. It is assumed for purposes of comparison mi) is the same as the that the maximum sensitivity of the MTI radar (i.e., when nfd T non-MTI radar sensitivity. It is also assumed that the signal strength (power) received
by the MTI radar at maximum response is K times the minimum detectable signal. (The problem of defining the minimum detectable signal is ignored here since it is the The relative performance between MTI and non-MTI radars which is of interest.)
relative (voltage) response
of the
MTI
than that corresponding to
maximum
radar when the target radial velocity response is
is
other
Relative (voltage) response
= Vk sin {jrfd T)
(4.10)
target will be detected by the MTI radar whenever Eq. (4.10) is equal to or greater than unity. The probability that the signal will be detected by the MTI radar compared with the probability that it will be detected by the non-MTI radar is
The
Relative probability
= */2 - sinÔ/V*)
77-/2
(4 ., 1}
It represents the fraction of time Eq. (4.10) is greater than It should be cautioned that values of doppler are equally likely. No this simple analysis of the relative detection capability is only an approximation. definition has been given for minimum detectable signal, nor is the assumption that all doppler velocities are equally likely a good one in all circumstances. Although Fig. 4.13 shows that the performance of the MTI radar is not as good as a radar without
This
is
plotted in Fig. 4.13.

all
unity,
assuming
MTI,
it
("in the clear").
should be remembered that this applies to a target in the absence of clutter An MTI radar will maintain its performance in those situations
Sec. 4.2]
MTI and
effectiveness of the
Pulse-doppler Radar
is
127
where the
normal non-MTI radar
drastically reduced
by the
presence of large clutter echoes. The assumption used above Probability of Obtaining a Particular Radial Velocity. that all radial velocities are equally likely may not always be realistic, although it is a
convenient one and probably as good an assumption as any if there is no prior knowledge of target behavior. In this section the radial- velocity probability-density function for two different target assumptions will be derived.
10
K=
ratio of
50 40 20 30 MTI echo signal power to non-MTI minimum detectable signal
Relative detection probability of a single-delay-line canceler MTI as Fig. 4.13. Plot of Eq. (4.11). compared with a non-MTI radar (all doppler frequencies assumed equally likely, with the target "in
the clear").
case 1 target with constant velocity. It is assumed that the target velocity v is constant and that the target trajectory makes an angle 6 with the axis of the radar beam All values of the angle d are assumed as shown in Fig. 4.14. Target (Any angle is just as likely to be to be equally probable.
:
observed as any other angle.)

v cos 0.
It is
The
relative velocity
is
vr
desired to find the probability-density function for the relative velocity, that is, the probability that the reladvr tive velocity will lie between the values of vr and v r
a problem in determining the change in the probThe techability-density function with a change in variable. concise nique involved is standard in probability theory. 16 If there is a explanation is given, for example, by Bendat. functional relationship between two random variables y =f{x),
This
is
Radar Fig. 4.14.
Geometry of
target.
radar and
is
assumed single-valued, and a one-to-one correspondence between y and x, then the probability-density function for p(y) probability-density function for p(x) by
p(y)
related to the
dy
= p(x) dx =
(4.12a)
or
p(y)
dy/dx
np(x)
(4.12b)
If each value of y corresponds to n values of x, then
P(y)
(4.13)
dy/dx
128

is
[Sec. 4.2
In our example the probability-density function for the angle 6
given by
1*0)
=r
(4.14)
ATI
since 6 is equally likely over the range from of v r corresponds to two distinct values of
to 2n.
We wish to findp(vr
(+0 and
0), so that
1
).
Each value
P(v r)
2p(6)
dv r jdB
vr
ttv
<v
(4.15)
sin 6
The minus sign obtained on differentiation is ignored since probability-density functions must always be positive. A plot of this equation is shown in Fig. 4. 1 5. CASE 2 TARGET VELOCITY BETWEEN D min AND When the target velocity v and the angle ttmax:
are both random independent variables, the joint probability-density function for v and vr
is
p(v,v r)
= p(v)p(v )
r
(4. 1 6)
0.4
0.6
again assumed to be equally to 2w, while the target velocity is assumed to lie anywhere within the range v min to v max Therefore p{v) (t>max -1 tfmin) and p(vr) is given by Eq. (4.15). To find the probability-density function for vr Eq. (4. 1 6) must be integrated over the variable v.
is
The angle
likely over the interval
Fig. 4.15. Probability-density function of assuming constant velocity and all angles equally likely.
PlO>r)
p(v,v r )dv
(4.17)
Because v r can never be greater than

divided into two parts. integral will never exceed v, and
integration
is
v,
the
When
vr
min,
the variable v r within the
PiiPr)
=
"(^max
1
(l>
I*?)-*
dv
^min) ""min
=
When
fc<v)
v r lies
-(cosh-i
^22
cosh" 1
^)
l
1
for
<
Vr
<
Vn
(4.18)
=-
within the limits of integration v min and v m&

/""max
.
7r(l>max
fminj J r
(v
-viy i dv=
7r(l)
m ax
cosh
^min)
-1
"max
Vr
for y min
<V <
r
Umax
(4.19)
A plot of the probability-density function as given by Eqs. (4.18) and (4.19) is shown in
Fig. 4.16. If the relative velocities are distributed according to Eq. (4.19), instead of uniformly as assumed in the derivation of Eq. (4.11) or of Fig. (4.13), the over-all target-radar response characteristic for the simple-delay-line canceler may be obtained by multiplying the ordinate of Fig. 4.1 1 (with relative velocity instead of frequency as abscissa) and a curve similar to Fig. 4.16, but with the appropriate values of v mln and
Sec. 4.2]
MTI AND
PULSE-DOPPLER RADAR
129
Multiple and Staggered Pulse Repetition Frequencies. The blind speeds of two independent radars operating at the same frequency will be different if their pulse repetition frequencies are different. Therefore, if one radar were "blind" to moving
targets, it would be unlikely that the other radar would be "blind" also. Instead of using two separate radars, the same result can be obtained with one radar which time-shares its pulse repetition frequency between two or more different values {multiple prf 's). The pulse repetition frequency might be switched every other scan or every time the antenna is scanned a half beamwidth, or the period might be alternated on every other pulse. When the switching is pulse to pulse, it is known as a staggered prf. 17
Fig. 4.16.
Probability-density function of relative velocity, assuming target velocities distributed

v mBK
.
uniformly from v min to
An example of the composite (average) response of an MTI radar operating with two The separate pulse repetition frequencies on a time-shared basis is shown in Fig. 4. 1 7. pulse repetition frequencies are in the ratio of 5 :4. Note that the first blind speed of
is increased several times over what it would be for a radar operating on only a single pulse repetition frequency. Zero response occurs only when the blind speeds of each prf coincide. In the example of Fig. 4. 1 7, the blind speeds are coincident for 4/7\ Although the first blind speed may be extended by using 5/r2 more than one prf, regions of low sensitivity might appear within the composite
the composite response
passband.
One method of obtaining the second pulse repetition frequency is to add to the MTI delay line in the cancellation network a short section of line that is switched in and out of the system periodically. In addition to changing the length of the delay line, the pulse-repetition interval of the transmitted signal must also be changed. Switching may be accomplished every scan, every half beamwidth, every pulse, or some other convenient grouping of pulses. Although switching of the repetition period on every alternate pulse may be convenient, it is not always advisable if the
possibility of large second-time-around clutter echoes exists. clutter
echo
will
A second-time-around not cancel in the delay line when the prf's are staggered pulse to pulse.
130
[Sec. 4.2
Echoes might result that could be taken for those of a moving target. Observation of second-time-around echoes over several scans will show whether the target is in motion or is stationary and may be ignored. Nevertheless, one should carefully consider the effect of second-time-around echoes before specifying staggered prf 's. The reason second-time-around echoes do not cancel is described below.
Frequency
(i)
Fig. 4.17. (a) Frequency-response characteristic (visibility factor) for/, l/T^; (c) composite frequency response with 7i/r2 i.
1/Ti;
(6)
same for/.
Trigger to modulato
Ganged switches-M
Delay
Bipolar video
line
PRF generator period T
Delay-line canceler
delay
_Canceled "video
Fig. 4.18.
Means
for generating a staggered prf.
Consider the simple block diagram in Fig. 4.18, which illustrates that portion of the radar which might be used to produce a pulse transmission staggered every other pulse. The prf generator output is a steady train of pulses with a uniform interval T. These
pulses trigger the modulator, which, in turn, fires the transmitter. The trigger pulses are alternately switched between an undelayed path and a short section of delay line of
length
e.
The period between the transmitted pulses
is
alternately
and
T+
as
Sec. 4.2]
MTI AND
PULSE-DOPPLER R.ADAR
131
of Fig. 4.19a. The target echo returns after a time In those periods where the transmitted pulse was delayed, the received echo would be undelayed. Conversely, in those periods where the transmitter trigger Therefore pulse was undelayed, the received echo would be delayed by an amount e. target echoes at the input to the delay line {B in Fig. 4. 1 8) appear from pulse to pulse at The delay line in the canceler is of the same time with respect to the trigger pulses. length T. The received pulses are delayed an amount e in addition to their transit time Tr This additional delay e may be readily accounted for in the timing circuits.
shown
in the timing relationships
Tr
as shown.
Basic PR ,
1
T+t
H* T-t-*)
i
Transmitter
trigger
i
LJ
I
-r+e
Received echo at/3
T
J 7^ ^
r +c\ r +t \- -\T ->U+cfr- -j T
Received echo
<)
h r
Basic
>
\
'
r-
PRF
H
Transmitter
trigger
r+e-
t-r-*-i|
-J
Jb
i
-jfrh-
-j.
Received echo at/J
-J
Received echo
ot
I
îh-
h^-i
(A)
-&*-i
Fig. 4.19. Timing relationships in staggered prf
MTI
radar,
(a)
Normal,
fixed-clutter target;
(/>)
second-time-around clutter
target.
a second-time-around target appears, the pulse-to-pulse echoes do not have Therefore an at the input to the delay-line canceler. uncanceled residue results, just as if the target were in motion. This is illustrated by
When
the
same time relationship
the timing relationships in Fig. 4.196. In addition to the extra equipment required of the staggered-repetition-rate MTI radar, the data rate (number of hits per scan) is effectively lowered because of the time
sharing between the two frequencies. Another method of generating a staggered prf using a recirculating trigger pulse (as described later in Fig. 4.32)
is
shown
in Fig. 4.20.
132

Cancellation.
[Sec. 4.2
Double
The frequency-response function of a
single-delay-line
canceler (Fig. 4. 1 1) does not have as broad a clutter-rejection null as might be desired in the vicinity of d-c or at doppler frequencies corresponding to the prf and its harmonics. The clutter-rejection notches may be widened by passing the output of the delay-line
PRF-
Trigger
generator
[Switching
Bipolcr
Pulse amplifier
video
Modulator
Delay
line
_J
Delay line
T
Undelayed channel
Det.
Canceled
video
Subtractor
Det.
in
In the double-delay-line
Fig. 4.20.
Means
for generating a staggered prf with a recirculating pulse.
canceler through a second delay-line canceler (Fig. 4.21a). canceler, the output from the single-delay-line canceler
V=
is
fcsimr/^Tcos
2-nL
(+{)-*;
earlier.
(4.6)
subtracted from the canceler output
V from the pulse period Tsec
V=
The
resultant output
k sin tt/jTcos
is
(4.20)
from the second canceler :eler
the difference between \
Kand
V
(4.21)
V-V = k
The amplitude of
_ 2 sin nfd T sin
[2irf^t
T)
<
the double canceler compared with a non-MTI radar has a sinesquared shape (Fig. 4.22) rather than the sine-wave response of a single-delay-line
Input
_r
Deloy
line
/"=V/ r
Delay
line
T-\/f r
Output
Input
Delay
line
T-%
Output
Delay
line
T=Vf r
-2
Fig. 4.21. (a) Double-delay-line canceler; (b) three-pulse-comparison canceler.
canceler.
Double cancellation requires tion in response for moving targets.
more equipment and results in a slight reducNote that the double-delay-line frequency-
response characteristic is the square of the single-delay-line characteristic. This may be seen by inspection since the double-delay-line canceler is simply two single-delay-line
cancelers in cascade.
The two-delay-line configuration of Fig. 4.21* has the same frequency-response characteristic as the double-delay-line canceler. The operation of the device is as follows. signal f(t) is inserted into the adder along with the signal from the
Sec. 4.2]
MTI AND
its
PULSE-DOPPLER RADAR
133
preceding pulse period, with
from two pulse periods previous.

f{t)
amplitude weighted by the factor 2, plus the signal The output of the adder is therefore
2f(t
T) +f(t
+ IT)
which
is
the
same
as the output
f{t)
from the double-delay-line canceler

T) -fit
-/(/+
T) +fit
+ IT)
This configuration is commonly called the three-pulse-comparison canceler. The three-pulse-comparison canceler is equivalent to the delay-line canceler only so long as they are both in perfect adjustment. If the circuits drift out of adjustment because of aging of components or some other cause, the double-cancellation network will not If either one of the two deteriorate as rapidly as the three-pulse-comparison network.
Fig. 4.22. Frequency response of single-delay-line canceler (solid curve) and double-delay-line canceler (dashed curve). Shaded area represents clutter spectrum.
cancellation networks which constitute the double canceler drifts out of adjustment, the other is still capable of canceling stationary clutter, and if both are out of adjustment by
a small amount, the residue which is left is the product of two small quantities and is On the other hand, in the three-pulse-comparison network, any also a small quantity. drift in the pulse amplitudes from their correct values results in a first-order lack of
cancellation.
parison canceler
Another advantage of the double canceler over the three-pulse-comis that each section can be adjusted separately.
Fig. 4.23. Canonical-configuration
comb
filter.
(After White
and Ruvin, w IRE
Natl. Cortv. Record.)
Shaping the Frequency-response Characteristic. The ideal MTI filter characteristic one which rejects the clutter spectrum without eliminating any moving targets. The ideal characteristic is not achievable in practice, but it is possible to obtain delay-line filters with frequency characteristics more suitable than the sine or the sine-squared The techniques for synthesizing delay-line filters with characteristic of Fig. 4.22. 18-20 The almost any desired frequency response have been described in the literature. basic technique employs a number of delay lines in cascade with feedback and feedforward paths (Fig. 4.23). This general configuration may be used to implement any 18 realizable filter, and because of this property, it is called the canonical configuration.
is
134
[Sec. 4.2
The canonical configuration is useful for conceptual purposes, but it may not always
be desirable to design a
filter
in this
manner.
White and Ruvin 18

configuration
sections,
2 3 Angular frequency,
1
state that the canonical
may be broken
section having
into cascaded
no
more than two
oj
(a)
delay elements. Thus no feedback or feedforward path need span more than two delay elements. This type of configuration is sometimes preferred to the canonical configuration, example, the case of the double canceler vs. the three-pulse-comparison canceler. Ideally the two are equivalent. But if the delay lines are not in perfect adjustment, the three-pulse-comparison canceler (an example of the canonical configuration) gives poorer
as, for
1.0
0.5
1A
(i>)
-S
0.
"0
Frequency
1/7"
performance than the double canceler (an example of cascaded sections). The synthesis technique described by White and Ruvin may be applied with any known low-pass filter characteristic, whether it is a Butterworth, Chebyshev, or Bessel filter or one of the filters based on the elliptic-function transformation which has equal ripple in -the
W)
Fig. 4.24. (a) Three-pole Chebyshev lowpass filter characteristic with 0.5-db ripple
in the passband (6-rf)delay-line filter charac;
band as well as in the passband. An example of the use of these filter characterrejection
istics
periodic
applied to the design of a delay-line filter is given in either of White's

-
teristics derived from (a). (After White, 1 " Proc. Natl. Con/, on Aeronaut. Electronics.)
papers. 18
19
Consider the frequency-response
Chebyshev lowhaving 0.5 db ripple in the passband (Fig. 4.24). The three different delay-line-filter frequency-response characteristics shown in Fig. 4.24/3 to d were derived from the low-pass filter characteristic of Fig. 4.24a. This type of filter characteristic may be obtained with a single delay line in cascade with a double delay line as shown in Fig. 4.25. The weighting factors shown on the feedback paths apply to the characteristic of Fig. 4.24c.
characteristic of a three-pole
filter
pass
Fig. 4.25.
Form
of the delay-line
filter
required to achieve the characteristic of Fig. 4.24c.
Another example of a delay-line periodic

is
filter with adjustable frequency response the double-loop, single-delay-line canceler (Fig. 4.26). Its frequency-response
is
characteristic
20
H(f)
Equation (4.22)
exp (jlvjT)
exptpTr/D-fc
is
(4.22)
plotted in Fig. 4.27 for various values of the feedback factor k.
SeC 4 2 ]
-
MTI AND
PULSE-DOPPLER RADAR
135
Cancellation at IF. 1 It is possible, in principle, to perform the delay and cancellation in the IF rather than the video portion of the radar receiver (Fig. 4.28). The two IF
signals of amplitude
VIF
subtracted by the canceler are
vi
V,
îf sin
M/JFi/i)*- Wht*o"
WifRo'
(4.23)
= Kp sin MflF fd )(t+T)is
(4.24)
One-half the difference between these two signals
Vd
= VlF sin [tt(/if fd )T~] cos 2H/if /)(' +

detector
is
j)
-^^2
_j^R^
(4.25)
The output of the phase
a voltage
Vv
kVlF
sin [t7(/if
/ )T] cos \2tt f + UiYf )d it i
(426)
to
The video voltage
is
at the doppler frequency /,,
and has an amplitude proportional
sin7r(/ IP
/,)r
Canceled output
(4.27)
Fig. 4.26. Double-loop, single-delay-line canceler; Trans.)
amplifier gain.
(After Urkomtz, 20
IRE
Unlike normal video cancellation, cancellation at IF involves a residue which is a function of the intermediate frequency times the time delay (f T). When there is no doppler frequency shift, fd 0, but the amplitude of the canceled signal [Eq. (4.27)] will not be zero unless Trf or/IF 0, tt, 2tt, lv T
=
.
n/T = nfr n = 0, 1, 2, 3, Hence a requirement of the IF delay-line canceler is that the intermediate frequency must be an integral multiple of the prf. In addition, it is also necessary that the delay line be more accurate than with video cancellation. With the video canceler, it is only necessary that the time delay be accurate to within a fraction of the pulse width (of the order of 1 per cent for 40-db cancellation), while in the IF canceler the delay time must be accurate
,
.
Frequency
Fig. 4.27. Response shaping of doubleloop, single-delay-line canceler of Fig. 4.26 with changing feedback factor k. (After Urkowitz, 20 IRE Trans.)
to within a fraction of the period of the intermediate frequency. If the delay time were to vary by
one-half of an IF period, the two signals reinforce rather than cancel. These two additional requirements imposed upon the IF canceler are not present with the video canceler and have, in the past, limited the application of IF-canceler circuits.
136
[Sec. 4.2
in the video delay-line canceler, that
Similar considerations apply to performing the subtraction at the carrier frequency is, by subtracting the delayed and the direct signals
is
before the carrier
removed.
Reference signal
Received J
signal
Delay line
IF
amplifier
-
~L
Subtracfor
f
,
Phase
detector
"
Canceled
video
from
mixer
r*
Fig. 4.28. Block diagram of IF delay-line canceler.
is
FM Delay-line Cancellation? The delay-line canceler of which Fig. 4.7 sometimes called an AM (amplitude-modulation) delay-line canceler.
1
is
an example
relative
The
gain stability between the delayed and the undelayed channels must be maintained within close limits if perfect cancellation is to result. Thus the two channels of delay-line cancelers must be maintained in perfect gain adjustment, which is one of its chief limitations. This disadvantage may be alleviated by converting the video amplitude variations into frequency variations. The frequencies of the delayed and
AM
the undelayed signals are compared, and any differences in frequency correspond to (frequency-modulation) cancellation. This is called differences in amplitude. canceler is that it is easier to keep in adjustment since gain The advantage of the canceler. variations between the two channels are not as important as with the
FM
FM
1
AM
Bipolor video
Canceled
Direct
from phase
FM
oscillator
'
Phase
detector
channel
Differentiation circuit
-* bipolar
video
detector
Delay
line
Delay
amplifier
Fig. 4.29.
FM
delay-line canceler using phase detector.
There are two types of

cancellation,
FM
cancellation systems.
One
is
called phase-detector
and the other
is
called two-mixer cancellation.
The block diagram of the
phase-detector cancellation circuit is shown in Fig. 4.29. An oscillator (such as a reactance-tube oscillator) is frequency-modulated according to the amplitude of the The frequency-modulated signal is divided between the delayed and the bipolar video. The output direct channels, and the two outputs are compared in the phase detector. of the phase detector is passed through a differentiating circuit. The differentiated output is proportional to the difference in frequency between the two signals and thus is
a measure of the uncanceled amplitudes of two successive video pulses. The output of delay-line canceler the differentiating circuit is of the same form as the output of the A full-wave rectifier inverts the negative pulses before the canceled video [Eq. (4.6)].
AM
is
applied to the PPI.

.
The block diagram of the two-mixer FM cancellation system is shown in Fig. 4.30. The video signal modulates the reactance-tube oscillator centered at frequency f One portion of the frequency-modulated signal is delayed, amplified, and fed into mixer 2. In the undelayed channel the modulated signal centered about f Q is mixed
oscillator of frequency^ in mixer 1 to obtain a modulated with the output of a stable signal centered about a carrier f fv The outputs from the two channels are heterodyned in mixer 2 to obtain a frequency-modulated signal centered about /j. This frequency-modulated signal is limited and applied to a discriminator to convert its frequency variations to amplitude variations. The output of the discriminator is proportional to the amplitude differences between two successive pulses.
CW
Sec. 4.2]
MTI and
Pulse-doppler Radar
137
The phase-detector canceler is the simpler of the two, but it requires high driving voltages for the phase detector if the system is to be broadband. Also, if double cancellation is desired, phase-detector cancellation presents additional complexities. The two-mixer cancellation can be used directly in double-cancellation MTI, thus
eliminating a second reactance-tube deviable oscillator.
Stable
CW
oscillator
Bipolar video
/i
from phase
FM
oscillator
Mixer
No.t
%+f\
Mixer No. 2
f\
Limiterond
discriminator
Conceled
-
bipolor
video
deteetor
,
fo
Delay
line
Delay
amplifier
Fig. 4.30.
FM delay-line canceler using two mixers.
double-cancellation network 2 using a single delay line is In the diagram two delay lines are shown, but only a single line is used in practice. On one pass the delay line operates at the fundamental of the crystal transducer (30 Mc), while on the second pass the crystals are driven at the third harmonic (90 Mc). This canceler is slightly different from that shown in Fig. 4.30 in that mixer 1 is in the delayed channel in Fig. 4.31 and in the undelayed channel of Fig. 4.30.
An
example of an
Fig. 4.31
.
FM
shown in
30-Mc
oscillator
90-Mc
Bipolar video
delay
line
Posfdelay amplifier
90 Mc
Mixer
No.
1
60 Mc
>
FM
oscillator
90 Mc
Mixer 30 Mc
Mo. 2
90 Mc
30 Mc
Double
1
Mixer 45 Mc
No. 2
Limiter and discriminator
canceled video
out
30-Mc
delay
line
Postdelay amplifier 30 Mc
Mixer
No.
\
1
75 Mc
45-Mc
oscillator
Fig. 4.31.
third
tronics.)
FM single
harmonic of the
delay line used for double cancellation by operating at the fundamental and the crystal transducer. {After Solomon? 1958 Proc. IRE Conf. on Military Elec-
The
ability
of the
than the
AM canceler.
FM canceler to attenuate fixed clutter signals

is
it
is probably no better Both types are capable of reducing clutter by about 30 to 35 db.
However, the advantage of the adjustment necessary with the A
FM canceler that does not require the continual M canceler in order to maintain maximum performance.
Generation of the Pulse Repetition Frequency. 1 If the delay time and the pulse repetition period are not exactly equal, perfect cancellation cannot be expected from the delay-line canceler. In general, it is not difficult to maintain a stable prf, but it is not
138
[Sec. 4.2
always easy to achieve a stable delay line. One reason the delay time might change is that the velocity of propagation of the delay medium is a function of the temperature. The velocity of sound waves in mercury will change by 1 part in 3,300 for a change in temperature of 1 C. The velocity change in fused quartz is 1 part in 1 0,000 for a 1 C change.j If a maximum temperature variation of 50 were anticipated, the total delay time would vary by 1.5 per cent in mercury and 0.5 per cent in fused quartz. The total time delay may also be influenced by the rest of the circuitry involved in the delay-line canceler. Time delays introduced by the circuitry (other than the delay line) in the delayed channel of the canceler must be balanced with equal time delay in the undelayed
channel.
D4
Trigger
D3
generator
'
<
Di
Pulse
amplifier
0,
Postdelay amplifier
Def.
Delay line Bipolar video
*1
Subtracter
Canceled
bipolar
video
Modulator
f
Direct channel
0%
Det.
Fig. 4.32.
Use of
the delay line to establish the prf.
The pulse-repetition period and the delay time may be maintained equal to one another by either adjusting the length of the delay line to the pulse-repetition interval or by using the delay line to generate the prf. In the former method a stable oscillator
generates the prf and the delay line is made of variable length so that it may be adjusted to match the pulse-repetition period. variable-length delay line may be constructed using a straight cylindrical tube filled with liquid and having a telescoping section. This technique was used in several early MTI systems.
line itself may establish the pulse repetition frequency by circulating a around the delay line as illustrated by the block diagram of Fig. 4. 32. The rate at which the trigger pulse circulates about the delay line determines the prf. Two separate delay lines adjacent to one another enclosed, within the same environment, may be used to generate separately the prf and to provide the delay for MTI cancellations. Or alternatively, a single line may be used for both functions. The pulse-repetition period Tis determined by the total delay time around the loop which contains the delay line D lt pulse amplifier Z>3 and trigger generator Z> or 4
The delay
trigger pulse
T = D + D3 + Dt
t
(4.28)
For perfect
cancellation, the difference in the time delays in the delayed
and undelayed
(4.29)
channel must also equal T, or
T= D + D - D
l
The delays
in the trigger pulse amplifier
D 3 can be made small, and D 3 plus the delay D2

1
will usually
be of the order of
Z> 1;
so
D3 + D z ^ D
(4.30)
The result is that the trigger-generator delay D4 must be zero, a condition which cannot be met in practice. The delay time of a typical trigger generator such as a blocking
t Special glass delay lines
1
can be obtained with temperature coefficients of time delay
less
than
ppm/C. 3 '
Sec. 4.2]
oscillator
MTI AND
might be of the order of 0. 1 ^sec.
PULSE-DOPPLER RADAR
139
One technique for compensating for the time delay in the trigger generator is to increase the time delay D with a length of 1 electrical delay line as shown in Fig. 4.33. The use of an electrical delay line is a simple "Solution to the problem. The electrical delay line may operate at either the carrier frequency or the video frequency, but it is usually inserted in the video because video delay lines are easier to achieve than carrier-frequency lines.
PRF-*--.
'
.
Trigger generator
<
Pulse
amplifier
Bipolar video
Acoustic delay line
>
Postdelay amplifier
Defector
Electrical
delay line
1
Canceled
bipolar video
Modulator
Direct chonnel
Subtracfor
Detector
Fig. 4.33.
Use of
generator.
short piece of electrical delay line to compensate for the time delay of the trieeer ' 5&
additional delay in D 1 may also be obtained acoustically by adding to the delay second receiving crystal at the appropriate distance from the output end of the line (Fig. 4.34). A 45 reflector, analogous to the half-silvered mirror of optics, is placed in the mercury delay line just before the normal output crystal to reflect a portion of the acoustic energy into a second output crystal. The position of the reflector may be made adjustable so as to vary the compensating delay. When the same delay line is used for both MTI cancellation and for generating the
The
line a
some means must be had for distinguishing the trigger pulse from the echo signal. The discrimination may be made on the basis of time selection or amplitude selection.
prf,
PRF-
Trigger
generator
Pulse amplifier
Acoustic delay lelay line

Bipolar video
Is
3
'
I
Postdeloy amplifier
Def.
Modulator -
Half-silvered"
n.
Subtractor
Det.
Conceled
bipolar
video
mirror
Fig. 4.34. Use of half-silvered mirror in mercury acoustic line to compensate for the additional time delay in the trigger generator.
Another technique is to use a different carrier frequency for the trigger pulse than that used for the echo signal. This is made possible by the large bandwidth of delay lines. The trigger generator must be self-starting, and it must be designed so that, once fired, it will not trigger additional pulses until the next pulse interval. Usually the recovery time constant of the trigger generator is made at least one-half the pulse-repetition period (Tj2). A blanking gate of duration T/2 may also be applied to the pulse amplifier
for additional reliability.
The pulse repetition frequency can be generated with a second acoustic delay line similar to that used for cancellation except that the prf delay line should be slightly shorter (on the order of a microsecond) to compensate for the delay Z> in the trigger 4 generator. The two delay lines should be operated side by side so that any changes
which take place
in the thermal
environment
will affect
both
lines equally.
This
'
140

is
[Sec. 4.3
arrangement
straightforward, but
it
requires increased space
and weight because of
the necessity of two lines.

Still another technique for equalizing the MTI delay time and the pulse-repetition period makes use of both the stable prf oscillator and a circulating signal in the delay This method has been called electronic frequency tracking. The line (Fig. 4.35). The coincidence circuit compares the time of occurstable oscillator must be tunable. If l)st pulse fed into the line. rence of the nth pulse from the delay line with the (n l)st pulse (undelayed) are coincident, the prf and the nth pulse (delayed) and the (n If the two pulses are not coincident in time, the the MTI delay line are in synchronism. time difference is converted to a voltage which is used as an error signal to change the
PRF
t
Turable,
stable
PRF
oscillator
I
Coincidence
circuit
,
. .
video >
Modulator
--
'
Delay line
Postdeloy amplifier
Det.
1
Subtractor
Canceled
bipolar video
*-
Direct channel
Det.
Fig. 4.35. Generation of the prf with frequency tracking.
frequency of the prf oscillator in a direction which will bring the two pulses in coincidence. The advantages of this technique are that any drift in the delays of the cancellation loop are automatically compensated and there are no additional mechanical Its disadvantages are that the prf oscillator must remain stable with no jitter, and parts. a relatively large number of tubes or transistors is required as compared with other
techniques.
4.3. Subclutter Visibility
In the discussion of the delay-line canceler it was assumed that the echo signal from and did not vary in either amplitude or phase from pulse to pulse. In practice, however, clutter echoes are not always stationary; they may be in motion so as to produce an uncanceled residue at the output of the delay-line canceler. This uncanceled residue might be mistaken for a moving-target signal. In addition to the internal motion of clutter, a residue at the output of the delay-line canceler may result from instabilities in the transmitting or receiving equipment or from changes in amplitude from pulse to pulse due to the shape of the antenna pattern. measure of the performance of an MTI radar is the subclutter visibility, which is subclutter defined as the gain in signal-to-clutter power ratio produced by the MTI. visibility of, for example, 30 db implies that a moving target can be detected in the presence of clutter even though the clutter echo power is 1 ,000 times the target echo power. Although the subclutter visibility is widely used as a measure of MTI radar
stationary clutter was fixed
performance, caution should be exercised in applying it to describe the relative performance of two different MTI radars. Two radars with the same subclutter visibility might not have the same ability to detect targets in clutter if the resolution cell of one (pulse width times beamwidth) is greater than the other and accepts a greater clutter
Sec. 4.3]
MTI and
Pulse-doppler
Radar
141
signal power; that is, both radars might reduce the clutter power equally, but one starts with greater clutter power because its resolution cell "sees" more clutter targets. The cancellation ratio is sometimes used to describe the performance of the delay-linecanceler network. It may be denned as the ratio of a fixed-target signal voltage after MTI cancellation to the voltage of the same target without MTI cancellation. The cancellation ratio is a number less than 1. Both the subclutter visibility and the cancellation ratio are usually expressed in decibels. The target-visibility factor, which was mentioned earlier in this chapter (Fig. 4.1 1), is defined as the ratio of the (voltage) signal strength from a target traveling at a specified radial velocity to the signal strength
from the same
target
when
it is
traveling at
an
is
optimum
radial velocity.
The
target-visibility factor applies
only when the target
MTI performance depends For purposes of discussion, the MTI radar considered in this section is that illustrated by the block diagram of Fig. 4.6, unless otherwise noted. It is a common type of MTI radar and consists of a pulsed oscillator transmitter, such as the magnetron, and a delay-line canceler to extract the doppler information from moving targets. The performance of MTI radar will deteriorate if the transmitter, the stalo, or the echo drift in frequency; if the time delay in the delay
The effect of equipment stability on upon the
particular configuration of the radar.
not in clutter. Equipment Stability.
does not equal the pulse-repetition interval if there are variations in pulse width or if the transmitter frequency changes during the pulse. It is also possible for the MTI performance to degrade because of such seemingly unimportant things as vibrations caused by the blowers used to cool the stalo. 22 Oscillator Stability. A change in either the transmitter, stalo, or coho frequencies will result in an uncanceled residue from fixed targets at the output of the delay-line canceler. If the transmitted angular frequency at the time a particular pulse is transmitted is w t and the phase is 4> the transmitted signal may be written as
line
;
pulse amplitude; or
t,
Transmitted signal
=V
sin (to t t
</>,)
(4.31)
The echo
s,
signal
from a. fixed target
at range
T = 2R/c after transmission. The stalo frequency at the time w and the IF echo signal at the input to the phase detector is
IF echo signal
where
<f> s
R arrives back at the radar receiver a time

the echo
is
received
is
= KIF sin
[(a> t
co s)t
co t
<f> t
<f> s ]
(4.32)
be recalled that in the MTI which uses an of the transmitted power provides the reference, or locking, pulse which locks the phase of the coho to that of the transmitter. The coho signal at time of phase lock is of frequency co c0 but with phase t s and is
is
the phase of the stalo.
It will
oscillator as the transmitter (Fig. 4.6), a portion
<f>
<j>
given by
Coho
signal at time of phase lock

,
= V
sin ((o CQ t
<f) t
ff> s )
(4.33)
During the time T when the pulse travels to the target and back, the coho oscillator might drift in frequency from its initial value to a value co c Therefore the coho signal which is fed to the phase detector at the time of the first echo pulse is
.
Coho
in the
signal to phase detector
= V
sin (a> c t
<f>t
<t>s)
(4.34)
The output of the phase detector is a sine wave with argument equal arguments of Eqs. (4.32) and (4.34). Therefore
Phase-detector output for pulse
1
to the difference
sin
[(co t
m w )t
s
c
a> t
(4.35)
In a perfect system,
(o t
=w +
s
(o c
and the phase-detector output is a
signal of constant
amplitude sin
co f
On the succeeding pulse a time
Hater, the frequencies of each of
142
[Sec. 4.3
the oscillators are assumed to have changed, so that the ouput from the phase detector
may be written as
Phase-detector output for pulse 2
k sin
[(co' t
w' s
co' c )(t
T)
co' T^\ t
(4.36)
where the primes denote the shifted values of oscillator frequencies. If the change in transmitter, stalo, and coho frequencies from one pulse period to the next is denoted = a> s + Aco s and by Acoj, Acys and Aco c respectively, then a>' = w t + Aco t a>' s <t) c + A(o c The difference between the transmitter and stalo angular frequencies (o' c is the IF angular frequency, co IF = co t w s It will be assumed that the coho frequency is not exactly tuned to the intermediate frequency. The difference will be denoted
, ,
Aco IF
a> t
w
s
co c .
The output of the delay-line canceler is the difference between Eqs. (4.35) and (4.36). If the oscillator frequencies are not the same from pulse to pulse, a stationary target will
produce a nonzero output equal to
Output of delay-line canceler
= k sin (Aw IF coô) k sin [(AIF + Aeoj Aw - Aco )(t +

/
s c
T)
t
Equation (4.37) is averaged over the pulse width r from divided by k, to give the cancellation ratio (CR):
(co + Aco )T = T to = T +
t t
(4.37)
r and
CR =
CTo + r
sin (Aco IF (
mT
t
fT
+r
sin
dt
tJTo
where Aco
tJt
[Aw
(r
T)
(m + Aa> )T]\dt
<
(4.38)
Aw IF Aco t Aco s Aw,,, Performing the integrations and a trigonometry, the cancellation ratio becomes
little
CR =
2 sin i
^)
+ Aco.To
t
cos J
is
"iFô
+ y +A Wo (t + T + l) - Aco TQ -
2co t
(4.39)
taken since it is assumed that a full-wave rectifier follows the In arriving at the above expression it was assumed that sin (Aco t/2) (** Aco t/2 and sin (Aco if t/2) s=a Aco if t/2, which are good assumptions for most radar applications. For small errors, the argument of the sine factor in Eq. (4.39) is also a small quantity, and it is likewise assumed that the sine may be replaced by its argument. Although the argument of the sine factor is small, the argument of the cosine factor can be a relatively large quantity because the term 2co t T is large. Therefore the absolute value of the cosine factor can take on any value from to 1 depending upon the value of T Its average value is 2/7T. Replacing the rapidly varying cosine term by its average value gives the following:
delay-line canceler.
,
.
The absolute value
CR =
Aco if (t
+ y - A Wo (r +T+^j + Aco T
t
(A/.
+ a/ )(t + T+ i) - a/(t+ ^) - A/i F T

c
(4.40)
where 2-nf co. In most cases the pulse width is small compared with the pulse period and t/2 may be neglected with respect to T. For purposes of illustration, take T equal
to
its
average value T/2.
The
cancellation ratio
c
is
CR = 4 |1.5(A/, + A/ ) -
A/
A/IF T
|
(4.41)
Sec. 4.3]
MTI and
Pulse-doppler Radar
143
If all frequency drifts are zero except the stalo, the cancellation ratio is equal to 6 A/s r.
If,
repetition frequency were 1,000 cps

to pulse
for example, the cancellation ratio were required to be 40 db and if the pulse 10~ 3 sec), the stalo frequency shift from pulse (T
30 db, the drift must be less than than 1.66 cps. For CR 20-db ratio. Similar considerations 5 cps pulse to pulse and less than 17 cps for a apply to the coho frequency drift. Short-term stability of a commercial S-band stalo might be of the order of 7 to 10 cps, while the stability of an Z,-band stalo might be 4 to 23-24 The stability could be improved if desired, but with more sophisticated 8 cps. equipment than a simple stalo oscillator. The stability of the coho will be better than that of the stalo since it operates at a much lower frequency, usually at 30 or 60 Mc. From Eq. (4.41) it is seen that if the only frequency drift is that of the transmitter, If there were no frequency drifts in the oscillators, but the residue is equal to 4 &ft T. if the coho were mistuned, the cancellation ratio would be 4 A/" IF r. stalo, transmitter, coho, and a mistuned drifts in effect of frequency combined The coho frequency is difficult to predict because the terms of Eq. (4.41) are not all of the same sign and the direction of the frequency drift can be either positive or negative. If it is assumed that the drifts follow a Gaussian distribution about some mean value and if the standard deviations are designated a t where i stands for s, c, t, or IF, then the rms cancellation ratio may be given by
must be
less
,
CRrms =
(Fig. 4.5) leads to
[(6<r s)
(6er c )
(4a t f
+ (4crIP
2 )
]ir
(4.42)
A similar analysis of the stability requirements for the MTI using a power amplifier
an interesting result for the case of uniform frequency drifts. Only two oscillators are involved, the stalo and the coho. The transmitted frequency is assumed to be the sum of the two. It is further assumed that the power amplifier has The transmitted signal negligible effect on the phase of the transmitted signal.
(neglecting amplitude factors)
t
is
+ The received RF signal from a target at a distance R = cT /2 V = sin + a>X* ~ W + & +

sin
[(eo,
c
<f> s <f> e ]
V =
+ w )t +
(4.43)
is
[(a,.
<f>c\
(4-44)
On reception the stalo

m' and s
a>' . c
and coho frequencies are assumed

is
to
have drifted to new values
The IF
signal
KIF
The coho
signal
sin [(co s
is
+ w )(t ~
e
To)
a>',t
< c ]
(4.45)
on reception
Vc
sin
(#
4> c )
(4.46)
is
Hence the output of the phase detector for the first echo pulse obtained by heterodyning Eqs. (4.45) and (4.46) and is
Pi
the difference signal
k sin
[(co s
w',)t
(co c
m' c )t
(ca s
+ m^T^
(4.47)
The output of the phase
detector for the next pulse, a time
T later, may be written

fl>
V2
where
k sin
a> sl
and
[Ki - <)(t + T) + (j el - (o'cl )(t + T) - {w A + eI )r ] (4.48) w cl = stalo and coho frequencies on transmission of second pulse
cl
m' sl and
<x>'
= =
stalo
and coho frequencies on reception of second pulse
a constant
D
144
If
it is

assumed that the
seen that
0) s
[Sec. 4.3
stalo
and the coho
drift at a
uniform rate
Aco s
Am J At and Am J At,
then
it is
m c
Am
ffl,
w,l
T T
At
Aft> S7,
and
ft>cl-
o). c
= 7 T At
is
The output of the *
delay-line canceler
V2 V
or
si
^ + r - " - ") - [
-
*('
Thus a uniform frequency amplifier MTI.

In practice, the drift
amplifier, although small,
drift
seems to result in perfect cancellation for the power
not be uniform and the phase variation introduced by the not always be neglected. Nevertheless, the above crude analysis indicates a possible advantage of the power amplifier MTI as compared with the power oscillator MTI. Accuracy of Delay Time andPRF. If the delay time and the pulse-repetition period are not exactly equal, an uncanceled residue will result from the output of the delay-line The output of the phase detector for a fixed target (f canceler. 0) is, from Eq. (4.3), d
may
may
V=
4
kF(t) sin
^^
c c c
F(t)
(4-50)
1,0
otherwise
where k
F{t)
= a constant = shape of echo signal (assumed rectangular) R = range f = transmitted frequency c = velocity of propagation
t
If the difference is assumed to be a pulse of constant amplitude and of width t. between the prf and the delay time is At, the output of the delay-line canceler will be
F(t)
V
The average of F(t
cancellation ratio
is
k[F(t
+ At) -
F(()]
sin^^
c
(4.5i)
At) F(t) over a time interval t At is 2 At jr. The average the average value of V divided by the amplitude of the input signal
sin (ATrR
f jc),
f
or
CR =
(4.52)
Sec. 4.3]
MTI AND
PULSE-DOPPLER
RADAR
145
if the pulse width were 1 ^sec, the difference between the prf and the delay time, At, must be less than 0.005 /^sec for a cancellation ratio of 40 db, 0.015 ^sec for 30 db, and 0.05 ^sec for 20 db. The temperature coefficient for fused quartz is approximately 10~ 4 part per degree centigrade at a frequency of 10 Mc and a
For example,
temperature of 20C. Therefore the temperature of a 1,000-^sec delay line must not fluctuate more than 0.05C if a 40-db cancellation ratio is to be achieved. Likewise the stability of the oscillator which generates the prf must be held to within 1 part in 2 x 10 5 to obtain a 40-db cancellation ratio. similar derivation can be made to determine the tolerance permitted in the pulse width. Although rectangular pulse shapes were assumed, it can be shown that the residue area is independent of the pulse shape and depends only upon the maximum amplitude of the pulse. 7
Fig. 4.36. Radar resolution cell (in angle and range) and clutter model consisting of many
Fig. 4.37. Vector summation of the contributions from the many independent scatterers constituting the clutter.
independent scatterers randomly distributed.
Although clutter targets such as buildings, water or mountains produce echo signals that are constant in both phase and amplitude as a function of time, there are many types of clutter that cannot be considered as absolutely stationary. Echoes from trees, vegetation, sea, rain, and chaff fluctuate with time, and these fluctuations can limit the performance of MTI
towers, bare
hills,
Internal Fluctuation of Clutter. ib
radar.
Because of its varied nature, it is difficult to describe precisely the clutter echo signal. However, for purposes of analysis, most fluctuating clutter targets may be represented by a model consisting of many independent scatterers located within the resolution cell of the radar (Fig. 4.36). The echo at the radar receiver is the vector sum of the echo signals received from each of the individual scatterers (Fig. 4.37); that is, the relative phase as well as the amplitude from each scatterer influences the resultant composite signal. If the individual scatterers remain fixed from pulse to pulse, the resultant echo signal will also remain fixed. But any motion of the scatterers relative to the radar will result in different phase relationships at the radar receiver. Hence the phase and amplitude of the new resultant echo signal will differ pulse to pulse. If it can be assumed that the relative phases of the echo signals received from the individual scatterers are random, that the number of individual scatterers making up the composite clutter signal is large, and that the radar cross section of any individual scatterer is
146
[Sec. 4.3
small compared with the total cross section, then the probability-density function for the envelope of the fluctuating echo signal may be represented by Rayleigh statistics.
The Rayleigh
I.U
f-^l
probability-density function p{w) for the fluctuations in the
clutter
0.5
echo power
w is
)
\4
0.2
p(w)
= exp (-
>
(4.53)
where w
\
\5
is
is the average power. In addition to the fluctuating com-
ponent of the
clutter
echo
signal, there
usually a constant (d-c)
component
0.1
A
0.05
i
which the fluctuations take place. An example might be trees on the side of a mountain. The echo from the mountain constitutes the constant portion, while the echo from
about
the trees contributes the fluctuating The probability distribution portion. function for a target which can be rep-
0.02
resented as one large reflector together with other small reflectors is 26

0.01
i i
1
'
10 15 Frequency, cps
Fig. 4.38.
20
25
P(w)
exp = 4w ex P
i
2vv
J )
>
(4.54)
Power spectra of various clutter targets. (1) Heavily wooded hills, 20-mph wind blowing (a = 2.3 x 10"); (2) sparsely wooded hills, calm day (a = 3.9 x 10 "); (3) sea echo, windy day (a =-- 1.41 x 10 16 ); (4) rain clouds (a = 2.8 x 10 13 );
1
distinguishes
targets
is
Another property of clutter which it from normal radar

is usually a diswhile aircraft are normally point targets. Further
(5)
chaff (a
x 10 16 ).
(From Barlow, 27 Proc.
that clutter
IRE.)
tributed
target
more
discussion of the properties of clutter will be found in Chap. 12. Examples of the power spectra of typical clutter are shown in Fig. 4.38. These data 27 apply at a frequency of 1,000 Mc. The experimentally measured power spectra of
clutter signals
may be approximated by
W(f)
\g(f)\
|g
exp
[-({)*]
(4.55)
where W(f)
gif)
= clutter-power spectrum as a function of frequency = Fourier transform of input waveform (clutter echo) f = radar carrier frequency a = a parameter dependent upon clutter
Values of the parameter a which correspond to the clutter spectra in Fig. 4.38 are given in the caption. Clutter fluctuations give rise to an uncanceled output from the delay-line canceler which may be calculated in a manner similar to that described for equipment fluctuations. The difference between the delayed and the undelayed waveforms is averaged, and the average power of the residue is a measure of the degree to which the clutter signal is attenuated by the delay-line canceler. This is called the clutter attenuation (abbreviated CA). Since the time waveform and the frequency spectrum are related by
Sec. 4.3]
MTI and
Pulse-doppler
Radar
147
the Fourier transform,
it is also possible to compute the clutter attenuation using the frequency spectrum instead of the time waveform.
The delay-line canceler was shown in its barest essentials in Fig. 4.4. The frequencyresponse function of the delay line is exp (j(o/f r), where f r is the pulse repetition frequency and is equal to the reciprocal of the time delay of the line. The frequencyresponse function of the delay-line canceler is therefore
H(f)
=1-
exp
(- &\ =
*
2/ sin
^-\ êxp (- j
Jr
^
'
(4.56)
Jr
Jr
The Fourier transform of the input waveform gx (f), when multiplied by the frequencyresponse function of the delay-line canceler, yields the Fourier transform of the output
waveform g2 (f).
gzif)
= gi(f)H(f)
(4-57)
The attenuation of
abbreviated
the clutter signal
by the
delay-line canceler (clutter attenuation,
CA) may be
written as the ratio of the input
power divided by the output

2
power
\gi(f)?df
\
gl (f)\
df
(4-58)
CA = T^
2
\g2(f)\
df
= -J^
4
\
Jo
gl (f)\* sin* (nf/fr )df
Jo
Substituting Eq. (4.55) for the input g x (f) into the above gives
f
exp [-(///)*] df
CA
Jo
4 f
Jo
sin (*///,)
exp [-a(/// ) a ] df
Integrating, the clutter attenuation
may be
1
written as
CA =
^
exp
[-(nfJfM
(4.59)
Equation (4.59) is plotted in Fig. 4.39 28 for several values of the ratio f /fr and as a function of the parameter a. Also indicated on the figure are the values of a which correspond to the experimental data of Fig. 4.38. If the exponent in the denominator of Eq. (4.59) is small compared with unity, the exponential term can be replaced by the first two terms of a series expansion with little loss of accuracy, or
CA
Wolf?
(4.60)
Equation (4.59) was derived for a single-delay-line canceler. The equivalent expression for the clutter attenuation provided by a double-delay-line canceler is 29
CA =
3
4 exp [-(77/ //r ) 2/a]
exp [-4(7,/ //r ) 2/]
(4.61)
For (nf lfryia<
1,
CA ^
12^/o/X)
(4.62)
The frequency dependence of the clutter spectrum as given by Eqs. (4.59) and (4.61) cannot be extended over too great a frequency range since the derivation does not take
148
[Sec. 4.3
any variation of cross section of the individual scatterers as a function of leaves and branches of trees, for example, may have considerably different reflecting properties at a wavelength of 1 cm, where the dimensions are comparable with the wavelength, from those at a wavelength of, say, 50 cm, which is long compared with the dimensions.
into account
frequency.
The
10
10'
10' 7
10' 8
a.
to''
to 20
Clutter spectrum exponent
Fig. 4.39. Effect of internal fluctuations
on
clutter attenuation.
(From
Grisetti et
al.,
2S
IRE. Trans.)
Assume, as before, the clutter echo to be the vector sum of from a number of independent scatterers included within the radar resolution cell. Even if all the individual scatterers were fixed so that there were no internal clutter motion, an uncanceled residue would result at the output of the delay- line canceler if the antenna is in motion. Antenna motion may be due to a rotation and/or a translational movement of the radar platform. Only the fluctuations in the echo caused by the rotational scanning of the antenna (scanning fluctuations) will be considered here. Fluctuations caused by motion of the radar platform are not present in a fixed, ground-based radar. They are of importance, however, in a radar carried on board a moving vehicle and will be considered later in Sec. 4.8. Assuming the usual idealized clutter target, the echo signal will consist of the vector sum of the contributions from the many independent scatterers randomly distributed
Scanning Fluctuations.
the echoes
within the radar resolution cell. Because the scatterers are considered to be independent, the received echo power is equal to the sum of the average power scattered by each of the objects. The power received from a stationary, distributed clutter target will be proportional to
J
where G(6)
is
G 2(0)
dd
(4.63)
the one-way antenna
voltage gain).
The gain
transit of radar signals.
power gain as a function of the angle 8 (two-way enters as the square in Eq. (4.63) because of the two-way It is further assumed in this analysis that the antenna elevation
angle
is
zero.
Sec. 4.3]
MTI and
Pulse-doppler
Radar
149
The scanning motion of the antenna causes the beam to shift to a slightly different azimuth on each pulse. Most scatterers remain within the beam. Some scatterers, however, are no longer illuminated, while others enter the beam and become illuminated. The result is that the total number of illuminated scatterers will be essentially the same from pulse to pulse but their relative distribution in space and their relative phase The resultant echo-signal voltage therefore varies from relations will be different. pulse to pulse, and an uncanceled residue remains at the output of the delay-line The uncanceled residue from two successive pulses is proportional to canceler.
[G(0
/:
+ A0) -
G(0)] 2 dd
(4.64)
where A0 is the angular motion of the antenna between pulses

is
The clutter attenuation
then
CA = 7^
J oo
[G(0
f 00
/*0O
G\6)d6
G 2 (6)d6
~
2 G(0)] dd
+ A0) -
~^t
(A0)
2
( 4 - 65 )
[G'(6)fde
J 00
Afl) G(d) was replaced by G'(0) A0, which In the above the voltage difference G(6 follows from the definition of the derivative when A0 is small. Strictly speaking, the oo since the angle oo to limits of integration do not extend from does not extend beyond 2-n- radians. In fact, the angular region of interest is only that region in the The limits in Eq. (4.65) were chosen, however, for ease of vicinity of the main beam. integration. Integration over the entire range of values does not appreciably affect the final result if narrow beamwidths and reasonably low antenna sidelobe levels are assumed. The antenna pattern is assumed to be of Gaussian shape
,v/,x
(7(0)
~ =G
exp
/ ^
2.7760 2 \
gg-j
is measured from the axis of the beam, B is the beamwidth included within the half-power points of the antenna pattern, and G is the maximum antenna gain. Substituting this into Eq. (4.65) and evaluating the integrals gives
where
CA = -2S2.776
(4.66)
where nB = 0#/A0 is the number of hits included within the 3-db beamwidth B There is very little difference in the results if instead of a Gaussian antenna pattern, a pattern of the form (sin 0)/0 is chosen. 28 The residue left after cancellation may be divided into an amplitude component and a phase component. Let R be the rms value of the signal voltage R, and let r be the rms value of the voltage residue r which remains after cancellation. The clutter attenuation of Eq. (4.65) is then Rl/r^. The vector r can be resolved into two components, one in the direction of R, the other at the right angles to R. The rms value of each of these
.
two components
is
rjVl.
Thus the rms amplitude
fluctuation of the residue
is r
/V2,
while the rms phase fluctuation is approximately r /(R V2), if R r Therefore, if an amplitude detector is used (as in the noncoherent radar described in Sec. 4.6), the phase fluctuations are eliminated, leaving only the amplitude fluctuations. The clutter attenuation in this case is twice that of Eq. (4.66). If the amplitude fluctuations are
.
>
eliminated with a limiter, only the phase fluctuations remain.
By converting phase
150

twice that of Eq. (4.66), or
[Sec. 4.3
fluctuations to amplitude fluctuations with the phase detector (as in the coherent
MTI),
the clutter attenuation
is
CA
1.388
(4.67)
A plot of this equation is shown in Fig. 4.40.

The
clutter attenuation
may
canceler through a second delay-line canceler (double cancellation).

70
be improved by passing the output of the delay-line The output of
60
-q50
C
140
3 C
<D
30
o20
10
'
il
J
20
I I
I I
II
II
2
rig,
10
of hits
number
100 200 included within 3 db beamwidth
50
500
1,000
Fig. 4.40. Clutter attenuation with a scanning antenna for single cancellation
and double cancellation.
Antenna pattern assumed

the second canceler following:
to
be of Gaussian shape.
is
[G'(6
A0)
G'(6)]
A0
&
G"(6)(A6f, which results in the
CA
r
(A0) 4
J
\
G 2 (0)
dd
(4.68)
[G"(d)J dd
CO
an amplitude or a phase detector is employed in the receiver, the clutter attenuation will be twice this value, just as with single cancellation. For a Gaussian beam shape the clutter attenuation is k^/11.5. This is also plotted in Fig. 4.40.
If either
Antenna scanning fluctuations may be eliminated by holding the beam stationary at each angular sector for a period of time sufficient to obtain the number of pulses required for detection. The antenna is then shifted rapidly to the next angular position, where it again remains stationary during the observation time. This is called step
scanning.
Another technique for reducing the effects of scanning is based on radiating an antenna pattern which maximizes the clutter attenuation. 28 30 If an antenna pattern proportional to G'(6) is added to the normal antenna pattern G(6) before cancellation with G(6 + A0), the residue will be considerably reduced. The denominator of Eq. (4.65) will be small (ideally zero), and thus the clutter attenuation will be large. Since the usual antenna pattern G(0) is an even function of 0, the derivative pattern G'(d) will be an odd function. Even and odd antenna patterns may be obtained with two-feed
-
Sec. 4.4]
MTI and
Pulse-doppler
Radar
151
RF combining circuitry, as in simultaneous lobing or monopulse The two feeds are displaced from the antenna axis to produce two adjacent beams. The sum of the two gives an even pattern; their difference, an odd pattern. Proper combination of the even and odd antenna patterns stabilizes the far-field amplitude and phase radiation patterns in space, independent of the antenna motion. Complete stabilization of the radiation patterns during the cancellation periods eliminates the residue caused by scanning.
antennas and proper
antennas.
4.4.
MTI
Using Range Gates and
Filters
In the previous discussion, the MTI radar was assumed to use a delay-line canceler as the filter which rejects clutter echoes and passes only those doppler-frequency-shifted In this section a different filtering technique for signals returned from moving targets. The video clutter spectrum, as was seen in described. be will echoes rejecting clutter The shape and magnitude of the Fig. 4.38, is spread over a finite frequency range. frequency spectrum depend upon several factors, including the nature of the clutter illuminated by the radar beam, the antenna scanning, and the equipment stability. In a
pulse radar the clutter spectrum is reflected about each of the spectral lines (Fig. 4.22) located at the pulse repetition frequency and its harmonics. This effect is known as
clutter foldover.
The ideal-filter characteristic would reject the maximum amount of clutter energy without significantly rejecting any doppler signals which fall outside the clutter spectrum. The ideal filter is the matched filter (Sec. 9.2), which maximizes the signal-toUnfortunately, the matched filter is sometimes difficult to noise ratio at the output. synthesize and some practical compromise must usually be made. The delay-line canceler is one form of filter used to approach the matched-filter The single-delay-line canceler is a poor approximation to the ideal characteristic.
filter,
but it has the advantage of simplicity. Double cancellation is somewhat better than the single delay line, but it still leaves much to be desired. Delay-line cancelers are not limited to sin x or sin2 x characteristics. They may be designed to have a wide Hence only variety of frequency characteristics as described in a previous section. economic or space considerations limit the degree to which the delay-line canceler can be made to approach the ideal matched filter. An advantage of the delay-line canceler Its chief limitations are as a filter is that range information is preserved in the output. the additional complexity required to achieve special filter characteristics and the need for maintaining perfect adjustment in the delay lines if the theoretical performance is to
be achieved in practice. Although a simple narrowband filter might be used in an MTI radar to pass the doppler-frequency components of moving targets and reject the direct current due to A narrowband filter destroys the range clutter, it suffers from two major limitations. resolution in an ordinary system because the duration of its impulse response is approximately the reciprocal of the bandwidth. Furthermore, the signal-to-noise ratio is reduced when narrowband filters are used without range gating because of the collapsing The collapsing loss is caused by additional noise that enters the filter loss (Sec. 2.12). from the other range intervals which do not contain the target signal. The loss of the range information and the collapsing loss may be eliminated by first quantizing the range (time) into small intervals. This process is called range gating. The width of the range gates depends upon the range accuracy desired and the complexity which can be tolerated, but they are usually of the order of the pulse width. Range resolution is Once the radar return is quantized into range intervals, the established by gating. output from each gate may be applied to a narrowband filter since the pulse shape need no longer be preserved for range resolution. A collapsing loss does not take place
since noise
from the other range
intervals
is
excluded.
152
[Sec. 4.4
A block diagram of the video of an MTI radar with multiple range gates followed by
is shown in Fig. 4.41. The output of the phase detector is sampled sequentially by the range gates. Each range gate opens in sequence just long enough to sample the voltage of the video waveform corresponding to a different range
clutter-rejection niters
interval in space.
the proper time.
The range gate acts as a switch or a gate which opens and The range gates are activated once each pulse-repetition
closes at
interval.
The output for a stationary target is a series of pulses of constant amplitude. An echo from a moving target produces a series of pulses which vary in amplitude according to
Range
gate No. t
Boxcar
generator
Bandpass
(Ooppler)
filter
Full-wave
Low pass
->
filter
>
linear
Threshold
-*
defector
(integrator)
Range
gate
No. 2
Boxcar
generator
->
Threshold
Phase
detector
Range
gate No. 3
" "
To dato processing or display
(Range
L
->-j
gate
-*
Boxcar
generator
[No.n
Threshold
MTI
radar using range gates and
filters.
the doppler frequency. The output of the range gates is stretched in a circuit called the boxcar generator, whose purpose is to aid in the filtering and detection process by emphasizing the fundamental of the modulation frequency and eliminating harmonics of the pulse repetition frequency (Sec. 5.3). The clutter-rejection filter is a bandpass filter whose bandwidth depends upon the extent of the clutter spectrum but is less than The doppler filters utilize lumpedfj2, where f r is the pulse repetition frequency. constant circuit elements. The lower cutoff frequency can be designed to be adjusted to different values, depending on the characteristics of the clutter spectrum.
-go
=Vr
Frequency
Zfr
3/,
Fig. 4.42. Frequency-response characteristic of an
MTI
using range gates and
filters.
Following the doppler filter is a full-wave linear detector and an integrator (a lowfilter). The purpose of the detector is to convert the bipolar video to unipolar video. The output of the integrator is applied to a threshold-detection circuit. Only those signals which cross the threshold are reported as targets. Following the threshold detector, the outputs from each of the range channels must be properly combined for display on the PPI or A-scope or for any other appropriate indicating or data-processing device. The CRT display from this type of MTI radar appears "cleaner" than the display from a normal MTI radar, not only because of better clutter rejection, but also because the threshold device eliminates many of the unwanted false alarms due to noise. The frequency-response characteristic of the range-gated MTI might appear as in Fig. 4.42. The shape of the rejection band is determined primarily by the shape of the bandpass filter of Fig. 4.41.
pass
Sec. 4.5]
MTI AND
Pulse-doppler
Radar
153
MTI radar using range gates and niters is usually more complex than an MTI with a
The additional complexity is justified in those applications filter MTI are where good MTI performance and the flexibility of the range gates and between match better the from only not results performance The better MTI desired
single-delay-line canceler.
.
also because limitations the clutter filter characteristic and the clutter spectrum, but constant in spite peculiar to the delay-line canceler, such as maintaining the time delay of temperature changes, are not present.
4.5. Pulse-doppler
Radar 31
~ 33
The pulse-doppler radar is a form of MTI radar usually, but not necessarily, characterized by one or more of the following: rejection niters rather than the delay-line 1. A series of range gates and doppler
2.
3.
A klystron amplifier transmitter rather than a magnetron oscillator A relatively high pulse repetition frequency with ambiguous range but unambigu-
ous doppler (no blind speeds within expected range of doppler frequencies) The above is not meant to define a pulse-doppler radar, nor should it be implied that a pulse-doppler radar. A radar with any one of these characteristics is necessarily a does not seem to be precise distinction between the MTI and the pulse-doppler radars radar will pulse-doppler text, a this of However, for purposes generally agreed upon. characteristics These attributes. above the by characterized usually be assumed to be visibility) than is possible usually result in better MTI performance (better subclutter uses a delay-line with the type of MTI radar considered previously, that is, one which of doppler frerange expected the within speeds and which has many blind
canceler
quencies.
operating with high prf's to avoid doppler blind The presence of range speeds, may have to accept ambiguous range information. but also creates intervals range, target of knowledge the ambiguities not only confuses ranges and occur when the blind called are These detected. be will not target the where doppler and the the both If transmitter is turned on and the receiver is turned off. which further speeds, blind and ranges blind both range are ambiguous, there will exist alleviated, and the can be ranges blind of effect The radar. the of coverage reduce the range ambiguities can be resolved by transmitting at more than one prf. When the prf must be so high that the number of range ambiguities is too large to be of the resolved, the performance of the pulse-doppler radar approaches that
The pulse-doppler
radar,
when
easily
CW
its
doppler radar.
ability to
The pulse-doppler
radar, like the
CW
radar,
may be
limited in
measure range under these conditions. radar in that the detection performance is not limited by an advantage over the reflected from nearby clutter or from the radome. signals or by leakage transmitter off during The pulse-doppler radar avoids this difficulty since its receiver is turned
Even
so, the
pulse-doppler radar has
CW
radar receiver is always on. On the other hand, the transmission, whereas the radar is reduced because of the blind spots in pulse-doppler the of capability detection will usually be range resulting from the high prf. Pulse-doppler-radar equipment often use two will radar that a except radar, more complex than that of with a operate can doppler pulse the while receive and transmit for separate antennas nor the pulse-doppler radar seems to have a clear-cut Neither the single antenna. the other in those applications where range information is not obtained,
CW
CW
CW
CW
advantage over as, for example, in a homing missile. One other method should be mentioned of achieving coherent MTI. If the number of a single pulse is of cycles of the doppler frequency shift contained within the duration from clutter by separated be may targets moving from echoes returned sufficient, the This is possible if the doppler frequency shift is at least suitable RF or IF filters.
154
[Sec. 4.6
comparable with or greater than the spectral width of the transmitted signal. It is not usually applicable to aircraft targets, but it can sometimes be applied to radars designed to detect extraterrestrial targets such as satellites or astronomical bodies (Chap. 14). In these cases, the transmitted pulse width is relatively wide and its spectrum is narrow.
The high speed of

significantly greater
4.6.
extraterrestrial targets results in doppler shifts that are usually
than the spectral width of the transmitted signal.
Noncoherent
MTI
The composite echo signal from a moving target and clutter fluctuates in both phase and amplitude. The coherent MTI and the pulse-doppler radar make use of the phase fluctuations in the echo signal to recognize the doppler component produced by a moving target. In these systems, amplitude fluctuations are removed by the phase
detector.
TR
Power
oscillator
Modulator
which
may
The operation of this type of radar, be called coherent MTI, depends
upon
that
is
a reference signal at the radar receiver coherent with the transmitter signal.
Mixer
LO
It is also possible to use the amplitude fluctuations to recognize the doppler component
IF
amplifier
produced by a moving target. MTI radar which uses amplitude instead of phase fluc-
tuations is called noncoherent (Fig. 4.43). It has also been called externally coherent. The noncoherent MTI radar does not require an Amplitude internal coherent reference signal or a phase defector detector as does the coherent form of MTI. To cancellation circuits t; Amplitude limiting cannot be employed in the noncoherent MTI receiver, else the desired Fig. 4.43. Block diagram of a noncoherent amplitude fluctuations would be lost. ThereMTI radar. fore the IF amplifier must be linear, or if a large dynamic range is required, it can be logarithmic. A logarithmic gain characteristic not only provides protection from saturation, but it also tends to make the clutter fluctuations at its output more uniform with variations in the clutter input amplitude. The detector following the IF amplifier is a conventional amplitude detector. The phase detector is not used since phase information is of no interest to the noncoherent radar. The local oscillator of the noncoherent radar does not have to be as frequency-stable as in the coherent MTI. The transmitter must be sufficiently stable over the pulse duration to prevent beats between overlapping ground clutter, but this is not as severe a requirement as in the case of coherent radar. The output of the amplitude detector is followed by an MTI processor such as a delay-line canceler. The doppler component contained in the amplitude fluctuations may also be detected by applying the output of the amplitude detector to an A-scope. Amplitude fluctuations due to doppler produce a butterfly modulation similar to that in Fig. 4.3, but in this case, they ride on top of the clutter echoes. Except for the inclusion of means to extract the doppler amplitude component, the noncoherent MTI block diagram is similar to that of a conventional MTI pulse radar. The advantage of the noncoherent MTI is its simplicity; hence it is attractive for those applications where space and weight are limited. Its chief limitation is that the target must be in the presence of relatively large clutter signals if moving- target detection is to take place. Clutter echoes may not always be present over the range at which detection is desired. The clutter serves the same function as does the reference signal in the coherent MTI. If clutter were not present, the desired targets would not be detected. It is possible, however, to provide a switch to disconnect the noncoherent MTI operation
Sec. 4.7]
MTI and
Pulse-doppler
Radar
155
If, in a to normal radar whenever sufficient clutter echoes are not present. noncoherent MTI radar, there is no clutter but there is more than one moving target, the target with the lowest doppler frequency can act as the reference signal and detection can take place. The noncoherent technique is a relatively cheap form of MTI that might be used in applications where equipment simplicity is an important consideration and where only moderate MTI performance is needed.
and revert
4.7.
MTI
from a Moving PlatformAMTI
When the radar itself is in motion, as with a shipboard or airborne radar, the detection
of a moving target in the presence of clutter is more difficult than if the radar were From the viewpoint of the radar the clutter appears to be in motion, and stationary. the doppler effect shifts the clutter echo signal just as any other target with the same Since the relative velocity between radar and target will usually be relative velocity. different from the relative velocity between clutter and radar, the clutter echo may be
discriminated on the basis of doppler frequency. However, the problem is more difficult than with a stationary radar since the relative velocity of the clutter will, in In an airborne surveillance radar, for example, the relative general, change with time. clutter velocity depends on the aircraft velocity and the direction of the clutter relative Since the clutter doppler frequency is not zero with a to the aircraft velocity vector. moving radar, the clutter rejection filters must be bandpass rather than low-pass as in
the stationary case. The closer the relative velocity of the clutter to that of the target, the more difficult it For instance, a radar on board a moving ship will experience will be to separate the two. only slight difficulty (relatively speaking) in separating aircraft targets from sea clutter On the other since their doppler frequency shifts will normally be widely separated.
hand, the converse may not be
difficulty in seeing the ship in the presence
considerable of sea clutter, for their doppler frequencies may not be too different. The present discussion will be confined to the airborne MTI radar (commonly abbreviated AMTI). A high-speed fighter aircraft might employ an AMTI radar during the search phase of an interception to seek out the hostile target in the presence of clutter. The lower the altitude of the target aircraft, the more likely that clutter will be present. Another possible military application of AMTI is in long-range search radars installed in highaltitude aircraft for the purpose of detecting other aircraft, as the Navy's seaward extension of the Early Warning line. The AMTI is of special interest as a radar technique, irrespective of its application, since good AMTI performance is not always
true.
An airborne radar might experience
easy to achieve and represents a challenge to the radar designer. Coherent AMTI. In principle, any of the MTI techniques that have been discussed can be applied to the AMTI radar. However, not all perform equally satisfactorily, and in general, it is usually more difficult to achieve a good AMTI radar than it is to
achieve a good MTI radar. The coherent MTI radar which was discussed in a previous section may be applied as an AMTI radar if the frequency of the coherent oscillator (coho) is shifted to compensate The block for the relative velocity of the radar platform with respect to the clutter. diagram of a coherent AMTI radar is shown in Fig. 4.44. It is quite similar to the
ordinary coherent
signal
is
MTI radar shown in Fig. 4.6 except for the manner in which the coho
utilized.
called the
The output of the coho is mixed with a signal from a tunable oscillator doppler-frequency oscillator. The frequency of this oscillator is made to be
proportional to the relative velocity between radar and clutter and may be controlled according to the position of the antenna with respect to the clutter. One of the sidebands of the heterodyned signals is selected by a narrowband filter and is used instead
156
[Sec. 4.7
of the coho as the reference for the phase detector. This signal is coherent with the transmitted signal but is shifted in frequency by an amount sufficient to compensate for the relative velocity of clutter. As the radar antenna beam scans in angle, the frequency of the doppler-compensation oscillator must be correspondingly changed since the relative clutter velocity changes with the direction of the antenna beam. Doppler compensation is possible if the antenna beamwidth is sufficiently small so that the patch of illuminated clutter returns an echo in which the contributions from the various scatterers constituting the
clutter
experience nearly identical doppler frequency shifts. However, when the antenna pattern is broad in elevation and the size of the illuminated patch is determined by the pulse width rather than the antenna beamwidth, the angle to the clutter
will
change as
^ V
TR
'
Power
oscillator
Mixer
'
Stalo
Mixer
"
IF
amplifier
Coho
Phase
detector
f c\U Sideband
filter
M
fc
V
fd
Mixer
Doppler frequency
oscillator
Control
fc-fd
\
To cancellation
circuits
Fig. 4.44. Block diagram of a coherent
AMTI
radar.
Therefore the effective doppler frequency of the ground appreciably over the range interval of interest and make the doppler compensation of the coho signal extremely difficult, limiting the usefulness of the coherent AMTI in some instances.
clutter
the pulse travels out in range.
may vary
Pulse-doppler AMTI. It was pointed out previously that the pulse-doppler radar is capable of good MTI performance; therefore, properly modified, it should also be one of the better forms of AMTI radar. The ground-clutter signal, shifted in frequency by the doppler effect, may be eliminated by a rejection filter centered at the doppler frequency in either the video or the IF. Since the clutter doppler frequency shift changes as the antenna scans, a tunable filter must automatically track the
changing
the ability of the pulse-doppler radar to eliminate clutter will be limited if the rejection filter cannot continually track the changing doppler frequency caused by a changing relative velocity. For this reason narrow pencil-beam antennas are preferred to broad fan beams. With a narrow pencil beam, changes in doppler occur as the antenna is scanned in angle, but with a broad fan bearn^ the doppler may change as the pulse sweeps across the clutter, traveling at the velocity of light. If the clutter echo changes in frequency too rapidly, a single broad clutter-
doppler.
As in the coherent AMTI,
might be used, with a resultant loss in detection capability. Noncoherent AMTI. The noncoherent MTI principle can also be applied to a radar on a moving platform. It is especially attractive for operation in aircraft, where space and weight must be kept to a minimum. The noncoherent AMTI is limited, as was its
rejection filter
Sec. 4.8]
MTI and
Pulse-doppler
Radar
157
ground-based counterpart, by the need for sufficient clutter signal to provide the reference upon which the doppler fluctuations may be detected.
4.8. Fluctuations
Caused by Platform Motion30 3436
radar were discussed, including and scanning fluctuations. in addition, there is another But AMTI radar. the performance of limit the These also serious source of fluctuation in the AMTI radar, caused by motion of the radar platform. Fluctuations due to platform motion are quite similar to antenna scanning fluctuations. In fact, scanning fluctuations are but a special case of platform motion. The patch of clutter which the radar illuminates is assumed to consist of a large number of independent scatterers randomly located within the resolution cell of the The echo signals from each of these scatterers add vectorially at the radar radar.
In Sec. 4.3, some of the limitations of the
MTI
internal fluctuations of the clutter,
equipment
instabilities,
However, if the radar beam moves between pulses, the distance to each of the scatterers changes. A change in distance results in a change in phase, and the vector addition of the echo signals from all the scatterers may not be the same from pulse to pulse. Not only will the resultant amplitude change from pulse to pulse because of relative phase differences between the individual scatterers, but it may differ because of the shape of the antenna pattern. Thus the clutter return, instead of being constant, will fluctuate from pulse to pulse, and an uncanceled residue will result at the output of the delay-line canceler. The uncanceled residue also can be analyzed as a spread in the clutter energy spectrum; hence the MTI with range gates and filters will likewise be adversely affected by platform motion. The clutter attenuation due to radar platform motion has been derived for the 34 and Dickey. 35 A more descriptive discussion than delay-line canceler by George 36 found in either of these two papers is given in Ridenour (Ref. 1 sec. 16.13). Urkowitz (stationary or reflector contains a that terrain include extended George's formulas to moving) which has much greater reflectivity than the area around it. Echo fluctuations due to the motion of the antenna on board the aircraft may be resolved into four components one component is due to the rotation of the antenna (scanning fluctuation), and the other three components are due to the motion of the aircraft in space. Dickey derived expressions for these four components of fluctuation, assuming three different types of antenna radiation patterns a rectangular pattern, a Gaussian pattern of the form exp ( a2 2), and a pattern of the form (sin 6)16. The three components of
receiving antenna.
,
:
aircraft
motion are defined by a rectangular coordinate system. The z axis is located along the center of the antenna beam, and the x axis is horizontal. The y axis is, in general, not vertical, but falls in the same vertical plane as the z axis. The approximate clutter attenuation for the four components, assuming a Gaussian antenna pattern, aref
CA for rotation
1.388
CA for x axis ~ CA for y axis
y88A^_
(nvT6B sin a)
2
1.37(Tsm a) 2
2
:
1.388(Afc)
(ttvcTt cos a sin
2
</>
tan
2
<f>)
CA for z axislarge enough to be neglected

either the phase component (limiting t These expressions apply to an MTI receiver sensitive to receiver with phase detector) or to the amplitude component (noncoherent MTI), but not to both.
158
[Sec. 4.8
where nB
motion and projection of antenna beam in the horizontal plane (beam points straight ahead at a = 0; beam points perpendicular to aircraft at a 90) elevation angle between horizontal plane and center of beam t = pulse width a = aperture of a uniformly illuminated antenna c = velocity of propagation These approximate expressions apply when the attenuation is large. More exact expressions may be found in Dickey's paper. 35
<x
<f>
= number of hits per 3-db beamwidth 6B = 3-db beamwidth X = wavelength v = target velocity T = pulse-repetition period = azimuth angle between direction of aircraft =
The clutter attenuation for rotation is the same as that for the scanning fluctuation declutter
rived in Sec. 4.3 for the stationary radar. The along the z axis is usually well attenu-
Direction of aircraft
motion
CA r
Fig. 4.45. Regions in which each component of ground-clutter residue is likely to be prominent. (After Dickey, 35 IRE Trans.)
be neglected. The total be obtained by adding contributions from each of the four components of motion. At any particular direction, some of the components have greater effect than others. Figure 4.45 indicates the regions where each component is likely to predominate. The x component is important in regions to the side. The y component becomes of importance along the ground track where the x
fluctuation
ated
and
may may
to zero. It is large, however, only where the depression angle is large, and it is important, therefore, at high altitudes. The scanning component, as was found previously, is dependent on the rate of rotation and is independent of the azimuth or elevation angle. This component may limit the AMTI performance at long range and along the ground track, where the x and y components both become small. At long range and along the ground track the z component also may be appreciable. Along
component goes
the ground track, except at extreme range, the pulse length contributes more to the fluctuation than the beamwidth, while at right angles to the ground track, the reverse
is true.
ditions are
Contours of constant clutter attenuation for a particular set of assumed conshown in Fig. 4.46. Clutter attenuation depends only slightly on the
antenna pattern. 35 Figure 4.46 shows that the clutter attenuation (and hence the AMTI performance) deteriorates when the antenna beam is perpendicular to the ground track or when the beam is pointing directly below the aircraft. Clutter fluctuations are least (greatest attenuation) along the ground track at relatively long ranges. The above example shows the difficulties involved in attempting to design an AMTI radar with 360 scanning coverage. In practice, the problem may be even more formidable than that of this example, since aircraft speeds can be considerably higher than the 250 knots assumed, and the pulse repetition frequency might be smaller than 2,000 cps, especially if a long, unambiguous range were desired. Both a higher aircraft velocity and a lower prf make the AMTI performance worse.
Sec. 4.9]
Direction
of
MTI AND
motion
PULSE-DOPPLER
RADAR
159
\Z 
Fig. 4.46. Typical ground-clutter attenuation for airborne MTI. 2,000 cps ground speed 250 knots altitude J /xsec prf
Beam
=
width = 3.0; pulse length 20,000 ft; wavelength = 3.2 cm;
antenna rotation
12 rpm.
{From Dickey, 3 ' IRE Trans.)
4.9. Effect of Sidelobes
on Pulse-doppler
AMTI
Radar32
There will always be undesired sidelobe radiation from an antenna in directions other than the main beam. In an airborne radar the troublesome sidelobes are those which illuminate the ground. Although the sidelobe radiation may be small compared with that from the main beam, the relatively short distance to the ground plus the relatively large cross section of the ground at perpendicular incidence (Sec. 12.2) combine to give large clutter contributions from the sidelobes. Therefore the movingtarget signal must compete not only with the clutter illuminated by the main beam, but with clutter illuminated by the sidelobes. In this section the effect of the sidelobes on the pulse-doppler AMTI radar will be considered qualitatively. Similar considerations apply to other types of AMTI radars. The spectrum of the transmitted waveform of a pulse radar is depicted in Fig. 4.47. It consists of a series of spectral lines separated from one another in frequency by the pulse repetition frequency f The envelope of the spectral lines follows a (sin x)jx r shape about the transmitted frequency f The width of the envelope as measured between the first pair of zero crossings aboutyj, is equal to 2/t, where t is the pulse width. If both the target and radar were stationary and if there were no clutter echoes, the frequency spectrum of the echo signal would be the same as that of the transmitted However, the relative motion between radar and target as well as between signal.
. .
160
[Sec. 4.9
radar and clutter and the additional clutter signal received from the antenna sidelobes will substantially modify this idealized signal spectrum. The spectrum of the received signal for the pulse AMTI radar might appear as in Fig. 4.48. Only that portion of the spectrum in the vicinity of/ is shown. The shape of the clutter spectrum about each of the other spectral components spaced at intervals equal to the pulse repetition frequency is the same as that about/ The leakage of the
.
transmitter signal into the receiver produces the spike at a frequency^ and the spikes at/ nf Also in the r where n is an integer and r is the pulse repetition frequency.
vicinity of
is
the clutter energy
from the sidelobes which illuminate the ground
-2/r
Jjillix.
'o
Frequency
Fig. 4.47. Spectrum of pulse-radar transmitted waveform.
directly
is
beneath the
aircraft.
called the altitude return.
The echo from the ground directly beneath the aircraft The altitude return is not shifted in frequency since the
between radar and ground is essentially zero. Clutter to either have a relative-velocity component and hence some doppler frequency shift; consequently the clutter spectrum from the altitude return will be of finite width. The shape of the altitude-return spectrum will depend upon the
relative velocity
side of the perpendicular will
Transmitter to receiver leakage

Altitude return
Main-lobe clutter
-Target echo (head-on
lAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAl
Receiver noise
fo-fr
fo+fr
Frequency
Fig. 4.48. Portion of the received signal spectrum in the vicinity of the carrier frequency /, for a pulse-doppler AMTI radar. (After Maguire, 32 Proc. Natl. Conf. on Aeronaut. Electronics.)
RF
variation of the clutter cross section as a function of antenna depression angle (Sec. The cross section of the clutter directly beneath the aircraft for a depression 12.2). angle of 90 can be quite large compared with that at small depression angles. The large cross section and the close range can result in considerable altitude return.
The
angle
clutter illuminated
by the antenna sidelobes in directions other than
directly
beneath the aircraft
made by
the
may have any relative velocity from +v to v, depending on the antenna beam and the aircraft vector velocity (v is the aircraft
The clutter spectrum contributed by these sidelobes will extend 2vjX cps on either side of the transmitter frequency. The shape of the spectrum will depend upon the nature of the clutter illuminated and the shape of the antenna sidelobes. For purposes of illustration it is shown in Fig. 4.48 as a uniform spectrum.
velocity).
Sec. 4.9]
MTI AND
clutter directly illuminated
PULSE-DOPPLER RADAR
is
161
also
The ground
shown
in Fig. 4.48.
by The doppler frequency shift

fc
the
main beam of the antenna of the main-beam clutter is
cos = 2v
<j>
(4.70)
where is the angle between the direction of the the antenna beam (Fig. 4.49). Also shown in
cf>
aircraft vector velocity
and the
axis of
this figure are the various sources
of
clutter signals.
The
finite
antenna beamwidth
results in
finite
associated with the
main-beam
clutter.
The spread
AcS
is
spread of the doppler frequency approximately
A/
where
A<f>
= sin
A
<f>
sin
<f>
(4.71)
was
set
is
differentiation
equal to the antenna beamwidth 6B The negative sign produced on ignored. The maximum doppler spread occurs when the beam is
.
Radar
aircraft
-Simplified perimeter of elevation side-lobe pattern Direction of aircraft velocity
Target aircraft
Ground
clutter
Fig. 4.49. Sources of clutter signals.
zi {After Maguire, Proc. Natl. Conf. on Aeronaut. Electronics.)
For example, if the radar antenna beamwidth were 2 and the wavelength 0. 1 m(f = 3,000 Mc) and if the aircraft velocity were 400 knots, the doppler- frequency spread would be 144 cps. (The maximum doppler frequency in this example corresponds to 4,120 cps.) Equation (4.71) indicates that the spread in doppler will be small if the beamwidth B and the depression angle
perpendicular to the aircraft vector velocity.
cf>
are small.
The altitude return may be eliminated by turning the receiver off (gating) at that range corresponding to the altitude of the aircraft. Gating the altitude return has the disadvantage that targets at ranges corresponding to the aircraft altitude will also be eliminated from the receiver. A better method of suppressing the altitude return in the pulse radar is to eliminate the signal in the frequency domain, rather than in the The same rejection time domain, by inserting a rejection filter at the frequency f The clutter energy from filter will also suppress the transmitter-to-receiver leakage. the main lobe may also be suppressed by a rejection filter, but since the doppler frequency of this clutter component is not fixed, the rejection filter must be tunable and servocontrolled to track the main-lobe clutter as it changes because of scanning or because of changes in aircraft velocity. The position of the target echo in the frequency spectrum depends upon its velocity relative to that of the radar aircraft. If the target aircraft approaches the radar aircraft head on (from the forward sector), the doppler frequency shift of the target will be greater than the doppler shifts of the clutter echoes, as shown in Fig. 4.48. A filter can be used to exclude the clutter but pass the target echo. Similarly, if the targets are receding from one another along headings 180 apart, the target doppler frequency
.
162

again
lie
[Sec. 4.9
outside the clutter spectrum and may be readily separated from the In other situations where the radar may be closing on the target from the tail or from the side, the relative velocities may be small and the target doppler will lie within the clutter doppler spectrum. In such situations the target echo must compete with the clutter energy for recognition. large part of the clutter
shift will
clutter energy
by
filters.
energy may be removed with a bank of fixed narrowband filters covering the expected range of doppler frequencies. The bandwidth of each individual filter must be wide enough to accept the energy contained in the target echo signal. The width of the filter will depend upon the time on target, equipment fluctuations, and other effects which broaden the echo-signal spectrum as discussed previously. Each filter may be followed by range gates and integrators. The use of a parallel bank of niters lowers the sensitivity of detection somewhat, because the increased false-alarm rate of a filter bank as compared with a single filter must be compensated by increasing the threshold of
detection.
niters
is
However, the loss is small. The chief limitation of a fixed bank of doppler the additional equipment complexity. If only a few targets are expected,
narrowband doppler tracking filters might be used, one for each target. The filter must search through the expected doppler range before it can "lock on." If the radar receiver must search in both range and doppler to find its target, a relatively long search time might be required. In spite of its complexities and its shortcomings, a pulse-doppler radar is one of the
better techniques for
AMTI application.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Ridenour, L. N.: "Radar System Engineering," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 1, chap. 16, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947. Solomon, K. A Double Delay and Subtraction Airborne Clutter Canceller, Proc. Conf. on Military Electronics (IRE), 1958, pp. 235-240. Eastwood, E., T. R. Blakemore, and B. J. Witt: Marconi Coherent MTI Radar on 50 Cms, Marconi Rev., vol. 19, 2d quarter, no. 121, pp. 53-60, 1956. Emslie, A. G.: Moving Target Indication on MEW, MIT Radiation Laboratory Rept. 1080, Feb. J r 19,1946. Tanter, H.: Radar Receiver with Elimination of Fixed-target Echoes, Elect. Commun., vol 31 pp. 235-248, December, 1954. Gager, C. Transistorized MTI Canceller, Airborne Instruments Laboratory Monograph from Pulse of Long Island (IRE), February, 1960. Chance, ,B., R. I. Hulsizer, E. F. MacNichol, and F. C. Williams (eds.): "Electronic Time Measurements," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 20, chap. 12, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1949. Blackburn, J. F. (ed.): "Components Handbook," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 17, chap. 7, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1948. Chance, B., F. C. Williams, V. W. Hughes, D. Sayre, and E. F. MacNichol, Jr. (eds.) "Waveforms," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 19, chap. 23, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New r J> York, 1949. Emslie, A. G.: Moving Target Indication on MEW, MIT Radiation Laboratory Rept. 1080, J
:
:
>
Feb. 19, 1946.

11.
Arenberg, D. L.: Ultrasonic Solid Delay Lines,
J.
Acous. Soc. Am., vol. 20, pp. 1-28, January,
12.
13. 14. 15.
16.
17.
Huntington, H. B., A. G. Emslie, and V. W. Hughes: Ultrasonic Delay Lines, Pt. I, /. Franklin pp. 1-24, January, 1948; Emslie, A. G., H. B. Huntington, H. Shapiro, and A. E. Benfield, Pt. II, pp. 101-115, February, 1948. Arenberg, D. L.: Ultrasonic Delay Lines, IRE Natl. Conv. Record, 1954. Bliley Electric Co.: Bulletin 48, Erie, Pa., 1955. May, J. E., Jr. Low-loss 1000 Microsecond Ultrasonic Delay Lines, Proc. Natl. Electronics Conf., vol. 11, pp. 786-790, 1955. Bendat, J. S.: "Principles and Applications of Random Noise Theory," pp. 114-118 John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1958. Perlman, S. E.: Staggered Rep Rate Fills Radar Blind Spots, Electronics, vol. 31, no 47 pp
Inst., vol. 245,
:
82-85, Nov. 21, 1958.
VV
'
MTI AND
18.
PULSE-DOPPLER
RADAR
163
White, W. D., and A. E. Ruvin: Recent Advances in the Synthesis of Comb Filters, IRE Natl. Conv. Record, vol. 5, pt. 2, pp. 186-199, 1957. 19. White, W. D.: Synthesis of Comb Filters, Proc. Natl. Conf. on Aeronaut. Electronics, 1958, pp. 279-285. 20. Urkowitz, H.: Analysis and Synthesis of Delay Line Periodic Filters, IRE Trans., vol. CT-4, pp. 41-53, June, 1957. 21. McKee, D. A.: An MTI Cancellation System, MIT Lincoln Lab. Tech. Rept. 171, Jan. 8,
FM
1958.
Ruvin, A.: Blower Vibration and MTI, Airborne Instruments Laboratory Monograph from Pulse of Long Island (IRE), April, 1959. 23. Stephenson, J. G.: Designing Stable Tunable Microwave Oscillators, Electronics, vol. 28, pp. 184-187, March, 1955. 24. Dauksher, W. J.: Stable Local Oscillator for S-band Radar, Electronics, vol. 29, pp. 179-181,
22.
September, 1956.
25. Goldstein, H.:
The
Effect of Clutter Fluctuations
on MTI,
MIT Radiation Lab.
Rept. 700, Dec.
27, 1945.
26. Swerling, P.
:
Probability of Detection for Fluctuating Targets,
IRE Trans., vol. IT-6, pp.
269-308,
April, 1960.
27. 28. Grisetti,
29.
30. 31.
32.
33.
Barlow, E. J. Doppler Radar, Proc. IRE, vol. 37, pp. 340-355, April, 1949. R. S., M. M. Santa, and G. M. Kirkpatrick: Effect of Internal Fluctuations and Scanning on Clutter Attenuation in MTI Radar, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-2, no. 1, pp. 37^1, March, 1955. Kroszczynski. J. Efficiency of Attenuation of Constant Echoes in Simple and Double Cancellation Apparatus, Prace, Przem. Inst. Tele., vol. 8, no. 24, pp. 41-46, 1958. (Translated by Morris D. Friedman, MIT Lincoln Laboratory.) Anderson, D. B. A Microwave Technique to Reduce Platform Motion and Scanning Noise in Airborne Moving-target Radar, IRE WESCON Conv. Record, vol. 2, pt. 1, pp. 202-211, 1958. Sargent, R. S.: Moving Target Detection by Pulse Doppler Radar, Electronics, vol. 27, no. 9, pp. 138-141, September, 1954. Maguire, W. W.: Application of Pulsed Doppler Radar to Airborne Radar Systems, Proc. Natl. Conf. on Aeronaut. Electronics (Dayton, Ohio), pp. 291-295, 1958. Richardson, R. E.: Some Pulse-doppler Radar Design Considerations, MIT Lincoln Lab. Tech.
: : :
Rept. 154, Aug. 12, 1957. S. Fluctuations of Ground Clutter Return in Airborne Radar Equipment, Proc. IEE, vol. 99, pt. IV, no. 2, pp. 92-99, April, 1952. 35. Dickey, F. R., Jr.: Theoretical Performance of Airborne Moving Target Indicators, IRE Trans., PGAE-8, pp. 12-23, June, 1953. 36. Urkowitz, H.: An Extension to the Theory of the Performance of Airborne Moving-target Indicators, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-5, pp. 210-214, December, 1958. 37. Bauer, P.A. Low Temperature Coefficient Ultrasonic Solid Delay Lines, Solid State J., vol. 2, no. 12, pp. 23-29, December, 1961.
34.
George, T.
5
TRACKING RADAR
5.1.
Tracking with Radar
A tracking-radar system measures the coordinates of a target and provides data which
All or only part of the available radar data range, elevation angle, azimuth angle, and doppler frequency shiftmay be used in predicting future position; that is, a radar might track in range, in angle, in doppler, or with any combination. Almost any radar can be
may be used to determine the target path and to predict its future position.
considered a tracking radar provided its output information is processed properly. But, in general, it is the method by which angle tracking is accomplished that distinguishes what is normally considered a tracking radar from any other radar. It is also necessary to distinguish between a continuous tracking radar and a track-while-scan
(TWS) radar. The former supplies continuous tracking data on a particular target, while the track-while-scan supplies sampled data on many targets. In general, the continuous tracking radar and the radar employ different types of equipment. The antenna beam in the continuous tracking radar is positioned in angle by a servomechanism actuated by an error signal. The various methods for generating the
TWS
error signal
may be classified as sequential lobing,
conical scan,
shift
and simultaneous
lobing
or monopuhe.
The range and doppler frequency
can also be continuously
tracked, if desired, by a servo-control loop actuated by an error signal generated in the radar receiver. The information available from a tracking radar may be presented on a
cathode-ray-tube (CRT) display for action by an operator, or it may be supplied to an automatic computer which determines the target path and calculates its probable
future course.
The tracking radar must first find its target before it can track. Some radars, such as the SCR-584, operate in a search mode in order to find the target before switching to a tracking mode. Although it is possible to use a single radar for both the search and the tracking functions, such a procedure usually results in certain operational limitations.
used in its tracking mode, it has no knowledge of other antenna pattern is a narrow pencil beam and if the search volume is large, a relatively long time might be required to find the target. Therefore many radar tracking systems employ a separate search radar to provide the information necessary to position the tracker on the target. search radar, when used for this purpose, is called an acquisition radar. In some applications, separate search and track radars may not be practical or even desirable. An example is the airborne interception (AI) radar, in which the angular search volume is not too large and is usually restricted to the forward sector only. In
is
Obviously,
when
the radar
potential targets.
Also,
if the
addition, there
is
usually
Even
in those applications
tracker usually will

target.
room to spare in an aircraft for two separate radars. where a separate radar supplies acquisition information, the have to perform some limited angular search in order to find the
little
The scanning fan-beam search radar can also provide tracking information to determine the path of the target and predict its future position. Each time the radar
beam
scans past the target, its coordinates are obtained. If the change in target coordinates from scan to scan is not too large, it is possible to reconstruct the track of
164
Sec. 5.2]
the target.
Tracking Radar
165
This is called track-while-scan. It provides tracking information on a sampled, basis rather than continuously. The simplest manifestation of a TWS radar may be had by providing the PPI-scope operator with a grease pencil to mark the target pips on the face of the scope. line joining those pips that correspond to the same target provides the target track. When the traffic is so dense that human operators cannot maintain pace with the information available from the radar, the target trajectory data may be processed automatically in a digital computer as is done in the SAGE air defense system. Whenever the term tracking radar is used in this book, it refers to the continuous tracker rather than to track-while-scan, unless otherwise
discrete, or
specified.
The chief use of the continuous tracking radar has been for the control of military weapons such as antiaircraft artillery and missile guidance. Tracking radars are used also for guidance in the launchings of satellites and space vehicles. Because of their
versatility, tracking radars often
have been used for general-purpose instrumentation
or as a research tool.
5.2. Sequential
Lobing
pencil
The antenna pattern commonly employed with tracking radars is the symmetrical beam in which the elevation and azimuth beamwidths are essentially equal. A
pencil-beam antenna has many advantages for tracking-radar applications. It provides high gain by concentrating the radiated power in the direction of the target. It reduces unwanted echoes from other targets and from the ground. The angular coordinates of the target can be determined more precisely than with a fan beam. However, a simple pencil-beam antenna is not suitable for tracking radars unless means are provided for determining the magnitude and direction of the target's angular position with respect to some reference direction, usually the axis of the antenna. The. difference between the target position and the reference direction is the angular error. The tracking radar attempts to position the antenna to make the angular error zero. When the angular error is zero, the target is located along the reference direction. One method of obtaining the direction and the magnitude of the angular error in one coordinate is by alternately switching the antenna beam between two positions (Fig. This is called lobe switching, sequential switching, or sequential lobing. Figure 5.1). 5.1a is a polar representation of the antenna beam (minus the sidelobes) in the two switched positions. A plot in rectangular coordinates is shown in Fig. 5.1Z>, and the error signal obtained from a target not on the switching axis (reference direction) is shown in Fig. 5.1c. The difference in amplitude between the voltages obtained in the two switched positions is a measure of the angular displacement of the target from the switching axis. The sign of the difference determines the direction the antenna must be moved in order to align the switching axis with the direction of the target. When the voltages in the two switched positions are equal, the target is on axis and its position may be determined from the axis direction. Two additional switching positions are needed to obtain the angular error in the orthogonal coordinate. Thus a two-dimensional sequentially lobing radar might consist of a cluster of four feed horns illuminating a single antenna, arranged so that the right-left, up-down sectors are covered by successive antenna positions. Both transmission and reception are accomplished at each position. cluster of five feeds might also be employed, with the central feed used for transmission while the outer four feeds are used for receiving. High-power RF switches are not needed since only the receiving beams, and not the transmitting beam, are stepped in the five-feed arrangement. One of the limitations of a simple unswitched nonscanning pencil-beam antenna is that the angle accuracy can be no better than the size of the antenna beamwidth. An important feature of sequential lobing (as well as the other tracking techniques to be
166
[Sec. 5.3
discussed) is that the target-position accuracy can be far better than that given by the antenna beamwidth. The accuracy depends on how well equality of the signals in the switched positions can be determined. The fundamental limitation to accuracy is system noise caused either by mechanical or electrical fluctuations. Sequential lobing, or lobe switching, was one of the first tracking-radar techniques to be employed. Early applications were in airborne-interception radar, where it provided directional information for homing on a target, and in ground-based antiaircraft fire-control radars such as the SCR-268. It is not used as often in modern tracking-radar applications as some of the other techniques to be described.
Time
Fig. 5.1. Lobe-switching antenna patterns and error signal (one dimension), (a) Polar representation of switched antenna patterns; (ft) rectangular representation; (c) error signal.
5.3.
Conical Scan
of the simultaneous lobing technique described in the previous an offset antenna beam rather than discontinuously step the beam between four discrete positions. This is known as conical scanning (Fig. 5.2). The angle between the axis of rotation (which is usually, but not always, the axis of the antenna reflector) and the axis of the antenna beam is called the squint angle. Consider a target at position A. The echo signal will be modulated at a frequency equal to the rotation frequency of the beam. The amplitude of the echo-signal modulation will depend upon the shape of the antenna pattern, the squint angle, and the angle between the target line of sight and the rotation axis. The phase of the modulation depends on the direction of the angle between the target and the rotation axis. The
section
is
A logical extension
to rotate continuously
conical-scan modulation isextracted fromtheecho signal and applied to a servo-control
system which continuallypositionstheantennaon the target.
[Note that two servos are
t The squint angle is also sometimes used to describe the angle between the two major lobe axes in a lobe-switching antenna (IRE Standards 54 IRE 12 S 1), but this use of the term is not employed here.
Sec. 5.3]
Tracking Radar
167
Both the rectangular required because the tracking problem is two-dimensional. is on target, as antenna the When used may be coordinates ] tracking polar (az-el) and axis coincide, and the in B of Fig. 5.2, the line of sight to the target and the rotation
.
conical-scan modulation is zero. block diagram of the angle-tracking portion of a typical conical-scan tracking radar The antenna is mounted so that it can be positioned in both in Fig. 5.3. shown is
Target axis
Beam
rotation
Radar
Fig. 5.2. Conical-scan tracking.
azimuth and elevation by separate motors, which might be either electric- or hydraulicThe antenna beam is offset by tilting either the feed or the reflector with driven. respect to one another. One of the simplest conical-scan antennas is a parabola with an offset rear feed If the feed maintains the plane of polarization rotated about the axis of the reflector. A rotating feed such as is used in the fixed as it rotates, it is called a nutating feed.
Transmitter
To rotary joint
on antenna /
Ref. aen.x
Duplexer
Receiver with
AGC
Third detector
Error-signal
filter
smZw^t
cos Zirf s
t
'
^/1-j//"
Scan motor
Error
signal
n%p&31 U%s,&
,^<
/
Elevation
Elevation-angle error detector
servo
amplifier
Elevat on
motor
\
Azimuth
servo
servo motor -r
amplifier
Azimuth-ongle
error detector
Fig. 5.3. Block diagram of conical-scan tracking radar.
SCR-584
small,
rotates a dipole
requires a rotary joint.
and thus rotates polarization. The latter type of feed The nutating feed requires a flexible joint. If the antenna is
it may be easier to rotate the dish, which is offset, rather than the feed, thus avoiding the problem of a rotary or flexible RF joint in the feed. A typical conical-scan The same motor that provides the conicalrotation speed might be 30 rps (1 ,800 rpm) scan rotation of the antenna beam also drives a two-phase reference generator with two
.
168
[Sec. 5.3
outputs 90 apart in phase.

tion and azimuth errors.
two rotary joints motion in azimuth; the

via
These two outputs serve as a reference to extract the elevaThe received echo signal is fed to the receiver from the antenna (not shown in the block diagram). One rotary joint permits
other, in elevation.
a conventional superheterodyne except for two features peculiar to the conical-scan tracking radar. One feature not found in other radar receivers is a means of extracting the conical-scan modulation, or error signal. This is accomplished after the second detector in the video portion of the receiver. In the block diagram this function is indicated as the third detector. The purpose of the low-pass errorreceiver
is
The
signal filter is to remove the harmonics of the conical-scan frequency, the prf, and the harmonics of the prf if they are present. The error signal is compared with the elevation and azimuth reference signals in the angle-error detectors, which are phase-sensitive 1-5 detectors. A phase-sensitive detector is a nonlinear device in which the input signal
mixed with the reference signal. The input and reference signals are of the same frequency. The output d-c voltage reverses polarity as the phase of the input signal changes through 180. The magnitude of the d-c output from the angle-error detector is proportional to the error, and the sign (polarity)
(in this case the angle-error signal) is
is
an indication of the direction of the error. The angle-error-detector outputs are amplified and drive the antenna elevation and azimuth servo motors. When the antenna is directly on target, the error signal is zero. The angular position of the target may be determined from the elevation and azimuth of the antenna axis. The position can be read out by means of standard angle trans-
ducers such as synchros, potentiometers, or analog-to-digital-data converters. The difference between the phase-sensitive detector and phase detector is often one of actual operating conditions. 5 The phase detector measures the phase difference between two sinusoidal signals of the same frequency. In the phase-sensitive detector the output voltage reverses polarity as the phase of the input changes through 180. Identical circuits can be used for phase measurement and for phase-sensitive detection. It is usually assumed that the amplitudes of the reference and the input signal are the same in the phase detector, while in the phase-sensitive detector, the reference is much larger than the input signal. Boxcar Generator. The purpose of the third detector and filter is to pass the modulation at the conical-scan frequency and to reject the pulse repetition frequency and its harmonics. In the early S-band version of the SCR-584, this was accomplished with a more or less conventional amplitude detector and filter. In the Z-band version and in most modern radars the filtering function is performed with a device called the boxcar generator. 6 The boxcar generator was also mentioned in the discussion of the MTI receiver using range-gated filters (Sec. 4.4). In essence, it clamps or stretches the video pulses of Fig. 5.4a in time so as to cover the entire pulse-repetition period (Fig. 5Ab). This is possible only in a range-gated receiver. (Tracking radars are normally operated with range gates.) The boxcar generator consists of an electric circuit that clamps the potential of a storage element, such as a capacitor, to the video-pulse amplitude each time the pulse is received. The capacitor maintains the potential of the pulse during the entire repetition period and is altered only when a new video pulse appears whose amplitude differs from the previous one. The boxcar generator eliminates the pulse repetition frequency and reduces its harmonics. It also has the practical advantage that the magnitude of the conical-scan modulation is amplified because pulse stretching puts more of the available energy at the modulation frequency. The pulse repetition frequency must be sufficiently large compared with the conical-scan frequency for proper boxcar filtering. If not, it may be necessary to provide additional filtering to attenuate undesired cross-modulation frequency components. Automatic Gain Control. 1 9 The echo-signal amplitude at the tracking-radar
Sec. 5.3]
receiver will not
Tracking Radar
169
be constant but will vary with time. The three major causes of variation in amplitude are (1) the inverse-fourth-power relationship between the echo signal and range, (2) the conical-scan modulation (angle-error signal), and (3) amplitude fluctuations in the target cross section. The function of the automatic gain
control
(AGC)
is
to maintain the d-c level of the receiver output constant
and
to
smooth or eliminate as much
of the noiselike amplitude fluctuations as possible without
disturbing the extraction of the desired error signal at the conical-scan frequency.
s
N.
^.j*
*^--
-)
-Vtr
(a)
-Vtr
(A)
(Z>)
Fig. 5.4. (a) Pulse train with conical-scan modulation; boxcar generator.
same pulse
train after passing through
by large signals. would be lost if the receiver were to In the conical-scan tracking radar an AGC that maintains the d-c level saturate. constant results in an error signal that is a true indication of the angular pointing error. It is shown later in this section (during the derivation of the error-signal voltage) that the d-c level of the receiver must be maintained constant if the angular error is to be linearly
to prevent saturation
One of the purposes of AGC in any receiver is

the error signal
The scanning modulation and
related to the angle-error signal voltage.
Conical scan modulation
mixer
IF
amplifier
>
2d
det.
Video
amplifier
Range
gate and
to
angle-error detector
boxcar
' '
.
.
0-c
amplifier
AGC
filter
T
Delay voltage
V c
of a tracking-radar receiver.
Fig. 5.5. Block diagram of the
AGC portion
portion of a tracking-radar receiver is shown in Fig. 5.5. example of the portion of the video-amplifier output is passed through a low-pass or smoothing The larger the video output, filter and fed back to control the gain of the IF amplifier. The the gain reduction. will be greater and the signal the feedback the larger will be loop should pass all frequencies from direct current to just below the filter in the
An
AGC
AGC
170
[Sue. 5.3
conical-scan-modulation frequency. The loop gain of the filter measured at the conical-scan frequency should be low so that the error signal will not be affected by action. If the responds to the conical-scan frequency, the error signal might be lost. The phase shift of this filter must be small if its phase characteristic is not to influence the error signal. phase change of the error signal is equivalent to a rotation of the reference axes and introduces cross coupling, or "cross talk," between the
AGC
AGC
AGC
and azimuth angle-tracking loops. Cross talk affects the stability of the tracking and might result in an unwanted nutating motion of the antenna. In conelevation
ventional tracking-radar applications the phase change introduced by the feedback-loop should be less than 10, and in some applications it should be as little as 2. 8 For this reason, a filter with a sharp attenuation characteristic in the vicinity of the conicalscan frequency might not be desirable because of the relatively large amount of phase
filter
shift
will be zero unless the feedback voltage exceeds a value Vc In the block diagram the feedback voltage and the voltage Vc are compared in the d-c amplifier. If the feedback voltage exceeds Vc the is operative, while if it is less, there is no action. The voltage Vc is called the delay voltage. The terminology may be a bit misleading since the delay is not in time but in amplitude. The purpose of the delay voltage is to provide a reference for the constant output signal and permit receiver gain for weak signals. If the delay voltage
which it would introduce. The output of the feedback loop
prespecified
minimum
AGC
AGC
were zero, any output which might appear from the receiver would be due to the failure of the AGC circuit to regulate completely. In many applications of AGC the delay voltage is actually zero. This is called undelayed AGC. In such cases the AGC can still perform satisfactorily since the loop gain is usually low for small signals. Thus the AGC will not regulate weak signals. The effect is similar to having a delay voltage, but the performance will not be as good. The required dynamic range of the AGC will depend upon the variation in range over which targets are tracked and the variations expected in the target cross section. If the range variation were 10 to 1 the contribution to the dynamic range would be 40 db. The target cross section might also contribute another 40-db variation. Another 10 db ought to be allowed to account for variations in the other parameters of the radar equation. Hence the dynamic range of operation required of the receiver AGC might be of the order of 90 db, or perhaps more. 8 It is found in practice that the maximum gain variation which can be obtained with a single IF stage is of the order of 40 db. Therefore two to three stages of the IF amplifier must be gain-controlled to accommodate the total dynamic range. The middle stages are usually the ones controlled since the first stage gain should remain high so as not to influence the noise figure of the mixer stage. It is also best not to control the last IF stage since the maximum undistorted output of an amplifying stage is reduced when its gain is reduced by the application of a control voltage. An alternative AGC filter design would maintain the AGC loop gain up to frequencies much higher than the conical-scan frequency. The scan modulation would be effectively suppressed in the output of the receiver, and the output would be used to measure range in the normal manner. In this case, the error signal can be recovered from the
,
it varies at the conical-scan frequency. The voltage will also contain any amplitude fluctuations that appear with the echo signal. The error signal may be recovered from the voltage with a narrow bandpass filter centered at the scan-modulation frequency. Error Signal. The error signal from the conical-scan tracker will be derived assuming that a properly designed eliminates all signal modulations except the conical-scan modulation.
AGC voltage since
AGC
AGC
AGC
Consider an echo pulse train with conical-scan modulation as shown
in Fig. 5.4a.
Sec, 5.3]
Tracking Radar
is
171
linear
The
pulse repetition frequency
r,
and the pulse width
is t.
Assuming a
detector, the video pulse train
may be represented by the

V{t)
expression 10
(5.1)
= K'G{t)Fk
{t)
where K'
G(i)
Fk (t) =
constant determined by design of AGC (without by parameters of radar equation) modulation due to antenna pattern waveform representing unmodulated pulse train
AGC, K'
is
determined
= k =
Equation
llfor k/f r
integer
< <
t
k/f r
\0 otherwise
0, 1, 2,
be expanded to obtain the various frequency components contained in the received signal. First the expression for the antenna modulation factor G(t) will be derived. The two-way-voltage (or one-way-power) antenna pattern may be approximated by the Gaussian function
(5.1) will
G(6)
=G
exp
{-aW)
(5.2)
where 6
a2
G = maximum antenna gain,
angle between antenna-beam axis and target axis that is, value of G(0) at 8 constant 2.716/6%, where 6 is measured in degrees and 6 B also in degrees, is antenna beamwidth measured between 3-db, or half-power,
points, of antenna pattern Referring to Fig. 5.6a, the angle Qq is the squint angle denned by the antenna-beam axis and the axis of rotation; 9 T is the angle between the axis of rotation and the target axis <f> is the rotation angle of the conical scanner as measured from some arbitrary phase reference and cj> is the angle defined by the target and the reference axis. The angles 6, 6 Q 6 T may also be defined by the lengths of arc Rd, R6 g Rd T on a sphere of radius R (Fig. 5.6b). Since the distances Rd, R6 q R6 T are small, they may be related by
; ;
the law of cosines to the angle
<f>
cf>
{R6f
(RdQf
(R6 T f
+ 2R*6 e T cos
g
(<f>
1,
< )
(5.3)
Substituting 6 2 as given by Eq. (5.3), into Eq. (5.2), with
G =
gives
G(0)
exp \_-a\d\
T )] exp
[-2a%6 T cos
(<f>
O }]
(5.4)
The following
relationship
may be derived from expressions

00
for Bessel functions given
by Whittaker and Watson11

exp
(x
cos f)
= I (x) + 2 ^ l n =
n
l
x ) cos "V
(5-5)
where / is the nth-order Bessel function of imaginary coefficient. Using the above relationship, Eq. (5.4) may be written as
G(0
exp i-a\d\
6%)-]
(2a\d T)
+ 2 2 I n (2a%6 T =
i
cos (2rrnfs t
n<j> )
(5.6)
In Eq. (5.6) 2irfs t has been substituted for simplify the algebra, let
</>,
where/,
is
the conical-scan frequency.
To
K"
{exp
1-aXdl
d\)-}}I
(2a\0 T )
Kn =
^ff^
I {2a 6 q e T )
l
172
[Sec. 5.3
Substituting the above in Eq. (5.6), the antenna scan-modulation factor becomes
G(0
K"
K n C s (27771/;* +2 n=
l
n<f> )
(5.7)
Target
Locus of antenna-beam center
Fig. 5.6. (a)
Geometry and symbols
for derivation of conical-scan error signal; (b) head-on view of
conical-scan antenna beam.
The factor Fk {t) in Eq. (5.1) is the rectangular pulse train of unit amplitude. Fourier series expansion of Fk (i) is
The
Fk (t)=frr
where
2,
K m cos 2nmf
H)]
(5.8)
K =
sin mTTTyr
rmrfrT
Sec. 5.3]
Tracking Radar
173
Substituting Eqs. (5.7) and (5.8) into Eq. (5.1) gives the video voltage.
no
:'K"frr(l
\
+ | K n cos (2rrnf st
n<f> )
n=l
K m cos2^mf (t-l) +J \ 2/ m=X

t
2 2 ^P {cos |>(m/ +
r
OD
00
If
If
n/.)f
- nmf T r
n^
+ cos \2v{mf r
n/,)f
- 77/n/ T +
r
&,]})
(5-9)
(5.9)
The
1
theoretical conical-scan-modulated
echo signal as represented by Eq.

r
consists of four parts
A d-c component of magnitude K'K"f T

An infinite number of a-c components corresponding to the conical-scan frequency
its
2.
and
3.
harmonics nfs
infinite
An
number of
its
a-c
components corresponding
to the pulse repetition
frequency fr and
4.
harmonics
mfr
,
An infinite number of sidebands nfs centered about the prf,/r and its harmonics Each of these components has a different amplitude, and in a practical radar, the number of harmonics would be finite. The only component of interest is the modulaIf it can be assumed that/ tion at the conical-scan frequency /,. r >/, and that a to pass, suitable low-pass filter permits only the direct current and the scan frequency f s the error signal becomes
1/(0
K'K"fTr
2K'frr exp
[-a 2(0 2
a
fl
2 c
r )]/i(2a
cos (2vft t
fa)
(5.10)
The error
both the azimuth and the elevation angle-error detectors. In the angle-error detectors, which are phase-sensitive detectors, One of the the horizontal and vertical projections of the target angle T are extracted. angle-error detectors (for example, the azimuth channel) is supplied with a reference Both signals are signal Vr cos 2-nfj, while the other is supplied with Vr sin 2nf s t. derived from the reference generator mounted on the antenna scanner. (Vr is the magnitude of the reference-signal voltage.) The output of the azimuth-error detector is a d-c voltage proportional to the magnitude of the a-c component of the error signal of Eq. (5.10) times the magnitude of the or reference voltagej times the cosine of the phase difference between the two,
signal represented
by Eq.
(5.10) is fed into
<f>
Azimuth-error signal
2 2K'fr rVr exp [-a (0*
r )]/1 (2fl
e9
r) cos
<j>
(5.11)
plot of Eq. (5.1 1) as a function of d T /6 B and for various values of 6J6 B For small angular error, Eq. (5.1 1) approaches the following; Fig. 5.7.
is
shown
in
<**
C$ T cos
<f>
(5.12)
where
is
a constant.
directly proportional to the angular error if the error is small
Thus the output of the azimuth angular detector is a voltage and if A" is maintained
is
constant by the AGC. Likewise, the elevation-angle-error voltage for small error
Elevation-error signal
proportional to
(5.13)
Cjd T sin
<f>
The
elevation- and azimuth-error signals are applied to their respective servo motors which position the antenna for zero-error signal.
t In many cases, the phase-sensitive detector is designed so that the output amplitude is a function of the input signal only and is independent of the reference-signal amplitude. 5 This does not affect the above analysis.
174
It
[Sec. 5.3
should be noted that one of the properties of the phase-sensitive detector is that no cross talk exists between the two error channels even though the same error signal
[Eq. (5.10)] is fed to both angle-error detectors. In the above analysis the error signal was extracted
by passing the video voltage
through a detector followed by a low-pass filter. This combination removes the d-c component and passes only the fundamental of the conical-scan frequency. Although this procedure was used in some early tracking radars and is illustrated in Fig. 5 3, it is usually more common to employ a boxcar generator in the video to accomplish essentially the same function, but with more gain. The error-signal voltage from the boxcar
.
1
0.22
0.20
o>
_.
0,
8 0.18
>'
/ /a 6
' 0.
QJ
/a 8
*Q2
_ _
~
O)
0.14
0.12
i >
II
//
|o.io
0.08 S L.
UJ
0.06 0.04
0.02
r
1 1
I 1
Antenna
Bb
crossover, db
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

I I
0.5
1.95 4.36
7.7
I
i
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
eT /eB
target angle (6 T /6B)
Fig. 5.7. Plot of the relative error-signal from the conical-scan radar [Eq. (5.11)] as a function of and squint angle (6JB B). The angle <j> is assumed fixed.
generator will be slightly different from that given by Eq. (5.10). To derive the error signal with the boxcar generator we start with the Fourier-series development of a train of flat-top pulses whose amplitude is proportional to the scan modulation. Note that this differs from the waveform represented by Eq. (5.9) in which the pulses were assumed to be amplitude-modulated by the conical-scan modulation rather than flat-topped. The Fourier series for a flat-top pulse train with a pulse repetition frequency/., modulated by the antenna conical-scan modulation of a Gaussian antenna pattern [Eq.
(5.6)], is
6 - 12
V{t)
K'K"(t Tfr
\
fr K n -^t sin nnf T cos (2nnf - -nnf r +1 Ttn) n=

s s t s
nô)
s S
+
.
7T
1
m=l
00 QO
2 sin TrmrL
cos.2-nmf r \t
-^
+
nfs ) cos [27r(mfr
Kfr
7Tm = ln = l \mfr
sin
Tn(mfr
nfs )t
- ttxxj t s
nfs nfs ) cos \2ir{mfr
noS ]
fmf
r
Jr
.
sin
Mm/, -
nf.)t
- irnf r +
s
w ^ ]l)
)/
(5.14)
nf,
Sec. 5.4]
Tracking Radar
175
The output of the boxcar generator

(5.14).
is found by setting the pulse width t r in Eq \\f All terms containing the pulse repetition frequency and its harmonics nf r disappear. There remains a d-c component, a component at the conical-scan frequency
components at the harmonics of/s and components at frequencies mf The r nf s components are negligible if f In any event, a filter may be used to r >/,. eliminate all but the scan frequency. The error signal is
s,
, .
latter
Ve (t)
2K' exp {-a\d\
+ dÎâÔ T
"},
4 ^
sin
fr
is
cos
(lirfjt
^
-^St
A
'
(5.15)
The output of the azimuth

angle-error detector
=
Again,
if
2Vr K' exp {-a\6l

T
is
r)]'i(2a
W^
C2
sin
^
<j>
cos
fe +
<
(5.16)
the angle error
small
and/r >/
Eq. (5.16) becomes
Azimuth-error signal a
T cos
(5.17)
similar expression may be found for the elevation error. There are two effects to be noted with the boxcar generator as compared with the conventional detector [Eq. The voltage output of the boxcar generator is greater than that of the con(5.12)]. ventional detector for the same angular error by the ratio C2 /Q fjfs Thus the boxcar generator is capable of greater gain. Also, it is necessary that/. for proper s operation of the boxcar generator. If this relationship does not hold, unwanted modulation products will appear in the error signal, and the phase shift irfjf r in the last term of Eq. (5.16) can cause an erroneous indication if not compensated.
>/
5.4.
Simultaneous Lobing or Monopulse 13-17
In both the sequential-lobing and conical-scan tracking techniques, the measurement of angular error in two orthogonal coordinates (azimuth and elevation) requires that a In practice, however, the minimum number of pulses in sequential lobing is usually four one per antenna position. Conical scanning usually requires more than four pulses to derive the error signal. In the time interval during which a measurement is made with either sequential lobing or conical
minimum of three pulses be processed.
must contain no amplitude-modulation components other than If the echo pulse train did contain additional modulation components, caused, for example, by a fluctuating target cross section, the tracking accuracy might be degraded, especially if the frequency components of the
scan, the echo pulses
the modulation produced by scanning.
fluctuations were at or near the conical-scan frequency or the sequential-lobing rate. The effect of the fluctuating echo can be sufficiently serious in some applications to
severely limit the accuracy of those tracking radars which require many pulses to be processed in extracting the error signal. Pulse-to-pulse amplitude fluctuations of the echo signal have no effect on tracking accuracy if the angular measurement is made on the basis of one pulse rather than many.
There are several methods by which angle-error information might be obtained with only a single pulse. More than one antenna beam is used simultaneously in these methods, in contrast to the conical-scan or lobe-switching tracker, which utilizes one antenna beam on a time-shared basis. The angle of arrival of the echo signal may be determined in a single-pulse system by measuring the relative phase or the relative amplitude of the echo pulse received in each beam. The names simultaneous lobing and monopulse are used to describe those tracking techniques which derive angle-error information on the basis of a single pulse.
176
[Sec. 5.4
An example of a simultaneous-lobing technique is amplitude-comparison monopulse,

or
more
simply, monopulse.
In this technique the
RF
signals received
from two
offset
antenna beams are combined so that both the sum and the difference signals are
obtained simultaneously. The sum and difference signals are multiplied in a phasesensitive detector to obtain both the magnitude and the direction of the error signal. All the information necessary to determine the angular error is obtained on the basis of a single pulse; hence the name monopulse is quite appropriate. Amplitude-comparison Monopulse. 13 The amplitude-comparison monopulse employs two overlapping antenna patterns (Fig. 5.Sa) to obtain the angular error in one coordinate. The two overlapping antenna beams may be generated with a single reflector or with a lens antenna illuminated by two adjacent feeds. (A cluster of four
(a)
(c)
Angle
(/>)
(d)
Fig. 5.8. Monopulse antenna patterns and error signal. Left-hand diagrams in (a-c) are in polar coordinates; right-hand diagrams are in rectangular coordinates, (a) Overlapping antenna patterns; (b) sum pattern; (c) difference pattern; (d) product (error) signal.
may be used if both elevation- and azimuth-error signals are wanted.) The sum of the two antenna patterns of Fig. 5.8a is shown in Fig. 5.8Z>, and the difference in Fig. 5.8c. The sum pattern is used for transmission, while both the sum pattern and the difference pattern are used on reception. The signal received with the difference The sum signal provides the range pattern provides the magnitude of the angle error. measurement and is also used as a reference to extract the sign of the error signal.
feeds
Signals received
from the sum and the
difference patterns are amplified separately
and
combined
in a phase-sensitive detector to
produce the error-signal characteristic shown
in Fig. 5.8d.
A block diagram of the amplitude-comparison-monopulse tracking radar for a single angular coordinate is shown in Fig. 5.9. The two adjacent antenna feeds are connected to the two arms of a hybrid junction such as a "magic T," a "rat race," or a short-slot coupler. 18 The sum and difference signals appear at the two other arms of the hybrid. On reception, the outputs of the sum arm and the difference arm are each heterodyned The to an intermediate frequency and amplified as in any superheterodyne receiver.
Sec. 5.4]
Tracking Radar
is
177
connected to the sum arm. Range information is also extracted from the sum channel. duplexer is included in the sum arm for the protection of the receiver. The output of the phase-sensitive detector is an error signal whose magnitude is proportional to the angular error and whose sign is proportional to the direction. In Fig. 5.9 the output of the phase-sensitive detector (angle information) and the sum channel (range information) are shown presented on the A-scope. The sum-channel signal operates the A-scope just as in a normal radar. It gives an indication of the target range by deflecting the beam upward, generating a pip. The output of the phasesensitive detector, however, modifies the scope sweep to deflect the target pip either to the right or to the left, depending upon the sign of the angular error. The amount of leaning is a measure of the magnitude of the angular error. This presentation has been called the "Pisa" indicator, after the famous leaning tower. 13
transmitter
Tronsmitter
Sum
TR
chonnel
Range
IF Amplitude
detector
signal
omplifier
^Hybrid
junction
Phose-
LO
sensitive
detector
Angleerror
signal
A-scope
Antenno
feeds
Mixer
IF
amplifier
Sum
circuit
Difference chonnel
Sweep
generator
Fig. 5.9. Block diagram of amplitude-comparison-monopulse radar (one angular coordinate).
The output of the monopulse radar may also be used to perform automatic tracking. The angular-error signal may actuate a servo-control system to position the antenna, and the range output from the sum channel may be fed into an automatic-rangetracking unit.
The sign of the difference signal (and the direction of the angular error) is determined by comparing the phase of the difference signal with the phase of the sum signal. If the sum signal in the IF portion of the receiver were A s cos a> IF t, the difference signal would be either A d cos a> 1F t or A d cos a> lF t (A s > 0, A d > 0), depending on which side of
center is the target. Since A d cos coIF t A d cos co IF (t tt), the sign of the difference signal may be measured by determining whether the difference signal is in phase with the sum signal or 180 out of phase.
a part of the amplitude-comparison-monopulse by comparing the echo amplitudes from simultaneous offset beams. The phase relationship between the signals in the offset beams is not used. The purpose of the phase-sensitive detector is to conveniently furnish the sign of the error signal. A block diagram of a monopulse radar with provision for extracting error signals in both elevation and azimuth is shown in Fig. 5.10. The cluster of four feeds generates four partially overlapping antenna beams. The feeds might be used with either a parabolic reflector or a lens. All four feeds generate the sum pattern. The difference pattern in one plane is formed by taking the sum of two adjacent feeds and subtracting this from the sum of the other two adjacent feeds. The difference pattern in theorthogonal plane is obtained by adding the differences of the orthogonal adjacent pairs.
is
Although a phase comparison

is
radar, the angular-error signal
basically derived
178
total
[Sec. 5.4
of four hybrid junctions generate the sum channel, the azimuth difference channel, and the elevation difference channel. Three separate mixers and IF amplifiers are shown, one for each channel. All three mixers operate from a single local oscillator in order to maintain the phase relationships between the three channels. Two phasesensitive detectors extract the angle-error information, one for azimuth, the other for elevation. Range information is extracted from the output of the sum channel after
amplitude detection. Since a phase comparison

the difference channels,
made between the output of the sum channel and each of important that the phase shifts introduced by each of the channels be almost identical. According to Page, 13 the phase difference between channels must be maintained to within 25 or better for reasonably proper performance. The gains of the channels also must not differ by more than specified amounts.
is
it is
Amplitude detector
Video
amplifier
Range
M^rj
o^litier}
Phase-sensitive detector
Elevation-
angle error
IF
amplifier
Phase -sensitive
detector
Azimuthangle error
LO
Fig. 5.10. Block diagram of two-coordinate (azimuth and elevation) amplitude-comparison-monopulse tracking radar.
An alternative approach to using three identical amplifiers in the monopulse receiver

is
to use but one
IF channel which amplifies the sum

17 19
-
signal
and the two
difference
passed through the single IF The sum signals on a time-shared basis. in time by a suitable amount. delayed signals difference two the followed by amplifier Most of the gain and gain control take place in the single IF amplifier. Any variations After amplification, compensating delays are affect all three signals simultaneously. and bring the sum signal and the two sequence the time unscramble introduced to Phase detection occurs as in the conventional difference signals in time coincidence. monopulse. It is claimed that the phase and gain between channels have been mainsignal
is
tained to within 2.5 and
Monopulse Error Signal. Gaussian function. The one-way (voltage) pattern from one monopulse beam is % is the Gl exp ( aWjl), where G is the maximum antenna gain, a = 2.776/0|, and 6% antenna beamwidth as measured between the half-power points. The angular separation between the two antenna beams is 20a and the angle between the target and the axis Assuming no mutual coupling between the two feed horns, the of symmetry is T
,
.
db, respectively, with this technique. Assume that the antenna pattern is represented by the
19
one-way (voltage) sum pattern

2Gq exp
is
-|
-a -
(0*
(?*,)
cosh a 2 6 Q 6 T
(5.18)
The one-way
(voltage) difference pattern
is
2G\ exp
(e;
0o
sinh a d a d,,
(5.19)
Sec. 5.4]
Tracking Radar
179
The IF voltage produced by

Eqs. (5.18) and (5.19).
the difference signal will be proportional to the product of
IF difference signal (voltage)
2Kexp [a 2
(d\
0|)]
X
where
sinh 2a d q 6 T cos
2-rrfIF t
(5.20)
A' is a constant determined by the parameters of the radar equation. The two-way (voltage) antenna pattern for the sum channel is the square of Eq. (5. 1 8). The sum and difference signals [Eq. (5.20)] are multiplied in the phase-sensitive detector to give the error signal. The output of the phase-sensitive detector is a d-c voltage whose amplitude is proportional to the product of the sum and difference amplitudes,
or
Error signal
cx
2 exp \_-2a 2 (6 q
#,)]
cosh 2 a 2 6 q 6 T sinh 2a 2 6 q 6 T
(5.21)
For small angular errors
this
reduces to
Error signal
c2 6 T
(5.22)
c x and c 2 are constants. Thus the error signal in the monopulse radar is a linear function of the angular displacement of the target from the axis, assuming small angular displacements.
where
Comparison of Monopulse and Conical-scan Error Signals. The greater the signal-tonoise ratio and the steeper the slope of the error signal in the vicinity of zero angular error, the more accurate is the measurement of angle. The slopes of the error signal at
crossover in the monopulse, the conical-scan tracker, and a tracker which operates on the difference patterns only will be compared and used as a basis for relative accuracy.
The receiver is assumed to be linear, an assumption which should have little effect on the conclusions, especially for large signal-to-noise ratios. This is usually the case if accurate measurements are to be obtained. The one-way (voltage) antenna pattern is
represented analytically by the Gaussian function exp (a 2 6 2 /2), where the constant 2.176/6%, and the antenna gain is normalized; that is, G ~\. The one-way (voltage) sum pattern in the monopulse radar is [from Eq. (5.18)]
a2
2 exp
"-{61
6%)
cosh a 2 6 q 6 T
(5.23)
where 6q and d T are defined as before.

[Eq. (5.19)]
is
2
The one-way
2
(voltage) difference pattern
2 exp
L
-f(^ +
+6 r)
sinh a 2 6 q 6 T
(5.24)
The monopulse
error signal
is
[Eq. (5.21) with

d%)~]
q=
4]
Vm =
4 exp
[-2a 2 (6 2
cosh 2 a 2 6 Q Q T sinh
2a\6 T
(5.25)
The error signal in the lobe-switching or the conical-scan radar (in one coordinate) is proportional to the difference of the two-way (voltage) antenna pattern exp (aW).
V =
c
2 exp \_-a\6 2 a
0|,)]
sinh 2a 6 Q d T
(5.26)
In a radar which transmits and receives on the difference pattern only, the error signal
is
4 exp
[-a\d 2 q
d T )~] sinh a 6 q 6 r
(5.27)
180

slopes of these three error signals
[Sec. 5.4
,
The
(Vm
e,
and
Vd) evaluated at
6T
are
Monopulse
te\
\au T le T =o
=8a 2 e 9 exp(-2 2 ^) =4a 2 e a exp(-a^)
(5.28)
Conical scan
te)
\aO T h T =o
(5.29)
Difference pattern
(&) \dd
=0
(5.30)
T 'e T =o
radar which utilizes the difference pattern for both transmitting and receiving does not have as suitable an error signal as the other two radars since its slope is zero for 6T 0. The error-signal slope of the monopulse radar is slightly greater than the
5.0
Squint angle
Bq /6s
0.6
0^
=
0.10.2
0.3
0.4
\
0.5
1
h
1
r- 1
0.7
L,
Beam
4 3 crossover, db
Fig. 5.11. Slope of the angular-error signal at crossover for monopulse and conical-scan tracking squint angle). radars (fi B half-power beamwidth, 0
slope of the conical-scan radar error signal over the range of squint-angle values of This is illustrated in Fig. 5.11. The ordinate is the product of the error-signal slope times the antenna beamwidth, and the abscissa is shown as either the
practical interest.
The maximum slope of The crossover values of The maximum of the curve is practical conical-scan radars are usually in this vicinity. The greater rather broad, with some leeway allowed in the selection of the optimum. the crossover level, however, the less will be the signal-to-noise ratio when the target is directly on axis. The maximum slope of the monopulse radar is seen to occur at a beam
squint angle or the crossover point of the antenna patterns. the conical-scan radar occurs at a crossover of 2.2 db.
crossover of approximately
In general,
it is
db.
achieve a low crossover with practical monopulse antennas than with conical-scan antennas. The monopulse radar usually generates its two (or four) overlapping beams from two (or four) adjacent feed horns. Since there is a physical limit to the minimum spacing between the feed horns, there will be a correspondingly lower limit to the separation between the two monopulse beams. However, Fig. 5.1 1 indicates that the jc/pssover can be much greater than the optimum and still Therefore the slope of the error result in a slope as high as %e?56onical-scan slope. signals in practical conical-scan'and monopulse tracking radars will be comparable if the antenna pattern is the only factor of consequence. It should also be noted that
more
difficult to
Sec. 5.4]
since the ordinate in Fig. 5.11
Tracking Radar
181
is the product of the slope times the beamwidth, the smaller the beamwidth of the antenna, the larger will be the slope and the better the tracking accuracy. word of caution should be given concerning the nature of
the Gaussian approximation to the antenna beam shape assumed above. In actual practice the sum (or difference) pattern may not be the sum (or difference) of the two overlapping offset patterns. There will usually be some interaction between the two feed horns which can alter the two patterns. 20 21
'
Phase-comparison Monopulse. The tracking techniques discussed thus far in this chapter were based on a comparison of the amplitudes of echo signals received from two or more antenna positions. The sequential-lobing and conical-scan techniques used a single, time-shared antenna beam, while the monopulse technique used two or more simultaneous beams. The difference in amplitudes in the several antenna positions was proportional to the angular error. The angle of arrival (in one coordinate) may also be deterTarget mined by comparing the phase difference between the signals from two separate antennas. Unlike the antennas of amplitude-comparison trackers, those used in phase-comparison systems are not
offset from the axis. The individual boresight axes of the antennas are parallel, causing the (far-field) radiation to illuminate the same
in space. The amplitudes of the target echo signals are essentially the same from each antenna beam, but the phases are different. The measurement of angle of arrival by comparison of the phase relationships in the signals Antenna from the separated antennas of a radio interNo.1 ferometer has been widely used by the radio astronomers for precise measurements of the positions of radio stars. The interferometer as Fig. 5.12. Wavefront phase relationships in phase-comparison-monopulse radar. used by the radio astronomer is a passive instrument, the source of energy being radiated by the target itself. A tracking radar which operates with phase information is similar to an active interferometer and might be called an interferometer radar. It has also been called simultaneous-phase-comparison radar, or phase-comparison monopulse. The latter term is the one which will be used here. In Fig. 5.12 two antennas are shown separated by a distance d. The distance to the target is R and is assumed large compared with the antenna separation d. The line of sight to the target makes an angle 6 to the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the two antennas. The distance from antenna 1 to the target is
volume
Rx
=R+
target
sin
and the distance from antenna 2 to the
is
sin 6
The phase
difference between the echo signals in the
two antennas
is
approximately
A<
dsind
A
(5.31)
182
[Sec. 5.4
For small angles where sin 6 * 0, the phase difference is a linear function of the angular error and may be used to position the antenna via a servo-control loop. A block diagram of a phase-comparison monopulse22 in one angular coordinate is shown in Fig. 5.13. Two antennas are shown side by side. These are directive antennas, one of which is connected to the transmitter and receiver as in a conventional The transmitter is shown conradar, while the other antenna feeds a receiver only.
In practice, a second duplexer might be inserted nected to the antenna via a duplexer. in front of the other receiver, not so much for protection, but to balance the phase shifts The two receiving channels should be identical. The RF echo in the two channels. signals are heterodyned to an intermediate frequency with a common local oscillator. The outputs of the two IF amplifiers are compared in a phase detector whose output is a voltage proportional to A</> of Eq. (5.31). This voltage is used as the error-signal
input to a servo-control loop which positions the antenna to make the error signal zero. One of the receiving channels is envelope-detected, as in the normal radar receiver, to extract the range information.
Radiation patterns
Mixer
IF
amplifier
Local
oscillator
Phase
detector
Angle-error information
Duplexer
Mixer
Transmitter
IF
amplifier
Envelope
detector
^_
Range
information
Fig. 5.13. Block diagram of phase-comparison-monopulse radar (one angular coordinate).
An additional antenna and receiving channel is necessary in order to track in two orthogonal coordinates. In one implementation of the phase-comparison monopulse radar, 22 four antennas were arranged in a square to obtain tracking in both elevation and azimuth. One of these antennas was a transmitter only, while the other three were receivers. One antenna was connected to the elevation receiver, another to the azimuth receiver, and one to a common receiver which supplied the reference for both the Instead of obtaining the error signal from a phase elevation and azimuth receiver. the sum and difference signals may be derived (as in the in Fig. comparison (as 5.13), 16 amplitude-comparison monopulse) and compared in a phase-sensitive detector. been have Although tracking radars based upon the phase-comparison principle widely as has not been technique this satisfactorily, built and found to track aircraft used as some of the others discussed. There are two reasons why this might be so. First, the sidelobe levels which result can sometimes be higher than those from a single reflector, and second, the phase comparison radar does not usually make efficient use of These two points are elaborated upon below. the total available antenna aperture. When two omnidirectional antennas are separated by distances of many wavelengths, as are the separations in the phase-comparison monopulse, a multilobed pattern will be formed. The lobes of the pattern are called grating lobes, by analogy with the They have also been called principal maxima. Each of the optical diffraction grating. grating lobes of the pattern will be of the same amplitude. The positions of the grating 2nn in Eq. (5.31) (where n is an integer) and lobes may be found by setting Aci The grating lobes appear when 0. solving for d. The main lobe corresponds to n n and result in an ambiguous angle measurement. Many of the grating lobes will be suppressed if directive antenna elements are used rather than the omnidirectional
Sec. 5.4]
Tracking Radar
The element pattern
183
elements assumed in the above illustration. interference pattern of the two separated omnidirectional elements, with the result that those lobes outside the coverage of the element pattern will be reduced. In other words, the resultant pattern is the product of the element pattern times the array pattern. The directivity of the element pattern will tend to reduce the magnitude of the grating lobes, but in general, the reduction will not be as complete as might be desired. As an example of the positions of the grating lobes relative to the element pattern, assume that the antenna-reflector size is 30 wavelengths in diameter and that the separation between the antennas is also 30 wavelengths that is, the two antennas are 2n radians in Eq. (5.31)] will The first grating lobe [n 1 or A</> just touching. 3.8. Assuming that the 1.9, and the second grating lobe at d occur at 6
multiplies the
;
65A/D, where DjX half-power beamwidth of the element pattern is given by dB 30, 1 .09. As a rough rule of thumb, the first the half-power points correspond to 6 2.65, null for parabolic-reflector antennas occurs at approximately 1.2 B and the first sidelobe approximately half a beamwidth farther, or 3.74. Therefore we see that the position of the first grating lobe lies between the half-power point and Depending upon its exact location, it may either widen the main lobe or the first null. The second grating lobe occurs create a shoulder lobe, or even a pronounced sidelobe. in the vicinity of the first sidelobe of the element pattern, with the likelihood that the first sidelobe level will be raised. One limitation of the phase-comparison-monopulse tracker described in Fig. 5.13 is that it does not use its available antenna aperture as efficiently as other types of tracking radars. For example, suppose that four parabolic reflectors were used to achieve tracking in two coordinates, with one antenna for transmission and the other three for reception. The effective antenna area (or the gain) that is substituted into the radar equation is that of one of the antennas, not that of all four together. Therefore, if an amplitude-comparison-monopulse antenna or a conical-scan antenna occupied the same area as the four antennas, its effective aperture might be as much as four times greater than if it were used with the type of phase-comparison monopulse shown in Fig. 5.13. A factor of 4 in the effective antenna area can result in a factor-of-2 change
in range.
Both the amplitude-comparison-monopulse and the phase-comparison-monopulse employ two antenna beams (for one coordinate tracking). The measurements made by the two systems are not the same; consequently, the characteristics of the antenna beams will also be different. In the amplitude-comparison monopulse the two beams are offset, that is, point in slightly different directions. This type of pattern may be generated by using one reflector dish with two feed horns side by side (four feed horns for two coordinate data). Since the feeds may be placed side by side, they could be as close as one-half wavelength. With such close spacing the phase difference between the signals received in the two feeds is negligibly small. Any difference in the amplitudes between the two antenna outputs in the amplitude-comparison system is a result of differences in amplitude and not phase. The phase-comparison monopulse, on the other hand, measures phase differences only and is not concerned with amplitude difference. Therefore the antenna beams are not offset, but are directed to illuminate a common volume in space. Separate antennas are needed since it is difficult to illuminate a single reflector with more than one feed and produce independent antenna patterns which illuminate the same volume in space. The phase-comparison-monopulse tracking radar described above is but one method of employing phase information. In one embodiment of the phase-comparison principle as applied to missile guidance the phase difference between the signals in two fixed antennas is measured with a servo-controlled phase shifter located in one of the arms. 33 The servo loop adjusts the phase shifter until the difference in phase between
trackers
184
the
[Sec. 5.5
two channels is a null. The amount of phase shift which has to be introduced to make a null signal is a measure of the angular error. The phase- and amplitude-comparison principles can be combined in a single radar to produce two-dimensional angle tracking with only two, rather than four, antenna beams. 17 The angle information in one plane (the azimuth) is obtained by two separate antennas placed side by side as in a phase-comparison monopulse. One of the beams is tilted slightly upward, while the other is tilted slightly downward, to achieve the squint needed for amplitude-comparison monopulse in elevation. Therefore the horizontal projection of the antenna patterns is that of a phase-comparison system, while the vertical projection is that of an amplitude-comparison system.
5.5. Target-reflection Characteristics
and Angular Accuracy
will be influenced by such factors as the mechanical properties of the radar antenna and pedestal, the method by which the angular position of the antenna is measured, the quality of the servo system, the stability of the electronic circuits, the noise level of the receiver, the antenna beam width, atmospheric fluctuations, and the reflection characteristics of the target. These factors can degrade the tracking accuracy by causing the antenna beam to fluctuate in a random manner about the true target path. These noiselike fluctuations are sometimes called tracking noise, or jitter. In many cases the two factors which ultimately limit the angular accuracy of practical tracking radars are the mechanical errors and the targetreflectivity characteristics. The mechanical errors associated with tracking radars will not be discussed here. (An example of the mechanical errors experienced in a precise monopulse tracking radar, the AN/FPS-16, has been described by Barton. 24 25) A simple radar target such as a smooth sphere will not cause degradation of the angular-tracking accuracy. The radar cross section of a sphere is independent of the aspect at which it is viewed ; consequently, its echo will not fluctuate with time. The same is true, in general, of a radar beacon if its antenna pattern is omnidirectional. However, most radar targets are of a more complex nature than the sphere. The amplitude of the echo signal from a complex target may vary over wide limits as the In addition, the effective center of radar aspect changes with respect to the radar. Both of these effects amplitude fluctuations and wanderreflection may also change. ing of the radar center of reflection as well as the limitation imposed by receiver noise can limit the tracking accuracy. These effects are discussed below. Amplitude Fluctuations. A complex target such as an aircraft or a ship may be considered as a number of independent scattering elements. The echo signal can be represented as the vector addition of the contributions from the individual scatterers. as might occur because of motion If the target aspect changes with respect to the radar of the target, or turbulence in the case of aircraft targets the relative phase and amplitude relationships of the contributions from the individual scatterers also change. Consequently, the vector sum, and therefore the amplitude, change with changing target
-
The angular accuracy of tracking radar
aspect.
Amplitude fluctuations of the echo signal are important in the design of the lobeswitching radar and the conical-scan radar but are of little consequence to the monopulse tracker. Both the conical-scan tracker and the lobe-switching tracker require a This time corresponds in the finite time to obtain a measurement of the angle error. With lobe conical-scan tracker to at least one revolution of the antenna beam. switching, the minimum time is that necessary to obtain echoes at the four successive angular positions. In either case a minimum of four pulse-repetition periods are If required to make a measurement; in practice, many more than four are often used. the target cross section were to vary during this observation time, the change might be erroneously interpreted as an angular-error signal. The monopulse radar, on the
Sec. 5.5]
Tracking Radar
185
other hand, determines the angular error on the basis of a single pulse. Its accuracy will therefore not be affected by changes in amplitude with time. The echo signal from complex targets is best described in statistical terms. Some of the more useful statistical descriptions that have been applied to cross sections are the cumulative probability distribution, the autocorrelation function, and the power
spectral density.
effect
The power-spectral-density function
is
useful for describing the
of amplitude fluctuations on the performance of a conical-scan or lobe-switching
tracker.
typical power spectrum of the target amplitude fluctuations (fading) with a conical-scan tracking radar might appear as in Fig. 5.14. This curve is an analytical approximation to the experimental spectrum derived from 30 sec of azimuth data

I
I
i i
1
12
I-
18
20
Frequency, cps
Fig. 5.14. Power spectral density of amplitude fluctuations for a C-47 aircraft on a crossover course. (Courtesy J. E. Ward and the MIT Servomechanism Laboratory. 42 )
obtained from a radar tracking a C-47 aircraft flying a crossover course. 42 The minimum range was 300 yd, and the maximum range was 5,000 yd. The autocorrelation function (which is the Fourier cosine transform of the power spectrum) corresponding to the spectrum of Fig. 5.14 is <f>(r) 1,410 exp ( 16.6t), where <f(r) is in For a radial trajectory over the same range limits the autounits of square mils. correlation function is </>(t) 40 exp ( 13t). To reduce the effect of amplitude noise on tracking, the conical-scan frequency should be chosen to correspond to a low value of amplitude noise. If considerable amplitude fluctuation noise were to appear at the conical-scan or lobe-switching frequencies, it could not be readily eliminated with filters or AGC. A typical scan frequency might be of the order of 30 cps. Higher frequencies might also be used since target amplitude However, this may not always be noise generally decreases with increasing frequency. Propeller-driven aircraft produce modulation components at the blade frequency true. and harmonics thereof and can cause a substantial increase in the spectral energy density at certain frequencies. 43 Also, the scan frequency cannot be made higher than one-quarter the pulse repetition frequency if a minimum of one hit per quadrant is to be obtained. It has been found experimentally that the tracking accuracy of radars operating with pulse repetition frequencies from 1,000 to 4,000 cps and a lobing or scan rate one-quarter of the prf are not limited by echo amplitude fluctuations. 26
186

signal
[Sec. 5.5
The percentage modulation of the echo

tions
is
due to cross-section amplitude
fluctua-
independent of range if AGC is used. Consequently, the angular error as a result of amplitude fluctuations will also be independent of range. Angle Fluctuations. 2 32 Changes in the target aspect with respect to the radar can cause the apparent center of radar reflections to wander from one point to another. (The apparent center of radar reflection is the direction of the antenna when the error signal is zero.) In general, the apparent center of reflection might not correspond to the target center. In fact, it need not be confined to the physical extent of the target and may be off the target a significant fraction of the time. The random wandering of the apparent radar reflecting center gives rise to noisy or jittered angle tracking. This form of tracking noise is called angle noise, angle scintillations, angle fluctuations, or target The angular fluctuations produced by small targets at long range may be of glint. little consequence in most instances. However, at short range or with relatively large targets (as might be seen by a radar seeker on a homing missile), angular fluctuations may be the chief factor limiting tracking accuracy. Angle fluctuations affect all tracking radars whether conical-scan, sequential-lobing, or monopulse. Consider a rather simplified model of a complex radar target consisting of two independent isotropic scatterers separated by an angular distance d D as measured from the radar. Although such a target may be fictitious and used for reasons of mathematical simplicity, it might approximate a target such as a small fighter aircraft with wing-tip tanks or two aircraft targets flying in formation and located within the same radar resolution cell. It is also a close approximation to the low-angle tracking problem in which the radar sees the target plus its image reflected from the surface. The qualitative effects of target glint may be assessed from this model. The relative, amplitude between the cross sections of the two scatterers is assumed to be a, and the relative phase difference is a. Differences in phase might be due to differences in range or to reflecting properties. The cross-section ratio a is defined as a number less than unity. The angular error A0 as measured from the larger of the two targets is 27
This
to
is
plotted in Fig. 5.15.
1 D The position of the larger of the two
+ a cos + a + 2a cos a
Q
<x
scatterers corresponds
1
.
while the smaller-scatterer position is at A0/0 7J Positive values of AS correspond to an apparent radar center which lies between the two scatterers; negative values lie outside the target. When the echo signals from both scatterers are in phase (a 0), the error reduces to a/(a 1), which corresponds to the so-called "center of gravity" of the two scatterers (not to be confused with the mechanical center
0,
A0/0Q
=+
of gravity).
Angle fluctuations are due to random changes in the relative distance from radar to is, varying values of a. These changes may result from turbulence in the aircraft flight path or from the changing aspect caused by target motion. In essence, angle fluctuations are a distortion of the phase front of the echo signal reflected from a complex target and may be visualized as the apparent tilt of this phase front as it
the scatterers, that
arrives at the tracking system.
Equation (5.32) indicates that the tracking error A6 due to

target
is
glint for the two-scatterer

.
This is probably a reasonable approximation to the behavior of real targets, provided the angular extent of the target is not too large compared with the antenna beamwidth. Since Q D varies inversely with distance for a fixed target size, the tracking error due to glint also varies inversely with distance.
directly proportional to the angular extent of the target Q D
A slightly more complex model than the two-scatterer target considered above is one
consisting of
many
individual scatterers, each of the
same cross
section,
arranged
Sec. 5.5]
Tracking Radar
187
uniformly along a line of length L perpendicular to the line of sight from the radar. The resultant cross section from such a target is assumed to behave according to the Rayleigh probability distribution. The probability of the apparent radar center lying outside
is the radians (in one tracking plane) is 0. 1 34, where 13.4 per cent of the time the radar will not be directed to a point on the target. Similar results for a two-dimensional model consisting of equal-cross-section scatterers uniformly spaced over a circular area indicate that the
the angular region of
LjR
distance to the target. 28
Thus
probability that the apparent radar center
lies
outside this target
is
0.20.
reduced by increasing the time constant of the AGC system (reducing the bandwidth). 26 33 34 However, this reduction in angle fluctuation is accompanied by a new component of noise caused by the amplitude fluctuations associated with the echo signal; that is, narrowing the AGC bandwidth
Angle fluctuations
in a tracking radar are
'
20
40
60
100 120 80 Phase difference ex
140
160
180
Fig. 5.15. Plot of Eq. (5.32).
amplitude a and relative phase
shift a,
Apparent radar center A0 of two isotropic separated by an angular extent 6 D

.
scatterers of relative
generates additional noise in the vicinity of zero frequency, and poorer tracking results. Amplitude noise modulates the tracking-error signals and produces a new noise component, proportional to true tracking errors, that is enhanced with a slow AGC. Under practical tracking conditions it seems that a wide-bandwidth (short-time constant)
should be used to minimize the over-all tracking noise. However, the servo bandwidth should be kept to a minimum consistent with tactical requirements in order to minimize the noise. Receiver and Servo Noise. Another limitation on tracking accuracy is the receiver The accuracy of the angle measurement is inversely proportional to the noise power. 35 Since the signal-to-noise ratio is square root of the signal-to-noise power ratio. 4 the angular error due to receiver noise proportional to l/# (from the radar equation),
proportional to the square of the target distance. Servo noise is the hunting action of the tracking servomechanism which results from backlash and compliance in the gears, shafts, and structures of the mount. The magnitude of servo noise is essentially independent of the target echo and will therefore be independent of range. 26 33 Summary of Errors. The contributions of the various factors affecting the tracking Angle-fluctuation noise varies inversely with range error are summarized in Fig. 5.16. receiver noise varies as the square of the range; and amplitude fluctuations and servo
is
'
AGC
noise are independent of range.
This
is
a qualitative plot showing the gross effects of
188
[Sec. 5.5
Curve A is the sum of and sequential-lobing tracking radars. Curve B does not include the amplitude fluctuations and is therefore representative of monopulse radars. In Fig. 5. 1 6 the amplitude fluctuations are assumed to be larger than servo noise. If not, the improvement of monopulse tracking over conical scan will be negligible. In general, the tracking accuracy deteriorates at both short and long target ranges, with the best tracking occurring at some intermediate range.
each of the factors.
all effects
Two different resultant curves are shown.
and
is
representative of conical-scan
hi
1
/ h
^ //
E
$0.01
Amplitude
fluctuations
^y. /
'^
Servo noise
III
i
10
nl 100
II
1,000
Relative radar range
Fig. 5.16. Relative contributions to angular tracking error due to amplitude fluctuations, angle and servo noise as a function of range. (A) Composite error for a conicalscan or sequential-lobing radar; (B) composite error for monopulse.
fluctuations, receiver noise,
At sufficiently long ranges, the signal-to-noise ratio may be too low to permit satisfactory tracking and the radar "loses track." Swerling analyzed the effect of receiver noise on the tracking performance using the loss rate as a criterion of performance, defined as the expected number of times per second the tracking error (in either range or angle) exceeds the maximum allowable value. 36 The loss rate can serve as a criterion
an optimum choice of servo parameters, transmitter power, maximum range, and other similar tracking-radar parameters. Swerling's analysis applies to either monopulse angle tracking or split-range-gate tracking (described in the next section). Three of the formulas derived by Swerling are presented below (in his notation). The output signal-to-noise (power) ratio Y versus loss rate A is
to find (
Kt Y( \2dJ ll
5/6
n Vln J A
5/c
(5.33)
where
K=
t
a correction factor of order of unity and accounts for type of trackingerror circuit employed, distortion of pulse in IF, and particular type of linear approximation used instead of actual error vs. voltage curve
width between two-way half-power points of each or width of each range gate (range tracking)
beam
(angle tracking)
Sm 3
= maximum allowable tracking error = average tracking error f = equivalent square-band cutoff frequency of the servo regarded as an audio
e
filter
Sec
56]
relationship between the output signal-to-noise ratio
Tracking Radar
189
The
Y and
the IF signal-to-noise
ratio
X for square-law detection is
y=J^ +2X
1
is
(5.34)
where Nis the effective number of pulses integrated by the servo and The variance of the tracking error is bandwidth divided by 2fc
.
equal to the IF
o\
^
87
(5.35)
This is consistent with the form of the theoretical errors derived in Chap. 10 for other radar measurements. The greater the beamwidth (or the pulse width), the poorer will be the angle (or the range) accuracy. The rms tracking error (square root of the variance) is inversely proportional to the square root of the signal-to-noise
ratio.
5.6.
Tracking in Range
In most tracking-radar applications the target is continuously tracked in range as well Range tracking might be accomplished by a human operator who watches as in angle. an A-scope or J-scope presentation and manually positions a handwheel in order to maintain a marker over the desired target pip. The setting of the handwheel is a measure of the target range and may be converted to a voltage that is supplied to a data processor. The data processor in a fire-control radar predicts the future position of
the target for the purpose of aiming the weapon. The human operator tracking a target by positioning a handwheel can be considered 1 In pure displacement tracking, the turns of the handwheel are as part of a servo loop. made proportional to the displacement of the target. If the target's range changes at a constant rate, the operator must turn his handwheel at a constant rate. If he is lagging
behind the target, he will turn faster until the error is corrected if he is leading the In pure rate tracking, the position of the handwheel target, he will turn more slowly. determines the speed at which the movable marker on the CRT follows the target pip. When tracking a target moving with constant velocity the handwheel need not be turned once the proper adjustment has been made. Displacement and rate tracking may be combined so that the handwheel position automatically corrects for speed at the same time that the displacement error is corrected. This is called aided tracking. Aided tracking may also be used for manual tracking in
;
angle as well as range. As target speeds increase,
it is increasingly difficult for an operator to perform at the of efficiency over a sustained period of time, and automatic tracking becomes a necessity. Indeed, there are many tracking applications where an operator has no place, as in a homing missile or in a small space vehicle. The technique for automatically tracking in range is based on the split range gate.f Two range gates are generated as shown in Fig. 5.17. One is the early gate, and the other is the late gate. The echo pulse is shown in Fig. 5.17a, the relative position of
necessary levels
The the gates at a particular instant in Fig. 5.176, and the error signal in Fig. 5.17c. portion of the signal energy contained in the early gate is less than that in the late gate. If the outputs of the two gates are subtracted, an error signal (Fig. 5.17c) will result 37 The magnitude of the error which may be used to reposition the center of the gates. signal is a measure of the difference between the center of the pulse and the center of the
portions of a wave which exist during one or more selected t Gating is the process of selecting those time intervals (IRE definition").
>
190
[Sec. 5.7
The sign of the error signal determines the direction in which the gates must be gates. repositioned by a feedback-control system. When the error signal is zero, the range gates are centered on the pulse. The range gating necessary to perform automatic tracking offers several advantages as by-products. It isolates one target, excluding targets at other ranges. This permits
the boxcar generator to be employed. Also, range gating improves the signal-to-noise ratio since it eliminates the noise from the other range intervals. Hence the width of the gate should be sufficiently narrow to minimize extraneous noise. On the other hand, it must not be so narrow that an appreciable fraction of the signal energy is excluded. reasonable compromise is to make the gate width of the order of the
pulse width.
Echo pulse
j
U)
/
Early gate
n
Late
Time
(i>)
gate
Time
Early gate I
(c)
signal
Late gate
Time
/
Fig. 5.17. Split-range-gate tracking,
(a)
signal
Echo
pulse; (b) early-late range gates; (c) difference signal
between early and
late
range gates.
of finite length can cause noise in range-tracking circuits in an analogous to angle-fluctuation noise (glint) in the angle-tracking circuits. Rangetracking noise depends on the length of the target and its shape. It has been reported 26
A target
manner
that the
rms value of the range noise

is
tracking
5.7.
is approximately 0.8 of the target length when accomplished with a video split-range-gate error detector.
Tracking in Doppler
Tracking radars designed to extract doppler information, such as the or the pulse-doppler tracking radars, can also track the doppler frequency shift. This may be accomplished with a frequency discriminator and a tunable oscillator. Other techniques are, of course, possible. 44 Tracking the doppler frequency shift with a narrowband doppler filter (one which is wide enough to encompass the frequency spectrum occupied by the signal energy) offers two advantages: (1) the signal-to-noise ratio is improved, especially if the doppler frequency shift is large compared with the information bandwidth of the received signal; and (2) it may be used to resolve a desired target from a group of targets, especially in or pulse-doppler tracking radars.
CW
CW
5.8. Acquisition
tracking radar must first find and acquire its target before it can operate as a tracker. Therefore it is usually necessary for the radar to scan an angular sector in which the presence of the target is suspected. Most tracking radars employ a narrow pencilbeam antenna. Searching a volume in space for an aircraft target with a narrow pencil beam would be somewhat analogous to searching for a fly in a darkened auditorium with a flashlight. It must be done with some care if the entire volume is to be covered
Sec. 5.8]
Tracking Radar
191
uniformly and efficiently. Examples of the common types of scanning patterns employed with pencil-beam antennas are illustrated in Fig. 5.18. In the helical scan, the antenna is continuously rotated in azimuth while it is simultaneously raised or lowered in elevation. It traces a helix in space. Helical scanning was employed for the search mode of the SCR-584 fire-control radar, developed during World War II for the aiming of antiaircraft-gun batteries. 38 The SCR-584 antenna was rotated at the rate of 6 rpm and covered a 20 elevation angle in 1 min. The Palmer scan derives its name from the familiar penmanship exercises of grammar school days. It consists of a rapid circular scan (conical scan) about the axis of the antenna, combined with a linear movement of the axis of rotation. When the axis of rotation is held Because of this property, the stationary, the Palmer scan reduces to the conical scan. Palmer scan is sometimes used with conical-scan tracking radars which must operate with a search as well as a track mode since the same mechanisms used to produce conical
scanning can also be used for Palmer scanning. 39 Some conical-scan tracking radars increase the squint angle during search in order to reduce the time required to scan a given volume. The conical scan of the SCR-584 was operated during the search mode and was actually a Palmer scan in a helix. In general, conical scan is performed during the search mode of most tracking radars. The Palmer scan is suited to a search area which is larger in one dimension than another. The spiral scan covers an angular search volume with circular symmetry. Both the spiral scan and the Palmer scan suffer from the disadvantage that all parts of the scan volume do not receive the same energy unless the scanning speed is varied during the scan cycle. As a consequence, the number of hits returned from a target when searching with a constant scanning rate depends upon the position of the target within
the search area.
(/>)
U)
=P
(d)
(e)
(a) Trace of helical scanning Fig. 5.18. Examples of acquisition search patterns, scan; (c) spiral scan; (d) raster, or TV, scan; (e) nodding scan.
beam;
(b)
Palmer
raster, or TV, scan, unlike the Palmer or the spiral scan, paints the search area uniform manner. The raster scan is a simple and convenient means for searching Similar to the raster scan is the nodding scan a limited sector, rectangular in shape. rapidly in elevation and slowly in azimuth. beam produced by oscillating the antenna Although it may be employed to cover a limited sector as does the raster scan nodding scan may also be used to obtain hemispherical coverage, that is, elevation angle extending to 90 and the azimuth scan angle to 360. The helical scan and the nodding scan can both be used to obtain hemispheric coverage with a pencil beam. The nodding scan is also used with height-finding radars.
The
in a
The Palmer,
spiral,
and
assist in the acquisition
raster scans are employed in fire-control tracking radars to of the target when the search sector is of limited extent.
192
5.9.

Examples of Tracking Radars
[Sec. 5.9
The major characteristics of three tracking radars will be presented for the purpose of illustration. The three trackers are (1) the SCR-584, (2) the MIT Lincoln Laboratory Millstone Hill radar, and (3) the AN/FPS-16. The SCR-58438 was the first successful operational tracking radar at microwave frequencies (Fig. 5.19). It was developed by the MIT Radiation Laboratory and became available in operational quantities during the latter half of World War 1 1. Its function was to provide the fire-control information necessary for operating a battery of four 90-mm antiaircraft guns. The SCR-584 was the first to use the conical-scan
Fig. 5.19.
SCR-584 tracking
radar.
(Courtesy McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.)
tracking technique. Its basic principle of operation was not too unlike that of modern conical-scan trackers. The radar was also designed to operate in a search mode to provide its own acquisition information. When searching, the beam scanned a helical pattern with 360 azimuth coverage and a reasonable amount of elevation coverage.
The
When
target information obtained during the search phase was displayed on a PPL a suitable target was found, the search pattern was stopped and the antenna was
positioned to acquire the target. The target-tracking data supplied by the radar were processed in an analog computer which smoothed the data, predicted the target's future position, and computed the lead angle for the guns. The output information actuated a servo system that positioned the guns according to orders from the computer. The SCR-584 was designed originally to operate at 5 band. An A"-band version was also produced. list of the parameters of the 5-band version is presented in Table 5.1. The SCR-584 considerably improved the capabilities of antiaircraft artillery when it was introduced during World War II. Although it was not the first fire-control radar used by the military for aiming antiaircraft guns, its accuracy and especially its angular resolution were superior to the VH F and U HF radars then in use. Its introduction was particularly important in World War II since the Germans had devised electronic
countermeasures against the existing SCR-268 tracking radars but did not have the
Sec. 5.9]
Tracking Radar
193
means for jamming the microwave frequencies. After the war, ready availability of tracking the SCR-584 made it popular as an instrumentation radar for drone or missile modified radar. A flexible a requiring and for research and development programs It employs a version of the SCR-584 is the AN/MPQ-12, also listed in Table 5.1. The Army M-33 fire-control radar that larger antenna and has more range capability. replaced the SCR-584 can also be considered of comparable performance, although of
different design.
radar is the MIT Lincoln Laboratory radar (Fig. 5.20) large conical scanning 40 This radar is similar in principle to the located on Millstone Hill in Westford, Mass. because its application is different. different SCR-584 tracker, but in detail it is quite
UHF
Table
Characteristic
5.1.
Comparison of Trackers
SCR-584
Conical scan 6
AN/MPQ-12
Conical scan 10
12
AN/FPS-16
Monopulse
Millstone Hill
Type of tracking Antenna size, ft

Frequency Beamwidth, deg Antenna gain, db Power: Peak Average Pulse width
Prf, cps
Sband
4
33
5 band
2.4
Cband
1.2
Conical scan 84 (440 Mc)
UHF
2.1
37
44.5
37.5
2.5
250 kw 340 watts

0.8 /isec
250
kw
Mw
Mw
lkw
0.25 ,usec
0.25,0.5, l.OjUsec
Receiver noise figure, db Receiver bandwidth, Mc
1,707 15
1.7
364-1,707 12
160-1,707
11
150 kw 2 msec 30 2
8.0 or 1.6
Accuracy
Range
Angle Range on 1-m 2
target,
20 yd 2 mils
10 yd
yd
mil
km
lmil
0.1
0.2
nautical miles: For detection For accurate track
30
.
70
35
15
180 120
2,000
The Millstone Hill radar was designed to track objects such as satellites, missiles, the moon, and similar objects beyond or within the earth's atmosphere. Its parabolic
antenna is 84 ft in diameter and is supported 90 ft above the ground. Heavy-duty drive motors permit the antenna to track in azimuth and elevation at the rate of 4/sec. A turnstile junction located just behind the circular feed horn allows the transmitted The turnstile also signal to have any polarization, from linear to circular to elliptical. necessary when feature is (This polarizations. permits receiving on two orthogonal rotation; see Faraday because of ionosphere the through propagated is energy UHF The size of waveguide used at this frequency is 10i by 21 in. Sec. 14.2.) The transmitter consists of two high-power klystron amplifiers operating in parallel,
similar to the
X626
described in Sec. 6.3.
Two identical receivers process the returned
echo
one for each orthogonal polarization. The signal in each receiver is divided into two channels. One channel contains a matched filter bank from which The other channel contains a digital-range and doppler information is extracted. coherent (phase) detector of wide dynamic range for extracting the phase and amplitude The radar output data are in digital form for characteristics of the returned signal. computer. digital transistorized the CG-24 in processing
signal,
example of a monopulse tracking radar is the AN/FPS-16 (Fig. 5.21), the charac15 25 The FPS-16 is an instrumentation teristics of which are tabulated in Table 5.1.
An
The trailerradar, designed especially for precision tracking of guided missiles. mounted mobile version is the AN/MPS-25. Angular accuracy of the FPS-16 after
194
[Sec. 5.9
Fig. 5.20.
MIT
Lincoln Laboratory Millstone Hill radar.
(Courtesy
MIT
Lincoln Laboratory.)
.j-
"i"
f o :*i..* I&f&ter
.
WrSfceaTWAfc..
Fig. 5.21.
AN/FPS-16
tracking radar.
(Courtesy Radio Corporation of America.)
Sec. 5.10]
Tracking Radar
1.)
195
(A mil is one-thousandth of a radian, or is 0. 1 mil. This is an order of magnitude better than that of the SCR-584. For the achievement of an accuracy as good as 0.1 mil, careful designing was required. The four-horn monopulse feed is supported in front of the reflector by four invar rods. The antenna is 12 ft in diameter, and the entire azimuth turntable rotates on a ballbearing race 60 in. in diameter. The mechanical resonance on the entire structure is above 15 cps, permitting a closed-loop servo response of 5 cps. The radar is painted with a white, heat-reflecting paint to minimize mechanical errors caused by temperature gradients induced by solar radiation. Tracking in azimuth can be accomplished at a rate of 40/sec. The elevation tracking rate is 30/sec. The AN/FPQ-6, an improved version of the AN/FPS-16, has a 29-ft-diameter Cassegrain antenna and radiates 3
correction for propagation effects
17.4 mils
Mw
peak power
5.10.
at
C band. 45
Comparison of Trackers
four continuous-tracking-radar techniques that have been discussed (sequen-
Of the
tial
and phase-comparison monopulse), conical-scan and amplitude-comparison monopulse probably have seen more application than the other two. The phase-comparison monopulse has not proved too popular. It does not make efficient use of the available antenna aperture, and the sidelobe level might sometimes be higher than if a single antenna were used. Sequential lobing is similar to conical-scan tracking. Conical-scan tracking seems to be preferred in most applications because it is usually more practical to implement than Therefore, in this section, only the conical-scan radar and the sequential lobing. amplitude-comparison monopulse will be compared. (The latter will be referred to simply as monopulse.) The comparison of the monopulse and conical-scan trackers is made on the bases of detectability, tracking accuracy, and complexity. There is little significant difference between the detection capability of conical-scan and monopulse trackers when the major parameters of the radar (those which appear Both radar techniques result in some slight loss of in the radar equation) are the same. antenna gain over a nontracking antenna of the same size because of the offset antenna
lobing, conical scan, amplitude-comparison monopulse,
beams.
The tracking accuracy of the conical-scan radar is degraded
if
the target cross section
Amplitude fluctuates in amplitude at frequencies at or near the conical-scan frequency. However, wandering of fluctuations have essentially no effect on monopulse radar.
the apparent radar center (glint) increases the tracking error of both types of radars. For equal signal-to-noise ratios and antenna beamwidths, the tracking accuracy of the two systems should be comparable in the absence of amplitude fluctuations. Generally,
amplitude fluctuations are always present with complex targets so that the monopulse radar is preferred when tracking accuracy is important. The monopulse radar is the more complex of the two. Three separate receivers are necessary to derive the error signal in two orthogonal angular coordinates; only one Since the monopulse radar compares the receiver is needed in the conical-scan radar. amplitudes of the signals received in two or more channels, it is important that the gain of and phase shift through these channels be identical. Any differences in the gain or (A change in relative the phase might be interpreted as an erroneous angular error. phase can result in an amplitude difference.) It is usually difficult to maintain amplitude or phase stability in the RF portions of the receiver where the path length is many
wavelengths long. For this reason, the RF circuitry in the monopulse radar is usually placed as close to the antenna feed as possible. Many monopulse trackers employ lens antennas (Sec. 7.6) or Cassegrain reflectors (Sec. 7.5) which permit the RF circuitry to be placed directly at the feed without blocking the aperture. With the monopulse tracker it is possible, in principle, to obtain a measure of the
196
angular error in two coordinates on the basis of a single pulse ; a minimum of four pulses are necessary with the conical-scan radar. Thus the monopulse tracker is theoretically capable of obtaining an angle measurement in microseconds as compared with milliseconds for the conical-scan radar. If the signal-to-noise ratio per pulse were
sufficiently large, the monopulse tracker would be capable of responding to faster angular rates than the conical-scan tracker and would be limited only by the response of the mechanical structure of the radar antenna and the servos. If the two radars are to be evaluated on the same basis, however, the total echo energy ought to be the same. Therefore they should both integrate the same number of pulses. In essence, the monopulse radar first makes its measurement and then integrates a number of pulses to obtain the required output signal-to-noise ratio; the conical-scan radar does the
It integrates a number of pulses first and then extracts the angular error. The faster response of the monopulse tracker may be obtained only when the signal-tonoise ratio per pulse is of sufficient magnitude (20 to 30 db) to allow a good measurement to be made on a single pulse without the necessity for integration. Because the accuracy of monopulse is not degraded by amplitude fluctuations, it is
opposite.
countermeasures than is conical scan. In summary, it may be said that the performances of the conical-scan radar and the monopulse radar are quite comparable except when the amplitude of the target cross section fluctuates at a rate comparable with the conical-scan frequency. When target amplitude fluctuations are troublesome, they may be eliminated with the slightly more
less susceptible to electronic
complex monopulse radar.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
James, H. M., N. B. Nichols, and R. S. Phillips: "Theory of Servomechanisms," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 25, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947. Schafer, C. R.: Phase-selective Detectors, Electronics, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 188-190, February. rr }
1954.
3.
Greenwood,
I.
A.,
Jr., J.
V. Holdam,
Jr.,
and D. Macrae,
Jr. (eds.):
MIT Radiation Laboratory New York, 1948.

4. Palma-Vittorelli,
"Electronic Instruments,"
Series, vol. 21, pp. 383-386,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, v } Inc
5.
M. B., M. U. Palma, and D. Palumbo: The Behavior of Phase-sensitive Deteccimento, vol. 6, pp. 1211-1220, Nov. 1, 1957. Krishnan, S.: Diode Phase Detectors, Electronic and Radio Engr., vol. 36, pp. 45-50, February,
tors,
Nuovo
6.
7.
and G. E. Uhlenbeck (eds.): "Threshold Signals," MIT Radiation Laboratory McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950. Oliver, B. M.: Automatic Volume Control as a Feedback Problem, Proc. IRE, vol. 36 yv pp 466-473, April,
J.
Lawson,
L.,
Series, vol. 24,
'
1948.
8.
J. C. G.: The Design of Automatic-gain-control Systems for Auto-tracking Receivers, Proc. IEE, pt. C, vol. 105, pp. 93-108, March, 1958.
Field,
Radar
9.
Locke, A.
S.:
"Guidance," pp. 402^108, D. Van Nostrand Company,
Inc., Princeton, N.J.,
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
An Analysis of Conical Scan Antennas for Tracking, IRE pp. 39-47, 1956. Whittaker, E. T., and G. N. Watson: "Modern Analysis," 4th ed., p. 357, ex. 3, and p. 372 Cambridge University Press, New York, 1950. Kleene, S. C: Analysis of Lengthening of Modulated Repetitive Pulses, Proc. IRE, vol 35 pp. 1049-1053, October, 1947. Page, R. M.: Monopulse Radar, IRE Natl. Conv. Record, vol. 3, pt. 8, pp. 132-134, 1955. Dunn, J. H., and D. D. Howard: Precision Tracking with Monopulse Radar, Electronics, vol. 33 no. 17, pp. 51-56, Apr. 22, 1960. Barton, D. K., and S. M. Sherman: Pulse Radar for Trajectory Instrumentation, paper presented at Sixth National Flight Test Instrumentation Symposium, Instrument Society of America San Diego, Calif., May 3, 1960. Cohen, W., and C. M. Steinmetz: Amplitude and Phase-sensing Monopulse System Parameters,
J.
Damonte,
B.,
and D.
J.
Stoddard:
1,
Natl. Conv. Record, vol. 4, pt.
pts. I
and
II,
also discussion
Microwave J., vol. 2, pp. 27-33, October, 1959, and pp. 33-38, November, 1959by F. J. Gardiner, vol. 3, pp. 18, 20, January, 1960.
Tracking Radar
17.
197
York,
Company, Rhodes, D. R.: "Introduction to Monopulse," McGraw-Hill Book

1959
Inc.,
New
18. Tyrrell,
W.
1294-1306, November, A.: Hybrid Circuits for Microwaves, Proc. IRE, vol. 35, pp.
Time Duplexed Monopulse Receiver, Conf. Downey, E. J., R. H. Hardin, and J. Munishian: Proc. on Military Electronics Conv. (IRE), 1958, p. 405. Monopulse Radar Antennas, IRE Natl. 20 Shelton, J. P., Jr. Improved Feed Design for Amplitude 1959. 93-102, Conv. Record, vol. 7, pt. 1, pp. Functions for Monopulse Antenna Difference 21 Price, O. R., and R. F. Hyneman: Distribution 1960. Patterns, IRE Trans., vol. AP-8, pp. 567-576, November, The Multilobe Tracking System, report 22 Blewett J P S. Hansen, R. Troell, and G. Kirkpatrick: I 944 from the General Electric Co. Research Laboratory, Schenectady, N.Y., Jan. 5,
19.
:
'
1947
'
'
23.
'
Radar, IRE Trans., Sommer, H. W.: An Improved Simultaneous Phase Comparison Guidance vol. ANE-3, pp. 67-70, June, 1956. Radar to Location, Control and Data Trans24 Barton D K Application of Precision Tracking
.
'
mission for an
Unmanned
Observation Platform, Proc. Natl. Conf. on Aeronaut. Electronics,
25
'
26
'
27 28
'
29
30.
3
Military Electronics Conv. Barton D. K.: Accuracy of a Monopulse Radar, Proc. Third Natl. (IRE), June 30, 1959, pp. 179-186. a Radar Noise in D Dunn, J. H., D. D. Howard, and A. M. King: Phenomena of Scintillation Tracking Systems, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, pp. 855-863, May, 1959. Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1955. Locke, A. S. "Guidance," pp. 440-442, D. Van Nostrand Company, Tracking, Proc. IRE, Radar in Scintillation Angular or Glint Delano, R. H. A Theory of Target vol. 41,' pp. 1778-1784, December, 1953. New York 1958 Freeman, J. J.: "Principles of Noise," chap. 10, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Theory," sec. 5.9-1, John Wiley Bendat, J. S.: "Principles and Applications of Random Noise
,..
Howard D D. Radar Target Angular Scintillation in Tracking and Guidance vol. Echo Signal Phase Front Distortion, Proc. Natl. Electronics Conf. (Chicago),
:
&
Sons', Inc.,
New
York, 1958.
Systems Based on 15, pp. 840-849,
32
'
33
'
201-212, March, B.: Aircraft Scintillation Spectra, IRE Trans., vol. AP-8, pp. vol AP-9, pp. Muchmore, B. and R. Weimer, F. C. Jr., Peters, L. 1960; also discussions by Jr., and F. C. Weimer, 110-113, January, 1961, and by R. H. Delano, K. M. Siegel, L. Peters, vol. AP-9, pp. 227-229, March, 1961. Effects of Automatic Gain Control Performance on the
1959
Muchmore, R.
34. 35.
'
D. Howard: The Dunn J H and 430^135, March, 1959. Tracking Accuracy of Monopulse Radar Systems, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, pp. on Radar Tracking Noise, Proc. IRE, vol. 44, Delano, R. H., and I. Pfeffer: The Effect of
AGC
36.
37
38'
39
'
pp. 801-810, June, 1956. Automatic-tracking Radar Brockner, C. E.: Angular Jitter in Conventional Conical Scanning _ _ , Systems, Proc. IRE, vol. 39, pp. 51-55, January, 1951. D Tracking Radar, Rand Corp. Rept. Swerling, P.: Some Factors Affecting the Performance of a RM-989-1, Santa Monica, Calif., Sept. 27, 1954. Princeton, N.J., 1955. S "Guidance," pp. 408-413, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc., Locke pt. 2, vol. 18, The SCR-584 Radar, Electronics, pt. 1, vol. 18, pp. 104-109, November, 1945; vol. 19, pp. 110-117, February, 1946. pt. 3, December, 1945; 104-109, pp. and Radomes, MIT M., M. B. Karelitz, and L. A. Turner (eds.): "Radar Scanners Cady 1948. 66, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York,
.
,,..
Made with the Millstone Hill 40 Petteneill G H., and L. G. Kraft, Jr.: Earth Satellite Observations Aeronautical Research and DevelopRadar, paper in "Avionics Research," Advisory Group for ment (AGARD), NATO, Pergamon Press, New York, 1960. of Radio Engineers, New York, 41. "IRE Dictionary of Electronics Terms and Symbols," Institute
Measurement 42 Eisengrein R H.: "Design of Fire-control Systems," Part II, Cambridge, Mass., under Noise in a Fire-Control System, MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory, to the author Communicated available.) generally (Not 1950. W-33-038ac-13969, Contract Ward. .. by J. E. Aircraft Radar Targets at 5-band, Naval 43 Gardner R E Doppler Spectral Characteristics of Research Lab. Rept. 5656, Aug. 3, 1961 (ASTIA No. AD 263478). in Tracking a Doppler Navigation Radar 44. Stryker, E. M.: The Use of a Tuned Discriminator 228-231. Spectrum, Proc. Natl. Conf. on Aeronaut. Electronics, 1959, pp. Electronics, vol. 34, no. 50, pp. Ranges, Space for Readied Trackers New Pulse F.: 45. Mason, J.
'
Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 26,
p.
and Analysis of
'
26-28, Dec. 15, 1961.
6
RADAR TRANSMITTERS
6.1. Introduction
Generation of adequate RF power is an important part of any radar system. The radar equation of Chap. 2 shows that the transmitter power varies as the fourth root of the range if all other factors are constant. To double the range, the power has to be increased 16-fold. Buying range at the expense of power is costly; it is therefore important that the best transmitter be selected for any particular application. Not only does a transmitter represent a large part of the initial cost of a radar system, but unlike many other parts of the radar, it requires a continual operating cost because of the need for prime power or fuel. There are two basic transmitter configurations used in radar. One is the self-excited oscillator, exemplified by the magnetron. The other utilizes a low-power, stable oscillator, which is in turn amplified to the required power level by one or more poweramplifier tubes. An example is the klystron amplifier fed by a crystal-controlled, frequency-multiplier chain, sometimes referred to as MOPA, an abbreviation for
power amplifier. Both of these transmitter configurations were encountered in the discussion of the MTI radar in Sec. 4.1. The choice between the two is governed mainly by the radar application. Transmitters that utilize selfmaster-oscillator
excited power oscillators are usually smaller than transmitters with master-oscillator power amplifiers (MOPA). The latter are more stable than self-excited oscillators and are usually capable of greater average power. Self-excited power oscillators therefore are likely to be found in applications where small size and portability are more important than the stability and high power of the MOPA. The earliest radar transmitters operated below the microwave region in the UHF and VHF bands. Conventional triodes and tetrodes were used since no other power tubes were available. The invention of the cavity magnetron by Randall and Boot in the late thirties made possible the development of microwave radar in time for World War II. The magnetron oscillator has seen wide application in radar. In the years following World War II, the potentialities of the klystron amplifier as a radar transmitter were realized, and it began to be applied early in the 1950s in radars where large power and good stability were required.
high-power
television.
Also, in the years following the war, further development of grid-controlled tubes for applications took place, primarily because of the needs of commercial
UHF
High-power triodes and tetrodes thus became available for radar application at frequencies up to approximately 1,000 Mc. These tubes were capable of delivering, from a single "bottle," average power outputs greater than those obtained
from any other tube type operating in this frequency range. The high-power traveling-wave-tube amplifier may also be used for radar application, especially where large transmitter bandwidth is required. Another high-power amplifier tube found in radar is the Amplitron. It is based upon the principle of crossed electric and magnetic fields just as is the magnetron oscillator. The Amplitron is characterized by high power, high efficiency, and broad bandwidth. The oscillator version is called the Stabilitron.
will
In this chapter various tube types used for high-power radar transmitter application be discussed. Those considered are the magnetron oscillator, klystron amplifier,
198
Sec. 6.2]
Radar Transmitters
199
traveling-wave tube, Amplitron, Stabilitron, and the grid-controlled tube, listed not necessarily in the order of their importance. The basic operating principles of these tubes will be only briefly mentioned. Emphasis will be on the properties of importance
in
radar applications.
large published literature,
There are many texts available on microwave tubes, as well as a where the interested reader can find the details concerning
the theory of each type of tube. Also discussed is the modulator, which turns the transmitter transmitted waveform.
6.2.
on and
off to
form the
The Magnetron
Oscillator
'
in the past to All of these are diodes, usually with cylindrical geometry, and with a magnetic field parallel to the axis (perpendicular to the electric field). The original magnetron device was a diode switch invented in 1921 by A. W. Hull. The application of the magnetic field deflected the electrons from their journey to the plate and cut off the conduction of the tube. Hull also observed oscil-
Historical Development. 1
2,
The name magnetron has been applied
several different types of electron devices.
from his magnetron at a frequency of 30 kc. power of 8 kw was obtained with an efficiency of 69 per cent. The oscillations were due to the cyclotron resonance frequency that is characteristic of electrons in crossed electric and magnetic fields. Cyclotron oscillations were observed at microwave frequencies by Zacek, in Prague, at a wavelength of 29 cm as early as 1924. Yagi, in Japan, also obtained microwave cyclotron oscillations at about the same time. Although extremely high frequencies have been generated with cyclotron magnetrons, they have not been too widely used since they suffer from low power, erratic behavior, and low efficiencies at microwave frequencies (1 per cent for the cylindrical diode magnetron, about 10 per cent for the split-anode magnetron at moderately long wavelengths). With a magnetic field large compared with that used for the cyclotron magnetron, a more efficient and reliable form of magnetron is obtained based on negative-resistance oscillations. This is sometimes called Habann-type oscillations, after Eric Habann, who theoretically predicted and experimentally demonstrated their existence. The frequency of oscillation is determined by the resonant circuit. The magnetic field is not as critical with the negative-resistance magnetron as it is with the cyclotron magnelations
tron.
K. Postumus, in 1935, reported a third form of magnetron known as the travelingwave magnetron (not to be confused with the traveling-wave tube invented later). The modern radar magnetron is based upon this principle. The magnetron of Postumus consisted of an anode split into four segments. Oscillations were due to an interaction between the electrons and the tangential component of a traveling- wave RF field whose velocity was substantially equal to the average velocity of the electrons. Various investigators reported microwave oscillations with this magnetron in the late 1930s, but further development for high-power applications had to await a better understanding of the principles of microwave circuits, especially the role played by the cavity resonator. Fortunately, the understanding of microwave circuitry was also being actively pursued at about this same time, but with application to the klystron amplifier rather than the magnetron. The first successful magnetron suitable for radar application was invented by Randall and Boot at the University of Birmingham in 1939. 3 They were not too familiar with the earlier investigations of magnetrons, so they were not influenced by They were familiar, however, the pessimistic outlook this work seemed to dictate. with the early experimental work with klystron amplifiers, especially the application of cavity resonators. Randall and Boot applied the cavity resonators to the magnetron structure and produced a magnetron at 10 cm wavelength capable of better than 100 kw
200
[Sec. 6.2
of pulse power, a power considerably greater than had previously been achieved at these frequencies. The British disclosed the principle of the cavity-resonator magnetron to the United States in 1940 during an exchange of technical information just prior to our The magnetron, more than any other single device, formed entry into World War II. the basis for the development of microwave radar in this country.
The magnetron is a crossed-field device that is, the (both RF and d-c) are perpendicular to a static magnetic field. The development of the magnetron has probably relied less on theoretical results and more on the empirical approach to design than other tube types, since cross-field devices, including the magnetron and the Amplitron, are not readily susceptible to mathemati;
Description of Operation. 1
electric fields
cal analysis.
Fig. 6.1. Cross-sectional sketch of typical cavity magnetron illustrating
component
.
parts.
6. 1 The anode (1) is a which are cut holes (2) and slots (3). The holes and slots function as the resonant circuits and serve the same purpose as the lumped-constant LC resonant circuits used at lower frequencies. The holes correspond, in rough fashion, The resonant circuits to the inductance, while the slots correspond to the capacity. all lie within the vacuum envelope in the magnetron. Other forms of resonators which might be used are the slots shown in Fig. 6.2a or the vanes in 6.2b. The shape of the The slot configuration has cavities determines the impedance (which is equal to L/C). a lower impedance than the vane configuration. In the desired mode of operation The effective (the 77 mode) the individual C's and Us are connected in parallel. capacitance for the whole magnetron oscillator is NC, and the effective inductance is LjN, where N is the number of resonators. Since the angular frequency is equal to (LC)~-, the frequency of the magnetron is essentially that of an individual resonator. Another type of resonator structure found in some magnetrons is the interdigital
The basic structure of one form of magnetron is shown in Fig.
large block of copper into
anode. 4 This structure has been widely used in voltage-tuned magnetrons. The resonator of the interdigital magnetron is a short cylindrical cavity. The anode segments extend as fingers from the two flat sides of the cavity. Alternate segments are connected together at one end of the cavity, and the remaining segments are connected together at the opposite end. This type of anode has also been called a squirrel cage, or a donutron.
Sec. 6.2]
Radar Transmitters
201
The magnetron cathode (4, Fig. 6. 1) is usually a fat cylinder of oxide-coated material. The advantage of the oxide cathode is that higher emission currents can be obtained under pulse conditions than with other emitting materials. For example, 5 under d-c conditions an oxide cathode is capable of an emission-current density of the order
amp/cm 2 but under pulse conditions the emission current can be as great as The cathode must be rugged to withstand the heating and disintegration 00 amp/cm 2 caused by the back bombardment of electrons. BacK bombardment increases the
of 0.2
1
,
.
cathode temperature during operation and causes secondary electrons to be emitted. For this reason the heater power may be reduced or even turned off once oscillations have started. The relatively fat cylindrical cathode can dissipate more heat than a thin cathode. A fat cathode is also required for theoretical reasons. The optimum ratio of the cathode diameter to anode diameter equals, or slightly exceeds, (N 4)/(iV+ 4), where This ratio is equal is the number of resonators. to one-half for a 12-cavity magnetron. Most magnetrons in the past used a cathode consisting of a matrix of nickel powder sintered on the nickel-alloy base metal providing a rough, porous surface for the impregnation of a tenacious layer of the oxide-emitting surface. 6 Another cathode that has been used is the dispenser cathode, 7 in which the oxide is impregnated in a tungsten (a) cylinder (called the impregnated type) or else the oxide material is made to diffuse through tungsten (called Z,-type Since a refractory metal serves as the cathode cathode). base, it can withstand high temperatures and severe arcing conditions better than can the matrix oxide cathode. In the interaction space (5, Fig. 6.1) the electrons interact with the d-c electric field and the magnetic field in such a manner that the electrons give up their energy to the RF field. The presence of the crossed electric and magnetic fields causes the electrons to be completely bunched almost After beas soon as they are emitted from the cathode. coming bunched, the electrons move along in a travelingwave field. This traveling-wave field moves at almost the Fig. 6.2. Examples of cavitysame speed as the electrons, causing RF power to be de- magnetron resonators, (a) livered to the wave. The RF power is extracted by placing Slot type; (b) vane type. a coupling loop in one of the cavities as shown (6, Fig. 6.1) Not shown in Fig. 6. 1 are endor else by coupling one cavity directly to a waveguide. shield disks located at each end of the cathode for the purpose of confining the If electrons are lost from the ends of the cathode, electrons to the interaction space. their power is not delivered to the RF field and the efficiency of the tube will decrease. In addition, the frequency stability will be poorer. The straps (7, Fig. 6.1) are metal rings connected to alternate segments of the anode block. They improve the stability and efficiency of the tube. Figure 6.3 is an exploded view of the QIC 358 tunable L-band magnetron showing the 358 is shown in Fig. 6.4. component parts. An assembled The preferred mode of magnetron operation corresponds to an RF Stability}'* field configuration in which the RF phase alternates 180 between adjacent cavities. This is called the n mode. Its frequency is approximately the resonant frequency of one of the cavity resonators. The presence of more than one cavity in the magnetron is the total number of cavities. results in JV/2 possible modes of operation, where The various modes are a result of mutual coupling between cavities. Each of the N/2
QK
202
[Sec. 6.2
charge.
modes corresponds to a different RF field configuration made up of a standing wave of All the modes except the n mode are degenerate; that is, they can oscillate at
two different frequencies corresponding to a rotation of the standing-wave pattern, where the positions of the nodes and antinodes are interchanged. Thus there are N 1 possible frequencies in which the magnetron can oscillate. The presence of more than
EXHAUST SEAL TUBULATION
TUNING GEAR ASSEMBLY-
GETTER
TERMINAL
SETTER MATERIAL
MAGNET
(ONE OF 4 SECTIONS),
TUNER POLE
BELLOWS HOUSING
AIR
DUCT HOUSING
output transformer
AIR
DUCT COUPLING FLANGE
JBP\xeramic
^,^"
*
1
r.f.
output
WINDOW
CATHODE-
CATHODE
END SHIELDS-
HEATER TERMINAL CUP ASSEMBLY
Fig. 6.3. Exploded view of a Raytheon RK6517/QK358 tunable L-band magnetron, capable of of peak power at a duty factor of 0.001 3. (Courtesy Raytheon Company.) 1
Mw
one possible mode of operation means that the magnetron can oscillate at any one of and can do so in an unpredictable manner. This is the essence of the stability problem. A different mode means a different frequency and a different field configuration. An output circuit designed for one particular mode configuration may produce a weak or a zero output when the magnetron operates in a different mode. Therefore it is important that a magnetron be designed with but one mode dominant.
these frequencies
Sec. 6.2]
Radar Transmitters
it is
203
The
it mode is usually preferred because separated from the others.
not degenerate and can be more readily

in-
The
early
magnetron invented by Randall and Boot suffered from frequency

inefficiency as a result of
stability
and
moding
troubles.
About a year
after the
invention of the cavity magnetron, Sayre, at the University of Birmingham, found that the stability and efficiency of the tube could be considerably improved by coupling together every other segment with a circular ring called a strap, as was shown in Fig. 6.1. The cross section of the straps may be either circular or rectangular. The straps connect all those segments which have the same potential in the n mode. Various
forms of strapping are discussed by Walker in Ref.
Chap.
4.
Fig. 6.4. Photograph of
RK 6517/QK 358 Z-band magnetron.
(Courtesy Raytheon Company.)
In a particular eight-resonator, unstrapped magnetron operating at 1 cm wavelength (3,000 Mc), the frequency of the -rr mode was separated by less than 2 per cent from its 1 single ring strap increased the separation to greater next nearest degenerate mode. than 10 per cent. Even greater mode separation is possible if larger or more straps are In a strapped symmetrical magnetron, the lowest frequency is that correspondused. Strapping not only improves the stability of operation, but it also ing to the 77 mode. increases the efficiency, since higher powers can be obtained without fear of mode For example, the early unstrapped British magnetrons were unstable and changing. had efficiencies of 30 to 35 per cent. Strapping improved the stability and increased
the efficiency to 50 per cent. Strapping is not the only method of obtaining mode stability. Four- or six-segment anode blocks can be made to function in the -n mode without straps because there are few modes to separate. Another technique is the interdigital anode block. In the interdigital magnetron there are no individual resonators as such, but there is a closed transmission line with segments (digits) attached alternately to opposite conductors of The modes are readily separated in this construction, but the tube is limited the line.
to
low power.
204
[Sec. 6.2
Another method of separating the modes in the magnetron is with the rising-sun anode
This structure separates the modes without the need for of particular advantage at the very high radar frequencies (X band or above), where it is difficult to manufacture strapped magnetrons because of their small size. Also, the straps have relatively high copper losses at these frequencies. The rising-sun structure may also be used for high-power applications at the longer wavestraps.
It is
configuration 9 (Fig. 6.5).
lengths.
In general, there are
The rising-sun anode block is characterized by alternately large and small resonators. more cavities in the rising-sun magnetron than in the conventional magnetron. The rising-sun anode may be considered as two resonant systems, one comprising the small cavities, and the other, the large cavities. Each of these systems by itself would have the mode spectrum of an unstrapped magnetron block with N/2 resonators.
Weak
coupling
exists
between
the
various modes of the two sets of resonators except for the 77 mode. The coupling between the 7T modes of the two systems is strong, and they combine to produce the operating mode. In the rising-sun system the n mode
Fig. 6.5. Rising-sun magnetron resonator.
between the groups of other undesired at longer and at shorter wavelengths, whereas in the strapped magnetron the tt mode corresponds to the longest wavelength. The rising-sun magnetron has been used 10 to
lies
modes
generate RF power at wavelengths as short as 3 mm. It is quite suitable for high power because of the relatively large cavity resonators, large cathode and anode diameters, and long anodes. Performance Chart andRieke Diagram. 1 11 Four parameters determine the operation of the magnetron. These are (1) the magnetic field, (2) the anode current,! (3) load conductance, and (4) load susceptance. The first two parameters are related to the input side of the tube, while the last two are related to the output side. In many magnetrons the magnetic field is fixed by the tube designer and may not be a variable the radar designer has under his control. The observed quantities are usually the output power, the wavelength, and the anode voltage. The problem of presenting the varia'
tion of the three quantities power, wavelength, voltage as a function of the four parameters mentioned above is greatly simplified since the input and output parameters operate nearly independently of each other. Thus it is possible to study the effect of the magnetic field and the anode current at some value of load susceptance and conductance chosen for convenience. The results will not be greatly dependent upon the particular values of susceptance and conductance chosen. Similarly, the variation of the observed quantities can be studied as a function of the load presented to the magnetron, with the input parameters magnetic field and current likewise chosen for convenience. The plot of the observed magnetron quantities as a function of the input circuit parameters, for some fixed load, is called the performance chart. The plot of the observed quantities as a function of the load conductance and susceptance, for a fixed magnetic field and anode current, is called a Rieke diagram, or a load diagram. An example of a performance chart is shown in Fig. 6.6. This is representative of
t The anode voltage might be substituted more like a current generator than a voltage
for the anode current, except that a magnetron behaves generator. The current determines the voltage, and not
vice versa.
Sec. 6.2]
the
Radar Transmitters
205
Raytheon 4J36-4J41 pulse-type S-band magnetrons. The abscissa is the peak anode current, and the ordinate is the peak anode voltage. The data plotted in the performance chart are for a fixed load, usually a matched load. There are four The curves of constant magnetic field (solid families of curves shown on this chart. lines) approximate straight lines, of relatively small positive slope, except for small If the magnetron were supplied with a fixed magnetic field chosen values of current. only one curve of constant magnetic field would apply and the designer, by the tube performance chart would be considerably simplified. The contours of constant (peak)
30
30
40
amp
6.6.
Peak current,
Magnetic field Peak power output
Magnetron efficiency
Deviation
in
frequency from
OMc
oscillator.
Performance chart for the type 4J36-4J41 pulsed magnetron Fig. Company.)
{Courtesy Raytheon
power output (heavy dashed lines) suggest the form of hyperbolas. For a constant output power the performance chart shows the compromises which can be made between the voltage, current, efficiency, and magnetic field. This particular performance chart indicates that the magnetron will produce a power output of 500 kw with a peak anode voltage = 26 kv, peak anode current = 38 amp, and magnetic field = 2,500 The magnetron efficiency is 50 per cent under these conditions. If the current gauss. is kept the same but the magnetic field reduced to slightly more than 1,500 gauss, the peak anode voltage is 14.5 kv, the peak power output drops to 200 kw, and the efficiency The lightly dashed lines are contours of constant efficiency. is reduced to 35 per cent. The dotted lines represent the deviation in frequency from a reference frequency Mc. The change in the oscillator frequency produced by a indicated on the chart as
206
[Sec. 6.2
change in the anode current for a fixed load is called the pushing figure. In measuring the pushing figure the current must be changed rapidly in order to avoid frequency shifts due to temperature changes. The shaded areas of the chart correspond to regions of poor magnetron performance. The performance chart permits the radar designer to select the tube parameters which best satisfy the diverse requirements of a particular application. Although there is considerable variation in the performance charts for different magnetrons, the following general features seem to be shown by most magnetrons (1 ) except for very low currents, increasing the anode current while maintaining the magnetic field constant results in a decrease in efficiency; (2) decreasing the magnetic field at constant current results in a decrease in efficiency; and (3) a drop in efficiency occurs at very small currents. In general, the performance chart indicates that large magnetic fields result in good efficiency. Although a large magnetic field requires a relatively heavy magnet, it may sometimes be the cheapest method of obtaining efficiency. The other plot of magnetron characteristics of interest in radar design is the Rieke diagram. The coordinates of the Rieke diagram are the load conductance and susceptance (or resistance and reactance). Plotted on the Rieke diagram are contours of constant power and constant frequency. Thus the Rieke diagram gives the power output and the frequency of oscillation for any specified load condition. Although a cartesian set of load coordinates could be used, it is usually more convenient to plot the power and frequency on a set of load coordinates known as the Smith chart. 12 The Smith chart is a form of circle diagram widely used as an aid in transmission-line calculations. A point on the Smith chart may be expressed in conductance-susceptance coordinates or by a set of polar coordinates in which the voltage-standing-wave ratio (VSWR) is plotted as the radius and the phase of the VSWR is plotted as the angular
:
more usual of the two possible coordinate systems since microwave engineer to measure the VSWR and the position of the voltage-standing-wave minimum (or phase) than it is for him to measure the conductance and susceptance directly. The radial coordinate can also be specified by the reflection coefficient Y of the load since the VSWR p and reflection coefficient are related by the equation |T| = (p l)/(/> + 1). The center of the Smith chart (Rieke diagram)
coordinate.
it is
The
latter is the
easier for the
corresponds to unity VSWR, or zero reflection coefficient. The circumference of the chart corresponds to infinite VSWR, or unity reflection coefficient. Thus the region of low standing-wave ratio is toward the center of the chart. The standing- wave pattern along a transmission line repeats itself every half wavelength therefore, 360 in the diagram is taken as a half wavelength. The reference axis in the Rieke diagram usually corresponds to the output terminals of the magnetron or the output flange of the waveguide. The angle in a clockwise direction from this reference axis is proportional to the distance (in wavelengths) of the standing-wave-pattern minimum from the reference point. An advantage of the Smith chart for plotting the effects of the load on the magnetron parameters is that the shapes of the curves are practically independent of the position of the reference point used for measuring the phase of the VSWR. An example of the Rieke diagram for a magnetron operating in the n mode is shown in Fig. 6.7. The contours of constant power approximate, in a rough manner, a set of circles, while the contours of constant frequency approximate arcs of circles which are almost perpendicular to the contours of constant power. The region on the chart where the contours of constant frequency crowd together is also the region where the output power is greatest. The frequency contours are farther apart in that region where the output power is low. Thus a given change in the phase of the VSWR will cause a greater change in the magnetron frequency if the operating point of the magnetron is in the region of high-power output rather than in the region of low-power output. Therefore the greater the power output, the greater the efficiency, but the poorer the
;
Sec. 6.2]
Radar Transmitters
207
in a scanning radar frequency stability. The phase and/or magnitude of the might vary because the antenna sees a different load impedance, depending upon the
VSWR
objects
it
views.
The At the
location of the
ATR
tube can also affect the performance of the magnetron.
start of the pulse, the
mission line. tube to operate
ATR is unfired and presents an open circuit in the transIf the location of the ATR is such that the phase of the VSWR causes the
in a
favorable portion of the Rieke diagram (magnetron lightly coupled
270'
180
Example of a Rieke diagram for the RK 6517/QK 358 /.-band magnetron. Solid curves Dashed curves are contours of constant frequency. Pulse width = = 0.00125, average anode current = 62.5 ma d-c, peak anode {Courtesy Raytheon Company.) current = 50 amp, and frequency = 1 ,250 Mc.
Fig. 6.7.
are contours of constant power. 3.2 /ec, prf=391, duty cycle
to the load), the starting characteristics of the magnetron will be enhanced. reflection places the operating point in other hand, if the phase of the
On
the
ATR
an un-
favorable portion of the Rieke diagram, the starting characteristics will be poor. The region of highest power on the Rieke diagram is called the sink and represents Operation in the the greatest coupling to the magnetron and the highest efficiency. sink region is not always desirable since the RF spectrum of the magnetron output will tend to broaden, indicating a poor pulse shape. Also, the operation may be unstable which moves the because of mode changes. A change in the phase of the operating point of the magnetron into the low-power region (antisink) results in a
VSWR
lightly
is
The build-up of oscillations in a lightly loaded magnetron and the magnetron pulses start more uniformly, than if the load were matched. However, a lightly loaded magnetron may perform poorly by showing signs of instability which take the form of arcing and an increase in the number of missing
loaded magnetron.
ideal,
more
208

pulses.
[Sec. 6.2
This poor operation results because the
RF voltages
inside the lightly loaded
magnetron are large
in the antisink
region,
making RF discharges more likely. An important characteristic of the magnetron is the pulling
figure.
It is a measure of the effect a change in the output load has on the frequency of oscillation. The pulling figure
is
defined as the difference between the
maximum and
the
minimum
frequencies of a magnetron oscillator when the phase angle of the load impedance varies through 360 and
the magnitude of the
Fig. 6.8. Single hole-andslot resonator illustrating
efficient
VSWR
is
fixed at 1.5 (reflection co-
0.20).
The
pulling figure of a
magnetron may
be readily obtained from an inspection of the Rieke diagram.
frequency contours intercepted by the circle corresponding to a 1.5 is the pulling figure. For the magnetron whose Rieke diagram is shown in Fig. 6.7, the pulling figure is approximately 1.5 Mc. Tuning. The ability to tune a magnetron is a desirable operational feature. It is usually more difficult, however, to incorporate tuning into a magnetron than in other power tubes. tunable magnetron permits the radar to be operated anywhere within a band of frequencies and to be set to a precise frequency, if desired. The latter property is not often available with fixed-tuned magnetrons whose frequencies might lie anywhere within a narrow band and are not under the control of the radar systems engineer. In some applications, such as the radar altimeter, it is absolutely essential that the transmitter be tunable over a wide range. The various methods for tuning a magnetron may be classified as (1) mechani-
inductance tuning (L) and capacitance tuning (C).
The
difference
between the minimum- and maximum-
VSWR =
FM
cal,
(2)
electronic,
and
(3)
voltage-tuned.
Mechanical tuning is accomplished by the movement of a tuning device; electronic tuning, by electronic beams or space charge located within the magnetron cavity or some external cavity; and voltage tuning is accomplished by designing the magnetron to operate in a region where a change in anode voltage results in a change in frequency. In the mechanically tuned magnetron, the frequency of oscillation is changed by the motion of some element in the resonant circuit associated with the magnetron. Figure 6.8 shows a single hole-and-slot resonator. The Cavity inductive tuning element L, when inserted into the hole of the resonator, changes the inducFig. 6.9. Example of an inductance-type tance of the resonant circuit by altering the {Courtesy Raytheon Company.) tuner. surface-to-volume ratio in a high-current region. The change in inductance results in a change in frequency. A tuner that consists of a series of rods inserted into each cavity resonator so as to alter the inductance is called a sprocket tuner, or a crown-of-thorns tuner. All rods are attached to a frame which is positioned by means of a flexible-bellows arrangement as illustrated in Fig. 6.9. An inductance tuner can also be seen in the exploded magnetron of Fig. 6.4. The insertion of the rods into each anode hole decreases the inductance of the cavity and therefore increases the resonant frequency. One of the limitations of
Sec. 6.2]
Radar Transmitters
is
209
of the
inductive tuning
tube.
that
it
lowers the unloaded
Q of the cavity and the efficiency
insertion of an element C into the cavity slot as shown in Fig. 6.8 increases the and decreases the resonant frequency. Because the gap is narrowed capacitance slot in width, the breakdown voltage will be lowered, and capacity-tuned magnetrons must A common form of capacity usually operate with low voltages and hence low powers. metal ring inserted between of a consists 6. It cutter (Fig. cookie 10). tuner is called the the two rings of a double-ring-strapped magnetron, thereby increasing the strap Because of the mechanical- and voltage-breakdown problems associated capacitance. with the cookie cutter, this tuner is more suited for use at the longer wavelengths.
The
Both the capacitance and the inductance tuners described above are symmetrical. Each cavity is affected in the same manner, and the angular symmetry of the n mode is preserved.
10 per cent frequency change can be obtained with either of the two tuning methods described above, although there is some indication that the cookie cutter is more restricted
in tuning range
than the crown-of-thorns tuner.

in
The two tuning methods may be used
com-
bination to cover a larger tuning range than Tuning is possible with either one alone. ranges of 1.5 to 1 are not uncommon with this arrangement. Tuning rates of 100 Gc/sec have been achieved with servo-controlled, mechanically tuned
magnetrons.
limited tuning range, of the order of 1 per cent, can be obtained rather simply by means
of a screw inserted in the side of one of the resonator holes. This type of adjustment is
useful
Anode segment
"Heavy dark
line
when
it is
desired to fix the magnetron

represents tuner-
frequency to a specified value within the normal ring position between the magnetron straps scatter band of untuned magnetrons. A tuning mechanism in only one resonator hole does Fig. 6.10. Example of capacitance-type Company.) not, as a rule, preserve angular symmetry tuner. (Courtesy Raytheon and is a form of unsymmetrical tuning. Another form of unsymmetrical tuning is an auxiliary resonant cavity coupled to one of the magnetron cavities. The auxiliary cavity is tightly coupled and determines the operating frequency of the magnetron. The frequency of the auxiliary cavity may be changed by making one wall of the cavity flexible so that it can be moved in or out. tunable magnetron, using a section of a double- ridged waveguide as an auxiliary tuning cavity whose resonant frequency was varied by adjusting a short-circuiting plunger located at one end of the cavity, could be tuned over the frequency range from 13 9,000 to 9,600 Mc with a peak power output of 140 kw. A fixed-frequency magnetron also may be tuned over a limited frequency range of
about
single-stub per cent by varying the load into which the magnetron operates. in the change this purpose. for may be used the tube external to tuner located impedance of the single-stub tuner changes the operating point on the Rieke diagram and therefore changes the frequency. An electron beam injected into one or more of the cavities of a magnetron will change 14 15 the effective dielectric constant of the cavity and thereby change the frequency. of high region The electron beam may be inserted directly into the magnetron cavity in a
1
210
[Sec. 6.2
RF electric field, or an external cavity may be used with an electronic beam or a controlformed by a magnetron diode. The frequency is varied by electrically varying the density of the electronic beam. Electronic tuning is probably more appropriate to magnetrons such as might be used for altimeters or for microlable space charge
CW
FM
wave communications. This technique has been used to frequency-modulate a 4,000-Mc CW magnetron 16 with a frequency deviation of 2.5 Mc (total frequency swing of 5 Mc). Larger frequency deviations are possible if some amplitude modulation can be tolerated. The power output from this tube was 25 watts, with an efficiency
of 50 per cent. Electronic tuning has also been applied to a relatively high power magnetron. 17 Electron beams were injected into 9 of the 12 cavities of a vane-type magnetron. At 900 Mc a frequency deviation of 3.5 Mc was obtained with a power output of kw and an efficiency of 55 per cent. The tube was also mechanically tuned over the frequency range of 720 to 900 Mc with a cylindrical element which varied the interstrap capaci-
CW
tance.
It was mentioned previously that the magnetron frequency will vary if the anode current or voltage is varied. This is known asfrequency pushing, and in most magnetron applications it is not a desirable characteristic. This phenomenon can be used to tune
a magnetron, but with space-charge-limited current, only a few per cent change in frequency can be obtained by changing the current. However, under certain conditions of operation the magnetron frequency may be made quite sensitive to voltage changes. It has been found possible in some cases to tune magnetrons over a frequency range of 4: 1 by means of voltage tuning. 15 18 19 The necessary conditions for voltage tuning are that the magnetron be heavily loaded and that the anode current be limited and not increase with an increase in anode voltage. This latter condition is usually met by operating the cathode with the electron emission temperature-limited rather than space-charge-limited. The number of electrons in the interaction space may also be limited by providing a region of cathode surface which is nonemitting. The voltage-tuned magnetron therefore acts as a
*
.
constant-current generator. When the anode circuit is heavily loaded and the number of electrons in the interaction space is restricted, as required for voltage tuning, the anode circuit does not determine the frequency of oscillation, but it does determine, in part, the RF power output.
Voltage tuning results in a considerably greater frequency change than does frequency pushing for the same change in anode voltage. Typical voltage-tuning characteristics show a change of frequency of 0.1 to 2 Mc/volt. The frequency is usually a linear function of the anode voltage, but the power output will not be constant over the tuning
range. The voltage-tuned magnetrons which have been reported in the literature 18 20 21 have been low-power tubes with power outputs of the order of a few watts or tens of watts, although the first voltage-tuned magnetron generated about 100 watts. The tuning range of these tubes covers a two-to-one frequency band, but their efficiencies are lower than conventional magnetrons. Most of these tubes have an interdigital'
CW
resonant-cavity or split-anode structure. The voltage-tuned magnetron seems more suitable to low-power, rapid-tuning applications than as a high-power radar transmitter. It might be applicable to a low-power radar such as the altimeter or as a local oscillator in a wide-tuning-
FM-CW
range receiver.
Ferrite materials might be used to tune an interdigital magnetron. A ferrite cylinder can be placed near the shorted end of a coaxial line which is coupled to the interdigital resonator. The ferrite material is kept out of the main magnetic field of the magnetron so that its permeability may be controlled by means of its own biasing magnetic field.
Sec. 6.2]
Radar Transmitters
211
A variation of permeability in the coupled coaxial line results in a change of frequency.

claimed that theoretical calculations show that a tuning range of 5 to 10 per cent be expected. 22 ' 25 The Rieke diagram of Fig. 6.7 indicates that a change in Long-line Effect. 1 11 23 seriously affect the operation of a magnetron, especially can the phase of the occur if Changes in the phase of the is large. if the magnitude of the the load into which the magnetron operates changes or if the frequency of oscillation magnitude is large, a tunable magnetron might encounter poor varies. If the
It is
may
'
'
VSWR VSWR
VSWR
VSWR
phase places the magnetron operatoperation at certain frequencies where the ing point in an undesirable portion of the Rieke diagram. The phase angle associated 4-rrLflc, with the two-way propagation along a transmission line of length L is (f> where / is the frequency of oscillation and c is the velocity of propagation. The change in phase A< for a particular change in frequency A/ is equal to 4nL Af/c. The phase change is proportional to the length of the line as well as to the change in frequency. The longer the transmission line, the greater will be the phase change and the more likely it will be that the magnetron operating point will be in, or pass through, a region of poor magnetron operation. The poor magnetron performance caused phase when the magnetron is connected via a long length by a change in
VSWR
VSWR
of transmission line to a mismatched load with large

effect.
VSWR is
called the long-line
The long-line effect causes the tuning curve (plot of frequency vs. tuner position) of a tunable magnetron to be altered. There may even be periodically spaced holes in the tuning curve where it is not possible for the magnetron to oscillate. The long-line effect may also result in a poor spectrum (poor pulse shape), missing pulses, and frequency jumping. The modulation characteristics of frequency-modulated tubes might The long-line effect is not a characteristic of the magnetron alone. also be distorted. It is a property of any self-excited oscillator whose frequency is affected by the output
impedance.
The long-line effect results from the influence of the wave that has traveled to the end of the transmission line, has been reflected there, and has returned to the magnetron. tube than with a It depends, in part, on the length of the pulse and is different with a pulsed tube. It is not present in a transmission line whose two-way transit time exceeds the length of the pulse since the tube will not be on when the reflection returns. Thus For this reason, the phelong-line effect is absent if the line is sufficiently long. the short-line to as referred effect, although the term been sometimes has nomenon
CW
long-line effect seems to be
more
generally accepted.
Examples of the manner in which the long-line effect alters the tuning curve of a pulsed magnetron are shown in Fig. 6.11a to c. The ordinate is the magnetron frequency, and the abscissa is the position of the tuning mechanism of the magnetron.
The
straight-line curve illustrated in Fig. 6.1 la
fectly terminated in a reflectionless load.
The
corresponds to a transmission line pereffect of a small mismatch is shown in
With a small mismatch as in Fig. 6.116, Fig. 6.11*, and a large mismatch, in Fig. 6.11c. the spectrum of the magnetron might be abnormally broad over those parts of the tuning curve where the slope is nearly vertical. The tuning curve for large mismatch (Fig. 6.1 lc) has regions where more than one frequency is indicated for a given tuner Operation at more than one frequency for a given tuner setting is not possible. setting. As the tuner setting is increased, the frequency of oscillation will increase uniformly The frequency then jumps discontinuously to point 3. until point 1 is reached.
Frequencies in between, such as point 2, are not obtained. Thus there will be holes in The frequency difference the frequency coverage when the mismatch is severe. between alternate points where the tuning curve with mismatch crosses the tuning curve with no mismatch (dashed curve) is |(r/L)(A//l 9 ), where c is the velocity of light, L
212
is
[Sec. 6.2
the length of the line, X is the wavelength in free space, and X is the wavelength in the g guide or the transmission line. Pritchard 24 has shown that the longest length of transmission line, L e for which completely stable operation of the tube occurs, regardless of the phase angle of the load, is given by
,
where
L = PF =
c
skip length, or critical length pulling figure of magnetron
voltage-standing-wave ratio
Tuner position
(c)
X
(a) Perfectly
Tuner position
id)
Fig. 6.11.
(b) small
Magnetron tuning
(c) large
curves,
mismatch;
mismatch; (d) large mismatch,
terminated transmission line (no mismatch); magnetron.
CW
If the skip length
is
measured
in feet, the pulling figure
measured
in megacycles,
Eq.
(6.1)
may be
written
L c (ft)
-^P F(P
(6.2)
1)
The above expressions for the critical line length assume a lossless transmission line. The effect of loss is to reduce the amplitude of the reflected wave, thereby reducing the VSWR (at the input to the line) and the long-line effect. A reduction of the VSWR
seen by the tube increases the allowable skip length.
Pritchard shows that the

is
maximum
VSWR p L which can be tolerated at the end of the transmission line _ {(kjX )l(L IX + if + (klk )l(2L IK) sinh [(2aA)L
g
c
given by
g)
/Vl
- {klX )j{LJX
a
g)
sinh 2 [(a^)L e /AJ
Sec. 6.2]
Radar Transmitters
a.
213
where k\X Q
= =
<fiAnin)(flPF
transmission-line attenuation per unit length
XW
/= frequency
This equation
losses,
is
several waveguide sizes,
plotted in Fig. 6.12 for representative values of the parameters with 0. For any lossy line, no matter how small the and for a
VSWRs (essentially infinite) can be tolerated.
always be some length of line for which large This length can be calculated by setting It is of little practical the denominator of Eq. (6.3) equal to zero and solving for L c significance, however, since the loss may be prohibitively high.
Eq.
(6.3)
shows that there
will
2.2
Mill
2.0
1.6
|l.4
1.2
1.0
J
100
Normalized
'
10
1,000
line length,
10,000
100,000
Fig. 6.12. Plot of the
maximum
VSWR
sizes,
parameters with several waveguide
and
representative values of p L as a function of line length for (From Pritchard, u IRE Trans.) 0. for a
Although a tunable pulse magnetron has been assumed in the above discussion of the long-line effect, the fixed-tuned magnetron may also be adversely affected by the and a long transmission line. The location of the breaks in presence of a large Therefore a variation the tuning curve varies uniformly with the phase of the reflection. may shift the entire tuning of the load which causes a change in the phase of the
VSWR
VSWR
curve and might cause an unstable region to be shifted to the frequency of the fixedtuned magnetron. The curves in Fig. 6.1 la to c apply to a pulsed magnetron. The behavior of the magnetron with a long transmission line differs from that of the tuning curve of a An example of the long-line effect pulse magnetron because of frequency hysteresis. magnetron In the Fig. 6. 1 1 d. in shown magnetron is curve of a on the tuning there are two different frequencies possible for a given frequency setting, both of which One frequency is obtained when the tuner setting is increased, the other are stable. when the tuner setting is decreased. The dashed portions of the curve correspond to case there are inaccessible frequencies just as with the frequency jumping. In the
CW
CW
CW
CW
pulse magnetron, but the percentage of inaccessible frequencies is less. An obvious method of eliminating the long-line effect is to avoid the use of long transmission lines by locating the transmitter directly at the antenna terminals. However, not all radar transmitters are small enough to be located at the feed of a reflector-
type antenna.
It is
easier to
mount
a given transmitter at the feed of a lens antenna
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214
<5
EC
6.2]
Radar Transmitters
215
Another antenna technique which is not a problem (Sec. 7.6). avoids long lengths of transmission line is the Cassegrain reflector geometry (Sec. 7.5). The long-line effect may also be eliminated if the transmission line is longer than oneThe deliberate half the pulse length or if the attenuation in the line is sufficiently large. would be of little and efficient not is attenuation large with transmission line use of a
since aperture blocking
value for high-power radar transmitters. the In those applications where it is not possible to locate the transmitter directly at reflected length, the pulse one-half the than line longer transmission use a antenna or to wave from the load can be eliminated at the magnetron with a unilateral device such as an isolator or a circulator. These devices prevent the energy reflected from the mismatched load from returning to the magnetron, but they permit the energy to flow
unimpeded
in a
forward direction from the magnetron to the load.
Fig. 6.13. Photograph of type 7182 magnetron, without electromagnet.
{Courtesy English Electric
Valve Co., Ltd.)
Another technique for reducing the long-line effect is to decouple the magnetron to reduce its pulling figure. Equation (6.1) shows that a reduction of the pulling figure Decoupling the oscillator results in results in an increase of the skip length of the line. a decrease in efficiency, as does the insertion of loss in the transmission line. There will usually be less over-all loss in efficiency for a given increase in skip length by decoupling
the magnetron than by the deliberate insertion of loss. tuning is not too high, a phase shifter might be used to shift the entire If the curve to permit quasi-stable operation in between the points of frequency jump. This will not be practical if the frequency separation between "skips" is small. An oscillator followed by a power amplifier such as a klystron will not experience On the other hand, long-line effect because of the isolation provided by the amplifier.
VSWR
an Amplitron following an oscillator
traveling in the reverse direction suffers
not eliminate the long-line effect since energy or no attenuation. Examples of Pulse Magnetrons. Table 6. 1 lists the characteristics of five magnetrons covering the frequency range from L band to Xband. The tubes included in this table are not necessarily the best, nor are they claimed to be typical of the many magnetrons which may be available. The tubes were selected since they illustrate the parameters and characteristics of magnetrons. The selection of a magnetron for a specific applicawill
little
the tion is a job that requires careful examination of the various types available from All the tubes in Table 6. 1, several manufacturers in this country as well as abroad. with the exception of the C-band tube, are relatively high power tubes. The C-band tube is included since it was designed specifically for a commercial application (airborne weather-avoidance radar), where long life is a prime requirement. The tubes are all
fixed-tuned.
216

Heater connection
[Sec. 6.3
Most of the terms listed in the table have been defined previously except for the stability and the
thermal factor. The stability is a measure of the percentage of missing pulses. missing pulse is usually defined as one whose energy is 30 per cent less than normal. The reduced energy may be due to a lower-than-normal amplitude, shorter pulse width, or incorrect frequency. The thermal factor is a measure of the frequency change produced by a given change in anode temperature. The English Electric Valve Co. type 7182 Sband magnetron is of a radically different design from the usual magnetron. 26 photograph of the type 7182 without magnet is shown in Fig. 6.13, and a cross section illustrating the features of a 5-Mw version is shown in Fig. 6.14. The length of the anode is two to three times that of ordinary designs, permitting cathodes large
Cothode and heater

connection
^Locating ond
retaining flonge
Heoter
Cothode
Anode
enough to dissipate the back-bombardment power generated by electrons returning to the cathode. Instead of coupling the output power
through the side of one of the cavities, it is coupled out symmetrically from one end. A choke symmetrical output allows stable operation in the 77 mode without the need for strapping. The Output window long anode plus the symmetrical output makes it natural to use a solenoid electromagnet. An Fig. 6.14. Cross section illustrating the major features of a 5-Mw version of the outstanding characteristic of this design is its long life, which is an order of magnitude better E.E.V. magnetron. (Courtesy English Electric Valve Co., Ltd.) than conventional magnetrons of equivalent power. The examples given in Table 6. 1 are relatively high power magnetrons. However, one of the largest fields of application for magnetrons is in marine radars, where small power tubes are widely used. A typical Jf-band marine radar might employ a fixedtuned magnetron generating 5 kw of peak power with an average power of 5 watts, operating at a voltage of 5 kv and weighing 4 lb complete. 32
6.3. Klystron Amplifier
Aerial plate
The klystron amplifier overcomes the high-frequency limitations of conventional grid-controlled tubes by using to good advantage the transit-time phenomena in the
electron beam.
The velocity of the electrons constituting the electron beam in the klystron amplifier is modulated by the input signal. The resulting velocity modulation is converted into density modulation. resonant cavity extracts the RF power in the
density-modulated
beam and
delivers
it
to a useful load.
had important application as a radar transmitter and fulfills a need which cannot be supplied by self-excited oscillators like the magnetron. The chief advantage of the klystron amplifier which makes it attractive as a radar transmitter is that it is capable of large, stable output power with good efficiency and high gain. Because it is basically a power amplifier, it can be driven by a stable crystalcontrolled oscillator followed by a frequency-multiplier chain. This arrangement results in more stable operation than is possible with a self-excited power oscillator, and
amplifier has
The klystron
Sec. 6.3]
Radar Transmitters
217
almost hence better MTI performance. Stable RF generators such as the klystron are permit. always preferred in modern MTI radars whenever operational conditions gains In a klystron the RF input is well isolated from the RF output, and high, stable threein a are usual db to 40 from 30 of Gains "bottle." single are possible from a number of cavity tube, and gains exceeding 80 db are possible, depending upon the The input. as the used can be Large gains mean that a low-power oscillator cavities. and cathode The klystron. in the separate are tube the d-c and the RF portions of functions in an collector regions may therefore be designed to perform their respective
optimum manner without concern for their effect on the RF fields. As a result, the life of other types of microlife of a klystron may be made as good as or better than the
wave power generators.
RF
cavities
Interaction gaps
Collector-^.
Heater
Modulating
anode
three-cavity klystron. Fig. 6.15. Diagrammatic representation of the principal parts of a
chief limitations of klystrons are their relatively large size and high operating Large size is better suited to ground-based installations. The voltages voltages. handling required can be greater than 100 kv, necessitating special high-voltage High voltage produces X-ray radiation in the vicinity of the tube, so that techniques.
The
lead shielding must be provided to protect operating personnel. sketch of the principal parts of the klystron is shown in Description of Operation. At the left-hand portion of the figure is the cathode, which emits a stream of Fig. 6. 1 5. conservative value of maximum emission density for short-pulse, longelectrons. 2 The portion of the tube which focuses operation of klystrons is about 5 amp/cm
life
modulating anode is usually the electrons into a beam is called the electron gun. for included as part of the electron-gun structure to provide a convenient means to the correspond which cavities RF The pulsing or modulating the electron beam.
resonant circuits of lower-frequency amplifiers alsoserveas the anode since they are The positive potential applied to at a positive potential with respect to the cathode. anode voltage. Electrons are or voltage, the cavities is called the beam-accelerating
LC
electrons are not intentionally collected by the anode as in other tubes; instead, the after the terminated by the collector electrode (shown on the right side of the diagram) cavity. beam has given up its RF energy to the output The RF voltage of the input signal is applied across the interaction gap of the first Low-power tubes might contain a grid structure at the gap to provide coupling cavity. However, the gap in high-power tubes does not usually contain a grid to the beam. power-handling capability. The absence of a grid does not seriously poor because of its arrive at impair the coupling between the gap and the beam. Those electrons which a experience wave) the sine of (peak maximum the gap when the input voltage is at a than those higher velocity a accelerated to be and will average than the voltage greater which arrive at the gap when the RF input is at a minimum (trough of the sine
electrons
218
wave).
[Sec. 6.3
variation in velocity is impressed upon the beam of electrons is called velocity modulation. In the drift space, or tunnel, those electrons which are speeded up during the peak of one cycle catch up with those electrons slowed down during the previous cycle. The
result is that the electrons of the velocity-modulated beam are "bunched," or densitymodulated, after traveling through the drift space. If the interaction gap of the output cavity were placed at the point of maximum bunching, power could be extracted from the density-modulated beam. Most high-power klystrons for radar application have one or more cavities between the input and the output cavities to provide additional bunching, and hence higher gain. The intermediate cavities are not fed with energy
The process whereby a time
from
the outside. In the three-cavity klystron the second cavity may be tuned to the frequency of oscillation, or even a slightly higher frequency for greater efficiency. After the bunched electron beam delivers the RF power to the output cavity, the electrons
are collected by the collector electrode which is at, or slightly below, the cathode Power is extracted from the output cavity to the load by a coupling loop, or if a waveguide output is used, by means of an iris.
potential.
In order to counteract the mutual repulsion of the electrons which constitute the axial magnetic field (not shown in Fig. 6.15) is generally employed. The magnetic field confines the electrons to a beam and prevents them from dispersing.
beam, an
field strength is fairly critical and is not necessarily uniform along the length of the tube. In some klystrons the electron beam may be confined by electrostatic fields designed into the tube structure and external magnets are not required. In low-power tubes the beam might even be focused by positive-ion space charge. If the beam were not properly confined in a high-power klystron, the stray electrons would impinge upon the metal structure of the tube and cause it to overheat or possibly be destroyed.
The optimum magnetic
CW
Not
all
the
power
available in the klystron
beam
is
delivered to the load.
An
example of the division of power in the Sperry SAS-37 klystron was reported by Learned and Veronda for a 200- watt amplifier, operating at a frequency of 2,450 Mc, utilizing grids at the RF interaction gaps and employing positive-ion focusing. 33 Of the total d-c power in the electron beam, only 41 per cent is converted to RF power.
CW
Of the
cent
is
59 per cent not converted, 41 per cent

lost in the drift tube.
is
dissipated at the collector while 18 per
Of
RF
lost in a klystron without grids.) the 41 per cent converted to RF power, only 25 per cent is delivered to the load. losses in the output cavity account for 4 per cent, transit-time loading accounts for
(Less
power would be
6 per cent, while the production of secondary electrons with virtually zero velocity accounts for an additional 6 per cent. Thus the conversion efficiency of this particular tube is 25 per cent (which is low for klystrons). The over-all efficiency
RF
would have to include the heater power, power required for cooling, and power to generate the magnetic focusing field if focusing is accomplished magnetically. RF conversion efficiencies of practical high-power klystrons seem to lie within the range of 35 to 45 per cent.
The advantage of the klystron over other microwave tubes in producing high power due to its geometry. The regions of beam formation, RF interaction, and beam collection are separate and independent in the klystron. Each region can be designed to best perform its own particular function independently of the others. For example, the cathode is outside the RF field and need not be restricted to sizes small compared with a wavelength. Large cathode area and large interelectrode spacings may be used to keep the emission current densities and voltage gradients to reasonable values. The
is
only function of the collector electrode in the klystron is to dissipate heat. It can be of a shape and size most suited for satisfying the average or peak power requirements without regard for conducting RF currents, since none are present.
Sec. 6.3]
Radar Transmitters
219
The design flexibility available with the klystron is not present in other tube types considered in this chapter, except for the traveling-wave tube. In most other tubes the functions of electron emission, RF interaction, and collection of electrons usually occur The design of such tubes must therefore be a compromise between in the same region. good RF performance and good heat dissipation. Unfortunately, these requirements cannot always be satisfied simultaneously. Good RF performance usually requires the tube electrodes to be small compared with a wavelength, while good heat dissipation
requires large structures. The high-power capability of the klystron, like anything else, is not unlimited. One of the major factors which has restricted the power available from klystrons has been windows capable of coupling the output power from the the problem of obtaining vacuum envelope to the load. Other factors limiting large powers are the difficulty of
RF
operating with high voltages, of dissipating heat in the collector, and of obtaining sufficient cathode emission current. External and Internal Cavities. Two types of resonant cavities have been employed They differ in being within or outside the vacuum envelope of the tube. in klystrons. cavities may be placed external to the vacuum by sealing the tuning The resonant This is called a interaction gap with a suitable low-loss vacuum-tight insulator. system are easier to vacuum to the window and is usually ceramic. Cavities external might be twice cavities external of range tuning practice the tune and maintain. In
that of similar cavities tuned from within the vacuum. When the cavities are wholly within the vacuum envelope, only
an input and an
output window are required for the tube and they need not be placed directly at the By contrast, the tube with external cavities requires a window at interaction gap. each cavity. When the output window must be placed at the interaction gap, as in the
case of externally tuned cavities, the inside of the ceramic window may be bombarded by secondary electron emission emanating from the downstream tip of the output gap. The output window can become overheated and fail. This heating is in addition to the RF heating due to the dielectric losses in the ceramic when transmitting RF power.
windows of both external and internal cavities. External cavities are often preferred because of their wider tuning range and more convenient method of tuning whenever the output window does not limit the powerhandling capability of the tube. However, internal cavities are probably more suitable at the higher frequencies. Modulating Anode. Three possible methods of pulsing a klystron are by turning on and off (1) the klystron-beam accelerating voltage, (2) the RF input signal, or (3) the
Dielectric heating occurs in the
electron
klystron-beam current. The last mentioned is controlled by an electrode in the gun called the modulating anode. When the beam is pulsed by turning the accelerating voltage on and off, the entire beam current must be pulsed as well. This is similar to plate modulation of a triode or magnetron, and it requires a modulator capable of handling the full power of the beam. RF input signal is In method 2, the beam current should also be modulated when the purpose in the useful no to dissipated be will power modulated; otherwise beam tube will be low. the of efficiency the and pulses, between RF interval in the collector Of the three methods, the modulating anode requires the least modulating power. The only control power necessary is the very small amount required to charge and
this is discharge the capacitance of the klystron gun and its associated circuitry, and is power modulating pulsed peak the independent of the pulse length. In one design, 34 in the be used may tubes vacuum Hard power. peak input less than \ per cent of the Also, the phase shift between the RF pulse modulator, minimizing any time jitter. change to any significant degree as not input and the RF output of the klystron will
voltage
is
applied to the modulating anode.
220
[Sec. 6.3
cutoff characteristics of the modulating anode permit only a few electrons to escape from the electron gun during the interpulse period when the beam is turned off.
The
important in radar application since the receiver sensitivity will be degraded if during the interpulse period to cause the stray electron current noise to exceed receiver noise. The modulating characteristics (output RF voltage vs. modulating anode voltage) of the modulating anode can be made linear over a portion of the operating range so that the output waveform may be shaped as desired. An important application of pulse shaping is in air navigation systems such as Tacan, where it is necessary to transmit a pulse with as little sideband energy as possible in order to avoid interference between adjacent or nearby channels. In such applications a Gaussian-shaped pulse is preferred since its spectrum falls off rapidly, resulting in reduced sideband energy. The Gaussianshaped pulse may be readily approximated with the modulating-anode technique. 35 36 A Gaussian-shaped pulse may also be desired in radar applications in which interference to nearby radar receivers at slightly different frequencies may be more important than the loss in range accuracy and resolution obtained when a Gaussian pulse is used instead of a rectangular pulse.
is
This
sufficient electrons are present
Examples of High-power Klystrons. Although the principle of the klystron was demonstrated by several investigators during the late 1930s, credit for its invention is usually given to the Varian brothers. 37 The klystron was based on the pioneering ideas of W. W. Hansen concerning the interaction of electron beams and resonant microwave cavities. The Varian klystron actually preceded the magnetron invented by Randall and Boot, but the potentialities of the klystron for high power were not
exploited until after the war.
time in Consequently, when the plans for the British magnetron were made available to the United States in 1940, the magnetron, rather than the klystron, became the basic RF power generator for radar transmitters. The failure to press the development of the high-power klystron during the war was due in large part to the wartime necessity of concentrating the relatively scarce technical efforts in a limited number of fields. However, a considerable effort was concentrated, in the United States, on the
Many experimental klystrons were built during the late thirties, but the incentive in the United States for a high-power microwave tube suitable for radar application was not as great as in Great Britain, where they were more directly involved at that
thwarting aggression.
relatively low power reflex klystron for use as local oscillators in microwave superheterodyne receivers. The efficiency and power output of the reflex klystron is too low to be of consequence for high-power radar transmitters. The reflex klystron may be used, however, in low-power short-range radars, where efficiency is not too important. As is true of many devices which prove to be of practical value, the potential worth of the klystron as a high-power microwave generator was first demonstrated by the university scientist as a by-product of his pursuit of fundamental knowledge, rather than by the systems engineer. The first high-power klystron tube capable of megawatts of peak power was operated at Stanford University in March, 1949, and was developed for use in a linear accelerator. 38 It was designed to operate at a frequency of 2,857 Mc in-the 5 band and could be tuned over a frequency range of 100 Mc with a' flexible diaphragm which constituted one wall of a cavity. The tuning mechanism and the cavity resonators were located within the vacuum envelope. These tubes developed a peak power of 20 at an efficiency of 35 per cent. They have also been operated with 30 of peak power and at an efficiency of 43 per cent, but at a sacrifice in tube life. The peak power was greater than that delivered by any other tube at any frequency. The largest pulsed klystron power before the development of these tubes had been about 30 kw and was achieved by the British during the war.
Mw
Mw
SEC
6.3]
Radar Transmitters
221
The pulse width of the Stanford tube was 2 fisec, and the pulse repetition frequency, 60 cps, corresponding to an average power of 2.4 kw when the peak power was 20 Mw. A three-cavity design was used, and the power gain was 35 db. The tube could operate peak current of with a maximum beam accelerating voltage of 400 kv and a maximum Pumping had amp. and 185 were 325 kv values operating typical 250 amp, although A voltage of 400 kv to be employed to maintain the vacuum during operation.
because of the represents a practical upper limit for accelerating voltages, not only bebut voltages, large difficulties in working with
cause of the onset of relativistic
effects.
At higher
accelerating voltages the electron velocity is close Further increase in voltage to that of light.
results in
an increase in electron mass rather than

at
velocity.
Twenty-two of these klystrons were used
Stanford University in the 220-ft linear accelerator to produce electrons with energies in the In operation, these vicinity of 1 billion volts. of approximately life average tubes have had an
1,500 hr.
The development of the Stanford 30-Mw klystron represented a considerable achievement and opened new possibilities for the radar systems engineer. In particular, it permitted the
development of MTI radar systems far better than was possible with the magnetron. The superior average power capabilities of the klystron permitted radars to be designed with considerably more power than possible previous to its introduction. The pioneering work of the Stanford scientists
was followed by the engineering and packaging of sealed-off klystrons by the tube industry. The first two klystrons commercially available for radar application were the Sperry Gyroscope Company SAL-36 and the Varian VA-87. The 39 40 operated at L band with 2 to Sperry SAL-36 of pulsed power with an efficiency exceed4 ing 40 per cent. The VA-87 delivered nominally The SAL-36 1 Mw of peak power at S band.
-
Mw
A
klystron.
Fig. 6.16. Varian VA-87 pulsed-amplifier (Courtesy Varian Associates.)
is
a three-cavity amplifier, while the VA-87 has four cavities. photograph of the VA-87 is shown in Fig. 6.16. It is a four-cavity tube with a largesynchronously tuned saturation gain of about 61 db and a synchronously tuned for tuned tube is the operation In normal signal bandwidth of about 20 Mc. watts. only of an RF input 2.5 and kv of 90 voltage beam maximum power output with a and the The half-power bandwidth under these conditions of operation is about 27 Mc, within than less VA-87 is the of jitter gain is 57.6 db. The pulse-to-pulse phase assembly. 235-lb magnet requires a and 65 lb any 4-msec period. It weighs The Stanford tube scientists also developed a family of sealed-off klystrons suitable
41 for radar application.
These were based on the principles learned from the 30-Mw They operate in the L, S, and X bands at pulse powers of 3.2, 2.0, and 1 .2 Mw, tube. The basic design has apparently been incorporated in commercially respectively.
available tubes.
222

largest klystrons, both physically
[Sec. 6.3
and in terms of average power is the Eitel-McCullough X626 pictured in Fig. 6.17. The average power from this tube is 75 kw It stands 10 ft 6 in. high and weighs 800 lb, exclusive of auxiliary equipment The tube is designed for very long range radars. It delivers a relatively long pulse of 2 msec at a 30-cps pulse repetition frequency. The peak power is .25 Mw, and the duty factor is 0.06. The conversion efficiency is 43 per cent. The tube utilizes three cavities external to the vacuum system. The gain is 30 db, and the tuning range is from 400 to 450 Mc. The electron-gun portion of the tube is operated immersed in about 800 gal of oil, while the other parts of the tube are water-cooled. From 1,000 to 4 000
1
One of the
Fig. 6.17.
Eimac X626
pulsed-amplifier klystron.
{Courtesy Eitel-McCullough, Inc.)
surrounds the tube in order to protect operating personnel from X-ray A tube with similar characteristics, but with internal rather than external cavities, was also developed by the Varian Associates and is known as the VA-842. Even though the power output of the X626 klystron is large by any standards, it has been claimed (Ref. 42, p. 3) that "the design of a tube to handle 10 to 15 times the'power of the X626 would be a relatively straightforward (but not small) task." The klystron tubes described above all require external electromagnets to confine the electrons to a beam. It is also possible in some applications to use electrostatic space-charge forces to focus the beam. With electrostatic focusing the electron beam is first made to converge and then is allowed to diverge. The microwave cavities must be especially designed to operate with this type of beam. The drift spaces in a klystron with space-charge focusing are short and of large diameter. The interaction gaps are usually gridded to minimize stray coupling between the RF fields of the cavities and to give efficient interaction between the RF fields and the beam. Because of these
radiation.
lb of lead
Sec. 6.3]
Radar Transmitters
223
restrictions the power output of space-charge-focused tubes has not been as large as with electromagnetic focusing. An example of an electrostatic space-charge-focused klystron amplifier is the SAL-89 developed by the Sperry Gyroscope Company. 43 This is a three-cavity tube covering It was designed primarily for ground-based the frequency band from 960 to 1 ,21 5 Mc. The peak power available transmitters used for air-navigation aids such as Tacan. from the tube is 25 kw, which is only a modest power for most radar applications. A Thirty watts of drive power is required, and the efficiency is better than 30 per cent.
control grid generates a Gaussian-shaped pulse to minimize interference between adjacent navigation channels. The grid requires a total voltage swing of only 3.2 per cent of the beam voltage to get full rated power of 25 kw. The duty cycle is 0.025, and the pulse repetition frequency used in the air-navigation-aid application is 7,000 cps.
8 10 Frequency,
100
Fig. 6.18. Average power of pulsed-klystron amplifiers with space-charge focusing as a function of frequency. {Personal communication from C. M. Veronda of the Sperry Gyroscope Company?)
A plot
500
of the
maximum
average power output from space-charge-focused klystron

is
Peak powers up to about power is comparaThe power output of the SAL-89 klystron described above falls short of tively simple. that indicated by Fig. 6.18 since it is limited in power by the output connector and not by the focusing. A companion tube, the SAL-219, has average power outputs falling on the curve.
amplifiers as a function of frequency
shown
in Fig. 6.18.
kw are permissible, and paralleling of tubes
to achieve greater
The as well as pulse applications. The klystron amplifier may be used for klystron amplifier delivers 20 kw of electromagnetically focused VA-849 JV-band power with low incidental noise in the frequency range from 7.125 to 8.5 Gc. It pure C and is tunable over 60 Mc. has a gain of 50 db with a bandwidth of 30 applications signal with little extraneous noise is especially important in long-range C power at JVband) and The noise in the VA-823 series of klystrons (5 kw of
CW CW
CW
Mc
AM
FM
CW
is
100 db below the carrier in any 1-kc channel more than 1 kc removed from the carrier. The Monofier is a form of klystron with good frequency stability, low noise, and comparatively good efficiency. It employs a single electron beam and contains two The first cavity encountered by the electron beam cavities separated by a drift space.
224
is
[Sec. 6.3
a self-excited oscillator which velocity-modulates the beam. As the beam traverses the drift space, the velocity modulation is converted to density modulation. The RF
on passing through the second, or two tubes. Electrostatically focused CW Monofiers at X band are capable of 1 or 2 kw of power with efficiencies of 20 to 25 per cent. The Monofier may also be designed to operate pulsed. Possible areas of application include compact and pulse-doppler radar
in the density-modulated
is
power
beam
extracted
catcher, cavity.
Thus the Monofier
serves the function of
CW
systems.
Bandwidth of Multicavity Klystrons. i5 &1 Almost all high-power klystron amplifiers employ more than two cavities. The advantages of the additional cavities are an increase in gain, greater efficiency, and the capability of obtaining wider bandwidths. In the UHF band, the RF conversion efficiency of a two-cavity klystron is of the order of 20 to 30 per cent, with gains of the order of 20 db. The efficiency of a three-cavity amplifier might vary from 35 to 45 per cent, with 30- to 40-db gain. The efficiency
Table
6.2.
~~
Comparison of Computed Gain and Bandwidth of Multicavity Klystrons at 700 Met

Gain, db
Bandwidth,
Stagger tuning
Mc
Stagger tuning
Number
of cavities
Synchronous
tuning
Synchronous
tuning
2
3
20
45 70
4
30 40
2
1
6.5
Two
t
two-cavity tubes in cascade

64
40
2.5
Dain.
does not increase significantly as more cavities are added, but the gain is increased and wider bandwidths may be achieved. The gain of a four-cavity klystron can be 60 db or
greater.
The broadbanding of a multicavity klystron may be accomplished in a manner somewhat analogous to the methods used for broadbanding multistage IF amplifiers. One of the more common techniques is to stagger-tune the frequencies of the various
Stagger tuning of a klystron is not strictly analogous to stagger tuning a conventional IF amplifier, because interactions between nonadjacent cavities cause the tuning of one cavity to affect the tuning of the others. 45 Consequently, the broadbanding of klystrons is somewhat empirical in practice, although there has been some
cavity stages.
work to serve as a guide. The adjustment of the cavity frequencies for broad bandwidth in a multicavity stagger-tuned klystron is a complex procedure and is probably better performed at the factory than in the field. From the theory of electron bunching in a multicavity klystron, the gain and bandwidth have been calculated by Kreuchen et al. 46 for klystrons with two, three, and four cavities, using numerical parameters considered typical of a klystron operating at 700 Mc. Some of the results, as reported by Dain, 54 are presented in Table 6.2. The gain-bandwidth product increases significantly with additional cavities. The entries in the table show that the gain and the bandwidth of a single four-cavity klystron are considerably better than those of a pair of two-cavity klystrons in cascade. It has been reported that the half-power bandwidth of the S-band VA-87 klystron amplifier can be increased from its synchronously tuned bandwidth of 27 Mc to a value of 77 Mc by stagger tuning. 47 This represents a 2.8 per cent bandwidth. The increase in bandwidth is accompanied by a decrease in gain from about 57 db with synchronous tuning to about 44 db with stagger tuning. A special modification of the
theoretical
Sec. 6.4]
Radar Transmitters
225
VA-87 using a six-cavity driver section followed by an output section consisting of a halfdouble-tuned circuit with an inner cavity identical with that of the VA-87 results in a arrangement cavity double-tuned the (In Mc. power bandwidth of 4. 8 per cent, or 1 44 secondary cavity of the usual output cavity is coupled not only to the load but to a 52 of 40 db. The adjustable loss and frequency. ) The gain of the tube was in excess and 10 kw peak of capable 5 commercial version of this tube is the VA-839. It is
Mw
average power at an efficiency of 40 per cent. klystron amplifier In practice, stagger tuning enables the bandwidth of the multicavity to per cent to values the to be increased from a synchronously tuned bandwidth of \
order of 5 per cent or more, with a reduction in the gain. 51.53 Bandwidths of multicavity klystrons may be as large as 1 to 1 2 per cent or greater. tubes. This is comparable with that available with high-power traveling-wave
6.4. Traveling-wave-tube Amplifier
-47.54-59 4
The wide bandwidth of the traveling- wave

the radar engineer.
amplifier
is its
chief attribute of interest to
A wide bandwidth is
necessary in applications
A ttenuatio n
where good range
CothodeHeater-*
// anode
J
Gun
4#mm
CollectorElector-
>.
Electron
ii
H.n/
.
ir
I
I
1*1
I
(interaction region)
beam
'
RF
input
RF
output
Fig. 6.19. Diagrammatic representation of the traveling-wave tube.
the radar within a is required (Sec. 10.8) or where it is desired to rapidly tune wide frequency band to avoid deliberate jamming or mutual interference with nearby Bandwidths of the order of 10 to 20 per cent are possible with the travelingradars.
resolution
wave
amplifier at the
power
levels required for
long-range radar applications.
diagrammatic representation of a traveling-wave tube is shown in The electron optics of the traveling- wave tube are similar in many respects Fig. 6.19. Both employ the principle of velocity modulation, the to those of the klystron. klystron in the form of standing waves, the traveling- wave tube in the form of traveling waves. Electrons emitted by the cathode of the traveling-wave tube are focused into a beam and pass through the RF interaction region. After delivering their d-c energy to be the RF field, the electrons are removed by the collector electrode. The RF signal to structure. amplified enters via the input coupler and propagates along the periodic The periodic structure is shown as a helix in Fig. 6.19, a popular form for low-power,
Description.
large-bandwidth tubes. The velocity of propagation of electromagnetic energy is For slowed down by the helix and is nearly equal to the velocity of the electron beam n the I line. periodic delay or a structure, wave this reason, it is sometimes called a slowvelocity the but light speed of the about with wire the along travels wave the helical line wire of propagation in the direction of the beam is somewhat less. For example, if the beam the along will travel wave the helix, is 13 times as long as the axial length of the with one-thirteenth the speed of light, and the electrons will be in synchronism with The synchronism between the the wave if they are accelerated by about 1,500 volts.
.
electromagnetic wave and the electrons results in a cumulative interaction which transto be amplified. fers energy from the d-c beam to the RF wave, causing the RF wave The RF signal, when applied to the input coupler of the traveling- wave tube, velocitymodulates the electron beam just as in the klystron. The velocity modulation is down transformed into density modulation (bunches) after traveling a short distance
226
[Sec. 6.4
When the electrons are bunched, the concentration of space charge produces a repelling effect and the beam becomes debunched that is, density modulation is converted back to velocity modulation. As the electrons travel farther along the tube, the velocity-modulated electron beam is again converted to density modulation, and
the tube.
;
the process is repeated. Thus standing waves of space charge exist along the beam. These standing waves may be described as the beating of two space-charge waves traveling along the beam with different phase velocities. One of the waves has a phase velocity smaller than the beam velocity, while the other wave has a phase velocity larger than that of the beam. The slower space-charge wave, when coupled to the electromagnetic wave, is used in the traveling-wave amplifier. The faster space-charge wave is used in electron accelerators.
The periodic structure usually associated with traveling-wave tubes is the helix. The is well suited to low-power, broadband applications but cannot be used at highpower levels (greater than approximately 10 kw) since it does not dissipate heat effectively. Other types of slow-wave structures must be used for high-power levels. Unhelix
powers does not have as wide a bandwidth as some of the lower-power structures. The high-power traveling-wave tube is very similar to the klystron. In some respects, the traveling-wave tube might be considered as a limiting case of the multicavity klystron. One of the major differences between the usual klystron and the traveling-wave tube is that feedback along the periodic structure is possible in the traveling-wave tube whereas the back coupling of RF energy in the klystron is negligible. If sufficient energy were fed back to the input, the traveling- wave tube would oscillate. Feedback energy might arise in the traveling- wave tube from the reflection of a portion of the forward wave at the output coupler. Because of feedback the traveling-wave tube is inherently a less stable device than the klystron. The feedback energy must be eliminated if the traveling- wave amplifier is to function satisfactorily. Energy traveling in the backward direction may be reduced to an insignificant level in most tubes by the insertion of attenuation in the periodic structure. The attenuation may be distributed, or it may be lumped, but it is usually found within the middle third of the tube. It must be carefully matched to the periodic circuit. The attenuator must be designed so that the reflected wave from the output coupler is attenuated much more than the input wave is amplified. The introduction of attenuation reduces the efficiency and power output, but it, or some substitute, is necessary for proper operation. The necessity for an attenuator capable of handling large average powers is one of the major restrictions on the output power of a traveling-wave tube not found in the klystron. An axial magnetic field (not shown in Fig. 6.19) confines the beam and prevents it from dispersing. The electromagnets required for focusing might be quite large. In some traveling- wave tubes a considerable reduction in weight is possible by using permanent magnets periodically spaced along the tube, but this technique is probably better suited to low-power than to high-power tubes. Power and Bandwidth. In principle, the traveling-wave tube should be capable of as large a power output as the klystron. The cathode, RF interaction region, and the collector are all separate and can be designed to perform their required functions independently of the others. In addition, the over-all size of the traveling-wave tube
fortunately, the type of periodic structures suitable for high
usually not small, enabling the structure to dissipate considerable heat. In practice, however, it is found that there are limitations to very high power output. One of these limitations is the problem of obtaining a feedback attenuator which can dissipate the necessary power in a small space and at low voltage-standing-wave ratio. Another major limitation is the periodic structure. It seems that those periodic circuits best suited for broad bandwidth have the lowest power-transfer and heattransfer dissipation capabilities. Thus, if the traveling-wave tube is to achieve power
is
Sec. 6.5]
levels
Radar Transmitters
227
comparable with other tube types, a sacrifice in bandwidth must be made. If the bandwidth is too small, however, there is little advantage to be gained with a travelingwave tube as compared with multicavity klystrons. Traveling-wave tubes have been built which operate at the megawatt level with the 57 Although a 10 per cent bandwidth may order of 10 per cent bandwidth at 5 band. not be as spectacular as the octave bandwidths possible with low- or medium-power traveling-wave tubes, it is nevertheless a significant bandwidth for most radar applicaThe gain and efficiency of a high-power, broadband traveling-wave tube are tions. A reduction in gain accompanies a large usually not as good as those of the klystron. bandwidth, just as with the klystron. The saturation gain of the S-band tube referred to above was about 20 db, and the efficiency was about 14 per cent. Example of Traveling-wave Tube for Radar. The Varian traveling-wave-tube pulsed amplifier known as the VA-125 is a commercially available broadband, liquid-cooled tube intended to cover the major portion of the S-band radar frequency range. Its bandwidth is 300 Mc at a frequency of 3,000 Mc. The peak power output is 2 Mw, and The power gain is 33 db. the duty cycle is 0.002, with a 2-^sec pulse width.
The VA-125
is
similar in
many
respects to the
VA-87
klystron amplifier.
They
deliver about the same peak power and can be used interchangeably except that the VA-125 traveling- wave tube requires additional input power because of its lower gain.
6.5.
Amplitron and Stabilitron 60 " 6
Amplitron. The Amplitron is a crossed-field amplifier characterized by high peak and average power output, broad bandwidth, exceptionally high efficiency, but low
Space-charge hub
Conducting vanes
ties
Space chargi spoke
Phase
velocity
Conducting straps
Catho
roup velocity
Anode
Input pla
Fig. 6.20. Basic structure of the Amplitron. {Courtesy Raytheon Company.) tube.
magnetic
field is
applied parallel to the axis of the
of peak power at Amplitrons at L band, for example, are capable of 5 to 10 efficiency conversion per cent than 85 better duty factors of approximately 0.001, with db. of of the order 10 are Gains cent. per 10 more than of bandwidth over a The physical structure of the magnetron oscillator and the Amplitron are similar, but The chief physical difference between the two their characteristics are quite different. couplings (an input and an output) and the external two Amplitron uses the is that
gain.
Mw
magnetron has but one. A drawing of the workings of an Amplitron is shown in Fig. 6.20. The electrons No external originate from a continuously coated cathode coaxial to the RF circuit. The operation. heater power is usually required for starting the Amplitron or during
228

consists of a series of vanes.
It acts
[Sec. 6.5
anode
as both a slow- wave
RF circuit with which
the electrons interact
and as an electrode for the
collection of electrons.
The Amplitron is a crossed-field device in that the electron beam is perpendicular to both the electric and magnetic fields, just as in the magnetron. Its operation is similar some respects to the traveling-wave-tube amplifier since amplification occurs because of an interaction between a traveling electromagnetic wave and a rotating space-charge wave. The space-charge waves in the Amplitron are formed by the interaction
in
between the electron beam and the crossed electric and magnetic fields. In the travelingwave-tube amplifier the space-charge wave interacts with a forward wave, that is, a wave whose phase velocity is in the same direction as the power flow. It is also possible for
Fig. 6.21.
QK 622 5-band Amplitron.
(Courtesy Raytheon Company?)
RF periodic structure to support backward waves, or waves whose phase velocity is opposite to the power flow. traveling-wave tube in which the space-charge wave is coupled to a backward wave is known as a backward-wave amplifier. Space-charge waves in a crossed-field-magnetron-type device can couple with either a forward or a backward wave. The crossed-field device called the magnetron amplifier uses the
the
forward wave and can attain efficiencies of about 50 per cent, bandwidths of 1 5 per cent, gains of 15 db, and output power of several megawatts peak. 54 63 66 - 69 The crossedfield device which couples the backward wave to the space-charge wave (Amplitron) has a higher rate of gain than the forward-wave device (magnetron amplifier) and for the same length will be more efficient.
.
Figure 6.20 shows that the electron
beam
reenters the interaction space just as in the
However, unlike that of the magnetron, the RF circuit is not reentrant. The RF output and the RF input are decoupled. In this sense, the RF circuit of the Amplitron is related more to that of the traveling-wave tube than to the magnetron. The nonreentrant circuit of the Amplitron permits a broader bandwidth
oscillator.
magnetron
than the reentrant circuit of the conventional magnetron oscillator. The Amplitron behaves as a saturated amplifier rather than as a linear amplifier. The characteristic of a saturated amplifier is that the magnitude of the RF output is independent of the RF input, but dependent on the d-c input. Although a saturated
Sec. 6.5]
Radar Transmitters
229
voice communiamplifier cannot be used in some applications, such as, for example, cations, there are but few restrictions on its use as a pulsed amplifier for most radar
AM
A saturated amplifier is compatible with frequency modulation, and it be used with radars designed with pulse compression. 64 It produces a 622 pulse Amplitron is shown in Fig. 6.2 1. The Raytheon type input is no less than 550 kw. to its applied when the RF drive power peak power of 3 The gain is 7.5 db. Its duty cycle is 0.005. When used with a line-type modulator, it will cover the frequency band from 2,900 to 3,100 Mc without mechanical or electrical Efficiencies greater than 70 per cent are observed over the entire frequency adj ustment. At reduced approach or even exceed 80 per cent at some frequencies. band. They
applications.
may
QK
Mw
10,000
1,000
100
10
100 1,000 Peak RF power input, kw
10,000
Fig. 6.22. Plot of the RF power output as a function of the RF power input for the Raytheon QK 520 L-band Amplitron. Contours show constant modulator input. (From Brown, reprinted, by permission, from the Apr. 29, 1960, issue of Electronics, a McGraw-Hill publication, copyright, 1960.)
power output, the gain is increased. Eleven decibels is obtained when the peak power The weight of the completely packaged QK 622 as shown in Fig. 6.21 is is 700 kw.
1251b.
is
shown in
A plot of the RF power output as a function of the RF and d-c modulator input power 66 For constant d-c Fig. 6.22 for the Raytheon QK 520 L-band Amplitron.
input power, the RF output power is relatively independent oftheRF input power, except when the RF input becomes comparable with the RF output. This departure from saturated amplifier behavior results from a slight increase in efficiency with large RF input power and because the input power reappears unattenuated at the output and adds to the RF power generated by the Amplitron itself. If, at a given level of d-c
power, the
amplifier.
RF input is reduced below a certain level, the device ceases to act as an In this region (shown shaded in Fig. 6.22), the RF output is noisy, poorly The transition region defined, and at some other frequency than the input signal. between the area in which the input does not control RF output and the area in which performance is satisfactory is well defined and of negligible width. The conversion efficiency of an Amplitron is defined as follows
RF
Efficiency
power output
RF power input
(6.4)
modulator power input to Amplitron
230
[Sec. 6.5
This is a conservative definition since the RF input power is not lost but appears as part of the output. In a low-gain amplifier the input power which appears at the output may be a sizable fraction of the total. The effective over-all efficiency of a chain of
Amplitrons therefore can remain high.
The high efficiency permits operation at considerably greater power levels than other tube types with similar heat-dissipation capabilities but of lower efficiencies. Assume, for example, that a particular tube structure can safely dissipate 10 kw of heat and that this is the only limitation on the total power the tube can generate. If the efficiency of the tube were 20 per cent, the useful power output would be 2.5 kw and the power dissipated 10 kw. On the other hand, if the efficiency were 80 per cent, the tube could deliver 40 kw while dissipating 10 kw. An increase in efficiency by a factor of 4 from 20 to 80 per cent results in a 1 6-fold increase in the amount of output power delivered to a load. The high efficiency of the Amplitron is one of the major reasons for its ability to generate large powers with structures of reasonable size. (The advantages to be gained from high efficiency apply to any type of device and are not proprietary to the Amplitron alone.) The Amplitron has the advantage that it is one of the most efficient of the high-power microwave amplifiers. The phase shift through the Amplitron caused by a change in the d-c current applied
to the device
is
called phase pushing,
by analogy with the term frequency pushing, which
describes a similar
as the current
is
phenomenon in oscillators where the frequency is changed or pushed

changed.
Phase pushing in an Amplitron is usually quite small amplifiers, being of the order of a fraction of a degree per ampere. Low phase pushing is important in radar applications where zero or negligible phase shift must be maintained between input and output. Such would be the case when several power tubes are operated in parallel or when individual transmitters feed individual elements of a phased array antenna. The phase shift varies less than 0.5 for a 1 per cent variation in anode current with Amplitrons like the 622. The Amplitron operates with low RF voltages and possesses good stability. The percentage of missing pulses in the 622 is less than 0.05 per cent. The quality of the output spectrum from the Amplitron is but little affected by changes 61 in load conditions. It is reported that the output spectrum of a particular Z.-band tube remains unperturbed regardless of phase position of output mismatch and VSWR up to a value of 2.5. The Amplitron acts as a passive transmission line when the high voltage is removed.
compared with other microwave
QK
QK
low, typically 0.2 to .0 db. Therefore an RF signal traveling in the from the output to the input suffers little attenuation. This differs from other amplifiers in which the reversed signal is highly attenuated. The low insertion loss makes it possible to pass the received echo signal back through the Amplitron before entering the duplexer. Duplexing may therefore be accomplished at a lower power level than if it had to be placed at the output of the tube. However, the low attenuation in the backward direction requires that a high-power circulator or some other isolation device be used between Amplitron and driver to prevent the reflected power from interfering with the driver portion of the transmitter or from building up into oscillation. Isolation is also needed between Amplitrons when they
Its
insertion loss
is
reverse direction
operate in cascade. Amplitron voltages are lower than those of the klystron or the traveling-wave tube and are comparable with those of the magnetron. magnetic field is required just as with the magnetron. Permanent magnets are usually used. The magnitude of the
magnetic field represents a compromise between magnet weight and the higher efficiency which can be obtained with large magnets. An unusual feature of the Amplitron is its ability to operate without a cathode heater. The tube starts without a cathode warmup period whenever RF drive power
Sec. 6.5]
is
Radar Transmitters
231
present prior to application of the modulating pulse. The absence of a heater 622 is claimed to be in excess of The life of the results in longer tube life.
QK
l,000hr. 64
Because of its relatively low gain but high power and high efficiency, one application of the Amplitron has been as a booster tube to increase the power output of existing radar equipments. It is simply added to the output of the existing radar to give an order-of-magnitude increase in radiated power. No tuning of the tube is necessary because of its broad bandwidth, and the duplexer can often be used without change on ferrite the input side of the Amplitron. It is usually necessary, however, to employ a
on the input side to prevent unwanted oscillations from building up because of the reflections from mismatches at the output and input. The gain of an Amplitron can be increased at the expense of the bandwidth by the use transof positive feedback produced by inserting mismatches in the input and output mission lines. These are inserted so that the RF energy reflected from the mismatch n reflected the output line will be returned to the mismatch in the input line and be again 70 can be db the order of of 30 Gains energy. input with the in such phase as to add obtained with bandwidths of the order of per cent. Mechanical tuning over a 1 per
isolation device
i
cent range
is
possible.
Amplitron
(Plotinotron)
Partiol reflection
(mismatch)
Useful load
Fio. 6.23. Block diagram of Stabilitron oscillator consisting of an Amplitron with a high-Q cavity attached to the input and a broadband mismatch reflection on the output.
The Amplitron
the
is
capable, in principle, of extremely large power.
A tube the size of
QK 622 (average power of 15 kw), with an anode cooled with high-velocity liquid,
should be capable of delivering a useful RF average output power of more than 100 kw 71 at S band. The Amplitron can be made to operate as a highly stabilized oscillator Stabilitron. by the addition of RF feedback and the application of a stabilizing cavity (Fig. 6.23). A mismatch is connected between the output of the tube and the load. A high-g, narrowband tunable cavity is connected to the tube input. A portion of the power output from the Amplitron is reflected by the mismatch and travels back through the
tube in the direction of the input with little or no attenuation. The high- Q cavity absorbs that energy not at the resonant frequency of the cavity. Energy which is at the resonant frequency is re-reflected and passes through the device in the forward Steady oscillations will occur if the total phase shift from direction with amplification. the output reflection to the cavity reflection and return is an integral multiple of 2tt radians and if the gain around this loop is greater than unity. The latter requires that
the product of the output reflection coefficient, times the cavity reflection coefficient, times the attenuation in the backward direction, times the gain in the forward direction be greater than 1. The frequency of oscillation is also determined by the resonant frequency of the cavity. The purpose of the phase shifter shown in the diagram of Fig. 6.23 is to adjust the phase of the feedback loop to be compatible with the resonant
frequency of the cavity. It is not necessary in fixed tuned devices or where the tuning range is small. The high Q of the cavity resonator acts to stabilize the frequency of oscillation. The phase shift vs. frequency characteristic of the stabilizing cavity has a larger slope than any other part of the circuit; consequently, a slight change in frequency permits the cavity to correct for substantial phase shift which might be introduced by such factors
232
[Sec. 6.5
impedance or frequency pushing. The Amplitron, when used in the manner described above to generate oscillations, is called a Stabilitron. The frequency stability of the Stabilitron is from 5 to 100 times as good as that of the magnetron, depending upon the type of frequency stability considered, for example, whether the frequency pulling figure or the frequency drift due to temperature change is being compared. A high-g cavity can also be used in conjunction with a magnetron oscillator as it is in the Stabilitron, to further improve its frequency stability. However, in the magnetron oscillator, the stabilizing cavity must be inserted in the output rather
Therefore, for a given degree of frequency stabilization, a much higher can be obtained with the Stabilitron than with the magnetron since the stabilizing cavity placed at the input to the Stabilitron absorbs less power than a cavity
circuit efficiency
as a change in antenna
than the input.
at the output.
The pulling figure of the Stabilitron, which is a measure of the change in frequency produced by a change in the external load, is about 5 to 20 times less than normally
Table
6.3.
Comparison of Typical Operating Values

of
Radar Oscillators
Magnetron
Stabilitron
Characteristic
5J26
2-2.5
QK 630-629
4-0 6
1-4
Pulling figure,
Mc
kc/amp
current,
Pushing
figure,
Peak operating
amp
50-100 46
28
40
36 52 650
1,560 1,260-1,350 1,150
Operating potential, kv Typical efficiency, % Peak output power, kw
Average power output, watts Tuning range, Mc

Operating magnetic
field,
42 550 550
1,220-1,350 1,400
gauss
associated with the magnetron. consequence of the lower pulling figure is that the Stabilitron is less subject to long-line effect [Eq. (6. 1)] than is the magnetron. Therefore the Stabilitron can be operated into transmission lines several times longer than is possible with the magnetron before frequency jumping, because of the long-line effect, causes trouble.
Phase pushing of the Amplitron is manifested as frequency pushingchange in frequency with change in anode current in the Stabilitron. Its effect is minimized, however, by the presence of the stabilizing cavity. An improvement in the dynamic pushing figure of from 10 to 50 is possible, depending upon the particular type of magnetron used for comparison. The efficiency of the Stabilitron is quite good. It might vary from 45 to 60 per cent across the tuning range. The broadband properties of the Amplitron are also reflected
The latter may be tuned over a 5 to 10 per cent frequency band by changing the resonant frequency of the stabilizing cavity and the phase shift in the line connecting cavity and tube. A comparison of typical operating values of a radar magnetron oscillator and a Stabilitron is shown in Table 6.3.
in the Stabilitron.
Platinotron.
This
is
the
name given
the Amplitron
and the
Stabilitron.
Its
to the basic crossed-field structure used for both name is derived from the Greek word platys,
which has the connotation of broad, flat, and, less frequently, to amplify. Thus Platinotron is meant to apply to an amplifier with broadband properties. Physically, the Amplitron and the Platinotron cannot be distinguished from one another.
Sec. 6.6]
6.6. Grid-controlled
Radar Transmitters
Tubest
233
early radars developed in this country and abroad during the 1930s used conpower. ventional grid-controlled tubes since there existed no other source of large
The
RF
bands. and the lower This limited the development of the early radars to the The Navy's first prototype radar, the XAF, used a 100T Eitel-McCullough triode tube 72 Six tubes were operated in a ring circuit to operating at a frequency of 200 Mc. achieve greater power. Each tube had a plate dissipation of 100 watts. These tubes were also used in the Army's first fire-control radar, the SCR-268. The Army's long-range search radar, the SCR-270, used a Westinghouse tube, the VT-122, and operated at 1 10 Mc. Both tubes were of relatively low power compared with postwar
grid-controlled tubes.
VHF
UHF
employed in many applications at the lower radar of the cavity magnetron led to the frequencies (VHF and UHF). successful development of microwave radar early in World War II, interest in lowerfrequency radars waned. During the postwar years, the needs for higher averagepower radar equipments and better MTI performance were two of the factors which renewed interest in the lower UHF and VHF radar bands. Considerable improvement was made after the war in the development of grid-controlled tubes for operation at
The
grid-controlled tube has been
When the discovery
The upward frequency scaling of grid-controlled increasingly higher frequencies. in particle accelerators, scatter communications, applications spurred by tubes was
UHF-TV, and radar. Meanwhile, equally significant developments were being made in the postwar development of new tube types such as the klystron, the traveling-wave During the late 1950s, these newer devices were scaled tube, and the Amplitron. downward in frequency and were highly competitive with grid-controlled tubes in the
400 to 1,000-Mc region of the spectrum. However, the grid-controlled tube was capable of more average power per "bottle" than any other tube type at frequencies below 1 ,000 Mc. Although the grid-controlled tube can theoretically be scaled upward into the microwave region of the spectrum, the newer electronic generators have already demonstrated their microwave performance capabilities. The type of grid-controlled tube considered here is the conventional triode or tetrode configuration operated in a vacuum. It is the direct descendant of the DeForest Audion. A detailed description of the operating principles of these tubes may be found 73 in any classical text on vacuum tubes, such as that by Spangenberg. The potential applied to the control grid of the tube acts as a gate, or valve, to control
the
number of electrons
is
traveling to the plate.
The
variation of potential applied to
the grid
imparted to the current traveling to the plate. The process by which the is modulated in a grid-controlled tube is called density modulation. stream electron Grid-controlled tubes are capable of megawatts of Limitations at High Frequency. power at the lower communication frequencies. Respectable power outputs have been obtained at frequencies as high as S band. Some of the factors limiting the highfrequency performance of power tubes as the frequency is increased are (1) increased circuit reactances, (2) RF losses in dielectrics, (3) transit-time effects, (4) reduced average power-handling capability due to smaller-size structures, and (5) reduced peak power All these factors will be discussed for the grid-controlled tube, but it should capability. be kept in mind that they are pertinent in the higher-frequency performance of all
CW
classes of tubes.
In any tube there will always be unavoidable capacitance and inductance. The capacitance in the grid-controlled tubes is primarily that of the grids, the cathode, and the plate electrodes. The inductance is caused by the connections made to the
t
Much
Merle V. Hoover of
of the material in this section was made possible from information kindly supplied by Tube Division, for which the author wishes to express his appreciation.
RCA
234
[Sec. 6.6
electrodes. Reactances may be minimized, but never entirely eliminated. Small-size electrodes spaced far apart result in small interelectrode capacity. However, the minimum size of electrodes is determined in large part by the power dissipation required
of the structure. Also, the electrode spacing cannot be made too large without encountering increased transit-time effects. The reactive components act to shunt the input to the tube and short-circuit the tube as the frequency is raised. This causes a decrease in the power. Spangenberg 73 shows that the cathode lead inductance reflects back to the input as a shunt resistance whose value is inversely proportional to the square of the frequency. The reactance of the input capacity (grid-cathode capacity in a grounded-cathode tube) also shunts the input and is inversely proportional to the frequency. The inductance of the leads can be minimized by using coaxial transmission lines or waveguide and by designing the resonant circuits the same as microwave cavities. Most high-power tubes use microwave-circuit techniques. Some are designed with the resonant cavities entirely within the vacuum envelope. Another factor contributing to the degradation of output power as the frequency is increased is the RF loss. The resistance of the conducting parts of the tube increases with increasing frequency because of the skin effect. The skin-effect resistance, and hence the power loss, is proportional to the square root of the frequency. Losses may also occur by radiation of electromagnetic energy from the tube elements or lead-ins. Radiation loss is proportional to the square of the frequency. Both the skin-effect loss and the radiation loss can be minimized by operating the tube inside resonant-cavity structures, a practice almost always employed in modern high-power
PR
tubes.
An important source of RF loss is the heating of the dielectric materials used in the construction of the tube for insulating supports or for the envelope which encloses the vacuum. If the dielectric is in the RF field, the field can excite molecular movements
which
result in heating.
Dielectric-heating losses are directly proportional to the
They may be minimized by placing insulators outside the RF field or at least in regions of weak fields. However, it is not always possible to do so. When dielectrics must be used in high-power-tube construction, it is important to use as low a loss dielectric as possible. For this reason most modern tubes use low-loss ceramic
frequency.
instead of glass.
relatively
It is
claimed 74 that replacing the glass envelope of the
2C39A
(a
low power triode) with a high-alumina (A1 2 3 ) ceramic envelope results in an increase in power of 10 per cent at a frequency of 2,500 Mc. Tubes with ceramic envelopes are mechanically stronger than tubes with glass envelopes and can withstand higher temperatures, both in operation and during bake-out. Maximum operating temperatures can usually be increased 50 to 75C over an equivalent glass insulated tube. 75 Ceramic tubes are more reliable than those of glass and are also easier to
adapt to automatic production methods. The finite time required for an electron to transit from cathode to plate places a limit on the upper usable frequency. 76 77 At low frequencies the time taken by an electron in traveling from the cathode to the plate can be considered to be instantaneous since the transit time is short compared with the period of RF oscillation. However, if the frequency is sufficiently high, the time taken by an electron to transit the interelectrode distance will be comparable with the RF period and the transit time can no longer be considered zero. For example, the transit time of an electron traveling from the cathode to the plate in a planar diode under d-c conditions with a space-charge-limited
-
current
is
54 - 78
T=6.7xlO- 10
where d = J=
electrode spacing, cm current density, amp/cm 2
(6.5)
Sec. 6.6]
Radar Transmitters
235
For a triode or a tetrode the distance d is the spacing between the cathode and the plane of the control grid. For a spacing of 0.05 cm and a cathode current -10 2 This may seem rather short, sec. density of 1 amp/cm the transit time is 2.5 X 10 of 900 Mc. The transit frequency a cycle at one-quarter of a about represents but it time is sometimes measured by the transit angle, which is the product of angular frequency and the time taken by an electron to traverse the interelectrode space. In the above example the transit angle would be 7r/2 radians. When the transit time becomes an appreciable fraction of the RF period, a shift occurs 79 The gain, efficiency, and in the phase between the plate current and the grid voltage.
effective
,
power output are reduced. When the transit time is relatively large, the densitymodulated electrons are debunched because the transit time of electrons that leave the cathode at one moment of the cycle will be different from those departing at another moment. Some of the electrons will fail to pass the grid and will be turned back to the cathode. If enough electrons are turned back, the temperature of the cathode will Cathode back heating can be partially compensated by adjusting the heating increase. power applied to the filament, as long as the back heating is small. The transit time in the grid-cathode region may be minimized by making the gridcathode spacing as small as possible and operating with a high grid voltage. The higher the voltage, the greater the acceleration of the electron and the less the time taken
in traversing the space.
Also, the higher the voltage, the greater will be the current the cathode and the grid is usually determined by mechanical design considerations and by the amount of heat from the close spacing requires good fabrication cathode that the grid can safely dissipate.
density emitted.
The minimum spacing between
technique and careful mechanical design if a grid structure is to be maintained only fractions of a millimeter away from a cathode surface operating at high temperature. In the trade between cathode current density and electrode spacing as given by Eq. (6.5), it is often desirable to increase the current density to avoid making the electrode spacing too small. 54 However, the larger the cathode current density, the less will be
the
of the cathode. 80 The spacing between grid and plate need not be as small as the grid-cathode spacing The minimum since the electrons do not start from rest as when they leave the cathode. spacing and the maximum voltage which can be used will be limited by the electrode In addition, the smaller the spacing between the grid and the dissipation capabilities. 54 Thus the choice of the grid-plate plate in a triode, the less will be the bandwidth. efficiency, on the one hand, and and gain high between compromise represents a spacing
life
wide bandwidth, on the other. It has been mentioned that the transit time can be reduced by the use of high voltage. High voltage leads to increased current and power because it is, in general, not possible to increase the shunt impedance of the resonant circuit to any great extent without reducing the circuit efficiency and the bandwidth. Therefore, from this point of view, low-power it is concluded that it should be easier to build high-power tubes rather than tubes at the high frequencies if the heat generated can be safely dissipated and if the
81 cathode-emission limits are not reached. To obtain large average power output, the tube must be capable of dissipating the The heating of the control grid and the screen grid is primarily caused heat generated by (1) ambient heat radiated from the hot cathode, (2) heat generated by the interception of energetic electrons by the grids, and (3) ohmic losses due to the displacement currents
.
associated with the RF voltages impressed across the interelectrode capacitances. Excessive heat might cause the electrodes to sag or melt. The high-power performance might also be limited by the emission of electrons from the overheated grids. The thermionically emitted primary electrons can cause damage by being accelerated with Electrons can also be emitted from sufficient energy to bombard other electrodes.
236
[Sec. 6.6
low temperature electrodes by the process of secondary emission. However, secondary-emission electrons are not necessarily harmful to tube performance, esperelatively
The heating of the control-grid and the screen-grid electrodes can be reduced with lower-temperature oxide cathodes and with electron-optical systems which minimize the interception of electrons by the grids. Very high power tubes use water-cooled grids or other means of conduction cooling to dissipate the heat. The plates of high-power tubes must be specifically designed to dissipate the heat generated and are frequently water- or air-cooled. Although it must be properly taken into account in the design of a tube, plate dissipation is seldom the chief limitation on
power output, especially in short-pulse application. 80 The peak power of a tube under pulsed conditions
is often limited by the finite electron emission available and/or by voltage breakdown. Voltage breakdown may occur between the electrodes, across the vacuum envelope insulation, or in the external
cially in the tetrode. 80
The peak power that a tube can withstand before breaking down is usually greater in pulse operation than in operation. finite time is required after the application of the voltage for a breakdown to occur. Therefore the longer the pulse duration, the more likely there will be an arc-over. The amount of current that can be
circuitry.
CW
drawn from a particular cathode depends upon the material and the amount of life desired from the cathode. In general, those cathodes with good emission properties such as oxide-coated cathodes are more susceptible to damage by positive-ion bombardment than the more rugged, but less efficient, cathodes such as pure tungsten or thoriated
tungsten.
The size of the tube is proportional to the wavelength. Therefore both the averagepower and the peak-power capabilities decrease with increasing frequency. If the dimensions scale directly as the wavelength, the peak power will vary as the square of the wavelength, assuming that the voltage gradient required for breakdown is independent of frequency. The surface area will also vary as the square of the frequency, and if heat dissipation is proportional to area, the average power varies inversely as the square of the frequency. It should be borne in mind that the above is only approximate. The variation of average and peak power may be a complicated function of frequency
in a specific tube design.
Beam Power Tubes. The beam power tube is a tetrode designed so that the electrons move from cathode to anode in dense sheets. 73 This effect is accomplished by aligning
the windings of the control grid and the screen grid. The high concentration of negative charge caused by the dense current sheets between the screen grid and the plate suppresses the flow of secondary electrons from the plate to the grid which occurs in a
The effect of the secondary electron flow in the normal tetrode to distort the plate-current characteristic curves. Secondary emission can distort the characteristics to the point where the tube has the effect of a negative
tetrode.
is
normal
construction
The purpose of adding a suppressor grid to a tetrode, making it a pentode, The large negative current sheets of the beam power tube have the same effect as the pentode's suppressor grid in reducing the secondaries. Tubes which use the beam-power electron optical system provide high power, high gain, low-feedback effects, and good over-all performance. The beam power tube has proved to be quite popular for conventional applications. The 6L6, 807, 829-B, and the 4X250 are all examples of beam power tubes.
resistance.
is
to suppress the secondaries.
Because of its success at the lower frequencies the beam-power-tube configuration has also been applied in high-power applications. An example of the design of a beam power tube capable of 1 kw of power at a frequency of 1,000 Mc is the RCA-7214. 82 It is capable of delivering 100 kw of peak power at a duty factor of 0.01. One of the biggest single-unit beam power tubes is the RCA development type A-2581, which is supposed to be capable of delivering 1 peak
UHF
UHF
CW
Mw
Sec. 6.6]
Radar Transmitters
237
power at a frequency of 500 Mc when operating as a pulse amplifier with a gain of 10 db, a 10-âsec pulse width, and a 0.01 duty factor. This is a ceramic tube with an over-all length of 6.2 in. and a diameter of 5.5 in.f The single-unit beam power tubes are characterized by small size and rugged construction. The tubes described above are of medium power. They might be used in moderatecapability radars or in high-power array radars where the antenna is made up of a large number of individual radiating elements each fed by its own moderate- or small-size
transmitter.
The type of tube construction consisting of a one or two grids, and a plate is limited in power capability by the amount of heat which a single unit can dissipate. The larger the tube, the more heat it can dissipate and the greater the power output. It has already been mentioned that the size of the tube structure is proportional to the waveMultiple-unit Tube Construction.
single cathode,
length, so that the higher the frequency, the
Screen
block
smaller the tube and the smaller

that the tube can dissipate.
is
the
power
At a fixed frequency the unit cannot be made larger than some maximum size without encountering difficulties due to the generation of higher-order modes in the RF circuitry or to increased transit-time effects. One technique for increasing the power output is to employ in parallel a number of unit electron-optical structures arranged in a coaxial, cylindrical configuration, all within the same vacuum envelope. The multiplicity of units operating in parallel permits the attainment of high power from a single "bottle" since the heat to be dissipated is spread over a relatively large area. Figure 6.24a is a cross-sectional sketch of
(RF by-passed to filaments and cathode

shell)
Cathode
^X
.Control grid
Plate
^^Screen
grid
two
UHF beam-power tetrode units. 80 83 84 A

' -
ib)
longitudinal view showing the aligned grid
wires characteristic of the

figuration
is
beam-power conThe spacing between the control-grid wires and the fila-
shown in Fig.
in.,
6.246.
ments
is
0.020
as
is
the spacing between
Fig. 6.24. (a) Cross-sectional sketch of two unit tetrode elements for beam power tube; (b) longitudinal section of unit tetrode element for beam power tube. {From Bennett,' 3 IRE Trans.)
UHF
UHF
the control-grid and the screen-grid wires. The tube construction illustrated in this figure is "inverted," since the plate is a cylindrical structure located in the center of the tube, while the cathodes are located on the periphery. Forty of these unit tetrodes are used in a cylindrical arrangement in the 6806, a commercially available tube designed to give a power output of about
RCA
10
kw
in
UHF-TV
service.
Similar construction
is
employed in the RCA-2041 and
RCA-6952
tetrodes, pulse versions of the aforementioned

;
RCA-6806
,
tetrode.
The
6952 is designed primarily for short-pulse operation the 2041 for long-pulse operation. They differ from the tubes used in UHF-TV in that the plate-cathode ceramic insulating bushing is larger in the pulse version in order to permit the application of higher pulsed plate voltage. In short pulse service with a pulse duration of 1 3 /^sec and a duty factor of 0.004, the 6952 (Fig. 6.25) is capable of providing a useful peak power output of 2 with a power gain of at least 20 db at a frequency of 425 Mc. In long-pulse operation,
Mw
Data
are based
on
RCA Exhibit No. PTO 920-4, Nov.
19, 1957.
238
[Sec. 6.6
with a pulse duration of 2 msec and a prf of 300 cps (0.06 duty factor), the RCA-2041 is capable of delivering a peak power of 180 kw, an average power of 1 1 kw, with a power gain of 20 db and an efficiency in excess of 50 per cent at 450 Mc. It is claimed 80 that this tube should perform creditably at frequencies up to at least 900 Mc since its continuous-power progenitor has been tested at these frequencies. The unit-tube principle described above for the beam-power tetrode has been applied to other electron-optical geometries such as the tetrode and triode. 80 Single-ended and Double-ended Configuration. 60 '** A longitudinal cross-sectional view of the output circuit of a triode operating in a classical single-ended circuit arrangement is shown in Fig. 6.26a. The single-ended tube can be considered as a coaxial transmission line, consisting of a cylindrical tube with a transition to a short, radial
cavity external to the
vacuum
revolution between the points
plane /. Since the points a quarter wavelength, the single-ended circuit in a coaxial configuration is a figure of revolution whose electrical length is a quarter wave. The RCA 6952 mentioned above is an example of a single-ended tube. The output circuit of a double-ended tube is shown in Fig. 6.26b. In essence, a double-ended tube is two single-ended tubes butted together at their high voltage ends EV. The maximum voltage in the double-ended configuration appears in the active portion of the tube, whereas it appears outside the active region in the single-ended configuration. It is desirable to operate with the maximum voltage in the active portion in order to achieve maximum effectiveness. It can be seen that the active length of C-D in the double-ended tube can be twice that of the single-ended configuration therefore at least twice the power output can be obtained as compared with the single-ended tube. In addition, it is possible to design the double-ended tube with a larger diameter before moding problems enter because of the elimination of the socalled "deadhead" space which exists in the single-ended tube between the upper portion of the active region and the position of the voltage maximum, EV. Only the output circuits are shown in Fig. 6.26a and b. Similar arrangements must be provided for the grid-cathode input circuit.
;
envelope. The maximum voltage exists at the center of and V. The loci of maximum current lie in a horizontal of maximum voltage and. maximum current are separated by
Fig. 6.25.
RCA
type 6952 tetrode.
Sec. 6.6]
Radar Transmitters
239
Plate
cylinder-
Vacuum envelope
Plate cylinder
Grid
cylinder
Vacuum envelope
Fig. 6.26. (a) Longitudinal cross-sectional sketch of the output circuit for a triode tube arranged in "single-ended" circuitry. Direct-current plate-voltage blocking capacitors and power-output coupling circuitry not shown, (b) Longitudinal cross-sectional sketch of the output circuit for a triode tube arranged in "double-ended" circuitry. (From Hoover* 1 Proc. IEE.)
power generators suitable for Superpower UHF Triode. One of the largest developmental type A2346 triode shown in the photograph radar application is the of Fig. 6.27. This double-ended power tube employs 96 unit triodes arranged on a cross-sectional 6. 6-in. -diameter cylinder and has an active electronic length of 4 in. sketch of the unit triodes employed in this tube is shown in Fig. 6.28. The grid wires are wound at a pitch of 72 turns per inch, and the grid wire to filament-strand spacing is 0.015 in. The grid-plate spacing is about 0.275 in. The electronics of this unit triode is similar to that of the original DeForest Audion, yet it is capable of producing frequencies. some of the highest powers obtainable with electronic tubes at power at a frequency of 500 Mc The A2346 is capable of generating 500 kw of when operated as a cathode-driven (grounded-grid) amplifier. The power gain is about 1 3 to 1 5 db with a conversion efficiency of 50 per cent. In long-pulse operation of peak (2.0-msec pulses at a prf of 30 cps), the tube is capable of developing 5 power with a 0.06 duty factor at frequencies below 500 Mc. In short-pulse application (10 ,usec pulses at a duty factor of 0.01), the A2346 can develop a peak power of 10 Mw. Although a 2-msec pulse might be too long for many radar applications, it is well suited for radars whose targets are extraterrestrial, as described in Chap. 14. Triode vs. Tetrode. M 7S S5 Both the triode and the tetrode have been used as the The choice between the two types is a basis for high-power-tube design at UHF. Both operate by grid control of space current, and many design features difficult one. The tetrode has slightly higher gain than the triode, so that less are common to both.
UHF
RCA
UHF
UHF
CW
Mw
'
>
240
driving
[Sec. 6.6
power
is
required for a given output.

is
The
additional grid of the tetrode gives

effects.
greater isolation between input and output
and reduces internal feedback
The
lower because of the increased screen-to-plate spacing. The bandwidth is also greater because of the greater spacing. On the other hand, the additional grid of the tetrode requires a more complex construction than the triode and output capacity of the tetrode
Fig. 6.27.
RCA
developmental type A2346 superpower
UHF triode.
Liquid cooling applied here
Copper
plate
Grid wires
Wire-support
fin
Thoriated-tungsten filamentary cathode
Grid liquid cooling applied here
Fig. 6.28. Cross-sectional sketch of unit triodes for
UHF power tubes.
(From Hoover,"* Proc. IEE.)
is some loss of space current to the additional grid. There is also the possibility that the tetrode performance will deteriorate because of unforeseen parasitic oscillations
there
which might be generated in the cavity between the two grids. Although it may be dangerous to generalize, it seems that if a choice must be made between the two, the tetrode is the preferable configuration for moderate-to-large powers while the triode is to be preferred at the highest power levels.
Sec. 6.6]
Radar Transmitters
1
241
The resnatron is a particular form of tetrode characterized by ( ) the vacuum envelope, (2) the control grid and the screen grid operated at RF ground (grounded-grid tetrode), and (3) the screen grid operated at the same d-c potential as the anode. The resnatron was the first high-power tube capable of delivering tens of kilowatts of average power at UHF. Although it has
The Resnatron.
RF
circuitry located completely within the
seen but limited application in the past, it is of interest not only for historical reasons, but also because it is a potentially useful device for obtaining high power. By placing the resonant circuits, the bypass capacitors, and the RF isolation chokes all within the vacuum system of the tube, the d-c voltage-supply leads do not become a Therefore the inductance of the supply leads has a part of the resonant circuits. The RF and the d-c portions of the negligible effect on the operation of the tube. circuit are separated from one another just as they are in the magnetron, klystron, or
Another benefit of placing the RF circuitry within the vacuum is that dielectrics such as glass or ceramics are external to the fields which could cause dielectric heating losses. These characteristics make the generation of high power at
traveling- wave tube.
high frequencies easier than with the conventional grid-controlled structure. The resnatron has been operated in the past as a grounded-grid (cathode-driven) amplifier, although a grounded-cathode (grid-driven) tube is capable of higher gain. However, the grounded-cathode amplifier requires that the screen grid be bypassed to the cathode by some means, and in the high-power resnatron this presents tedious
design problems. Operating the resnatron with the screen grid and plate at the same d-c potential eliminates the need for a d-c blocking capacitor between the screen grid and plate, as further advantage of operating the required in the classical operation of tetrodes. screen grid at high d-c potential is that the effects of electron transit time are reduced. The resnatron was originated about 1938 by Sloan and Marshall86 at the University
of California. Their original objective was to develop a high-power oscillator in which the phase delay caused by the transit time was compensated by introducing the proper phase shift in the feedback circuit. They achieved an average power of 8 kw at a frequency of 860 Mc. During World War II, Salisbury and associates at the Harvard
Radio Research Laboratory developed a high-power CW resnatron for jamming 87 88 The resnatron was operated as a self-excited oscillator. It was used operationally by troops in the field as a jammer with a noise-modulated bandwidth of 4 Mc. In the laboratory it was also operated as a power amplifier, particularly of When used as an amplifier instead of an oscillator, it is not necessary, the class C type. nor is it desirable, for the transit time to play the same role that it played in the Sloan and
application. 81
'
'
Marshall
oscillator.
cavity of the Harvard tube was placed between the control grid and the filament structure, while the output cavity was between the screen grid and the anode. The tube delivered more than 50 kw of output power with a 60 to 70 per cent plate As an amplifier efficiency and could be tuned over a frequency range of 350 to 650 Mc. the power gain was 10 db. The amplifier efficiency was the same as the self-excited
The input
Plate voltages of the order of 15 kv were employed for maximum power In its day, this tube represented a considerable increase in power capability over any other tube which operated at frequencies as high as UHF. Even by present standards the 50 kw delivered by this resnatron is quite a lot of power. The resnatron tubes were operated "on the pumps"; that is, they were continuously evacuated in order to maintain the vacuum. The tubes could not be sealed off since they were too big to be made to hold a vacuum with the techniques available at that time. There is no reason to believe that sealed-off resnatron tubes could not be built if suffioscillator.
output.
cient
inside the tube
development was
effort
were applied.
relatively poor, limiting the life
Even with continuous pumping the vacuum of the pure tungsten cathodes. The
242
[Sec. 6.6
tubes were designed to be readily taken apart for replacing the cathodes. In spite of the fact that these tubes were not small, that they had to be continuously pumped, and
had to be periodically dismantled to have their cathodes replaced, they were operated successfully in truck-borne units during wartime conditions by army troops with no special educational background.
that they
The Harvard
flow; that
is,
RRL
resnatron' described above
the electron
beam was perpendicular
cylindrical tube structure.
stream
is
directed parallel to
was designed with a radial electron to the axis of symmetry of the Tubes operating with axial flow in which the electron the axis of symmetry have also been built. 89-91 The tube
described by Sheppard et al. 90 used a reflex principle of operation in combination with the axial geometry of the electron flow. The reflex resnatron is similar to the conventional resnatron except that the anode is replaced by an electrode of sufficiently negative potential which repels the electrons and bends them back toward the screen, where they are collected. The advantage claimed for the reflex resnatron is that
wideband modulation may be obtained with low modulation power by swinging the repeller voltage. Being negative, the repeller collects little or no current. Hence the modulation power may be small. In one experimental device a power output of 2.6 kw was obtained at a frequency of 560 Mc, with a power gain of 5, an efficiency of 38 per cent and a bandwidth of 8 Mc. The performance obtained with the axial-flow resnatron described by McCreary et 89 al. was similar to the performance achieved with the World War II radial-flow resnatron of Salisbury. A power output of 29 kw was obtained at a frequency of 420 Mc with power gains in excess of 10 db and an estimated bandwidth of 4 Mc. The plate efficiency varied from 45 to 75 per cent, depending upon the operating point of the tube. The advantage claimed for the axial-flow resnatron is its simpler construction as compared with that of a radial-flow tube. An interesting application of the resnatron and one analogous to the type of operation which might be encountered in radar is its use as a high-power pulse amplifier for the University of Minnesota linear proton accelerator. 92 These tubes operate at a frequency of 202 Mc and deliver a peak power of 3.5 and an average power of 63 kw. The pulse width is 300 /^sec at a prf of 60 cps (duty cycle of 0.018). A power gain of 10 db was achieved with an efficiency of 62 per cent. The plate voltage required for this power output was 70 kv, and plate current was 8 1 amp. This particular resnatron
CW
Mw
utilized a radial-flow geometry. The cathode consisted of 36 strands of pure tungsten with approximately 5 in. of emitting length per strand. Thus the tube actually consisted of 36 unit tetrodes operating in parallel. All RF cavities, tuners, water-cooling coils, and a 100-kv isolating choke were located within the vacuum enclosure. As with other high-power resnatrons, the tube construction precluded any real bake-out and outgassing, and the tubes had to operate "on the pumps." Exclusive of the 1,400-cfm oil-diffusion vacuum pump, the tube weighed 2.5 tons and stood 15 ft. The tubes could be readily dismantled for filament replacement or other repairs. The tungsten filaments in the tube had to be replaced on the average of every 900 hr. Four such resnatrons were used in the linear proton accelerator. Three were power amplifiers, each operating into high-g accelerator tank circuits, while the fourth acted as a driver for the other three. The resnatrons which have been described all operated in the portions of the frequency band. number of experimental microwave resnatrons have been built at a frequency of 3,000 Mc. These are mentioned by Hoover, 80 who quotes a personal communication from Dr. D. H. Sloan of the University of California. Sloan and his associates were able to achieve a peak power of I at S band with a 100-^sec pulse width. The efficiency was better than 50 per cent. Sloan claimed that the basic structure could, with minor modifications, be made to deliver 1 of power. In
UHF
Mw
Mw
Sec. 6.6]
Radar Transmitters
243
was obtained with a 2-fj.sec pulse width. It another design, a peak power of 1.5 was thought that this tube should have delivered 5 Mw, except that the particular cathode used in this tube warped. It was claimed that power gains of 10 to 30 db are power can reach hundreds of obtainable and that the average pulse or the maximum C
Mw
kilowatts. 80
93
little
Tube Protection. 9 * It is possible for power tubes to develop internal flash arcs with warning even though they are apparently of good design and operated in a conThis type of unexpected arc discharge is known as the Rocky Point servative manner. effect. Its name is derived from experiences with power tubes for communications When a flash arc occurs in an transmitters at Rocky Point, Long Island, New York. unprotected tube, the rectifier and filter-capacitor bank discharge large currents through The mechanism of the Rocky Point effect the arc and the tube can be easily damaged.
AC
Circuit
-^-nm^
Rectifier
breaker
Electronic
crowbar gas tube-
Overlood-^ML^
relay
_J_
(Reprinted, by permisFig. 6.29. Simplified diagram of electronic-crowbar fault-protection circuit. sion, from the January, 1956, issue of Electronics, a McGraw-Hill publication, copyright, 1956.)
does not seem to be well understood, but it is believed that it can be triggered by sources ranging from cosmic rays to line-voltage transients, parasitic oscillations, spurious renegade primary and secondary electrons, material whiskers, and photoelectrons. Tubes may be protected from the damaging effects of arc-discharge currents by One such protection device is called an diverting the damaging current from the tube. electronic crowbar. It places a virtual short circuit across the rectifier output similar to
on the rectifier by the flash arc. The short-circuit current is transferred to a gas-discharge tube such as a hydrogen thyratron or an ignitron which is not damaged by the momentary short-circuit conditions. The principle of operation of the electronic crowbar is illustrated by the diagram
that placed
of Fig. 6.29. When a fault occurs in the protected power tube, the sudden increase in current through the cathode resistor R k produces a positive voltage pulse which is coupled by C e to the grid of the electronic-crowbar gas tube, here shown as a thyratron. This impulse causes the thyratron to conduct. The low impedance of the thyratron when conducting results in the damaging current being shunted away from the power tube and through the thyratron crowbar tube. The surge of current through the crow-
bar tube actuates the overload relay, which in turn opens the circuit breaker and small series resistor R provides adequate deenergizes the primary source of power. voltage across the crowbar tube to ensure its conduction despite severe low-impedance In a typical large power-tube installation the value of flash arcs in the protected tube.
the series dropping resistor is only about 5 ohms. The electronic crowbar is capable of providing fault protection within 1 to 5 ,asec The high-speed protection of this device permits safe, after the detection of the fault.
full-power operation of the power tube almost immediately after the arc
is
quenched.
244
6.7.

Comparison of Tubes
one
single tube is best suited for all radar applications.
[Sec. 6.7
No
In this section the
be compared and those factors which influence the selection of one tube instead of another will be discussed. Before proceeding it might be worthwhile to inject a word of caution concerning the type of comparison presented here. It is not meant to convey the impression that some tubes should always be used in radar to the exclusion of others. The characteristics of each tube are sufficiently different so that each has its own area of application for which it is preferred. Tubes for radar transmitters are continually being improved, and new principles of RF power generation will no doubt be discovered in the future. The discussion of tube technology presented here, as with any component technology which is continuing to expand and grow, is only valid as of the time of writing. The conclusions presented should therefore be considered as subject to revision as new developcharacteristics of the various radar
will
power tubes
ments are reported.
The various tubes considered for RF power generation power oscillators or as power amplifiers driven by stable low-power oscillators. The magnetron and the Stabilitron are self-excited power oscillators, while the klystron, traveling-wave tube, Amplitron, and gridThe physical size of a transmitter controlled tubes are examples of power amplifiers. using a power oscillator is usually smaller than that of a power amplifier. This is of
Oscillators vs. Amplifiers.
may be
classified as either self-excited
advantage for radar applications in which mobility is required, but in general, it also means that the maximum power output available from a small-size tube is less than from one of larger size. The frequency stability of a high-power self-excited oscillator is not as good as that of an amplifier driven by a stable, crystal-controlled low-power oscillator. A high-g cavity can be used to improve the self-excited oscillator frequency stability, but the stability is usually less than that obtained with the master-oscillator power amplifier.
In the Stabilitron the stabilizing cavity is placed at the input and permits more efficient operation than if it were in the output. The magnetron oscillator frequency can also be stabilized with an external cavity, but it would have to be placed at the output with a corresponding reduction in over-all efficiency. Good frequency stability is of importance for MTI radar. If the frequency of oscillation wanders excessively during the interpulse period, poor subclutter visibility The good stability of the amplifier plus the fact that the transmitted waveform results. is generated at low power level means that it is easier to achieve the sophisticated modulations required for pulse compression with amplifiers than with oscillators. Since amplifier MTI radars are coherent from pulse to pulse, wth-time-around echoes from fixed targets are eliminated. This is not true with oscillator MTI radars since they are coherent only over the duration of one pulse-repetition period. The superior frequency stability and higher power output of the power amplifier are accompanied by a larger and heavier transmitter. In addition to the power tube itself, a stable, crystal-controlled oscillator, a frequency multiplier chain, and driver amplifier stages are needed to amplify the power to the level necessary to drive the final The driver stages of the high-gain klystron or traveling-wave tube may be tube. relatively modest, especially in those tubes with gains of the order of 50 to 60 db. The Amplitron, on the other hand, is a relatively low gain tube, values of 8 to 10 db being typical. The low gain means that two or three high-power Amplitrons might have to be operated in cascade to achieve a reasonable over-all gain. As mentioned previously, one of the applications of a low-gain, high-power, high-efficiency tube like the Amplitron is as a booster to increase the range of lower-power radar sets. Other advantages of the amplifier over the oscillator are that the amplifier is less
Sec. 6.7]
affected
Radar Transmitters
245
Power
by imperfections in the modulator and it is not subject to long-line effect. may also be combined to deliver more power than is possible with a 95-97 single "bottle." The hybrid junction can be used to combine tubes in pairs; that is, the number of tubes combined is given by 2" (or 2, 4, 8, 16, etc). In general, the power amplifier is probably to be preferred over the power oscillator for most radar applications in which high power and/or good MTI performance is
amplifiers
desired.
On
the other hand, if size, weight,
tions, as they are in
many applications,
and complexity are important consideraa magnetron oscillator would be preferred even
at the sacrifice of radar performance.
Comparison of Power Amplifiers. comparison of power oscillators will not be given here since the two oscillators most suited for radar application, the magnetron and the Stabilitron, were compared in the previous section. In the remainder of this section, the characteristics of various power amplifiers will be compared. The tubes which will be considered include the grid-controlled amplifier, the klystron, the travelingwave tube, and the Amplitron.
frequency range. With the exception of the grid-controlled tube, there seems no reason why the amplifier tubes discussed in this chapter could not be designed to operate anywhere within the normal radar frequency range from UHF to K band. The grid-controlled tube is capable of exceptionally high power output at UHF or lower. They are not often used above L band, although resnatrons have been operated experimentally at Sband with respectable power output. The power output of any particular tube type^vvill be less at the higher frequencies than at the lower frequencies. The power variation with frequency is not always a simple one, but in general, it seems to
1
to be
vary inversely as the square of the frequency. 2. power. In principle, all the amplifier tubes which were considered are capable of generating relatively large average power. However, the traveling-wave tube does not seem to be able to achieve as large a power output in practice as some of the other more narrowband tubes, without a corresponding sacrifice in the bandwidth. This conclusion could very well be changed in the future since there is no fundamental reason why the power output of a traveling- wave tube should be significantly less than that of a klystron. The grid-controlled tube, the klystron, and the Amplitron are all capable of generating tens or even hundreds of kilowatts of average power. For comparison, a good average power for a magnetron oscillator is a few kilowatts. The high efficiency of the Amplitron is one reason why it is capable of much larger power than, for example, the relatively low efficiency traveling-wave tube. All tubes seem to suffer the same peak-power limitations imposed by voltage breakdown in waveguides or cavities. The peak-power limitation due to voltage breakdown also varies inversely with the square of the frequency. 3. efficiency. high efficiency is one of the important attributes of a good power tube. The greater the efficiency, the greater the power output for a structure of a given size and the easier it will be to dissipate the heat generated by the losses. The more efficient tube requires less prime power for a specified power output, and the operating costs are less. The efficiency usually quoted in this chapter is the RF conversion efficiency, defined as the ratio of the RF power output available from the tube to the d-c power input of the electron stream. The conversion efficiency is the product of the electronic efficiency times the circuit efficiency. The electronic efficiency is equal to the RF power delivered by the electron beam to the circuit, divided by the average power supplied to the electron beam. The circuit efficiency is the fraction of RF power going into the resonant system which appears as output power; the remainder is wasted as heat because of copper losses. more complete measure of transmitter efficiency from the operational point of view would be the ratio of the RF power output to the total power input. This is over-all efficiency. The power input would include all
246
[Sec. 6.7
power needed for the operation of the tube such as heater power, power for cooling The RF conversion devices, and the power required for electromagnets if used.
high-power klystron might be 35 to 45 per cent, but the over-all might be 25 per cent. The Amplitron seems to be capable of higher efficiencies (70 to 90 per cent) than any of the other amplifiers discussed. The efficiency of the grid-controlled tube is slightly less. The klystron has a lower efficiency, but the traveling-wave tube has the lowest of all. Typical magnetron oscillator efficiencies vary from 35 to 60 per cent, which is in between the efficiencies of klystrons and grid-controlled tubes. In general, crossed-field devices such as the magnetron or the Amplitron have higher efficiencies than collinear beam devices such as the klystron or the traveling-wave tube.
efficiency for a typical efficiency
In the collinear beam device no additional kinetic energy is supplied to the beam after it The d-c energy from the power supply must all be enters the interaction space. converted into kinetic energy of motion before conversion to RF energy can occur. On the other hand, there is direct conversion of potential energy to RF energy in the crossed-field device. The electrons perform work on the RF field as they sacrifice their
energy of position and drift to the collecting electrode (anode). 4. gain. The tube with the highest gain is the klystron. Gains of the order of 60 db or more are not uncommon with four-cavity, synchronously tuned klystrons. The Amplitron has the lowest gain of the amplifier tubes discussed here, with typical values of from 8 to 10 db at high power levels. The grid-controlled tube with values from 10 The gain of the traveling-wave to 25 db is slightly better than that of the Amplitron. tube is better than that of the grid-controlled tube, but less than that of the multicavity synchronously tuned klystron. The higher the gain of the power tube, the smaller the power required of the source which drives the amplifier. Only a modest driver is required for the klystron, but the driver of the Amplitron, for example, might represent a substantial fraction of the total transmitter. The driver of low-gain tubes often has to be another power tube of the same capabilities as the output power tube. The traveling-wave amplifier is theoretically capable of large 5. bandwidth. bandwidth. The bandwidth of practical traveling- wave tubes is of the order of 10 per This is followed closely by the Amplitron, with cent or more at high power levels. bandwidths of about 7 to 10 per cent. The multicavity klystron can also be made to have a respectable bandwidth by stagger tuning the various cavities and trading gain for bandwidth. Bandwidths from 3 to 5 per cent are possible with the klystron and might be as high as 12 per cent or more. The bandwidth of the grid-controlled tube is the Although smallest of all. It is determined by the loaded Q of the output cavity. bandwidths of the order of 1 to 2 per cent are common, large bandwidths may be possible with broadband cavities within the vacuum envelope. A broad-bandwidth transmitter is important in radar applications in which accurate range measurement or good range resolution is necessary or where it is required to change frequency rapidly over a wide frequency band. The klystron and the traveling-wave tube are the heaviest and 6. size and weight. the biggest of present radar power tubes. The need for an electromagnet and lead shielding greatly adds to the weight. The Amplitron with permanent magnet is lighter than the klystron or the traveling-wave tube, but is heavier than the grid-controlled tube, which is the lightest of all. The size and weight of a particular tube are probably not as important to the radar engineer as is the total weight of the transmitter. The total weight depends on the gain and efficiency of the tube, the type of modulator, the cooling requirements, and the particular operating voltages and currents. Extremely high anode voltages as in the klystron and traveling-wave tube require lead shielding to attenuate harmful X-ray
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247
248
[Sec. 6.8
High voltages also require good insulation of the radiation generated by the tubes. equipment and cables. If, as in grid-controlled tubes, large heater currents are necessary, large low-loss conductors or cable must be used for transmitting these high
currents.
No general statement can be made regarding the over-all size and complexity of radar
power 'amplifiers because of the many factors involved. The life of the klystron and the traveling-wave tube can be relatively high when compared with other high-power tubes. A life of 5,000 to 10,000 hr seems to be typical. (There are 8,760 hr in a year.) The life of a grid-controlled tube is equally good. The Amplitron life is claimed to be greater than 1,000 hr, while the life of
transmitters employing
7.
life.
high-power magnetron oscillators

at the higher frequencies.
is
of the order of 1,000 hr, or perhaps
less,
especially
Magnetrons such as the E.E.V. (English
Electric
Valve
The life of any 7182, however, have lives of the order of 10,000 hr. particular tube will also depend upon how close to rated maximum power output it is
Company) type
operated.
Long life is desirable in order to minimize equipment downtime for repair. In addition, the excessive replacement of tubes adds to the operating cost. In Table 6.4 are listed typical operating characteristics of 8. table of comparison. tubes. With the exception of the grid-controlled power-amplifier representative The power output of these amplifiers is roughly comtetrode, all operate at S band. parable except for the SAS-61. This is a medium-power tube, which may be used for
It applications or as a driver tube for higher-power amplifiers. included in this table since it is an example of a space-charge-focused klystron, whereas the other klystron entry, the VA-820, is focused with an external electromagnetic focusing coil.
medium-power radar
is
6.8.
Modulators 98
" 101
The modulator is the device which turns the transmitting tube on and off in such a manner as to generate the desired waveform. When the transmitted waveform is a Each RF power tube has its own pulse, the modulator is sometimes called apulser. The magnetron particular characteristics which determine the type of modulator. must modulator be designed to the that so plate-modulated, oscillator, for instance, is handle the full pulse power. On the other hand, full beam power of the klystron and the traveling- wave tube can be switched by a modulator handling a small fraction of the total beam power, if the tubes are designed with modulating anodes and provided the interpulse noise due to electrons leaking through the modulating anode is small compared with receiver noise. Otherwise plate modulation is necessary. Low-power grid modulators can be used with grid-controlled tubes such as the triode and the tetrode. Screen-grid pulsing may also be employed in a tetrode. In those applications where the number of electrons which escape the cutoff action of the grid are large enough to induce a significant shot noise in the plate circuit, plate modulation must be employed to ensure that interpulse noise does not degrade the sensitivity of the receiver. For this reason grid-controlled tubes are sometimes plate-modulated. Although plate modulation requires considerably higher modulation power than grid modulation, it completely eliminates interpulse noise and improves the operational stability as regards missing pulses. The number of electrons which manage to leak through the modulating anode of klystron amplifiers when it is cut off is claimed to be negligible for most radar applicaIn one type of klystron amplifier the interpulse noise due to electrons leaking past the modulating anode is stated to be at least 170 db below the pulse power level as measured over a 25-kc bandwidth. The Amplitron and the Stabilitron are plate-modulated similar to the magnetron.
tions.
102
Sec. 6.8]
Radar Transmitters
249
The basic elements of one type of radar modulator are shown in Fig. 6.30. The modulator consists of a charging impedance, an energy-storage element, and a switch. The energy for the pulse is supplied from an external source. It is accumulated in the
The charging energy-storage element at a slow rate during the interpulse period. At limits the rate at which energy can be delivered to the storage element. the proper time, the switch is closed and the stored energy is quickly discharged through the load, which might be a magnetron, in a relatively short time to form the pulse. During the discharge cycle, the charging impedance prevents energy from the storage
impedance
device from being dissipated in the source. The energy-storage element might be either electrostatic (basically a capacitance) or electromagnetic (inductance). The former is more often used in practice since it is The configuration of Fig. 6.30 is that of a voltage-fed modulator easier to implement. 98
using an electrostatic storage element.

Energy
storage
Charging
impedance
element
Energy source
Switch\
Load
^.
Charging path
zT
x
^-Discharge path
Fig. 6.30. Basic elements of one type of radar pulse modulator.
simple capacitor has the The simplest electrostatic storage element is a capacitor. disadvantage, however, that the energy discharges exponentially with time and produces a poor pulse shape. To obtain a relatively flat pulse from the discharge of a capacitor, the time constant of the discharge circuit must be large compared with the desired pulse duration and the switch must be capable of interrupting the discharge as vacuum tube can be used for this purpose. Only a small well as initiating it. portion of the stored energy in the capacitor is expended during the switching. gas tube such as the thyratron or the ignitron is capable of handling highpowerand However, a gas tube cannot be turned presents a low impedance when conducting. This off once it has been turned on unless the plate current is reduced to a small value. is unlike the operation of the vacuum tube, which can be turned off or on with essentially equal facility. Once the thyratron is triggered by its grid, it cannot be shut off until the For this reason a capacitor is not a storage element completely discharges itself. satisfactory storage element to use with a gas-tube switch since the discharge pulse
cannot be made rectangular. However, a delay-line storage element can produce a rectangular pulse and is satisfactory for use with a gas-tube switch. An open-circuited delay line of length t/2 will, upon discharge, generate a pulse of width t. The modulator containing a gas-tube switch and a delay line as the energy-storage element is called a The It is commonly employed with high-power magnetrons. line-type modulator. delay line of the line-type modulator is called the pulse-forming network and is abbreviated PFN. 98 103 In the remainder of this section the three basic types of radar modulators which may be used to pulse the magnetron oscillator will be discussed. These are ( ) the line-type modulator with a gas-tube switch and a delay-line storage element, (2) the pulsactor, which uses saturable reactances for both switching and storage purposes, and (3) the hard-tube modulator incorporating a vacuum-tube switch and capacitor storage
-
250
element.
[Sec. 6.8
The
effect
of modulator pulse shape on the magnetron R.F pulse will also be
discussed.
diagram of a line-type pulse modulator is shown in Fig. Line-type Modulator. 104 The charging impedance, shown as an inductance, limits the rate at which It also acts as an current is drawn from the energy source during the charging cycle. isolation element during the discharge cycle and prevents the pulse-forming network
6.31.
from discharging into the energy source instead of into the useful load. These functions of the charging impedance could just as well have been obtained with a resistance, except that the maximum efficiency would then be 50 per cent, since half the charging energy would be dissipated in the resistance. A pure inductance absorbs no energy and
is
preferred in high-power applications.
?,.
nftowip-
Ch-tfn,
diode
Pulse-forming network
-M.
Bypass
diode
TTTT
T
Magnetron
Energy
source
Trigqer_^_
Hydrogen
thyratron
Damping
network
Fig. 6.31.
Diagram of a
line-type pulse modulator.
The energy-storage element, or pulse-forming network,

delay
line.
It
is
usually a lumped-constant
its
consists of an air-core inductance with taps along
length to which are

the pulse width
fit
attached capacitance to ground.
The number of taps depends upon

level
and the
teristics
fidelity required.
The impedance
of the line
is
chosen to
the charac-
of the load, the switching tube, and the power supply. Some degree of flexibility is permissible in the selection of the delay-line impedance since a transformer may be used to match the delay line to that of the load. It is sometimes convenient to design the delay line for an impedance of 50 ohms so as to make it unnecessary to match the delay line to *\^WiTOWJo^ the transmission cable, which is usually 50 ohms impedance. The transformer would then be used to match the cable impedance to the impedance of I. the magnetron, which might be of the order of 500 Fig. 6.32. Equivalent circuit of the A perfect match is not possible in to 1,000 ohms. modulator of Fig. 6.31 during the magnetron impedance is nonall since the cases charging cycle.
linear.
The equivalent modulator circuit during the charging cycle is shown in Fig. 6.32. The delay line is represented by its capacitance only, since the inductance of the line is The load is represented by a negligible compared with the charging inductance. resistance R. The effect of the charging diode may be ignored for the moment. The charging inductance L C h and the delay-line capacitance C form a resonant circuit. If a
(Leh/C)value /
suddenly applied to the input, oscillations will occur provided For small values of R, the frequency of oscillation will approach the 1 The peak voltage across the delay-line capacitance C (L C hC)~ i Thus the pulse will be twice the supply voltage after the first half cycle of oscillation. TB 77(L C hC) i repetition frequency/,, will be twice the resonant frequency/ or l// r where Tv is the pulse-repetition period. This method of operation, ignoring the effect of the charging diode, is called d-c resonant charging.
d-c voltage
is
> R/2. = {2ir)~
Sec. 6.8]
Radar Transmitters
251
A disadvantage of d-c resonant charging is that the pulse repetition frequency is fixed once the values of the charging inductance and the delay-line capacitance are fixed. The charging, or hold-off, diode inserted in series with the charging inductance (Fig. 6.31) permits the modulator to be readily operated at any pulse repetition frequency, The function of which is less than the prf as determined by the resonant frequency f
.
the diode
If
is
to keep the delay line
from discharging
until the thyratron fires.
99 105
'
a mismatch occurs during the discharge cycle, a charge might be placed on the delay-line capacitance with polarity opposite to that normally placed on the capacitance during the charge cycle. This charge cannot be dissipated by the thyratron since its A small reversed voltage polarity is opposite to that needed to cause conduction. remains on the delay line. This voltage is in series with the d-c voltage of the power supply at the start of the next charging period. If the charge were allowed to remain, the peak voltage on the network would increase with each cycle and build up to an abnormally high value, with the possibility of damaging the thyratron by exceeding its permissible operating voltage. The inverse charge may be dissipated by connecting a bypass diode and a series inductance LB in parallel with the thyratron as was shown in The diode conducts whenever an inverse voltage appears on the capacitance. Fig. 6.31. The series inductance LB the inductance of the transformer primary, and the capacitance
,
C form a resonant circuit that gives rise to an oscillation that reverses the voltage on the
capacitance.
The polarity of the voltage
reverts to the
normal
direction,
and excessive
build-up
all
is
prevented. 106
The magnetron is a nonlinear impedance and will not be matched to the line under The mismatch can cause a spike to appear at the leading edge of the conditions. pulse. The spike can be minimized by introducing an RC circuit in parallel with the primary as shown in Fig. 6.31. This is called the despiking circuit. The resistance is
chosen equal to the impedance of the pulse-forming network, and the capacitance is chosen small enough so as to be almost completely charged after the oscillator draws
99 full-load current.
pulse
The function of the damping network is to help reduce the trailing edge of the voltage and prevent postpulse oscillations which could introduce noise or false targets. The pulse modulator described above was assumed to operate from a d-c power
Alternating current could also be used. 99 Switching Devices for Line-type Modulators. Most of the switching devices for Gas-discharge devices line-type modulators are based on gas-discharge phenomena. have the advantage of relatively low impedance during the conduction state and can handle considerable power. Two gas-discharge switches used in early radar moduThese two devices lators were the rotary spark gap and the enclosed, fixed spark gap. do not seem to be used as frequently in modern radar as the hydrogen thyratron or the The saturable reactor also may be used as a switch. Each of these has ignitron. different characteristics as concerns life, precision of firing, maximum pulse repetition frequency, range of operating frequency, and impedance in the closed position. There
supply.
is
in magnetron radar 107 The advantage of a modulators, although other gas fillings are sometimes used. hydrogen-filled thyratron over an inert-gas- or mercury-filled thyratron is the rapid The hydrogen thyratron also has ionization and deionization time of hydrogen gas. better capacity for high-peak currents and can be designed to be relatively insensitive to temperature. A semiempirical, semitheoretical parameter which has been used to evaluate the 101 It is defined as twice the product of the peak capability of thyratrons is the P b factor. output power times the pulse repetition rate in a typical line-type modulator. The load
no one switching device which is always better than the others. The hydrogen thyratron has been widely employed as the switch
impedance is assumed
to be equal to the
impedance of the line.
The /^-factor describes
252
[Sec. 6.8
the trade-offs which can be
made between the peak voltage, peak
repetition frequency for a particular thyratron.
current, and the pulse These three parameters may be
juggled so long as the P factor of the tube is not exceeded. ~ Saturable-reactor Modulator. 10S 112 The saturable reactor is an iron-core inductance so designed that its magnetic core is driven into saturation for normal values of coil
The incremental inductance is high when the current through the coil is small and the core unsaturated, but the inductance is low for large currents when the core is saturated. The ratio of inductance in the unsaturated condition to the inductance in
current.
the saturated condition can be as great as 2,000 or higher when using high-permeability nickel-iron alloys. This change in inductance (impedance) may be used as the basis for
switching action.
tion
is its
The advantage of the

life.
relatively long
It is
saturable reactor in radar modulator applicaa passive device and uses neither electronic tubes nor
Pola rizing
/wine inas
/
\
Output transformer
Energy
source
_J
^r
JLZ2Z L Z
To load
Fig. 6.33. Two-stage saturable-reactor modulator, or pulsactor.
mechanical moving parts. Also, the pulse-to-pulse jitter is less than with the thyratron. The chief disadvantage of the saturable reactor modulator is its poor and uncontrolled
pulse shape.
During the formation of the pulse the reactor becomes saturated and the pulseforming network must discharge through the saturated reactance of the inductor. Since the reactance becomes a part of the discharge circuit, it limits the minimum width of the pulse. The reactance cannot be made arbitrarily small without permanently saturating the core. 110 This limitation may be avoided by operating as indicated in Fig. 6.33. The circuit may be considered as a series of saturable reactors arranged in resonant circuits in which the networks are charged stage by stage. Two stages are illustrated. The optimum number of stages will depend upon the desired width of the output pulse. The inductance of each succeeding stage is made lower than that of the preceding stage, so that the resonant frequency of succeeding stages is higher. Assume that the energy source feeding the modulator is a sine wave whose frequency is the same as the desired pulse repetition frequency. The charging inductance Z. C h and the capacitance Cl form a resonant circuit. Initially, the two inductances other than the charging inductance are biased to operate in the unsaturated condition and have high reactance. For this reason they have no effect on the initial charging action. Since the resonant circuit consisting of L C h and C\ is excited at its resonant frequency,
the voltage at B, in Fig. 6.33, across the capacitor n times the input voltage at A.
builds
up
to a
maximum equal
to
reaches a maximum, the inductance L x reactance is lowered to a considerably smaller value L ls The switching action of L x allows the charge on C1 to transfer to C2 This is indicated by the current i C2 in Fig. 6.34. The combination of L ls C1; and C2 forms a resonant circuit with a higher resonant frequency than that of Z, C h and Q, since and C2 are in a series and Lls L C h- The current iC2 rises rapidly. As the current builds up in the resonant circuit, the voltage across the capacitor, being 90 out of phase with the current, decreases
the voltage across the capacitor
its
When
saturates and
<
and the inductance Lj returns to its unsaturated
state.
The voltage across
C2 reaches a
Sec. 6.8]
Radar Transmitters
253
maximum at the same time that L 2 saturates. The energy stored in 2 is then transIn essence, ferred to the load via the current i C3 , which is the output pulse waveform. increasing interval, energy-transfer compress the saturable reactors acts to of the chain the peak power and decreasing the pulse duration from stage to stage.
is more like that of a resonant sine wave than a rectangular not always well suited to radar application and is one of the This shape pulse. A more rectangular pulse may be had by tapping limitations of this modulator. the last-stage, saturable-reactor winding and adding capacitance to ground so as to
The output waveform

is
simulate a lumped-constant delay
line.
111
The
capacitors from the taps to ground
Time
Fig. 6.34. Build-up of the pulse in the two-stage saturable-reactor modulator of Fig. 6.33.
have negligible
effect on the unsaturated operation, but at and during the switching operation, they produce an improved output pulse waveform. The output pulse width may be changed to some extent by adjusting the polarizing current. rectangular The nonrectangular pulse shape is not a disadvantage in all cases. frequency interference with adjacent which might cause spectrum a wide produces pulse
bands. The frequency spectrum of a rounded pulse will fall off more rapidly on either side of the carrier frequency and tends to cause less interference. When operating in the manner described above, the saturable reactor performs the When functions of an inductive component, a switch, and a part of a resonant circuit. used in this trimode capacity it is sometimes called apulsactor.
Trigger
from prf generator
Driver
(pulse shaping)
(Video)
power amplifier
_To "transmitter
Fig. 6.35. Block diagram of one type of hard-tube modulator.
Hard-tube Modulator.^ 98 100 113 The hard-tube modulator is essentially a highpower video pulse generator. It derives its name from the fact that the switching is accomplished with "hard" vacuum tubes as opposed to "soft" gas tubes. A block diagram of a particular hard-tube modulator is shown in Fig. 6.35. The trigger pulses from the pulse-repetition-frequency generator initiate the driver at the proper instants of time. The driver generates the desired pulse waveshape. The waveform generated by the driver is amplified by the power amplifier to the level required to pulse the transThere are any number of pulse-forming circuits which could be used for the mitter. driver." The design of the power amplifier is similar to the design of conventional video amplifiers except that high-power tubes must be used.
' '
A single high-power tube operating as a blocking oscillator may be used as a pulse blocking oscillator is a self-excited, overdriven oscillator. During modulator. 113 the conduction period, the grid is at a high positive potential, causing grid current to biasing potential is developed across a capacitor in the grid circuit by the flow. current flow. This potential reaches a value which blocks or stops the conduction
254
cycle.
[Sec. 6.8
The blocking oscillator when used for radar modulator application is not really an oscillator in the usual sense, but is more a regenerative pulse generator. The differences between the regenerative pulse generator and the conventional blocking oscillator are discussed in Glasoe and Lebacqz. 98 One of the limitations of the hard-tube modulator in the past has been the lack of vacuum tubes capable of handling the large power required for pulsing big radar transmitters. The development of tubes like the RCA types A- 1 5030 and A- 15034 and the Machlett ML-7002 shielded-grid triode has made possible the use of hard-tube modulators at very high power levels. The ML-7002 operates at 65 kv with a plate dissipation of 2 kw and is cooled by immersion in circulating oil. It can switch 3.5
Mw
Fig. 6.36. Ideal voltage pulse shape for a magnetron modulator.
(After Gillette
and Oshima, 114
IRE
Trans.)
of 6-^sec pulse power. 75 The A-l 5030 is capable of switching 22 at a duty factor of 0.05 when operated as a hard-tube modulator. 80 In short-pulse application (6 ^sec ataprfof 500 cps) the A-l 5034 has been operated at plate voltages up to 55 kv. These tubes have been employed as plate modulators for triodes and klystrons. Modulator Pulse Shape. 11 * The transmitter pulse shape is not always the same as the modulator pulse shape. Figure 6.36 shows the ideal voltage pulse shape for a modulator required to pulse a magnetron with a rectangular shape. The initial rise (t /j) of the waveform from zero volts to about 60 per cent of the rated magnetron operating voltage may be carried out at any convenient rate. The rate of rise during the next interval of time (f x t 2 ) must be long enough to permit oscillations to start in the desired mode of oscillation, usually the n mode. The voltage rises from 60 per cent to about 80 per cent of its rated value during this time. If the voltage were to rise too rapidly, there would be too little time for the establishment of the desired oscillation mode. The magnetron might start oscillating in an unwanted mode, or else the tube might not oscillate at all and an arc might form. Once the oscillations are started in the desired mode at a low level, the voltage should be increased to the rated operating value very rapidly (f 2 In order to achieve a rectangular RF envelope the voltage / 3 ). should remain as nearly constant as possible over the required pulse duration (7 3 t 4 ). If the top of the pulse were not flat but contained ripples, it would cause frequency pushing and broadening of the spectrum. At the end of this interval, the voltage should fall as rapidly as possible (? 4 t ) to about 80 per cent of rated voltage. The 5 voltage may then be reduced as rapidly as convenient, but not so rapidly that the
Mw
Radar Transmitters
backswing
255
Once the pulse has dropped below zero, it should not recross is excessive. until the start of the next pulse, else the tube might oscillate and increase zero axis the 115 the noise level at the receiver or present false targets. The ideal pulse shape can be only approximated in practice. Special circuits have been developed for approximating this shape, but except in systems employing extremely short pulses, most modulator problems encountered in practice can be
114 solved with properly designed conventional circuits. requirements on the modulator. For different Other RF generators may impose example, the Amplitron does not operate in the n mode as does the magnetron. The rate of rise of voltage must not be too slow, else operation may occur in the tt mode On the other hand, a tube like the klystron presents no instead of the desired mode.
on the modulator. Comparison of Magnetron Modulators. 98 100 101 The line-type modulator is simple, easy to service, and efficient. It is light in weight and small in size and is particularly attractive in those applications where large and heavy packages are undesirable, as in airborne radar. The time jitter from pulse to pulse is usually worse with this modulator than with other types, and changing the pulse duration requires switching in another
similar rise-time restrictions
'
'
pulse-forming network.
The
should be long.
saturable reactor has the advantage of no active elements; consequently its life It is not as flexible as the other modulators, and its pulse shape is more
difficult to control.
The hard-tube modulator can change pulse duration,

difficulty.
It
pulse shape, or prf with

it
little
may also be used to generate groups of pulses, as for beacon interrogation.

offers the
Pulse jitter is usually not bothersome. It is less efficient than the others but systems engineer the greatest flexibility in operation.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
G. B. (ed.): "Microwave Magnetrons," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 6, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1948. Wathen, R. L.: Genesis of a Generator: The Early History of the Magnetron,/. Franklin Inst.,
Collins,
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
271-288, April, 1953. Boot, H. A. H., and J. T. Randall: The Cavity Magnetron, J. Inst. Elec. Eng., vol. 93, pt. IIIA, pp. 928-938, 1946. Hull, J. F., and A. W. Randals: High-power Interdigital Magnetrons, Proc. IRE, vol. 37, pp. 1357-1363, November, 1948. Coombes, E. A.: Pulsed Properties of Oxide Cathodes, J. Appl. Phys., vol. 17, pp. 647-654, August, 1954. Fisk, J. B., H. F. Hagstrum, and P. L. Hartman: The Magnetron as a Generator of Centimeter Waves, Bell. System Tech. J., vol. 25, pp. 167-348, 1946. Esperson, G. A.: Dispenser Cathode Magnetrons, IRETrans., vol. ED-6, pp. 115-118, January,
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8.
Okress, E.
vol. 8, 1958.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Transitions, Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics, Also contains an excellent bibliography on the magnetron. Millman, S., and A. T. Nordsieck The Rising Sun Magnetron, /. Appl. Phys., vol. 19, pp. 156165, February, 1948. Bernstein, M. J., and N. M. Kroll: Magnetron Research at Columbia Radiation Laboratory, IRE Trans., vol. MTT-2, pp. 33-37, September, 1954. Hok, G.: Operating Characteristics of Continuous-wave Magnetrons, chap. 21 in Radio Research Laboratory Staff, "Very High Frequency Techniques," vol. I, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947. The Smith chart and its use are described in a number of microwave texts. See, for example, G. C. Southworth, "Principles and Applications of Waveguide Transmission," D. Van Nostrand
C: Magnetron Mode
13. Beltz,
Company, W.
Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1950.
F.:
Coupled Cavity Tunes X-band Magnetron,
Electronics, vol. 29, pp. 182-183,
March, 1956.
14.
Smith, L. P., and C. I. Schulman: Frequency Modulation and Control by Electron Beams, Proc. IRE, vol. 35, pp. 644-657, July, 1947.
256
15.

Donal,
1952.
J. S., Jr.:
Modulation of Continuous-wave Magnetrons, Advances
in Electronics, vol. 4,
16. Kilgore,
17.
18.
19.
20.
21
22. 23.
24.
G. R C. I. Shulman, and J. Kurshan: Frequency-modulated Magnetron for Superhigh Frequencies, Proc. IRE, vol. 35, pp. 657-664, July, 1947. Donal, J. S., Jr., R. R. Bush, C. L. Cuccia, and H. R. Hegbar: 1-kilowatt Frequency-modulated Magnetron for 900 Megacycles, Proc. IRE, vol. 35, pp. 664-669, July, 1947. Peters, P. H., Jr., and D. A. Wilbur: Magnetron Voltage Tuning in the S-band, Proc. Natl. Electonics Con/. (Chicago), vol. 11, pp. 368-378, 1955. Welch, H. W., Jr.: Prediction of Traveling-wave Magnetron Frequency Characteristics, Frequency Pushing and Voltage Tuning, Proc. IRE, vol. 41, pp. 1631-1653, November, 1953. Boyd, J. A.: The Mitron: An Interdigital Voltage-tunable Magnetron, Proc. IRE, vol. 43, pp. 332-338, March, 1955. Bristol, T. R., and G. J. Griffin, Jr. Voltage-tuned Magnetron for Application, Electronics, vol. 30, pp. 162-163, May, 1957. Singh, A., and R. A. Rao: Proposed Ferrite-tuned Magnetron, /. Inst. Telecommun. Engrs. India, vol. 5, pp. 72-76, March, 1959. Edson, W. A. "Vacuum-tube Oscillators," chap. 18, John Wiley Sons, Inc., New York, 1953. Pritchard, W. L. Long-line Effect and Pulsed Magnetrons, IRE Trans., vol. MTT-4, pp. 97-1 10,
FM
&
April, 1956.
25. Hull, J.
F.,
G. Novick, and R. Cordray:
How
Long-line Effect Impairs Tunable Radar,
Electronics, vol. 27, pp. 168-173, February, 1954. 26. Boot, H. A. H., H. Foster, and S. A. Self: New
Design of High-power S-band Magnetron,
Proc. IEE, vol. 105, pt. B, suppl. 10, pp. 419-425, 1958 (Paper 2637 R). 27. Okress, E. C, C. H. Gleason, R. A. White, and W. R. Hayter: Design
High Power Pulsed Magnetron, IRE

28. Technical Information for the
Trans., vol.
and Performance of a ED-4, pp. 161-171, April, 1957. (Additional
data obtained via private communication.)

facturing
tion.)
Type RK6410/QK338 Magnetron, 3496-9-55, Raytheon ManuCompany, Waltham, Mass. (Additional data obtained via private communica-
29. English Electric Valve Co., Ltd. Technical Publication 1958.

30. Beltz,
on Magnetron 7182(M543), December,

Magnetron
for
W.
F.,
and R. W. Kissinger:
A Long-life C-band
Weather Radar Applica-
tions, Proc. Natl. Electronics Conf. (Chicago), vol. 11, pp. 361-367, 1955. 31. Brochure on the VF10 Magnetron, List ES/V/3, June, 1957, Ferranti Electric, Inc.,
New
York.
32. 33.
34. 35.
36. 37. 38.

39.
(Additional data obtained via private communication.) Dix, C. H., and W. E. Willshaw: Microwave Valves: Survey of Evolution, Principles of Operation, and Basic Characteristics, /. Brit. IRE, vol. 20, pp. 577-609, August, 1960. Learned, V., and C. Veronda: Recent Developments in High-power Klystron Amplifiers, Proc. IRE, vol. 40, pp. 465-469, April, 1952. Beck, A. H. W., and P. E. Deering: Three-cavity L-band Pulsed Klystron Amplifier, Proc. IEE, vol. 105, pt. B, suppl. 12, pp. 833-838, 1958 (Paper 2659 R). Swanson, J. P.: Modulator Techniques for Gridded Klystrons and Traveling Wave Tubes, Microwave J., vol. 2, no. 7, pp. 29-33, July, 1959. Preist, D. H. The Generation of Shaped Pulses using Microwave Klystrons, IRE Natl. Conv. Record, pt. 3, pp. 106-113, 1958. Varian, R. H., and S. F. Varian: High Frequency Oscillator and Amplifier, /. Appl. Phys., vol. 10, pp. 321-327, May, 1939. Chodorow, M., E. L. Ginzton, I. R. Neilson, and S. Sonkin: Design and Performance of a High-power Pulsed Klystron, Proc. IRE, vol. 41, pp. 1584-1602, November, 1953. Shepherd, J. E.: Harnessing the Electron, Sperry Eng. Rev., vol. 10, pp. 2-18, March-April,
40.
Dalman, G. C. Developments in Broadband and High-power Klystrons, Proc. Symposium on Modern Advances in Microwave Techniques, pp. 123-132, November, 1954, Polytechnic Institute
:
of Brooklyn,
41.
New York.
Chodorow, M., E. L. Ginzton, J. Jasberg, J. V. Lebacqz, and H. J. Shaw: Development of High-power Pulsed Klystrons for Practical Applications, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, pp. 20-29, January,
and D. H. Preist: Super-power Klystrons for Pulse Applications (brochure), Eitel-McCullough, Inc., San Bruno, Calif. 43. Swearingen, J. D., and C. M. Veronda: The SAL-89, Grid Controlled Pulsed Klystron Amplifier, IRE WESCON Conv. Record, vol. 1, pt. 3, pp. 115-121, 1957. 44. Personal communication from C. M. Veronda of the Sperry Gyroscope Company, Gainesville,
42. Speaks, F. A.,
UHF
Fla.
45. Norris, V. J.: Multi-cavity Klystrons, Electronic Eng., vol. 30, pp. 321-323,
May,
1958.
Radar Transmitters
46.
257
Kreuchen, K. H., B. A. Auld, and N. E. Dixon: A May, 1957. of the Multicavity Klystron Amplifier, /. Electronics, vol. 2, pp. 529-567, Increasing Bandwidth of 47 Dodds, W. J., T. Moreno, and W. J. McBride, Jr.: Methods of
Study of the Broad-band Frequency Response
High Power Microwave
Amplifiers,
IRE
WESCON
Conv. Record, vol.
1, pt. 3,
pp. 101-110,
1957 Klystron Amplifiers, IRE WESCON 48. Beaver, W. L., R. L. Jepsen, and R: L. Walter: Wide Band 1957. 111-114, pt. vol. 3, pp. 1, Conv. Record, , Brc>ad-band Operation of Multicavity 49. Yadavalli, S. V.: Effect of Beam Coupling Coefficient on 1958. Klystrons', Proc. IRE, vol. 46, pp. 1957-1958, December, S-band Klystron, Proc. IEE, vol. 105, pt. B, 5% Bandwidth 2.5 50 King, P. G. R.: suppl. 12, pp. 813-820, 1958 (Paper 2624 R). Wide Band High Power Klystrons, 51. Beaver, wf, G. Caryotakis, A. Staprans, and R. Symons: IRE WESCON Conv. Record, vol. 3, pt. 3, pp. 103-111, 1959. Tubes, Proc. IRE, vol. 42, pp. 1735-1747, 52. Pierce, J. R.: Some Recent Advances in Microwave
MW
53.
December, 1954. Personal communication from T. Moreno of Varian Associates, Palo Alto,
Dain,
Pierce,
J.:
Calit.
54.
Ultra-high-frequency
Power
Amplifiers, Proc. IEE, vol. 105, pt. B, pp. 513-522,

.
55
^T T , n 1950. R.: "Traveling Wave Tubes," D. VanNostrand Company, Inc., Princeton, N.J., IRE, Proc. Tubes, Traveling-wave 56^ Chodorow, M., and E. J. Nalos: The Design of High-power vol. 44, pp. 649-659, May, 1956. Characteristics of a E. J. Nalos, S. P. Otsuka, and R. H. Pantell: The Design and 57 Chodorow Megawatt Space-harmonic Traveling Wave Tube, IRE. Trans., vol. ED-6, pp. 48-53, January,
J.
. .
November, 1958.
1959.
Electronic 58. Doehler, O.: Traveling- wave Tubes, Proc. Symposium on York. April, 1958, Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn,
Waveguides, pp. 1-19,

J., vol. 2,
New
59. Nalos, E. J.: Present State
of Art in High Power Traveling-wave Tubes, Microwave

:
no. 12, pp. 31-38, December, 1959. New Microwave Platinotron 60. Brown, W. C. Description and Operating Characteristics of the Tube Device, Proc. IRE, vol. 45, pp. 1209-1222, September, 1957. Electronics, vol. 30, no. 8, pp. 61. Brown, W. C: Platinotron Increases Search Radar Range,
:
164-168, Aug.
62. Weil, T.
:
1,
1957.
A. Applying the Amplitron and Stabilitron to

6, pt. 5,
MTI Radar
Systems,
rnr IRE
Natl. Conv.
xr
Record, vol.
pp. 120-130, 1958.
63. Feinstein, J., 64.

65.
and G. S. Kino: The Large Signal Behavior of Crossed-field Traveling-wave Devices, Proc. IRE, vol. 45, pp. 1364-1373, October, 1957. Microwave J., Smith, W. A., and F. Zawada: A 3-megawatt, 15-kilowatt S-band Amplitron,
vol. 2, pp.
Dombrowski, G.
1959
42-45, October, 1959. E.: Theory of the Amplitron,
IRE
Trans., vol.
ED-6, pp. 419-428, October,
66.
Brown, W.
C:
Crossed-field
Microwave Tubes,
Electronics, vol. 33, no. 18, pp. 75-79, Apr. 29,
67
Proc. IEE, vol. 106, Doehler, O., A. Dubois, and D. Maillart: An M-type Pulsed Amplifier, pt. B, suppl. 10, pp. 454^157, 1958. Amplifier, Stanford Electronics Lab. 68 Wiehtman, B. A. An Investigation of the Magnetron 373 360. Nonr 225(24), Contract 1959, Feb. 9, (Project 207), Tech Rept 52 The Magnetron-type Traveling69. Warnecke, R. R., W. Kleen, A. Lerbs, O. Dohler, and H. Huber: wave Amplifier Tube, Proc. IRE, vol. 38, pp. 486^95, May, 1950. C: U.S. Patent 2,881,270 entitled "Regenerative Amplifier," Apr. 7, 1959. 70 Brown X-band Amplitron, IRE Intern. Conv. Record, G. Perloff: High Power
:
ONR
NR
71.
Brown, W. C, and
:
CW
'
Office ot H. E. "OSRD Long History," vol. V, Division 14, "Radar, available from Technical Services, U.S. Department of Commerce. 1948. New York, , 73 Spangenberg, K. R. "Vacuum Tubes," McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., Proc. Natl. Electronics Conf. {Chicago), 74. Jolly, J. A. Advantages of Ceramics in Electron Tubes, vol. 13, pp. 999-1008, 1957. vol. 33, no. 18, pp. 60-64, Apr. 29, 75. Meacham, D. D.: High-vacuum Power Tubes, Electronics,
72. Guerlac,
vol. 8,'pt. 3, pp. 52-55, 1960.
76.
IRE, Transit Time Effects in Ultra-high-frequency Class-C Operation, Proc. vol 35, pp. 35^12, January, 1947. pt. B, suppl. 10, pp. 577-582, 1958 77. Groendijk, H.: Microwave Triodes, Proc. IEE, vol. 105, (Paper 2668 R). r _, High Frequency, /. Electronics, 78. Dain, J.: Factors in the Design of Power Amplifiers for Ultra vol. 1, pp. 35-42, July, 1955.
Dow, W. G.:
258
A. D.: Large Signal Theory of Power Triodes, IRE Trans., vol. ED-6, pp. 35-47, January 1959. 80. Hoover, M. V. Grid-controlled Power Tubes for Radar Purposes, chap. V in J. Whinnery (ed.), "State-of-the-art Report on High Power Pulsed Tubes for Radar Purposes," Advisory
79. Sutherland,
:
UHF
81.
on Electron Tubes report, Contract DA 36-039-SC-74981. Dow, W. G., and H. W. Welch: The Resnatron, chap. 19 in Radio Research Laboratory Staff, "Very High Frequency Techniques," vol. I, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York r j
>
Group
1947.
82. Peterson, F.
W.:
A New Design
Approach
2, pt. 3,
IRE
WESCON Conv.
for a
Compact Kilowatt
UHF
Beam Power Tube

'
Record, vol.
83. Bennett,
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
G., and H. W. Welch: The Generation of Ultra-high-frequency Power at the Fiftykilowatt Level, Proc. Natl. Electronics Conf. {Chicago), vol. 2, pp. 603-614, 1946. 89. McCreary, R. L., W. J. Armstrong, and S. G. McNees: An Axial-flow Resnatron for Proc. IRE, vol. 41, pp. 42^16, January, 1953.
Dow, W.
W. P.: New Beam Power Tubes IRE Trans., vol ED-3 pp rr 57-61 January, 1956. Hoover, M. V.: Advances in the Techniques and Applications of Very-high-power Gridcontrolled Tubes, Proc. IEE, vol. 105, pt. B, suppl. 10, pp. 550-558, May, 1958 (Paper 2752 R). Bennett, W. P., and H. F. Kazanowski: One-kilowatt Tetrode for Transmitters, Proc. IRE vol. 41, pp. 13-19, January, 1953. Sloan, D. H., and L. C. Marshall: Power, Phys. Rev., vol. 58, p. 193A, 1940. Salisbury, W. W.: The Resnatron, Electronics, vol. 19, pp. 92-97, February, 1946.
pp. 36-41, 1958. for Service,
UHF
UHF
UHF
UHF
90.
91. 92.
Sheppard, G. E., M. Garbuny, and J. R. Hansen: Reflex Resnatron Shows Promise for UHFTV, Electronics, vol. 25, no. 9, pp. 116-119, September, 1952. Garbuny, M.: Theory of the Reflex Resnatron, Proc. IRE, vol. 41, pp. 37-42, January, 1953. Tucker, E. B., H. J. Schulte, E. A. Day, and E. E. Lampe: The Resnatron as a 200-MC Power
Amplifier, Proc. IRE, vol. 46, pp. 1483-1492, August, 1958. C, D. H. Sloan, W. J. McBride, Jr., and W. L. Beaver: Resnatron Tubes, Univ. California Microwave Lab. Rept., Dec. 15, 1950, under USAF Contracts W-28-099 ac-216 W-33-038 ac-16649, and W-19-122 ac-38. 94. Parker, W. N., and M. V. Hoover: Gas Tubes Protect High-power Transmitters, Electronics, vol. 29, pp. 144-147, January, 1956.
93. Marshall, L. 95.
96. 97.
Brown, G. H., W. C. Morrison, W. L. Behrend, and H. I. Reiskind: Method of Multiple Operation of Transmitter Tubes Particularly Adapted for Television Transmission in the Ultrahigh Frequency Band, RCA Rev., vol. 10, pp. 161-172, June, 1949. Preist, D. H.: Annular Circuits for VHF and UHF Generators, Proc. IRE, vol. 38 vv pp 515-520 May, 1950. Paralleled Amplifiers Increase R-F Power, Electronics, vol. 33, no. 52, pp. 62, 64, Dec. 23,
1960.
98. Glasoe,
vol. 5,
99.
G. N., and J. V. Lebacqz (eds.): "Pulse Generators," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1948. Reintjes, J. F., and G. T. Coate: "Principles of Radar," chap. 3, McGraw-Hill Book Company
Inc.,
New
York, 1952.
100. Zinn, 101. Zinn,
M. H.:
pp. 26-29, Apr. 15, 1957.
Review of Modulators and Their Requirements, Electronic Design vol s

Electronic Design, vol 5
'
5
'
'
M. H.: Performance and Packaging of Modulators,
May 15, 1957. 102. "Klystron Facts Case Five." advertising material of Eitel-McCullough, Inc, 1958. 103. Trinkous, J. W.: Pulse Forming Networks, IRE Trans., vol. CP-3, pp. 63-66, September,
104.
pp 46^19 rr
Graydon, A.: The Application of Pulse Forming Networks, Proc. Natl. Electronics Conf.
:
'
(.Chicago), vol. 12, pp. 1071-1086, 1956; also IRE Trans., vol. CP-4, pp. 7-13, March, 1957. 105. Gray, M. E. Using Silicon Diodes in Radar Modulators, Electronics, vol. 32, no 24 pp 70-72 ' rr June 12, 1959.
106. Watrous,
W. W., and
J.
McArtney: Gas Clipper Tubes
for
Radar
Service, Electronics, vol 33

'
no. 51, pp. 80-83, Dec. 16, 1960. 107. Wittenberg, H. H.: Thyratrons in
'
Radar Modulator
Service,
RCA
March, 1949. 108. Melville, W. S.:

109.
Rev., vol. 10,
pp 116-133
'
10.
The Use of Saturable Reactors as Discharge Devices for Pulse Generators Proc. IEE, vol. 98, pt. 3, pp. 185-207, May, 1951. Mathias, R. A., and E. M. Williams: Economic Design of Saturating Reactor Magnetic Pulsers Trans. AIEE, Commun. and Electronics, no. 18, pp. 169-171, March, 1955. Busch, K. J., A. D. Nasley, and C. Neitzert: Magnetic Pulse Modulators, Bell System Tech J / vol. 34, 943-999, 1955.
'
pp.
>
Radar Transmitters
111.
259
19,
Thomas, H.
pp. 72-75,
E.: Saturable Reactors Fire

9,
Radar Magnetrons,
Electronics, vol.
31, no.
May
1958.
Sets, Electronics, vol. 32, no. 27, pp.
112. Kunitz, A.:
Using Magnetic Circuits to Pulse Radar
42-43,
July 3, 1959. 153-156, April, 113. Reise, H. A.: "Hard Tube" Pulsers for Radar, Bell Labs. Record, vol. 34, pp. 1956. Operation, 114. Gillette, P. R., and K. Oshima: Pulser Component Design for Proper Magnetron IRE Trans., vol. CP-3, pp. 26-31, March, 1956. 1288-1295, August, 115. Lee, R.: False Echoes in Line-type Radar Pulsers, Proc. IRE, vol. 42, pp.
1954.
7
ANTENNAS
7.1.
Antenna Parameters 1,2
The purpose of the radar antenna is to act as a transducer between free-space propagation and guided-wave (transmission-line) propagation. The function of the antenna during transmission is to concentrate the radiated energy into a shaped beam which points in the desired direction in space. On reception the antenna collects the energy contained in the echo signal and delivers it to the receiver. Thus the radar
antenna is called upon to fulfill reciprocal but related roles. In the radar equation derived in Chap. 1 [Eq. (1.8)] these two roles were expressed by the transmitting gain and the effective receiving aperture. The two parameters are proportional to one another. An antenna with a large effective receiving aperture implies a large transmitting gain.
The large apertures required for long-range detection result in narrow beamwidths, one of the prime characteristics of radar. Narrow beamwidths are important if accurate angular measurements are to be made or if targets close to one another are to be resolved. The advantage of microwave frequencies for radar application is that apertures of relatively small physical size, but large in terms of wavelengths, can be obtained conveniently. High-gain antennas with narrow beamwidths are quite practical at microwave frequencies, whereas they would be difficult to achieve at, say, short-wave communication frequencies (HF). The type of antenna normally used for radar applications differs, in general, from antennas used for communications. Radar antennas must generate beams with shaped directive patterns which can be scanned. Most communication antennas, on the other hand, are usually designed for omnidirectional coverage or for fixed point-topoint transmission. The earliest radars that operated in the or the bands used array antennas. At the microwave frequencies, the parabolic reflector, which is well known in optics, is extensively employed. The vast majority of radar antennas have used the parabolic reflector in one form or another. Microwave lenses have also found application in radar. In airborne-radar applications, surface-wave antennas are sometimes useful when the antenna must not protrude beyond the skin of the air frame. In this chapter, the radar antenna will be considered either as a transmitting or a
receiving device, depending on which is more convenient for the particular discussion. Results obtained for one may be readily applied to the other because of the reciprocity theorem of antenna theory. 1 Directive Gain. measure of the ability of an antenna to concentrate energy in a particular direction is called the gain. Two different, but related definitions of antenna
VHF
UHF
gain are the directive gain and the power gain. The former is sometimes called the while the latter is often simply called the gain. Both definitions are of interest to the radar systems engineer. The directive gain is descriptive of the antenna pattern, but the power gain is more appropriate for use in the radar equation. The directive gain of a transmitting antenna may be defined as
directivity,
gd
maximum
radiation intensity 2 jr raverage radiation intensity

:
(7.1)
260
Sec. 7.1]
Antennas
261
the direction where the radiation intensity is the power per unit solid angle radiated in radiation intensity as a function of the angular the plot of A denoted is and P(6,<f>). (0,<) density, or power per coordinates is called a radiation-intensity pattern. The power The power pattern pattern. power called a is angle of unit area, plotted as a function plotted on a relative basis, that is, when identical are pattern radiation-intensity and the plotted on a relative basis the maximum is normalized to a value of unity. When
when
both are called the antenna radiation pattern. An example of an antenna radiation pattern for a paraboloid antenna
is
shown
3 The main lobe is at zero degrees. The first irregularity in this plotted in Fig. 7.1. on the side of the main particular radiation pattern is the vestigial lobe, or "shoulder," In patterns. radiation antenna in appear always not does vestigial lobe
beam.
The
-Main lobe
-10
-10
80
Degrees
100
off axis
reflector antenna illustrating the main-lobe Fig. 7.1. Radiation pattern for a particular paraboloid 3 and the sidelobe radiation. {After Cutler et al., Proc. IRE.)
The first sidelobe is smeared into a sidelobe appears instead. across the aperture is not constant. distribution phase vestigial lobe as in Fig. 7.1 if the which decrease in intensity with lobes minor of series are a sidelobe first the Following
most antennas the
first
vicinity of broadside (in this increasing angular distance from the main lobe. In the the sidelobe level to rise. causes feed the from example 100 to 115), spillover radiation by the reflector. intercepted not is which feed the from radiated energy This is due to the Some of it "spills over." The radiation pattern also has a pronounced lobe in leakage direct and to reflector the of effects backward direction (180) due to diffraction
through the mesh
reflector surface.
angular radiation pattern shown in Fig. 7.1 is plotted as a function of one function as a intensity radiation P(6,<f>) the coordinate, but the actual pattern is a plot of commonly employed with of the two angles 6 and <f>. The two-angle coordinates antennas are azimuth and elevation, but any other convenient set of
The
ground-based angles can be used.

in Fig. 7.61
is
In theoretical work, the classic spherical coordinate system
shown
often used.
represented For example, an antenna with a symmetrical pencil-beam pattern can be for rectangular pattern radiation-intensity The coordinate. angular a plot in one
patterns in the apertures can often be written as the product of the radiation-intensity two coordinate planes for instance,
;
A complete three-dimensional plot of the radiation pattern is not always necessary. by
P(0,<)
= P(6,Q)P(0&
262
[Sec. 7.1
and the complete radiation pattern can be specified from the two single-coordinate radiation patterns in the 6 plane and the plane.
<f>
Since the average radiation intensity over a solid angle of 4tt radians is equal to the total power radiated divided by 4n, the directive gain as defined by Eq. (7 1) can be written as
= 47r(maximum power radiated/unit solid angle)

total
power radiated
'
This equation indicates the procedure whereby the directive gain may be found from the radiation pattern. The maximum power per unit solid angle is obtained simply by inspection, and the total power radiated is found by integrating the volume contained under the radiation pattern. Equation (7.2) can be written as
GD
where
47TP(6>,<?
ax
_4n
B
d<j>
SSP(d,<f,)d6d4>
(73)
B is
defined as the
beam
area
__ SSP(d,<f>)
iWW
dd
(7,4)
The beam area is the solid angle through which all the radiated power would pass if the power per unit solid angle were equal to P(6,<)max over the beam area. It defines in effect, an equivalent antenna pattern. If 6B and B are the half-power beamwidths in the two orthogonal planes, the beam area B is approximately equal to 0U Sub<f>
stituting into Eq. (7.3) gives
gd
if
r-j-
(7.5a)
the half-power beamwidths are measured in radians, or
r
if
41,253
the half-power beamwidths are measured in degrees. Power Gain. The definition of directive gain is based primarily on the shape of the radiation pattern. It does not take account of losses due to ohmic heating, heating or a mismatched antenna. The power gain, which will be denoted by G, includes the effect of the antenna losses and any other loss which lowers the
RF
The power gain
antenna
efficiency.
is
defined as
maximum radiation intensity from subject ante nna radiation intensity from (lossless) isotropic source with same power input
"*
This definition is the one which should be used in the radar equation since it includes the losses introduced by the antenna. The directive gain, which is always greater than the power gain, is of importance for coverage, accuracy, or resolution considerations and is more closely related to the antenna beamwidth. The difference between the two antenna gains is usually small. They would be the same if there were no losses The power gain and the directive gain may be related by the radiation efficiency factor p r as follows
G=
PrG D
(7.7)
The
definitions of
power gain and
directive gain
transmitting antenna.
One of the fundamental theorems of antenna theory concerns
were described above in terms of a
reciprocity. It states that under certain conditions (usually satisfied in radar practice) the transmitting and receiving patterns of an antenna are the same. 1 Thus the gain definitions apply equally well whether the antenna is used for transmission or for
Sec. 7.1]
reception.
Antennas
The only
practical distinction
is
263
and receiving antennas

greater power. Effective Aperture.
that the transmitting antenna
which must be made between transmitting must be capable of withstanding
effective receiving aperture, or effective area.
the effective
the effective
Another useful antenna parameter related to the gain is the It may be regarded as a measure of area presented by the antenna to the incident wave. The gain G and area A e of a lossless antenna are related by
A = = 4ir2
e
4ir Pa
(1 g)
where A
K = PaA = wavelength A = physical area of antenna p a = antenna aperture efficiency (defined in Sec. 7.2)
;
(7.9)
The direction of polarization of an antenna is defined as the direction Polarization. of the electric field vector. Most radar antennas are linearly polarized that is, the The polarization direction of the electric field vector is either vertical or horizontal. may also be elliptical or circular. Elliptical polarization may be considered as the combination of two linearly polarized waves of the same frequency, traveling in the same direction, which are perpendicular to each other in space. The relative amplitudes of the two waves and the phase relationship between them cart assume any values. If the amplitudes of the two waves are equal, and if they are 90 out of (time) phase, the
polarization
is
circular.
Circular polarization and linear polarization are special

it is
cases of elliptical polarization. Linear polarization is most often used in conventional radar antennas since
easiest to achieve.
the
The choice between horizontal and
vertical linear polarization is
often left to the discretion of the antenna designer, although the radar systems engineer might sometimes want to specify one or the other, depending upon the importance of ground reflections. Circular polarization is often desirable in radars which must "see" through weather disturbances. An example of sidelobe radiation from a typical Sidelobes and Spurious Radiation. Low sidelobes are generally desired for radar applicaantenna was shown in Fig. 7.1 tions. If too large a portion of the radiated energy were contained in the sidelobes, there would be a reduction in the main-beam energy, with a consequent lowering of the
.
maximum
upon
gain.
No general rule can be given for specifying the optimum sidelobe level.
This depends
the application and how difficult it is for the antenna designer to achieve low If the sidelobes are too high, strong echo signals can enter the receiver and sidelobes. high sidelobe level makes jamming of the radar easier. appear as false targets.
Also, the radar is more subject to interference from nearby friendly transmitters. Sidelobes of the order of 20 to 30 db below the main beam can be readily achieved with practical antennas. With extreme care it might be possible to obtain sidelobes as low as 35 or 40 db. However, considerably lower sidelobes seem difficult to achieve, although there is no theoretical reason why they should not be possible. In many applications the radar systems engineer might desire sidelobes of extremely low level, but the specifications to the antenna designer must often be dictated by the practical limitations imposed by nature and not by the unattainable specifications of theory
divorced from practice. Outline of Chapter. The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the results of antenna theory and technology which might be of particular interest in the study and In the next section, the relationship between practice of radar systems engineering. the radiation pattern (beamwidth, sidelobes, etc.) and the current distribution across
264
[Sec. 7.2
This is followed by descriptions of the various is discussed. types of antennas which have been applied to radar, including the parabolic reflector, The effect on Several methods of pattern synthesis are discussed. lenses, and arrays. the radiation pattern of broadband signals and of errors in the aperture distribution is
the antenna aperture
considered.
7.2.
The chapter closes with brief discussions of radomes and focused antennas.
Antenna Radiation Pattern and Aperture Distribution

electric field intensity (<)
produced by the radiation emitted from the antenna and the phase of the current distribution across the amplitude is a function of the aperture. 1 4 E((f>) may be found by adding vectorially the contribution from the various current elements constituting the aperture. The mathematical summation of all the contributions from the current elements contained within the aperture gives the This integral cannot be readily evaluated in the field intensity in terms of an integral. However, approximations to the solution may be had by dividing the general case. area about the antenna aperture into three regions as determined by the mathematical
The
approximations that must be made. The demarcations among these three regions are not sharp and blend one into the other. The region in the immediate neighborhood of the aperture is the near field. It extends several antenna diameters from the aperture and, for this reason, is usually of
little
importance to the radar engineer.

the Fresnel region.
In the Fresnel region, rays from the are not parallel and the antenna target) point (or radiating aperture to the observation Little application is made of the radiation pattern is not constant with distance. Fresnel region in radar. The farthest region from the aperture is the Fraunhofer, or far-field, region. In the Fraunhofer region, the radiating source and the observation point are at a sufficiently large distance from each other so that the rays originating from the aperture may be
The near field is followed by
considered parallel to one another at the target (observation point). The vast majority of radar antennas are operated in the Fraunhofer region. The "boundary" R F between Fresnel and Fraunhofer regions is usually taken to be 2 ID^jX, where D is the size of the aperture and /A or the distance R F either R F X is the wavelength, D and I being measured in the same units. At a distance given by 2 jX, the gain of a uniformly illuminated antenna is 0.94 that of the Fraunhofer gain at
=D
infinity.
At a
distance of
2D 2 /X,
the gain
is
0.99 that at infinity.
The plot of the electric field intensity \E(0,</>)\ is called the field-intensity pattern of the 2 antenna. The plot of the square of the field intensity \E(Q,<j>)\ is the power radiation
pattern P(d,(f>), defined in the previous section. In the Fraunhofer region, the integral for electric field intensity in terms of current Consider the distribution across the aperture is given by a Fourier transform relation. The width of the rectangular aperture and coordinate system shown in Fig. 7.2. aperture in the z dimension is a, and the angle in the yz plane as measured from the y
axis
is
<j>.
The
far-field electric field intensity,
assuming a
</>
> I,
dz
is
()
=
(
"
A(z) exp ()2n - sin

\
2.
(7. 10)
J -a/2
where A{z)
aperture distribution,
A(z), the current at distance z, assumed to be flowing in x direction. may be written as a complex quantity, including both the
amplitude and phase distributions, or

A(z)
\A(z)\
exp/F(z)
(7.11)
where
\A(z)\
T(z)
= amplitude distribution = phase distribution
Sec. 7.2]
Antennas
265
Equation (7.10) represents the summation, or integration, of the individual contributions from the current distribution across the aperture according to Huygens' At an angle <f>, the contribution from a particular point on the aperture will principle. be advanced or retarded in phase by 2ir(zjX) sin <j> radians. Each of these contributions The field intensity is the integral of these individual is weighed by the factor A(z).
contributions across the face of the aperture. It may also be The aperture distribution has been defined in terms of the current / in the x direction, polarization for defined in terms of the magnetic field component z or in terms of the electric field component Ez for polarization in the z direction, provided 5 these field components are confined to the aperture.
.
W
*/
relationship between the Fig. 7.2. Rectangular aperture and coordinate system for illustrating the aperture distribution and the far-field electric-field-intensity pattern.
The expression for the electric field intensity [Eq. (7.10)] is mathematically similar to Therefore the theory of Fourier transforms can be the inverse Fourier transform. applied to the calculation of the radiation or field-intensity patterns if the aperture The Fourier transform of a function /(f) is defined as distribution is known.
*"(/)
=
is
J 00
/(0 ex P
(-JW0 dt
(7.12)
and the inverse Fourier transform
/(0
-\:
F(f)exp(j2irfi)df
infinite interval
(7.13)
The
limits of Eq. (7.10)
can be extended over the
from -co to +oo
a/2. since the aperture distribution is zero beyond z The Fourier transform permits the aperture distribution A{z) to be found for a given
field-intensity pattern
E(</>),
since
A(z)
=-
f"
E(<f>)
exp
t-j2n -
sin
<f>)
d(sin
<j>)
(7.14)
This may be used as a basis for synthesizing an antenna pattern, that is, finding the aperture distribution A{z) which yields a desired antenna pattern E(<f>). In the remainder of this section, the antenna radiation pattern will be computed for various one-dimensional aperture distributions using Eq. (7.10). It will be assumed only the effects of the that the phase distribution across the aperture is constant and
amplitude distribution need be considered.
266
[Sec. 7.2
The inverse Fourier transform gives the electric field intensity when the phase and amplitude of the distribution across the aperture are known. The aperture is defined as the projection of the antenna on a plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation. It does not matter whether the distribution is produced by a reflector antenna, a lens, or an array. One-dimensional Aperture Distribution. Perhaps the simplest aperture distribution to conceive (but not necessarily the easiest to obtain) is the uniform, or rectangular, distribution. The uniform distribution is constant over the aperture extending from For present purposes it will be assumed that the a/2 to +a/2 and zero outside.
-477-
-377-
-27777-
la A)
sin
<l>
Fig. 7.3. The solid curve is the antenna radiation pattern produced by a uniform aperture distribution the dashed curve represents the antenna radiation pattern of an aperture distribution proportional to the cosine function.
;
line
This might represent the distribution across a aperture extends in one dimension only. source or the distribution in one plane of a rectangular aperture. If the constant
value of the aperture distribution is equal to A and if the phase distribution across the aperture is constant, the antenna pattern as computed from Eq. (7.10) is
E(<f>)
A A
a/2
exp
/
1
277
- sin
A
\
<j> I
dz
[sin ir(ajX) sin
Tr{ajX) sin
<f>.
J -a/2
sin [7r(a/A) sin

(77-/A)
</>]_.
</>]
(7.15)
sin
(j>
Normalizing to make E(Q)
results in
/a; therefore
(</>)
sin [Tr(ajX) sin <f\
(7.16)
n(a/X) sin
This pattern, which is of the form (sin x)jx, is the solid curve in Fig. 7.3. The intensity of the first sidelobe is 13.2 db below that of the peak. The angular distance between the nulls adjacent to the peak is Xja radians, and the beamwidth as measured between the half-power points is 0.88/l/a radians, or S\Xja deg. The wider the aperture, the narrower the beamwidth. The voltage pattern of Eq. (7.16) is positive over the entire main lobe, but changes sign in passing through the first zero, returning to a positive value in passing through the second zero, and so on. The
$ shown by
Sec. 7.2]
Antennas
267
odd-numbered sidelobes are therefore out of phase with the main lobe, and the evennumbered ones are in phase. Such phase reversals are characteristic of antenna 1 Also shown in Fig. 7. 3 is the radiation patterns in which the minima are equal to zero.
pattern for the cosine aperture distribution
77Z
A(z)
=
is
cos
\z\<
The normalized
radiation pattern
E(<f>)
77
sin
{f
y)
where y Table
Table
+ tt/2) + + 77/2
sin
.
(w (V
ip
- W2) 7r/2 J
"|
(7.17)
Tr{ajX) sin
</>.
7.1 lists
some of the
properties of the radiation patterns produced by various
7.1.
Radiation-pattern Characteristics Produced by Various Aperture Distributions f A = wavelength a = aperture width

;
Type of
distribution,
\z\
<
Relative gain
Half-power beamwidth, deg

51 A/a 51 A/a
Intensity of
first
sidelobe,
intensity
db below maximum
13.2 13.2
Uniform; A(z) = 1 Cosine; A(z) = cos" Oz/2): n =

n
2 n 3 n 4 n Parabolic; A{z)
= = = =
0.810 0.667 0.575 0.515
69A/a 83A/a 95A/a lllA/a

51 A/a
23 32
40
48
13.2
15.8
17.1
= 1-
(1
A)z 2
A A A A
= = = =
1.0
0.8 0.5
Triangular; A{z)
Circular; A(z)
t Silver.
1
= 1 = Vl -
|zl
0.994 0.970 0.833 0.75

0.865
53A/a 56A/a 66A/a 73A/a

58.5A/a
20.6 26.4
17.6
z2
The aperture distributions are those which can be readily expressed in analytic form and for which the solution of the inverse Fourier transform of Eq. (7. 1 0) can be conveniently carried out. The rectangular, cosine to the nth power,
aperture distributions.
(The pattern of a one-dimensional produced by the two-dimensional circular circular distribution is equivalent to that may not be the distributions these Although illumination.) uniform with aperture employed with practical radar antennas, they serve to illustrate how the aperture More complicated distributions which distribution affects the antenna pattern. Fourier transforms or which cannot be of tables from available cannot be readily found expressed in analytical form may be determined by numerical computation methods or
triangular,
and
circular distributions are included.
machine computation.
The properties of the antenna radiation patterns listed in Table 7.1 are (1) the relative gain produced by the particular antenna aperture distribution compared with the gain produced by the uniform aperture distribution, (2) the beamwidth in degrees as measured between the half-power points of the antenna pattern, and (3) the intensity of the first sidelobe as compared with the peak intensity. An examination of the information presented in this table reveals that the gain of It is shown the uniform distribution is greater than the gain of any other distribution.
by Silver 1 that the uniform distribution is indeed the most efficient aperture distribution,
268
that
is,
[Sec. 7.2
the one which maximizes the antenna gain. Therefore the relative-gain column be considered as the efficiency of a particular aperture distribution as compared with the uniform, or most efficient, aperture distribution. The relative gain is also
may
called the aperture efficiency [Eq. (7.9)]. The aperture efficiency times the physical area of the aperture is the effective aperture.
Another property of the radiation pattern illustrated by Table 7. 1 is that the antennas with the lowest sidelobes (adjacent to the main beam) are those with aperture distributions in which the amplitude tapers to a small value at the edges. The greater the amplitude taper, the lower the sidelobe level but the less the relative gain and the broader the beamwidth. Thus low sidelobes and good efficiency run counter to one another. For example, an aperture distribution which follows a cosine-squared law has a relatively large illumination taper. Its sidelobe level is 32 db as compared with the 13.2 db of the uniform illumination. word of caution should be given concerning the ability to achieve in practice low sidelobe levels with extremely tapered illuminations, such as those of cos 3 and cos 4 It was assumed in the computation of these radiation patterns that the distribution of the phase across the aperture was constant. In a practical antenna this will not necessarily be true since there will always be some unavoidable phase variations caused by the inability to fabricate the antenna as desired. Any practical device is never perfect; it will always be constructed with some error, albeit small. The phase variations due to the unavoidable errors can cause the sidelobe level to be raised and the gain to be lowered. There is a practical limit beyond which it becomes increasingly difficult to achieve low sidelobes even if a considerable amplitude taper is used. The economic limit to the sidelobe level of conventional antennas seems to be of the order of 35 to
40 db. Antenna Efficiency. The aperture efficiency is a measure of the gain of an antenna relative to the gain of a similar antenna with uniform aperture distribution. The over-all antenna efficiency would be the same as the aperture efficiency if the antenna were perfect, that is, if all the energy from the feed were collected without loss by the reflector and if there were no losses in the antenna due to mismatch or to other causes. In practical antennas, losses are present and the over-all efficiency is the product of
three factors :(1) the aperture efficiency, (2) the spillover efficiency (if a reflector or lens) and (3) the efficiency of the feed. The radiation efficiency defined by Eq. (7.7) is the
product of the
last
two
factors.
Circular Aperture. 6 The examples of aperture distribution presented previously in this section applied to distributions in one dimension. shall consider here the
We
antenna pattern produced by a two-dimensional distribution across a circular aperture. The polar coordinates (r,d) are used to describe the aperture distribution A(r,6), where r is the radial distance from the center of the circular aperture, and 6 is the angle measured in the plane of the aperture with respect to a reference. Huygens' principle may be applied in the far field by dividing the plane wave across the circular aperture into a great many spherical wavelets, all of the same phase but of different ampliTo find the field intensity at a point a distance 7? from the antenna, the tude. amplitudes of all the waves are added at the point, taking account of the proper phase relationships due to the difference in path lengths. The field intensity at a
distance
is
thus proportional to
2 r
E(R)
=j "dd( A(r,d) exp
(-
)r dr
(7.18)
where r
is
the radius of the aperture.
For a circular aperture with uniform distribution,
Sec. 7.3]
Antennas
is
269
the field intensity

(<)
proportional to
P'dfl
pexp (-27r-sin^cosfl)rdr =
irrg2J 1 (f)/f
(7.19)
where f
= 277(> /A) sin = first-order Bessel function j^)

<j>
A plot of the normalized radiation pattern is

17.5
the amplitude distribution of a circular aperture is similar to The sidelobes may be reduced, but at tapering the distribution of a linear aperture. One aperture distribution gain. antenna the expense of broader beamwidth and less
db below the main The effect of tapering
lobe, and the
shown in Fig. 7.4. beamwidth is 58.5A/Z).
The
first
sidelobe
is
which has been considered
in the past
is [1
(rjr
f]
v
,
where/?
0, 1, 2, ...
The
-10
-2
(,
2n{r
/\)
sin
Fig. 7.4. Radiation pattern for a uniformly illuminated circular aperture.

p F1 When/? radiation pattern is of the form / hl (f )/ and the radiation pattern reduces to that given above.
.
0,
the distribution
1 ,
is
uniform
75 per cent, the half-power beamwidth
is
below the maximum. The sidelobe level Additional properties of this relative to a uniform distribution is 50 per cent. table 6.2. distribution can be found in Ref. Aperture Blocking. An obstacle in front of the aperture can cause an unavoidable blocking or shadowing and alter the effective aperture distribution. One of the chief examples of aperture blocking is the feed in reflector-type antennas. Aperture blocking degrades the performance of an antenna by lowering the gain and raising the The effect of aperture blocking can be approximated by subtracting the sidelobes. radiation pattern produced by the obstacle from the radiation pattern of the undisturbed
1 ,
For p = the gain is reduced 72.6A/A and the first sidelobe is 24.6 db is 30.6 db down for/? = 2, but the gain
aperture.
This procedure
is
possible because of the linearity of the Fourier-transform

in a
example of the effect of aperture blocking caused by the feed 7 paraboloid-reflector antenna is shown in Fig. 7.5.
relationship.
7.3. Parabolic-reflector
An
Antennas 1 7S
of the most widely used microwave antennas is the parabolic reflector (Fig. 7.6). The parabola is illuminated by a source of energy called the feed, placed at the focus of
One
270
[Sec. 7.3
the parabola
and directed toward the reflector surface. The parabola is well suited for microwave antennas because (1) any ray from the focus is reflected in a direction parallel to the axis of the parabola and (2) the distance traveled by any ray from the focus to the parabola and by reflection to a plane perpendicular to the parabola axis is
independent of its path. Therefore a point source of energy located at the focus converted into a plane wavefront of uniform phase.
is
-20
-5
5 grees off axis
Fig. 7.5. Effect of aperture blocking caused by the feed in a parabolic-reflector antenna. Cutler," Proc. IRE.)
(From C.
The basic parabolic contour has been used in a variety of configurations. Rotating the parabolic curve shown in Fig. 7.6 about its axis produces a parabola of revolution called a circular parabola, or a paraboloid. When properly illuminated by a point
pattern.
source at the focus, the paraboloid generates a nearly symmetrical pencil-beam-antenna Its chief application has been for tracking-radar antennas. Examples of the paraboloid are shown in Figs. 5.19 to 5.21.
An
asymmetrical beam shape can be ob-
tained by using only a part of the paraboloid. This type of antenna, an example
of which
when
Vertex or apex
shown in Fig. 1.6, is widely used beams are desired. Another means of producing either a symis
fan
metrical or an asymmetrical antenna pattern is with the parabolic cylinder. 1 5 9 The para> >
bolic cylinder
(Fig.
1.11)
is
generated
to
by
moving the parabolic contour parallel
itself.
A line source such as a linear array, rather than a point source, must be used to feed the
parabolic cylinder. The beamwidth in the plane containing the linear feed is determined by the illumination of the line source, while the beamwidth in the perpendicular plane is determined by the illumination across the parabolic profile. The reflector is made longer than the linear feed to avoid spillover and diffraction effects. One of the advantages of the parabolic cylinder is that it can readily generate an asymmetrical fan beam with a much larger aspect ratio (length to width) than can a section of a paraboloid. It is not practical to use a paraboloidal reflector with a single horn feed for aspect ratios greater than about 8:1, although it is practical to use the parabolic cylinder for aspect ratios of this magnitude or larger.
Fig. 7.6. Parabolic-reflector antenna.
Sec. 7.3]
Still
Antennas
271
another variation of the parabola is the parabolic torus shown in Fig. 7.17 and discussed in Sec. 7.4. It is generated by moving the parabolic contour over an arc of a It is useful where a scan angle less circle whose center is on the axis of the parabola. than 1 20 is required and where it is not convenient to scan the reflector itself. Scanning
is
accomplished in the parabolic torus by moving the feed. There are other variations of parabolic reflectors such as cheeses, pillboxes, and 1 5 hoghorns, descriptions of which may be found in the literature. consists of a point source paraboloid Feeds for Paraboloids }^ The ideal feed for a aperture distridesired the achieve shape to proper of pattern of illumination with a emitted by the It is important in a paraboloid that the phase of the radiation bution. The radiation pattern produced by the feed is feed be independent of the angle.
-
called the primary pattern; the radiation pattern of the aperture when illuminated by the feed is called the secondary pattern. The early paraboloids Practical feeds for paraboloids only approximate the ideal. half- wave dipole, as a The element. were generally fed by the simple half-wave-dipole
First, the dipole radiates feed for a paraboloid, suffers from two major limitations. uniformly in a plane perpendicular to its length and radiates no energy in the direction of its length. The resulting radiation pattern is therefore doughnut-shaped. If the paraboloid reflector subtends a solid angle of 180 at the focus (a rather large angle),
half of the energy radiated by the dipole would be radiated into space without striking With small paraboloids (apertures of a few square wavelengths), it is the reflector. possible to phase the rearward primary energy to reinforce the secondary energy from the paraboloid reflector in order that the rearward energy contribute to the gain of the
antenna and not be

the reflector
is
lost.
However, for large antennas most of the energy not
striking
wasted.
The
which
efficiency of the simple dipole feed
can be increased with a more elaborate feed
most of the energy radiated by the feed in the direction of the reflector. This is accomplished by a parasitically excited reflector element placed behind the dipole to reflect energy toward the paraboloid. The parasitic reflector can be another
directs
dipole, a plane sheet, a half cylinder, or a hemisphere. The second shortcoming of the dipole as a paraboloid feed
characteristic.
In an ideal feed
all
the energy reflected
polarized in the same direction. If it is not, tion is wasted because the antenna might not be designed to respond to a different The dipole feed causes some of the reflected energy to be perpendicular polarization. This cross-polarized radiation causes an effective radiation. primary of the to that reduction of the antenna gain and results in the generation of sidelobes with polarizaThe extent of the cross-polarized energy tion orthogonal to the primary polarization.
is its poor polarization from the paraboloid surface is the energy polarized at some other direc-
depends upon the shape of the dish. It is minimized with a shallow reflector, that is, one with a large ratio of focal length to diameter. A better feed than the half-wave dipole is the open-ended waveguide. Most of the energy is directed in the forward direction, and the phase characteristic is usually good, A circular paraboloid might be fed by a circular, if radiating in the proper mode. open-ended waveguide operating in the TE U mode. A rectangular guide operating in the TE 10 mode does not give a circularly symmetric radiation pattern since the dimenplanes, as well as the current distributions in these two planes, are sions in the E and As this is generally true of most waveguide feeds, a perfectly symmetrical different. antenna pattern is difficult to achieve in practice. The rectangular guide may be used,
however, for feeding an asymmetrical section of a paraboloid that generates a fan beam plane than in the E plane. wider in the When more directivity is required than can be obtained with a simple open-ended waveguide, some form of waveguide horn may be used. The waveguide horn is probably the most popular method of feeding a paraboloid for radar application.
272
[Sec. 7.3
Optimum Feed Illumination Angle. If the radiation pattern of the feed is known, the illumination of the aperture can be determined and the resulting secondary beam pattern can be found by evaluating a Fourier integral or performing a numerical calculation. The radiation pattern of a 0.84A-diameter circular waveguide is shown in
Fig. 7.7.
If
one wished to obtain

1
relatively
uniform illumination across a paraboloid
1^- F-nI
-5
-10
/
/
/
1
\
i
i
-15
\
i\
80
?o
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20 6 degrees
20
off axis
40
60
100
Fig. 7.7. Radiation pattern of 0.84A-diameter circular-waveguide aperture.
{From C.
Cutler,''
Proc.
IRE.)
aperture with a feed of this type, only a small angular portion of the pattern should be An antenna with a large ratio of focal distance to antenna diameter would be necessary to achieve a relatively uniform illumination across the aperture. Also, a significant portion of the energy radiated by the feed would not intercept the paraboloid
used.
and would be
100
lost.
The
lost "spillover"
energy results in a lowering of the over-all and defeats the purpose of the uniform illumination (maximum aperture efficiency). On the other hand, if the angle subtended by the paraboloid at the focus is large, more of the radiation from the feed will be intercepted by the reflector. The less the spillover, the higher the efficiency. However, the illumination is more tapered, causing a reduction in the aperture efficiency. Therefore, there will be some angle at which these two counteracting effects result in maximum efficiency. This is illustrated in Fig. 7.8 for the circular-waveguide feed whose pattern is
efficiency
shown in Fig. 7.7. The maximum of the curve is relatively broad, so that the optimum angle subtended by the antenna at the focus Fig. 7.8. Efficiency of a paraboloid as a is not critical. The greatest efficiency is obfunction of the half angle subtended by the tained with a reflector in which the radiation paraboloid at the focus. (From C. Cutler, 7 Proc. IRE.) from the feed in the direction of the edges is between 8 and 12 db below that at the center. As a rough rule of thumb, the intensity of the energy radiated toward the edge of the reflector should usually be about one-tenth the maximum intensity. The aperture distribution at the edges will be even less than one-tenth the maximum because of the longer path from the feed to the edge of the reflector than from the feed to the center of the dish. When the primary feed pattern is 10 db down at the edges, the first minor lobe in the secondary pattern is in the vicinity of 22 to 25 db.
20
40
60
80
100
Half angle subtended by paraboloid at focus
Sec. 7.3]
Antennas
273
aperture distribution set up by the Calculations of the antenna efficiency based on the efficiencies of about 80 per primary pattern as well as the spillover indicate theoretical uniformly illuminated ideal, an with compared cent for paraboloidal antennas when polarization characpoor aperture, the across variations In practice, phase
aperture
teristics,
and antenna mismatch reduce the
efficiency to the order of 55 to 65 per cent
for ordinary paraboloidal-reflector antennas. waveguide horn can be Feed Support. The resonant half-wave dipole and the These two arrangements b. and 7.9a Fig. in shown as paraboloid the arranged to feed Fig. 1.9b produces an in shown feed are examples of rear feeds. The waveguide rear rear of the dish. center the in not is line asymmetrical pattern since the transmission 7 rear feed in which the dual-aperture a feed, Cutler is the 7.9 Fig. feed not shown in bend 1 80 at the end ot waveguide is in the center of the dish and the energy is made to
^=^
[a]
(b)
(c)
parabolic reflectors, (a) Rear feed using half-wave Fig. 7.9. Examples of the placement of the feeds in (c) front feed using horn. dipole; {b) rear feed using horn
;
the waveguide
advantage by a properly designed reflecting plate. The rear feed has the line. transmission of length minimum of compactness and utilizes a an example The antenna may also be fed in the manner shown in Fig. 7.9c. This is aperture. the obstructs it but feeds, of a front feed. It is well suited for supporting horn aperture are above mentioned configurations feed the Two basic limitations to any of line, and suptransmission feed, The feed. the in mismatch impedance blocking and and alter the effective porting structure intercept a portion of the radiated energy enters the feed and paraboloid the by reflected Some of the energy
antenna pattern. direction in the transmission line. acts as any other wave traveling in the reverse impedance mismatch and Standing waves are produced along the line, causing an can be corrected by mismatch The a degradation of the transmitter performance. over a relatively only effective is remedy this but device, an impedance-matching the effect of the reflected reducing for technique Another band. frequency narrow of the reflecting surface at radiation intercepted by the feed is to raise a portion is made of such a size and surface raised The paraboloid. the center (apex) of the at the focus a reflected produce to as contour reflector original the from distance reflected from the signal the to signal equal in amplitude but opposite in phase
remainder of the is no mismatch.
plate
reflector.
Although
devices inside the creases the minor-lobe level of the radiation pattern. 1 1 Both the aperture blocking and the mismatch at the feed are elimiOffset Feed The center of the feed Fig. 7.10. nated with the offset-feed parabolic antenna shown in is tipped with respect to the parabola s horn the but parabola, of the focus the at placed is removed, leaving that The major portion of the lower half of the parabola is axis the feed is out purposes practical all For 7. 10. Fig. in portion shown by the solid curve
<
The two reflected signals cancel at the feed, so that there apex-matching raised portion of the reflector is called an matching than bandwidth broader the apex-matching plate has a transmission line, it causes a slight reduction in the gain and in-
The
n
[Sec. 7.3
274
of the path of the reflected energy, so that there is no pattern deterioration due to aperture blocking nor is there any significant amount of energy intercepted by the feed
to
It
produce an impedance mismatch. should be noted that the antenna aperture of an

its
offset
reflector) is the area projected
parabola (or any parabolic on a plane perpendicular to
Parabola
not the surface area. parabola eliminates two of the major limitations of rear or front feeds. However, it introduces problems of its own. Cross-polarization lobes are produced by the offset geometry, which may seriously deteriorate the radar system performance. 1 Also, it is usually more difficult to properly support and to scan an offset-feed antenna than a circular paraboloid with rear
axis
is
and
The
offset
feed.
f/D Ratio. An important design parameter for reflector antennas is the ratio of the focal length / to the antenna Fig. 7.10. Parabolic reflector diameter D, or f/D ratio. The selection of the proper///) with offset feed. ratio is based on both mechanical and electrical considerations. A small f/D ratio requires a deep-dish reflector, while a large f/D ratio requires a shallow reflector. The shallow reflector is easier to support and move mechanically since its center of gravity is closer to the vertex, but the feed must be supported farther from the reflector. The farther from the reflector the feed is placed, the narrower must be the primary-pattern beamwidth and the larger
_
1+-
100
"i
80
60
1
80
"i
60
40
-
40
J
/ d/
/
c/ /
-
20
10
r
<^- 3
1
8 6
\)
4 '-I
Somple
a
2 V?
IV.
1
b
IV.
'/
Mesh
IVz"
T
Vs.
Vs. Vs.
1 1
% open
92.5 87.4 83.8
1 1
Z L
V 90.8
-
B
C
V."
V2
V.
V8"
V."
mesh <0.1%
0.1
1.0
trons
'
D
I 1 1
V.
1
J
3.0
J
,
L
9.0
11.0
1.0
3.0
5.0
7.0
9.0
11.0
5.0
7.0
Frequency, Gc
(a)
Frequency
Kb)
Gc
Fig. 7.11. Per cent transmission through aluminum mesh, (a) Polarization perpendicular to long dimension; (6) polarization parallel to long dimension. Table in () applies to both figures; dimensions given in inches. {After Ricardi and Devane," courtesy Electronic Industries.)
Sec. 7.3]
Antennas
275
obtain a feed with uniform phase must be the feed. On the other hand, it is difficult to reflector with small fjD a illuminate properly to necessary angle over the wide ranging from 0.3 to 0.5. Most parabolic-reflector antennas seem to have//Z) ratios ratios of 0.5 to 1.0 or have///) beams monopulse-tracking Antennas used to generate beams with ordinary multiple the of level crossover proper the obtain
more
in order to
waveguide
it
form. A The expanded metal mesh made from aluminum is a popular metal mesh cost, ease low weight, light resistance, wind nonsolid surface such as a mesh offers low reflector shaped variously to conform to ability the and of fabrication and assembly, permit energy to leak through, with 10 11 may surface nonsolid a However, surfaces. the result that both the backlobe of the antenna 100 and the relative intensity of the sidelobes adjacent
I
The reflecting surface may be made of a solid sheet material, but Reflector Surfaces. screen, metal grating, perforated metal, or expanded is often preferable to use a wire
feeds.
to the
main beam
will increase
and the antenna
90
gain will decrease. The leakage through several types of mesh screens has been measured by Ricardi and
80
70
(a) (b)
Devane. 11 The transmission of linear-polarized plane waves at normal incidence to a plane sheet of expanded aluminum with a diamond mesh is
?60
E
(/i
shown in Fig. 7.1 la for polarization perpendicufor lar to the long dimension and in Fig. 7.116
50 _
3S
The polarization parallel to the long dimension. which the for screens sample the dimensions of the results of Fig. 7.1 la and b apply are given by
table in Fig. 7.11a.
40 30 20 10
The presence of
ice
on the
reflector surface
is
an important consideration for both the electrical and the mechanical design of the antenna. Ice adds to the weight of the antenna and makes it more difficult to rotate. In addition, if the ice were to close the holes of a mesh antenna so that
a solid rather than an open surface is presented to the wind, bigger motors would be needed to operThe structure also would have ate the antenna.
to be stronger.
0.1
0.3 0.4 0.2 Radius oi ice, cm
0.5
0.6
The effect of ice on the electrical characteristics between wires = 1 cm. (After Para12 On the monov, 12 Radiotechnikq.) of a mesh reflecting surface is twofold. one hand, ice which fills a part of the space bedielectric around the tween the mesh conductors may be considered a dielectric. mesh. The spacing the on incident wires is equivalent to a shortening of the wavelength of the surcoefficient transmission the causing between wires appears wider, electrically, is increased by the pressurface reflecting total the hand, other face to increase. On the mesh. The relative importance of ence of ice reducing the transmission through the or a net decrease in transincrease net these two effects determines whether there is a can lose their reflecting meshes reflecting strongly even cases, In unfavorable mission. a grid of parallel through Two examples of transmission properties almost completely. transpercentage the that indicate These 7.12. wires coated with ice are shown in Fig. With a properties of ice. dielectric the of result as a significantly mission can increase properties dominate and the percentfurther increase in the amount of ice, the reflecting
Fig. 7.12. Per cent transmission through a grid of parallel wires coated with ice at 3.2 cm), (a) Wire diameter band (A 0.5 0.02 cm, spacing between wires 0.1 cm, spacing cm; (6) wire diameter
X =
(not shown in the figure). age transmission ceases to increase and starts to decrease
276
[Sec. 7.3
r-inflated tube (lOpsi)
Fabric paraboloid
Metolized fabric paraboloid
//
1 1
//
/ / /
%" water
internal
-Feed horn
1
\
I
Feed
pressure
Feed-horn support-^
Inner tower
Inner tower
Fig. 7.13. Outline of the Paraballoon

Electronics Division.)
antenna.
(Courtesy
Westinghouse Electric Corporation,
Reflector
Stacked -beam
feedhorn
Turntable
Fig. 7.14. Cutaway view of a Paraballoon antenna, inside a radome, for the radar. (Courtesy Westinghouse Electric Corporation, Electronics Division.)
AN/TPS-27, 3-D
tactical
Sec. 7.4]
Antennas
to icing conditions can be protected
277
Antennas which might be exposed
by enclosure
in radomes, as described in Sec. 7.12. 1316 parabolic reflector ParabaUoons
somewhat different from that described inflatable antenna made from a plastic an previously is the Paraballoon (Fig. 7.13), during initial fabrication into two contoured fiberglass, material such as vinyl-coated material are joined at the paraboloid-shaped halves. The two paraboloids of plastic
for satispressure differential of as little as 0.02 psi is sufficient rims and inflated. used as ParabaUoons early The Paraballoon. 30-ft-diameter factory operation of a attached to the inside aluminum vapor-deposited with Mylar of sheet the reflector a reflecting surface may also be made by imbedsurface of one of the paraboloids. on the fabric. The plastic ding metallic silver particles inside the plastic coating
RF energy. material of the Paraballoon has little effect on the inflated plastic The whole Paraballoon structure is enclosed within a protective air pressure surrounding the above kept are Both the radome and the antenna radome inflate the Pararequired to pressure small relatively the by blowers. Because of 30-ftor puncture. balloon its operation is not affected by moderate leakage size the holes punctured by 50 if even can operate satisfactorily
diameter Paraballoon is that it is readily transof 20-mm shells. The advantage claimed for this antenna small size when deflated. and weight light of its because erected easily and portable contour. It is claimed the on Repeated inflation and deflation cycles have little effect as conventional metal tolerance a good as to that the contour can be maintained
reflectors,
beam 30-ft-diameter oblate Paraballoon is used with the AN/TPS-27 stacked the in used is Paraballoon 50-ft-diameter a (3-D) tactical radar (Fig. 7.14), and total The tactical areas. forward for designed radar search long-range AN/TPS-22, a radome for the complete antenna system of the AN/TPS-27 including
sometimes
better.
installed weight
is
approximately 9,000 about 4 hr.
lb.
The complete radar can be
erected and in operation in
7.4. Scanning-feed Reflector
Antennas
flexibility Large antennas are sometimes difficult to scan mechanically with as much must antenna large beam of a the scanning for technique Some like. as one might positioning the often be used other than the brute-force technique of mechanically Phased array antennas and lens antennas offer the possibility of entire structure. without the necessity for moving large mechanical masses. These beam scanning the The present section considers the possibility of later in this chapter.
are discussed It is feed. scanning the beam over a limited angle with a fixed reflector and a movable entire antenna position the is to it than feed the position mechanically much easier to manuIn addition, large fixed reflectors are usually cheaper and easier to structure. facture than antennas which must be moved about. limited The beam produced by a simple paraboloid reflector can be scanned over a 1 17 18 too far scanned be cannot beam the However, feed. the positioning angle by pattern because without encountering serious deterioration of the antenna radiation 0.25 with paraboloid of a gain fjD The astigmatism. of increasing coma and is reduced to 80 per cent of its maximum diameter) antenna distance, focal (/= paraboloid with value when the beam is scanned 3 beamwidths off axis. gain is reduced to the before axis off beamwidths 6.5 0.50 can be scanned fjD
' -
D=
changes with a 80 per cent of maximum (Ref. 1 p. 488). The antenna impedance also scanning the antenna by paraboloid change in feed position. Hence scanning a simple in the deterioration of the because angle in limited generally feed is possible, but is antenna pattern after scanning but a few beamwidths off axis. a spherical-reflector Spherical Reflectors. If the paraboloid reflector is replaced by
,
spherical aberration
focal length
loids.
It is
is
The second approach compensate for the spherical aberration with special feeds or correcting lenses These techniques yield only slightly larger scan angles than the single paraboloid reflector with movable feed. A third technique to approximate the spherical surface and minimize the effects of
is
7 4 [ Sec possible to achieve a wide scanning angle because of the symmetry of the sphere. However, a simple spherical reflector does not produce an equiphase radiation pattern (plane wave), and the pattern is generally poor. The term spherical aberration is used to describe the fact that the phase front of the wave radiated by a spherical reflector is not plane as it is with a wave radiated by an ideal parabolic reflector There are at least three techniques which might be used to minimize the effect of spherical aberration. One is to employ a reflector of sufficiently large radius so that the portion ot the sphere is a reasonable approximation " to a paraboloid. 19 21
surface,
it is
278
to
is to step a parabolic reflector as shown in Fig. 7 15 8.22,23 The reduced in half-wavelength steps, making a family of confocal parabopossible to scan the stepped reflector to slightly wider angles than
Generoting parabola
Center of sphere
Fig. 7.15. Stepped parabolic reflector.
Fig. 7.16. Principle of the parabolic-torus antenna.
1 2 Gc The was 29.5 in. If the phase error from the sphere is to differ from that of a paraboloid by no more than A/ 16, the maximum permissible diameter of the illuminated surface should be 3.56 ft. The beamwidth required of the primary feed pattern is determined by the illuminated portion of the aperture. Li used a square-aperture horn with diagonal polarization in order to obtain the required primary beamwidth and low-primary-pattern sidelobes (better than 25 db). The resulting secondary beamwidth from the sphere was about 1.8 (39.4 db gain) with a relative sidelobe level of 20 db. A total useful scan angle of 140 was demonstrated. This type of antenna is
simple paraboloid, but not as wide as with some other scanning techniques Disadvantages of this reflector are the scattered radiation from the stepped portions and the narrow bandwidth. If only a portion of the spherical reflector is illuminated at any one time, much wider scan angles are possible than if the entire aperture were illuminated. Li 21 has described experiments using a 10-ft-diameter spherical reflector at a frequency of 1
focal length
respects to the torus antenna described below. Wide scan angles can be obtained with a parabolic-torus conJiguration. The principle of the parabolic-torus antenna is shown in Fig 7 16 and a photograph of an actual torus antenna used in (Ballistic Missile Early
similar in
many
Parabolic Torus.
BMEWS
A
Antennas
Sec. 7.4]
279
Warning System)
generated by rotating a parallel to the latus rectum of the parabola. section of a parabolic arc about an axis in Fig. 7.16) is parabolic, while the The cross section in one plane (the vertical plane beam angle may be scanned by The circular. is cross section in the orthogonal plane half the radius of the torus approximately is radius whose moving the feed along a circle portion of the circular The radius of the torus is made large enough so that the circle from the surface of a appreciably differ not cross 'section illuminated by the feed will surface in the horireflector the of symmetry circular Because of the true parabola. scanned in this plane without any deterioration zontal plane, the beam can be readily
is
shown in
Fig. 7.17.
The parabolic
torus
is
in the pattern.
Early surveillance radar of the Balhst ,c Miss le^ Fig. 7.17. Parabolic-torus antenna used in the erect ion eqinp ment, not the an enna.) the of part is figure of left (Crane to Warning System (BMEWS). Co., ,500 tons of steel. {Courtesy General Ekctnc This antenna is 165 ft high and 400 ft wide and uses 1 Heavy Military Electronics Department)
torus The wave reflected from the surface of the parabolic of the ratioôf focal lengthy choice proper wave by plane it can be made to approach a between 0.43ând.0.45 lies The optimum ratio of///? to the radius of the torus R.
is
not perfectly plane, but
principal planes with sidelobes only radiation patterns are possible in the paraboloid. The larger the ratio of// slightly worse than those of a conventional in the parabolic torus is the diamete (The diameter the better the radiation pattern. of the torus itself.) The highest diameter of the illuminated area rather than the not lie within the principal planes. The sidelobes produced by the parabolic torus do surface due to its deviation from a true inherent phase errors of the parabolic-torus
Good
280
[Sec. 7.4
parabola can cause sidelobes on the order of 15 db in intermediate planes. 25 These sidelobes usually lie in the 45 plane and are called eyes, because of their characteristic appearance on a contour plot of the radiation pattern. Theoretically, a torus with an elliptical cross section should result in less phase error and lower sidelobes than a torus with a parabolic cross section. 25 Experimental measurements, however, do not show a great difference in performance between the two; consequently, there is little basis for choosing between a torus with a parabolic or
an
elliptical cross section.
had by moving the
A limited amount of beam scanning in the plane of the parabolic cross section can be
feed, just as in the conventional paraboloid.
Equal lengths of
Wider scan angles
in
^wavequide
Input horn
Fig. 7.18. Principle of the organ-pipe scanner. this plane can be obtained by substituting a circular cross section for the parabolic cross section so that the resulting reflector is a portion of a sphere. Hence scanning is possible in both planes. This is the spherical reflector described above. 21 The sphere as an antenna is usually less effective (higher sidelobes, lower gain) than either the parabolic or the elliptical torus. In principle the parabolic torus can be scanned 180, but because of beam spillover near the end of the scan and self-blocking by the opposite edge of the reflector, the
maximum
scan angle
is
usually limited to the vicinity of 120.

reflector
is
Only a portion of the parabolic-torus

particular time.
illuminated by the feed at any
This may appear to result in low aperture utilization or poor efficiency since the total physical area is not related in a simple manner to the gain as it is in a fully illuminated antenna. However, the cost of the fixed reflector of the parabolic torus is relatively cheap compared with antennas which must be mechanically scanned. Nonutilization of the entire aperture is probably not too important a consideration when over-all cost and feasibility are taken into account.
Antennas
Sec. 7.4]
281
economical method for the parabolic torus is that it provides an large antenna aperture over a relatively wide rapidly scanning the beam of a physically Its disadvantages this angle of scan. scan angle with no deterioration of the pattern over for scanning and means other with compared when are its relatively large physical size planes. intermediate in obtained the large sidelobes parabolic torus is accomplished by Organ-pipe Scanner. Scanning the beam in the
The advantage of
between many fixed feeds. moving a single feed or by switching the transmitter the torus on an arm of length of center the about rotated single moving feed may be 120 torus antenna approximately one-half the radius of the torus. For example, a
Fig.
7.19..
Thirty-six-horn organ-pipe scanner.
{Courtesy U.S. Naval Research Laboratory.)
spokes might be scanned by continuously rotating three feeds spaced 120 apart on the be may this Although reflector. of a wheel so that one feed is always illuminating the if the radius problem mechanical difficult a becomes it antennas, practical in small-size
of the rotating
arranging a series of feeds on the locus of the transmitter power from one feed to the next the switching focal points of the torus and 27 " 29 of the organ-pipe scanner is shown in principle The scanner. organ-pipe with an The transmission lines from the feeds are arranged to terminate on the Fig. 7.18. feed horn is rotated within this circle, transferring power from periphery of a circle. or group of feeds in turn. The rotary horn may be flared to feed each to the transmitter All the transmission illuminate more than one elementary feed of the row of feeds. length. equal of be lines in the organ-pipe scanner must changes The radiation pattern from a torus with a well-designed organ-pipe scanner the point this At aperture. but little until the beam reaches one end of the scanning secondary the found in are beams two and aperture energy appears at both ends of the The antenna cannot be used during this period of ambiguity, called the pattern. Fig. 7.19,36 elements were deadtime. In a model of the organ-pipe scanner shown in
Scanning
arm is large. may also be accomplished by
282
f
th
SEC 7 5
a time 2? The deadtime for îs model is equivalent to rotation past two f:u [felements; consequently ot the 36 it was inoperative about 6 per cent of the time in Figs. 7.18 and 7.19 the feeds are shown on a straight line, but in the parabolic torus they would he on the arc of a circle. The many feed horns plus all the transmission lines of the organ-pipe scanner result in a relatively large structure with significant aperture blocking. Aperture blocking can be minimized by designing the parabolic portion of the torus as an offset parabola ' p just as in the case of a paraboloid. 30 " 32 36 The P rinci P'e of the parabolic torus may be applied to scanning a ,Io'".^k beam 360 in one plane (Fig. 7.20). The antenna consists of a parabolic torus extending
90%
reflection for
A component
45
parallel wires
Fig. 7.20. 360 parabolic-torus antenna. Conv. Record.)
(Courtesy Barab, Maraneoni, and Scott,
IRE WESCON "^"t-own
it faces, causing it to be Since the polarization of the reflected wave makes an angle of 90 with the grid wires on the opposite side of the structure, the surface appears transparent and the energy passes through relatively unimpeded. Only linear polarization is possible with r this antenna.
of 45 with the polarization of the feed is also at 45. This arrangement of the grid wires produces a barber-pole effect. The 45 tilt of the grid wires causes the wires on one side of the antenna to be perpendicular to those on the opposite side Radiation from the 45 feed is parallel to the grid wires which
vertical meridians.
360 in azimuth and
made up of parallel wire elements forming an angle

The
reflected.
7.5. Cassegrain
Antenna
location for the observer. Its application to microwave reflector antennas permits a reduction in the axial dimension of the antenna, just as in optics. It also permits greater flexibility in the design of the feed system and eliminates the need for lone 6 transmission lines.
is shown in Fig. 7.21a. The feed is located and a subreflector is located in front of the parabola between the vertex and the focus. Parallel rays coming from a target (at
is an adaptation to the microwave region of an optical technique invented in the seventeenth century by William Cassegrain, a contemporary ot Jsaac Newton. The Cassegrain principle is widely used in telescope design to obtain high magnification with a physically short telescope and allow a convenient
The Cassegrain antenna
rear
The
principle of the Cassegrain antenna
at the vertex of the parabolic reflector,
Antennas
Sec. 7.5]
infinity) are reflected
283
e the positio n of the feed. Th hyperbolic subreflector, converging at the of toe point ot focal the at image it appears as a virtual reflector images the feed so that
beam and are by the parabola as a convergent
"?dbyfl
reflector ^geometry of the Cassegrain 8
is
shown
in Fig. 7.21ft.
paIaboirat7andthefeedis atr. the k sometimes placed forward of the reflector nearer to
The
point** is..hown at the
^Ws^nt
1 he points t
The focus of the
subreflector.
LdTZtCconilte
Convergent spherical foci of the hyperbolic subreflector. reflect. a. a secon set of incident on ^hyperbola will be at waves with foci at F and * hyperbola Any at F'. convergent spherical waves centered
cteS
Parabolic
Xd
x
reflector '
/\
Parabola
[a)
ib)
at the vertex of
subreflector and the feed Fig 7 21. (a) Cassegrain antenna showing the hyperbolic antenna. Cassegrain of geometry (b) reflector; the main parabolic
satisfies this
surfaces which could be property, and there exists a family of hyperbolic it will be to the main nearer the subreflector, the larger used as the subreflector. The However, assembly. of the antenna reflector and the shorter will be the axial dimension undesirable. be may which blocking, a large subreflector results in large aperture greater it has to be supported at a small subreflector reduces aperture blocking, but subreflector size must represent a of choice the Thus reflector. main distance from the since it removes a portion compromise. The feed also contributes to aperture blocking antenna that was Cassegrain simple of a example Figure 7.22 is an of the energy Telephone Laboratories. designed by Wheeler Laboratories for the Bell be explained by considering the action may antenna Cassegrain of the principle The images the feed to a point behind the which mirror of the subreflector as a hyperbolic of the hyperbolic mirror magnification The parabola. the of subreflector at the focus is also equal to the Magnification 1) where e is the eccentricity. \M(e is (e from the subdistance the by divided focus real distance from the subreflector to the greater than always The eccentricity of a hyperbola is reflector to the virtual focus. foci divided conjugate two the between unity and is defined as the ratio of the distance radii of a point on focal (The radii. focal two the by the constant difference between The lines which join the point to the foci. the locus of the hyperbola are the straight lhe chosen.) is point which matter no difference between focal radii is a constant,
284

of the Cassegrain
is
effective focal length
liS^SîSL: One
antenna^
^ M ^"
equal to the distance between

ifi
is
[Sec
7 5
Fand
********** JfJfS
single plane.
F' times
application of the Cassegrain antenna
Assume, for simplicity, a monopulse radar with a conventionalfparabohc reflector fed by a two-feed-horn assembly tracking in a
If the
as a monopulse-trackine-radar
wo beams
r^'Sc
EXamP e f 3 SimP e
' '
CaSSegraln antEnna
-
.)
(C""^ f P
~,
Wheeler Labora-
generated by each of the feeds are to overlap in space at their half-power ? points the spacing 5 between the effective phase centers of the two feeds
must be
.(m
where
/= focal length
diameter of antenna wavelength
(7.20)
D= A =
tWs rmU a k is assumed that the half-power beamwidth is given by 6SX/D, and theu beam-deviation proportionality factor is taken to be 9 The fatter factor accounts for the deviation from Snell's law of reflection when the reflLtor a f a flat P, e (Ref In '' P" 488 >îs is a functln of h ^ } ratio, but butfofthe for the purpose of this , example it is assumed to be constant.
t^fnû
'
'
^y
_ ,, Sec. 7.5]
Antennas
285
value of///) ratio. If the phase Eauation (7.20) gives a limitation on the minimum Eq. (7.20) indicates that the apart, wavelength one were horns centers of the two feed value off/D for a reflectorlarge This is a flD ratio would have to approximate unity. is relatively far out on structure feed the 1 type antenna. In an antenna with f\D the feeds becomes supporting of problem mechanical the the axis of the reflector and might be spaced is feeds the more difficult than if the///) ratio were small. The closest The///) ratio in side) by side placed one-half wavelength (open-ended waveguides reflectors but is parabolic conventional most than larger 5, which is still this case is closer than spaced manageable proportions. Open-ended waveguides may be
within The dielectric reduces the one-half wavelength if they are filled with dielectric. Dielectricfrequency. particular a used at be can minimum size of waveguide which usually has less powerand guide air-filled than loss higher of is filled guide, however,
_ handling capability. use of a parabola ot The magnifying property of the Cassegrain antenna permits the For parabola with a larger//!) conventional///) ratio to obtain the same effect as a and with///) 35 paraboloid example, a Cassegrain antenna configuration using a at feeds The 1 of .05. effective///) an in results a hyperboloid with a magnification of 3 at the focus of a those than larger be must antenna Cassegrain the real focus F' of the of the hyperbolic reflector. conventional parabola because of the magnifying action can be reduced by a antenna paraboloid length of a It has been claimed that the over-all 33 configuration. Cassegrain the with factor of two when redesigned An important advantage of the Cassegrain configuration for monopulse-radar the reflector, avoiding the application is that the RF plumbing can be placed behind paraboloid. The conventional in a needed focus the long runs of transmission line to will be differences in there that chance the greater is the line, transmission longer the hence, errors in the phases between the lengths of the transmission lines and,
.
the
monopulse angle measurement.

antenna is The elimination of long runs of transmission lines with the Cassegrain amplifiers are used. important when low-noise receivers such as masers or parametric the receiver. The loss in the transmission line can significantly degrade the sensitivity of feed horn. the at directly placed can be receivers low-noise the In the Cassegrain antenna require the receivers, would antenna paraboloid conventional the with same the To do focus in front of the or at least the front ends of the receivers, to be suspended out at the problem, but it also results in design mechanical the antenna. This not only increases
increased aperture blocking. overThe Cassegrain antenna configuration can be used to generate a multitude ot the of vertex the of vicinity the in placing by lapping beams from a single reflector scanning permits geometry Cassegrain The beam. each for feed paraboloid a separate vertex or by switching single beam by mechanically moving a single feed at the
of a
among many
feeds as with an organ-pipe scanner.

surfaces.
34 36
-
It
can also be scanned by moving
one of the antenna
subreflector in front of the main reflector in the Cassegrain removed, resulting in a configuration causes aperture blocking. Part of the energy is the parabolic reflector If sidelobes. the in increase and an beam of the main
The presence of the
reduction
is
circular
[1
circular
small and assumed to have a completely tapered parabolic illumination, a approxigain by (power) the reduce will obstacle in the center of the aperture
mately
2(DJD) 2 ] 2 where
,
The relative (voltage) level of if the factor DJD were equal example, For the first sidelobe is increased by (2DJD) -20-db sidelobe would be and a db 0.3 about by lower be to 0.122, the gain would
reflector)
and
D is the diameter of D is the diameter of the main aperture. 34

h
the obstacle (hyperbolic sub-
increased to about Aperture blocking
8 db.
may be
reduced by decreasing the
size
of the subreflector.
By
286

directive, or
[Sec. 7.5
making the feed more
subreflector may be reduced without incurring a spillover loss. However the feed cannot be made too large since it partially shadows the energy reflected
by moving it closer to the subreflector, the size of the
parabolic reflector.
Minimum
(twist reflector)
total aperture blocking occurs
when
from the main the feed size and
Main reflector with

polarization twister
distance are such that the shadows produced by the subreflector and the feed are of equal area. 34
If operation with a single polarization is permissible, the technique diagramed in Fig. 7.23 can considerably reduce aperture blocking.
The subreflector consists of a horizontal grating

of wires, called a
vertically polarized
transreflector,
which passes waves with negligible atten-
^""poi.
(
_*
-
uation but reflects the horizontally polarized
^"SJ
Hor. poi.
|
Subreflector with
polarization -
wave radiated by the feed. The horizontally polarized wave reflected by the subreflector is
rotated by the twistreflector at the surface of the dish. The twistreflector is equivalent to a quarter-wave plate which produces a 90 rotation of the plane of polarization (Ref. 1,
main
dependent surface
Sec. 12. 10).
The wave
reflected
from the main
Fig. 7.23. Polarization-twisting Cassegrain antenna. Aperture blocking by the subreflector is reduced with this design.
7.6.
Lens Antennas
dish is vertically polarized and passes through the subreflector with negligible effect. The subreflector is transparent to vertically polarized waves and does not block the aperture. Some aperture blocking does occur, however, because of the feed, but this blocking can be made small and comparable with that of an ordinary parabolic-reflector design. 34
The most common type of radar antenna is the parabolic reflector in one of its various forms. The microwave paraboloid reflector is analogous to an automobile headlight or to a searchlight mirror. The analogy of an optical lens is also found in radar (an example is the radar of Fig. 1.8). Lens and reflector antennas are often interchangeable in microwave systems since they both convert a spherical wave to a plane wave, or vice versa. Three types of microwave lenses applicable to radar are (I) dielectric lenses, (2) metal-plate lenses, and (3) lenses with nonuniform index
refraction.
of
Dielectric Lenses. 2 The homogeneous, solid, dielectric-lens antenna of Fig 7 24a is similar to the conventional optical lens. point at the focus of the lens produces a plane wave on the opposite side of the lens. Focusing action is a result of the difference in the velocity of propagation inside the dielectric as compared with the velocity of propagation in air. The index of refraction n of a dielectric is defined as the speed of light in free space to the speed of light in the dielectric medium. It is equal to the square root of the dielectric constant. Materials such as polyethylene, polystyrene Plexiglas, and Teflon are suitable for small microwave lenses. They have low loss and may be easily shaped to the desired contour. Since the velocity of propagation is greater in air than in the dielectric medium, a converging lens is thicker in the middle than at the outer edges, just as in the optical case. Dielectric lenses may be designed using the principles of classical geometric optics.
One of the
large weight.
limitations of the solid homogeneous dielectric lens is its thick size Both the thickness and the weight may be reduced
and
stepping or zoning the lens (Fig. 7.24*).
Zoning is
considerably bv based on the fact that a 360 change
Sec. 7.6]
Antennas
.
287
Starting with distribution of phase at the aperture has no effect on the aperture phase is progressively zero thickness at the edge of the lens, the thickness of the dielectric However, when the increased toward the lens axis as in the design of a normal lens. in the dielectric path the wavelength, a equal to is dielectric path length introduced by the
thickness can be reduced to zero without altering the phase across the aperture. The the lens design of the lens is again increased in the direction of the axis according to another step may until the path length in the dielectric is once more 360, at which time wavelength less one zones is the of each through length path optical be made. The
Focus
v/////a
Focus
(*>
Fig. 7.24. (a) Converging-lens antenna constructed of
homogeneous
solid dielectric.
Direct micro-
wave analogy of
optical lens,
(b)
Zoned
dielectric lens.
than the next outer zone. If the thickness of the path length removed from the lens is t, where fx is the index of refraction. t, the net change in the optical path length is /ut or to some integral multiple wavelength one equal to This change in path length must be of a wavelength. Although zoning reduces the size and weight of a lens, it is not without disadvantages. Dielectric lenses are normally wideband; however, zoning results in a frequencyAnother limitation is the loss in energy and increase in sidelobe level sensitive device. caused by the shadowing produced by the steps. The effect of the steps may be minimized by using a design with large// D, on the order of 1 or more. Even with these limitations, a stepped lens is usually to be preferred because of the significant reduction
in weight.
index of refraction) of a solid dielectric lens, the the dielectric constant, the greater will be the larger the However, thinner it will be. mismatch between the lens and free space and the greater the loss in energy due to Compromise values of the index of refraction lie reflections at the surface of the lens.
The larger the
dielectric constant (or
between
in optics.
and 1.6. Lens reflections may also be reduced with transition surfaces as These surfaces should be a quarter wave thick and have a dielectric constant which is the square root of the dielectric constant of the lens material. 2 Instead of using ordinary dielectric materials for lens Artificial Dielectrics.-* them of artificial dielectrics. The ordinary diconstruct to possible is antennas, it electric consists of molecular particles of microscopic size, but the artificial dielectric The particles consists of discrete metallic or dielectric particles of macroscopic size. constant dielectric low material of in a imbedded rods strips, or disks, spheres, be may such as polystyrene foam. The particles are arranged in some particular configuration The dimension of the particles in the direction parallel in a three-dimensional lattice. spacing between particles should be small compared well as the as field electric to the with a wavelength. If these conditions are met, the lens will be insensitive to fre1
.5
quency.
288

of the
artificial
[Sec. 7.6
When the particles are metallic spheres

dielectric constant
of radius a and spacing s between centers the dielectric is approximately
*=!+'477a
(7.21)
assuming no interaction between the spheres. 41 An artificial dielectric may also be constructed by using a solid dielectric material with a controlled pattern of voids. This is a form of Babinet inverse of the more usual
,1
Direction of
propagation
Fig. 7.25. Plan, elevation, and end views of a converging lens antenna constructed from parallel-plate v waveguide. (-plane metal-plate lens.)
artificial dielectric
terial.
43
composed of particles imbedded in a low-dielectric-constant maThe voids may be either spheres or cylinders, but the latter are easier to
machine. Lenses
size
made from
artificial dielectrics
are generally of less weight than those from
solid dielectrics.
For
of the antenna
this reason, artificial dielectrics are often preferred is large, as, for example, at the lower radar frequencies.
1
when
the
Artificial-
may be designed in the same manner as other dielectric lenses. Metal-plate Lens.**- " An artificial dielectric may be constructed with parallelplate waveguides as shown in Fig. 7.25. The phase velocity in parallel-plate waveguide is greater than that in free space hence the index of refraction is less than unity. This is opposite to the usual optical refracting medium. converging metal-plate lens is therefore thinner at the center than at the edges, as opposed to a converging
dielectric lenses
;
dielectric
thinner at the edges. The metal-plate lens shown in Fig. 7.25 is an -plane lens since the electric-field vector is parallel to the plates. Snell's law is obeyed in an -plane lens, and the direction of the rays through the lens is governed by the usual optical laws involving the index of refraction. The surface contour of a metal-plate lens is, in general, not parabolic as in the case of the reflector. 5 For example, the surface closest to the feed is an ellipsoid of revolution if the surface at the opposite face of the lens is plane. The spacing s between the plates of the metal-plate lens must lie between A/2 and X if only the dominant mode is to be propagated. The index of refraction for this type of metal-plate lens is
is
lens
which
-<3\
(7.22)
Sec. 7.6]
Antennas
289
where A is the wavelength in air. Equation (7.22) is always less than unity. At the upper limit of spacing, s = X, the index of refraction is equal to 0.866. The closer the Howspacing, the less will be the index of refraction and the thinner will be the lens. arbitrarily be made cannot refraction, of index the ever, the spacing, and therefore small since the reflection from the interface between the lens and air will increase just
as in the case of the solid-dielectric lenses.
cutoff.
For a value of s = A/2, the index of reThe wave incident on the lens will fraction is zero and the waveguide is beyond value of /a between 0.5 and 0.6 is compromise practice, a In be completely reflected. often selected, corresponding to plate spacings of 0.557A and 0.625A and to power reflections at normal incidence of 1 1 and 6.25 per cent, respectively (Ref. 1, p. 410).
-*-"
Fig. 7.26.
Zoned
metal-plate lens.
Even with an index of refraction in the vicinity of 0.5 to 0.6, the thickness of the metalbecomes large unless inconveniently long focal lengths are used. The thickness may be reduced by zoning (Fig. 7.26) just as with a dielectric lens. The bandwidth of a zoned metal-plate lens is larger than that of an unzoned lens, but
plate lens
the steps in the lens contour scatter the incident energy in undesired directions, reduce the gain, and increase the sidelobe level. Another class of metal-plate lens is the constrained lens, or path-length lens, in which In the //-plane metal-plate the rays are guided or constrained by the metal plates.
constrained lens, the electric field is perpendicular to the plates (H field parallel); thus the velocity of the wave which propagates through the plates is relatively unaffected provided the plate spacing is greater than 1\2. The direction of the rays is'not affected by the refractive index, and Snell's law does not apply. Focusing action is obtained by constraining the waves to pass between the plates in such a manner that the path length
can be increased above that in free space. An example of a particular constrained lens with plates slanted at an angle d is shown The index of refraction is simply n = sec 6, where d is the angle between in Fig. 7.27. When this lens has a flat front surface as the direction of the plates and the lens axis. shown in the figure, the curved side toward the feed is a hyperboloid of revolution. A disadvantage of this constrained lens is that the -plane radiation pattern has a low gain and is very distorted, with high sidelobes on one side of the axis. The constrained 37 Other techniques for lens of Fig. 7.27 is usually unsuited for radar applications.
37 41 obtaining //-plane metal-plate constrained lenses are described in the literature. 47 guided or The rays are Still another type of constrained lens is shown in Fig. 7.28. This lens differs from obeyed. Snell's law is not and the metal plates, constrained by the constrained lens described above since it is cylindrical, and the E field is parallel The latter characteristic might cause this lens rather than perpendicular to the plates. to be classified with the -plane lens of Fig. 7.25, but the lens of Fig. 7.28 focuses by constraining the wave while the other .E-plane lens employs Snell's law to achieve focusing action. The construction of the -plane constrained lens is simple since it Focusing is obtained normal to the constrained consists only of rectangular plates. 72- wavelength lens at a wavelength of 1 .25 cm plates (normal to the electric vector). 1.5 produced a 1 beam which could be scanned over a 100 sector by with an///)
-
positioning the feed. 47
290
[Sec. 7.6
Focus
Fig. 7.27.
fraction
Example of a constrained metal-plate lens constructed of slanted plates. sec 8. Dashed lines represent ray paths. (After Kock, 46 Proc. IRE.)
Index of
re-
Lens Tolerances. In general, the mechanical tolerances for a lens antenna are less severe than for a reflector. given error in the contour of a mechanical reflector contributes twice to the error in the wavefront because of the two-way path on reflection. Mechanical errors in the lens contour contribute but once to the phase-front error.
Fry and Goward 5
state that "the easy
plate lens ... are the
main advantage of a
mechanical tolerances involved in the metal lens over a reflector." Although there may
(a)
----
Focus
<
(b)
Fig. 7.28. (a) Cylindrical constrained lens with (After Ruze," Proc. IRE.)
field
parallel to metal plates;
(b)
top view of lens.
Sec. 7.6]
Antennas
291
lens over a reflector be room for discussion concerning the advantages of a is nevertheless an important tolerances of question the be, might advantage the "main"
and what
consideration.
a plane wavetront derivation of the mechanical tolerances necessary to achieve The antennas. 1 texts on standard in found be may value specified accurate to a importance of degree the maximum permissible error in the phase front depends upon antenna pattern. In many attached to a loss of gain and to a deterioration of the
The
'
maximum of A/8) is applications a phase variation across the wavefront of A/16(a tolerances and antenna acceptable engineering practice. (The relationship between
patterns is described in Sec. 7.11.) lens types. The tolerances required for lens antennas are given below for several is taken to be A/8, or 2/16 (p is the index aperture the across variation phase total The
of refraction). Tolerance on lens thickness

Dielectric lens
dt
t:
=
=
160
16(1
Metal-plate lens
dt
16
p
1)
> <
( 7 - 23 )
P
p)
<-
7 24 )
-
Tolerance on the index of refraction for a fully zoned lens:

Dielectric lens
dp
= (p-l)
=
p P
2
> <
( 7 - 25 )
Metal-plate lens
dp
(I
- p)
( 7 - 26 )
16
A /16r. 1)/ a A, we get dp Since in a zoned lens (p lens metal-plate zoned s in a spacing on plate Tolerance
6s
^
16(1
(7.27)
+ p)
By comparison, the mechanical tolerance of a reflector antenna must be A/32 if the phase-front error is to be A/16, because of the two-way path due to reflection. source of error in lenses not found in reflector antennas is the variation in the Both real and artificial dielectrics are not perfectly uniform properties of the material. from sample to sample or even within the same sample. Luneburg Lens. Workers in the field of optics have from time to time devised lenses lens. in which the index of refraction varied in some prescribed manner within the Although such lenses had interesting properties, they were only of academic interest were not since optical materials with the required variation of index of refraction index of control the possible to it is frequencies microwave However, at practical.
with refraction of materials (p is the square root of the dielectric constant e), and lenses a nonuniform index of refraction are practical. One of the most important of the variable-index-of-refraction lenses in the field of
48 The Luneburg lens is spherically symmetric and has radar is that due to Luneburg. the property that a plane wave incident on the sphere is focused to a point on the surface Likewise, a transmitting point source on the surface at the diametrically opposite side. of the sphere is converted to a plane wave on passing through the lens (Fig. 7.29). Because of the spherical symmetry of the lens, the focusing property does not depend Luneburg lens might be used where a upon the direction of the incident wave. It might also have application rapidly scanned antenna over a wide angle is required.
where the antenna
is
mounted on an unstable base such
as a ship.
Stabilization of the
292
[Sec. 7.6
beam may be obtained by adjusting the feed to compensate for the ship's motion. The beam may be scanned by positioning a single feed anywhere on the surface of the lens or by locating many feeds along the surface of the sphere and switching the radar transmitter or receiver from one horn to another as with an organ-pipe scanner. The Luneburg lens can also generate a number of fixed beams and is competitive in many applications with arrayantenna beam forming. The index of refraction (x or the dielectric constant e varies with the radial distance in a Luneburg lens of radius r according to the
,
relationship
j"
= e* = 2- refraction
is
(7.28)
The index of
Fig.
maximum
at the
Luneburg-lens geometry showing rays from a point source radi7.29.
as a plane wave after passage through the lens.
ated
where it equals Vl, and decreases to a value of 1 on the periphery. The development of materials which exhibit a
center,
as
continuous variation of dielectric constant such needed for the Luneburg-lens antenna was one
of the limitations which had to be overcome by early experimenters. Practical threedimensional Luneburg lenses have been constructed of a large number of spherical shells, each of constant index of refraction. Discrete changes in index of refraction approximate a continuous variation. In one example of a Luneburg lens (Fig. 7.30) 10 concentric spherical shells are arranged one within the other. 49 50 The dielectric constant of the individual shells varies from 1.1 to 2.0 in increments of 0.1. The diameter of this stepped-index lens is 18 in., and the frequency of operation is X band. As many as 50 steps might be used in this type of design.
-
Fig. 7.30. Hemispherical-half-shell construction of stepped-index Luneburg lens.
{Courtesy Emerson
and Cuming,
Inc.)
Sec. 7.6]
Antennas
293
must not be too heavy, yet they must be strong enough to have low dielectric loss and support their own weight without collapsing. They should They should be easily temperature. in not be affected by the weather or by changes and isotropic if the homogeneous must be and properties manufactured with uniform
The
dielectric materials
performance characteristics are to be independent of position. The 1 8-in. Jf-band lens mentioned above was constructed from a polystyrene material 49 These are discrete spheroids of polystyrene, the size of called expandable beads. By mixing the partially expanded beads with manufacture. during controlled which is a higher-dielectric-constant material in proper proportions, a dry mixture capable of being
molded is obtained.
ing the
lens
A baglike radome cover-
provides weather protection. Another promising technique for the construction of large Luneburg lenses, especially 51 at UHF, is the use of artificial dielectrics. The antenna pattern of a Luneburg lens has a slightly narrower beamwidth than that of a
\ \ paraboloidal reflector of the same circular \\ A cross section, but the sidelobe level is 52 " 56 This is due to the fact that the greater. S^'A"'' " 5 ~\by the rays in a Luneburg lens followed radiation jmgi! f paths ; int source/ P tend to concentrate energy toward the edge of JX tinq surface Thus the aperture distribution the aperture. that Luneburg lens tapered as Hemispherical 7.31. is not as fig. lens Luneburg of the of a paraboloid, assuming the same type of with plane reflecting surface on the base, The natural feed illuminates both antennas. tendency for illuminated energy to concentrate at the edges of the lens makes it difficult In practice, the sidelobe level of a Luneburg lens to achieve extremely low sidelobes.
j
^S
20 to 22 db. 56 When the full 4tt radians of solid coverage is not required, a smaller portion of the 51 57 If only hemispherical coverage lens can be used, with a saving in size and weight. A plane reflecting is needed (2tt solid radians) the lens shown in Fig. 7.3 1 can be used. surface is placed at the base of the hemisphere to image the feed at S into a virtual source Movement of the source 5 causes a corresponding movement of the beam in the at S'. opposite direction. There is some deterioration of the feed pattern in the hemispherical lens shown in Fig. 7.31 since a portion of the energy emitted by the source misses the The sidelobes resulting from the missed radiation may be reflector entirely and is lost.
seems to be
in the vicinity of
51 reduced with absorbent material to absorb the nonreflected energy, or the reflecting reflect these rays in the hemisphere to plane can be extended beyond the base of the when compared hemispherical lens of a disadvantage possible direction. A proper with the full spherical lens is that the feed causes aperture blocking. If the scanning sector is less than 277 radians, a smaller lens can be had by constructing only a spherical wedge of the Luneburg lens; that is, the lens is included between two plane reflectors which pass through the lens center. The Luneburg-lens principle can also be applied as a passive reflector in a manner 51 If a reflecting cap is placed over a portion of the analogous to a corner reflector.
spherical lens,
an incident wave emerges
in the
same
direction
from which
it
entered.
The cap may be made
The Luneburg to cover a sector as large as a hemisphere. reflector. corner than the angle greater solid much over a reflector is effective The Luneburg principle may also be applied to a two-dimensional lens which scans a fan beam in one plane. Since the two-dimensional version is simpler than a threedimensional one,
it
was the
first
type to be constructed.
geodesic analog of a
294
[Sec. 7.7
two-dimensional Luneburg has been applied in a ^-band mortar-location radar. 58 In the geodesic analog the variation in dielectric constant is obtained by the increased path length for the RF energy traveling in the TEM mode between parallel plates. 51 59 The result is a dome-shaped parallel-plate region as shown in Fig. 7.32. In the mortar radar application a fan beam generated by the two-dimensional Luneburg was converted to a pencil beam by a cylindrical reflector. The lens acted as the feed for the reflector.
-
Two^ vertical beams were generated in this radar. Each beam had a width of 0.76 and 1.06 in the vertical and horizontal planes, respectively, and was separated in the vertical by an angle of 1.85. The antenna
scanned a 40 azimuth sector at a rate of 17 scans per beam per second.
Other types of lenses based on the principle of nonuniform index of refraction have been described by Kelleher, 56 Huynen, 60 and
others. 184
Evaluation of Lenses as Antennas. One of the major advantages of a lens over a reflector antenna is the absence of aperture blocking. Considerable equipment can be placed at the focus of the lens without interfering with the resultant antenna pattern. Reflections from the lens surface which cause a significant mismatch at the feed can also be eliminated or reduced without significantly degrading the pattern by tilting the feed slightly off axis to avoid the back reflection. Another advantage of the lens is that mechanical and electrical tolerances are more relaxed than in the reflector antenna. The lens is capable of scanning the radiated beam over a wide angle by positioning the feed. Theoretically, the Luneburg lens can scan the complete sphere (4n solid
Fig. 7.32. The "tin-hat" geodesic analog of a two-dimensional Luneburg lens.
Constrained metal-plate lenses are capable of very wide scan angles as limited scanning possible by moving the feed in a paraboloid reflector. Solid dielectric lenses can also achieve reasonably wide scan angles by properly designing the contour of both surfaces of the lens. 61 A homogeneous dielectric sphere may be scanned through 4tt solid radians if the index of refraction is not too high and if the diameter is not greater than about 30A. 62 One of the disadvantages of the lens is that it is usually less efficient than comparable reflector antennas because of dielectric losses in the materials, reflections from the lens
radians).
compared with the
from the steps in a zoned lens. Although it is dangerous to from these sources in a stepped lens might be 1 or 2 db. 40 The lack of suitable solid or artificial dielectric materials has limited the development of lenses. The problem of dissipating heat from large dielectric lenses, such as the Luneburg, can sometimes restrict their use to moderate-power or receiving applications. Conventional lenses are usually large and heavy, unless zoned. To reduce the loss caused by scattering from the steps in a zoned lens, the ratio of the focal length /to the antenna diameter D must be made large. The//Z> ratio of zoned lenses might be of the order of unity or more. Lenses which must scan by positioning of the feed should also have large fjD ratio. A large///) requires a greater mechanical structure because the feeds are bigger and must be supported farther from the lens.
surfaces, or scattering
generalize, additional losses
7.7.
Array Antennas
array antenna consists of a number of individual radiating elements suitably spaced with respect to one another. The relative amplitude and phase of the signals applied to each of the elements are controlled to obtain the desired radiation pattern from the combined action of all the elements. The radiating elements might be dipoles, waveguide horns, or any other type of antenna. An array consists of no less than two
An
7 7
-i
Antennas
The maximum number
is
295
elements
by practical considerations. There antennas containing large numbers of elements is no fundamental reason why array if it were necessary to do so. (thousands, ten of thousands, or more) could not be built and the reflector. The lens lens the both from concept in differs The array antenna
limited only
and the
it is apply the proper phase relationships to the wavefront after is feed the leaving on wavefront the of radiated by the point-source feed. The shape In reflector. the or lens the of action the by wave plane It is converted to a
reflector
spherical
are applied to the signal before it is the array antenna, the proper phase relationships individual elements. the radiated, that is, in the transmission lines feeding needed across the array to distribution the aperture, Just as with any other radiating from Fourier-transdetermined be may pattern radiation far-field achieve the desired efficiency but maximum in results The uniform amplitude distribution form theory expense ol the at sidelobes lower in results tapered distribution large sidelobes the other radar antennas, the phase distribution across
reduced
Unlike which can be readily controlled and is one of the characteristics array an of aperture or a lens a uses which one from array an distinguish the design of a radar system using
efficiency.
reflector.
main beam. phases between the elements determine the position of the of the Scanning fixed. also is pattern radiation If the phases are fixed, the antenna entire the moving mechanically by accomplished be beam formed by an array can also be steered by varying the relacan beam the However, structure. array-antenna the array. tive phase shift between the elements of the linear Two common geometrical forms of array antennas of interest in radar are straight in a arranged elements of consists array linear A array. array and the planar A planar array is a two-dimensional configuration of elements line in one dimension. of as a linear array of linear arranged to lie in a plane. The planar array may be thought the direction of maxiwhich in array planar or a linear is a A broadside array arrays or almost perpendicular, to the line (or plane) of the
The
relative
mum
radiation
is
perpendicular,
array
An
endfire array has
its
maximum
The linear array generates a fan radiation is perpendicular to the array. than broadside, the radiation pattern is a conical-shaped beam.
beam when
radiation parallel to the array. the phase relationships are such that the When the radiation is at some angle other
The broadside linear-
plane and narrow beamwidth array antenna may be used where broad coverage in one also act as a feed for a paracan array linear The desired. are plane in the orthogonal The combination of the linear-array feed and the parabolic bolic-cylinder antenna. possible with either a simple cylinder generates a more controlled fan beam than is of a linear array and combination The parabola. of a linear array or with a section parabolic cylinder can also generate a pencil beam. array when the beam is The endfire array is a special case of the linear or the planar widely used in radar been not have arrays linear Endfire directed along the array. gains since an endfire linear medium or low to limited usually are They applications. Small endfire arrays are antenna of high gain requires an excessively long array. if directive elements are array broadside of a sometimes used as the radiating elements as low-silhouette employed also are elements endfire of arrays Linear required.
antennas.
^ probably the one of most interest in radar A antennas. versatile of all radar applications since it is fundamentally the most A square or a circular aperture rectangular aperture can produce a fan-shaped beam. generate many simultaneously to made be can produces a pencil beam. The array aperture. same with the beams tracking search and/or The antennas Many of the early radars developed in the late 1930s used array with compared UHF) lower or (VHF low relatively frequencies of these radars were
.
.
The two-dimensional planar array
is
296
[Sec. 7.7
although they were high for that period. Large-aperture antennas can be designed at VHF and UHF with relatively few radiating elements. The array antenna was also used extensively in communications work prior to World War II and its performance and design were probably better understood by the preradar 'antenna engineer than were reflector antennas or lenses. Because large antenna apertures are necessary for high-performance, long-range radars, the array is more practical at lower frequencies than at higher frequencies, since more elements are required to fill the same physical aperture at the higher frequencies. Other types of array antennas are possible than the linear or the planar arrangements For example, the elements might be arranged on the surface of a cylinder to obtain 360 coverage (360 coverage may also be obtained with a number of planar arrays) The radiating elements might also be mounted on the surface of a sphere, or indeed on an object of any shape, provided the phase at each element is that needed to give a plane wave when the radiation from all the elements is summed in space. Interest in array antennas for radar applications waned with the development of microwave radar and the application of optical techniques to microwaves The reflector proved to be a simpler antenna than the array in the sizes required for microwave frequencies. It was more convenient to design and manufacture and was reliable in operation The reflector is a popular form of antenna and one difficult to displace
later radars,
by rnore sophisticated techniques.
signals in adjacent elements is y> 2M.d/X) sin 6, where 6 is the direction of the incoming radiation It is further assumed that the amplitudes and phases of the signals at
.
antenna elements, the transmitters, the receivers, and the data-processing portions of the radar are often designed as a unit. A given radar might work equally well with a mechanically positioned array, a lens, or a reflector antenna if they each had the same radiation pattern, but such a radar could not be converted efficiently to an electronically scanned array by simple replacement of the antenna alone because of the interdependence of the antenna and the other portions of the radar. Radiation Pattern?,- * Consider a linear array made up of elements equally spaced a distance d apart (Fig. 7.33). The elements are assumed to be isotropic point sources radiating uniformly in all directions with equal amplitude and phase. Although isotropic elements are not realizable in practice, they are a useful concept in array theory, especially for the computation of radiation patterns. The effect of practical elements with nonisotropic patterns will be considered later. The array is shown as a receiving antenna for convenience, but because of the reciprocity principle, the results obtained apply equally well to a transmitting antenna. The outputs of all the elements are summed via lines of equal length to give a sum output voltage Ea Element 1 will be taken as the reference signal with zero phase. The difference in the phase of the
1
compared with more conventional antennas are its high cost and the complexity resulting from the many additional components. An array in which the relative phase shift between elements is controlled by electronic devices is called an electronically scanned array. In an electronically scanned array
the
In the 1950s, as interest in extremely long range radars increased, the array antenna received renewed attention, primarily because of its inherent ability to electronically steer a beam without the necessity of moving large mechanical structures. This is an important advantage if the antenna is large. Other advantages of the array are that more than one beam can be generated with the same aperture, large peak powers can be radiated, and the aperture illumination can be more readily controlled than in a singlefeed antenna. Lower sidelobes can be achieved, in principle. It is the flexibility ottered by the many individually controlled elements in an array antenna that makes it attractive for radar applications. However, the ability to control each individual element results in a complex and expensive radar. Its major
disadvantages
when
each
Sec. 7.7]
Antennas
297
element are weighted uniformly. Therefore the amplitudes of the voltages in each element are the same and, for convenience, will be taken to be unity. The sum of all the voltages from the individual elements, when the phase difference between adjacent
elements
is
y,
can be written
Ea =
where
sin cot
sin (cot
y)
sin (cot
2y)
+
y
h sin
[cot
(N
66
l)y]
(7.29)
co is
the angular frequency of the signal.
The sum can be

sin (JVy/2)
sin (y/2)
1)
written
sin
cot
(N
(7.30)
The first
l)y/2 (if the phase factor is a sine wave of frequency to with a phase shift (N reference were taken at the center of the array, the phase shift would be zero), while the
Incoming signal
Fig. 7.33. TV-element linear array.
second term represents an amplitude factor of the form sin (iVy/2)/sin (y/2). radiation pattern is equal to the normalized square of the amplitude, or
The
G a(6)
If the spacing
\Ef
2
sin
2
[NirjdlX) sin 0]
2
N ~N
(7.31)
sin
\jr(djX) sin 0]
Eq. (7.3 1)
to
is
between antenna elements is A/2 and if the sine in the denominator of replaced by its argument, the half-power beamwidth is approximately equal
=
The
first
10L8
N
is
(7 32)
13.5 db below the main beam, and the The pattern of a uniformly illumi268). 1 , p. height of nated array with elements spaced A/2 apart is similar to the pattern produced by a continuously illuminated uniform aperture [Eq. (7.16)]. Equation 7.31 predicts a second beam equal in magnitude to the main beam, but
sidelobe, for
N sufficiently
1
large,
the last sidelobe is
jN 2
(Ref.
displaced by 180. To avoid ambiguities and confusion, this backward radiation is usually eliminated by placing a reflecting or an absorbing screen behind the antenna For this reason only the radiation over the forward half of the antenna array.
(90
<
<
90)
is
considered.
As long
as the spacing
between elements of the array
is
K\2 or less, the sidelobe
radiation will
be small compared with the main beam.
When
the spacing between
298

is
[Sec. 7.7
greater than half a wavelength, additional lobes can appear in the antenna radiation pattern with amplitude equal to that of the main beam. These are called grating lobes, or secondary principal maxima. They are due to the radiation from the
elements
elements adding in phase in those directions for which the relative path lengths are integral multiples of 2tt radians. The positions of the grating lobes can be found from
Eq. (7.31).
or when elements
is
They occur whenever both

6
For example, when the spacing d between two wavelengths, grating lobes will occur at 6 = 30 and 6 = 90. If the grating lobes are allowed to exist, they might lead to confusion, since targets viewed by the grating lobes cannot be distinguished from targets viewed by the main beam. Therefore the element spacing should be no greater than a half wavelength if
tt(<//A) sin
= 0, n, 2v,
the numerator and the denominator are zero,
etc.
full 90 coverage is desired. If less than full coverage is satisfactory, the grating lobes produced in a widely separated array can be reduced or eliminated over a smaller scanning range by elements with directive rather than isotropic radiation patterns.
When
directive elements are used, the resultant array antenna radiation pattern
is
G(6)
GM N
N^H^l = <***&)
sin"*
(7-33)
lTT(d/A) sin v\
where
pattern
is the radiation pattern of an individual element. The resultant radiation the product of the element factor Ge {6) and the array factor G (0), the latter a being the pattern of an array composed of isotropic elements. The array factor has
e (Q)
is
also been called the space factor. Grating lobes caused by a widely spaced array may therefore be eliminated with directive elements which radiate little or no energy in the directions of the undesired lobes.
only an approximation, which may be seriously inadequate for design. It should be used with caution. It ignores mutual coupling, 67 and it does not take account of the scattering or diffraction of radiation by the adjacent array elements or of the outward-traveling-wave coupling. 68 These effects cause the element radiation pattern to be different when located within the array in the presence of the other elements than when isolated in free space. In order to obtain an exact computation of the array radiation pattern, the pattern of each element must be measured in the presence of all the others. The array pattern may be found by summing the contributions of each element, taking into account the proper amplitude and phase. In a two-dimensional, rectangular planar array, the radiation pattern may sometimes be written as the product of the radiation patterns in the two planes which conis
Equation (7.33)
many problems of array
tain the principal axes of the antenna,
planes are
G^dJ and G 2 (da ),
If the radiation patterns in the two principal the two-dimensional antenna pattern is
G(6M =
Note
that the angles 6 e
.
GtfJGJBJ
(7.34)
and 6a are not necessarily the elevation and azimuth angles normally associated with radar. 70 183 The normalized radiation pattern of a uniformly
illuminated rectangular array
is
G(0 d ) "
si
" 2 l>K<*M) sin

sin
2
fll
sin
iMnjd/X)
sin flj
(
|>(d/A) sin
0J
sin 2
[^d/A)
sin B
in d a dimension with spacing d dimension Beam Steering. The beam of an array antenna may be steered rapidly in space without moving large mechanical masses by properly varying the phase of the signals applied to each element. Consider an array of equally spaced elements. The spacing between adjacent elements is d, and the signals at each element are assumed
where
M = number
TV
number of radiating elements

in d e
Sec. 7.7]
Antennas
299
to all elements, the relative phase of equal amplitude. If the same phase is applied position of the main beam will be the difference between adjacent elements is zero and beam will point in a direction main The 0. angle broadside to the array at an between elements is other than other than broadside if the relative phase difference difference .is of the main beam is at an angle O when the phase
zero
</>
The
. . .
direction
O
.
The phase at each element is any con(N 1), and c 0, 1, 2, V The elements. all to applied phase stant
2t7(J/A) sin
,
is
therefore
</> c
m0, where
m-
</>
normalized radiation pattern of the array when the relative phase difference beis given by tween adjacent elements is
<f>
Zm
|
sin
[JV77(rf/A)(sin
2
()
sin
|XdM)(sin
- sin - sin
fl
)]
O )]
L
.
'
(7.36)
pIG
7.34.
Steering
of an
antenna beam with
The maximum occurs when sin
of the radiation pattern
variable-phase shifters (parallel-fed array).
sin
Equation (7.36) states that the main lobe of the antenna pattern may be positioned to the array. an angle O by the insertion of the proper phase shift < at each element of steered as the be beam may the used, are shifters phase fixed, than rather If variable, mechanically phase is changed (Fig. 7.34). The phase-shifting device might be either phase electronic or mechanical with Steering of the beam or electronically controlled by obtained can be than greater magnitude of orders speeds scanning results in
.
O.
shifters
mechanically positioning the entire antenna structure. Change ofBeamwidth with Steering Angle. The half-power beamwidth in the plane beamwidth is of scan increases as the beam is scanned off the broadside direction. The from the measured angle the is where cos proportional to inversely O approximately O
,
This may be proved by assuming that the sine in the denomipattern is nator of Eq. (7.36) can be replaced by its argument, so that the radiation 2 antenna 2 2 2 (sin u)/u The sin X)(sin Nw(d/ ). where u u)/u O of the form (sin Denote by + the 0.443tt. pattern is reduced to half its maximum value when u correspondangle the and 0_, O angle corresponding to the half-power point when and +0.443tt to u corresponds is, that when point + ing to the half-power O 69 expression for u can be written the in 6 term sin 6 The sin 0.44377. u Q_ to
normal to the antenna.
>
<
sin 6
sin
sin (0
O)
cos
[1
cos (0
O)]
sin
O O is
(7.37)
The second term on the right-hand (beam is near broadside), so that

sin
side of Eq. (7.37)
can be neglected when

cos
small
sin 6
s sin (0
O)
(7.38)
points of the Using the above approximation, the two angles corresponding to the 3-db antenna pattern are Q.443A p 443A 0+ " 0o = Sm
^
_,
N</cos0o ~N<icos0 o
-0.443A
-0.443A
?&
=
is
sin
Nd cos
Nd cos
The half-power beamwidth
6B
0.
-^Nd
O
(7-39)
cos 6 n
off broadside, the
Therefore, when the beam is positioned an angle _1 plane of scan increases as (cos O)
.
beamwidth in the
300
[Sec. 7.7
The change in beamwidth with angle as derived above is not valid when O the antenna beam is too far removed from broadside. It certainly does not apply when the energy
is
Eq. (7.38)]
radiated in the endfire direction. more exact expression for the beamwidth [obtained without the approximation of
is
eB
sin
^0.443
sin
6U
sin" 1 (o.443
sin
(7 40)
sin
Care must be taken in the interpretation of Eq. (7.40) when the argument of the first 1 term is greater than unity, since a value of the sine greater than unity has no meaning. The antenna actually produces two beams, 6o=0 one of which is at an angle 6 the other at the angle 77 This follows from the fact that O (Fig. 7.35). sin = sin (tt 0). Therefore, as O approaches 90 (the endfire condition), the two beams overlap. If the antenna elements are in free space, both beams exist and merge to form the endfire beam at O = 90. If the array is above a reflecting or an absorbing ground plane, the antenna cannot radiate at angles greater than 90 and the antenna pattern must be modified accordingly. The angle 0' defining the boundary between the endfire and the broadside regions is that value of O which makes the argument of the first sin- 1 term of Eq. (7.35)
unity, or sin 0'
Fig. 7.35. Radiation pattern of an array in free space
= 1
0.443(A/AW).
showing beams at 6
and
The above analysis applies to the linear array. Bickmore has shown that a similar result applies to a planar aperture 69 that is, the beamwidth in the plane of the scan
;
O , provided certain assumptions are fulfilled. of scanning is to broaden the beamwidth in the plane of the scan, it cannot be concluded that the gain of the antenna always decreases in a similar fashion! Equation (7.36) for the linear array, or a similar expression for the planar array, shows that the maximum value of the gain or the field intensity is independent of the scan angle. The broadening of the beam is a direct consequence of the fact that the maximum gain remains constant. The preceding statement is not readily obvious from an examination of the pattern in two dimensions since the antenna radiation pattern is three-dimensional. (Schelkunoff and Friis 64 prove that the directive gains of continuous linear antennas in the limiting cases of broadside and endfire radiation are equal to 4a/ A, where a is the antenna length, assumed large compared with the wavelength 1) In a practical array, however, the gain will change with scan angle because of changes in the mutual coupling between elements. The gain of an antenna will also vary with scan angle in a manner determined by the pattern of the element within the arrav
varies approximately inversely as cos
Although the
effect
[Eq. (7.33)].
In Fig. 7.36, <f> is taken to be a constant value of 90 and the beam is scanned in the coordinate. At (beam broadside to the array) a symmetrical pencil beam of half-power width B is assumed. The shape of the beam at the other angular positions is the projection of the circular beam shape on the surface of the unit sphere. It can be seen that as the
axes.
measured from the
for graphically portraying the variation of the beam shape with scan angle has been described by Von Aulock, 70 an example of which is shown in Fig. 7.36. The antenna radiation pattern is plotted in spherical coordinates as a function of the two direction cosines, cos a and cos a, of the radius vector specifying the point of observation. The angle <f> is measured from the cos ol axis, and
x
is
An interesting technique
axis perpendicular to the cos a x
and cos av
0=0
'
Sec. 7.7]
Antennas
scanned in the d direction,
it
301
beam
the
cf>
is
broadens in that direction, but
is
constant in
direction.
For
0^0,
the beam, but
is eccentric.
beam shape is not symmetrical about the center of Thus the beam direction is slightly different from that
the
computed by standard formulas. In addition to the changes in the shape of the main beam, the sidelobes also change in appearance and position. Beam-forming Array. The inherent flexibility of the array antenna permits a number of beams to be generated simultaneously from the same aperture. Thus a
Fig. 7.36.
Beamwidth and
eccentricity of the
scanned beam.
{From Von
Aulock,'"' courtesy Proc.
IRE.)
antenna can be made to look in all directions at once, within the The ability to limitation imposed by the radiation pattern of the antenna elements. This is not transmission. than reception on easier usually is beams form many necessarily a disadvantage since it is a useful method of operating an array in many systems applications. Therefore the beam-forming array will be discussed primarily
single receiving
as a receiving antenna. The simple linear array
which generates a single beam can be converted to a multiplebeam antenna by attaching additional phase shifters to the output of each element. Each beam to be formed requires one additional phase shifter, as shown in Fig. 7.37. The simple array in this figure is shown with but three elements, each with three sets of phase shifters. One set of phase shifters produces a beam-directed broadside to the array (6 = 0). Another set of three phase shifters generates a beam in the d = +0 O The third set of phase shifters generates a beam in the direction = 6 direction. 1 The angle 6 is determined by the relationship O = sin" (^Xjl-nd), where A< is the
.
phase difference inserted between adjacent elements. Amplifiers may be placed between the individual antenna elements and the beam-forming (phase-shifting) networks to amplify the incoming signal and compensate for any losses in the beam-forming networks. Low-noise amplifiers should be used if the signal-to-noise ratio is to be maximized. The output of each amplifier is subdivided into a number of independent signals which are individually processed as if they were from separate receivers. When beams are formed in networks placed after the RF amplifiers the antenna is The beamcalled a postamplification beam-forming array, abbreviated PABFA. forming networks may be at either RF or IF. The circuitry (not shown) which follows
302
[Sec. 7.7
Beam
No. 3
Til
Beam
No.2
Beam
No.1
Fig. 7.37. Simultaneous postamplifier

|0i
9o\
|A0|
beam formation
using array antenna,
<h
|277(rf/A)sin 0|.
constant pha r
7
1
^7
1
L0
r
.
Mixer
Mixer
Mixer
1
>
(^
\Anno/
no/
f^
>
'
\Amp/
,
Beam
No.t
Toppe i
lines
1
c
o o
_.
Beam
No.2
o o
o o
.
Beam
No. 3
F[G. 7.38. Beam-forming network using tapped delay lines at IF.
Sec. 7.7]
Antennas
in Fig. 7.37
is
303
the
summing networks
conventional radar receivers.
The
indicator
first
display for a
PABF A is slightly different from that of the usual radar. The output of a
being
PABFA
radar can be applied directly to a data-processing device without
displayed to
an operator.
convenient method of obtaining a receiving beam-forming network at IF is with the use of a series of tapped delay lines as illustrated in Fig. 7.38. The tapped delay The phase of the IF is the same as that of the RF since phase is lines are shown at IF.
Crossed-line directional coupler
>^
Waveguide
Fig. 7.39.
RF
beam-forming network using tapped transmission
lines.
preserved during a frequency translation (except for the constant phase shift introduced by the local oscillator). The RF. beam-forming principle shown in Fig. 7.39 is used in the AHSR-1 height finder (Fig. 10.3) built by the Maxson Corporation for the Federal Aviation Agency.
The waveguide transmission
Energy is tapped from each lines act as the delay lines. to form beams at various couplers directional by the appropriate points waveguide at Considerable waveguide is used in arrays of this type. The Maxson elevation angles.
height finder used 30 miles of 5-band waveguide to produce 333 beams. Another RF beam-forming device is the parallel-fed network attributed to " 188 By properly utilizing 3-db directional couplers or hybrid junctions, with Butler. 185
fixed phase shifters,
beams with an ^-element array. and the Bootlace 190 antenna, which is a form of parasitic array lens, are also capable of RF beam forming. The Butler, Maxson, Mubis, and the Bootlace beam-forming devices are passive and therefore can be used for both transmission and reception. The Luneberg lens can be used as a beam-forming network to form multiple beams
it is
possible to form n overlapping
The Mubis 189 antenna, which uses a
parallel-plate lens,
71 In this capacity it acts as an in conjunction with a circular or a spherical array. phase relationships for the correct gives the analog computer which automatically
spherical array.
The Luneberg
lens can also be used, of course, to generate multiple
beams
directly, as described in Sec. 7.6.
Signal-to-noise Ratio.
The
signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the
summing
304
[Sec. 7.7
network is theoretically the same as that of a conventional radar using a single large antenna to produce the same antenna beam. There need be no loss in the signal-tonoise ratio due to the forming of the beams in an array antenna, provided the array and its circuitry are properly designed. The amplifiers must have sufficient gain to overcome any losses in the beam-forming networks. Noise components from parts of
Since the signal comthe receiver other than the RF amplifier should be kept small. ponents are added coherently in the summing networks of the array, while the noise components are added incoherently, there is, in principle, no loss as compared with a
The above explanation is qualitative and does not constitute mathematical proof of the equivalence of the signal-to-noise ratio of a PABFA and a conventional radar was given by Rush. 72 Comparison of PABFA with Scanning-beam Radar. In principle, a radar with a postamplification beam-forming array is equivalent in over-all performance to a radar with a single scanning beam, provided the comparison is made on a similar basis and For that the received signals are processed in the optimum manner in each case. purposes of comparison, let it be assumed that the PABFA radar consists of a receiving array generating a number of overlapping narrow beams fixed in space. The separate transmitting array is assumed to generate a single broad beam illuminating the same volume of space as covered by the multitude of receiving beams. For example, the receiving antenna might generate one hundred and eighty 1 pencil beams arranged to cover an angular sector 90 in azimuth and 2 in elevation. The transmitting pattern The single broad transmitting beam and the is therefore a single fan beam 90 by 2. many narrow receiving beams are fixed in space, and the composite effect is that of
single-channel radar.
a proof.
many
fixed radar
beams operating
in parallel.
A scanning radar with a single narrow beam must cover the volume by time sharing.
In the above example, a single 1 by 1 transmitting and receiving pencil beam would cover the 90 by 2 volume by making an observation in each of the angular resolution cells in sequence. The receiving antennas of the PABFA and the scanning radar are assumed to be of the same effective area, but the gain of the transmitting antenna used with PABFA is Therefore less than that of the scanning array since it has a considerably broader beam. the signal-to-noise ratio of each received pulse will be less with the PABFA radar than
with the radar which uses a single scanning beam. However, this is compensated by the fact that the fixed receiving beams of the PABFA receive many more pulses per unit time from a target than does a scanning time-shared beam. It can be readily shown that the total energy contained in the many small pulses from the PABFA radar is the same as the total energy contained in the few large pulses received from a scanning single-beam radar, all other factors being equal. Therefore, if the energy available in the received signals is processed properly in both cases, the detection capability will be the same and the performance of the two radars will be equivalent. In practice, the two radars may not be exactly equivalent because it may not always
be convenient or possible to process the signals in an optimum manner in both cases. pulses of small signal-to-noise ratio obtained in the PABFA must be integrated before detection (coherent integration) if the total signal-to-noise ratio is to be equal to n times the signal-to-noise ratio of a single pulse. Coherent integration is not always Because of practical. Postdetection, or noncoherent, integration is more often used. the nonlinear effects of the second detector, the total signal-to-noise ratio with postdetection integration is less than n times the signal-to-noise ratio of a single pulse and The smaller the signal-to-noise ratio per pulse, there is an integration loss (Sec. 2.6). The individual pulses obtained with the scanningthe greater the integration loss. beam radar are of larger signal-to-noise ratio than those obtained with the PABFA radar. There are fewer of them, making the total integration loss less with the
The n
Sec. 7.7]
Antennas
305
scanning-beam radar. Therefore the PABFA radar may be slightly less efficient than the scanning-beam radar when the integration is performed noncoherently. The data rate of the two radars can be shown to be the same for equivalent detection The data rate of the scanning-beam capability, assuming ideal coherent integration. radar is the time taken by the beam to cover the entire volume and return to the same The scanning radar views the target but once during the scan time, resolution cell. Only one while the PABFA radar with its fixed beams views the target continuously.
detection decision
radar in this time since it must integrate all is made by the the received by the scanning radar on a order to equal energy energy in available the
single observation.
PABFA
^-/V \
>
>
V\
>
/f\
>
/>V
(a)
V
i i
*-/j\
-9\ /
ib)
Fig. 7.40. Arrangements for applying phase relationships in an array, (a) Series array, fed from one end; (6) series array, center-fed; (c) parallel-fed array with power-dividing network.
Series vs. Parallel Feeds. The relative phase shift between adjacent elements of the 2ir(d/X) sin 6 in order to position the main beam of the radiation array must be ef> The necessary phase relationships between the elements may pattern at an angle d be obtained with either a series-fed or a parallel-fed arrangement. In the series-fed arrangement, the energy may be transmitted from one end of the line (Fig. 7.40a), or it may be fed from the center out to each end (Fig. 7.406). The adjacent elements are connected by a phase shifter with phase shift <f>. All the phase shifters are identical and introduce the same amount of phase shift, which is less than 2-rr radians. In the parallel-fed array of Fig. 7.40c, the energy to be radiated is divided between the elements by a power splitter. Equal lengths of line transmit the energy to each element The so that no unwanted phase differences are introduced by the lines themselves. proper phase change is introduced by the phase shifters in each of the lines feeding the When the phase of the first element is taken as the reference, the phase shifts element.
,(N required in the succeeding elements are <f>, 2<f>, 3<f>, \)<f>. The maximum phase change required of each phase shifter in the parallel-fed array Because phase shift is periodic with period 2n, it is possible is many times 277 radians.
. . .
306

applications to use a phase shifter with a
[Sec. 7.7
in some maximum of but 2tt radians. However, if the pulse width is short compared with the antenna response time (if the signal bandwidth is large compared with the antenna bandwidth), the system response may be degraded. For example, if the energy were to arrive in a direction other than broadside, the entire array would not be excited simultaneously. The combined outputs from the parallel-fed elements will fail to coincide or overlap, and the received pulse will be smeared. This situation may be relieved by replacing the 277 modulo phase shifters with delay lines. A similar phenomenon occurs in the series-fed array when the energy is radiated or If a short pulse is applied at one end of a received at or near the broadside direction. series-fed transmitting array, radiation of energy by the first element might be completed On reception, the effect before the remainder of the energy reaches the last element. is to smear or distort the echo pulse. It is possible to compensate for the delay in the series-fed array and avoid distortion of the main beam when the signal spectrum is wide by the insertion of individual delay lines of the proper length in series with the radiating
elements. 73
In a series-fed array containing n phase shifters, the signal suffers the insertion loss of a single phase shifter n times. In a parallel-fed array the insertion loss of the phase Hence the phase shifter in a series-fed array must be shifter is introduced but once. of lower loss compared with that in a parallel-fed array. If the series phase shifters are too lossy, amplifiers can be inserted in each element to compensate for the signal
attenuation.
Since each phase shifter in the series-fed linear array of Fig. 7.40a has the same value shift, only a single control signal is needed to steer the beam. The A^-element parallel-fed linear array similar to that of Fig. 7.40c requires a separate control signal
of phase
A two1 total (one phase shifter is always zero). dimensional parallel-fed array of elements requires 2 separate control The two-dimensional series-fed array requires but two control signals. signals. Thus the series-fed array introduces more loss than a parallel-fed array, but it is easier to program the necessary phase shifts. Neither feeding arrangement, however, seems unequivocally to excel the other in all situations. The final choice between the two will usually depend upon the system application. Resonant and Nonresonant Series-fed Arrays. Series-fed arrays radiating in the broadside direction may be classed as either resonant or nonresonant. A resonant array is one in which the elements are spaced exactly one-half wavelength apart. It
for each phase shifter, or
MN
M+ N
radiates a beam normal to the array, and its impedance is well matched at the design frequency. The impedance match is obtained not only by choosing the impedances of the elements properly, but by adjusting a short-circuiting plunger at the end of the The short dissipates no power. Since the elements are spaced a half wave array.
apart,
any energy
is
reflected
by the short
circuit is radiated as
array, just as
all
the energy propagated in the forward direction.
beam normal to the It can be shown that
the elements of the resonant array couple equal power from the waveguide or transmission line and that there is no attenuation in a line loaded with pure series or pure shunt elements spaced at half-wavelength intervals. 1 Hence the aperture is uniformly
illuminated.
The chief limitation of the resonant array is its very narrow bandwidth. If the operating frequency is changed from the design frequency, the spacing between the elements is no longer a half wavelength, the impedance contributions of the elements do not all add at the input, and the array is not properly matched. The radiation pattern and the impedance of the array deteriorate with a change in frequency. In addition, the array is no longer uniformly illuminated and the radiated beam is not perfectly normal to the array. The usable bandwidth of a resonant array of elements is
Sec. 7.7]
Antennas
307
per cent. 5 Therefore practical resonant arrays cannot be approximately 50/ made too long. Small variations in the element spacings have a similar effect on a resonant array as a change in frequency. The limited-bandwidth restriction of a resonant array can be removed by making the spacing between the elements differ from a half wavelength. An array of this type is Although the nonresonant array eliminates the poor impedance called nonresonant. match and improves the bandwidth, it introduces other problems. The radiated beam
is
this
not normal to the array. In some cases might prove to be a limitation, but it is the type of problem which can be tolerated
in
To arroy elements
Open
transmission
nes,
most applications.
In the nonresonant array there must be no power reflected from the end of the array after the energy in the transmission line
has passed the last element. Any reflected energy will radiate from the antenna as an undesired lobe at an angle 6, if the original
+6. The power end of the array must therefore be Ordinarily dissipated in a matched load. about 5 per cent of the total power gets beyond the last element and is dissipated as
wave
radiates at an angle
at the
heat.
Even with these limitations, the nonreso^Contacts to transmission line nant array is useful, especially when the narrow bandwidth of the resonant array Fig. 7.41. Principle of rotating-arm mechanical phase shifter. cannot be tolerated. any There are Devices. Phase-shifting number of devices which can provide the proper phase shifts at the elements of an They may be classed as (1) fixed phase shifters, (2) variable phase shifters array. actuated by mechanical means, and (3) variable phase shifters controlled by electronic means. One of the simplest methods of obtaining a fixed phase shift is with a length of transmission line. Fixed phase shifts are utilized in array antennas which generate fixed
as, for example, the postamplification beam-forming array described previously. Variable-phase-shift devices are based on changing the electrical length of a transmission line. The electrical length may be changed by physically shortening or lengthening the line. Most mechanical phase shifters are based on this principle. Electronic phase shifters operate by changing the (electrical) length of line by electronic
beams,
means.
One of the simplest forms of mechanical phase shifters is a transmission line designed with a telescopic section whose length can be varied. This is called a line stretcher. The telescoping section may be in the shape of a U, and the total length of line is changed
in a
manner similar to a slide trombone. Another phase shifter which has been used in array radar is the rotating-arm mechaniphase
shifter (Fig. 7.41).
-
cal
65 74 It consists of a number of concentric transmission trough with an insulated conductor passing square three-sided Each line is a lines. moving arm makes contact down the middle. (Details of the line are not shown.) with each circular assembly. The arms are rotated to produce a continuous and uniform variation of phase across the elements of the array. When the phase at one
end of the concentric line is increasing, the phase at the other end is decreasing. Hence one line can supply the necessary phase variation to two elements, one on either side of
308
[Sec. 7.7
A total of N/2 concentric rings are required for a linear array of N + I The progressively greater phase variation required at the outer elements of the array as compared with the phase variation at the inner elements is readily obtained with the concentric-ring configuration. The outer rings, being larger, feed the outer elements of the array, while the inner rings feed the inner elements. The rotating-arm phase shifter has been used in a VHF height-finder radar 75 and in the Air Force Camarray center.
elements.
bridge Research Center
VHF experimental scanning radar called Billboard. 74 A change in phase in a waveguide transmission line may be obtained by changing the
The wavelength of the
radiation propagated in the guide
is
dimensions of the guide.
2*
Concentric coupled helix sections
69
Fig. 7.42. Schematic representation of helical-line
trombone phase
shifter.
Several phase-shifting devices have been based on this This technique has been applied to ground-controlled-approach (GCA) scanning radar 77 and to the AN/APQ-7 (Eagle) scanner. 78 mechanical device which gives more phase shift for a given amount of motion than a conventional line stretcher is the helical-line phase shifter due to Stark. 79 80 A schematic representation is shown in Fig. 7.42. Two helical lines 1-4 and 5-8 are coupled electromagnetically to one another by the helices 2-3 and 6-7. Each of the short coupled helices behaves as a directional coupler which transfers all the power
principle. 5
'
dependent on the guide width.

76
from or
minal
3.
to the
1
main
helix.
signal incident
at terminal
completely transferred to terTerminals 2 and 4 are not excited

is
Fixed
section
Fig. 7.43. Principle of the rotary-waveguide
The signal crosses the bridge and is completely transferred to terminal 5. Likewise, terminals 6 and 8 are not excited. The helical-line phase shifter acts as a trombone line stretcher for a signal propagated from terminal 1 to terminal 5. The path length, and hence the phase shift, through the device is varied by mechanically positionin the process.
to terminal 7
ing the coupled helices. Since terminals 4, 2, 6, and 8 are not excited by the signal traveling from terminals 1 to 5, a complementary phase shifter may be had by bridging terminals 2 and 6 and passing the second signal from terminal 4 to terminal 8. The phase velocity on the helical transmission line is considerably less than the velocity of light. For this reason a given mechanical motion produces more phase
shifter.
phase
change than would a line stretcher in conventional transmission line. Thus a shorter phase shifter can be had which is especially advantageous at VHF or UHF frequencies.
The reduction
in length is essentially equal to the wind-up factor of the helix, which is the ratio of the circumference to the pitch. Wind-up factors may range from 10 to 20
in practical designs. 79
Sec. 7.7]
Antennas
shifter is the
309
Another mechanical
rotary-waveguide phase shifter based on the
The rotary-waveguide properties of circularly polarized waves in round waveguide. 81 phase shifter has been described in detail by Fox and was applied in the Bell Telephone scanning radar. 76 The rotary-waveguide phase shifter Laboratories' waveguide (Fig. 7.43). Sections I and III are fixed, round of sections three of consists
FH MUSA
while section II is free to rotate. Transition sections (not shown) might be employed and to to convert from rectangular waveguide to the round waveguide of section I Sections I and III are rectangular. back to III section of waveguide round convert the equivalent to quarter-wave plates. They convert linearly polarized waves into Fox calls these 90 differential-phase-shift circularly polarized waves, and vice versa. component in a particular plane is polarization of the velocity phase sections since the speeded up by 90 with respect to the polarization component in the orthogonal plane. The signal enters section I as a linearly polarized wave and is converted to a circularly Section II acts as a half-wave plate, or a 180 differential-phase-shift polarized wave. rotation by an angle 6 results in a 20-radian change in the time phase of the section. output signal. An interesting property of the 180 section is that it converts circular The phase-shifted circularly polarized polarization to the opposite sense of rotation. by the action of the quarter-wave polarized wave linearly back to a converted is wave
plate of section III.
A phase shifter of this type is simple and compact and has

shift is
little
attenuation.
The
obtained by the rotation of a round waveguide and can be made quite phase The mechanically rotating section II may be replaced by a ferrite Faraday rapid. rotator to produce an electronically controlled phase shifter with no mechanical
moving
phase
parts. 82 83
'
by placing mechanically adjustable short circuits in the collinear arms. A different form of mechanical beam steering is used in an array with spiral antenna elements. 85 86 The linearly polarized beam radiated by a flat, two-dimensional array of spirals may be scanned by rotating the individual spiral antenna elements. One degree of mechanical rotation corresponds to a phase change of one electrical degree. No additional phase-shifting devices are required. An array of spiral elements makes a simple scanning antenna. It is primarily useful in those applications where a broadband element is required and the power is not too high. The entire assembly, including the spiral radiators and feed networks, but possibly excluding the rotary joint, can be
shifter
-
A hybrid junction such as a magic T or its equivalent may be operated as a microwave 84
manufactured with printed circuit techniques. Helical radiating elements have also 87 been used in arrays to obtain phase shifts by rotation of the elements. The switching actuated. mechanically were above described All the phase shifters time required to position the phase shifter through a phase change of 360 depends on Switching times on the order of 0.1 sec or the type of phase shifter and its design. Although these speeds permit devices. mechanical with better are readily achieved antenna beams to be scanned considerably faster than is possible with a large antenna which must be positioned mechanically, even shorter switching times can be had with Switching times on the order of milliseconds electronically controlled phase shifters. Some devices are capable of microshifters. electronic most with commonplace are second switching times or better. may be obtained An electronically controlled phase shifter at microwave frequencies 88 A ferrite phase with ferrite materials, gaseous discharges, or traveling-wave tubes. shifter is a two-port RF transmission line in which the phase of the output signal is 89 Phase varied by changing the d-c magnetic field in which the ferrite is immersed. shifts of 360 can be obtained in a structure of relatively small size with magnetic fields of 100 oersteds or less and with insertion loss less than 1 db. Peak powers of several kilowatts are possible, and switching times can be made as short as tens of microseconds.
310
[Sec. 7.7
Ferrite devices are sensitive to temperature changes and hysteresis effects. The development of better materials might relieve this problem, or the device might be operated in a temperature-controlled environment. 90 The inconvenience of a tempera-
ture-controlled environment
ferrite
phase
shifter to precisely control the
available
from 10
Mc
with a feedback control loop about the 91 92 shift. Ferrite phase shifters are to millimeter wave frequencies. Ferroelectric phase shifters are
may be eliminated
phase
also possible.
Gaseous-discharge phase shifters are based upon the variation of the dielectric constant of the gaseous medium with the number of free electrons. The number of free electrons, and hence the phase, is a function of the current through the discharge. 93 Gaseous-discharge phase shifters can handle about 1 kw of power and have fast switching time, ease of control, and large phase variation per wavelength and can be adapted to a wide range of frequencies. 88 They are limited, however, to relatively low peak powers, as are ferrite phase shifters. It is difficult to obtain stable operating characteristics with long life in sealed-off tubes. Furthermore, gaseous-discharge phase shifters are often noisy. The traveling-wave tube may be made to provide a fast, electronically controlled phase shift by variation of the helix voltage. Relatively little voltage variation is required to obtain the necessary phase shifts. In a particular tube, 360 of phase change was obtained for a change of 18 volts on the helix. 88 An advantage of the traveling-wave tube as phase shifter is that the same device can give amplification over a wide bandwidth and can provide a low-noise figure. The traveling-wave tube is not a bilateral device as are most of the devices mentioned. Separate phase-shifting circuitry would therefore be required for transmitting and for receiving. Another method of obtaining an electronically controlled phase shift (due to Prof. W. H. Huggins of The Johns Hopkins University) is shown in Fig. 7.44. 71 94 95 signal of frequency f whose phase is to be shifted an amount is mixed with a control <f>, signal of frequency/,, in the first mixer. portion of the control frequency is passed through a delay line of length r. The output of the delay line is a signal of frequency/ with a phase delay equal to 2-nfc T. The phase-shifted control signal and the output of the first mixer are heterodyned in the second mixer. If the sum frequency is selected from the first mixer, the difference frequency is selected from the second mixer. The result is a signal with the same frequency as the input signal f but with the phase advanced by an amount <f>. If, on the other hand, the difference frequency were taken from the first mixer and the sum frequency from the second mixer, the output would be delayed in phase by the amount <f>. phase shift may also be obtained by terminating a transmission line with a pure reactance. The energy incident upon the reactive termination is reflected with a phase change that is a function of the magnitude of the reactance. The reactive termination may be operated in a circuit such as a circulator or a properly phased balanced circuit to separate the incident and the reflected waves. -The phase shift through the device is varied by changing the reactance of the termination. One method of obtaining an electrically variable reactance is with the varactor (variable-capacitance) diode. 96 An example is shown in Fig. 7.45 in which two variable-capacitance diodes are coupled by a waveguide short-slot hybrid junction. (Coaxial and strip-line equivalents can also be used.) The signal input at arm 1 is divided equally between arms 2 and 3. (The phase of the energy transferred from one line to the other is advanced 90 in the shortslot coupler.) The two signals are reflected by the diodes with a change in phase depending on the value of capacitance and recombine in arm 4. The capacitance, and hence the phase shift, is controlled by the bias voltage applied to the diodes. Phase shifters based on this principle have been constructed at frequencies ranging from to band. The spreading resistance of the variable-capacitance diodes causes an RF
> >
</>
UHF
Sec. 7.7]
Antennas
311
These phase shifters are compact, fast, and insertion loss of approximately 1 db. and have limited phase shift-bandwidth levels power efficient, but are limited to low
product. transmission Variable-capacitance diodes may also be used to switch fixed lengths of 191 192 is switched line that of length The lines as a discretely variable line stretcher. order to approxiavailable be must lengths of line number determines the phase. A lines might be of binary lengths (1,2, The shift. phase of increments needed the mate with digital-computer logic. 4 8, etc., units) so that the phase shift can be controlled or less, but the insertion microseconds of order the Diode switching times can be of is greater, generally, than the shifter phase transmission-line switched loss with the also be used as switches other RF phase shifters discussed. Ferrites or gas tubes can are discrete rather than shifts phase available the with this type of shifter. Because If the quantipattern. radiation antenna the in appear can lobes spurious continuous, For example, if negligible. zation level is sufficiently small, these spurious lobes are increment 22.5) the antenna gain the phase shift is quantized into four bits (smallest lobe is about 24 db below the spurious largest the and db approximately 0.1
.
is
reduced
main beam.
1st
fo + fc
2d
mixer
f Q
&
Variable-capacitance diode termination

t
mixer
Output
Delay
Input
Short-slot hybrid junction

Variable-capacitance diode termination
/*
Fig. 7.44. Schematic representation of the Huggins electronic phase shifter.
Fig. 7.45.
variable-capacitance diode
phase
shifter
using a short-slot hybrid
junction.
phase shift may also be obtained with amplitude adjustments only. An antenna consisting of elements spaced one-quarter wavelength apart with alternate elements in phase quadrature can be made to steer its beam by varying the amplitude at each element. 97 No phase shifters in the conventional sense are required. coupling Still another approach to the design of a steerable array is by controlling the
98 99 Normally, in an array made by cutting slots in the side of a of slot radiators. waveguide, the amplitude and phase of the energy coupled from the slots are fixed. However, the slot radiation can be controlled by means of discontinuities, such as stubs Irises, for example, can or irises, judiciously placed within the waveguide near the slot. be designed to be mechanically positioned by means external to the guide. Changes in Ferrite discontinuities iris position change the amount of coupling and the phase. within the guide can be made to electronically control the amplitude and phase of the Variations in coupling are obtained by varying the radiation coupled from the slot.
'
d-c magnetic field applied to the ferrite with an external electromagnet. change in relative phase between adjacent elements may be Frequency Scanning. obtained by a change in frequency. This principle can be used to scan a beam from an frequency-scanned antenna array if the phase shifters are frequency-dependent. might be represented by the series-fed array shown in Fig. 7.40a with fixed lengths of
transmission line connecting the elements. The total phase through a fixed length / of transmission line is lirfl/c, and thus is a function of the frequency/. The lines connecting adjacent elements of the series-fed frequency-scanned array are of equal length and chosen so that the phase at each element is the same when the frequency is the center frequency /. When the frequency is exactly /, the beam points straight ahead. As
Systems [Sec. 7 7 the frequency is increased above/ the phase through each length of transmission line increases and the beam rotates to one side. At frequencies below f the beam moves in the opposite direction.
,
,
312
Introduction to Radar
scanning. Some other phase-shifting technique may be used in conjunction with frequency scan to steer in the other dimension. The simplicity of frequency scanning is complicated by the relatively large frequency spectrum which must be available in order to scan, the beam over a reasonable angular sector. The electromagnetic frequency spectrum is quite crowded, especially at the
The implementation of a frequency-scanned-array radar is relatively straightforward The phase shifters are simple lengths of transmission line. Transmission lines can handle large power with low loss. They are reciprocal devices and may be used on transmission as well as on reception. The beam can be steered as rapidly as the frequency can be changed, provided the switching time is long compared with the time for the wave to transit the length of the array. Frequency scan is more appropriate for one-dimensional rather than two-dimensional
in principle.
$kr<
~^p^<
7"
v* 3
V-^
'4v,V^
'A^r<
/\-<
-VX:
\-^
P anar
'
Aa~
Srray
W th
'
SSmilthf
P hase
" shift
voIume tnc scan
in
two angular coordinates
(elevation
and
lower radar frequencies, and systems which require wide bandwidths must justify the need. Even when the wide-frequency band is available, the use of the spectrum to accomplish frequency scanning may preclude the use of frequency for other purposes such as for electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM), accurate range measurement' or resolution.
Two-dimensional Scanning. The beam generated by a two-dimensional planar array may be scanned in space by applying to each element the necessary phase shift required to position the beam in the desired direction (Fig. 7.46). An independently controlled phase shifter is attached to each element. The proper
phase is determined needed to scan an angle 6 in the azimuth plane and 0o m the elevation plane. If the antenna gain is high, the number of elements will be large and a large number of individual control signals are required to adjust all phase shifters to the correct value. For example, if the antenna beamwidth were 1 the array would consist of approximately 10,000 elements, arranged in a square with 100 elements on a side. A total of 10,000 control signals would be necessary if the phase of each element were controlled independently.
by superimposing the phase
shifts
It is possible to operate the array in such a manner that each phase shifter need not be controlled separately. considerable saving in the number of control signals can be
_ _i Sec. 7.7]
Antennas
elevation (Fig. 7.47).
313
had by steering the beam independently in azimuth and
An array
both scan since the phasing networks of this type is called a parallel-parallel structure receive the column same the in lie which elements the All planes are parallel-fed. To steer the beam in the in one plane. identical phase shift in order to steer the beam also receive the same row same orthogonal plane, all the elements that lie along the one unit lor purposes as considered be may row The elements in the same phase shift beconsidered one control Likewise, the elements in the same column may of control from the independence follows Applying the phase shifts by rows and by columns unit beam may be Eq. (7.34). by given as planes of radiation patterns in the principal proper horizontal the selecting by volume coverage the within steered to any position If, in the (elevation) displacement. (azimuth) displacement and the proper vertical
/^
/j^,
^^
Input
I
A
Azimuth controls
azimuth and elevation control signals Fig. 7.47. Volumetric scanning of a planar array with separate
(parallel-parallel structure).
example of the previous paragraph, phase shifting were carried out by rows and columns, when inonly 198 control signals would be needed instead of the 10,000 necessary dependent controls were used. might There are other combinations of series- and parallel-fed planar arrays which
elevation be employed. 67 In the series-series planar array all series phase shifters in the azimuth plane. plane take the same value, as do all the series phase shifters in the
Therefore, only two control signals are required. elevation planar array using frequency scan in azimuth and phase shifters to scan in This is an example of a parallel-series array. The antenna is diagramed in Fig. 7.48. may be considered as a number of frequency-scanned arrays placed side by side. The Frescan radar (Fig. 1.11) developed by Hughes Aircraft Co. uses an array in
which steering in elevation is accomplished with frequency scan and steering in azimuth acts by mechanical rotation. An end-fed frequency-scanned 40-element linear array is claimed that the beam can It reflector. parabolic-cylinder for a feed line-source
as a
of less be scanned an angle of more than 100 in elevation with a frequency excursion

314

[
Sec
7 7
In shipboard use, Frescan incorporates an electronic pitch-and-roll stabilization system that modifies the elevation and scanning pattern to compensate for r ship s motion.
than.10 per cent.
Array Elements. Almost any type of radiating element can be used as the building block of an array antenna. Detailed descriptions of the various radiators used for antennas may be found in the standard texts on antennas and will not be discussed here However, some of the radiating elements commonly found in arrays will be briefly J J mentioned.
The dipole is a simple radiating element which has been widely employed with both mechanically scanned and electronically scanned arrays. Another simple element related to the dipole is the slot cut into the side of a waveguide. A slot array is easier to construct at the higher microwave frequencies than a dipole array. The power coupled out of the guide by the slot is a function of the angle at which the slot is cut. When slots or dipoles spaced half wavelengths along the walls of a waveguide are fed in a series lashion, the phase of the elements must be alternated along the array since the field
V
Delay
line
Delay line
V
Delay
line
Variable
frequency
signal
T&r
v
V
Delay line
-
-A
fn
VOlUmetriC SCa " ning f a lanar arra usin P y g eievadon
fre
q uency =an
in
azimuth and phase-shift scan
!!? phase of the
'
^f
is
TJT'
The
coverage
direction.
slot
Chang6S phaSC by 18 in half a uide wavelength. Alternating the S elements causes the phase of the signal radiated from each element to be P a radlatCd by a Sl0t Can be Cha "ged 1 80 b tiltin ^ in the opposite y J? g T In a dipole array the phase can be reversed by reversing
and the dipole produce a
the dipole
relatively
is desired. When the required not too large, more directive elements can be used. Polyrods helices spira or logarithmically periodic-,- radiators have been directive elements are desired. The last-mentioned element (as well wen as ine the spiral radiator) is capable of large bandwidths.
where large angular coverage with a single array
broad radiation pattern and are used
s1
"
^^^J
>
8 den? ents f array antennaS must not onl have the proper radiation y P S bC tWeen elementS muSt be smaII 6? AIso the element pattern Tu ade n Wh u n plaC ed the P resence of the thers because of scattering and 68 rl ff diffraction effects." Those elements for which the mutual coupling is low, such as a
5E nSt
naSrn wll"
'
7 71
Antennas
315
to cause significant pattern directive polyrod, are usually physically large enough broadening due to diffraction by adjacent elements. input impedance of a Mutual coupling between the elements of an array causes the it would have if isolated in free impedance the from different be to radiating element but 103 - 106 Mutual coupling can be accounted for in the design of the array,
space because
practical to do so. a function of the scan angle, it may not always be pattern, a raised radiation poor in a result can elements mutual coupling between coupling is not important mutual general, In array. mismatched and a level, sidelobe sidelobe-level or beam-position accuracy, in antennas with modest requirements on of the beam is desired, or if the positioning precise if or but if extremely low sidelobes, The advantages of considered. be must effects mutual-coupling large, is scan angle arrays may be discrete-element of precise aperture control which is characteristic 107 negated by mutual coupling. have equal spacing Unequally Spaced Arrays. The vast majority of array antennas have properties however, between elements. Arrays with unequally spaced elements,
it is
Large
108 Two advantages claimed for that might be of advantage in certain applications. used as compared with an can be elements fewer that are arrays unequally spaced broadband operation is equally spaced array of comparable beamwidth and that
possible.
One method of obtaining an array with unequal spacing is to remove elements pseudorandom from an equally spaced array. More controlled techniques of a synthesis The spacings. element the random nature may be used, however, to prescribe are based on trial and of optimum configurations is a difficult task. Most designs
at
However, the unequally spaced array can be analyzed in terms of an equivalent whose pattern is uniformly spaced array, with a nonuniform amplitude distribution, 109 array. spaced unequally the the best mean-square representation for The gain of an array is proportional to the number of elements it contains. Therefore beamwidth "thinning out" by removing elements decreases the gain even though the unchanged as eleremains beamwidth If the might remain essentially unchanged. to increase must level sidelobe average the array, thinned-out in a ments are removed compensate for the decrease in gain. Spacing the elements of a thinned-out array
error.
tends to unequally rather than equally (with a spacing greater than a half wavelength) produced. be otherwise would that lobes grating "smear" the undesired An example of the radiation pattern of an unequally spaced linear array of 25 factor equal to elements is shown in Fig. 7.49. The abscissa Z is a universal pattern A is the spacings, unequal the of smallest the is sin 6 ), where dmin MinM)(sin and d is the angle to array, the normal to from the measured angle 6 is the wavelength, be which the main beam is steered. Plotting the pattern in terms of Z permits it to is shown Also angle. beam-steering of or frequency analyzed either as a function of
an abscissa scale
in degrees
which applies to the case of 6
and dmin
= 2A.
The
element spacing in the length of the array under these conditions is 1 00A. The closest center of the array. the at is 7.49 Fig. shown in antenna whose computed pattern is from the array outward manner controlled in a monotonically The spacings increase The element spacings are symmetrically placed with respect to center of the
center.
The axis. array consequently the radiation pattern is also symmetric about its show the relative phase to axis the Z side of either on plotted is pattern radiation relations between the various sidelobes. of A 100A array with 200 elements spaced A/2 apart has a theoretical beamwidth 51. The beamwidth of the 25-element thinned-out array of Fig. 7.49 is 0.65. If aperture with 4A spacing, the the same 25 elements were equally spaced over a 100A with a full aperture of 200 elements, obtained that with beamwidth would be comparable and 90. = 48.5, 30, B 14.5, at appear would lobes
but grating
316
[Sec. 7.7
It has also been shown that the sidelobe level of a nonuniformly spaced array with uniform excitation of the elements theoretically can be reduced in height to approximately 2/N times the main-lobe level, where is the number of elements, without
increasing the
beamwidth of the main
lobe. 182
The
principle of unequally spaced thinned-out arrays has been applied to radio-
astronomy telescopes to effect an over-all increase in economy without a significant decrease in beamwidth. 174 A linear array of 266 uneq ually spaced elements replaced a 388 equally spaced element array. A 0.3 beam was obtained which could be scanned 30. The element spacing was chosen to approximate a cosine-squared aperture illumination. This is an example of how unequal spacings can effect a "space taper"
20
S, deg, for
30
40
50
60
70
90
d m \ - 2X
1.0
1.6
J
0.2
'
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
1.8
2.0
/=
Fig. 7.49.
^(sintf-sintfo)
{Courtesy Electronic
Computed
radiation pattern of a 25-element unequally spaced array.
Communications, Inc.)
across the array aperture with the same approximate pattern properties (at least in the main lobe) as if an amplitude taper had been used. In transmitting applications space tapering permits a form of tapered aperture illumination with
vicinity of the
identical transmitting elements, each radiating the
same power.
application of the array in radar has been as a fixed-beam antenna scanned by the mechanical rotation of the entire antenna structure. Large mechanically rotated array antennas are more competitive with other antenna types at the lower radar frequencies than at the higher microwave frequencies. At the lower frequencies only a relatively small number of antenna elements are needed to obtain an array with large receiving cross section. The mechanically scanned array has the advantage of a compact structure as compared with an equivalent reflector or lens antenna. The array can be made relatively flat, whereas the reflector antenna must have some depth in order to support a feed at a distance from the main part of the antenna.
Radar Applications of the Array.
One important
Sec. 7.7]
_,
Antennas
317
mechanically rotated array antenna was the the early radars which used a operating at a frequency of 106 Mc. radar surveillance SCR-270 a ground-based of dipoles arranged in four columns of eight elements Its antenna was a planar array 0 in elevation, and the entire structure 28 in azimuth and 1 each. The beamwidth was ... rotated at 1 rpm. antenna for shipboard radar The compact size of an array makes it an attractive 111 rectangular-slotteddescribe a 12-ft-long Byers and Katchky applications slots operating at inclined alternately 128 of consisting waveguide linear-array antenna because of its antenna desirable especially an is waveguide The slotted band the slots between spacing the To avoid resonant effects, simplicity and compactness. inclined alternately were slots The wavelength. was made slightly different from a half transmission line waveguide in a occurs which 180 reversal phase to accommodate the array with nonresonant slot spacing, the beam every half wavelength. By making the center of the array, but it was not conmechanical pointed slightly to one side of the for which the antenna was designed. application particular sidered a limitation for the in elevation. 30 flared horn was used in the vertical plane to obtain more directivity
One of
The beamwidth was
0.7 by 16. for radar application was Another example of a rotating linear-array antenna 112 a linear array of 80 waveguide of consisted antenna The al. et McCoy described by array was 20 ft. The frequency of operation was 5-band, and the length of the horns and rigid waveguide of network complex by a The waveguide horn elements were fed Sidelobes a was 1 i by 30 fan beam. pattern antenna The dividers. coaxial-line power reported. were of 25 db or better over a 35 per cent bandwidth which steered the beam with The first application of a stationary array antenna Telephone Laboratories for Bell the by developed was mechanical phase shifters 113 The array was given the name MUSA short-wave radio reception in the early 1930s. rhombic antennas extending f which stood for multiple-unit steerable antenna. Six of 16 m and could be wavelength a at 2.5 beamwidth endfire mile in length generated a The array was later shifters. phase the 23 angle by elevation and 12 scanned between than less beamwidth 1 increased to 16 rhombics extending 2 miles with a War II in a microWorld during applied was The MUSA beam-steering technique polyrod elements 115 116 of array an 42 was antenna The MUSA. wave radar called FH Each of the three elements in a in three horizontal rows of 14 elements each.
.
-
arranged
vertical
vertical plane column was fed in phase so as to provide more directivity in the steering was applied in the beam No alone. element with one than would be obtained a 14-element linear array. The beam vertical plane hence the antenna was basically
;
was scanned
omnidirectional elements were used and 2 68 wavelengths in the vertical dimension. If appear and give ambiguous angle would in an array with this spacing, grating lobes produce grating lobes at wavelengths 2 spaced elements measurements. For example, elements that These grating lobes may be removed with directive 30 and 90 in disadvantage The lobes. grating radiate little or no energy in the direction of the the In scan. of angle restricted is a reducing grating lobes in this manner The radiation gain of 16.4 db antenna! the directive polyrod elements each had a sidelobes with 12 db down. of 9 pattern of the polyrods permitted a scanning range db. The total gain of the antenna was 29 fire-control purposes radar operated at S band and was used for The FH a fan beam 2 generated and length in ft The antenna was 1
The polyrod
phase shifters. in the horizontal plane with rotary-waveguide in the horizontal apart wavelengths 2 spaced were elements
dimension
FH MUbA
MUSA
aboard large Navy
ships.
in the horizontal direction phase shifters scanned the
by
beam with
The rotary-waveguide 6.5 in the vertical direction. a uniform motion at the rate of 10 scans per
second.
applied to ground-controlled-approach (GCA) radar." The Eagle scanner is a 16-ft linear array of 250 dipole radiators mounted with half-wavelength spacing on a waveguide feed line. Since the phase reverses along the waveguide every half wavelength adjacent dipoles are reversed. Scanning of the
t Sec 77 Another electromechanically steerable antenna developed during World War II was the Eagle scanner used in the AN/APQ-7, a high-resolution Z-band, ground-mapping radar for navigation and bombing.*"."* The same scanning principle has also beef
318
The beamwidth is 0.4 to 0.5 in azimuth and is shaped in elevation to give an approximately cosecant-squared coverage down to 70 angle of depression. The beam can be made to scan a 60 azimuth sector in f sec. The basic Eagle mechanism is capable of scanning rates as high as 20 times per second. The beam is scanned through an angle of 30 from the perpendicular to the array by alternately feeding the array from opposite ends. One scan is from -1 to +30, while the next is from +1 to -30 As the beam scans through the perpendicular to the antenna, the array becomes resonant because of the half-wave spacing between elements. At resonance the
becomes quite
large.
waveguide dimensions changes the phase velocity of the radiation along the guide and hence changes the phase between the dipoles. The motion of the scanning technique is reciprocating rather than rotaryconsequently perfectly uniform beam scanning can only be approximated
'
moving one wall of the waveguide.
A change in
beam is accomplished by mechanically
display to indicate
beams, five rows in can be generated by the ESAR system A separate transmitter feeds each of the /.-band log-periodic antenna elements The array has provision for 8,768 elements. Electronic scanning techniques have been applied to acoustic arrays for sonar 1 9 detection. There is close analogy between radar array techniques and
elevation
ESAR (Fig. 1.12) is an example of an electronically steerable array radar using a frequency-conversion phasing scheme. The antenna is 50 ft in diameter. The beam can be scanned in less than 20 //sec. cluster of 25 scanning
One of the major limitations of the Eagle scanner is the mechanical precision required in its construction. Even so, it has been successfully manufactured for use in operational radars, both airborne and ground-based.
The large VSWR is used to place a mark on the cathode-ray-tube the center of the scan and calibrate the position of zero degrees
VS WR
and
five
columns
in azimuth,
acoustic
arrays.
Advantages and Limitations. The array antenna has the following characteristics not generally enjoyed by other antenna types
1. The beam from an array can be rapidly scanned over the coverage of the antenna without the necessity of moving the entire antenna structure. The beam may be scanned continuously or moved discretely from one point in space to any other point in space, Mechanically actuated phase shifters can scan the beam through its coverage as fast as 0. 1 sec or better, while electronically controlled phase shifters can scan a beam at rates many orders of magnitude greater. 2. The array has the ability to generate simultaneously many independent beams from the same antenna aperture. The array might generate fixed beams, scanning beams or both at the same time. Simultaneous-lobing (monopulse) tracking beams can be formed, or a single beam might be programmed to generate conical-scan tracking 3. Large peak and/or large average powers may be obtained with separate transmitters at each of the elements of the array. 4. The steerable feature of an array means that the beam from a shipboard or airborne radar may be stabilized electronically rather than by mechanically moving large
5. A particular aperture distribution may be more readily obtained with the array than with the lens or the reflector since the amplitude and phase of each element of the
Antennas
Sec. 7.7]
319
The ability to control the aperture distribution array can be individually controlled. antenna with low sidelobes. makes it theoretically possible to achieve an or lens antennas, but is absent in the 6 Spillover loss is common in the reflector antenna can be slightly higher than array an of For this reason the efficiency arrav as losses characteristic only of the array, such that of other antennas, provided other gain any negate not do networks, beam-forming losses in the phase shifters or the obtained from the absence of spillover. limited coverage available from a One of the disadvantages of the array antenna is the should be able to scan a aperture Theoretically, a single plane single plane aperture. the antenna beam since practical seldom is complete hemisphere. However, this is limited by mutual angle scan the importantly, more but shape changes with scan angle, elements that make up an array and by the coupling, by the radiation pattern of the much Practical arrays might scan 30 without to avoid grating lobes. possible. course, of are, Larger scan angles difficulty. be obtained with more than one aperture. If wider coverage is necessary, it may surface of a sphere or a cylinder in The elements could conceivably be arranged on the not all the elements of the sphere However, coverage. order to obtain more complete direction because of the self-shielding ot can be used to generate a beam in a particular the spherical array itself. A r*u a limitations to the widespread use of the Cost and complexity are perhaps the biggest o proportional of an array is roughly array antenna in radar applications. The cost probably will antenna (gain) Hence the same beamwidth the number of elements. as at the higher frequencies even though cost about the same at the lower frequencies
Se
...
and has more effective antenna area. the lower-frequency antenna is larger than a similar one at higher frequency. cheaper be even might antenna lower-frequency value means that the array is reasonable to a The need to keep the number of elements The array antenna is required. are gains high when not usually competitive in cost bands or the lower economical for radars operating in the
Ihe
probably more than at the higher microwave frequencies. ,r, rw. <>ntc elements, An array which generates a 1 beamwidth requires approximately 10,000 assuming elements, almost 1 million while an array with a 0.1 beamwidth requires performance of the many-element The apart. wavelength half spaced a are that they large number of elements tail. relatively a even array will be degraded but little when might a conventional radar with a as once," at all "die not does Thus the array antenna If, for example, the finite. However, the life of the components is single beam. would experience a 1 array beamwidth average life of each element were 10,000 hr, a failures may be such many Although hour. per one of failure at the average rate the failures degraded, significantly accumulated before the performance of the radar is must eventually be found and replaced. of an array is the An important factor which contributes to the cost and complexity In all the conditions. operating need to maintain phase stability even under adverse phase only the that assumed was it preceding analysis and discussion of array antennas It designer. radar the by introduced knowingly changes were those deliberately and other and mixers, the transmission lines, amplifiers is necessary that the phase of In order to achieve small. components used in the array be constant or negligibly at constant maintained must be operates radar the this ideal, the environment in which approach One vary. amplifiers must not conditions and the voltages applied to the loop to servo-controlled of sort some use to maintaining stable phase conditions is to Markow array. the of networks major the through maintain constant the phase shift maintains the phase between the output describes a servo phase-control system which 2 by comparing the phase of the amplifier and the input of a UHF amplifier to within detector. phase-sensitive output with that of the input in a
i
VHF
UHF
electronically scanned array,
r SEC 7 8 Even though the steerable array is often more costly and more complex than other antennas, it would undoubtedly be used where its high-speed beam-steering or multiplebeam-forming capability is needed and cannot be obtained by any other means However, the more or less conventional mechanically scanned antenna has been able to meet most of the requirements of radar. Although it cannot steer as rapidly as an
320
of radar applications.
multiple
beams
& of the array. The array will be used when it can perform a function better and/or more cheaply than other competitive antennas. If the array is to compete economically its components must be cheap, reliable, and produced and assembled automatically Perhaps the most promising area for future component development is that of solid-state devices. The radar antenna of the future, or for that matter the radar system of the future, might well be an all-solid-state device. The radar systems engineer must await the efforts of the research scientist and the component-development engineer before the lull theoretical potentialities of large-array antennas can be economically exploited for general radar application.
7.8. Pattern Synthesis
it has been able to scan as fast as required for the majority Similar statements can be made for the property of forming from the same aperture as well as for most of the other stated advantages
The problem of pattern synthesis in antenna design is to find the proper distribution of current across a finite-width aperture so as to produce a radiation pattern which approximates the desired pattern under some condition of
optimization.
methods may be divided into two classes, depending upon whether the aperture is continuous or discrete. The current distributions derived for continuous apertures may sometimes be used to approximate the discrete-aperture distributions and vice
synthesis
versa,
Pattern-
when
the
number of elements of the discrete antenna is

most
this section applies, for the
must be a further restriction in that aperture distributions which give rise to large reactive-power components are to be avoided. Large reactive power is characteristic of supergain antennas and results in excessive losses and narrow
of finite dimension.
tangular apertures where the distribution is separable, that is, where A(x,y) All pattern-synthesis methods are approximations since
large. The discussion in part, to linear one-dimensional apertures or to rec-
= A(x)A(y).
practical antennas
There
is
bandwidth (high
0. 64
121
synthesis techniques which apply to array antennas usually assume uniformly spaced isotropic elements. The element spacing is generally taken to be a half wavelength. If the elements were not isotropic but had a pattern E6), and if the desired over-all pattern were denoted E a {6), the pattern to be found by synthesis using techniques derived for isotropic elements would be given E (6)/E (d). d
e
The
Fourier-integral Synthesis. The Fourier-integral relationship between the radiation pattern and the aperture distribution was discussed in Sec. 7.2. The distribution A(z) across a continuous aperture was given by Eq. (7.14).
4(z)
J_
E(4>)
exp
-j2n *
sin
<f>)
d(sin
c/>)
(7.14)
where z
E(<f>)
= distance along aperture = radiation pattern
If only that portion of the aperture distribution which extends over the finite-aperture dimension d were used, the resulting antenna pattern would be
(<)
=
J
^(z)exp (pTr^sin
<f>\
dz
(7.41)
g-i
Antennas
321
the variable of integration from Substituting Eq. (7.14) into the above and changing becomes pattern radiation antenna to to avoid confusion, the
o($
m
- [
\
(!) exp
j2n - (sin
<f>
sin |)
d| dz
(7.42)
antenna pattern Interchanging the order of integration, the approximate
is
EM-IT W WAXsMaW _ J- EQ) si"
sing)]
d|
(7 43)
.
oo
^(d/AKsin
<
sin f
where
approximates the desired the Fourier-integral radiation pattern which of dimension d. aperture finite radiation pattern (<) when A(z) is restricted to a derived on the pattern antenna 121 the to approximation has shown that the Ruze method for Fourier-series the (or antennas continuous for integral basis of the Fourier the desired between deviation discrete arrays) has the property that the mean-square that square) mean (least sense this in It is minimum. and the approximate patterns is a greater the number of the (or aperture the larger The optimum. is the Fourier method elements in the array), the better will be the approximation. value ot Whenever the desired antenna pattern has discontinuities or whenever the oscillatory an in results method Fourier the rapidly, the desired pattern changes decrease in magnitude as overshoot (Gibbs's phenomenon). The overshoot does not about of 9 per cent of the total the aperture is increased, but approaches a value
(<)
is
discontinuity.
the pattern of a discrete array, just as the continuous aperture. 122 Fourier integral may be used to synthesize the pattern of a practice to The Fourier-series method is restricted Similar conclusions apply. Closer spacing wavelength. half of a vicinity the in spacing arrays with element 126 127 Spacings larger than a results in supergain arrays which are not practical. wavelength produce undesired grating lobes. Method. The least-square criterion of the Fourier-integral
The Fourier series may be used to synthesize
Woodward-Levinson
Another method is but one technique upon which antenna synthesis can be based. distribution aperture finite with a method of approximating the desired antenna pattern a finite number of sampled values. consists in reconstructing the antenna pattern from
in
The principle is analogous to the sampling theorem of circuit theory number of samples. waveform of limited bandwidth may be reconstructed from a finite by Levinson introduced was values sampled on The antenna-synthesis technique based apparently developed was and forties early the in Laboratory Radiation at the MIT
5 124 independently by Woodward in England. theory as given by Shannon is: It a information The classical sampling theorem of it is completely determined by Jfcps, than higher frequencies function f(t) contains no seconds apart." The analogous spaced 1/2 its ordinates at a series of points
'
which a time
'
125
giving
radiation pattern (<) from sampling process applied to an antenna pattern is that the by a series of values spaced determined completely d\% aperture an antenna with a finite In n is an integer. where Kid radians apart, that is, by the sample values E^d), radians Ijd spaced points sampled the and E(</>) Fie 7 50a is shown the antenna pattern pattern, are shown The sampled values Es {nXjd), which determine the antenna apart.
m
The antenna
pattern pattern of the form The (sin y>)/v> function
Ea
is
(sin y>)/y
can be constructed from the sample values ,(A/<0 with a Hrf/A) sin about each of the sampled values, where y> f. that used in same as the and is called the composing function
(<f>)
322

is
[Sec
? g
antenna pattern
given by
oo
Ea (4>)=
(nl\
E,
sin |>(rf jd/X)(sin

-nidi A idI X)(sin
<f>
4>
nXld)~\
Ad/
nl/d)
(7.44)
that is, the antenna pattern from a finite aperture is reconstructed from a
sum of (sin wMw
l\
i
1
i i
1 1
>.
!
i 1
*^*l_J
3X
2X
3
d-
2X
3X
4X
5X
sin
d
(
i)
Kn\/d)
3X _2
c l
12
4X
5X
sin
(*)
Stlern^T"
Fig 7.50 () Radiation pattern E(</>) with sampled values spaced X/d radians apart where d aperture dimension; (A) sampled values EjinX/d), which specify the antenna pattern (cTrecon"C mP Sing fUnC " n the desiS Sdiadon ' a PP roxima
^ "^ ^ ^
K)
The (sin v)/y composing function is well suited for reconstructing the pattern Its value at a particular sample point is unity, but it is zero at all other sample points. In n UnCt n Can b readil y generated with a uniform aperture J , distribution The Woodward-Levinson synthesis technique consists in determining the amplitude and phase of the uniform aperture distribution corresponding to each of CS and Perf rming a summation t0 obtain the required over-all aperture totribulion
dSS;-.
Î
y be fou "d by substituting the antenna pattern l n -T'T (/.44) into the Fourier-transform relationship given by
istribution
of Eq.
Eq. (7.14).
The aperture
nl Sec. 7.8]
distribution
Antennas
becomes
,
,
323
^"U-Mvj^l-V)
nirnzX
7 45) 4V (7
/
'
>
generates the th (sin vO/v OTm P 0S Therefore the aperture distribution which jJf sampled value Es {nlld) is proportional to the pattern has uniform amplitude and are patterns composing the individual The phase across the aperture is such that is here beamwidth the (where beamwidth Solaced f'om one another by a half a The nulls which surround the mam beam) defined as the distance between the two change phase linear a and represents phase is given by the exponential term of Eq. (7.45) aperture. ,, the across radians of nix the desired antenna pattern (g is The number of samples needed to approximate Therefore W2, or -1 < sin < 1. determined by the condition that -n\l < < undesirable an is which supergain, If \N\ d\K the antenna will have 1 \Nl\d\ 12 *. 1 Therefore the number of samples required to condition and is to be avoided. aperture of width d is 2d\l approximate the radiation pattern from a finite
. .
.
<
<
>
Woodwardbetween Fourier-integral synthesis and the mean-square whose pattern radiation a Levinson method is that the former gives and the Woodward-Levinson method deviation from the desired pattern is a minimum, which exactly fits the desired pattern at a finite gives an antenna radiation pattern pattern between the sampled number of points. The behavior of the synthesized Since the Woodcontrolled. be cannot method points of the Woodward-Levinson it is not optimum integral, Fourier ward-Levinson synthesis technique is not based on the error than the mean-square greater therefore possesses a
The
essential difference
in the least-square sense
Fourier synthesis.
best in all cases.
and necessarily the However, the least-mean-square criterion is not 121 preference on theoretical no commands it Ruze, to According
is
^The^Fourier-integral method
useful
when
the antenna pattern can be specified
The be readily performed analytically and when the integrations can pattern to be approximated is of a complicated the when useful more is method Levinson The flexibility oi the expressions. shape and cannot be specified by simple analytical before the aperture even pattern synthesized the of latter permits one to "see" the nature to obtain the desired If necessary, adjustments can be made distribution is computed. in the pattern can be changes balance between the faithfulness with which abrupt ripples. reproduced and the level of the sidelobe 133 The Fourier and Woodward-Levinson tech-
Woodward-
Dolph-Chebyshev Arrays.'radiation pattern in an optimum niquesare but two methods of synthesizing ar arbitrary might serve to specify an which criteria other manner. There are any number of patterns. antenna synthesizing "optimum" method for aperture distribution An important synthesis problem in antenna design is to find the for a specified sidelobe beamwidth narrowest that produces a radiation pattern with the broadside symmetric for Dolph given by was problem this
level
The solution to 128 The optimum aperture in phase. arrays of equally spaced point sources energized between the two distance the as (defined distribution that minimizes the beamwidth is described in terms of the level sidelobe given a for nulls enclosing the main beam) half-wavelength spacing. Not Chebyshev polynomials for the discrete linear array of beamwidth when the minimum the yield only does the Dolph-Chebyshev distribution to produce the lowest shown be also can it conversely, but sidelobe level is specified, sidelobe level when the beamwidth is specified. The briefly sketched here The principle of the Dolph-Chebyshev method will be in the literafound be may distribution aperture required details of calculating the 129 - 132
ture.
324

that the array consists of
[Sec
7 g
an even number of elements 2N. pattern may be found by summing the patterns from elements taken pairs about the center of the array. The radiation pattern is therefore
Assume
The
radiation
p^Sdto
(7.46a)
in symmetrica"
E2x(<t>) = 2~ZA k
i-=i
cos
(2k
l)7r
sin
where
Ak
is
symbol^have been
the amplitude of the *th element, defined previously. If
de is the element spacing, and the other x = CO s {<dJX) In the^radiation
&
E2 y(<f>)
= 2gA t cos [(2fe -
1)
cos" 1 x]
= 2%A k Tik *=i
1 (x)
(7.46b)
where T^_ x (x) is the Chebyshev polynomial of degree 2k polynomial of degree is defined as
1 133
The Chebyshev
(7.47)
Tn(x) =
cos ( cos" 1 x)
for
|x|
<
Equation (7.46a) may therefore be expressed as a polynomial of degree and the properties of known polynomials may be used to synthesize
has shown that when the radiation pattern resultmg pattern is optimum in the sense
specified sidelobe level, or vice versa.
the pattern
is
Dolph
is
equated to a Chebyshev polynomial the

a minimum for a radiation pattern is
that the beamwidth The Dolph-Chebyshev
E2n(</>)
where x
is
= T2N _
1 (x
x)
= T2N-1
2
x cos
it
d. sin
.
X
related to
r/,
*).
(7.48)
the ratio of the
main beam
V
to the sidelobe level,
ViW =
)t0 ( 48 d Substitutin S the g l n" given by (7.47) gives the following:
by
(7.49)
eZt nM
N
2^fcCOS
sides
definiti n
the Chebyshev polynomial J
(2k-
l)7r^sin<
cos
I
(2N-
l)cos"
x cos
77
-^ sin
<f>
(7.50)
Both
constituting the array. The coefficients distribution necessary to obtain the optimum radiation pattern trie above equation.
number of elements
of this equation are polynomials of degree 27V
1,
or one
Ak
less than the specify the aperture
and may be found from
160* 32* 1. It oscillates between the values i a " d nc eases monotonically for x The argument x x is used in 1. ! Fa 7 4^ instead of* ; in order to restrict tq. (7.48) x to the range -1 x 1 required bv its aCC rdi " 8 * detrmnTed bTth" 1? ^creasing portion not mca y y of the polynomial, while the side iltTl . ^bes are !? determined by the oscillating portion, and the main beam is , times the maxij=
It was assumed in the above that there was an even number of elements in the array Similar expressions can be derived for the case where the number of elements is odd Qualitatively, the characteristics of the optimum Dolph-Chebyshev antenna pattern can be seen from an examination of the Chebyshev polynomial. In Fig. 7.51 is shown
Ux
128*
-256* +
^ 'T?
>
^ ^th/So^S
<
<
mum
amplitude of the sidelobes.
a thC Dol P h -Chebyshev distribution is g characterized by having all its sidelobes of equal magnitude. The aperture distribution, and hence the antenna pattern, is completely specified from either the beamwidth or the sidelobe level once the number of elements is given.
hJtlûT r!
? ^
Antennas
Sec. 7.8]
325
Dolph-Chebyshev array of The broadside half-power beamwidth of a of sidelobe level. These values are function given in Fig. 7.52 as a dimension ^ 12).- (The half-power beamwidth of an array vaHd for small beamwidtli { 6 B <
aperture
tolxaminey When ,
the energy across the aperture

7-.U)
is
concentrated at the edges.
degree Fig. 7.51. Chebyshev polynomial of
8.
The pattern is
interferometer with spacing d similar to that produced by a two-element discussions sidelobes which previous (In beam. main the to All sidelobes are equal lobes) grating were equal in magnitude to the main lobe were called sidelobes do not exist. when co, that is, r, The other limiting case occurs when to the coefficients proportional are elements array the on This occurs when the currents 1 the array. elements is the number of A)*" , where of a, b in the expansion (a For a six-element array the relative amplitudes
applied to the elements would be proportional This is called the binomial to 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1
.
..
70 A /d 65 \/d
-
distribution
proposed by John 134 It is not often used in practice Stone Stone. because of its relatively wide beamwidth and
and was
first
H
!
60A/2
55A/2
the large current ratios required across the aperture, especially when the number of ele-
ments
is
large.
The Dolph-Chebyshev
dis-
x 50 \/d
25
30
35
db
tribution includes all distributions between the binomial and the interferometer, or edge,
distribution.
ever,
is
Side-lobe
level,
The uniform distribution, howspecial case of the Dolpha not
Approximate beamwidth Fig. Dolph-Chebyshev arrays.

7.52.
for
Chebvshev distribution because its sidelobes are not Dolph-Chebyshev array pattern assumes The uniform sidelobe level produced by the elements were used, the over-all an antenna with isotropic elements. If directive pattern and he element pattern. array the of pattern would be equal to the product A small reduction in beamsidelobes. decreasing have would In general, the pattern array pattern consisting of an with width can be obtained by designing the antenna factor, the resultant element the by multiplied increasing sidelobes so that, when
135 pattern has uniform sidelobes.
of equal magnitude.
326

h
lph ' Ch
[Sec. 7.8
ySheV distribution ives an optimum one-way pattern in the sense thl that X?u the beamwidth is a minimum for a specified sidelobe level. In radar however it that P tanc *- The two-way pattern for P a radar antenna ? of of 1 elements designed with a Dolph-Chebyshev distribution is (T )* Although this is a polynomial of degree 2m, it is not equal to the Chebyshev polynomial of the same degree (T2 and the two-way pattern does not represent the optimum relationship between beamwidth and sjdelobe level. Using as a basis the relationship T2m 2{Tm f 1 2(Tm V2/2)(Tm V2/2), Mattingly^ indicates mum two-way pattern can be achieved with antennas in which slightly that an optidifferent transmit and receive patterns are obtained using nonreciprocal devices. One example is
M TZ? +
=
T7
=
V V
shown
in Fig. 7.53.
the transmitter
On reception, the isolator introduces sufficient attenuation in the reverse direction to correspond to the
According to Mattingly, Chebyshev design will improve the beamwidth by about 10 per cent over the conventional Chebyshev design. For a given beamwidth, the equivalent one-way minor-lobe improvement is
distribution.
The power divider apportions power in accordance with Tm + a/2/2.
Tm V2/2
Power divider
the extended
Duplexer
I
JReceiv
|Tronismitter
Fig. 7.53. Nonreciprocal array with
approximately 4 to 5 db. Taylor Distribution. Van der Maas 130 has shown that as the number of elements of a Dolph-Chebyshev
array is increased, the currents in the end elements of the array become large compared with the currents in the rest of the elements and the radiation pattern becomes sensitive to changes in the excitation of the end element. This sets a practical upper limit to the number of elements which can be used in a Dolph-Chebyshev array and therefore sets a lower limit to the width of the main beam which can be achieved in practice.
two-way Chebyshev pattern. (After
Mattingly, Proc. IRE.)
In the limit, as the
number of elements approaches infinity,
Dolph-Chebyshev array approaches
the radiation pattern of a
-Af hW ~ [cosh tÂ'-u^

costt(u E(d)) -. I
2 2
= (djX) sin d = aperture dimension = angle measured from normal to array cosh -n-A = sidelobe ratio
where u
<j> <f>
A2 A2
u
2 2
(7.51)
Hn m
in the region u A An infinite number of equal sidelobes appears in the region 2 > A 2 This ideal radiation pattern is physically unrealizable because of the behavior of the radiation pattern in the remote sidelobe region, and the corresponding aperture distribution contains infinite peaks at the edges of the antenna However, Taylor137 has shown that design procedures may be obtained for approximating the ideal radiation pattern of Eq. (7.51) with a physically realizable aperture distribution. The antenna pattern produced by a Taylor distribution has uniform sidelobes, just as does the Dolph-Chebyshev pattern, but only in the region of the main beam. Unlike the Dolph-Chebyshev pattern, the sidelobes of the Taylor pattern decrease outside a specified angular region. The region in which the sidelobe level is ls defined h sin 0| < n, where n is a finite integer. y In the region where lid/A) sin <f>\ n, the sidelobe level decreases with increasing Hence n divides <f>.
2 2
.
.
The main lobe appears
<
>
MV
Sec. 7.8]
Antennas
327
the main beam and a the radiation pattern into a uniform sidelobe region surrounding decaying sidelobe region. The Taylor distribution does not produce an optimum pattern as does the DolphDolph-Chebyshev array by Its beamwidth will be broader than that of a
Chebyshev.
the factor
=
V^ +
2
n
(n
(7.52)
\)
The value of n does not have to be very large in order to make a only a few per cent For example, if the design sidelobe level is 25 db, a Taylor distrigreater than unity. produced bution with n = 5 gives a beamwidth 7.7 per cent greater than the optimum
by the
ideal,
but unobtainable, Dolph-Chebyshev distribution.
value of n
gives a difference in beamwidth of 5.5 per cent. The Taylor distribution is specified by two parameters: the design sidelobe level fj between (ratio of the main beam to the sidelobe level) and n, which defines the boundary
In selecting the integer , the region of uniform sidelobes and decreasing sidelobes. Taylor states that n must be at least 3 it is essential to avoid values that are too small. for a design-sidelobe ratio of 25 db and at least 6 for a design-sidelobe ratio of 40 db. The larger n is, the sharper will be the beam. However, if n is too large, the same The distributions difficulties as arise in a Dolph-Chebyshev distribution will occur.
for high values of h are peaked at the center and at the edge of the aperture, while low values of n produce distributions which taper from a maximum value at the aperture
center to a
minimum
at the edge.
Care must be exercised in the selection of the sidelobe level of a Taylor or a DolphChebyshev distribution. Very large antennas with narrow beamwidths may exhibit a
compared with
severe degradation in gain because of the large energy contained within the sidelobes as This may be avoided by requiring the, that within the main beam. average sidelobe level to be less than the gain; that is, if 40 db antenna gain is required,
40 db. Narrow-beamwidth antennas with Taylor distributions can be realized without significant reduction in gain by 164 properly choosing the value of n as described by Hansen. synthesizing the pattern of circular, applied to also been has distribution The Taylor two-dimensional apertures. 138-139 Modified (sin -nu)\-nu Patterns. The radiation-pattern synthesis technique in which intensity all the sidelobes are of equal intensity (Dolph-Chebyshev) or of almost equal In certain (Taylor) may not always be desirable from an operational point of view. radar applications it may be of advantage to have the sidelobe level decay rapidly on For example, interfering or spurious signals which enter either side of the main beam. the radar receiver via the sidelobes might appear from any angle when the antenna If the antenna sidelobes were \o decrease with pattern contains equal sidelobes. increasing angle from the main beam, interfering signals would be more likely to cluster They would be easier to recognize as false targets in the vicinity of the main beam. because of the symmetry of the antenna pattern than if they appeared far removed from Another example of where an antenna pattern with rapidly decaying the main beam.
the average sidelobe level must be less than
sidelobes
it is
since is preferred over an equal-sidelobe pattern is in low-noise applications important that the portion of the radiation pattern which illuminates the relatively "hot" ground be kept to a minimum. Hence it may be better, in certain instances, to rapidly. sacrifice some beamwidth and low near-in sidelobes for sidelobes which decay A one-parameter family of line-source distributions suitable for radar applications was suggested by Taylor for achieving radiation patterns with a main lobe of adjustable 140 amplitude and a sidelobe structure similar to that of a uniformly illuminated aperture.
328

radiation pattern
is
[Sec. 7.8
The
of the form
"
sin tt(u
tt(u
2
-Bf
2 2 2 2 2
where u
The
= (d/X) sin = aperture size B = a parameter which determines level of first (highest) sidelobe region B > u corresponds to the main lobe, and B 
-Bf (# = sinh tt(B - u f tt(B - u f

2
B2 B2

u
(7.53)
2
sidelobes.
If rj
is
the sidelobe voltage ratio,
B is found from the
to the solution of the trans-
cendental equation
V
,
,__ sinh ttB 4.603

.
(7.54)
The half-power beamwidth /3 measured in terms of standard beamwidths (a standard beamwidth is X/d radians), may be obtained by solving the following transcendental
equation
1
sinh ttB
ttB
sin
V2
The aperture
-Bf *[.Wf B f
n \{BJ2f Li2L ^
2
(7.55)
distribution corresponding to the modified pattern of Eq. (7.53)
is
A(z)
277
JqMttB
N>-$
+
Breal
(7.56)
where J is a Bessel function of the first kind and z varies from d/2 to d/2. The aperture distribution is concave, uniform, or convex, depending upon whether B 2 is less than, equal to, or greater than zero, respectively. The gain of this antenna pattern is given by
Ad G=
sinh ttB
ttBaI (2ttB)
(7.57a)
c
where
_ 4dsin (i7rB) ~ irBXJ {i2irB) =

]Io(t) dt
Jo
imaginary
(7.57b)
Ux)
(x)
is
Mx) =
Jo
J U) dt
and I
Table 7.2
the modified Bessel function of zero order. lists some of the important properties of this type of radiation pattern.
7.2.
Table
Sidelobe
ratio,
Properties of the Modified

2
(sin mi)lnu
Radiation PatternI
Aperture
efficiency,
db
Beamwidth, deg
Ratio of beamwidth
to ideal
beamwidth
per cent
96.4
99.3 93.3 86.3
80.1
10 15
-0.2113
0.1266 0.5455 1.0464 1.6286 2.2911 3.0328
46M/d 52M/d
58.7A/rf
1.156
1.151
20
25 30 35
63.9AM 6S.U/d
11. 2X1 d
1.146 1.141
1.136
1.131
75.1
40
t Extracted
HAUd
110
1.125
70.9
from Taylor,
courtesy Hughes Aircraft Co.
EC
7 91
Antennas
329
The "ideal beamwidth" referred to in the fourth column is that of a radiation pattern of 2 The ratio A*, in which the sidelobes are of uniform amplitude. the form cos efficiency The of Eq. a (7.52). with the of beamwidths in column 4 compares directly radiation (sin -nu)\-nu modified the gain of the of the ratio given in the last column is
Wu
pattern to the gain of an antenna with uniform aperture illumination.

7.9.
It
Cosecant-squared Antenna Pattern
esc
was shown in Sec. 2.1 1 that a search radar with an antenna pattern proportional to echo-signal power for a 6, where d is the elevation angle, produces a constant
Parabolic
reflector
Displaced from original parabolic contour
displacing the reflector surface from the original Fig. 7.54. Cosecant-squared antenna produced by parabolic shape.
Fan-beam are satisfied. target flying at constant altitude, if certain assumptions pattern. of type this employ generally search radars application Design. The design of a cosecant-squared antenna pattern is an
Antenna
Examples of cosecantof the synthesis techniques discussed in the preceding section. 5 121 124 141 142 literature. the in given are squared-pattern synthesis The cosecant-squared pattern may be approximated with a reflector antenna by pattern produced in this shaping the surface or by using more than one feed. The array antenna, well-designed a by produced be might as manner may not be as accurate the cosecant-squared pattern very approximate to necessary it is not operationally, but A common method of producing the cosecant-squared pattern is shown in precisely. The upper half of the reflector is a parabola and reflects energy from the Fig. 7.54. parabolic antenna. The lower feed in a direction parallel to the axis, as in any other contour so as to direct a portion of the half, however, is distorted from the parabolic is sometimes used to give a cosecantplate spoiler energy in the upward direction. A (Fig. 1.10). squared pattern A cosecant-squared antenna pattern can also be produced by feeding the parabolic If the horns are spaced and fed reflector with two or more horns or with a linear array. give will a smooth cosecant-squared beams secondary the of combination properly the 1 143 144 A reasonable approximation to the cosecantpattern over some range of angle. single horn, combined with a squared pattern can be obtained with but two horns. A pattern with a cosecant-squared generate a also can plane, ground properly located has the same 145 plane, ground The feed horn, plus its image in the reflector.
'
'
'
parabolic
effect as
two horns.
330

slot
[Sec. 7.10
antenna 146 and the surface-wave antenna 147 can also be designed to produce a cosecant-squared antenna pattern. Loss in Gain. An antenna with a cosecant-squared pattern will have less gain than a normal fan-beam pattern generated from the same aperture. To obtain an approximate estimate of the loss in gain incurred by beam shaping, the idealized patterns in Fig. 7.55 will be assumed. The normal antenna pattern is depicted in Fig. 7.55a as a square beam
The traveling-wave
extending from 6
to 6
radians.
The cosecant-squared pattern
in Fig. 7.556
(a)
Fig. 7.55. Idealized antenna patterns assumed in the computation of the loss in gain incurred with a cosecant-squared antenna pattern, (a) Normal antenna pattern; (6) cosecant-squared
pattern.
< < 6 and decreases as esc2 0/csc2 6 over the range 8 < 6m The gain G of the square beam in Fig. 7.55a divided by over the range 6 the gain G c of the cosecant-squared antenna beam in Fig. 7.556 is
is
shown
as a uniform
beam
<
G Gc
For small values of
O,
re m
csc
0o~0
o
esc r0n Je
sin
2
fl
(cot d
n
cot 6 m )
(7.58)
G,
where
6
If
all
***
6 cot 0
(7.59)
=
m
6
is
For example, if angles in the above formulas are measured in radians. 20, the gain is reduced by 2.2 db compared with a fan beam 6 wide. made 40, the loss is 2.75 db. In the limit of large 6 m and small 6 the loss and 6 m
approaches a
maximum
of 3 db.
7.10. Effect of
Broadband Signals on Antenna Patterns

relationship between the radiation pattern
E(<j>)
The Fourier-integral-transform
and
the aperture distribution A(z) as expressed in Eqs. (7.1 1) and (7.14) of Sec. 7.2 applies The spectrum of a sine wave of frequency^ is sine wave. only when the signal is a If the signal were a pulse or some other radar wavea single delta function at/ form with a spectrum of noninfinitesimal width, the simple Fourier integral which
CW =f
sine wave would not give the correct radiation pattern nor would it In most cases of practical interest the spectral width of predict the transient behavior. the signal is relatively small, with the consequence that the pattern is not affected
applies to a
CW
appreciably and the Fourier-integral relationships are satisfactory approximations. However, when the reciprocal of the signal bandwidth is comparable with the time taken by a radar wave to transverse the antenna aperture, bandwidth effects can be
important and signal distortion
may
result.
Sec. 7.10]
Antennas
The
radiation pattern produced by a
,
331
Broadband Radiation Pattern.

of frequency /
is
CW sine wave
(7.60)
a/2
E(<f>)
=
J -a/2
A(z) exp
\
j2if^ z
C
sin
^
I
dz
where a
c
(/>
= aperture dimension = velocity of propagation = angle measured from perpendicular of antenna

its
.
This expression is the same as Eq. (7. 10) except that the wavelength X is replaced by The aperture distribution A(z) is the inverse Fourier transform, or equal c// A{z)
=&
C
J-x
(</>)
exp lj2ir& z
\
sin
<f>)
d(sin
<f>)
(7.61)
C
.
Radar signals, in general, Equations (7.60) and (7.61) apply for a fixed frequency f Letting are not of fixed frequency but are characterized by finite spectral width. sin </>, the antenna radiation pattern as a function of frequency may be written as u
a/2
(/,)
J -a/2
A(z) exp
is
^^
C
dz
(7.62)
and the equivalent aperture distribution

A(z)
If the spectral distribution
- f
E(f,u) exp
(- &^B\
du
(7.63)
of the signal is 5(/), the resultant antenna pattern will be -a weighted sum of E(f,u), with the weight function S(f). The effective broadband antenna pattern is therefore given by
E f (u) =js(f)E(f,u)
df
(7
Ma)
Ef(u)
=
J J
S(f)A(z) exp J2%!Z!t dz df

,
{1Mb)
dzdt,df
(7.64c)
EXu)=jyj s(D4(z)exp _;2t7/(c-^)
where s() = ^(0, the signal waveform, is the inverse Fourier transform of S(f). The above three equations determine the resultant effective antenna pattern when the signal occupies a significant bandwidth. The frequency spectrum S(f) applies to that of the transmitted signal or to the If matched filters (Sec. 9.2) are employed at received signal at the antenna terminals. each element on reception, the frequency-response function of each filter is the complex conjugate of the spectrum S(f) and is denoted S*(f). The output of the matched 2 = filter is therefore S(f)S*(f) = \S(f)\ G(f), where G(f) is the power-density spectrum of the transmitted waveform. When matched filters are employed, G(f) should be substituted for S(f) in the equations given above. As an example of the effect of bandwidth on the antenna pattern, consider an aperture with a uniform distribution and a signal with a constant spectral distribution, so that Theradiation A{z) = l/afor-o/2 < z < a/2 and S(f) = 1 /(/2 - /J for/i 2
</</
pattern as function of frequency
is
(/,)
w/
" /2
- ex P
j2irfzu
c
J -o/2 a
J d2 = sin (Trfau/c) \
,
,_
(7
-
65 )
TTjaujc
332
Introduction to Radar Systems band of S(f)

sin {irfaujc)
[Sec. 7.10
Integrating over the frequency

1
gives
A ~A
where
the limit as
Si (irf2 aulc)
-nfaulc
7r(f2
- Si (nfau/c) - fjau/c
|
(7.66)
Si (x) is the sine integral function
of x defined by the integral
[(sin s)/s] ds.
In
[sin {Trf aulc)]l{Trf aujc), Q
by a
CW
from/ =
can be shown that Eq. (7.66) approaches the expression (f} /2)/2, which is the same as would be produced sine wave and a uniformly illuminated aperture. If the spectrum extended
x
,
f -/2
it
where/
to
f=f
(that is,/i
[Si {jrf 2 aulc)\l{nf 2 aulc).
0), the radiation pattern would be of the form of This should be compared with the radiation pattern produced
[(sin
[(Si
Fig. 7.56. Radiation patterns for a uniformly illuminated aperture with sine wave of frequency /, x)/x curve] and with a broadband signal with uniform frequency spectrum over the range to
CW
x)/x curve], where x
f,
Trf2 au/c.
from the same aperture, which is 2 comparison of these two functions is shown in Fig. 7.56. The beam of the wide-spectrum pattern is broadened, the sidelobe radiation is raised, and the lobe structure essentially disappears. Figure 7.56 indicates that the frequency sine wave in order for the f2 must be of the order of twice the frequency of the broadband-pattern beam width to be narrower than the pattern beamwidth. Consider next a linear array of elements (N even) spaced a distance de apart. The radiation pattern may be expressed as
[sin (TTf 2 aulc)]](Trf 2 auJc).
by a
CW
sine
wave of frequency
/=/
CW CW
(/>)
= 2 cos " =
71
U_jlC
(7
67 )
The transmitted
signal
is
assumed
to consist of a discrete
number
A: of sine
waves with
harmonically related frequencies, or

S(/)
Substituting Eqs. (7.67)
2<5(/-fc/o)
fc=i
(7.68)
and
(7.68) into (7.64a) gives
Ef{u)
*/J k=l
kf/icos
^-^^
df-. =
| k=
=1
(2n
cos
Dknf d e u
C
(?69)
The more frequencies used, the fewer the number of elements required. In principle, the number of elements 7Y in the array can be traded for the number of harmonically related frequencies K and still retain the same "effective" radiation pattern. This is
sometimes called space frequency equivalence. U&
-
19S
A similar relation holds for N odd
Sec. 7.10]
Antennas
333
an odd number As an example of the application of space frequency equivalence for at a freoperating d spacing with array linear 11 t -element of elements, consider an three-element linear array with the a by replaced be may array This quency f
.
a frequency / and both same spacing between elements but with the center element at and 5/ the outer elements radiating at frequencies f 2/ 3/ 4/
,
,
/)
U)
1/a
-a >Z
S[f)
[6)
1
a >Z
'-
fz -f,
-fo
-f
fy
fZ
f^.
4></>
the equivalent aperture distribution. Illustration of the effect of wide-bandwidth signals on (c] the equiva lent singleactual distribution A(z); (b) the signal frequency spectrum 5(/); pattern as the combination of (a) and (b). same the give to required distribution aperture frequency
Fig 7 57
(a)
The
{After
It
Damin, Niebuhr, and Nilsson IRE
WESCON Conv.
Record.)
may be shown 149 that the signal may be generated by a
radiation pattern of an antenna radiating a wideband if the sine wave of frequency single-frequency
CW
distribution across the antenna aperture
is
given by
A
With a matched
(y)
=\ jS(f)A(!f)
d/
= /o Ji A(z) S (^)
dz
(7.70)
The equivalent single frequency filter S(f) must be replaced by G(f). The equivalent singlerealizable. physically be always not may distribution aperture and a uniform frequency distribution frequency aperture distribution for a uniform
spectrum [equivalent radiation pattern given by Eq. (7.66)]
fo In (/2 //i)
is
for
\y\
< (/i//o)
(7.71)
fzfi
In (/.a/2/,j)
fOT
fa
(y)
(Ji!m<\y\<
2 2
iklfo)a
\y\
f2 ~fi
for
>
= f% =/ and/!
The functions
A{x), S(f), and

0,
example are shown in Fig. 7.57. When corresponding to the example of Fig. 7.56, the equivalent aperture
(y) for this
334

is
[Sec. 7.10
distribution
infinite at
= 0.
Aîy)
= (l/) In (a/2y)
for
<
\y\
<
a/2,
This distribution becomes
The frequency domain may be used to resolve the grating-lobe ambiguities produced by a widely spaced array antenna. The positions of the grating lobes are a function of frequency, but the position of the main beam remains fixed, assuming a frequencyindependent array. Targets which appear on the grating lobes will give different apparent angle readings with different frequencies. This characteristic may be used to resolve the grating-lobe ambiguities in a manner quite analogous to that in which
multiple-repetition
frequencies
may
resolve
ambiguities
echoes. 194
caused by multiple-time-around
The broadband radiation pattern of Eq. (7.64) assumes that the receiving device is capable of adding the. radiated field strength associated with each frequency component. This requires a receiver that might not be practical. If the receiver were designed to add the power, rather than the field strength, of each frequency component, the radiation pattern would be 150
Fig.
7.58.
Rays leaving an aperture
antenna.
P,(u)= j:
S{f)\E{f,u)\*df
(7.72)
The patterns obtained with Eq.
properties of a system with a
antenna depend, in large part, Consider the aperture in Fig. 7.58 Transient Behavior of Aperture Antennas. radiating energy to a point sufficiently distant (in the far field) so that the rays are The rays r1 and r[ are directed to a target normal essentially parallel to one another. (broadside) to the aperture. If the antenna is assumed to be a parallel-fed array as was shown in Fig. 7.40c, the energy is in phase at the aperture and the contributions from the various parts of the antenna arrive simultaneously at the target. If a linear phase distribution is applied across the aperture so as to direct the beam at an angle 6 from the normal, the radiated energy does not arrive at the target simultaneously. In Fig. 7.58 ray r! z arrives ahead of r2 by a time
Th
Hence the broadband antenna or a space-frequency-equivalent on the receiving processes employed. 193
(7.72) are different from those of Eq. (7.64).
A
c
sin a v
.
Thus a time r b
is
required for the energy to build up to
its
steady-state value.
The
antenna acts analogously to a filter of finite bandwidth, which requires a finite time to build up to its steady-state value when a step-function waveform is applied to the input. A series-fed array, as in Fig. 7.40a, has a rise-time problem for targets at broadside, but 90, which is just opposite to the parallel-fed array. not at 6
\(ajc) sin 6\, the center of the main In the parallel-fed array, with response time r h The angle correbeam (6 0). 0) is established essentially instantaneously (t,, sponding to the position of the first null of a pattern generated by a uniform aperture distribution is X\a radians. Therefore the time required to form the main beam is The r b <=a XIc l// which corresponds to one period of the sine wave carrier. maximum time required for formation of the entire pattern occurs for sin 1, or
one RF cycle. Beyond the main-lobe region, the sidelobes shift in position without changing amplitude until the steady-state pattern is reached in a time corresponding to the transit
6 90,
which
is
t6
ajc.
Thus the main beam forms
in the time of
time across the array. 161
Sec. 7.10]
Antennas
335
main beam
In a series-fed array with the main beam at broadside, a time ajc is required for the By properly inserting lengths of delay lines before each element to form. aperture, the (Fig. 7.59) so as to feed simultaneously the signals to each point on the RF period l// ajc to the from reduced beam is main time required to form the
.
Array elements
Juî^Û^X^^L^^
Phase shifters
Fig. 7.59. Series-fed array "compensated" with delay lines.
One of the limitations of a finite transient response is that one cannot scan a beam of prescribed shape at a rate which does not allow sufficient time for the formation of the
desired beam. The signal received at a point in the far field
may
be written as
s(u,t)
=js(f)E(f,u) exp 0277/0 df
(7.73a)
(7.736)
s( "'
=JJJ
s(QA(z) exp
-j2*f(t
zu
t
dz
dt,
df
(7.73c)
where S(f)
E(f,u) A(z)
= Fourier transform of time waveform s(t) = s() = antenna radiation pattern as defined by Eq. (7.62) = aperture distribution g{u,t) = impulse response of antenna denned as
g(",0
E(f,u)exp(j2irft)df
(7.74)
These equations neglect the time delay R/c from antenna to target and the l/R variation of field strength with range, factors which are taken into account in the analysis made by Polk. 151
' Time-average-product Arrays. 152 155 The technique called time-average-product (TAP) arrays, or multiple-receiver-correlation arrays, is a method for reducing the number of elements in a receiving array by the use of multiplying and integrating elements is expressed as a circuits. The antenna radiation pattern of an array of 1 and equated to a polynomial of equal degree obtained by polynomial of degree N. For example, multipliers, where multiplying and averaging the outputs of an eight-element array which performs seven multiplications and one time averaging 153 The (Fig. 7.60) has a pattern equivalent to an additive linear array of 70 elements. The nonlinear operations of multiprocess is not, however, without limitations.
M<
and averaging produce cross terms, and hence ambiguous measurements, if more than two signals are present. Also, the effective receiving-antenna aperture number is proportional to the number of elements in the array, and any reduction in the
plication
J
336
[Sec. 7.11
of elements as compared with a normal array results in a decrease in the received signalto-noise ratio. Antenna techniques of this type which involve nonlinear operations are generally of limited application in radar because of the accompanying disadvantages.
Y
'
T
' '
T
|
\
T
J
|
Y
]
Multiplier
fr
Multiplier
Multiplier
-I
U3
Multiplier
Averager
Fig. 7.60. Eight-element time-average-product array equivalent to a 70-eIement additive linear array, when nonlinear effects are not troublesome.
7.11. Effect of Errors
on Radiation Patterns157 - 164
The several antenna-pattern synthesis techniques discussed in Sec. 7.8 permit the antenna designer to compute the aperture distribution required to achieve a specified radiation pattern. However, when the antenna is constructed, it is usually found that the experimentally measured radiation pattern deviates from the theoretical one, especially in the region of the sidelobes. Generally, the fault lies not with the theory! but in the fact that it is not possible to reproduce precisely in practice the necessary aperture distribution specified by synthesis theory. Small, but ever-present, errors occur in the fabrication of an antenna. These contribute unavoidable perturbations to the aperture distribution and result in a pattern different in detail from the one
anticipated.
Errors in the aperture distribution may be classed as either systematic or random. The former are predictable, but the latter are not and can only be described in statistical terms. Examples of systematic errors include (1) mutual coupling between the elements of an array, 163 (2) aperture blocking in reflector antennas due to the feed and its supports, (3) diffraction at the steps in a zoned-lens antenna, and (4) periodicities
included in the construction of the antenna. Random errors include (1) errors in the machining or manufacture of the antenna as a consequence of the finite precision of construction techniques, (2) RF measurement errors incurred in adjusting an array, (3) wall-spacing errors in metal-plate lenses, (4) random distortion of the antenna
surface, and (5) mechanical or electrical phase variations caused by temperature or wind gradients across the antenna. Although random errors may be relatively small, their effect on the sidelobe radiation can be large. Systematic errors are the same from
antenna to antenna in any particular design constructed by similar techniques. On the other hand, random errors differ from one antenna to the next even though they be of the same design and constructed similarly. Therefore the effect of random errors
in terms of the average performance of or in terms of statistics. The effect of errors on the radiation pattern has long been recognized by the practical antenna designer. The usual rule-of-thumb criterion employed in antenna practice is that the phase of the actual wavefront must not differ from the phase of the desired
on the antenna pattern can be discussed only
many such antennas
wavefront by more than Xj 16 in order to ensure satisfactory performance. The application of this criterion to a reflector antenna requires the mechanical tolerance of the surface to be within A/32. It is possible, however, to obtain more precise criteria
Sec. 7.11]
for specifying the
Antennas
337
maximum errors which may be tolerated in the aperture distribution. Systematic Errors. The effect of systematic errors on the radiation pattern may be found by properly modifying the aperture distribution to take account of the known For example, a linear phase error across the antenna aperture causes errors. 1 121 156 quadratic, or square-law, variation in phase is the beam position to tilt in angle. periodic error with fundamental period pjX, equivalent to defocusing the antenna. where p is measured in the same units as is the wavelength k, will produce spurious
'
'
nXjp, at angles </> from the origin, according to the relation sin <f> an integer. 121 The patterns of the spurious beams are of the same shape as the original pattern but are displaced in angle and reduced in amplitude. In some cases it is possible to locate the source of a periodic error by computing its fundamental period Beam direction from measurements made on the radiation pattern. Random Errors. The study of the effect of random
beams displaced
where n
is
on the radiation pattern is made in statistical Thus any particular antenna is considered as a member of an ensemble of similar antennas. Although the entire radiation pattern is often of interest, only the effect of errors on the gain, the sidelobe level, and the direction of the beam maximum The reduction in gain and will be considered here. the rise in sidelobe level due to random errors in the aperture distribution are described by either the
errors
terms.
Fig. 7.61. Coordinate system defining the angles 6,

<f>
of Eq. (7.75).
probability-density function or the probability-distribution function (Sec. 2.4).
Although effects of errors are similar for both the discrete array and the continuousaperture antenna, the two types will be considered separately. Consider a twodimensional array of elements spaced a distance de apart, a quarter wavelength in front
elements in one direction and elements in the of a reflecting screen. There are orthogonal direction, making a total of MN. It is assumed that the errors in both the phase and the amplitude of the current at each of the elements are independent of one another and independent from element to element. The amplitude is assumed to be uniformly distributed across the aperture, and the distribution describing the phase With these assumptions, Ruze121 157 showed that the error is taken to be Gaussian.
-
"average" power radiation pattern P{Q,<j>) may be expressed as
\E{Q,<j>)\
obtained under these conditions
P(6,4>)
=P
(d,<f>)
S(d,<f>)e
M I m=
M
=
N
2 l
n=l
mn
(7.75)
N
1 n
I
where
s(d,{/>)
2 2 2
=l
P (8,<f>) = desired no-error (power) radiation pattern

<f>
determined by desired aperture distribution The angles 0,<f> are those usually employed in classical antenna theory and are defined They are not to be confused with the elevation and azimuth angles used in in Fig. 7.61
.
= obliquity factor = cos 0[cos 6 cos + sin = total mean-square error = A + A = relative mean-square amplitude error = mean-square phase error, radians Imn = current applied to mnth antenna element,
2
2
<5
2
<f>]
<5
Eq.
(7.34).
The
MN elements
lie
in the
xy plane.
338

statistical
[Sec. 7.11
behavior of the sidelobes is described by the modified Rayleigh distribution, similar to the Rayleigh distribution discussed in Sec. 2.4. The probabilitydensity function of the modified Rayleigh distribution is given by
The
K,)^ =
where p(r) dr
| exp
(-îf)/
(^:). r
(7 76)
.
= probability that parameter (in this case sidelobe level) lies between values r and r + dr a = mean-square value of r a = a constant displacement added to normal Rayleigh distribution
2
parameter
I
= modified Bessel function of first kind
Ruze shows that the distribution of the spurious sidelobe radiation about the meansquare value caused by the random errors is described by the modified Rayleigh distribution with the following constants
a
2
=P
=
{6,<f>)
MN
(7.77a)
a*
S(d,<f>y
^/
mn
(7.77b)
Figure 7.62 illustrates the type of the results obtained from Ruze's analysis for the The ordinate is the percentage of the sidelobe radiation, which is less than a specified number of decibels, and the abscissa is the total
distribution of the sidelobe level.
root-mean-square error (e 2 ) 1 in the antenna currents. This figure applies to a 25element Dolph-Chebyshev array designed for 29-db sidelobes. The ordinate is determined by integrating the probability-density function/>(/-) dr of Eq. (7.76) over the range oo to r. from A 50-element array with the same Chebyshev taper would have,
roughly, 3
db
less
spurious radiation.
on the antenna gain. If the gain of the no-error antenna is G and the gain in the presence of errors is G, Ruze found that the reduction in gain of the broadside array is approximately
Ruze
also determined the effect of the error
*
1
(7.78)
|7r(</ e
M)V
This expression, which is independent of the current distribution and the size of the array, was derived under the assumptions that there is negligible coupling between elements, that the elements are spaced closer than a wavelength apart so that grating lobes do not appear, and that the gain G of a broadside array antenna located a quarter wavelength in front of a reflecting screen in the absence of errors may be approximated
2 2 by 4TrMNdJX
.
extended the work of Ruze to include the effect of errors in the position and orientation of the elements as well as errors in the currents. He assumed a twodimensional array of by dipoles with three-dimensional translational errors of position permitted for each dipole, together with two-dimensional angular errors in the orientation of the individual dipoles. Random errors in the currents at each of the dipoles were also included as <n Ruze's work. The error currents at the dipole elements were assumed to be ranoomly distributed in phase and independent of the mechanical
Elliott 158
errors in the dipole position and orientation. The translational-error components and the orientation-error components were assumed to be independent and described by a
Sec. 7.11]
Antennas
Elliott's
339
Gaussian distribution.
Elliott
work was primarily concerned with the effect of errors
on the sidelobe radiation of the

the dominant effect
analysis are
array.
concluded that the translational errors in the position of the dipoles produced
shown
in Fig. 7.63.
sidelobe level due to
on the radiation pattern. Examples of the application of his The ordinate is the upper bound of the mean rise in random errors in various Dolph-Chebyshev arrays. The abscissa
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
error,
0.5
j_
0.6
2
0.7
Root-mean-square
(e 2
Fig. 7.62. Sidelobe distribution due to random errors; 25-element array designed for 29-db sidelobe suppression computed at design-lobe maxima. (After Ruze. 121 )
the rms error in translation along any of the three rectangular coordinate axes (the Fis a number between and 1 and is defined by a m JImn where a mn is the rms error in the current Imn at the mnth dipole of the array. The effect of dipole orientation errors is usually negligible and is taken to be zero in the plots of Fig. 7.63. Rondinelli 159 elaborated upon the work of Ruze and Elliott. Both Ruze's and
a1
is
errors along each axis are taken to be equal).

,
Elliott's work were predicated on small mean-square amplitude and phase errors, but the results obtained by Rondinelli hold for all values of these errors. He considered both Rayleigh-distributed and uniformly distributed errors in the currents at the elements.
for the continuous aperture.
Results similar to that of the discrete-aperture (array) antenna can also be obtained In the analysis of the array antenna it was assumed that
340

was independent of the currents
in the
[Sec. 7.11
in adjacent elements.
the error current in one element
continuous antenna is that the error current in one region of the antenna is independent of the error currents in adjacent regions. The average distance over which the error currents may not be considered independent is called the correlation interval and is denoted by C. The size of the correlation interval affects both the magnitude and the directional characteristics of the spurious
radiation.
The corresponding assumption
An analysis of the errors in the continuous aperture was undertaken by Ruze. 121 157 He assumed the errors to be uniformly distributed across the aperture. With a shaped
>
such as a paraboloid, this means that the distribution of the phase error is not uniform unless large distortions exist at the edges. Each of the various correlated
reflector
I I I
11
10 9
8
7
-/
/ / /
/
/ 1
/ / /
1
1
/l / 11 1 1
/l
1
/
i I I
s6 o
5 1
6
b
1
1
/ ///
4 ~
/
/
3
/ /
3 7 2
*~D-V
B/
C
_^_
0.10X
5î
i
r-"
O",
<r.
0.05X ,rms error
0.05X ,rms error
0.10X
Upper bound on the mean rise in sidelobe level due to random errors for various DolphChebyshev arrays as a function of the tolerances a x and F (defined in text). Solid curves are for F = 0.25, dashed curves for F = 0.125. Curves A: 24 elements, 40-db sidelobe design; curve B: 24 elements, 30-db design; curve C: 24 elements, 20-db design; curves D: 48 elements, 40-db design;
Fig. 7.63.
curves E: 144 elements, 40-db design.
{After Elliott, 16 *
IRE
Trans.)
was taken to be independent of the others. Phase assumed to have a Gaussian distribution. The size of the region over which the error was correlated was also assumed to be small compared with the average distance on the aperture over which there was an appreciable change in the illumination. Since Ruze was primarily interested in a parabolic-reflector antenna, only a pure phase error 6, expressed in radians, was considered. For small phase errors the statistical "average" power pattern is
error regions within the aperture
errors were
P{0,cf>)
=P
(6,i>)
S(6,<f>)
4CW exp
A2 G
where u
sin 6,
similar to the statistical average pattern for the discrete array as expressed
and the other parameters have been denned previously. This is by Eq. (7.75).
(7.79)
Sec. 7.11]
Antennas
341
The
first term represents the pattern in the absence of errors, and the second term The describes the disturbing pattern introduced because of the presence of errors. the with error just as mean-square the to spurious sidelobe radiation is proportional discrete array, but it is also proportional to the square of the correlation interval expressed in wavelengths. An example of the application of Ruze's analysis to a
is shown in Fig. 7.64 for a uniform aperture disparabolic reflector of diameter cosine-squared aperture distribution (solid curves). for curves) and a tribution (dashed in Eq. (7.79)] is shown in these The average "close-in" sidelobes [that is, for u The coherent sidelobe figures as a function of the rms reflector error in radians. Figure level in the absence of errors is to be added to the values given in the curves.
= D= The curves for D = 100A, C = X may be used to represent D = 50A, C = 0.5A or D = 25A, C = 0.25/1, and so forth.
7.64 can also be used to illustrate the effect of correlation interval on sidelobe level 2 2 2 Hence since Eq. (7.79) shows the sidelobes to be proportional to C /G or C /Z> the case where 25A and C 0.5A. A also apply to 50/1, C the curves for
.
D=
10
Ruze found that the reduction in gain, assuming that the errors are small, may be given by the approximate expression
iZO
-?30
G
Go
mately
2 - pc*
2
A2
-<
and
(7.80)
MO
is
for small correlation interval
approxi50
J
I
'
-J
z
->
A
0.2
1
(7.81)
Rms
0.6 0.8 reflector error, radians
0.4
for large correlation interval.
An analysis using a slightly different approach was made by Bates160 for a continuousaperture antenna. He employed as the basis for computation the autocorrelation function and the Wiener-Khinchin theorem relating
Fig. 7.64. Average close-in sidelobe level as a function of the rms reflector error, in
radians, and the antenna diameter D, in wavelengths, for a parabolic-reflector anCorrelation tenna. interval C 1A. Dashed curves represent uniform aperture illumination ; solid curves represent cosinesquared aperture illumination. {After Ruze. 121 )
the power radiation pattern and the autocorrelation function of the aperture distribution. If the autocorrelation function describing the random errors across the aperture can exp ( 2 //* 2), the lowest possible sidelobe S(u) in the be expressed as (x) direction given by u sin 6 is, in the notation of Bates,
= =
MW
S(u)
T *0MW = -j exp
r
2 a
(7.82)
and the gain-reduction factor
is
MW G 1
where
(7.83)
M = power that would be radiated by aperture illumination given by randomerror contribution alone W = weighting factor to be applied to nonuniform aperture distributions
/?
= radius
of correlation within which 85 per cent of a particular error
is
2a
P=
located aperture dimension in xy plane total power (voltage squared) radiated by desired aperture distribution
342

(7.82), the lowest
[Sec. 7.11
level is proportional to the
According to Eq.
first
probable sidelobe
power of the correlation interval fl, whereas the similar expression derived by Ruze [Eq. (7.79)] shows a square-law dependence on correlation interval C. The reason for the difference is that Ruze's correlation interval C was based on a two-dimensional aperture distribution while Bates's /? is based on collapsing the two-dimensional distribution into an equivalent one-dimensional line source, so that the two definitions
of correlation interval are not the same. In addition to raising the sidelobe level, random-phase and amplitude errors in the aperture distribution cause an error in the position of the main beam. Rondinelli 159 has shown that for a uniform amplitude distribution across an by square array, the statistical rms beam pointing error is
M M
V J
(kd e )M 2
(7.84)
where a
k de
= rms value of normalized error current assuming Rayleigh distributed errors = 2tt/A = element spacing = number of elements along one dimension of square array
is assumed uniformly distribEquation (7.84) indicates an error of 0.22 X 10- 4 radian (~0.001) for a 100-by100-element uniformly illuminated array with a beam width of approximately 1 when a = 0.4. The ratio of the rms beam pointing error
The phase angle
uted.
to the half-power
beamwidth
0.313g
is
M
Leichter's
(7.85)
analysis 161
of
beam
pointing
errors
was performed
for a continuous line
source, but
o.io
may be
Both uniform
distributions
applied to a linear array. and modified
Taylor distributions were considered. The amplitude and phase distributions were described by the Gaussian distribution and Fig. 7.65. Plot of a d versus fl/S^ where ag is the rms phase error such that the pointing were assumed independent of one another. error will be in the interval ( 0, 0) with a An example of Leichter's results for a uniprobability p(fi) for arrays with A/2 spacing; form amplitude distribution is shown in solid curves apply for p(0) = 0.95 dashed curves apply for p(S) = 0.99; = angle Fig. 7.65. The quantity ad is the allowable X rms phase error such that the pointing error to the first null; D = antenna length. (Courtesy Hughes Aircraft Co.) will be in the interval ( 6,6) with the indicated probability for arrays with A/2 spacing between elements. The angle 6 1 is the angle from the center of the beam (6 0) to the first
;
null.
An understanding of errors is also of importance in the design of antennas for radio astronomy where dimensions might be of the order of hundreds of feet. Bracewell 162 considered the effect of errors on the directive gain (directivity) and how the tolerance theory of errors might be applied to the design and construction of large antennas. His analysis emphasized that the significant quantity is the mean square error as measured from the perturbed mean, and not from the design mean. He suggested that
Antennas
Sec. 7.12]
343
amount may be surface to be true to within a fixed a specification calling for the antenna importance. ctXtpr than necessary if directivity is the factor of derived from the various interesting conclusions may be ConctTons antennas the following array For above. stupes of aperture errors described
Sal
in the the number of elements (MAO Equation (7.75) indicates that the larger tolerance and a given error given a for radiation aravtTe smaller wi I be the spurious are more likely to be achieved deSn sidelobe level. In other words, lower sidelobes the intensity of the main beam antennas. This comes about because
wkhCer
mcLses nceae buSns
incoherent addition of many contnit represents the errors to be more serious as the array In order for the effect of random a rate proportional to the total number grows larger, the error would have to increase at case for most frequencies at which the usually ofdements in the array. This is not
^
e
as the square of the only linearly since
2 number of elements (MAO while

,
the spurious radiation
ra
random errors is independent of the beam rise in the sidelobe level due to the beam is scanned, whether there are 159 when The sidelobe level rises scan angle.
58
?7he
3
ran d
the rise in the sidelobes, h e aesign sidelobe level, the greater will be 158 tolerance. error assuming a given antenna size and a given serious random error is in the translation^ 4 In a two-dimensional array, the most Of secondary importance are the errors in the currents position of the dipole elements. of the dipole elements is relatively the elements. The angular position
The 7ower
applied to unimportant. 158 antenna: The following conclusions apply to the continuous mean121 sidelobe radiation is proportional to the spurious the Ruze, to According 1 square the to proportional is addition in and sauare error iust as in the discrete array, Bates 1 - defines his correlation ofthe coStion interval measured in wavelengths. a first-power dependence for this reason. interval differently from Ruze and obtains antenna surface, they should be kept 2 If errors are unavoidable in a reflecting tolerance, the antenna with the smaller mechanical same small in extent; that is, for the lower sidelobes than an ântenna^with a correlation interval (rougher surface) will give An error stretching most of the length of the antenna is larger correlation interval. amplitude. localized bump or dent of much greater likely to have a worse effect than a reflector the of rivets on the surface Therefore small disturbances such as screws and 121 160 radiation pattern. will have little effect on the antenna both the phase errors and the correlation 3 An increase in frequency increases the gain of a constant-area antenna does Therefore wavelengths. interval in terms of For reflectors of equal gain frequency. not increase as rapidly as the square of the by errors will increase caused level sidelobe relative (same diameter in wavelengths) the 1 db/octave. 12 or frequency, the as the fourth power of material presented _in.itns An important conclusion that may be derived from the in the region out ide the especially pattern, section is that the details of the radiation which the antenna_is with accuracy the by determined be main beam, are more likely to Thus the illuminated. is aperture constructed than by the manner in which the just as important as are technician and machinist mechanical engineer and the skilled radiation pattern. the antenna designer in realizing the desired
,
7.12.
Radomes 10
'
165 - 171
to high winds, icing, Antennas for ground-based radars are often subjected to continue to survive and are they if temperature extremes. They must be sheltered must be operated in winch Antennas perform under adverse weather conditions.
and/or
344
[Sec. 7.12
severe weather are usually enclosed for protection in a sheltering structure called a radome. Radomes must be mechanically strong if they are to provide the necessary protection, yet they must not attenuate, distort, shift the boresight, or otherwise interfere with the normal operation of the antenna. Antennas mounted on
aircraft
must also be housed within a radome to offer protection from large aerodynamic loads and to avoid disturbance to the control of the aircraft and minimize drag. The design of radomes for antennas may be divided into two separate and relatively distinct classes, depending upon whether the antenna is for airborne or ground-based (or ship-based) application. The airborne radome is characterized by smaller size than ground-based radomes since the antennas that can be carried in an aircraft are generally smaller. The airborne radome must be strong enough to form a part of the aircraft structure and usually must be designed to conform to the aerodynamic shape of the aircraft, missile, or space vehicle in which it is to operate. For these reasons the RF performance of an airborne radome must often be compromised in order to achieve the necessary aerodynamical performance. An interesting example of the application of radomes to house airborne radars is the radar picket plane shown in Fig. 7.66. A radome permits a ground-based radar antenna to operate in the presence of high winds. It also prevents ice formation on the antenna. Although it is possible to design an antenna strong enough to survive extreme weather conditions and to provide
Fig. 7.66.
it
Radar
picket plane showing
rotodome radome.
(.Courtesy
Lockheed Aircraft Co.)
with sufficiently large motors to be rotated in the highest winds, it is often more economical to design a lighter antenna with modest drive power and operate it inside a radome. The shape of a radome for a ground-based antenna is usually a portion of a sphere. The sphere is a good mechanical structure and offers aerodynamic advantages in the presence of high winds. Precipitation particles blow around a sphere rather than impinge upon it. Hence snow or other frozen precipitation is not readily deposited on
large spherical surfaces. The first large radomes (50-ft diameter or more) for ground-based radar antennas appeared shortly after World War II. They were constructed of a strong, flexible, airtight material and were supported by air pressure from within. The air-supported,
or "rubber-balloon," radome has good electrical properties and can be operated at almost all radar frequencies. They are especially useful at the higher frequencies such as and bands, where other radome techniques are not as practical. The inherent difficulties of continually maintaining the pressure within the bag as well as the flexibility of the bag in high winds are two of the disadvantages of the air-supported rubber-balloon radome.
Sec. 7.12]
Antennas
345
by the use of Both of the above limitations of air-supported radomes are overcome of a rigid photograph A glass. fibrous with reinforced rigid radomes made of plastics a spherical structure constructing of concept basic The 7.67. in Fig. shown radome is advanced in the early with plastic panels in the form of a geodesic sphere was first 171 form. architectural an thirties by R. Buckminster Fuller for use as between The 55-ft-diameter radome shown in Fig. 7.67 is designed so that the flanges diaphragms which merely the panels take the load while the plastic panels act as thin Davis and attached. transmit wind-pressure loads to the framework to which they are is less than radome the 169 by caused gain antenna in reduction Cohen report that the At S band, the loss in gain is about 3 db from UHF to frequencies up to L band. -25-db level. The radome 0.5 db and the net increase in sidelobes is 2 db at the or the pointing accuracy. impedance antenna the on produces no discernible effects
Fig. 7.67. Rigid radome for ground-based antennas. and MIT Lincoln Laboratory.)
(From Davis and Cohen 16 ", Courtesy Electronics
radome is not as air-inflated radome because
The
rigid
suitable at the highest microwave frequencies as is the thicker it has to have thicker structural members and
surfaces.
not feasible to design rigid radomes to be tornado-proof, they can be designed to withstand hurricanes and arctic winds. Air-inflated radomes are not as lOyears; rugged. Winds of 140 mph occur occasionally; 185-mph winds occur once in and 200-mph winds are possible. 169 Most rotating antennas which operate exposed down and to the elements without the protection of a radome must usually be shut securely fastened in strong gale winds (exceeding about 60 mph). An antenna under a Even if well-designed rigid radome can continue to operate in the strongest winds. that advantage the antenna has radome-enclosed extreme winds are not encountered, a even exposed to radome the outside were it than if motor smaller with a it can be rotated the normal winds.
Although
it is
346
[Sec. 7.12
Fig. 7.68. Scale model of the metal space frame of a Goodyear Aircraft Corporation!)
10-ft-diameter rigid radome.
(Courtesy
thin
The radome in Fig. 7.67 is an example of a space-frame radome with a skin which is compared with a wavelength. Larger space-frame radomes may use metal
flanges as the basic supporting structure without seriously degrading the electrical performance. scale model of the space frame of a 1 1 0-ft-diameter radome is shown in Fig. 7.68. 172 Rectangular steel-tubing beams welded to cast-steel hubs of a spider
configuration provide minimum aperture blocking. The random design of the ribs prevents periodic errors in the aperture distribution, which can cause spurious sidelobes.
It also makes the electrical performance of the radome more uniform when different polarizations are used. The steel load-bearing structure is covered with fiberglassreinforced plastic panels.
Figure 7.69 shows a 140-ft-diameter radome housing the 84-ft-diameter antenna of tracking radar. 173 The radome is of a honeycomb-sandwich construction rather than a metal space frame. It consists of two thin high-density skins 0.042 in. thick with a Kraft-paper honeycomb core of 6 in. Reflection loss is minimized by the use of the correct core thickness. There are a total of 1,646 modules, or panels, making up the radome. They are grouped in 12 equal sections, as derived from a dodecahedrona spherical body with 12 like pentagonal faces. Each pentagon is further divided into hexagonal and pentagonal sections with a pentagon at each vertex or junction of the large subdivisions. The transmission efficiency of this radome is 98 per cent; the average boresight error, 0.1 mil; the maximum boresight error, 0.3 mil; and the boresight error rate, 0.005 mil/mil. The pattern deterioration is very small. Radomes of this type can withstand 185-mph winds.
the
BMEWS
Sec. 7.13]
Antennas
347
Fig. 7.69.
radar.
A 140-ft-diameter, honeycomb-sandwich radome housing 84-ft-diameter BMEWS tracking
{Courtesy Radio Corporation of America)
of the largest rigid radomes is the 1 50-ft-diameter radome housing the MIT Lincoln Laboratory 120-ft Haystack Hill radar antenna. The operating frequency is 8,000 mc, and the average transmitted power of the radar is 100 kw.
One
7.13. Focused
Antennas
applications of antennas are mainly concerned with the Fraunhofer, or far2 is the antenna If the ranges involved are less than about 2D /X, where field, pattern. describes longer pattern no radiation Fraunhofer diameter and A is the wavelength, the patterns the radiation larger, become apertures antenna As performance. the antenna
Most
at ranges less
than
2DzjXthe
Fresnel
region become important.
Fresnel-region radiation patterns are of importance in high-power large-aperture radars since it is in this region that personnel may be subjected to dangerous power For safety purposes, the power densities to be expected in the densities (Sec. 1 1.9). measures. vicinity of personnel must be known in order to take proper protective illuminated uniformly region of a Fresnel the field in axial of the example Figure 7.70 is an
The
circular aperture.
The antenna gain
is less
175 than that in the Fraunhofer region.
178
The Fraunhofer gain may be achieved in the Fresnel region by focusing the radia177 ^ 180 An antenna may be focused by applying a spherical phase distribution tion. across a plane aperture to equalize the electrical paths from each point on the aperture to the point at which focusing is to be accomplished.' The flexibility of arrays makes
them
well suited as electronically controlled, variable-focus antennas.
348
[Sec. 7.13
Relative distance from aperture
DVk
is
Fig. 7.70. Axial field strength of a uniformly illuminated circular aperture. Ordinate strength relative to that applied at the aperture. Abscissa is distance, in units of Z> 2 /A.
the field
Z, wavelengths
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
0.01
0.001
600
800
1,000
wavelengths
Fig. 7.71. Field-intensity patterns of a uniformly illuminated 50A-square aperture focused to a distance of 1,00(U. (Courtesy Electronic Communications, Inc.)
Antennas
The
349
of a focused antenna is the same as the radiation pattern in the focal plane A of the focused spot, as measured diameter The Fraunhofer pattern at infinity. for a uniformly ulummated poini is approximately Ltwee ^ focus the energy to al-mTo focus. the aperture, 'where I, is the distance to must be 10,000A. When diameter antenna diameter spot at a range of 10 km, the antenna. R f >2 M, the focused spot is the same size as the antenna * shown in Fig. 7/Hfor a focused a of intensity radiation of the 'An example focused to a distance of 1 ,0OH. This is a uniformly illuminated aperture 50A square, aperture is 5.000A. One of the interesting 50A for a focus since 2 to of maximum intensity does not correspond features of this pattern is that the point
cSr
=
AeS-power
R^D
SSyshUow
th
C S power of for the transfer of significant amounts Foc us ed antennas are of interest is for application possible One lines wifhouUhe need for conventional transmission helicopter. airborne of power from the ground to an
RF
the supply
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:
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1960.
103. Carter, P. S., Jr. 104.
Mutual Impedance Effects in Large Beam Scanning Arrays, IRE Trans., vol. AP-8, pp. 276-285, May, 1960. Edelberg, S., and A. A. Oliner: Impedance Properties of Antenna Arrays, IRE WESCON
:
Conv. Record, vol. 2, pt. 1, pp. 175-177, 1958. 105. Edelberg, S., and A. A. Oliner: Mutual Coupling in Large Arrays: Part I, Slot Arrays, IRE Trans., vol. AP-8, pp. 286-297, May, 1960; Part II, Compensation Effects, 360-367, July,
pp.
106. Kurtz, L. A.,
Antenna Arrays of Discrete Elements, IRE Trans., vol. AP-7, pp. 435-436, October, 1959. 108. King, D. D., R. F. Packard, and R. K. Thomas: Unequally-spaced, Broad-band Antenna Arrays, IRE Trans., vol. AP-8, pp. 380-384, July, 1960. 109. Sandler, S. S. Some Equivalences between Equally and Unequally Spaced Arrays, IRE Trans vol. AP-8, pp. 496-500, September, 1960. 110. Ridenour, L. N.: "Radar System Engineering," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 1, sec. 6.9, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947. 111. Byers, H. G., and M. Katchky: Slotted-waveguide Array for Marine Radar, Electronics, vol. 31, pp. 94-96, Dec. 5, 1958. 112. McCoy, A. M., J. E. Walsh, and C. F. Winter: A Broadband, Low Sidelobe, Radar Antenna, IRE WESCON Conv. Record, vol. 2, pt. 1, pp. 234-250, 1958. 113. Friis, H. T., and C. B. Feldman: Multiple Unit Steerable Antenna, Proc. IRE, vol. 25, vtf pp.
:
58-145(1), ASTIA Document 152409. 107. Blasi, E. A., and R. S. Elliott: Scanning
Mutual Impedance in Electronically Scanned Antenna Arrays, Proc. Electronic Scanning Symposium, Apr. 29, 30, May 1, 1958, AFCRC-TRS. Elliott:
and R.
The
Effect of
841-917, July, 1937.

:
114. Polkinghorn, F. A.
Single-sideband Receiving System for Commercial Operation on Transatlantic Radio Telephone Circuits, Proc. IRE, vol. 28, pp. 157-170, April, 1940. 115. Ring, D. H. The Musa Antenna, Report of Conference on Rapid Scanning, Radiation Lab. Rept. 54-27, pp. 3-15, June 15, 1943.
:
MUSA
FH
MIT
116. Friis,
H.
T.,
and W. D. Lewis: Radar Antennas, Bell System Tech.
J., vol.
26, pp. 219-317,

Series, vol. 1,
April, 1947.
117. Ridenour, L. N.:
sec. 9.13,
"Radar System Engineering," MIT Radiation Laboratory McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947.
Antennas
118
353
of
Waveguide Alvarez, L. W., and R. M. Robertson: Lab. Kept. 54-27, pp. 16-34, June 15. 1943_ ference on Rapid Scanning, MIT Radiation vol. 18, Kendall: Electronic Sector Scanning, J. Brit. IRE, 119. Tucker, D. G., V. G. Welsby, and R.
Linear Arr
S7\
ner
ReP
Con '
120. 121.
MarkoÊ.'wêrvo
Phase Control Shapes Antenna Pattern, Electronics,
vol. 32, pp. 50-52,
^Physical Limitations on Antennas,
MIT Research
Lab. Electronics Tech. Kept. 248,
System Which Will Produce a Specified Directional 122 Woiff^Determination of the Radiating 1937. Characteristic, Proc. IRE, vol. 25, pp. 630-643, May January, Presence of Noise, Proc. IRE, vol. 37, pp. 10-21, 123. Shannon, C: Communication in the
124. 125.
Field over a Plane Aperture Required to P. M.: A Method of Calculating the IIIA, pp. 1554-1558, 1946. ...., Produce a Given Polar Diagram, /. IEE, vol. 93, pt. with Which an Arbitrary Woodward, P. M., and J.*D. Lawson: The Theoretical Precision vol. 95, pt. 111A, of Finite Size, J. IEE, Radiation Pattern May Be Obtained with a Source
Woodward,
126.
B^cl"A !l( C huVsTad

:
S Pt
8
S.
D. Pool: Superactivity, Proc. IRE,
vol. 48, p. 1164, June,
127. Jordan, E. C.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., "Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems," sec, 12.17,
128
Relationship for Broadside Arrays Which Optimizes the DoCc^'a Cu^nt DistributionLevel, 34, pp. 335-348, June, 1946; also Proc. IRE,
129
130. 131.
vol. between Beamwidth and Side Lobe Hkrmsion bv J. Riblet, vol. 35, pp. 489-492. 5: A Method for Calculating the Current Distribution of Tschebyscheff Arrays,
132
"
133.
134
135.
136
137!
'
138. 139.
discussion on p. 991 Proc. IRE, vol. 40, pp. 78-82, January, 1952; also Appl. Phys., Simplified Calculation for Dolph-Tchebycheff Arrays, /. van der Maas, G. J.: vol. 25, pp. 121-124, January, 1954. Beamwidths of Tschebyscheff Arrays, Proc. IRE, J.: Excitation Coefficients and Stegen, vol. 4l' pp. 1671-1674, November, 1953. AA a r- ; Distributions, Beamwidth and Gain Brown L B., and G. A. Sharp: Tchebycheff Antenna 1958 February, Rept. 383, Tables,' Naval Ordnance Lab., Corona, Calif., Bur. Standards {U.S.) Appl. Math. Ser. Tables of Chebyschev Polynomials S n (x) and C n (x), Natl. 9, December, 1952. Stone, J. S.: U.S. Patents 1,643,323 and 1,715,433. for Arrays of Non-isotropic Sources, IRE Sinclair, G., and F. V. Cairns: Optimum Patterns 1952. February, Trans vol PGAP-1, pp. 50-59, IRE, vol. 48, pp. 795-796, April 1960. Mattingly, R. L. Nonreciprocal Radar Antennas, Proc. Narrow Beamwidth and Low Side Lobes, Taylor, T. T.: Design of Line-source Antennas for ... , , IRE Trans., vol. AP-3, pp. 16-28, January, 1955. ,., Beamwidth and Low Sidelobes, IRE Taylor, T. T.: Design of Circular Apertures for Narrow 1960. Trans.! vol. AP-8, pp. 17-22, January, Aperture Antennas, IRE Irons., Hansen, R. C: Tables of Taylor Distributions for Circular
BaS
,,,.
mc
....
vol
140 Tavlor
141
vol. 8, pt. 1, pp. 24-34, 1960. dimensional Surface Wave Arrays, IRE Intern. Conv. Record, of Pattern Synthesis for Linear Arrays, IRE Method Optics Geometrical E.: H. Shanks, 142 Trans., vol. AP-8, pp. 485-490, September, 1960. j- ^ , a diagramme de rayonnement a lobe elargi, Ann. radio143 Thourel L.: Antenna presentant un 1955. October, electricite, vol. 10, no. 42, pp. 348-354, Le Paraboloide eclaire par un guide a fentes, 144 Thourel, L. Un Nouveau type d'antenna de veille 1957 Ann. radioilectricite, vol. 12, no. 47, pp. 3-14, January, fnA _eS*t of Beam Shaping, IRE Trans., vol. AP-4, pp. 604-609, 145. Hutchison, P. T.: The Image Method
Family of Line Sources Producing Modified Sin Trufru Patterns, Mem. 324, Contract AF 19(604)-262-F-14, Sept. 4 1953 Tech. Aircraft Co. {Calif.) 2 Type Antenna Patterns Using TwoCooper, H. W., and H. R. McComas: Synthesis of CSC
AP-8 pp. 23-26, January,
1960.
Ses
T T One Parameter
'
'
Proc. IRE, H. Rumsey, and C. H. Walter: Traveling-wave Slot Antennas, November, 1953. Surface Wave Antennas: Oblique Surface 147 Houeardy R. W., and R. C. Hansen: Scanning October, 1958^ Wavls over a Corrugated Conductor, IRE Trans., vol. AP-6, PP-^70-376 Proc. IRE, vol. 46, pp. 499-500, Equivalence, Frequency Space Stone: and J. L. 148. Kock, W. E.,
146. Hinesfj. N., V.
vol.
41, pp. 1624-1631,
'
149
'
Signals on Radar K. E. Niebuhr, and N. J. Nilsson: The Effects of Wide Band 40-48, 1959. Antenna Design, IRE WESCON Conv. Record, vol. 3, pt. 1, pp.
Da^n^L R
354

Conf.
July,
Some Wideband Radiation Properties of Antennas, Seventh East Coast on Aeronaut, and Navigational Electronics (Baltimore), 1960. 151. Polk, C: Transient Behavior of Aperture Antennas, Proc. IRE, vol. 48, pp. 1281-1288, 1960; also discussion by B. R. Mayo, Proc. IRE, vol. 49, pp. 817-819, April, 1961. 152. Jacobson, M. J.: Analysis of a Multiple Receiver Correlation System, J. Acoust. Soc. vol. 29, pp. 1342-1347, December, 1957. 153. Berman, A., and C. S. Clay: Theory of Time-averaged-product Arrays, /. Acoust. Soc.
150. Rosenblatt, H.:
vol. 29, pp.
Am.,
Am.,
805-812, July, 1957. 154. Welsby, V. G., and D. C. Tucker: Multiplicative Receiving Arrays, /. Brit. IRE, vol. 19, pp. 369-382, June, 1959. 155. Brown, J. L., Jr., and R. O. Rowlands: Design of Directional Arrays, /. Acoust. Soc. Am., vol. 31, pp. 1638-1643, December, 1959. 156. Spencer, R. C, and P. M. Austin: Tables and Methods of Calculation for Line Sources, MIT Radiation Lab. Rept. 762-2, Mar. 30, 1946. 157. Ruze, J.: The Effect of Aperture Errors on the Antenna Radiation Pattern, Suppl. al Nuovo cimento, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 364-380, 1952; also reprinted in Proc. Symposium on Communication Theory and Antenna Design, AFCRC Tech. Rept. 57-105, ASTIA Document 117067, January,
1957.
158. Elliott, R. S. 159. 160.
161.
162.
163. 164.
Mechanical and Electrical Tolerances for Two-dimensional Scanning Antenna Arrays, IRE Trans., vol. AP-6, pp. 114-120, January, 1958. Rondinelli, L. A.: Effects of Random Errors on the Performance of Antenna Arrays of Many Elements, IRE Natl. Conv. Record, vol. 7, pt. 1, pp. 174-187, 1959. Bates, R. H. T.: Random Errors in Aperture Distributions, IRE Trans., vol. AP-7, pp. 369-372, October, 1959. Leichter, M. Beam Pointing Errors of Long Line Sources, Hughes Aircraft Co. Tech. Mem. 588, April, 1959; also IRE Trans., vol. AP-8, pp. 268-275, May, 1960. Bracewell, R. N.: Tolerance Theory of Large Antennas, IRE Trans., vol. AP-9, pp. 49-58, January, 1961. Kurtz, L. A., and R. S. Elliott: Systematic Errors Caused by the Scanning of Antenna Arrays.: Phase Shifters in the Branch Lines, IRE Trans., vol. AP-4, pp. 619-627, October, 1956. Hansen, R. C: Gain Limitations of Large Antennas, IRE Trans., vol. AP-8, pp. 490-495,
: :
September, 1960.
165. Scheibeg, E.
166.
W.: Radomes and Aircraft Design, Aeronaut. Eng. Rev., May, 1952, p. 69. Cuming, W. R. Radome Sandwich Using Artificial Dielectric Foam, Electronic Design,
:
vol. 6,
pp. 36-39, Apr. 16, 1958. 167. "Proceedings of the Symposium on Rigid Radomes," sponsored by MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Lexington, Mass., Oct. 10, 1958. 168. Ratynski, M. V.: Future Trends in Radomes for Ground Electronic Equipment, IRE Natl. Conv. Record, vol. 4, pt. 1, pp. 236-241, 1956. 169. Davis, P., and A. Cohen: Rigid Radome Design Considerations, Electronics, vol. 32, no. 16, pp. 66, 68-69, Apr. 17, 1959.
170. Lavrench,
W.:
Electrical
Performance of Rigid Ground Radomes,
IRE
Trans., vol.
AP-8,
pp. 548-558, November, 1960.
The Dymaxion, Fortune, July, 1932. Fabrication and Erection of 110-ft-diameter Space-frame Radome, Goodyear Aircraft Corp. {Akron, Ohio) Rept. GER-9408, Aug. 14, 1959. 173. Fretz, G. C, Jr.: Design, Fabrication and Erection of 140-ft-diameter, Honeycomb-sandwich Radome, Goodyear Aircraft Corp. (Akron, Ohio) Rept. GER-9485, Nov. 30, 1959. 174. Swenson, G. W., Jr., and Y. T. Lo: The University of Illinois Radio Telescope, IRE Trans.,
171. Fuller, Buckminster:
172. Fretz,
G.
C,
Jr.:
AP-9, pp. 9-16, January, 1961. W., and R. C. Hansen: Antenna Power Densities in the Fresnel Region, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, pp. 2119-2120, December, 1959. 176. Polk, C: Optical Fresnel-zone Gain of a Rectangular Aperture, IRE Trans., vol. AP-4, pp. 65vol.
175. Bickmore, R.
69, January, 1956.
177. Bickmore, R. W. : November, 1957.

178.
On Focusing Electromagnetic Radiators,
Can.
J.
Phys., vol. 35, pp. 1292-1298,
Wehner, R. S.: Limitations of Focused Aperture Antennas, Rand Corp. (Calif) Rept. RM-262, Oct. 10, 1949. 179. Bickmore, R. W.: Power Transmission via Radio Waves, Proc. IRE, vol. 48, pp. 366-367, March, 1960. 180. Kay, A. F.: Near-field Gain of Aperture Antennas, IRE Trans., vol. AP-8, pp. 586-593, November, 1960. 181. Brown, W. C: A Survey of the Elements of Power Transmission by Microwave Beam, IRE
Intern. Conv. Record, vol. 9, pt. 3, pp.
93-106, 1961.
Antennas
182. Harrington, R. F.: Sidelobe Reduction AP-9, pp. 187-192, March, 1961.
355
by Nonuniform Element Spacings, IRE
Trans., vol.
183. Ogg, F. 184.
C, Jr. Steerable Array Radars, IRE Trans., vol. MIL-5, pp. 80-94, April, 1961. Rudduck, R. C, and C. H. Walter: Luneberg Lens Survey, Ohio State Univ. Rept. 903-17, Dec.
:
1,
I960, Contract
J.,
AF
33(616)-6211,
9,
ASTIA
263853.
Simplifies
185. Butler,
and R. Lowe: Beam-forming Matrix

:
Design of Electronically Scanned
Antennas, Electronic Design, vol. 186. Delaney, W. P. An RF Multiple
pp. 170-173, Apr. 12, 1961.
Beam Forming
Technique,
MIT Lincoln Lab. Rept. 41G-0012,

Arrays,
Aug.
9,
1961,
J. P.,
ASTIA
187. Shelton,
262017. and K. S. Kelleher: Multiple
Beams from Linear
IRE
Trans., vol.
AP-9,
pp. 154-161, March, 1961. Theoretical Limitation on the Formation of Lossless Multiple Beams in Linear 188. Allen, J. L.: Arrays, IRE Trans., vol. AP-9, pp. 350-352, July, 1961. 189. Earth-based Electronics, Electronics, vol. 34, no. 46, pp. 114, 115, 117, Nov. 17, 1961. J. (Royal Radar Establishment, Malvern, England), no. 190. Gent, H.: The Bootlace Aerial, 40, pp. 47-58, October, 1957. 191. Allen, J. L., et al.: Phased Array Radar Studies, MIT Lincoln Lab. Tech. Rept. 228, Aug. 12,
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1960.
192.
Anderson, V.
C:
:
193. Skolnik,
M.
1.
The Application of Space Frequency Equivalence
Digital Array Phasing, /. Acoust. Soc. Am.,\o\. 32, pp. 867-870, July, 1960. to Radar, paper presented at
the 1962
194. Skolnik,
IRE International Convention, New York. M. I.: Resolution of Angular Ambiguities in Radar Array Antennas Spaced Elements and Grating Lobes, IRE Trans., vol. AP-10, May, 1962.
with Widely
8
RECEIVERS
8.1.
The Radar Receiver
tion
The ability of a radar receiver to detect the presence of the echo and extract informafrom it is fundamentally limited by the presence of noise. Noise can enter the
receiver via the antenna terminals along with the desired signal (external noise), or it might be generated within the receiver itself (internal noise). Although noise can
never be completely eliminated, it must be minimized if optimum radar performance to be obtained. Those measures which reduce noise improve both the detectionand the information-extraction capabilities of the receiver. Noise and its elimination are probably the most important consideration in the design of sensitive receivers used with long-range radars.
is
It was shown in Chap. 2 that the detection of a small target at long radar range requires large transmitter power, large antenna area, and a sensitive receiver. Any improvement in receiver sensitivity can be used to reduce the transmitter-power
requirements or the antenna
size.
Since
good
receivers are usually less expensive than

in the receiver
large antennas or high-power transmitters, substantial savings in the over-all radar cost.
improvements
can mean
is based on maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio. More one must maximize the a posteriori probability, the likelihood function, or some other similar criterion, as described in Chap. 9, but for practical receiver design, maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio in the linear portion of the receiver is usually a satisfactory criterion. The signal-to-noise ratio may be maximized by designing the receiver as a matchedfilter (Sec. 9.2) or as a cross correlator (Sec. 9.3). Receivers based on these two techniques (which are essentially the same in principle) enhance the desired signal in an optimum manner and suppress undesired signals including noise. The receiver must also be designed to generate little noise of its own, especially in the input stages where signals are weakest. In addition to the received signal from the antenna terminals, reference signals from other parts of the radar must be supplied the radar receiver and indicator in order to properly interpret the information contained in the input signal. A knowledge of the
Good
receiver design
precisely,
time of transmission is necessary for determining the transit time or the range. The position of the antenna must be available to indicate the angular coordinates of the target, and the transmitted frequency is needed with MTI or radars for the detection of the doppler frequency shift. The more a priori information there is at the receiver
CW
communication theory states that if the maximum information is to be obtained from the echo signal, a complete description of the signal must be available. In addition to noise and sensitivity, other receiver characteristics of interest to the radar engineer are gain, bandwidth, dynamic range, tuning, ruggedness, and simplicity. The total gain of a receiver is divided among the various stages, with most occurring in the IF and video if the receiver is of the superheterodyne type. Typical power gain from the input of the receiver to the output of the display device might vary from 150 to 200 db.
the better since
The receiver must have adequate dynamic range to be able to detect the weakest signal and yet not saturate with the largest expected echo signal.
356
Sec. 8.2]
Receivers
357
bandwidth must be wide enough to encompass the frequency spectrum which might occur. Tuning of the transmitted signal plus any doppler frequency shift in communication as important a requirement in radar receivers as it is
The
receiver
is
usually not
receivers
The receiver tuning range need be no greater than that of the transmitter, a receiver, tuning is and since it is more difficult to tune a high-power transmitter than especially self-excited transmitters, Radar design. receiver in seldom a limitation means of automatic tuning must be oscillators tend to drift in frequency, and some
frequency variations incorporated in the receiver to keep it in step with the uncontrolled (AFC). control frequency automatic called is technique of the transmitter. This in radar applicaemployed been have which Receivers Receivers} Radar Types of crystal video, and the tuned radio tions include the superheterodyne, superregenerative, areas of application for which particular has these of each frequency (TRF). Although receiver has been widely applied superheterodyne the others, the than suited it is better and reliability. The superprimarily because of its sensitivity, high gain, selectivity,
regenerative receiver
-
simplicity and compactness are is useful in applications where 2 151 receivers are of interest Superregenerative sensitivity. low than more important for both receiving and used tube may be in radar beacon applications because a single of poor sensitivity. simple but relatively is The crystal-video receiver transmitting. receiver has not TRF The stages. video the in appear must gain Furthermore, all the It is similar in many respects to applications. radar in extent great any to used been sufficient gain to swamp the noise the crystal-video receiver but has an RF amplifier of stages. IF no has produced by the detector. It
8.2.
Superheterodyne Receiver
shown in shown in Fig. 8.1. The echo signal enters the system via the antenna duplexer and is amplified upper left-hand portion of the figure. It passes through the
Antenna
is A simple block diagram of a radar receiver based on the superheterodyne principle the
h
To
Low-noise
Duplexer
RF
amplifier
Mixer
IF
amplifier
2d
Video
indicato r
detectoi
h-
amplifier
Manual tuning
Local
oscillator
Automatic tuning
n
AFC AFC
IF
I
Frequency
discriminator
Control
circuit
u
From
mixer
irectionol
|_A
amplifier
FC_
,_i
coupler
transmitter
frequency control. Fig. 8.1. Superheterodyne receiver with automatic
by the low-noise RF amplifier. When external noise is In the diagram, sensitivity. by the input stage of the receiver determines the receiver RF amplmer the receivers, radar practical many in but the input stage is an RF amplifier, function of the mixer stage, The stage. first the as mixer acts the and is dispensed with
negligible, the noise generated
lower intermediate frequency (IF) or first detector, is to translate the RF frequency to a the RF signal with a local heterodyning usually 30 or 60 Mc. This is accomplished by
358
[Sec. 8.2
element (mixer) and extracting the signal component at the The frequency is translated to IF, where the necessary gain is easier to obtain than at RF. It is also easier to synthesize the response function (or bandpass characteristic) of the receiver in the IF stages. The second detector, which is either a vacuum tube or a crystal rectifier, extracts the video modulation from the carrier. The modulation is amplified in the video stages to a level high enough to
oscillator in a nonlinear
difference frequency.
operate the indicator or display devices. One of the requirements of the radar receiver is that its internal noise be kept to a minimum. It is important, therefore, that the input stages of the receiver be designed for low noise figure. If the mixer is the first stage, its crystal should be selected for low conversion loss and low noise temperature ratio. Any noise generated by the local oscillator must be kept out of the mixer stage, either by the insertion of a narrowband filter between the local oscillator and the crystal or by the use of a balanced mixer. The noise figure of the IF amplifier must be low if no RF amplifier is used. As the bandwidth of the RF portion of the receiver is relatively wide, the frequencyresponse characteristic of the IF amplifier determines the over-all response charac-
of the receiver. It is in the IF portion of the receiver that the response is designed to maximize the signal-to-noise ratio (matched filter). The second detector is inherently a nonlinear device. The nonlinearity generates additional noise components which degrade the signal-to-noise ratio. This is not the same as the crystal noise caused by flicker effect (flicker noise is usually swamped by the gain of the IF amplifier) but is a fundamental consequence of the detection process. The signal and noise components beat in the nonlinear element and cause signal energy to be transferredinto noise energy. The type of second-detector characteristic (linear, square-law, cubic, etc.) has only little influence on detection. For practical purposes, however, a linear detector has wider dynamip range and would be preferred. The video amplifier can also degrade the signal-to-noise ratio, but this can be prevented in a well-designed and well-engineered receiver. The method of data presentation will influence the over-all receiver sensitivity to some extent, especially if an operator is involved in
teristic
characteristic
making the detection
decision.
'
Automatic Frequency Control. 1 3 " 6
The
AFC
system normally employed to keep
the receiver in tune with the transmitter is known as a difference-frequency system. portion of the transmitter signal is coupled into the mixer and is heterodyned with the local oscillator. If the transmitter and receiver are correctly in tune, the difference frequency will be at the correct IF. If the receiver is not in tune with the transmitter, the difference frequency will not be correct. Any deviation from the cor-
AFC
IF is detected by the AFC frequency discriminator, which generates an error voltage whose magnitude is proportional to the deviation from the correct IF and whose sign determines the direction of the error. The error voltage corrects the frequency of the local oscillator common to both the receiver mixer and the AFC mixer. The action of the is that of a servomechanism. There must always be a small
rect
AFC
error voltage to provide a correction signal, but the error required may be decreased by increasing the amplification in the system. Antiinterference Circuits. 1 7 The superheterodyne receiver is probably the most
AFC
'
popular form of receiver in either radar or radio. Its theory and practice have been widely documented and need not be mentioned here except for those aspects of superheterodyne-receiver design of particular importance in radar applications. The radar receiver should minimize interference from other radiating equipments
and from
receiver.
deliberate
The
first is
jamming. Interference and jamming have two effects on the that of annoyance or confusion. Extraneous signals presented
all
to the receiver
make
it
the
from the desired
signals.
more difficult for the operator to extract the information The second effect occurs when the power of the interfering
Sec. 8.2]
Receivers
359
When the receiver saturates, receiver. signals is large enough to saturate or overload the for it to recover after the saturating required is time finite and a paralyzed, or it is blocked the The receiver is insensitive to newly arrived signals during signal is removed.
The techniques considered here are primarily consaturation and recovery times. saturation. receiver cerned with preventing motors and fluorescent lamps Interference from man-made sources such as electrical tight shielding, and filtering. design, electrical may be reduced or eliminated by good signals, AM- or FMbe might radar to harmful Other forms of interference more the interference The noise-modulated
CW
modulated CW, RF
pulses, or
CW
distinguish the one from the other. resembles the desired radar signal, the harder it is to desired signal from interference the extracting for method Theoretically, the optimum to the matched-filter concept as according receiver the designing by noise is or from methods are indicated for reducing described in Chap. 9. In this section, some practical is the usual type of superreceiver radar the when the effects of interfering signals
heterodyne.
wave with the interference due to an unmodulated sine detector is coupled second the If frequency. slightly different from the radar carrier the second detector by converted be will signal the amplifier, directly to the video video stage out of its operating range and into a d-c voltage which could bias the first can be eliminated by applying an equal cause saturation. The bias due to rectified the detector to the video amplifier coupling by simply, more or amount of counterbias, component to pass (Fig. through a blocking capacitor which does not permit the d-c The counterbias or the blocking capac8.2). Blocking the capacitor itor permits the receiver to operate if
Consider
first
c a frequency
CW
CW
interference
not large enough to overload The inclusion of a blocking the IF amplifier.

is
FronrUF_
amplifier
2d
detector
Video
amplifier
capacitor represents good design practice and could be well included in any superheterodynereceiver design, whether used for radar or not.
If the interference is
FiG
g 2
move
d_c bias caused
Use of blocking capacitor to reby CW interference,
an amplitude- or frequency-modulated
CW carrier, the modula-
along with the d-c bias from the tion will appear in the output of the second detector capacitor must C carrier If the modulation is to be eliminated, the simple blocking the first video and detector second the be replaced by a high-pass filter inserted between fast-time-constant called a is purpose this for used when A high-pass filter stage The high-pass filter might be a conventional RC network designed with circuit (FTC) the discretion of the radar two or more (lower) cutoff frequencies that can be selected at frequency is switched in, cutoff lowest the present, When no interference is operator When modulated pass. signal to echo in the contained energy all the permitting almost removes some filter the Since interference is present, a higher cutoff frequency is used. are passed pulses radar modulation, interfering the of the desired signal energy as well as the FTC should be Therefore attenuation. of amount certain with a by the FTC filter switched into the receiver only when needed. FTC is of value in the receiver so long as the IF amplifier does not overload. OverAlthough an operator might be loading can be prevented by turning down the gain. may not be sufficiently rapid. responses his gain, amplifier IF the adjust manually able to The technique employed in required. is control Some quicker-acting form of gain control (IAGC) and is quite gain automatic instantaneous called is most radar receivers radio receivers except that ordinary similar to the automatic volume control (AVC) of the gain of the IF amplifier controlling feedback IAGC is based on negative
it is
(Fig 8 3)
are rectified by the Signals appearing at the output of the final IF stage applied as a negative signal and filter, detector averaged in the short-time-constant The time stage. amplifier IF last) the (next to to the control grid of the penultimate
faster
RC
360
[Sec. 8.2
constant of the filter is usually a few pulse widths. The echo pulse passes with little attenuation, but longer pulses such as those from extended clutter targets are attenuated. Only one or two stages can be controlled by a single IAGC feedback loop. Instability
may
result if the signal is fed

first
usually the
earlier
back across too many stages. Since the final stage is the one most likely to contain an IAGC loop. If stages of the IF amplifier require IAGC, they may be controlled by their own
to saturate,
it is
feedback loop.
Another means of preventing overload in an IF amplifier is designing the amplifier output proportional to the logarithm of the input, logarithmic receivers are also useful for reducing clutter signals, as described in Sec. 12.4.
Penultimate
Final
IF
stage
TF
stage
Negative output detector
V de
II II
Nega five
grid
i bias
Shortfilter
Fig. 8.3. Instantaneous automatic gain control
(IAGC).
A circuit which automatically controls the receiver gain in a manner related to that
balanced bias (DBB), shown in Fig. 8.4. It differs from (1) it does not employ feedback since the input for the circuit comes from a point in the receiver ahead of where the bias is applied, and (2) the bias is applied to a diode detector rather than an IF amplifier stage. A delay line prevents any biasing action during the duration of the echo pulse. (The IAGC does not employ a delay line since in a degenerative feedback circuit it would impose severe problems in maintaining stability.) The DBB circuit usually has a relatively small dynamic range and must therefore be preceded by an IF amplifier protected by IAGC. Also shown in Fig. 8.4 are the FTC and IAGC boxes. Since these anti-interference
is
of IAGC
known as detector
IAGC in two important respects
Final
IF
stage
2d
detector
t^_
Video
FTC
u
to
IAGC
DBB
detector
Delay
line
Linear
omplif er
Fig. 8.4. Detector balanced bias (DBB).
circuits attenuate the desired signal
along with the interference, switches are included
remove them when they are not needed.
The likelihood of receiver saturation can be reduced further by programming the receiver gain as a function of time so that it is low for targets at close range and high for targets at long range. This is sensitivity time control (STC). At close ranges the effect
of the inverse-fourth-power variation of echo signal vs. range results in large target echoes and large clutter echoes. The gain of the receiver can be reduced under these circumstances to lessen the chance that the receiver will saturate on clutter. At long ranges, the effects of clutter echoes are less important and the gain can be raised to
-,
Receivers
361
Sec. 8.3]
detect the
above, STC is used weaker targets. As with the other techniques discussed use. in not when only where needed and should be switched off Their use in a .receiver simple. These anti-interference techniques are relatively they are needed. In not or whether as to judgment operator's an usually depends upon from the radar output the and some radar applications, an operator is not present computer. digital a as such processor data of receiver is fed directly into some form designed into the be must above described those than More sophisticated techniques large interfering signals from receiver-computer combination in order to prevent
overloading the capacity of the computer. ,.,>,.: in a radar receiver are discussed Other means of reducing the effects of interference
Sees. 12.9
and
12.10.
8.3. Receiver
Noise 7-15
any it would be possible to detect amplification^ sufficient with receiver the signal, no matter how small, by providing noise is always present, and unlimited This cannot be achieved in practice since as well. In this section several sources noise amplifies signals amplification of weak radar receivers will be discussed. Noise of noise that might be generated within be discussed in Sec. 8.6 will which enters the receiver via the antenna at a temperature other than absolute conductor any in electrons Thermal Noise. The motions of electrons in a conductor zero are always in random motion. The random Kelvin) give rise to an electrical degrees (in at an absolute temperature T of resistance
If there
were no noise present in the receiver,
noise voltage
whose mean-square value
is
16
C8 - 1 )
where k
Boltzmann's constant
? = ARkTBn = .38 joules/deg

1
bandwidth over which the noise voltage is measured The bandwidth B n is the noise bandwidth, defined by
Bn =
Bn
where H( f)
f n
= _J_f 2
|H(/
)|
J-~
\H{f)?df
(8-2)
The
the bandwidth of a rectangularly shaped noise bandwidth may be thought of as power output is the same as the total noise whose B n filter of height //(/) and width bandwidth was discussed in Sec. 2.3. noise from the network. The noise T may be represented by a pure, Noise generated by a conductor at a temperature whose mean-square value generator voltage noise noise-free resistance R in series with a maximum well-known theorem in circuit theory states that the is given bv Ea (8 1) is the impedance load the when occurs load transfer of power from a generator to a to the "matched be to said then is load The conjugate of the generator impedance. conductor of resistance Thus the maximum available noise power from the generator maximum noise power The R. isalso R will be obtained when the resistance of the load 2 is e /4R, or transferred to the load under these conditions
,
= frequency-response function of network = freq uency of maximum response (usually midband frequency)
Maximum
The
available noise
power
= kTB n
;
(8.3)
conductors normal microwave region. Its spectrum is describe thermal noise throughout the bands, and for this reason it is called independent of frequency over the radar frequency
the noise power of Eq (8.3), is known as noise voltage described by Eq. (8.1), or It is presen .in all temperature T thermal noise because of its dependence on the Equations (8.3) and (8.1) temperature. nonzero of finite resistance at
362
[Sec. 8.3
There is, however, a high-frequency cutoff to thermal noise beyond which its spectrum is no longer uniform but decreases rapidly with increasing frequency. This occurs in the far-infrared region for normal temperatures and is well beyond the frequency range of interest to radar. Thermal noise is also known as Johnson noise. 17 Shot Noise. Electrons are emitted at random time intervals from the cathode of a vacuum-tube diode and strike the plate at a nonuniform rate. The random arrival of electrons gives rise to a random noise current called shot noise. In a temperaturelimited diode the mean-square value of the noise current induced in the plate circuit is
white noise.
where
= charge on an electron / = average (d-c) current Bn = noise bandwidth

e
i\
2eIB n
(8.4)
When the diode operates in the space-charge-limited region,

on the shot noise induced
there
is
a smoothing
effect
in the plate circuit; consequently the noise currents are less
than those under temperature-limited operation. This is called reduced shot noise. Shot noise occurs not only in simple diodes but in grid-controlled tubes, travelingwave tubes, klystrons, magnetrons, crystal diodes, transistors, and other devices which
carry current.
In a tube like the pentode where there is more than one positive between the anode and the positive screen grid. Since the distribution of emitted electrons is random, the division of current between the various positive electrodes will also be random and additional noise will be introduced.
electrode, the current divides
Partition Noise.
The random
in the plate circuit.
division of electrons causes an apparent increase in the shot-noise current The effect is known as partition noise, or interception noise. It is
for this reason that pentodes are generally noisier than triodes. Thus, when low noise is desired, as in the input stages of an IF amplifier, triodes are preferred. Induced Grid Noise. An electron moving from the cathode to the plate in a tube containing a grid induces a current in the grid circuit. If the flow of electrons from the
cathode were uniform, the number of electrons approaching the grid would, equal the number receding from the grid, and the net induced current would be zero. However, the electron current is random, not uniform. As the number of electrons entering the vicinity of the grid does not always equal the number of electrons leaving, a net current is induced in the grid circuit. The fluctuations in net grid current are noiselike in character. Induced grid noise appears as noise in the plate circuit because of the control action of the grid. Unlike other noise phenomena, the amplitude of the induced-grid-noise spectrum increases with increasing frequency and is one of the effects which limit the performance of conventional tubes at the higher frequencies. Above 100 Mc it is the principal limiting factor in low-noise amplifier design. A correlation exists between induced grid noise and plate (shot) noise. It should be possible to partially cancel one with the other. 18 Properly mismatching the tube circuits results in some reduction in the over-all noise. This is a direct consequence of the correlation between the two noise components. However, there is a practical limit to this technique because the independent (uncorrected) component of grid noise can be large, in some cases as high as 70 per cent of the total. Crystal Noise. 19 An unexcited crystal diode will produce thermal noise just as any other resistance will at thermal equilibrium. When current passes through a crystal, the resulting noise is a complicated combination of thermal noise in the spreading resistance, shot noise in the barrier, and flicker noise in the semiconductor. In addition to shot noise and thermal noise, there exists in semiconductors at low frequencies a noise mechanism whose spectral density is inversely proportional to frequency. This is called flicker noise, or 1// noise, and occurs in semiconductor
Sec. 8.4]
,,-,
Receivers
363
cathodes in vacuum devices such as transistors or oxide between flicker-noise power and frequency relationship Because of the inverse diodes low frequencies predominant effect in semiconductor dev.ces at fl cker noise will be the the frequency when noise shot dominates For a crvstal diode like the 1N23E, nicker noise low-no.se of a IF the Therefore 100 kc is less than approximately frequency if flicker noise is not to be receiver should be greater than the transition the sensitivity of crystal v.deo Flicker noise is the chief factor that limits
tubes, as well as in crystal
^^^
All
dominant.
crystal diodes. Noise in transistors is closely related to that in a transistor. from noise total to the Thermal, shot, and flicker noise can all contribute
"^Transistor
Noise*
8.4.
Noise Figure
"ideal" receiver adds
A measure of the noise to some extent. practical receivers, however, generate noise an ideal receiver is the of noise the with compared produced by a practical receiver as The noise figure Fof a linear system may be defined noise figure, or noise factor.*
p
.i or equivalently,
An
no noise of
its
own
to the signal being amplified.
Sm/Nin
Sout/Ncmt
(8.5)
Nout
(8
6)
kTB G
power
where S in
available input signal
N = available input noise power (equal to kTB)

ln
Sont
would be delivered to a matched load. "Available power" refers to the power which Equations (8.5) and (8.6) permit two different S The available gain G is equal to mJSin of noise figure. It may be considered but equivalent interpretations of the definition ratio by the network (receiver), or it may be as the degradation of the signal-to-noise output noise power to the noise power available interpreted as the ratio of the actual amplified the thermal noise of the merely network the if available which would be is 10 log 10 1. The noise figure is commonly expressed in decibels, that source in Sec. 8.7 and given are receivers practical with Examples of the noise figure obtained
.
nnt
= available output signal power = available output noise power
are
shown in Fig. 8.1 1. The noise figure may
also be written
=
F
where
kTB n G + AN kTBfi
AJV
1 l
(8 7)
- 4+
(8-8)
kTB n G
in the noise-figure definition standardize the definition, the Institute of Radio to order In the input to the network. 290K (~63F) be employed for the Engineers specifies that a temperature T 23 temperature. It also is convenient room to close is This calculation of noise figure. 10"* 1 watt/cps. For conventional radar 4 X approximately is kT in that the factor which to refer all measureat temperature receivers the arbitrary selection of a standard is usually much noise receiver the since difficulty ments or computations presents little of 290 K. However, temperature a at receiver ideal an from noise greater than the parametric amplifiers, a more useful measure with low-noise receivers such as masers or discussed in Sec. 8.5. as of noise is the effective noise temperature
The temperature J which appears
AN is the additional noise introduced by the network itself.is the temperature at
364

in
[Sec. 8.4
Noise Figure of Networks

the
same noise bandwidth

, ,
Bn
Cascade. Consider two networks in cascade, each with but with different noise figures and available gain (Fig.
8.5).
and
Let Fx G1 be the noise figure and available gain, respectively, of the first network, F2 G2 be similar parameters for the second network. The problem is to find F
,
the over-all noise figure of the two circuits in cascade. From the definition of noise figure [Eq. (8.6)] the output noise of the two circuits in cascade is
N = FfifiJcT^Bn = noise from network at output of network 2 + noise AJV~2 introduced by network 2 N = kT^Ffi^ + ^N2 = kTa B n FGx G2 + (F2 - l)kT B n G
1
(8.9)
(8.10)
or
Fo
Fi
+ ElÂ
This
(8.H)
may be made of importance in the design of multistage receivers. It is not sufficient that only the first stage of a low-noise receiver have , F7 ,G,, B ^t G\, Bn a small noise figure. The succeeding stage must also have a small noise figure, or else the gain of Fig. 8.5. Two networks in cascade. the first stage must be high enough to swa mp the noise of the succeeding stage. If the first network is not an amplifier but is a network with loss (as in a crystal mixer), the gain Gx should be interpreted as a number less than unity. The noise figure of networks in cascade may be shown to be
The contribution of
the second network to the over-all noise figure
negligible if the gain of the first
network
is large.
is
Fl
F + -^l + Zi=l + Gx
G-fiz
Fn
G]G2

(8.12)
Gjv-i
Similar expressions may be derived for the over-all noise figure when bandwidths and/or the temperature of the individual networks are not the same. 24 Measurement of Noise Figure?* A knowledge of the noise figure of an operating radar receiver is important as a measure of receiver sensitivity. The larger the noise There are two basic methods of measuring noise figure, the poorer the sensitivity. signal generator is applied to the input of the figure. In one method, a calibrated receiver, and the power at the output of the IF amplifier is indicated with a power meter. With a matched resistance at the receiver input, the output power is due to receiver noise alone. The signal generator power is then applied to the receiver input and adjusted until the signal-plus-noise power is equal to twice the receiver noise power read previously. The signal-to-noise power ratio at the output (Sout /Nout ) of the The input signal power Sin may receiver is approximately unity under this condition. be read from the calibrated signal generator, and the input noise power 7Vln is equal to kT Bn (with Bn found from a measurement of the receiver bandpass characteristic). The above quantities permit the noise figure to be determined by substitution into Eq. (8.5). The second method of measuring noise figure is with a known source of broadband noise power such as an argon-gas tube. 26 The noise figure is determined by measuring of the receiver when a matched impedance at temperature (1) the noise power output t Tx is connected to the receiver input and (2) the noise power output 2 when a matched noise generator T2 is connected to the receiver input. The temperature T2 is the equivalent temperature of a resistance producing the same noise as the noise generator.
CW
ci Sec. 8.5]
Receivers
365
The noise figure can be shown to be

F
where
(TJTn
- Y(TJT -J) y-i

1)
(8 13)
standard reference temperature of 290 signal generator and described above, one using a calibrated techniques The two Variasimilar. quite are temperature, the other a broadband noise source of known same. the are principles basic the but practice, in tions of these methods are employed that it can measure the noise advantage the has method signal-generator The the noise-figure measurements with a figure over a wide range of values, whereas because of the limited noise available 20 db broadband gas tube are limited to under of the receiver noise bandwidth is knowledge a hand, other On the from these tubes. it must be known when a although method, noise-tube the with necessary not with a broadband measurements noise-figure In practice, signal generator is used. are more measurements and the generator signal with a than simpler noise generator are figures such as obtained with noise low of very measurement The reproducible. noise-measuring masers and parametric amplifiers requires special care since standard 27 accurate. sufficiently devices are often not method may not always Noise-figure measurements made with the signal-generator nonlinear networks when method agree with measurements made with the noise-source 28 should be exercised Caution involved. are amplifiers such as mixers or parametric superheterodyne receiver ordinary An measurements. of such interpretation in the Therefore, responds equally well to the image frequency as to the signal frequency. bands is used to signal the and image both the when a broadband noise source covering but it is only B n in the 2B is bandwidth receiver effective the n figure, measure noise noise source signal-generator case. The noise figure as measured with the broadband filter image-rejection When an generator. will be 3 db lower than that with the signal filter is used, the no agree. If methods two input, the receiver radar
T =
NJNj,
CW
CW
CW
used at the receiver will be equally sensitive to both the

is
image and the
signal,
and measurements
made
valid with the broadband noise source should be increased by 3 db to obtain the
noise figure. and continuous In an operational radar it is often desirable to have some automatic 29 30 This may be accomplished by means of monitoring the receiver noise figure. signalinto the receiver inserting a test signal either an RF pulse or a gated noise transmitter pulse. The the rtext of triggering to the prior time just during the dead signal power and the noise figure may be determined from the measurement of the test may be calibrated to meter signal. the receiver noise power in the absence of be made aware may personnel radar-operating that so directly figure measure noise sensitivity. of any excessive rise in noise figure or degradation of the receiver noise figure when the alarm automatic an relay-contact meter might be used to sound threshold. exceeds a preset
-
8.5. Effective
31-33 Noise Temperature
The concept of noise figure was

temperature
relatively noisy receivers or networks.
originally formulated to describe the performance of The use of the noise-figure with its standard
is
T = 290K
is
not as convenient with low-noise devices as

is
the
effective noise temperature. The noise figure as defined by Eq. (8.8)
= 1+-^LkT B n G
(8.8)
366
[Sec. 8.6
the noise produced by the network itself, and all other quantities were defined previously. The effective noise temperature of the network is defined as that temperature Te at the input of the network which would account for the noise at the output. Therefore kT B G and
where
AN is
AN =
AN
f=1
or
It
+J
^0
(8.14a)
Te
= (F =
1)T
(8.146)
should be emphasized that the effective noise temperature of a network is not necessarily equal to the physical noise temperature of the input terminals. The effective noise temperature of an ideal receiver (F 1) is zero degrees. A receiver with a noise figure of 3 db with respect to the standard temperature (T 290K) has an effective noise temperature of 290K. A receiver with a noise figure of 10 db has an effective noise temperature of 2610K. The effective noise temperature as given by Eq. (8.14) is not dependent upon the actual choice of the standard temperature T provided the noise figure .Fis measured with respect to the same standard. The effective noise temperature of networks in cascade is simply
G1
G1 G 2
GX G2
Gy-j
The effective noise temperature and the noise figure both describe the same property of a receiver. Controversy has existed over which is better. There seem to be, however, areas of usefulness for both definitions, and it is likely that they will both continue to be applied. The effective noise temperature is preferred for describing low-noise devices, and the noise figure is preferred for conventional receivers.
8.6.
Environmental Noise
At broadcast or short-wave radio frequencies the ambient noise level is high and the is limited by the external noise which enters the antenna along with the signal. At microwave frequencies the external noise level is relatively low and the sensitivity of conventional radar receivers is determined primarily by internal noise. However, microwave receivers with low-noise input stages such as masers and parametric amplifiers are more likely to be limited by external, rather than internal, noise.
receiver sensitivity
Several sources of external noise which find their

this section.
way
into the receiver are described in
an equivalent noise temperature. The various contributions to the over-all receiver effective noise temperature may be computed using Eq. (8.15). Cosmic Noise. m-> Xi9 There is a continuous background of noiselike electromagnetic radiation which arrives from outer space. This extraterrestrial noise comes from our own galaxy (the Milky Way), from extragalactic sources, discrete "radio stars," and the sun. In general, cosmic noise decreases with increasing frequency. Cosmic noise is of considerable importance in the design of radars which operate in the VHF or the lower UHF bands, but it may usually be neglected at Z-band frequencies or higher (frequencies greater than approximately 1,000 Mc). Although the radar engineer attempting to achieve the ultimate in receiver sensitivity at VHF or UHF considers cosmic noise to be a nuisance, it is the raison d'etre of the radio astronomer whose interest is to better
understand the nature of the universe. The magnitude of cosmic noise depends upon the portion of the celestial sphere in which it is observed. It is a maximum when looking toward the center of our own
Each may be considered
as having
Sec. 8.6]
Receivers
367
pole about which the galaxy galaxy and it is a minimum when observing along the brightness temperatures, plot of the maximum and minimum cosmic-noise revolves dashed curves of Fig. the by shown is or space temperature, as a function of frequency measured in a radiation of source 32 extended an of The brightness temperature 8 6 yields a brightness equal which blackbody a of temperature the is direction particular Brightness is defined as the power received to that of the source under consideration.
1,000
100
'
from galactic \
pole
i
galactic center
\
1
\
\
i
ii
i\
'
II
100
1,000
Frequency,
10,000
100,000
Mc
of the sky as seen by an ideal Fig. 8.6. Maximum and minimum brightness (or space) temperatures Dashed curves apply to cosmic noise. Cosmic noise presingle-polarization antenna on earth. Maximum dominates at lower frequencies; atmospheric absorption noise, at higher frequencies. pole, and minimum cosmic noise correspond to the directions of the galactic center and the galactic Maximum atmospheric absorption corresponds to the antenna beam pointing along respectively. pointed at the zenith. (After the horizon, while minimum absorption corresponds to antenna
37 Greene and Lebenbaum, Microwave
J.)
are per unit area of aperture per cycle of bandwidth per unit solid angle. The units at T temperature 2 )(cps)(steradian). brightness the and B brightness B The watts/(m formula Jeans Rayleighthe by related are frequencies radar radio and
B
where k
X
2kTn
(8.16)
= Boltzmann constant
= wavelength
The
given frebrightness temperature specifies the intensity in a given direction at a temperature in the field quency. The measurable temperature is the mean brightness of the antenna pattern and is called the antenna temperature. and astronomer are generally concerned with unpolarized radiation,
The
physicist
Therefore the but most radar antennas are responsive to but a single polarization. with a single receiver a assumes 8.6 Fig. in plotted temperature brightness (or space) an antenna polarization and is one-half the brightness which would be measured by responsive to two orthogonal polarizations.
368
[Sec. 8.6
is sometimes used synonymously with the brightness temperature of cosmic noise. It is the temperature seen by an ideal antenna (one with no sidelobes, backlobes, or resistive losses) which looks at cosmic noise in the absence of the earth's atmosphere or any other source of noise. 37 A tmospheric Absorption Noise. It is known from the theory of blackbody radiation that any body which absorbs energy radiates the same amount of energy that it absorbs,
The term space temperature
in temperature and the. temperature of other Therefore a lossy transmission line absorbs a certain amount of energy and reradiates it as noise. The same is true of the atmosphere since it also attenuates or absorbs microwave energy. The radiation arising in the atmosphere (or any other absorbing body) must just compensate for the partial absorption of the blackbody radiation. Consider an absorbing atmosphere at an ambient temperature T surrounded by an a imaginary blackbody at the same temperature. The loss L is the factor by which energy is attenuated in passing through the atmosphere. The noise power available over a bandwidth B n from the imaginary blackbody is kT B The noise power after a n passing through the atmosphere is kT BjL. Thus the amount of power absorbed
else certain portions
would increase
-
portions would decrease. 7
34
equal to the noise power radiated by the atmosphere itself. From the definition of effective noise temperature and the fact that 1/L is the "gain" (less than unity), the following equation is obtained:
is is
the atmosphere
kTa Bn {\ -
by
1/L)
and
AN
AN = kT B n G =
e
^ = kT B
a
n (\
- i)
(8.17)
Hence
If the atmospheric loss
T.
= Ta (L -
1)
were 1 db at a temperature of 260K, the effective noise temperature would be 68K; a 3-db loss results in T. 260K, while a 10-db loss 5 gives T. 1340K. The effective noise temperature of a transmission line with loss L at a temperature T a is also given by Eq. (8.17), as will be shown later. A plot of the single-polarization brightness temperature or space temperature due to both cosmic noise and atmospheric absorption is shown by the solid curves of Fig. 8.6. 37 An ambient temperature of 260K is assumed in the computation of atmospheric-absorption noise. At the higher frequencies (X band or above) atmospheric absorption is the predominant contributor to the brightness temperature, while at the lower frequencies (L band or lower), the cosmic noise predominates. There exists a broad minimum in the brightness temperature extending from about 1,000 to 10,000 Mc. It is in this region that it is advantageous to operate low-noise receivers to achieve maximum system sensitivity. The minimum atmospheric absorption occurs when the antenna is vertical (pointed at the zenith), while the maximum occurs when the antenna is directed along the horizon. The noise is greater along the horizon than at the zenith since the antenna "sees" more atmosphere. Hogg38 and Hogg and Mumford 39 computed the brightness temperature of a high-gain antenna as a function of elevation angle, assuming absorption by oxygen and water vapor in the atmosphere. Although their computations do not seem to agree in detail with those presented in Fig. 8.6 due to Greene and Lebenbaum, 37 their computations seem to indicate that antenna beams must be oriented at elevation angles greater than about 5 to avoid excessive space noise in the main beam. (The fact that computations of space temperatures or other propagation factors made by different authors do not always agree in detail is not usually a limitation to the radar systems engineer. Disagreements usually result from the oversimplifying nature of the assumptions or in the model used in formulating the calculations. Because of the
Sec. 8.6]
Receivers
369
sensitive to small uncertainties in the atmosphere a good radar design should not be consistent designed can only be The radar variations in the model or the assumptions.
with the state of knowledge available.) single lightning stroke radiates considerable Atmospheric and Man-made Noise. RF noise power. There are at any one moment an average of 1 ,800 thunderstorms in From all these storms about 100 lightning progress in different parts of the world. 40 effect of all the lightning strokes combined The second. every flashes take place broadcast and short-wave radio gives rise to a noise spectrum which is especially large at radiation is called atmospheric lightning-stroke Noise that arises from frequencies. absorption as described atmospheric by produced noise with confused noise (not to be The spectrum of atmospheric noise falls off rapidly with increasing previously). 41 Hence atmospheric frequency and is usually of little consequence above 50 Mc. perhaps, for radars except, design, radar in consideration seldom an important
noise
is
in the lower
VHF region.
electric razors,
Another source of noise predominant Noise from automobile ignition, noise.

lights are examples.
little
at the lower radar frequencies is man-made power tools, and fluorescent
Just as with atmospheric noise, man-made noise is usually of concern to radars at UHF or higher frequencies. The sun is a strong emitter of electromagnetic radiation, the intensity Solar Noise. with time. The minimum level of solar noise is due to blackbody varies of which 2 radiation at a temperature of about 6000K. The flux density in watts/(m )(cps) 34 is the sun of distance received on earth from a thermal source at the
S =
where
L88 x 10 27T"
/?
"
(8.18)
Td =
A
apparent disk temperature,
K
power
increases approximately as the square
= wavelength, m
Equation
(8.18) indicates that solar noise
of the frequency. This is unlike most other noise mechanisms which produce less power with increasing frequency. A plot of the flux density as a function of frequency It for the basic thermal-noise component from the "quiet" sun is shown in Fig. 8.7. does not exactly follow the relationship of Eq. (8.16) since Fig. 8.7 takes account of 42 absorption in the solar atmosphere. orders of magnitude over that of the "quiet," or increase can The solar-noise level undisturbed, sun when its surface is disturbed by solar storms (sunspots and flares). The enhanced noise from the disturbed sun is complex, and its mechanism is not well understood. It might last for but a fraction of a second, or it might last for days. Enhanced solar noise is also shown in Fig. 8.7. At VHF the solar noise can exceed the thermal component by 40 db or more, while at the upper end of the microwave region there is but a slight increase in the noise level during the periods of enhanced
activity.
In general, the greater the intensity of the enhanced noise, the shorter its duration. The "noise storms" indicated in Fig. 8.7 last for hours or days, during which the level shows a series of bursts of seconds' duration superimposed on a more slowly varying background. The "slowly varying component" is believed to originate in thermal radiation from localized regions of abnormally high density and temperature. 2 The ordinate of Fig. 8.7 is flux density in watts/(m )(cps) and does not assume a
single polarization as did Fig. 8.6.
Discrete Radio Stars. There are a number of discrete radio noise sources in the sky, One of the largest is located in the Cassiopeia constellation. Its called radio stars. In general, radio stars are too weak at radar flux density is shown plotted in Fig. 8.7.
frequencies to be a serious source of interference.
370
[Sec. 8.6
Flux Density and Brightness Temperature. The flux density [power/(unit area)(cps)] to describe discrete sources of noise such as radio stars and the sun. Continuous noise sources such as cosmic or atmospheric-absorption noise were described by the brightness or the space temperature. The flux density S is related to the brightness temperature TB by integrating the brightness B [Eq. (8.16)] over the entire solid angle,
was used
=JBdQ=j^TB dSl
The sun and
(8.19)
the moon may be considered "point sources" only if the angle subtended by the source (on the order of J in both cases) is less than the antenna beamwidth.
10
1 1
\
17 10""
II
V -^2^
,io-
18 ,B
19 ;io-"
^
^
Region of solar noise storms
^
Region of so/or
slowly varying
^s^
s^
component
5 10' 20
v^
'^^
s-'Z'
'
n lie -f^Jar thermal
-10' 21
\. /
1
10" 22
10"-23
^"^
10
30
100
300
1,000 3,000 Frequency, Mc
10,000
100,000
(From
Fig. 8.7. Noise flux density as a function of frequency J. Wild, courtesy Academic Press, Inc.)
1,1,
from the sun, Cassiopeia, and the moon.
RF
Hardware Losses.
Any
losses in the receiver transmission line,
duplexer,
radome, or antenna result in noise. Thus a lossy RF component may be assigned a noise figure or an effective noise temperature. The effective noise temperature may be derived in a manner analogous to the derivation of Eq. (8.17) for atmospheric absorption, but it may also be derived by a direct application of the definitions given by Eqs. (8.6) and (8.14). The definition of noise figure is
N out
kTa B n G
where
lossy
loss
(8.6)
T has
been
set
equal to
,
Ta
the ambient temperature.
The
noise
RF component is kTa Bn
and
G=
Nout
from a
1/L,
where
G is the fractional gain and L is the

(8.20)
(L
>
1).
Therefore
G
The
effective noise
temperature
is
T =
e
(L
i)ra
(8.17)
Sec. 8.6]
Receivers
371
System Noise Temperature. The computations of the effective noise temperature of a radar receiver should take account of all sources of noise "seen" by the receiver. The various noise contributions must be summed according to Eq. (8.15). Consider, for example, the simple case of a transmission line at an ambient temperature Ta and
connected to a receiver whose effective noise temperature is Tve noise temperature of two networks Tu L1 and T2 L2 in cascade is Te
loss L,
.
re
The
effective
7\
+ T LV
2
Thus the
over-all noise temperature of the lossy transmission line
is
+ LT If the noise figure of the receiver is F and if Ta T (where T the standard temperature), then T = (FL \)T The over-all noise figure for a transmission line of loss L connected to a receiver of noise figure F is therefore F = FL.
T. 1)7;
is
e
.
= (L-
Figure 8.8 illustrates some of the sources of noise which generally must be considered when computing the system effective noise temperature. The antenna sees the cosmic noise at a temperature Tc with an intervening absorbing atmosphere at a temperature Ta t and a loss L at The atmosphere may be characterized for present purposes by a single temperature and a single loss, but it can be subdivided, if desired, into an ionospheric component, an oxygen component, and a water-vapor component. The combined temperature of cosmic noise and atmospheric noise [Tc (L a t l)7kt] is
.
Antenna
Absorbing
Cosmic noise
T,
atmosphere
PF transmission
line, etc.
Receiver
Trf, L rf
Side-lobe and back-lobe

radiation
Tc
BL
Fig. 8.8. Contributions to the total system effective noise temperature.
called the space temperature, the brightness temperature, or the antenna temperature of an ideal antenna. The losses L r t indicated in the figure are meant to include the
RF
antenna, radome, and duplexer losses, as well as transmission-line noise temperature of the receiver is denoted Tre
.
loss.
The
effective
If it is assumed that the noise contributions enter the receiver via the main beam only, the effect of the sidelobes may be neglected, and the total system effective noise temperature Tr may be found from a straightforward application of Eq. (8. 1 5) therefore
;
Note
that
T*t,
T = T + and TT
e
(Lat
l)ra t
(L It
l)7rfL a t
+ Tte L L^
It
e
(8.21)
are actual temperatures while
and
TTe
are effective noise
temperatures. In general, the contributions to the total effective system noise temperature may be divided into three categories: (1) the effective space noise temperature, (2) the effective noise-temperature contributions due to RF lossy components, and (3) the effective noise temperature of the receiver itself. Equation (8.21) applies to an ideal antenna with no sidelobes. In a practical antenna the noise which appears at the antenna terminals enters via the sidelobe radiation as well as from the main beam. In many cases the total noise power due to the sidelobes can be greater than the noise power in the main beam. This is especially true when the main beam views the relatively "cool" sky but the sidelobes view the "hot" earth. portion of the main beam might also view the relatively "hot" earth if pointed at or near the horizon.
372
[Sec. 8.6
The amount of noise which enters the antenna depends upon the entire antenna radiation pattern, including the sidelobes and the type of objects they illuminate. Land is almost a complete absorber; hence those portions of the radiation pattern
which illuminate the ground see a noise source at the ambient temperature. Perfectly reflecting sources, such as a smooth sea or a road, act as a mirror to reflect the radiation from the sky or other objects. Thus the sea or a metallic object may appear very cold 7 The choice of polarizaif it is oriented to reflect radiation from the sky to the antenna.
tion also influences the
amount of
sea or land absorption.
Vertical polarization
is
K
*
Space temperature
region
Ground "^-temperature -A
region
300K
1 1 1
200
K
o
temperoture,
>e
'o
D C
50 -
Asymptote
<
-10
+10
+20
Antenna elevation angle, deg
Fig. 8.9. (a) An antenna radiation pattern with the region in the vicinity of the main beam observing the space temperature and the region 90 to 6 180 observing the from about
of the noise temperature contributions weighted by the antenna

(b) profile
ground temperature;
Fig. 8.10. Computed antenna noise temperature as a function of elevation angle for a 10-ftdiameter parabolic-reflector antenna operating at a frequency of 1,000 Mc. See text for assumptions. {After Greene* 3 courtesy Airborne Instru-
ments Laboratory^
pattern.
absorbed more than horizontal. Figure 8.9a shows in an approximate manner an antenna radiation pattern with the main beam illuminating a low-temperature sky and the backlobes illuminating the ground at a relatively high temperature (about 300K). The profile of the temperature contributions as a function of angle is shown in Fig. 8.%. The total antenna temperature can be found by integrating the temperature "seen" by the antenna, weighted by the antenna gain over the entire sphere. 32
JT (6,<f>)G(d,<j>) da
s
(8.22)
\G(d,<f>) dQ.
The space temperature Ts (6,</>) is often solid angle given by sin 6 d6 d<j>. where dl a complicated function, and Ta must be approximated by numerical means. The antenna temperature is an average value of the brightness or space temperature in the field of the antenna pattern.
Sec. 8.7]
Receivers
373
Figure 8.10 gives the antenna noise temperature computed for a typical 10-ftdiameter parabolic reflector operating at 1 ,000 Mc as a function of the antenna elevation angle. 43 These data assume (1) vertical polarization, (2) the antenna located on a seacoast and looking over the sea, (3) the antenna always pointing at the galactic center, (4) no intense radio stars in the antenna pattern, (5) resistive losses in the reflector, feed, and transmission line absorbing 2 per cent of the incident power, and (6) the feed producing a parabolic illumination taper. The antenna temperature is about 105K when the 3-db point of the main lobe is on the horizon and decreases to an asymptotic value of about 55K as the elevation angle increases. Hansen33 found similar behavior. He concluded that typical antenna temperatures for S-band antennas over land or sea are of the order of 1 50K while the clear-sky temperatures are about 40K. The minimum practical value seems to be around 30K and is produced by very low sidelobe antenna designs and by careful shaping of the main beam to avoid strong noise sources such as "hot" land. Similar results are described by Heffner for the measured antenna temperature of an 18-in. paraboloid antenna at band (9,270 Mc) located over the ground. 44 The minimum temperature was 40K, measured near the zenith. Most of the noise at the zenith was due to sidelobes seeing the Earth. When two large screens of chicken wire were placed beneath the antenna, the minimum noise temperature was reduced from 40 to 10K. similar effect could also be achieved by placing the antenna in the center of a lake.
8.7.
RF
Amplifiers
The classical description of the superheterodyne receiver includes an RF amplifier as the front end. At microwave frequencies, however, an RF amplifier is not always used. The vast majority of radar receivers in the past dispensed with the RF amplifier and
operated with the mixer as the first stage of the receiver. Any possible advantages to be had by the use of conventional RF amplifiers were generally negated by the excessive noise introduced by the amplifier itself. However, modern developments in low-noise devices permit the use of some form of low-noise RF amplifier such as a traveling-wave tube, backward-wave amplifier, klystron, parametric amplifier, maser, tunnel diode, or
low-noise triode.
An important criterion in comparing the relative performance of receiver front ends

not the only consideration, however, since a receiver front high gain to swamp the noise produced by the succeeding portions of the receiver [Eq. (8. 11)]. It should also be rugged that is, it should be able to withstand a reasonable amount of leakage power from the transmitter without burning out or otherwise degrading performance. Another important consideration in many radar applications is that the size of the front end should be small and not overly complex. In this section several types of RF amplifiers which may be found in radar receivers are described. The crystal mixer, which is often used as the receiver front end, will be
is is
the noise figure.
This
end must also have a
sufficiently
discussed in the next section.
Triode RF Amplifiers. Although triodes are of high noise and low gain at the higher microwave frequencies, both noise figure and gain improve with decreasing frequency. At the lower frequencies there may be some advantage in using an RF amplifier composed of triodes as the receiver front end. For example, a well-designed vacuum-tube amplifier in the vicinity of 1 Mc is capable of an effective noise temperature of about
25K. 45 Figure
8.1 1 is a plot of the noise figure of several types of receiver front ends as a function of frequency. One of the lowest noise-figure triodes is the 416B, and its
WE
production version, the
WE
6280. 46
>
47
similar curve for the
GE 6299
would be
374
[Sec. 8.7
41 6B. Also shown in Fig. 8.11, for approximately \ to 1 db above that of the purposes of comparison, is the noise figure obtained with UHF miniature-type tubes 48 such as might be found in television receivers. 416B and the GE 6299 are triodes. Pentodes are rarely used in the Both the input stages of low-noise receivers because of the poorer noise figure caused by the partition effect when more than one positive electrode is present. From the data shown in Fig. 8.11, triodes offer little advantage in the RF portions of the receiver at frequencies much above 800 to 1 ,000 Mc.
WE
WE
Crystal mixer receiver
Traveling -wave lubes
and backward-wave
amplifiers
-
Parametricamplifi^SJ.
i i i i i
J
1,000
Frequency,
.
L
40,000
100
10,000
Mc
Fig. 8.11. Comparison of the noise figures of various receivers as a function of frequency.
Traveling-wave Tubes, Backward-wave Amplifiers, and Klystrons. The traveling" 66 " 58 may tube, 49 53 the backward-wave amplifier, 54 55 and the klystron amplifier Both the traveling-wave amplifier all be designed with relatively low noise figures. 54 and the backward-wave amplifier yield noise figures of approximately 3 db at S band 56 figures seem amplifier noise klystron band. The and slightly greater than 4 db at The type 2K25 (723 A/B) X-band reflex klystron operated to be a few decibels higher. 57 as a regenerative amplifier can give a noise figure of 5 db and a gain of 14 db with a
wave
'
bandwidth of 20 Mc. 58
jump
obtained with a specially designed electron gun based on the velocityIn using a broadband amplifier, such as the traveling-wave tube, as the RF stage of a superheterodyne receiver, a filter is often used to reject the image frequency. If a filter is not employed and the image is allowed to pass, the receiver noise power will double. If the image-frequency termination is at room temperature, the The use of a filter, even though it reduces noise figure will increase by about 3 db. As shown in Sec. 8.6, loss ahead of the image-frequency noise, introduces some loss.
noise
is
Low
principle. 49
On the other hand, the backward-wave amplifier the receiver increases the noise figure. and the klystron are narrowband (but tunable), and if the IF frequency is greater than the amplifier bandwidth, the image will be rejected. The noise figures quoted above assume the absence of image-frequency noise. They would also apply if the signal
Sec. 8.7]
Receivers
375
power were received at the image frequency as well as the main frequency, as would occur in radio-astronomy applications where the desired signal is broadband
noise.
Parametric Amplifier. &&-& The parametric amplifier, or reactance amplifier, is a device capable of low-noise amplification. It derives its name from the differential equation governing its operation which has one or more parameters that vary with The principle of the parametric amplifier is not new. It was first applied to time. electric circuits by Lord Rayleigh in the 1880s, and its mechanical counterpart in pendulums and vibrating strings has been known even longer. 65 (An everyday
example of parametric amplification is that of a child on a swing. The child learns to maintain the oscillation by "pumping." He lowers his center of gravity on the downswing and raises it on the upswing. Pumping thus takes place at twice the frequency of the swing.) The application of parametric amplification to microwaves in the late 1950s was possible because of the many new devices and techniques which were not
by considering a simple resonant circuit composed of an inductance and a capacitance oscillating at the resonant frequency. Imagine that we can physically grasp the capacitor plates and pull them farther apart at the instant when the oscillating voltage is at a positive maximum. Work is expended in separating the charged capacitor plates, and this work appears as an increase in the voltage across the plates. (For a fixed charge, the voltage is inversely proportional to the capacitance; hence decreasing the capacitance by separating the plates increases the voltage.) If the plates are returned to their original position as the voltage passes through zero when there is no charge on the plates, no work is expended the voltage remains unchanged. As the voltage passes through the negative maximum, the plates are again separated and the voltage increases. Every
;
available before that time, especially the variable-capacitance diode. The principle of one form of parametric amplifier may be described
time the voltage passes through a positive or negative maximum, the plates are separated, and every time the voltage passes through zero, they are returned to their original position. In this manner, a signal at the resonant frequency is amplified. By coupling In practice, to an input circuit and a load we have one form of parametric amplifier. one would obtain a variable capacitance by electronic means rather than by the mechanical motion of the above illustration, and the variation would be sinusoidal rather than similar parametric amplifying action can be obtained by varying the square wave. inductance, instead of the capacitance, of the resonant circuit. The simple parametric amplifier described above requires that the variation in the capacitance occur at a frequency (called the pump frequency) twice that of the resonant frequency (or signalfrequency) of the LC resonant network. This parametric amplifier is phase-sensitive in that the phase of the capacitance variation (or pump frequency) must be in correct relation to the phase of the signal frequency if amplification is to be had. The phase sensitivity sometimes limits its usefulness. The low-noise properties If the input plus the phase sensitivity, however, can be of interest in doppler receivers. signal ft) were doppler-shifted by an amount Aco, the output signal would be amplified In other and amplitude-modulated at A<w, provided the pump frequency were 2co words, if the incoming signal is considered as a single sideband, the amplifier inserts the other sideband. The mode of operation in which the pump frequency is twice that of the signal frequency is referred to as the degenerate mode. For many radar applications the phase sensitivity of the degenerate parametric However, the phase sensitivity may be taken advantage of amplifier is not desirable. in an MTI radar in which the pump signal is derived from the second harmonic of a This form of operation is called reference signal coherent with the transmitter. synchronous pumping. Instead of a coho and a phase detector, the MTI phase reference Some reservations in the use of a degenerate is supplied by the synchronous pump.
376
[Sec. 8.7
parametric amplifier in a coherent MTI radar have been suggested, since the subclutter visibility is degraded and spurious target indications are generated. Also, it has been claimed that better performance will be obtained with a conventional amplifier having the same noise figure. 152 The phase sensitivity of the pump signal inherent in the degenerate parametric amplifier can be overcome by operating the pump at some frequency other than twice the resonant frequency. The nature of the parametric amplifier is such that a third frequency is produced which is equal to the difference between the pump frequency and the frequency of the signal to be amplified. This (third) frequency is called the idling frequency since it is a more or less useless by-product. diagram of this type of amplifier is shown in Fig. 8.12. One resonant circuit is at the signal, or amplifying, frequency w 1; while the other is at the idling frequency co 2 The two resonant circuits are coupled by a voltage-variable capacitor (a variable inductance could also be used) whose capacitance is varied at a frequency w co 2 a> x three-port circulator is shown in the parametric amplifier circuit for separating the input and output. The signal to be amplified is inserted in arm 1 of the circulator. The circulator transfers the signal to the amplifying resonant circuit attached to arm 2.
j,
Input
Circulator
Amplifying
(signal)
Idler resonant
frequency aiz
resonant frequency
Fig. 8.12. Equivalent lumped circuit for the two-resonant-circuit parametric amplifier with a circulator used for input and output coupling.
arm 2 and are The idler frequency may be separated from The idler or the signal, or both, might be The pump frequency may be utilized as the output of the parametric amplifier. prevented from leaking into the output by inserting a rejection filter, tuned to the pump frequency, between arm 2 of the circulator and the amplifier. The one-way action of the circulator prevents noise originating in the load from feeding back and being
The
amplified signal
and a
signal at the idler frequency reappear at
transferred to the load attached to arm 3. the signal frequency by suitable filtering.
amplified.
both the input and output of band of frequencies, that If filters are not provided, a spurious is, single-channel, or single-sideband, operation. signal will appear at the image frequency whenever a signal appears at the amplifying frequency co v This is called double-channel, or double-sideband, operation. Likewise, a spurious signal at the amplifying frequency ft)j appears whenever a signal is present at the idling frequency <w 2 In many respects the effect of noise at the idler frequency is similar to the effect of Noise at the idler noise at the image frequency in a traveling-wave-tube amplifier. frequency adds to the noise at the signal frequency and increases the noise figure. In the parametric amplifier the idler noise is determined by the external temperature seen by the antenna, but in the traveling-wave amplifier the noise at the image frequency is generated within the amplifier itself. Therefore the over-all system noise figure of a
usually
The idler-frequency band
must be filtered out
at
the amplifier
if amplification is
to take place only over a single
Sec. 8.7]
Receivers
377
parametric amplifier observing a cold sky can be less than that of a traveling-wave Due account must be taken of the image-frequency termination when amplifier. determining noise figure. For example, consider the case where both the travelingwave tube and the parametric amplifier have a noise figure of 5 db referred to a temperature of 290K. At room temperature (290K) the two are of the same 290K, sensitivity, but if the temperature as seen by each device were 50 instead of the minimum detectable signal of the parametric amplifier would be approximately pertwo-thirds that of the traveling-wave tube. If the two were to have equivalent db be 3.7 would have to tube traveling-wave formance at 50K, the noise figure of the
290K) if the parametric amplifier had a 5-db noise figure. If the signal were to appear in both the signal and idler bands of the parametric amplifier or in both db the signal and image bands of the traveling-wave tube, the noise figure would be 2
(referred to
for each. 67
If it is assumed that the major source of noise is thermal, and if the input 8. 1 2, the signals of the parametric amplifier are coupled by a circulator as shown in Fig.
and output
theoretical noise figure for single-channel operation
is
68
w2
where
Qi
Q ex =
t
external
is large, QextlQi can be made to will approach its minimum figure noise approach arbitrarily close to unity and the value theoretical
Q,
= loaded Q of amplifying circuit
of (signal) amplifying resonant circuit
If the coupling to the amplifying resonant circuit
Fmin
The corresponding
effective noise
^=l + ^
is
(8.24a)
temperature
Tmi = T ^<w 2
(8.24b)
Therefore, to achieve low noise figure, the ratio of pump frequency cop to idler frequency the amplifier resonant co 2 must be small, and there must be close coupling of the load to This also implies a large ratio of pump frequency to signal frequency. Equacircuit. For tion (8.24) assumes single-sideband operation at the standard temperature T double-channel operation or for operation where the noise sources are below room
.
temperature, the minimum theoretical noise figure is not restricted by this ratio. If the amplifier input is at a temperature T" other than the standard temperature T the
,
minimum
noise figure
is
Fmin =
(a)Jco 2 )(T'lT
).
The variable-capacitor element of the parametric amplifier may be obtained with a p-n junction semiconductor diode. A variable-capacitance diode is also known as a 69 The capacitance ofa varactor depends upon the voltage across the junction. varactor. the paraIt should be noted that the variable-capacitance p-n junction diode used in metric amplifier differs from the usual microwave diode rectifier. The latter is a nonlinear resistance and has conversion loss. The varactor, operating in the parametric amplifier, is a variable capacitance and is capable of conversion gain. The varactor diode is composed of a p-type semiconductor material (one with fixed negative charges and mobile positive charges) in contact with an n-type semiconductor material (fixed positive charges, mobile negative charges). There is an absence of
378
[Sec. 8.7
mobile-charge carriers at the junction of the two materials. This region is called the depletion layer. The depletion layer may be thought of as a nonconducting, or dielectric, region bounded on either side by conducting regions. The effect is equivalent to a parallel-plate capacitor with the depletion layer taking the role of the space between the plates. The width of the depletion layer varies with the applied electric field. Hence, if an oscillating voltage such as the pump is applied across the p-n diode, the capacitance will vary at the oscillating frequency. The variable-capacitance diode is not the only element that may be used as the basis for a parametric amplifier. The original proposal for a microwave parametric amplifier suggested a ferrite suitably deployed in a microwave structure as the variable reactance. 70 Successful devices have been demonstrated. Low-noise parametric amplifiers have also been built with electron-beam tubes. 71 The original parametric amplifiers using ferrites did not prove as attractive as the
variable-capacitance versions since the pump power was relatively large (kilowatts) and a d-c magnetic field was required for proper bias of the ferrite. By operating with the RF magnetic field parallel to the d-c magnetic field (longitudinal pumping)
instead of perpendicular (transverse pumping), a considerably lower
pump power
be employed. At 4,000 Mc one experimental device operated with less than 1 watt of I'-band pump power with a gain of 25 db. 72 Even though the electron-beam version of the parametric amplifier employs a hot cathode, it is capable of exceptionally good noise figure. A noise figure of 1 .3 db was reported for a particular tube at a frequency of 500 Mc, of which 0.4 db was attributed to input coupler loss. 71 The bandwidth was 10 per cent, and a gain of 20 db was achieved with a few milliwatts of pump power. The electron-beam tubes are inherently capable of greater bandwidths than the solid-state parametric amplifier described above and are unconditionally stable. Signals can propagate only in the forward direction, and a circulator is not required. The variable-capacitance parametric amplifier of Fig. 8.12 in which co P w2 co 1 is a negative-resistance device. It has limited gain and, like any other negativeresistance amplifier, may not be too stable. Too much negative resistance can result in oscillation. However, a parametric amplifier can be obtained which presents a positive resistance to the signal circuit by making w a> a> v This is called an p 2 up-converter and is completely stable. In the up-converter a signal is applied at the frequency of a^ and the output is at the idling frequency co 2 co t <d The output v is at a higher frequency than the input and can be followed by a conventional crystalmixer receiver. The up-converter has a maximum conversion gain equal to m^m^. If the gain of the up-converter is sufficiently high, the noise from the crystal-mixer receiver will make but a negligible contribution to the over-all noise figure. The bandwidth of the up-converter can be considerably greater than the negative-resistance parametric amplifier. Because the gain is limited to the ratio of output to input frequencies, the up-converter is primarily useful at frequencies or lower. Greene and Lombardo 73 reported measurements on three types of parametric amplifiers operating at 400 Mc. A negative-resistance parametric amplifier (called a one-port difference-frequency amplifier) was described with a gain of 20 db, noise figure less than 1 db, and bandwidth of 0.4 Mc. The pump frequency was 9,700 Mc, and the idling frequency 9,300 Mc. An up-converter with a pump frequency of 8,900 Mc and output at 9,300 Mc had a gain of 1 1 db and a noise figure of 0.7 db. Because of the limited gain of the up-converter, the contribution to the noise figure by the subsequent stages (noise figure of 7.6 db) cannot be neglected, making the over-all noise figure of the entire receiver 1.9 db. The bandwidth was 30 Mc. A third variation, a two-port difference-frequency amplifier, had performance intermediate between the other two. The pump was 9,700 Mc, and the output was at the idling
may
CW
UHF
Sec. 8.7]
Receivers
379
frequency of 9,300 Mc. The gain was 1 8 db, noise figure less than 1 db, and the bandwidth 2.5 Mc. These parametric amplifiers utilized microwave cavities as the resonant structure. Unfortunately, resonant cavities are of relatively narrow bandwidth. The bandwidth may be increased with traveling-wave structures instead of resonant cavities. Not only does the traveling-wave structure permit broad bandwidth and low-noise ampliamplification fication, but unlike cavity parametric amplifiers, it is capable of unilateral 74 One form of traveling-wave parametric amplifier without the need of a circulator. Each diode consists of a transmission line periodically loaded with varactor diodes. experimental An capacitance. time-varying produce a voltage to is fed a pumping traveling-wave amplifier using eight variable-reactance diodes produced a minimum of 6.7 db gain to more than 13 db gain over the band from 550 to 930 Mc with a noise
figure of 2.3
inputs. 75
db for wideband noise inputs and The pump frequency was 1 ,500 Mc.
to wide
4.9
db noise
figure for single-channel
conventional resonant structure as a signal At UHF, circuits rather than cavity resonators. permitted a diode cavities resonant single-tuned of instead circuit idler-frequency and 70 The varactor diode and its parasitic resonances amplifier with 40 per cent bandwidth.
Another approach
bandwidth
is
to use
more or
less
the use of a
filter
formed one resonant circuit of a double-tuned circuit in an operationally stable C-band degenerate amplifier which had a 500-Mc bandwidth, 15-db gain, and a broadband 77 A pump power of about 50 mw was required. (double-channel) noise figure of 2 db. A degenerate X-band parametric amplifier in which the principal resonant circuit was the self-resonance of the gallium-arsenide diode had a 510-Mc bandwidth with 12-db
78 gain and an over-all double-sideband noise figure of 3.7 db. One of the advantages of the parametric amplifier is that it achieves low-noise performance when operating at room temperature without the need for refrigerants. If desired, however, even lower noise figures may be obtained by operating at reduced temperatures. 79 80 The double-channel noise figure of a degenerate p-n junction diode parametric amplifier at 296K was 1.8 db (about 4 db single-channel noise figure) with
^
13
noise figure
db of gain and 25 Mc bandwidth. At a temperature of 87K the double-channel was 0.6 db (44K excess noise temperature), which is equivalent to a 3.6-db
If the idler termination "looked" noise figure for ordinary single-channel operation. be only slightly more than 44K, would contribution at a cold part of the sky, the noise
1 .2-db single-channel noise figure. In this section we have briefly indicated some of the many possible types of parametric They are unlike conventional amplifiers in that they convert RF power at amplifiers. one frequency to RF power at another frequency rather than convert d-c power to RF. Low noise is achieved at room temperatures. Parametric amplifiers are capable of The variable-capacitance diode, relatively good noise figures as indicated in Fig. 8.11. amplifiers, but ferrites parametric in extent considerable been used to a or varactor, has may also be employed. The electron-beam type is competitive with the varactor in
or about
Traveling-wave versions promise wide bandwidth. The negative-resistance parametric amplifier employing cavity resonators is more rugged and less expensive than the traveling-wave or the electron-beam parametric amplifiers. It also requires less pump power, but its chief disadvantage is its inherent The up-converter is a completely stable amplifier and needs no circulator, instability.
many
applications.
but
The it is limited in gain and is not too competitive at frequencies above UHF. traveling-wave versions are capable of wide bandwidths and can be designed to be nonreciprocal. The same holds true for the electron-beam tubes. Amplifiers that employ diodes are probably more susceptible to burnout than those that do not. Masers. i5 S1 93 The maser is an extremely low noise amplifier, based on quantummechanical principles, capable of noise temperatures on the order of a few degrees
>
380
Kelvin.
[Sec. 8.7
noise performance of the maser is about as close to the ideal receiver noise figure of unity (zero decibels) as might be desired of any practical device. Unfortunately, the low noise figure does not come without disadvantages. maser
The
requires complicated external circuitry and a magnetic field and must be operated at liquid-helium temperatures (about 1 to 4K). Although the maser is derived from the principles of quantum mechanics and the
parametric amplifier
is based on classical concepts, both have certain features in Each obtains its energy from an RF energy source called the pump, rather than direct current. The RF structures in which they operate must be responsive to both the pump and the signal frequencies. Both the maser and the parametric amplifier behave as negative resistances at the frequency to be amplified and are bilateral (recip-
common.
rocal) in that energy
may pass in
either direction.
(There are exceptions to
this; for
Signal
(frequency
Pump
frequency
(a)
Negative
temperature-^/
*- Positive
nh n3
temperature
s z
^
Energy
Fig. 8.13. (a) Portion of an energy-level diagram showing three levels; (b) normal population distribution; (c) saturated population distribution.
example, the up-converter, the traveling-wave parametric amplifier, and the travelingwave maser are not bilateral since they permit propagation in only one direction.) A nonreciprocal element such as a circulator or an isolator must generally be used in either device for stable operation. The nonreciprocal element also prevents thermal noise from the relatively hot load from feeding back to the device and being amplified. As with any negative-resistance amplifier, the product of the voltage gain and bandwidth is a constant. There are several forms of masers, just as there are several forms of parametric amplifiers. The original maser utilized ammonia gas and was operated primarily as an oscillator. The masers of chief interest in radar applications have been solid-state devices using paramagnetic crystals placed in magnetic fields and, in particular, the so-called three-level maser. The operation of the three-level maser may be explained with the aid of the energy-level diagram, a portion of which is shown in Fig. 8.13a. The energy-level diagram of a maser material describes the various discrete internal energy states of an electron within a molecule or atom The vertical direction represents
.
Sec. 8.7]
energy.
Receivers
381
Only three of the multitude of energy levels possible in an atom are shown. a bound electron in the material from a lower to a higher level, energy must be absorbed by the system. When an electron in a higher energy state (E2 ) returns to a lower state (EJ, it radiates a wave at the frequency/, where/is defined by the quantumE1 hf- h is Planck's constant. Under thermal equilibrium mechanical relation E2 when no external forces act on the system, electrons in a material are distributed throughout the various energy states. The relative number of electrons in the two energy
To
raise
states
Ex and E2 is given by the Boltzmann relation

2*
exp
[-(2
1
EJkT]
(8.25)
where n lf n 2 k
= number of electrons in states E = Boltzmann constant T = temperature, K
and
E2
respectively
Under normal conditions the higher the energy level, the less the population of electrons
(Fig. 8.136).
The energy-level diagram may be likened to the rungs of a ladder. To climb up the ladder one must expend energy. If one jumps from the ladder, energy is available for work. If a large group of small boys were allowed to play on the ladder, one would probably find them along the entire ladder but more would be clustered on the bottom rungs than at the top. The same is true of electrons (small boys) and their energy states (rungs of the ladder), except that the behavior of the electrons is more predictable. Consider a maser material with three closely spaced energy levels Elt E2 E3 , as The relative population distribution is given by Eq. (8.25) illustrated in Fig. 8.13a. and is shown in Fig. 8. 3b. Let a strong RF pump signal be supplied to the system at
,
(E3 EJ/h. The pump power is absorbed and results the pumping frequency / in a transfer of electrons from state t to E 3 until saturation is reached, that is, until the electron populations in the two energy levels 1 and E 3 are equal (Fig. 8.13c). Comparing state 3 with state 2, it is seen that there are now more electrons in energy state 3
(Es E2)[h acts than in energy state 2. The application of a signal at frequency/, as a stimulus to cause the excess electrons in state 3 to revert to state 2 with an emission of radiation at frequency/. The operation of the maser is signified by its name, which is an acronym formed from the words "microwave amplification by stimulated emission
of radiation." When the population of a higher energy level is greater than the population of a lower level, the Boltzmann relationship of Eq. (8.25) can be applied if the temperature Tis taken to be negative rather than positive. The magnitude of the negative temperature is the effective noise temperature of the maser provided the losses in the maser structure are negligible (which they normally are not). The energy levels of maser materials must be spaced so that the frequencies corre-
sponding to energy transitions lie within the microwave region. A three-level maser may be obtained with paramagnetic materials such as ruby operated in a strong magnetic Electrons have "spin," which causes them to behave as tiny magnets. When a field. material with atoms whose bound electrons have a net magnetic moment is placed in a magnetic field, there are only certain discrete directions in which the magnetic moments can line up with the field. The magnetic energy depends upon the direction of alignment, each discrete direction corresponding to a particular energy state on the energyA paramagnetic crystal material placed within a strong magnetic field level diagram. The separation of the energy the three energy levels needed for a maser. produce can Thermal processes can mask the maser effect levels depends upon the magnetic field. consequently the maser material must be cooled to liquid-helium temperature. The
lower the temperature, the
less the
pump power
required for saturation and the larger
382
[Sec. 8.7
the gain-bandwidth product, tion is low noise.
An
important consequence of low-temperature opera-
of a
The three-level maser may be operated in a cavity located within a cryostat consisting Dewar flask filled with liquid helium (Fig. 8.14). The liquid helium is enclosed in
a
of liquid nitrogen to retard the evaporation of the helium. The cryostat is placed between the pole pieces of a magnet. The cavity in which the paramagnetic
flask
maser
material is located must be capable of supporting both the pump frequency and the signal frequency. The pump frequency is also known as the saturation frequency. Pump power is shown supplied to the cavity via one transmission line, while the signal is inserted via another. Since the cavity maser is a one-port device, the amplified
Circulator
Signal inpul
Superheterodyne
receiver
must be taken from the cavity via same line through which it entered. A circulator separates the input signal from the amplified signal. Masers have been operated over almost the entire frequency band of
signal
the
interest to radar.
Pump
Dual-trequency
cavity
oscillator
The maser itself achieves extremely low noise

temperatures.
However, the
is
sensitivity
of a
primarily determined by the noise introduced by the auxiliary equipment such as transmission lines and other microwave
Magnet
maser system
Liquid
wave plumbing since the theoretical noise temperature of cooled masers is on the order of a few degrees Kelvin at most. noise figure of Fig. 8.14. Diagram of a three-level cavity0.3 db is probably on the low side for a receiver type maser. with a maser RF amplifier. If an additional loss of 0.5 db were placed somewhere in the system, the system noise figure would be increased to about 0.8 db, which begins to approach the noise figure of parametric
Liquid nitrogen
helium
x^-
y/**^
plumbing. A typical circulator-maser system might have an effective noise temperature of about 25K corresponding to a system noise figure of 1 .08, or 0.3 db. 84 Most of the noise is due to loss in the circulator and the micro. .
., , Maser material
amplifiers.
Three examples of cavity-type, three-level masers will be briefly mentioned. The is a UHF maser with a chromium-doped potassium-cobalticyanide crystal operating over the frequency range from 300 to 500 Mc. 88 The pumping frequency was 5,400 Mc, and the magnetic field was in the vicinity of 80 gauss. The bandwidth was on the order of 100 kc, and the gain about 10 db. Higher gains may be obtained at a sacrifice in bandwidth. The theoretical noise contribution of the maser was on the orderofO.TK. The system used a 10-db directional coupler for isolation. A4.8-dbnoise-figure receiver followed the maser amplifier, resulting in an effective noise temperature of approximately 70K (about 1 db noise figure). If the antenna were to see a space temperature of 100K the effective noise temperature would be 170K, or about 2 db. The 10-db directional coupler was used since circulators were not available at the time. Ten decibels of maser gain is thus sacrificed. The second example is an X-band maser tunable over the range 8,400 to 9,700 Mc. 89 A ruby crystal was used with a 4,000-gauss magnetic field. The pump frequency was 23 Gc with 15 mw of pump power. The bandwidth was 20 Mc, and the gain 10 db. The noise temperature was claimed to be about 20K, not including contributions from
first
the antenna, duplexer, or receiver.
The third example is a packaged, tunable L-band maser system with a ruby crystal. 90 Tuning over more than an octave range (850 to 2,000 Mc) was accomplished by
Sec. 8.7]
adjusting the d-c magnetic
field,
Receivers
the
383
resonances.
The voltage-gain-bandwidth product was
bath temperature of 1 .5K. An the operation of the system to a 200-Mc tuning range at L band. The maser, circuThe system noise lator, and all auxiliary equipment operated as a packaged system. figure was 0.5 db (35K effective noise temperature). In the three-level maser the pump frequency is higher than the signal frequency. However, if materials producing four or more energy levels are used, it is possible to pump up stair-step-wise and then fall back many levels to amplify at a higher frequency. 60
-
the signal and pump cavity at a liquid-helium L-band circulator with a 0.3-db insertion loss limited
pump frequency, and
37.5
Mc
91
The two major disadvantages of the maser amplifier are the need for liquid-helium cooling and the narrow bandwidth. Ruby masers have been operated near liquidnitrogen temperatures but with a corresponding increase in noise. It is not certain, however, whether a maser can be successfully operated at room temperature. The bandwidths of cavity-type masers are relatively low for many applications. Typical values of early devices were in the vicinity of 0. 1 per cent, although there is some Bandwidth may be improved with a travelingtrade between gain and bandwidth. traveling-wave maser consisting of a rubywave structure rather than a cavity. loaded comb structure gave a bandwidth of 25 Mc (about 0.4 per cent) and gain of 23 db at a frequency of 6 Gc. 86 The pump frequency was in the vicinity of 1 9 Gc with a
power of 100 mw and a magnetic field of about 4,000 gauss. The necessary magnetic fields may be obtained with magnets placed
external to the
low-temperature liquid. It is also possible to establish magnetic fields adequate for many applications with superconducting solenoids and iron-core magnets which 87 require no further power source once the desired field is established. limitation in addition to its narrow In radar applications, the maser has another bandwidth, complex auxiliary equipment, and the need for liquid helium. Masers are
easily saturated
by relatively low level signals. The low saturation power makes the maser particularly susceptible to a jamming signal when used in a military radar. 82 The UHF maser described previously saturates with powers exceeding 10~9 watt. 88 A conventional superheterodyne receiver, on the other hand, can withstand 80 to 90 db more power without degradation in performance. Once the maser saturates, it This relatively long recovery time limits requires a fraction of a second to recover. the radar application of the maser unless provided with an extremely efficient duplexer.
hence there
Although masers are easily saturated, they are not damaged by excessive radiation; is no burnout problem. A ferrite switch may be inserted between a maser and a conventional duplexer to provide additional isolation. Its use in an X-band radar having a peak pulse power of 92 The measured noise temperature of the maser, circulator, 1 50 kw has been reported. mixer, and IF amplifier, combined, was 65K. The noise temperature of the receiver, including that caused by losses in the ferrite TR switch (insertion loss 0.25 db), the TR tube, waveguide, and rotary joints was 173K, or 2 db. In addition to being used as a low-noise amplifier, the maser may also be operated as an extremely stable oscillator and used as a frequency standard. Masers are also capable of generating significant power in the millimeter and submillimeter frequency regions 81 and at optical frequencies. 93,150 At optical frequencies the maser is sometimes
referred to as a laser (where the
/
stands for "light").
The coherent energy from an infrared or optical maser generator offers the possibility of a relatively high power radar at these frequencies. The range of infrared and optical
radar
is
severely limited
by atmospheric absorption, but for space applications outside
the earth's atmosphere, relatively long ranges (several hundreds or thousands of miles) ought to be possible. One of the inherent properties of the optical maser is its narrow
384
[Sec. 8.7
beamwidth, which is obtained without additional optics. Theoretical beamwidths are of the order of tens or hundreds of microradians. Practical beamwidths less than 0.1 have been achieved. Too narrow a beamwidth might make pointing difficult. Tunnel Diodes. The tunnel diode is a negative-conductance device that might be used as an RF amplifier. 94 - 96 153 Its noise is due primarily to shot effect accompanying
.
the tunneling process. It does not seem that the tunnel diode noise figure will be as good as that from a maser or a parametric amplifier. However, it may find application where its simplicity and economy can be traded for increased noise. 153 Comparison. Figure 8. 1 1 is a plot of noise figure as a function of frequency for the several RF amplifiers considered in this section. Also shown for comparison is the noise figure of a superheterodyne receiver with a crystal-mixer front end. The maser
is difficult to specify without including the contribution of the auxiliary equipment, but for purposes of this diagram it is taken as a constant value of 0.5 db. The curves of Fig. 8.11 indicate relative performance only and, because of the rapid growth of this field, are strictly true only as of the time of publication. There are no hard and fast rules for selecting one device instead of another. On the basis of noise figure alone, the maser would be preferred. However, in practice, the maser is not often used as a radar receiver front end because of its complexity, narrow bandwidth, and susceptibility to saturation. In addition, the advantage of an extremely
noise figure
low noise front end
largely disappears when the noise contributions from other parts of the radar receiver and the transmission lines are properly considered. The over-all noise figure of a practical maser receiver operated under field conditions will probably
not be much different from that of a good parametric amplifier. Parametric amplifiers are relatively simple devices and may be operated at ambient temperatures. One of their limitations is that diode versions are susceptible to burnout if subjected to excessive power or when large gain-bandwidths are desired. The parametric amplifier seems better suited to operation at as its noise figure is lower in this range than at higher frequencies. Because of the large cosmic noise levels below 1 ,000 Mc, there would be little advantage in using a lower-noise device. Thus the maser would more likely be found at S-band frequencies or higher if its inherent disadvantages can be tolerated. Above band the increasing noise level resulting from atmospheric absorption tends to erase any advantage gained with low-noise
UHF
devices.
The
noise figures of traveling-wave tubes and backward-wave amplifiers are
com-
petitive with those of parametric amplifiers, especially at the higher radar frequencies.
Although these are not solid-state devices, neither is a "solid-state" parametric amplisince pump power usually must be supplied by vacuum tubes such as the klystron. The triode amplifier has better noise performance than a mixer at frequencies below about 800 Mc and is less susceptible to burnout than a crystal mixer. The crystal-mixer receiver has a poorer noise figure than most other devices but is
fier,
widely used in radar applications because of its simplicity. The single tunnel-diode noise figure shown in Fig. 8. 1 1 is better than a mixer, but not as good as the other low-noise devices. Low-noise receivers are not always desirable in radar applications even if they are as economical as, for example, a crystal mixer. Since radar for military application must have good range performance in spite of hostile electronic countermeasures, it is not always wise to trade transmitter power for low noise figure. However, in civilian applications of radar, the problem of deliberate jamming does not exist, and considerable monetary savings may be had by using a low-noise receiver. Any improvement in receiver sensitivity permits a like reduction in transmitter power. reduction in transmitter power is "twice blessed" since it reduces the operating costs of the radar as
well as the initial costs.
Sec. 8.8]
8.8. Crystal
Receivers
385
Mixers119 97101
-
radar superheterodyne receivers do not employ an RF amplifier. crystal-mixer stage as the receiver front end. The noise figure of use the They simply of radar fregood crystal-mixer receivers is approximately 7 to 10 db over the range However, amplifiers. RF low-noise with quencies (Fig. 8.11). This is high compared especially applications, radar many for acceptable mixer is crystal the noise figure of a
Many microwave
where simplicity is an important consideration. The purpose of the mixer portion of the superheterodyne receiver is to convert RF characteristic is energy to IF energy. A crystal diode with nonlinear resistance 1 19 An integral part of any mixer is the local commonly used as the mixing element. The IF amplifier is also of importance in oscillator, which is usually a reflex klystron. figure. noise on the mixer design because of its influence The performance of a mixer is Loss. Conversion and Ratio Temperature Noise The characterized by two parameters conversion loss and noise temperature ratio.
-
conversion loss
Lc is
defined as
_ available RF power
"
,g 26)
available
IF power
The conversion
loss is a measure of the efficiency of the mixer in converting RF signal energy into IF energy. The ideal, or perfect, crystal mixer would have a conversion The conversion loss of typical microwave crystals varies loss of unity, or zero db. 99 being a typical value for a good crystal. db 8.5 db, 6 5.0 to from about
terminated in a matched load. The energy impressed in the RF signal channel of a broadband mixer is converted in equal portions to the IF signal and the image. ThereShortfore the theoretical broadband conversion loss can never be less than 3 db. circuiting or open-circuiting the image termination results in a narrowband mixer.
A crystal mixer is called broadband when the signal and image frequencies are both
The conversion
However, loss is less in the narrowband than in the broadband mixer. and IF the RF between isolation the will be less the loss, conversion the lower the portions of the mixer. Also, the design of a narrowband mixer is more critical than 102 In practice, the noise of a broadband mixer is almost as that of a broadband mixer. mixer. A broadband mixer is far simpler to design and narrowband a low as that of specifications. test, and it is the mixer usually implied in commercial and military crystal
Hence it is the type assumed in the present discussion. The noise temperature ratio tr of a crystal (not to be confused with
temperature)
is
effective noise
defined as
actual available IF noise
power
,g
available noise power from an equivalent pure resistance
kTB n
where
The crystal noise figure is therefore Fe

increases with decreasing frequency
F = crystal noise figure Ge = l/c = conversion gain

c
The noise temperature ratio of a crystal Over the quite high in the audio range. down to crystal) upon the depends value exact frequency range from about 100 kc (the inversely approximately ratio varies temperature noise the cycle, fraction of a a small with frequency. This is flicker noise, or 1// noise. Above approximately 500 kc the At a frequency of 50 cps, tr may noise temperature ratio approaches a constant value. B IF, the noise temperature radar typical a of 30 Mc, frequency At a 10 as as high
tr
c.
= L
is
and
be
ratio
of crystals might range from
1 .3
to 2.0.
386
[Sec. 8 8
Although the noise figure of a mixer is given by the product of its conversion loss and its noise temperature ratio, it is not a complete measure of the sensitivity of a crystalmixer receiver. The over-all noise figure depends not only on the mixer noise figure but also on the noise figure of the succeeding stage (the IF portion of the receiver) and the mixer conversion loss. It may be determined from the formula for the noise figure of two networks in cascade [Eq. (8. 1 The first network is the crystal mixer 1)]. with noise figure Fc = tr L c and gain = 1/L The second network is the IF amplifier C with a noise figure FIV The over-all crystal-mixer receiver noise figure is '
. .
Fo
= F + -* =
i
tr
Lc
(F IP
i)L e
=L
c (t r
+ FI -
1)
(8.28)
This expression does not include the effect of losses in the RF portion of the receiver, nor does it take account of any noise which might be introduced by the local oscillator! If, for example, the conversion loss were 6 db, the IF noise figure 1.5, and the noise temperature ratio 1 .4, the receiver noise figure [using Eq. (8.28)] would be 8.8
db.
crystal-receiver noise figure plotted in Fig. 8.11
is is
The
band.
The value of
7.5
db shown
in the figure
1N263 (germanium) or the 1N23E

Local-oscillator Noise. 103 - 105
constant at frequencies below typical of mixer crystals like the
(silicon).
In the derivation of the crystal-mixer-receiver noise figure, it was assumed that no noise was introduced into the mixer by the local oscillator. The spectrum of oscillators, however, is not a pure sine wave, and noise components are always present.". 106 Oscillator noise has a spectrum which resembles the resonance curve of the oscillator cavity (Fig. 8.15). The nonlinear action of the mixer translates the noise power which happens to be at the signal frequency or at the image frequency to the IF frequency, lowering the signal-to-noise ratio. Therefore noise components
CW
from the local oscillator must be removed if receiver noise is to be minimized. One method of eliminating mixer noise is by inserting a narrow-bandpass RF filter between the local oscillator and the mixer. The center frequency of the filter is that of the local oscillator. Its bandwidth must be small compared with the IF in order that noise components at the signal and the image frequencies do not appear at the mixer. (In some cases the resonant cavity of the local oscillator might be sufficiently narrow to
act as the bandpass filter, eliminating the need for a special filter.) A fixed filter of narrow bandwidth may not be satisfactory in radars in which the transmitter frequency
excursions are large. Because the varies the local-oscillator frequency to maintain the receiver in tune with the transmitter, the noise-rejection filter must be continuously tuned to the local-oscillator frequency. method of eliminating local-oscillator noise without the disadvantage of narrow bandwidth is the balanced mixer (Fig. 8.16). The balanced mixer utilizes a hybrid junction such as the magic T or its equivalent. The magic T consists of four arms CE-plane, //-plane, and two collinear arms) meeting at a common junction. signal fed into the -plane arm is divided equally between the two collinear arms. The two signals from the collinear arms are of equal amplitude but 180 out of phase. No energy enters the //-plane arm when a signal is applied to the -plane arm of a perfect magic T. Similarly, a signal fed into the /f-plane arm divides into two signals of equal phase and amplitude in the two collinear arms and no energy enters the .E-plane arm. balanced mixer is obtained with the magic T by feeding the local-oscillator signal into the //-plane arm and the RF signal into the .E-plane arm. crystal-mixer diode is mounted at equal distances from the center in each of the collinear arms. At one of the crystal mixers the local-oscillator signal and the RF signal are in phase; at the other, they are 180 out of phase, as indicated by the direction of the arrows in the figure! The result is that the IF signal from one mixer diode will also be 180 out of phase compared with the IF signal from the other mixer diode. The IF signal is recovered by
AFC
Sec. 8.8]
Receivers
387
noise appearing subtracting the outputs of the two mixer diodes. Any local-oscillator subtraction. upon canceled will be phase and be in will at the two mixer diodes The chief advantage of the balanced mixer over the simple filter is that it can be made Advantages of the balanced mixer over the single-ended mixer relatively broadband. coupled are that less local-oscillator power is needed since the LO may be more loosely
circuit, and because to the crystal; echo signal power does not enter the local-oscillator of the isolation between the oscillator arm and the antenna arm no local-oscillator power is radiated. In the balanced mixer configuration of Fig. 8.16, the subtractor
Hybrid
junction
Subtractor
Frequency
Fig. 8.15. Spectrum of local-oscillator noise.
Fig. 8.16. Principle of the balanced mixer.
if the polarity of one of the two crystals is reversed or if arms are interchanged. Low-temperature Operation. 10 108 It would seem that operating a crystal mixer at low temperatures ought to offer some improvement in the crystal noise figure. Experimental measurements made at Xband on 1N263 germanium diodes showed an improvement of 0.3 to 0.6 db by cooling to a temperature in the region of 170 to 220K. However, no improvement in receiver noise figure was obtained by cooling to liquidnitrogen temperature, 77K. The failure to obtain significant improvement by mixer cooling was attributed to an increase in the noise temperature ratio as the temperature was lowered. Diode Burnout. 19 A crystal diode which is subjected to excessive RF power may This is a rather loosely defined term which is applied to any deteriorasuffer burnout.
may be
replaced by an adder
signal
the
LO and the RF
''
'>
tion in the detection or conversion properties of a crystal diode as the result of electrical overloads. If excessive energy is applied to a microwave-crystal diode, the heat
generated by the current cannot be properly dissipated and the crystal can be damaged. The initial effect of excessive energy is an increase in the noise temperature ratio of the diode and a decrease in sensitivity. Additional energy causes the diode to open-circuit or the semiconductor to puncture, resulting in failure of the unit. Burnout does not Excessive noise temperature ratio necessarily imply physical destruction of the unit. more so, for gradual deterioraperhaps destruction, can be just as harmful as complete It tion of performance might not be noticed as readily as would catastrophic failure. figure is is for this reason that some means of automatic monitoring of receiver noise necessary if the radar is to be maintained in prime operating condition. The burnout problem is sometimes complicated by situations in which deterioration may be of only
a temporary nature. 109 One of the major causes of diode burnout in radar receivers is leakage through the tube breaks When the transmitter fires, the tube. duplexer due to aging of the
TR
TR
388
[Sec. 8.9
down. A finite time must elapse before breakdown is complete. This time might be on the order of several nanoseconds. During the time required for breakdown, energy leaks into the receiver, and if the energy is large enough, the crystal may be damaged. The amount of energy contained within the remainder of the pulse after the initial spike is usually small and is not as serious as spike leakage. The spike-leakage energy required to burn out microwave crystals varies from about 1 to 5 ergs, depending on
crystal type.
Burnout due to pulses without an initial spike, but greater than about 1 ^sec in is determined primarily by the peak power and not the energy. 19 Crystals can withstand on the order of several watts peak under pulse conditions. For example, the 1N23C is supposed to be capable of sustaining about 12 watts peak with little deterioration (at A' band with a d-c load of 100 ohms, duty cycle of 0.002, and 0.6-^sec pulse width). Some units can be subjected to as much as 25 watts peak. Above 25 watts the noise figure increases 3 db or greater. 110 Approximately 300 to 350 mw of power can be considered as a maximum value for most cartridge-type mixers. Another cause of burnout is the accidental reception of power from nearby radars or the discharge of static electricity through the crystal.
duration,
CW
8.9.
IF Amplifiers 11
The IF amplifier of a superheterodyne receiver must provide sufficient gain and dynamic range to accommodate the expected variation of echo signal power without saturating. Its noise figure must be low since it affects the over-all noise figure of the crystal-mixer receiver. The bandpass characteristic of the IF amplifier is of interest since the receiver bandwidth is essentially determined by that of the IF stages. Triodes In IF Amplifiers. It was mentioned in Sec. 8.3 thattriodes are preferred over pentodes where low noise is important. Pentodes produce more noise than triodes because of the partition effect found in tubes with more than one positive electrode. If pentodes happen to be used for the initial stages of low-noise IF amplifiers, they are usually connected as triodes. Although the triode is of lower noise, it has other difficulties caused primarily by the feedback of energy from plate to grid (Miller effect). The circuit design of a triode amplifier is concerned with the neutralization of this feedback so that it may operate stably, without critical adjustment, and yet provide sufficient
gain.
There are three basic methods of using a triode in a circuit, depending upon whether the cathode, grid, or anode is grounded. There are, in all, nine combinations possible when using two triode tubes in each of the above three ground configurations. It was
found experimentally that the best of the nine combinations was obtained with a grounded-cathode triode followed by a grounded-grid triode, a combination known as a cascode amplifier The grounded-grid second stage loads the first-stage groundedcathode triode so that the first stage gain is essentially unity. Thus neutralization of the grounded-cathode tube is not needed. The second triode is necessary in order to achieve gain. The cascode amplifier provides the stability, gain, and noncriticalness of a pentode and the low noise figure of the triode. Noise figures 11 of 0.25 db are possible at a frequency of 6 Mc, 1.35 db at 30 Mc, and 5.5 db at 180 Mc. If the receiver is located a considerable distance from the receiving antenna, losses in the transmission line connecting antenna to receiver might be large enough to result in excessive degradation of the signal-to-noise ratio. In such cases it is common practice to locate the mixer and a small IF preamplifier directly at the antenna, with the remainder of the IF amplifier located at the receiver. It is far easier to transmit IF than RF signals via transmission lines with low loss. Choice of Intermediate Frequency. The selection of the intermediate frequency represents a compromise between several conflicting factors. The intermediate
Sec. 8.9]
signal bandwidth if the IF signal frequency must be large compared with the the video amp liner \ high IF components are not to appear within the passband of amplifier the of size the and capacitors) and components (coils is also desirable in that mainand manufacturing difficult more the by offset this is
,
Receivers
389
spectral
are smaller. However, poorer IF amplifier noise figure. tenance at the higher frequencies and by the depends on several factors, one The over-all noise figure of a crystal-mixer receiver [Eq. (8.28)] may be rewritten as figure noise receiver The which is the IF noise figure.
of
Fr = L
The factors
ratio
tc
e [{t e
-l)
(Fw
-l)+l]
(8.29)
"I
and
FIF '
are
and the excess IF noisefigure.

25
1
known, respectively, as the excess noise temperature The conversion loss Lc is independent of frequency,
I I
I
11
f
|
M|"
"1
1
I 1
Contribution of crystal
Contribution of IF amplifier -
'
il
Ml
1.0
'
III
II
0.01
0.1
10.0
100
Frequency,
Mc
as a function of the frequency. Fig. 8.17. Noise figure of a crystal-mixer receiver
but
and FIF - 1 are not. The excess noise figure FIF - 1 is approximately IF frequency. The excess noise temperature ratio tc - 1 is to portional At higher Mc. about 0.1 below inversely proportional to frequency at frequencies
tc
in theory pro-
The minimum noise value. frequencies it levels off and approaches the shot-noise Therefore specific conclusions 1 is a minimum. 1 when t IF figure occurs c without a knowledge of the cannot be made about the optimum choice of IF frequency the noise figure of a particplotted is 8. 1 7 In Fig. F frequency dependence of t c and IF data are experiments crystal-noise-figure The receiver. crystal-mixer ular 1N23E as we 1 as crystal configuration and include local-oscillator noise in a balanced mixer available commercially of typical is 20 example this The IF noise figure used in noise for the conversion available were data No Mc). 60 at 3.5 Mc, 30 IF amplifiers (2 db at assumed. The optimum IF frequency loss of this crystal therefore a value of 6 db was The larger the IF to be quite broad. seen corresponding to minimum noise figure is Likewise, the frequency. intermediate optimum be the will noise figure, the lower freoptimum the higher the larger the excess noise temperature ratio of the crystal,
- +F .
qU y The commonly used intermediate frequencies
On
em
United States are 30 and 60 Mc. even lower IF frequencies could be the basis of the minimum-noise-figure criterion,
in the
'
1 112 In Sec. 9.2 it is shown that for any given transmitted Bandpass Characteristics} function (or IF bandpass waveform there is a particular receiver frequency-response With simple pulse ratio. signal-to-noise output characteristic) which maximizes the
390
[Sec. 8.9
The important consideration in a conventional IF amplifier for simple pulse radars is to achieve the required bandwidth and gain, the shape of the passband being of secondary importuncc.
waveforms, conventional IF bandpass shapes are close to the optimum.
a capacitance. said to be synchronously tuned when the resonant circuits of each stage are identical and tuned to the same frequency. In practice, the capacitance is usually the stray capacitance associated with the circuitry. There is one
The
Intermediate-frequency amplifiers consist of a number of cascaded stages. The bandpass characteristic of each stage is designed so that the combined effect of all the stages in cascade produces the desired bandwidth. A simple bandpass characteristic is that of the single-tuned resonant circuit consisting of an inductance and
amplifier
is
stage, usually the inductance.
The synchronously tuned
amplifier
gm For the 6AK5 this product is 55 Mc, and for the 6AC7 it is 50 Mc, allowing for socket and wiring capacitance. If an amplification of 20 db is required with an IF bandwidth of 2 Mc, the single-stage bandwidth must be 6 Mc. This permits a gain of 17 db per stage; hence seven stages are necessary to achieve 120 db. The over-all bandwidth of an rc-stage synchronously tuned amplifier is approximately equal to the single-stage bandwidth divided by 1.2() for n > 3. If wider bandwidths are
capacitance. 11
1
5 ,
manufacture and align, and noncritical in adjustment. It is gain-bandwidth product it can achieve. The product of gain and bandwidth describes the relative merit of the various amplifier coupling circuits. The gain-bandwidth product is a constant and depends upon the properties of the tubes and the nature of the coupling circuit. Bandwidth may be traded for gain, and vice versa. The (voltage) gain-bandwidth product of a singletuned resonant circuit is (l/2ir)(gJC), where is the transconductance and Cis the
tuning adjustment per is simple, easy to limited, however, in the
required, either better tubes or better circuits are necessary. If better tubes are not available, then better coupling circuits
must be employed to
Also, the bandpass characteristic of a coupling circuit must be such that, when cascaded, the over-all bandpass characteristic does not narrow as rapidly as that of the single-tuned circuit. The double-tuned (transformercoupled) circuit gives better performance in this regard than synchronously tuned resonant circuits. The bandpass characteristic of the double-tuned circuit depends
give greater gain-bandwidth product.
two resonant circuits. The coupling usually approximately transitional, that is, just short of the familiar double-hump characteristic. The over-all bandwidth of n double-tuned stages is equal to the single-stage bandwidth divided by 1.1()*. Nine double-tuned circuits, each of 6 Mc bandwidth, result in an over-all bandwidth of 3.2 Mc, whereas nine synchronous single-tuned circuits, also of 6-Mc bandwidth, result in an over-all bandwidth of 1 .7 Mc. The chief disadvantage of the double-tuned circuit compared with the single-tuned
employed
is
upon
the degree of coupling between the
circuit is that
it is
more
difficult to align.
is
Another means of achieving large bandwidth

circuit
with stagger tuning.
The
basic
of the stagger-tuned amplifier is the single-tuned resonant circuit, but instead of the resonant frequencies of each circuit being identical, as in the synchronously tuned amplifier, they are staggered with respect to one another. The combined response curve of two single-tuned resonant circuits with resonant frequencies displaced (staggered) has the same shape as the transitionally coupled double-tuned circuit, thus preserving the bandwidth advantage of cascading. In practice, six stages with a gain of 1 00 db will be twice as wide if staggered in pairs than if synchronously tuned. Additional bandwidth may be had by staggering three or more tuned circuits in combination. These are known as staggered triples, or staggered n-uples. The advantage of staggered tuning is that simple tuned circuits are used, easing the maintenance and manufacturing problems.
Sec. 8.10]
Receivers
391
Another technique for increasing the effectiveness of coupling circuits is to employ double-tuned circuits as stagger-damped circuits. Successive stages are over- and undercoupled, making the over-all response characteristic flat. Stagger-damped circuits bear the same relationship to double-tuned circuits, all transitionally coupled, as do stagger-tuned circuits to synchronously single-tuned circuits. The discussion of the IF amplifier has been in terms of vacuum tubes. Tran113-115 sistors and tunnel diodes 116 have advantages in this application, especially where size, weight, and power requirements are of importance.
8.10.
Displays
display
is
The purpose of the

signal in a
form suitable for operator interpretation.

is
to present the information contained in the radar echo The display may be connected
directly to the video output of the radar receiver, or if the information available
from
obtained at a greater rate than an operator can assimilate, automatic data processors such as digital computers may be needed to digest and interpret the radar data and display only the condensed information. The most common form of radar display is visual and usually some form of cathodeOther visual displays are the chemical recorder, d'Arsonval meters, solidray tube. Aural methods for state displays, ultrasonic light modulators, and banks of lights. indicating radar information are also possible. The echo signal can actuate a bell to alert an operator whenever a target appears. This would be especially useful in regions of low radar traffic density, where an operator's alertness cannot be depended upon over extended periods of time. The ear can often be used as a detection device in radar when the doppler frequencies fall within the audible range. In some radar applications a display is not needed since the radar output is never presented to an operator, as, for example, an automatic tracking radar used for missile guidance, where the information is acted upon by some form of automatic computer. Radar displays are commonly two-dimensional. Stereoscopic three-dimensional displays are sometimes used, 155 especially with radars that supply 3-D information, such as the radar shown in Fig. 1.11. Cathode-ray Tubes. 112 111 There are two basic methods of displaying information on a cathode-ray tube. In the deflection-modulated CRT such as the A-scope, targets are indicated by the deflection of the electron beam. The other display method is the intensity-modulated CRT, an example of which is the PPI scope. It is normally dark in the absence of a target. A target is indicated by intensifying the beam and presenting a luminous spot on the face of the CRT. In general, deflection-modulated scopes have the advantage of simpler circuits than those of intensity-modulated scopes. They are also better adapted to making range or angle measurements. Targets may be more readily discerned on a deflection tube than on an intensity-modulated display in the presence of interfering signals or noise. On the other hand, intensity-modulated displays have the great advantage of presenting data in a convenient and more easily interpreted form. The various forms of CRT displays which might be used in radar may be found in a number of references. 118-120 The common displays are the PPI, the A-scope, and the B-scope. The B-scope is an intensity-modulated rectangular display with bearing indicated by one coordinate and distance by the other coordinate. The deflection of the beam or the appearance of a spot on a radar display caused by the presence of a target is commonly referred to as a blip. The focusing and deflection of the electron beam of a cathode-ray tube may be accomplished electrostatically, electromagnetically, or by a combination of the two. Electrostatic CRTs are usually longer than magnetic tubes, but the size, weight, and power dissipation are less. This results, in part, from the means by which the focusing and deflection fields are obtained in the magnetic tube. The electromagnetic CRT
the radar signal
CW
'
392
[Sec. 8.10
requires magnetic coils not needed in electrostatic tubes. The coils are relatively lossy and require more driving power than electrostatic devices. However, differences in size and weight are not usually of importance in fixed ground-based equipment. The electron beam in electrostatic tubes may be deflected at a considerably greater rate than in electromagnetic tubes since it is easier to drive the relatively low capacitance
deflection plates at high frequencies than
it is to drive the high-inductance coils of magnetically deflected tubes. For this reason, electrostatic tubes are often used for deflection-modulation indicators such as A-scopes. Except in cases of weight limitation, magnetic tubes are used for intensity-modulated displays. Considerably better resolution can be obtained with magnetic tubes as compared with electrostatic tubes. The beam size of the CBS-Hytron 5BYP5 is less than 0.001 in.
Table
Phosphor
8.1.
Radar CRT Phosphor Characteristics t

Phosphorescence
color
Persistence
Fluorescence color
PI
Yellowish green
Yellowish green
P4
P5 P7
Pll
White
Blue
White
Blue Yellowish green
White
Blue
Medium Medium to medium Medium short Blue, medium short

Medium
Long
yellow, long short
short
Blue
P12
PI 3
Orange Reddish orange

Purplish blue
Orange Reddish orange

Yellowish orange
P14
P17 P19
P21 P25
Medium Blue, medium

Long
P26 P28
Yellow white to blue white Orange Reddish orange Orange Orange

Yellow-green
Yellow Orange Reddish orange Orange Orange

Yellow-green
short; greenish yellow, medium Blue, short; yellow, long
Medium Medium
Very long
Long
154 t Gessford et al.
through its useful screen diameter of 4.5 in. This permits 6,000 television lines to be displayed over the tube diameter, which is an order of magnitude better than World War II radar display tubes. The development of improved cathode-ray tubes since
II was due primarily to the needs of commercial television. possible to obtain a radar display device, using ultrasonic light modulation, capable of tens of thousands of resolvable elements in a single scan line as compared with the 6,000 elements per diameter of the 5BYP5 or the 300 elements per diameter of
It is
World War
12DP7A. 121 This device operates on a different principle from the cathode-raytube display. There is no halation effect analogous to that in the CRT, so that dynamic ranges of several hundred to one are possible which is large compared with the 15:1 dynamic range of the CRT. The large number of resolvable cells possible with the ultrasonic light modulator makes it attractive for radar applications where exceptionally good resolution is necessary, as in airborne mapping. The intensity of the light emitted by the cathode-ray tube must be sufficient for viewing by an operator. In a ground-based radar the viewing conditions of weak displays can be improved by operating in a dimly lit room or by using an opaque viewing shield about the tube. In airborne applications, however, it is not always convenient to control the ambient illumination, and viewing shields are sometimes a nuisance, especially if the operator has other duties to perform. High-brightness indicators, based on storage-tube principles, capable of viewing under daylight conditions, can be used in such applications. 122 123
the
Sec. 8.10]
Receivers
393
The intensity-modulated CRT display is not a linear device. The electrostatic tube has approximately a square-law grid-modulation characteristic, while that of the magnetic tube is roughly cubic. The result is a more limited dynamic range than a device with a linear characteristic. It is not unusual for the dynamic range of signals This limited dynamic range leads on a PPI display to be limited to the order of 1 5 1 problem occurs in television similar signals. to "blossoming" of the display on strong picture tubes where a linear characteristic is important if all shades of gray are to
: .
be displayed correctly.
The nonlinear
grid100
modulation characteristic of CRTs may be compensated with a so-called "y-correcting" circuit in the video portion of the receiver.
(It is
also
known
tion of this circuit
as a video rooter.) The funcis to apply to the video signal
the inverse of the
CRT characteristic in order to

124 characteristic linear.
-
make the combined
125
CRT
Screens.
number of
different
cathode-ray-tube screens are used in radar They differ primarily in their applications.
decay times and persistence. The properties of some of the phosphors which have been used The in radar CRTs are listed in Table 8.1. degree of image persistence required in a cathode-ray-tube screen depends upon the application. A long-persistence screen such as the P19 or the P21 is appropriate for PPI presentations where the frame times are on the order of several seconds. On the other hand,
where no persistence is needed, as when the frame time is less than the response time of the eye (0.1 sec or less), a PI or P4 phosphor might be used. The PI phosphor is commonly found in most A-scope presentations. The persistence characteristics of the PI and the PI 9 phosphors
are
100
200
300
is
400
,
Time after excitation
removed
500 msec
shown
in Fig. 8.18.
Fig. 8.18. Persistence characteristics of the PI and the P19 phosphors.
In order to achieve long decay times a twoThe first phosphor is sometimes used, as in the P7 or the PI 4. The layer emits an intense light of short duration when excited by the electron beam. light from the initial flash excites the second layer, emitting a persistent luminescence. The tandem action of the cascade screen results in greater efficiency than if the second, long-persistence layer had been excited by the electron beam directly, instead of by light emitted from the first layer. In the P14 screen, the initial flash of short duration from
layer, or cascade, screen
first screen is blue in color and the persistent light radiated by the second screen is orange. An orange filter placed across the face of the tube eliminates the flash and If a blue filter were used instead, the persistent leaves only the long-persistent trace. afterglow of the second layer would be removed, leaving only the short-duration flash. Thus a single cascade screen can give either a short or a long persistence display, depending upon the filter employed. In Table 8.1 the color emitted by the screen during both fluorescence (short duration) and phosphorescence (long duration) is given. In general terms, fluorescence may be thought of as luminescence which ceases almost immediately upon removal of the Cascaded screens excitation, whereas in phosphorescence the luminescence persists. produce different colors under fluorescence or phosphorescence.
the
394
[Sec. 8.10
Not all long-duration screens need be cascade. phosphor with long persistence and no flash. 124
If extremely long persistence
The PI 9
is
a single-component
is desired in a cathode-ray-tube display, a storage tube be used. 122 An image placed on a storage tube will remain, for all practical purposes, indefinitely until erased. Resolution on the CRT is limited by the phosphor characteristics as well as the electron beam. A double-layer phosphor such as the P7 will have poorer resolution than a single-layer phosphor such as the P5. Wamoscope. 126 127 The Wamoscope is a combination of a cathode-ray-tube and traveling- wave-tube amplifier, both within the same vacuum envelope (Fig. 8.19). The
may
'
RF
Electron gun
input
Screen-
Cathode
Anode
I.
-Helix
u r^
J30CCCCCC!
TWT
envelope
iih|i|i|i|ir
Cathode-ray-tube' envelope +Hign v0
ta ge
Fig. 8.19.
Diagram of Wamoscope.
{Courtesy General Telephone and Electronics Laboratories.)
traveling-wave tube is located in the neck of the CRT. d-c electron beam is passed down the helix of the traveling-wave tube, where it interacts with the RF fields on the helix to velocity- and current-modulate the beam, as in a conventional traveling- wave tube, in accordance with the amplitude of the RF signals. If the electrons in the beam are decelerated to cathode potential in the region following the helix, the slow electrons will be turned back. Only those electrons with velocity greater than the d-c velocity
through and impinge upon the CRT screen. The electron velocity will be when an RF signal is present. Therefore the CRT screen will be illuminated only when an RF signal is present. The Wamoscope is an example of a tuned-radio-frequency receiver. The integral traveling-wave tube permits the amplification and display of very wideband radar signals. A preamplifier traveling-wave tube may be used ahead of the Wamoscope to
will pass
greater than the d-c velocity
provide additional amplification. ~ Remoting of Radar Data. 128 133 The location of the radar and the place where the radar data are to be used might sometimes be separated by a considerable distance. For example, a harbor-surveillance radar must be located so that it commands the best view of the marine traffic and might not be the same as the location of the harbor control office. Air-traffic control and air defense systems require that radar data from several radars be remoted to a single control site. The radar information may be remoted to a distant point by a wideband transmission line, voice transmission from one operator to another, or digital-data transmission over narrowband lines. A wideband transmission line would be needed if the entire information available in the signal were to be transmitted from one point to another. The bandwidth of the transmission device must be wide enough to accommodate the signal bandwidth, which might be of the order of megacycles in conventional search radars. The wideband radar transmission system would therefore be similar to television transmission circuits and might be a microwave relay or coaxial cable.
Sec. 8.11]
It is
Receivers
is
395
a well-known principle of communication theory that bandwidth

to be conveyed.
a function of
the
amount of information
Although there is
basically a large
amount
of information available from a radar scope, in practical situations the amount of information needed from the display is relatively small. All that is usually required is information relating to the presence of each target and their positions. Since there are relatively few radar targets on the display at any one time, this information might be transmitted from the radar to the central data point by an operator who conveys the target coordinates over a telephone line to a plotter at the distant location, who then plots the data on a display. The rate at which information can be transmitted from one point to another by this method is limited to about six targets per minute per trackerplotter combination. 129 The use of operators to remote radar information via a telephone line is an example of a narrowband system. The narrowband transmission can be made automatic so as to eliminate the limited data rate and fatigue of operators. A narrowband transmission system makes use of the low average information rate to restrict the amount of bandwidth needed. This restriction may impose a delay on the transmission of a specific set of target coordinates between the time of arrival of the signal at the radar and its display at the control center. The bandwidths required for the transmission of compressed data need be but several kilocycles in normal ground-based surveillance radars. Thus commercial telephone lines offer a secure and reliable means of communicating data from one point to another, provided the radars are located in regions where adequate phone lines are available.
8.11.
Duplexes 134138156
The duplexer is the device that (1) switches the radar antenna to either the transmitter or the receiver and (2) serves to protect the receiver from burnout or damage during transmission. Duplexers are generally gas-discharge devices, but ferrites and solidstate varactor diodes have also been used. Several forms of passive duplexers using the properties of hybrid junctions or polarization rotation were discussed in Sec. 3.2. In this section, active duplexers using some form of switching element are discussed. In a typical application the transmitter power might be 10 6 watts and the maximum safe power at the receiver might be a few watts. Therefore the duplexer must provide, in this instance, on the order of 60-db isolation between transmitter and receiver, with only negligible reduction in the transmitted power. Branch-type Duplexers. The principle of the branch-type duplexer is illustrated in Fig. 8.20. It consists of a transmit-receive (TR) switch and an anti-transmit-receive (ATR) switch, both of which are gas-discharge tubes. When the transmitter is turned on, the TR and the tubes ionize that is, they break down, or fire. The TR in the fired condition acts as a short circuit to prevent transmitter. power from entering the receiver. Since the TR tube is located a quarter wavelength from the main transmission line, it appears as a short circuit at the receiver but as an open circuit at the transmission line and does not impede the flow of transmitter power. The function of the TR, therefore, is to disconnect the receiver from the transmitter during transmission and to protect the receiver from excess power. breaks down on transmission along with the TR. Since it is displaced a The quarter wavelength from the main transmission line, the short circuit produced by the ATR during the fired condition appears as an open circuit on the transmission line. Thus the ATR has no effect on transmission. During reception the transmitter is turned off; neither the TR nor the is fired. The open circuit of the ATR gap is located a quarter wave from the transmission line and appears as a short circuit across the line. If the apparent short circuit is located a quarter wave from the receiver branch line, the transmitter is effectively disconnected
ATR
ATR
ATR
396

line
[Sec. 8.11
from the
and the echo
signal
power
is
is
directed toward the receiver.
Therefore, in
Series or
the unfired condition, the ideal The branch duplexer in Fig. 8.20
ATR will divert the entire echo signal into the receiver.
an example of a
parallel configuration.
138 series-parallel configurations are also possible.
TR Tubes. One of the early forms of TR switches was a simple gas-discharge spark gap consisting of two electrodes in air. The spark gap is well suited as a TR switch It is not too since its impedance is high in the unfired condition and low when fired. Its characteristics change with satisfactory, however, from a practical point of view.
Antenna
HH
Transmitter
T
-<lsr
rr
<ist
i.
ATR
TR
Receiver
Fig. 8.20. Principle of branch-type radar duplexer. The channels the echo power into the receiver. switching; the
TR
provides receiver protection and
ATR
The performance it must be adjusted at frequent intervals; and its life is limited. of the simple spark-gap TR can be improved by enclosing it in a partially evacuated By enclosing the spark gap glass envelope, operated within a properly designed cavity. within a glass (or other suitable material) envelope, at a gas pressure of a few millimeters of mercury, both the breakdown voltage and the operating voltage are reduced. The gas filling used in the TR tube must ionize and deionize quickly and easily. It is in trying to meet these requirements that the TR tube designer sometimes encounters difficulty. In order to obtain a short deionization time, the electrons formed by the discharge must be removed quickly once the RF power is turned off. Although electrons may be removed by direct recombination with the positive ions to form neutral atoms, this process is not too favorable and long recovery times are the result. If the recovery is to be rapid, some third body must be present, such as a neutral atom or the One method of speeding recovery is to walls of the discharge tube, to act as a catalyst. employ a gas with a high affinity for electrons for example, hydrogen, the halogens, or water vapor. Such gases readily attach electrons to form negative ions. Negative ions recombine more readily than do electrons with positive ions to form neutral
use;
;
particles.
Unfortunately, gases with high electron affinity are extremely active chemically.
Tubes filled with such gases deteriorate and are of short life. Water vapor has proved The to be the most stable electron attachment gas for use in microwave TR tubes. early TRs were simply filled with air from which no precautions were taken to remove water vapor. Mixtures of argon and water vapor have also been used. A TR tube filled with a pure noble gas like argon has a low breakdown voltage and offers good However, conventional TR tubes filled receiver protection and relatively long life.
with pure noble gases have relatively long deionization times (on the order of milliseconds) and are not suitable, except for long-range radar applications (satellite or ballistic-missile detection), where it is not necessary to detect targets at short ranges. Recombination times may be improved by the presence of the tube walls or other In some tubes quartz wool is located in the discharge region for this purpose. surfaces. Quartz wool is It consists of very fine fibers and has a large surface-to-volume ratio.
Sec
8.11]
Receivers
397
especially useful in tubes filled with the pure noble gases. Surface recombination permits a recovery time in argon on the order of 50 ^sec. Even shorter recovery times
have been reported with argon

surface recombination. 139
TR
The arc
tubes especially designed to improve recovery by loss in argon-filled tubes is exceptionally low
compared with the loss in water-vapor-filled tubes. The TR is not a perfect switch; some transmitter power always leaks through to the receiver. The envelope of the RF leakage pulse might be similar to that shown in
Fig. 8.21
.
A finite time (approximately 10 nanoseconds) is necessary for a typical TR

down
after the application
tube to break
of transmitter power.
The
short-duration,
Spike
RFgap
"Flot
Keep-clive electrode
Time
Fig. 8.21.
Example of leakage pulse through a
Fig. 8.22.
TR tube
electrodes showing arrange-
TR tube.
ment of the keep-alive.
large-amplitude "spike" shown at the leading edge of the pulse in Fig. 8.21 is the result of the finite time lag required for breakdown. After the gas in the TR tube is broken down (ionized), the power leaking through the tube is considerably reduced from the
spike. This portion of the leakage pulse is termed theflat. Damage caused to a crystal mixer if either the energy contained within the spike or the power in the flat portion of the pulse is too large. To ensure reliable and rapid breakdown of the TR tube upon application of the RF pulse, an auxiliary source of electrons is often supplied to the tube. An electron source can be obtained with a weak "keep-alive" d-c discharge between an additional electrode introduced into the tube and one of the electrodes of the TR (Fig. 8.22). Electrons
peak value of the
may be
from the keep-alive discharge diffuse into the TR gap, where they act to trigger the breakdown once RF power is applied. The keep-alive generates noise just as does any other gas-discharge device. If too strong a discharge is maintained, the noise level might be high enough to degrade the
receiver sensitivity.
An example of a typical TR tube is shown in Fig. 8.23. It consists of a length of waveguide sealed at both ends with glass or ceramic windows transparent to microwave Two TR gaps formed by the truncated cones, spaced. a quarter of a frequencies. guide wavelength apart, provide greater bandwidth than possible with a single TR gap. The truncated cones and the baffles form a resonant-filter section. The cones are the The prime function of capacitive elements, and the baffles are the inductive elements. the filter section is to aid the breakdown process by producing a relatively high value of electric field strength in the region of truncated cones. Not only does the use of two TR gaps lead to greater bandwidth than is possible with a single gap, but the amount of power which leaks through during the flat portion of the pulse is less since both gaps are fired and contribute to the attenuation. Each of the two windows is matched with an inductive iris. They are of lower Q than the TR gaps and, being spaced a quarter wavelength from each of the TR gaps, act to further increase the bandwidth. 135 The In operation, keep-alive discharge is placed in the gap farthest from the transmitter. the gap with the keep-alive discharge breaks down first, followed by the breakdown of
398
[Sec. 8.11
the remaining gap and the breakdown at the input The main discharge takes place at the input window.
window
nearest the transmitter.
The attenuation during the flat is determined by the discharge at the input and at each of the two gaps. The combined attenuation can be on the order of 80 to 100 db. Leakage energy in the initial spike is determined by the design of the keep-alive gap and by the nature and pressure of the gas fill. Arc loss depends primarily upon the characteristics of the input window and the gas discharge at the window. Recovery time is controlled by the characteristics of the gas and the physical conditions (walls or other recombination aids) near the discharge. For optimum performance, the requirements
Input to transmitter
Fig. 8.23.
Example of a
typical
TR tube.
on the type of gas and the pressure are different in the vicinity of the resonant-filter sections than at the input window. The gas-fill pressure for minimum arc loss and recovery time is contrary to that required for minimum spike and flat leakage. These functions can be separated by using a gas-filled glass capsule sealed to the input window which provides a separate and distinct gas fill for the input window. 139 140
-
of TR tubes is the disappearance, or "clean-up," of the gas filling. Clean-up is the gradual decrease of pressure caused by the chemical combination of the gas with the electrodes and by the gas molecules becoming imbedded in the gap electrodes. Gas clean-up means that as the tube ages, it no longer operates at the pressure for which it was designed. Longer recovery times result, causing echo signals from nearby targets to be lost. This may be an important consideration in short-range radar. Sputtering of the material from the electrodes is also a common occurrence in TR tubes, especially those with keep-alive electrodes. Sputtering causes short circuiting of the keep-alive and detuning of the resonant circuit. The end of life of a TR tube is determined more by the amount of leakage power which it allows to pass than by physical destruction or wear. TR tube is considered unsatisfactory when it
One of the
factors limiting the
life
no longer affords
receiver protection.
Several hundred hours of
life is
considered
typical of conventional
TR tubes.
Both the keep-alive and the water-vapor filling in tubes reduce the useful life. If rapid TR breakdown and rapid recovery times were not necessary, simple and reliable TR tubes of long life could be constructed using pure noble gases.
TR
power incident on the TR tube is absorbed by the This is called arc loss and depends upon the characteristics of the input window and the gas discharge at the window since practically all the incident RF power is controlled and reflected by the discharge at this point. Arc loss is about J to 1 db in typical tubes filled with water vapor. In high-power tubes the heat generated by the arc loss can be sufficient to melt the input window. The arc loss in tubes filled with argon may be 0. 1 db or less. 139 On reception, the TR tube introduces an insertion loss
fraction of the transmitter
discharge.
Sec. 8.11]
Receivers
399
of about | to 1 db, which attenuates the echo signal. the keep-alive noise reduce the sensitivity of the radar
in
The arc loss, insertion loss, and and should be taken into account
any accurate prediction of radar performance.
ATR tube has less stringent demands placed upon it than does the TR tube. Therefore it is usually simpler. An ATR might use a pure noble gas such as argon Furthermore, priming agents such since recovery time generally is not of importance. The absence of both chemically active gases and a as the keep-alive are not needed. keep-alive results in ATR tubes having longer lives than TR tubes.
The
Antenna
Dummy
load
Transmitter
Protector TR and receiver
"
Short-slot hybrid nyona junctions' j
(a)
Antenna
Dummy
load
Transmitter
-slot
hybrid junctions 7
(t
Fig. 8.24. Balanced duplexer using dual
TR tubes and two short-slot hybrid junctions,

circuit
(a)
Transmit
condition
(6) receive condition.
arrangements of TR and ATR tubes branched duplexer. The branched duplexer is the simplest configuration, but it is not inherently broadband. A more broadband arrangement is the balanced duplexer (Fig. 8.24). In principle, its bandwidth is limited only by that of the waveguide. Balanced duplexers employ a hybrid junction of some sort. (A hybrid junction is an arrangement of waveguide, coax, or other transmission line with four arms or branches. When the arms are properly terminated, energy entering from any one arm is transferred equally into only two of the remaining three.) A popular form of junction for this application is the short-slot hybrid. 141 142 It consists of two sections of waveguides joined along one of their narrow walls. A slot is cut in the common narrow wall to provide coupling between the two. In essence, the short-slot hybrid is a broadband directional coupler with a coupling ratio of 3 db. Its use as a duplexer is shown in Fig. 8.24. In the transmit condition (Fig. 8.24a) power is divided equally into each waveguide by the first short-slot hybrid junction. Both TR tubes break down and reflect the incident power out the antenna arm as shown. The short-slot hybrid has the property that each time the energy passes through the slot in either direction, its phase is advanced 90. Therefore the energy must travel as indicated by the solid lines. Any energy which leaks through the TR tubes (shown by the dashed lines) is directed to the arm with the matched dummy load and not to the receiver. In addition to the attenuation provided by the TR tubes, the hybrid junctions provide an additional 20 to 30 db of
Balanced Duplexer.
There are several
for switching
and for
receiver protection in addition to the
isolation.
400

into the receiver as
[Sec. 8.11
On reception the TR tubes are unfired and the echo signals pass through the duplexer
and
junction,
shown in Fig. 8.24b. The power splits equally at the first and because of the 90 phase advance introduced on passing through the slot, the energy recombines in the receiving arm and not in the dummy-load arm. An example of a balanced duplexer is shown in Fig. 8.25. This particular A'-band unit operates over the frequency range from 8,490 to 9,578 Mc and is capable of withstanding 200 kw peak power. The insertion loss on reception (duplexer loss) is
1.2 db.
A low-power TR tube (which might also be a diode limiter), called a receiver protector,
is
often placed between the balanced duplexer
against
random
pulses
and the receiver to safeguard the receiver from nearby radar equipments which are too weak to fire the
Fig. 8.25. Balanced waveguide duplexer.
(Courtesy
Bomac
Laboratories, Inc.)
TRs
in the balanced mixer, but strong enough to damage the receiver. receiverprotector is also needed to protect against power reflected by mismatches at the antenna. The isolation between transmitter and receiver may be as low as 10 db for
TR
antenna mismatches on the order of 2: 1. When a receiver-protector TR is used, the in the balanced duplexer can be specifically optimized to perform the switching function with low arc loss over broad bandwidths, and the protector TR may be designed to fire at low power levels and to provide the optimum receiver protection. In this manner each tube is designed to perform its single function in an optimum manner instead of compromising the design by combining the two functions of switching and protection in a single tube. Another form of balanced duplexer uses four ATR tubes and two hybrid junctions (Fig. 8.26). 143 The ATR tubes reflect the echo signal into the receiver in this duplexer arrangement as contrasted with the balanced duplexer of Fig. 8.24, where the TR tubes
TRs
reflected the transmitter
power
into the antenna.
During transmission
(Fig. 8.26a),
the
ATR tubes fire and high power is allowed

During reception
to pass to the antenna.
Dashed
lines
show the flow of power.
impedance, which results in the echo protector TR tube ahead of the receiver prevents excess signal power from entering the receiver. The ATR type of balanced duplexer has higher power-handling capacity than that of Fig. 8.24, but it has less bandwidth. Duplexer action may also be obtained with two hybrid junctions and a half- wavelength
ATR tubes present a high signal power being reflected to the receiver. A
(Fig. 8.266), the
Sec. 8.11]
144
Receivers
401
The power from the transpower-sensitive phase shifter, as shown in Fig. 8.27. If the path mitter is applied to arm 1 where it divides equally between arms 3 and 4. antenna arm 7 into the will pass power equal, all the hybrids are the two between lengths because of the 90 phase shifts introduced by the hybrid junctions. On reception, the
,
Transmitter
__,.
0777* ff77%\ ___1Qg&d^&..^
Dummy
load
>
Short-slot hybrid
^
ATR tubes
(fired)
Protector
TR
and rece iver
^^
"^^
I
Antenna
Short-slot hybrid
U-^f
Transmitter
|
Short-slot hybrid
ATR tubes
/ \ / \
^_jf-k^_l)
(*~*
^-^
1
Protector TR ond receiver
Dummy
load
) P
(t>)
*""*^
Antenna
Short-slot hybrid
Fig. 8.26. Balanced duplexer using
ATR
tubes,
(a)
Transmit condition;
(b) receive condition.
Holt-wavelength power-sensitive phase shifter
Receiver
Transmitter
^ 14
Short-slot hybrid
VOV
^-Antenna
Short-slot hybrid
(a)
X
[6)
shifter.
Gas-discharge tubes
Short
circuit
Fig. 8.27. (a) Principle of the phase-shift duplexer; (b) half-wavelength, power-sensitive phase
phase
shift in the power-sensitive
phase shifter between arms 6 and 3
is
increased by
The phase of the echo power will cause it to enter the receiver arm half a wavelength. rather than the transmitter arm. method of providing a half-wavelength power-sensitive phase shifter is shown in Metal It consists of a hybrid junction and two gas-discharge tubes. Fig. 8.27ft.
402
[Sec. 8.11
shorting plates are spaced a quarter wavelength behind the tubes. The high-power transmitter pulse (from arm 3) enters arm a and is divided equally between arms c and d.
The gas-discharge tubes break down, and the power is reflected and appears in arm b (to be delivered to arm 6 of Fig. 8.27a). On reception, the echo signal enters arm b. The echo power is too weak to fire the gas-discharge tubes consequently, the low-power signal travels a quarter wave farther before being reflected by the metal short. Thus the received signal travels a total of half a wavelength more than the high-power
;
transmitter pulse.
shift
duplexer
is
It has been claimed that the power-handling capacity of a phasetwice that of a balanced duplexer using the same components. 144
Antenna
Transmitter
Fig. 8.28. Nonreciprocal differential phase-shift ferrite duplexer.
Ferrite Duplexers. li5 im There are a number of methods by which ferrite devices such as Faraday rotators, isolators, circulators, and phase shifters may be used in duplexer applications. The phase-shift duplexer described in Fig. 8.27 may be used with a ferrite phase shifter as well as with a gas-discharge device. The nonreciprocal differential phase-shift ferrite duplexer is shown in Fig. 8.28. 147 148 The transmitter power enters the //-plane arm of a magic T and splits equally into the two collinear arms. In one arm the phase is advanced 45 by the ferrite phase shifter, and in the other, it is retarded 45. The two signals then enter a short-slot hybrid junction, and because the phase relationships are proper, they recombine in the antenna arm. On reception, the signal power is divided equally by the short-slot hybrid junction. The phase shifts introduced by the ferrites are now reversed because propagation in the nonreciprocal phase shifter is in the opposite direction; that is, the phase of the upper arm is retarded 45, and in the lower arm it is advanced 45. This phase differential plus the 90 phase advance introduced in the lower arm by the short-slot hybrid results in a total phase difference of 180 between the signals in the two arms. This is the proper phase relationship if the two signals entering the collinear arms of the magic T are to recombine in the .E-plane (receiver) arm with no energy entering the //-plane (transmitter) arm. A protector TR may be inserted in the receiver arm as protection against transmitter leakage, reflected power from the antenna during transmission, and radiation from nearby radars during the receiving period. 157 Ferrite duplexers have the advantage of shorter recovery times and longer life than gas-discharge duplexers. They are relatively broadband. However, they are usually of larger size and weight and require magnetic fields for their operation. Another form of all solid-state duplexer consists of a three-port ferrite circulator with a diode limiter ahead of the receiver.
-
Shutters.
is
turned
off,
energized.
As the keep-alive in the tube is not usually energized when the radar considerably more power is needed to break down the TR than when it is Radiations from nearby transmitters may therefore damage the receiver
TR
without firing the TR. To protect the receiver under these conditions, some type of mechanical shutter is often used to short-circuit the input to the receiver whenever the
Receivers
403
radar is not operating. The shutter might consist of a metallic vane inserted across the waveguide, or it might be a so-called "shutter tube" in which one or more cones are shorted by a solenoid-activated device.
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MTT-6,
WESCON
July-August, 1958. Anderson, T. N.: System Applications of Ferrite Circulators, Microwave J., vol. 2, pp. 20-23, February, 1959. 148. Fox, R. H.: Ferrite Devices and Applications at Microwave Frequencies, MIT Lincoln Lab.
147.
Tech. Rept. 69, Sept. 27, 1954.

149. Menzel,
ASTIA
64026.
Press,
D. H.
"The Radio Noise Spectrum," Harvard University
Cambridge, Mass.,
403-407,
1960.
150.
Schawlow, A. L.: Infrared and Optical Masers, Bell Labs. Record,

ber, 1960.
vol. 38, pp.
Novem-
151. Pulfer,
152. 153. 154.
155.
156. 157.
J. K.: Microwave Superregenerative Amplifiers, Microwave J., vol. 4, pp. 61-66, February, 1961. Greene, J. C, W. D. White, and R. Adler: Radar Sensitivity with Degenerate Parametric Amplifier Front End, Proc. IRE, vol. 49, pp. 804-807, April, 1961. Yariv, A., and J. S. Cook: A Noise Investigation of Tunnel-diode Microwave Amplifiers, Proc. IRE, vol. 49, pp. 739-743, April, 1961. Gessford, R. K., Sr., W. A. Dickinson, and J. H. Loughlin: Cathode Ray Tubes, Electronics, vol. 33, no. 18, p. 83, Apr. 29, 1960. 3-D Stereoscopic Display, Electronic lnds., vol. 20, p. 105, July, 1961. Muehe, C. E., Jr.: High-power Duplexers, IRE Trans., vol. MTT-9, pp. 506-512, November,
1961.
Krupke, W.
vol.
F., T. S.
Hartwick, and
M.
MTT-9,
pp. 472-480,
November,
T. Weiss : Solid-state 1961.
X-band Power Limiter, IRE Trans.,
9
DETECTION OF
RADAR SIGNALS
9.1. Introduction
IN NOISE
by radar are (1) detection of the presence of of information from the received waveform to obtain such target data as position, velocity, and perhaps size. The operations of detection and extraction may be performed separately and in either order, although a radar that is a good detection device is usually a good radar for extracting information, and vice versa. In this chapter some aspects of the problem of detecting radar signals in the presence of noise will be considered. Noise ultimately limits the capability of any radar. The problem of extracting information from the received waveform is
reflecting objects,
The two
basic operations performed
and
(2) extraction
described in the next chapter. Three of the basic problems of detection discussed in the present chapter are (1) the specification of the optimumf receiver characteristic for the detection of weak signals in noise, (2) the comparison of practical receivers with the ideal receiver, and (3) the
selection of a criterion for recognizing the presence or absence of a signal.
The question of the optimum receiver for detecting weak signals in noise is considered several equivalent, but different, points of view: (1) the matched filter, (2) the correlation receiver, (3) the inverse-probability receiver, and (4) the likelihood-ratio
from
receiver. In Sec. 9.2 the form of the linear receiver characteristic that maximizes the output signal-to-noise ratio is derived. This is called a matched-filter receiver. The maximum peak-signal-to-mean-noise (power) ratio from a matched filter is equal to 2E/N where E is the signal energy and is the noise power per cycle of bandwidth. The correlation receiver is shown to be equivalent mathematically to the matched-filter receiver although its practical implementation is quite different. Both the cross,
and the autocorrelation receivers are discussed in Sec. 9.3. detection process consists of deciding whether the output of the radar receiver is due to noise alone or to signal-plus-noise. Criteria for making this decision are based on statistical hypotheses testing and include the Neyman-Pearson, the Ideal, and the Sequential tests (Sec. 9.4). These criteria are all based on deciding whether or
correlation
The radar
not the output signal crosses a predetermined threshold
level.
In Sec. 9.5 the receiver which computes inverse probabilities is discussed and its relationship to the matched filter, correlation receiver, and to a receiver which computes the likelihood function is described.
The envelope detector, zero-crossings detector, coherent detector, and the phaselocked detector are considered briefly in Sec. 9.6. This is followed in Sec. 9.7 by a discussion of the human observer as a link in the radar detection process.
Sections 9.8 and 9.9 describe the delay-line integrator detection), respectively.
t
and binary integration
(digital
Optimum, as an
adjective,
is
conflicting) circumstances.
(B.
Usage,"
Random
House,
Inc.,
not merely a synonym for best. It means the best under the (usually Evans and C. Evans, "A Dictionary of Contemporary American New York, 1957.)
408
Sec 92]
9.2. Matched-filter Receiver
Detection of Radar Signals in Noise
409
18
peak -signalnetwork whose frequency-response function maximizes the output is an optimum matchedfilter The to-mean-noise (power) ratio is called a matchedfilter.
method for the detection of signals in noise. The frequency-response function, denoted #(/),
expresses the relative amplitude and when the input is a pure phase of the output of a network with respect to the input function is frequency-response the of The amplitude or magnitude \H(f)\ sinusoid. the receiver of bandwidth the If characteristic. passband the receiver amplitude extraneous noise is passband is wide compared with that occupied by the signal energy, On ratio. signal-to-noise output the introduced by the excess bandwidth and lowers by occupied bandwidth the than narrower is bandwidth the other hand, if the receiver part of the signal considerable a with along reduced is energy noise the signal, the there is an The net result is again a lowered signal-to-noise ratio. Thus energy This; is well maximum. is a ratio signal-to-noise optimum bandwidth at which the quoted in pulse radar known to the radar receiver designer. The rule of thumb equal to the approximately be practice is that the receiver bandwidth B should approxireasonable a is this later, shall see As we reciprocal of the pulse width t.
is not It receivers. mation for pulse radars with conventional superheterodyne in a illustrate to and is mentioned generally valid for other waveforms, however,
qualitative
signal-to-noise ratio. the effect of the receiver characteristic on the frequencyinvolves characteristic receiver optimum The exact specification of the waveform. received the of shape the and function response discussion, is assumed The receiver frequency-response function, for purposes of this (The effect of amplifier. IF the of output the to to apply from the antenna terminals
manner
ratio will be considered later, in .sec. 9.6. the second detector on the signal-to-noise radar superheterodyne The second detector and video portion of the well-designed ratio if the receiver is signal-to-noise receiver will have negligible effect on the output accomplished in conveniently most is Narrowbanding designed as a matched filter.) superheterodyne normal The bandwidths of the RF and mixer stages of the the IF bandwidth. Therefore the frequencyreceiver are usually large compared with the IF between the antenna terminals included receiver the response function of the portion of IF amplifier alone. Thus we of the that be to taken is amplifier the IF to the output of the signal -to-noise maximizes that need only obtain the frequency-response function a filter with gain. as considered be may amplifier The IF ratio at the output of the IF. The interest. of property the is frequency of function a as The response of this filter filter. matched of the absolute value of the gain has no effect on the shape energy E to noise energy For a received waveform s(t) with a given ratio of signal 1 the frequency-response that showed North bandwidth), (or noise power per cycle of the output peak-signal-tomaximizes which filter time-invariant linear, function of the (energy) ratio is mean-noise (power) ratio for a fixed input signal-to-noise
H{f)
where
S(f)=T
J
t,
s(t)
exp
= Ga S*(f) exp (-j2nftj (-j2nft) dt = voltage spectrum

is
(9-1)
(Fourier transform) of
00
input signal
S*(f)= complex conjugate of S(f)
= fixed value of time at which signal observed = constant equal to maximum filter gain (generally
is
taken to be unity)
The noise that accompanies the signal
assumed to be stationary and to have a uniform
If the noise is not white, Eq. (9. 1 spectrum (white noise). It need not be Gaussian. whose frequency -response may be modified as discussed later in this section. The filter
410

is
[Sec. 9.2
filter, the conjugate filter, or has also been called the Fourier transform criterion. It should not be confused with the circuit-theory concept of impedance matching, which maximizes the power transfer rather than the signal-to-noise ratio. The frequency-response function of the matched filter is the conjugate of the spectrum of the received waveform except for the phase shift exp {-j2Trft1 ). This phase shift varies uniformly with frequency. Its effect is to cause a constant time delay. A time delay is necessary in the specification of the filter for reasons of physical readability since there can be no output from the filter until the signal is applied. The frequency spectrum of the received signal may be written as an amplitude spectrum \S(f)\ and a phase spectrum exp [-#,(/)]. The matched-filter frequency-response function may similarly be written in terms of its amplitude and phase spectra \H(f)\ and exp [id, ( f)] Ignoring the constant Ga Eq. (9.1) for the matched filter may then be written as
function
given by Eq. (9.1) has been called the North

It
more
usually the matched filter.
\H(f)\ exp
[-#(/)]
\H(f)\
= =
|5(/)| exp {/fo,(/)

\S(f)\
2nftl ]}
(9.2)
(93a)
and
<rW)
= ~Uf) +
2ttA
( 9.3 6)
as the amplitude spectrum of the signal, but the phase spectrum of the matched filter is the negative of the phase spectrum of the signal plus a phase shift proportional to frequency.
Thus the amplitude spectrum of the matched filter is the same
The matched filter may also be specified by its impulse response hit), which inverse Fourier transform of the frequency-response function.
h(t)
is
the
=
*
is
H(f) exp 0277/0 df
(9.4)
GO
Physically, the impulse response
input
is
an impulse (delta function).

h(t)
the output of the filter as a function of time when the Substituting Eq. (9. 1) into Eq. (9.4) gives
G J_V(/)
exp [-j2nf( tl
0] df
(9.5)
Since S*(f)
S(-f), we have
HO = Ga j_ J(f) exp [j2nf( tl
0] df
Ga s(r1
t)
(9.6)
interesting result is that the impulse response of the matched filter is the image of the received waveform; that is, it is the same as the received signal run backward in time starting from the fixed time t Figure 9. 1 shows a received waveform s(t) x and the impulse response h(t) of its matched filter.
.
rather
The impulse response of the
filter, if it is
to be realizable,
is
of variations 1 or the Schwartz inequality. 9 In this section we shall derive the matchedfrequency-response function using the Schwartz inequality. We wish to show that the frequency-response function of the linear, time-invariant filter which maximizes the output peak-signal-to-mean-noise ratio is
filter
(One cannot have any response before the impulse is applied.) Therefore we must always have t < tv This is equivalent to the condition placed on the transfer function H{f) that there be a phase shift exp {-j2nftj). However, for the sake of convenience the impulse response of the matched filter is sometimes written simply as s(-t) Derivation of the Matched-filter Characteristic. The frequency-response function of the matched filter has been derived by a number of authors using either the calculus
not defined for
<
.0
H(f)
= Ga S*(f)exp(-j2nft
1)
Sec. 9.2]

is
411
ratio
when
the input noise

is
stationary and white (uniform spectral density)
The
we
wish to maximize
R' _
S
\
A (t)\m&K
,
,
(97)
where
N = mean noise power at receiver output been considered The ratio R f is not quite the same as the signal-to-noise ratio which has here is actually used power as peak the that [Note equation. radar previously in the
referred to in the discussion of the peak instantaneous power, whereas the peak power power over the duration ot the of value average the radar equation in Chap. 2 was the the twice is R, ratio The a pulse of sine wave.
WOLax = maximum value of output signal voltage
average signal-to-noise power ratio when the input The signal s(t) is a rectangular sine-wave pulse.] output voltage of a filter with frequency-response
function
H(f)
is
MOI =
where S(f)
is
I*" 00 J
S(f)H(f) exp
0'2it/0 dt
(9.8)
the Fourier transform of the input (received) signal. The mean output noise power is
N
2 J-<
|H(/)|
df
(9.9)
where
is
the input noise
power per
unit band-
width. The factor J appears before the integral co, oo to because the limits extend from whereas JV is defined as the noise power per cycle of bandwidth over positive values only. Substi-
Fig. 9.1. (a) Received

(b)
filter
waveform
s{t).
s(t);
impulse response h{t) of the matched

for the
waveform
tuting Eqs. (9.8)
and
(9.9) into (9.7)
occurs at time
r 1;
the ratio
and assuming that the R f becomes
maximum value
2
ol
\s (t)\
Rf
r
if
S(J)H{f)expU2irftJdf
(9.10)
- f|H(/)|
2 J-oo
d/
Schwartz's inequality states that

f P*P
P and Q
are two complex functions, then

:>
dx\Q*Q dx
P*Q dx
is
(9.11)
The
and
equality sign applies
when P
=
/
kQ, where k and

/>
a constant.
Letting
P*
recalling that
S(f) exp (jlvftj
Q = H(f)
dx
(9.10),
\P*Pdx
we
get,
\\P\
on applying the Schwartz inequality to the numerator of Eq.
j" Rf <
\H(f)\
dfJ
\S(f)\
df
|S(/)|
iVo
df
(9.12)
|H(/)|
df
412

Parseval's theorem,
[Sec. 9.2
From
J
Therefore
W)|
[s(t)\
dt
<*/=J_
signal energy
=E
(9.13)
we have
*,
<
2 -
(9.14)
The frequency-response function which maximizes

ratio
P = kQ,
Rt may
or
the peak-signal-to-mean-noise be obtained by noting that the equality sign in Eq. (9.11) applies when
H(f)
where the constant k has been
= Ga S*(f) exp (~j2nf

equal to \jGa
.
tl )
(9 . 1
5)
set
is simply twice the energy E contained in the signal divided by the noise power per cycle of bandwidth The noise power per cycle of bandwidth, 7V is equal to kT F where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the standard temperature (290K) and F is tje noise figure. For a rectangular pulse of sine wave, the peak signal power of Eq. (9.7) is twice the average power contained within the pulse. Therefore, for the special case of a sine-wave pulse, the maximum average signal-to-noise power ratio at the output of a matched filter is E/N which is the same as the signal-to-noise energy
power
interesting property of the matched filter is that no matter what the shape of the input-signal waveform, the maximum ratio of the peak signal power to the mean noise
The
Matched Filter and the Correlation Function. The output of the matched filter is not a replica of the input signal. However, from the point of view of detecting signals in noise, preserving the shape of the signal is of no importance. If it is necessary to preserve the shape of the input pulse rather than maximize the output signal-to-noise ratio, some other criterion must be employed. 10 The output of the matched filter may be shown to be proportional to the input signal cross-correlated with a replica of the transmitted signal, except for the time delay u The cross-correlation function R(t) of two signals y(X) and s(X), each of finite duration
is
The
defined as
'
*( =
n^^ ~
yUX)h(t
tl
m
input i&yjf)
(9 -
16 >
The output^/) of a filter with impulse response h{t) when the
= s(t) + n(t)
(9.17)
Jo(0
If the filter is a
=J_
A)
dX
(9.17)
matched
filter,
then h(X)
= s( - +
t
X)
and Eq.
becomes
ô(0
=J_
yin(X)s(t 1
X)
dX
R(t
tj)
(9.18)
Thus the matched filter forms the cross correlation between the received signal corrupted by noise and a replica of the transmitted signal. The replica of the transmitted signal is built in to the matched filter via the frequency-response function. If the input signal y in (t) were the same as the signal s(t) for which the matched filter was designed (that is, the noise is assumed negligible), the output would be the autocorrelation function, two examples of which are shown in Figs. 9.9 and 9.10.
Sec. 9.2]
Efficiency of Practical Filters.

In practice the matched
filter
413
obtained exactly.
It is appropriate, therefore, to
examine the
compared with the ideal matched filter. nonmatched filter divided parison is the ratio p f the peak signal-to-noise ratio from a filter [Eq. (9.19)]. matched from a (2/iV ratio ) signal-to-noise by the peak
matched
filters
,
cannot always be nonThe criterion used for comefficiency of
Pf
2EIN
mean
noise
where
s (t)
and
Nont =
output signal voltage and

filter,
power from nonmatched
respectively
E = input signal energy N = noise power per cycle
As is usual in statistical noise theory, the circuit impedances are so that the square of the voltage is equal to power. Consider the output signal-to-noise ratio from a simple
of bandwidth at input of matched assumed equal to 1
filter
ohm
RLC resonant circuit. Therefore a single RC equivalent. low-pass This problem may be treated using the keeping in mind the considered, be will \jRC a constant low-pass filter with a time low-pass filter and the RLC RC the between bandwidth in difference factor-of-2 The input signal s(t) is assumed to be a rectangular pulse of amplitude
bandpass filter. A and of duration
t,
so that
, ,
s(t)
[A
(0
for
< <r
t
otherwise
The frequency-response function of the low-pass
RC filter is
Go.
m=
where
out
(9.20a)
Em
+ j>
co
G=
response, which
is
gain of filter
=
t
2rf
is
The impulse
the Fourier transform of Eq. (9.20a),
h(t)
Go. exp
(-a?)
>
(9.206)
The output of the filter

s.(0
is
= Jf
s(X)h(t-X)dX
c
9 21fl )
-
So (0
= GA ['--" dX =
Jo
GA{\
e-"']
for
< <r
t
(9.216)
sjit)
= GA \\e- M ~
x)
dX
=
>
GAle~
M- r)
e'**}
for
t>
(9.21c)
that the output is an t the derivative of s o (0 is positive, which means and the output is a negative r, the derivative is For t increasing function of time. must occur for s of value maximum the a (t) decreasing function of time. Therefore
For
< <
/
|s
(t)& ax
=A
is
G 2 |l
exp (-ar)l
(9.22)
The mean, or
average, noise
power
2 J- a,
477
J-
oo
-+- ft)
**
414

ratio
[Sec. 9.2
The
of Eq. (9.22) to Eq. (9.23)
is
K(0lmax
Nout
4A G
[l
aiV
exp (-t)1 2
IE
2[1
exp (-oct)] 2
where
E=
signal energy
A 2 t,
Pf
Therefore
2[1
exp (-ar)] 2
(9.24)
This is a maximum when ar 1.25. Since a 1/RC 2ttB where B is the half-power bandwidth of the RC low-pass filter, the maximum output occurs for B t 0.199 i=w 0.2. Therefore the optimum product of Br for
,
the bandpass
|
|
RLC
' |
'
i |
|-
-Single-tuned
(RLC) resonant passband
Rectangular-shaped passband
-0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Half-power bandwidth times pulsewidth,
5.0
St
Fig. 9.2. Efficiency, relative to a
tangular-shaped
filter
matched filter, of a single-tuned (RLC) resonant filter and a recof bandwidth 3, when the input signal is a rectangular pulse of width t.
network is twice this, or 0.4. The maximum value of Pf for this filter is 0.816, which corresponds to a degradation in signal-to-noise ratio of 0.88 db compared with a matched filter. A plot of the filter efficiency as a function of Br is shown in Fig 9 2 Also shown is a similar plot for a rectangular passband obtained from the report by 1 North. In Table 9.1 are listed the values of Br which maximize
the signal-to-noise
Table
9.1.
Efficiency of
Nonmatched
Filter
Filters
Compared with the Matched Filter
Input signal
Optimum Bt
1.37 0.72 0.72 0.44
Loss
in
SNR
with matched
1.7
compared filter, db
Rectangular pulse Rectangular pulse Gaussian pulse Gaussian pulse Rectangular pulse
Rectangular Gaussian Rectangular Gaussian

One-stage, single-tuned circuit 2 cascaded single-tuned
stages
5
0.98 0.98
(matched)
0.88
0.4
Rectangular pulse Rectangular pulse
0.613
0.56
0.5
cascaded single-tuned
stages
0.672
S E c.
ratio
9.2]

filter is
415
(SNR) for various combinations of filters and pulse shapes. The to-noise ratio in comparison with the signal-to-noise ratio from a matched
shown.
loss in signal-
also
.
response is of the form with more complicated circuitry. For example, if the impulse 3 2 filter is 0.93 and the approximate the of a 4 r ) th6 efficiency Pf a3 r a2 t e -V(i
a rectangular pulse can be obtained A closer approximation to the matched filter for 11
loss with respect to the ideal
matched
oc
filter is
0.3 db.
is
(In this case o^t
6.18,
13.8, a 3 r
-73.9, and
3 4t
283.8,
where r
the pulse width.)
O
Input
VWAr
>
Delay
line
Lowpass
filter
f-r-1
Output
t/2
o--I
Fig. 9.3.
Diagram of a matched
filter
for a rectangular video pulse.
(After Rochefort,
12
IRE
Natl.
Conv. Record)
of Example of an Approximation to a Matched Filter. Consider the problem matched Although a pulse. video rectangular-shaped designing a matched filter for a (the matched filter should be in the IF filter for the video is of limited value in radar
maximum efficiency), it is considered here for the principle it illustrates. It is The amplitude of the pulse is A and the duration t. readily extended to the IF pulse.
stage for
,
The
magnitude of the frequency-response function
is
l"(/)l
I
exp(-j2vft)
dt
At
sin (cot/2)
(9.25)
cot/2
approximated. There are a number of methods by which \H(f)\ or h(t) can be rectangular video pulse, its output a to matched filter applied to a were impulse If an The circuit of Fig. 9.3 approximates pulse. as a function of time would be a rectangular
Matched
filter
JL
Delay
line
for rectangular pulse
Fig. 9.4. Block diagram of a Conv. Record.)
matched
filter
for a train of video pulses.
(After Rochefort,
12
IRE Natl.
this tvpe of
of a short-circuited delay line of length t/2 The delay line is in parallel with a low-pass driven by its characteristic impedance R c to the An impulse applied to this circuit will appear simultaneously at the input filter line and be delay the down travel will impulse The delay line and the low-pass filter. end with a reversal of polarity. The input to the low-
impulse response.
It consists
.
reflected at the short-circuited
pass
filter is
figure.
If the
t,
t, as shown in the two impulses of opposite polarity separated by a time with the pulse comparison in long is filter low-pass time constant of the
width
the output will be essentially rectangular. shown in Fig. 9.4. It consists ot tne filter for a train of video pulses is delay line. tapped a by followed matched filter for a single pulse It differs frorathe video 9.5. Fig. in illustrated pulse is IF an filter for The matched One other filter. low-pass than a at IF rather filter in being a bandpass filter centered is applied to impulse voltage When a open-circuited. difference is that the delay line is
The matched
416

filter,
[Sec. 9.2
the input of the matched
bandpass
filter
centered at
consists
narrowband
is
filter
damped cosinusoid at the output.

large,
two positive current impulses will appear at the narrow IF. The separation between the two impulses is r. If the of a high-g tank circuit, the first impulse will produce a
The second impulse will
stop the oscillation
cycles
and the resonant frequency of the circuit is such that N have been produced in the time r.
J (where
N = integer)
if the
r r^
Re
voltage
Input
-Deloy
line
1
Narrow
band
to
r-r
t/2
<
Current conversion
IF
tilter
Fig. 9.5. Diagram of a Conv. Record.)
matched
filter
for a rectangular IF pulse.
(After Rochefort " J
12
'
IRE
Natl
Effect of the Transmitted Waveform. It has been assumed thus far that the received waveform s(t) was given and that the matched filter was designed accordingly. There may be some benefit, however, in selecting the transmitted waveform so as to make the design of the matched filter more practical. It has been shown that the energy of the received waveform is the important parameter determining the ability of the radar to detect weak targets. The shape of the waveform is of no importance for detection except as it influences the ability to build the matched filter or a reasonable approximation thereto. The factors that affect the shape of the transmitted waveform are accuracy, ambiguity, and resolution between targets. These are discussed in the
next
chapter.
One means of achieving a practical matched filter is with tapped delay lines 14 Figure 9.6 shows a block diagram of a matched-filter radar using a tapped delay line to generate the transmitted waveform and a tapped delay line as the matched filter The transmitted waveform is generated by sending a short impulse (upper right-hand portion of the diagram) through the delay line. Taps are located at uniform intervals along the line. If the bandwidth of the line is and if Tis the delay time (the duration of the waveform), the number of taps should equal 2WT, according to the sampling theorem . weighting function is applied to each of the taps with an element such as a potentiometer or perhaps a phase shifter, and the taps are combined into a single output. The width of the combined output signal will be equal to the time T that it takes for the impulse to travel the length of the line, and its shape will be determined by the type of weighting applied to the individual taps. The taps may apply the weighting to either the amplitude, the phase, or the frequency. The combined output from the delay-line taps is amplified in a power amplifier and transmitted. Assuming the target does not distort the echo signal, the received signal will have the same shape as the transmitted signal. On reception, the echo signal is processed in a matched filter one whose impulse response is the time inverse of the received signal. Therefore the matched filter is a delay line similar to the delay line used to generate the transmitted signal, but with the taps in reverse order. Although two separate tapped delay lines are shown in Fig. 9.6, one line could be used to perform both functions on a time-shared basis. On transmission the signal is generated by an impulse inserted in one end of the line, while on reception the received signal is inserted in the other end. The delay line acts as an expander on transmission and a compressor on reception. This is similar to the pulse-compression technique described in Sec. 10.9.
Optimum Filter with Nonwhite Noise. In the derivation of the matched-filter characteristic [Eq. (9.15)], the spectrum of the noise accompanying the signal was assumed to be white; that is, it was independent of frequency. If this assumption were
417
418

filter
[Sec. 9.3
which maximizes the output signal-to-noise ratio would not be the same as the matched filter of Eq. (9.15). It has been shown 16 " 17 that if the input power spectrum of the interfering noise is given by [A^/)] 2 the frequency-response function of the filter which maximizes the output signal-to-noise ratio is
,
not true, the
=
And
the impulse response h(t)
is
GS*(/)exp(-j27rA)
defined by the integral equation
*(*i
f'
h(/i)R H (t
- p) dp
is
(9.27)
where RJt)
is
the autocorrelation function of the noise and
related to the
power
spectral density
by
X
R n(t)=j [N (f) cos

i
(277/0
df
(9.28)
When
is
the noise
is
nonwhite, the
filter
called the
constant reduces to that of Eq. (9.15). In most radar applications the noise which accompanies the signal can usually be considered to be white noise. An important exception to this is when the target signal is observed in the presence of interfering clutter or ground echoes, in which case the more general form of the matched-filter characteristic [Eq. (9.28)] must be used (Sec.
NWN (nonwhite noise) matched For white noise [A^/)] = and the NWN matched-filter frequency-response function of Eq (9 26)
filter.
2
which maximizes the output signal-to-noise
ratio
Maximum
filter
was defined
Signal-to-noise Ratio and Detectability of Weak Signals. The matched as that filter which maximizes the output peak-signal-to-mean-noise
ratio. Intuitively, it would seem that such a filter is also the best filter to use to maximize the detection of weak signals, at least if there are no nonlinearities involved It has been shown by Davis 18 and by Peterson et al. 19 that the matched-filter characteristic is also that filter which maximizes the probability of detection for a fixed probability of false alarm (Neyman-Pearson criterion), provided the input noise is described by the Gaussian amplitude distribution.
significance in nonTherefore the pursuit of large signal-to-noise ratios as an end in itself is not appropriate unless the receiver is linear. Alternative criteria that might be employed are the signal-to-noise energy ratio (E/N or the information
linear systems.
)
If the signal-to-noise ratio is increased by nonlinear devices in the receiver, the detection of weak signals might not be correspondingly increased even though the signal-to-noise ratio is enhanced. Signal-to-noise ratio loses its
(in the
Shannon
information-theory sense) contained in the signal. 20

9.3.
21
Correlation Detection 22
31
Receiver. The cross-correlation function is a measure of the coherence between two waveforms v (t) and v (t). A cross-correlation x function is the 2 long-time average of the product of two functions and may be defined as
Cross-correlation
c n(Tr)
c i2(Tr )
=J^
v^v^t
r)
dt
aperiodic function
(9.29a)
lim
T-oo
11 J-T
v x (t)v 2 (t
-T
r)
dt
random function
(9.29ft)
Sec. 9.3]
419
In radar, Tr is the time taken by the wave in traveling out to equal to 2R\c, where R is the range and c is the velocity of Although v 2 (t), Eq. (9.29) is the autocorrelation function Cu {Tr ). When ^(0 light. and the duration, finite are of waveforms oo, practical oo from to extend the limits
where
Tr is a time delay.
and
the target and back
is
Tr) will be zero outside a finite region. product of v x (t) and v^t The principle of the cross-correlation function may be used as a basis for radar For example, consider ^(0 to be the input waveform to the receiver receiver design. noise n{t). The frequency and (t), where yjit) consists of a pulse of sine wave 5(0 plus y The correlation receiver known. duration of the sine-wave pulse are assumed to be determines the range R also It present. is waveform determines whether or not the pulse is random and the accompanies that waveform noise the Since T delay (time ).
t
Received signal
/,U)
>'
Mixer
(multiplier)
Low- pass
filter
-Output
(integrator)
Stored
replica
Delay
7(77
{t-T r
Fig. 9.7. Block diagram of a cross-correlation receiver.
unknown to
function the receiver, the cross-correlation rather than the autocorrelation The reference waveform v 2 (t) stored in the receiver is a pulse of of noise). The receiver sine wave similar to the expected signal 5(0 (in the absence If the magnitude of of T values various r computes the cross-correlation function for target is said to be a T value of some for threshold r predetermined C12 (Tr) exceeds a
must be computed.
cTjl. detected at a range R display might be described as performing a cross An operator viewing a He stores in his memory an correlation in the process of recognizing a target signal. In wishes to find on the scope. he target the to corresponds that display image of the different position on the face fact, he has a multitude of images, each corresponding to a and the various of the scope. The expected image corresponds to the form of 5(0, similar image reasonably If T a parameter the to correspond r positions on the scope target. appears on the scope, it is recognized by the operator and identified as a
CRT
a basic concept in the detection of signals in noise. between the matched-filter receiver and the crossMathematically, the matched filter performs a correlation function was described. the transmitted signal cross correlation between the received signal and a replica of filter. matched of the stored in the frequency-response function input signal cross-correlation receiver may be obtained directly by multiplying the Tr ) and averaging as indicated y{t) by a delayed replica of the transmitted signal s(t Tr) is averaged in a The product of>,(0 and s ( ( in the block diagram of Fig. 9.7. for the fixed time Tr function cross-correlation the is output filter low-pass filter. The an approxiBecause the low-pass filter is not a perfect integrator, the output is only approximation good usually a is it However, mation to the cross-correlation function. The block diagram of Fig. 9.7 tests for the presence of a target for most applications. Targets at other ranges might be found by varying the at only a single time delay. However, this requires a longer search time. If the search time is to be kept delay Tr necessary instead of a single timeto a minimum, additional parallel channels may be contain a delay line corresponding to would channel additional Each channel. shared filter. low-pass and the particular value of Tr along with its multiplier
The process of cross
correlation
is
In the previous section, the similarity
420
It

was assumed above
[Sec. 9.3
that the frequency of the received signal was known; that is, the transmitted pulse suffered no doppler shift in frequency, or if it did, the amount of shift was presumed known. When the frequency of the echo signal is unknown, a number of correlation receivers must be paralleled to cover the band of frequencies'in which the echo is expected. The reference signals s(t Tr) of each receiver are at different frequencies. The total number of parallel correlation receivers required
will
depend upon the

is
total
doppler frequency
inherent in the echo. The latter required with the matched-filter receiver,
Delay line Input o-
and the amount of frequency resolution depends upon the pulse width. A similar procedure
shift
when the echo-signal frequency is not known
CD
Multiplier
Multiplier
Low-pass
filter
Low-pass
filter
h_
Data processor
Output
Fig. 9.8. Block diagram of an autocorrelation receiver.
(After Rue/nick J. Appl. Phys.)
The receiver of Fig.

It
may sometimes
9.7 computes the cross-correlation function in an analog fashion. be of advantage to compute the cross-correlation function using
To compute digitally, the two waveforms v^t) and v2 (t) are sampled of time. The intervals are spaced far enough apart for successive sampled values to be independent. Thus, for v-Sf), there will be generated a series of sample voltages a lt a 2 Qj ..., and similarly for v 2 (t), there will be obtained b u b2 ,...,bt The displacement between v^t) and v2 (t) in the analog case is represented by the continuous time delay T but in the sampled-value case the displacement r is represented by a shift of & sampled points, where Tr kd, and tf is the time between sample intervals. The cross-correlation function for n sampled values is denned as
digital techniques.
at regular intervals
QzW = lim
n-*a>
- 2A+ifc
Tl
"
***
i
=l
2 ajbj+k N j=l
(9.30)
where
is
finite,
but large, number of observations.
Descriptions of a digital
doppler measurements associated with periodic waveforms. A broadband noise waveform can be more readily generated than many other types of complicated waveforms. Furthermore, a noise waveform has some advantage in an environment of electronic countermeasures since it is more difficult for an enemy to recognize a noise signal than one with repetitive characteristics.
" electronic correlator based on Eq. (9.30) may be found in the literature. 23 26 It is also possible to program a general-purpose digital computer to perform the cross correlation. The cross-correlation technique is well suited for use with a noise waveform. radar transmitting this type of signal does not have the problem of ambiguous range or
Sec. 9.3]
421
altimNoise modulations and correlation detection have been considered for radar The use of a noise waveform results in an altimeter free from the ambiguities altimeter inherent in periodically modulated systems and avoids the "fixed error." An feet and few a down to distances measuring of capable be should based on this principle altimeter. 27 FM conventional than a complex more no be to claimed is used as the Autocorrelation Receiver. The autocorrelation function can also be
eters.
basis for receiver design for certain classes of signals.
An
autocorrelation receiver
MT
r)
Fig. 9.9. Autocorrelation function of sinusoid plus to noise. {After Lee et a/.,** Proc. IRE.)
random
noise.
Dashed curve
is
component due
28 input signal described by Rudnick is shown in Fig. 9.8. Instead of multiplying the with with a stored replica of the transmitted signal, the received signal is multiplied data output the presents processor" The box labeled "data itself delayed in time. autoThe application. particular the to suited form from the many channels in a and processing correlation function could also be obtained by using sampled values
the data digitally as described for cross correlation.
JL
Time
U)
w_Tn A
16)
/V.
shown
in (a).
is
Fig. 9.10. Autocorrelation function (6) of video pulse train
The autocorrelation principle is probably not as
useful for radar receiver design as
the received signal is not the cross-correlation principle. Although a knowledge of pay for this privilege is must one penalty the receiver, necessary in the autocorrelation
poorer detection capability than with the cross-correlation receiver. The type of autocorrelation receiver described above is a compromise necessitated by If the noise waveform could be predicted the lack of knowledge of the noise waveform. signal with (which it cannot), the optimum correlation receiver would mix the received
receiver. the stored reference signal just as described for the cross-correlation Figure and 9.10. Figs. 9.9 in shown are functions autocorrelation Some examples of infinite duration plus random of sinusoid a of function autocorrelation the depicts 9.9 The dotted curve is the component due to noise. The autocorrelation function
noise.
for a train of video pulses is in Fig. 9.10. receiver Comparison of Correlation Detection and Filtering. The cross-correlation comparison receiver. autocorrelation is, as mentioned above, more efficient than the
422
[Sec. 9.4
of the two correlation processes for the detection of a sine wave in random noise is shown in Fig. 9.11. This is a plot of the output signal-to-noise ratio vs. the input signal-to-noise ratio as computed with a digital electronic correlator using 60,000 sample values. 24 For large signal-to-noise ratios there is little difference between the two, but at low signal-to-noise ratios cross correlation is vastly superior to autocorrelation. The reason for the superiority of the cross-correlation receiver at low
signal-to-noise ratios is that it uses a noise-free reference signal. The "reference signal" in the autocorrelation receiver becomes noisy as the input signal-to-noise ratio decreases, and the input signal is heterodyned with considerable noise and little signal.
-5
-)0 -15
-20 -25 -30 -35 -40
Input signal-to-noise ratio, db
Fig. 9.11. Signal-to-noise ratio improvement with autocorrelation and cross correlation for a sine in random noise. Number of samples used in computation 60,000. (After Lee et al'' 21 J Proc. IRE.)
wave
Correlation detection is not necessarily superior to conventional filtering in the frequency domain. 29 " 31 In fact, it was shown that a receiver designed as a matched
filter
is
theoretically equivalent to
difference between correlation
necessary to
the cross-correlation receiver. The practical and matched-filter detection is in the type of equipment implement each. In some applications it might be easier to design and
build a matched-filter receiver, while in other applications the cross-correlation receiver might be easier. For example, if long integration times (perhaps of the order of minutes) are required to extract very weak signals, it is usually easier to accomplish this with digital correlation techniques than with an analog matched filter. In most other applications, the matched filter is generally used. However, the performance of the two receivers is equivalent if they are both properly designed and engineered. An important and interesting application of correlation detection occurred in the processing of the first radar echoes to be obtained from the planet Venus. The transmission consisted of a train of pulses approximately 5 min in duration. Correlation was the only practical method available for processing a signal of such duration
(Sec.
9.4.
Detection Criteria
The detection of weak signals in the presence of noise is equivalent to deciding whether the receiver output is due to noise alone or to signal-plus-noise. This is the type of decision probably made (subconsciously) by a human operator on the basis of the information presented at the radar indicator. When the detection
process
is
Sec 9A]
carried out automatically
423
an operator the by electronic means without the aid of and bu.lt specified carefully be and must detectn criterion cannot ta left to chance designer. radar into the decision-making device by the A t finn was described in terms of threshold detection. In Chap. 2 the radar detection process of a receiver output the upon comparing Almost all radar detection decisions are based a preexceeds output receiver the envelope of with some threshold level. If the the thre hold oT purpose The present. be to Tstablished threshold, a signal is said or in other of no detection and a region of detection to divide the output into a region One hypotheses. of two one between words the threshold detector allows a choice is that the output is other the alone noise to hypothesis is that the receiver output is due Chap. 2 that the dividing line between these due to signal-plus-noise. It was shown in of a false alarm, which in turn is related to two regions depended upon the probability the average time between false alarms. made in the decision process. These are There are two types of errors that might be
One kind of in the presence of noise. unavoidable with observations of finite duration whenever occurs This present. is only noise error is to mistake noise for signal when detection^theory statistical In level. threshold e noise is large enough to exceed the The radar engineer would call it a false alarm. A I error. it is sometimes called a type erroneously considered to be noise when signal type II error is one in which the signal is The setting of the This is a missed detection to the radar engineer. is actually present. A relatively types of errors. two these between compromise threshold represents a will be more there but alarm, of a false large threshold will reduce the probability extent large a to influence will application missed detections. The nature of the radar the threshold. of setting the therefore, and, errors the relative importance of these two in Chap. 2 so as not to Neyman-Pearson Observer. The threshold level was selected of detection was probability is, the exceed a specified false-alarm probability; that to fixing he equivalent is This alarm. of false
maximized for a
fixed probability
probability of a type I error
and minimizing the type
II error.
It is similar to
the
Neyman-Pearson
Therefore this terms it is claimed to be a uniformly mos a Nevman-Pearson Observer. In statistical what the a priori probabilities of signal matter no one, optimum powerful test and is an and is 32 Neyman-Pearson criterion is well suited for radar application
statistical hypothesis.
-
the validity of a specified test used in statistics for determining is sometimes called detector 19 32 threshold type of
and
noise.
The
not. often used in practice, whether knowingly or is not the only one which might Neyman-Pearson of criterion The Ideal Observer. the first mathematical criteria applied be used for establishing a threshold level. One of as formulated by Siegert. Observer Ideal to the theory of radar detection was the criterion is the ideal criterion.) this that imply necessarily (The term "Ideal" does not probability of a correct decision The criterion of the Ideal Observer maximizes the total the two ways in which an error Since error). (or minimizes the total probability of an the probability of an error is detection, missed might be made are (1) false alarm and (2)
.
P(E)
= P(N)P + P(SN)Pm
fa
(9-3 1)
where P(N) and P(SN)

fa
a priori probabilities of obtaining noise and

noise, respectively [P(N)
signal-plus-
+ P(SN) =
1]
P = Pm
The
t
that noise conditional probability of a false alarm, given
is
=
is
present that signal is conditional probability of a miss,f given references for mathematical in used often are present (a, P
.
Pfa and P m)
a priori probability
probability
is 1
noise alone or signalthe probability of obtaining either

probability.
The miss
minus the detection
424
better. I he Neyman-Pearson criterion seems more suited for radar, while the Ideal Observer criterion might be better suited to communications applications where a missed symbol is as bad as a false symbol due to noise. The Ideal Observer applies equal weight to an error due to a false alarm and to an error due to a miss However there may be cases in which equal weight is not appropriate (Bayes criterion) If the errors are not of equal importance, the theory of the Ideal Observer may be modified to take this into account using the concepts of statistical decision theory 19 M -36
>
[Sec 9 4 plus-noise before the detection decision is made. These probabilities must be known beforehand in the Ideal Observer. T1 f ISe " aIarn r0babiIity depends u P n the miss Probability in the case of the TH ?n K lP Ideal Observer This is unlike the Neyman-Pearson Observer in Which Pfa was fixed The function of the Ideal Observer is to minimize the total probability of eTroi It' accomphshes this by adjusting the threshold, which in turn affects both the false aiarm The dependence of the two errors upon one another P y b abllltl eS is f imita t f * lon of the Weal Observer as a radar detection criterion. ! 32 ddleton" states that when the probability of false alarm is 0.05, the probability of detection is 0.90. false-alarm probability of 0.05 is usually high for most rada applications. Radar false-alarm probabilities are rarely greater than 10-* Low values of false-alarm probability with the Ideal Observer require extremely large values of detection probabilities. For example, a false-alarm probability of 10"* corresponds to a detection probability of 0.99998. Thus the privilege of minimizing the totaferro ' the target. Ve detec Therefore, from a practical point of vLw he",!' , nv the deal Observer is \ less efficient than the Neyman-Pearson Observer for most radar applications. It is also more difficult to implement since the threshold level is not fixed The above appraisal of the Ideal and the Neyman-Pearson Observers was weighted in favor of the latter since the criterion under which the comparison was made was that of maximizing the detection probability. By definition, the Neyman-Pearson Observer should be the more efficient of the two under such circumstances. However if the criterion were that of minimizing the total error, the Ideal Observer would prove to be
SSS ? M
nrlahwT
-.
fortunately, in
t0 a
most radar applications there is no

'
Un-
hrnTd
a value to alarm COnse<l uentl y> the use fu]ness of decision theory in radar is
realistic basis for assigning
The Sequential Observer fixes the probability of errors beforehand but allows the integration time (or the number of observations) to be a variable. Two threshold levels are established with a gray region in between. If the output is definitely below the
tions that occur once the threshold has been crossed. Hence there may be some advantage to using a flexible detection criterion which takes account of this fact Such a detection criterion is the Sequential Observer.,,- The Sequential Observer makes an observation of the receiver output and, on the basis of this single observation decides between one of three choices: (1) the receiver output is due to the presence of signal with noise; (2) the output is due to noise alone; or (3) the available evidence is not convincing enough to make a decision between choices 1 and 2. If the evidence is sufficient to allow a choice to be made between signal-plus-noise (1) and noise alone (2) the test is completed. But if choice 3 is indicated, no conclusive decision can be reached and another observation is made. The three choices are again examined on the basis of the combined observatfons. If no decision is reached as to the presence of signal or the presence of noise, another observation is made, and the process is repeated until the evidence is convincing enough to make a definite conclusion
Sequential Observer. Both the Neyman-Pearson Observer and the Ideal Observer assume that the integration time (or number of pulses observed) is fixed However the detection decision might very well be made on the basis of only a few observations or possibly a single observation, and it would not be necessary to record the later observa-
Sec. 9.4]
425
lower threshold, noise alone is said to be present. If the upper threshold is exceeded, But if the output lies between the signal is declared to be present along with the noise. is made. observation another and possible is the two thresholds, no decision computes the which receiver by a carried out should be test sequential the theory, In The likelihood ratio is discussed later in this section, but for likelihood ratio L (v).
r
for present purposes it may be defined as the ratio of the probability-density function is a measure of alone. It noise for function probability-density the to signal-plus-noise how likely it is that the receiver envelope v results from signal-plus-noise as compared signal is with noise alone. The larger the likelihood ratio, the more likely it is that the three the define These ratio. likelihood the applied to are Two thresholds present.
determined regions of acceptance, rejection, and no decision. The two thresholds are The upper threshby the false-alarm probability P[a and the detection probability PD Pfa )PD)I(\ (1 PDIPt& and the lower threshold by Lv) old is given by L r (v) in terms of considered best be may Observer Sequential of the theory the Although be considered in more the likelihood ratio, the implementation of the sequential test can 19 a matched filter is as designed receiver that a It can be shown practical terms. the output of Therefore ratio. likelihood the computes which receiver equivalent to a ratio of the input. a matched-filter receiver can be calibrated to read the likelihood Neymansavings obtained with the Sequential Observer as compared with the
.
The
and Pearson Observer may be calculated using the methods described by Bussgang in the average 37 reduction significant permits a Observer Sequential The Middleton. number of samples (pulses) needed for making a decision. The improvement depends upon whether a signal is present or not. If a signal is present, the average number of greater than samples (or observations) required for making a decision is significantly when noise alone is present. The Sequential Observer makes a relatively prompt
when only noise is present. The average savings also depend upon whether detection is performed coherently or and noncoherently. Assuming coherent detection (pulses integrated predetection) average, 8 the on determine, able to is Pd = 0.90 and P a = 10~ the Sequential Observer of observations required that noise alone is present with less than one-tenth the number 40 of a threshold signal, the presence the In Observer. Pearson Neymanfor the number of observations the one-half Sequential Observer requires, on the average, about
decision
f
,
10" 8 0.90 and Pi& of the equivalent fixed-sample observer. Again assuming PD postdetection) requires only a noncoherent Sequential Observer (pulses integrated When signal one-fourteenth the number of observations when only noise is present. as with an needed are observations of is present, approximately one-half the number Observer. equivalent Neyman-Pearson The greater the saving between the Sequential Observer and the conventional with greater will be the variance in the number of observations required
,
observer, the the Sequential Observer.

little
difference between a sequential
ton 37 state
were small, there would be little saving and and a nonsequential test. Bussgang and Middlethe average size that the dispersion might typically be about 50 per cent of
If the variance
when Pfn = 10- 5 = Pm D average The advantage of the Sequential Observer is that it is never less effective on the 32 it criterion detection As a than the corresponding fixed integration time procedures.
.
.
=l-P
Neyman-Pearson Observer since the latter can be regarded as a special Observer, in which the test terminates after exactly n observations. Sequential case of the The Sequential Observer reason It is also superior to the Ideal Observer for the same can result in considerapplicable when and criterion is a very efficient decision-making Wald 41 and has been developed by originally was testing Sequential savings. able considerable permitted has application widely used in industry for quality control. Its products. manufactured of inspection savings in cost and time for the
is
better than the
426
[S ec
9.4
Unfortunately, the application of the Sequential Observer to radar is limited. At any particular antenna position a radar normally observes many range resolution
perhaps several hundred. At each range interval within the beamwidth of the antenna a decision has to be made concerning the presence or absence of a target before the antenna beam can be positioned to a new direction. Therefore the dwell time in any direction is determined not by the average number of observations made by each sequential detector, but by that range interval which requires the largest number of observations. This can result in relatively long dwell times, and it is possible for the savings obtained with the Sequential Observer to be negated. The required dwell time might be even longer than that of the fixed sample-number Neyman-Pearson
intervals,
Observer
range interval ensures, to a high degreeof probability, a decision at other range intervals (For example, if the decision is made that a target is not present in the range interval corresponding to the longest range and therefore the weakest signal, it might be justified in assuming that the signal is also not present in those intervals corresponding to shorter ranges where the signal-to-noise ratio is higher because of the inverse-fourth-power law ) Because of the need for a variable observation time, the Sequential Observer is more difficult to implement in a radar than the Neyman-Pearson Observer even when it is applicable. The radar using the Sequential Observer must employ an antenna such as an electronically scanned array which can be readily and quickly positioned upon command from the decision-making units. Likelihood Ratio. The various detection criteria discussed above may be described in terms of the likelihood ratio} 9 The likelihood ratio is an important statistical tool and may be defined as the ratio of the probability-density function corresponding to signal-plus-noise, p sn {v), to the probability-density function of noise alone, p n {v).
had from the Sequential Observer in radar, only one independent decision per antenna beam position should be made. Possible examples where the significant gains to be had with the Sequential Observer might be exploited include (1) applications where only one, or at most a few, range intervals are under surveillance (as with a "guard-band" radar whose function is to detect only those targets that penetrate a predetermined range interval about the radar); (2) applications where range information is not needed and the transmitted waveform can be a long pulse perhaps of the order of half the pulse-repetition interval or (3) applications where a decision at one
If full benefit
is
to be
r(p >
77
(9.32)
It is
a measure of how likely

If the
it is
as
compared with noise
alone.
It is
which computes the cross-correlation function or to one with a matched-filter is, one which maximizes the output signal-to-noise ratio The Neyman-Pearson Observer is equivalent to examining the likelihood ratio and determining if L&) > K, where K is a real, nonnegative number dependent upon the probability of false alarm selected.
receiver
characteristic, that
likelihood ratio L r (v) is sufficiently large, it would be reasonable to conclude that the signal was indeed present. Thus detection may be accomplished by establishing a threshold at the output of a receiver which computes the likelihood ratio The selection of the proper threshold level will depend upon the statistical detection cn e n n USed and by the probabilities of error desired and their relative importance l The likelihood ratio is primarily useful in the analysis of the statistical-detection problem. It is difficult to conceive, however, of a receiver that computes the likelihood ratio directly as defined by Eq. (9.32). However, Peterson, Birdsall, and Fox" show that, in certain cases, the receiver which computes the likelihood ratio is equivalent to
,
input.
that the receiver envelope v is due to signal-plus-noise a random variable and depends upon the receiver
S EC
9.5]
427
The
Ideal Observer criterion requires that the likelihood ratio
Lr(v) >
p^ =
P(N)
constant
where P(N) and P(SN) are the a priori probabilities of noise alone and signal-plus-noise. When using the Sequential Observer criterion, the wth-stage likelihood ratio, L r (v n), signal is detected if L r (v J > K and is is compared with two thresholds such that the of miss and absent if L r (v n ) < K2 where Kx and K2 are determined from the probability and insufficient is evidence the K If K < L {v ) < probability of false alarm. x
,
the
another observation is made. Other detection criteria such as minimum information loss, or those criteria based One of on inverse probability, can also be expressed in terms of the likelihood ratio. criterion is that a Neyman-Pearson the and ratio the advantages of the likelihood where it knowledge of a priori probabilities is not required. There are many instances Use of the likelihood ratio, probabilities. is not possible to compute the a priori probability however, does not permit the computation of the over-all expected loss or the of error since a priori information is needed for this. The theory of inverse probability has also been extensively applied to radar detection a This will be discussed in the next section. Inverse probability requires theory. of a specification the applications radar most In probabilities. knowledge of a priori When the a priori probability is a constant, priori probability is not too meaningful. of the likelihood ratio. the inverse-probability formulation reduces to the formulation
the likelihood ratio is In summary, it may be said that the receiver which computes theory unless statistical-detection of view of point the from receiver the optimum of the various receiver any With a likelihood specific a priori probabilities are given. levels. threshold the of selection proper detection criteria can be implemented by
9.5. Inverse Probability
direct probadetection criteria discussed thus far were based on the concept of on a given happening an event of chance the describes direct probability bilities. will detect a certain radar particular that a probability the example, For hypothesis. On the other hand, if the target under specified conditions is a direct probability. of the cause of the estimate best the forming of event actually happened, the problem in question to event the assume example, For probability. inverse in event is a problem voltage, it is of this obtaining be the output voltage v from a radar receiver. Upon presence the in signal by noise or by caused interest to determine whether the output was event probabilities of obtaining noise and signal-plus-noise before the
The
of noise.
The
They represent the initial state of knowledge takes place are the a priori probabilities. caused by noise concerning the event. The probability that the receiver output v was state of knowlthe represents and probability posteriori a or by signal-plus-noise is an
edge obtained as a result of observing the output. probabilities The method of inverse probability involves the use of the a priori The event. the explain could which hypotheses possible associated with each of the event, to compute the a the of knowledge a with along used, are probabilities a priori A separate a posteriori probability is computed for each
posteriori probabilities.
hypothesis.
selected as the
is That hypothesis which results in the largest a posteriori probability most likely to explain the event. the reception of signals in This method has been applied by Woodward and Davies to
noise. 42 44
causes.
45
It is
The joint
of based upon the application of Bayes' rule for the probability probability of two events x and y is
P (x,y)
= p{x)p(y
x)
= p{y)p{x
y)
(9.33)
428
[Sec. 9.5
where p(x) and p(y) P(y x)

|
probabilities of events x and y, respectively = conditional probability that event y will occur,
event
given that
x has occured
P(x \y)
Let the event x
input,
which may consist of either signal-plus-noise or noise alone.

,
= conditional probability of event x given that y has occurred = SN represent signal-plus-noise, and let the event y be the receiver
Equation (9.33)
P( sN\ y)
may
be rewritten as
=pmpiylsm
p(y) This is Bayes' rule. It expresses the (a posteriori) probability that the signal is present, given that the receiver input is y. receiver which computes the a posteriori probability eliminates unwanted information and extracts as much information as is possible
from the waveform. 42 The receiver input y may be either signal-plus-noise or noise alone. probability of the event/ may be expressed as
Piy)
Therefore the
= P(y
v)
SN)p(SN)
+ p(y
N)p(N)
(9.35)
The a
posteriori probability
becomes
P(SN
Equation (9.36)
=
p(y
|
P(SN) P (y\SN)
SN)p(SN)
+ p(y
N)p(N)
'
may be
expressed in terms of the likelihood ratio 46
LAy)
~ =
p(SN\y)
Therefore,
if
P (y\N) L r(y)p(SN) L r (y) P (SN) + 1 - p(SN)
(9.37)
a receiver can be built which computes the likelihood ratio and if the a p(SN) is known, the a posteriori probability can be calculated. Since p(SN\y) is a monotonic function of L r (y), the output of the likelihood receiver (or the matched-filter receiver) can be calibrated directly in terms of the a posteriori
priori probability
probability.
For a particular input y, the receiver can assess from Eq. (9.36) the probability that a particular signal was received. Since/ will then be fixed, the denominator of Eq. (9.36),
which
is
simply p(y), will be constant and the a posteriori probability
is
p(SN
|
y)
= kp(SN)p(y
SN)
(9.38)
determined by the normalizing condition; that is, the integral of p(SN y) over all possible values must be unity. Therefore, if the a priori probability p(SN) is known, the a posteriori probability may be found directly from Eq. (9.38) once p(y SN) has been evaluated. If the received waveform y{t) as a function of time consists of the signal waveform s (t) plus the white Gaussian noise waveform y{t) s t (t), Woodward and Davies 43 show that "(0
is
| |
where the constant k
p{y
SN)
= p n \n{tj] = /^[XO -
s(r)] gc
exp
L
L
N
J
(t)
dt
(9.39)
where p n [n(t)]
N = mean noise power per unit bandwidth (dimensions of energy)

a posteriori probability for the signal s (t) becomes t
probability-density function for noise
waveform
n(t)
With
this substitution, the
p(SN
|
y)
kp(SN) exp (- i- f
y
jo
^(O -
s t (t)f
dt\
)
(9.40)
gEC
9.5]
429
The integral in this expression is a definite one, with limits defined by the duration of the
observation time (0 -
T^).
forms the basis of the technique used by Woodward and Davies for is caused by white the analysis of radar reception problems when the interference Except for the a p(SN normalize to y). chosen k is constant The noise. Gaussian probable waveform $,(*) priori weighting factor p(SN), Eq. (9.40) shows that the most
Equation
(9.40)
is
waveform y{t). the one which has the least-mean-square deviation from the received accomplished by computing be might probability posteriori the a of The computation and the various the cross-correlation function between the actual received waveform Expanding the integral in Eq. (9.40), we possible waveforms that might be received.
f|>(0
Si
(t)f dt
= jy\t) dt -
2Jy(t)sJit) dt
+ J s%t) dt
(9.41
Upon reception, the waveform y(t) is known, so
that the first integral on the right-hand The last in the constant k. absorbed be can and constant side of the equation is The is a constant. integral is the energy E contained within the signal s t {t) and also written can be probability second integral is not a constant. The a posteriori
p(SN
where the
first
y)
kp(SN) exp
-M k'MO dt
LJV n Jo
(9.42)
Therethird integrals of Eq. (9.41) are absorbed in the constant k. of the computation the constant, considered p(SN) can be fore, if the a priori probability the signal by signal y(t) received the multiplying equivalent to is probability a posteriori waveform st (t) and integrating with respect to time. This is the same process perby the cross-correlation receiver (Sec. 9.3) and is equivalent to the operation of
and
formed a matched
filter
(Sec. 9.2).
Tr), where Tr IRjc, the unknown In radar reception the signal waveform is sfc time delay to and from a target at a range R, and c is the velocity of propagation. The all a posteriori probability of detecting the echo signal if it is present is an integral over possible values of delay and is given by
p(SN
|
y)
kjp(SN,Tr) exp [j- j y(t) Si (t
-T
r)
dt
dTr
(9.43)
is
at any range; rather, one is not usually interested in whether a target is present The a interested in the probability that the target is at some particular range. is cT crange R partiular a j2 is at R posteriori probability that the target
But one
=
)
P(TB
y)
kp(TR) exp |j-
j y(t)
Si (t
- TR
dt]
(9.44)
merely gives This a posteriori probability does not involve the concept of detection. It if a target echo exists. time T delayed a be will echo the target that R probability the receiver and the inverse- (or It has already been pointed out that the likelihood-ratio The a posteriori extent. some to another one a posteriori) probability receiver resemble noise is shown Gaussian white of presence the in signal known exactly for an probability
by Davies 44
to be
p(SN
The
y)
kp(SN) exp
E - +
y(t) Si (t) dt
(9.45)
likelihood ratio for the

19
same case (which might correspond
to a coherent radar)
is
given by
LJy)
exp
F -V + 77 U0*W*
2
f
(9.46)
430
[Sec. 9.6
exists
The similarity between the likelihood ratio and the a posteriori probability also when the signal parameters (phase, time delay, etc.) are not completely known.
The
chief difference between the two representations is that the concept of inverse probability requires a knowledge of the a priori probabilities whereas the likelihood ratio does
not.
made
and
(The likelihood ratio can be derived from inverse probability if the assumption is that the a priori probabilities are equally likely.) Both the a posteriori method the likelihood method may be implemented by computing the cross-correlation
function between the received signal and the signal s f (t). limitation of the method of inverse probability based on the application of Bayes' rule is the difficulty of specifying the a priori probabilities. In most cases of practical interest, one is ignorant of the a priori probabilities. For example, it would be necessary to specify the a priori probability of finding a target at any particular range at any particular time. This is an almost impossible task. In the absence of better data, it
might be assumed that all range intervals are equally probable a priori, and the a priori may be considered to be constant. However, such an assumption applied blindly to computations involving inverse probability can sometimes lead to erroneous and contradictory conclusions. 45 This difficulty in specifying the a priori probability was recognized by Woodward and Davies. 42 They suggest, however, that the a priori factor be omitted from the inverse-probability specification when it is doubtful, and in practice it may be supplied subjectively by the human observer. This merely begs the question, for it has not been proved that an operator can supply the necessary a priori probability, and in addition, there are many applications where no operator is involved in making the detection decision. Nevertheless, it may be stated that whenever the a priori probabilities are known, the inverse-probability method may be used with confidence. When the a priori probabilities are not known, the likelihood-ratio test is usually employed. In closing this topic it should be mentioned that one of the important by-products of the work of Woodward and Davies is their reemphasis of the fact that the signal-to-noise power ratio is not as fundamental a description of radar detection performance as is the
probability
signal-to-noise energy ratio
9.6.
E/N
Detector Characteristics
The portion of the radar receiver which extracts the modulation from the carrier is called the detector. The use of this term implies somewhat more than simply a rectifying element. It includes that portion of the radar receiver from the output of the IF
amplifier to the input of the indicator or data processor. shall not be concerned about the problem of amplification, although it is an important aspect of receiver design. Instead, we shall be more interested in the effect of the detector on the desired signal and
We
the noise.
One form of detector

signal
on the
basis of the amplitude of the carrier envelope.
destroyed.
It is
the envelope detector, which recognizes the presence of the All phase information is also possible to design a detector which utilizes only phase information
is
for recognizing targets. An example is one which counts the zero crossings of the received waveform. The zero-crossings detector destroys amplitude information. If
the exact phase of the echo carrier were known, it would be possible to design a detector which makes optimum use of both the phase information and the amplitude information contained in the echo signal, It would perform more efficiently than a detector which used either amplitude information only or phase information only. The coherent detector is an example of one which uses both phase and amplitude. These three types of detectors the envelope, the zero-crossings, and the coherent detectors are
considered in the present section. Envelope Detector Optimum-detector Law.
The function of the envelope detector
Sec. 9.6]
is

.
431
By eliminating the carrier, all phase to extract the modulation and reject the carrier. information is lost and the detection decision is based solely on the envelope amplitude. on It will be recalled that most of the analysis of the radar equation in Chap. 2 was based the envelope detector. The envelope detector consists of a rectifying element and a low-pass filter to pass the modulation frequencies but to remove the carrier frequency. The rectifier characMost teristic relates the output signal to the input signal and is called the detector law. linear In the characteristic. or square-law linear a either a detector laws approximate (Actually, detector the output signal is directly proportional to the input envelope. the so-called linear detector is a nonlinear device, or else it would not be a detector.) Similarly, in the square-law detector, the output signal is proportional to the square
of the input envelope. In some of the quoted mathematical results, the linear-detector law is assumed, while in others, the square law is assumed. In general, the difference between the two is small and the detector law in any analysis is usually chosen for mathematical convenience. When we speak of a detector law we really mean the combined law of the detector and video integrator, if one is used. If the detector were linear while the video integrator had a square-law characteristic, the combination of detector and integrator would be considered square law. In the following we shall derive the optimum form of the second-detector law. This was first shown by Marcum47 in an unpublished report, but it has been repeated by 48 The derivation presented here is based on the work others in the published literature. of
Marcum and
uses the likelihood-ratio criterion.

, ,
. . .
vn Assume that there are n independent pulses with envelope amplitudes vx v 2 The problem consists in determining whether these available from the radar receiver. n pulses are due to signal-plus-noise or whether they are due to noise alone. The
,
probability-density function for the envelope of n independent noise samples product of the probability-density function for each sample, or
is
the
PnM =TL
4
Pn(v t )
(9-47)
=1
The
probability-density function for /th noise pulse
p n {v )
t
is
given by Eq. (2.21),
rewritten
P B (i>,)
where
= t>,exp(-^
R
(2.21)
Likewise, to the rms noise voltage y>\. v t is the ratio of the envelope amplitude pulses is signal-plus-noise of envelope n function for the probability-density the
Ps (vd PsM = II =
i
(9.48)
The
probability-density function for signal-plus-noise, p s (v t),
is
P,(v,)
vi
ex P
(V?
2 )"
/(<)
(2
27 >
where a
amplitude to rms noise voltage zero order function of modified Bessel 7 (jc) The detection process is equivalent to determining which of the two density functions [Eq. (9.47) or (9.48)] more closely describes the output of the receiver. The ratio of the density function for signal-plus-noise to that for noise alone is called It may be used to decide whether or not the signal is the likelihood ratio (Sec. 9.4).
ratio of signal (sine-wave)
= =
present.
The
greater the likelihood ratio, the
more probable
it is
that the receiver
432
[Sec. 9.6
input is due to signal-plus-noise rather than noise alone. The likelihood ratio, or any other monotonic function of this ratio, must exceed a predetermined threshold value in order to declare that the signal is present. The selection of the threshold will depend upon the probability of false alarm. The likelihood ratio [Eq. (9.48) divided by (9.47)]
is
Lr(v)
=^
TI
vt
exp [-(of
;
a )l2]U<">d
exp
a -
.v
n, exp (-of/2)
i
TI 2/i=1
IJav,)
>
(9.49)
=l
where X is the constant which depends on the false-alarm probability. logarithm gives
Taking the
2 In Iâv,) > In X + n
=i
(9.50)
This states that for

v t (where
is
/
optimum processing one should

. .
take the pulses, each of amplitude

n
In h iav 2 =
l
i)-
2,
,n),
and sum them according to the law

j
This
sum
compared with a threshold as given by the right-hand side of Eq. (9.50). the combined detector and integrator must have a law given by
Therefore
j
where y
a
= In 7
(at>)
(9.51)
= output voltage of detector and integrator = amplitude of sine-wave signal divided by rms noise voltage v = amplitude of IF voltage envelope divided by rms noise voltage ô(x) = modified Bessel function of zero order
For
av
This equation specifies the form of the detector law which maximizes the likelihood
ratio for a fixed probability of false alarm.
large signal-to-noise ratios (a
>
1),
the modified Bessel function
may be approximated by
I Q (av)
-^
is
(9.52)
and the optimum detector
characteristic
e
av
i
approximately
y a
In
iv av
J In (2ttciv)
<=
av
(9.53)
(2770 v)'
Thus the
linear detector approximates the

is
optimum
In I (av) detector
law when the
signal-to-noise ratio
large.
For small signal-to-noise
ratios the modified Bessel function
may
be expressed as
(9.54)
I (av)
+ ^f + 4
^+
64
OiaV)
than the quadratic can be neglected, the detector characteristic for small signal-to-noise ratios becomes
If all terms higher
In I {av) * In
(9.55)
which
is
the characteristic of a square-law detector.

it may be concluded that for small signal-to-noise ratios the square-law may be a suitable approximation to the optimum In I (av) detector, while for
Hence
detector
large signal-to-noise ratios the linear detector
is
makes
little
difference
which of the two detector laws
more appropriate. In practice, it is used. The difference between
Sec. 9.6]
433
to produce less than one has a choice, the linear range. law might be preferred because of its linearity and, hence, its large dynamic characteristic square-law the approaches law, detector The linear detector, like any
the square-law and the linear detectors was shown by 0.2 db difference in the required signal-to-noise ratio.
Marcum
If
47
for small signal-to-noise ratios.

37 39 49 that it may not always be has been pointed out by several investigators series approximation to the the in quadratic appropriate to ignore terms higher than the
'
It
0.99
\
0.98
0.95 -
i/
/ / /
/
1 1
0.90 -
1
1
\ /
0.80
/ / / / / /
=
/ /
>
"~
0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 -
;/
//
//
i
100
/
/ /
i
i
i
/ / / / /
/
/
/ /
/n = 10
/
i
"
-
0.05 0.02 -
n ni
23456789
i
i
10
Signal-to-noise ratio
per pulse
square-law detector (dashed Fig 9 12 Comparison of the logarithmic detector (solid curves) with the 10 integrated) = 10 and 100. 10" pulses number of for n (the and of probability false-alarm a curves) for Green, The beam-shape loss for a Gaussian antenna pattern has been taken into account. {After
courtesy
IRE Trans.)
Higher-order terms than the square are apparently of Bessel function of Eq. (9.54). importance unless the threshold level is constant, as in the case of the Neyman-Pearson detection criteria detection criterion. The threshold is not constant when weighted In most cases employed. are Observer Sequential the and Observer Ideal the such as
of interest in radar, however, the use of the square term alone is sufficient. logarithm Logarithmic Detector. If the output of the receiver is proportional to the where a application finds It receiver. logarithmic a called it is envelope, of the input For example, it might be used to prevent receiver large dynamic range is required. or to reduce the effects of unwanted clutter targets in certain types of nonsaturation
MTI radar receivers
(Sec. 12.4).
The detection characteristics (probability of detection as a function of the probability for the logaof false alarm, signal-to-noise ratio, and the number of hits integrated) 50 following the methods of Marcum. 47 Green, by computed rithmic receiver have been An example of Green's results is shown in Fig. 9.12. The particular set of parameters curves represent the for which these curves apply is described in the legend. The solid
detector as logarithmic detector, while the dashed curves apply to the square-law computed by Marcum. In both cases it is assumed that the n pulses are equally spaced beam-shape between the half-power points of a Gaussian-shaped antenna pattern. The
loss
included in these curves. while integrated, the loss with the logarithmic receiver is about 0.5 db, there integration) (no pulse one For for 100 pulses integrated, the loss is about 1 .0 db. number the of logarithm the to proportional roughly is The loss (in decibels) is no loss.
is
For 10 pulses

434
[Sec. 9.6
of pulses integrated, at least over the range of parameters for which computations were made (0.01 10" 10 1 Pu n 100). D < 0.99; 10~ 5
<P
<
<
<
<
Zero-crossings Detector. The information contained in the zero crossings of the received waveform can be used for detecting the presence of signals in noise. The particular parameter of interest is the distance between the crossings of the waveform along the zero voltage axis. This distance is related to the instantaneous period or frequency of the waveform. The variations in this distance will depend on whether
signal-plus-noise
is
present or noise alone
is
present.
1.015
Consider, for example, the sine
1.014
1.013
1.012
1.011
1.010
1.009 -\
^ 1.008 -\
1.007
(<z)
1.006
1.005 1.004 1.003

1.002
.1.001
B/^=0.2 \/\y^ - \f
f
1.000
/\^ N^' ^^----__^__^ ii

r
i l
9 10
Signal-to-noise ratio
Fig. 9.13. (a) Sine
time T;
(b) sine
wave with 8 zero crossings in wave and noise with 10 zero
crossings in time T.
Fig. 9.14. Average number of zero crossings per second, n from a rectangular bandpass filter of width/j, centered at/ (After J. S. Bendat, "Principles and Applications of Random Noise Theory" John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
,
.
1958.)
in Fig. 9.13a. Over the interval of time T there are eight zero crossings shown. If the sine wave were perturbed by noise, the average number of zero crossings might be increased. In Fig. 9.136, 10 zero crossings are shown in the time T. In general, the smaller the signal-to-noise ratio, the greater will be the average number of zero crossings If a suitable device is used to measure the average number of zero crossings in a unit interval of time, a target signal is said to be present if this number is less than a predetermined value and absent if this number is exceeded. One method of determining the average zero-crossing rate is with a frequency-counting meter. The average number of zero crossings per second at the output of a narrow-bandpass filter of rectangular shape when the input is a sine wave in Gaussian noise is 51
wave shown
~S/N
2/o
+1 +
S/N
(/l/12/g)l*
(9.56)
where f
=
=
center frequency of filter

filter
fB =
bandwidth
S/N
signal-to-noise (power) ratio
This is plotted in Fig. 9. 14. When the signal is absent (S/N 0), the average number of zero crossings is a maximum. The greater the signal-to-noise ratio, the less will be Also, the greater the bandwidth, the larger the separation between the values of n n
.
for signal-plus-noise
and
for noise alone.
Sec. 9.6]
435
52 . 53
A form of zero-crossing counter is the phase filter of Huggins and Middleton. The output of the phase filter is dependent on the frequency of the input signal but not on its amplitude. A particular design of a phase filter is shown in Fig. 9.15a. It consists of a rectangular bandpass filter of angular bandwidth co B which might, for example, represent the IF amplifier of a superheterodyne receiver. The spectrum of The output of the bandpass filter is signal and noise might appear-as in Fig. 9. 156.
Delay T
i
Input
J
Bandpass
filter
' 1
nt)
Phase comparison
n
Output
(a)
Noise
(6)
ic)
(d)
A particular form of phase filter for superheterodyne applications; (6) frequency spectrum of signal and noise at the output of the bandpass filter; (c) phase shift vs. frequency of a (After signal passing through the delay network; (d) output of phase filter in the absence of noise. Huggins and Middleton, 52 courtesy Natl. Electronics Conf.)
Fig. 9.15. (a)
two channels, one being a straight-through connection and the other a simple 2tt(oj^). Zero phase delay t which provides a linear phase shift of 2-n- radians (t The two channels are shift occurs at the midband, or signal frequency (Fig. 9.15c). recombined in a phase-comparison circuit. The average signal output F in the absence of noise might appear as in Fig. 9A5d. When both signal and noise are present, the
split into
average output of this
filter is
F r
s+x
r( K\--\
l
i
sin
-l 1
\4
2tt
S N N+
I
'
(9.57)
1
436
[Sec. 9.6
is
where
K=
SjN = Thus, when
a constant, determined by circuit parameters, and input signal signal-to-noise (power) ratio
noise only
is
independent of
present,
F=
KjA, but
when
the signal-to-noise ratio
is large,
F approaches K/2.
Another method of displaying zero-crossing information is the periodmeter. 5* In this device the period of each cycle (distance between every other zero crossing) is measured and displayed on a cathode-ray tube as the height of a spot above an arbitary
-* Time
Fig. 9.16. Video pulse and noise
on an A-scope
display.
base
is
line.
The
period, while a time-base voltage
is proportional to the voltage applied to the vertical axis of the is applied to the horizontal axis. When noise alone
CRT
present, the display consists of a periodic succession of dots

is
whose distance from the
a signal is present, the distance between zero crossings is Therescatter of points on the periodmeter display is reduced. fore the nature of the pattern on the scope face indicates whether a signal is present or
random. more uniform and the

base line
When
Input
Frequency-modulated signals can also be recognized on a periodmeter display by the mixer filter characteristic pattern of spots. 'b.00 The techniques described above apply pri>fo,* marily when the signal is examined in the IF Reference portion of the receiver. Similar techniques can oscillator rectangular pulse be applied in the video. in the presence of noise, after passing through Fig. 9.17. Basic configuration of a coherent detector. an envelope detector, might appear as in Fig. Here the presence of the video signal 9.16. pulse causes the noise level on the A-scope to rise above the zero axis, thus reducing the number of zero crossings. For large signal-to-noise ratios the number of zero crossings over the duration of the pulse is essentially zero. The presence or absence of zero crossings can therefore be used as a means for recognizing a signal. 55 52 56 It is claimed that the detection of IF signals with a zero-crossing detector, periodmeter, or a phase meter should be comparable with detection using an envelope detector. One of the advantages of the zero-crossing detector is that variations in gain through the receiver (or in the phase filter, gain variations in that portion of the receiver preceding the phase filter) are not as important as they would be in an envelope detector. This is of importance in constant false-alarm receivers (Sec.-T 2. 1 0). The threshold level established at the output of the envelope detector depends upon the rms noise level. If the noise were to change because of changes in the receiver gain or deliberate jamming, the threshold level would be incorrect. Because of the exponential relationship between the false-alarm time and the ratio of threshold voltage-to-rms noise voltage, a small change in the rms noise level can result in a large change in the average false-alarm time. The effect of fluctuations in receiver gain on the envelope-detector threshold can circuit or by making the threshold level dependent upon the be reduced by a good average noise level. Both of these techniques are limited to relatively slow variations of gain and do not respond to rapid fluctuations.
not.
Bala need
Low -pass
'
AGC
Sec. 9.6]
437
52 that "the phase detector may It is claimed level of the noise. which very weak signals are to in applications for detector amplitude be superior to the be detected in incoherent systems, or in which it is not feasible to control accurately the system gain prior to the detector." One of the disadvantages of the zero-crossings
The output of the zero-crossing detector is a function of the signal-to-noise ratio only,
and not on the absolute
detector
compared with the envelope detector

1
1
1
is
that
it
usually requires
more
circuitry.
99.999.8 99.5
Probability of false olorm
I0"
10" s
10"*
10"'
-J ! 10"'
99 98
c 95
I 90
X)
80
I- 70
3
8
CL
60 50
40
30 20
10
known known
5
10" 4 10"' 10"* \0'
10""
I
Probability of false alarm

I I I I 1
'
'
L
90
100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Fig. 9.18. Comparison of detection probabilities for signal and for signal known except for phase (envelope detector).
known completely
(coherent detector)
Coherent Detector. The coherent detector (Fig. 9.17) consists of a reference oscillator The input to the mixer is a signal of known frequency/ and feeding a balanced mixer. known phase <j> plus its accompanying noise. The reference-oscillator signal is The assumed to have the same frequency and phase as the input signal to be detected and the only the d-c allows which filter low-pass by a output of the mixer is followed
.
in the vicinity of the carrier.
low-frequency modulation components to pass while rejecting the higher frequencies The coherent detector provides a translation of the carrier frequency to direct current. It does not extract the modulation envelope and is a truly linear detector, whereas the "linear" envelope detector was not linear in the same sense.
Therefore the coherent detector will be a more

signal-to-noise ratios are low.
efficient detector, especially
when
detector does not destroy phase information as does the envelope it destroy amplitude information as does the zero-crossings detector. Since it utilizes more information than either the envelope or the zero-crossings detector, it is not surprising that the signal-to-noise ratio from the coherent detector is The improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio might better than from the other two.
The coherent
detector,
nor does
vary from 1 to 3 db or more, over the range of signal-to-noise ratios of interest in most comparison is shown in Fig. 9. 1 8 of the detection probabilities radar applications. when the signal parameters are known completely (coherent detector) and when the 19 57 The abscissa is plotted as signal is known except for phase (envelope detector).
438

instead of signal-to-noise ratio, where
[Sec. 9.6
2EjN
E is
the signal energy
and
is
the noise
power per cycle of bandwidth. The coherent detector is similar to the cross-correlation
It is also similar to
receiver discussed previously.
the phase-sensitive detector used in coherent

radars.
is
MTI
radars and in
monopulse tracking
The chief difference between
the coherent detector
and
the phase-sensitive detector
that the reference signal in the phase-sensitive detector
need not necessarily be of the same phase as the input signal. Hence, on the average, the detection performance of the phase-sensitive detector will not be as good as that of
the coherent detector.
If the frequency and phase of the incoming signal are not known with sufficient accuracy for coherent detection, some of the advantages of coherent detection may
--kA cos too -w)t
f
Mixer
1 Square-law Low-pass ->-~i
filter
detector
Local
oscillator
cos
cos
wt
90
phase
'
A 2 [cos 2 (oj -w) t + %\!\ z {ui -w)t\ =k 2A"
shift
"o
sin
Wot
Square -law ->
detector
Low-pass Mixer ->

filter
\ K~kA
Fig. 9.19.
still
sin (ui o-ftO t
Two-path detector system.
56 be obtained with the two-path detector system (Fig. 9.19). The signal is split mixer. The same reference oscillator is into two channels, each of which contains a used for both channels except that the phase of one reference signal is shifted 90 with The outputs of the two mixers are passed through low-pass filters. respect to the other. The envelopes of the output are squared in the two square-law rectifiers and recombined The reference signal need not be the to form the modulation envelope of the input. Since nonlinear rectifying elements are exact frequency and phase as the input signal. used in the two-path detector system, its properties are not as good as the true coherent detector. Basically, the circuit of Fig. 9.19 is a form of envelope detector. 58 Synchronous Detection and Phase-locked Detection. The synchronous detector, 59 the is similar to the coherent detector except that the phase of or synchrodyne, It reference signal is synchronized to the incoming signal by some automatic means. Synchronization may be accomplished by injecting is analogous to autocorrelation. some of the input voltage into the reference-oscillator circuit. However, the input signal-to-noise ratio must not be too low, else the reference oscillator will synchronize on noise rather than signal. A better technique for synchronization is to use a servocontrol loop to maintain the phase of the voltage-controlled reference oscillator instep with the phase of the incoming signal as shown in Fig. 9.20. This technique is known 60-62 and is the basis of the Microlock system used for passive as a phase-lock circuit 63 Because the bandwidth of this phase-tracking loop need be large satellite tracking. enough only to pass the difference between the signal frequency and the frequency of the voltage-controlled oscillator, the amount of noise present in the loop is much smaller than in a comparable nontracking filter which must accept all the possible This results in a considerable improvement in variations in signal frequency.
?
sensitivity.
Sec. 9.7]
439
In the use of the synchronous detector for voice communications "it has been found that due to the narrow bandwidth of the phase-control loop, synchronization is main64 tained at noise levels which render the channel useless for voice communication."
Synchronous detection
is
easier to
cations) than with pulse signals.
It is
employ with continuous signals (as in communimore difficult to control the reference-oscillator
Mixer
(multiplier)
frequency in the intervals between pulses when no signal exists than when the signal is always As might be expected, the performpresent. ance of the synchronous detector with respect to signal-to-noise ratio is somewhat intermediate
Low-pass
loop
filter
'
between the coherent detector and the linear envelope detector, and the phase-locked control loop is better than locking by signal injection. There will always be some signal-to-noise ratio below which the voltage-controlled oscillator of the phase-locked loop will not lock in synchro-
Voltagecontrolled
oscillator
Control voltage
Fig. 9.20. Basic configuration of a phaselocked loop.
nism with the weak input signal and the detector performance will be seriously degraded. The coherent detector, however, is theoretically capable of pulling any signal out of the noise, but practical considerations always present some lower limit.
9.7.
Performance of the Radar Operator
The link between the radar output and the radar operator's brain may be made either through the sense of sight or the sense of sound. The most usual type of radar presentation is visual and is commonly some type of cathode-ray tube. The ability of the operator to detect radar signals in the presence of noise cannot be determined with as great a reliability as can the performance of an electronic threshold Human behavior is less predictable than the behavior of an electronic detector. Radar operator performance must be determined by experiment. device. In Sec. 2.12 an operator loss was introduced into the radar equation to account for the degradation in the radar performance caused by fatigue, guessing, or the overloading of the limited "bandwidth" of a human. In this section we consider the performance of the human operator as a mechanism for recognizing and integrating radar signals in The conditions are somewhat idealized, so that operator loss is not a factor. noise. performance with respect to three types of indicators will be considered. operator The
These are (1) the deflection-modulated A-scope, (2) the intensity-modulated PPI, and a (3) an indicator which displays sweeps side by side as does the chemical recorder or indicating meter an as conventional d-c of the use a also consider B-scope. We shall device, as well as some aspects of aural detection and operator adaptability. A-Scope. A large amount of experimental testing was conducted at the MIT Radiation Laboratory during World War II on the ability of an operator to detect An example of the type of results which were signals on an A-scope presentation.
65 The ordinate is the signal-to-noise (power) ratio reported is illustrated in Fig. 9.21 required to achieve a detection probability of 0.90. The abscissa is the product of the The effect of integrating a number of pulses is also pulse width and the IF bandwidth. shown. The data represented in this figure were obtained by the "forced-choice" method that is, the observer had to state at which of six possible range positions on the A-scope the signal appeared. It was found that this technique eliminated much of the experimental variability in psychological judgment among the various observers. Three different observers were used to obtain the approximately 10,000 individual
;
observations from which the curves were plotted. The required signal-to-noise ratio is seen to be a function of the product of pulse
440
[Sec. 9.7
width t times IF bandwidth B. The optimum value of Bt is of the order of unity, which is consistent with the results given in Sec. 9.2 for conventional filters. However, the increase in the signal-to-noise ratio for increasing Bt is not as rapid with an operator and A-scope as it is for the conventional filter. Lawson and Uhlenbeck attribute this difference to the built-in "video bandwidth" of the eye, which limits the over-all bandwidth. The effective video bandwidth of the eye when viewing an A-scope is limited since the eye cannot distinguish events that are spatially too close. Figure 9.21 also shows that the improvement in signal-to-noise ratio is proportional to the square root of the number of pulses () integrated. For this reason, the integration-improvement factor for an operator was taken in Chap. 2 to be n h (improvement of
-
0.1
0.2
4 1.0 2 0.4 0.6 IF bandwidth x pulse width,
8 10
Bt
Fig. 9.21. Experimentally determined signal power as a function of the product of IF bandwidth times pulse width. Pulse width = 1 ,sec; pulse length on screen = 1.7 mm; video bandwidth = 10 Mc; signal presentation time = 3 sec; PI oscilloscope screen; A-scope; double-tuned singlestage IF amplifier.
(After
Lawson and Uhlenbeck McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc.)
1 .5 db per doubling of the number of pulses integrated). It is inferior to that obtained with a perfect predetection integrator (3 db per doubling) or even a perfect postdetection integrator (about 2.2 to 2.4 db per doubling). The brightness of the A-scope trace had little bearing on these experiments. variation of brightness over a 60-db range from "trace barely visible" to "trace uncomfortably bright" affected the signal-to-noise ratio by about 3 db. The size of the deflection on the A-scope also had little effect on the signal-to-noise ratio required for detection provided that the average noise deflection exceeded about 0.5 mm. The video bandwidth was found to have negligible effect if it were greater than 0.5/t. Among the other factors which were investigated and are described by Lawson and Uhlenbeck are the sweep and pulse lengths, focus, pulse repetition frequency, signal presentation time, screen material (PI and P7), attention interval, and the number and spacing of the possible signal positions. PPI Display. The characteristics of operator performance when viewing an intensitymodulated PPI display are similar to the performance found for the deflection-modulated A-scope. Experiments similar to those performed with the A-scope were
Sec 97]

66
441
The echo was always placed at an azimuth reported for the PPI by Payne-Scott. unknown to the operator, at a distance of 1 in. from the center of a 5-in.-diameter 5FP7 CRT. The method of test was similar to that for the A-scope. The operator Three had to pick out an echo of known shape and range but unknown bearing. differ from one not did results their that claimed it was and used, were observers beamwidth was fixed another by more than 1 db. In most of these tests the antenna time was observation the that so 4 rpm, 4 was rate and the antenna-rotation at to lie between reported was Br of value optimum The constant. and small relatively The integration-improve0.63 and 1.17, which is consistent with the A-scope results. of pulse repetition frevariation 100: 1 a ment factor was proportional to n* over doubling. In some db per of 1.5 improvement of a rate to quencies, corresponding of almost 1.8 db per instances the data seemed to indicate a rate of improvement the small doubling. The reported data also showed the effect of limiting caused by was no there occurred, limiting When scopes. intensity-modulated dynamic range of It pulses integrated. additional with ratio signal-to-noise the in improvement further power two-thirds the improved as was also reported that the detectability of the signal 12. This is what would of the beamwidth, over a range of beamwidths from 2 to proportional to nK had been factor integration-improvement if the expected have been In the deflection-modulated A-scope, the successive radar Side-by-side Displays. sweeps (or traces) are superimposed one upon another, exciting essentially the same on each sweep. The visual sensation due to the combined effects is confined
phosphors
to the
same general area
as that of a single sweep.
With intensity-modulated
displays
such as the PPI, the B-scope, or the chemical recorder, the sweeps may be arranged to In most radar applications, however", lie side by side instead of on top of one another.
combination the intensity-modulated displays are operated so that there is probably a pulses in a of effects, that is, some overlap of pulses as well as some spreading out of
characteristic pattern.
67 68 that if the successive sweeps in an intensity-modulated display It has been reported if they are superare arranged side by side, the gain in detectability is much better than the chemical with demonstrated strikingly imposed one upon another. This has been slow-responding a recorder is chemical the device, nonelectronic Being a recorder. equipment and is not too useful for most radar applications. It has been employed in applications, where the pulse-repetition intervals are measured in fractions of
'
sonar this seconds rather than fractions of milliseconds. According to the description of 67 iodine instrument as given by Tucker, it records the signal amplitude by the release of on paper impregnated with potassium iodide. The paper travels slowly in a direction the signal current. at right angles to the time-base deflection of the stylus which carries of the echo, and the range the indicates thus trace along the the mark of The position The display is a permanent one. intensity of the mark represents its amplitude. The improvement due to the integration of many pulses side by side with the chemical doubling recorder has been found experimentally to be of the order of 2.2 to 2.5 db per integration of the number of pulses. This is a significant improvement over the performance of normal cathode-ray-tube displays (1 .5 db per doubling). The perform-
ance of the chemical recorder
is
shown by curve A
67 in Fig. 9.22.
The ordinate
is
the
the signal-to-noise ratio necessary to achieve a probability of detection of 0.50, and display. the abscissa is the number of pulses which make up Curve B was obtained under the same conditions as those of curve A except that the The sweeps were indicator was an intensity-modulated B-scope of long persistence.
illustrates arranged side by side just as in the chemical recorder. Figure 9.23a and b B-scope. the and recorder chemical the with obtained the type of display The effectiveness of the cathode-ray tube as an integrator when the successive sweeps but it is much are displayed side by side is slightly below that of the chemical recorder,
442
[Sec. 9.7
better than that obtained if the sweeps were superimposed (curve C with a slope of 1 .5 db per doubling). The slightly better performance of the chemical recorder over the cathode-ray tube when operated under similar conditions is attributed by Tucker to the imperfect memory of the cathode-ray tube as compared with the relatively perfect memory of the chemical recorder. Therefore, if full advantage is to be taken of the number of pulses available in the observation time, the integration device must have a memory or storage capacity great enough to accommodate all the pulses. The slope of
curve
represents the rate of
detection integration were employed.

at the rate of 3
improvement which would be obtained if ideal preIt corresponds to an integration improvement
in detection obtained with side-by-side traces over that obtained with superimposed traces to the presence of some sort of visual
Tucker
attributes the
db per doubling. improvement
10
20
30 40 Number
60
80 100
200
300 400
ot pulses integrated
Fig. 9.22. Improvement of operator detection threshold (signal-to-noise ratio per pulse) as a function of the number of pulses (sweeps) for side-by-side displays. Curve A, chemical recorder; curve B,
cathode-ray-tube B-scope display; curve C, line of slope 1.5 db/doubling (oc n 2 ); curve D, line of slope 3 db/doubling (<x n) for perfect predetection integration. A's are theoretical values for ideal postdetection-integration improvement as computed by Marcum 47 for a false-alarm probability of 10" 3 (From J. Brit. IRE. M )
.
However, it was pointed out by Skolnik 69 that the integration improvement described by Tucker fits the theoretical computations for the integration improvement obtained by Marcum47 for ideal postdetection integration. The four points in Fig. 9.22 denoted by A's were obtained from Marcum's data for a false-alarm probability of 10~ 3 These computed points fit the experimental data rather well, and the slope is consistent with the observed value of 2.2 db per doubling. Therefore it seems likely that the improvement obtained with the side-by-side presentation might be explained by noting that the operator integrates all the pulses in an optimum fashion when they are all available, whereas in the more conventional cathode-ray-tube displays, all the pulses may not be effective because of imperfect memory. The integration efficiency
correlation.
.
of a conventional cathode-ray-tube indicator may be likened to the integration efficiency of an imperfect postdetection integrator. If the memory of the integrator is poor (e~ y small), Eq. (2.35) predicts that the integration-improvement factor is proportional to *. CRT displays may be thought of as imperfect integrators since the signals can suffer significant decay in a time comparable with the time between pulses.
Sec. 9.7]
443
Tucker also reports experiments in which the detection with a conventional PPI display was improved because of scan-to-scan correlation in a manner similar to the improvement obtained with side-by-side presentation. In the reported experiments the scan time was 2 sec (30 rpm antenna-rotation rate) and the observation time was as
long as 64 sec. The afterglow of the CRT phosphor was not persistent enough to account for the improvement, and Tucker suggests that any improvement in detection
Range
(a)
Target
Range
signal-to-noise ratio
ratio
Single-pulse Fig. 9.23. (a) Photograph of typical chemical recorder chart showing pulse signal. 3 db. (b) B-scope cathode-ray-tube display. Single-pulse signal-to-noise
-3
db.
(After Tucker," J. Brit. IRE.)
number of scans is increased is due to the human memory retaining relevant information from one scan to another. Aural Detection. The ear also may be used to bridge the sensory gap between the radar and the brain, provided the radar output is available in a form to which the ear can doppler radar at microwave frequencies the doppler frequency respond. 70 In the The doppler frequency shifts for normal aircraft targets fall within the audible range. However, the basic pulse repetition shift can also be audibly detected in pulse radar. frequency or one of its harmonics usually falls within a sensitive portion of the audio response of the ear and may be used for detection of radar targets.
as the
CW
444

if it
[Sec. 9.7
were a narrow-bandpass filter encompassing the signal frequency. by excluding noise outside its band, results in an improvement in detection as compared with a receiver (or ear) with a broad frequency response. Because of the bandpass-filter action of the ear, any video filter that is not narrower than the effective passband of the ear will seem to have no effect on sensitivity. The effective passband of the ear varies as a function of frequency, 71 as shown in Fig. 9.24. Below 1,000 cps, the bandwidth is in the vicinity of 50 cps. It increases at the higher frequencies; consequently, high frequencies are likely to be masked by the presence of weaker, lower frequencies. Thus the ear may be thought of as a bank of overlapping bandpass filters whose bandwidth is a function of frequency. The ear is not as good a radar detection device as the eye unless range gating is used to eliminate the noise from ranges other than the target range. Without gating, the ear
This bandpass
filter,
The ear acts as
1,000
100
1,000 Frequency, cps
10,000
Fig. 9.24. Effective passband of the ear as a function of frequency. & Sons, Inc.)
(After Licklider,'' 1 John Wiley
may be about
gate
10 db worse than the eye. The eye seems to have a built-in range (space) when viewing a cathode-ray display. It can focus on a particular range interval
all others. When range gating is used with aural detection, the performance of the ear and the eye is comparable, and in some cases the ear may even surpass the eye as a radar signal detector. However, the psychological strain associated with aural detection may degrade its effectiveness under severe operating conditions. Meter Detection. 10 The meter method of detection is quite similar in principle to aural detection except for the type of indicating device. In the meter method the aural signal is rectified and impressed on an ordinary d-c meter. The deflection of the meter indicates the presence of a signal. In essence, the meter serves the same function as a low-pass video filter and acts as a postdetection integrator. An operator can observe the deflection of the meter and announce the presence of a target whenever a predetermined value is exceeded. Meter movements may also be used to close a switch whenever a preset deflection is exceeded. The switch could be used to ring a bell or flash a light to alert the operator, or it may operate a counter or be fed into an automatic
and exclude
data-processing device.
Operator Adaptability.
In experiments conducted at the University of Michigan,

factors affecting the ability of an operator to detect signals in
some of the psychological
S EC
9.8]
445
72-74 In particular, the ability of an operator to adjust his noise were investigated. threshold decision criteria to maximize the expected payoff was studied; that is, the to allowed but was mind operator's in the separating signal from noise was not fixed of probability priori the given a was operator The value. expected shift to maximize He was also told the value of a correct decision the presence of signal-plus-noise. incorrect (signal-plus-noise present or only noise present), as well as the cost of an
The test. decision (false alarm or missed detection). These were varied from test to penalized or rewarded were they for observers, the to real made were values and costs The observer's performance was checked against to their decisions.
in cash according
detection. that which would have been predicted on the basis of the statistical theory of the experibetween agreement good there was that experiments It was found in these quite mental results and the results computed from theory. The discrepancies were the to adapt tended to observer the small percentagewise. It was concluded that
19
and use an optimum detection criterion and that a simple decision-making in predict the detection and recognition behavior of the human observer can model fairly complex situations of this sort.
situation
9.8.
Delay-line Integrators
be performed In some radar applications, the integration of radar pulses must are many There CRT. viewing a operator an automatically without the benefit of
Tappe d
Video
in
delay
line
'
-*
.<
Integrated
output
Fig. 9.25. Pulse integrator using tapped delay line.
Integration is usually possible electronic integration techniques for this purpose. performed in the video (postdetection) portion of the radar receiver rather than in the IF (predetection). Postdetection integration is not as efficient as ideal predetection (The improvement expected with ideal integration, but it is often easier to implement.
postdetection integrators was discussed in Sec. 2.6.) Postdetection integration techniques may be classed as either analog or digital, depending upon whether the integrator operates on continuous or on quantized signals. low-pass Examples of analog integrators include RLC bandpass resonant circuits, delay lines. filters, magnetic drums, electrostatic storage tubes, and recirculating Most digital integration techniques are similar in principle to analog techniques except
RC
that they quantize the analog signal voltages in time and amplitude and perform the necessary operations digitally. Digital integrators use conventional digital circuitry
such as flip-flops, shift registers, magnetic-core memories, and magnetic-drum memories. An important digital technique known as binary integration is described This section considers the class of integrators which makes use in the next section.
of delay
lines.
An integrator based on the tapped delay line is Tapped-delay-line Integrator. shown in Fig. 9.25. The time delay through the line is made equal to the total integraThe tion time, and the taps are spaced at intervals equal to the pulse-repetition period.
number of taps equals
The outputs from each the number of pulses to be integrated. the of the taps are tied together to form the sum of the previous n pulses. One of the into applied may be weighting of type advantages of this integrator is that any line. delay of the each at tap attenuation proper the inserting simply by dividual pulses
446
[Sec. 9.9
The rotating magnetic drum, or disk, may be used as the tapped delay line (Fig. 9.26) of this integrator. 75 76 The video output is applied to the read-in head of the drum, recording the radar video on the drum surface. The signals from the n previous pulses are added by combining the outputs from the n read-out heads that are equally spaced around the periphery. The spacing between
-
Readout heads
the heads corresponds to the distance a point
Integrated output
on the magnetized drum surface moves during the pulse-repetition period. The information stored on the drum surface is erased in order
to accept new signals. Relatively long delay times are possible with the magnetic drum.
Fig. 9.26. Rotating magnetic drum (or disk) as a tapped-delay-line integrator.
Recirculating-delay-line Integrator. delay line may also be used as an integrator by recirculating the output (Fig. 9.27a). The recirculating-delay-line integrator adds each
new sweep to the sum of all the previous prevent unwanted oscillations or "ringing" due to positive feedback, the sum must be attenuated by an amount k after each pass through the line. The factor k is the gain of the loop formed by the delay line and the feedback. It must be less than unity for stable operation. The optimum value of k depends on the number of pulses Loop qa)n=/t<\
sweeps.
To
integrated (Sec. 2.6). The single-loop recirculating-delay-line integrator of Fig. 9.27a is limited in practice to loop gains less than approximately 0.9. This
Input
Delay
line
corresponds to an optimum number of pulses integrated of about 10. Loop gains greater than this generally result in oscillation. The
Integrated output
double-loop configuration of Fig. 9.276, howloop gains of the order of 0.98 or more, corresponding to about 60
ever, permits stable
pulses integrated. The two recirculating delay lines of Fig. 9.27 are based on recirculating
Integrated output u
iy^yi+
*-
Delay
line
>
may be obtained with delay lines recirculating frequency-modulated or phase-modulated signals. An recircu-
amplitude-modulated even closer to unity
signals.
Loop
gains
*<^k
[b)
FM
might be capable of storing Fig. 9.27. Recirculating-delay-line integraabout 200 pulses. A delay line in which the tor k = loop gain < 1. (a) Single loop; information is circulated through the mem(b) double loop. ory loop as the average phase of short bursts of carrier is capable of integrating over 2,000 pulses. 77 The delay lines used in integrators may be acoustic lines, lumped-parameter delay lines, electrostatic storage tubes, and magnetic drums or disks. If the radar video is quantized in time and amplitude, a digital delay line may be obtained with magnetic
cores operated as shift registers. 78
9.9.
lating delay line
Binary Integration
One method of processing the output of the radar receiver, based on digital-detection techniques, consists in looking for a cluster of pulses corresponding to the number n expected from a target on each scan. If of these pulses exceed a predetermined minimum value (threshold), a target is declared to be present.
Sec
99

]
447
This method of digital detection with other integration techniques.
is
basically
It
an integration and compares favorably identified by several names including been has
All three are binary integration double-threshold detection, m-out-of-n detection, and used here^ will be named The last descriptive of the type of operations performed. in Fig. shown is integration binary block diagram illustrating the technique of in shown are integrator binary the of portions Various The waveforms at the 9 28
First
Second
(b)
{c
)
(a)
threshold
threshold
Target
Radar
receiver
Video *
Threshold
detector
Range gate Quantizer Hi -No.1

<
Binary
counter
Count
sampler
pulse
""
-*-
Range gate No.2
^>
Fig. 9.28. Block diagram of binary integrator.
Amplitude
-Time
Amplitude
A
___[)
A_rhre_shold
"-Time
(J
(b)
[L.
n
Fig. 9.29.
a
U)
(a)
n
Time
(6)
Waveforms
;
in the binary integrator,

(c)
Output of video portion of the receiver;
bottom-clipped video
output of quantizer.
Fig. 9.29.
The radar video is passed through a threshold detector (or bottom clipper). pass, Only those signals whose amplitude exceeds the preset threshold are allowed to The output of the first threshold detector is sampled at regular as shown in Fig. 9.29b. The quantizer generates a standard pulse if the video intervals of time by the quantizer. nothing if it does not. These are designated by and threshold, waveform exceeds the
suitable quantizer sampling rate might correspond to one or 0, respectively. sample per range resolution interval. The output of the quantizer might appear as in Fig. 9.29c. The 1 or corresponding "range gate" in Fig. 9.28. The to each range interval is selected by the box labeled
1
448
[Sec. 9.9
ones or zeros corresponding to a particular range interval from n successive sweeps are counted in the binary counter. If there are at least m ones within the last n sweeps, the count sampler recognizes this fact and generates a pulse which is sent to the radar display or data-processing computer to indicate that a target was detected in a certain range interval. separate range gate is needed for each range interval examined. The analog video voltage output from the radar 10,000 _ receiver is quantized in both range and I r T in amplitude by the binary integrator. The E I s CMg _ _ amplitude is quantized in but two levels (0 and 1); hence the name binary. More quantizing levels could be used if desired. However, O D e the slight improvement obtained with more 1,000 Q. i than two levels does not usually warrant the complexity of the additional equipment re-
quired.
100
~
\
-
The binary integrator employs two threshThe first operates on analog voltages and permits only those signals to pass which are larger than a predetermined level. The
olds.
second threshold is a digital counter. For any value of n, there exists an optimum value of m. A curve relating the optimum value of m to the total number of pulses n is 10 ~= shown in Fig. 9.30. This curve, which is due = I to Swerling, 79 is approximate, since there is : some slight dependence upon the false-alarm probability. It appears, however, to be independent of the signal-to-noise ratio. The quantization of the signals in the binary 0.2 0.4 0.6 1.0 0.6 m oof /n integrator results in a loss of information. Hence it is to be expected that binary inFig. 9.30. Optimum number of pulses w opt (out of a maximum of ) in a binary tegration is not as efficient as an integrator integrator. Swerling (After courtesy which operates in an optimum manner on the Rand Corporation.) analog video signals. According to Swerling, 79 the loss is about 0.5 to 1.0 db. Using a different method of analysis, Harrington 80 concludes that the maximum loss in the signal-to-noise ratio due to quantization is approximately of 1 .9 db, while Schwartz 81 shows that the loss is about 1.4 db. The above three authors assumed constantamplitude signals. Drukey and Levitt 82 carried out similar analyses for fluctuating targets (rapidly fading signals with no correlation pulse to pulse) and found the loss to be 1.5 to 2 db. Although the various analyses do not agree on specific values, they
all indicate that the penalty in signal-to-noise ratio for using binary integration is not too significant in most applications. The output of the binary integrator may also be used to improve the measurement of angular position by the technique called beam splitting. Beam splitting consists in
locating the center of the group of n pulses. Dinneen and Reed 83 describe several methods (digital detectors) of detecting and locating the direction of radar echo signals. The design of a digital detector for quantized video is equivalent to the problem of
The
measuring the density of ones over some interval determined by the antenna beamwidth. digital detector has no a priori knowledge of the target beginning. It must be
sensitive that
sufficiently sensitive to quickly detect the increased density region, yet it must not be so it detects false targets due to noise. Once a target beginning is recognized,
Sec 99}
449
of the increased density region. Again, if it the detector must be able to sense the end targets. split tend to will is too sensitive to change, it integration as compared with analog binary for claimed advantages One of the not affected by loss of memory in the is integration is that the efficiency of the former the recirculating delay line or an example, (for In many integrators storage device. the integrator memory and the limiting time, with decays energy stored RLC filter) the use digital circuitry, integrators number of pulses which may be integrated. Binary This as desired long be as can times storage The
which
long memories, storage partly offset by advances in analog devices with weeks, and magnetic devices such as tubes are available which can store information for indefinitely. almost drums, disks, or tape can store analog voltages in the detection process counterpart their have splitting beam Binary integration and scans by the target, antenna As the carried out by an operator viewing a PPI display. The arc length is PPI the on arc in an the n pulses received from the target are spread this characteristic shape, recognize To range. the and characteristic of the beamwidth similar to selecting the minimum number the operator must mentally fix some criterion operator which must appear out of a possible number n. Of course, the of pulses antenna the target as the from received pulses may not, and usually cannot, count the of corners contained number the count consciously have to not would sweeps, iust as he Once the characteristic shape of a target in a polygon to determine if it is a triangle. the target is associated with the center of of position echo is recognized on the PPI, the
suffers
is
no
loss
of memory.
advantage
the "pip."
REFERENCES
1
'
North
Discrimination Analysis of the Factors Which Determine Signal/Noise 1943 (ATI 14009). Pulsed'-carrier Systems, RCA Tech. Rept. PTR-6C, June 25,
D O An
in
The following references Matched Filters

2
3'.
(2 to 8)
appear in
IRE
Trans., vol. 1T-6, no. 3, June, I960, special issue
on
/
4.
311-329. Turin, G.L.: An Introduction to Matched Filters, pp. Gains against Reverberation Westerfield, E. C, R. H. Prager, and J. L. Stewart; Processing 342-348. (Clutter) Using Matched Filters, pp. Generalizations of the Matched Filter Middleton, D. On New Classes of Matched Filters and
:
5
6.
... Concept, pp. 349-360. Channels, pp. 367-373. Sussman, S M. A Matched Filter Communication System for Multipart Complicated Doppler Shitted Signals, Lerner, R. M.: A Matched Filter Detection System for
.
7.
Cutrona,
L.' J.,
E.
N.
Leith, C. J. Palermo,
and
L.
J.
Porcello: Optical
Data Processing and
Filtering Systems, pp. 386-400.

8
400-408. Welte, G. R.: Quaternary Codes for Pulsed Radar, pp. Theoretical Comparison of Visual, Aural, and Meter Van Vleck J H., and D. Middleton: Phys., vol. 17, pp. 940-971, Reception of Pulsed Signals in the Presence of Noise, J. Appl. ., November, 1946. "Introduction to Random Signals and Noise, chap. 11, 10. Davenport, W. B., Jr., and W. L. Root:
9
...
'
11. Craig, J.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1958. W., Jr.: Optimum Approximation to a Matched
Filter
Response,
.
IRE Trans.,
vol. 11-6,
12.
pp. 409^110,' June, 1960. Rochefort, J. S.: Matched Filters for Detecting Pulse Signals in Noise,
,, Natl. Conv. IRE
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14
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On the Properties of Matched Filters, Stanford Univ., Stanford Electronics Lab. D 373 360, June 10, 1957. Order PB 134991 from Tech' Rept. 17, on Contract Nonr 225(24), . Library of Congress. Proc. IRE, vol. 38, Dwork, B. M.: Detection of a Pulse Superimposed on Fluctuation Noise,
Lvtle
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.T pp. 771-774, July, 1950. ro of Signals in Noise, Proc. Zadeh, L. A., and J. R. Ragazzini: Optimum Filters for the Detection IRE, vol. 40, pp. 1223-1231, October, 1952.
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Filters for the Detection of Small Radar Signals in Clutter, J.Appl.Phys vol 24 pp. 1024-1031, August, 1953. 18. Davis, R. C: On the Detection of Sure Signals in Noise, J. Appl. Phys., vol 25 nn 76-82 J vv January, 1954.
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H:
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19.
Peterson
W.
T G.
:
Birdsall,
no. PG1T-4, pp. 171-212, September, 1954.

20.
and W. C. Fox: The Theory of Signal Delegability, IRE Trans
Woodward, P. M. The Theory of Observation, TRE J. (Telecommunications Research Establishment, Malvern, England), p. 41, January, 1951. 21. Goldman S.: Information Theory of Noise Reduction in Modulation Systems, paper in Jackson (ed.), "Communication Theory," pp. 82-95, Academic Press, Inc., New York 1953
61"'
3nd
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Ch: Corre,ation
De v'ces
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ruTTl
23. Lee, Y. 24. Lee,
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Signals, Electronics, vol. 32,
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Application of Statistical Methods to Communication Problems,

1,
tronics, vol. 23, pp. 86-92, June, 1950. 26. Singleton, H. E.: Digital Electronic Correlator, Proc.
and J. B. Wiesner: Application of Correlation Analysis to the Detection of Periodic Signals in Noise, Proc. IRE, vol. 38, pp. 1 165-1 171, 1950. 25. Lee, Y. W., and J. B. Wiesner: Correlation Functions and Communication Applications Elec-
Electronics Tech. Rept. 181, Sept. Y. W. T. P. Cheatham, Jr.,
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Horton, B. M.: Noise-modulated Distance Measuring Systems, Proc. IRE,
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Signals by Correlation Methods, /. Appl Phys vol 24 ' pp. 128-131, February, 1953. 29. Fano, R. M.: Signal-to-noise Ratios in Correlation Detectors, MIT Research Lab. Electronics Tech. Rept. 186, Feb. 19, 1951.
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Rudnick,
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George, S. F.: Effectiveness of Crosscorrelation Detectors, Proc. Natl. Electronics Conf (Chicago), vol. 10, pp. 109-118, 1954. 31. Green, P. E., Jr.: The Output Signal-to-noise Ratio of Correlation Detectors, IRE Trans vol "' IT-3, pp. 10-18, March, 1957. 32. Middleton, D. Statistical Criteria for the Detection of Pulsed Carriers in Noise Parts I and II /. Appl. Phys., vol. 24, pp. 371-391, April, 1953; also letters to the editor by D. Middleton et af in J. Appl. Phys., January, 1954.
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and G. E. Uhlenbeck (eds.): "Threshold Signals," MIT Radiation Laboratory McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950 Middleton, D.: Statistical Theory of Signal Detection, IRE Trans., no. PGIT-3 pp 26-51 March, 1954. Van Meter, D., and D. Middleton: Modern Statistical Approaches to Reception in Communication Theory, IRE Trans., no. PGIT-4, pp. 119-141, September, 1954. Middleton, D., and D. Van Meter: Detection and Extraction of Signals in Noise from the
J. L.,
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Series, vol. 24, sec. 7.5,
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Viewpoint of Statistical Decision Theory,

1955,
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Soc. Ind. Appl. Math., vol.
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pp. 192-253
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vol. 4, pp. 86-119, June, 1956.

J. J.,
and D. Middleton: Optimum Sequential Detection of Signals in Noise IRE December, 1955. Blasbalg, H.: The Relationship of Sequential Filter Theory to Information Theory and Its Application to the Detection of Signals in Noise by Bernoulli Trials, IRE Trans vol IT-3
Trans., vol. IT-1, pp. 5-18,
Bussgang,
pp. 122-131, June, 1957.

39. Blasbalg,
>
>
40.
41. 42. 43.

44.
H.: The Sequential Detection of a Sine-wave Carrier of Arbitrary Duty Ratio in Gaussian Noise, IRE Trans., vol. IT-3, pp. 248-256, December, 1957. Preston, G. W. The Search Efficiency of the Probability Ratio Sequential Search Radar IRE Intern. Conv. Record, vol. 8, pt. 4, pp. 105-115, 1960. Wald, A.: "Sequential Analysis," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1947. Woodward, P. M. "Probability and Information Theory with Applications to Radar " McGrawHill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1953. Woodward, P. M., and I. L. Davies: Information Theory and Inverse Probability in Telecommunication, Proc. IEE, vol. 99, pt. Ill, pp. 37-44, March, 1952. Davies, I. L.: On Determining the Presence of Signals in Noise, Proc. IEE, pt III pp 45-51
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45. Feller,
W. "An
John Wiley
46. Peterson,
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Introduction to Probability Theory and Sons, Inc., New York, 1957.
Its
Applications," 2d ed
vol
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p 114
W. W., and T. G. Birdsall: The Theory of Signal Detectability, Univ. Mich Dept Elec Eng. Tech. Rept. 13, Contract No. DA-36-039 sc-15358, June, 1953. 47. Marcum, J.: A Statistical Theory of Target Detection by Pulsed Radar, Mathematical Appendix Rand Corp. Research Mem. RM-753, July 1, 1948; also published in IRE Trans vol IT-6' pp. 145-267, April, 1960.

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Woodward,
I 49. Fleischmann, B. S.: The Optimum Log 1957. Radiotekh. i Eleklron., vol. 2, no. 6, pp. 726-734,
Theory, with Applications to Radar," P. M.: "Probability and Information * McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1953. r , w Detector for the Detection of a Weak Signal in Noise,
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Green, B. A.,
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, prr t Trans., Radar Detection Probability with Logarithmic Detectors, IRE
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Random Noise Theory," chap. 10, John Wiley Bendatfj! ^'Prindples and Applications of Y n A Comparison of the Phase and Amplitude Principles 52. Hu gginrw H., a nd D.^Middleton: 1955. Electronics Conf. {Chicago), vol. 11 pp. 304-317
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in
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Signal Detection, Proc. Natl. Implications in Phase Principle for Complex-frequency Analysis and Its Huggins 582-586 .November, 1952. Auditory Theory, J. Acoust. Soc. Am., vol. 24, pp. 274-275, The Periodmeter, Wireless Engr., vol. 30, pp. 54. Barker, R. G., and G. L. Connon:
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Engr., vol. 30,
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C^s'tas, :.^.:
Synchronous Detection of Amplitude-modulated
Signals, Proc. Natl. Electronics
Detectors, Wireless Engr., vol. 29, pp. 184-188, Tucker, D. G.: The Synchrodyne and Coherent
Jaffe
1951. Conf. (Chicago), vol. 7, pp. 121-129,
60
Rând
optimum Performance over a Wide Range of Input

IT-1
Capable of NearR.Rechtin: Design and Performance of Phase-lock Circuits Signal and Noise Levels, IRE Trans., vol.
pp. 66-76, March, 1955.
61. Margolis, S. G.:
The Response of a Phase-locked Loop
to a Sinusoid Plus Noise,
IRE
,_ _
Trans.,
62
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vol IT-3, pp. 136-142, June, 1957. , to Telemetry as a Discriminator or E.: Application of the Phase-locked Loop Gilchriest, 1958 Tracking Filter, IRETrans., vol. TRC-4, pp. 20-35, June Weight Radio Microlock: Richter H. L., W. F. Sampson, and R. Stevens: Press, New York, Pergamon Astronautics," in "Vistas in Satellite, System for a
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A M.mmum
Instrumentation
64
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December,1956^ Synchronous Communications, Proc. IRE, vol. 44, pp. 1713-1718, Signals," MIT Radiation Laboratory "Threshold (eds.): Uhlenbeck E. G. Lawson Company, Inc., New York 1950^ Series, vol. 24, chap. 8, McGraw-Hill Book Radar PPI Displays, Proc. IRE, vol. 36, Payne-Scott, R.: The Visibility of Small Echoes on
Sas,
J.
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Displays, in Noise Trace-to-trace Correlation in Visual 67. Tucker, D. G. Detection of Pulse Signals 1957. June, 319-329, vol. 17, IRE pp. Brit J Elementary Pattern Note on Trace-to-trace Correlation in Visual Displays 68 McGregor, P. M.: 1955. June, 329-331, Recognition,/. Brit. IRE, vol. 15, pp.
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Signals in Noise: Trace-toand D.G.Tucker: Discussion on "Detection of Pulse I Skolnik IRE, vol. 17, pp. 705-706 December, 957. frace Correlation in Visual Displays," J. Brit. Meter Theoretical Comparison of the Visual AuraL and 70. Van V.eck, J. H., and D. Middleton J. Appl. Phys., vol. 17, pp. 940-971, No.se, of Presence in the Signals Reception of Pulsed
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Stevens (ed.), "Handbook Basic Correlates of the Auditory Stimulus, in S. S. J. Inc., New York, 1 95 Experimental Psychology," p. 1009, John Wiley & Sons, I. S.gnal Detection for the of Information Jr., andLA. Swets: The Human Use 72 Tanner September, 1954^ 213-221, PGIT-4, no. Trans., pp. IRE Exactly, Known Case of Signa g Use of P., Jr., and R. ^Norman: The Human 73. Tannet September, Parameter, IRETrans., no. PGIT-4, pp. 222-227, for the Case of an Unknown Signal
ShdeT OR.
of
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WP
W
A
IJ-
%*%*"%
74
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Information. Ill Decision-making in and T. G. Birdsall: The Human Use of Multiple Alternatives, IRE Trans., vol. Involving Situations Recognition and sjnal' Detection 1956. September, 1T-2, pp. 138-165, *. -> iifi 1?0 r Magnetic Recording, Electronics, vol. 25, pp. 116-120, Daniels, H. L.: Boundary-displacement
Swets
76
9 Time Delay in Analog Voltages, Electronics, Daniels H. L., and D. K. Sampson Drum Provides 1959. Feb. 44-47, 6, vol. 32, no. 6, pp.
:
452
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Recirculator,
Zimmerman, M.
78.
pp. 49-54, January, 1950.

79. Swerling,
S., W. G. Enrich, and D. E. Sunstein: A Long Memory Delay * Line Analog S IRE Natl. Conv. Record, vol. 7, pt. 2, pp. 70-78, 1959. Wang, A and W. D. Woo: Static Magnetic Storage and Delay Line, /. Appl. Phys., vol 21
'
'
Dec. 17, 1952, Santa Monica, Calif. 80. Harrington, J. V. Analysis of the Detection of tion, IRE Trans., vol. IT-1, pp. 1-9, March, 1955. 81 Schwartz, M. Coincidence Procedure
:
The "Double Threshold" Method of Detection, Rand Corp. Rent. RM-1008,
An
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in.
Noise by Binary Integra5

' '
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Trans., vol. IT-2 pp. 135-139 *^ December, 1956. Drukey, D L and L. C. Levitt -Radar Range Performance, Hughes Aircraft Co. Tech. Mem. 560, Aug. 1, 1957, Culver City, Calif. Dinneen, G. P and I. S. Reed: An Analysis of Signal Detection and Location by Digital Means, 5 IRE Trans., vol. IT-2, pp. 29-38, March, 1956.
:
for Signal Detection,
IRE
10
EXTRACTION OF INFORMATION
FROM RADAR SIGNALS

10.1. Introduction
stated that the observation of 9 which was concerned with detection, it was purpose of analysis into (1) the detection of radar signals'in noise could be divided for the extraction of any target information contained the presence of signals in noise and (2) several topics relevant to the extraction of considers This chapter in the signal of the target that might be extracted information from the target echo. Characteristics or doppler velocity (3) angle of rate, range from the radar echo signal are (1) range, (2) shape, and (6) change of target size, target (5) arrival in elevation and azimuth, (4)
In
Chap
signal in noise is equivalent to the detection or recognition of the presence of a of mathematical statistics are methods the of Many testing of statistical hypotheses. extraction of information Similarly, detection. radar of applicable to the analysis The estimation of parameters. from radar signals is a problem in the statistical also be can disciplines other for developed estimation
The
mathematical tools of parameter applied to the radar problem.

In
extraction of information are not respects the detection of signals and the without the other. Furthermeaningless Either one is totally independent processes. estimation where the parameter in problem a more detection may be considered as the presence or absence of to as decision The ratio. signal-to-noise parameter is the of the signal-to-noise ratio estimate. the target may be based on the magnitude concepts involved in the extraction fundamental This chapter discusses some of the (Sec. 10.2) considers in a qualisection next The signal. from a radar
some
of information
tative
the techniques for measuring range, This is followed in Sec. 10.3 by a review of time that might be used as a basis for analyzranee rate and angle. The statistical methods The theoretical in Sec. 10.4. discussed briefly ing information-extraction methods are are derived made be can measurements doppler accuracies with which radar range and principle is derived and its "uncertainty radar so-called the 10.6 In Sec. in Sec 10 5 which the measurement accuracy is discussed. The accuracy with
from measurements manner the type of target information that may be obtained frequency, and direction, of function a signal as of the phase and amplitude of the echo
relationship to his is is considered in Sec. 10.7. angular position can be determined with radar target resolution between interrelations the of 10.8 Sec. in followed by a discussion on the design of the transm.tted measurement accuracy, and ambiguity and their effect 10.9 the technique known as Sec. in waveform. The chapter closes by considering concepts discussed in this theoretical the of some on based is pulse compression, which and the preceding chapter.
10.2.
1 Phase and Amplitude Measurements
electromagnetic radiation target information in a radar system is the At any point in space the receiver. radar the scattered by the target in the direction of and at any given time each spectrum, frequency into a scattered signal may be resolved 453
The source of
454
all,
[Sec 10 2 frequency component can be regarded as having an amplitude and a phase. The radar measures the amplitude and the phase of the echo signal received at a given position at a given frequency and time. A single observation of amplitude and phlse at a particular time frequency, and position gives little information concerning the target All that can be deduced from such a measurement is that a target of unknown nature exists However, information concerning the target can be obtained by observing a series of amplitude and phase measurements as a function of time, frequency, and position In
there are six possible
first
ments are sometimes easier to implement in practice, but they can lead to ambiguities There may be more than one value which the true measurement may take and it is uncertain which of these is the correct one. There are no ambiguities when' measurements are continuous. Phase Derivatives. The variations of phase with position, time, and frequency are the measurements usually made by radar. Observation of the phase of the electromagnetic radiation intercepted by the antenna as a function of position, when time and frequency remain constant, determines the angular direction of the target This is the measurement of the angle of arrival. The greater the phase difference per unit solid angle the more accurate will be the measurement. A parabolic reflector with a single horn teed makes a continuous measurement of the direction of the equiphase front and no ambiguities are involved. An interferometer antenna consisting of two widely spaced antenna elements makes a discontinuous measurement of angle, and although it may make an accurate measurement, it is ambiguous. If the spacing between the antenna elements were close enough (less than 1/2), no ambiguities in angle would result I he variation of phase with time, when position and frequency are fixed, is essentially the measurement of the doppler frequency shift. This assumes that the illuminating radiation is monochromatic and that the transmitted signal is used as a reference If the measurement of phase is continuous, as in the case of the radars described in ^nap. 5, the doppler measurement is unambiguous. However, when the
be The measurements of angular direction, range, and doppler velocity may be derived from the variation of phase with position, frequency, and time. Measurements of target shape size, and rotation result from measuring the variation of the amplitude with the same dimensions. Not all radars utilize the information available from the entire six derivatives. Most radars extract only the phase variations The measurement of phase and amplitude as a function of position, frequency and time may be made continuously or at discrete sampling intervals. Sampled measureinferred
derivatives
from which the nature of the target can
CW
by the twofrequency radar described in Sec. 3.5, where the range to a target is determined by measuring the phase difference between two echo signals which are at different frequencies. Both the radar which transmits a pulse train and the two-frequency radar measure range discontinuously, so that ambiguities are possible. For example a continuous and hence nonambiguous, range measurement can be made with a frequency-modulated transmission increasing linearly with time. A radar which transmits a single pulse also measures the range in a continuous fashion. In general, a waveform with a line spectrum will produce range ambiguities; a continuous spectrum will not
areôssMe" The variation of phase with frequency, when time and position remain constant is a measure of the range to the target. Consider the transmitted waveform to be a single pulse. If, at some later time, the phases of the different frequency components of the scattered signal were measured, it would be possible to predict at what time they would all be in phase again and add up to a pulse. Hence the rate of change of phase with requency is equivalent to time delay or range. Although this principle might not be too obvious when applied to the pulse radar, it is strikingly demonstrated
dlSC0ntinU0US as in the
'
MTI
doppler
or the pulse-doppler radar, ambiguities
CW
CW
Sec. 10.3]
Extraction of Information
455
Amplitude Derivatives. Measurement of the echo-signal amplitude as a function of and time is not as commonly used in radar as similar measurements measurement of phase variations is more germane to the beThe with phase. made havior of the target as if it were a point source, while the measurement of amplitude is more appropriate for investigating the size and shape of the target. The variation of signal amplitude as a function of frequency, assuming time and A plot of the echo signal position remain fixed, is a measure of the size of the target. from a sphere target as a function of frequency would be similar in shape to the plot of At low frequencies the radar cross section radar cross section shown in Fig. 2.10. 4 follows the Rayleigh scattering law (a <~ A~ ), while at high frequencies the cross section approaches its optical value, the projected area of the sphere. A complete plot of cross This suggests that in the general section vs. frequency determines the size of the sphere. case, the variation of amplitude with frequency is related to the size of the target. The variation of echo amplitude with position, when the frequency and time are fixed, A plot of amplitude vs. angular direction is simply the is related to the target shape. The plots of cross scattering pattern of the target; examples were shown in Chap. 2. section as a function of viewing aspect depend upon the shape of the target; however, it is not too obvious how much of a target description can be inferred, without extensive analysis, from the cross-section dependence on angle. The variation of the echo amplitude with time, when frequency and position are fixed, For example, the relative change of is a measure of the change of shape of the target. position of aircraft in close formation, the change of attitude of a single aircraft, or the The latter two examples spin of a satellite, all result in a change of amplitude with time. are not strictly a change in target shape except in the sense that shape means the total specification of the positions in space of all the component elements. Discussion. The measurement of the variations in amplitude with position x, frequency/, and time / are not employed as often as the corresponding phase measurements. Because of the importance of phase, modern radars which are to be used to the fullest extent of their capabilities require stringent control or knowledge of the phase of
position, frequency,
the transmitted signal.
The
1.
I
six
measurement derivatives may be summarized

-* angle
4.
as follows
\dxh,f
dt
dt
--
shape
\dxh,f
2.
OJ
relative velocity
5.
> change of shape (rotation)
fx,f
!x,t
3-
\~)
\
-> range
6.
I
\
->
size
lf,x
OJ H,x
10.3.
Review of Radar Measurements
The three measurements most often made by radar are (1) the range to the target, (2) In this section some of the the rate of change of range, and (3) the angle of arrival.
more usual techniques forobtaining these measurements will be briefly reviewed. Most of the methods for making radar measurements have been described in other parts of this book, with the exception of the measurement of height, which will be discussed in more detail than the others. Range. This is probably the most important measurement made by radar. There
are few techniques that can duplicate the ability of a radar in determining the range of a distant object. The measurement of range is the measurement of the time difference
between the arrival of the echo signal and a suitable reference
signal.
The
reference
is
456
[Sec. 10.3
usually the transmitted signal. The transmitted signal must be marked in some distinguishing manner so that its echo may be recognized as having been transmitted at a particular time known at the receiver. The timing mark may be applied to the signal amplitude (pulse radar), frequency (FM-CW radar), or phase (multiple-frequency
CW
radar).
The most common method of marking the transmitted signal is with amplitude moduform of a rectangular pulse. Although other forms of amplitude modulation could be employed, pulse modulation is simple and usually not too difficult to
lation in the
generate.
The transmitted signal may also be marked in time by varying the frequency. This is the principle of the radar described in Sec. 3.3. The frequency modulation may be carried out continuously with time, or it may modulate a single long pulse as in the
FM-CW
pulse-compression technique described at the end of this chapter. The phase of the transmitted signal is a time reference. It can be used to measure range by comparing the phase of the echo signals and the transmitted signal. This is practical only for ranges less than half a wavelength and is not useful at the usual microwave radar frequencies. In Sec. 3.5 a technique was discussed whereby the range could be measured by comparing the phase differences between two separate frequencies. A long pulse also can be phase-modulated to obtain a range measurement of high
accuracy.
Range Rate. The change of range with time may be determined from the shift in echo-signal frequency caused by the doppler effect (Sec. 3.1). The radar, MTI radar, and pulse-doppler radar depend on the doppler shift for discriminating fixed from moving targets. The discontinuous nature of pulse transmissions, however, can result in ambiguous measurements. transmissions permit the doppler to be determined
CW
CW
unambiguously. Range rate may also be found in a straightforward manner by measuring the rate of change of successive observations of range. The two methods should agree if the propagation medium is not dispersive, that is, if the velocity of propagation is not a function of frequency. Angular Position. The angular position of a target is specified by two orthogonal angular coordinates, as, for example, azimuth and elevation. The angular coordinates of a target are determined from the direction of the equiphase surface of the echo wavefront. This direction is called the angle of arrival. The radar measurement of angle using a mechanically scanned parabolic antenna with single horn feed is essentially continuous and, therefore, unambiguous. A highly directive antenna one with a narrow beam is scanned past the target, and the direction corresponding to maximum echo-signal amplitude indicates the direction of the target. The single antenna beam is continuously time-shared over the search volume. It is also possible to make a continuous measurement of angle with many overlapping antenna beams, each looking in a different direction to simultaneously search the volume in space. An example of this type of radar was the postamplification beam-forming array described in Sec. 7.7. Another example is the amplitude-comparison monopulse radar of Sec. 5.4. The larger the antenna, the narrower will be the antenna beam and the more accurate will be the measurement of angular position. However, there is always some practical upper limit to the size of an antenna. Angular accuracy can be improved at the expense of ambiguities by using two or more antennas located many wavelengths apart. This is an example of a discontinuous angle measurement and is called an interferometer. The farther the spacing between the separate antennas, the more accurate will be the angle measurement. The discontinuous nature of the interferometer antenna results in an ambiguous angle measurement. Consequently, the technique has had but limited application in radar, although
Sec. 10.3]
it
457
2 has been widely used in radio astronomy, especially where the ambiguities
may
be
easily resolved.
There are many applications in which a knowledge of target An obvious example is where the target is known to lie necessary. height may not be on the surface of the earth, and its position is determined by range and azimuth. Howtarget's position in three ever, there are many instances in which a knowledge of the third position coordithe used as can be angle elevation The dimensions is essential.
Measurement ofHeight.
more convenient to use height. Height may be derived from the measurement of range and elevation angle. The use of height, instead of the elevation to angle from which it is derived, is more desirable in those applications where it is apt
nate, but
it is
often
than the elevation angle. This is usually true for aircraft targets or for with nearly circular orbits. Three-dimensional (3-D) position information can be obtained with a symmetrical pencil-beam antenna. Both the azimuth and the elevation angle can be determined from a single observation with a single radar equipment. The pencil beam might slowly search a hemispherical volume in space by rapidly nodding in elevation and elevating while azimuth in rotate could beam the alternatively, or azimuth, rotating in
be
less variant
satellites
The chief disslowly to trace out a helical-scan pattern, as does the SCR 584 radar. large time relatively requires a advantage of a radar with a pencil beam is that it usually of hits to be number the on depends time search The to cover the volume of interest. obtained from each target. The greater the number of hits per scan, the more accurate The time t, rewill be the angle measurement and the better the MTI performance. beamwidth elevation <j> and d beamwidth azimuth B over quired to scan an antenna of B
0 and total elevation angle <j> when n pulses are to be received from t a total azimuth angle r) is each resolution cell (with a pulse repetition frequency f
t
ts
= -UMl
(10.1)
60 in elevation Consider a 2 pencil beam that is to search a volume 360 in azimuth and if the scanand MTI employs radar If the ,000 cps. of 1 at a pulse repetition frequency ning fluctuations are to be attenuated by 30 db, Fig. 4.40 states that at least 38 pulses must be processed per angular resolution cell. Substituting these values into Eq. (10. 1) A 600-knot aircraft could fly 40.5 nautical miles in results in a frame time of 4.05 min. between observations. If MTI were not distance long relatively which is a time, this necessary and if three hits per scan were satisfactory, the frame time would be 0.27 min and the same aircraft would travel 2.7 nautical miles between looks. Sacrificing the MTI capability for the three-dimensional capability of the scanning pencil-beam search radar is sometimes a worthwhile trade since the pencil beam will generally be looking not be as important. at targets above the ground clutter and the need for MTI may as in conventional mechanical, be azimuth may in pencil beam The rotation of the ground-based search radars. A rapid nodding scan is often used in elevation and may
Alternatively, the paraalso be performed mechanically by moving the entire antenna. linear array feeding a a array, or planar the scanner, or bolic torus with organ-pipe parabolic cylinder might also be used to scan the beam. The linear array could be electronically scanned in elevation
scanning
is
and mechanically scanned in azimuth. Frequency scanning for this application if the necessary electronic form of a convenient
is
bandwidth
available.
Elevation information maybe obtained by stacking a number of narrow pencil beams Each of the stacked beams in elevation and noting which beam contains the echo. separate transmitter might be used for each beam, feeds an independent receiver. illuminate the or alternatively, a separate broad-coverage transmitting beam could beams may pencil overlapping The beams. volume common to all narrow receiving
458
[Sec.
10.3
be generated with a single reflector antenna fed by a number of horns one for each beam as in the AN/TPS-27 radar shown in Fig. 7. 1 4. The beams may also be generated with an array antenna whose elements are combined to form a number of overlapping beams. By interpolating the voltages between adjacent beams of the stacked-beam configuration, it is possible to obtain a more precise measurement of the elevation angle than can be obtained with a single stationary pencil beam. In many radar applications a. fan beam is used to search the required volume. Even
though the broad beamwidth of a fan beam
in elevation
does not permit the measure-
AN/FPS-6 S-band height-finding radar shown inside its radome. Antenna is 30 ft long wide and nods up and down at a rate of either 20 or 30 nods per minute. Its range with aircraft targets is approximately 200 miles. (Courtesy General Electric Company, Heavy Military
Fig. 10.1
ft
.
by 7i
Electronics Department.)
ment of the elevation angle
to any degree of precision, it is possible, in some cases, to obtain a rough approximation of target height. One technique makes use of the phenomenon described in Sec. 1 1.2 whereby, under certain circumstances, the pattern of a broad fan beam is broken into many smaller lobes by interference between the the wave reflected from the surface of the earth. "Lobing" is more occur at the lower radar frequencies and when the beam is located over water or other good reflecting surfaces. If the interference lobe pattern of the antenna is known either by calculation or by calibration, using a known aircraft targetthe range at which a target is first detected by the radar is a measure of target height. 3 The path of the target can be followed through the lobe pattern to obtain confirmation
direct
likely to
wave and
Sec. 10.3]
459
of the height. This technique is not too satisfactory since it offers but a crude estimate of height; it is not too reliable; it depends upon too many uncontrollable factors such as the propagation conditions; and it requires an a priori knowledge of the radar cross section of the target. Another technique for measuring elevation angle or height includes the use of two antennas mounted one above the other. The elevation angle is measured by comparing the phase differences in the antennas, as in an interferometer. Elevation angle can also be measured by generating two overlapping elevation fan beams with a single reflector
monopulse radar. The sum and difference signals are used just as in the monopulse tracking radar, except that the angle-error voltage does not control a servo loop but is used directly as a measure of the elevation angle. The usual method of obtaining both azimuth- and elevation-angle measurements inOne of the two radars is a vertical fan beamvolves two separate fan-beam radars.
as in the amplitude-comparison
narrow beam in azimuth angle, broad in elevation angle rotating in azimuth to measure the range and azimuth and provide the MTI when necessary. This is the conA separate radar with a horizontal fan beam narrow in ventional search radar.
Slant
beam
Vertical
beam
Fig. 10.2.
Geometry of the V-beam
radar.
This is called is used to measure elevation. The range and a height finder, an example of which is the AN/FPS-6 (Fig. 10.1). azimuth obtained with the search radar can be used to position the height finder in azimuth. The height finder searches for the target by scanning in elevation. Upon acquiring a target at the same range as indicated by the search radar, it proceeds to nod about the target at a rapid rate to accurately determine the center of the beam. The search radar and the height-finder radar may be operated at two separate locations, or
elevation angle, broad in azimuth angle
may be mounted back-to-back on the same pedestal. Another height-finding technique employed in the past is the V-beam radar? This consists of two fan beams, one vertical and the other tilted at some angle to the vertical The separation between the vertical beam and the slant beam as shown in Fig. 10.2. shown in this sketch is 45. The time between observations of the same target in the two beams depends upon the target range and height. It can be shown that the height
they
h of a target at a range
R is
=
(1
sin Ao,
2 sin Aco)
8
where Aco
o.)
= azimuth rotation between beams = = azimuth rotation rate, rps = time between observations, sec h
s
co s th
is shown between the vertical and the slant beam, there is some advantage in making the angle smaller if the radar must operate with a high traffic The larger the number of targets, the more difficult is the problem of corredensity. The closer the beams, the easier it is to correlate lating the echoes from the two beams.
Although an angle of 45
460
[Sec. 10.3
the echoes.
the
beams
at zero elevation so that the data
Another useful modification of the configuration of Fig. 10.2 is to separate from the vertical and the slant beams do not
appear close in time.
The AN/CPS-6B was the first radar to use a V beam. The angle between the two beams was 45, with a 10 separation between beams at zero elevation angle. The accuracy of the height measurement claimed for the radar was 1,000 ft, which is comparable with that obtained with nodding beam height finders of the same vintage. A
variation of the
V beam
is
an X-beam configuration.
Fig. 10.3.
AHSR-1 FAA
height-surveillance radar.
{Courtesy
Maxson
Electronics Corporation.)
The AHSR-1 (air height surveillance radar number 1) shown in Fig. 10.3 is a receiveonly height-finding equipment used in conjunction with an S-band surveillance radar 4 to obtain 3-D target data on aircraft targets for use in air-traffic control. It generates 0.2 beam is in width and is lowest vertical plane. The 1 1 1 receiving beams in the oriented 0.5 above the horizontal. The highest beam is directed at an elevation of 40
The antenna is a vertical linear array. The wide is approximately 1 .0 in width. dimension of the fan beam is in azimuth. Three separate linear arrays arranged in an The target is illuminated by a equilateral triangle provide complete 360 coverage. The stacked fan beams of basic surveillance radar which provides range and azimuth. The multiple stacked receiving beams are the AHSR-1 provide the elevation angle. formed electronically with an RF beam-forming network. The antenna system is 160
and
Sec. 10.4]
ft
461
Each of the three arrays contains approximately 10 miles of waveguide. high. Because the height resolution of 1,000 ft at a range of 50 nautical miles is claimed. antenna one-way of the are those sidelobes AHSR-1 is a receiving antenna only, the interfering of The effects radars. of active pattern the two-way than pattern rather circuit using signals entering via the sidelobes are reduced with a sidelobe cancellation
an omnidirectional antenna.
10.4. Statistical Estimation of
ParametersLikelihood Function
the estimation of parameters is a part of the mathematical theory of communications and It has found wide application in many fields, including statistics. TR) cos as A [2-rrf(t represented <], be may radar by a received echo The radar. 2J?/c is the transit time to a range R where A is the amplitude, / is the frequency, TR is the phase of the transmitted signal with back, c is the velocity of light, and
The theory of
and
<f>
three parameters of the echo signal which give information concerning the target are the amplitude A, the frequency/, and the time delay TR The phase (f> is an arbitrary constant assumed known a priori and is not a paramBecause of noise the measurements of these parameters will be eter to be estimated. spread in a random fashion about some mean value and represent a stochastic process.
respect to
some
reference.
The
the theory of estimation, the mean value of each parameter and its variance (mean-square deviation from the mean) may be estimated. The estimate of the mean value (first moment) is an estimate of the parameter itself, while the estimate of its variance (second moment) is an indication of the accuracy of the measurement. Higher-order moments can also be estimated if of value. This section summarizes some of the basic principles of the estimation theory of 6 5 The basis of this estimation theory is the Fisher and Cramer as discussed by Slepian.
From
maximum-likelihood function.
The
received signal that
is
accessible to the observerf
may be
represented by
( 10 - 3 )
y{t)
= jfoOfcOg,
,0 +
, .
. .
"(0
.
.
The signal is a ,a m). where y(t) is the sum of the noise n{t) and a signal sââ^ are three paradar there In a a a parameters of the m m function of time and v 2 rameters of interest. The parameter a 1 might correspond to amplitude a 2 to frequency and a3 to time delay. It is assumed that a complete statistical description of the noise For most purposes, the noise may be assumed to be Gaussian. is known at the receiver. Gaussian noise is representative of many practical noise processes, and it also makes the
.
complicated that do other distributions. The values of ,a m , but the observer ,a m) are assumed to be known for all values of Mi, s(t;a lt signal y(t). received of the values parameter the of knowledge priori has no a number of observations are made of y{t) either at discrete time intervals or else continuously for a finite time interval. The discrete values are represented as
mathematical analysis
. . .
less
y.
=s +
.
ni
1,
iV
(10.4)
These
N values of y(t) are used to make estimates of the parameters.

is
Since the complete statistical description of noise

.
assumed known, the joint-prob-
,n s ) is available to the observer. ability-density function for noise /( 1 ,n 2 , joint-probability-density function for the and the s , From Eq. (10.4), n t t t y
. .
observed values of the signal j>(0

Ps(yi,y*
>/.v;ai2.
is
>
J = pJji - s
i>
y*
~ s*
>
-^
_ s^>
more
10 5)
-
It is necessarily infer a human observer. t "Observer" does not applies to the type of logic designed into the receiver, as in Sec. 9.4.
meant
to be
general
and
462
[Sec.
10.5
known and depends on
Therefore the job of the observer is to form estimates of the 's on the basis of the observations y lt yN described by a probability-density function s whose form
.
. .
N
is
.
the
a's.
Let a be any estimate of a single parameter a based on the
N observations^,
The variance of a obeys
the inequality 6
yY
\dE{d) Variance a
>
da
(10.6)
P.
d log
da
where E denotes the expected, or mean, value of a random variable. If the expected value is equal to the parameter of interest [ that is, E(d) a for all a's], the estimates are called unbiased and
Variance a
>
r-rr-
rr=r
Y d 'og Ps f
(10.7)
If an efficient estimate a of a exists,
Those unbiased estimates for which the equality sign holds are called efficient estimates. it can be found as the unique, nonconstant root of the
following equation
dlogp s (yi,)'2,---,.^v;fl)
da
,,...
(108)
which is considered as an equation for a in terms of the /s.
The probability-density function/^, ,yx\a) of Eqs. (10.5) and (10.8) is called the likelihoodfunction. Solutions of Eq. (10.8) are those which maximize the likelihood function and are called maximum-likelihood estimates. Constant solutions of Eq. (10.8) are not reasonable estimators since they do not depend onj>; therefore only nonconstant values need be considered.

The method of maximum likelihood is a very useful analytical technique. The solution of Eq. (10.8) provides an estimate of the mean value of a, and Eq. (10.7) provides an estimate of its variance: Examples of the method of maximum likelihood as applied
to several special cases of interest in radar
10.5. Theoretical
may
be found in Slepian's original paper. 6
Accuracy of Range and Doppler-velocity Measurements
detect the presence of an echo signal is fundamentally limited Likewise, noise is the factor that limits the accuracy with which the radar signals may be estimated. The parameters usually of interest in radar applications are the range, or time delay, the range rate, or doppler velocity, and the angle of arrival.
The ability of a radar to

noise.
by
The amplitude of the echo signal might also be measured, but its precise value not important except in so far as it influences the signal-to-noise ratio.
is
usually
In this section the theoretical accuracies of radar measurements will be derived. simplify the analysis, it is assumed that the signal is large compared with the noise.
To
This
is a reasonable assumption since the signal-to-noise ratio must be relatively large if the detection decision is to be reliable (Sec. 2.5). Furthermore, as will be evident later, large signal-to-noie ratios are necessary for accurate measurements. It is also assumed' that the error associated with a measurement of a particular parameter is independent of the errors in any of the other parameters. The validity of this assumption
depends
upon
the availability of a large signal-to-noise ratio. Theoretical radar accuracies may be derived by a variety of methods. Those mentioned in this section are based on (1) simple geometrical relationships between signal,
Sec
10.5]
463
selected and the parameter to be measured, (2) inverse probability, (3) a suitably estimate of the variance using gating function preceded by a matched filter, and (4) the The measure of the error is the root mean square of the differthe likelihood function. ence between the measured value and the true value. sine wave Amplitude, Phase, and Frequency of a Sine Wave. Consider a continuous One phase. the is and < where A is the amplitude,/is the frequency, A sin (2nft
noise,
<f>),
period of the sine wave is shown in Fig. 10.4. The accompanying noise n(t) causes the apparent amplitude to differ from the true am-
by an amount AA = error in measuring amplitude

plitude
n{t).
is
The rms
therefore
(10.9)
^
,
.
dA The
relative error
=
is
(n~*f
Fig. 10.4.
Diagram of one period

;
of sine
dA =
=
i
|(1 1( (.1U.1UJ
j
y,
wave
(solid curve) illustrating the effect of
(A jn
)"
(2S/JV)
noise on the measurement accuracy dashed curve represents signal-plus-noise.
where SjN is the signal-to-noise (power) ratio. The measurement of phase maybe considered as the measurement of the time at which The error in determining the time of a particular the waveform crosses the zero axis.
crossing
is
At
=
slope of sine
is
^
wave at zero crossing
of zero crossing.
Therefore
(10-11)
The
slope of the sine
wave
2rfA
at the point
a^
dt
(At)
I2?L
2-nfA
(10.12)
277/(2S/iVy
Since
(j>
2irft,
the phase error
d<j>
=
dd,
2nfdt
is
^
v
(10-13)
The period T is the time between two successive zero_crossings of the same slope. The rms error in measuring the period will therefore be Vl times the single zero-crossing
rms
error,
assuming that the two zero-crossing measurements are independent.
6T
The error in period Aris
^
df=
2nf(2SINy
= ^r-, 2tt(S/JV)
s
(i-
4)
related to the error in frequency
A/ by AT =
A/// 2
therefore
f
,
(10.15)
The
relative
rms errors
in
frequency and period are of the form
V_
/
ST
(10.16a)
27r(SINf
1
(10.16b)
277(5/^)*
464

period,
[Sec.
10.5
The phase error and the relative amplitude, depend on the signal-to-noise ratio only.
measurement of time delay
and frequency
errors are seen to
Range-accuracy-Leading-edge Measurement.
TR =
2R/c, where c
10.5). The pulse uncorrupted by noise shown by the solid curve. The shape of the pulse is not perfectly rectangular; the rise and decay times are not zero, for this would require an infinite bandwidth. The effect of noise is to perturb the shape of the pulse and to shift the time of threshold crossing as shown by the dashed curve. The maximum slope (rate of rise) of the leading
is
'
determining range with a pulsed waveform is edge of the pulse crosses some threshold 7 (Fig.
The measurement of range is the the velocity of light. One method of to measure the time at which the leading
is
"Rectangular" pulse
^^'Rectangular"pulse
'
plus noise
^
Threshold
Fig. 10.5. Measurement of time delay using the leading (or trailing) edge of the pulse. Solid curve represents echo pulse uncorrupted by noise. Dashed curve represents the effect of noise.
A at the output of a video filter is A/tr where tr the rise time. For large signal-to-noise ratios the slope of the pulse corrupted by noise is essentially the same as the slope of the uncorrupted pulse. From Fig. 10.5 the slope of the pulse in noise may be written as n(t)/AT where n(t) is the noise voltage in R the vicinity of the threshold crossing and is the error in the time-delay
,
edge of a rectangular pulse of amplitude
is
ment.
ATR
measure-
Equating the two expressions for the slope gives
ATB =
or
A/t r
(10.17)
(ATB)
U
(A 2 /n 2 f
(10.18)
(2S/JV)*
where A 2jn 2 is the video signal-to-noise (power) ratio. The last part of Eq. (10.18) follows from the fact that the video signal-to-noise power ratio is equal to twice the IF signal-to-noise power ratio (S/N), assuming a linear-detector law and a large signal-tonoise ratio.
If the rise time of the video pulse
then
noise
tr
**
IB.
power
is limited by the bandwidth B of the IF amplifier, Letting S E/t and TV B, where is the signal energy, the per unit bandwidth, and r the pulse width, the error in the time delay can be
=N
written
If a similar
pulse, the
independent time-delay measurement is made at the trailing edge of the two combined measurements will be improved by VI, or
STr
rectangular pulse
/
\4BE/N
(10.20)
Sec. 10.5]
465
error given by Eq. (10.18) is proFor constant pulse amplitude A, the rms time-delay width. An improvement m pulse the of independent is and time portional to the rise time (increasing the bandwidth) accuracy is obtained, therefore, by decreasing the rise
or increasing the signal-to-noise ratio. Consider the receiver block Accuracy Using Gating Signals and Matched Filters? multiplier) followed by a low-pass (or mixer of a consisting 10.6 in Fig. diagram shown The two inputs to the mixer are the received echo signal y{t) filter (or integrator). TR ). The time TR and a gating signal g(t Low-pass Output true delay time T the of yU) Mixer 2R}c is the estimate
filter
The purpose of the gating signal is to aid in exAs before, it is tracting an estimate of T compared with large is assumed that the signal doubt as to the is no there consequently noise;
.
(multiplier)
(integrator)
g(t-T R
10.6.
existence or the approximate position of the
echo pulse. The echo signal y{t) is composed of signal and T ) + (/), where s(t - T ) is the noise, s(t The mixer is assumed to be linear. The connoise. of ,.~* absence v/* mv ai/avnww echo signal in the ecnu n at the output of the low-pass filter may be noise and signal s tributions due to
Receiver for measuring range Fig. (time delay T) using a gating signal gif - TB).
expressed as
So(TB
-T
=jg(t
- TB)s(t - T
dt
(10.21)
n (TR )
= Jg(t-TR)n(t)dt
.
(10.22)
The error in measurement is A TR = TR T ,, should be an odd The form of the output s (ATR) with an optimum gating signal even-order derivatives are zero. For Its value is zero at ATR = 0, and its function. proportional to ATR (Thus it is similar small values of \TR the output will be directly
.,,,..
.
to the angle-error detector of a
monopulse tracking
radar.)
evaluated at ATB =
or
The
ratio of the
of the output s (ATR ) mean-square noise voltage n\ to the slope in time measurement, error rms the of measure as a will be taken
(?>TR
?
ds
AT
(ATRj
(10.23)
2
where
M
is
dATB
The
receiver output characteristic with signal s is shown by the dashed curve.
The
error
illustrated in Fig. 10.7.
noise only is represented by the solid curve. The effect of Noise displaces the zero crossing by an amount At
= ATR
Sollenberger 8 show that the Using the calculus of variations, Mallinckrodt and which minimizes the time-delay Fourier transform S,(f) of the optimum gating function constant factor, by error [Eq. (10.23)] is given, except for an arbitrary
S(f)
= j2n/S(f)
IW)|
2
(10.24)
T ) and the are the Fourier transforms of the input signal s{t Theredifferentiation. to a factors/corresponds input noise n{t), respectively. The derivative of the received time the as appears waveform fore the optimum gating
where S( f) and
N^f)
466

if the
[Sec.
10.5
noise spectrum is constant. By applying the convolution theorem to Eq. (10.21), the Fourier transform of the output S (f) is equal to S (f)S*(f), or
tJ
waveform,
c
This
is
_J WK(/)l m"
(/)
a transform of an odd function. The gating signal and the matched filter are related to one another. In Sec. 9.2 it was shown that the frequency-response function of the matched filter was given except for a constant and a time delay, by
~Hf)f
(10.25)
H(f)
S*(f)
IW)I
(10.26)
where in the notation of Sec. 9.2, S*(f) is the complex conjugate of the Fourier transform of the input signal in the absence of noise and N^f) is the spectrum of the input noise
Measurement
error
&T H=T R -T
Fig. 10.7. Effect of noise n(t) in shifting the apparent zero crossing of the output s <T F gating receiver of Fig. 10.6.
T)
of the
(the Fourier transform of the input noise voltage).

is
Therefore,
if
preceded by a matched
the mixer of Fig 10 6

signal will be
filter,
the
form of the optimum gating
sn(f)
=JM
first
)
(10.27)
This is the Fourier transform of the doublet impulse u 2 (t\ or pulse function d'(t). The gating waveform is therefore
g(t
derivative of the im-
- TR =
)
u 2 (t
- TR =
d'{t
Tr)
(10.28)
consists in passing the followed by a gating in time that samples the signal waveform at the instant before and the instant following the time TR The difference between these two samples is a measure of the difference between the estimated delay time TK and the true delay time T In some respects, the gating process is analogous to the split-range-gate technique for range-tracking radars described in Sec 5 6 except that the sampling gates described here are of infinitesimal width whereas they are usually oi the order of a pulse width in range tracking. UbS t t Uting thC P timum atin si nal int0 the expression for accuracy gives (Ref. g 8 S 8 | 12 T^>. 1
The above
analysis indicates that

filter
optimum range processing
echo signal through a matched
AT|
(10.29)
Jo
(27rff\S(f)\'l\Ni (f)fdf
Sec. 10.5]
If the noise
spectrum
is
467
a constant with spectral energy equal to

error
is
watts/cps of band-
width, the
mean square
(dTR f
= ATA
4 f
Nj,
(10.30)
"W)
|S(/)|
df
A bandwidth may be defined such that

/?
X
!
o2
(2nff \S(f)f df
co
J-
i
\S(f)\ df
2
f
oo
(27T/)
|S(/)|
d/
(10.31)
h, J
/:
where
is
the signal energy.
previously in this
book and
is
This definition of bandwidth is unlike those discussed not simply related to either the half-power bandwidth or
Frequency
Fig. 10.8. Spectrum of a bandwidth-limited "rectangular" pulse.
the noise bandwidth.
In terms of the effective bandwidth, the time-delay error becomes
TR
.
=
j9(2E/N
)'
(10.32)
and the range error is dR = (c/2) 6Tn 9 The effective bandwidth as defined by Eq. (10.31) was first introduced by Gabor and has been used by Woodward 10 in his treatment of detection and accuracy by means of inverse probability. Both Gabor and Woodward define the effective bandwidth in
terms of the complex-frequency representation, while the definition presented above is 9 In essence, fi 2 is the normalized second moment in terms of the real time waveforms. 2 of the spectrum \S(f)\ about the mean (here taken to be at zero frequency). The larger the value of /? 2 the more accurate will be the range measurement. 2 Examples of Time-delay (Range) Accuracy. The computation of /S for a perfectly 2 oo. This rectangular pulse one with zero rise time and zero fall time^results in /3
,
implies that the
range error for a perfectly rectangular pulse is zero and In practice, however, pulses that the range measurement can be made with no error. fall time requires an infinite zero or a time zero rise rectangular since a perfectly not are 2 bandwidth. Finite bandwidths result in finite rise times and finite /S 2 pulse, it "rectangular" practical for a error) In order to compute jS (and the range just as with tt/V)/^/, (sin form the of spectrum is the pulse S(f) that assumed will be the perfectly rectangular pulse of width t, but that the bandwidth is limited to a finite 11 This is equivalent to passing a perfectly rectangular value B as shown in Fig. 10.8. The time waveform of the output will be a pulse of pulse through a filter of width B. width approximately t, but the slopes of the leading and trailing edges are finite. An
minimum rms
example of the shape of a bandwidth-limited rectangular pulse
is
shown
in Fig. 10.9.
468

integrals in the expression for
2
/?
[Sec.
10.5
The
to
+ B/2 instead of from oo to + oo.

fB/2
[Eq. (10.31)] extend, in this instance, Thus the effective bandwidth is
from
5/2
&=
{2nf\
J-b/2 J-B/2
p{s\v?nfT)hYdf
(sin
_1
1
J_
775t
sin ttBt
__
D/'*2
/?
J-B/2
Vr)/*W
T * Si(7rBT)
< C0S
wBT
A
2
where
Si
is
the sine integral function defined

is
by
Jo
oo,
(sin u)/u du.
plot of
t 2 as a
function of Bt
shown
in Fig. 10.10.
As Br
the product
/?
t 2 - 2Br, or
^
Figure 10.10 indicates that
2
/?
2g T
is
for large
Bt
(10.34)
t 2 ? 2Bt
a reasonably good approximation for almost
Time
Fig.
10.9.
*
a band-limited rectangular
filter.
Shape of rectangular puise
after passing through
any value of Br. Therefore the rms error in the time-delay measurement for a "rectangular" pulse of width r, limited to a bandwidth B, is approximately
STjj R iv
1
bandwidth-limited rectangular pulse
(10.35)
\abeinJ
The pulse width r in the above expression is that of the perfectly rectangular pulse before band limiting. It is a good approximation to the width of the band-limited pulse when
Br
is
large.
Equation (10.35) is the same as Eq. (10.20) but is derived in a totally different manner. This is a rather interesting result, for it seems to imply that the value of time delay obtained with a straightforward method like the leading-edge technique can be as accurate as the optimum processing technique described above. It was assumed in the analysis of a bandwidth-limited pulse that a matched filter was employed. If the spectral width of the "rectangular" pulse is changed, the matched filter must be changed also. The rms time-delay error for a trapezoidal-shaped pulse of width 27\ across the top, flat portion and with rise and fall times of T may be shown from Eqs. (10.3 1) and (10.32) 2 to be (T 2 4- 3T T\* tra P ez Ji dal P ulse (10-36)
6/7
When
T\
the trapezoidal pulse approaches in shape the rectangular pulse, that

2,
is,
when
>T
Eq. (10.36) becomes
Sec.
10.5]
469
sa t/2,
The bandwidth
where t
is
B is
approximately the reciprocal of the

is
rise
time
T2 and
,
if
Tx
the pulse width, the rms error
dTR
which
pulse.
is
<*
is
the same as that derived previously for the bandwidth-limited rectangular

in Eq. (10.36), the time-delay error for a triangular-shaped pulse
By letting T -*
4 5 6 2 3 Bt, spectral bandwidth x pulse width

(S
Fig. 10.10. Plot of

effective
/?V
bandwidth,
B=
Bt for a bandwidth-limited "rectangular" pulse; frequency band occupied by pulse spectrum, t = pulse width.
as a function of
obtained.
Calling the width at the base of the triangle rB
2T2
the
rms error
is
tb
<5T R
triangular pulse
)*
(10.38)
V12(2E/N
Consider a pulse described by the Gaussian function

s(t)
1.384A
exp
(10.39)
where t is the half-power pulse width. The Gaussian-shaped pulse is sometimes specified in those applications where interference with equipments operating at nearby frequencies is to be avoided. The Gaussian pulse is well suited for this purpose since Its rms range error its spectrum decays rapidly on either side of the carrier frequency.
is
dT R
where
=
1.18(2E/N
77B(2E/N
Gaussian pulse
(10.40)
B is
The
effective
the half-power bandwidth of the Gaussian-pulse spectrum. bandwidth of a waveform with a uniform frequency spectrum of width
470
[Sec.
10.5
is
B is
TTB/V3. The waveform which gives rise to a uniform frequency spectrum j8 of the form (sin x)jx, where x ttBt. The rms time-delay error is therefore
ST
yj3
sin
waveform
(10.41)
irB(2ElN
The radar waveform which yields the most accurate time-delay measurement, all other factors being equal, is the one with the largest value of effective bandwidth /?. If the bandwidth is limited by external factors to a value B, the spectrum which produces
Amplitude A
Time
Fig. 10.11. Structure of the fine-grain range information.
the largest
/?,
crowded
all its
and hence the most accurate range measurement, would be one which energy at the two ends of the band that is,
;
S(f) = %f-f -
5/2)
+ d(f~f +
5/2)
where f is the carrier frequency and d(x) is the delta function. The corresponding time waveform consists of two sine waves at frequencies f 5/2. This is the twofrequency radar waveform discussed in Sec. 3.5. The two-frequency radar spectrum (and its corresponding waveform) are not always suitable in practice since they lead to ambiguous measurements if the frequency separation B between the two sine waves is greater than c/2R b where c is the velocity of propagation and R is h the maximum unambiguous range. If the range measurement is to be unambiguous, the spectrum must be continuous over the bandwidth B. Even with a continuous spectrum, minor lobes or spurious responses may be produced in the time waveform and can interfere with the interpretation of the measurements. For example, the uniform spectrum of width .8 gives rise to a (sin x)/x time waveform (x = irBt) with first sidelobes (on either side of the main peak) 13.2 db below the main peak. A concave spectrum will produce better accuracy but higher sidelobes, while a convex spectrum
CW
CW
produces lower sidelobes at the expense of range accuracy. The selection of the optimum waveform for radar measurement must therefore be a compromise between the requirements of accuracy and ambiguity. In all the previous discussions it was assumed that the radar measurement is based on the video waveform and not the RF or IF waveform. Range measurements using the RF or IF waveforms are more accurate, but they also lead to ambiguous results. The ambiguities are spaced a half RF wavelength. The range information contained in the RF or IF signal is called by Woodward 10 the fine-grain range information. An example of the appearance of the fine-structure information is shown in Fig. 10.11. This is a plot of the output signal amplitude as a function of time. In order to extract
*
471
Sec. 10.5]
the fine-grain range information the phase of the echo signal The value of /S2 for the fine-grain information is
/oo
must be properly preserved.
& H^
where
yj,
(27r/)
|S(/-/ )| 2 d/
2
)\
(2tt)
= -=*-&
(/-/ ) 2 |S(/)| 2 #
\S(f)\*df
+ (27T/o)2 * (27Tfof
(10.42)
J-00
W-f
i
df
J -00
\S(ff )\
jg2
= carrier frequency = video spectrum centered at/ _ va Ue of derived from video waveform (value of [P used in previous
2
/3
portions of this section) The improved measurement accuracy possible with fine-grain information is seldom taken advantage of because of the ambiguities. Radars which destroy the phase information also destroy the fine-grain range information. The output of such radars
is
is mathematically analogous to the calculation of the of inertia of a body about its center of mass, while the calculation of /Sf9 is analogous to the calculation of the moment of inertia about an axis parallel to, but displaced from, an axis through the center of mass. Accuracy and Inverse Probability. The method of inverse probability as described by Woodward 10 and others 12 13 has been used as a basis for determining the theoretical The method of inverse probability accuracies associated with radar measurements. consists in computing the a posteriori probability of an event, given both the a priori It was shown in Eq. (9.44) that the probability and the form of the disturbing noise. 2Rjc, associated with the echo signal a posteriori probability of the delay time TR
'
the envelope of Fig. 10.11. The calculation of /J 2 (or /S2)
moment
y(t), is
P(TR
where p{TR y)
|
y)
kp(TR) exp
[-- \ y(t) Si (t
- TR) dt
(10.43)
is the a posteriori (conditional) probability that the target is at a range given that the signal received is y(t) ;kisa constant ;p(TR ) is the a priori probability TR) is a replica of the transis the noise power per cycle; s { (t of obtaining TR s t (t T) (?), where T is the true mitted signal s ( (t) delayed a time TB and y{t) radar receiver based on time delay and n(t) is the accompanying noise voltage. Eq. (10.43) selects that value of TR which maximizes the a posteriori probability p(TR y). Because of noise, the maximum ofp(TR y) will not be precisely defined. The finite width in the vicinity of the maximum is a measure of the fuzziness or un-
TR
+ A
More precisely, the measure of the error will maximum of p(TR y). the T about the rms value of be taken to be R In the region where p(TR y) is a maximum, the a priori probability p{TR ) is assumed to be a slowly varying function of TR consequently p{TR ) may be considered to be a Maximizing p{TR y) is therefore equivalent to maximizing the exponent constant.
certainty in the echo time measurement.
|
|
f
JVo *
OO
y(t) Si (t
- TR
dt
(10.44)
This expression could also have been obtained by considering the detection process in terms of either the matched filter, the cross-correlation receiver, or the likelihood-ratio T ) n{t) Substituting y{t) s t {t receiver as described in the previous chapter. One integral involves an autointo the above equation results in two integrals. TR) and st (t T ), while the other is a cross correlation between two signals s t {t
472

and
noise, s { (t
[Sec.
)
10.5
correlation between signal
TR
and
n(t).
Although
signal
and noise
cannot be separated on reception, only the integral involving the autocorrelation between the two signals need be considered for the purpose of determining accuracy. This is justified in arguments given by Woodward 10 and is permissible for large signalto-noise ratios. The effect of the integral involving signal and noise is to create ambiguities. These ambiguities can be made negligible by a slight increase in the threshold level, just as noise false alarms on detection are made small by proper selection of the threshold. The maximization of p(TR y) is equivalent, for present purposes, to maximizing
\
g(TR )
Expanding g(TR)
2 f *i = (t - T Nn J-oo
00
) Si (t
- TR
dt
(10.45)
in a Taylor's series
about
g(TB)
g(T )
+ {TB - T )g'{T ) +
2!
g"(T )
(10.46)
we have
g(TQ)
= = =
^\
TT N
-
s%t-T )dt =
s < (f
(10.47a)
n
*'( o>
f J-oo f"
"
2 |S(/)| df = ~ To)s ^ ~ To} dt = TT J-o N f " iM
(10.47b)
g"(T )
Si (t
- T X(t
S(f)
-T )dt=-2Q
" {2nff
|S(/)|
df
= - -^
where
Fourier transform of s t (t
T)
(10.47c)
Substituting the above into Eq. (10.46)
and neglecting higher-order terms, we get

1
g(TR )
Therefore
= 2
(TR
-r
z
2 )
/9
(10.48)
p(TR|}0~exp
P\Tr
- T ?E
(10.49)
The a posteriori probability is of the form of a Gaussian density function in the vicinity of TR = T The standard deviation of TR may then be found by inspection.
.
1
-5T,
(10.50)
P(2EIN
)*
of the same form as Eq. (10.32), derived by other means. Using the theory of parameter estimation of Fisher and Cramer, 5 Slepian 6 has shown that under certain conditions the likelihood function may be used to obtain a lower bound on the estimate of a particular parameter. This was discussed briefly in Sec. 10.4. From Eq. (10.7), the rms deviation with respect to the mean of an estimated parameter a can be written
is
which
A ccuracy and the Likelihood Function
<U)
>
(10.51)
da
Sec. 10.5]
473
(See Sec. 10.4 for the definition of the symbols used.) function pJiy^y^, ,y \a) is the likelihood function.
If the radar signal
is
The joint-probability-density
given by
y{t)
A(TJst
- T + (r)
)
(10.52)
its
Slepian shows that the rms deviation of the estimated time delay about the following inequality:
mean satisfies
>rXW 2
Since
NQ *-COWl R
A{TR) may
t,(tr )
kL\^^ 4
. ,
,.
l -
S-V
d,
i
<
10 53 >
'
be considered a constant, Eq. (10.53) becomes
>f
<t
P. r
a
s t (t
W
It
J-.LarB
=nr-
( 10
54 )
may be
readily
shown
that this reduces to the accuracy expressions given by Eq.
(10.32) or (10.50).
The above derivation does not require any assumptions concerning the a priori knowledge of the parameters to be estimated, as required in the method of inverse
probability.
Accuracy of Frequency (or Doppkr-velocity) Measurement.

inverse probability,
Using the method of
Manasse 12 showed
that the
minimum rms error in the measurement

ia55 >
of frequency
is
J_ y= a(2E/N ,
)*
where
r ^
(2t70V(0 dt
(10.56)
s\t) dt
J oo
and
s(t) is the
definition of a
and 6TR
t
input signal as a function of time. Note the similarity between the and fi, as defined in Eq. (10.31), as well as between the expressions for df The parameter a is called the effective time duration of the signal, and
normalized second moment of s 2 (t) about the mean epoch, taken to be mean is not zero, but some other value t the integrand in the numerator of (10.56) would be (2wy\t t ) 2s 2 (t). In radar, the measurement error specified by Eq. (10.55) is that of the doppler frequency shift. The value of a 2 for a perfectly rectangular pulse of width t is 7t2 t2 /3 thus the rms frequency error is
(a/27r) 2 is the
= 0.
If the
df
^
is
rectangular pulse
(10.57)
7rr(2E/N Q )-
The longer the pulse width, the better the accuracy of the frequency measurement. For a bandwidth-limited "rectangular" pulse, whose time-delay error was specified
by Eq.
(10.33), the value
of a 2
"cos ttBt ttBt
8 (cos ttBt
1)
2 sin ttBt
(ttBt)
2
Si (ttBt)
(10.58)
(TTBrf
Si (ttBt)
(cos ttBt
1)/ttBt
474
[Sec.
10.6
the value of oc 2 approaches tt 2 t 2 /3, which is the same as that obtained for the perfectly rectangular pulse. The value of a 2 for a perfectly rectangular pulse is finite even though its value of /? 2 is infinite. The value of a2 will be infinite, however, for a waveform with a perfectly rectangular frequency spectrum, corresponding to a (sin x)/x time waveform (x rrBt)
In the limit as
Bt
-- oo,
In practice, any waveform must be limited in time, and a 2 will therefore be finite. The frequency error (or a 2) for a waveform with rectangular spectrum may be found in a manner similar to that employed for computing 2 for a /3 bandwidth-limited rectangular pulse. The frequency error will be like that of Eq. (10.33) but with the roles of B and t reversed. The rms error in the measurement of doppler frequency with a trapezoidal pulse is
infinite duration. *, dJ
of
(2T2 /3
/
+ 2TJ
=3
15
2T2 T
3
fTi
3
?T 8\w, F \t
3 /
trapezoidal pulse
(10.59)
\N
This reduces to the expression for a rectangular pulse [Eq. (10.57)] as the trapezoidal pulse becomes more rectangular, that is, when 7\ t/2 T
For the triangular

error
is
pulse,
we
set
Tx
>
2.
in
Eq. (10.59) and
let
2T2
rB
The rms
*<
(10)*
nvixt*
triangular pulse
(10.60)
The rms frequency

Sf
error for a Gaussian-shaped pulse
is
^2Wof
=
LlS(2EIN f
GaMpUlSe
(,0 61)
'
The time-delay and frequency-error expressions obtained in this section apply for a When more than one independent measurement is made, the resultant error may be found by combining the errors in the usual manner for Gaussian statistics; that is, the variance (square of dfoi dT ) of the combined observations is R equal to l/N of the variance of a single observation, where Nis the number of independent observations. If (i 2 or a 2 remains the same for each measurement, the expressions
single observation.
derived here still apply, but with E the total signal energy involved in all observations. This is strictly true, however, only when EjN per observation is large. It does not apply in most cases where postdetection integration is employed since E/N per pulse
is
usually small.
10.6. Uncertainty Relation
The so-called "uncertainty" relation of radar states that the product of the effective bandwidth /S occupied by a signal waveform and the effective time duration a must be greater than or equal to n; that is, 9
/3
>
77
(10.62)
Schwartz a consequence of the Fourier-transform relationship between a time waveform and its spectrum and may be derived without recourse to noise considerations. The use of the word "uncertainty" is a misnomer, for there is nothing uncertain about the "uncertainty" relation of Eq. (10.62). It states the well-known mathematical fact that a narrow waveform yields a wide spectrum and a wide waveform yields a narrow spectrum and both the time waveform and the frequency spectrum cannot be
inequality.
It is
Equation (10.62), the radar "uncertainty" relationship, may be derived definitions of /S and a given by Eqs. (10.31) and (10.56) and by applying the
from the
made
arbitrarily small simultaneously.
Sec. 10.6]
475
The relation of Eq. (10.62) is useful, however, as an indication of the accuracy with which time delay and frequency may be measured simultaneously. The product of the rms time-delay error [Eq. (10.32)] and the rms frequency error [Eq. (10.55)] is
6Tn
df
(10.63)
Substituting the inequality of Eq. (10.62) in the above gives

<5Tr df
<
Ti2EIN
)
(10.64)
This states that the time delay and the frequency may be simultaneously measured to as small a theoretical error as one desires by designing the radar to yield a sufficiently large ratio of signal energy (E) to noise power per cycle (N ), or forfixed E/N to select a radar waveform which results in a large value of fiat.. Large (So. products require waveforms long in duration and of wide bandwidth. The poorest waveform for obtaining accurate time-delay and frequency measure-n. It may be shown that this correments simultaneously is the one for which /Sa sponds to the Gaussian-shaped pulse. The triangular-shaped pulse is little better,
,
since
its /3a
product
is
V%tt.
The radar "uncertainty" relation seems to have the opposite interpretation of the The latter states that the position and uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics.
the velocity of an electron or other atomic particles cannot be simultaneously determined Precise determination of one parameter can be had to any degree of accuracy desired.
only at the expense of the other. This is not so in radar. Both position (range or time delay) and velocity (doppler frequency) may in theory be determined simultaneously if The two uncertainty the (la. product and/or the E/N ratio are sufficiently large. principles apply to different phenomena, and the radar principle based on classical concepts should not be confused with the physics principle that describes quantummechanical effects. In classical radar there is no theoretical limit to the minimum value of the 6TR (5/product since the radar systems designer is free to choose as large a /3a product (by proper selection of the waveform) and E/N ratio as he desires, or can
afford.
tolerances.
His limits are practical ones, such as power limitations or the inability to meet Tn the quantum-mechanical case, on the other hand, the observer does not have control over his system as does the radar designer since the /3a product of a quantum particle is fixed by nature and not by the observer. Proofof the Inequality ofEq. (10.62). The product of the effective bandwidth and the *x effective pulse width is
(2nff
/9a
\S(f)\
df\
J
<x>
(2ntfs\t)dt
(10.65)
00
\S(f)\*df\
J
OO
**
s\t)dt
OO
Using
the inverse Fourier integral transform

s(t)
=
2
I""
SCO exp C/277/0

oo
df
(10.66)
J
it
can be shown that

f " (2T7/)
J
oo
\S(f)\
#=
2
f"
*J
s"(t)s(t) dt
(10.67)
crj
Integrating the right-hand integral by parts

the limits,
and assuming
that the function vanishes at
^
J
O0
(2*/) |S(/)!
4/=
^
/
ls
CO
'M' dt
10 68 )
-
476

Parseval's relationship,
[Sec.
10.7
From
\S(f)\*df=\
- CO
s%t)dt
=E
we
get
J oo
(10.69)
Substituting Eqs. (10.68) and (10.69) into Eq. (10.65),

"/"OO
/*00
2tt /9a
[s'(0]
_*
oo
2
^
**
*V(/)dJ
oo
_
(10.70)
/:
s (r) rf(
Schwartz's inequality for the two real functions
Fand G is
(10.71)
F 2 dx f G 2 dx
J
Letting
> JVg dxT (

>
F=
j'(0 and
G=
ts(t),
we
get
2
t
j"j.mi'dtj_
limits gives
r
s\t) dt
1
"i
ts(t)s'(t)
dt
(10.72)
Integrating the right-hand side by parts and assuming that the function vanishes at the
i2
ts(t)s'(t)dt
>-
=i r C t^{
1
rt
s \t)-\dt
=i
i
/*
i
s \t)dt .
4 LJ-oo dt
4 L/-^
(10.73)
Using Schwartz's inequality with the above relationships in Eq. (10.70) gives
fix
>
77
which
is
the result stated in Eq. (10.62) at the beginning of this section.
The equality sign in Eq. (10.71) will hold only when FjG = constant, or in our case, when s'{t)lts(t) = constant. The Gaussian pulse, s(t) = exp (-/t/ 2 /2), satisfies this
relationship; thus simultaneous time
and frequency measurements made with the Gaussian waveform are poorer than measurements made with any other.
Angular Accuracy
10.7.
position is the measurement of the angle of arrival of the equiphase wavefront of the echo signal. The theoretical rms error of the angle measurement may be derived in a manner similar to the derivations of time (range) and frequency errors discussed in Sec. 10.5."- 16 The analogy between the angular error and the time-delay or frequency error comes about because the Fourier transform describes the relationship between the radiation pattern and the aperture distribution of an antenna in a manner similar to the relationship between the time waveform and its frequency spectrum.
The measurement of angular
Angular Accuracy and Effective Aperture. For simplicity the angular error in one coordinate plane only will be considered. The analysis can be extended to include angular errors in both planes, if desired. It is assumed that the signal-to-noise ratios
are large
function.
and that the noise can be described by the Gaussian probability-density J
Consider a linear in-phase receiving antenna of length D, or a rectangular receiving aperture of width as shown in Fig. 10.12. The amplitude distribution across the aperture as a function of x is denoted A(x). The (voltage) gain as a function of the angle (one-dimensional radiation pattern) in the xz plane is proportional to
Gv(Q)
=
\
A (X)
ex P (i 2w j sin 6 dx J
(10.74)
Sec. 10.7]
(10.74)
is
477
When the angle 6 is small, sin 6^6, and Eq.

transform.
GJL8)
recognized as an inverse Fourier
J-W
\
-^-dx A(x)exp J
A
(10.75)
This
is
analogous to the inverse Fourier transform relating the frequency spectrum

C
S(f) and the time waveform s(t), or

s(0
Jf
S(/)exp 0777/0 df
CO
,
(10.76)
As the antenna scans at a uniform angular rate co s

point source will be proportional to
Gv (6) =
G(co s t)
the received signal voltage from a fixed and may be considered a time
Fig. 10.12. Rectangular receiving aperture of width to radiated pattern G v (6).
and amplitude distribution A{x) giving
rise
If 0/A [in Eq. (10.75)] is identified with t in Eq. (10.76), and if* is identified with/, the theoretical rms error can be obtained by analogy to the time-delay accuracy as given by Eq. (10.32), or
waveform.
d(^)=
y(2E/JV
1 i
(10.77)
where y
is
the effective aperture width defined
by
\A{x)\
2
f"\lirxf
J
00
dx
(10.78)
y
2
;)|
dx
GO
The theoretical angular error of an antenna with a rectangular amplitude distribution

across the aperture
is
_
66
V3A
77D(2/N
i
(10.79a)
)
width is 2tt times the square root of the normalized second 2 The half0. the mean value of x, taken to be at x about \A(x)\ of moment power beamwidth 6B of a rectangular distribution is 0.88A/D, where BB is in radians.
The
effective aperture
Therefore
66
0.6280b
(10.79b)
(2E/Noy
The relative error (,6616B) is a function where the units of 68 are the same as those o(6B ofElN only. The angular error can be many times less than the beamwidth, depending
.
478

.
[Sec.
10.7
upon the value of E/N The accuracy formulas derived previously for the time delay and the frequency may be readily applied to the determination of the angular error for various aperture distributions. The effective aperture width y for several aperture computed analytically are given below:
Parabolic distribution
., ,
1
distributions 17
which can be
4(1
- A)x
D
2
2
,
,
D
2
For For For
A= A = 0.5 A =1.0
y 2 y
= 0.863Z> = 1.88Z) = 3.287Z>

2
(10.80)
2
Cosine distribution
A(x)
= cos
D
2
\x
2
<
2
(10.81)
y
Triangular distribution
1.286D
A(x)
2
=1-| = 0.986D
|x|
|x|<
|
(10.82)
In the above, the angular measurement was based on the one-way voltage gain such as might correspond to a receiving antenna measuring the angle of arrival of a plane wavefront. In radar measurements, the received signal amplitude is proportional to the two-way rather than the one-way voltage-gain pattern, and so the radar angular
accuracy might be different from that given above. Angular Accuracy and Parameter Estimation. Swerling 18 has applied the statistical theory of parameter estimation of Cramer 5 to obtain a lower bound to the accuracy with which the angle of arrival can be measured with a pulsed search radar. The pulse radar is assumed to scan a particular angular sector in one coordinate (azimuth, for example). The angular sector is considered to be large compared with the antenna beam width so that end effects can be neglected. During a single sweep of the beam the point target is assumed stationary. The range coordinate is divided into concentric intervals by range gates. The movement of the antenna beam between pulses, A0, is small compared with the beamwidth. Although any type of envelope detector having a strictly monotonic law could be assumed without affecting the results, the lineardetector law was assumed by Swerling for ease of analysis. The output of the radar receiver for a target within a particular range gate is a series of pulses at the pulse repetition frequency, the envelope of which is modulated by the two-way antenna pattern. If there were no noise, the center of the pulse train could be accurately found from a knowledge of the antenna pattern. However, the presence of receiver noise, external noise, and fluctuations of the target cross section imposes a limitation on the accuracy with which the center of the pulse train and the target direction can be found. Given the shape of the antenna beam and values of relevant parameters such as signal-to-noise ratio, prf, etc., the problem is to find the limits of angular accuracy imposed by noise and target-cross-section fluctuations. Using the theory of parameter estimation, Swerling obtained an expression for a lower bound <5 min of the standard deviation (rms error) of the regular unbiased angle estimate 6 T A Gaussian antenna 2 pattern was assumed with a two-way (power) gain pattern given by e _ Swerling's analysis takes account of the two-way-antenna-pattern characteristic of radar, whereas
. .
Sec. 10.7]
479
the expressions for angular accuracy given earlier in this section apply to the one-way radar antenna pattern. The standard deviation of the angular estimate B T about the true target position T is 2 [E(6 T denoted by dd T T) f, where E[g(x)] denotes the expected value of g(x) and
is
equal to $g(x)p(x) dx, p(x) being the probability-density function of x. Swerling's lower bound to 'S6 T denoted by <3 min applies for estimates which are dT An estimate is An estimate is called unbiased if E(6 T) regular and unbiased.
,
-30
-10
10
(5/VL, db
signal-to-noise ratio at the beam center; Solid curve applies to a 2d; Gaussian antenna pattern. nonfluctuating target, and dashed curve applies to a rapidly fluctuating target described by Rayleigh (From Swerling, 1 " courtesy Proc. IRE.) probability-density function.
Fig. 10.13. Angle error

a
(5
N =
mln as a function of (S/JV) e
number of
hits within
beamwidth
called regular if it
is
a function of the
N received voltage pulses v

5
lt
v2
v N , satisfying
certain differentiability conditions as given by Cramer. The results of Swerling's calculations for the lower bound of a regular, unbiased angle The abscissa is the signal-to-noise ratio obtained estimate are shown in Fig. 10.13. when the center of the beam points in the direction of the target and is denoted (5/iV) c
.
The factor 26 B is the beamwidth defined by the angle between the (l/e)-power points of (If d B is the angle between the |-power points of the the two-way Gaussian beam. one-way beam, 2d g equals O.850B .) The number of pulses emitted as the beam travels The solid curve applies to a nonfluctuating target, while through an angle 2d is Ng to a target whose cross section fluctuates pulse to pulse applies curve dashed the
.
tJ
according to Rayleigh
statistics.
480

signal-to-noise ratio the lower
[Sec.
10.7
For small
bound
to
S0 T)
1
can be approximated by
< 10 - 83 >
* '^^k (SIN)jN~
1.260,
g
(IN
'-' (I)
, ,
and
for large signal-to-noise ratio,
l.O60
.
>1
(10.84)
Viv
:
fl
(s/iv) c
As an example of the angle accuracy predicted by the above, consider a search radar with the following parameters 18
Peak transmitted power
Pulse length
500
^sec Antenna power gain at center of beam 1,000 Wavelength 10 cm (5 band) Receiver noise figure 16 db Losses (atmospheric transmission loss, maintenance degradation loss, 3.54 Horizontal beamwidth (between one-way half-power points) 360 Angular sector scanned (horizontal)
1
kw
etc.)
6 db
Scan rate
=10 rpm
Pulse repetition frequency
500 cps
Beam
shape
Gaussian
Suppose the target in question has a radar cross section of 10 2 and is at a range of 40 nautical miles. From the radar range equation the signal-to-noise (power) ratio (S/N) c at the output of the IF amplifier is 1.0 db when the target is at the center of the 3.0. beam. For the Gaussian antenna beam, 235dg 3.54, or 2d The beam g scans 3 in sec. Thus g 25. Assuming a nonfluctuating target, one 500/20
reads from Fig.
and
6g
= 10.13 that d min VWjO = N =

g
1.44 for (S/N) c
1.0 db.
Since
= VN~ g
5
is
1.5,
one
finally gets
<5
min
*%*
0.43.
The antenna half-power beamwidth
is 0.43/3.54, or about 1 part in 8. Maximum-likelihood Estimator. The lower bound d min for the standard deviation d(6 T ) discussed above applies for all regular, unbiased estimates 6 T Thus far, nothing has been said concerning whether estimates actually exist whose standard deviation approximately attains the lower bound <5 min Swerling 18 shows that the maximum-likelihood estimation of the target azimuth 6 T is an "asymptotically efficient" estimate of 6 T that is, the ratio of dmiJd 2 T) approaches unity as the number of samples (pulses) goes to infinity, for fixed beamwidth 6 In g other words, an asymptotically efficient estimator is one for which the mean-square estimation error approaches the minimum possible value as the number of samples becomes large. In addition, the maximum-likelihood estimates are "consistent." The estimator will approach the true value if the number of samples on which the estimation is based is large enough. The maximum-likelihood method consists in
. .
3.54; hence the relative accuracy
any given set of voltages v t v N the values of 6 T (SjN) c which maximize the joint-probability-density function of v x ,v N given 6 T and (S/N) c (Sec. 10.4). Thus, at least for a large enough number of pulses, an estimate of the target position can be made using the method of maximum likelihood for which the standard deviation closely approaches d min assuming only receiver noise to be present. A detailed analysis of the maximum-likelihood estimator for search-radar angular accuracy has been made by Bernstein. 19 He considered a target with a rapidly fluctuating cross section (statistically independent pulse to pulse) described by the Rayleigh probability-density function. Figure 10.14a and b gives the standard deviation as a function of the signal-to-noise ratio, number of hits, and false-alarm probability.
finding, for
,
. . .
Sec. 10.7]
481
Angular-estimation Procedures Using Binary-quantized Video. The number of hits obtained as a search-radar antenna scans by a target depends upon the scan rate, beamwidth, and prf. On a PPI scope each target paints a trace in the shape of an arc whose arc length is proportional to the antenna beamwidth. An operator viewing a
PPI could estimate the angular position of the
target
by
bisecting, the arc.
A similar
10
15
20
25
30
beam
35
Rms
signal-to-noise ratio, db at center of
E25 O o
20
o o s'5 o o 10
>
T3
\\
X.
\
sfc^r
1
C o
___a
1
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
Rms
signal-to-noise ratio, db at center of
beam
of the signal-toFig. 10.14. Standard deviation of the maximum-likelihood estimator as a function number of pulses per half-power beamwidth; antenna noise ratio at the center of the beam; B it and (1/V2)(sin 0)/0 for radiation pattern is assumed to be proportional to (sin 0)10 for |0| 0.01 ; (b) probability of noise (a) Probability of noise alone exceeding threshold |fl| 77 2tt. (From Bernstein, courtesy IRE Conv. Record.) 0.10. alone exceeding threshold
N =
<
<
<
procedure might be followed with a B-scope display. This technique for finding the angular position is called beam splitting. Estimating the angular position by beam splitting can also be carried out with Automatic beam splitting is especially important digital-computer-type circuitry. where it is not desirable or possible to employ an operator for extracting the information
482
[Sec.
10.8
from the radar signal. The automatic measurement of angular position can be made more accurately than with an operator viewing a CRT display and can be designed to handle many more targets per unit time than a single operator can handle. In many of the angular-estimation techniques, the video output from the radar receiver is first quantized into a number of range intervals (gates). Those pulses which correspond to the same target are processed as a group. When a target is present within a particular range interval, the output from that gate consists of a series of pulses at the pulse repetition frequency with an envelope corresponding to the shape of the antenna pattern. If a target is not present, the envelope is noiselike. The series of pulses from each range gate is passed through a threshold device which delivers a "one" if the radar video output exceeds a predetermined level and a "zero" if below this level. Thus the radar video is quantized into binary digits consisting of a series of ones or zeros, depending upon whether the output is due to target echo or to noise. When a target is present, the number of ones will be equal to the number of pulses on target. This process is similar to the double-threshold detector described in Sec. 9.9. The quantization of the radar output into more than two levels yields more accurate
estimations but requires additional equipment.
A data-processing device must be designed to recognize the beginning and end of the
density of ones corresponding to a target.
Because of the presence of noise and the
fluctuations of the target cross section, there will always be
some uncertainty
as to the
exact location of the
beam
center.
The quantized binary video may be processed in a variety of ways in order to obtain an estimate of the angular position of the target. A number of these techniques are described in the literature. 20-22 The choice of a particular technique depends upon the accuracy required and the degree of equipment complexity which can be tolerated.
10.8. Transmitted
Waveform 23
" 29
The design of the transmitted waveform depends upon the requirements of (1) detection, (2) measurement accuracy, (3) ambiguity, and (4) resolution. The effect of the radar waveform on these requirements may be determined by examining the output
from the radar receiver. The receiver is assumed to be an optimum one designed basis of the matched filter, the cross-correlation receiver, the likelihood ratio, or the inverse-probability criterion. The output of any of these receivers was shown in the previous chapter to be proportional to the cross correlation C(AT ) between the R received signal y(t) = s(t T ) + n(t) and a stored replica of the transmitted signal
signal
on the
C(ATB)
where 7^
=
J
y(t)s(t
- TR
dt
(10.85)
actual travel time to target and back estimate of actual travel time (considered a variable) A.TR T TB error in time delay This equation applies for a stationary target, one with zero doppler frequency shift. It also applies with slight modification to a target moving with known relative velocity. Equation (10.85) represents the output of a well-designed radar receiver. The cross-correlation function for the receiver output was used in Chap. 9 as a basis for the discussion of the detection performance of radar receivers. It was also used in
TR =
a previous section to determine the accuracy of radar parameter estimation [Eq. In this section, the same equation is used to examine the effect of the trans(10.44)]. mitted waveform on the ambiguities involved in radar measurements and the problem of resolving a single target from a multitude of targets. Before discussing the ambiguity and the resolution problems, the role of Eq. (10.85) in the detection process will be briefly reviewed, along with the requirements placed on
Sec. 10.8]
the transmitted waveform by detection the radar receiver is proportional to
and by measurement accuracy.
483
The output of
R =
C(ATR). If a target is present at the range cT I2, the value of C(ATR) will peak to a maximum when TR = T in the absence
of noise. If a threshold level is established at the output of the receiver, a target is said If the receiver to be detected whenever the peak is large enough to cross the threshold. characteristic is designed as a matched filter for the particular transmitted waveform, the probability of detection is independent of the shape of the waveform and depends contained in the signal to the noise power only upon E/N the ratio of total energy
,
per cycle of bandwidth. Thus the requirements of detection do not place any demands on the shape of the transmitted waveform except that it be possible to construct the proper matched filter or a reasonable approximation thereto. The selection of the transmitted waveform may be divided into two parts. First, Second, the the total energy to be transmitted is found from the radar range equation. requirements from the determined is waveform transmitted of the particular shape
imposed by accuracy, ambiguity, and resolution. doppler It was found in Sec. 10.5 that the accuracy with which radar range and per noise power energy to signal the of the ratio upon velocity can be measured depends Therefore reliable detection and cycle, just as did the probability of detection. accurate measurement go hand in hand. In addition, it was found that the range and doppler- velocity accuracies depend upon the shape of the transmitted waveform or its frequency spectrum. This dependence was manifested in the definitions of the effective bandwidth [Eq. (10.31)] and the effective pulse width a [Eq. (10.56)]. Ambiguity. An ambiguous measurement is one in which there is more than one choice available for the correct parameter but only one choice is appropriate. Thus Ambiguities arise when measurements are made in a the correct value is uncertain.
discontinuous manner. Examples of ambiguities encountered in previous chapters were the second-time-around echoes obtained with periodic waveforms and the There multiplicity of blind speeds characteristic of pulse-doppler and MTI radar. would be no ambiguity in the measurement of range if only a single pulse were transmitted, and there would be no doppler ambiguities if the signal were a continuous wave. The ambiguity problem is characteristic of a single target. If more than one target were involved, there would be a resolution problem as well as an ambiguity problem. In terms of our mathematical representation of the receiver output, ambiguities arise the if the correlation function of Eq. (10.85) contains peaks at values of TR other than
s(t
Since the received signal y{t) is composed of signal and noise, true target delay time T T ) n(t), the receiver output C(ATR) may be written as
.
C(ATR) =(s(t
- T )s(t -
dt +jn(t)s(t
- TR
dt
(ATR)
+ rj(TR
(10.86)
The first integral S(ATR) is the autocorrelation of the signal with a replica of itself, and The the second integral rj(TR) is the cross correlation between the signal and the noise. second integral may give rise to random ambiguities if the noise n(t) is sufficiently large
the false-alarm problem and may be of such "ambiguities" is neglected in this discussion, and only ambiguities due to discontinuous transmissions are conIn so doing it is implied that the signal-to-noise ratio is large and (as in the sidered. discussion of accuracy in the previous section) that the integral ri{TR) representing
to cause the output to cross the threshold. mitigated by raising the threshold level.
This
is
The
effect
the cross correlation of noise with signal can be ignored. With these assumptions, the receiver output for large signal-to-noise ratios is proportional to
(ATR)
= js(t - T )s(t - TR
dt
(10.87)
484
This
is

equivalent to the output of a matched-filter receiver
[Sec.
10.8
when
the input
is
the signal
alone, without noise.
The value of f (A TR) will have a maximum equal to the signal energy E when
There
will
spread in the value of KATr) in the vicinity of TR T The extent of this spread will determine the. accuracy with which T may be determined. As we shall see later, the spread should be small in order to resolve two closely spaced targets. For all other values of TR the value of f (Ar7e ) should be zero or as small as possible. If the value of f (AT^) peaks for values of TR other than T the selection of the peak that corresponds to the true target time delay is ambiguous. Resolution. In the presence of multiple targets the concepts of detection, accuracy, and ambiguity are applicable to each target individually. Multiple targets impose another requirement on the transmitted waveform, namely, that the various targets must be distinguished from one another. The property of the radar to distinguish
be a
finite
T = TR
.
between targets is called resolution. Resolution is needed when similar targets are in close proximity, such as a flight of aircraft in formation, a satellite in the presence of its booster stage, or a missile warhead surrounded by a swarm of decoys. Another example is the resolution of a wanted target in the presence of clutter. Even if no other target or clutter were present, there would still be the need to resolve the echo signal from the transmitted signal. To simplify the discussion, it will be assumed that there are but two targets to be resolved. The more dissimilar the targets, the easier it is to distinguish between them. Let the echo signal from one of the targets be y^t), and from the other, y2 (t). We shall take as a measure of their dissimilarity the mean-square difference between the two signals. The more dissimilar the echo signals, the greater will be their mean-square difference. If they are the same, the mean-square difference will be zero. To maximize the resolution, the transmitted waveform y(t) should be chosen so that the following
integral
is
maximum
l>i(0
y^,t)f dt
=
J
y\(t) dt
yi (t)y 2 (t) dt
+jyt(t) dt
(10.88)
The
first and third integrals on the right-hand side of this equation are constants and equal to the signal energy received from each target. Therefore, maximizing the mean-square difference between the two signals is equivalent to minimizing the integral
Iyi(t)yi!Lt)
containing the noise terms
dt
(io.89)
Both yx (t) and y2 (t) may be written as the sum of signal and noise. If it is assumed as in the previous discussion, that the signal-to-noise ratios are large, the integrals
may be
neglected, and Eq. (10.89)
may
be written as
I
.
s(t
TJsit
-T
2)
dt
(10.90)
where 7\ and T2 are the echo times (proportional to range) from the two targets at ranges For perfect resolution this integral, which is the autocorrelation function /?! and R 2
of the signal with itself, should be zero except when is a maximum and is equal to E, the signal energy,
cross section.
it
Tx = T2
the
.
Its
value,
when
7\
=T
2,
if
two
targets are of equal radar

,
The integral should be zero when Tx ^ T2 In the vicinity of 7\ = T2 The properties required of this integral are similar to the required properties of Eq. (10.87) for good measurement accuracy and low ambiguity. The form of the two integrals is the same if the target cross sections are the same. Hence the autocorrelation function of Eq. (10.90) can be used to determine
should
fall
to zero as rapidly as possible.
Sec. 10.8]
it
485
the resolution provided by any particular waveform, just as the accuracy and the ambiguity.
can be used to determine
was assumed that the doppler frequency was either zero or was equal A similar argument applies to the ability of a particular waveform The resolution in to resolve targets with different doppler but of the same range. doppler and range may also be considered together, as described below. Ambiguity Diagram. The effect of the transmitted waveform on both the doppler velocity and the range (frequency and time delay) may be obtained by an extension of The waveform s(t) is the autocorrelation function of the received signal [Eq. (10.87)]. considered to be composed of two parts, a modulation envelope u(t) and a carrier cos 2irf t. The cross-correlation function f(AT/e ) may be written as
Tn the above,
it
for the
two
targets.
X =)u(t
- T )u(t -
T) cos 2nf
cos 27r(f
+ fd)t dt
(10.91)
where
fa = doppler frequency shift of echo signal A three-dimensional plot of % with echo time as one variable and doppler frequency as
the other graphically indicates the accuracy and ambiguity afforded by the transmitted waveform s{t). When T and TR are replaced by 7\ and T2 the same plot may be used
,
T = TR =
true echo time of target estimate of echo time
to evaluate the ability of the radar to resolve
two targets of equal amplitude but different
doppler velocity and range. For convenience, the origin of the plot of the % function is selected to make both the This will not affect the true echo time T and the frequency of transmission f zero. shape of the plot. It merely represents a shift in the coordinate axes. Since the radar usually removes the phase information from the received signal, only the magnitude of Eq. (10.91) need be considered. Therefore the function which we shall analyze to determine the suitability of several selected radar waveforms is
\x(TR ,fd )\
\ju(t)u(t
- TR
plot
cos litU dt
the ambiguity diagram.
(10.92)
This
is
called the ambiguity function,
and
its
is
The function
Maximum
\x\ has the following properties: value of
\x(TR ,fd )\
\X(-TR
\
-M
rf
= = = = =
l*(0,0)|
2E
(10.93) (10.94)
\x(TR ,fd )\
X (TR ,0)\
J"(0w0
- TR
dt
(10.95)
IX(0,
)|
||u 2 (r) cos 2nfa tdt
(10.96)
s
\x\
\x(.TR ,f d
)fdTR
dfd
(2E?
(10.97)
(10.93), states that the maximum of the function occurs at the origin and its value is twice the energy contained in the echo signal. The factor 2 enters, since the phase information is discarded and only the modulation envelopes are considered. Equation (10.94) is a symmetry relation. Equations (10.95) and (10.96) describe the behavior of the ambiguity function on the TR axis and the/d axis, respectively. Along the TR axis the function \x\ is proportional to the autocorrelation function of the envelope of the echo signal, and along the/, axis it is proportional to the spectrum of the squared envelope of the echo signal. Equation
The first equation given above, Eq.
486
Jntroduction to Radar Systems
[Sec.
10.8
(10.97) states that the total
constant equal to (2) 2
volume under the square of the ambiguity surface is a With these properties in mind, we proceed to investigate the
ambiguity diagrams for several classes of transmitted waveforms. Ideal Ambiguity Diagram. If there were no restrictions, the ideal ambiguity diagram would consist of a single peak of infinitesimal thickness at the origin and be zero 'everywhere else, as shown in Fig. 10.15. The single
spike eliminates any ambiguities, and its infinitesimal thickness at the origin permits the frequency and the echo delay time to be determined simultaneously to
It would two targets no matter how close together they were on the ambiguity dia-
as high a degree of accuracy as desired. also permit the resolution of
gram.
Naturally, it is not surprising that such a deambiguity diagram is not possible. The fundamental properties of the ambiguity function prohibit this type of idealized behavior. The two
sirable
Fig. 10.15. Ideal, but unattainable,
ambiguity diagram.
chief restrictions are that the maximum height of the 2 function be (2) 2 and that the volume under the \%\ surface be finite and equal {2Ef. Therefore the peak
at the origin
is of fixed height and the function enapproximation to the ideal ambiguity diagram
closes a fixed volume.

1
A reasonable
might appear as in Fig. 0. 1 6. This waveform does not result in ambiguities since there is only one peak, but the single peak might be too broad to satisfy the requirements of accuracy and resolution. The peak might be narrowed, but in order to conserve the |x(fr.fc>| volume under its surface, the function must be raised elsewhere. If the peak is made too narrow, the requirement for a constant volume might cause peaks to form at regions of the ambiguity diagram other than the
origin and give rise to ambiguities. Thus the requirements for accuracy and ambiguity
not always be possible to satisfy simultaneously. The ambiguity diagram in three dimensions may be likened to a box of sand. The total amount of sand in the box is fixed and corresponds to a fixed signal energy. No sand can be added, and none can be removed. The sand may be piled up at the center (origin) to as narrow a pile as one would like, but its height can be no greater than a fixed amount (2E). If the sand in the center is in too narrow a pile, the sand which remains might find itself in one or more additional piles, perhaps as big as the one at the
center.
may
7"
= signal duration
signal
B=
Fig. 10.16.
bandwidth
The optimum waveform
is
one which has
approximation to the ideal ambiguity diagram, taking account of the restrictions imposed by the requirements for a fixed amplitude of 2E at the origin and a constant volume enclosed by the |^| 2 surface.
An
the desired ambiguity diagram for a given
amount of "sand"
see,
(energy).
The usual pulse radar or the usual

must be
noiselike.
CW radar, as we shall
as
does not result in an ideal diagram.
To produce an ambiguity diagram such
that
shown
in Fig. 10.16, the transmissions
Sec. 10.8]
487
The synthesis of the waveform required to satisfy the requirements of accuracy, ambiguity, and resolution as determined by the ambiguity diagram is a difficult task. The usual design procedure is to compute the ambiguity diagram for the more common waveforms and to observe its behavior. Because of the limitations of synthesis, the ambiguity diagram has been more a measure of the suitability of a selected waveform
than a means of finding the optimum waveform. The ambiguity diagram for a single rectangular pulse of Single Pulse of Sine Wave. Contours for constant values of doppler frequency sine wave is shown in Fig. 10. 1 7. The contour for zero velocity is triangular in shift (velocity) are shown in Fig. 10.17a. shape and represents the autocorrelation function of a rectangular pulse such as would be predicted from Eq. (10.95). Contours for fixed values of time delay are shown in is the spectrum of a recThe center contour corresponding to TR Fig. 10.176. tangular pulse [Eq. (10.96)]. The composite three-dimensional ambiguity surface is
shown
It is
in Fig. 10.17c.
draw a three-dimensional plot of the ambiguity diagram. reason a two-dimensional plot is often used to convey the salient features. Figure 10.18 is an example of the two-dimensional plot of the three-dimensional ambiguity diagram corresponding to the single pulse of Fig. 10.17c. Shading is used to give an indication of the regions in which \%(TR ,fy\ is large (completely shaded areas),
usually inconvenient to
For
this
small but not zero (lightly shaded areas), and regions where \%\ is The plot for a single pulse shows a single elliptically shaped region This is what would have been expected from our previous in which \%\ is large. discussions since a single measurement does not result in ambiguity if the threshold is
regions where
\%\ is
zero (no shading).
chosen properly.
error
is
Range error is proportional to the pulse width r, while doppler proportional to 1 jr. Shortening the pulse width improves the range accuracy, but at the expense of the doppler- velocity accuracy. Although the shape of the ellipse can be as thin or as broad as one likes in either axis, the opposite will be true for the other axis. The region in the vicinity of the origin cannot be made as small as we wish along both axes simultaneously without shifting some of the completely shaded region
elsewhere in the diagram. By letting t become very large (essentially infinite), Fig. 10.18 may also be used to radar. Similarly, by letting t be very small (infinitesimal), the diagram represent a
CW
applies to an impulse radar.
Periodic Pulse Train.
Consider a sinusoid modulated by a train of five pulses, each

,
The pulse-repetition period is Tv and the duration of the pulse train is Td The ambiguity diagram is represented in Fig. 10.196. With a single (Fig. 10.19a). pulse the time-delay- and frequency-measurement accuracies depend on one another and are linked by the pulse width t. The periodic train of pulses, however, does not suffer this limitation. The time-delay error is determined by the pulse width r as
of width
t.
before, but the frequency accuracy

train.
is determined by the total duration of the pulse Thus the time- and frequency-measurement accuracies may be made independ-
ent of one another. For the privilege of independently controlling the time and frequency accuracy with a periodic waveform, additional peaks occur in the ambiguity diagram. These peaks cause ambiguities. The total volume represented by the shaded areas of the ambiguity diagram for the periodic waveform equals the total volume of the ambiguity diagram of This the single pulse, assuming that the energy of the two waveforms are the same. follows from the relationship expressed by Eq. (10.97). In practice, the radar designer
attempts to select the pulse-repetition period Tv so that all targets of interest occur only in the vicinity of the central peak, all other peaks being far removed from the region occupied by the targets. The periodic-pulse waveform is a good one from the point of view of accuracy if the radar application is such that it is possible to ignore or eliminate
488
[Sec.
10.8
any ambiguities which arise. The fact that most practical radars employ this type of waveform attests to its usefulness far better than any theoretical analysis which might
be presented here. It is encouraging, however, when theoretical considerations substantiate the qualitative, intuitive reasoning upon which most practical engineering decisions must usually be based, for lack of any better criterion.
Single Frequency-modulated Pulse.
Ambiguities
may
be avoided with a single-pulse
waveform rather than a periodic-pulse waveform. Although the accuracy of simultaneously measuring time and frequency with a simple pulse-modulated sinusoid was seen
^V" \
S*
(a)
-A*
Fig. 10.17. Three-dimensional plot of the ambiguity diagram for a single rectangular pulse, (a) (c) composite surface. (Courtesy S. Applebaum and P. W. Howelh, General Electric Co., Heavy
Sec. 10.8]
489
to be limited, it is possible to obtain simultaneous time and frequency measurements to as high a degree of accuracy as desired by transmitting a pulse long enough to satisfy the desired frequency accuracy and one with enough bandwidth to satisfy the time accuracy.
In other words, the peak at the center of the ambiguity diagram may be narrowed by transmitting a pulse with a large bandwidth times pulse-width product (large fix). One method of increasing the bandwidth of a pulse of duration t is to provide internal modulation. The ambiguity diagram for a frequency-modulated pulse is shown in The waveform is a single pulse of sine wave whose frequency is increased Fig. 10.20. A//2 at t t, where/ is the carrier frequency A//2 at t to/ linearly from/
and A/ an B is the frequency excursion. The ambiguity diagram is elliptical, as for the single pulse of unmodulated sine wave. However, the axis of the ellipse is tilted at an angle to both the time and frequency axes. This particular waveform is not entirely satisfactory. The accuracy along either the time axis or the frequency axis can be made as good as desired. However, the accuracy along the ellipse major axis is relatively poor. This is a consequence of the fact that both the time delay (range) and the frequency (doppler) are both determined by measuring a frequency shift. Thus neither the range nor the velocity can be determined
without knowledge of the other. pulse whose slope on This limitation can be overcome by transmitting a second the ambiguity diagram is different from that of Fig. 10.20. The second modulation might be a linear frequency modulation which decreases, rather than increases, in frequency. This is analogous to the FM-CW radar of Chap. 3, in which the doppler frequency shift is extracted as well as the range. It will be recalled that the sawtooth frequency-modulated waveform of the FM-CW radar was capable of determining 'the range as long as there was no doppler frequency shift. By using a triangular waveform instead of the sawtooth waveform it was possible to measure both the range and the doppler frequency. The same technique can be used with the frequency-modulated
FM
[O
Contours for constant doppler frequency
(velocity); (6) contours for constant time delay (range);
Military Electronics Department, Syracuse, N. Y.).
490
[Sec.
it is
10.8
However, it is still possible to meet with confusion unless beforehand whether the frequency shift due to doppler or the frequency
pulse radar.
known
due to
shift
the time delay

ideal,
is
larger.
Desirable Waveforms. The previous waveforms are not good approximations to the but unattainable, waveform of Fig. 10.1 5. It is evident that the periodic waveis
form
~"" K '^ resolved.
not suitable unless the geometry of the problem permits ambiguities to be The ideal waveform consists of a single pulse with a large bandwidth-pulse
la)
ii>)
Fig. 10.18. Two-dimensional ambiguity diagram for a single pulse of sine wave, (ft) short pulse.
(a)
Long
pulser
r
|-|
T p
A
T
>
VA
n
%.
z>.
"-}}-
4-7"
-I
U>)
Fig. 10.19. (a) Pulse train consisting of five pulses; (b) ambiguity diagram for (a).
Sec. 10.8]
491
width product. The bandwidth might be increased by amplitude, frequency, or phase modulation. Amplitude modulation is not always desirable from a practical point of view since most radar transmitters are peak-powerFor a given pulse width, less energy limited. can be radiated in a peak-power-limited transmitter with amplitude modulation than with either phase or frequency modulation. Examples of frequency modulation and phase modulation to increase the bandwidth are given
in the next section.
A noise-modulated waveform yields an ambiguity diagram which approaches the ideal. This might be likened to a combination amplitude-, frequency-, and phase-modulated waveform, all stirred into one pot and mixed well. A rotationally symmetric ambiguity diagram may be obtained with a waveform given by27
(0
7
n
Fig.
single
10.20.
Ambiguity diagram for a frequency-modulated pulse of sine
wave.
H Uyt)e!
yf/2
(10.98)
y/Jn T
where u n (f) y
Hn
(z)
= = =
envelope of transmitted signal ratio of "angular-frequency" axis to "time" axis th Hermite polynomial denned by
(10.99)
az
The ambiguity diagram corresponding
to the signal of Eq. (10.98) is rotationally invariant in that a rotation of the ambiguity diagram about the origin of the TR d plane ,f
does not change the diagram. The term "rotation" is used in a broad sense since it can actually proceed along elliptical contours. When y 1, the rotation is along nearly
circular orbits.
Figure 10.21 shows an example of the transmitted signal (a) defined by Eq. (10.98), (b), and the ambiguity diagram (c) when y 1 and n 10. The frequency spectrum of the waveform of Eq. (10.98) has the same functional shape as the time waveform; consequently Fig. 10.21a also represents the spectrum. The 2 bandwidth-pulse width product of this class of waveform increases as ( J) as n is increased. The waveform required to achieve a rotationally invariant ambiguity diagram is not uniform in amplitude and is not as efficient to generate as those which are of uniform amplitude. Summary of the Transmitted Waveform. This section has considered some of the factors which enter into the selection of the proper transmitted waveform. The problem of designing a waveform to achieve detection may be considered independently of the requirements of accuracy, ambiguity, and resolution. A waveform satisfies the requirements of detection if its energy is sufficiently large and if the receiver is designed in an optimum manner, such as a matched-filter receiver. Waveform shape is important only as it affects the practical design of the matched filter. The ability of a particular waveform to satisfy the requirements of accuracy, ambiguity, and resolution may be
the matched-filter output
492
Introduction to Radar Systems from an examination of the ambiguity diagram.
[Sec. 10.8
qualitatively determined
In general, be designed to satisfy the requirements of accuracy and resolution provided the resulting ambiguities can be tolerated. waveform consisting of a single pulse of sinusoid avoids the ambiguity problem, but the time delay and
periodic waveforms
may
Flo. lo 21. {a) hnvc!or>c of the transmitted signal [Li. MO.'WtJ
quency spectrum has the same functional form.)

matched-filter response for n
(b)
when the narameitr 10. ilreEnvelope of the "rotationally invariant"

J.)
10.
(c)
Cutaway of three-dimensional projected view of ambiguity

Klauder" and Bell System Tech.
diagram when n
10.
(Courtesy
J. R.
frequency cannot simultaneously be measured to as great an accuracy as might be desired. However, it is possible to determine simultaneously both the frequency and the time delay to any degree of accuracy with a transmitted waveform containing a large bandwidth-pulse width product (large fta product). The problem of synthesizing optimum waveforms from an ambiguity diagram specified by operational requirements is a difficult one and is often approached by trial and error.
Sec. 10.9]
10.9. Pulse
Compression
493
Pulse compression is a means of operating a radar with long pulses to obtain the resolution and accuracy of a short pulse but the detection capability of a long pulse. This is accomplished by modulating the transmitted pulse. The receiver is designed to Pulse comact on the modulation to "compress" the pulse into a much shorter one. pression is especially useful when the transmitter is peak-power-limited. Although it may be considered a special application of matched-filter theory or of the design of op-
timum
lated before
To
transmitter waveforms, the basic principles of pulse compression were formumodern communication theory was ever applied to the radar problem. transmit a pulse containing a large energy content, the peak power must be large
If the pulse
and/or the pulse duration must be long.

ntenna
width
is
limited to small values
TR
Transmitter -~<~.
Frequency modulator
Mixer
IF
amplifier
-*-
Pulse compression
filter
Det.
Video
amplifier
To indicator
LO
Fig. 10.22. Block diagram of a pulse-compression radar using frequency modulation.
because of the desire to obtain good range accuracy or resolution, the required energy per pulse must be obtained with a large peak power. However, in many applications it is not possible to obtain a peak power as large as one might like because of voltage breakdown somewhere in the system. In a peak-power-limited radar, the required energy per pulse can be obtained only by transmitting a longer pulse. long pulse need not be incompatible with good range accuracy, as was evident from the earlier discussion in Sec. 10.5 concerning range accuracy and effective bandwidth /?. The effective bandwidth of a pulse of sine wave can be increased by modulating the
carrier.
30-39 An example of a pulse-compression Frequency-modulation Pulse Compression. radar using frequency modulation is illustrated by the block diagram of Fig. 10.22. With the exception of the frequency modulator in the transmitter and the pulsecompression filter in the receiver, this block diagram is basically that of an ordinary pulse radar. The transmitted waveform consists of a rectangular pulse of constant amplitude A and of duration t (Fig. 10.23a). The frequency of the transmitted pulse The time waveform (Fig. 10.23ft) increases fromyi to/ 2 over the duration of the pulse. of a signal having the properties described by Fig. 10.23a and b is shown schematically The frequency-modulated echo, on being received by the radar, is in Fig. 10.23c. passed through the pulse-compression filter, which is designed so that the velocity of propagation through the filter is a function of frequency. In this particular example, the pulse-compression filter speeds up the higher frequencies at the trailing edge of the pulse relative to the lower frequencies at the leading edge. The result is that the energy contained in the original long pulse of duration r is compressed into a shorter pulse of duration approximately \jB, where B 2 fx (Fig. 10.23c?). The shape of The instantaneous peak power the compressed pulse is proportional to (sin TTBi)\-nBt. of the original pulse is increased by the factor Br after passage through the compression
=/
filter,
and the pulse amplitude
is
increased by
V Br.
The
factor
Bt
is
called the pulse-
compression ratio or the dispersion factor. The pulse-compression filter must be designed to accommodate the transmitted
494
[Sec. 10.9
.*
a.
<
e
--Time
(a)
*-Time
*-Time
* Time
^ U
*-Time
Fig.
10.23.
Frequency-modulation
pulse-compression
waveforms,
(a)
Transmitted
waveform
consisting of a rectangular pulse of amplitude A and duration t; (b) frequency of the transmitted waveform, uniformly increasing from/! at t t 1 to /", at / t 2 , where t 2 rt T and f /i; (c) schematic representation of the time waveform described by (a) and (b); (d) output of "the pulsecompression filter for input consisting of a linear pulse; (e) same as (b) but with the direction of the frequency modulation reversed, that is,
>
f2
FM <f
x
.
waveform.
complete.
If the time delay
of the
filter is
On the other hand,
if the filter transit
too short, the compression will not be time is too long, the compressed pulse
will diverge. The amount of compression that can be applied to a given pulse will depend upon the bandwidth occupied by the transmitted waveform. The matched filter forms the basis for pulse-compression-filter design. There are several networks which could be used to obtain a time delay that is a
Sec.
10.9]
495
function of frequency. A high-pass filter has a time delay that decreases with increasing frequency. The high-pass filter could be a section of RF waveguide or else a conventional filter at IF. If the direction of the frequency modulation were opposite to that of Fig. 10.236 so that the higher frequencies occurred at the beginning of the pulse while the lower frequencies occurred at the end of the pulse (as in Fig. 10.23e), a low-pass The velocity of propagation filter could be used for the pulse-compression network. in a low-pass filter is a maximum at low frequencies and decreases as the frequency
increases, finally
becoming zero
at cutoff.
However,
j"
QQ.Q.Q0QQ
-
a pulse with an increasing frequency characteristic as in Fig. 10.236 could be used with a low-pass filter by making the frequency of the local oscillator on reception greater than the highest frequency contained in the frequency-modulated pulse, thus giving it the
Hybrid
coil
oooygw
R Z/j*
form of Fig. 10.23e. Another RF network
in
which the group velocity

Fig.
10.24.
lent of
X
Low-frequency equivaan
increases with frequency (the transit time delay de-
creases with frequency) consists of a hybrid junction

in
RF network using a hybrid
which the two opposite branches are connected

31
is
to
equivalents of inverse reactive impedances.

result
The
junction and inverse reactive impedances to obtain a time delay which decreases with frequency. (After
Darlington. 31 )
a waveguide equivalent of a type of constantresistance delay network commonly used at lower
frequencies and is shown schematically in Fig. 10.24. The hybrid junction might be a magic T, a rat-race, or a short-slot coupler. The reactive impedances might take the form of waveguides with internal iris-type barriers. The waveguides in the two arms would be the same except that one would be a quarter wavelength longer than
the other.
The pulse-compression filter might be designed using a cascade of IF lattice networks

as described
It is also
by Kronert. 32
possible to use a dispersive delay line for the pulse-compression
filter.
33
The delay
line must have the proper group velocity dependence with frequency. Acoustic delay lines made from long metal strips such as brass, nickel, or steel can be made to have the proper dispersive properties and can be used for certain pulsecompression applications. Such delay lines are especially suited for ultrasonic or sonar
applications.
Linear frequency modulation is not absolutely necessary in a pulse-compression The frequency modulation can be of almost any form, provided the pulsecompression filter is designed to match the transmitted waveform. Likewise, the shape of the transmitted waveform need not be rectangular. The transmitted waveform may be generated by directly frequency-modulating the transmitter. If, however, the transmitted waveform must closely match the characteristics of the pulse-compression filter, or vice versa, it is usually better to generate the transmitted waveform with the pulse-compression filter directly by applying an impulse to the filter from the reverse direction. This is similar to the concept of the matchedfilter radar as described previously, in Sec. 9.2. The maximum compression ratios possible will depend upon the amount of development effort expended to achieve them. The numerical examples given by Kronert32 for Gaussian-shaped pulses and cascaded-lattice networks indicate the feasibility of achieving pulse-compression ratios from Br 8 to 40. In Darlington's patent 31 an example is given for a Gaussian-shaped pulse in which a compression ratio of 34 is mentioned. The British patent issued to Sproule and Hughes 33 claims that it is possible to achieve a pulse-compression ratio of 100. Klauder et al. 37 also suggest that pulse-compression ratios of approximately 100 are possible.
radar.
496

its
[Sec. 10.9
radar application, the principle of pulse compression may also be It could be used to generate a high-peak-power pulse from a peak-power-limited transmitter by following the transmitter with a pulse-compression 31 filter. The pulse-compression principle can be applied to compensate for the dispersive effects inherent in a transmission system over which short RF pulses are propagated. Pulse compression is applicable to ultrasonic-echo location as in sonar or for
In addition to applied for other purposes.
flaw detection. 33
The basic principles of the frequency-modulated pulse-compression technique were outlined independently and almost simultaneously in several patents, both in this country and abroad. The two basic patents in the United States describing pulse
compression were awarded to Dicke 30 in 1953 and to Darlington 31 in 1954. These were preceded in time by a British patent awarded in 1 94S. 33 An earlier patent awarded 32 Kronert also in Germany to E. Huttman is mentioned in the paper by Kronert. mentions another German patent awarded to M. Cauer, posthumously, in 1950. Accuracy of Pulse Compression. The accuracy with which pulse-compression waveforms can measure range and relative (doppler) velocity may be determined from the methods of Sec. 10.5. The RF time waveform of a rectangular pulse of width t whose carrier/ is linearly modulated in frequency over a bandwidth B is
FM
s{t)
= A cos (277/ + irBt

r
--<t<-
(10.100)
Ignoring the fine-grain range information contained in the carrier and using only the 2 low-frequency modulation (as is customary with radar measurements), the value of/9 11 pulse of width t is found from Eq. (10.31) for the linear
FM
2
77
B2
7rB
sin7rBT
2
ttB S(ttBt)
*2
J
i
Jl
QSlL.
+ a^)
(2Brf
(10.101)
where S(u) and C{u) are the Fresnel sine and cosine integrals, respectively. As Bt co, 2 2 2 This is /S -> tt B /3, which is the value expected with a uniform spectrum of width B. 36 FM of linear the spectrum a showed that Cook, who analysis of with the consistent pulse-compression waveform approaches the rectangular spectrum for Br large. Therefore the rms error in the measurement of time delay is
>-
dTR
-/3
ttB(2EIN
,
FM pulse compression
(10.102)
The range error 6R is (c/2) 6TR where c is the velocity of propagation. The time waveform from the output of the pulse-compression filter is of the form By analogy with the bandwidth(sin TrBt)/nBt, when the input is a linear FM pulse.
limited rectangular pulse, the
rms frequency error for a

filter) is,
finite
duration (sin TrBt)JTrBt
pulse (at the output of the pulse-compression
for large Bt,
df
= -
)'
1
FM pulse compression
(10.103)
\4tE/Nq /
error in relative velocity dv is (A/2) df where A is the wavelength. Since pulse compression is used as a means of improving the range accuracy of a long pulse, it is of interest to compare the theoretical rms error obtained with a linear
The
FM
Sec. 10.9]
497
pulse-compression waveform [Eq. (10.102)] with that obtained with a bandwidthlimited "rectangular" pulse [Eq. (10.35)] occupying the same bandwidth B and of the same duration r. The ratio of Eqs. (10.35) and (10.102) is
" Rectangular"-pulse rms time-delay error
-n__
,*
...
-.
FM pulse-compression rms time-delay error =
^/6
100, the theoretical rms time-delay error available with the For example, if Bt pulse-compression radar waveform is about 13 times that of a similar pulse without modulation. A comparison of the theoretical errors in the frequency measurement results in the following
FM
"Rectangular"-pulse rms frequency error
^/6
tt(Bt)
FM pulse-compression rmsfrequencyerror
Hence this particular pulse-compression waveform improves the time-delay (range) accuracy by a certain amount as compared with a pulse without pulse compression, but it does so at the expense of frequency accuracy. pulse-compression waveform, assuming Br large, is The /5a product of the linear nQBriyfi and is the same as that of the bandwidth-limited rectangular pulse. In general, the compressed output waveform contains additional peaks other than the main peak corresponding to target position. This was illustrated by the (sin x)/x waveform of Fig. 10.23*/ in which the two spurious lobes adjacent to the main lobe are reduced about 13 db compared with the peak. These are called time sidelobes by analogy with the spatial sidelobes of antenna patterns. The time sidelobes are usually small enough with respect to the main lobe to avoid any questions of ambiguous measurements that is, there is seldom any question as to which is the correct peak to associate with the target. The sidelobes, however, create a resolution problem in that the sidelobes of a strong target might mask the main lobe of a weak target that would otherwise be detected if the strong target were not present. The time sidelobes may be reduced by passing the received signal through a "weighting" filter which attenuates the frequency components near the edges of the band. 34 37 This is analogous in antenna theory to using a tapered aperture illumination to reduce the antenna sidelobes. The weighting filter mismatches the matched pulse-compression filter and hence reduces the signal-to-noise ratio. Typically, the reduction in signal-to-noise ratio is of the order of 1 db. 37 A further consequence of reducing the sidelobes by reducing the energy near the edges of the band is a reduction in the
FM
effective
bandwidth
/?
and an increase
in the
minimum
theoretical
range-measurement
limited in practice
error.
The amount of
sidelobe reduction that can be achieved
is
by the accuracy with which the weighting filters can be constructed. This is analogous to the limitations in antenna sidelobes imposed by phase and amplitude errors in the
aperture distribution (Sec. 7.11). Phase-coded Pulse Compression. Another example of pulse compression is the phase-coded technique (or coded pulse) described by Siebert 24 and Elspas. 41 long pulse of duration t is divided into Bt intervals, each of duration 1/6, where B, the bandwidth of the compressed pulse, depends upon the range accuracy desired. The pulse-compression ratio is essentially equal to Bt. The phase of each of the subintervals is either unchanged or else reversed in phase by 180, according to whether the The corresponding position in a binary sequence (or code) of length Bt is or 1 phase-coded pulse might be generated as shown in Fig. 10.25, using a tapped delay line.
The delay line contains Bt equally spaced taps.
The input to the line is a pulse of width
498
\jB.
[Sec.
10.9
taps are adjusted so that the phase of the signal is unchanged when the code calls for a zero. The taps are reversed in phase by 1 80 when the code calls for a one. On reception the phase-coded waveform is passed through a similar (or the same) delay
The
but with the taps arranged in the reverse order. The output of the tapped delay is a compressed pulse of duration approximately \/B. The codedpulse radar is a special case of the matched-filter radar shown in Fig. 9.6, with phase weighting applied to the taps. The phase coding should be designed to provide the maximum compression consistent with the available bandwidth and with a minimum of sidelobes. One technique for
line,
line
on reception
an optimum code is the shift-register, or null-sequence, code of maximum length as described by Huffman. 40 Short Pulse vs. Pulse Compression. The pulse-compression technique can be used
selecting
wherever a long pulse must be employed to obtain a large transmitted pulse energy simultaneously with good range resolution and accuracy. However, the rangeresolution capabilities of pulse compression are usually slightly inferior to those of a
Input
Fixed
phase
or
7r
shift,
/^
radians
Phase-coded
pulse
Fig. 10.25. Generation of a phase-coded pulse with a tapped delay line. filter" is a matched filter that might be similar to that of Fig. 9.5.
Box
labeled
"Bandpass
short pulse because of the fundamental limitations imposed by the time sidelobes, in addition to any difficulties involved in reducing the pulse-compression principle to practice. It might be difficult to maintain the transmitter frequency stable for the duration of a long pulse, with the result that the pulse will not compress properly. Other possible limitations are the reduction in signal-to-noise ratio and the poorer range accuracy that result with sidelobe-weighting filters. Both accuracy and resolution can be obtained by transmitting a long train of short pulses as in the conventional pulse radar. The pulses may be integrated to achieve the required total energy for detection. The range measurement can be made as accurate as one likes by transmitting a train of short pulses provided a sufficient number are
The doppler measurement can also be made as accurate as one likes by transmitting a sufficiently long train of pulses. However, a pulse-train waveform results in ambiguities in both range and doppler, whereas ambiguities are absent in a well-designed pulse-compression or matched filter radar. In general, the simplicity of the unmodulated pulse waveform seems to make it preferred to the more sophisticated modulations if its range accuracy is acceptable.
integrated for adequate detection.
The question of whether or not
to use pulse compression in a practical radar design should be carefully considered to determine whether any advantage gained from its use is sufficient to compensate for the added complexity.
REFERENCES
1.
Lees, R. J.: A Generalized Theory of Radar Observations, in "Avionics Research: Satellites and Problems of Long Range Detection and Tracking," Aeardopraph 40, Pergamon Press, New York,
1960.
2.
Pawlsey,
1955.
J.
L.,
and R. N. Bracewell: "Radio Astronomy," Oxford University
Press,
London,
vol.
1,
3.
Ridenour, L. N.: "Radar System Engineering," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947.
4.
499
5.
Simpson, T. J.: The Air Height Surveillance Radar and Use of Its Height Data in a Semiautomatic Air Traffic Control System, IRE Intern. Conv. Record, vol. 8, pt. 8, pp. 113-123, 1960. Cramer, H.: "Mathematical Methods of Statistics," chaps. 32 and 33, Princeton University
Press, Princeton, N.J., 1946.
6.
Slepian, D.: Estimation of Signal Parameters in the Presence PGIT-3, pp. 68-89, March, 1954.
of Noise,
IRE
Trans.,
no.
Goldman, S.: "Frequency Analysis, Modulation, and Noise," p. 281, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1948. 8. Mallinckrodt, A. J., and T. E. Sollenberger: Optimum-pulse-time Determination, IRE Trans., no. PGIT-3, pp. 151-159, March, 1954. 9. Gabor, D.: Theory of Communication,/. IEE, pt. Ill, vol. 93, pp. 429-441, 1946. 10. Woodward, P. M.: "Probability and Information Theory, with Applications to Radar," chap. 6,
7.
11. Skolnik,
12.
13.
14.
15.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1953. M. I.: Theoretical Accuracy of Radar Measurements, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-7, pp. 123-129, December, 1960. Manasse, R. Range and Velocity Accuracy from Radar Measurements, unpublished internal report dated Feb. 1955, MIT Lincoln Laboratory, Lexington, Mass. (Not generally available.) Kotel'nikov, T. A.: "The Theory of Optimum Noise Immunity," chap. 6, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1959. Manasse, R.: An Analysis of Angular Accuracies from Radar Measurements, MIT Lincoln Lab. Group Rept. 32-24, Dec. 6, 1955. (Not generally available.) Manasse, R.: Maximum Angular Accuracy of Tracking a Radio Star by Lobe Comparison, IRE
:
Trans., vol. AP-8, pp. 50-56, January, 1960.

16. Hiller,
E. R.
Available Source Information in Receiving Apertures,

3,
MIT
Research Lab.
Electronics Tech. Rept.

17.
September, 1956.
Silver, S. (ed.):
vol. 12, p. 187, 18. Swerling, P.:

19. Bernstein,
"Microwave Antenna Theory and Design," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1949. Maximum Angular Accuracy of a Pulsed Search Radar, Proc. IRE, vol. 44, pp.
in
1146-1155, September, 1956. R. An Analysis of Angular Accuracy pt. 5, pp. 61-78, 1955.
:
Search Radar,
IRE Natl.
Conv. Record, vol.
3,
20. 21.
Dinneen, G.
Analysis of Signal Detection and Location by Digital Means, March, 1956. Walter, C. M., J. Atkin, and H. Bickel: Comparative Evaluation of Several Azimuth Estimating Procedures Using Digital Processing and Search Radar Simulation, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-5,
P.,
I.
and
S.
Reed:
An
IRE
Trans., vol. 1T-2, pp. 29-38,
22. Walter, C.
pp. 114-121, June, 1958. M.: Quantitative Analysis of Automatic Target Detection-position Estimation Schemes Observing Scintillating Targets in Noise, IRE Natl. Conv. Record, vol. 6, pt. 5, pp. 107-119, 1958.
23.
Woodward,
24.
P. M.: "Probability and Information Theory, with Applications to Radar," chap. 7, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1953. Siebert, W. McC. A Radar Detection Philosophy, IRE Trans., vol. IT-2, pp. 204-221 September,
: ,
1956.
25. Siebert, 26. Turin,
27.
W. McC.
Statistical
Theories of Radar Synthesis, Proc. Natl. Electronics Conf. (Chicago),
vol. 12, pp.
401-410, 1956.
28. 29.
30.
G. L.: A Review of Correlation, Matched-filter, and Signal-coding Techniques, with Emphasis on Radar Applications, Hughes Aircraft Co. Tech. Mem. 559, April, 1957. Klauder, J. R.: The Design of Radar Signals Having Both High Range Resolution and High Velocity Resolution, Bell System Tech. J., vol. 39, pp. 809-820, July, 1960. Stewart, J. L., and E. C. Westerfield: A Theory of Active Sonar Detection, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, pp. 872-881, May, 1959. Westerfield, E. C., R. H. Prager, and J. L. Stewart: Processing Gains against Reverberation (Clutter) Using Matched Filters, IRE Trans., vol. IT-6, pp. 342-348, June, 1960.
6,
Dicke, R. H.: Object Detection System, U.S. Patent 2,624,876, Jan.
1953.
31. Darlington, S.: Pulse Transmission, U.S. Patent 2,678,997, 18, 1954. 32. Kronert, R.: Impulsverdicktung (Pulse Compression), Nachrtech., vol.
May
7, pp. 148-152, 162, For English abstracts of these two articles, see pp. 305-308, July, 1957. Proc. IRE, vol. 46, Abstract 72, p. 518, February, 1958, and Abstract 1078, May, 1958. 33. Improvements in and Relating to System Operating by Means of Wave Trains, British Patent Specification 604,429, July 5, 1948, issued to Henry Hughes and Sons, Ltd., D. O. Sproule, and
April, 1957; also pt.
II,
34.
A. J. Hughes. Cook, C. E. Modification of Pulse Compression Waveforms, Proc. Natl. Electronics Conf.
:
(Chicago), vol. 14, pp. 1058-1067, October, 1958.
500
35.

S.,
Applebaum,
:
and
P.
W.
Howells: Waveform Design for Tomorrow's Radars, Space) Aero:
nautics, vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 186-190, October, 1959.
Cook, C. E. Pulse Compression Key to More Efficient Radar Transmission, Proc. IRE, vol. 48, pp. 310-316, March, 1960. 37. Klauder, J. R., A. C. Price, S. Darlington, and W. J. Albersheim: The Theory and Design of Chirp Radars, Bell System Tech. J., vol. 39, pp. 745-808, July, 1960. 38. Cook, C. E., and J. E. Chin: Linear Pulse Compression, Space I Aeronautics, vol. 34, pp. 124-129, 148, September, 1960.
36.
FM
39.
Ohman, G.
P.: Getting
High Range Resolution with Pulse Compression Radar,
Electronics,
vol. 33, no. 41, pp. 53-57, Oct. 7, 1960.
Huffman, D. A. The Synthesis of Linear Sequential Coding Networks, in Colin Cherry (ed.), Proc. Third London Symposium on Information Theory, pp. 77-95, Butterworth's Scientific Publications, London, 1956. 41. Elspas, B.: Radar System Based on Statistical Estimation and Resolution Considerations,
40.
:
Stanford Univ. Appl. Electronics Lab. Tech. Kept. 361-1, Aug.
1,
1955,
AD 207896.
11
PROPAGATION OF RADAR WAVES
11.1. Introduction
The environment in which a radar operates can have considerable effect on the propagation of radar waves. The nature of propagation is important because it affects both the radar coverage and the accuracy of measurements. Any complete analysis or prediction of radar performance must take into account propagation phenomena since most radars do not operate in "free space" as assumed in the ideal formulation of the radar equation of Chaps. 1 and 2. The two most important environmental factors which influence radar coverage and measurements are the earth's surface and its atmosphere. Free-space radar performance is modified by (1) reflections from the surface of the earth, (2) refraction caused by an inhomogeneous atmosphere, and (3) attenuation by the gases constituting the atmosphere. It is usually convenient to distinguish between two different regions when considering radar propagation. The first and more important is the optical, or interference, region, which is within the line of sight (direct observation) of the radar. The second is the diffraction region, so called because it is beyond the line of sight (horizon) of the radar. Any energy found in this region is due to diffraction by the curvature of the earth or refraction by the earth's atmosphere. At still farther distances, electromagnetic energy is propagated primarily by tropospheric scatter. Although tropospheric scatter is important for long-distance point-to-point communications, scatter signals are usually too weak to be of interest to radar. Although radar wave propagation is understood qualitatively, it is difficult to obtain In many respects the prediction quantitative predictions in any but the simplest cases. of propagation phenomena is like predicting the weather. Indeed, there is a correlation between propagation and meteorological conditions in many instances. For example, the effect of atmospheric refraction on radar propagation may be predicted from measurements of pressure, temperature, and humidity. As in weather prediction, the collection of the necessary data can involve considerable effort which may not be economically justified. In general, the theoretical analysis of propagation does not usually yield quantitative results suitable for precise radar designs because the problem is a complicated one and the simplifying assumptions introduced to obtain solutions may not adequately describe the real situation. Experimental measurements also are not as satisfactory as one might like since the phenomena being observed are statistical and may exhibit considerable variation with both time and radar location. Therefore the radar systems designer must often be content with only a qualitative knowledge of "average" propagation conditions.
11.2. Propagation over a Plane Earth
effects
Although there are but few situations where accurate predictions of radar propagation can be made by assuming a flat rather than round earth, it is nevertheless instrucThe assumption of a flat earth simplifies the analysis tive to examine this special case. and illustrates the type of changes introduced in radar coverage by a reflecting ground
surface.
501
502
[Sec. 11.2
Consider the earth to be a plane, flat, reflecting surface with the radar antenna located The target is at a height h t and at a distance R from the radar. Figure 11.1 illustrates that energy radiated from the radar antenna arrives at the target via two separate paths. One is the direct path from radar to the target ; the other is the path reflected from the surface of the earth. The echo signal reradiated by the target arrives back at the radar via the same two paths. Thus the received echo is composed of two components traveling separate paths. The magnitude of the resultant echo signal will depend upon the amplitudes and relative phase difference between the direct and the ground-reflected signals. Modification of the field strength (volts per meter) at the target caused by the presence of the ground may be expressed by the ratio
at height h a
.
field strength at target in field

It is
presence of ground
(11.1)
if in free
strength at target
space
assumed in this analysis that the lengths of the direct and the reflected paths are almost (but not quite) equal so that the amplitudes of the two signals are approximately
Direct wave
Radar
Reflecting surface
Fig. 11.1. Propagation over a plane reflecting surface.
same provided there is no loss suffered on reflection from the ground. Hence, if two waves differ from one another, it is assumed to be due to a Although the two paths are comparable ground-reflection coefficient less than unity.
the
the amplitudes of the
Any difference in the relative phase between the waves can be attributed to the difference in the path length and the change in phase that occurs on reflection. The reflection coefficient of the ground may be considered as a complex quantity R = peiv The real part p describes the change in amplitude, while the argument f describes the phase shift on reflection. It is further assumed in the present example that the reflection coefficient R = 1. The reflected wave suffers no change in amplitude, but its phase is shifted 180. A reflection coefficient of 1 applies at microwave frequencies to a smooth surface with good reflecting properties if the radiation is horizontally polarized and the angle of
in length, they are not exactly equal.
direct
and the
reflected
incidence
is
small.
The effective radiation pattern of the radar located at A in Fig. 11.1 may be found in a manner analogous to that of a two-element interferometer antenna formed by the radar antenna at A and its image mirrored by the ground at A'. The difference between the reflected path AMB and the direct path AB (or A" MB) is A = 2h a sin f when R > h a
,
.
For | small, sin
f may be replaced by (h a
t
+
.
h t )|Rsotha.\.^
The latter expression assumes that h

path-length difference
is
> ha
X
2h a h t jR. 2h a (h a h t)lR The phase difference corresponding to the
Wd
2tt
2h a h t
radians
(11.2)
To
this
which
must be added the phase shift yr resulting from the reflection of the wave at M, The total phase difference between the is assumed to be tt radians, or 180.
Sec. 11.2]
direct
Propagation of Radar Waves

signals as
503
and the ground-reflected
measured
277
at the target
is
2hh t
/<
i\
signals, each of unity amplitude but with phase difference ip, is Therefore the ratio of the power incident on the target at B to that which would be incident if the target were located in free space is
The
[2(1
resultant of
two
cos
yj)]*.
tf '
2
\
cos
mi
4 sin
(11.4)
xr
is
Because of reciprocity, the path from target to radar
the
same
as
from radar to
target.
The power
ratio at the radar
is
therefore
^4 '
=16sin 4 2Â XR
(U5)
The radar equation describing the received echo power must be modified by the propagation facmagnitude from
to 16. tor if of Eq. (11.5). to
Since the sine varies in

1,
The
the factor rf varies from received signal strength also varies

fig. 11.2. Antenna-pattern lobe structure caused by the presence of a plane reflectin g
to 16; hence the fourth-power relation from between range and echo signal results in a varito 2 times the range ation of radar range from
ground surface.
of the same radar in free space.
The
field strength is
maximum when
,
equal to n/2,
3tt/2, ...
(2n
\)tt\2,
the argument of the where n = 0, 1, 2,
sine
. . . .
term in Eq. (11.5)
is
The maxima
are
therefore defined by
Ah h
-^ = 2n +
XR
2hh t
maxima
is
(11.6)
The minima, or
nulls,
occur
when
the sine term
zero, or
when
(11-7)
minima
XR
Thus the presence of a plane reflecting surface causes the continuous elevation coverage A target located at the to break up into a lobed structure as indicated in Fig. 11.2. maximum of a particular lobe will be detected at a range twice that of the same radar
located in free space. However, at other angles, the radar detection range can be less than the free-space range. When the target lies in the nulls, no echo signal is received. The angle (in radians) of the first (lowest) lobe is approximately equal to X/4h a If
.
low-angle coverage is desired, the radar antenna height should be high and the wavelength of the radiated energy small. The antenna pattern lobes caused by the presence of the ground might sometimes be of advantage when the longest possible detection range is desired against low-altitude targets and where continuous coverage is not
required.
The simple form of the radar equation [Eq. (1.10Z>)] may be written with the propagation factor rj included to illustrate the effect of the plane earth:
P. r
=
(4tt) .R
3
16 sin
"
for small angles
XR
RS
(11.8)
504

received signal
[Sec.
11.2
power for targets at low angles (on the lower side of the first lobe) varies as the eighth power of the range instead of the more usual fourth power. This phenomenon has been experimentally verified for ship targets at short ranges where the plane-earth approximation has some validity. 1 Another difference between Eq. (11.8) and the normal radar equation is the factor GjX, which appears in place of the factor GL The analysis in this section is based on many simplifying assumptions; therefore care should be exercised in adapting the results and conclusions to more realistic situations. The assumption of a perfectly reflecting plane earth applies in but a few cases. Also assumed was an omnidirectional antenna pattern in the elevation plane. Since radars utilize directive antennas, the idealized antenna lobe structure as given by Eq. (11.4) must be appropriately modified to account for the actual antenna radiation pattern.
Theoretically, the nulls in the lobe structure are at zero field strength since the direct and reflected signals are assumed to be of equal amplitude. In practice, the nulls are "filled in" and the lobe maxima are reduced because of nonperfect reflecting surfaces
The
with reflection coefficients

signals are radiated
less
than unity.
The nulls will also be filled in if broadband
by the radar.
In the above example, the reflection coefficient of the ground was taken to be 1, which applies for horizontal polarization and a smooth reflecting surface. The magnitude and phase of the reflection coefficients of vertically polarized energy behave differently from waves with horizontal polarization (Fig. 11.3a and b). The calculated amplitude and phase of the reflection coefficient are plotted for a smooth sea surface at 100 and 3,000 Mc. It is seen that the reflection coefficient for vertically polarized energy is less than that for horizontally polarized energy. The angle corresponding to
the
minimum
reflection coefficient
is
called Brewster's angle.
The
different reflection coefficients with the
two polarizations
result in different
coverage patterns. The nulls are not as deep with vertical polarization, nor are the lobe maxima as great. Vertical polarization might be preferred when complete vertical coverage is required. Horizontal polarization might be specified when enhanced range capability is desired and complete vertical coverage is not necessary. The theoretical curves of Fig. 11.3 assume a smooth reflecting surface. In practice, this condition is seldom met, and the difference in the coverage diagrams obtained with each of the two types of polarization is often not as pronounced as might be expected on the basis of theoretical computations. Roughness is more important than the electrical properties in determining whether reflection is specular or not. Measurements have
shown
that the reflection coefficient for
normal (nonsmooth) ground
terrain
is
in the
range 0.2 to 0.4 and is seldom greater than 0.5 at frequencies above 1,500 Mc except for low angles of incidence. 2 3 The presence of a reflecting surface affects the measurement of low elevation angles as well as the radar coverage. When the target elevation angle is less than a beamwidth, the radar receives both the direct and the ground-reflected waves, and the effective antenna pattern is altered. The radar sees the image as well as the target. Heightfinding radars which measure elevation angle of arrival by comparing the amplitudes of the signals received at two different beam elevation angles (lobe comparison) can give erroneous and ambiguous measurements at low angles. 4 Elevation errors near the ground may be considerably reduced in magnitude and the ambiguities eliminated by surrounding the radar with a metallic fence to remove the ground-reflected wave. The fence replaces the ground-reflected wave with a diffracted wave of lesser importance.
-
diffraction fence also removes objectionable ground clutter. Tracking radars also are affected at low elevation angles by the ground-reflected wave. The tracker might give an erroneous angle measurement just as in the case of the height finder, or it might track the "image" in the ground instead of the true target. The over-all effect on the tracker is somewhat analogous to "glint" (Sec. 5.5).
The
Sec. 11.2]
505
j_
10
20
30
_L 40
(a)
_L 50
J_ 60
_L
70
_L 80
90
Angle of incidence, deg
T"
"T T" 3,000 Mc 100 Mc
Horizontal polarization
2s_
~i~
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Angle of incidence, deg
water).
Fig. 11.3. (a) Magnitude of the reflection coefficient as a function of the angle of incidence (for sea (6) Phase of the reflection coefficient as a function of the angle of incidence (for sea water). Phase of the reflected wave lags the phase of the incident wave. {From Burrows and Attwood,*"
courtesy Academic Press, Inc.)
506

width
is
[Sec.
11.3
compared with the difference between the direct and two signals to appear as separate targets on the display of a search radar. The pulse echo at the shorter range is the direct signal and corresponds to the true target range. The echo at the longer range is the scattered signal and is a false, or "ghost," target. In some applications the appearance of false targets may be a nuisance in other applications, the time separation between the two
If the radar pulse
short
scattered path,
it is
possible for the
may be used
11.3.
as a
measure of target
altitude.
The Round Earth
In general, the curvature of the earth cannot be neglected when predicting radar coverage. This is especially true for coverage at low elevation angles near the horizon. The two regions of interest in radar propagation are the interference region and the
diffraction region.
the radar.
The
direct
The interference, or optical, region is located within line of sight of and reflected waves interfere to produce a lobed radiation
Lobing, however,
is
pattern similar to that described for the plane earth.

:
not as
pronounced in the case of the round earth the minima are not as deep nor are the maxima as great since a wave reflected from a curved surface is more divergent than one The other region of interest to the radar designer lies just reflected from a plane. beyond the interference region below the radar line of sight and is the diffraction, or the shadow, region. Here radar signals are rapidly attenuated. Very few microwave radars have the capability of penetrating the diffraction region to any great extent
because of the severe losses. The effect of the round earth on radar coverage can be predicted by analytical means Although computations for a for the idealized case of a smooth (billiard ball) earth. smooth earth may not predict the precise coverage of a particular radar, they can give Mathematical techniques exist qualitative descriptions of the effects to be expected. for describing electromagnetic propagation over a smooth, round earth of known, uniform dielectric constant and permeability. However, the solution of the approApproximations must be employed, and the priate mathematics is not an easy task. computations are usually performed with the aid of graphs or other numerical techThere exist in the literature the necessary graphs and nomograms which niques. 5-9 If simplify the "cookbook" computation of radar coverage for the smooth earth. the problem is complicated by the addition of a nonsmooth surface or a nonstandard atmosphere, the mathematics and the computations become almost unmanageable.
11.4. Refraction
Radio and radar waves travel in straight lines in free space. However, electromagnetic waves propagating within the earth's atmosphere do not travel in straight lines but are generally bent or refracted. One effect of refraction is to extend the distance to Another effect is the the horizon, thus increasing the radar coverage (Fig. 11.4a). Bending, or introduction of errors in the measurement of elevation angle (Fig. 1 1 Ab). refraction, of radar waves in the atmosphere is caused by the variation with altitude of the velocity of propagation, or the index of refraction, defined as the velocity of propagation in free space to that in the medium in question. At microwave frequencies, the index of refraction n for air which contains water vapor is 10
(n-l)lQBîV
where p
e
= Z^ +
(1
373
105e
^
1.3332 millibars)
(,1.9)
= = T=
barometric pressure, millibars

absolute temperature,
mm Hg =
partial pressure of water vapor, millibars
Sec. 11.4]
507
The parameter
refmctivity.
N=
It is
convenient unit. that water vapor has a negligible effect on the former; consequently the second term of Eq. (11.9) may be neglected at optical frequencies. Since the barometric pressure/? and the water-vapor content e decrease rapidly with height, while the temperature T decreases slowly with height, the index of refraction normally decreases with increasing
Radar
(n 1)10 is the "scaled-up" index of refraction and is called often used in propagation work instead of n because it is a more The prime difference between optical and microwave refraction is
6
Radar
roy
in
the presence of refraction

in
Radar ray
the absence of refraction
Apparent
target position
(b)
Fig. 11.4. (a) Extension of the radar horizon due to refraction of radar waves by the atmosphere; angular error caused by refraction.
altitude.
1.0003.
typical value of the index of refraction near the surface of the earth is _1 -8 In a standard atmosphere the index decreases at the rate of about 4 X 10
of altitude. The decrease in refractive index with altitude means that the velocity of propagation The result is an increases with altitude, causing radio waves to bend downward. (Variations of the increase in the effective radar range as was illustrated in Fig. 1 1 Aa. refractive index in the horizontal plane may also exist, but they do not materially alter
the bending.)
Refraction of radar waves in the atmosphere is analogous to bending of light rays by The path of the radar waves through the atmosphere may be plotted using ray-tracing techniques, provided the variation of refractive index is known. The classical method of accounting for atmospheric refraction in computations is by 3,440 nautical miles) by an equivalent earth replacing the actual earth of radius a (a of radius ka and by replacing the actual atmosphere by a homogeneous atmosphere in which electromagnetic waves propagate in straight lines rather than curved lines (Fig. It may be shown from Snell's law in spherical geometry that the value of the 11.5). factor k by which the earth's radius must be multiplied in order to plot the ray paths as
an optical prism.
straight lines
is
fc
=
1
a{dnjdh)
(11.10)
508

is
[Sec.
11.4
the rate of change of refractive index n with height. 5 The vertical gradient of the refractive index dnjdh is normally negative. If it is assumed that this gradient is constant with height, the value of k is" -. The use of the effective earth's
where dnjdh
radius to account for the refraction of radio waves predates radar and, because of its convenience, has been widely used in radio communications, propagation work, and radar. 11 It is only an approximation, however, and may not yield correct results if precise radar measurements are desired, as, for example, in a long-range height
The term standard refraction is apwhen the index of refraction decreases uniformly with altitude in such a manner that
finder.
plied
k
Radius a
| (Ref. 12).
The
rical
at height h
(a)
to the horizon from a radar be shown from simple geometconsiderations to be approximately
distance
may
d
h
Vlkah
(11.11a)
where ka is the effective radius of the earth and is assumed small compared with a. For k = Eq. (11.11a) reduces to a particularly convenient relationship if a" and h are measured in statute miles and feet, respectively.
--,
d (statute
If
Fig. 11.5. (a) Bending of antenna
miles)
V2h(ft)
(11.116)
d is
in nautical miles,
beam due
to refraction, true earth radius a; (6) shape
d (nautical
miles)
.23VA(ft)
(11.11c)
of beam in equivalent earth representation with radius ka.
Equations (11.11) have been used at times as a measure of the line-of-sight coverage of a
ground-based radar viewing a target at a height h. This may lead to incorrect results in some cases since the optical line of sight does not necessarily correspond to the radar line of sight, as explained in Sec. 1 1 .6. The four-thirds earth approximation has several limitations. It is only an average value and should not be used for other than general computational purposes. The correct value of k depends upon meteorological conditions. Bean 13 found that the average value of k measured at an altitude of 1 km varies from 1.25 to 1.45 over the continental United States during the month of February and from 1.25 to 1.90 during August. In general, the higher values of k occur in the southern part of the country. Burrows and Attwood 5 state that k lies between f and f in arctic climates. The use of an effective earth's radius implies that dnjdh is constant with height, or in other words, that n decreases linearly with height. This assumption is in disagreement with the experimentally observed refractive-index structure of the atmosphere at heights above 1 km. 14 15 The variation of refractivity with altitude is found to be described more nearly by an exponential function of height rather than the linear variation assumed by the f earth model or any model of constant effective earth's radius. A more appropriate refractivity model suggested by Bean and Thayer 14 18 is one in which the refractivity varies exponentially with height,
-
where
ce
In
N = N exp [-c (h - A)] N = refractivity at surface of earth h = altitude of target h = altitude of radar (NJNj) = a constant which depends upon value
s e s s
(11.12)
of N and A^, the latter
being refractivity at altitude of
km
Sec. 11.5]
It is
509
found that the exponential model gives a more accurate determination of the effects of atmospheric refraction than does a linear model. The use of the correct atmospheric model is quite important in a height-finder radar, 14 17 18 Refraction causes the radar rays to bend, especially for targets at long ranges. In certain radar resulting in an apparent elevation angle different from the true one. applications, such as air-traffic control or vectoring of fighters to intercept bombers, Because of refraction, correcthe altitude measurement must be accurately known. tions are made to the radar data to obtain a better estimate of elevation angle, range, or height. In general, surface observations of refractivity seem to suffice for ascertaining the effects of refraction. 19,20 Refraction is troublesome primarily at low angles of elevation, especially at or near It can usually be neglected at angles greater than 3 to 5 in most radar the horizon.
'
applications.
Although more refined models of atmospheric refraction must be considered where measurements are important, the simplicity of the usual | earth approximation makes it attractive for rough predictions. The above discussion of refraction has been directed primarily to the aircraft target Targets located within the lower portion of the atmosphere called the troposphere. such as satellites and ballistic missiles operate above both the troposphere and the ionosphere. The effects of the entire atmosphere must be considered in such cases. 21
precise radar
11.5.
Anomalous Propagation
When the atmospheric index of refraction decreases uniformly with increasing height (as in the case of "standard" refraction described in the previous section), the effect of the atmosphere on radar waves can be treated by simple means, as, for example,
by the use of an effective earth's radius. A linear gradient of refractive index, however, does not describe all propagation conditions. It is primarily useful where only general conclusions concerning radar propagation are sufficient. If the index of refraction does not vary linearly with altitude, the effect of the propagation medium on radar coverage may be computed using more complicated, but well-known techniques. 9 ,22,23,4i,42 ^ profile of the index of refraction as a function of altitude is usually needed for such computations. It can be obtained from conventional meteorological measurements of temperature, pressure, and humidity. Standard raytracing techniques, familiar from optics, may be applied to find the amount of bending which takes place. Atmospheric refraction normally bends radio or radar rays around the curvature of the earth. If the rays are bent far enough, they can have the same curvature as the earth itself, and it would be possible for initially horizontal rays to bend around the surface of the earth, maintaining constant height. Thus there would be no radar "horizon." It does not take much change in refractive index to cause the rays to be _1 bent so that relatively long ranges are produced. A gradient of about 16 x 10~ 8 m will cause initially horizontal rays to follow the curvature of the earth. The abnormal propagation of electromagnetic waves is called superrefraction, trapping, ducting, or anomalous propagation. Superrefraction increases the radar range of ground and surface targets and permits them to be seen well beyond the normal radar horizon. Energy is propagated in a region called a duct, which usually lies at or near the surface of the earth. It is sometimes said that the energy is "trapped" in the The duct acts as a guide directing energy to great distances. A superrefracting duct. duct which lies close to the ground is called a ground-based duct, while one lying above Ground-based ducts are the more usual. The the surface is called an elevated duct. radar must be located within or close to the duct if its energy is to be trapped. The field strength from a radar located within the duct can be of the same order of magnitude
510
as

free space,
[Sec.
11.5
even for distances greater than the radar horizon, provided the wavelength is sufficiently small and atmospheric attenuation is unimportant. duct is produced when the index of refraction decreases with altitude at a rapid rate. If the index of refraction [Eq. (11.9)] is to decrease with height, the temperature must increase and/or the humidity (water-vapor content) must decrease with height. An increase of temperature with height is called a temperature inversion and occurs when the temperature of the sea or land surface is appreciably less than that of the air. A temperature inversion, by itself, must be very pronounced in order to produce super-
would occur in
refraction.
alone; thus superrefraction

climates.
Water-vapor gradients are more effective than temperature gradients is usually more prominent over oceans, especially in warm
Superrefraction occurs when the upper air is exceptionally warm and dry in comparison with the air at the surface. There are several meteorological conditions which may lead to the formation of superrefracting ducts. 24 25 Over land, superrefraction is usually caused by radiation of heat from the earth on clear nights, especially in the
-
the ground is moist. The earth loses heat, and its surface temperature but there is little or no change in the temperature of the upper atmosphere. This leads to conditions favorable to superrefraction, that is, a temperature inversion at the ground and a sharp decrease in the moisture with height. Therefore, over land masses superrefraction is most noticeable at night and usually disappears during the warmest part of the day. Another common cause of superrefraction is the movement of warm dry air, from land, over cooler bodies of water. Warm dry air blown out over the cooler sea is cooled at the lowest layers and produces a temperature inversion. At the same time, moisture is added from the sea to produce a moisture gradient. This form of anomalous propagation over the sea tends to be more prominent on the leeward side of land masses. Superrefraction occurs during either the day or night and can last for long periods of time. It is most likely to occur, however, in the late afternoon and evening when the warm afternoon air drifts out over the sea. 28 Thus the character of superrefraction is likely to differ over land and sea. Land masses change temperature much more quickly than does the sea. As a result, there is much more of a diurnal variation of superrefraction over land than over sea, where it 25 is likely to be more continuous and widespread. Superrefracting ground ducts may also be produced by the diverging downdraft under a thunderstorm. 24 The relatively cool air which spreads out from the base of a thunderstorm results in a temperature inversion in the lowest few thousand feet. The moisture gradient is also appropriate for the formation of a duct. Duct formation by thunderstorms may not be as frequent as other superrefraction mechanisms, but it is of importance since it may be used as a means of detecting the presence of a storm. An operator carefully watching a radar display can detect the presence of a storm by the sudden increase in the number and range of ground targets. The conditions appropriate to the formation of a thunderstorm duct are short-lived and have a time duration of the order of perhaps 30 min to 1 hr. With the exception of thunderstorm ducts, superrefraction is essentially a fineweather phenomenon. As tropical (but not equatorial) climates are noted for their fine weather, it is not surprising to find the most intense superrefraction occurring in such regions. 25 In temperate climates superrefraction is more common in summer than in winter. It does not occur when the atmosphere is well mixed, a condition generally accompanying poor weather. When it is cold, rough, stormy, rainy, or cloudy, the lower atmosphere is well stirred up and propagation is likely to be normal. Both rough terrain and high winds tend to increase atmospheric mixing, consequently reducing the occurrence of superrefraction. Radar propagation is normal whenever
falls,
summer when
Sec
j j
511
with the earth's surface. Intense superthe upper air is unusually cold in comparison forecast. refractive conditions may sometimes be of feet high, never more Atmospheric ducts are generally of the order of several tens similar to propagation very is than perhaps 500 or 600 ft. Propagation within a duct is probably closer analogy The wall." within a waveguide except that there is no "top certain modes of only supports duct wall. top leaky to that of a waveguide with a
a critical wavelength. A propagation and does not readily support propagation below ducts gives as the atmospheric simplified model of propagation in superrefractive duct of depth d the surface a in propagated be can that (A
maximum
wavelength
max )
following:
5 Amax -
=2
U
i
.
'
(11.13)
If the decrease in index jof and d are measured in the same units. ft at a rate of 4 X 10 linear be refraction with height (A/A/z) is assumed to ducts atmospheric Since = 100 cm. = A for = 350 ft d 1 cm, and d = 16 ft for A
27
where Amax
A/i,
Fig. 11.6. Increase in ground coverage by superrefraction.
are not usually deep, superrefraction quencies.
is more important at higher microwave freUnlike standard waveguide propagation, the cutoff wavelength for ducting does not sharply divide the regions of propagation and no propagation. Although radiation at A max or shorter wavelengths is strongly guided, radiation at several times Amax may also be affected by the duct. The minimum size of an atmospheric duct necessary to propagate electromagnetic energy is considerably larger than the minimum size of metallic waveguide necessary to propagate energy of the same wavelength. This disparity is due to the radically different distribution of the refractive index across the guide in the two cases. Superrefraction is primarily limited to low angles of elevation. It rarely affects radar detection at angles above 1.0 to 1.5. Its chief effect is to extend the surface
coverage of ground-based radars. An example of the coverage which might be obtained with ground radar during In general, periods of superrefraction is illustrated by the shaded areas in Fig. 11.6. low-sited radars are more susceptible to superrefraction than are high-sited ones. Superrefraction is relatively common and may be experienced on occasion at almost Booker25 lists some of the better-known maritime areas where all radar sites.
superrefraction
is
prevalent.
These are mainly in tropical climates.
The
longest
II.
reported terrestrial radar ranges were in the Indian Ocean during World
War
At
512

India, a 1.5-m-wavelength radar at a height 225
[S EC
n.6
about 20 miles. Although the radar range may be considerably extended by superrefraction, it may not always be a desirable condition. The longer ranges achieved during superrefractive conditions apply primarily to surface targets and include "clutter." The increase
in clutter targets
reported up to 700 miles. However, during the monsoon season when propagation conditions were more normal, the radar was able to plot ships out to a range & of onlv y
ft above sea level frequently received echoes from points in Arabia at ranges of 1,000 to 1,500 miles during the hot season. It was quite common to plot ships out to ranges of 200 miles, and cases were
Bombay,
were in perfect condition, the operator might be further deceived by the fact that extended ranges apply only to targets located within the duct, which in the case of a ground-based aircraft surveillance radar might represent but a small portion of the total coverage
volume. The extended ranges might also result in ambiguities and confusion because of interference of second-time-around echoes in the detection and tracking of desired targets. Furthermore, even if the advantages outweighed the disadvantages, superrefraction would be of limited value since it is not a phenomenon which can be depended
Its presence and magnitude are determined by meteorological conditions over which there is no control. When superrefraction occurs, it is usually not uniform in its effect in all directions around the radar. This is especially true of radars situated along the coast and of ship-borne radars in the vicinity of large land masses.
detection of aircraft or surface targets. The increased range against surface targets during superrefractive conditions could mislead the operator of a poorly performing radar about the condition of his set if he were to interpret the long detection ranges as being due to good radar performance rather than to abnormal propagation conditions. Even if the radar
makes more
difficult the
upon in most localities.
Abnormal meteorological conditions do not always cause increased range; the may occur. The refractive-index gradient may bend rays upward rather than downward, leading to a decrease in range as compared with standard conditions. This is called subrefraction. It was reported, for example, that there were occasions when centimeter-wavelength radars in good operating condition off Fisher's Island, New
opposite
York, were unable to see Block Island, 22 miles away, although it was visible optically. 27 In certain cases fog can lead to substandard propagation or subrefraction. When fog forms, part of the water in the air changes from the gaseous to liquid state, but the total amount of water remains unchanged. Water in liquid form contributes far less to the refractive index than water in the gaseous or vapor form. Therefore the formation of fog near the surface results in a reduction in the water vapor contributing to the refractive index. Because other factors can enter, however, the presence of fog is neither a necessary nor a sufficient condition for the occurrence of substandard propagation. 5
-
27
The term anomalous propagation includes both superrefraction and subrefraction. It can seriously alter radar performance and should be well understood by operating personnel, so that when it occurs, it will be recognized and the radar output properly
interpreted.
11.6. Low-altitude
Coverage
In free space, electromagnetic waves travel in straight lines. In the earth's atmosphere, however, radar waves can propagate beyond the geometrical horizon by refraction. Another mechanism that permits radar coverage to be extended beyond the geometrical horizon is diffraction Radar waves are diffracted around the cu rved earth in the same manner that light is diffracted by a straight edge. The ability of electro.
magnetic waves to propagate around the earth's curvature by diffraction depends upon
SEC
11.6]
513
the frequency, or
more precisely, upon the size of the object compared with the waveThe mechanism of the frequency, the more the wave is diffracted. lower The length. where it provides diffraction is especially important at very low frequencies (VLF)
world-wide communications. However, at radar frequencies the wavelength is small compared with the earth's dimensions and little energy is diffracted. Thus radar mechanism. coverage cannot be extended much beyond the line of sight by this at the target as space) free (relative to Figure 1 1 .7 is a plot of the electric field strength antenna and radar Both the antenna. transmitting the function of the distance from
a The computed in this example). the target are assumed to be at a fixed height (100 curves apply to propagation over an idealized smooth earth in the absence of an
a.u
ii
2.0
1.0 -
/
/
z :
1 ^
o
1/
0.5
0.2 -
ilative
p
oo
en
-4a\
.1
(n
strength
Po
ro
0.01
\
\
0.005
\
1
=
\
\
\=
0.002 0.001
i i i
= 7mm\
\
7cm\
i
\
100
30
40
50
60
Distance,
70 km
80
90
Fig 1 1 .7. Theoretical field strength (relative to free-space field strength) as a function of the distance = h = 100 m, k = 1, ground conductivity from transmitting antenna. Vertical polarization, = 10~ 2 mho/m, dielectric constant = 4. (After Burrows and Attwood,' courtesy Academic Press, Inc.)
atmosphere. The line of sight is the straight-line distance between radar and target that is just tangent to the surface of the earth (Fig. 11.8). The distance between radar and target along the line of sight is
d
where h v h 2
a
= Vlk^ +
Vlkahz
(11.14)
= heights of radar antenna and target, respectively = earth's radius k = factor discussed in Sec. 11.4, accounting for refraction due to a uniform
gradient of refractivity
line
The point of tangency of the

horizon.
of sight with the earth
is
the geometrical, or optical,
At
is,
optical frequencies (A * 0) the field strength within the interference region (that between the radar and the geometrical horizon) is essentially the same as in free space.
514
[Sec. 11.6
Thus, for optical frequencies or very short radar wavelengths, the geometrical horizon represents the approximate boundary between the regions of propagation and no propagation. As the frequency decreases (increasing wavelength), Fig. 11.7 indicates that more and more energy
propagates
Geometrical (opticol) horizon
The field does not penetrate beyond the horizon.
Fig. 11.8.
Geometry
for radar propagation over the curved earth.
500
400
r300
1.200
100-
10
20
30
40
50
Distance, nautical miles
and target (or = 4.6 mhos/m,
Fig. 11.9. Calculated one-way propagation loss at a frequency of 500 as a function of distance receiver) height. Radar height 100 ft; k 4/3; sea-water surface (conductivity dielectric constant = 81); vertical polarization.
Mc
beyond the geometrical horizon. However, the field strength geometrical horizon decreases with decreasing frequency.
at,
and just
within, the
It is concluded that if low-altitude radar coverage is desired beyond the geometrical horizon in the diffraction or shadow region, the frequency should be as low as possible. If, on the other hand, low-altitude coverage is to be optimized within the interference region and if there is no concern for coverage beyond the horizon, the radar frequency should be as high as possible.
Sec. 11.6]
515
The formula for the distance along the line of sight [Eq. (1 1.14)] should not be used as Figure 11.7 shows that a a measure of the radar coverage without some reservation.
definitely within the target located at the geometrical horizon is not in free space but is The field strength for a target on the radar line of sight diffraction region of the radar. 28 The loss of signal strength in might vary from 10 to 30 db below that in free space.
At a frequency of 500 Mc, the one-way db/mile at low altitudes (Fig. 11.9). It can be even Therefore, to penetrate 10 miles within the diffraction greater at higher frequencies. increased by at least 20 db over that required for must be region, the radar power free-space propagation. The decrease in radar coverage due to the attenuation of electromagnetic energy in region is illustrated by Fig. 11.10 for a radar operating at a frequency of
the diffraction region can be quite high.
propagation loss
is
roughly
the diffraction
500
400
a;300
?200
100
10
20
30
50
Range, nautical miles
Fig. 11.10. Contours of "radar coverage" for radar height of 200 ft above curved earth. (1) Geometrical line-of-sight contour for k = i (2) constant-radar-signal contour in the diffraction zone sea for a signal strength equal to the free-space signal at 220 nautical miles, vertical polarization, water, k i,f= 500 Mc; (3) same as (2), but for 110 nautical miles free-space signal; (4) same as but for 27.5 nautical miles free-space (2), but for 55 nautical miles free-space signal; (5) same as (2), (Courtesy Proc. IRE.) signal; (6) zero-propagation-loss contour, same conditions as curves 2 to 5.
;
These curves are theoretical contours of constant radar coverage. The radar height is assumed to be 200 ft above the curved earth. Curve 1 represents the locus of Curve 2 is the constant the geometrical line of sight as defined by Eq. (1 1 14) for k = f signal contour in the diffraction region for a signal strength equal to the free-space signal that would be received from a range of approximately 220 nautical miles; that is, of detecting if the radar is to detect a target that lies along this contour, it must be capable If the target were at an the same target in free space at a range of 220 nautical miles. about altitude of 200 ft, the maximum detection range would be reduced from 220 to to a apply they that curve except to similar are 2, 5 and Curves miles. 3, 4, nautical 35 Curve 6 is the free-space signal of 110, 55, and 27.5 nautical miles, respectively. zero-diffraction-loss contour and represents the approximate boundary between the Any target to the right of curve 6 may be interference region and diffraction region. considered to be within the diffraction region. This illustrates why most radars
500 Mc.
.
operating at microwave or metrical line of sight.
UHF frequencies
are limited to coverage within the geo-
516
11.7.

Radar
Diffraction Screen
[Sec. 11.7
A radar diffraction screen consists of reflective or absorbent material placed around

a radar
to
site to eliminate or reduce unwanted ground echoes. Diffraction screens may be used to intercept the ground-reflected wave in order to reduce interference effects and
improve the measurement accuracy at low elevation angles. Ground echoes, especially at short ranges, can often be considerably larger than the desired (aircraft) target echoes, thus masking them and preventing their detection. The moving-targetindication radar (MTI), discussed in Chap. 4, attenuates fixed ground echoes relative to moving-target echoes but does not completely eliminate them. The use of a screen for further reducing ground-clutter signals might offer improvement in many cases.
<
0.01
0.001
0.0001 10 20 Frequency, Gc
200
Fig. 11.11. Attenuation of electromagnetic energy by atmospheric gases. Dashed curve represents the absorption due to water vapor in an atmosphere at 76 cm pressure containing 1 per cent water molecules (7.5 g water/m 3 ). The water resonance line at 22.3 Gc is assumed to have a half width at half maximum (line breadth) of 3 Gc. The solid curve is the absorption due to oxygen in an atmosphere at 76 cm pressure whose resonance band at 60 Gc is supposed to have a line breadth of 600 Mc (From Burrows and Attwood* and Straiton and Tolbert. 33 )
Ground echoes may be reduced by simply tilting the radar antenna beam upward to minimize the energy directed toward the ground. Unfortunately, this technique also reduces the low-angle coverage and therefore is not always desirable. A diffraction screen or fence erected around the radar acts to attenuate the echo signals from the ground by placing an obstacle in the path between radar and ground echoes. Experiments have shown that ground echoes may be successfully attenuated about 10 to 1 5 db by use of diffraction screens with negligible reduction in the low-altitude coverage of the radar. 29 In any application, the improvement to be gained by the use of a screen must be weighed against its cost.
Sec. 11.8]
517
relative to that which would Diffraction by an obstacle can increase the signal strength the range of VHF, country, mountainous In present. were obstacle be received if no
can be enhanced by this phenomenon. might also conceivably increase radar coverage under proper conditions.
UHF, and microwave communications

11.8. Attenuation
It
5 by Atmospheric Gases
27
3133
precipitation
absorbed as heat and is lost. Energy is absorbed as a result of another. transition from one rotation energy level in the molecule to
atmospheric gases
is
The attenuation of radar energy in a clear atmosphere in the absence of A portion of the energy incident on these is due primarily to oxygen and water vapor.
1,000
TTTTTT
Mill
INN
100
II
100 10 Free-spoce range, nautical miles
1,000
path between Fig. 11.12. Reduction of the radar range due to attenuation along the propagation transmitter and receiver. Parameters on curves are one-way attenuation.
may be expressed by an exponential law. The reduction power when propagating over a (two-way) distance R and back is equal in units of to exp ( 2*R), where a is the (one-way) attenuation coefficient measured Instead of plotting oc, it is more usual to plot the one-way attenuation (distance)" 1 This is equivalent to plotting the quantity 4.34a, where in decibels per unit distance. base 10 the constant accounts for the conversion from the natural logarithm to the
Atmospheric attenuation
in radar signal
.
logarithm.
31 '" and is Attenuation by oxygen and water vapor has been computed by Van Vleck about at and at 22.3 vapor occur water for peaks shown in Fig. 11.11. Resonance 33 At frequencies at 60 and 1 20 Gc. 1 80 Gc, while the oxygen molecule has resonances below about 1 Gc (L band), the effect of atmospheric attenuation is negligible. Above becomes increasingly important. At millimeter wavelengths, attenuation 10 Gc,
it
is
and is one of the chief reasons why ground-based radars are seldom operated at frequencies above 35 Gc. path Figure 11.12 illustrates the reduction in radar range that results from (one-way)
relatively large
518
[Sec.
11.9
attenuation.
The
abscissa
is
the range in free space,

is
assuming that the radar signal shown.

11.9. Microwave-radiation
and the ordinate is the range attenuated uniformly over the entire path at the rate
43
Hazards 3540
>
It has been reported, of power radiating from the open end of a 6- by 1 5-in.' waveguide will cause ordinary light bulbs to explode, fluorescent lamps many feet away to light up, and a piece of steel wool to explode into arcs and will produce "sunburn" in a few minutes. 34 It is not surprising, therefore, that microwave energy, if of sufficient intensity, is a health hazard and can produce biological damage in humans. Heating is the chief effect of microwave radiation on living tissue. In controlled
High-power microwave energy can produce spectacular effects.
for example, that 50
kw
UHF
dosages, radiation heating is beneficial and forms the basis of diathermy, a therapeutic heating of the tissues beneath the skin. Frequencies ranging from
HF
(13.56
microwaves (1 8 Gc) have been used for diathermy. 39 The heating effects of microwave radiation have also been applied commercially in the form of "radar ovens," used for cooking food rapidly. Harmful effects of excessive microwave radiation result from either a general rise
in
Mc)
to
body temperature or from selective heating of sensitive parts of the body. Exposure of the whole body will cause the internal temperature to rise and produce fever. An increase in the total body temperature of 1 C is considered excessive, 35 and
the total
prolonged exposure or too high a temperature rise can be fatal. Discomfort resulting from a general rise in body temperature may sometimes be perceived by the victim and serve as a warning. The danger of localized heating depends upon whether compensating cooling
mechanisms exist to dissipate the heat generated at the radiated part of the body. For example, localized heating is least serious in muscle tissue which is well equipped with blood vessels capable of dissipating heat. Heating is more dangerous in the brain, the testes, the hollow viscera, and the eyes, where there is little opportunity for the exchange of heat with the surrounding tissue. Many instances have been reported where cataracts have been deliberately formed in the eyes of animals by exposure to microwave radiation. The viscous material of the eyeball is affected by heat in much the same manner as the white of an egg. It is transparent at room temperature but becomes opaque if its temperature is raised
excessively.
The process
is
an
irreversible one.
more
ible.
sensitive to heat
'
than the eye, testicular damage
37 39
Although the testes are apparently is often temporary and revers-
of fat. 37
frequencies below 400 and above 3,000 Mc, the body absorbs less than half the incident energy. Lower frequencies pass through, and higher frequencies are reflected at the skin's surface. Between 1,000 and 3,000 Mc the percentage of radiation absorbed can approach 100 per cent, depending on the thickness of skin and subcutaneous layers
J
At
whole body is immersed in microwave radiation, a rise in temperature or a sensation of warmth serves as a warning before damage to localized parts of the body becomes severe. However, if only parts of the body are exposed, there may or may not be a sensation of warmth, depending upon the frequency. Heating caused by low frequencies penetrating the interior of the body is dangerous because the sparsity of sensory nerves may make it imperceptible. Higher frequencies absorbed at or close to the surface of the body are more likely to be perceived than interior heating. There have been few authenticated incidents where radar radiations have been the cause of biological damage in humans. However, as radar powers increase, the likelihood of biological damage becomes greater, and if serious harm is to be avoided,
If the
Sec. 11.9]
519
proper safety precautions must be observed. The three United States armed services and several industrial companies have established39 the maximum safe exposure level 2 Power densities greater than this are to be an average power density of 10 mw/cm An average power density of between 1 and 10 mw/cm2 is potentially dangerous. considered safe for incidental or occasional exposure, but for an indefinitely prolonged exposure, the power density should be less than 1 mw/cm 2 In the Fresnel region, the maximum power density in the beam of a circular "dish" antenna of area A radiating an average power of P is API A. The factor 4 appears
. .
W=
is
since the
maximum field
strength in the Fresnel region
twice the field strength at the
aperture.
The above criteria are in terms of average power and assume that thermal effects are dominant. However, there is evidence indicating that nonthermal biological effects It has been found that pulsed power also occur from exposure to microwave radiation. power of the same average value. can produce biological change not obtained with Therefore the possibility of dangerous effects with excessively high peak powers should not be overlooked even if the average power is less than the safe threshold. 37,39 40 As a safety precaution, areas of high power density should be fenced off, locked, or otherwise made inaccessible when transmitting. Personnel should never look into an open waveguide or antenna feed horn connected to energized transmitters. When personnel must work in areas where the power density is at a dangerous level, they should be protected with screened enclosures or with protective apparel made from
CW
'
reflective material.
Another potential
safety hazard in
working with high power
is
the generation of
voltages are used to operate RF power tubes. Tubes must "be properly shielded with lead, and X-ray safety badges worn by operating personnel to
rays
when high
warn of excessive dosage.
REFERENCES
1.
Ridenour, L. N.: "Radar System Engineering,"

sec. 2.12,
:
MIT
Radiation Laboratory Series,
vol.
1,
2.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947. Bachynski, M. P. Microwave Propagation over Rough Surfaces,
RCA
Rev., vol. 20, pp. 308-335,
June, 1959.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Sherwood, E. M., and E. L. Ginzton: Reflection Coefficients of Irregular Terrain at 10 Cm, Proc. IRE, vol. 43, pp. 877-878, July, 1955. Hey, J. S., and S. J. Parsons: The Radar Measurement of Low Angles of Elevation, Proc. Phys. Soc, ser. B, vol. 69, pp. 321-328, 1956. Burrows, C. R., and S. S. Attwood: "Radio Wave Propagation," Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1949. Reed, H. R., and C. M. Russell: "Ultra High Frequency Propagation," John Wiley Sons, Inc., New York, 1953. Norton, K. A.: The Calculation of Ground-wave Field Intensity over a Finitely Conducting Spherical Earth, Proc. IRE, vol. 29, pp. 623-639, December, 1941. Domb, C, and M. H. L. Pryce: The Calculation of Field Strengths over a Spherical Earth, /. IEE, vol. 94, pt. Ill, pp. 325-339, 1947. Senior, T. B. A.: Radio Propagation over a Discontinuity in the Earth's Electrical Properties, Proc. IEE, pt. C, vol. 104, pp. 43-53, 139-147, March, 1957. Smith, E. K., and S. Weintraub: The Constants in the Equation for Atmospheric Refractive Index at Radio Frequencies, Proc. IRE, vol. 41, pp. 1035-1037, August, 1953. Schelling, J. C, C. R. Burrows, and E. B. Ferrell: Ultra-short Wave Propagation, Proc. IRE, vol. 21, pp. 427-463, March, 1933. IRE Standards on Wave Propagation: Definitions of Terms, 1950, 50 IRE 24.S1, Proc. IRE, vol. 38, p. 1267, November, 1950. Bean, B. R.: The Geographical and Height Distribution of the Gradient of Refractive Index, Proc. IRE, vol. 41, pp. 549-550, April, 1953. Bean, B. R., and G. D. Thayer: Models of Atmospheric Radio Refractive Index, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, pp. 740-755, May, 1959.
&
520
M.: Average Radio-ray Refraction in the Lower Atmosphere, Proc. IRE, vol. 40, pp. 554-561, May, 1952. 16. Bean, B. R., and G. D. Thayer: Central Radio Propagation Laboratory Exponential Reference Atmosphere, Natl. Bur. Standards (U.S.) J. Research, vol. 63D, pp. 315-317, November15. Schulkin,
December, 1959.
C. Mason, and F. A. Wilson: Radio Refraction in a Cool Exponential AtmosTech. Rept. 186, Aug. 27, 1958, ASTIA Document 202331. 18. Fannin, B. M., and K. H. Jehn: Study of Radar Elevation-angle Errors Due to Atmospheric Refraction, IRE Trans., vol. AP-5, pp. 71-77, January, 1957. 19. Bean, B. R., and B. A. Cahoon: The Use of Surface Weather Observations to Predict the Total Atmospheric Bending of Radio Rays at Small Elevation Angles, Proc. IRE, vol. 45, pp. 1 545-1 546,
17.
Bauer,
J.
R.,
W.
phere,
MIT Lincoln Lab.
November,
1957.
20. Bean, B. R.,
21. 22.
23. 24. 25.
26.
27.
G. D. Thayer, and B. A. Cahoon: Methods of Predicting the Atmospheric Bending of Radio Rays, Natl. Bur. Standards (U.S.) J. Research, vol. 64D, pp. 487-492, SeptemberOctober, 1960. Millman, G. H.: Atmospheric Effects on and Propagation, Proc. IRE, vol. 46, pp. 1492-1501, August, 1958. Anderson, L. J., and E. E. Gossard: Prediction of Oceanic Duct Propagation from Climatological Data, IRE Trans., vol. AP-3, pp. 163-167, October, 1955. Sabransky, F. A.: Investigation of Extended Over-water Ranges of Low-sited Radar, /. Meteorol., vol. 15, pp. 303-308, June, 1958. Battan, L. J.: "Radar Meteorology," University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1959. Booker, H. G. Elements of Radio Meteorology: How Weather and Climate Cause Unorthodox Radar Vision beyond the Geometrical Horizon, /. 1EE, vol. 93, pt. HIA, pp. 69-78, 1946. Saxton, J. A. The Influence of Atmospheric Conditions on Radar Performance, J. Inst. Navigation (London), vol. 11, pp. 290-303, 1958. Kerr, D. E. (ed.): "Propagation of Short Radio Waves," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series,
VHF
UHF
vol. 13,
28. Skolnik,
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1951. M. I. Radar Horizon and Propagation Loss, Proc. IRE,
:
vol. 45, pp. 697-698,
May,
1957.
29. Randall,
A. W., and R. L. Williams: Diffraction and Shielding Effects of Radar Screens, Civil Aeronaut. Admin. Tech. Devel. Rept. 299, Indianapolis, Ind., March, 1957, OTS PB 121918. Conv. Record, vol. 2, 30. Bradshaw, S. B. Obstacle Gain at Microwave Frequencies, IRE pt. 1, pp. 231-242, 1958. 31. Van Vleck, J. H.: The Absorption of Microwaves by Oxygen, Phys. Rev., vol. 71, pp. 413-424,
:
WESCON
Apr.
32.
Van
33. 34. 35. 36. 37.
The Absorption of Microwaves by Uncondensed Water Vapor, Phys. Rev., 425-433, Apr. 1, 1947. Straiton, A. W., and C. W. Tolbert: Anomalies in the Absorption of Radio Waves by Atmospheric Gases, Proc. IRE, vol. 48, pp. 898-903, May, 1960. Salisbury, W. W.: The Resnatron, Electronics, vol. 19, pp. 92-97, February, 1946. Schwan, H. P., and K. Li: Hazards Due to Total Body Irradiation by Radar, Proc. IRE, vol. 44, pp. 1572-1581, November, 1956. Shinn, D. H.: Health Hazards from Powerful Radio Transmissions, Nature (London), vol. 182, pp. 1792-1793, Dec. 27, 1958. Leary, F. Researching Microwave Health Hazards, Electronics, vol. 32, no. 7, pp. 49-53, Feb. 20,
vol. 71, pp.
:
1, 1947. Vleck, J. H.:
1959.
38. 39.
Tomberg, V. T. Biological Microwave Hazards, IRE Natl. Conv. Record, vol. 7, pt. 9, 1960. Mumford, W. W. Some Technical Aspects of Microwave Radiation Hazards, Proc. IRE, vol.
:
49,
pp. 421-441, February, 1961. 40. Meahl, H. R. Biological Effects of Microwave Radiation, Electronics, vol. 34, no. 4, p. 6, Jan. 27, 1961. 41 Pappas, C. F., L. E. Vogler, and P. L. Rice Graphical Determination of Radio Ray Bending in an Exponential Atmosphere, Natl. Bur. Standards (U.S.) J. Research, vol. 65D, pp. 175-179, March-April, 1961. 42. Thayer, G. D. Formula for Radio Ray Refraction in an Exponential Atmosphere, Natl. Bur. Standards (U.S.) J. Research, vol. 65D, pp. 181-182, March-April, 1961. 43. Peyton, M. F. (ed.): "Biological Effects of Microwave Radiation," Plenum Press, Inc., New York, 1961.
: . :
12
CLUTTER, WEATHER,
AND INTERFERENCE
12.1. Introduction
In this chapter we shall consider several sources of undesirable echoes and interference that can confuse or degrade the quality of radar information. One source of radiating interference, discussed in Sec. 8.6, was cosmic noise. Two other important
can enter the radar receiver are clutter echoes and from nearby transmitters. Clutter is denned as a conglomeration of unwanted radar echoes. 1 The name is descriptive of the fact that such echoes "clutter" the radar display and make difficult the recognition of wanted echo signals. To a radar searching for aircraft targets, clutter echoes include reflections from trees, vegetation, hills, man-made structures, and the surface of the sea. Reflections from storm clouds, precipitation, and other meteorological phenomena which confuse the radar display might also be considered clutter. However, targets are classed as clutter only in relation to the intended radar application. To an AI (airborne interception) radar, ground echoes might be called clutter, but to an airborne mapping radar, ground return is not clutter, for it is the target of interest. Likewise, meteorological echoes would not be considered clutter to a weather-avoidance
interference
classes of undesired signals that
radar.
which consists of many small pieces of reflecting aluminum, deliberately released by a hostile aircraft to simulate a real aircraft target and confuse military radar defenses. Chaffis similar in some respects to other forms of clutter. Clutter targets are either isolated or composite. An isolated target is one which can be considered as a "point" scatterer. It is sufficiently small in size to be included within the area covered by the antenna beamwidth. An example of an isolated clutter target is a water tower. The composite clutter target is more usual and is characteristic of most ground clutter, sea clutter, chaff, and meteorological echoes. It consists of many individual scatterers within the coverage of the radar antenna beam. The single isolated clutter target does not usually present special design problems to the radar engineer. However, extended composite clutter can limit radar detection capability since its total radar cross section can be large. A significant part of radar technology has been concerned with developing techniques which permit satisfactory operation in
Another
clutter target is chaff,
material, usually
the presence of clutter.
In this chapter, composite or extended clutter will be of chief interest. Isolated may be treated as any other point target. The chief difference between clutter and the other fundamental limitation to radar performance, receiver noise, is that some correlation often exists between successive (sweep-to-sweep) radar echoes from clutter, but noise is usually completely independent from pulse to pulse. Clutter echoes from the ground, sea, or weather are caused by the radar's own transmissions. Extraneous signals, or interference, radiated by other radar, communications, or countermeasure transmitters differ in character from clutter signals but must also be eliminated or attenuated if they are not to degrade radar performance. Several
clutter targets
521
522
[Sec.
12.2
types of clutter and interference are described, and methods for overcoming their effect on radar performance are indicated. One of the most important methods of combating
clutter
is
the
MTI radar discussed in Chap.
4.
12.2.
Ground Clutter
Nature of Ground Echoes? Ground clutter affects both the airborne and the groundbased radar. The higher the radar is above the ground, the greater will be the amount of clutter the radar will "see." In a ground-based radar, clutter signals are primarily from fixed, permanent targets. With airborne radar, however, clutter is continually changing because of the motion of the aircraft. Buildings, towers, and other man-made structures give more intense echo signals than ordinary countryside because of the presence of flat reflecting surfaces and "corner reflectors." Bodies of water, roads, and airport runways backscatter little energy but are recognizable on radar PPI displays since they appear as black areas amid the
Clutter^
(a) Elevation view showing the extent of the surface interFig. 12.1. Geometry of radar clutter, cepted by the radar beam; (b) plan View showing clutter patch consisting of individual, independent
scatterers.
hill will appear to stand out in high brightness of the surrounding ground echoes. relief since the near side will give a large return, while the far side, which is relatively
hidden from the view of the radar, will give a small return. If the antenna beamwidth is broad so that individual targets are not resolved, a PPI display of typical ground return might consist of many bright spots rather than a smooth, homogeneous area. Because of the statistical, ever-changing nature of most clutter echoes with time, the conglomeration of spots on the PPI display representing clutter may differ from scan to scan. As it is not always possible to correlate the spots that appear on one scan with those that appeared on the previous scan, it is difficult to On an A-scope associate a spot with a particular object or target on the ground. They fluctuate, display in an airborne radar, ground-return signals do not remainfixed. since the motion of the aircraft causes the antenna beam to continuously observe new
terrain.
will receive strong echo signals from terrain features such as mountains, or even smooth surfaces if oriented properly. Because reflections from hills and land surfaces are usually much greater than reflections from desired
Ground-based radars
hills,
Sec. 12.2]
targets such as aircraft,
Clutter, Weather, and Interference
523
can severely limit the detection capability of a performance of even MTI radars will be degraded since a practical MTI radar, no matter how good, does not completely cancel all the clutter. The extent of ground-clutter echoes may be further enhanced by nonstandard or superrefraction effects. If clutter is sufficiently large, extraneous echoes can appear in the receiver via the antenna sidelobes and add to the
clutter
is
ground
non-MTI
radar.
If the clutter
sufficiently large, the
confusion.
Clutter Cross Sections. In describing the echo signal from extended clutter as from the ground or the sea, the cross section per unit of intercepted area a is often taken as a measure of echo strength instead of the more usual cross section a defined in Sec. 2.7. With an extended target such as clutter, a is a function of the size of the antenna beam
illuminating the ground or the sea however, cr is more or less independent of the size of the clutter patch illuminated. In some instances, the parameter y (7/sin <j> has been used as a measure of echo-signal return, where </> is the angle of depression of the antenna beam as measured from the horizontal. For rough terrain, y is approximately in;
dependent of the angle except near grazing or near perpendicular incidence. If the pulse width is r and if c is the velocity of propagation, all the individual scattered located within the distance ct/2 along the line of propagation contribute to the composite clutter echo. The factor \ is a consequence of the two-way radar transit time. From Fig. 12.1, it is seen that ct is equal to al[{crj2)RdB sec <f>], where a is the total cross section of all the individual scatterers located within the area of the antenna
<f>,
beam projected on the earth's surface, R is the range, and 8B is the half-power beamwidth in the azimuth plane. The specification of the radar cross section of ground return is difficult because of the many different types of terrain and the many factors which influence the scattering properties. The major parameters affecting radar scattering from the ground are surface roughness, angle at which the energy is incident, polarization, complex dielectric constant of the reflecting surface, and frequency. Surface roughness is probably the most important factor influencing the radar cross section of ground clutter. 3-5 Smooth surfaces are characterized by a continuous structure and may be assumed to have a root-mean-square surface roughness much less than a wavelength. At the higher microwave frequencies (X or K bands), asphalt and concrete may usually be considered smooth surfaces. Rough surfaces at these frequencies include grass and wheat fields, that is, surfaces where the rms surface roughness is many wavelengths. The radar echo signal from rough surfaces is approximately independent of polarization, and the parameter y = <T/sin is approximately independent of the depression angle. Taylor* suggests that this fact may be used to differentiate rough from smooth surfaces. The cross-section parameter y is plotted in Fig. 12.2 as a function of the depression angle for two types of roadway surfaces (smooth concrete and rough gravel) at both band and Ka band. 4 The criterion for roughness considered above involved the rms variation in the surface compared with a wavelength. Another criterion of surface roughness which is widely accepted is due to Lord Rayleigh. 6 It is based on the depression angle as well as the ratio of the surface roughness to the wavelength. The Rayleigh roughness criterion arbitrarily considers a surface to be smooth if the phase difference between the two rays from the top and the bottom of a surface irregularity is less than A/4. If / is the height of the surface irregularity, a surface is considered smooth provided / sin ^/8. Thus a surface can appear outwardly to be rough (/ large), but if the depression is small enough, the surface may be considered smooth since the reflection will be specular rather than diffuse. Theoretical expressions for the backscatter, or radar, cross section were derived by Peake 5 to interpret the experimental data of Taylor. 4 Two models of reflecting surface
<j>
<f>
<f>
<j>
<
</>
524
[Sec. 12.2
were employed, depending on the roughness of the surface. One model is applicable to asphalt or concrete roadways or other types of continuous, slightly rough surfaces which can be assumed to be practically flat with random irregularities much less than a wavelength in depth and where the slope of the surface is everywhere much less than unity. Peake shows, for this model, that
~
7
where
=
sin
</>
8(sin
<f>)Tz
{2kr k4 fVy<>< Jo
fc
cos
4>)r
dr
(12.1)
= = k = J (x) =
<r
cf>
radar cross section per unit area intercepted by antenna grazing angle or angle of depression 27r/wavelength Bessel function of zero order
beam
-10
:-20
-30
-40
-50
10
20
30
40
Grazing angle
50
<j>,
60
deg
70
80
90
for a "smooth" concrete Fig. 12.2. Plot of y = <r/sin as a function of the depression angle roadway surface (dashed curves) and a "rough" roadway consisting of a gravel, cinders, and oil 1 surface (solid curves) at X band (10 Gc) and Ka band (35 Gc). {After Taylor, IRE Natl. Conv.
</> <f>
Record.)
The
factor z 2
is
the mean-square surface roughness defined by

1
fL/2
CLI2.
L->m
f\x,y) dx dy
J-Z/2J--L/2
(12.2)
where f(x,y)
function p(r)
is is
the height of the surface, measured with respect to the average. the autocorrelation function for the surface and is given by
/
The
P (r)
P (V*
2 )
i f i/2 r f(,v)f(Z lim iôo LT J-L/2J- i/2
x,rj
y)
dt]
(12.3)
The factor T contains the polarization and dielectricconstant dependence of the echo, and for horizontal polarization is The surface is assumed isotropic.
i
+ je 2
1 2
[sin^
where
^+^-cos
+ J^X* + cos
<f>
^)*]
(12 4)
je 2 is the complex dielectric constant of the surface. zation, the 7" factor is
^+
For
2
<j>~]
vertical polari-
Oi + j*2 [( l
l)[Qi
2)
+ je
sin
( l
+ j
- cos - cos ^]
2
<f>)
Sec. 12.2]
525
Typical values of the above factors for concrete at

p{r)
X band are z = 2.6

2
10~ 4
cm2
exp ( 7r)
(for r in centimeters); e 1
+/e =
2
6.5 +y'1.5.
According to Peake,
Eq. (12.1) may be used to calculate the radar return from "smooth" surfaces with an error of only a few decibels. Peake also derived a theoretical expression for the radar cross section of certain types of vegetation such as grass for which it may be assumed that the individual blades or stems scatter like long thin lossy cylinders, distributed at random over the surface, with some prescribed probability distribution for the direction of the cylinder axes. The expression derived by Peake will not be given here the interested reader is referred to
;
-30-40
-50
30
Fig. 12.3.
40
50
60
[After
Depression angle, deq
Radar cross
J.
Standards (U.S.)
section per unit area of forest. Research.]
Katz and Spetner,"1 courtesy Natl. Bur.
the original paper for further details. 5

this
model of electromagnetic
scattering
The theoretical cross sections computed using from vegetation-covered surfaces agreed
is, at least to an order of magnitude. example of the radar return from a forested area is shown in Fig. 12.3. 7 The measurements were made at X band by the Naval Research Laboratory over New Jersey woods consisting of trees about 50 ft high. The data were found to be independ-
qualitatively with experiment, that
An
ent of polarization.
knowledge of the clutter echo is important to search radars and airborne interception radars in order to predict the amount of echo with which the desired target signal must compete. Ground return is also important in the design of radar altimeters, especially at near-vertical incidence. With but occasional exceptions, radar return from ground may be considered as made up of contributions from many individual scatterers rather than from specular reflection, even at angles of incidence near the vertical. 2 8 9 Antenna Beam Shape. 2 10 11 characteristic of a radar antenna whose radiation pattern follows a cosecant-squared law is that an isolated, isotropic scatterer (one whose cross section is independent of the viewing angle) returns an echo signal which does not depend upon range. The cosecant-squared antenna (Sees. 2.11 and 7.9) will provide a constant echo signal with range if certain conditions are fulfilled, chief among which are that (1) the scatterer is isotropic, (2) the earth is considered flat, and (3) there is no reflecting surface to cause a lobed elevation pattern. 11 The assumption that ground return is from a single scatterer whose radar cross section is independent of angle is not always realistic. With "rough" terrain, the radar cross section per unit of intercepted area, a is proportional to sin <f>, where <f> is the angle of depression. The radar cross section a of rough terrain is therefore not
' ' ' '
constant but proportional to
sin </cos
<f>
hjcos
9S,
where R is the range from radar
526
to
[Sec.
12.2
ground target, h is the radar height above the ground, and h R sin <f>. Using this property of "rough" clutter, it is readily shown [in a manner similar to the derivation of
Eq. (2.46)] that the antenna gain should be proportional to esc 2
<f>
Vcos
<,
or
more
02.6)
precisely,
G(0)=G O
where
"A>>
CS
esc
;/^L ^COS
<p
<f)
for
*,<*<*
beam
is
G
^m
= =
maximum
antenna gain
angles defining region over which antenna
shaped
A radar with a vertical antenna pattern given by Eq. (12.6) has been called the equalenergy pattern for radar ground painting. 2 It produces a range trace of uniform brightness for any given azimuth on a rectangular display such as the B-scope (azimuth
Fig. 12.4. London Airport, (a) Resolution with 35-Gc radar; (b) aerial photograph at 40,000 (Courtesy of Williams and J. Brit. IRE.)
ft.
Sec. 12.3]
527
angle vs. range). On a PPI scope, however, the display is a polar plot of range vs. angle and the spacings between any two range traces vary linearly with distance from the Consequently, the central part of the display is brighter than center of the display. The brightness of the stanat the edges if the antenna has an equal-energy pattern.
made uniform by shaping t he ant enna beam elevation pattern 2 5 Vcos = esc 2 V cot according to the relation esc 10 Another possible antenna beam shape which has been suggested is one proportional 2 shape obtained pattern optimum experimental approximates the This cos to esc 4> from flight experience with a number of antenna designs at wavelengths between 10 and
dard PPI display
may
be
<j>
<j>
<f>
<f>.
cf>.
1.0
cm.
In practice, the shape of the antenna beam designed to produce a uniform ground echo is apparently not too critical. The differences produced by these various-shaped beams is not large, considering the approximate nature of the analysis. Furthermore, pattern may be made to closely it appears that a simple cosecant-squared antenna 11 approximate any of the other patterns by simply changing the tilt of the antenna. mapping aerial Ground Mapping. The higher microwave frequencies are useful for of the ground since narrow beamwidths are possible with apertures of reasonable size. Two examples of the type of display possible with high-definition radar (about 35 Gc)
are
12 along with the corresponding aerial photographs. and daylight limited to but are radar Photographs give considerably more detail than
shown
in Figs. 12.4
and
12.5,
good
visibility.
angle resolution in an airborne radar requires large antenna apertures. The side-looking radar system developed by the University of Michigan employs a relatively small antenna to synthesize, in effect, a series of "apertures" many times longer than the 13 The aircraft by taking advantage of the motion of the aircraft carrying the antenna.
Good
of this variable-length synthetic antenna is realized through proper signalprocessing techniques. The AN/UPD-1 is an example of an airborne side-looking radar. Its antenna is In addition to the side-looking antenna, the aircraft carries equipment to 5 ft long. effective straightstore the radar echo signal and a doppler-inertial system to provide an by an analog processed film and is on stored signal is radar The line flight path.
effect
computer on the ground

strip
after the aircraft returns to base.
A detailed, distortion-free
mapped from
map
results,
upon which
terrain
and objects appear
as if
directly
overhead (except for normal radar shadowing). The angular resolution of the AN/UPD-1 radar is made independent of range by focusing simultaneously at all An example of the type of radar photograph obtained by the AN/UPD-1 is ranges. shown in Fig. 12.6. Range resolution in this radar is obtained by conventional pulsing.
12.3.
Sea Clutter
echo, or sea clutter,
is used to denote the reflection of radar energy from can seriously limit the ability of airborne and clutter Sea the surface of the sea. The seaborne radars to detect targets, especially those at or near the surface of the sea. depends radar the of direction the magnitude of the sea-clutter echo signal scattered in upon the angle that the incident beam makes with the horizontal, the wavelength and polarization of the radar energy, the state of the sea, and the wind. Phenomenological Description. The surface of the sea may be considered as comradar posed of a number of individual scatterers which scatter or reflect the incident radar many over (averaged signal echo average The other. of one independent energy beam is antenna the sweeps) from all the independent scatterers illuminated by
The term sea
2 X P G 212 L
t
(477)
K 2
St
(12.7)
528
[Sec.
12.3
where at is the time-average radar cross section of the ith scatterer. Equation (12.7) follows from the straightforward application of the simple radar equation. The cross section a t is usually defined to include the effect of any possible lobe structure of the
incident field caused by reflection
from the sea
surface. 6
'
14
For small depression
Fig. 12.5. Part of

(b) aerial
Southampton Water
at 10,000
ft.
photograph
at Fawley, England, (a) Resolution with 35-Gc radar; (Courtesy of Williams and J. Brit. IRE.)
summed is approximately R6B crl2. way travel of radar signals. If a is
angles, the area over which the summation in Eq. (12.7) is taken is determined by the resolution cell as defined by the antenna azimuth beamwidth 6B and the pulse duration t. If c is the velocity of propagation and is the range, the area
over which a-
is
factor f occurs because of the twodefined as the average cross section per unit
The
Sec. 12.3]
529
area
2^=
oRdB CTJ2, and the simple radar equation becomes P,G sAa fl R ct
00
small depression angles
(12.8)
(477)^ 2
Note that
in this case (which
might correspond to a shipborne radar illuminating the
horizon) the received echo power from extended clutter varies inversely as the third power of the range rather than the fourth-power relationship obtained for a singlepoint target. This is a consequence of the extended nature of clutter. The greater the
Fig. 12.6. Radar picture of the metropolitan Washington area. The four 14th Street bridges (U.S. Army photograph.) the National Airport are in the upper left-hand corner.
and
range, the
more
the
beam
will
spread and the greater
will
be the number of scatterers
illuminated.
The
Another limiting case is that of a pencil-beam antenna at large depression angles. pulse packet is assumed to cover a much larger region of the sea surface than the area intercepted by the beam. Hence the summation in Eq. (12.7) is determined by the antenna beamwidths in azimuth 6 B and elevation B rather than the pulse width. If 2 and is the angle of depression, we may write &i = <^R dB B J5m
<j>
<j>
<j>
<f>
Pr
=
(4tt)
large depression angles

3
(12.9)
R2
sin
<f>
The received echo power varies inversely with the square of the range. The above two equations are phenomenological descriptions of sea clutter; that is, they describe the actual phenomenon but avoid interpretations or explanations. Information obtained from such descriptions is limited. The phenomenological
530
[Sec.
12.3
target
descriptions of clutter as given by Eqs. (12.8) and (12.9) may be applied to any clutter composed of individual and independent scatterers.
,
Variation of a with Depression Angle. The radar cross section per unit area, a from the sea depends upon the frequency, polarization, state of the sea, wind, and the depression (or grazing) angle which the radar beam makes with the horizontal. In general, the value of a increases with increasing depression angle. An example of the variation of a with angle is shown in Fig. 12.7. These curves are the average of experimental data taken by Grant and Yaplee 15 and represent a wide range of sea states and wind velocities varying from 2 to 25 knots. There is approximately a 40-db variation in cr over grazing angles from 10 to 90. The high values of ct near normal
incidence (90) indicate that there

C\J
1 1 1 1 1
1 i
10 -
.-10
probably specular reflection at these angles. The data of Fig. 12.7 apply primarily for large depression angles. At low angles the behavior is different, as shown in Fig. 12.8 taken from Kerr. 6 There is a critical depres/-, sion angle below which the slope of the a curve vs. angle changes abruptly. Both curves shown in this figure are an average taken through many scattered data points. Curve a is representative of a slight sea (waves is
1 to 3 ft high), while curve b is representative of a moderate sea (waves 3 to 5 ft in height). The critical angle at which the slope changes decreases as the sea becomes rougher. In one set of experiments at 5* band 6 the critical angle ranged from 5 for calm seas to less than 1 for very rough seas. The change in slope at low grazing angles has been attributed to interference between
-20 -
"
-30
1/
-40
<^S^
i
i i
i i
20
40
60
80
Angle of depression, deg
the direct
Fig. 12.7. Variation of a for sea echo as a function of grazing angle and frequency. lh (After Grant and Yaplee, Proc. IRE.)
and
reflected
wave
similar to the
interference effects obtained for propagation
It was shown in Sec. 11.2 power from a point target above a plane earth varies as R s at low angles (corresponding to the underside of the main beam) instead of the more usual R *. This was due to interference between the direct and the reflected rays. A similar phenomenon occurs with sea clutter. With extended clutter, the echo signal varies as
over a plane earth.
that the echo signal
R 7 Experimental mechanism, implying that the scatterers are above the surface of the sea. Katzin 16 used this fact to compute the height of the scatterers from the experimentally determined transition ranges between R~~ 3 and R~ 7 behavior. (The transition range R for a target uniformly distributed in height is R a hH/0.21, where h is the radar height and is the height to the top of the target.) He concludes that the height of the scatterers is much less than the wave heights and that reflection from the scatterers takes place above the wave troughs. At low angles with horizontally polarized S-band radiation, the value of a has been observed to vary between the values of 30 and 70 db. This means that the echo from each square meter of the sea's surface could be accounted for by a cross section between 10" 3 and 10~ 7 m 2 These low values seem to rule out the possibility of the echo being primarily due to specular reflection. Although the per-unit cross section may be low, the area illuminated by a radar beam can be extensive and result in a large total echo signal. For example, a radar with 1 ,sec pulse duration and a 1 beamwidth
[Eq. (12.8)], but if interference takes place, the echo will vary as
verify the presence of the interference
.
R~3
measurements
Sec. 12.3]
531
2 If tx varies from 30 covers an area of about 10 5 at a range of 20 nautical miles. 2 to 70 db, the total sea-echo cross section will vary between 100 and 0.01 The various experimental measurements reported of Variation of a with Frequency. sea clutter do not seem to yield consistent agreement as to the frequency dependence of a The measurements are complicated by the many factors that enter into the absolute value of a and which cannot be readily controlled. Furthermore, in the low-angle 4 region, where interference between direct and reflected waves occurs, an/ frequency variation can be introduced which might mask the true frequency dependence of a
00
1 1 1
III'
L+'l
40
[ay
45 50 -
()_____
55
60
65 70
0.1
1/
0.2
INI
0.6
1 1 1 1
MM
8 10
(a)
0.3 0.4
0.8 1.0
,
5 6
Grazing angle
deg
Fig. 12.8. Variation of a for sea echo as a function of grazing angle at low (small) angles, 6 Slight sea; (b) moderate sea. (After Kerr, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.)
Measurements of a reported by Goldstein at S and X bands (wavelengths of 9.2 and cm, respectively) indicate that a varies between/ 4 in calm seas to about/ in rough seas. 6 14 The data in Fig. 12.7 from Grant and Yaplee 15 show a increasing with increasing frequency; a at 8.6 mm wavelength (Ka band) is about 8 to 12 db greater than at 3.2 cm (X band). This corresponds to a frequency dependence of from/ 1 4 to 21 On the other hand, the measurements of Wiltse, Schlesinger, and Johnson17 show / Measurements o- to be nearly constant with frequency over the range 10 to 50 Gc. made by the Naval Research Laboratory at wavelengths of 3.2, 9.1, and 26 cm indicate
3.2
-
16 the variation of a to be approximately a linear function of frequency. One might conclude from these reported measurements that the frequency depend-
ence of cfl is difficult to ascertain. In general, however, the trend is for the cross section Most data seem to be consistent with a linear per unit area to increase with frequency. frequency dependence. Polarization Dependence.*' 1 *' The variation of a with polarization depends upon At 5 band and in calm seas, the the radar frequency and the roughness of the sea. echo signal with vertically polarized radiation can be 20 to 30 db greater than with horizontal polarization. As the sea becomes rougher, the difference between the two
polarizations disappears.
For moderate seas (3- to 5-ft wave heights) the echo signals obtained with the two polarizations are about the same. Similar results are found at Xband except that the difference between the vertically and horizontally polarized echo In moderate seas the ratio of signals from calm seas is not as great as at 5" band. intensities may even reverse; that is, the echo may be stronger with horizontal than with
532
[Sec.
12.3
Sea clutter on an A-scope display often has a noiselike appearance for vertical polarization and a spiked appearance for horizontal polarization. Dependence on Sea State} 6 It was stated above that the frequency and polarization dependence of a is a function of the roughness of the sea (the sea state). It is difficult to obtain quantitative information concerning the influence of the sea state since the parameters of the sea are difficult to measure, and it is not clear what parameters are important even if they could be measured. Factors which can influence the character of the sea surface include the period and shape of the waves, the wave height, the wind, and the presence or absence of whitecaps. The wave height is usually taken as an indication of the state of the sea (Table 12.1).
vertical polarization.
Table
Sea state no.
12.1.
Sea-state Scale 6
Term
Calm Smooth
Slight
Wave
height,
ft
<1
1-3 3-5 5-8 8-12 12-20
2
3
Moderate
4
5
Rough
Very rough High
Experimental measurements show that the intensity of sea echo increases as the sea becomes rougher. It is found that a increases with increasing wave height to a certain height, after which it levels off. It has been reported that at X band the transition between an increasing a to one essentially independent of height occurs at wave heights ofabout2to3ft. 6 The value of a is also a function of the direction of the wind. 6 19 The echo is
'
strongest
when
the radar
is
looking into the wind.
The echo looking downwind
is
about 5 to 10 db less. At low angles of elevation, the appearance of sea clutter on an A-scope is spikey at times, almost as if the individual waves were resolved. However, spikiness is also found even when the pulse width is too wide to resolve individual waves. Spikiness at very small grazing angles has been attributed to the destructive interference of direct and reflected waves, which reduces the illumination of all except isolated wave crests. 16 Mechanism of Sea Clutter. At least three different mechanisms have been proposed to explain sea echo. These are: (1) the observed signal is a result of diffraction from the corrugated surface of the sea, or specular reflection if a wave happens to be favorably oriented (2) the echo signal is mainly due to backscattering of radar energy by the droplets of spray thrown by the wind into the air above the surface of the sea and (3) the elemental scatterers contributing to the sea echo are smallfacets, or patches, on the surface, with scattering properties similar to that of inclined plates. The first two mechanisms were discussed by Goldstein, 6 14 while the third was due to Katzin. 16 The hypothesis that sea echo is the result of a diffraction mechanism is in qualitative agreement with some of the experimental observations, but it does not adequately explain several important characteristics of clutter echoes. To test this mechanism, scattering from a simplified sine-wave model of sea waves was calculated. 6 Although it was a somewhat artificial model, it gave the same type of dependence of o on depression angle as indicated by the experimental data; that is, for small angles the cross section increases rapidly with depression angle, following a power law, and then flattens out above some critical angle with a linear or slower dependence on angle. However, the quantitative predictions obtained from a sine-wave model of the sea contradict the
;
;
'
Sec. 12.3]
533
experimental data, making the model and the diffraction mechanism suspect. Another reason for questioning the validity of the diffraction mechanism is that it predicts no difference in the scattering of horizontally and vertically polarized waves. Experimentally, it has been found that the cross section of sea echo with vertical polarization can be as much as a thousand times that with horizontal polarization. The droplet mechanism, on the other hand, can qualitatively explain the observed dependence on polarization. The magnitude of the reflection coefficient of horizontally polarized waves when reflected from a smooth plane surface is unity (or only Thereslightly less), and the change in phase resulting from reflection is n radians. fore, at low angles, the direct and reflected waves are approximately equal but of opposite phase, so that cancellation results and the droplets near the surface are not (In a practical situation, the reflection coefficient of the sea surface illuminated. Cancellation would be only partial, and the droplets would not be exactly 1. would receive some illumination, albeit weak.) The reflection coefficient of vertical polarization is usually much less than unity, and cancellation between direct and reflected waves will not be as great as with horizontal polarization. Thus targets near the surface of the sea will be more strongly illuminated with vertical than with horizontal polarization. The echo signal will likewise be greater with vertical
polarization.
two which shows the angle of the first interference lobe with horizontally polarized radiation to be approximately A/4A a where X is the wavelength and h a is the radar height. An increase in frequency lowers the angle of the first lobe, with the result that the targets at low angles receive increased illumination on horizontal polarization. For similar reasons the illumination with vertical polarization should also increase with increasing frequency, but the relative increase is not as great as with horizontally polarized radiation. The differences observed with the two polarizations are most pronounced with a calm sea. As the sea becomes rougher, the interference pattern tends to be destroyed, especially at the nulls (minima). The spray droplets are thrown to greater heights in rough seas and cover larger portions of the interference lobe. Thus the droplet mechanism predicts that the polarization dependence of a should decrease as the sea becomes rougher, which has been observed experimentally.
the frequency
is
As
increased, the difference between the echo signals with the
polarizations decreases.
This
may be explained by reference to Fig.
1.2,
Qualitatively, at least, the spray-droplet
zation dependence.
mechanism explains the observed polariHowever, the droplet mechanism is not consistent with the
observed frequency dependence. The radar cross section of droplets small in size compared with a wavelength should follow the familiar Rayleigh scattering law (Sec. 2.7), in which the radar cross section is proportional to the fourth power of the frequency. Most experimental data show a frequency dependence less than fourth power. For this reason, the spray-droplet mechanism does not seem to be the major contributing factor to the radar echoes from the sea. Although the droplet mechanism does not satisfy the frequency dependence, the ability of the theory to explain qualitatively the polarization dependence leads to the feeling that the sea-clutter mechanism ought to include the interference between direct and reflected waves, provided scatterers can be found which more nearly fit the observed frequency dependence than do droplets. With this as a basis, Katzin 16 proposed that the scattering elements are illuminated by a combination of direct and reflected rays, the He latter being reflected by surface elements closer to the radar than the scatterers. pointed out that scatterers need not be above the sea surface as in the droplet theory but can lie on the surface and still experience the reflection interference needed to explain the polarization dependence. Katzin suggested a clutter model in which the basic scattering elements are small
534
facets,
[Sec. 12.4
or patches, on the surface, overlying the main large-scale wave pattern. To the is considered to be the superposition of facets of various sizes, with orientations distributed about the mean sea contour. These facets are assumed to move randomly with respect to one another so that the relative phases of the echo signals are independent. The facet mechanism is consistent with the observation that the echo signal at small depression angles is small. This type of behavior can be explained with a rather directive scattering mechanism, such as might be obtained with flat plates. The most effective backscattering is obtained from facets whose perimeters are about a half wavelength. The backscattering of a facet increases approximately as the square of the slope consequently facets near the crests of the wave contribute more to the backscatter than those nearer the trough. For small depression angles, the facet mechanism predicts a frequency dependence for a which depends upon the size distribution of the facets. Measurements of the size distribution of facets were not available to Katzin, and no specific conclusions about the frequency dependence were made. However, the theory shows that ct will increase as some power of frequency, the exact power
radar, the surface of the sea
;
depending on the
size distribution.
The facet theory as first proposed by Katzin does not explain all data satisfactorily. For instance, it does not properly account for the observed differences in a when the radar looks downwind as compared with when it looks upwind. The large values of a measured at large depression angles indicate that some specular reflection takes place. This is not inconsistent with the facet mechanism since at large depression angles some of the facets are viewed at normal incidence and thus backscatter strongly.
The explanation that polarization dependence of sea echo is due to an interference pattern in the illumination has not been universally accepted even though it is an important part of the facet and the droplet theories. 7 It has been argued that the interference mechanism does not completely explain all the experimental data. None of the proposed mechanisms for describing sea clutter is wholly satisfactory.
Lack of a single, all-encompassing theory is due in part to the complicated character of the sea. The model of the sea that can account for the observed data will probably not be a simple one. Another factor hampering a complete theory of sea return is the lack
his subject as he finds it This has also made it difficult to check observations seemingly obtained under the same conditions by different experimenters.
of controlled experiments.
its
The experimenter must take
and seldom knows
quantitative characteristics.
12.4. Clutter Reduction
Except in certain cases (such as radars designed to map terrain), echo signals from the ground, sea, or weather are usually unwanted since they obscure the desired targets. One method of discriminating a moving target in the presence of clutter is to take advantage of the doppler shift in frequency produced by a target in motion This is the basis of the radar described in Chap. 3 and the MTI and pulse-doppler radars of Chap. 4. Another, less sophisticated means for attenuating the clutter signal (as well as the desired signal) is by the simple expedient of reducing the gain at close ranges. This technique is known as sensitivity time control (STC) and was briefly described in
.
CW
Sec. 8.2.
In the present section two other techniques for reducing the effects of clutter echoes One is the clutter-rejection filter based on the matched-filter principle of Sec. 9.2. The other is a receiver with a logarithmic or a limiting characteristic to prevent receiver saturation. Clutter-discrimination techniques employing the doppler
are described.
frequency
shift
or the matched clutter-rejection
filter
can increase the target-signal to
Sec. 12.4]
clutter-signal ratio.
535
STC and the logarithmic receiver, on the other hand, have a They reduce the receiver gain when clutter echoes are present to prevent relatively large clutter signals from saturating the receiver. Before the matched clutter-rejection filter and the logarithmic receiver are described, two important results from the theory of clutter echoes will be mentioned. These concern the probability distribution and the frequency spectrum of the echo as produced by a clutter model based on Rayleigh statistics. The clutter model most often assumed for theoretical analysis is that of a large number 6 20 The phases of the echoes from the of scatterers within the radar resolution cell. of receiving an echo from any probability and the individual scatterers are random, particular scatterer is assumed to be independent of the echo signal from any other Under these conditions, it may be shown that the probability of the clutterscatterer. signal amplitude x lying between x and x + dx is
different effect.
-
p(x) dx
- exp
Po
(- -)
^
dx
(12.10)
P&
2 This is the Rayleigh distribution described in Chap. the time average of x of the component amplitudes, provided distribution the independent of 2. Its shape is only that there are a large number of scatterers. If the scatterers are all of equal size, the Rayleigh distribution is a good representation of clutter even if there are only four or When the number is 10 or more, the five scatterers within the radar resolution cell. difference between the experimental distribution and the limiting form is negligible for
where P
is
most purposes,
The Rayleigh distribution describes the variation in clutter amplitude at a given range
from one sweep to the next. Generally, it does not describe the clutter amplitude along a single range sweep since the intensity of clutter is not constant but decreases with
increasing range. One of the properties of a Rayleigh clutter signal
fluctuations about the
is that the rms amplitude of the value is proportional to the mean value. The design of a logarithmic receiver for suppressing clutter is based on this fact. The frequency spectrum of the clutter echo received at the radar depends upon the If the spectrum occupied by the transmitted signal is not transmitted signal spectrum. too wide, all frequencies in the neighborhood of the transmitter frequency are, on the Hence the long-time average power spectrum of average, equally reflected by clutter.
mean
The clutter-signal the clutter will be the same as that of the transmitted waveform. spectrum is therefore considerably different from the uniform frequency spectrum of
receiver noise.
20
Matched Filterfor Clutter Rejection. 21 2* In Sec. 9.2 it was shown that the frequencyresponse function H(f) of the filter which maximizes the ratio of peak signal power to mean noise power is
H(f)
where S*(f)
[Nt(f)Y
* = GS (/)
(12.11)
complex conjugate of Fourier transform of received

s(t)
signal
waveform
= power spectrum of input noise
The
a constant of proportionality may be considered a source of interference with which the desired If signal must compete, just as the desired signal must compete with circuit noise. the with identified may be [N noise, receiver noise is small compared with clutter (f)f Thus Eq. (12.1 1) specifies clutter-signal power spectrum at the input to the receiver.
clutter signal
t
G=

536
the IF

filter
[Sec.
12.4
which maximizes the ratio of the peak signal power to the mean value of the clutter. This ratio is measured at the output of the IF portion of the receiver just before the second detector. It is especially important to maximize signal-to-clutter ratio in the IF if small signals are not to be suppressed, and clutter enhanced, by the nonlinear characteristic of the second detector. The power spectrum of the received clutter signal [N (f)f is the same as that of the transmitted pulse for clutter echoes which can be described by the Rayleigh model.
characteristic
{
24
w
\J
TZ
\1
\J
20 \l
\J
\j
121-
\l
u
\1
\l
L.
-2
Megacycles
off
IF carrier
clutter-rejection filter for a recJ.
Fig. 12.9. Frequency-response function
\Hopt (f)\ of optimum IF

(From Urkowitz, %%
tangular transmitted pulse of
,usec duration.
Appl. Phys.)
Hence, [Nt (f)f

filter
[S(f)f
S*(f)S(f).
Substituting this relation into the matched-
characteristic of Eq. (12.11) yields
//(/)
= G
S(f)
(12.12)
Thus the optimum clutter-rejection filter is one with a frequency-response function proportional to the reciprocal of the transmitted spectrum (assumed to be the same as the received spectrum). For example, the RF (or IF) spectrum S(f) for a radar waveform consisting of a rectangular pulse of sine wave of duration t and unity amplitude is
sinir(f-
S(f)
This
/oV
)
sin
n(f
fo)r
2H/-/
2n(f
+f
,
(12.13)
)
is the familiar (sin x)/x spectrum centered at/= frequency. The response of the clutter-rejection filter
where is the (or IF) the reciprocal of Eq. (12.13). An example is shown in Fig. 12.9 for a transmitted pulse 1 ,usec in duration. The improvement in the signal-to-clutter ratio provided by the clutter-rejection filter
f
is
RF
may be found by comparing the signal-to-clutter ratio at the input and output. input signal-to-clutter power ratio is
The
=
(li
The constants of proportionality
7^
\S(f)\*df
*J
(12 14 >
-
CO
are omitted in the
above since they cancel when the
Sec. 12.4]

ratio [Eq. (12.20)]
is
537
improvement
yields
obtained.
Substituting Eq. (12. 13) into the above
2 T
(12.15)
C/in
A realistic clutter-rejection filter is assumed to have the shape given by

but of finite, rather than
infinite,
Eq. (12.12),
bandwidth.
Therefore
Hopt(/)
for/
S(/)
-^< 2
l/l
</o
+f 2
(12.16)
otherwise
where B is the "bandwidth" of the filter. "Bandwidth" refers to the limits of the passband rather than the distance between the half-power points. The signal (voltage) at the output of such a filter is found using Eq. (9.8).
s (t)
=
\
Ge***df
J-/--B/2
Ge*'*df
Jfo-BIZ
\
=
The maximum value of s
filter is
(t) is
2G
sin 2tt(/
Bj2)t
sin 2fr(f
Bj2)t
(12.17)
2-TTt
2TTt
2GB.
The
clutter
power
at the output of the
optimum
r-fo+B/z
rn+B/2
C ut=
The output peak
signal
G*df+\
J-f -B/2
to
G*df=2G 2 B
power
is
(12.18)
Jf -BI2
clutter
power
mean
~
(I)
U c
(-
o(0|ma:
out
25
(12.19)
Therefore the improvement provided by the
filter is
the ratio of Eq. (12. 19) to
(1 2.1 5),
or
Improvement
Br
(12.20)
The synthesis of the optimum clutter filter and its noise performance are discussed in Urkowitz's original paper. 22 25 26 Most of the techniques discussed in Logarithmic Receiver Characteristics.' Sec. 8.2 for the reduction of interference also may be used to reduce, to some extent, One of those techniques is sensitivity time control (STC). Its function clutter signals. STC reduces sweep. is to provide a programmed variation in receiver gain over a range gain is increased with The strong. is clutter where ranges gain short receiver at the
-
time until full gain is applied at ranges beyond which strong clutter signals are not expected. The programmed gain variation with time is fixed in the design of the radar, but a manual control may be provided to permit the operator to adjust the gain variation and/or amplitude in order to provide for different degrees of clutter. There are certain practical limitations to STC. The correct adjustment of the programmed gain variation depends upon the clutter encountered. Some degree of the amplitude of the skill is required of the operator if desired target echoes just above which the radar is in environment If the clutter clutter are not to be lost entirely. STC has to be made of the setting compromise azimuths, a all located is not the same at
and optimum performance

perfectly adjusted
STC
is
azimuth angles might not be obtained. Hence the an ideal which cannot be realized in practice, even with a
at all
highly skilled operator.
538
[Sec. 12.4
When clutter echoes may be described by the Rayleigh distribution, the functions of the ideal STC may be automatically performed by a receiver with a logarithmic characteristic
receiver followed
followed by a differentiating circuit. This should be as effective as a linear by a perfectly adjusted STC.
One difference between clutter and receiver noise is that clutter varies in intensity with
The logarithmic receiver eliminates this range variation receiver output a clutter-signal amplitude independent of range.
range.
and provides
at the
The ability of the logarithmic characteristic to provide for clutter reduction may be shown in an approximate manner by using the property that the rms amplitude of the fluctuations about the mean of a Rayleigh amplitude distribution is proportional to the mean value; that is, dv in = kv in where dv ln is the rms fluctuation in clutter at the input to the receiver, v in is the mean value at the input, and k is a constant. The relationship between receiver output and input may be written
,
ôut
= a log bv
in
(12.21)
where a and b are constant.
This leads, in an approximate manner, to

ofout
constant
(12.22)
Therefore the rms output fluctuation dv out is independent of the input amplitude. This is proved in a more complete manner by Croney, 28 who shows that "if any Rayleigh distribution is applied to the input of a receiver with an idealized logarithmic inputoutput law, the resulting rms fluctuation about the mean at the receiver output is a
rms amplitude of the input fluctuations, and given by where a is the slope of the logarithmic law." The purpose of following the logarithmic receiver with a differentiator (high-pass filter) is to remove the mean value of the output, leaving the fluctuation components of sea clutter, rain clutter, and receiver noise at a constant level on the radar display. A true logarithmic characteristic cannot be maintained down to zero input, since *W - oo as Tin -- 0. At some point the characteristic must deviate from logarithmic and go through the origin. The practical logarithmic receiver will have a law given by fout = a log (1 + bv in ). When the receiver characteristic is linear at low signal levels and logarithmic at large signals, it is called lin-log. Croney25 shows that the logarithmic characteristic must be maintained to about 20 db below the rms noise level. Only about 1 per cent of the noise fluctuations are likely to fall below this level. Receivers that are logarithmic for signals above the rms noise level but linear below that level give little or no reduction in the intensity of the clutter background in comparison with either a linear receiver or one whose logarithmic characteristic extends 20 db below
(fl7r)/(24) i
constant, independent of the
noise.
The design of receivers with logarithmic characteristics is described in the literaThe output of a logarithmic receiver as displayed on an A-scope has a different appearance from the output of a linear receiver. The large amplitudes are suppressed by the logarithmic characteristic. To make the output more like that of
ture. 2730
may
it
the linear receiver, a video amplifier with the inverse of the logarithmic characteristic be used.
Although the logarithmic receiver acts the same as an automatic STC in most respects, does not suppress, as does STC, the nearby clutter echoes which enter via the sidelobes! STC turns down the gain at close ranges, thereby reducing the amplitude of any sidelobe signals. Clutter large enough to appear in the sidelobes of a logarithmic receiver will not be suppressed and may confuse the radar display. STC and logarithmic receivers are sometimes used together.
Sec. 12.5]
539
important application of the logarithmic receiver is in marine radar, where it permits both the strong sea echo and weak echoes from buoys and small boats to appear on the radar scope.
An
12.5. Meteorological
Echoes 631
" 45
On the first page of the first Chapter it was stated that radar could see through weather
effects
such as fog, rain, or snow. This is not strictly true in all cases and must be qualified, as the performance of some radars can be strongly affected by the presence of meteorological particles (hydrometeors). In general, radars at the lower frequencies are not bothered by meteorological or weather effects, but at the higher frequencies,
weather echoes
may be quite strong and mask the desired target signals just as any other
unwanted clutter signal. Whether the radar detection of meteorological particles such as rain, snow, or hail is a blessing or a curse depends upon one' s point of view. Weather echoes are a nuisance Echoes from a to the radar operator whose job is to detect aircraft or ship targets. storm, for example, might mask or confuse the echoes from targets located at the same range and azimuth. Or a small isolated storm cloud at long range might be mistaken
In addition to causing undesired echo signals, weather clutter sensitivity of radar systems by absorbing and/or scattering energy. the can reduce On the other hand, radar return from rain, snow, or hail is of considerable importance Radar may be used to give an in meteorological research and weather prediction. the radar. It is a simple and around area the in precipitation of up-to-date pattern
for a legitimate target.
inexpensive gauge for measuring the precipitation over relatively large expanses. As a rain gauge it is quite useful to the hydrologist in determining the amount of water falling Radar has been used extensively for into a watershed during a given period of time. the study of thunderstorms, squall lines, tornadoes, hurricanes, and in cloud-physics Not only is radar useful as a means of studying the basic properties of these research. phenomena, but it may also be used for gathering the information needed for predicting
the course of the weather.
Hurricane tracking and tornado warning are examples of applications in which radar has proved its worth in the saving of life and property. Another important application of radar designed for the detection of weather echoes the aircraft is in airborne weather-avoidance radars, whose function is to indicate to
pilot the
dangerous storm areas to be avoided (Sec.
13.5).
is
Radar Equation for Meteorological Echoes.
The simple radar equation

3
=
"
PjGWct
(477) i?
4
(12 23)
The symbols were
In extending the radar equation to meteorodefined in Sec. 1.2. hail, or other hydrometeors may be represnow, logical targets, it is assumed that rain, of cross section -a ( located within the scatterers independent number of large sented as a radar resolution cell. Let â denote the average total backscatter cross section of the
{
particles per unit of volume.
volume.
The radar
cross section
The indicated summation of a { is carried out over the unit may be expressed as a = Vm o where Vm is the
t
,
volume of the radar resolution cell. The volume Vm occupied by a radar beam of vertical beamwidth B horizontal beamwidth 6 B and a pulse of duration t is approximately Vm ** (irl4)R2 6 B B hl2, where h = cr, and c = velocity of propagation. The If it is assumed that factor h/2 enters instead of h because of the two-way travel time. power from the scatterers are distributed over the volume of the beam, the received
<j>
,
,
<f>
meteorological echoes averaged over
many independent
radar sweeps
may
be written
(12-24)
JV
^2>,
540
[Sec.
12.5
antenna aperture * G)?\A-n Pj6B (j>B Taking the average of corresponds to smoothing the signal fluctuations which result from the random motion of the particles with time. Equation (12.24) shows that the average received power is inversely proportional to the square of the range rather than the fourth power. This assumes that the beam is completely filled with scatterers if not, a correction must be made. The beam of most weather radars is small relative to the regions occupied by the scatterers, except perhaps at long ranges or where the "bright-band" phenomenon (to be described later) is present. It can be shown that if the wavelength is long compared with the circumference of a scattering particle of diameter D (Rayleigh scattering region), the radar cross section is
effective
.
where A e
Pr
7T
,*r
(12.25)
of the scatterer and varies slowly with 2), where m is the complex index of is the refractive index, and k is the absorption coefficient of the material involved. 31 33 35 For water at a temperature of 10C, \K\ 2 is approximately 0.93 at 1 cm wavelength The value for ice at all temperatures is about 0.197 and is independent of frequency in the centimeter-wavelength region. Substituting Eq. (12.25) into (12.24) yields
dielectric constant
2
where
\K\ 2
depends upon the

In particular,
K = (m refraction and is equal to m = n m, n

wavelength.
'
-
l)/(m 2
^=^^|^
over
IÎ
02.26)
Since the particle diameter D appears as the sixth power, it follows that in any distribution of particles the small number of large drops will contribute the largest amount of returned power.
Equation (12.26) is the echo signal power from meteorological particles averaged many independent sweeps. It does not include the attenuating effects of the precipitation itself. The two-way attenuation of the radar signal in traversing the range R and back is an exponential function of the distance that is,
;
Attenuation
exp (2a/?)
where a is the one-way attenuation coefficient.

Pr
If a
is
The average received power is therefore

6
~^- exp (-2R) | D

=
exp
\K\*
(12.27)
not a constant over the path R, attenuation
may be
expressed as
Attenuation
I 2
J
adRj
(12.28)
The radar equation which includes the attenuation cannot be solved explicitly for range.
In
many
cases this
neglected.
When
is not important since the attenuation is often small and can be attenuation cannot be neglected, the radar range equation may be
At those frequencies where Rayleigh scattering theory apEq. (12.26) may be used as a basis for measuring with radar the sum of the sixth power of the drop diameters in a unit volume (that is, Z >T d 6 ). Rayleigh scattering
plies,
solved by trial and error. Scattering from Rain.
applicable when the wavelength is large compared with the circumference of the raindrops. It is applicable at S and C bands (10 and 5 cm, respectively) and except for the heaviest rains is a good approximation at band (3 cm). Rayleigh scattering does
is
S E c.
12.5]
541
band. This is not too important since the larger attenuations at the not apply above higher frequencies preclude the making of measurements conveniently. D* for the radar to measure is the rainfall rate more significant quantity than
denoted by r. (The meteorologist usually denotes the rainfall rate by R and the radar more range by r, which is just opposite to that presented. The radar engineer is It is continued here.) is practice this and R, range as the denoting to accustomed D<i is found from the experimentally measured rainfall rates that the quantity Z related to the rainfall rate r by
ar"
(12.29)
where a and b are empirically determined constants. A number of experimenters have attempted to determine these constants, but considerable variability exists among the reported results. Part of this is probably due to the difficulty in obtaining quantitative measurements and the variability of the rains with time and from one location to 35 another. The relationship considered most representative is
Z
where Z is in
rainfall rate
=JD =
6
i
200/-
16
(12.30)
mm6 /m3 and r is in mm/hr. may be expressed as

_
The
received echo signal
power in terms of the
= ÂJx Q 93 4
32R 2 A
200rl
(]231)
This equation gives the echo signal power from rain when attenuation is neglected. Attenuation must usually be taken into account at wavelengths of 3 cm or shorter and If for wavelengths shorter than 10 cm if precise measurements are to be made. of values erroneous so, do necessary to is when it for accounted not is attenuation
might result. Although it is possible in principle to correct for attenuation, it is known with great is not always convenient unless the performance of the radar set radars with at frequencies made seldom are measurements Useful rainfall accuracy. where there is significant attenuation. For this reason, the upper microwave frerainfall
quencies are not used for precision radar rain gauges.
In practice it is found that the measured echo signal power is usually lower than that predicted by the radar equation, and an empirical correction factor is often inserted to account for this unexplained discrepancy. At a wavelength of 10 cm, the reported 33 Rainfall measurements measurements for rain were 4 to 1 db lower than predicted. using radar techniques should be calibrated with standard rain gauges located in the
same
area.
volume of rain (J o,) is shown in Fig. 12.10 The dashed lines are plotted by as a function of the wavelength and of rainfall rates. unit volume and substituting over [Eq. section (12.25)] cross Rayleigh summing the 1 8 The solid curves are exact values of a { computed by Had> 6 = 200/-
The backscattering cross
section per unit
dock. 33 36 37 The Rayleigh scattering approximation most of the frequency range of interest to radar.
-
is
seen to be satisfactory over
Dry snow particles are essentially ice crystals, either single or Scattering from Snow. 2 in Eq. (12.26) is smaller for an ice particle than for a water \K\ factor The aggregated. 2 is 0.22 that sphere of the same mass. (At a wavelength of 3 cm, the value of \K\ for ice that is, rain that for as same the rate is snowfall and of water.) The relation between 16 where the snowfall rate at the ground is in millimeters per hour of water 200a-
Z=
measured when the snow

rates.
is
melted. 33
less
Therefore radars are
Snowfall rates are generally less than rainfall affected by snow and ice than by rain.
542
[Sec.
12.5
Scattering from Water-coated Ice Spheres. Moisture in the atmosphere at altitudes where the temperature is below freezing takes the form of ice crystals, snow, or hail. As these particles fall to the ground they melt and change to rain in the warmer environment of the lower altitudes. When this occurs, there is an increase in the radar backscattering since water particles reflect
snow, or hail begin to melt, they
first
more strongly than ice. As the ice particles, become water-coated ice spheroids. At radar
wavelengths, scattering and attenuation by water-coated ice spheroids the size of wet
10"T
IT
wio
10'
I I I
I
Mill
1
Mill
r,
rainfall rate,
mm
10 / hr
100
unit
Fig. 12.10. Exact (solid curves) and approximate (dashed curves) backscattering cross section per volume of rain at a temperature of 18C. Exact computations obtained by F. T. Haddock,
approximate curves based on the Rayleigh approximation.

Meteorol. Soc.)
{From Gunn and East, 33 Quart.
J.
Royal
snowflakes are similar in magnitude to that of spheroidal waterdrops of the same size Even for comparatively thin coatings of water, the composite particle scatters nearly as well as a similar all-water particle. Radar observations of steady rain show a "bright band" at an altitude at which the temperature is just above 0C. The bright band is a region of enhanced reflectivity a few hundred feet thick. It is relatively thin, but considerable attenuation may take place when radar observations are made through it at low elevations. Gunn and East suggest that the bright band is due to the snow falling through the freezing level. 33 The snow changes from flat or needle-shaped particles or aggregates
and shape.
which
scatter feebly to similarly
shaped particles which, owing to a water coating,
As melting progresses, they lose their extreme shapes, their velocity of fall increases, and the number of particles per unit volume becomes less. Scattering from Clouds. Most cloud droplets do not exceed 100^ in diameter
scatter relatively strongly.
(1 fi
10- 6 m); consequently, Rayleigh scattering
may be
applied at radar frequencies
for the prediction of cloud echoes.
Cloud droplets are about one-hundredth the
Sec. 12.6]
543
diameter of raindrops (the factor
Z = D6
i
for cloud return
is
about one-millionth
Hence radar echoes from clouds are usually of little concern. that of rain echoes). Even though the echoes are weak, radar has proved a useful tool for the exploration of clouds by the meteorologist and the physicist, especially at the high microwave frequencies (wavelengths less than 3 cm), with the radar pointing overhead so that ranges
are short. It is also possible to obtain
1
weak echoes from a
cm, but at wavelengths of 3
cm and
longer, echoes due to fog
deep, intense fog at wavelengths of may generally be
regarded as insignificant.
Radar Detection of Lightning. 35 '* 6
column whose
density
is
sufficient to backscatter
lightning stroke creates an ionized gaseous radar energy. Electromagnetic
energy will be reflected from an ionized medium such as a lightning stroke, provided the radar frequency is less than the critical frequency /,
fc
where e
e
= (^l)
\
<*
9,000^
(12.32)
TTml
= charge on an electron
electron mass
N = number of electrons per cubic centimeter

Lightning strokes have been detected over the entire range of radar frequencies. They are not easily detected by radar because the lightning channel must be oriented approximately normal to the radar beam axis for maximum return. The time of occurrence of a lightning stroke and its position in space are difficult to predict. Furthermore, lightning echoes, especially those which occur between a cloud and the ground, are often obscured by the accompanying precipitation. Long lightning discharges extending tens of miles have been detected by radar. These discharges have been at high altitudes (about 1 5,000 to 20,000 ft) from cloud to cloud or within the same cloud and would have been difficult to observe by means other
m=
than radar.
12.6. Attenuation
by Precipitation
Section 11.8 considered the attenuation of electromagnetic energy propagating through the atmosphere in fair weather, that is, in the absence of precipitation. Most of the attenuation in fair weather is due to oxygen and to water vapor. However, the presence of precipitation can significantly increase radar attenuation. In the frequency range for which Rayleigh scattering applies (particles small in size compared with the wavelength) the attenuation due to absorption is given by
Attenuation (db/km)
0.434
S(F) Im(-K)
(12.33)
3 D is the particle diameter in centimeters, X is the is over 1 wavelength in centimeters, Im ( K) is the imaginary part of A", and K is a factor which depends upon the dielectric constant of the particle as described in Sec. 12.5. At a temperature of 10C, the value of Im ( K) for water is 0.00688 when the wavelength 33 Equation (12.33) is a is 10 cm (S band) and 0.0247 for 3.2-cm wavelength (X band). good approximation for rain attenuation at 5-band or longer wavelengths. Since rain attenuation is usually small and unimportant at the longer wavelengths where this expression is valid, the simplicity offered by the Rayleigh scattering approximation is of limited use for predicting the attenuation through rain. The computation of rain attenuation must therefore be based on the exact formulation 6 38 The results of such computations are shown in for spheres as developed by Mie.
where the summation
Fig. 12.11 as a function of the
wavelength and the
rainfall rate.
544

10
[Sec.
t
12.6
'
o *
1.0
.10"'-
-\ \
io-
""v^-
10
-3
10"
01
1
23456789
1 1 1
l\l
10
Wavelength,
cm
Fig. 12.11.
mm/hr;
excessive
(6)
One-way attenuation (db/km) in rain at a temperature of 18C. (a) Drizzle0.25 light rain 1 mm/hr; (c) moderate rain 4 mm/hr; (d) heavy rain 16 mm/hr; (e) rain40 mm/hr.
ice particles in the atmosphere, whether occurring as snow, or ice-crystal clouds, is much less than that caused by rain of an equivalent rate of precipitation. 34 Gunn and East33 state that the attenuation in snow is
hail,
The attenuation produced by
Attenuation at 0C (db/km)
0.00349r
X*
1 6
-
0.00224r
(12.34)
where
= =
snowfall rate, mm/hr of melted water content wavelength, cm
Since waterdrops in clouds and fog are usually small
compared with the wavelength,
10
20
30
40 50
Frequency, 6c
Fig. 12.12.
Heavy
fog,
M = 2.3 g/m
One-way attenuation (db/km) of electromagnetic waves

3
,
visibility
100
ft;
light fog,
M = 0.032 g/m
in fog at
3
,
visibility
a temperature of 18C = 400 ft.
Sec. 12.7]

is
545
the Rayleigh approximation is valid and the attenuation writing this equation in a slightly different form,
given by Eq. (12.33).
Re-
Attenuation (db/km)
0.434
Im (-X)
X
(12.35)
where
M = liquid water content, g/m

p
X wavelength, cm 10 cm, Im ( K) 0.5 cm to X Empirically, it is found that in the region from X -1 varies approximately as A so that Eq. (12.35) may be written (to an accuracy of 5 per
= =
density of water, g/cm (equal to unity)
cent) as 6
Attenuation (db/km)
/-i
,i
->
,.., 0.438M
X
2
...
,,,.
(12.36)
This expression applies at a temperature of 18C. The attenuation is a function of temperature and decreases by more than a factor of 3 over the range from to 40C. The correlation between radar attenuation and optical visibility in fog may be found
from the empirical relationship6

where d
average moisture content, g/m 3 plot of the attenuation in fog, based on Eqs. (12.36) and (12.37),
= M=
M = l,660J-
(12.37)
optical visibility,
ft
is
shown
in Fig.
12.12.
12.7. Visibility of Targets in
Weather Clutter
When the effects of weather echoes on radar design and performance are considered,
One is that normally associated different types of targets must be distinguished. with conventional radars, the prime example being aircraft. The other includes weather phenomena such as rain, thunderstorms, hurricanes, etc. The design of a radar for optimum performance with one type of target does not necessarily ensure optimum or even satisfactory performance against the other. Precipitation in the vicinity of a target can scatter unwanted echoes back to the radar and can mask the desired echo signal. This undesired clutter will affect weather radars tracking a storm In addition, the intervenjust as it will affect conventional radars tracking an aircraft. ing precipitation along the path between radar and target can attenuate the radar signal. Of the two effects, clutter echoes from precipitation in the vicinity of the target are usually more serious than attenuation, except, perhaps, at the highest radar frequencies. Range Reduction in Weather. The reduction of radar range by rain attenuation (or other precipitation) and by rain clutter echoes may be found by a simple application of
two
the radar equation. 37 signal-to-noise ratio is
In the absence of precipitation (dry weather), the received
(S
4 = Pi= K a T IR t N N \N/d
,
(1238)
where
Pd =
ATX
power from a target of cross section a T at a range "dry" air a constant representing the parameters of radar equation
received echo
[*!
(l
in
= P GWI(4nf]
t
N = receiver noise power

r
The
targets are
assumed
to be aircraft
and small
is
in
comparison with the radar beam.
In inclement weather the signal-to-noise ratio
(S\ N/
_
r
Pw
N +N
K l(j T xplRi N +N
r
c
(12.39)
546
[Sec.
12.7
where
Pw =
N =
e
y>
= =
echo signal power in inclement weather from a target of cross section a T at a range R w clutter echo power exp (-2a/?J
attenuation coefficient
which reaches the receiver simultaneously with the target signal The clutter echo with a pulse radar is mainly from the precipitation in the vicinity of the target. The clutter is assumed to be uniform and to fill the radar beam. If it is assumed that receiver noise and rain clutter echo are uncorrected and are additive in the radar receiver, it follows that a target can be detected at the same signal-to-noise ratio during inclement weather as in dry weather. Therefore, by equating the signal-to-noise ratios in the two cases [Eqs. (12.38) and (12.39)] and using Eq. (12.27) as a measure of with D 6 \K\ 2 replaced by a t the c
c
The clutter power was given by Eq.
(12.27).
following expression results
R' a
***-
Rl
^2
jZTy r
i
,
a,
(12.40)
The first term accounts for the attenuation and the second term for the backscattering. The attenuation term is independent of radar parameters other than frequency (since a varies with frequency for water vapor, fog, and rain). The second term is present only when precipitation surrounds the target. Thus, if a pulse radar is operating in rain but
is located in the "clear" beyond the rain, the second term disappears. Equation (12.40) cannot be solved directly for R w the range in inclement weather. However, values of R m may be assumed and the corresponding values of R d computed. Hawkins and LaPlant 37 performed such a calculation for an Jf-band radar with the following parameters: peak power = 50 kw, antenna gain 28.6 db, X 3.2 cm, receiver noise figure = 16 db, and pulse length = 0.6 ^sec. The results are shown in Fig. 12.13 for several rainfall rates. For example, with the above assumptions, a dry-air range capability of 25 nautical miles against a given target would be reduced to
the target
5 nautical miles
when operating in light rain. The examples considered by Hawkins and LaPlant illustrate the predominance of the
performance of radar in
clutter noise effect over the attenuation effect in degrading the
the presence of weather.

radar.
Precipitation also affects the performance of radio altimeters just as it does any other At the higher microwave or millimeter-wave frequencies, the radio altimeter
may confuse an echo from precipitation with that from the ground. For a typical pulsed altimeter (0.1-^sec pulse width and 10-db signal-to-clutter ratio) Moore has
shown
that the
the vicinity of
effective
minimum S band. 39
wavelength for reliable operation in heavy precipitation
is
in
In addition to the attenuation and the clutter echoes, weather may also reduce the range of a radar in a more direct manner by physically entering the equipment. Rain must be kept out of waveguides, transmission lines, or other equipment. Rain water on radomes not only absorbs part of the radiated energy, but it can also provide a mismatch which reflects energy back toward the radar. Detection of Aircraft Targets in Weather. The echo signal from any individual precipitation particle is considerably smaller than that from an aircraft target. However, precipitation can extend over a large volume and completely fill the antenna beam. The total energy received from all the precipitation particles within the radar resolution
cell
mask
can be quite large compared with that received from a conventional target and can or clutter the radar display, making the detection of desired targets difficult.
Weather clutter is similar in many respects to ground or sea clutter, and several of the techniques used to eliminate or reduce other clutter echoes have some effect in reducing
Sec. 12.7]
547
weather
targets
For example, the MTI radar may be used to discriminate moving clutter. from weather clutter on the basis of different doppler frequency shifts. In
addition to the over-all movement of weather phenomena such as storms, the internal motion within the storm makes the problem of MTI discrimination difficult and limits
ability to suppress weather echoes. Other techniques, previously discussed, that may reduce the extent of clutter echoes are the matched clutter-rejection filter and the receiver with logarithmic characteristic. The amount of clutter with which the target echo must compete may be reduced with
its
3D
I
1/
30
E
1
O C C
l_
25
/
t
20 -
'o
s 15 C o
y
1 1 1
o o o
or
!:
10
15 Radar range
10
20
in
25
30
35
40
dry
air,
nautical miles
Fig. 12.13. Reduction of radar range due {From Hawkins and LaPlant" IRE Trans.)
to attenuation in rain.
See text for radar parameters.
narrow beamwidths and narrow pulse widths.

weather
effects is to
The most positive method of eliminating
or the low operate at the lower radar frequencies. At the bands, the precipitation particle size is small compared with the wavelength, and scattering obeys the familiar Rayleigh scattering law in which the radar cross section Not all radar applications, however, permit the designer the choice of varies as A~*. operating at the lower frequencies. When the radar must operate at the higher
VHF
UHF
is of a complex nature like an aircraft, it is possible to improve the detection capability in the presence of precipitation by radiating circularly polarized
frequencies and the target

energy.
Successful detection of a desired target in the presence weather clutter, depends on the wanted target being targets, such undesired as of The more dissimilar different in one or more respects from the unwanted targets. the targets, the easier it is to design a radar which can be selective. The dissimilarity between precipitation and aircraft echoes may be used as a basis for discriminating one from the other. Raindrops are spherical, or nearly so, and the backscattered energy does not depend on the polarization of the incident wave. Aircraft, on the other hand, are complex targets, and the backscattered energy will be polarization-
Circular Polarization^ 43 ^ 6
dependent.
A circularly polarized wave incident on a spherical scatterer is reflected as a circularly

polarized
in
wave with the opposite sense of rotation.

electric field vector rotates
(A circularly polarized wave is one
which the
propagation at the radar frequency.)
with constant amplitude about the axis of There are two types of circular polarizations,
548
[Sec.
12.7
distinguished by the direction of rotation of the electric vector as viewed by an observer looking in the direction of propagation. clockwise rotating electric field vector is known as right-hand circular polarization, while a counterclockwise rotation is known as left-hand polarization. 44 If the radar radiates one sense of circular-polarized
energy, it cannot accept the backscattered echo signal from a target such as a sphere or a plane sheet since the sense of polarization is reversed on reflection; that is, if right-hand
circular polarization
transmitted, spherical raindrops reflect the energy as left-hand image of a right-hand machine screw appears to be left-hand. Since the same antenna is used for both transmitting and
is
circular polarization, just as the mirror-reflected

receiving, the radar
echo energy
will
antenna is not responsive to the opposite sense of rotation and the not be accepted by the receiver. However, a target such as an aircraft return some energy with the correct polarization as well as energy with the incorrect
will
;
polarization. Energy incident on the aircraft may be returned after one "bounce," as from a plane sheet or a spherical surface or it might make two or more bounces between
various portions of the target (similar to a corner reflector) before being returned to the radar. On each bounce the sense of polarization is reversed. Signals which make single reflections (or any odd number) will be rejected by the circularly polarized antenna, but those signals which make two reflections (or any even number) will be accepted.
A circularly polarized wave may be thought of as containing a horizontally polarized and a vertically polarized component with a 90 phase shift between the two. Thus one method of generating circular polarization is to divide the transmitter power into two equal components, one horizontally polarized and the other vertically polarized, and to delay the phase of one of these components 90 relative to the other. The two components are radiated with equal amplitude. Both components are reflected equally by an ideal spherical raindrop. Upon reception, the phase-shifted component is again shifted by 90, after which both components are added together. Since they are 180 out of phase and are of equal magnitude, they cancel and the raindrop echo is eliminated. An aircraft is not a symmetrical reflector; hence the two components of polarization are unequal in amplitude and are not competely canceled at the radar receiver. The ability of a circularly polarized radar to reject rain echoes depends on the degree of polarization circularity which can be generated by a practical antenna and the shape of the precipitation particles. The more spherical the particle, the more complete will be the cancellation. Cancellations in excess of 30 db have been achieved from dense rain clouds. 42 However, cancellations of only 15 db or less are obtained from nonspherical precipitation such as large wet snowflakes.
The radar cross section of aircraft targets is, in general, less with circularly polarized radiation than with linearly polarized radiation The difference in the echo signal with circular and linear polarizations will depend upon the aspect from which the target is viewed. It is reported that, on the average, the cross section with circular polarization
.
is about 6 to 8 db less than with linear polarization. 41 It is possible to enhance the radar cross section for circular polarization with a beacon transponder or by installing a passive reflector on the target which is responsive to circular polarization. 45 Since the echo signal obtained with circular polarization from aircraft targets is generally less than that obtained with linear polarization, the antenna should be designed so that either polarization may be selected by the radar operator, depending upon whether precipitation is present or not. Cancellation of circularly polarized rain echoes will be adversely affected by ground
reflections. It will be recalled from Sec. 1 1 .2 that it is possible for a portion of the transmitted energy to arrive at the target via a ground-reflected path as well as by the direct path. This is especially important forantennas whose beams illuminatea smooth ground surface. The received echo signal is a composite of the direct and the reflected
-
41 43
Sec. 12.7]
signals.

in
549
shift produced on reflection from from that with vertical polarization As a result, the horizontally polarized echo signal will not cancel with the (Fig. 1 1 .3). vertically polarized signal when a more than negligible portion of the energy is propagated via reflection from the ground. According to White, 41 circular polarization can improve the ratio of target signal to precipitation signal by 8 to 25 db over that obtained with linear polarization, an
The change
is
amplitude and in the phase
the ground
different with horizontal polarization
Linear polarization
Circular polarization
circular polarization.
rain clutter by an i-band radar with Left-hand 180 sector is with linear polarization and covers the same 180 (Courtesy Airborne Instruments sector as does the right-hand side with circular polarization.
Fig
12.14.
PPI displays showing reduction of very heavy
Laboratory.)
normal 1 5 to 20 db being representative of what can be expected under favorable conditions. An improvement of 8 db represents that which might be expected with certain forms of precipitation such as wet snowflakes. An improvement of 25 db is possible when the raindrops are essentially spherical and when ground An example of the improvement offered by circular polarireflections are negligible.
improvement of
zation
is
shown
in Fig. 12.14.
wave may be generated by passing a linearly polarized wave through a quarter-wave plate, an example of which is a stack of parallel metal platesf The quarter-wave plate is oriented with its plates at an angle of 45 to the (Fig. 12.15). The incident wave is resolved electric vector of the incident, linearly polarized wave. One compointo two orthogonal, linearly polarized components of equal amplitude.
A circularly
polarized
nent
is
parallel to the plates
the other is perpendicular.
The perpendicular component
both the quarter-wave plate as a whole and the parallel t The term "plate" is used here to describe metal plates constituting this particular version of the quarter-wave plate.
550
is

it
[Sec.
12.7
unaffected as
passes through the quarter-wave plate except for a slight loss due to
the finite thickness of the plates.

guide.
parallel
The
parallel
component propagates
is
as if in
wave-
Since the phase velocity in waveguide
greater than that in free space, the
component is speeded up relative to the perpendicular component. The plate spacing and depth are adjusted to advance the phase of the parallel component by 90 (a quarter wavelength) with respect to the perpendicular component. This is the reason it is
called a quarter-wave plate.
Linear
polarization
SrtlWm
The quarter-wave-plate
circular
polarizer
may
be placed in the antenna feed or between
the linearly polarized feed and the reflector. The function of the parallel-plate grating can
also be accomplished by introducing in the feed assembly a dielectric septum oriented at 45 to
Quarter-wave plate
the electric field vector. The length of the septum is such that the parallel polarization component is delayed in phase by 90 with respect to the perpendicular component. Since the return signal of opposite polarization must not be seen by the receiver, a septum of absorbing material is placed perpendicular to the electric field vector of the original
Fig. 12.15. Quarter-wave plate for converting linear polarization to circular polarization, and vice versa.
signal.
The
Another method of generating circular polarization is with the turnstile junction. 47 48 turnstile is a waveguide device consisting of four coplanar, rectangular waveguide arms and one circular waveguide arm, orthogonal to the rectangular arm (Fig. 12.16).
-
Circularly polarized output
Matched
termination
Short circuit
Linearly polarized input
Fig. 12.16. Turnstile junction used to obtain circular polarization.
circular waveguide arm is capable of supporting energy received from any one of the four rectangular guides. When the junction is properly matched, power in rectangular arm 1 incident at the junctionis divided as follows: one-half of the power enters circular arm 5, and one-quarter enters each of the adjacent rectangular arms 3 and 4.
The
No power is coupled to arm 2 opposite the input. To generate circular polarization, short circuits are placed in the two adjacent sidearms 3 and 4. If the short circuit in one of the sidearms is placed five-eighths of a wavelength from the center of the junction and if the short circuit in the other sidearm is seven-eighths of a wavelength from
Sec. 12.8]
center, the
551
from the shorts will combine in phase in the circular to, and 90 out of phase with, the signal coupled arm and will The two orthogonal components directly from the input arm to the circular arm. in the circular arm are equal in amplitude and 90 out of phase, satisfying the conThe fourth rectangular arm is terminated in a ditions for circular polarization. matched load. If the turnstile transmits right-hand polarization, it will receive right-hand polarization in input arm 1 and left-hand polarization in the opposite arm 2. The turnstile junction is a versatile device. By adjusting the relative positions of the short circuits in the rectangular sidearms, any type of elliptical polarization may be generated, including linear and circular as special cases. The sense of rotation may be two
signals reflected
be physically orthogonal
made either right-hand or left-hand. The ordinary diamond-mesh reflector commonly used
satisfactory with circular polarization because it is respond equally to both horizontal and vertical
for antenna surfaces is not an asymmetric pattern and does not
components of
polarization.
The
antenna surface should be equally

solid surface.
reflective for all polarizations, as is
a square mesh or
Detection of Weather Echoes. The design of a radar whose prime function is to detect weather targets such as storms, precipitation areas, etc., will differ from a radar designed to detect, in an optimum manner, aircraft targets in the presence of weather
echoes.
For
aircraft detection, the attenuation
precipitation particles
may be avoided by operating at the lower frequencies.
and backscattering caused by the It would
also be desirable to operate the weather-detecting radar at the lower frequencies to avoid weather clutter, except that the target echoes (in this case the precipitation particles) will
likewise decrease in intensity with decreasing frequency.
Thus
the frequency of the
weather-detecting radar must be high enough to obtain sufficient echo energy from precipitation but yet not so high that the signal is lost by attenuation or by other The higher frequencies also have precipitation echoes which mask the desired echoes. with an antenna of fixed size. possible resolution is angular advantage that better the For these reasons it seems as though the optimum frequency range for the detection of band. When quantitative band and precipitation is somewhere in the vicinity of
radar measurements of precipitation such as rainfall rate are required, the attenuation In such cases, at C and Xbands may be large enough to give erroneous measurements. satisfactory measurements of precipitation echo might be obtained at 5 band where the attenuation is negligible. To compensate for the reduced weather echo signal at S band as compared with the echo signals at the higher microwave frequencies, the power
radiated by the S-band radar must be larger. An example of a radar designed specifically for weather observation is the WSR-57, used by the United States Weather Bureau. 49 Its frequency of operation is S band bands by changing the (2,700 to 2,900 Mc), but it is designed to operate at C or
transmitter and the antenna feed.

is
a 12-ft-diameter paraboloid. ranges of 200 miles.

12.8. Angels 6
'
The peak power at S band is 500 kw, and the antenna The WSR-57 is supposed to detect minor rainfall at
11 35 50 " 57
' '
Radar echoes can be obtained from regions of the atmosphere where no apparent These have been called "phantoms," "ghosts," "pixies," "radar flying saucers," and "angels," but the last named has probably been used more than any other. These names are descriptive of the elusive nature of this type of radar Angel echoes take many different forms and have been attributed to various echo. causes, including birds, insects, and meteorological effects. Probably the most important source of angels is birds, especially for ground-based
reflecting sources exist.
552
[Sec.
12.8
radars looking over the sea and shipboard radars operating near the coast. It has been reported that birds are almost wholly responsible for the angel activity observed near the
is
Atlantic shore in mid-latitudes. 51 83 Although the radar cross section of a single bird small compared with that of an ordinary aircraft, bird echoes can be relatively strong,
-
especially at the shorter ranges because of the inverse-fourth-power variation with range. For example, 35 the radar cross section of a bird the size of a sea gull might be
2 of the order of 0.01 A bird with this cross section at a range of 10 nautical miles will return an echo signal as large as that from a 100-m 2 radar cross-section target at
.
100 nautical miles. When birds travel in flocks, the total cross section can be significantly greater than that of a single bird. Because the radar display collapses a relatively large volume of space onto a small radar screen, the display can appear cluttered with bird echoes even though only a few birds can be seen by visual examination of the surrounding area. If there were, on the average, only one bird for every square mile of area, more than 300 echoes would be displayed on the PP1 within a 10-mile radius from the radar. This represents a significant amount of clutter. It has been said that
as few as eight birds in a square mile can completely blank a PPI screen. Birds can fly at speeds up to 50 knots (or higher if carried by the wind). This is probably too high a speed to be rejected by most MTI radars (except perhaps those at the lower or
VHF frequencies).
UHF
at relatively
The small echoing area of birds means that they are primarily seen short ranges 20 to 25 miles or less, for medium-power search radars.
fall)
Increased echoes from birds are to be expected during migratory periods (spring and and during those times of day when bird activity is large (sunrise and sunset).
Insects, even
though small, may be readily detected by radar. Crawford 52 reported a between nighttime angel echoes detected by radar and observations of insects within a searchlight beam illuminating the same volume as the radar. The radar cross section of an insect the size of a housefly is on the order of 10" 5 m 2 at a wavelength of 8.6 mm. 54 According to Plank, 50 even modest insect concentrations (one insect in 1 4 m 3 ) cause angel activity which can be classed as moderate. Extremely heavy angel activity could easily be produced by insect concentrations that would scarcely cause visual awareness. Insects are usually carried by the wind; therefore angels due to insects might be expected to have the velocity of the wind. Both insect and bird echoes are more likely to be found at the lower altitudes, near dawn and twilight. The majority of insects are incapable of flight at temperatures below 40 or above 90F; consequently, large concentrations of insect angel echoes would not be
direct correlation
expected outside this temperature range. In addition to causing unwanted echoes on radar displays, insects can impair the performance of microwave radars in a more direct manner if they enter the waveguide transmission line.
It
All examples of angel activity cannot be explained by the presence of birds and insects. has been claimed that many angel echoes appear to be the result of meteorological
carried by the wind, can last from a fraction of a second to Such echoes are coherent in contrast to the incoherent echoes from precipitation. They are generally found with medium-power radars at ranges less than 20 nautical miles, and most sources appear to be smaller than the resolution capability of the radar. They seem to originate from the region of the lower troposphere. At K and X bands the maximum volume reflectivities range from 10~ 10 to lO" 12 which corresponds to radar cross sections from 0.4 to 50 cm 2 Plank states that wind-carried angels occur primarily when temperatures and humidities are high and when wind velocities are low. 50 Little activity is found at temperatures below 30F. Activity is especially intense during the summer months, during midday, and with clear skies. Angels do not seem to occur when the ground is covered with snow or when the atmosphere is extremely dry or cold
several seconds.
,
.
effects.
One type of angel,
S E c.
12.8]
553
insects have been angel echoes which cannot be accounted for by birds or the atmosphere. of index refractive the in gradients from reflections to attributed in order to steep be must gradients However, calculations indicate that the refractive change in large be a must there that is, energy; account for the observed backscattered refractive-index the Unfortunately, distance. short a very over refraction the index of experigradients required by the theory are much greater than have been measured angel observed the for account basis to mentally, and it has not been possible on this theoretically. radar cross sections due to invisible bubbles of It has been suggested that many daytime angel echoes are during active solar surface earth's buoyant air, which rise by convection from the
Many
These convective bubbles are important elements in the formation of cumulus clouds. The bubble interior constitutes a different refractive medium than of sharp that of the surroundings, and the upper and side boundary regions consist favorable conditions The reflections. radar provide refractive gradients which could content, and to the formation of convective bubbles (high temperatures, high moisture
heating. 50
low wind velocity) are also those which seem to produce angel activity. Other forms of meteorological angel echoes are (1) incoherent (fluctuating) echoes from thermal columns below cumulus clouds; (2) mantle-shaped echoes (inverted U or V shape) associated with the upper surfaces of cumulus clouds; (3) layer echoes associated with sharp vertical gradients or minima in moisture aloft; and (4) anomalous echoes, believed to be produced by the boundary surfaces between differentially 56 moistened surface air over adjacent cold and warm water. Radar has also detected the passage of an invisible sea breeze as it moved toward the Echoes from the sea breeze are incoherent and have the characteristics of shore. 35 50 Observations were obtained at a wavelength precipitation echoes but occur in clear air.
-
of 1.25 cm.
51 55 57 On a PPI display, form of angel is the ring echo. 35 like the ripples ring, much expanding rapidly form a and the echoes formed by dropping an object in water. These have been observed with highpowered L-band radars. After one ring grows to a diameter of several miles, a second ring sometimes forms. They expand as ripples at velocities ranging from about 20 to 50 knots and can attain diameters of tens of miles. The source point and all rings formed from it seem to move with the prevailing winds. These echoes One explanation are observed in all seasons but are most persistent in winter. ground by elevated to the diverted is energy radar is that ring echoes for advanced 35 51 "point-source gravity waves" existing on a surface of density discontinuity. echoes ring-angel show that observations However, simultaneous visual and radar groups from at sunrise may be caused by the departure of starlings in successive
somewhat
different
'
start at a point
'
their roosts.
57
may be obtained from large mineral or organic particles 50 Echoes have also been winds or thunderstorms. heavy carried into the air by received from the vicinity of forest fires and from the smoke plumes of dump fires. The reflectivity of smoke particles is too small to account for these reflections. In dump fires, particularly, the echoes might be due to the numerous large particles and 50 debris sometimes present in the air above the fires.
Occasionally radar echoes
types of angel echoes result from the sidelobes illuminating relatively large These can targets, second-time-around echoes, or interference from other radars. produce target blips on the radar display when none actually exist. anomalous propagation. Still another source of angel echoes may be attributed to to the ground under refracted or reflected might be angles Radar waves directed at low Ln essence, the path. same the by radar the to return echoes The conditions. certain For example, a very radar "sees" the ground or some object on the ground as a target.
Some
554

might be tracked by the radar operator
to be illuminating a
[Sec.
12.9
realistic target
happened
moving train.
An
if the deflected radar beam "apparent' moving target might also

'
be indicated even when the beam observes a stationary object on the ground provided the reflecting portion of the atmosphere is itself in motion. The radar beam might be reflected or refracted to the ground by (1) an atmospheric layer of considerable refractivity, (2) sharp refractive gradients over a local terrain feature such as an intense moisture gradient over a river or a lake, or (3) wind-carried refractive inhomogeneities. Plank 50 states that at a range of 50 miles a horizontal reflecting layer rising 3 m/sec could cause an apparent echo to move at 300 mph. Many of the so-called "flying saucers" reported in the early 1950s may be explained in this manner. Angel echoes due to phenomena other than birds and insects are of scientific interest to the meteorologist since they provide further data on the nature of the atmosphere, especially phenomena invisible to the eye but not to radar. Even bird and insect echoes are of scientific interest since radar offers a potential means of observing their behavior under conditions of darkness and over a relatively wide area. In general, angel echoes need not be a serious source of confusion to the radar operator. They are usually weak and occur primarily at the shorter ranges. A well-trained, experienced operator should have little trouble differentiating most angel echoes from real targets. A possible exception is where the bird density is so large and over such a wide area that the echo signals cover a significant portion of the radar display and have the same detrimental effect on radar performance as any other form of extensive ground, sea, or weather clutter.
12.9. Interference
The increased use of radar, communications, and other

increases the likelihood of mutual interference; that
interfere with the reception
is,
radiating electronic devices
from one equipment of signals in other equipments. In (electronically) congested areas, the mutual interference between neighboring radars can be severe enough to seriously degrade their utility. The interfering signals might be pulsed, CW, or modulated CW. In this section the emphasis will be on pulse interference, as might be caused by other radars. The next section considers deliberate interference (electronic countermeasures) to military radars. The interfering signal from a nearby radar usually consists of a train of RF pulses whose pulse repetition frequency may or may not be constant and whose carrier frequency may or may not correspond to that of the desired signal. In general, the prf of the interfering signals will not be the same as the prf of the victim radar; even if it were, they probably would not be in synchronism. Therefore interfering pulses usually will not appear on a radar display at the same range on each sweep. Because of its fencelike appearance on the A-scope, pulse interference is called railing.
radiations
might
Mutual interference among radars is prevented, in so far as possible, by operating nearby equipments on different frequencies. In practice, however, the frequency spectrum of the transmitted waveform from a particular equipment can extend well beyond its receiver bandwidth. Considerable interference energy might appear at other radar receivers even though their operating frequencies are far removed from the operating frequency of the offending transmitter. The rectangular pulse produces a relatively large amount of interfering energy at adjacent frequencies, as illustrated by its spectrum (solid curve of Fig. 12.17). The Gaussian-shaped pulse, on the other hand, produces a spectrum (dashed curve) which decreases rapidly with frequency. A Gaussian pulse, or some other similarly shaped waveform, would be preferred when it was necessary to minimize interference. (By other standards, however, the Gaussianshaped pulse is not too desirable a radar waveform since the combined accuracy with which range and doppler velocity can be simultaneously measured is poorer than with
Sec. 12.9]
555
any other waveform, as discussed in Sec. 10.6.) The perfectly rectangular pulse and the Gaussian pulse are idealizations which cannot be realized in practice. Their spectra are indicative, however, of the limits that might be expected with practical radar waveforms. Other frequency components are possible in the transmitted spectrum besides those predicted by the Fourier transform of the time waveform. These might be caused by spurious frequencies or noise generated by the transmitter. Radar receivers which must operate in an environment of heavy interference ought to be well shielded to reduce stray pick-up. Where necessary, filters should be employed to further attenuate interfering radiation from radars operating at adjacent frequencies.
^T
\
'
^^^ Rectangular pulse
spectrum
2/r
Frequency
Fig. 12.17. Comparison of the frequency spectrum of a rectangular pulse (solid curve) of width t with that of a Gaussian-shaped pulse (dashed curve) whose width between half-power points is also t.
In addition to good engineering design and elimination of interference at the source, other techniques for reducing mutual interference between radars rely on recognizing differences in frequency, time of arrival, angle of arrival, or waveshape characteristics between the desired and the interfering signals. Pulse-width Discrimination. 5 *-' If the pulse width of the interference differs from One that of the victim radar, it may be used to provide a means for discrimination. method of implementing a pulse-width discriminator is shown in the block diagram of The input pulse is differentiated and split into two channels. In one Fig. 12.18. channel the differentiated pulse is delayed a time r corresponding to the width of the
desired pulse, while in the other channel the differentiated pulse is inverted. If the input pulse were of width t, the trailing edge of the inverted, differentiated pulse would coincide in time with the leading edge of the differentiated pulse delayed a time t. The
coincidence circuit permits signals in the two channels to pass only if they are in exact time coincidence. If the input pulse were not of width t, the two spikes would not be coincident in time and the pulse would be rejected. The ideal pulse-width discriminator of Fig. 12.18 rejects all pulses whose width is not In practice, the discriminator ought to be able to pass pulses whose widths exactly r. are in the vicinity of the design value since slight variations from pulse to pulse are to be expected. (A common cause of pulse-width variations is the apparent change brought about by the finite rise time of the receiver and the limiting action of the video amplifier.) pulses In a practical differentiator, the width At of the two spikes is finite and those
556
[Sec.
12.9
be passed. The spike width At may be made any desired value by passing the pulse through a "delay-line differentiator" instead of the differentiThe delay-line differentiator divides the pulse into two channels. ator of Fig. 12.18. t, while in the other it is not delayed at all. In one channel the pulse is delayed At The delayed and undelayed outputs are subtracted, leaving two pulses of opposite sign and of width At, separated by a time t. The pulse-width discriminator offers some improvement in interference rejection, but the rejection usually is not as complete as might be indicated from an examination of
whose widths are t
At will
<
Uz)
Differentiator
Delay (r)
~1W)
Coincidence
circuit
(ff)
Inverter
_juv
h-r
{a)
(b)
(r)
Jl
(d)
L
Fig. J2.18. Block diagram of one
ie)
(a) Rectangular-pulse input; (b) differentiated pulse; (c) inversion of (b); (d) delayed (A);
form of pulse-width discriminator and associated waveforms. 0) output
of coincidence circuit.
idealized waveforms.
Practical
is
that this discriminator
waveforms are not ideal rectangular pulses. Note not consistent with the matched-filter technique for obtaining
maximum
sensitivity.
Prf Discrimination. A video delay-line integrator, as described in Sec. 9.8, may be used to discriminate between radars on the basis of the pulse repetition frequency. The
video delay-line integrator has maximum response to signals at that pulse repetition frequency which is equal to the reciprocal of the delay time or its harmonics. A normal PPI display with simulated railing interference from two radars is shown in Fig. 1 2. 1 9a. 61 The effect of passing the radar video through a delay-line integrator is shown in Fie 5
'
12.19*.
Another method of discrimination is to modulate the prf of one of the radars so that the interference runs through the display of another radar at a rate great enough to avoid contamination of the display. With reasonable repetition frequencies, modulation frequencies, and modulating indices, it is claimed 60 that the interfering pulse from the offending radar can be made to appear on the offended radar display as a target moving
Sec. 12.9]
557
Fig. 12.19. Railing interference from two radars on a PPI display of (a) normal video and (b) in(From Ellis and Rohlman* 1 IRE Natl. Coiw. Record. Courtesy Melpar, Inc.) tegrated video.
558
[Sec.
12.9
on the order of 100,000 mph and can be easily recognized as an interference However, recognizing interference is not the main problem in systems where Extraneous data must the radar output is fed into a digital computer for processing. be kept out of the computer since a relatively small amount of interference can cause
at a velocity
signal.
overloading of the computer's capabilities. Interference among a group of radars located in Synchronization and Blanking.* the same vicinity can be reduced if they can be operated with the same pulse repetition frequency and if they are synchronized to fire simultaneously. The synchronization of several radars can be accomplished by direct connection if the radars are located in
close proximity.
When the prf's of the radars are not the same or are not synchronized, interfering may be removed by turning off the receiver (blanking) on the arrival of an offending pulse. The information needed to blank the radar receiver may be obtained by
pulses
If this is not possible, as when the radars direct connections among the various radars; are located on ships or at widely separated field installations, a separate auxiliary radar
Input
Widebond
IF
filter
Limiter
Normal bandwidth IF
amplifier
Output
Lamb
noise-silencing circuit for reducing interference.
receiver at the victim radar
can determine when the
level
of interference exceeds a
threshold value.
When the threshold is exceeded, the normal radar receiver is blanked.
The auxiliary receiver used to detect the presence of interference might have a frequencyresponse function which is a minimum at the radar carrier frequency but which peaks on Thus the auxiliary receiver establishes guard bands. Broadeither side of the carrier. band interfering signals which enter the radar receiver also enter the guard bands of the The radar's own signals auxiliary receiver and cause the radar receiver to be blanked.
will
not cause blanking since the auxiliary receiver's response
is
minimum
at the radar
frequency.
of Fig. 12.20 was proposed by impulsive and pulselike interference that is intense enough for the spectral sidebands of the interference to impair normal reception. In this circuit the IF amplifier of the normal receiver is preceded by a wideband amplifier and a limiter. The wideband amplifier is designed to include most of the spectrum of the interfering signal. If both the desired signal and the interference are not present simultaneously, and if the limit level is above the amplitude of the desired signal, interference is reduced by the action of the limiter. The Lamb noise silencer is based on the fact that noise spikes are inherently of short duration unless they are "stretched" by some narrowband element of the receiver. The purpose of the wideband amplifier is to preserve the short duration of the spikes. The noise spikes are clipped in the limiter to remove a considerable portion of their energy. If the noise spikes were not limited, they would shock-excite the narrowband IF amplifier and produce an output pulse much wider in duration than the input pulse. The interference would therefore be in the receiver for a much longer time than if limited before narrowbanding. Desired signals which appear simultaneously with the noise spike are not detected. However, the circuit does not allow the noise to influence the receiver for a time longer than the duration of a noise spike. Noise Cancellation. 63 Broadband interfering signals can be eliminated or reduced by subtracting the video output of the radar receiver from the output of an auxiliary receiver tuned to a frequency slightly different from that of the radar. The output of
Lamb Noise-silencing Circuit.- 62 The configuration Lamb 62 for reducing the effects of strong off-frequency
Sec, 12.10]
559
the radar receiver consists of signal-plus-interference, while the output of the auxiliary
When the outputs of the two receivers are subtracted from one another, ideally only the desired radar signal remains in addition to The subtraction is performed in the video portions of the receivers after receiver noise.
receiver consists only of interference.
the second detector.
Although
it
this
type of cancellation
is
successful in reducing large
impulsive interference,
receiver.
results in a reduction in the over-all signal-to-noise ratio in the
absence of interference since the noise of the auxiliary receiver adds to that of the radar
Sidelobe Cancellation.' 69
receiver
Still
another method of reducing the
effects
of noise
is
the sidelobe canceler, which depends on the separation of signals in space.
A separate
An interfering signal will appear in is used with an omnidirectional antenna. both the omnidirectional-antenna receiver and the radar receiver. Interference signals It is also conceivable in the auxiliary receiver may be used to blank the radar receiver. to use the interference in the auxiliary-receiver output to cancel the interference in the normal radar receiver. 63 Radar not only causes interference to other Interference to Communications. 64 65 radars, but it can also interfere with communications. An example of radar interference to the TD-2 microwave (3,700 to 4,200 Mc) communication system was reported by Campbell. 64 The TD-2 system employs frequency modulation with a power output of only | watt for each of two broadband channels, one in each direction of transmission. Two such channels normally handle up to 600 telephone circuits or two television signals. It was found that interference occurred when the ratios of the peak values of desired carrier to radar interference at the receiver were less than 1 5 db for television and db for telephone. Interference was traced to spurious radiations from radars operating at frequencies removed from the communications frequencies. Radar interference appears as a rough buzzing noise in telephone circuits; as moving, almost randomly located white dashes in a television picture and as errors in digital-data links. Spurious radiations may be removed by careful design of the radar transmitter, by shaping the pulse to reduce the spectral-energy content outside the radar frequency bandwidth, or by employing a high-power filter at the output of the transmitter. Interference may also be reduced by operating the communication link with a different polarization than that of the radar.
'
,
12.10.
ECM
and
ECCM 6672
may
be subjected to deliberate
military radar operating in a hostile environment
which appears as extraneous responses on the radar display. The extraneous responses may be few in number and resemble real targets, or there may be a large number which fill a significant portion of the display. The purpose of jamming a radar is to create deliberate interference and to degrade its usefulness as part
interference, or jamming,
of a weapon system. The various techniques that electronically interfere with radar performance are called electronic countermeasures (ECM). Military radars must be designed not only to perform well in a peacetime environment, but to fulfill their mission in time of hostilities in spite of ECM. Electronic countermeasures can be divided into two classes, depending upon whether they are intended primarily for confusion or for deception. The purpose of a confusion countermeasure is to mask or hide real targets by cluttering the radar display. Its effects are similar to ground or sea clutter except that truly effective confusion In fact, effective usually covers more area on the radar display than does clutter. jamming should completely obliterate the radar screen. An example of a confusion
ECM
transmission modulated by broadband noise. countermeasure is a high-power present to the radar false signals which appear as is to ECM deception The purpose of though they were echoes from real targets. If a sufficiently large number of false
CW
560
targets
[Sec.
12.10
were to appear on the radar display, the operator might not be able to process them all. Some real targets might be lost, or else the radar operator might direct a weapon to a nonexistent target. An example of a deception countermeasure is the repeater jammer, which plays back to the radar a replica of its own radar signal, but delayed in time, so that it appears displaced in range and/or angle from the true
target.
effectiveness, deception countermeasures should be designed so that cannot be distinguished from real target echoes. The power requirements for deception-jammer transmitters are relatively modest since false echoes can be of comparable power to the true target signals. Confusion jammers, on the other hand, are usually of relatively high power since they must be designed to swamp the real target
For
maximum
their signals
echoes.
Both confusion and deception countermeasures may be obtained with either active or passive devices. Active countermeasures are those which radiate electromagnetic They include noise jammers and repeater jammers. Passive countermeasures energy. do not radiate of their own accord and include chaff, decoys, and electromagnetic
absorbing materials. Noise Jamming. A simple form of jamming
the radar.
is
CW signal at the same frequency as CW
An unmodulated CW jamming signal may be removed in the radar receiver
signals with a coupling capacitor in the video, as was described in Sec. 8.2. If the or FM, a low-pass filter could be used instead of a simple capacitor to remove the interference. A good (disturbing) interfering signal is one with the same characteristics as the radar signal. However, it is not always possible for the jammer to know the complete Lacking detailed information concerning the characteristics of the victim radar.
were modulated by low-frequency
AM
signal characteristics of the radar, the best jamming signal is white Gaussian noise covering the bandwidth of the radar receiver to be jammed. A jammer whose noise energy is concentrated in a relatively narrow band yet is wide enough to encompass the radar receiver bandwidth is called a spot jammer. For conventional radars with pulse durations of the order of several microseconds, the bandwidth of the spot jammer might be a few megacycles. When properly designed
and executed, spot noise jamming can severely limit the performance of radar. It concentrates large amounts of noise power in the receiver passband. There is little that the radar operator can do to combat high-power noise once it is allowed to enter the receiver. The effect is the same as an increase in the receiver noise figure. If the jammer power is sufficiently large, the entire display can be filled with jamming. The attribute which makes spot noise jamming effective concentration of large power over a narrow bandwidth is also its chief weakness. Spot jamming may be avoided by changing the radar frequency. Frequency changing should be accomplished rapidly so that the jammer does not have time to follow. Ideally, it would be desirable to change radar frequency pulse to pulse. An auxiliary receiver could be used to monitor the radar frequency band, selecting those regions which were relatively free from jamming. 70 A radar capable of changing frequency rapidly is said to possess
frequency agility. A barrage jammer

quencies.
Its
is one which radiates noise over a relatively wide band of frebandwidth is usually designed to encompass the entire tuning range of a particular class of radar transmitters. The simple expedient of changing radar frequency within the tuning range of the radar does not offer relief from barrage jamming. However, barrage jamming may not always be as effective as spot jamming,
especially if the radar is fixed-tuned. If the jammer can radiate only a limited amount of power, as might be the case with an airborne device, the available power spread over a wideband results in less noise power within the radar receiver passband
Sec. 12.10]
561
same power were radiated by a spot jammer. The noise power per cycle of bandwidth must of necessity be less in the barrage jammer. Therefore barrage jammers have to radiate greater total power than spot jammers if the two are to be equally
than
if
the
effective against
a particular radar, assuming that the radar frequency does not change
serious threat to radar.
rapidly.
The barrage jammer can be a

is
One possible countermeasure

This forces
is
is
to operate a radar
network with radars
in different frequency bands. 68
an enemy to carry a separate barrage jammer for each band. A barrage jammer may be obtained by the direct amplification of RF noise. This called DINA, an abbreviation for direct noise amplification. A broadband receiver
a suitable source of noise for direct amplification since it has the characteristics desired of noise sources. Its spectrum is white (uniform), and it has a Gaussian amplitude
distribution.
Another means of jamming over a frequency band wider than that of a spot jammer by sweeping the carrier frequency of a tunable transmitter over the radar band. 58 87 69 This is called sweepthrough jamming. One form of sweepthrough jammer might use a carcinotron (voltage-tuned backward wave oscillator), frequency-modulated by noise to produce a random sweep. The mechanism of a carrier frequency modulated by noise is described in Lawson and Uhlenbeck (Ref. 58, sec. 6.8). Its effect on the receiver is slightly different from noise. The noise pulses produced in the radar receiver by a carrier frequency modulated by noise are determined by the excursions of the sweeping carrier as it passes across the receiver passband. It is assumed that the total frequency excursion (jammer bandwidth) is large compared with the receiver bandwidth and that the frequencies contained in the noise producing "the modulation are small compared with the bandwidth of the receiver. Then the receiver output will consist of a series of random pulses whose shape in time is similar to the shape of the receiver bandwidth in frequency and whose amplitudes are relatively constant. Each time the carrier sweeps through the receiver passband, a pulse is produced. The pulses are randomly spaced in time because the carrier sweep, being modulated by noise, is random. The effectiveness of sweepthrough jamming depends on obtaining a noise modulation in which the time taken by the carrier to traverse the receiver band is approximately equal to the receiver response time, that is, a time equal to the reciprocal of the bandwidth. A single sweepthrough jammer can simulis
-
CW
AM
CW
taneously
jam many different radars operating at different frequencies. Weak noise jamming is received only when the jammer is illuminated by the main lobe
Its effect is to paint a single strobe on the face of the PPI display azimuth angle (Fig. 12.21a). The azimuth of the strobe indicates the direction of the jammer. If the jammer is located on the target itself, the radar can determine its direction but not range. In principle, it is possible to locate a target's position in spite of the lack of range information by triangulating with angle measurements made from two or more radars. 89 As the jammer power increases, more and more of the jamming signal enters the receiver via the sidelobes and more interference appears on the PPI display (Fig. 2.216). Complete jamming is shown in Fig. 12.21c. Because the jammer power at the radar varies inversely as the square of the distance between radar and jammer (one-way transmission) while the radar echo power varies with distance inversely as the fourth power (two-way transmission), there will always be some distance below which the radar echo will be larger than the jammer signal.
of the antenna beam.
at a specific
This is called the self-screening range, or the crossover range. The self-screening range is found by equating the received signal in the two-way radar equation (2. 1 ) to the Differences received signal in the one-way transmission (or beacon) equation (1 3. 106). signal power J jamming received the Also, account. taken into in bandwidths must be
562
[Sec.
12.10
(c)
Fig. 12.21. PPI displays of jamming,
(a)
Weak jamming
moderate jamming; (c) complete jamming. Electronics Center and Space/ Aeronautics. 6 ")
azimuth;
(b)
showing single strobe at the jammer's {Courtesy General Electric Co., Advanced
required for effective jamming

self-screening range
is
may be different from the received radar signal approximately

2
S.
The
__
P Gr
tr
a Bj J
where
P = radar transmitted power P = jammer transmitted power Gr = radar antenna gain

ir
tj
Gj
= jammer antenna gain

target cross section
a
Bj
r
=--
= jammer bandwidth B = radar bandwidth J/S jammer-to-radar signal
(power) ratio
Sec. 12.10]

or greater.
563
A jammer located on a target of cross section a will overpower, the radar if the jammer is
at a range
R ss
which a jammer begins to lower the effectiveness of the radar performance may be defined as the range at which the jamming noise power per cycle of bandwidth as received at the radar [Eq. (1 2.42)] is equal to the receiver noise power per cycle
at
The range
[Eq. (12.43)].
=
where A r k
Pti A r
(12 42)
N0r = kT F n = effective receiving aperture of radar antenna = Boltzmann's constant T = standard temperature (290 K.) Fn = receiver noise figure
noise to receiver noise and solving for the
(12.43)
Equating the jammer jamming range yields
maximum
effective
*!
It
t)A T
,. 2 (47r) /cT
'""I F n e,
(12.44)
may be concluded from Eqs. (12.41) and (12.44) that the radar power, antenna gain,
effective aperture should be large if jamming is to be overpowered. If the jammer bandwidth is fixed, the receiver bandwidth should be as small as possible. If the jammer is "intelligent" enough to make its bandwidth equal to the radar
1 in Eq. (12.41)], Eq. (12.44) states that the radar bandwidth should be as large as possible in order to make Rj small. This is consistent with the concept of a matched filter in which a specified E/N ratio is required for detection. Although Eq. (12.44) suggests raising the noise figure to reduce the jamming range, an increase in noise figure also reduces the radar detection range. If the noise figure were deliberately increased to avoid jamming, larger transmitted power would be required to compensate and maintain the range performance constant. Repeater Jamming. 67 66 A target under observation by a radar may generate false echoes by delaying the received radar signals and retransmitting at a slightly later time. This is accomplished in a repeater jammer. Delaying the retransmission causes the repeated signals to appear at a range and/or azimuth different from that of the jammer. Thus the signal from the repeater generates a false target echo at the output of the radar A true receiver which, in principle, cannot be distinguished from a real target. repeater is one which retransmits the same signal that a target would reradiate. A transponder repeater plays back a stored replica of the radar signal after it is The transmitted signal is made to resemble the radar signal as triggered by the radar. closely as practicable. The transponder might also radiate a noise praise. 68 It can be programmed to remain silent when illuminated by the main radar beam and to transmit only when illuminated by the sidelobes, creating spurious targets on the radar display at directions other than that of the true target. A range-gate stealer is a repeater jammer whose function is to cause a tracking radar It will be recalled from Sec. 5.6 that a tracking radar can to "break lock" on the target. track a target in range by generating a pair of range gates within the radar receiver and adjusting these gates to center on the target. The tracking radar is said to be "locked on" the target when the echo is maintained between the two range gates. As the target
'
and
bandwidth [B j /B r
moves, the range gates automatically follow. The range-gate stealer operates by initially transmitting a single pulse in synchronism with each pulse received from the 67 The repeater slowly shifts the timing of radar, thereby strengthening the target echo If the target range. its own pulse transmissions to cause an apparent change in the the follow will circuits tracking radar signal, the jamming signal is larger than the echo
,
564
[Sec.
12.10
from the jammer and ignore the weaker echo from the target. In this manner, the repeater "steals" the radar tracking circuits from the target. The delay between the true echo and the false echo can be lengthened or shortened to such an
false signal
repeater extent that the range servo limits in the radar receiver are exceeded, or else the can be turned off, leaving the tracker without a target and forcing it to revert to the
search mode. 68 radars sometimes employ a tunable filter called a velocity gate to track the velocity-gate stealer transmits a signal which falsifies the doppler frequency shift. target's speed or pretends that it is stationary. Repeater jammers may also be designed to break conical-scan angle track by transoperation of mitting a signal at the nutating frequency. This will either confuse the
CW
the radar antenna servo or prevent it from following the target. One method of reducing the effects of repeater jamming is to transmit a radar signal 67 The radar might with a form of identification difficult for the jammer to mimic. techniques sophisticated switch to a different pulse width, prf, or polarization, or more
68
could be used.
The noise jammer and the repeater jammer were examples of active Passive ECM. ECM. They internally generate or amplify electromagnetic energy, which is then
radiated.
Passive electronic countermeasures do not generate or amplify electromagnetic radiation. They act in a passive manner to change the energy reflected back are chaff, decoys, and radar cross-section Examples of passive to the radar.
ECM
reduction. 6e
~ 69
One of the
earliest
consists of a large
packaged as released from an

reflecting cloud.
number of dipole a bundle. The many
forms of countermeasures used against radar was chaff. Chaff reflectors, usually in the form of metallic foil strips
foil strips
constituting the chaff bundle, on being wind and blossom to form a highly the aircraft, are scattered by relatively small bundle of chaff can form a cloud with a radar cross
comparable with that of a large aircraft. Chaff is used either to deceive or to confuse. Spot chaff is the name usually associated with the deception role, while corridor chaff is a confusion countermeasure. Spot chaff an is dropped as individual bundles which appear as additional targets on the radar in
section
effort to deceive the operator as to their true nature.
chaff corridor is produced by aircraft continuously releasing chaff to form a long The effect is corridorlike cloud through which following aircraft can fly undetected. At least one bundle should be released to mask the aircraft, much like a smoke screen.
is to appear continuous. Chaff is a relatively slow moving target compared with aircraft. Its vertical descent Its is determined by gravity and by the drag characteristics of the individual foil strips. Chaff may be distinguished horizontal component of velocity depends on the wind. from moving aircraft targets on the basis of its slower velocity. Discrimination is performed either by the radar operator or automatically with MTI. Chaff dropped from an aircraft can also be used to "break lock" on tracking radars; that is, if a tracking radar is "locked on" and following a particular target, the dropping of chaff might cause the tracker to follow the chaff and not the target. Chaff was a very effective countermeasure when used with the relatively slow bomber aircraft of World War II. With modern high-speed aircraft, a bundle of chaff quickly separates from the dispensing aircraft and makes the job of discriminating between However, chaff need not be simply dropped from the target. target and chaff easier. It can be dispensed from aerial rockets and fired ahead, behind, above, or below the target aircraft. Forward-shot chaff can deceive the range and velocity tracking gates of tracking radars. A decoy is a small aircraftlike vehicle made to appear to the radar as a realistic target.
in each radar resolution cell if the corridor
Sec.
If the
12.10]
565
aircraft are made indistinguishable to the radar, the radar operator deceived into thinking the decoy is hostile and commit a weapon to attack. If sufficient decoys are present, the defense system could be overloaded. small aircraft or missile decoy can be designed to have a radar cross section comparable with that of a large aircraft by fitting it with radar signal enhancement devices such as corner reflectors, Luneburg reflectors, or active repeaters. The decoy could also be outfitted with a small jammer to mimic jammers on the target aircraft in
decoy and the
may be
make the two appear identical. Decoys might be carried on board attacking bomber aircraft and launched outside the normal radar detection ranges. Since decoys can be made to closely resemble real targets, and since a decoy might conceivably carry a bomb, one defensive strategy would
order to
be to destroy
all
unfriendly targets, including

target aircraft.
signal.
known
decoys. 69
A passive ECM against conical-scanning tracking radars is a rotating corner reflector

mounted on the
The
If
amplitude-modulated echo
it is
rotation of the corner reflector produces an of the proper modulation frequency, the
conical-scan tracking-radar performance will be degraded just as with any other amplitude fluctuations (Sec. 5.5). 66 Reducing the radar cross section of the target by proper shaping is another possible passive countermeasure. A target with doubly curved surfaces (curvature in two dimensions) will have small cross section. It should not have any flat, cylindrical, or conical surfaces which might be illuminated by the incident radar wave from a direction along the normal to the surface. 73 The radar cross section of a target can also be reduced by electromagnetic absorbent materials. 66 74 75 One type of electromagnetic absorber is based on destructive interference. It is a quarter wavelength thick and designed so that energy reflected from the front surface cancels the energy which enters the material and is reflected from the inner surface. A destructive interference absorber is analogous to the antireflection coatings applied to optical lenses. It is inherently narrowband. Another type of absorber is one which internally dissipates the energy incident upon it. It is usually much thicker than the destructive interference absorber but has the advantage of being broadband. Although absorbing coatings on conducting objects can significantly reduce the backscattering cross section when the object is large with respect to a wavelength, these coatings have little effect on Rayleigh scattering cross sections (that is, when the wavelength in the coating considerably exceeds the maximum diameter of the scatterer). 77 In the case of forward scatter (Sec. 3.6) with an object large compared with the wavelength, any coating, whether absorbing or not, only serves to increase the amount of energy scattered in the forward direction. 76 ECCM. Any radar can be effectively jammed by a determined enemy willing to pay the price. This should not evoke pessimism since it can be said that almost any military objective can be accomplished by a determined force if the force is large enough and if cost is of no consequence. Electronic counter-countermeasures (ECCM) are
' '
based on making the cost prohibitive. As a general rule, good radar design practice reduces the vulnerability of any system Good design is based on maximizing E/N the ratio to electronic countermeasures. of received signal energy to noise power per cycle. More practically, good design procedure implies that proper shielding and filtering are included in the receiver. Skimping in the design to reduce cost often increases the radar vulnerability. Most of the receiver techniques described in Sec. 12.9 for alleviating mutual interference are of help against deliberate jamming interference. An important measure for reducing the or mutual interference is to avoid saturating or overloading the effects of either The receiver should have a wide dynamic range. signals. interfering receiver with large
,
ECM
568
22.
Urkowitz, H.: Filters for the Detection of Small Radar Signals in Noise, /. Appl. Phvs., vol. 24, pp. 1024-1031, August, 1953. 23. Westerfield, E. C, R. H. Prager, and J. L. Stewart: Processing Gains against Reverberation (Clutter) Using Matched Filters, IRE Trans., vol. IT-6, pp. 342-348, June, 1960. Theory of Active Sonar Detections, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, 24. Stewart, J. L., and E. C. Westerfield:
25.
26.
27. 28.
pp. 872-881, May, 1959. Croney, J.: The Reduction of Sea and Rain Clutter in Marine Radars, /. Inst. Navigation (London), vol. 7, pp. 175-180, 190-192, 1954. Croney, J. Clutter on Radar Displays, Wireless Engr., vol. 33, pp. 83-96, April, 1956. Van Voorhis, S. N. (ed.): "Microwave Receivers," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 23, pp. 583-606, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1948. Aired, R. V., and A. Reiss: An Anti-clutter Radar Receiver, J. 1EE, vol. 93, pt. 3, p. 459,
:
November,
29.
1948.
Croney,
1955.
J.
A Simple Logarithmic Receiver, Proc.

:
30. Rosenstein, S.
IRE, vol. 39, pp. 807-813, July, 1951. Design of a Logarithmic Receiver, Proc. IEE, vol. 102, pt. B, pp. 69-74, January,
31. Atlas, D., et al.:

1
952, Air Force
32. Marshall, J. S.,
Weather Effects on Radar, Air Force Surveys Cambridge Research Center. W. Hitschfeld, and K. L. S. Gunn: Advances
in
Geophys., no. 23, December,
in
Radar Weather, Advances
in
Geophys., vol.
33.
2, 1955.
Gunn,
34.
35. 36.
37.
38.
K.. L. S., and T. W. R. East: The Microwave Properties of Precipitation Particles, Quarterly J. Royal Meteorol. Soc, vol. 80, pp. 522-545, October, 1954. Saxton, J. A.: The Influence of Atmospheric Conditions on Radar Performance, J.Inst. Navigation (London), vol. 11, pp. 290-303, 1958. Battan, L. J.: "Radar Meteorology," University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1959. Haddock, F. T. Scattering and Attenuation of Microwave Radiation through Rain, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. (unpublished manuscript), 1948. Hawkins, H. E., and O. LaPlant: Radar Performance Degradation in Fog and Rain, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-6, pp. 26-30, March, 1959. Mie, G.: Beitrage zur Optik Triiber Medien Speziell Kolloidaler Metallosungen, Ann. Phys.,
:
39.
40. 41.
377^45, 1908. Moore, R. K. Effect of Precipitation on the Design of Radio Altimeters, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-4, pp. 24-29, March, 1957. Ridenour, L. N.: "Radar Systems Engineering," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 1, sec. 3.10, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947. White, W. D.: Circular Polarization Cuts Rain Clutter, Electronics, vol. 27, pp. 158-160, March,
vol. 25, pp.
:
1954.
42. Offutt,
43.
W. B. A Review of Circular Polarization as a Means of Precipitation Clutter Suppression and Examples, Proc. Natl. Electronics Conf. (Chicago), vol. 1, pp. 94-100, 1955. McFee, R., and T. M. Maher: Effect of Surface Reflections on Rain Cancellation of Circularly
:
Polarized Radars,
44.
50 IRE 24.SI, Proc. IRE, vol. 38, pp. 1264-1268, November, 1950. 45. Panasiewicz, J. J.: Enhancement of Aircraft Radar Return by Use of Airborne Reflectors and Circular Polarization, IRE Conv. Record, vol. 4, pt. 8, pp. 89-96, 1956. 46. Ligda, M. G. H.: The Radar Observation of Lightning, /. Atmospheric and Terrestrial Phys., vol. 9, pp. 329-346, 1956. 47. Crandell, P. A.: Turnstile Polarizer for Rain Cancellation, IRE Trans., vol. MTT-3, 10-15
IRE Trans., vol. AP-7, pp. 199-201, April, 1959. IRE Standards on Wave Propagation: Definitions of Terms, 1950, Standard No.
pp
January, 1955. 48. Meyer, M. A., and H. B. Goldberg: Applications of the Turnstile Junction, MTT-3, pp. 40-45, December, 1955.
49.
IRE
Trans., vol
Electronics, vol. 33, no. 40, pp. 38-39, Sept. 30, 1960. G.: A Meteorological Study of Radar Angels, U.S.A. F. Cambridge Research Center Geophys. Research Papers, no. 52, July, 1956, AFCRC-TR-56-21 1, 98752. Contains a summary of previous work and an extensive bibliography. 51. Plank, V.G.: Atmospheric Angels Mimic Radar Echoes, Electronics, vol. 31, no. 11 pp 140-144
50. Plank, V.
Weather Radar Net Nears Completion,
AD
Mar.
14, 1958.
in
rr
52.
Crawford, A. B.: Radar Reflections

April, 1949.
the
Lower Atmosphere,
Proc.
IRE
'
vol
53
'
B n h
in/4 1 I
2 04 20 9 April, 1956 p D 204-209, pp.
AnH^Q
54
^ ^^ ^^
\/
Dl~l
n-j_
Ed,0CS
r-_i
^
f
37 pp rr 404-405
'
BMs
.
,nSeC(S
ScL
Mo ""^ l
Mi,
VZ^tiZSSiSSZ. ?
S; SSSSSSt
T " s'"
"
" "
,
82,

55.
569
56.
57.
and N. R. Phelp: "Ring Angels" over South-East England, Nature (London), vol. 183, pp. 1759-1760, June 20, 1959. Atlas, D.: Meteorological "Angel" Echoes, J. Meteorol., vol. 16, pp. 6-11, February, 1959. Eastwood, E., G. A. Jsted, and G. C. Rider: "Ring Angels" and the Roosting Movements of
Eastwood,
E., J.
D.
Bell,
Nature (London), vol. 186, pp. 112-114, Apr. 9, 1960. L., and G. E. Uhlenbeck (eds.): "Threshold Signals," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 24, chap. 12, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950. 59. Brick, D. B., and J. Galejs: Radar Interference and Its Reduction, Sylvania Technologist, vol. 11, no. 3, pp. 96-108, July, 1958. 60. Chase, K. H., and J. L. Pierzga: Reducing Mutual Radar lrtterference,.E/ectrowcs, vol. 32, no. 28,
Starlings,
58.
Lawson,
J.
61. Ellis,
62.
63.
64.
65.
pp. 39-43, July 10, 1959. R. E., and W. C. Rohlman: Amplitude-modulated Video Integrator, IRE Natl. Conv. Record, vol. 7, pt. 5, pp. 263-271, 1959. Noise Silencing I.F. Circuit for Superheterodyne Receivers, QST, vol. 20, p. 11, Lamb, J. J.: February, 1936. Kaden, H.: The Compensation of Interference in Carrier-frequency Receivers by Opposition Cancellation of a Parallel Receiver, Frequenz, vol. 10, pp. 76-87, March, 1956. Campbell, R. D.: Radar Interference to Microwave Communication Services, Trans. AIEE, Communs. and Electronics, November, 1958. Robbins, R. L. Radar Interference with Microwave Communications, Bell Labs. Record, vol. 38,
66. 67.
68. 69.
pp. 142-145, April, 1960. Klass, J.: Avionics Fights Its Own Silent War, Aviation Week, vol. 69, Nov. 18, 1957. Klass, J. Avionic War Aims at Deceit, Confusion, Aviation Week, vol. 69, Nov. 25, 1957. Holahan, J.: Tools and Techniques of Electronics Warfare, Space/ Aeronautics, vol. 33, pp. 126-132, April, 1960. vs in Search Radar, Space/ Aeronautics, vol. 33, pp. 134-137, April, Dax, P. R.:
:
ECM
ECCM
1960.
70.
Simpson, M.: Counter-countermeasures
Good Design Can
Beat the
ECM
Threat, Space/Aero-
nautics, vol. 33, pp. 138-142, April, 1960. 71. Tiberio, U.: The Reduced Range in a Radar Subjected to
72.
an External Noise Generator, Proc. IRE, vol. 42, pp. 1791-1798, December, 1954. Hanford, R. W. Radar Testing for a Countermeasures Environment, Proc. Natl. Aeronaut.
:
Electronics Conf. (Dayton, Ohio), pp. 19-31, 1959. 73. Keller, J. B.: Backscattering from a Finite Cone, IRE Trans., vol. AP-8, p. 182,
74.
March, 1960.
1,
Ridenour, L. N.: "Radar System Engineering,"

sec. 3.7,
MIT
Radiation Laboratory Series, vol.
Inc.,
New
York, 1947.
Absorbers for Microwave Radiation, IRE Trans., vol. AP-4, pp. 385-392, July, 1956. 76. Hiatt, R. E.,"K. M. Siegel, and H. Weil: Forward Scattering by Coated Objects Illuminated by Short Wavelength Radar, Proc. IRE, vol. 48, pp. 1630-1635, September, 1960. 77. Hiatt, R. E., K. M. Siegel, and H. Weil The Ineffectiveness of Absorbing Coatings on Conducting Objects Illuminated by Long Wavelength Radar, Proc. IRE, vol. 48, pp. 1636-1642, September,
75. Severin, H.: Nonreflecting
:
1960.
78. Siebert,
79. Nilsson,
W. M. Some Applications of Detection Theory to Radar, IRE Natl.

:
Conv. Record, vol.
6,
pt. 4, pp. 5-14, 1958.
N.
J.
An
Conv. Record, vol.
Application of the Theory of 7, pt. 4, pp. 130-140, 1959.
Games
to
Radar Reception Problems, IRE Natl.
13
SYSTEMS ENGINEERING AND DESIGN
13.1.
Systems Engineering 13
objective.
A system may be defined as a group of interdependent elements united by a common A radar is a system in that consists of a number of elements (antenna,
it
transmitter, receiver, data processor,
and
display)
whose common objective
is
the
detection and location of targets by electromagnetic means.
An engineer is
to serve
one
who
applies the principles of science toward
making new devices
some useful purpose.
A systems engineer is one whose new devices are systems

Systems engineering requires the faculty of envisaging a
in the sense defined above.
problem from a general rather than a specialized point of view. It is characterized as being oriented toward satisfying the needs of a customer by the application of science and technology. The scientist is generally interested in science primarily for its own
is interested in science primarily as it can be applied to solving the customer's problems. prescription for accomplishing systems engineering cannot be given any more than one can be given for "research" or for "development." These are abstract terms and are difficult to make specific. Nevertheless, one can categorize the broad functions performed by a systems engineer in accomplishing the task of providing the customer with the optimum system. The functions usually classed as systems engineering may be divided into six parts. First, the problem must be defined and the objective desired by the customer clearly understood. The problem might be initiated by either the customer or the engineer. Generally, however, the customer knows only the end result he wishes to achieve, and the systems engineer must act as the bridge between customer and technology. The systems engineer and the customer together arrive at a set of requirements the system must meet. The engineer must understand both the customer's needs and the state of technology in order to obtain a reasonable solution of the customer's problem. When the specified objective is impractical, the engineer suggests revisions in the customer's objectives in order to achieve a compromise solution with the means available. In many instances, the customer is not even aware that he has a problem that could be solved by the systems engineer. (This condition has been referred to by a colleague as the "don't-know-squared" problem; that is, they don't know they don't know.) Therefore the systems engineer, acting on his own accord, might propose a new system to be developed after performing the equivalent of market research to determine wherein lie the most fruitful areas for development. The systems engineer, with his well-defined problem, must then find a customer. An idea for a system might also originate from the research laboratory. new technique or a new component may permit the development of systems previously not considered possible. The systems engineer is especially dependent on the results of techniques and components specialists, for it is from these sources that the building blocks are obtained for new systems. No matter how the problem originates, it is the customer (the one who pays the bill) who ultimately determines the constraints and the ground rules under which the systems engineer must operate.
sake, but the engineer
570
Sec. 13.2]
Systems Engineering and Design
571
Once the problem is defined, the second step in evolving a system is the examination Each possibility is carefully studied of all possible approaches to obtaining a solution and analyzed to determine whether it can satisfy the desired requirements. The various proposed solutions are evaluated on a relative basis. They might make use of standard techniques with off-the-shelf components, or new developments might be indicated. The third step is the selection of the optimum system, that one which most nearly approaches the ideal, taking account of any physical, economic, or technical circum.
Mathematical analysis may sometimes be stances imposed by nature or the customer. of help in determining the best system approach. In many cases, however, mathematical analysis is limited, especially if the problem is of too complex a nature or if the
large part of the inputs needed for a mathematical solution are too ill defined. decision process must sometimes be based on the systems engineer's experience and personal judgment. This is probably true not only o f systems engineering, but of most
engineering.
The
ing
all
first
possible solutions,
(1) defining the problem, (2) examinthree phases of engineering a system and (3) selecting the optimum are sometimes classified as
systems analysis.
A certain amount of system design must take place when the various alternatives are examined and the optimum system is selected. Most of the design in these stages is of a preliminary nature aimed at establishing relative feasibility, the design being specified mostly by the functional block diagram. Once the optimum system has been selected, a more detailed design study must be made and the block diagram elaborated upon and made more complete. This is the fourth step. The fifth step is the actual development of the equipment, often the most costly in both time and money. The sixth step is the testing and evaluation to determine whether the system meets the objectives desired by the customer. The systems engineer creates a new and useful system in a manner analogous to the way a circuit designer, for example, creates a new and useful circuit. Both have certain "building blocks" available with which to construct their respective devices. The
circuit designer has as his building blocks tubes, transistors, tunnel diodes, resistors,
and so on, which are supplied by the component engineer. Using a combination of mathematical analysis, experimentation, and experience, the circuit designer develops his circuits. The systems engineer's "building blocks" are the antennas, He also transmitters, amplifiers, etc., which must be supplied by specialist engineers. uses mathematical analysis, experimentation, and experience to evolve his system.
capacitors,
that the circuit designer can often design and develop his circuit except for the supply of component parts. But the systems help without outside engineer must often solicit help from other fields of engineering, science, and mathematics in order to achieve his end prod uct. Systems engineering is seldom an individual
basic difference
is
effort.
It
involves too
many
disciplines to permit
one person to be expert
in all.
13.2.
Radar Parameter Selection
of the parameters such which describe the radar. etc., noise figure, receiver gain, antenna power, transmitter as good basis for determining the radar parameters is the range equation of Chap. 2. Although many of the radar parameters appearing in the range equation may be selected in a prescribed manner, some cannot be selected independently of others
An important part of radar system design is the specification
without arbitrary decisions being made by the systems engineer. For example, in the particular example of radar design in the next section, it is shown that the frequency, average power, and antenna size cannot be selected independently. After a choice of the one of these parameters is made, the values of the other two are determined by his best use must engineer systems the For these decisions constraints of the problem.
572
[Sec. 13.3
judgment, basing his choice on his accumulated experience and "common sense." It is very seldom that two radar systems engineers, acting independently of one another, arrive at identical designs since their experiences and backgrounds are not the same. There is no "standard" technique for radar design. One possible method for making a start is to determine the choice of frequency. The frequency does not appear explicitly in the fundamental form of the radar equation [Eq. (2.1)]. However, it does enter implicitly in almost every radar parameter. Frequency also affects the character of the propagation path and the radar environment. Some radar parameters are more favorable at the lower frequencies (e.g., weather effects, ability to achieve large power, atmospheric attenuation); others are more readily obtained at the higher frequencies (e.g., narrow antenna beamwidths, freedom from cosmic noise); while still others are relatively independent of frequency (receiver bandwidth, pulse repetition frequency, signal-to-noise ratio). The selection of the optimum frequency is a compromise between the several frequency-dependent parameters. A possible criterion for selecting the radar parameters is the minimization of cost. Cost is one of the most important aspects of any engineering endeavor. In many cases of radar analysis, the product Pa, v A e (average transmitted power times antenna aperture) is found from the radar equation. (An example is given in the next section.) The further selection of P& v and A e may be made on the basis of minimizing cost. For example, the cost of a radar may be written, in its barest essentials, as
C=
where k x k 2
,
Ar
Pav + k2 A + C3
e
(13.1a)
= per-unit =
costs
of transmitter power
and antenna aperture
size,
respectively
C3 =
Letting Pavê
cost of all other parts of radar
K> where Kis found from the radar equation, (13.1a) becomes
C=
fc
P. v
+^+C
J
(13.16).
av
Differentiating Eq. (13.16) with respect to
Pav
and
k2 K
J
setting the result equal to zero yields
dC
7p~ wfav
The average power which minimizes
kl
~7^ ==0
av
is
(132)
the cost
(Fav)mln=
\~J
(13.3)
Other criteria might be used instead of minimum cost. The parameters could have been selected to minimize development time or to maximize the likelihood of success.
13.3.
Example
Aircraft-surveillance
Radar
Three examples of radar system design will be briefly discussed in this and the next two sections in order to illustrate some of the principles involved. A complete radar system design would include a detailed description of the radar parameters and con-
and perhaps a parts list. This degree of completeness cannot be attempted in a book of limited scope. Instead, the examples will be primarily concerned with the selection of the major radar parameters. The present section describes a hypothetical ground-based radar for the surveillance of aircraft and illustrates how a set of radar parameters might be evolved to satisfy a particular objective. As a second example, the ASDE (airport surface detection equipment) radar
figuration, as well as circuit diagrams
Sec. 13.3]
is

This
is
573
an actual radar in operational use at many of the an interesting example of a radar designed with a specific application in mind, that of obtaining good resolution over a short range. The third example, a weather-avoidance radar, used by aircraft to warn of dangerous or uncomfortable weather conditions, is discussed in Sec. 13.5. An important consideration of radar systems design is the application for which it is intended. A radar is, for the most part, a special-purpose device. Its design is optimized for one specific application and can seldom be used effectively for a different purpose. To cite an extreme example, a ballistic-missile-detection radar would not be appropriate as a radar speedometer for autos. Also, one would not expect an aircraft weather-avoidance radar to offer much advantage as a collision-avoidance radar. Since radar design can be quite sensitive to the intended application, an apparently minor change in the system requirements might result in a major change in the system philosophy and in the radar parameters. The radar in this section is assumed to be a fixed, ground-based installation. Its purpose is to detect the presence and determine the location of atmospheric-breathing aircraft at the longest practical ranges. A surveillance radar of this type might be used (This example is for illustrative to monitor aircraft as an aid in air-traffic control. purposes only. It is not claimed to be the best possible solution, nor is it the only
described in Sec. 13.4.
country's larger airports.
It is
solution.)
in detail in
The selection of the radar system parameters is based on the range equation described Chap. 2. The form of the range equation used for the present discussion is
PwGtAeOnElri) exp
.
(2tx.R ma x )
,
Eq. (2.58), repeated below:
R*
where
i? max
(4 7r) /cT
F n B n r/r(S/iV) 1 Ls
(2.58)
.
Pav
t
= maximum radar range, m = average transmitter power, watts G = gain of transmitting antenna A = effective aperture of receiving antenna, m a radar cross section of target, m n = number of pulses received by radar as antenna scans through an angle
2
e
equal to half-power beamwidth
= efficiency associated with integration of n pulses a = attenuation coefficient of propagation media, m^ k = Boltzmann's constant T = standard temperature, 290K Fn = receiver noise figure B n = receiver noise bandwidth, cps t = pulse width, sec f pulse repetition frequency, cps (S\N\ = signal-to-noise ratio required at receiver if detection
Ei(n)
1
were based on a
single hit
system loss factors not specifically included in other parameters Ls Certain of these parameters are determined by the requirements or objectives desired by the customer; others are determined in a logical manner by the radar systems engineer; while others are arbitrary and may be selected according to the engineer's best judgment. The frequency does not enter explicitly in this form of the radar equation. As indicated in the previous section, it does not mean that the frequency has no effect on radar performance. Frequency enters implicitly through most of the parameters
appearing in the equation.
The
specific application for
which the radar
is
to be designed determines to a large
574
[Sec.
13.3
extent (1) the value of the cross section a to be used in Eq. (2.58); (2) the accuracy with which the target coordinates should be measured (measurement accuracy depends, in part, on the bandwidth B n pulse width t, and the antenna dimensions in wavelengths)
,
of detection and the average time between false alarms (which specifies the signal-to-noise ratio) and (4) the data rate, or time Ts between observations of the same target. These inputs to radar design are determined cooperatively by the
(3) the probability
;
systems engineer and the customer. The remaining parameters are selected by the radar systems engineer in a logical manner whenever possible, using some suitable criterion such as the minimization of the total cost, the minimization of development When the system is too complex time, or the maximization of the likelihood of success. for logical selection of the radar parameters, when the criteria are not too clear, or when the inputs needed for analytical system design are uncertain, the systems engineer must arrive at the design based on his experience and engineering judgment. The selection of a reasonable set of parameters for a ground-based surveillance radar The parameters that will be enumerated will be described in a qualitative manner. first are those derived from the customer's requirements. In this hypothetical example, we must take the part of the customer as well as the radar systems engineer. For this reason, the parameters 1 to 6, representing the inputs usually supplied by the customer, will be selected somewhat arbitrarily. 1 Target Cross Section a. Several methods were indicated in Sec. 2.8 for properly taking account of the statistical nature of the radar cross section of realistic (complex) targets. The simplest method, but not necessarily the best, is to use a minimum value of the cross section, that is, the value of cross section which is exceeded some specified (large) percentage of the time. This procedure will be adopted here for convenience. Its use results in a conservative system one which is overdesigned. A minimum 2 cross section of 5 is assumed for the target, which might be representative of a medium-size jet aircraft viewed at or near the nose-on position. Propeller aircraft and large jet aircraft usually present larger cross sections. The probability of detecting a target of 5 2 cross 2. Detection Performance. section at maximum range on a single scan (blip-scan ratio) is taken to be 0.90, and the average time between false alarms which will be tolerated is assumed to be equal to 10 times the scan interval 7"s 3. Resolution. It is assumed that the radar must be able to resolve two targets if they are farther than | mile apart in range. Good angular resolution is not as easy to achieve with radar as is good range resolution. For example, if it were desired to resolve in angle two targets J mile apart at a range of 200 nautical miles, the resolution would have to be about 0.14. Although angular resolution of this order is possible with longrange search radar, it is not the general rule. Therefore angular resolution is usually sacrificed in radar design (unless one is willing to pay for the large antennas needed). In the present example, a beamwidth of 2 will be arbitrarily assumed. This could be altered if in the course of the design it is found that a different value is indicated. The angular resolution enters in the selection of the antenna beamwidth. The beamwidth is in turn dependent upon the hits per scan required, the scan time, and the pulse repetition frequency, as well as the antenna gain. Although it will not be considered in this example, the question of resolution and accuracy should be analyzed in terms of the ambiguity diagram described in Sec. 10.8. 4. Scan Time Ts The scan time (or frame time) is the time between radar observations of a particular target. In this example, the scan time is the same as the antenna rotation period (reciprocal of the antenna rotation rate). If the antenna rotates too
received on each scan from a particular target may be inprovide adequate MTI performance (Sec. 4.3). Also, reduced angularmeasurement accuracy would result (Sec. 10.7). On the other hand, if the rotation rate
fast,
the
number of pulses
sufficient to
Sec. 13.3]
575
were too slow, information about the position of a rapidly moving target might not be obtained at frequent enough intervals. An antenna rotation rate of 5 rpm, corresponding to a scan time of 12 sec, is a commonly used value for this type of radar application and will be assumed here. In 12 sees, a target of 600 knots velocity moves a distance of 2 nautical miles. The ideal coverage for an aircraft-surveillance radar would be the 5. Coverage. complete hemisphere whose center is the radar. However, complete hemispherical coverage is not always necessary in practice, nor is it economical to achieve. Consequently, in this example, the top portion of the hemisphere is excluded as not being essential and the elevation coverage is made to extend from the horizon to a maximum of 45. Complete azimuthal coverage of 360 is assumed. The range of a ground-based radar is limited in practice 6. Maximum Range R m axIf all the targets of interest are assumed to targets above the radar horizon (Sec. 1 1.6). to lie below an altitude of 60,000 ft, Eq. (1 1.14) indicates that the maximum radar range need be no greater than 300 nautical miles. The pulse repetition frequency corresponding to a 7. Pulse Repetition Frequency f r maximum unambiguous radar range of 300 nautical miles is approximately 270 cps In practice, however, some time must be allowed for the sweep circuits in [Eq. (1.2)]. For this reason, a lower the receiver display to recover before starting the next sweep. value of pulse repetition frequency, 250 cps, is assumed. The number of hits (echo pulses) received from a particular 8. Hits per Scan n. 6 Bfr /6(o m where n B = n is target by a scanning radar was given by Eq. (2.30) as n B the number of hits received as the antenna scans through the half-power beamwidth repetition frequency, and m m is the rotation rate of the antenna beam 6 B ,f r is the pulse The parameters B ,fr and co m may each in turn be deterin revolutions per minute. mined by some condition other than the required number of hits. For example, the rotation rate was selected as 5 rpm in order to achieve a certain minimum time between radar observations. The pulse repetition frequency was determined by the maximum unambiguous range. The beamwidth (here assumed to be the azimuthal beamwidth) was determined by the angular-measurement accuracy or by the resolution desired. Therefore the selection of these three predetermines the choice of the number of hits received from the target. These parameters must be such that at least one hit is received from each target as the antenna scans by. In fact, more than one hit must usually be received in a practical radar since a single hit per scan can result in considerable beam-shape loss (Sec. 2.12). An even more important consideration for requiring a large number of pulses per scan is that of moving-target-indication (MT1) performance. The ability of an MTI radar to discriminate between moving targets and fixed ground clutter is directly
.
number of hits per scan (Sec. 4.3). The more hits received, the better will = 250 cps, n = 2, and Using the parameters f be the clutter cancellation. r 6.7. The clutter attenua1 = computed to be per scan is number of hits 5 rpm, the Q> m In many cases a clutter attenuation tion in this case is approximately 23 db (Fig. 4.40). of 20 db is considered marginal. If 30-db attenuation were desired, the number of hits per scan would have to be 37, while 1 1 8 hits are required for 40 db. Therefore, if better MTI performance is necessary, a compromise has to be made in the selection of those parameters which determine the hits per scan unless step scanning or other techniques
related to the
are used to improve the clutter attenuation. Another possible reason for desiring a larger number of pulses per target is to improve the detection probability. The more pulses received from a particular target, the more The additional hits may be obtained by signal energy will be available for processing. increasing the pulse repetition frequency (at the cost of additional transmitter power)
observations). or by decreasing the rotation rate (resulting in longer time between radar
576
[Sec.
13.3
Increasing the
the antenna beamwidth offers no over-all improvement in detection capability even if all the pulses are processed without loss since an increase in the beamwidth results in a corresponding decrease in the
number of hits by increasing
antenna gain. The product of n times G thus remains independent of the value of 6 B in the radar equation. Other undesirable consequences of increasing dB are decreased signal-to-noise ratio because of the smaller effective area (assuming A maintained constant) and a reduction of angular accuracy. The number of hits that can be profitably utilized in a radar receiver is limited by the postdetection-integration loss (Sec. 2.6). If all the echo energy from the target could be processed in an optimum manner, there would be no limit to the number of pulses, but in general, this is seldom practical. 9. Integration Efficiency E (n). The integration of the 16.7 pulses available from the t radar of this example is assumed to be performed in the video portion of the receiver
t
(postdetection). The integration efficiency E( (n) for ideal postdetection integration is given by Fig. 2.8a as 0.71 when the number of pulses to be processed is approximately 1 7, provided all pulses are of equal amplitude. The effective number of pulses processed is therefore nE (n) 16.7 x 0.71 11.8. If the integration is performed by the t
eye-brain combination of a radar operator viewing a
CRT
display, the efficiency
is
taken to be equal to l/Vn, or 0.245, resulting in an effective number of pulses of 4.1. In the present example, the integration efficiency corresponding to the ideal postdetection integrator is assumed, implying that the radar employs some form of automatic processor capable of performing the required integration (Sees. 9.8 and 9.9). In practice, the pulses to be integrated will not be of equal amplitude because of the rounded shape of the antenna beam. This is taken into account by the beam-shape loss (Sec. 2.12), here combined with other system losses in the factor L s 10. Transmitted Waveform. The transmitted signal must be of sufficient energy to provide an echo signal that can be detected with the specified probability of detection and the desired false-alarm time (Sec. 2.5). The shape of the transmitted pulse is of no importance to detection if a matched filter is utilized on reception (Sec. 9.2). However, the shape of the pulse is of importance for range and doppler- velocity measurements! The accuracy of the range measurement will depend upon the spectral distribution of the waveform (Sec. 10.5), while the doppler velocity will depend upon the duration of the
.
waveform. For simplicity, a rectangular-pulse waveform will be assumed. pulse 6 ^sec in duration will resolve two targets of equal cross section if they are separated \ mile in range. Closer targets can be resolved if the signal-to-noise ratios are
sufficiently high. If the accuracy of a simple rectangular pulse were not sufficient, improvement could be had by transmitting a more complicated waveform as described in Sees. 10.8 and 10.9. The theoretical range- and doppler-velocity-measurement errors are given by Eqs. (10.32) and (10.55), respectively. 11. Receiver Bandwidth B If the IF passband characteristic is approximately n Gaussian in shape and if the waveform is a rectangular pulse, Table 9. 1 indicates that the reduction in signal-to-noise ratio compared with that of a matched filter is approximately 1 db when the product of the bandwidth times the pulse width is 0. 72. Therefore if the pulse width is 6 ^sec, the half-power bandwidth is 1 20 kc. Since the noise bandwidth of a Gaussian-shaped filter is 1.06 that of the half-power bandwidth the product of5ris0.76, and = 127 kc. 12. Signal-to-Noise Ratio. The signal-to-noise ratio required at the receiver on a single-pulse basis is found from Fig. 2.7. The average false-alarm time is 120 sec in this example (10 times the scan interval). The probability of false alarm [Eq. (2 25)1 is therefore:(B jy-i = 1. 27 X 10* x 120)- = ( 6.5 x 10-. This value, combined whha probability of detection of 0.90, requires that the signal-to-noise ratio on a single-hit basis be about 14 db, or a ratio of 25. Taking into account integration loss, the
.
'
Sec. 13.3]
577
required signal-to-noise ratio of an individual pulse

integrated
is
when
16.7 pulses are postdetection-
25/(16.7
0.71)
=
.
2.11.
Receiver Noise Figure Fn This parameter depends upon the type of receiver front 1 3 end employed and, to a lesser extent, upon the frequency (Fig. 8.11). A parametric amplifier is assumed primarily for the reasons outlined in Sec. 8.7. Although the precise value of the noise figure cannot be determined until the frequency is specified, the variaA value of 1.5 db is selected for tion is not a rapid one over most of the radar band. purposes of computation. If the final selection of the radar frequency were found to yield a significantly different value from that assumed, the new value of noise figure could be reinserted into the radar equation and the remaining parameters reevaluated. The attenuation of radar waves by the atmosphere is of signifi14. Attenuation a. For primarily design at the upper end of the radar frequency spectrum. cance to radar
If the analysis with this aspresent purposes, the attenuation is assumed negligible. sumption were to result in a choice of frequency at which attenuation is important, the analysis would have to be repeated, taking this into account. The antenna gain is determined by the azimuth and elevation 1 5. Antenna Gain G beamwidths. In this example it is not dependent upon the choice of frequency, but, as
.
be seen later, the effective receiving aperture is a function of the operating frequency. The azimuth beamwidth was chosen previously to be 2. The elevation beamwidth is (somewhat arbitrarily) selected to be 5 and shaped according to a cosecantsquared pattern from 5 to 45 elevation. The directive gain of a 2 by 5 beam is approximately 36 db [Eq. (7.56)]. If an antenna efficiency of 0.6 is assumed, the power gain is approximately 34 db [Eq. (7.7)]. The gain is further reduced by the cosecantshall
squared shaping to a value of 31 .2 db [Eq. (7.59)]. A value of 10 db (L s 10) is assumed for system losses (Sec. 16. System Losses L s losses in the RF transmission lines and other microwave comincludes This 2.12). ponents, beam-shape loss, loss due to nonideal receiver, field degradation, and the like. A loss of 10 db is a nominal value selected for purposes of the present example. In an actual radar design, the systems engineer should examine carefully the configuration of the proposed radar so as to recognize all sources of loss and inefficiency. The prediction of the radar range performance could be in error by as much as 2 1 if system
.
losses
were neglected. Thus far all the parameters of 17. Average Power Times Antenna Aperture P&v A e the radar equation have been enumerated except the average power of the transmitter and the effective antenna aperture. The product of the two is a constant and is independent of the frequency, to a first approximation. Solving the radar equation (2.58) for Pn V A e and substituting the parameters enumerated above yields a value of approxiThe effective aperture is a function of frequency and of the mately 52 X 10 3 watt-m 2 average power, the frequency, or the aperture must be either the gain [Eq. (7.8)]. If chosen on the basis of some other criterion in this particular example, the remaining two are automatically specified. All three parameters might be constrained to certain ranges of values for some reason and may further restrict the selection of transmitter power and antenna aperture. For instance, the average power developed by the transmitter may be limited for practical reasons (such as thermal dissipation) to some specified maximum value; or else the peak power may be limited by RF breakdown, which in turn can limit the average power, assuming the duty cycle remains constant. There might also be a limitation imposed by the physical size of the antenna and thereCertain frequency bands might be of more fore a limitation on the effective aperture. or less trouble from propagacharacteristics, MTI better because of others than interest tion and weather effects, or because of the availability of components. Listed below are the average power and the antenna aperture for several possible 2 3 radar frequencies if the product Pav A e equals the value 52 x 10 watt-m
. . .
578
[Sec.
13.3
Frequency,
Mc
Effective aperture,
Average power,
1.1
kw
Approximate width of antenna,

21.6
8.1
450
1,200 3,000
46.5
6.55 1.045
8.0
50
3.25
One may conclude from this listing that the lower frequencies are more suited for meeting the requirements of this particular surveillance radar. An average transmitter power of 1.1 kw at a frequency of 450 Mc is a relatively modest requirement for a ground-based radar. The antenna size is 21 .6 m in width (about 70 ft), and the height is about 8.7 An antenna of this size would not be considered unusual at UHF (28 ft). if the installation were fixed. If, for some reason, the antenna at a radar frequency of 450 Mc is too large, a smaller size may be employed by operating at a higher frequency and by increasing the average power to compensate for the reduced area. However, a trade between average power and the antenna aperture is not a profitable one if an increase in frequency is involved. For constant antenna gain, the power must increase as the square of the frequency. This is unfortunate since the ability to generate RF power also decreases as the frequency increases. The 50 kw of average power required at 3,000 Mc is relatively large for this frequency band. Furthermore, the antenna size is perhaps a bit too modest (3.25 wide, or 10.6 ft). Therefore the lower frequency range seems to offer a more balanced choice of parameters. The lower frequencies have the further advantage of providing better MTI performance and freedom from weather effects. The choice of average power (and the choice of antenna aperture and frequency) might also have been made on a slightly more quantitative basis by using the minimumcost criterion as described in Sec. 13.2. Equation (13.3) gives the average power in
watts for
minimum
cost as
("av)n
m
2
. ,
(13.3)
where k2
&!
= per-unit cost of antenna aperture, dollars/m = per-unit cost of power, dollars/watt K = Pm A watt-m
2
e,
For purposes of calculation, let k = $5 per watt and k 2 = $200 per square meter. (For simplicity it is assumed that these costs are independent of the frequency.) In the present example we have K = 52 X 10 3 watt-m 2 Substitution into Eq. (1 3.3) gives an average power of about 1 .44 kw. The effective antenna aperture is 36 m 2 and with a 2 beamwidth, the frequency is about 500 Mc. This result is consistent with the qualitative arguments presented above for choosing the UHF band as the optimum frequency
region.
The preceding derivation of radar parameters summarizes some of the many factors entering in radar design. In conducting a thorough design, more attention should be given to the optimization of the several parameters which are based on conflicting requirements. more thorough study would have also included a diagram showing the predicted coverage against typical targets. External noise, attenuation, propagation,
rain clutter,
to be given
and
MTI performance are but a few of the factors the effects of which ought
detailed consideration.
more
This section was concerned with outlining the selection of a suitable set of radar parameters. No consideration was given to the optimum configuration of the subsystems
and components that might constitute such a radar.
Equipment considerations
will
Sec. 13.4]
579
Thus radar system design consists in obtaining an approximate solution and then continually refinOnly the initial step was taken here. ing it until the optimum is reached. It was mentioned previously in this section that the system design might be sensitive For instance, suppose in the to the requirements dictated by the radar application. previous example that a beamwidth of 0.2 were deemed necessary instead of the 2 assumed. The antenna gain would increase by a factor of 10, but the hits per scan would decrease by the same factor, leaving the product of nG unchanged. The product ofP. lY A e would likewise remain unchanged except for the difference in integration However, a efficiency, which is small in the present example and can be ignored. reduction in the hits per scan to a value of only 1.7 reduces n to almost the minimum There must be at least one hit per scan in this system. The number of hits is value. greater than the minimum, but it is too small a number to permit any degree of MTI (Although many hits per scan are required to achieve satisfactory MTI capability. performance with the continuously rotating antenna assumed here, radars can be designed to achieve good MTI discrimination with but a few pulses or even a single pulse. A single pulse is satisfactory if it is sufficiently long and if the doppler velocity is large enough to permit a significant change in frequency over the duration of the pulse. These conditions are seldom met in aircraft-detection radars but may be satisfied in If more hits per scan are necessary in ballistic-missile and satellite-detection radars.)
certainly affect to a significant degree the selection of the radar parameters.
t
order to improve the

eters
MTI capability, some sacrifice or compromise in the other

The
hits
param-
per scan can be increased by increasing the pulse The rotation repetition frequency or by lowering the maximum unambiguous range. If no sacrirate could be slowed down if the time between observations is lengthened. fice in the scan time is to be permitted, additional radar beams might be added to mainFor example, the tain the scan time constant and increase the number of hits per scan.
must be made.
number of hits can be doubled without changing the scan time by halving the rotation Any number rate and adding a second radar whose beam is 1 80 to that of the original. of additional radar beams may be added in this manner. The additional beams can be implemented by placing two or more antennas on the same pedestal, by using a fixed
array antenna capable of 360 of azimuth coverage with the proper beam-forming networks, or by using multiple feeds and a single reflector or lens antenna.
13.4.
ASDE
4 6
important aspect of airport operation is the control of surface traffic. The controllers in the airport tower must be continually aware of aircraft taxiing to and from runways, aircraft parked on ramps, and traffic such as fuel trucks and service In a small airport with little traffic, the movement of aircraft and vehicles can vehicles. be readily controlled by visual observation from the tower. However, in a large airport with heavy traffic, visual surveillance of the entire airport may not be satisfactory, Some form of automatic sensing device must especially in darkness or poor visibility. be used to supply the airport controller with the necessary information concerning the position of ground traffic. This information might be obtained by pressure pads, magnetic induction loops, photocells, or other sensing devices located at strategic points along runways, taxiways, and ramps. 7 However, the most practical and economical method of obtaining information on the location of ground traffic is with radar. The radar known as ASDE (airport surface detection equipment) was developed It is designed to achieve good specifically for monitoring airport surface traffic. resolution in both range and azimuth and is characterized by short pulse width and an antenna size large in terms of wavelength. The ASDE radar has also been called the Its military version is designated AN/FPN-3 1 taxi radar. An example of the display produced by the ASDE radar at New York's Idlewild
An
580
[Sec.
13.4
Airport is shown in Fig. 13.1. This is a time exposure of a PPI display covering a dozen or more revolutions of the antenna. The dark strips are the runways. Dots at the edges of the runways are the runway lights and indicate the high resolution of the equipment. An aircraft can be seen landing near the bottom of the figure its successive images are due to its movement from scan to scan. Three other aircraft are shown
;
Fig. 13.1. PPI display of ldlewild Airport as seen by the and Airborne Instruments Laboratory.)
ASDE
radar.
(Courtesy
J.
E.
Woodward
holding at the intersection of the runways near the bottom of the display. The diameter of this display represents approximately 1 .5 miles. The resolution in range
is
10
ft,
and
azimuth 0.25, corresponding to approximately 10 ft at a range of 2,300 ft. The resolution permits the shape of aircraft to be displayed with sufficient detail to determine its heading and relative size. This resolution, coupled with a data rate of one complete scan per second, provides a very useful dynamic picture of the activity at the airport. ASDE radar can readily discern a target as small as a jeep and can resolve the jeep and its driver when he alights from the vehicle.
in
Sec. 13.4]
581
No radar reflections are obtained from the smooth surfaces of runways. They are rough ground. outlined on the PP1 by the reflections seen from vegetation and the normal runways. No Aircraft and other targets are seen against the dark background of the the side of a radar return is obtained when snow blankets the surface, but snowbanks on
plowed runway outline the runway
clearly.
The
ASDE radar operates at a frequency of 24 Gc.
The high microwave frequency
permits a narrow beamwidth with an antenna of reasonable size, consisting of a more or The azimuth half-power beamwidth less conventional reflector 12 ft wide by 4 ft high. is 1, with the underside of the beam is 0.25, and the elevation half-power beamwidth 25 below the horizon. shaped to give a modified cosecant-squared pattern extending mounted on a tower. is radar the when ground of the coverage This provides close-in at a height of 100 ft. mounted antenna with the achieved 200 ft is of range minimum A
Antenna sidelobes are 17 db.
The pulse width is 0.02 ,usec, corresponding to 10 ft of range. due to long-line effect is absent with so short a pulse (Sec. 6.2).
100 Mc is required for a pulse of this duration. Distributed amplifiers are used in both the IF and video stages to provide the necessary bandwidths. The IF amplifier requires 70 tubes the video, 30 tubes. As the ASDE radar is of relatively short range, a high pulse repetition frequency may value of 14,400 pps is employed, corresponding to a maximum unambigube used.
;
Magnetron pulling IF bandwidth of The video bandwidth is 50 Mc.
An
ous range of about 5.6 nautical miles. The antenna is rotated at a rate of 1 rps to give approximately 10 hits per scan. A magnetron driven by a hard-tube modulator delivers a peak power from 36 to 50 kw The receiver noise figure is 19 db. To properly display the at a duty cycle of 0.0003. output data of the ASDE without significant deterioration of the resolution, a highdefinition, 16-in.-diameter cathode-ray tube capable of resolving 1 ,000 lines per diameter The smallest dot discernible on this CRT is about 0.007 in. is used for the PP1 display. 2 in diameter, representing a target of 75 ft when the maximum displayed range is 5,600
ft.
Backscatter from heavy rain can be objectionable at the frequency of the ASDE radar. Therefore the antenna is designed for either linear or circular polarization. The choice between the two is remotely controlled by the operator. Circular polarization is normally used to eliminate echoes from heavy rain; linear polarization is used in clear weather. In order to rotate the antenna at a rate of 60 rpm in the presence of high winds, the
antenna
is
enclosed in an air-inflated, three-quarter-sphere radome, 17
ft in
diameter.
The radome not only reduces the power needed to drive the antenna, but it also eliminates tower vibration caused by wind buffeting.
provided by a standby transmitter which can be switched rapidly into Provision is made for measuring receiver noise figure, monitoring transmitter power, and observing the RF pulse envelope and RF spectrum. Another application of radar to airport traffic control is of a slightly different nature from the ASDE. In some types of traffic control, the airport is divided into "blocks," The presence of usually of such a size that one block will accommodate one aircraft. an aircraft in a block might be sensed by mechanical or electrical devices, as mentioned An aircraft crossing from one block to another can be at the beginning of the section. doppler radar beamed across the runway. 8 Any target moving detected with a along the runway and crossing the antenna beam will generate a doppler beat note. The radar used in this application is very similar to the highway-police radar speeddoppler technique has the advantage over mechanical or electrical ometer. The sensors in that it can detect aircraft above the runway, just before they "touch
Reliability
is
service as needed.
CW
CW
down."
582

Weather-avoidance Radar 914
[Sec.
13.5
13.5. Airborne
A radar in an aircraft can perform several functions to aid in navigation that cannot be performed as satisfactorily by other techniques. It can detect the presence of dangerous storm centers and high ground along the flight path. It can map the ground in all weather conditions, measure ground speed and drift, and, in conjunction with a suitable ground beacon, locate known points on the ground for navigational purposes.
Another possible application is for the detection of aircraft constituting a collision hazard. Although it is conceivable that a single general-purpose radar could be designed to perform all these functions, it is unlikely that it could perform any of
these functions as well as a radar specifically designed for a single purpose. The use of radar to warn the pilot of dangerous storms has proved to be an important and successful application of radar in commercial aircraft. Airborne weather
to aids the pilot in avoiding thunderstorm cells. single cloud, although often called a thunderstorm, usually masks several individual cells of activity. It is the thunderstorm cells, rather than the cloud itself, that the pilot must avoid.
aircraft since
it
radar properly used and interpreted minimizes passenger discomfort in turbulent weather, reduces delays in schedules, and decreases the likelihood of structural damage
is an aid to storm avoidance rather than storm penetration. Small isolated thunderstorms do not constitute a serious problem for the pilot since they can be circumnavigated without excessive additional flight time. However, when thunderstorms form in groups and lines to produce widespread banks of clouds, circumnavigation is frequently not practicable. It is in such instances that radar permits the pilot to fly through the clouds, avoiding centers of severe turbulence. Avoiding turbulence is an important consideration when navigating in bad weather. Rainfall, rather than turbulence, is the quantity directly measured by radar. However, there is a close correlation between turbulence and rain in a thunderstorm. The correlation is not related to the rate of rainfall but rather to the rainfall gradient, which may be defined as the rate of change of rainfall rate per unit distance. 13 The steeper the rainfall gradient, the greater the turbulence. The isoecho-contour circuit, described later in this section, permits the pilot to estimate the rainfall gradient and therefore the turbulence. Avoiding clouds with severe turbulence also reduces the likelihood of encountering severe hail which might damage the aircraft. The choice of radar frequency is an important consideration in weather radar design (Sec. 1 2.7). Too low a frequency results in poor system sensitivity since the radar cross section of rain decreases significantly with decreasing frequency. Too high a radar frequency is also to be avoided because of increased attenuation. The range of frequencies between C band (5.6 cm wavelength) and A' band (3.2 cm) seems to represent a suitable compromise. Airborne weather-avoidance radars are commercially available at both X and C bands. If the weather radars at and C bands employ antennas of the same size and have generally similar parameters, the appearance of storm cells displayed on the radar scope will be sharper with the Z-band radar. On the other hand, greater penetration in areas of high rainfall rates can be obtained with C-band radar. The increased resolution of the X-band system may be traded for smaller, lighter equipment, if desired, while retaining the angular resolution of the lower-frequency system employing a larger antenna. The C-band radar with its larger antenna might be more appropriate for commercial airlines, and the smaller Z-band radar for business and private aircraft. The optimum choice between the two frequency bands is not an obvious one. Initially, the suppliers of airborne weather radar concentrated their efforts at either C band or band. The antenna manufacturers were able to supply a single antenna unit and transmission line capable of operating at either band. Apparently either frequency band can be used, and manufacturers supply models at both frequencies.
Thus radar
Sec. 13.5]
583
Table 13.1 lists the parameters of a C-band and an X-band weather radar. These are meant to illustrate typical radar parameters and should not be considered unique. The weather-avoidance radar is mounted in the nose of the aircraft, behind a radome. The antenna generates a pencil-beam radiation pattern which searches a sector ahead of the aircraft. The antenna might be sector-scanned (back-and-forth motion over a
limited angular sector), or
it
might be continuously rotated over the 360 of coverage.

Airborne Weather-avoidance Radar Parameters
Table
13.1.
Characteristic
AVQ-10
RDR-1
Bendix
9,375
RCA
Frequency, nominal, Peak power, kw Pulse width, /issc
Mc
5,400 (C band) 75
1.8
(X band)
40
1.5
Antenna diameter, in Antenna beamwidth, deg Antenna scan rate, rpm

Receiver bandwidth,
400 22
7 15
1
400 22 or 30
3.8 or 2.9
15
1
Mc
125
119
Continuously rotating the antenna through the full 360 is sometimes easier to provide mechanically than sector scanning. The antenna, being mounted in the aircraft nose, cannot search behind the aircraft. Therefore the indicator displays only up to 120 to either side of the aircraft heading. In some designs the antenna can be tilted to examine weather at various altitudes or for terrain mapping. Stabilization of the antenna is sometimes provided to prevent loss of display during aircraft maneuvers. The pulse repetition frequency is synchronized to the a-c power frequency (400 cps) found on board aircraft. This corresponds to a maximum unambiguous range of about 200 nautical miles. The indicators in the radars listed in Table 13.1 display to a range of 1 50 nautical miles. Two important characteristics of any commercial airborne radar are that its cost should be reasonable and its weight low. Regions of intense rainfall gradients (and hence regions of turbulence) are displayed on the radar PPI indicator by the isoecho-contour circuit. When the intensity of the precipitation echo increases above a preset threshold level, indicating a region of high rainfall, the PPI display becomes black. Thus a rain cloud on the PPI will appear dark in regions where the rainfall is greater than the threshold. A comparison of the normal display and the isoecho-contour display is shown in Fig. 1 3.2. 12 The outer contour of the storm cloud is determined by the minimum discernible signal level. The inner contour outlining the dark hole within the cloud where rainfall is intense depends on the predetermined threshold, usually about 10 to 20 db above minimum discernible signal. The separation between the two contours is a measure of the rainfall gradient. The
less
the separation, the greater the gradient.
The isoecho-contour circuit is used because the limited dynamic range of intensitymodulated PPI displays permits little contrast in targets of different magnitudes.
Sensitivity time control (STC) must be used with the isoecho-contour display since the isoecho-contour technique depends on differences in signal amplitude. STC attempts to ensure that any measured differences in echo amplitude are due to differences in rainfall rate and not to differences in range. The airborne weather-avoidance radar can also provide a warning of high ground ahead of the aircraft. Figure 13.3 shows an aircraft flying over rugged terrain. The three scope displays correspond to three positions of the aircraft along its flight path.
584
[Sec.
13.5
The scopes are shown as off-centered PPIs, with the position of the aircraft at the bottom. The small circle near the bottom of the display is the altitude signal and represents the first echo received by the radar from the ground directly below the
aircraft.
A range circle,
indicated by the dashed lines in the displays of Fig. 13.3,
is
Fig. 13.2. Weather radar display, (Courtesy United Airlines.)
(a)
Normal
presentation; (b) isoecho-contour presentation.
established
on the scope corresponding

horizontal.
to the range
R =
c
<f>
minimum
distance the aircraft must clear the terrain
and
is
c
h c esc </>, where h c is the the angle the radar beam"

is
makes with the
The
circle defining the
range
called the safety circle.
Any
target echoes
which appear within
this circle, other
than the direct ground echo
Shadowed area behind
hills
Approximate PPI
presentations
Fig. 13.3. Safety-circle technique for avoiding high terrain.
(After Stride,'' J. Brit. IRE.)
shown near the origin, indicate the approach of high ground and warn the pilot to take avoidance action. A weather-avoidance radar could conceivably offer warning of potential collision with other aircraft. However, a conventional weather radar is not well suited for this task since it does not provide complete spherical coverage and means for recognizing a
collision course are not included.
Another function which might be performed by an airborne detection radar is ground mapping. By directing the beam downward, terrain features may be displayed.
Sec. 13.6]
585
Prominent features such as rivers and coast lines are recognizable and may be utilized as an aid to navigation. The radar also may be used in conjunction with a ground radar beacon system. The aircraft can determine its position relative to the ground beacon transponder from measurements made on the PPI display. Each beacon ground station is identified by the number and grouping of the pips on the scope. Although considerable information is available from the horizontal display of the weather picture normally presented by a weather-avoidance radar, additional information may be obtained by proper interpretation of a vertical scanning beam. An indication of the vertical extent of the precipitation echoes, their vertical growth, and the distribution of echo intensity might be obtained. With isoecho-contour circuitry, the pilot could ascertain whether the upper parts of the clouds have the sharp appearance
of "building clouds" or the weak, diffuse appearance of dissipating ones. Vertical scanning also permits the pilot to determine the appearance of the bright band (Sec. By flying above the 12.5) and therefore the altitude at which the temperature is 0C. altitude corresponding to the bright band, the pilot can be assured that ice will not form on his aircraft to any serious extent since the precipitation is already in the form of ice or snow.
13.6. Bistatic
Radarf
Throughout this book, it has been assumed that a common antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving, as shown in Fig. 1 3.4a. Such a radar is called monostotic. A bistatic radar is one in which the transmitting and receiving antennas are separated by a considerable distance (Fig. 13.4&). If many separated receivers are employed with one transmitter, the radar system is called muhistatic. Some of the characteristics, capabilities, and limitations of the bistatic radar will be described in this section and compared with the more usual monostatic radar. Any radar which employs separate antennas for transmitting and receiving might be called bistatic, but for purposes of this discussion a bistatic radar is assumed to be one in which the separation between transmitter and receiver is comparable with the target distance. For aircraft targets, the separations might be of the order of a few miles to as much as several hundred miles. For satellite targets the separation might be hundreds or even thousands of miles. A distinction is made between radars with closely spaced
antennas artd radars with widely spaced antennas because the former resemble the conventional monostatic radar more than the type of bistatic radar to be discussed here. Description. The bistatic radar is not a new concept. Its principle was known and demonstrated many years before the development of practical monostatic radar. In Sec. 1.5 it was mentioned that the first "radar" observations in both the United States transmitters and. receivers. and in Great Britain were made with separated These early radars were known as wave-interference equipments but were the same as what would now be called bistatic radar. Taylor and Young of the Naval Research Laboratory first demonstrated bistatic radar for the detection of ships in 1922. Their work was disclosed in a patent issued in 1934. 16 The early experiments with wave-interference (bistatic) radar led to the development of monostatic radar in the late 1930s in both this country and abroad. Further development was put aside after the demonstration of the more versatile monostatic-radar principle. Bistatic radar lay dormant for about fifteen years until it was "reinvented" in the early 1950s and received new interest. 17 Separating the transmitter and receiver in the bistatic radar results in considerably The different radar characteristics than those obtained with the monostatic radar.
CW
The
material in this section
first
appeared in a paper 15 published in the
Professional Group on Aerospace and Navigational Electronics of the Institute of Radio Engineers.
and
is
IRE Transactions of the included here with the permission
586
[Sec.
13.6
physical configuration of a bistatic radar is closer to that of a point-to-point microwave communications system than to the usual scanning monostatic radar. In fact, bistaticradar detection of aircraft with point-to-point communications systems has often been reported in the literature. 18,19 Perhaps the most common manifestation of the principle
of the bistatic radar
is
the rhythmic flickering observed in a

if
TV picture when an aircraft

Target
passes overhead, especially
the television receiver
is
tuned to a weak channel.
am
(a)
Target
cr^
Fig. 13.4. (a) Monostatic radar; (6) bistatic radar.
The inherent geometry of the
bistatic
radar
is
more
suited to a fixed (nonscanning)
fence coverage can be obtained most simply The fan-beam fence could be oriented at with fixed antennas generating fan beams. any elevation angle, but only the vertical, or near-vertical, fence will be considered here, In general, only targets which penetrate the fence coverage for the sake of convenience.
fencelike coverage as in Fig. 13.4*.
The
can be detected, except for the small percentage of targets just outside the limits of the The transmitting and receiving fence which are detected via the antenna sidelobes. beams might be made to scan provided they are synchronized in space. Whether the bistatic fence should be scanned or whether the same volume should be covered with For convenience, only fixed fixed beams depends upon the particular application.
bistatic radar is seen to be quite different from the hemispherical coverage of the monostatic radar. Fencelike coverage can also be obtained with the monostatic radar by operating with fixed, rather than scanning,
beams are considered here. The fencelike coverage of the
antennas. The radiated signal from the bistatic transmitter as shown in Fig. 13.46 arrives at the receiver via two separate paths, one being the direct path from transmitter to receiver,
Sec. 13.6]
587
the other being the scattered path which includes the target. The measurements which can be made at the bistatic receiver are 1. The total path length (D -\- D ), or transit time, of the scattered signal. r 2. The angle of arrival of the scattered signal. 3. The frequency of the direct and the scattered signals. These will be different if the target is in motion (doppler effect). knowledge of the transmitted signal is necessary at the receiver site if the maximum information is to be extracted from the scattered signal. The transmitted frequency is needed to determine the doppler frequency shift. A time or phase reference is also required if the total scattered path length (D t D r) is to be measured. The frequency reference can be obtained from the direct signal. The time reference also can be obtained from the direct signal provided the distance b between transmitter and receiver is known. If the separation between transmitter and receiver is sufficiently large, the direct signal will be highly attenuated by propagation losses and might be too weak to be detected at the receiver. (The signal scattered by the target will not be highly attenuated if the target lies above the radar line of sight, but the direct signal must overcome the losses due to its over-the-horizon path.) When the direct signal is not available at the receiver, its function may be performed by a stable clock or reference oscillator synchronized to the transmitter. It will be assumed, therefore, that a knowledge of the transmitted signal is always available at the receiver, whether from the direct signal or from a suitable reference clock. The bistatic radar can be operated with either a pulse modulation or CW, just as can a monostatic radar. The simplicity of or modulated has an advantage in the bistatic radar, not usually enjoyed by monostatic radar. radar requires considerable isolation between transmitter and receiver to prevent the transmitted signal from leaking into the receiver. Isolation is readily obtained in the bistatic radar because of the inherent separation between transmitter and receiver. Information Available from the Bistatic-radar Signal. Radar, whether bistatic or monostatic, is capable of determining (1 ) the presence of a target (of sufficient size) within the coverage of the radar, (2) the location of the target position in space, and (3) a component of velocity (doppler) relative to the radar. The method of locating the target position is similar in either radar. Both require the measurement of a distance and the angle of arrival in two orthogonal angular
t
CW
CW
A CW
coordinates.
total scattered path.
The distance measured by the bistatic radar is the sum S = D The sum D + D r locates the target somewhere on the
t
t
+D
r,
the
surface of
To
a prolate spheroidf whose two foci are at the location of the transmitter and receiver. further localize the target position the scattered-signal angle of arrival is required at the receiver. The intersection of the ray defined by the angle of arrival and the surface
of the prolate spheroid determines the position of the target in space. Applying the law of cosines to the geometry of Fig. 13.46 gives
D 2 = Dl+ Dl~2D r D
t
cos We
(13.4)
the angle of arrival measured in the plane of the fence, here assumed to be c vertical. The bistatic radar can measure y> e and S D, The separation b r between transmitter and receiver is assumed known. Equation (13.4) may be rewritten
xp
where
is
+D
- 2 SD 2(S D cos S D2 2(S - D cos

S2
Dl
cos y.
ip e )
y> e )
its
prolate spheroid
is
generated by rotating an ellipse about
major
axis.
588

.
[Sec.
13.6
The above equations locate the target in the plane of the angle ipe The location of the target in the third dimension is found from the measurement of the orthogonal angle coordinate y> a (not shown in Fig. 13.46). distance When the sum S the prolate t r approaches the base-line b
=D +D
spheroid degenerates into a straight line joining the two foci. Under these conditions, the location of the target position is indeterminate other than that it lies somewhere along the line joining the transmitter and receiver. Locating a target with bistatic radar is not unlike locating a target with monostatic The latter measures the total path length from radar to target to receiver just as radar.
Transmi
Fig. 13.5.
Geometry and nomenclature
for Eq. (13.8).
does the bistatic radar. Since the two parts of the path are equal, the distance to the The distance or range measurement in target is one-half the total path length. the monostatic radar locates the target on the surface of a sphere. (The sphere is the limiting case of the prolate spheroid when the separation between the two foci becomes Hence the target position is found with monostatic radar as the intersection zero.) of a ray (defined by the angle of arrival) and the surface of a sphere. The doppler beat frequency/; between the scattered and direct signals in the bistatic radar is proportional to the time rate of change of the total path length of the scattered
signal,
hi
idt
(D
+D
r)
(13.7)
where X is the wavelength of the transmitted signal. The doppler frequency shift provides a means for discriminating stationary objects from moving targets, but it is not a measure of the radial velocity as with the monostatic radar. In principle, it is possible to determine the trajectory of the target from doppler measurements only. With the coordinate system and the nomenclature shown in Fig. 13.5, the doppler frequency of Eq. (13.7) may be written as
Ja
\(b
+ b cos + h + 2br cos

<f>
r
<(,)*
r
2
(D h
b) cos
<f>
[_(D b
bf
+h -
2(D
- b)r cos <tfi

(13.8)
The above expression may be used as a basis for obtaining the target velocity v altitude (provided they remain constant over the time of measureh, and the crossing angle
</>
ment), as well as the location of the target along the vector r. doppler-frequency measurements and their times of occurrence
A minimum
is
required.
of five Because
Sec. 13.6]
589
it is not possible, using doppler measurements only, to distinguish a given from its mirror image about the vertical plane which bisects the base line D b that is, the angle cannot be distinguished from <, nor can the base-line crossing b be distinguished from D b b. Another method for determining the target trajectory on the basis of doppler alone is by obtaining a continuous record of the variation of doppler frequency as a function of time and by matching the measured curve with curves previously calculated for various trajectories. Iterative computational techniques might also be used. In any case, the extraction of the target trajectory from Eq. (13.8) or its equivalent is not a simple task. Some form of automatic machine computation seems necessary.
of symmetry,
trajectory
<f>
Fig. 13.6. Bistatic radar with multiple receiving beams.
The direction of the target is determined at the from the angle of arrival of the scattered wavefront. Techniques similar to those employed by monostatic radars for measuring angular position may also be employed at the receiving site of the bistatic radar. In measuring the angle of arrival of the wavefront scattered from the target, it is necessary to separate by some means the desired scattered signal from the direct signal and any multipath signals which might
Bistatic-radar Measurements.
receiving site
exist.
One method of measuring the angle of arrival which seems well suited to the fencelike coverage of the bistatic radar is shown in Fig. 13.6. The transmitting antenna generates a fan beam which is narrow in azimuth but wide in elevation. The receiving-antenna pattern consists of a number of independent, overlapping pencil beams arranged to occupy a fan-shaped volume similar to that of the transmitting beam. The receivingantenna beams might be generated using a reflector antenna or a lens, with multiple feeds or a linear-array feed with beams simultaneously formed by proper interconnection of the elements. A two-dimensional array could also generate the multiple beams. The elevation angle may be measured by interpolating the voltages from adjacent beams. The azimuth angle is determined as in any other fan-beam radar. As a by-product of this angle-measurement technique, the multiple-beam receiving antenna is of higher gain than an antenna which generates a simple fan beam. The higher gain results in a larger signal-to-noise ratio; hence the detection capability and/or the measurement accuracy is improved as compared with a fan-beam receiving antenna. DT is D It was shown that the measurement of the total scattered path length 5 important in locating the target position. As with other bistatic-radar measurements, the total scattered path length may be determined by techniques similar to those of modulations can be used. monostatic radar. Either pulse modulations or With pulse transmission, the time difference At between the arrival of the direct and D b cAt, where c is the the scattered signals determines the total path length 5 Both c velocity of propagation, and D h the distance between transmitter and receiver.
CW
and
are
presumed known.
590
[Sec. 13.6
The time delay between the direct and the scattered signals may also be determined At any instant of time, the frequency transmission. with a frequency-modulated of the received echo signal will depend on the total transit time from transmitter to Therefore the difference in frequency between the direct and the target to receiver. scattered signals is a measure of the difference in transit time At between the direct and
CW
the scattered path lengths.
Another method of determining the total scattered path length is by measuring the frequencies at a fixed time between two or more closely spaced leave the transmitter, the they known phase as of signals are the two (Sec. 3.5). If relative phase difference between the two at the receiver is a measure of the transit time
difference in phase
CW
or distance. The doppler-frequency beat note in a bistatic radar may be determined by conventional frequency-measurement techniques (tunable filters, filter banks, zero-crossing counters, discriminators, spectrum analyzers, etc.) and need not be discussed further. The simple form of the radar equation for monostatic radar Bistatic-radar Equation.
is
given by the familiar expression
Gn am ru * v n = P
2
t
monostatic
(13.9a)
where
Pr = P = G=
f
received signal power, watts transmitted power, watts
antenna gain
2
ff
= wavelength, m m = monostatic cross section (backscatter), m R = range to target, m L P = one-way propagation losses L = system losses
1
s
The corresponding equation
for the bistatic radar
is
P =
where
P G GJ?o b
t t
bistatjc
(13
M)
(4TrfD\D%Xi)L v{r)L s
G = Gr =
t
transmitting antenna gain in direction of target receiving antenna gain in direction of target
transmitter-to-target distance,
receiver-to-target distance,
D = D =
t
ab
= bistatic cross section, m2 m
Ljj)
L v (r)
= propagation loss over transmitter-to-target path = propagation loss over receiver-to-target path
Equations (13.9a) and (13.96) represent but one of the several forms in which the radar equation may be written. They are not meant to be complete descriptions of the performance of radar systems^ since they do not explicitly include many important factors, but they are suitable if only relative comparisons are to be made. Target Cross Section. The radar cross section a b of a target illuminated by a bistatic radar is a measure of the energy scattered in the direction of the receiver. Bistatic radar 1720 ^ 26 cross sections for various-shaped objects have been reported in the literature. Two cases of bistatic radar cross section will be considered. In one the scattering angle /S (defined in Fig. 13.46) is exactly equal to 180. In the other, fi can take any
value except 180. The following theorem is proved in a report 1 80 Consider first the case where /? 23 180 "In the limit of vanishing wavelength the bistatic cross by Crispin et al. for /9 section for the transmitter direction k and receiver direction n is equal to the monostatic
Sec. 13.6]
591
with k = n for bodies which cross section for the transmitter-receiver direction k are sufficiently smooth." In the preceding, k is the unit vector directed from the transmitter to the target and n is the unit vector directed from the receiver to the target.
The
This target is assumed to be located at the origin of the coordinate system. theorem permits bistatic cross sections to be determined from monostatic cross sections provided the conditions under which the theorem is valid are met. 1 80 the range of It may be concluded from the above theorem that as long as /? values of bistatic cross section for a particular target will be comparable with the range of values of monostatic cross section. This does not necessarily imply that a monostatic radar and a bistatic radar viewing the same target will see the same cross section. In some cases the monostatic cross section will be greater; in others, the bistatic cross But on the average, the two will vary over comparable values. section will be greater. = 180 (forward scatter) is not covered by the above theorem. where case The /3 The forward-scatter cross section can be many times the monostatic (backscatter) cross
Siegel has shown that the forward-scatter cross section of a target with area A is af 4nA 2 /A 2 where A, the wavelength of the radiation, is assumed projected 17 This result was derived from physical small compared with the target dimension. 2 -rra Thus the ratio sphere of radius a has a monostatic cross section a m optics. o a sphere is ja m case of (2-najXf. in the backscatter cross section of forward-scatter to f For ajk 10, the theoretical forward-scatter cross section is 36 db greater than the
section.
backscatter cross section. The backscatter and the forward-scatter cross sections are equal when the target is a However, for convex-shaped targets, the backscatter cross section remains flat plate.
almost constant with increasing frequency, whereas the forward-scatter cross section increases with increasing frequency. 17 Therefore, in the frequency region of usual interest to radar where the target dimensions are large compared with the wavelength,
dominate the backscatter cross section. Another interesting property of forward scatter is that an absorbing body and a reflecting body of identical shape have the same forward-scatter cross sections, but the backscattered energy from an absorbing body will be much less than that from a reflecting body. 2226 This follows from the application of Babinet's principle.
the forward-scatter cross section will generally
can be designed to take advantage of the large forward-scatter cross improvement in detection capability can be had, or for the same detection capability as a radar with /3 1 80, less power need be radiated. However, the radar applications in which advantage can be taken of the large forward-scatter The scattering angle (3 must be exactly, or reasonably close to, 1 80 signal are limited. Therefore the target must lie along the line joining in order to obtain forward scatter. the transmitter and receiver. Thus the transmitting and receiving antennas must be within line of sight of each other or nearly so. (The forward-scatter beamwidth from a 17 This precludes the use of sphere of radius a is approximately 2A/Tra, when aj 1 > ) forward-scatter enhancement for bistatic radars where the two terminals are beyond the line of sight or for the detection of high-altitude targets. Another consequence of a bistatic radar designed to take advantage of the large forward-scatter cross section is the loss of doppler and target-position information. 180, the doppler frequency is zero; therefore moving targets cannot be When /9 discriminated on the basis of frequency alone and the radar has no MTI capability. Also, the location of the target position from the measurement of the total scattered path length S is indeterminate, as discussed previously. It is concluded that the conditions for obtaining the large forward-scatter signal are In general, the bistatic radar too restrictive to be applicable in most radar situations. does not possess an exploitable advantage over the monostatic radar because of any When conditions permit the utilization of the enhanced cross-section enhancement.
If a bistatic radar
section, a significant
592

it is
[Sec.
13.6
forward-scatter cross section,
obtained at the expense of position location and
moving-target discrimination. A similar phenomenon occurs with monostatic radar. The radar cross section of aircraft targets viewed broadside by monostatic radar can be orders of magnitude greater than the cross section viewed nose on. For example, the monostatic cross section of the prolate spheroid computed on the basis of geometric optics is Tra ijb i when viewed broadside and -nb 2 when viewed head on, where a and b are the semimajor and semiminor axes, respectively. If the aspect ratio is 10: 1, that is, a 106, the ratio of broadside to head-on cross section is 1 4 Although this is a significant ratio, the radar systems engineer cannot always take advantage of the large broadside cross section if it is important that the radar discriminate between moving targets and fixed objects on the basis of doppler. Assuming that the broadside aspect is presented to the monostatic radar only for those trajectories which are perpendicular to the radar beam, the doppler frequency shift will be zero (and the radar has little or no MTI capability) when the target cross section is expected to be a maximum, just as in the case of the forward-
scatter cross section
and bistatic radar. Examples of the theoretical bistatic cross section of a sphere24 42 are shown
'
in Fig.
13.7.
Comparison of Bistatic and Monostatic Radars. It is difficult to make a precise comparison of bistatic and monostatic radars because of the dissimilarity in their geometries. The coverage of a monostatic radar is basically hemispherical, while the bistatic radar coverage is more or less planar. The monostatic radar has been used primarily with pulse modulation, but there are many applications in which modulations have been employed. transmissions are to be preferred in the bistatic radar, but pulse modulation can be used if desired. The monostatic radar is the more versatile of the two because of its ability to scan a hemispherical volume in space and because of the relative ease with which usable target information can be extracted from the received signal. Another advantage of monostatic radar is that only one site is required as compared with the two sites of the bistatic radar. Thus a bistatic-radar system might be more expensive than a monostatic radar of comparable detection ability since the cost of developing the additional site (building, roads, sleeping quarters, mess facilities, etc.) can be a significant fraction of the total. Although the bistatic radar cannot readily imitate the hemispherical coverage of monostatic radar, it is possible for the monostatic radar to give fence coverage by using fixed, rather than rotating, antennas. In order to compare the two on the basis of similar coverage, it will be assumed that a nonscanning monostatic radar is operated at each end of a radar fence. The monostatic radar requires two transmitters, two receivers, and two antennas to generate the fence. The bistatic radar also needs two antennas, but only one transmitter and one receiver. If similar equipment is used in the two types of radars, that is, the same antenna, same transmitter, etc., and if for the sake of analysis it is assumed that a b = a m Eqs. (13.9a) and (13.96) show that the echo signals from the monostatic and the bistatic radars will be equal when the target is at the mid-point of the fence (R D = D r). For targets at locations other than midway, the detection capability of both radars improves, within the limits of the antenna The monostatic-radar signal increases quite rapidly as the target approaches coverage. the radar because of the inverse relationship between the echo signal Pr and R i [Eq. The bistatic radar signal also increases as either end of the fence is approached (1 3.9a)]. since the echo signal is inversely proportional to DfD? [Eq. (13.96)]. However, the total variation (dynamic range) of the received signal with target position is not as pronounced with bistatic radar as with monostatic radar. In bistatic radar, as either D or D r decreases, the other increases. Thus the bistatic radar does not "overdetect"
CW
CW
at short ranges as
does monostatic radar.
Sec. 13.6]

discussion applies to radars and targets located in free space.
593
The above
In
many
cases of interest, however, free-space conditions do not apply and propagation effects must be properly taken into account. When targets are within the line of sight of the
from the and constructive interference of ground-reflected waves. The propagationloss factors included in Eqs. (13.9a) and (13.96) may represent losses due to atmospheric
radars, the system coverage might be altered because of the lobing that results
destructive
+ 30
20
40
60
80
100
/3,
Scattering angle
120 deg
180
Fig. 13.7. Bistatic cross section a b of the sphere as a function of the scattering angle fi and two 2-n-a/A, where a is the sphere radius and % is the wavelength. Solid curves are for the values of ka plane (fS measured vector) dashed curves are for the plane (/S measured in the plane of the vector). in the plane of the vector, perpendicular to the
attenuation, diffraction, or tropospheric scattering losses incurred in attempting to
beyond the radar "horizon." Whenever a radar, whether bistatic or monostatic, is required to penetrate beyond the radar horizon, a heavy penalty must be paid because the propagation losses experienced
see
In general, diffraction loss increases with are many times the normal free-space loss. e*', where increasing frequency and is an exponential function of distance; thus L p distance. attenuation constant and d a The conclusions presented above concerning the relative capability of bistatic and
monostatic radars in free space also apply when propagation losses are taken into account; that is (1) the bistatic and monostatic radars, as described, have the same detection capability for equal cross-section targets equidistant from the two sites and
;
594
[Sec.
13.7
of both systems improves as the target approaches either within the limits of the antenna coverage. The variation of target echo with position in the monostatic radar is even more pronounced when propagation losses are
site,
(2) the detection capability
included since the received signal varies inversely as R 4 e 2,xR instead of 1 alone. The D'\ bistatic signal, when propagation losses are considered, varies inversely as Df >ê ot( D The exponential factor does not vary rapidly; as either D t or r grows larger, the other
-
'
grows smaller.
some of the general characteristics of bistatic radar have Because of its particular geometry, the bistatic radar is best suited to fencelike coverage. It can readily detect the presence of a target penetrating the coverage of the fence. When compared with a monostatic radar for the same application, it requires half the number of transmitters and receivers, and hence half the total power, in order to achieve the same minimum detection capability. In addition, the inherent separation between the transmitter and the receiver eliminates the need for the duplexer found in most monostatic radars. When system applications permit, the design of a bistatic-radar fence can take advantage of the enhanced target cross section obtained for scattering in the forward direction, provided the loss of moving-target discrimination and the inability to locate the position of the target can be tolerated. Although the bistatic radar has many interesting attributes, it cannot compete with monostatic radar in most radar system applications. The history of radar substantiates this conclusion. The monostatic radar is the more versatile of the two because of its ability to scan a large volume in space and because of the relative ease with which usable information concerning the target's position and relative velocity can be extracted from the received signal. The superiority of the monostatic radar even seems to extend to the application of the radar fence. Although less equipment is needed with the bistaticradar fence, this advantage is offset to large extent by the difficulties involved in locating
Conclusions.
In this section
been
briefly discussed
the target's position.
The bistatic radar deserves credit for its historical role in the early days of radar in leading to the development of monostatic radar. It should be given consideration,
along with other possible radar techniques, in those applications where some inherent characteristic such as its fencelike coverage may be a desirable attribute or when the application does not require complete target information. But as a means for the general detection and location of targets, it is overshadowed by its offspring, the monostatic radar.
13.7.
Radar Beacons 2741
radar locates an object by transmitting a signal and detecting the reflected echo. radar beacon system is similar in operation to conventional radar except that the return signal is radiated from a transmitter on board the target rather than by reflection (skin echo). The beacon system operates with a cooperative "active" target, while the radar operates with a "passive" target. beacon system consists of an interrogating subsystem and a transponder subsystem. The interrogating transmitter might be the radar itself or a separate transmitter specifically designed as part of the beacon system. The transponder is located on board the target and is similar in many respects to the repeaters and transponders of Sec. 12.10. Upon receiving a signal from the interrogating transmitter, the target transponder automatically transmits a reply. The reply, which is usually coded for purposes of identification, is received back at the interrogating subsystem, where it is decoded and displayed on a radar-type presentation. Radar beacons provide (1) enhanced target signals, (2) positive means of target identification, and (3) a means whereby information may be conveyed from the target
ECM
back to the interrogator.
The
reply signal
It is
the radar backscattered signal.
from the beacon is better behaved than generally of greater magnitude and it does not

Sec.
13.7]
595
do radar echoes from complex targets like aircraft. Furthermore, a beacon signal does not exhibit the "glint" obtained when a tracking radar tracks Coding is applied to the beacon reply to identify the target and/or a nonpoint target. An important class of information that might to transmit information from the target. be encoded in the reply is the target altitude. This can be provided directly from the Its use reduces the reliance that must be placed on altimeter on board the aircraft. The reply code might also indicate which air-traffic auxiliary height-finder radars. controller has responsibility for the control of the aircraft, where the flight is to terminate, or possible emergency conditions. Targets equipped with beacons have the further advantage that they may be readily If the coded located in spite of the presence of heavy ground clutter or precipitation. reply is at the same frequency as the interrogation, it may be distinguished from ground Considerable discrimination of clutter clutter which, of course, would not be coded. can be obtained if the beacon transponder replies on a different frequency from that of the interrogation signal, in which case the beacon reply and the ground clutter may be separated by filtering. The MTI performance of the beacon does not depend on the doppler shift and is therefore not bothered by blind speeds, as is the normal MTI radar. 2 Since beacons have only to combat the \/R factor of one-way propagation rather than the 1/y? 4 factor characteristic of radar propagation, they are relatively modest in size and require less power than radar. The advantages of beacons can be obtained only with cooperative targets, that is, It is quite useful those that are willing to carry the necessary transponder equipment. for the control of civilian air traffic and is part of the Common Air Traffic Control System of the Federal Aviation Agency. When used for the general identification of military targets, a beacon system is known as Identification of Friend or Foe (IFF). Even if beacon systems could be installed on all targets, they have limitations which sometimes place them at a disadvantage when compared with conventional radar. Chief among these is limited traffic capacity (discussed later in this section). This limitation, combined with the fact that not all targets may be expected to carry beacons or if they do carry them, they may not always be in perfect working order means that the beacon complements rather than replaces the usual radar system. A beacon system is sometimes called a secondary radar to distinguish it from a. primary radar (the usual type of radar). Operation. A beacon system consists of an interrogating transmitter which transmits a signal to a transponder (or repeater) located on the target. The coded reply from the transponder is received back at the interrogator and displayed on a PPI in a manner similar to an ordinary radar echo. The interrogating portion of a beacon system consists of a transmitter, a receiver, and their associated antennas. As in a primary radar, a common antenna is generally used in place of two separate antennas. Each pulse from the interrogator triggers the transponder transmitter. The transponder might reply with a single pulse, but more usually the reply consists of a series of coded pulses. A finite reaction time must be allowed for the transponder to reply. This results in a reply signal which is delayed in time (range) with respect to the skin echo. In most cases the delay can be made
fluctuate in amplitude as
negligible relative to the pulse width.
The
interrogating transmitter
may
be the radar transmitter

sole function
is
itself,
or
it
may
be a
separate, special transmitter
whose
interrogating the transponder.
to whether the radar or a special transmitter should be used as the interrogator depends in large part on the application. If the prime function of the beacon is to aid in radar navigation of aircraft by providing radar returns from targets of known coordinates, interrogation by the radar itself would seem to be the more appropriate
The choice as
mode
of operation.
similar conclusion applies if the purpose of the
beacon
is
to
596
[Sec.
13.7
extend the radar range by providing a larger return signal than is provided by the skin echo. When the radar transmitter is used as the interrogator, less over-all equipment is required. Furthermore, it is not as likely that the beacon transponder will be triggered by a radar other than the type for which it is designed to operate. On the other hand, a beacon used primarily for identification is probably best operated with a special interrogator. An identification beacon should be universally applicable with all radars. It is not practical to design a simple beacon transponder which responds to every conceivable radar. Nor should one expect the target to carry a separate transponder for every kind of radar likely to be encountered. It is also impractical to expect that only one type of radar should be employed in order to ensure that only one beacon need be carried by the target. suitable compromise for the "universal" identification system is to use identical interrogation transmitters and receivers with every radar. Thus only one beacon transponder need be carried on the target. The beacon system need not resemble the radar with which it is used, nor need it be operated at the same frequency. The only requirement is that it be capable of operating in conjunction with any radar. The reply signals from the beacon transponder can be received with a special receiver and displayed on the same PPI presentation that displays the radar (skin) echoes. An example of a beacon designed for operation with any type of aircraft target and any radar system is the Common Air Traffic Control Beacon System used by the military services and the civilian airlines. Beacons may be used with almost any type of radar target to provide a stronger return signal or to aid in target identification. It was mentioned in a previous section that a beacon located at a known position on the ground may operate as a navigation aid in conjunction with airborne weather-avoidance radar. Its coded reply identifies it to the pilot, who locates the position of his aircraft with respect to the known position of the beacon. In this application, the interrogator is the radar itself. Beacons may also be used on board ships, in aircraft, or on space vehicles. Beacon Equations. Two equations must be specified in determining the range of a beacon. One is the range of the interrogation link, that is, the distance from the interrogator to the transponder. The other is that of the reply link, from the transponder to the interrogator. These two equations are
JW,i
(
\
PtiGtiAr
j
interrogation link
(13.10a)
47TO m'm,r'
W-(a&d.|
|
,ep ly
,i k
03.10*)
In Eq. (13.1 Off), P H is the power transmitted by the interrogating transmitter, G H is the gain of the interrogating antenna, A T is the effective receiving aperture of the beacon transponder antenna, and 5 m njr is the minimum detectable signal of the beacon trans-
ponder
receiver.
Similar definitions apply to the parameters of Eq. (13.106).
These
the
are called the beacon equations.
derivation of the the effects of other factors which limit the range, just as in the case of the radar equation in
They may be readily derived in a manner similar to radar equation and can be elaborated upon to explicitly include
Chap.
2.
is
determined by the range of either the interrogation the smaller. In general, the system parameters are selected to make the two ranges equal. Using the relationships G n AttAJX and G tr 4-nAJP, and assuming that the interrogation and reply frequencies are equal (or nearly so), it is found by equating /? max and R max r that
link or the reply link,
The range of a beacon system
whichever
is
2,
,j
In a practical system the sensitivity of the transponder receiver (5 min
,.)
is
usually poorer
Sec. 13.7]
597
than that of the interrogator receiver (SmlnJ ). This is due to the wider bandwidth needed in the transponder receiver if it is to operate over the entire band of interrogator Another factor which contributes to reduced transponder sensitivity, frequencies. order to especially in an airborne beacon, is that it is usually of small size and weight in Generally, it is easier to obtain and maintain good receiver sensitivity fit on the target. In addition, in a ground-based installation rather than in an aircraft or space vehicle. at times in degraded deliberately be might receiver transponder the of the sensitivity
order to reduce excessive triggering from other interrogators in the vicinity. Since S1Mlll is less than Smin r the interrogator power P ti must be greater than the transponder power Ptr if the equality of Eq. (1 3. 1 1) is to apply. This is often the case in an airborne beacon system for it is easier to operate a high-power transmitter on the ground than in
,
an
aircraft.
Traffic Capacity.
One
of the major limitations of beacon systems
is
interference
Because of its very nature, a transponder may be queried by any interrogator within range and its replies can be received by any receiver operating at the same frequency. If there are too many beacons located within a given region, the interference may be high enough to render the
from other beacons,
especially in regions of high traffic density.
beacons
useless.
problem is a result of the interrogation antenna Consider an aircraft beacon system at such a range that its replies are As the distance lessens received only by the main beam of the interrogating antenna. between the interrogator and the transponder, the intensity of the received signal At short ranges the reply signal strength may be increases as the square of the range. strong enough to be received by many of the sidelobes of the interrogating antenna,
large portion of the interference
sidelobes.
thus widening the display on the PPI. At sufficiently short ranges, the replies on the PPI can appear as a continuous circle, a condition known as ring-around. Excessive beacon replies entering the interrogator via the sidelobes may be reduced STC is an automatic programming of the receiver in part by sensitivity time control. gain in which the receiver is desensitized for strong replies from transponders at short ranges but gradually increased in sensitivity with range (or sweep time). The effect of STC is to decrease the likelihood of nearby strong signals being received in the antenna Although sidelobes, without discriminating against weak signals at longer ranges. STC offers some relief from excessive replies, it is not a perfect solution to the interference problem at the interrogating receiver.
It
modifies the vertical coverage of the
and might cause small targets to be missed at short ranges, especially if they lie above or below the main vertical beam. The excessive number of replies received at the interrogator from signals entering the system via the antenna sidelobes is but one part of the beacon interference problem. The other is at the transponder itself. If the transponder is at short range, it may be Thus the beacon transponder may be triggered by the interrogator antenna sidelobes. In queried more often than once per rotation period of the interrogating antenna.
interrogation system
range is short enough, the transponder may be interrogated continuously. This can result in the beacon being captured by the strong, near-in interrogators, to the It might also cause exclusion of weaker signals from interrogators at longer ranges. the transponder to overload electrically. One means of preventing the transponder from being overloaded by excessive Its function is interrogations is a circuit called the automatic overload control (AOC). to reduce the sensitivity of the transponder receiver as the average number of replies The AOC favors increases, keeping the number of replies per second to a safe value. the strong signals and denies service to weak signals from nearby interrogators which might view the transponder with their sidelobes. Unfortunately, it also denies service to far-off interrogators which would normally be seen with the main beam.
fact, if the
598
[Sec.
13.7
Overloading of the transponder also may be prevented by reducing the ratio of the number of replies to the number of interrogations (countdown), so as to maintain the total number of replies per second within the safe limit. This affects all interrogations equally and does not discriminate against weak echoes from far-off interrogators. Another method of preventing excessive interrogation of the beacon transponder involves the suppression of the antenna sidelobes with an omnidirectional antenna used in conjunction with the directive interrogating antenna. 30 34 There are several methods of employing omnidirectional antennas to reduce sidelobe interrogations. One of the simplest is to radiate from the omnidirectional antenna a control pulse, followed after a predetermined time (usually of the order of 8 ^sec) by a second pulse,
-
called the interrogating pulse, from the directional antenna. The control pulse from the omnidirectional antenna establishes a reference level in the transponder which the following interrogation pulse must exceed if the transponder is to reply. The levels are set so that only signals from the main lobe of the directive antenna beam
this condition. Beacon interrogations by the minor lobes of the directive antenna are virtually eliminated in this system so long as the vertical lobe structure of the omnidirectional antenna matches that of the directive antenna. Other methods of using an omnidirectional antenna for reducing sidelobe interrogation have been described by Davis and Setrin. 34 The same omnidirectional antenna used for reducing sidelobe interrogation on transmission may also be used for suppressing replies received on the sidelobes during reception. The main disadvantage of sidelobe-suppression techniques that employ omnidirectional antennas is that additional equipment is required at the interrogator, and the transponder in the aircraft must be modified accordingly. An obvious method of reducing interrogations and replies via the sidelobes is to use an antenna with extremely low sidelobe level. However, 25- to 30-db first sidelobes are representative of practical antennas and 30- to 35-db sidelobes are exceptional. Any further reduction appears difficult. If a beacon transponder is within the range of several interrogating transmitters located at different sites, it may be interrogated by all of them and its replies received by all of them. At any one transmitter the replies due to its own interrogations will appear at the same position of the PPI (assuming negligible movement of the transponder However, replies initiated by interrogations from over the period of interrogation). other transmitters will be unsynchronized with the receiver display sweep circuits and The effect is will not appear at the same position on the PPI at each interrogation. In a beacon system this similar to railing interference experienced by pulse radars. form of interference is called fruit. A recirculating-delay-line integrator or storagetube integrator can enhance the synchronous replies and filter out the asynchronous ones. An integrator used for this application is called a defruiter. A technique for preventing random pulses from being confused with a true reply is bracket decoding. If the true reply consists of a number of pulses and if the beginning and the end pulses have a fixed time separation, bracket-decoding circuitry may be designed to recognize only those pulse codes which are of the correct length. When replies from several transponders arrive almost simultaneously at a single interrogator receiver, it is possible for the interrogator to misinterpret or even reject the reply. This is called garbling. Garbling can also occur at the transponder when interrogations from more than one transmitter arrive at approximately the same time, causing the transponder to reply incorrectly or not at all. Garbling lowers the performance of the beacon system by causing loss of replies. Replies may also be lost for other reasons. For example, the action of the automaticoverload-control circuit reduces the system sensitivity and results in a reduction in the number of replies. Another cause of reduced replies is the finite time required after a
fulfill
Sec. 13.7]
reply
is

before the transponder can accept a
599
new query. This is called the of the order of 100 to 150 ,asec in a typical transponder. 31 It is sometimes easier for an operator to assess the over-all traffic situation when both the radar echoes and the beacon replies are displayed on a common PPI indicator. Beacon replies are often displayed as double or multiple pulses on a CRT or with some Radar echoes are usually displayed as ordinary pips. Howother identifying code. ever, if a large number of radar echoes and coded beacon replies are displayed on a single PPI, there is likely to be overlap in the target-display symbols in a heavy-traffic
made
deadtime and
is
situation, resulting in confusion or misinterpretations.

Transponder
Xy
Interrogator
Receiver
1,030 Mc
Interrogating
Side-lobe suppressor
and decoder
antenna
Transmitter
1,090 Mc
Modulator
Encoder
1
Pilot's
a
I
Pretrigger
Rotating
joint
control
unit
Transmitter
Receiver
1,030 Mc
1,090 Mc
t
from radar
Interrogation
pulse-pair
Video
defruiter
t
generator
Video remoting equipment
ûtility
Radar
indicator
Fig. 13.8. Block diagram of the
ATC
beacon system.
identifying aircraft depends
of a beacon system as a general means of employed. The Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System is an attempt to standardize on a single system for both civilian and military aircraft. By the use of a separate interrogating transmitter and antenna it can operate in conjunction with any radar system. The interrogating antenna is small enough to be mounted directly on most of the radar antennas with which it would be used. (A beacon antenna is shown mounted above a radar antenna in Fig. .6). The beacon replies are displayed on the same PPI as the radar echoes. A simplified block diagram of the ATC beacon system is shown in Fig. 13.8. The interrogator transmits at a frequency of 1 ,030 Mc with a pulse-repetition rate of 300 cps. The transponder replies at 1 ,090 Mc. Replying on a frequency other than that of the
' <
A TC Beacon System. 29 31 35 î0 The
on how widely
it is
interrogator prevents one transponder from triggering other transponders, prevents the interrogator signals from being received on nearby receiving equipments as false replies, and permits the beacon reply to be seen in the presence of clutter and precipitation. One form of interrogator antenna is 18 ft wide by 1 1 ft high by 1 ft deep and produces a
When mounted on the "host" radar horizontal beamwidth of 3 with a gain of 21 db. The ground-interrogator or usually 5 6 rpm. the radar, rate of rotates at the antenna it The power of the transponder transmitter transmitter radiates 1 to 2 kw peak power. located in the aircraft is nominally 500 watts. An omnidirectional antenna is used
600
[Sec.
is
13.7
intended for distances up to 200 (minimum discernible signal) of the interrogator receiver is 84 dbm, and the sensitivity of the transponder receiver is ~74dbm. Sensitivity time control and a video defruiter are incorporated in the The transponder employs "countdown" circuitry to limit the interrogator receiver. number of replies to a safe rate. The interrogator transmits a signal consisting of two pulses, each of 1 ,usec duration, separated by 8 //sees. These are generated by the pulse-pair generator. The transponder replies with a coded pulse train. The spacing between the first and the last These act to "frame" the reply. pulse of the coded reply is fixed at a value of 20.3 //sec.
with the transponder.
The
ATC
beacon system
miles from the ground interrogator.
The
sensitivity
Time, /zsec
2.9
*
17.4
5.8
8.7
11.6
14.5
20.3
24.65
Code
No.
0.45/^sec
05
1 1
1
.1
1
14
.1
22
.1
24
42
1
.1
44
50
Framing
pulse
1
Information pulses
.1
Framing
pulse
777J
Special
identification
Fio. 13.9.
The 10
reply codes of the
ATC
beacon system.
Between these two framing pulses are six information-pulse positions spaced 2.9 //sec Only two of the six possible information-pulse positions are occupied, so that the reply consists of four pulses, of which two act only as a reference. Two information pulses in any of six possible positions mean that there are 26 = 64 possible codes. However, only 10 reply codes have been assigned for air-traffic-control use, the others being reserved for the military. Figure 13.9 shows the 10 ATC codes. The two information pulses can occupy any of the six possible positions, with the exception that they are not allowed to occupy adjacent positions. Any one of the 1 reply codes may be selected by the pilot by means of a knob on the control box in the cockpit. Decoding equipment at the interrogator receiver determines which code was sent. The decoder
apart.
designed so that all transponder-equipped aircraft are displayed as a single blip on the all aircraft transponders transmitting a particular code selected by the ground controller are displayed as a double blip; and all aircraft transmitting a code at the request of the controller for the purposes of identifying its position among other
is
PP]
is displayed as a wide, or "bloomer," blip. The last-mentioned target display allows the ground controller to identify aircraft quickly without the need for the time-
aircraft
consuming identification maneuvers necessary if a beacon were not employed. Identification is initiated by the controller via the normal communication channel. The
601
controller simply asks the pilot of the aircraft he wishes to identify to switch to the When identification is called "identity of position" code on the beacon control box.
for, an additional pulse, 24.65 /^sec from the first framing pulse (Fig. 13.9), is transmitted along with the code group. Beacon codes may be used for the identification of aircraft or for conveying aircraft Coding the replies according to aircraft altitude has altitude to the ground controller. proved to be quite effective. It not only gives the ground controller a ready and convenient measure of the aircraft altitude on each interrogation, but as a third position coordinate, it provides a means for further identification of the target. The ATC transponder located on board the aircraft cannot reply to more than about An circuit is 1 ,200 to 1 ,600 interrogations per second without being overloaded. delay-line integrator is incorporated in the included to prevent this from occurring.
AOC
ground portion of the system to reduce the
effects
of random pulses.
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
Schlager, K. J.: Systems Engineering: Key to Modern Development, IRE Trans., vol. EM-3, pp. 64-66, July, 1956. Warfield, J. N.: Systems Engineering, Ordnance Research Lab. Rept., Pennsylvania State University, Aug. 10, 1955, available from Office of Technical Services, Washington, D.C., PB 1 1 1801 Flagle, C. D., W. H. Huggins, and R. H. Roy (eds.): "Operations Research and Systems Engineering," Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, 1960. Woodward, J. E.: Airport Surface Detection Equipment, IRE Conv. Record, vol. 3, pt. 5,
pp. 46-50, 1955.

5. J. E.: Operation of ASDE at Idlewild, Proc. East Coast Conf. on Aeronaut, and Navigational Electronics (Baltimore), p. 14, 1958. Phillips Smith, R. F.: Airport Radar Has High Resolution, Electronics, vol. 32, pp. 64, 66, 69,
Woodward,
6.
Apr.
7.
3,
1959.
8.
9.
Sandretto, P. C: "Electronic Avigation Engineering," chap. 17, International Telephone and Telegraph Corp., New York, 1958. Woodward, J. Doppler Detectors for Air Traffic Control, Proc. IRE, vol. 48, p. 4A, September, 1960. Stride, P. L.: Search Radar for Civil Aircraft, /. Brit. IRE, vol. 12, pp. 445-460, August, 1952.
: :
10. Greenslit, C. L.
A Thunderstorm Avoidance Radar for Civil
Aircraft,
IRE
Trans., vol.
ANE-1,
11.
12.
13.
14.
pp. 7-14, September, 1954. Post,E. A. The Operational Applications of Airborne Radar, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-1, pp. 15-23, September, 1954. Vose, A. W., and F. V. Wilson: Commercial Airborne Weather Radar, RCA Rev., vol. 19, pp. 187-207, June, 1958. Balzer, M. E.: Airborne Storm Avoidance Radar Training, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-4, pp. 16-19, March, 1957. Ruppert, F. W., and J. M. Smith: Airborne Weather Radar Uses Isoecho Circuit, Electronics,
:
15. Skolnik, 16.
17.
18.
19.
February, 1956. Analysis of Bistatic Radar, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-8, pp. 19-27, March, 1961. "System for Detecting Objects by Radio," U.S. Patent 1,981,884, granted Nov. 27, 1934, to A. H. Taylor, L. C. Young, and L. A. Hyland. Siegel, K. M.: Bistatic Radars and Forward Scattering, Natl. Conf. Proc. Aeronaut. Electronics (Dayton, Ohio), pp. 286-290, 1958. Englund, C. R., A. B. Crawford, and W. W. Mumford: Some Results of a Study of Ultra-shortwave Transmission Phenomena, Proc. IRE, vol. 21, p. 475, March, 1933. Gerks, I. H.: Propagation at 412 Mcfrom a High-power Transmitter, Proc. IRE, vol. 39, p. 1381,
vol. 29, pp. 147-149,
M.
I.:
An
November,
20. Siegel,
I.
1951.
J. W. Crispin, A. L. Moffett, C. E. Schensted, and V. Schensted: Bistatic Radar Cross Sections of Surfaces of Revolution, /. Appl. Phys., vol. 26, pp. 297-305, March, 1955. 21. Kock, W. E., J. L. Stone, J. E. Clark, and W. D. Friedle: Forward Scatter of Electromagnetic Conv. Record, vol. 2, pt. 1, p. 86, 1958. Waves by Spheres, IRE 22. Kock, W. E. Related Experiments with Sound Waves and Electromagnetic Waves, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, pp. 1200-1201, July, 1959.
K. M., H. A. Alperin, R. R. Bronski,
WESCON
602
the

W., R. F. Goodrich, and K. M. Siegel: A Theoretical Method for the Calculation of Radar Cross Sections of Aircraft and Missiles, Univ. Michigan Radiation Lab. Rept., 2591-1-H
23. Crispin, J.
on Contract
24. Weil, H.,
AF
19(604)-1949, July, 1959.
M.
L. Barasch,
Univ. Michigan Radiation Lab. Studies in
and T. A. Kaplan: Scattering of Electromagnetic Waves by Spheres, Radar Cross Sections X, Rept. 2255-20-T on Contract
AF 30(602)-1070,
25. Schultz, F. V., 26. 27. 28. 29.
July, 1956.
R. C. Burgener, and S. King: Measurement of the Radar Cross-section of a Man, Proc. IRE, vol. 46, pp. 476-481, February, 1958. Hiatt, R. E., K. M. Siegel, and H. Weil: Forward Scattering by Coated Objects Illuminated by Short Wavelength Radar, Proc. IRE, vol. 48, pp. 1630-1635, September, 1960. Roberts, A. (ed.): "Radar Beacons," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 3, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947. Ridenour, L. N.: "Radar System Engineering," MIT Radiation Laboratory Series, vol. 1, chap. 8, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1947. Vickers, T. K., and D. S. Crippen Problems and Applications of the ATC Radar Beacon System,
:
IRE
Trans., vol.
ANE-2, pp.
30. Harris,
K. E.: Some
:
32-39, June, 1955. Problems of Secondary Surveillance
Radar Systems,
/. Brit.
IRE,
vol. 16,
pp. 355-382, July, 1956. 31. Crippen, D. S. The Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System,
32. 33. 34.
IRE Trans., vol. ANE-4, pp.

Trans., vol.
6-15,
March, 1957. Thaler, S., and D. L. Ashcroft: Radar Beacon System Performance, IRE
:
ANE-4,
35.
36.
pp. 65-71, June, 1957. Vickers, T. K. Coding Requirements for the ATC Radar Beacon System, IRE Trans., vol. ANE-4, pp. 127-130, September, 1957. Davis, H., and M. Setrin: Increasing the Traffic Capacity of Transponder Systems, IRE Natl. Conn. Record, vol. 6, pt. 5, pp. 80-93, 1958. Herrmann, J. E., Jr.: Study of the Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon System Characteristics, Civil Aeronaut. Admin. Tech. Develop. Rept. 329, October, 1957, Indianapolis, Ind. Air Traffic Control Transponder, ARINC Characteristic 532B, Dec. 2, 1957, Aeronautical Radio,
Inc., 37.
Washington, D.C.
:
Fedde, C. D., and B. Majerus An L-band Air Traffic Control Transponder, Proc. Natl. Aeronaut. Electronics Conf. (Dayton, Ohio), pp. 496-501, 1959. 38. Skar, R. C. A Compact L-band RF Unit for an Air Traffic Control Transponder, IRE WESCON Conv. Record, vol. 2, pt. 5, pp. 34-40, 1958. 39. Shoemaker, L. E. Air Traffic Control Radar Beacon Systems Present and Future, paper presented at the 1959 assembly meeting, Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics, Atlantic City, N.J., Oct. 14-16, 1959.
: :
40.
Woodson, W.
L.
Automatic Beacon Radar
Identifies Aircraft, Electronics, vol.

Its
34, no.
6,
pp. 57-61, Feb. 10, 1961.

41. White, P. L.:
42. King,
The Radar Beacon Comes Into
Own, IRE
Trans., vol.
MIL-4, pp. 228-230,
April-July, 1960.
Press,
R. W. P., and T. T. Wu: "The Scattering and Diffraction of Waves," Harvard University Cambridge, Mass., 1959.
14
RADAR DETECTION OF
EXTRATERRESTRIAL OBJECTS
14.1. Introduction
Radar can be used for the detection and exploration of extraterrestrial objects such as the moon, planets, the sun, meteors, aurora, comets, the ionosphere, free electrons, and interplanetary gas. Man-made satellites, ballistic missiles, and space vehicles may also be classed as extraterrestrial targets since they travel outside the earth's atmosphere.
The design of radars

jects
is
for the detection of

is
similar.
Radar astronomy
the
man-made targets and for astronomical obname sometimes used to describe the study
15 of astronomical targets with radar. Radar astronomy complements both visual and radio astronomy as well as the Unlike other forms of astronomy, radar astronomy exploration of space with vehicles. does not depend upon the emissions from the astronomical objects themselves. InRadar stead, it provides its own illuminating signal with which to probe the target. measurements of distances are generally more accurate than distance measurements based on visual observations. Unlike visual observations, radar may operate during This is of particular advantage in the study of daylight hours and in poor weather.
meteors and aurora. Radar obtains information about extraterrestrial targets and the propagation medium by comparing the echo signal with the signal which would have been received from an ideal target. This technique uses controlled transmitter waveforms rather than depend upon energy emitted by the target as does radio astronomy. Although the use of a transmitter to illuminate the target has certain advantages, it also has its The inverse-fourth-power variation of the echo signal with range requires limitations. Therefore that the radar be relatively large if objects far from earth are to be detected radars for the observation of extraterrestrial targets are characterized by large average powers, large antenna apertures, low-noise receivers, sophisticated data processing, and
.
long observation times. Radar astronomy appears to be limited to relatively nearby astronomical targets, Although many of the extraterrestrial targets that is, those within the solar system. are characterized by large physical size, this factor is more than offset by the great distances involved. Another reason for not expecting radar to be used for targets outside radar signal to the most distant the solar system is the extremely long transit times. trip, but to the nearest star, Alpha round the 10.4 hr for approximately requires planet Centauri, the round trip would take 8.6 years. Radars capable of detecting and observing extraterrestrial objects are of interest to In the astronomer and the space scientist as a means of exploring our environment. addition to gathering scientific information concerning the solar system, these radars are of practical interest to space flight since they are capable of tracking space vehicles and satellites, especially if the vehicles are equipped with beacons. Data gathered by A these big radars might also be of use in the intelligent planning of space voyages. radar capable of detecting and tracking space vehicles is also capable of communicating
with them and accepting telemetering information.

603
604
14.2.

Radar Echoes from the Moon
[Sec. 14.2
the extraterrestrial object most explored by radar. It is the and is the easiest to detect. Most heavy radars, if properly modified, would be capable of detecting echoes from the moon. The distance to the moon is approximately 207,000 nautical miles, and its radius 938 nautical miles. Its radar cross section is considerably less than its projected area of 2.77 million square nautical miles. The ratio of the moon's radar cross section to its projected area is about
closest of the heavenly bodies
The moon has been
transmissions. Radar detection of the moon is equivalent to detecting a 1-m 2 target at a range of 460 km (250 nautical miles). Echoes from the moon have not only been obtained by the professional radar astronomer with his expensive and elaborate detection equipment, but have also been reported by radio amateurs using relatively modest equipment (modest as compared with the professional's equipment, but elaborate as compared with the usual "ham" gear). Early Experiments. The United States Army Signal Corps first announced successful radar echoes from the moon in March, 1 946. 6 7 A modified SCR-270 was used at a frequency of 1 1 .5 Mc. Since the transit time from the earth to the moon and back is approximately 2\ sec, a long pulse duration (- sec) was used to obtain sufficient energy on target. The peak power was 3 kw, and the pulse-repetition period was 4 sec. In Sec. 9.2 it was shown that, in general, the product of pulse duration times receiver bandwidth in a conventional pulse radar should be approximately unity for maximum signal-to-noise ratio. Therefore the receiver bandwidth to be used with a pulse \ sec in duration is only 4 cps. In the Signal Corps experiments a 4-cps bandwidth proved to be too narrow for the frequency drift experienced with the transmitter. To allow for drift, an IF bandwidth of 50 cps was employed instead of the optimum. The orbit of the moon about the earth is an ellipse with a mean eccentricity of 0.055. (The eccentricity of an ellipse is defined as the ratio of the distance between the two foci to the length of the major axis.) The small eccentricity indicates that the moon's orbit is nearly spherical. However, there is a component of velocity toward the center of the earth and therefore a doppler frequency shift. In the Signal Corps experiments the maximum doppler frequency shift was of the order of 300 cps, which is large compared with the spectral width of a |-sec pulse and the receiver bandwidth of 50 cps. Therefore the receiver was tuned to the doppler-shifted frequency rather than to the trans0.05 for
>
CW
mitted frequency.
Two SCR-270 radar antennas were combined to provide an array of 64 dipoles arranged in eight rows and eight columns. The 21-db gain array was approximately 40 ft square. The antenna could rotate in azimuth but was fixed in elevation. The moon was observed as it traversed the 12 antenna beam width during moonrise and moonset.
Shortly after the Signal Corps experiments, radar detection of the moon was obtained Hungary by Bay 8 at a frequency of 1 20 Mc. 36-element dipole array transmitted a pulse 60 ,asec in duration with 3 kw of peak power every 3 sec. The receiver (IF)
in
bandwidth was 200 kc followed by a postdetection bandwidth of 20 cps. long-timeconstant integrator consisting of electrolytic cells (voltameters or coulometers) provided improved signal-to-noise ratio. Using a mechanically rotating switch to provide the equivalent of range (time) gates, the receiver output was successively switched into a series of 10 voltameters for a given time during the interpulse period. Each cell corresponded to a different range interval. Electric current passing through the voltameters was indicated by the release of hydrogen gas at the cathode. (The electrolyte was a potassium hydroxide solution of 30 per cent concentration.) As hydrogen gas formed on the negative electrodes, it was collected in capillary tubes. The amount of gas given off was proportional to the current passing through the cell and hence to the electrical energy. Receiver noise alone appeared in all the cells except the one which
Sec. 14.2]
Detection of Extraterrestrial Objects
605
corresponded to the range of the moon.
This cell received signal energy in addition to gas liberated was greater than from hydrogen of amount the energy, and noise receiver those containing only noise. Bay's observations extended for periods up to 30 min in order to obtain sufficient energy for detection. This length of time was too long, however, to detect the fluctuations that are characteristic of moon echoes. The
Bay was rather novel and ingenious, but it did not lend the extraction of any significant information concerning the moon other than its presence as a target. Echo Fluctuations. One of the findings from the Signal Corps experiments was that On many the echo from the moon was not of constant amplitude but varied with time. were fluctuations echo unexpected These occasions, it seemed to disappear entirely.
detection technique used by
itself to
reported to have a period of several minutes. 9 Similar observations were obtained in Australia, with the high-frequency broadat a frequency of 20 Mc. operating casting station of Radio Australia as a "radar" the other of long period. period, of short reported, one were fading types of Two distinct The longer-period fluctuations were of the order of minutes and could even be as much Their origin was attributed to the ionosphere. (Later experiments as several hours. by the British showed that long-period fades are due to the Faraday rotation of electromagnetic waves experienced when propagating through the ionosphere.) The short-period fading was found to occur in times of the order of seconds or (Libration is the fractions of a second and was attributed to the libration of the moon
.
given to the rocking or swaying of the moon as seen by an observer on the earth. It is in addition to the relative motion which accounts for the doppler frequency shift.) librating moon causes small but significant changes in target aspect with respect to a radar on earth. One source of libration is due to the variation in the moon's orbital
name
libration in longitude.
changes in the distance from the earth. This is called (The velocity of a satellite such as the moon depends on its distance from the earth, according to Kepler's second law of planetary motion.) A second source of libration, libration in latitude, is a result of the moon's equator being For this reason an observer on the earth inclined to the plane of its orbit by about 6.5. sometimes sees more of the moon's northern hemisphere and sometimes more of the southern hemisphere. A third source of libration is the rotation of the earth, which causes the position of the moon to change relative to an observer on the earth. The various sources of libration might result in a rotation rate of about several degrees per day. A rotation rate of 3/day corresponds to a (differential) velocity at the outer edge of the moon of about 1 m/sec. Libration causes the individual scatterers making up the moon echo to change Therefore the signal contributions from the individual position relative to the radar. The resultant echo will scatterers have different phases with respect to one another. change with time in much the same manner as the echo from moving clutter scatterers. The statistics of fading are generally described by the Rayleigh distribution. Fast fading is attributed to libration because, experimentally, the fading of the moon echo is
speed resulting from
slight
found to vary at a rate proportional to the libration. 10 Faraday Rotation. An electromagnetic wave propagating through an ionized
medium
ization.
of a magnetic field undergoes a rotation of its plane of polarThis is called Faraday rotation and is the cause of the long-period fading. In the propagation path to the moon, the ionized medium is the ionosphere surrounding The two-way rotation of the plane the earth, and the magnetic field is that of the earth. 10-12 of polarization may be written as
in the presence
Q.
47
x 104
f
2
K NH
''
cos 6 sec y dh
radians
(14.1)
606
[Sec. 14.2
where / = frequency of electromagnetic radiation, cps
N=
6
number of electrons per cubic centimeter

strength of geomagnetic
field,
H=
X
dh
emu
(gauss)
= = =
angle between direction of propagation and magnetic field angle between direction of propagation and zenith at point where radar ray passes through ionosphere
The factors N, H, and

of altitude.
element of height (cm) along line of sight between antenna and moon 8 are included under the integral sign since they may be functions
As the linearly polarized radar wave travels through the ionosphere, its plane of polarization will be rotated by an amount given by Eq. (14. 1). The transmitted signal and the echo signal are both rotated in the same direction as they propagate through the ionosphere, so that the total rotation is twice the one-way rotation. In general, the
returned wave will arrive back at the radar with its plane of" polarization different from that of the transmitted wave. If the receiving antenna responds only to the transmitted polarization, the echo energy accepted by the receiver will depend on the relative polarization of the returned wave. If the returned wave happens to arrive at the radar with a polarization orthogonal to that of the transmitted wave, it will be completely
rejected and no detection will result. If the polarization were the same as the transmitted wave, the signal would be detected without degradation. At any polarization in between, the received signal will be proportional to the cosine of the angle between its plane of polarization and that of the receiving antenna.
The correlation between the slow fading of the moon echoes and the Faraday rotation was convincingly demonstrated by transmitting a single linear polarization and observing the echo signals on a receiving antenna capable of detecting two orthogonal 11 polarizations. As the signal strength decreased on one polarization, it increased on the orthogonal polarization, and the sum of the two remained constant. The time variation in the fading with a single polarization receiver was attributed to the
continually changing electron concentration of the ionosphere.
Because of the inverse-square relationship between frequency and Faraday rotation,

the fading of moon echoes will be negligible if the frequency is high enough for the maximum rotation to be but a fraction of a radian. For this reason, radars which operate at L band or above generally do not suffer from fading due to Faraday rotation.
Linearly polarized radars, operating at frequencies below L band, which must propagate through the ionosphere, can overcome fading by receiving the echo on two orthogonal antenna polarizations. The outputs from the two polarization channels can be combined to give a single output with negligible loss when signal-to-noise ratios are
large.
A circularly polarized radar waveform will not be affected by Faraday rotation, and
reflected signal may be Simple targets such as a sphere or a flat plate reflect circularly polarized waves with a reversal of the sense of polarization that is, right-hand polarization is converted to left-hand, and vice versa. Therefore a circularly polarized antenna cannot receive its own transmitted signals if the target reverses the sense of polarization. A complex target will, in general, reflect energy with both polarizations and may be detected with the polarization for which the antenna is designed. For optimum results, however, the receiving antenna should be able to receive on two orthogonal polarizations, no matter what type of polarization is transmitted. For example, if horizontal polarization is transmitted, the receiver ought to receive both horizontal and vertical polarizations and combine the outputs of the two channels into one receiver. If right-hand circular polarization is transmitted, the receiving antenna should be designed to accept both right-hand and left-hand circular
there will be no fading.
However, the polarization of the
influenced by the character of the target.
polarizations.
Sec. 14.2]
607
It follows from Eq. (14.1) that polarization rotation is a measure of the total number Since the product of electrons in the ionosphere lying along the line of sight. region, ionospheric it may be taken the per cent over varies only 10 by cos 6 sec % outside the integral and an average height used for calculations. Therefore Q is proportional to Ndh. Although this kind of measurement does not permit one to obtain directly the distribution of electrons with altitude, it does give the total electron content a quantity not easily measured by other means. From the total electron content as a function of height, the properties of the electron If the rotation of the polarization exceeds 2-n- radians, distribution may be inferred. The ambiguity may be resolved electron content is ambiguous. measurement of the by measuring the rotation O at other nearby frequencies (separated by a few per cent). Measurements of the total electron content have indicated 3 that the ionosphere extends
up
to appreciable heights, perhaps as high as 1,000 km. The Moon as a Radar Target. The character of the echo returned from the moon depends on the composition of the lunar surface (its electrical characteristics as well as whether it is rough or smooth), the length of the pulse compared with the physical size of the moon, and the relative motion and libration with respect to the earth. At optical frequencies the moon's surface is "rough"; that is, the optical scattering properties can be explained by assuming that the surface has a statistically uniform roughness whose A rough surface accounts for the almost constant scale is of the order of a wavelength.
illumination across the face of the

If the
moon.
the echo would appear to come from a Fresnel zone) at the point on the moon nearest the earth. This does not occur at optical frequencies since the illumination across its surface appears uniform. The scattering of electromagnetic energy from the moon's surface at radar frequencies Experiments seem to show that the moon differs from scattering at optical frequencies.
moon were a perfectly smooth reflector,

first
small area (the
is
neither a perfectly rough nor a perfectly smooth scatterer. If the lunar surface were "rough" at radar frequencies, the echo signal from a pulse would occur from the entire hemisphere nearest the earth. The time taken by electromagnetic energy in traveling from the point of first contact to the limb of the moon and
back again is about 1 1 .6 msec. By transmitting a short pulse (one whose width is small compared with 1 1.6 msec) and observing the duration of the echo, it can be determined whether the surface is rough or smooth. If the pulse echo is elongated and extends for
a large fraction of the 11.6-msec transit time taken to cross the surface of the
moon,
it
may be concluded that the moon is a rough scatterer.
widening of the pulse echo, all the reflection takes place at the near tip of the moon, and it can be concluded that the reflection is specular and the surface smooth. Experimental observations with short radar pulses do not show the elongation 1319 An example of the A-scope display of the moon expected from a rough surface. echo for a pulse 300 ^sec in duration is shown in Fig. 14.1. This was obtained by Leadabrand et al. 17 with a radar operating at a frequency of 400 Mc. The diameter of The the radar antenna was 142 ft, and the peak power of the transmitter was 130 kw. Also shown in Fig. 1 4. 1 is an outline of the surface of the receiver bandwidth was 6 kc. moon to the same scale as the radar echo. The echo is seen to consist of two regions. There is a relatively strong return from the tip of the moon's surface to a depth of 300 to 400 km. From about 400 km to the limb of the moon at a depth of 1,740 km, the It is concluded that the echo is a echo-signal energy falls off more slowly with range. combination of specular reflection from a quasi-smooth surface and diffuse reflection 17-1970 from a rough surface, with the former predominating. found the specular echo from pulses radar with short observations moon The early the tip, but the residual echo from the remainder of the moon's surface was un" The equipment was probably not powerful enough to observe the detected. 13 16
If there
is
no
significant
diffuse
component which was
generally
immersed
in the receiver noise.
608
[Sec.
14.2
cr
1,000
12,000
3,000
Relative range,
km
radius
One moon
Fig. 14.1. A-scope display (amplitude vs. range) of lunar echoes over an observation period of 15 sec at a prf of 30 cps. {From Leadabrand et at.," courtesy Proc. IRE and the Stanford Research Institute.)
Transmitting 12-^sec pulses at a frequency of 198 Mc, Trexler 13 found that more than power was returned in the first 50 ^secs. This corresponds to a depth of about 4 nautical miles or a circular target area of only 180 nautical miles in diameter. Thus the effective reflective surface is about one-tenth the diameter of the moon. similar conclusion was reached by Evans 15 based on radar experiments at a frequency of 1 20 Mc. Fricker et al. 20 conclude from measurements at 400 Mc that the signal energy is reflected from a portion of the moon about the center of the face with a fractional radius of approximately 0.2. They also conclude that the "gain" of the moon as a
half the echo
reflector, relative to its cross-sectional area, is

its
about
4,
and that the power reflectivity of
surface
is
in the vicinity of 0.02.
Sec. 14.2]
609
moon's surface as a function of angle may be inferred from the variation of echo signal with range. Leadabrand et al. 70 suggest that the experimental data obtained at a frequency of 400 Mc fit an empirical scattering law of the form
The
scattering behavior of the
P(<p) oc
(ELlT
'
o.l
for
n <
<p
<n
where P(<p)
is
infinitesimal area
proportional to the power returned in the direction of the radar from an on the surface of the moon as a function of the angle <p measured with
respect to the
normal
to the
moon's
surface.
duration. Shorter pulses "see" a smaller cross section than do longer pulses. The reduction in the effective cross section with short pulses as compared with the cross section with a signal is called the modulation loss. 13 The modulation loss 16 is about 1 db for a pulse length of 200 /usee, 8.5 db for a 30-^sec pulse, 17 db for 10 ,usec, and 22 db for 2 ,asec. It appears that the loss is effectively constant for pulse durations less than approximately 5 âsec. Pulses longer than 300 âsec are of sufficient duration to realize the cross section obtained with
The radar cross
section of the
moon depends on the pulse
CW
CW transmissions.
The radar
cross section of the
moon
is
often specified as
some
is
fraction of the cross
section 77a 2 of a perfectly reflecting sphere of radius a,
where a
the lunar radius.
By
analyzing the various published data on lunar cross section, Senior and Siegel 16 conclude that the cross section of the moon as seen by a pulse Of 5 ^sec duration or shorter lies somewhere between the values 4 x 10~ 47ra 2 and6 x 10 _4 7ra 2 over the frequency range
from 100 to 3,000 Mc. The distance from the earth to the moon and the diameter of the moon are such that a receiving antenna on the earth is within the Fresnel region of the moon. 16 21 The boundary between the Fresnel region and the Fraunhofer region is taken to be 8a 2 /A. The Fresnel-region cross section, as computed by geometrical optics for a doubly
-
curved surface,
is
=
(R
W!
+
Pl )(R
(14.2)
P2 )
where
range to specular reflection point on doubly curved surface principal radii of curvature (p lt p 2 assumed large compared with X) Pi' P2 In the case of the moon, p 1 radius, and at a range of 240,000 statute miles, the p2 cross section is 0.991 that of the Fraunhofer-region cross section. Therefore the fact that a receiver on the earth is not in the far field has little effect on the radar cross section. Information Gained from Radar Observations. Because of its nearness, much has been learned about the moon from visual observations. Radar has permitted the astronomer to supplement these findings. It was mentioned previously that radar observations of the moon may be used to measure the integrated electron content of the ionosphere and to determine some of the characteristics of the moon as a radar target. From accurate measurements of radar cross section, inferences may be made concerning the composition of the moon's surface. Radar measurements can give an indication of the electrical properties of the surface, that is, its conductivity, dielectric constant, and
R=
permeability.
Radars radiating short pulses from interferometer antennas can obtain precise range and angular-position information and can map the surface of the moon. 19 The moon may also be mapped without the need for fine angular resolution by simultaneously observing range and doppler from the returned echo. 17 18 Careful measurement of range over extended periods of time may be employed to accurately determine the moon's orbit. From this information the ratio of the mass of
610
the
[Sec.
14.3
Accurate range measurements from various on the surface of the earth can also improve the knowledge of the size and shape of the earth. The existence of a tidal bulge in the region of the moon permanently turned toward the earth might be determined. Knowledge of the reflecting properties of the moon is of importance in the design of communication systems which use the moon as a passive reflector to relay transmissions around the curvature of the earth.
localities
moon to that of the earth can be found.
14.3.
Radar Echoes from the Planets2227
Radar offers a means of acquiring information about the planets and other objects within the solar system. Its data supplement that obtained from classical optical astronomy and from radio astronomy. In principle, the observation of the planets with radar is similar to the observation of the moon. Much of the same information can be obtained about the planets as has been obtained about the moon. Radar may be used to accurately measure distances and, from the character of the echo, infer something about the nature of the reflecting surface. Since the planets are considerably farther from the earth than the moon, more sensitive radars are required. Such radars must employ larger antennas, radiate more energy in the transmitted waveform, use more sensitive receivers, and observe the
planetary returns for longer periods of time. The first radar designed specifically for the general detection of extraterrestrial targets was the Millstone Hill radar, whose characteristics were listed in Sec. 5.9. This radar readily received echoes from the moon with high signal-to-noise ratio. It was also the first radar to claim to detect a planetary target (Venus). The antenna is a completely steerable 84-ft-diameter paraboloid. Its transmitter is capable of radiating 1 50 kw of average power at a duty cycle of 0.06.
Both the power and the antenna size of the Millstone Hill radar can be increased by The Jodrell Bank radio telescope in England employs a 250-ft-diameter steerable paraboloid, and the United States Navy's installation at Sugar Grove, W.Va., has a 600-ft-diameter paraboloid antenna. Both of these larger antennas are fully steerable and are capable of hemispherical coverage. Because of the
at least an order of magnitude.
it is not likely that similar paraboloid reflector antennas considerably larger than these will be built. Larger antennas might be obtained with a fixed reflector and a movable feed to steer the beam. An example is the 1 ,000-ft-diameter reflector of Cornell University. 28 29 The antenna, located at Arecibo, Puerto Rico, is constructed in a natural valley of coral limestone by excavating the ground to a spherical shape with a radius of 870 ft and a surface tolerance of 0. 1 ft. spherical rather than parabolic contour was selected in order to steer the beam over a wider range of angles than obtained with a parabola. The reflecting surface is an aluminum mesh tacked over the ground An angular sector 20 from the vertical can be scanned by positioning the feed, which is a dual-polarized traveling-wave slot array in waveguide of square
large costs involved,
cross section, designed to compensate for aberrations caused by the spherical reflector. The feed is 101 ft long, weighs 5 tons, and has about 738 radiating slots on all four sides.
The beamwidth is , and the gain is 60 db at a frequency of 430 Mc. peak power is 2.5 Mw, and the average power is 150 kw.
The
transmitter
Large antennas might also be obtained with scanning arrays. However, these appear to be economically competitive only at frequencies lower than the microwave region. Most of the early radars designed for extraterrestrial targets had transmitters capable
of a few kilowatts or at most tens of kilowatts of average power. The Millstone Hill radar transmitter and others like it operated with 100 or 200 kw of average power. There is no fundamental reason why this cannot be increased an order of magnitude. Masers and parametric amplifiers have increased the sensitivity of radars by many decibels with but little cost (relative to the total cost). It has been said that without the
Sec. 14.3]
611
maser, the original Venus experiments performed by the MIT Lincoln Laboratory 25 These devices have improved receiver would probably not have been attempted. sensitivity to such an extent that the limits of detectability are usually determined by external noise entering the receiver rather than noise generated within the receiver itself. Further improvement in receiver sensitivity will probably not be as significant as the improvement that was made by the introduction of the maser. Perhaps the most significant advance in radar technology that has made the detection of planets practical is the processing of weak echo signals in large general-purpose digital
computers.
The
digital
It
computer
is
programmed
to
perform as an optimum cross-
has the advantage over analog forms of optimum detectors in that it can handle signals of relatively long durations (of the order of tens of minutes or In longer) without the "loss of memory" characteristic of many analog devices. addition, the digital data are relatively insensitive to instabilities in the power supplies or in other portions of the circuits. Another advantage of the digital-computer technique is that the received signal need not be processed in real time. It may be recorded on magnetic tape and analyzed whenever convenient. This permits different processing schemes to be tried in order to learn as much as possible about the character
correlation detector.
Since only a single target is involved in the detection of planets, it is possible to direct the radar on the target for a considerable period of time in order to obtain a large total echo energy. 1 ' 3 2* Some of the characteristics of the planets that are Planets as Radar Targets. important to radar detection are listed in Table 14.1. Column 1 lists the planets, the
of the target.
moon, and the sun. Distances at closest approach and target radii are listed in columns 2 and 3, respectively. If the radar cross section of the target is assumed to be proA 2 2 listed in columns 4 and 5 is a measure portional to the projected area ira the factor na /
,
involved in detecting the various objects of the solar system. Column 5 indicates, for example, that a radar which is to detect the nearest planet (Venus) must be capable of detecting a signal of the order of 70 db less than that received from the moon. This is not an easy task and requires radars of considerable power and An even greater radar capability is needed to detect the farthest planet in sensitivity. the solar system, Pluto. Its echo will be almost 160 db below that of the moon. Nevertheless, there is no fundamental reason, other than economic, why a radar cannot
of the relative
difficulty
be built that can detect most of the major objects

If a radar
is
in the solar system.
an object outside the solar system, a most likely target would be star. This is about 4 light years distant and would require the closest Alpha Centauri, a radar capable of detecting a signal about 280 db less than that received from the moon. The use of the factor 7rtz 2/</4 as a basis for comparing the relative detectability of the If the planetary surface is rough planets assumes a perfectly reflecting spherical target. instead of smooth, if the planet rotates about its axis, or if it contains an atmosphere or an ionosphere, the order of relative detection might be changed. The rotation of the planet about its axis (column 6) causes the echo from the limbs to have different doppler frequency shifts from the echo reflected from the forward tip. The doppler shifts from the right and left limbs are of opposite sign since one limb is approaching while the other is receding. The difference between the doppler frequency shifts from the approaching and the receding limbs is listed in column 7, assuming that (The value of the doppler spread at any other carrier the carrier frequency is 1 ,000 Mc. column 7 since doppler frequency is directly proportional frequency may be scaled from sine wave incident upon a rotating planet 1,000-Mc A frequency.) carrier the to will be reflected with a spectrum whose maximum extent is given by the values in column If this is the case, the receiver bandwidth must be 7, provided the surface is rough.
to detect
CW
wide enough to encompass the spread due to the doppler shift. length t requires the receiver bandwidth to be approximately
A transmitted pulse of
1/t.
However,
if
the
cm,
Approximate
(12)
temperature,
3.15
K
=
OOOrOWl N"fl N VO rH -h
00
>
^*
blackbody
A
of
(11)
Value
relative
to db
(10)
i i
moon,
i7
77
oooooooo XXXXXXXX
1
p
(9)
pulse
'-;
(S
>-I
^-c
od
o\ \n oo w+ fi i-J so i-l
\ot^\oo
msec
elongation,
in
<
Cfl
< Q
oHsOMQh-fnot -HTf(N'-'r~OÔI^(N
<0 *0
Max
erf
H W
z
Bh
< m
VO
sec
(8)
Two-way
fSr-mmOOOOOO
NMVl WOÔOÔO en" *0 oo so" * nm
i-H
transit
time,
<
Mc,
doppler
at
1,000
spread
(7)
cps
Ôt^-OlÔOOO 'fNOCNOOOO <N OO^fOO

en"
o o
z"
Max
oo vf vT >0 en
1 11
1
en"
s
X
H
B-
/=
en
O o I m H O <
en
(6)
Rotation
period,
days
vi ^ <N (N
i en n ô
i
i-l
dd6d 00
i-i-t^)
,
:
of
relative
db
(5)
Value
\oooooov ->0ro ^0,r

<
>
to
i
moon,
(4)
17777
1
'
oooooooooo XXXXXXXXXX
1
1
^W\ON\OinV)QOp-W
^ *o * vi
m
a,
(3)
Radius
i-l
</->*
so en
J*^h *^-iOo\000 .\6en'fNr^\o*(NfNfnr~-"

,
oooooooooo XXXXXXXXXX
P"
d
closest
(2)
Distance
approach,
ôoooooooo X XXXXXXXXX
^tênrôofNnfNinv%
at
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t*-'
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(1)
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oo
3 & C 3
o g * S o,| 2 g-S g
612
Sec. 14.3]

is
613
doppler spread in frequency
greater than 1/t, the receiver
bandwidth should be
increased accordingly. The wideband IF may be followed in the video by a narrowband The postdetection-improve1 /2t. postdetection-integration filter of bandwidth B of detection, the relative mode this With {B jB ment factor is approximately 1Y v f. factor ncPjdW B lv and is to the proportional signal-to-noise ratio from the planets is in the relative order changes some there are Note that 11. columns 10 and listed in
of detectability as compared with that listed in column 5. The effect of the doppler-frequency spread as described by the factors listed in columns 10 and 1 1 is probably pessimistic. If the spectral content of the echo signal or the time waveform is known or can be inferred, it is possible to design the radar receiver with a matched-filter characteristic rather than as a simple uniform-amplitude bandpass filter, The matched filter, it will be recalled from as was implied in the above discussion. in that it maximizes the output signaldesign receiver optimum represents the Chap. 9, It can only be used, however, when the form of the received signal is to-noise ratio. known. Unfortunately, this will not always be the case when exploring a planet for
the
first
time with radar.
The doppler-frequency spread and the accompanying loss in signal-to-noise ratio when a matched filter cannot be specified may be avoided with a pulse transmission of
If the pulse is short enough so that its spectrum is considerably wider than the doppler-frequency spread, there will be little degradation in signalIn the time domain this means that the pulse width should be small to-noise ratio. compared with the period of the maximum doppler-frequency spread. Thus there is not sufficient time over the duration of the pulse for the doppler frequency to have progressed through a significant fraction of its cycle. In addition to the spread in the doppler frequency, there is also a shift in the doppler which must be accounted for in the receiver design. The relative motion of most planets with respect to the earth is known well enough from optical observations to permit
relatively short duration.
proper compensation. It is the unknown spread in the doppler caused by the rotation of the planet that can cause harm. When the rotation is precisely known, it too can be compensated for in the receiver design. The planetary rotation rate may be deduced from the measured spread in the echo spectrum. The time required for an electromagnetic wave to travel out to the various planets and back is indicated in column 8 of Table 14.1. This is an important factor in planetary radar design. Long transit times permit long integration times, and hence better But in some cases, such as for Pluto, where the transit time is as detection capability. hr, it may not be possible to receive the echoes at the same radar site from long as 1 1 which they were originally transmitted because of the earth's rotation. The elongation of the pulse due to the transit time across the surface of the planet and back is listed in column 9. The pulse will be stretched by the stated amount if the The If the surface is smooth, no elongation takes place. reflecting surface is rough. effects of an elongated pulse are similar to those of the doppler-frequency spread caused by rotation of the planet. The more that is known about the planet and its surface, the more closely the receiver can be designed to approximate the ideal matched filter. The detection of radar echoes from the various objects of the solar system might sometimes be limited by the noise due to the target's apparent blackbody temperature. The noise radiated by the target enters the receiver along with the target echo and degrades the signal-to-noise ratio. Column 12 lists the apparent blackbody temperaband. Where Z-band data are not available, the ture of the planets as measured at temperature measured at optical frequencies is given. Information from Radar Observations. 3 Even though radar detection of planets and of other objects within the solar system is quite difficult when compared with many other radar tasks, by itself it is of little consequence unless new information concerning
614

is
[Sec.
14.3
the solar system
uncovered.
tions of distance, rotation rate,
Such information might include accurate determinasurface conditions, or information about the planetary
atmospheres.
Radar is well noted for its ability to accurately measure distances. In principle, radar range measurements permit the determination of interplanetary distances to an accuracy far better than can be achieved by optical means. Optical measurements of
the relative positions of planets are precise to 1 part in at least 10 6 or 10 7 as long as distances are expressed in terms of the astronomical unit (AU). The is the basic yardstick used by astronomers to measure distances within the solar system. It is defined as the mean radius of the earth's orbit. From optical measurements, the absolute value of the is known to only 1 or 2 parts in 10 3 considerably worse than the relative-distance measurements. The poor accuracy with which the is known
,
AU
AU
AU
measurements is due to the limitations of the short base line obtainable on earth and also by the effects of refraction in the earth's atmosphere. Radar measurements of distance are not limited as are optical measurements. In principle, the fundamental limit to the accuracy with which radar can determine the AU is the accuracy to which the velocity of light is known. The better range measurements theoretically possible with radar can help determine more precisely the orbits of the
optical
from
various planets.
From the change in shape and character of the planetary echo signal the nature of the planetary surface can be inferred, just as in the case of the moon. Radar echoes, properly interpreted, may indicate whether the reflection is primarily from rough,
mountainous terrain or from relatively smooth surfaces such as oceans. Measurements made at different frequencies might give an indication of the size of the material of which the surface is composed. The presence of vegetation might conceivably be determined in this manner. Radar has the additional advantage over optical observations in that it can pierce the atmosphere surrounding the planet and obtain echoes directly from the surface. This is especially important with the planet Venus, which is surrounded by an atmosphere opaque to optical wavelengths. Radar waves can penetrate the planetary atmosphere if the radar frequency is such that the energy is not absorbed or scattered. If the planet has the same type of atmosphere as the earth (which is not likely), this would require that the frequency be no greater than X band. It may be possible, however, to take advantage of any radar
absorption to determine the composition of the planetary atmosphere. By transmitting different frequencies and observing the variation of echo-signal strength, it may
be possible to determine the amount of absorption in the planetary atmosphere as a function of frequency, from which the composition of the atmosphere might be deduced. This technique requires a large degree of sophistication in the radar and a good knowledge of the planetary surface conditions. Surface features can be resolved in range by transmitting short pulses. For doppler
resolution, long pulses should be transmitted.
The design of the transmitted waveform
to simultaneously obtain resolution in both range and doppler (Sec. 10.8) is sometimes difficult since planets are not point reflectors and their reflection properties are not
always known. The angular sizes of the planets are too small to permit satisfactory resolution of individual portions of their surfaces with narrow antenna beam widths, as is possible in the case of the moon and the sun. It has been suggested that doppler information can take the place of angular resolution in examining detailed portions of the surface. 3 The rotation rate of a planet may be deduced from the periodicities in long-term radar observations which might be due to continents or oceans. If the planetary surface is rough, the rotation rate can also be obtained from the spread in the doppler frequency
Sec. 14.3]
shift.
615
Manasse 23 has shown that by adding one or more receiving antennas spaced at a possible to distance from the planetary radar so as to form an interferometer, it is
determine not only the rotation rate of the planet but also the direction of the axis about which the rotation takes place. The interferometer may also indicate the charas a acter of the surface since it can obtain the average radar cross section per unit area function of the angle of incidence as measured from the planet's surface. ionosphere surrounds It is possible, in principle, to determine with radar whether an low frequency would suitable at a radar pulse the planet. A simple, high-resolution show the presence of an ionosphere, if it exists, as a return from a range less than the planetary surface. The return from the ionosphere will be more frequency-dependent than that from the main surface of the planet. The radar frequency must be high enough
own ionosphere, but yet low enough to reflect from the planet's ionosphere. Something might also be inferred about the magnetic field of a planet with an ionosphere by observing the rotation of the plane of polarization caused by the
to penetrate the earth's
Faraday
effect.
that can be learned from radar probing of the planets can also be obtained with planetary space vehicles, either manned or unmanned. Space vehicles are capable of obtaining significantly more information than earth-bound radars. possible exception to this is in the exploration of regions such as the solar corona which might be too "hot" to be probed by space vehicles, but can be probed by radar. Planetary radars, although large and expensive as compared with radars for terrestrial One justiapplications, are less expensive than sending a vehicle to probe a planet. fication for planetary exploration with radar is that radar was available when space Furthermore, radar exploration of space permits the more intelligent vehicles were not. An added advantage of large radars developed for planetary probes. design of space
The information
is that they can be used to maintain communications with space vehicles. Planetary Radar Observations.- 21 Echoes from Venus were claimed to have been obtained in February, 1958, with the Millstone Hill radar of MIT's Lincoln Laboratory. 2-msec pulse duration was transmitted at a frequency of 440 Mc with a pulse repetition The peak power was 265 kw, and the diameter of the antenna was 84 ft. rate of 30 cps. maser input provided an over-all receiver effective noise temperature of 170K.
exploration
A
A
Under these conditions the signal-to-noise ratio of a single pulse echo from Venus was computed to be about 10 db at a range of 28 million miles. This is far too low a value The signal-to-noise ratio was increased by adding (integrating) a large to be detected. number of these weak pulses. The integration of pulse echoes was performed for
approximately 4.5 min, the time taken by electromagnetic energy in traveling out to
Venus and back.
The detection of Venus was carried out by transmitting pulses over the entire 4.5-min round-trip time. The transmitter was turned off at the end of this period, and the During the following 5 min, receiver turned on to collect the returning echo pulses. magnetic tape in a form suitable on a digitally recorded the output of the receiver was for later processing on an IBM 704 digital computer programmed to operate as a
cross-correlation detector. During 4.5 min of transmission, approximately 8,100 pulses are normally transmitted at a prf of 30 cps. However, a uniform train of 8,100 pulses was not used since
the basic repetition rate of 30 cps results in a highly ambiguous range measurement. The unambiguous range interval that results is less than the uncertainty in the astronomical unit and does not permit the true range of the planet to be determined. The range-ambiguity difficulty was overcome in the Millstone Hill experiments by modulating the pulse transmissions with a code whose period was approximately the total
Modulating the pulse train permitted the echo-pulse round-trip time to Venus. pattern to be correctly aligned in time without ambiguity. This was automatically
616
[Sec.
14.3
accomplished in the cross correlations performed by the computer, even though the individual pulses were buried in the noise. The modulation employed for the Millstone Hill Venus detection was an on-off gating. Pulses were transmitted or not according to the values of a binary pseudorandom sequence generated in step with the normal pulse repetition frequency. The transmitted waveform had the appearance of a picket fence with half of the pickets removed in an apparently haphazard fashion. A coding of the pulses based on random phase reversals was also tried during the initial attempts to detect Venus, but it met with no success. The phase-reversal modulation should, in principle, produce a greater signal-to-noise ratio than simple on-off amplitude modulation since none of the pulses are removed as they are in the on-off case. However, for the phase-reversal modulation to be successful, it is necessary that there be pulse-to-pulse coherence of the echo. Apparently the nature of the echo from Venus did not permit this condition to occur. The computer performs the cross-correlation detection in a manner similar to that described in Sec. 9.3. A replica of the transmitted signal is multiplied by the received signal, and the result is averaged over an interval of time. Since the exact time of arrival of the received echo is not known (this is one of the measurements sought), cross correlations must be performed using a number of different time intervals covering the possible range of interest. A detection is recognized for that time delay which causes the cross-correlator output to be significantly greater than the rms value of the computer
output.
In general, cross correlations must also be performed for each of the various values of However, the relative velocity of Venus with respect to the earth was known well enough to make this unnecessary. narrowband filter in the receiver was simply tuned to the expected frequency of the echo. The cross-correlation technique using a large general-purpose digital computer is a powerful detection tool. Various target effects can be tested by simply comparing the received signal with a number of possible signals stored in the computer memory. The one which produces maximum response is the one most likely to describe the actual signal. For example, various types of scattering surfaces might be assumed for the planetary surface. The effect of each condition on the echo signal can be computed or otherwise determined, and these hypothetical signals used as the reference signals in the
possible doppler frequency shift.
The one which gives the maximum cross correlation is the one which most perfectly matches the true condition. In performing the cross correlation on the received echo from Venus, due account had to be taken of the stretch in the time base caused by the apparent recession of the planet during the period of observation. This correction can be applied from the knowledge of the planetary orbit as obtained from optical measurements. An example of the cross correlation of Venus echoes performed by the computer is shown in Fig. 14.2. Only the central 16 per cent of the time interval over which the correlation search was actually made is shown in this figure. This time interval corresponds to 1 part in 1 3 of the total round-trip travel time and represents the range of uncertainty in the astronomical unit as derived from optical measurements. The upper two curves represent the output of the cross correlator on two different occasions. The position of the planet is indicated by the maximum peak located in the center of the diagram. The dark arrows mark the range that would have been predicted from the previously adopted values of the AU and the velocity of light. The apparent agreement is coincidental, since the values used to compare the predicted position were "legislated" by the International Astronomical Union and differ from generally accepted values. The lowest curve in Fig. 14.2 is the form of the cross-correlator output that would be expected for the radar echo if there were no noise. The first MIT detection of radar echoes from Venus gave a new value for the AU.
cross-correlation process.
Sec. 14.3]
(It
617
These experiments further indicated that the On the other hand, there was no evidence of a breakup of the individual pulses, which seems to indicate that the returns were coherent over a 2-msec interval (the width of the pulse). The reported success of the Venus detection by the Millstone Hill radar was due to advances in high-power transmitters, large steerable antennas, low-noise maser receivers, and sophisticated data-processing techniques using large-scale digital computers. The last two were especially important factors. The processing of the
was
later
shown
to be incorrect. 73 )
surface was such that there was
no pulse-to-pulse correlation.
6.4 6.2 -
1 I 1
1
5.0 msec
f*
"i^. Predicted position

[
of
moximum
correlotion
6.0
5.8
1-5.6
\m/-W-
-^f-
v-\
(a)
2.8 msec
(Mean+std./
deviations
|*""L^^ Predicted position of

A
JT
moximum
correlation
4.2
4.0 ~ t 3.8
V-Vib)
(Meon std.y
deviation) ~~^
Înterpu
1.0 -
se period
~ 33.3 msec^
*
>l
!
>lc
A
0.5
_J
I i
A
(c)
1 1
a
1 1
-20 20 7 40 Relative time alignment between recorded signal and gating seguence, msec
Fig. 14.2. Cross-correlator output of
40
(a)
MIT
Lincoln Laboratory Venus detection,
Cross cor-
relation for observation of Feb. 10, 1958; (b) cross correlation for observation of Feb. 12, 1958; (c) (From Price et a/., 2 * courtesy Science.) cross-correlation function expected for noise-free radar return.
echoes on a digital computer was a significant and novel idea which took considerable tenacity to bring to fruition. Nearly a full year of processing and analysis was necessary before results could be announced. In the spring of 1961, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) of the California Institute of Technology made extensive observations of Venus in which the signal-to-noise ratio was of sufficient strength to permit the return echo to be detected within a few minutes. 72 Thus time-consuming data processing was not necessary. An 85-ftpower at a frequency of diameter transmitting antenna radiated 13 kw of 2,388 Mc. A separate 85-ft-diameter receiving antenna was located 7 miles from the transmitter and shielded by natural terrain. The system noise temperature was 60K, and the bandwidth 1 cps. These parameters resulted in a typical signal-to-noise ratio of 10 db. The greater signal-to-noise ratio of the JPL radar as compared with the Millstone Hill radar results from the higher antenna gain and the lower system noise temperature. Both of these are a consequence of operating at a higher frequency Another reason for improved (2,388 Mc) than the Millstone Hill radar (440 Mc). sensitivity is the narrow bandwidth of the JPL receiver. From radar measurements of the Earth- Venus distance, the value of the astronomical 5 The slight doppler unit was found to be 149,599,000 km, to an accuracy of 1 part in 10
CW
618
[Sec.
14.4
spread of the echo-signal frequency indicated that Venus rotates very slowly, perhaps as slowly as once every 225 days, the number of Earth-days required for Venus to orbit the sun. Venus appears to be a better reflector than the moon. Its reflectivity relative to a polished conducting sphere of equal size is about 10 to 15 per cent as compared with a reflectivity of 2 per cent measured in similar experiments with the moon. The transmitted signal was circularly polarized. Comparison of the amplitudes of the received circularly polarized signals when right-hand and left-hand polarizations were transmitted seemed to indicate that the surface roughness of Venus is comparable with that of the moon when the roughness is commensurate with the wavelength of the transmitted signal.
14.4.
Radar Detection of the Sun 3.6.22,30.31
is a dynamic, variable, gaseous object which can reflect, or absorb the electromagnetic energy incident upon it. Furthermore, it According to column 5 of Table 14.1, the radiates noise of considerable magnitude. detection of echoes from the sun would require a radar with about 50 db more sensitivity than one capable of detecting the moon, assuming that the reflection properties of both were similar. As the reflection properties of the sun and the moon are not similar, different considerations apply in the design of a radar for solar observation than for planetary or lunar observation. Solar radars must be of greater sensitivity than is indicated in Table 14.1 and are usually restricted to the lower frequencies for reasons
At radar frequencies the sun
refract,
given below.
Surrounding the sun is the corona, a mass of ionized gas at high temperature, extendThe presence of the ionized corona can have ing to a distance of several solar radii. In general, the corona results in a radar considerable effect on the radar cross section.
cross section larger than the optical disk. cross section might be
more than
offset
However, any benefit gained from the larger by the reduction caused by refraction and
absorption of radar waves in the corona. Refraction lowers the effective reflecting Radar absorption in the area by deviating the rays away from the reflecting surface. corona increases rapidly with increasing frequency. As the frequency is increased, the radar energy penetrates farther into the corona before it is reflected. The effective cross section decreases with frequency because of the smaller physical reflecting area involved and because of the added absorption due to the increased path length. Therefore low frequencies seem more desirable for solar radar observation than high frequencies. Another property of the sun which makes it an unusual radar target is the variability of its corona. The solar corona consists typically of a number of radial streamers, the pattern of which changes in the period of the order of days or less. There may also be variations with periods of the order of seconds or of minutes, increasing the difficulty of radar detection. With proper design of the transmitted waveform and processing of the echo signal, radar offers a means of obtaining additional information as to the structure and time behavior of the corona. The noise emitted by the sun because of its blackbody temperature is orders of magnitude greater than that emitted by the planets. In addition, the sun on occasion emits noise bursts of a nonthermal origin which may be several orders of magnitude greater than its normal radiated noise. Not only is the large magnitude of the noise bursts annoying from the point of view of radar detection, but the statistics of nonthermal noise are hard to define. This makes the design of an optimum detector difficult. Solar noise increases with increasing frequency (Sec. 8.6), which is an important reason for desiring a low frequency for radar observations. The frequency of a solar radar should not be made too low since cosmic noise increases rapidly with decreasing frequency (Fig. 8.6). Furthermore, below a certain frequency called the (maximum usable frequency) radio waves cannot penetrate the earth's
MUF
Sec. 14.5]
619
ionosphere.
-
Also, a low frequency requires extremely large antennas for reasonable
antenna beamwidths. frequency Studies 22 31 of solar detection with radar have concluded that the optimum Mc. vicinity of 30 the lies in range The first radar echoes from the sun were obtained in April, 1959, by Stanford UniverTheir data-processing technique was similar to that employed by the sity scientists. The radar antenna consisted of a Laboratory for the Venus detections. MIT Lincoln four-rhombic broadside array covering a rectangular area 800 by 725 ft. The gain was 25 db at the operating frequency of 25.6 Mc. The transmitter was capable of an average power of40 kw. The signal-to-noise ratio of the echo signal before detection was about 22 db. During the round-trip time of 16 min to the sun and back, the transmitter was pulsed on and off in 30-sec intervals. Just before the first echo was due to return to For the radar, the transmitter was turned off and the antenna switched to the receiver. receiver was width of the band IF The on tape. recorded the echo was min next 1 2 the 2 kc in order to encompass the spread in the echo spectrum caused by solar rotation. The receiver was tuned to the transmitted frequency since the doppler shift was less than 25cps. The 12 min of tape-recorded echoes (and noise) was fed to an IBM 797
where it was cross-correlated with a replica of the transmitted The output of the computer was a cross-correlation signal also preserved on tape. with the echo signal. It was triangular in shape, waveform transmitted function of the
electronic computer,
with the apex denoting the position of the sun.

14.5.
2 Radar Detection of Meteors 1 3237 Meteors are small solid particles which are heated by collisions with the air molecules and evaporate when they enter the earth's atmosphere. The evaporation leaves an ionized trail from which radar reflections can be obtained. The majority of meteors are completely evaporated at altitudes ranging from 80 to 120 km above the earth's surface. A study of meteor echoes from radar not only leads to a better understanding of the meteor particles themselves, but it also reveals something about the conditions and processes occurring in the upper atmosphere. Visible meteors might vary in size from about one gram to about one-millionth of a gram. Meteors of more than a gram mass are comparatively rare. A typical bright meteor of magnitude +1 (as measured in the stellar-brightness scale used by astronomers) has a mass of a tenth of a gram and a diameter of a fraction of a millimeter. The ionized trail that it produces might be tens of kilometers in length but only a few meters or a fraction of a meter in diameter. It has been estimated that on the order of 100 million or more visible meteors strike the earth each day. The total mass of meteoric material incident on the earth, including the very rare bodies which fall to the Meteoric velocities are from 1 earth as meteorites, is thought to be about 1 ton/day. cross section of meteors that are just radar computed theoretically The to 72 km/sec. 2 8 visible (with the eye) is about 0.2 x 10 m at a frequency of 30 Mc and a range of 1 50 km (the cross section is directly proportional to both the range and the wavelength). 37
-
Meteors may be classed as either sporadic or shower. Sporadic meteors constitute about three-fourths of the total. The trajectories and velocities of sporadic meteors are random. Shower meteors, on the other hand, enter the atmosphere in a more preThe meteors in a given shower all travel in parallel paths with the dictable manner. same velocity and appear to originate from the same point in the celestial sphere. In any particular shower the meteors all move about the sun in identical orbits. Showers appear during the time of the year when the earth's orbit crosses that of orbiting meteors. Many of the meteor showers occur regularly on the same dates each year. One of the best known is the shower of Perseids, which occurs during the period from Aug. 10 to 14. Meteor showers are generally thought to be due to the debris left by comets.
620
[Sec.
14.5
In general, the meteor particle itself is far too small to be detected. Meteors are observed both visually and with radar by the trail of ionization they produce. There are two types of meteor echoes that may be distinguished with radar techniques. One
the head echo attributed to reflection from moving clouds of ions generated by the meteor during the formation of the ionized trail. The head echo moves with the velocity of the meteor and is of relatively short duration. Because of the high velocities of meteors, the doppler effect shifts the frequency of the head echo significantly. The head echo is relatively rare, especially at the higher frequencies. The other form of echo is the body, or main, echo reflected from the ionized trail. The linear density of the ionized meteor trail might vary from 10 10 to 10 16 electrons/m. Since the ionized trail is relatively stationary as compared with the velocity of the head echo, the doppler frequency shift from the body echo is relatively small and is mainly caused by the atmospheric winds that are present. The velocity of winds at meteoric altitudes might range from 10 to 100 m/sec. The duration of the body echo depends upon the recombination time of the electrons and positive ions constituting the ionized
is
trail.
Although most meteor echoes are no more than a fraction of a second in duration radar, a few echoes persist for many seconds. The duration of the meteor echo is theoretically proportional to the square of the wavelength, and the power returned is proportional to the wavelength cubed. For these reasons, meteor echoes are seldom seen at frequencies above VHF. The energy returned from a meteor trail is sensitive to the aspect at which it is observed Maximum return is obtained when the radar beam is perpendicular to the meteor trail. The aspect sensitivity of meteor echoes may be used to determine their direction of travel. Meteor echoes may show a rapid initial rise in amplitude followed by amplitude oscillations of increasing frequency. This is due to Fresnel diffraction effects, and when present, the oscillations can be used to determine the velocity of the meteor. Radar observations of meteors have proved to be of considerable value to the astronomer by providing the orbit, velocity, size, and rate of arrival. The properties of ion production, the diffusion and recombination of ions, and the composition of the upper atmosphere in which ionization is produced can be determined with radar. An indication of the velocity, direction, and turbulence of the upper-atmosphere winds may be obtained from the doppler frequency shift of the body echo. The pressure, density, and temperature at altitudes in the vicinity of 100 km may also be derived from radar
when observed with VHF
data.
One of the major advantages of radar observations is that many more meteors can be detected than is possible visually. During nonshower periods of meteoric activity, an observer might detect meteors at the rate of several per hour while radar might detect
several hundred per hour. During the peak of the Giacobinid shower of October, 1946, meteors were detected by radar at a rate as high as 168 per minute. Radar has the further advantage over optical observations of being able to perform in spite of clouds or adverse weather conditions, during the day as well as at night. The ability of radar to detect meteor echoes during daylight has led to the discovery of new showers observable only in daytime and which might not have been found by any other means. It has been mentioned that radar observations permit the measurement of meteor velocity. No meteors have been found with velocities greater than the escape velocity of the solar system, from which it is concluded that meteors are members of our own solar system and are not of interstellar origin. Meteoric orbits are therefore ellipses rather than hyperbolas. This conclusion probably could not have been obtained from optical measurements alone. It remained for radar to establish with assurance that meteors do not originate outside the solar system.
Sec. 14.6]
621
from an altitude of approximately 80 to 120 km above the earth) might also detect meteor activity at ranges corresponding to the altitude interval occupied by the meteor These echoes can appear in the radar receiver output and interfere with ionization. affects a the detection of desired targets in much the same manner that ground clutter in the or eliminated reduced be may echoes conventional terrestrial radar. Meteor
A radar designed to detect extraterrestrial targets beyond the meteoric belt (extending
radar by (1) turning ofT (gating) the radar receiver over the range interval corresponding from desired targets on to the altitude of the meteoric belt, (2) discriminating meteors reduce the the basis of different velocities, or (3) operating at a frequency high enough to receiver. radar the of sensitivity the below strength of the meteor echoes The exploration of meteors with radar has been useful in the design of long-range,
over-the-horizon, point-to-point communication systems based on the forward scatter 38 The optimum freof radio waves from the ionized trails of individual meteors. quency range for this type of communication system appears to be in the lower Although individual meteors are of short duration, they are long enough to region.
VHF
transmit a significant portion of a message. The message is sent piecemeal whenever a meteor trail exists. Individual portions of messages are stored at the receiving station Meteoric scatter permits communication at until the complete message is received. relatively modest rates over ranges of from 500 to 1,500 km with moderate transmitter
power and simple antenna systems.

14.6.
1 .2,36,39-45 Radar Observation of Auroras
The aurora is a complex, rapidly changing phenomenon which seems to be the result of excitation and ionization of the gases constituting the earth's upper atmosphere-by high-speed charged particles emitted from the sun. Upon entering the earth's upper atmosphere, these charged particles are guided by the magnetic field of the earth and In northern give rise to a luminous display which can exhibit a wide variety of forms. latitudes, the aurora borealis occurs most often in the vicinity of the 67 geomagnetic latitude (referred to the north geomagnetic pole rather than the north geographic pole). In the zone of maximum auroral activity, visual displays can be seen almost every clear night. To either the north or south of the auroral zone, the rate and intensity of Similar auroral displays (aurora australis) are seen in the Southern activity decrease.
Hemisphere.
direct correlation Increased auroral activity is found to follow solar storms. The exist between sunspot activity and the intensity and extent of aurora. increased auroral activity follows a solar disturbance by about one or two days, the time
seems to
During these required for the charged particles to travel from the sun to the earth. may be seen at latitudes far removed from the normal auroral zones. Auroral activity has been found to follow the normal 1 1 -year cycle of sunspot activity. Auroras seem to be most commonly observed about two years after the occurrence of sunspot maxima and least frequently detected at the sunspot minima. Auroral displays occur in the E region of the ionosphere at altitudes ranging from 90 On occasion, they have been found at altitudes as low as 70 km and as high to 1 10 km.
times, auroras as several hundred kilometers. The ionization which gives rise to the visual display of auroras is apparently reStronger echoes are obtained at the lower sponsible for reflecting radar energy.
or lower frequencies; consequently, most radar observations have been made at UHF. In general, radar observations of auroras seem to be correlated in space and in time with the visual auroral forms, but the echo intensity does not seem to be simply
related to the visual brightness.
VHF
An aurora can present a very large cross section to the radar if it is viewed properly. A cross section of 30 km2 has been reported at a frequency of 50 Mc for strong auroras. 36
622

strength of the aurora return
[Sec.
14.6
The
coefficient, defined as the ratio
may also be measured by the effective reflection of the echo strength actually received to that which
would have been received by specular reflection from a large metal sheet at the same range as the auroral scatterers. At a frequency of 100 Mc, the maximum effective
reflection coefficient
that almost
all
the radiation incident

reflected.
from a strong aurora was found to be of the order of 10-4 indicating upon the aurora is transmitted and that only a
,
small fraction
is
that gives rise to radar echoes might be considered as small cylindrical columns, or elongated "blobs," with a relatively high length-to-diameter ratio aligned along the earth's magnetic field. The exact scattering mechanism is uncertain. The maximum return is obtained when the antenna beam is directed perpendicular to the ionization lying along the magnetic-field lines. Therefore the auroral echoes observed by any particular radar will depend in large part on the location of the radar and the
The ionization
direction in
intensity
and the
field
which its beam points. The conditions required for maximum echo may be found by calculating the angle between the direction of the radar beam earth's magnetic-field lines. The latter may usually be approximated by the
of a magnetic dipole located at the center of the earth. Those directions in which the radar beam views the magnetic lines of force at or near normal incidence and at an altitude in the vicinity of 100 km are the directions from which auroral echoes are likely to occur. The necessary conditions for perpendicularity may also be found graphically
from the magnetic data obtained on isomagnetic maps. Proper conditions for aurora reflection are more likely to be satisfied when the radar beams are directed at low elevation angles and in a northernly direction. Thus radars in the maximum of the
visual auroral zone are not as well located for viewing auroras as are radars located in the northern United States or southern Canada. Echoes are seldom seen with antenna
beams at high elevation angles or with radars looking south. The aspect sensitivity of auroral echoes is an important characteristic and is one of the main factors which determine whether or not a radar will see auroras. As the radar beam deviates from the perpendicular aspect, the number and intensity of the echoes become less. The aspect sensitivity of meteor echoes is not so pronounced at the lower frequencies. In the vicinity of 400 Mc, the tolerance in aspect angle might be several
degrees.
Two types of auroral echoes which have been identified are called discrete and diffuse. 40 Discrete echoes are the more usual kind and are correlated with visual, nighttime
are attributed to ionization oriented in the E layer of the ionosphere of magnetic latitude in a plane at right angles to the radar beam (Fig. With this orientation the echo does not shift in range as antenna elevation 14.3). angle is changed. Discrete echoes are detected during the hours of darkness when sunlight is absent from the region of the E layer. A diurnal variation is observed with a broad peak centered around local midnight. Although they are called "discrete" echoes, they are of a complex nature and have the characteristics expected of echoes from many random, moving scatterers. They have extremely fast fading rates and a duration of the order of minutes. Diffuse echoes occur from ionization oriented in the E layer along a stratum almost parallel to the surface of the earth. Therefore diffuse echoes show a decrease in range with increase in the elevation angle of the radar antenna. Figure 14.3 indicates a typical location of a diffuse echo in the ionosphere as compared with the location of a discrete echo, based on radar observations made at College, Alaska. 40 Statistically, the scatterers which give rise to diffuse echoes are located in the same volume as those of discrete echoes. A distinctive characteristic of diffuse echoes is that they occur only in daytime, when the reflection region is sunlit. They are most likely to be seen when the atmosphere is undergoing its greatest changes, such as early morning and late afternoon.
displays.
They
along a
line
Sec. 14.6]
623
are stable. is a minimum of echo activity at noon when atmospheric conditions They persist for a Diffuse echoes are also characterized by their large lateral extent. relatively long time (of the order of hours) as compared with discrete echoes, and they Both forms of auroral echoes have similar doppler characrarely exhibit any motion.
There
teristics.
variation of aurora-echo strength with frequency is difficult to determine because the rapid fluctuations in the echo signals with time tend to mask any changes due However, it is found that the intensity of auroral echoes decreases to frequency. Also, the aspect sensitivity becomes more imrapidly with increasing frequency.
The exact
portant at the higher frequencies. The frequency dependence of echo intensity has 10 5 been suggested to be of the form/- but variations as great as/- have also been
,
o
65"
N. Lot.
100
200
300
Range,
km
75TLa
90
,
^^7oo
{From
College,
Alosko
Typical
UHF
ouroral scattering centers
Fig. 14.3. Location of typical discrete and diffuse scattering centers in the ionosphere. Presnell et al., iQ courtesy J. Geophys. Research and the Stanford Research Institute.)
Aurora fill the antenna beam. echoes are rarely, if ever, seen on radars operating at L band or at higher frequencies. Auroras, whether discrete or diffuse, shift the frequency and broaden the spectrum of The spread in the spectrum is a noiselike broadening and is attributed the echo signals. velocities of the aurora scatterers. The frequency shift is apparently random the to caused by a mass motion of the aurora. Both the frequency shift and the spread in spectrum seem to be proportional to the carrier frequency, which is what would be expected if they were both caused by the doppler effect. The frequency shift can lie on either side of the transmitted carrier. At 400 Mc, the echo frequency was found to It was also found that the magnitude and sign of the doppler shift by as much as 2.5 kc. with the measured changes in range of the auroral correlated shifts are not always ionization, as would be expected if the target were a moving metal sheet. The broad-frequency spectrum and the frequency shift of the echoes indicate that the aurora is a complex form of target. In the time domain, the amplitude of the return The fluctuates at a rapid rate described by the Rayleigh probability distribution. amplitude fluctuations and the frequency spectrum are related. If the amplitude fading is due to interference from moving regions of auroral ionization, the velocity of the scatterers must be of the order of 500 m/sec, which is about an order of magnitude
proposed for discrete echoes which do not completely
normal ^-region drift velocities. In addition to observing the echoes backscattered from the aurora, experiments have This is also been performed in which signals were propagated through the aurora.
greater than
624
[Sec.
14.7
accomplished by reflecting energy off the moon in an earth-moon-earth communication system in which a portion of the path is made to propagate through aurora. 44 From experiments at a frequency of 400 Mc it was found that the aurora in the path of propagation causes a rapid fluctuation (of the order of minutes) in the polarization angle of the received signal. Presumably this is caused by changes in the total number of
electrons in the ionosphere. There is also an increase in the fading rate of the echo beyond that which can be attributed to the moon's librations. There is no measurable absorption of the signal at this frequency. From observations of the radiation of
celestial sources, the one-way absorption in regions of aurora can reach 3 db at a frequency of 30 Mc when observations are made at the zenith (overhead). 45 For two-way propagation with a radar beam at some oblique angle to the zenith the absorption may be typically 12 db at 30 Mc. Since nondeviative absorption in decibels is almost proportional to the wavelength squared, the absorption at a frequency of 10 Mc might be of the order of 80 db but should be negligible at VHF or higher.
14.7.
Radar Observation of Ionized Media
the earth was the first extraterrestrial target to be During the 1920s Appleton46 used the principle of the FM-CW Tuve47 used a pulse method to explore the ionosphere. These experiments were carried out in the HF region of the radio spectrum, where reflections from the ionosphere are readily obtainable. Not only were the experiments of Appleton and of Breit and Tuve the first examples of radar-type observations of
The ionosphere surrounding
detected by radio reflections. radar and Breit and
were probably the first significant demonstrations of the radar principle for measuring range to a target, either terrestrial or extraterrestrial. Reflectionsfrom the Ionosphere. An electromagnetic wave incident on an ionized gas
extraterrestrial targets, but they
negligible attenuation. 48
such as the ionosphere will be either absorbed, reflected, refracted, or transmitted with A signal of frequency/ will be totally reflected if
2
f
where
Ne = f^~ = 2 47T m
19
817V
(14.3)
x 10^ 9 farad/m Therefore a wave of frequency /will be reflected from a height in the ionosphere at 2 which the electron density is equal to The frequency reflected from the /81. level of the ionosphere containing the maximum electron density is called the critical frequency. Frequencies less than the critical frequency are reflected back to the earth higher frequencies continue to propagate through the ionosphere. Since the ionosphere is actually composed of several different layers of ionization (e.g., the D, E, F v and F2 layers), there will be a separate critical frequency associated with each. The measurement of the virtual height of the ionosphere is of importance for the prediction of short-wave (HF) radio-propagation conditions. 48 (Virtual height is the height from which the wave appears to be reflected. It is greater than the height of the electrons that actually produce the reflection because electromagnetic waves travel more slowly in ionized regions than in free space.) A knowledge of the virtual height of the ionosphere along the propagation path from short-wave transmitter to receiver permits one to determine the optimum frequency for best communications. The equipments which measure the virtual height of the ionosphere operate on the radar principle and are known as ionospheric sounders, or recorders. A typical ionospheric measuring device is the Model C4 automatic sweep-frequency ionospheric
N = number of electrons per cubic meter e = charge of electron (1.59 X 10~ coulomb) m = mass of electron (9 x 10~ kg) e = dielectric constant of free space = (1/367J-)
31
N =/
Sec. 14.7]
49
625
The recorder. It uses a pulse transmission and operates on an automatic basis. transmitted frequency is continuously swept over the range from 1 to 25 Mc to measure virtual height as a function of frequency (which, in turn, is related to electron density). peak power of 30 kw is The entire frequency band can be swept in 1 5, 30, or 1 20 sec. radiated by the C4 equipment at the lower frequencies and 10 kw at the higher fre50-^sec pulse is transmitted at a prf between 1 and. 70 cps. The receiver quencies.
bandwidth
is
25 kc.
The output of the ionospheric sounder is a plot of virtual height as a function of frequency and is automatically recorded on film. The frequency scale is related to the
1,000
4 5 6 7 8910 Frequency, Mc
20 25
Fig. 14.4.
Example of the output of an ionospheric height
recorder.
An example of the type of plot that might be obtained is electron density by Eq. (14.3). shown in Fig. 14.4. Starting at the lower frequencies, the measured virtual height increases slightly with increasing frequency, indicating that the wave is returned from higher levels within the layer and that the density of ionization increases with height.
As the critical frequency of this layer is approached, the virtualheightincreasessuddenly
At higher frequencies the energy is no longer reflected but to quite high values. However, the radiation will be reflected by the ionized layer. the propagates through next densest layer of ionization. Above the first critical frequency (corresponding to the lowest layer), the virtual height is only slightly higher than the height of the lowest
critical It increases more or less steadily with increasing frequency until the frequency of the second layer is reached and the wave penetrates both layers. As the frequency is increased above the second critical frequency, reflections are obtained from An electromagnetic wave a third ionization layer and the process similarly repeated. at the frequency corresponding to the maximum electron density of all the ionospheric The frequency at layers will pass through the entire ionosphere without reflection. (MUF). which this occurs is called the maximum usable frequency The electron-density profile of the ionosphere is obtained from measurements of the This gives a profile of the electron content of virtual height as a function of frequency.
layer.
the atmosphere
up to a height corresponding to the maximum electron density. The continued beyond this region with conventional ionospheric rebe cannot profile At higher altitudes the density might be flections some other technique must be used. Faraday rotation, or from measureof the obtained from rocket firings, measurements may also be measured by radar density electron The satellites. earth by ments made observations of the incoherent scattering from electrons when illuminated by high-power
;
radar.
626

29 '*
[Sec.
14.7
Incoherent Scattering from Electrons. The electron density may also be found by measurement of the incoherent scattering from free electrons. Incoherent scattering of electromagnetic energy from free electrons in an ionized medium is normally very weak; it is nevertheless strong enough to be detected with powerful extraterrestrial radars. This technique is not limited to the portion of the ionosphere below the region of maximum density, as is the HF ionospheric sounder.
A single free electron has a radar cross section of

a*
s in
\Airm
X 10~ 30
sin
xp
(14.4)
all units are mks, fx is the permeability of the medium (4n x 10~ 7 ), e and m are charge the and mass of the electron, and ip is the polarization angle defined as the angle between the direction of polarization of the incident field and the direction from the 90 for radar backscatter). scatterer to the receiver (generally y The radar cross section a e of an electron is defined as the power scattered into a unit solid angle per unit incident power density. Note that the cross section of an electron does not depend upon frequency. If there were electrons per cubic meter all of which scatter incoherently, the cross section per unit volume would be
where
ov
= Na
(14.5)
The
and
coherent, or incoherent, depending
from electrons may be coherent, partially the relationship between the carrier frequency the frequency with which electrons make collisions with the molecules of the
scattering of electromagnetic energy
upon
atmosphere. Coherent scattering is generally a property of lower frequencies, while incoherent scattering is more common at higher frequencies. An example of coherent
is the refraction of radio waves from an ionized medium. "Ionosphericcommunications is an example of partial or limited coherence in that only the scattering from limited subvolumes of the ionized medium is coherent. Incoherent scattering from electrons occurs when the doppler frequency shift resulting from the thermal motion (temperature) of the electrons is greater than the collision frequency. The motion of electrons due to their temperature is random. Random motion causes the energy of the incident wave to be spread over a band of frequencies whose width is determined by the frequency of the incident wave and the velocity of the scatterers. Thus, when the transmitted frequency is high, the broadening of the echo-signal spectrum may be significant. For ionospheric backscatter the spread is of the order of 100 kc at a carrier frequency of 200 Mc. Since the frequency spread is proportional to the random motion of the electrons, it may be used as a measure of
scattering
scatter"
the temperature of the scatterers.
The electron density may be found from a measurement of the signal strength returned from the incoherent scatterers. Substituting the electron radar cross section per unit volume [Eqs. (14.4) and (14.5)] into the appropriate radar equation for volumetric distributed targets [Eq. (12.24)] gives, for the average received signal power,
V '
32K 2
where
Ae
= peak power in pulse transmitted by radar = effective area of antenna h = width of pulse in space R = range to scattering volume a backscattering cross section of a single electron N = electron density
t
Sec. 14.7]
627
the electron density N, All the parameters of Eq. (14.6) are assumed to be known except measurement. radar the parameter to be determined from the An example of a radar that measures electron densities might have the following 100 kw average power 1 peak power 300 properties 50 antenna diameter of the bandwidth The Mc. of 200 pulse width of the order of 1 msec and a frequency echo-signal the spread in unknown for the allow to variable receiver must be
:
= Mw
radar
spectrum caused by the thermal motion of the electrons. This particular radar ought 3 9 distances of about to be able to detect electron densities as low as 10 electrons/m out to one earth radius. The Millstone Hill radar at a frequency of 440 Mc was able to determine the profile of density by the ionosphere at heights above that corresponding to maximum electron
This radar is measuring the weak backscatter signal returned from free electrons. usable inforobtain To paragraph. previous in the cited smaller than the example mation, postdetection integration in a high-speed digital computer had to be employed. Incoherent scattering from electrons might also be used to measure auroral ionization, explore the to detect transient streams of particles coming from outer space, and to existence of a ring current about the earth. 5 The extraterrestrial radars that have Radar Observation of the Cislunar Medium. the cislunar region (the region exploring capable of are this section in been mentioned between the earth and the moon) by the incoherent scattering of electrons out to
51
Although this represents a small fraction of distances of the order of one earth radius. which is about 60 earth radii, it is possible moon, the and earth between the the distance to obtain some information about the properties of the cislunar medium by examining Propagation of electromagnetic energy signals transmitted through the region.
through an ionized medium will affect the phase and the group velocity. The properties of the propagation path are inferred by comparing the signal transmitted through the cislunar region with the signal that would have been obtained if propagation had taken
place in free space. One technique for examining the signal transmitted through the cislunar region is to make use of the moon as a passive reflector in an earth-moon-earth radar link. If the reflection properties of the moon are well known, the effects due to the medium may be separated from the effects introduced by the moon. Changes in either the phase velocity (retardation of the wave) or the group velocity For example, the group delay in an (dispersion) are a measure of the electron density.
medium as compared with that in free space is directly proportional to the average electron density and inversely proportional to the square of the frequency. 4 radar pulse at 20 Mc will be retarded by a factor of 10~ in a medium in which the 3 9 frequency of 100 Mc is retarded pulse at a a whereas electrons/m electron density is 1 -6 free-space delay, are with the compared as delays, relative These 10 only 4 X by small, but they might be measured if the frequency were properly chosen and if the path
ionized
,
.
through the medium were sufficiently long. The propagation time of an electromagnetic wave traveling through an ionized medium is a function of the frequency and the ion density. A broadband pulse will therefore suffer distortion due to the differential delay introduced by a dispersive frequencies are transmitted through the medium, the medium. If two different A convenient method relative phase shift between them is a measure of the ion density. of making such a measurement is to transmit a modulated carrier with upper and lower sidebands and compare the phase change between carrier and upper sideband with the phase change between carrier and lower sideband. At a carrier frequency of 23 Mc a 5 modulation of 2 kc can unambiguously measure an average cislunar density as low as
CW
3 109 electrons/m
628

and Tracking of Earth
Satellites
[Sec.
14.8
14.8. Detection
and Space Vehicles
In general, the detection and tracking of artificial earth satellites may be accomplished by visual methods, by radio signals emitted from the satellites themselves, or by radar
reflections. The signals radiated from the satellite might include replies from beacon transponders or radio signals that convey telemetering or communication information. Telemetering or communication signals, when available from a satellite, offer a convenient and satisfactory means for tracking the position of the satellite and for determining its orbital parameters. Because of the one-way propagation path, the range to which it is possible to track a target with its own radiated signals can be considerably greater than the range obtained with two-way propagation. An active radiating source on the satellite can be detected and tracked so long as it remains in operating order. If, for some reason, the satellite or space-vehicle transmitter becomes inoperative, either because of an expended power supply or some malfunction, then visual or radar observations must be resorted to if the target is to be tracked. Radar is especially important for the initial detection of unfriendly "dark" satellites which do not radiate. Thus radar's role in space surveillance is in complementing both visual observations and passive radio tracking. In addition to determining the trajectory (or the orbital parameters) of satellites, radar observations may also obtain the same kind of information about the target and propagation medium as obtained from the moon echo experiments described in Sec. 1 4.2. In general, a different type of radar system is employed for satellite surveillance than for the gathering of scientific information from satellite observations. Radars for scientific observations would resemble those described previously for the exploration of the moon, sun, and the planets and would include equipments like the MIT Millstone Hill radar, the Stanford Research Institute radars, the Jodrell Bank radar of the University of Manchester, and the Cornell University radar located in Puerto Rico. radar designed for the surveillance of dark satellites must meet different requirements and would have more of the characteristics of a military radar, especially as pertains to reliability of detection and complete coverage of the sky so that no vehicle would escape undetected. These requirements are not absolutely essential in a scientific radar since the target is usually "cooperative" and its approximate position is often known. From radar observations of satellites it is possible to infer something about the characteristics of the target. This may not be of importance with friendly targets since such information is usually known beforehand. However, if the target is an unfriendly dark satellite, its characteristics might not be known. From measurements of the echo-signal strength over a period of time, the statistics of the radar cross section of the target can be determined. An example of the type of cross-section data obtained from radar observations of satellites is shown in Fig. 14.5. This is a plot of the cumulativeprobability-distribution function for the cross section of the second Russian satellite (1957 beta) measured by the Stanford Research Institute at a frequency of 106 Mc. 62 71 The ordinate is the percentage of time that the cross section is less than the value indicated by the abscissa. Fifty per cent of the time, the cross section was less than 2 1.8 The maximum cross section detected in these observations was a little less than 440 2 Independent observations 53 made on the same satellite with the Millstone Hill radar at a frequency of 440 Mc indicated the peak value of the cross section 2 to be about 500 Variations in the echo signal with time may be used as an indication of the tumbling rate of the satellite or to infer the target configuration. 54 The total electron content of the path between the radar and the satellite can be determined from measurements of the Faraday rotation of the plane of polarization, just as with moon echoes. Since satellites can orbit over a wide range of altitudes, it is possible to obtain an altitude profile of electron density by properly interpreting the
>
Sec. 14.8]
total electron-content
satellites in
629
various orbits and radar propagation.
measurements made over a period of time. The ability to place aurora on radio is also of advantage in exploring the effects of
Information concerning the density of the upper atmosphere can be obtained from The rate at which the the radar tracking of satellites about to reenter the atmosphere. hence the orbital period and the height decrease with time depends on the drag, and permit observations Radar satellite. the density, of the atmosphere at the altitude of and smaller becomes orbit satellite the as determined be to the orbital parameters The time of destruction of the satellite as it reenters the atmosphere and burns smaller. up may be predicted from such measurements. radar with a narrow pencil beam is well suited for tracking Initial Acquisition. might be so satellites once it is "locked on," but in many instances the beamwidth
100
iiij
llll|
ll
ll
|
Mll|
l_
50
II
mL
10
in
nil
0.01
1.0
100
1,000
Cross section,
m2
beta).
Fig. 14.5. Cumulative distribution function of the cross section of the second Russian satellite (1957 and the Stanford Research Institute.) {From Peterson et al., M courtesy
AGARD
It is not always possible to ensure that a target is a problem. pencil-beam antenna in the scanning mode will intercept the satellite on any particular pass over the station. This would be especially true of an unknown dark satellite, for which no a priori orbital information exists. For example, consider a satellite tracking satellite or ballistic missile at a range of 1 ,000 nautical radar with a 1 pencil beam. miles traveling with a velocity of 4 nautical miles/sec can traverse the 1 beamwidth in a minimum of 4.3 sec. Assuming that the scan rate of the tracking radar is 4/sec, the radar can search an angle of only 17.4 in that time. This is a relatively small sector of
narrow that finding the
coverage, not large enough to ensure that the satellite will be intercepted by the beam on any given pass over the radar station. Therefore, if almost perfect interception is to be assured, other radar beams must be employed to cover the entire sector over which Hence a single pencil-beam tracking radar is often hampered satellites are expected.
by a limited acquisition capability. The radars available during the early days of satellite observations (late 1950s) suffered from limited acquisition capability, and other means had to be found for
directing the radar
visually
beam
to the vicinity of the target.
If the satellite
can be observed
and tracked with an optical telescope, it is possible to obtain the angular coordinates of the target from the direction in which the telescope points. The radar beam can be controlled by the position of the telescope so that both point in the same The optical telescope can supply a precise angular measurement, and the direction. radar can supply range. Optical means of directing a radar beam to a satellite is limited to nighttime observations in clear weather when the satellite is not in the shadow of the In most cases, some a priori knowledge of the orbit and the time at which the earth.
630
satellite

appears within the line of sight of the observer
is
[Sec.
14.8
needed to ensure successful
visual detection.
If a satellite radiates a
it is
signal for purposes of identification and passive tracking, possible to determine the parameters of the orbit from observations of the doppler
shift as
CW
a function of time. 55-59 This technique may not be as accurate as optical observation, but it is usually sufficient to provide the acquisition information necessary for the initial positioning of tracking radars. One of the simplest quantities
frequency
from measurements of the doppler frequency shift approach to the observation point, given approximately by
available
is
the distance of closest
R
where
sa
(14.7)
A(d/d /dOmax
R =
v
distance to point of closest approach
f d
(dfjdfym&x
are needed
satellite
;
= velocity of satellite = wavelength of transmitted frequency = observed doppler frequency shift maximum rate of change of doppler frequency
the orbit, measurements of the time
several observations at the
To determine
from
and distance same station on
of closest approach
different passes of the
the satellite
or alternatively, the orbital parameters may be determined on a single pass of if measurements are made of R from several different locations. Note
If it is not known, it may be found provided several different observations are available. value of v is assumed from whatever knowledge of the satellite orbit exists. This assumed velocity v is used to compute the values of R that should be obtained from the several observations. From the values of R the altitude is found and a more accurate velocity is computed using the laws of Kepler that describe planetary (orbital) motion. This type of iteration is continued until the desired accuracy is achieved. 55 A number of observations on different passes or on a single pass from several separated sites are needed with this technique if the orbit is to be determined. However, it is possible to obtain the orbital parameters on a single pass at a single station by using the entire doppler signal obtained during the passage of the satellite over the station, rather than just the maximum rate of change. A curve of doppler frequency shift as a function of time may be used with the aid of a digital computer to find the orbital parameters by employing iterative computational procedures. 60 Tracking of satellite targets and prediction of their trajectories is in many respects different from the comparable problem with aircraft targets. Satellite trajectories are generally more stable than aircraft trajectories because the latter are capable of rapid maneuvers, which is not the general rule for satellites. Therefore continuous tracking of satellites might not be as necessary as it is with aircraft. Space Surveillance Systems. A friendly satellite may be instrumented with a transmitter to aid in obtaining the necessary data needed to compute the orbital parameters. An example is the United States Navy's Minitrack. 61 This is a passive detection system in that it depends on radiations emitted by the target. In the Minitrack system, a VHF signal is radiated by the satellite and received in an interferometer arrangement of antennas on the ground. A pair of antennas widely spaced gives accurate, but ambiguous, angular-position information. Additional pairs of antennas with shorter base lines are arranged so as to resolve the ambiguities. Another similar set of interferometer antennas orthogonal to the first obtains the angular position of the target in the orthogonal coordinate. As the satellite passes over the antenna complex, the angular position is measured as a function of time. From this information, the
that the velocity v
must be known in determining R
by an
iterative technique,
CW
orbit
is
computed.
Sec. 14.8]
If the satellite is
631
an unfriendly one and does not radiate at the frequency of the passive on board a friendly vehicle is tracking system, or if for some reason the transmitter employed. The passive inoperative, active detection and tracking with radar must be by the addition of a system radar-type Minitrack system can be converted into an active system, a transsurveillance space Navy States United ground transmitter. In the located at separated antennas receiving separate two with provided is antenna mitting
sites.
similar to a multistatic radar fence with two receiving Several hundreds of miles separate transmitter sites on either side of the transmitter. of the transmitting antenna is arranged pattern fan-beam narrow The and receivers. from the two receiving to be coplanar with the similar narrow fan-beam patterns to all three antenna common region the within reflecting object is located antennas. Surveilsites. receiving the two at arrival angle of the of measurements patterns from United States. Data lance systems of this type have been operated in the southern
62
The configuration
is
from these radars are transmitted to a central computing and the orbital parameters determined.
In addition to
satellite
facility,
where
it is
processed
unwanted
reflections
from meteor
echoes, the Navy space surveillance system receives extraneous, trails and aircraft and direct signals from radiating
satellites, electrical
and man-made
storms, radio stars, direct feedthrough from transmitter to receiver, By operating at high enough frequencies, meteoric negligible. reflections and other natural forms of interference may be made disadvantages of this the all radar with multistatic is a The system described above operating from a radar monostatic usual more with the compared system, as of type Three sites are needed in this multistatic radar one for the transsingle location. They are separated by considerable distances (of the mitter and two for the receivers. this makes the multistatic radar more expengeneral, In miles). hundreds of order of
interference.
sive to build
and operate
Another system for Doploc (doppler phase feck). 63 Like the Navy system, it can operate with signals emitted by a relatively modest transmitter on board the satellite, or it can be used in conjunction with a large, ground-based transmitter. The Doploc receiving system generates a number of fan beams, usually three, directed at various elevation angles. One beam might look directly overhead, while the other two beams are located to As the satellite passes over the station, it intercepts each either side of the vertical. of the Doploc beams in turn. The heart of the receiving system consists of a narrowband, phase-locked doppler-tracking filter which tracks the doppler-frequency-shifted echo signal. The doppler frequency as a function of time is recorded as the satellite From this information, the orbit of the satellite may be passes through the beams. 64 techniques in a digital computer. iterative using computed, When used as an active radar with its own ground transmitter, the Doploc system acts as a bistatic radar with a base separation of several hundred miles. Monostatic systems are preferred Satellite surveillance systems need not be bistatic.
because they provide more adequate coverage from a single site. The problems involved in the radar detection of Ballistic-missile Detection Radars. are similar to those involved in the detection missiles (ICBM) intercontinental ballistic
compared with a single-site radar of equal capability. the detection and tracking of satellites is the United States Army
as
The methods used for computing trajectories are similar in many reBoth orbits are ellipses, but that of the ICBM intersects the surface of the earth at the point of launch and the point of impact. The Ballistic Missile Early Warning System (BMEWS) is designed to detect lCBMs provide as they rise over the horizon at distances of several thousands of miles and to that defense missile in function same the performs It approach. early warning of their Approximately 1 5 min of warning is provided. the DEW line does for aircraft defense. BMEWS sites are located at Thule, Greenland Clear, Alaska and at Fylingdales Moor,
of
satellites.
spects. 65
Fig.
14.6. Missile detection
with
BMEWS
surveillance radar.
Heavy Military
(Courtesy General Electric Co.
'
Electronics Department.)
.?.*&?:
Fig. 14.7. Aerial view of three of the four
Greenland.
(Courtesy General Electric Co.,
AN/FPS-50 surveillance radars at BMEWS Heavy Military Electronics Department.)

632
Site 1, Thule,
Sec. 14.8]
633
England. These sites warn of ICBMs that approach the Northern Hemisphere over the north polar regions. Two different radars are used in BMEWS. One is the AN/FPS-50 surveillance radar with a 400-ft-wide by 165-ft-high parabolic-torus antenna (Sec. 7.4) with organ-pipe The fixed surveillance.radar radiates narrow beams at two different angles of scanner.
These are scanned simultaneously to form two horizontal As a missile passes through the beams, its position detection fans, one above the other.
elevation (Fig.
14.6).
Fig. 14.8.
AN/FPS-49
BMEWS
tracking antenna and pedestal.
(Courtesy Radio Corporation of
America, Defense Electronic Products.)
velocity coordinates are measured, from impact point, impact time, and launch point.
and
which can be calculated the
trajectory,
An aerial view of the Thule site is shown
in Fig. 14.7.
is the AN/FPS-49, a tracking radar with an 84-ftother radar used in scan as well as track (Fig. 14.8). These radars are can that reflector diameter parabolic housed in 140-ft-diameter spherical radomes (Fig. 7.69). The tracking radar detects by scanning, then locks on to the object, determines whether it is an ICBM or not, and
The
BMEWS
calculates
its trajectory, launching site, and impact point. Tracking of Space Vehicles. Because of the inverse-fourth-power relationship between distance and echo-signal power, radar detection of satellites becomes inRadars could conceivably be built creasingly difficult with increasing orbital height. which could detect and track satellites whose orbital periods are of the order of 24 hr
634
heights approximately 20,000 nautical miles above the earth's surface). 67 However, radar detection of man-made satellites out to distances of the moon (approximately an order of magnitude farther than the 24-hr satellite) is not too likely with the type of radar equipment presently envisioned unless the target cross section is relatively
(satellite
Radar detection of interplanetary space vehicles traveling much farther than be even more difficult. Detection and tracking of deep-space vehicles may be accomplished by placing a transmitter on board the vehicle to act as a beacon in enhancing the returned signal. With relatively modest transmitters on board the target and with more or less conlarge.
the
moon would
ventional extraterrestrial radars, it vehicles to the nearer planets such as
is
Venus or Mars. 68
satellites
possible to maintain radio tracking of space 89 The radio (beacon) method

-
of tracking and communicating with the edge of the solar system.
may be extended to vehicles that probe to
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Pawsey,
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8.
Mofenson, J.: Radar Echoes from the Moon, Electronics, vol. 19, pp. 92-98, April, 1946. Dewitt, J. H., Jr., and E. K. Stodola: Detection of Radar Signals Reflected from the Moon, Proc. IRE, vol. 37, pp. 229-242, March, 1949. Bay, Z.: Reflection of Microwaves from the Moon, Hung. Acta Phys., vol. 1, pp. 1-22, April,
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16. Senior, T. B. A.,
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UHF

24
'
635
25.
G. H. Pettengill, R. Silver, Price R., P. E. Green, T. J. Goblick, R. H. Kingston, L. G. Kraft, 1959. and W. B. Smith: Radar Echoes from Venus, Science, vol. 129, pp. 751-753, Mar. 20, of Assembly General Ninth at the presented paper Experiment, Radar Venus Price, R.: The
Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development
(AGARD), NATO, Aachen,
26. Price, R.:
27.
Radiometer Techniques in Radar, MIT Lincoln Lab. Group Kept. 34-003, June 10, (Not generally available.) vol. 184, pp. 1358Evans, J. V., and G. N. Taylor: Radio Echo Observations of Venus, Nature,
1960.
Germany,
Sept. 21, 1959.
1359 Oct. 31
1959.
28. Construction Begins
on Giant Radar Transmitter,
Electronics, vol. 33, no. 36, p. 31, Sept. 2,
29.
30.
Gordon, W.
Probe,
IRE
Eshleman,
E., and L. M. LaLonde: The Design and Capabilities of an Trans., vol. AP-9, pp. 17-22, January, 1961. Sun, Science, vol. V. R., R. C. Barthle, and P. B. Gallagher: Radar Echoes from the
5,
Ionospheric Radar
131, pp. 329-332, Feb.

31. Bass, F. G.,
'
1960.
and
:
S. la.
Braude:
On
the Question of.Refiecting Radar Signals from the Sun,

,
Ukr'ain. J. Phys., vol. 2, pp. 149-163, 1957.
England, 1954. 32 Lovell, A. C. B. "Meteor Astronomy," Clarendon Press, Oxford, Theory of Radar Echoes from 33 McKinley, D. W. R., and P. M. Millman: A Phenomenological Meteors, Proc. IRE, vol. 37, pp. 364-375, April, 1949. 82-90, April, 1954. 34 Manning, L. A. Meteoric Echo Studies, IRE Trans., vol. AP-2, pp. /. Geophys. Research, vol. 62, pp. 79-91, Frequencies, High at Ultra Echoes Meteor A. Flood, W. 35.
: :
Jlnc
36. Little, C. G.,
and UHF, W. M. Rayton, and R. B. Roof: Review of Ionospheric Effects at Proc. 'iRE, vol. 44, pp. 992-1018, August, 1956. Ionosphere, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, pp. 186-199, 37. Manning, L. A., and V. R. Eshleman: Meteors in the February, 1959. . _,. series of 12 papers on the use of radio scattering from meteor 38. Proc. IRE, December, 1957.
VHF
trails for
39
purposes of long-range communication. ,,. 400-Mc Radar Leadabrand R. L., L. Dolphin, and A. M. Peterson: Preliminary Results of vol. AP-7, pp. 127-136, April, Investigations of Auroral Echoes at College, Alaska, IRE Trans.,
.
1959 Schlobohm, and M. R. Berg: 40 Presnell, R. I., R. L. Leadabrand, A. M. Peterson, R. B. Dyce, J. C. VHF and UHF Radar Observations of the Aurora at College, Alaska, J. Geophys. Research, vol. 64, pp. 1179-1190, September, 1959. Doppler Investigations of the 41 Leadabrand, R. L., R. I. Presnell, M. R. Berg, and R. B. Dyce: September, 1959. 1197-1203, vol. Research, 64, Geophys. pp. /. 400 Mc, at Aurora Radar Ionization Detected at 42 Leadabrand, R. L., and A. M. Peterson: Radio Echoes from Auroral 65-79, January, 1958. Relatively Low Geomagnetic Latitudes, IRE Trans., vol. AP-6, pp. Interpretations of Radio Reflections from the 43. Booker, H. G., C. W. Gartlein, and B. Nichols: Aurora] /. Geophys. Research, vol. 60, pp. 1-22, March, 1955. UHF Radar Observations of Aurora, 44. Fricker, S., R. P. Ingalls, M. L. Stone, and A. M. Wang:
1957. J. Geophys. Research, vol. 62, pp. 527-546, December, - c , e/1 Disturbances, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, pp. 245-254, 45. Nichols, B.: Auroral Ionization and Magnetic February, 1959. Electrical Structure of the Appleton, E. V. : Some Notes on Wireless Methods of Investigating the
. . .
46
47. Breit, G.,
Upper Atmosphere, I, Proc. Phys. Soc, vol. 41 pp. 43-59, December, 1928. Phys. and M. A. Tuve: A Test for the Existence of the Conducting Layer,
,
Rev., vol. 28,
48
49.
pp. 554-575, September, 1926. ,,,, 1948. Ionospheric Radio Propagation, Natl. Bur. Standards (U.S.) Ore. 462, June 25, Recorder, Model C-4, Proc. IRE, vol. J. N.: Automatic Sweep-frequency Ionosphere
Brown,
50
Applications to Incoherent Scattering of Radio Waves by Free Electrons with November, 1958. Space Exploration by Radar, Proc. IRE, vol. 46, pp. 1824-1829, Backscatter Observation at 440 51. Pineo, V. C, L. G. Kraft, Jr., and H. W. Briscoe: Ionospheric May, 1960. Mc/s,'/. Geophys. Research, vol. 65, pp. 1620-1621, Presnell, B. Dyce, L. T. Dolphin R. 52. Peterson, AM., R. L. Leadabrand, W. E. Jaye, R. JEarth Satellites 1957 Alpha from Obtained Echoes Radar Schlobohm: and J. C. Rorden L for Aeronautical Research and 1957 Beta, in "Avionics Research," pp. 140-155, Advisory Group
47, pp. 296-300, February, 1959.
Gordon
E.
53
'
and Development (AGARD), NATO, Pergamon Press, New York, 1960. Observations Made with the Millstone Hill Pettengill G H and L. G. Kraft, Jr. Earth Satellite NATO, Pergamon Press, New York, AGARD, 125-134, Research," "Avionics pp. in Radar
:
1960.
636

:
D. K. Sputnik II as Observed by C-band Radar, IRE Natl. Conv. Record, vol 7 t>t 5 v ' pp. 67-73, 1959. 55. Brown, R. R., P. E. Green, Jr., B. Howland, R. M. Lerner, R. Manasse, and G. Pettengill: Radio Observations of the Russian Earth Satellite, Proc. IRE, vol. 45, pp. 1552-1553 November 1957. 56. Peterson, A. M. Radio and Radaf Tracking of the Russian Earth Satellite, Proc. IRE vol
54. Barton,
'
' :
45
pp. 1553-1555, November, 1957.

57.
58. 59.
60.
Schwartzman, A., and P. D. Stahl: Doppler Equation for Earth Satellite Measurements Proc IRE, vol. 46, pp. 915-916, May, 1958. Brito, J. M. A Correction Necessary for the Application of the Doppler Effect to the Measurements of Distances to Satellites, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, p. 2023, November, 1959. Harris, I., and W. F. Cahill: Determination of Satellite Orbits from Radar Data, Proc. IRE vol 48, pp. 1657-1658, September, 1960. Guier, W. H., and G. C. Weiffenback A Satellite Doppler Navigation System, Proc. IRE vol 48
: : :
pp. 507-516, April, 1960. 61. Mengel, J. T. Tracking the Earth Satellite, and Data Transmission by Radio, Proc. IRE vol 44 pp. 755-760, June, 1956. 62. Easton, R. L., and J. J. Fleming: The Navy Space Surveillance System, Proc. IRE, vol. 48 pp. 663-669, April, 1960. 63. de Bey, L. G. Tracking in Space by DOPLOC, IRE Trans., vol. MIL-4, pp. 332-335, April-July,
:
64. Patton,
vol.
R. B., Jr. Orbit Determination from Single Pass Doppler Observations, MIL-4, pp. 336-344, April-July, 1960.
:
IRE
Trans
65. Shapiro, 66.
I.
I.:
"The
Prediction of Ballistic Missile Trajectories from

12, p. 47,
Radar Observations,"
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1958. New Missile-warning Radar Site, Electronics, vol. 33, no.
67. Allen, J. L.,
W. W. Camp,
L. Cartledge, A. A. Galvin,
planetary Exploration,
available.)
68. Skolnik,
MIT
Mar. 18, 1960. and M. I. Skolnik: Radars for InterLincoln Lab. Group Kept. 31-145, Mar. 26, 1959. (Not generally J
M. I., and L. Cartledge: Communication System for a Small Interplanetary Vehicle, Proc. Natl. Symposium on Space Electronics and Telemetry {San Francisco), September, 1959. 69. Brockman, M. H., H. R. Buchanan, R. L. Choate, and L. R. Mailing: Extra-terrestrial Radio
Tracking and Communication, Proc. IRE, vol. 48, pp. 643-654, April, 1960. Leadabrand, R. L., R. B. Dyce, A. Fredriksen, R. I. Presnell, and J. C. Schlobohm Evidence That the Moon Is a Rough Scatterer at Radio Frequencies, /. Geophys. Research, vol. 65, rm vv 30713078, October, 1960. 71. Jaye, W. E., R. B. Dyce, and R. L. Leadabrand: Radar Echoes Obtained from Earth Satellites 1957 Alpha and 1957 Beta, Planetary Space Sci., vol. 5, pp. 50-58, 1961. 72. Victor, W. K., and R. Stevens: Exploration of Venus by Radar, Science, vol 134 no 3471
70.
:
pp. 46^18, July

73. Mailing, L. R.,
vol. 22, pp.
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1961.
S.
and
W. Golomb: Radar Measurements
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IRE
297-303, October, 1961.
INDEX
A posteriori probability, 427 A priori probability, 427, 430
A-scope,
6,
Amplitude, measurement accuracy of, 463 Amplitude comparison monopulse, 176-178

Amplitude-derivative measurements, 455 Amplitude fluctuations in tracking radar,
439-440
butterfly effect in, 116
Absorbing coatings and radar cross section,

565
radar, 80 on Accuracy, of angle measurement, 476-482 pulse compression, 496-497 of of frequency measurement, 473-474
AMTI,
184-186 155-157
Acceleration, effect
CW
altitude return in, 160
coherent, 155-156
FM
and inverse probability, 471-472 and likelihood function, 472-473 of radar measurements, 462-482
of range measurement, 464-473 FM-CW altimeter, 95-100
radar, 109 multiple-frequency Acoustic delay lines, 119-123 Acquisition with tracking radar, 190-192 Acquisition radar, 164
of sidelobes on, 159-162 noncoherent, 156-157 platform motion, 157-159

effect
pulse doppler, 156
CW
AN/APN-22, 91, 96 AN/APQ-7, 308, 318 AN/CPS-6B, 13, 460 AN/FPN-31, 579 AN/FPQ-6, 195
AN/FPS-3, 13 AN/FPS-6, 13,458-459 AN/FPS-16, 193-195 AN/FPS-24, 15 AN/FPS-49, 633 AN/FPS-50, 632-633
AHSR-1, 303,460
Aided tracking, 189
Air Traffic Control Beacon System, 596, 599601
Airborne weather-avoidance radar, 582-585 Aircraft detection in weather, 546-547 Aircraft-surveillance radar, example, 572-579
Airport surface detection equipment (ASDE), 579-581
AN/MPQ-10, 16 AN/MPQ-12, 193 AN/MPS-25, 193

AN/SPG-49, 16 AN/TPS-22, 277 AN/TPS-27, 276-277, 458
Alpha Centauri, 611

Altimeter, fixed error, 95-99
AN/UPD-1,
FM-CW,
90-95
errors,
527 Angels (radar echoes),
measurement
radio, 11,73
95-100
servo control of, 94-95

Altitude information from beacon replies, 595,
57, 551-554 Angle fluctuations in tracking radar, 186-18 Angular accuracy, 476-482 and tracking radar, 184-189 Angular position measurement, 456-457
601
160 Ambiguity, in radar measurements, 483484

Altitude return in
in range, 57
AMTI,
Anomalous propagation, 509-512 Antenna temperature, 367, 371-373

Antennas, 260-349
aperture blocking, 269-270, 285-286 aperture distribution, 264-269 aperture efficiency, 267-268
Ambiguity diagram, 485-493 Ambiguity function, 485

Amplifiers, IF, 388-391
array (see Array antennas)
parametric, 375-379
power
tubes,
comparison
of,
244-248
receiver
RF, 373-384
beam-pointing error, 342 beam shape and clutter, 525-527 beam width, 60
bootlace, 303
saturated, 228
(See also specific types of amplifiers)
broadband
637
signals, effect of,
330-336
Amplitron, 227-231
Cassegrain, 282-286
638
Index
Antennas, systematic errors, 337 Taylor distribution, 326-327
360 torus, 282
"tin-hat" geodesic analog, 293-294 tolerance of lens, 290-291
transient behavior of, 334-335 uniform aperture distribution, 266-267
Antennas, circular aperture, 268-269 constrained lens, 289-290

cosecant-squared, 60, 329-330, 525-527
cosine aperture distribution, 266-267
dielectric lens,
286-288
zoned, 286-287
260-262 Dolph-Chebyshev pattern synthesis, 323326

directive gain,
effective aperture, 60,
efficiency,
Woodward-Levinson pattern
323
synthesis,
321-
263
Antiinterference circuits, 358-361
268
errors, effect of,
f/D
ratio,
336-343 274-275
Area MTI, 114 Array antennas, 294-320 advantages and limitations, 318-320
array factor, 298
steering, 298-301 binomial distribution, 325 broadside, 295
fan beam, 58
264 feeds for, 271-274 focused, 347-349

far field,
beam
Fourier pattern synthesis, 320-321
correlation, 335
Fraunhofer region, 264 Fresnel region, 264, 347-349 gain, 4, 260-263 effect of errors on, 338 icing of surfaces, 275-276 lenses, 286-294 Luneburg lens, 291-294 metal-plate lens, 288-290
modified (sin
iru)/iru
Dolph-Chebyshev, 323-326 element factor, 298 elements for, 314-315 endfire, 295 frequency scanning, 311-314
grating lobes, 298
linear,
295
multiple-beam-forming, 301-305
pattern, 327-329
mubis, 303
mutual coupling, 315 nonresonant, 306-307
264 273-274 one-dimensional aperture, 266-268 optimum feed illumination, 272-273 Paraballoon, 276-277 parabolic reflector, 269-277 parabolic torus, 278-281 pattern synthesis, 320-329 pencil beam, 58 polarization, 263 power gain, 58, 262-263 power pattern, 261 264 primary pattern, 271
field,
near
PABFA
(postamplification beam-forming
offset feed,
array), 301-305
parallel-fed,
phase
shifters for,
305-306 307-312
of,
planar, 295
radar applications
resonant, 306-307
316-318
radiation pattern, 296-301
305-306, 335 space frequency equivalence, 332-333

series-fed,
radiation efficiency, 262

radiation-intensity pattern, 261
radiation pattern, 261
264-269
radomes, 343-347
random
errors,
337-343
reciprocity, 58
reflector surfaces, leakage through,
275-277
scanning of parabola, 277 with scanning feeds, 277-282
Taylor distribution, 326-327 time-average-product, 335-336 two-dimensional scanning, 312-314 unequal element spacing, 315-316 Artificial dielectrics, 287-288 Astronomical unit (AU), 614 Astronomy, radar, 603-627 ATC beacon system, 599-601 Atmospheric absorption noise, 368-369 Atmospheric noise, 369 ATR (see Duplexers)
Attenuation,
by atmospheric
gases,
67,
516-
secondary pattern, 271 sidelobes, 263 effect of errors on, 337-343 spherical reflector, 277-278 stepped parabolic reflector, 278
supergain, 321
synthetic side-looking, 527
518
by
of
precipitation, 543-545
RF lines,
61
Aural detection, 443-444 Auroras, radar echoes from, 621-624

Autocorrelation receiver, 421
Automatic frequency control (AFC), 358
Index
Automatic gain control (AGC), 168-170 Automatic overload control (AOC), 597
Butler beam-forming network, 303
Butterfly effect
639
on A-scope, 116
B-scope, 391,441
Backscatter from radar targets, 40
Cancellation ratio, 141
Cascode
amplifier, 388
Backward-wave
amplifier, 228
Cassegrain antenna, 282-286
in radar receivers, 374 Balanced mixer, 386-387 receiver, 78-82 Bandwidth, of effective, 467 of multicavity klystrons, 224-225 noise, 23-24 of radar tubes, 246 of traveling-wave tube, 226-227 Barrage jammer, 560-561
CW
Cathode-ray tubes (CRT), 391-394 Cavities for klystron, 219 Chaff, 564 Chain Home (CH), 12 Chebyshev distributions, 323-326
Chemical recorder, 441-443 Circular polarization, and weather echoes, 547551
Cislunar medium, radar echoes from, 627
Bat "radar," 14 Bates, R. H. T., 341 Bayes' rule, 427^*28 Beacon, radar, 594-601
Clouds, radar echoes from, 542-543 Clutter, composite, 521
denned, 113, 521 ground, 522-527

internal fluctuations of, 145-148
Beacon range equations, 596-597 Beam-forming networks, 301-304 Beam power tubes, 236-237
matched filter for, 535-537 power spectrum, 535

sea {see Sea clutter)
spectra of, 146
Beam shape loss, 62-63 Beam splitting, 448-449, 481-482

Beam-steering array, 298-301
weather, 539-551
Clutter attenuation, 146-150
Beamwidth, variation
299-301
of,
with steering angle,
and platform motion, 157-159

Clutter foldover, 151 Clutter model, Rayleigh, 535 Clutter reduction, 534-539
Bessel function, modified, 33
Bessel functions, 100-103
Bickmore, R. W., 300 Billboard radar, 308 Binary integration, 446-449 Binary-quantized video, 481-482
Bipolar video,
1 1
Birds, radar echoes from, 551-553

Bistatic radar, 9,
Blair,
Coded pulse, 497-498 Coherent AMTI, 155-156 Coherent detector, 437 Coherent integration, 35-36 Coherent reference signal, 114
Coho, 117
Collapsing
loss,
585-594
W.
R., 11
64
to,
Blind ranges, 153

Blind speeds, 124-125, 153
Blip, 391
Communications, interference via meteor echoes, 621
559
Composing
function, 321
Blip-scan ratio, 56, 69
Block diagram, radar, 5
Composite clutter, 521 Confusion ECM, 559

Conical scan tracking, 166-175, 565 Constant false-alarm receiver (CFAR), 436, 566 Conversion loss of mixer, 385
Correlation arrays, 335 Correlation detection, 418-422 Correlation function and matched filter, 412 Corridor chaff, 564 Cosecant-squared antenna, 60, 329-330, 525527 Cosmic noise, 366-368
Critical frequency, 624
BMEWS,
278-279, 346, 631-633 Boltzmann's constant, 23 Boot, H. A. H., 12, 198-199 Boxcar generator, in MTI radar, 1 52 in tracking radar, 168, 174-175 Bracket decoding, 598 Break lock, 563-564
Breit, G., 9
Brewster's angle, 504
Bright band and rain echoes, 542, 585 Brightness, 367

Brightness temperature, 367, 370-371
Burnout, crystal diode, 387-388 Burnthrough, 566
Cross-correlation detection and Venus experi-
ment, 615-617
640
Index
Delay line, losses in, 121-123 low temperature coefficient, 138.
mercury, 119-123
in
Cross-correlation receiver, 418-421, 482
Cross section, of absorbing targets, 49 B-26, 45

B-47, 46
MTI
radar, 119-123
of a bird, 552 bistatic, 590-593 of complex targets, 43-50 computation, 44 of cone, 41

defined,
quartz, 119-123
Delay-line canceler, 116-117, 119-140
147-148 double delay line, 132-133 double-loop single delay line, 134-135
clutter attenuation,
filter
40
characteristics, 123-124, 126
of electrons, 626 fluctuations of, 50-56 frequency dependence

geometrical optics, 43
FM,
of, 46,
136-137
48
frequency response, 133-134 IF, 135-136
and target
velocity,
126-129
of ground clutter, 523-525 of a housefly, 552 of a large jet aircraft, 48 of a man, 49 of meteorological particles, 539-543 of moon, 609 of an ogive, 43
polarization dependence, 49
in radar equation, 4
three-pulse comparison, 132-133
Delay-line integrators, 445-446
Delta function, 28 Density modulation, 233 Despiking circuit, 251

Detection and waveform design, 483 Detection criteria, 422-427
Detector balance bias (DBB), 360

Detectors, 430-439
reduction of, 565 of a rod, 43
coherent, 437
envelope, 29,
linear,
430^33
of second Russian satellite, 628-629 of simple scattering objects, 43 of a sphere, 41
432
logarithmic, 433-434
synchronous, 438-439
and surface roughness, 49 Crossover range, 561-562
Devane, M.
E.,
Dickey, F. R.,
Jr.,
275 157
Crowbar
circuit,
243
Dielectric lens antenna, 286-288 Dielectric loss in
Crystal mixers, 385-388 Crystal noise, 362
RF
tubes, 234
Diffraction, radar target, 40
CW radar, 73-86
advantages and limitations, 85-86 bistatic, 9, 585-594 doppler navigation, 103-106
effect
Diffraction region, 501, 506, 512-515 Diffraction screen, 504, 516-517

Digital detection, 446-449
Diode, burnout, 387-388
of acceleration on, 80
Diode mixer, 385-388

Diode-switched phase shifter, 311 Dipole in array antenna, 314
Direct noise amplification (D1NA), 561
Directive gain, 260-262
Directivity of antenna, 260
FM (.see FM-CW radar)

isolation in,
75-77
multiple-frequency, 106-111
radical velocity in, sign of, 82-84
range measurement with, 106-111 surveying with, 1 10-1 1

wave-interference, 9
CXAM,
Davies,
11
Displays for radar data, 391-395 Dolph-Chebyshev distribution, 323-326 Doploc, 631 Doppler frequency, 3, 72-73, 84-85
in bistatic radar, 588
in
I.
L.,
427^30
FM-CW radar,
88
Deadtime in transponder, 599 Death ray, 1

Deception ECM, 559-560 Decoy, 564-565
Deflection-modulated
Defruiter, 598
CRT,
391
DeForest Audion, 233, 239

Degenerate
and satellite orbit, 630 Doppler navigation, 103-106 Doppler tracking, 190 Double cancellation, MTI, 132-133 Double delay line, 147, 150 Double-ended tube configuration, 238-239
Double-threshold detection, 447 Double-tuned IF amplifier, 390
mode
in parametric amplifier, 375
Index
Ducting of radar waves, 509
Ferrite phase shifters, 309-310
641
Dumped
integrator, 39
6,
FH MUSA,
309, 317
Duplexers,
395-403
399
stability,
Field degradation, loss due to, 66

Filter bank, 81
arc loss, 398
ATR tubes,
balanced,
ferrite,
and magnetron
207
399^02
branch-type, 395-396
402 402
in,
keep-alive, 397
shutters,
spike leakage
397
Fine-grain range information, 470-471 Fixed error, 95-99 Flicker noise, 77, 362-363 Fluctuations, iof moon echo, 605-607 in MTI, due to clutter, 145-148 due to platform motion, 157-159 due to scanning, 148-151 of radar target echoes, 50-56
396-399 Duty cycle, 56
TR tubes,
Flux density, 370

Flying saucers, 57, 551, 554
FM-CW radar,
altimeter,
86-103 90-95
Eagle scanner, 308
Ear as a bandpass filter, 441 ECCM, 565-567 Echoes {see Cross section)
doppler shift, 88 double-modulated, 98-99

frequency discriminator isolation in, 100-103
in,
97-98
ECM,
559-565
E.E.V.-type 7182 magnetron, 216, 248

Effective aperture of antenna, 263
477 467 Effective earth's radius, 507-508 Effective noise temperature, 365-366
Effective aperture width, Effective bandwidth, Effective time duration, 473
Efficiency, antenna, 268
of integration, 36, 442 of practical filters, 413-415 of radar tubes, 245-246

Electronic crowbar, 243
Electronically scanned array, 296
and / 3 Bessel component, 102-103 range accuracy, 95-100 range measurement, 87 transmitter leakage, 100-103 delay-line canceler, 136-137 pulse compression, 493-497 Focused antennas, 347-349 Fog, attenuation in, 544-545 Fourier pattern synthesis, 320-321 Fourier transform, 264-266
FM FM
Electrons, radar echoes from, 626

Electrostatic focusing of klystron, 223
R. S., 338-340 Energy in transmitted waveform, 56 Envelope detector, 29, 430^133 Environmental noise, 366-373
Elliott,
Error signal, in conical scan radar, 170-175, 180181

in
monopulse radar, 178-181
Fox, A. G., 309 Fraunhofer region, of antenna, 264 Frequency of radar tubes, 245 Frequency agility, 560 Frequency diversity radar, 15, 17, 566 Frequency measurement accuracy, 463, 473-474 Frequency meter, cycle counting, 95 Frequency pushing of magnetron, 210 Frequency response function of matched filter, 409 Frequency scanning, 311-314 Frescan radar, 18, 313-314 Fresnel region of antenna, 264, 347-349
Fruit in radar beacon, 598
Fuller, Buckminster, 345
Errors, effect on antenna patterns, 336-343

in
FM-CW altimeter,
95-100
ESAR, 18,318
Exponential weighting in integration, 38-40
Extraterrestrial radar targets, 603
Gabor, D., 467

Gain, of antenna, 58, 260-263 of radar tubes, 246
False alarm and type
I error,
423
y-correcting circuit, 393
False-alarm number, 32 False-alarm probability, 22, 31-35 False-alarm time, 30-35
Garbling, 598 Gaseous-discharge phase
shifters,
310
Gating, 189.
Far field of antenna, 264 Faraday rotation, 605-607 Fast time constant (FTC), 359
Gaussian pulse shape, 220, 554-555
GCA radar,
318
George, T. S 157
642
Index
Interference, radar,
Gibbs's phenomenon, 321

Glint, target, 186-188
in array antennas, 298 phase-comparison monopulse, 182 Grid-controlled tubes, 233-243 limitations of, 233-236 Ground clutter, 522-527
554-559
Interference region, 501, 506
Grating lobes,
in
Interferometer radar, 181

Interrogator, beacon, 594-601
Inverse probability, 427-430
and measurement accuracy, 471-472 Ionized media, radar echoes from, 624-627
Ionosphere, radar echoes from, 624-626
Ground mapping, 527 Guard band, in frequency, 558

in range,
Ionospheric sounder, 624-625
426
Isoecho-contour
Isolation, in
in
circuit,
583
CW doppler navigator,
radar, 100-103
105-106
CW radar, 75-77
FM-CW
Hard-tube modulator, 253-254 Hay, D. R., 50 Haystack Hill radar, 347 Height-finder radar, 459 Height measurement, 457-461 Helical-line phase shifter, 308
Helical scan, 191
in
Jamming, 560-564
sweepthrough, 561
transponder, 563
Janus, 104
Jet
Hertz, Heinrich, 8
Propulsion Laboratory, 617
Homodyne, 77 Hoover, M. V., 233n. Huggins, W. H., 310, 435

Hulsmeyer,
Jitter in tracking radar,
184
C,
Hydrogen thyratron, 251

Hyland, L. A., 9 Hypothesis testing, 423-427
Klystron amplifier, 216-225 bandwidth, 224-225 cavities, 219

description of operation, 217-219
electrostatic focusing, 223
W),33
Icing of antenna surface, 275-277 Ideal Observer, 423-424
Idling frequency in parametric amplifier, 376
modulating anode, 219-220 as receiver front-end, 374
Laser, 383-384
Leichter, M., 342
IF
amplifiers, 388-391
(See also specific types of IF amplifiers)
Lens antennas, 286-294

Libration of
IFF, 595
Impulse-noise silencing circuit, 558
moon, 605
Life of radar tubes, 248
Impulse response of matched
filter,
410
Lightning, radar echoes from, 543
Incoherent scattering from electrons, 626-627
Likelihood function, 461-462
Index of refraction, 506 Induced grid noise, 362 Insects, radar echoes from, 552 Instantaneous automatic gain control (IAGC), 359-360 Integration, coherent, 35-36
efficiency, 36, 39-40,
and measurement accuracy, 472-473 Likelihood ratio, 425-427

Limitations of grid-controlled tubes, 233-236
Limiting loss, 63
Lin-log receiver, 538
442
improvement
loss,
factor, 36, 53
Line stretcher, 307-308 Line-type modulator, 249-251 Linear detector, 432
36
Lobe
switching, 165
to
noncoherent, 35-38
Lobing due
504
ground
reflections,
67,
503-
54 postdetection, 35-38 predetection, 35-36 Integrator, continuous, 39-40

partial correlation,
Local-oscillator noise, 386-387
h detector, 432 Logarithmic detector, 433-434

Log
Logarithmic receiver for clutter reduction, 537539 Long-line effect, 211-215 Loss rate in tracking radar, 188
445-446 446-449 dumped, 39

delay-line,
digital,
Intensity-modulated
CRT,
391
Index
Losses,
643
beam
shape, 62-63
collapsing, 64
in delay lines, 121-123
field
Millstone Hill radar, 193-194, 610 Minimum cost in radar design, 572
Minimum
detectable signal, 21
degradation, 66
Minitrack, 630
Miss, probability of, 22
integration, 36
64 nonideal equipment, 64-65 operator, 65

limiting,
Missed detection and type
II error,
423
MIT MIT
Lincoln Laboratory, 192-193, 615 Radiation Laboratory, 12, 192
plumbing, 61
RF lines,
Luneburg
61
scanning, 63 Low-altitude coverage, 512-515

lens,
291-294
Mixer, balanced, 386-387 low- temperature operation, 387 noise figure, 386 receiver, 385-388 Modified (sin ttu)jttu pattern, 327-329
M-out-of-w detection, 447 Magnetic drum as integrator, 446 Magnetron, 199-216 description, 200-204 examples of, 214-216
frequency pushing, 210 historical development, 199-200
for marine radar, 216
performance chart, 204-206 pulling figure, 208 Rieke diagram, 204, 206-208 rising sun, 204 stability, 201-204 tuning, 208-211 Magnetron amplifier, 228 Man-made noise, 369 Mapping of ground, 527 Marconi, S. G., 9 Marcum, J. I., 36, 63, 431^433 Marine radar, magnetrons for, 216
Modulating anode in klystron, 219-220, 248 Modulation loss of moon echo, 609 Modulators, 248-255 comparison of, 255 hard-tube, 253-254 line-type, 249-251 pulse shape, 254-255 saturable-reactor, 252-253 Monofier, 223-224 Monopulse radar, 175-184 Monostatic radar, 585 Moon, radar echoes from, 604-610 modulation loss in, 609 Moving target indication (MTI), 113-162
airborne, 155-157
equipment
stability,
141-145
1
externally coherent,
54
from moving platform, 155-157

noncoherent, 154-155
with range gates and filters, 151-153 Tellurometer, 15 Multiple-frequency radar, 106-111
MRA-2
CW
Markov
process, 55
Multiple prf, 129-131
Masers, 379-384
noise figure, 374
Master-oscillator
Multiple-time-around echoes,
2,
57-58
Multiple-unit steerable antenna

118,
(MUSA),
309,
power amplifier (MOPA),
317
Multistatic radar, 585
198
Matched
409-418 for clutter reduction, 535-537 Mattingly, R. L., 326 Maximum-likelihood estimator and angular accuracy, 480 Maximum-likelihood function, 461-462
filter,
21,
Naval Research Laboratory, 9-10
Navy
space surveillance system, 631
Maximum usable frequency (MUF), 625 Maxson beam-forming network, 303

Measurement accuracy, 462-482 Measurements in radar, 453-462 Mercury delay lines, 119-123
Metal-plate lens, 288-290
Near field of antenna, 264 Neyman-Pearson Observer, 423-427 Nodding scan, 191
Noise, atmospheric, 369
atmospheric absorption, 368-369

cosmic, 366-368
crystal,
362
due
to losses, 370
Meteorological echoes, 539-543 Meteors, radar echoes from, 619-621
environmental, 366-373
flicker, 77,
Meter for detection, 444

Microwave-radiation hazards, 518-519
362 induced grid, 362 local oscillator, 386-387
Mie
region, 41
man-made, 369
644
Index
Parseval's theorem, 412
Partition noise, 362
Noise, partition, 362

receiver,
361-373
shot, 362
solar,
Passive
ECM,
564-565
369
Pattern synthesis, of antennas, 320-329

Pearl Harbor, 11
thermal, 23, 361-362

tracking, 184
363 white, 361-362

transistor,
Noise bandwidth, 23, 361 Noise cancellation, 558-559 Noise figure, 24, 363-365 of IF amplifiers, 388 measurement of, 364-365 of mixer, 386 networks in cascade, 364 of radar receivers, 374 Noise jamming, 560-563 Noise-silencing circuit, 558 Noise temperature, effective, 365-366 system, 371-373 Noise temperature ratio, 385 Noncoherent AMTI, 156-157 Noncoherent integration, 35-38 Noncoherent MTI, 154-155 Nonideal equipment, loss due to, 64 Nonwhite noise (NWN) matched filter, 416-418 North, D. O., 409 Nutating feed, 167
Performance chart of magnetron, 204-206 Performance figure of radar, 69 Periodmeter, 436 Phase, measurement accuracy of, 463 Phase-coded pulse compression, 497-498 Phase-comparison monopulse, 181-184 Phase-derivative measurements, 453-454 Phase detector in MTI radar, 118 Phase filter, 435-436 Phase-locked detector, 438-439 Phase pushing in Amplitron, 230 Phase-shifting devices, 307-312 Phosphors for CRT displays, 392-394 77 mode in magnetron, 200, 202-204
Pisa indicator, 177
Plan position indicator (PPI),

Plank, V. G., 552-554
6,
440-441
Planets, radar echoes from, 610-618
Platform motion in
Platinotron, 232
AMTI,
157-159
Plumbing
loss, 61
Polarization, antenna, 263

in Cassegrain antenna,
circular,
286
547-551
Olmstead, P. S., 55 Operator, radar, performance of, 439-445 Operator adaptability, 444-445, 566-567 Operator loss, 65 Optical horizon, 513
scattering matrix,
49
Postamplification beam-forming array
(PABFA),
301-303
Postdetection integration, 35-38
Optimum
defined, 408.
Organ-pipe scanner, 280-282
Power, average, 56 peak, 56 of radar tubes, 245
141-144 Oscillators as radar power tubes, 244-245 Oxygen, attenuation in, 516-517
Oscillator stability in
MTI radar,
Power gain of antenna, 58, 262-263 Power spectrum of amplitude fluctuations, 185 Power transmission at RF, 349
PPI,
6,
440-441 137-140
Predetection integration, 35-36
Pb factor
for thyratrons, 251-252
Prf, generation of,
Page, R. M., 10
staggered, 129-131
Palmer scan, 191

Paraballoon antenna, 276-277
Parabolic cylinder antenna, 270
Parabolic-reflector antenna, 269-277
Prf discrimination, 556-557

Pritchard,
W.
L.,
212
Probability-density function, 25-29
Gaussian, 27
noise envelope, 30
Parabolic torus antenna, 278-281
Parameter estimation, 453, 461-462 and angular accuracy, 478-480 Parametric amplifier, 375-379
degenerate mode, 375
Rayleigh, 28, 51, 535

for relative velocity, 126-129
signal-plus-noise envelope, 33
uniform, 26
Probability distribution function, 29
double-channel operation, 376 examples of, 378-379

noise figure, 374, 377
single-channel operation, 376
Propagation, 66-67, 501-518
up-con verter, 378
anomalous, 509-512 over a plane earth, 501-506 over a round earth, 506
Index
Propeller modulation, 45, 79, 185
645
Proximity fuze, 75 Pulling figure of magnetron, 208

Pulsactor, 253
Radar, stacked-beam, 427 surveying with, 110-111

synchronization of, 558
target cross section (see Cross section)
156 effect of sidelobes on, 159-162 Pulse-doppler radar, 113, 153-154

Pulse-doppler
AMTI,
taxi,
579
3-D, 457
tracking (see Tracking radars)
transmitters,
Pulse-forming network, 249

Pulse compression, 493-498
J98-255
V-beam, 459
wave-interference, 585
Pulse compression ratio, 494 Pulse shape, modulator, 254-255
weather-avoidance, 582-585
Pulse-width discrimination, 555-556

Pulser, 248
X-beam, 460
radar, 82-84 Radial velocity, sign of, in Radiation hazards, microwave, 518-519
CW
Pump frequency,
maser, 380-382 parametric amplifier, 375
QK-358, QK-520, QK-622, QK-630,
202-203, 207
229 229-231 232

line,
Quarter- wave plate, 549-550
Quartz delay
119-123
Radiation pattern, of antenna, 261, 264 of array antenna, 296-301 effect of errors on, 336-343 Radio stars, 369 Radomes, 343-347 Railing, 554 Rain, attenuation in, 543-544 radar echoes from, 540-541 Randall, J. T., 12, 198-199
Radar,
155-157 applications, 14-17 astronomy, 603-627 beacons, 594-601

block diagram, 5
AMTI,
CW (see CW radar) CW wave-interference, 9

data, remoting of, 394-395
design, examples of, 572-585

detection, sequential, applied to,
Range, maximum unambiguous, 2 measurement accuracy of, 464-473 FM pulse compression, 496-497 Gaussian pulse, 469 rectangular pulse, 464-468 (sin x)lx waveform, 470 trapezoidal pulse, 468 triangular pulse, 469 radar prediction of, 67-70 Range-gate stealer, 563-564 426
detection of satellites by, 628-630
Range gates in MTI radar, 152 Range measurement, 455-456

in in
equation, 3-5, 20-70

for bistatic radar, 590 for meteorological particles, 539-540
frequencies, 7-8
CW radar,
106-111
87
FM-CW radar,
frequency diversity, 15, 17, 566 history, 8-14

horizon, 513-515
interference in, 554-559
Range rate measurement, 456 Range reduction in weather, 545-546 Range tracking, 189-190
Raster scan, 191
Rate-of-climb meter, 84 Rayleigh probability density, 28, 51, 535 Rayleigh roughness criterion, 523
interferometer, 181
monopulse, 175-184 MTI, 133-162 phase detector in, 118 range gates in, 152 visibility factor in, 124
(See also Stability)
operator, performance of, 439-445 parameter selection, 571-572 performance figure, 69 picket plane, 344 pulse-doppler, 113, 153-154 secondary, 595
side-looking, 527
Rayleigh scattering, 40-41
RCA-A2346, 239-240 RCA-6806, 237 RCA-6952, 238, 247
RDR-ID,
17 Receiver exciter, 117 Receiver noise in tracking radar, 187-188 Receivers, 356-361
antiinterference circuits, 358-361
DBB, 360
FTC, 359
IAGC, 359-360
STC, 360-361
646
Index
diffraction theory,
Receivers, autocorrelation, 421
532-534
533
531
automatic frequency control, 358 cross-correlation, 418-421 logarithmic, 360, 537-539 matched filter, 409-418 noise in, 361-373
Sea
clutter, droplet theory,
facet theory, 534
frequency dependence
of,
RF
amplifiers in, 373-384
superheterodyne, 357-361
types used in radar, 357
Recirculating-delay-line integrator, 446
Reflection coefficient of sea water, 504-505
Refraction of radar waves, 67, 506-512

Refractivity, 507
Repeater jamming, 563-564 Resnatron, 241-243

Resolution, of
532-534 phenomenological description, 527-530 polarization dependence of, 531-532 and sea state, 532 Sea echo, 527 Sea-state scale, 532 Second-time-around echoes, 2, 130-131 Secondary radar, 595 Self-screening range, 561-562 Sensitivity time control (STC), 360-361, 534, 537 in radar beacon, 597
of,
mechanism
CRT displays,
275
392
and waveform design, 484-485
Sequential detection applied to radar, 426 Sequential lobing, 165-166 Sequential Observer, 424-426 Servo noise in tracking radar, 187-188 Shannon sampling theorem, 321
Short-slot hybrid, 399
RF
amplifiers in receivers, 373-384

J.,
Ricardi, L.
Rieke diagram of magnetron, 204, 206-208 Rigid radome, 345-347
Ring echo, 553 Ring-around in beacon
Shot noise, 362

displays, 597
Side-looking radar, 527

Side-by-side displays, 441^143
Rising-sun magnetron, 204
Rocky Point
effect,
243
Sideband superheterodyne, 78, 92

Sidelobe cancellation, 559 Sidelobe suppression in beacons, 598
Sidelobes, effect
Siegel,
Rondinelli, L. A., 339, 342
Rotary-waveguide phase shifter, 308-309 Rotating-arm phase shifter, 307 Rotating feed, 167 Rotodome, 344 Roughness, surface, 523 Rush, S., 304 Ruvin, A. E., 134 Ruze, J., 321,323, 337-343
on AMTI, 159-162
K. M., 44 Signal Corps, 11,604

Signal-to-noise ratio,
and detection
probability,
53
Safety circle, 584
SAGE,
13, 165
SAL-36, 221 SAL-89, 223 SAL-219, 223 SAS-37, 218 SAS-6 1,247
Satellites,
and minimum detectable signal, 24, 34 Simultaneous lobing, 175-184 Single-ended tube configuration, 238-239 Slot, waveguide, in array antenna, 314 Slot radiator as phase shifter, 311 Smith chart, 206 Snow, attenuation in, 544 radar echoes from, 541 Solar noise, 369
Sound
locator,
radar detection of, 628-630
Saturable-reactor modulator, 252-253
Saturated amplifier, 228 Scanning fluctuations, 148-151
Scanning
loss,
63
Scattering, radar target,
40
Space-frame radomes, 346 Space frequency equivalence, 332-333 Space-surveillance systems, 630-631 Space temperature, 368 Space vehicles, radar tracking of, 633-634 Sphere cross section, 41 Spherical antennas, 277-278
Spiral scan, 191
Schwartz, M., 54
Schwartz inequality, 411 SCR-268, 11, 192,233 SCR-270, 11,233, 317,604
Split-range gate tracking, 189-190
Sponsler, G.
C,
55
Spot chaff, 564
SCR-584,
Screens,
11, 167, 192-193,
457
CRT, 393-394
Sea clutter, 527-534 and depression angle, 530-531
Spot jammer, 560 Square-law detector, 432 Squint angle, 166

Stabilitron,
231-232
Index
Stability,
in
647
magnetron, 201-204 radar, delay-line, 144-145 oscillator, 141-144 prf, 144-145
MTI
Stacked-beam radar, 457 Stagger-damped IF amplifier, 391 Stagger tuning in IF amplifier, 390
Staggered prf, 129-131
Stalo, 117
Temperature, standard, 24 system noise, 371-373 Tetrode as power tube, 239-240 Theory of games and ECCM, 567 Thermal noise, 23, 361-362
Standard temperature, 363 Stanford University, klystron development 220-221

Stark, L., 308
at,
Step scan, 39, 150 Stone, J. S., 325

Straps in magnetron, 201, 203
Subclutter
visibility,
Third detector, 168 3-D radar, 457 Three-level maser, 380 Three-pulse-comparison canceler, 132-133 Threshold detection, 21, 33 Time-average-product arrays, 335-336 Time-delay accuracy (see Range, measurement accuracy of) Tolerances of lens antennas, 290-291 TR tubes, 396-399 Track-while-scan (TWS), 164-165
Tracking, in doppler, 190
in range, 189-190
140-141
Subrefraction, 512
Sun, radar echoes from, 618-619 Supergain antennas, 321 Superheterodyne, 357-361
sideband, in
in
CW radar, 78
92
FM-CW radar,
signal-following, 93
with zero IF, 77
Superpower
UHF triode, 239-240

1
scan, conical, 166-175, 565 Tracking noise, 184 Tracking radars, 164-197 amplitude fluctuations, 184-186 angle fluctuations, 186-188 comparison of, 195-196 conical scan, 166-175 error signals, comparison of, 179-181
Superrefraction, 509-512
Surface roughness, 523
examples of, 192-195 glint, 186-188

1
Surveying with radar,
10-1
jitter in,
184
Sweepthrough jamming, 561 Swerling, P., 51, 52, 188, 478-480

Switching devices, for line-type modulators,
lobe switching, 165

loss rate, 188
251-252 Synchrodyne, 438

Synchronization of radars, 558
Synchronous detector, 438-439 Synchronous pumping in parametric

375
amplifier,
Synchronous tuning
in
IF
amplifier, 390
monopulse, 175-184 receiver noise, 187-188 sequential lobing, 165-166 servo noise, 187-188 simultaneous lobing, 175-184 Traffic capacity, beacon, 597-599 Transit time, electron, 234-235 Transmission of radar data, 394-395
Transmitter leakage in FM-CW radar, 100-103 Transmitter waveform, design of, 482-493 Transmitters, radar, 198-255
Synthetic antenna, 527
System defined, 570 System noise temperature, 371-373 Systems analysis, 571 Systems engineering, 570-571
Transponder, beacon, 594-601 Transponder jammer, 563

Transreflector in Cassegrain antenna, 286
Tacan, 223
Trapping of radar waves, 509 Traveling- wave tube (TWT), bandwidth, 226-227
Tapped
delay-line integrator,
445-446
description, 225
Target cross section (see Cross section) Taxi radar, 579

Taylor, A. H., 9
Taylor distribution, 326-327 Tellurometer, 15, 110 Temperature, antenna, 367, 371-373 brightness, 367, 370-371 effective noise, 365-366
space, 368
310 225-227 in radar receivers, 374 Triodes, in IF amplifiers, 388 as power tubes, 239-240 as RF amplifiers, 373-374 UHF, superpower, 239-240 Tube protection, electronic crowbar, 243 Tubes, power, comparison of, 244-248
phase
shifter,
power
amplifier,
648
Index
Tuning of magnetron, 208-211 Tunnel diode, 374, 384

Turnstile junction, 550-551
MTI radar, 124 Voltage-tuning of magnetrons, 210

Visibility factor in
Von Aulock, W.
H., 300
Tuve,
M.
A., 9
detector, 438
VTO
rate-of-climb meter, 84
Twistreflector in Cassegrain antenna, 286
Two-path
Wamoscope, 394
Ultrasonic light modulator, 391 Uncertainty relation, 474-476
Water-coated 542
ice
spheres, radar echoes from,
Unequally spaced arrays, 315-316 Unipolar video, 117

Up-converter, 378 Urkowitz, H., 157, 537
Water vapor, attenuation in, 516-517 Watson- Watt, Sir Robert, 1

Wave-interference radar, 585
transmitter, design of, 482^193 Weather-avoidance radar, airborne, 582-585
Waveform,
Weather echoes, detection

White,
radar. 459 VA-87, 221, 224-225 VA-125, 227, 247 VA-820, 247 VA-823, 223 VA-839, 225 VA-842, 222 VA-849, 223 Van der Maas, G. J., 326 Varactor, 377-378 Varactor phase shifter, 310 Variance, 26
of,
551
W.
D., 134
V-beam
White
noise,
361-362
P. M., 321, 427-430, 467,
Woodward,
321-323
470-472
synthesis,
Woodward-Levinson antenna pattern
WSR-57, 551
radar, 460 X-ray hazard, 519 X-ray shielding, 222 XAF, 10, 233 X626, 222
X-beam
Velocity-gate stealer, 564 Velocity modulation, 218
Venus, radar echoes from, 615-618 Video, bipolar, 115

unipolar, 117
Visibility, subclutter,
Young, L. C, 9
140-141 of targets in weather, 545-551
Zero-crossings detector, 434-437 Zero IF, 77
Fig.
1.6.
AN/FPS-24 long-range
search radar.
{Courtesy General Electric Co., Heavy Military
Fleet rallies Department .)
^^j
'j\
\ \
imfm
"
\\
i^BBH
Fio.
1.7.
Portable surveying radar
MRA-2
Telluromcter system.
15
[Courtesy Tellurometer, Inc.)
Fk.;.
1.8.
AN/SPO-49
Talos missile-l racking radars on board the U.S.S. Galveston.
(Courtesy
Sperry Gyroscope Co.)
FtG.
1.9.
AN/M PQ-
mortar-de tcct o n radar.

i
( Courtesy
Sperry Cytoscope Co. )
16
Sec.
1.6]
The Natukf, of Radar
17
detecting and tracking intercontinental ballistic missiles; the long-range search radars (Airborne Early system; shipboard surveillance radars; and the of the
SAGE
AEW
Warning) radars. Examples of radars for the control of weapons include the acquisition radars and tracking radars of air defense systems such as those of Nike, homing radars on guided missiles, AI (airborne-interception) radar used to guide a fighter aircraft to its target, and bombing radars. Scien i ific Applied tions. Theuseofradar as a measurement tool by research scientists has vastly increased ourknowledgcof meteorology, aurora, meteors, and other objects Radarcanguide space of the solar system. vehicles and satellites and may be used for
the
exploration
of interplanetary space.
In addition, the tcchniquesand components
developed for radar have been put to good use in such basic research as microwave spectroscopy, radio astronomy, and radar astronomy. Examples. Some of the many varied shapes radars may take are illustrated in
Figs.
1.6)
is
1.6 to
1.12.
The AN/FPS-24
(Fig.
a large frequency-diversity radar (Sec. 12.10) for the surveillance of aircraft.

Its
antenna
is
120
ft
wide and 36
ft
high.
The reflector, pedestal, and feed horn weigh more than 135 tons, A beacon interrogating antenna (Sec. 13.7) is mounted on
lop.
This large radar is contrasted with the MRA-2 Tellurometer surveying radar l-io. 1.10. RDR-ID airborne- weathcr-radar(Fig. 1.7), a small portable equipment svstem antenna. (Cotirtesv Benttix Radio.) capable of precisely measuring the distance between two points (Sec. 3.5). Figure 1.8 shows two AN/SPG-49 missile-tracking radars mounted on board ship. Their function is to automatically acquire and track targets for the Talos surface-to-air missile systems. The two smaller dish-shaped radars are the AN/SPW-2, used to guide the missile to the target. A mortar-detection radar, the AN/MPQ-10, is shown in
30-lb
Fig. 1.9.
Figure 1.10 illustrates the 22-in. -diameter antenna for the RDR-1D airborne weather radar system (Sec. 13.5) designed to be mounted in the nose of an aircraft. A spoiler grid is shown in the upper half ofthe antenna to provide a cosecant-squared beam (Sec.
7,9) for
is a three-dimensional (3-D) pencil-beam radar. Elevation coverage is obtained with electronic frequency scanning (Sec. 7.7), while azimuth scanning is obtained by mechanical rotation ofthe antenna. The antenna beam is stabilized electronically to compensate for the pilch and roll of a ship at
improved ground mapping. TheFrescan radar shown in Fig. 1.11
sea.
An example
7.7).
of an electronically scanned array radar
is
ft.
ESAR
(Fig. 1.12
is
and
Sec.
the
The sloping face of the building measures 50 by 50 beam position is controlled electronically.
The antenna
fixed,
and
Fig. Ml, Frescan 3-D radar mourned on the masthead of the missile cruiser U.S.S, Galveston. (Courtesy Hughes Aircraft Co.)
Fig. 1,12.
filler
FSAR,
electronically steered array radar.
(Radar to the
left
rear
is
the
AN/FPS-1S gap-
radar.) (Courtesy
Bmdbt
Radio.)
18
194
[Sec. 5.9
Fk;,
5.20.
MIT
Lincoln Laboratory Millstone Hilt radar.
(Courtesy
MIT
Lincoln Laboratory.)
Fk
<
.
5,21,
AN; FP S- 6
1
track i n g
rada r.
(Court esy Radio Corporal km of America,)
Sec. 6.2]
7T mode is usually preferred because separated from the others.
Radar Transmitters
it
203
The
is
not degenerate and can be more readily
magnetron invented by Randall and Boot suffered from frequency inand inefficiency as a result of moding troubles. About a year after the invention of the cavity magnetron. Sayre. at the University of Birmingham, found that the stability and efficiency oT the tube could be considerably improved by coupling together every other segment with a circular ring called a strap, as was shown in Fig, 6, The cross section of the straps may be either circular or rectangular. The straps connect all those segments which have the same potential in the n mode. Various forms of strapping are discussed by Walker in Ref. Chap. 4.
early
stability
1 . I ,
The
Fig. 6.4. Photograph of
RK 6517/QK. 358 L-band
magnetron.
(Courtesy Raytheon Company.)
10 cm wavelength than 2 per cent from Us next nearest degenerate mode. 1 A single ring strap increased the separation to greater than 10 per cent. Even greater mode separation is possible if larger or more straps arc used. In a strapped symmetrica! magnetron, the lowest frequency is that correspondStrapping not only improves the stability of operation, but it also ing to the it mode. increases the efficiency, since higher powers can be obtained without fear of mode For example, the early unstrapped British magnetrons were unstable and changing. had efficiencies of 30 to 35 percent. Strapping improved the stability and increased
I
n a particular eight-resonator, unstrapped
magnetron operating ai
less
(3,000 Mc). the frequency of the
n mode was separated by
the efficiency to 50 per cent. Four- or six-segment Strapping is not the only method of obtaining mode stability. anode blocks can be made to function in the tt mode without straps because there are few modes to separate. Another technique is the interdigilal anode block. In the
magnetron there are no individual resonators as such, but there is a closed transmission line with segments (digits) attached alternately to opposite conductors of The modes are readily separated in this construction, but the tube is limited the line.
interdigital
to
Sow power.
Snc. 6.2]
since aperture blocking
Radar TRANSMITTERS
215
Another antenna technique which is not a problem (Sec. 7.6). avoids long lengths of transmission line is the Cassegrain reflector geometry (Sec. 7.5). The long-line clTect may also be eliminated if the transmission line is longer than oneThe deliberate half the pulse length or ifthe attenuation in the line is sufficiently large. use oTa transmission line with large attenuation is not efficient and would be of little
value for high-power radar transmitters. In those applications where it is riot possible to locate the transmitter directly at the antenna or to use a transmission line longer than one-half the pulse length, the reflected wave from the load can be eliminated at the magnetron with a unilateral device such as an isolator or a circulator. These devices prevent the energy reflected from the mismatched load from returning to the magnetron, but they permit the energy to flow
unimpeded
in
a forward direction from the magnetron to the load.
=f*f
FH3. 6.13. Photograph of type 7182 magnetron, without electromagnet. Value Co., Lut.)
{Courtesy English Electric
Another technique
reduce
its
for reducing the long-line effect
is
to decouple the
magnetron
to
pulling figure.
Equation
(6.1)
shows
that a reduction of the pulling figure
Decoupling the oscillator results in an increase of the skip length of the line. There will a decrease in efficiency, as does the insertion of loss in the transmission line. length decoupling increase in skip by given usually be less over-all loss in efficiency for a the magnetron than by the deliberate insertion of loss. If ihcVSWR is not too high, a phase shifter might be used to shift the entire tuning curve to permit quasi-stable operation in between the points of frequency jump. This will not be practical ifthe frequency separation between "skips" is small. An oscillator followed by a power amplifier such as a klystron will not experience On the other hand, long-line effect because of the isolation provided by the amplifier. cfTect since energy long-line the eliminate will not oscillator an an Ampiitron following
results in
traveling in the reverse direction suffers
little or no attenuation. Examples of Pulse Magnetrons. Table 6. lists the characteristics of five magnetrons The tubes included in this table covering the frequency range from L band to A" band. arc not necessarily the best, nor are they claimed to be typical of the many magnetrons which may be available. The tubes were selected since they illustrate the parameters and characteristics of magnetrons. The selection of a magnetron for a specific application is a job that requires careful examination of the various types available from the
1
All the tubes in Table 6.1, several manufacturers in this country as well as abroad. The C-band power tubes. high relatively tube, arc with the exception or the C-band tube is included since it was designed specifically for a commercial application (airborne
weather-avoidance radar), where long

fixed-tuned.
life is
a prime requirement.
The tubes
are
all
Sec. 6.3]
Radar Transmitters
221
frequency, pulse width of the Stanford tube was 2 /*sec, and the pulse repetition was power 20 Mw. peak kw when the power or 2.4 average an 60 cps, corresponding to The tube could operate Ihrec-cavity design was used, and the power gain was 35 db. current of with a maximum beam accelerating voltage of 400 kv and a maximum peak had Pumping amp. 325 kv and were 85 values operating typical 250 amp, although A voltage of 400 kv to be employed to maintain the vacuum during operation. because of the represents a practical upper limit for accelerating voltages, not only
The
working with large voltages, but beonset of relativistic effects. At higher the cause of accelerating voltages the electron velocity is close Further increase in voltage to that of light. increase in electron mass rather than results in an
difficulties in
velocity.
Twenty-two of these klystrons were used
at
Stanford University in the 220-ft linear accelerator lo produce electrons with energies in the In operation, these billion volts. vicinity of
1
tubes have had an average

1,500 hr.
life
of approximately
Stanford
The development of
the
30-Mw
klystron represented a considerable achievement and opened new possibilities for the radar systems engineer. In particular, it permitted the
development of MTI radar systems far better than was possible with the magnetron. The
superior average power capabilities of the klystron permitted radars to be designed with considerably more power than possible previous to
its
introduction.
The pioneering work of
the Stanford scientists
was followed by the engineering and packaging

of sealcd-offklystrons by the tube industry. The first two klystrons commercially available for radar application were the Sperry Gyroscope Company SAL-36 and the Varian VA-87. The
39 40 operated at L band with 2 to Sperry SAL-36 Fig. 6.16. Varian VA-87 pulsed -amplifier of pulsed power with an efficiency exceed4 klystron. [Courtesy Varian Associates.) ing 40 per cent. The VA-87 delivered nominally The SAL-36 band. power at S peak 1 of four cavities. is a three-cavity amplifier, while the VA-87 has It is a four-cavity tube with a 6.16. in Fig. shown photograph of the VA-87 is and a synchronously tuned largedb 61 about gain or saturation tuned synchronouslv In normal operation the tube is tuned for signal bandwidth of about 20 Mc. maximum power output with a beam voltage of 90 kvandan RF input of only 2.5 watts. the The half-power bandwidth under these conditions of operation is about 27 Mcând a less than \ within gain is 57.6 db. The pulse-to-pulse phase jitter of the VA-87 is 4-msec period. It weighs 65 lb and requires a 235-lb magnet assembly.
-
Mw
Mw
A
any
developed a family of scaled-off klystrons suitable These were based on the principles learned from the 30-Mw They operate in the L, S, and ;r bands at pulse powers of 3. 2, 2.0, and 1.2 Mw, tube. The basic design has apparently been incorporated in commercially respectively.
The Stanford lube
scientists also
41 for radar application.
available tubes.
222
Introduction io Radar Systhms

largest klystrons, both physically
in Fig. 6.17,
[Sec. 6.3
One of the
and
in
terms of average power

this
is
tube is It stands 10 ft 6 in, high and weighs 800 75 kw. lb. exclusive of auxiliary equipment. The tube is designed for very long range radars, it delivers a relatively long pulse of 2 msec at a 30-cps pulse repetition frequency. The peak power is .25 Mw, and the duty factor is 0.06. The conversion efficiency is 43 per cent. The tube utilizes three
1
Eitel-MeCul lough X626 pictured
the
The average power from
cavities external to the
400 to 450 Mc.

800 gal of
oil,
vacuum system. The gain is 30 db, and the tuning range is from The electron-gun portion of the tube is operated immersed in about
while the other parts of the tube are water-cooled.
From
,000 to 4,000
Fit;, 6.17.
Eimac X626
pulscd-amplificr klystron.
(Courtesy Eitel-McCufhigh, Inc.)
lb of lead surrounds the tube in order to protect operating personnel from X-ray radiation. tube with similar characteristics, but with internal rather than external cavities, was also developed by the Varian Associates and is known as the VA-842
Fven though the power output of the X626 klystron is large by any standards it has been claimed (Ref. 42. p. 3) that "the design ofa tube to handle to 15 times the power of the X626 would be a relatively straightforward (but not small) task."
1
1 he klystron tubes described above all require external electromagnets to confine the electrons to a beam, It is also possible in some applications to use electrostatic space-charge forces to focus the beam. With electrostatic focusing the electron beam
made to converge and then is allowed to diverge. The microwave cavities must be especially designed to operate with this type of beam. The drift spaces in a klystron with space-charge focusing are short and of large diameter. The interaction gaps are usually gndded to minimize stray coupling between the RF fields of the cavities and to
is first
give efhcicnt interaction between the
RF
fields
and the beam.
Because of these
276
[Sec. 7
Air-intlotei tube [10 ps!)

Fobric
pombcloid
Metalized fabric paraboloid
// // //
/
1
/ //
,.-
Teed horr
Feed
Feed-horn
support -v
Inner tower
Fig. 7.13. Outline of the

Electronics Division.)
Para balloon antenna.
{Courtesy
Westinghouse Electric Corporation,
Rodome
Para balloon air- supported ante pro
Reflector
Stocked -beam feedhorn
Turntable
Fig, 7.14. Cutaway view of a Paraballoon antenna, inside a radome, for the AN/TPS-27, 3-D tactical radar. (Courtesy Weslinghouse Electric Corporation, Electronics Division.)
Sec. 7-4]
Antennas
is
279
generated by rotating a rectum of the parabola. parallel to the latus section of a parabolic arc about an axis while the parabolic, is 7.16) Fig. in The cross section in one plane (the vertical plane scanned by be may angle beam The circular. is cross section in the orthogonal plane half the radius of the torus approximately is radius whose circle a moving the feed alone portion of the circular The radius of the torus is made large enough so that the circle from the surface of a appreciably differ cross 'section illuminated by the feed will not surface in the horireflector the symmetry of circular Because of the true parabola. any deterioration without this plane zontal plane, the beam can be readily scanned in
Warnine System)
shown
in Fig. 7. 7.
1
The parabolic
torus
is
in
the pattern.
to Early surveillance radar of the Bal list ,c M*s Fig. 7.17. Ptabolfc-torus antenna used in the the antenna .) equipment, not erection the ol part is figure of Warnin- System (B MEWS). (Crane to left (Ceurttsy Central Etectm Co., ofsteel. 65 f: h.gh and 400 f, wide and uses ,500 tons Heavy Military Electronics Department.)
!ianS Tl
is The wave reflected from the surface of the parabolic torus the ratio cf focal length/ choice of proper plane wave by it can be made to approach a d ' 4 bctween The optimum ratio vtJJK '" ^" to the radius of the torus ft. f only mlv lobes side with planes principal Good radiation patterns are possible in the larger the rat.c.of/, D The paraboloid. conventional worse than those of a
not perfectly plane, but
Slightly
the parabohc orus .s (The diameter the better the radiation pattern The highest the torus itself.) of of the illuminated area rather than the diameter The principal planes. the within lie not do torus siddobes produced by the parabolic true a from deviation surface due to its nhenent phase errors of the parabolic-torus
.
Dm
te dwfcr
Sec. 7.4]
Amtennas
provides an economical method
281
Tor
the parabolic torus is that it the beam of a physically large antenna aperture over a relatively wide rapidly scanning Its djsad vantages this angle of scan. scan angle with no deterioration of the pattern over for scanning and means other with compared when size are its relatively large physical planes. intermediate in obtained sidelobes the large Scan nine the beam in the parabolic torus is accomplished by Scanner.
The advantage of
Ormn-plpe A fixed reeds. moving a single feed or by switching the transmitter between many arm of length on an torus of the center the about rotated be single moving feed may
approximate^' one-half the radius of the torus.
For example, a I20~ torus antenna
Fig.
7.19..
Thirty-si x-hom organ-pipe scanner.
{Courtesy U.S. Naval Research Laboratory.)
120" apart on the spokes might be scanned by continuously rotating three feeds spaced Although this may he reflector. of a wheel so that one feed is always illuminating the problem if the radius mechanical dillicult a becomes it practical in small-size antennas,
of the rotating
arm
is
large.
the Scanning may also be accomplished by arranging a scries of feeds on the locus ot next the one feed to from power transmitter the focal points of the torus and switching 27 " 23 The principle of the organ-pipe scanner is shown in with an organ -pipe scanner. The transmission lines from the feeds are arranged to terminate on the Fig, 7.18. A feed horn is rotated within this circle, transferring power from periphery or a circle. The rotary horn may be flared to each feed or group of feeds in turn. the transmitter to All the transmission illuminate more than one elementary feed of the row of feeds. length. equal of lines in the orean-pipc scanner must be scanner changes radiation pattern from a torus with a well-designed organ-pipe
At this point the reaches one end of the scanning aperture. found in the secondary beams arc two and aperture energy appears at both ends or the called the ambiguity, or period this during used be cannot antenna The pattern. were elements In a model of the organ-pipe scanner shown in Fig. 7.19, 36 deadline.
but
little
The
until the
beam
292
[Src. 7.6
beam may beam may
be obtained by adjusting the feed to compensate for the ship's motion. The be scanned by positioning a single feed anywhere on the surface of the lens or by locating many feeds along the surface of the sphere and switching the radar transmitter or receiver from one horn to another as with an organ-pipe scanner. The Luneburg lens can also generate a number of fixed beams and is competitive in many applications with array-
antenna beam forming.
The index of refraction , or the dielectric constant e varies with the radial distance in a L tine burg lens of radius ;, according to the
relationship
(rl
The index of
center,
1
(7.28)
refraction
is
maximum
at the
where it equals Y'2, and decreases to a Fio. 7.29. Lunc burg-lens geometry value of on the periphery. showing rays from a point source radiThe development of materials which exhibit a ated as a plane wave after passage through the lens. continuous variation of dielectric constant such as needed for the Luneburg-lens antenna was one of the limitations which had to be overcome by early experimenters. Practical threedimensional Luneburg lenses have been constructed of a large number of spherical shells, each of constant index of refraction. Discrete changes in index of refraction approximate a continuous variation. In one example of a Luneburg lens (Fig. 7.30) 10 concentric spherical shells are arranged one within the other. i'- so The dielectric constant of the individual shells varies from I.I to 2.0 in increments of 0.1. The diameter of this stepped-index lens is 18 in., and the frequency of operation is JTband. As many as 50 steps might be used in this type of design.
Fig. 7.30.
He mi spherical- half-she
Inc.)
construction of Stepped- index Luneburg lens.
and Cuming.
{Courtesy Emerson
346
[Sec. 7.12
Fig. 7.68. Scale model of the metal space frame of a Goodyear Aircraft Corporation)
10-ft-diameter rigid radomc.
(Courtesy
thin
The radome in Fig. 7.67 is an example of a space-frame radome with a skin which is compared with a wavelength. Larger space-frame radomes may use metal
ilangcs as the basic supporting structure without seriously degrading the electrical performance.^ scale model of the space frame of a 10-ft-diameter radomc is shown in Fig. 7.68. 173 Rectangular steel-tubing beams welded to cast-steel hubs of a spider
configuration provide minimum aperture blocking. The random design of the ribs prevents periodic errors in the aperture distribution, which can cause spurious sidelobcs. It also makes the electrical performance of the radome more uniform when different
polarizations are used. reinforced plastic panels.
the
The
steel
load-bearing structure
is
covered with fiberglass-
Figure 7.69 shows a 140-ft-diameter radomc housing the 84-ft-diamctcr antenna of tracking radar. 173 The radome is of a honeycomb-sandwich construction rather than a metal space frame. It consists of two thin high-density skins 0.042 in. thick with a Kraft-paper honeycomb core of 6 in. Reflection loss is minimized by the use of the correct core thickness. There arc a total of 1,646 modules, or panels, making up the radomc. They arc grouped in 12 equal sections, as derived from a dodecahedron a spherical body with 12 like pentagonal faces. Each pentagon is further divided into hexagonal and pentagonal sections with a pentagon at each vertex or junction of the large subdivisions. The transmission efficiency of this radome is 98 per cent; the average bo resight error, 0.1 mil; the maximum boresight error, 0.3 mil; and the boresight error rate, 0.005 mil/mil. The pattern deterioration is very small. Radomes of this type can withstand 185-mph winds.
BMEWS
Antennas
Sec. 7.13|
347
sandwich Fig. 7.69. A 140-rt-diameter, honeycomb{Courtesy Radio Corporation of America!) radar.
radomc housing
84- ft- diameter
BMEWS tracking
One of
is
the largest rigid radomes
is
the 150-ft-diameter
Hill radar antenna.
Lincoln Laboratory 120-ft Haystack of the radar 8,000 mc, and the average transmitted power
radome housing the MIT The operating frequency

is
100 kw.
7.13- Focused
Antennas
with the Fraunhofer, or farapplications of antennas are mainly concerned ts the antenna about 20*/A, where If the ranges involved are less than field pattern. describes longer no pattern radiation diameter and I is the wavelength, the Fraunhofer radiation patterns the larger, become apertures antenna As the antenna performance. Fresnel region -become important. at ranges less than 2Z>*/A-the high-power large-aperture TheFresnel-reaion radiation patterns are of imporlancein to dangerous power subjected be may personnel this region that radars since it is expected in the For safety purposes, the power densities to be .9). densities (Sec measures protective proper take of personnel must be known in order to
Most
vicinity
Fresnelregionofaumformlyillummaed Fia U rc7.70 isan example of the axial ficldm the that in the Fraunhofer region. than is less gam antenna The circular aperture. Fresnel region by focusing the rachaThe Fraunhofer gain may be achieved in the a spherical phase d.stnbu ,on applying by kt-,80 focused An anfcnna may be tion aperture electrical paths from each point on the across a plane aperture to equalize the makes arrays of flexibility The accomplished. to the point at which focusing is to be antennas. variable-focus electronically controlled,
them
well suited as
400
[Sec. 8.11
On reception the TR tubes are un fired and the echo signals pass through the duplexer and into the receiver as shown in Fig. 8.246. The power splits equally at the first junction, and because of the 90 phase advance introduced on passing through the slot, the energy recombincs in the receiving arm and not in (he dummy-load arm. An example of a balanced duplexer is shown in Fig. 8.25. This particular .V-band unit operates over the frequency range from 8,490 to 9,578 Mc and is capable of withstanding 200 kw peak power. The insertion loss on reception (duplexer loss) is
1.2 db.
A low-power TR tube (which might also be a diode limiter), called a receiver protector^
is
often placed between the balanced duplexer
against
random
pulses
and the receiver to safeguard the receiver from nearby radar equipments which are too weak to fire the
Fig. 8.25, Balanced waveguide duplexer,
(Courtesy
Bomac
Laboratories, Inc.)
TRs
balanced mixer, but strong enough to damage the receiver, A receiveris also needed to protect against power reflected by mismatches at the antenna. The isolation between transmitter and receiver may be as low as 10 db for antenna mismatches on the order of 2: 1. When a receiverprotector TR is used, the TRs in the balanced duplexer can be specifically optimized to perform the switching function with low arc loss overbroad band widths, and the protector TR may be designed to fire at low power levels and to provide the optimum receiver protection. In this manner each tube is designed to perform its single function in an optimum manner instead of compromising the design by combining the two functions of switching and
in the
protector
TR
protection in a single tube.
Another form of balanced duplexer uses four

(Fig. 8.26). 143
The
ATR tubes and two hybrid junctions ATR tubes reflect the echo signal into the receiver in this duplexer
arrangement as contrasted with the balanced duplexer of l-'tg. 8.24, where the TR tubes reflected the transmitter power into the antenna. During transmission (Fig. 8.26#), the ATR tubes fire and high power is allowed to pass to the antenna. Dashed lines show the flow of power. During reception (Fig. 8.266), the ATR tubes present a high impedance, which results in the echo signal power being reflected to the receiver. A protector TR tube ahead of the receiver prevents excess signal power from entering the receiver. The ATR type of balanced duplexer has higher power-handling capacity than that of Fig. 8.24, but it has less bandwidth. Duplexer action may also be obtained with two hybrid junctions and a half-wavelength
458
[Sfc.
10.3
be generated with a single reflector antenna fed by a number of horns one for each beam as in the A N/T PS- 27 radar shown in Fig. 7.14. The beams may also be generated with an array antenna whose elements are combined to form a number of overlapping beams. By interpolating the voltages between adjacent beams of the stacked-bcam
it is possible to obtain a more precise measurement of the elevation angle than can be obtained with a single stationary pencil beam. Even In many radar applications afan beam is used to search the required volume. though the broad beamwidth of a fan beam in elevation does not permit the measure-
configuration,
AN/f-PS-6 S-band height-finding radar shown inside its radomc. Antenna is 30 U long wide and nods up and down ai Its range with nite of cither 20 or 30 nods pur minute. aircraft targets is approximately 200 miles. {Courtesy General Electric Company, Heavy Military
Fig.
10. 1.
I'l
by 7 J
;i
Electronics Department.')
ment of the elevation angle to any degree of precision, it is possible, in some cases, to obtain a rough approximation of target height. One technique makes use of the
1 .2 whereby, under certain circumstances, the pattern broken into many smaller lobes by interference between the direct wave and the wave reflected from the surface of the earth. "Lobing" is more likely to occur at the lower radar frequencies and when the beam is located over water or other good reflecting surfaces. If the interference lobe pattern of the antenna is known either by calculation or by calibration, using a known aircraft target -the range at which a target is first detected by the radar is a measure of target height. The path of the target can be followed through the lobe pattern to obtain confirmation
phenomenon described
in Sec.
of a broad fan beam
is
15
488
[Sec.
10.8
any ambiguities which arise. The fact that most practical radars employ this type of waveform attests to its usefulness far better than any theoretical analysis which might
be presented here. It is encouraging, however, when theoretical considerations substantiate the qualitative, intuitive reasoning upon which most practical engineering decisions must usually be based, far lack of any better criterion.
Ambiguities may be avoided with a single-pulse than a periodic-pulse waveform. Alt hough the accuracy of simultaneously measuring time and frequency with a simple pulse-modulated sinusoid was seen
Single Frequency-modulated Pulse.

rat her
waveform
(a)
Fig. 10.17. Three-dimensional plot of the ambiguity diagram for a single rectangular pulse. () (c) composite surface. {Courtesy S. Applebm/m and P. W. Howell!;, General Elecrric Co., Heavy
Sec. 10.8]
to be limited,
it is
489
possible to obtain simultaneous time and frequency measurements to ofaccuracy as desired by transmitting a pulse long enough to satisfy the desired frequency accuracy and one with enough bandwidth to satisfy the time accuracy. In other words, the peak at the center of the ambiguity diagram may be narrowed by One transmitting a pulse with a large bandwidth times pulse- width product (large /3a). method of increasing the bandwidth oT a pulse of duration r is to provide internal modulation. The ambiguity diagram for a frequency-modulated pulse is shown in The waveform is a single pulse of sine wave whose frequency is increased Fig. 10.20. frequency r, where/ A//2 at / = to/ + A//2 at t linearly from/ n is the carrier and A/" as B is the frequency excursion. The ambiguity diagram is elliptical, as for the single pulse of unmodulated sine wave. However, the axis of the ellipse is tilled at an angle to both the time and frequency axes. This particular waveform is not entirely satisfactory. The accuracy along either the However, the accuracy time axis or the frequency axis can be made as good as desired. This is a consequence of the fact that along the ellipse major axis is relatively poor. both the time delay (range) and the frequency (doppler) are both determined by measurThus neither the range nor the velocity can be determined ing a frequency shift. without knowledge of the other. This limitation can be overcome by transmitting a second FM pulse whose slope on The second modulation the ambiguity diagram is different from that of Fig. 10.20. rather than increases, in decreases, modulation which linear frequency might be a frequency. This is analogous to the FM-CW radar of Chap. 3, in which the doppler frequency shift is extracted as well as the range. It will be recalled that the sawtooth frequency-modulated waveform of the FM-CW radar was capable of determining "the By using a triangular waveform range as long as there was no doppler frequency shift. instead of the sawtooth waveform it was possible to measure both the range and the doppler frequency. The same technique can be used with the frequency-modulated
as high a degree
(c)
Contours for constant doppler frequency
(velocity);
0) contours
for constant lime delay (range);
Military Electronics Department, Syracuse, N. K).
526
to
Introduction TO Radar SYSTEMS

target, h
is
[SEC,
12,2
this
ground
the radar height

it is
above the ground, and h
= R sin
.
Using
or
property of "rough" clutter,
readily
shown
fin
manner similar to
the derivation of
tj>,
2 Eq. (2.46)] that the antenna gain should be proportional to csc
V'cos
more
precisely,
<m
where
<0i
esc
esc
2
4>
v cos
'
for
4>q
4> a
<

<
<
(12.6)
N /cos
O
(f>
angles defining region over which antenna beam is shaped radar with a vertical antenna pattern given by Eq. (1 2.6) has been called the equal2 It produces a range trace of uniform energy pattern for radar ground painting. display such as the B-scope (azimuth azimuth on rectangular brightness for any given a
ia
maximum antenna gain
FlO. 12.4. London Airport, (a) Resolution with .15-Gc radar; {Courtesy of Williams 12 and J. But. IRE.)
(b) aerial
photograph
at
40,000
ft,
Sec. 12.3]
529
area
G n Jid rf CTJ2, and the simple radar equation becomes
p.^h^
(4tt)
3
K3
smalt depression angles
(12,8)
Note that
in this case (which
might correspond to a shipborne radar illuminating the
horizon) the received echo power from extended clutter varies inversely as the third power of the range rather than the fourth-power relationship obtained Tor a singlepoint target. This is a consequence of the extended nature of clutter. The greater the
FlC. 12.6,
Radar
picture of the metropolitan
the National Airport are in the upper left-hand
Washington area. The four 14th Street bridges and Comer. (U.S. Army photograph)
will
range, the more the illuminated.
beam
will
spread and the greater
be the number of scatterers
The
Another limiting case is that of a pencil-beam antenna at large depression angles. pulse packet is assumed to cover a much larger region of the sea surface than the Hence the summation in Eq. (12.7) is determined by the area intercepted by the beam. antenna beamwidths in azimuth } and elevation o aR-0 ^,,/sin < and is the angle of depression, we may write
.
large depression angles
(12.9)
(4irfR* sin
<f>
The received echo power varies inversely with the square of the range. The above two equations are phenomenological descriptions of sen clutter; that is, they describe the actual phenomenon but avoid interpretations or explanations. Information obtained from such descriptions is limited. The phenomenological
Sec.
12.7]
Clutter,
in
W father,
and Interference
549
the phase shift produced on reflection from from that with vertical polarization As a result, the horizontally polarized echo signal will not cancel with the (Fig. 1 .3). propvertically polarized signal when a more than negligible portion or the energy is
signals.
The change
is
amplitude and
in
the ground
1
different with horizontal polarization
agated via reflection from the ground. According to White, 41 circular polarization can improve the ratio of target signal to precipitation signal by 8 to 25 do over that obtained with linear polarization, an
Linear polarization
circular polarization.
radar with Fig. 12.14. PP1 displays showing reduction of very heavy rain clutter by an I-band Left-hand 180' sector is with linear polarization and covers the same 180 (Courtesy Airborne Instruments sector as does the right-hand side with circular polarization,
Laboratory.)
to 20 db being representative of what can be expected under normal An improvement of 8 db represents that which might be favorable conditions. expected with certain forms of precipitation such as wet snowflakes. An improvement of 25 db is possible when the raindrops are essentially spherical and when ground An example of the improvement offered by circular polarireflections arc negligible.
improvement of 15
zation
is
shown
in Fig. 12.14.
wave may be generated by passing a linearly polarized wave through a quarter-wave plate, an example of which is a stack, of parallel metal platest The quarter-wave plate is oriented with its plates at an angle of 45 to the (Fig. 1 2. 5). The incident wave is resolved electric vector of the incident, linearly polarized wave. One compointo two orthogonal, linearly polarized components of equal amplitude.
A circularly
1
polarized
nent
is
parallel to the plates; the other
is
perpendicular.
The perpendicular component
parallel here to describe both the quarier-wave plate as a whole and the f The term "plate" is used metal plates constituting this particular version of the uuartcr-wave plate,
Sec.
12.9]
Clutter, Weathtr. anc Interference
557
Fig. 12.19. Railing interference from two radars on a PPt display of fa) normal video and (/>) inCourtesy Melpar, Inc.) tegrated video. (From El/is ami Rohtiiiaii," IRE Sail. Com-. Retard,
562
ia)
U!
FVÎ
jamming, (a) Weak jamming showing single strobe at the jammer's moderate jamming: (r) complete jamming. [Courtesy General Electric Co., Advanced Electronics Center and Space I Aeronautics .**)
Fig. 12.21. PP! displays of
(/>)
azimuth;
required for effective jamming

self-screening range
is
may
be different from the received radar signal S.
The
approximately
R2
where P ir
J",j
....
P<rG T
0~
BjJ
(12.41)
= radar transmitted power = jammer transmitted power G radar antenna gain Gj ~ jammer antenna gain
r
P u Cj
Att
Bf S
as
target cross section
B jammer bandwidth
B,
JjS
radar bandwidth jammer-to-radar signal (power)
ratio
584
[Sir.
13.5
The scopes are shown as off-centered PPls, with the position of the aircraft at the bottom. The small circle near the bottom of the display is the altitude signal and
represents the
aircraft..
first
range
circle, indicated
echo received by the radar from the ground directly below the by the dashed lines in the displays of Fig, 13.3, is
Fig. 13.2. Weather radar display. (Courtesy United Airlines.)
Ui)
Normal
presentation; (b) isoecho-contour presentation.
established on the scope corresponding to the range
---
he esc
<,
where h f
is
the
minimum
distance the aircraft must clear the terrain and 4> is the angle the radar beam' makes with the horizontal. The circle defining the range Rr is called the safety circle.
Any
target echoes
which appear within
this circle,
other than the direct ground echo

hills
Shodowed area behind
Approximate p PI
presentations
Fie;. 13.3.
Safety-circle technique for avoiding high terrain.
(After Stride,' J. Brit. IRE.)
shown near the origin, indicate the approach of high ground and warn the pilot to take avoidance action. A weather-avoidance radar could conceivably offer warning of potential collision However, a conventional weather radar is not well suited for this with other aircraft. task since it does not provide complete spherical coverage and means for recognizing a collision course arc not included. Another function which might be performed by an airborne detection radar is ground
mapping.
By
directing the
beam downward,
terrain
features
may
be displayed.
Fie;.
14.6,
Missile detection with
BMEWS
surveillance radar.
Heavy Mill (my Electronics Department.)
{Courtesy General Electric Co.
FlG. 14.7. Aerial view
Greenland,
of" three or the four AN/FPS-50 surveillance radars at Site (Courtesy General Electric Co., Heaey Military Electronics Department:)
BMEWS
1,
Thule,
632
Sec. 14.8]
Detection op ExTKATrRRi:sTRiAL Objects
England. These sites warn of the north polar regions.
ICBMs
that
approach the Northern Hemisphere over
Two different radars are used in BMEWS. One is the AN/FPS-50 surveillance radar with a 400-ft-wide by 165-fl-high parabolic-torus antenna (Sec, 7.4} with organ-pipe scanner. The fixed surveillance, radar radiates narrow beams at two different angles of elevation (Fig. 14.6). These arc scanned simultaneously to form two horizontal detection fans, one above the Other, As a missile passes through the beams, its position
Fig. 14.8. AN/FPS-49 BMLVVS racking antenna and pedestal. America, Defense Electronic Products.)
I
{Courtesy Radio Corporation of
and
velocity coordinates arc measured, from which can be calculated the trajectory, impact point, impact time, and launch point. An aerial view of the Thulc site is shown
in Fig. 14.7.
is the AN/FPS-49, a tracking radar wilh an 84-ftThe other radar used in diamcter parabolic reflector that can scan as well as track (Fig. 14.8). These radars are housed in 140-ft-diameier spherical radomes (Fig. 7.69). The tracking radar detects by scanning, then locks on to the object, determines whether it is an ICBM or not, and calculates its trajectory, launching site, and impact point. Because of the inverse-fourth-power relationship Tracking of Space Vehicles. between distance and echo-signal power, radar detection of satellites becomes inRadars could conceivably be built creasingly difficult with increasing orbital height. which could detect and track satellites whose orbital periods are of the order of 24 hr
BMEWS

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Introduction to

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY,

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR SYSTEMS

THE NATURE OF RADAR

THE RADAR EQUATION

2.12 2.13 2.14

CW AND FREQUENCY-MODULATED RADAR

Radar 86 Frequency-modulated 103 Airborne Doppler Navigation Multiple-frequency Radar 106

AND PULSE-DOPPLER RADAR

Using Range Gates and

4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9

Simultaneous Lobing or Monopulse

and Angular Accuracy

Magnetron Oscillator 199 Klystron Amplifier 216 Traveling-wave-tube Amplifier

Broadband Signals on Antenna Patterns of Errors on Radiation Patterns 336

The Radar Receiver

DETECTION OF RADAR SIGNALS IN NOISE

9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9

EXTRACTION OF INFORMATION FROM RADAR SIGNALS

PROPAGATION OF RADAR WAVES

The Round Earth

Radar Parameter Selection 571 Example Aircraft-surveillance Radar

RADAR DETECTION OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL OBJECTS

Radar Radar Radar Radar Radar Radar

THE NATURE OF RADAR

Block diagram of an elementary form of radar.

Introduction to Radar Systems

when measurement accuracy

used as a unit of range. between it and the nautical mile

The Nature of Radar

radar employing an unmodulated

transmission utilizes the doppler

Pulse repetition frequency, cps

Fig. 1.2. Plot of

range as a function of the pulse repetition frequency, based

doppler frequency, cps

The Radar Equation

Power density from omnidirectional antenna

Radars usually employ directive antennas, instead of omnidirectional antennas, to

Introduction to Radar Systems

density at the target from an antenna with a trans-

Power density from

target intercepts a portion of the radiated

of the radar [Eq.

density of echo signal at radar =4

If the effective capture area

The Nature of Radar

Radar Block Diagram and Operation

Block diagram of a pulse radar.

Introduction to Radar Systems

ATR, a portion of the received power would be dissipated

a traveling-wave tube, or a maser.

Many microThe mixer

wave radar receivers do not have an

RF amplifier and use

(LO) convert the

signals are also supplied to the indi-

(AFC) or gain (AGC),

form of radar antenna

a reflector with a parabolic shape fed from a

The Nature of Radar

Very high frequency

'/////////, Radar frequencies ''/////////,