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Technology Assessment on

Current Advanced Research in Micro-Machining and Related Areas


AMT The Association For Manufacturing Technology

December 2004

Published by: AMT - The Association For Manufacturing Technology 7901 Westpark Drive, McLean, VA 22102 Printed in the United States of America Copyright 2004 AMT - The Association For Manufacturing Technology all rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form, in an electronic retrieval system or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher.

A Report Compiled and Prepared


by Professors

Richard E. DeVor
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

Kornel F. Ehmann
Northwestern University

Shiv G. Kapoor
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

with contributions from the following graduate research assistants: Andrew Honegger, Martin Jun, George Langstaff, Xinyu Liu, Sunghyuk Park, Andrew Phillip, Johnson Samuel, Tim VanRavenswaay University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and Kostyantyn Malukhin, Hankyu Sung, Hyung Suk Yoon, Wendy Xu, Huyue Zhao Northwestern University

for

AMT The Association for Manufacturing Technology

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FORWARD
This Technology Assessment Report was based on an extensive survey of the technical literature in micro-machining and related areas. The report was prepared by a team of faculty and graduate students from Northwestern University (NWU) and the University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign (UIUC). The team used best efforts to locate and access the most relevant and up-to-date articles on current research and development efforts worldwide in the area of micro-machining and related areas. The report is presented as a collection of one-page synopses of the technical papers reviewed. They are grouped into seven chapters: 1. Micro-Manufacturing Processes and Systems, 2. Mechanics of Micro-machining, 3. Micro-Machining Machine Tool Development, 4. Micro-Tooling, 5. Micro-Machining Metrology, 6. Integration into Microfactories, and 7. Miscellaneous Papers of Interest. The groupings may, in places, appear loose because of the unavoidable overlap in papers across these areas, but we have tried to place the papers in the chapter that was deemed most relevant to the subject matter. It is important for us at the outset of this report to clarify the precise meaning of the term Micro-Machining in this context since this term implies different things to different people. In the traditional mechanical/manufacturing engineering communities it implies material removal processes at a certain scale (not clearly defined), while for others including those who were the principal force behind the development of micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS) technologies, this term encompasses the universe of silicon processing techniques for MEMS devices that were adopted or suitably modified from lithography-based techniques that are prevalent in integrated circuit manufacture. 5

At this time, unfortunately, a convergence in terminology has not been forthcoming and, hence, a definition of the term Micro-Machining to be implied in the context of this assessment is in order. In principle, one may take two viewpoints: (1) The first viewpoint may define Micro-Machining as the collection of all cutting operations that are performed on micro/meso-scale components and products that fall into the 100 m to 10,000 m size range as shown in the figure below. The Micro-Machining regime is characterized by the requirement of producing high accuracy complex geometric features in a wide variety of materials in the above-defined size range. These requirements impose the use of considerably downsized tooling (micro-tools, e.g., endmills in the 50 to 500 micron diameter range), small undeformed chip thicknesses and feedrates (submicron to a few microns) and speed settings (50K to 200K RPM might not be uncommon) that would be considered technologically infeasible at the conventional macro-scale. As a consequence, the principal distinction between Macroand Micro-Machining operations emerges and manifests itself as the dominance of ploughing and rubbing phenomena at the cutting edge over shearing and the necessity to take micro-structural effects into consideration. (2) The second viewpoint approaches the definition of the Micro-Machining regime from the standpoint of the magnitude of the undeformed chip thickness being removed in the cutting process. It is difficult to define a clear-cut value of the undeformed chip thickness that would differentiate the macro-, micro/meso- and nano-scale cutting regimes since other factors such as grain-structure, cutting edge radius, etc., also come into play. The authors of this report would suggest the following classification: 6

MICRO/MESO-SCALE MANUFACTURING DOMAIN

Macro-scale Machining: Operations performed at conventional regimes at undeformed chip thickness values that are larger (perhaps by an order of magnitude) than the cutting edge radius, hence dominated by shearing, and for which micro-structural effects can be neglected. Generally, the values of the undeformed chip thickness are larger than 10 mm. Micro/meso-scale Machining: These operations are characterized by the dominance of ploughing, rubbing, plastic and elastic deformation effects in the cutting zone due to the fact that the radius of the tools cutting edge is on the same order as the undeformed chip thickness. These conditions give rise to phenomena usually encompassed by the term - size-effects. The values of the undeformed chip thickness fall into the submicron to a few microns range. Nano-scale Machining (or Nanometric cutting): This term is customarily associated with ultraprecision machining by single point diamond tools usually used in diamond turning operations. The size of the workpiece can be very large, viz., large optical components, but the operation is performed under small undeformed chip thickness values that overlap or go below the range that characterizes micro/meso-scale machining. The fact that nanometer-sized chips can be removed is due to the possibility of having diamond tool cutting edge sharpness of the same order of magnitude.

In closing this Forward, the authors wish to acknowledge their appreciation to the AMT Association For Manufacturing Technology for the opportunity to work on this project and prepare this assessment. Kornel F. Ehmann Evanston, Illinois Richard E. DeVor Shiv G. Kapoor Urbana, Illinois December 2004.

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TABLE OF CONTENT
1. Micro-manufacturing Processes and Systems 2. Mechanics of Micro-machining
2.1 Cutting mechanisms; Chip formation and cutting forces 2.2 Influence of microstructure 2.3 Surface generation mechanisms 2.4 Machinability issues in micro-machining

13 33
37 55 65 71

3. Micro-Machining Machine Tool Development


3.1 Machine tool structures 3.2 Actuation and control 3.3 Spindle technology for micro-machining 3.4 Fixturing and material handling issues

83
89 97 105 113

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TABLE OF CONTENT
4. Micro-tooling
4.1 Tool geometry, design and fabrication 4.2 Tool materials 4.3 Tool wear and tool life

131
135 153 159

5. Micro-machining Metrology 6. Integration into Microfactories


6.1 Microassembly 6.2 Microfactory layout and applications

171 193
197 209

7. Miscellaneous Papers of Interest

223

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CHAPTER 1. Micro-manufacturing Systems and Processes

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1. Micro-manufacturing Processes and Systems


This chapter provides an overview of characteristic examples of systems and processes for micro/meso-scale manufacturing operations in various stages of development. Emphasis is placed on systems that are based on other than microcutting operations since these will be addressed, in detail, in the upcoming chapters. The chapter begins with a few review articles that outline current and future trends in micro-manufacturing. These articles also define, to some extent, the size regime of these operations. What follows next, is a collection of papers on micro-ECM, micro-EDM, rapid prototyping and other processes whose scaled-down versions are being developed for micro/meso-scale manufacturing. A common theme that seemingly permeates all the developments are the attempts to develop multi-functional machines that are capable of performing as many of the required operations as possible on a single piece of manufacturing equipment, including both processing and metrology, with minimal or perhaps no movement of the part. This trend has been viewed by many as necessity, given the difficulties in the handling of small components and loss of part feature registration caused by relocation of the part, both of which constitute significant problems in micro/meso-scale manufacturing.

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Author Citation

Ehmann, K. F., DeVor, R. E., Kapoor, S.G. JSME/ASME Materials and Processing Conference, Honolulu, Oct. 15-18

Title Keywords

Micro/Meso-scale Mechanical Manufacturing: Opportunities and Challenges Micro/meso-scale mechanical manufacturing, Miniaturized machines, Micro-factories

Abstract
The overarching objective of this paper is to outline a vision for a plausible way for meeting the requirements of manufacturing high accuracy micro/meso-scale components and devices (102 - 104m) in a broad range of materials. It is proposed that micro/meso-scale mechanical manufacturing methods, derived from their conventional macro-scale counterparts, performed on miniaturized equipment integrated in a massively parallel fashion into micro-factories of the future could meet the technological requirements (i.e., relative accuracy, geometric complexity, cost, etc.) and offer capabilities that are beyond those currently available. First, the rationale and justification for this concept is outlined followed by an account of the science and technology foundation needed and a synopsis of the scientific, technological and commercialization barriers that will have to be overcome in the course of the realization of the proposed concept.

Objectives of Research
Define the micro/meso-scale manufacturing domain Identify opportunities for micro-manufacturing Identify modeling, device, and system development challenges Identify scientific, technological, and commercialization barriers

Approach
Analyze current gaps in miniaturization research and technology Survey literature in miniaturization sciences

Key findings

Schematic of a possible architecture for a micro-factory of the future

No specifically developed manufacturing technologies exist for micro/meso-scale domain (sizes between 10 and 10,000m and 10-3-10-5 relative tolerances) Machine volume does not currently decrease with part sizes below approximately 106 mm3 leading to increased machine cost and reduced efficiency.

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Author Citation

Frazier, A. B., Warrington, R. O., and Friedrich, C. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 42(5), 1995, pp. 423-430

Title Keywords

The Miniaturization Technologies: Past, Present and Future Miniaturization, History, MEMS, Micromachining

Abstract
Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS), Micro Systems Technologies (MST, primarily in Europe) and Micro-manufacturing are relatively recent phrases that have become synonymous with the design, development, and manufacture of very small devices and systems. This paper overviews the history of the major technologies that are utilized in this field. After this brief historical overview of the technologies, a short description of MEMS technologies is presented. The current status of the MEMS effort worldwide is reviewed with emphasis on the United State, Japan, and the European community with particular emphasis placed on Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. The future for the technology along with technology transfer and management is discussed from the standpoint of market pull. Bulk and surface micromachining of silicon, X-ray micromachining using the LIGA process, and the complementary processes such as laser and focused ion beam micromachining are reviewed.

Objectives of Research
Review of selected micromanufacturing technologies Review of the major silicon and planar micromachining technologies

Approach
Historical and literature review of micro-drilling, surface and bulk micromachining, MEMS, and LIGA technologies Survey of current micro-manufacturing materials, technologies, and facilities Analysis of projected market demand for miniaturization technologies

Key findings
The miniaturization technologies continue to gain momentum in both research and development funding as well as in high technology markets. A brief history of the miniaturization technologies is given. Initial applications of specific MEMS technologies are reviewed. The current state of several miniaturization technologies is discussed as well as the future markets projected that could utilize these technologies.

Micro-tools and micro-features

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Author

Hatamura, Y., Nakao, M., Sato, T. Annals of CIRP, 46(1), 1997, pp. 313318.

Title

Construction of an Integrated Manufacturing System for 3D Microstructure Concept, Design, and Realization Micro-manufacturing, Micro-assembly, Integrated system

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
An integrated manufacturing system for 3D microstructures was conceptualized, designed, and actually built. The system realized 3D shaping by using fast atom beam etching (FAB) in combination with workpiece rotation, 3D assembly by using a concentric manipulator and observation by a multi-view scanning electron microscope. Through the demonstration of 3D micro manufacturing capabilities, it was shown that: (1) knowledge about conventional machining is applicable even in micro-manufacturing and can be applied for 3D zero reaction force shaping, constant monitoring and on-one-table operation, and (2) image based control is effective for integrated micro-manufacturing systems.

Objectives of Research
Design and build an integrated micro-manufacturing system Determine applicability of macroscale manufacturing knowledge to microscale

Approach
Motivate necessity for micro-manufacturing Outline fundamental knowledge necessary for 3D micro-manufacturing Design and build desktop factory to meet micro-manufacturing requirements Use fast atomic beam (FAB) etching for material removal Test fabrication and assembly capabilities of the machine by using architecture-inspired component shapes

Key findings
3D micro-fabrication and micro-assembly realized in a desktop factory Zero-reaction force shaping is important for micro-fabrication (accomplished using FAB) Multiple view monitoring system eliminates need for axis scales or encoders and simplifies micro-assembly

Layout of integrated 3D micro-structure manufacturing system

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Author

Engel, U., Eckstein, R. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 50(2), 2001, p 445-462

Title

Microforming - From basic research to its realization Micro-metal forming; Material behaviour; Processes

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
The production of miniature parts is gaining importance due to the trend of miniaturization which is increasingly determining the development of products ranging from mobile phones and computers to medical products. The application of conventional manufacturing processes for the production of such microparts is possible, but there are problems that result from the small dimensions. This fact applies also in the field of metal forming, however, in the meantime many research projects in several countries could improve this situation. This paper gives a review of the problems associated with miniaturization, the way of solution starting from basic research, and the results showing the progress of microforming today.

Objectives of Research
Review of the problem associated with miniaturization Show by means of examples the necessity of basic research to realize the special application of metal forming at the micro-scale.

Approach
Explanation of general size effects Case studies Research in progress

Forward rod-backward can extrusion

Key findings
Research in the last 10 years has substantially contributed to the fundamental insight into the peculiarities of the microforming process and an improved understanding of the mechanisms which are the basis to realize processes of industrial relevance. Many problems require short-term solutions. However, some topics need long-term basic research and will only succeed when there are selfmultiplying effects of scientific interest, industrial support and many widely distributed activities. Effect of miniaturization on areas with open and closed lubricant pockets

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Author

Geiger, M.; Kleiner, M.; Eckstein, R.; Tiesler, N.; Engel, U. CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 50(2), 2001, pp. 445-462

Title

Microforming

Citation

Keywords

Micro metal forming; Material, Equipment

Abstract
Microforming is a well suited technology to manufacture very small metallic parts, in particular for mass production, as they are required in many industrial products resulting from microtechnology. Compared to other manufacturing technologies microforming features specific economical and ecological advantages. Nevertheless, there are only some singular applications known until today. This paper tries to find out the reasons why, analyzing systematically the problems emerging in transferring the know-how on forming from the macro- to the microworld. Reviewing the state of the art in basic and applied research reveals that scaling effects do appear not only within the process but must be taken into account in all the other areas of the whole forming system as well, demanding finally new solutions especially for tool manufacturing and machine concepts. Recent progress, innovative ideas and new developments in these sectors represent a promising basis to exploit the inherent potential of microforming in the future.

Objectives of Research
Review of the state of the art in microforming

Approach
Application and limits of forming Identification of the size effects Basic research on these phenomena

Key findings
Due to the ongoing trend towards miniaturization, there is a huge market for mechanical components and metallic microparts which have to be produced in large numbers Forming technology is excellently suited to meet these demands, showing a high potential as a supplementary and even substituting technology with respect to economical and ecological factors and those characterizing the quality of the final product in terms of accuracy, mechanical properties and reliability A broad breakthrough of forming technology in the microsector is still missing

Bent lead structure. Width of the leads 150 m, height 127 m

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Author Citation

Bhattacharyya, B., Doloi, B., Sridhar, P.S. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 113, 2001, pp. 301-305

Title Keywords

Electromechanical Micro-Machining: New Possibilities for Micro-Manufacturing Electrochemical machining, Electrochemical micro-machining

Abstract
Electrochemical micro-machining (EMM) appears to be very promising as a future micro-machining technique since in many areas of applications it offers several advantages. The paper highlights the design and development of an EMM system set-up which includes various components such as mechanical machining components, electrical systems and an electrolyte flow system, etc. A microprocessor controlled end-gap controlling system has also been developed for this purpose. The developed EMM set-up will open up many challenging possibilities for effective utilizations of the electrochemical material removal mechanism in micro-machining.

Objectives of Research
Develop testbed for: Conducting detailed research on the EMM process Attain adequate process control for micro-machining requirements (accuracy on the order of microns)

Approach
Identification of important process parameters Design and fabrication of a testbed comprised of: Main machining body Tool feeding devices Work holding platforms Machining chamber Table for mounting machining chamber

Key findings
Stepper motors and precision lead screws were used to attain precise tool feeding motion Flow of electrolyte is one of the most important components of EMM Developed testbed is capable of controlled tool feed, controlled electrolyte flow and pulsed power supply

Diagram of developed EMM testbed

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Author Citation

Li Yong, Zheng Yunfei, Yang Guang, Peng Liangqiang Sensors and Actuators, A108, 2003, pp. 144-148

Title Keywords

Localized electrochemical micromachining with gap control Electrochemical micromachining, Side insulat ed electrode, Gap control, Pulsed current

Abstract
An approach to electrochemical micromachining is presented in which side-insulated electrode, micro gap control between the cathode and anode and the pulsed current are synthetically utilized. An experimental set-up for electrochemical micromachining is constructed, which has machining process detection and gap control functions; also a pulsed power supply and a control computer are involved .Micro electrodes are manufactured by micro electro-discharge machining 9 EDM) and side insulated by chemical vapor deposition (CVD).A micro gap control strategy is proposed based on the fundamental experimental behavior of electrochemical machining current with the gap variance. Machining experiments on micro hole drilling, scanning machining layer-by-layer and micro electrochemical deposition are carried out. Preliminary experimental result show the feasibility of electrochemical micromachining and its potential capability for better machining accuracy and smaller machining sizes.

Objectives of Research
Develop micro gap control strategy using the electrochemical machining current as a trigger. Develop means to constrain the region of reaction so as to achieve machining accuracy in the micro domain. Demonstrate the capability of the test bed for achieving better machining accuracy and smaller machining size.

Approach
Design and build a ECM unit. Use of side insulated electrode, micro gap control and pulsed current to limit the area of reaction within 10-20 m Conduct machining experiments to demonstrate the feasibility of the test bed to achieve better machining accuracy and smaller machining size.

Key findings
Experimental setup constructed has machining process detection and gap control functions, in addition to pulsed power supply. Based on fundamental experimental behavior of electrochemical current with the gap variance, a micro gap control strategy was proposed which constrained the machining gap between 10-20 m. Machining experiments on micro hole drilling, scanning machining layer by layer and micro electrochemical deposition were carried out. Preliminary experimental results show feasibility of the localized electrochemical micro machining. Further work needs to be done on electrolyte, electrode insulation and systematic control of machining process.

ECM setup & Current behavior with electrode gap

22

Author

Bo Hyun Kim, Shi Hyoung Ryu, Deok Ki Choi and Chong Nam Chu Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering, 15, (2005), pp. 124129

Title

Micro electrochemical milling Electrochemical micromachining, Ultra short pulses

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
In this paper, electrochemical machining (ECM) for fabricating micro structures is presented. By applying ultra short pulses, dissolution of a workpiece can be restricted to the region very close to an electrode. Using this method, 3 D micro structures were machined on stainless steel. Good surface quality of the structures was obtained in the low concentration electrolyte 0.1 M H2SO4.In ECM, when the machining depth increases, structures taper. To reduce the taper the disc type electrode is introduced. By electrochemical milling, various 3 D structures including a hemisphere with 60 m diameter were fabricated.

Objectives of Research
Develop means to fabricate micro structures using ECM. Use the developed method to fabricate 3D micro structures to prove its applicability to the micromachining domain.

Approach
Design and build a ECM unit. Use of ultra short pulses of nanosecond duration to limit the machining zone to a couple of micrometers. Machine 3D structures on stainless steel to demonstrate the capability of the process.

Key findings
Micro structures were successfully machined by micro ECM. With ultra short pulses ( nano second duration) electrochemical reaction is limited to the vicinity of the electrode. Low concentration electrolyte 0.1 M H2SO4,was found to yield good surface quality for the structures.( Ra = 280 nm) For machining of 3D structures with large aspect ratios, a disc-type electrode is used to prevent occurrence of taper.
Hemisphere with 60 m diameter machined with 45m electrode, 304 SS, 6V,60ns pulse on, 1s period Disc-type electrode by EDM (54m. Neck diameter 22m)

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Author

B. Bhattacharya, J. Munda Journal of Materials processing technology, 140 (2003),pp 287-291

Title

Experimental investigation into electrochemical micromachining (EMM) process Electrochemical machining, Micromachining

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Due to several advantages and wider range of applications, electrochemical micromachining (EMM) is considered to be one of the most effective advanced future micromachining techniques. A suitable EMM setup mainly consists of various components and sub-systems, e.g. mechanical machining unit, micro-tooling system, electrical power and controlling system and controlled electrolyte flow system etc. have been developed successfully to control electrochemical machining (ECM) parameters to meet the micromachining requirements. Investigation indicates most effective zone of predominant process parameters such as machining voltage and electrolyte concentration, which give the appreciable amount of material removal rate (MRR) with less overcut. The experimental results and analysis on EMM will open up more application possibilities for EMM.

Objectives of Research
To study the factors affecting machinability in the ECM domain.

Approach
Design and build a ECM unit. Conduct a series of planned experimentations on Cu plates to study the effect of voltage and electrolyte concentration on the material removal rate (MRR) and the over cut.
EMM set up

Key findings

ECM testbed successfully developed. Machining voltage in the range of 7-10 V gives appreciable MRR with lower value of overcut for Cu Most effective zone of electrolyte concentration is 15-25 g/l resulting in higher MRR with least overcut for Cu Parametric combination of 10V machining voltage and 15g/l electrolyte concentration is best for machining thin Cu plate with high MRR and least overcut.

SEM picture of micro hole machined by EMM with 15g/l electrolyte concentration, Machining voltage 10 V, pulse on time 15ms and frequency of pulsed power supply 50 Hz.

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Author Citation

Tadigadapa, Srinivas A., Najafi, Nader Transactions ASME, 125(4), 2003, pp.816-823

Title Keywords

Developments in Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS): A Manufacturing Perspective MEMS, Fabrication, Manufacturing, Packaging, Reliability, Assembly, CAD tools

Abstract
This paper presents a discussion of some of the major issues that need to be considered for the successful commercialization of MEMS products. The diversity of MEMS devices and historical reasons have led to scattered developments in the MEMS manufacturing infrastructure. A good manufacturing strategy must include the complete device plan including the package as part of the design and process development of the device. In spite of rapid advances in the field of MEMS there are daunting challenges that lie in the areas of MEMS packaging, and reliability testing. CAD tools for MEMS are starting to get more mature but are still limited in their overall performance. MEMS manufacturing is currently at a fragile state of evolution. In spite of all the wonderful possibilities, very few MEMS devices have been commercialized. In the authors opinion, the magnitude of the difficulty of fabricating MEMS devices at the manufacturing level is highly underestimated by both the current and emerging MEMS communities. A synopsis of MEMS manufacturing issues is presented here.

Objectives of Research
Identify and expound on the major issues related to MEMS and their commercialization

Approach
Motivation for micromachining techniques Current micromachining processes (MEMS fabrication) Packaging techniques for MEMS devices Reliability testing and compensation issues Challenges in manufacturing of MEMS devices

Key findings
Important to include package as part of the design and process development of a MEMS device Many challenges still exist for MEMS packaging and reliability testing Limited performance from CAD tools for these devices Highly understated difficulty in MEMS fabrication by MEMS communities

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Author Citation

Takahata, K., Aoki S., Sato T. Proceedings IEEE, 1996, pp.73-78

Title Keywords

Fine Surface Finishing Method for 3Dimensional Micro Structures ECM, Micro-EDM, 3D-Micro Structure, Finishing

Abstract
A new finishing method using advanced ECM (electrochemical machining) assisted by fine abrasive grains to finish surfaces of 3-D micro components used in MEMS was developed. With this method, fine surfaces at selected micro-areas, which cannot be obtained by micro-EDM (electrodischarge machining) nor conventional ECM, are created in a few minutes. An advanced machine, capable of producing complicated 3-D micro structures with fine surfaces by the combination of the micro-EDM and the developed finishing method, was also developed. The high performance was achieved by a sequential process without workpiece handling between the micro-EDM to the finishing process. Using the new machine, a high precision shaft with a mirror-like surface was created. The result is satisfactory and can be applied to make a cylindrical substrate for a rotor of micro wobble motor. The developed process is suitable for producing practical micro mechanical components.

Objectives of Research
Develop a new surface finishing method for 3-D micro structures using advanced ECM Use experimental results to support the concept and show its performance Demonstrate ability to machine components with the developed machining process and machine

Approach
New finishing method that uses ECM with abrasive grains (Al203) Process performance evaluated for different methods and as a function of machining parameters Tested new process and machine

Key findings
Developed new surface finishing method for selected micro-areas and confirmed its applicability to components of the MEMS region Sequential machining process from 3-D micro-EDM to the developed finishing possible through advanced machine Demonstrated application of the sequential Comparison between machined surfaces obtained by different methods (304 SS) machining process to 3-D micro components

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Author Citation

Pham, D. T., Dimov, S. S., Bigot, S., Ivanov, A., Popov, K. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 149, pp. 50-57, 2004

Title Keywords

Micro-EDM Recent Developments and Research Issues Micro-EDM, Micro-machining, EDM accuracy, Nicro-holes

Abstract
Due to the high precision and good surface quality that it can give, EDM is potentially an important process for the fabrication of micro-tools, micro-components, and parts with micro-features. However, a number of issues remain to be solved before micro-EDM can become a reliable process with repeatable results and its full capabilities as a micro-manufacturing technology can be realized. This paper presents some recent developments in micro-EDM in its various forms (wire, drilling, milling, and die-sinking) and discusses the main research issues. The paper focuses on the planning of the EDM process and the electrode wear problem. Special attention is paid to factors and procedures influencing the accuracy achievable, including positioning approaches during EDM and electrode grinding.

Objectives of Research
Identify key issues that are problematic for micro-EDM Investigate sources of errors in the micro-EDM process

Approach
Categorize micro-EDM processes Investigate problematic areas for micro EDM (part handling, preparation, machining process, measurement) Analyze contributions of different process errors (machine, electrode, fixturing, wear)

Key findings
All aspects of the process need to be considered when assigning process tolerances for micro-EDM parts Process optimization is mainly based on empirical methods A strategy for micro-EDM milling is proposed to compensate for electrode wear

Problematic areas for micro-EDM

27

Author

Allen, D. M. IEEE Seminar on Demonstrated Micromachining Technologies for Industry, 2000, 6/1-4

Title

Microelectrodischarge Machining for MEMS Applications Miniaturization, MEMS, Micromachining

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
The fabrication of miniature devices for MEMS has relied heavily in the past on bulk and surface etching of silicon and metal films deposited in vacuum or electrochemically. However, some materials such as stainless steels, titanium and shape memory alloys require high aspect ratio holes through foils up to 200 m thick when etching technology may not be practical or economical. Industrial MEMS applications include ink jet printing heads containing hundreds of accurately aligned, identical, round nozzles about 50 m in diameter. With the aid of an EPSRC Equipment Grant, the potential of using microelectrodischarge machining (micro-EDM) to fabricate such nozzles has been investigated.

Objectives of Research
Study of the accuracy of micro-hole production using micro-EDM

Approach
Experimental observation of micro-holes made by Micro-EDM for ink jet printer nozzles

Key findings
The accuracy of micro-hole production is dependent on the way in which micro-electrode production is carried out There are problems with material microdefects that are becoming significant in microengineered products made from multicrystalline metals The quality of printer head is dependent not only on the micromachining processes involved in its fabrication but also on the quality of the material from which it is made The micro-EDM process is excellent for its precision and resolution capabilities but major challenges are wear of the micro-electrode during the machining of the nozzles the very slow machining rate due to the low pulse energy used for individual discharges

Accuracy of individual holes of ink jet nozzles made by micro-EDM

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Author Citation

Li, X., Choi, H., Yang, Y. Thin Solid Films, 420 421, 2002, pp. 515523

Title Keywords

Micro Rapid Prototyping System for Micro Components Rapid prototyping, Micro-component, Microfeeding, Micromachining

Abstract
Similarities between silicon-based micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) and Shape Deposition Manufacturing (SDM) processes are obvious: both integrate additive and subtractive processes and use part and sacrificial materials to obtain functional structures. These MEMS techniques are two-dimensional (2-D) processes for a limited number of materials while SDM enables the building of parts that have traditionally been impossible to fabricate because of their complex shapes or of their variety in materials. This work presents initial results on the development of a micro rapid prototyping system that adapts the SDM methodology to micro-fabrication. This system is designed to incorporate microdeposition and laser micromachining. In the hope of obtaining precise microdeposition, an ultrasonic-based micro powderfeeding mechanism was developed in order to form thin patterns of dry powder that can be cladded or sintered onto a substrate by a microsized laser beam. Furthermore, experimental results on laser micromachining using a laser beam with a wavelength of 355 nm are also presented. After further improvement, the developed micromanufacturing system could take computer-aided design (CAD) output to reproduce 3-D heterogeneous microcomponents from a wide selection of materials.

Objectives of Research
Develop system for micro rapid prototyping Enable heterogeneous material composition using micro powderfeeding mechanism

Approach
Assess capabilities and limitations of current micro rapid prototyping techniques Develop and characterize ultrasonic-based micro-feeding device for deposition of micro powders Study laser micro machining process attributes

Key findings
Incorporating micro-deposition and laser micromachining can extend rapid prototyping technology to micro components Micro powders can be deposited using an capillary tube excited by a piezoelectric plate (Rayleigh wave mechanism) Drilling depth depends on number of laser pulses, laser fluence, and focal plane Moving velocity of the substrate affects shape and depth of machined channels

Top and side views of a laser micromachined channel

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Author

Kathuria , Y.P. Proceedings of SPIE, Vol. 4157, 2001, pp. 129 134.

Title

Overview of Laser Based Prototyping in Microdomain Laser; micro-stereolithography, lamination, laser sintering, microcladding and rapid prototyping

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
In the emerging field of microrobotics and micro-electromechanical systems, the requirement of complex mechanical parts is gaining much importance. On one hand, the overall size and shape of the product is becoming smaller and more complex, whereas on the other hand the demand/offer for new products is dramatically increasing. In order to overcome this problem, new organizational structures for the complete process for product development as well as for new technologies is necessary. This paper highlights the various processes, viz., microstreolithography of polymer resin, selective laser sintering of metallic powder as well as melting processes using lasers for the rapid prototyping of three dimensional parts in the microdomain.

Objectives of Research
Overview of the four laser baser rapid prototyping processes in the microdomain Discuss the quality of the parts made by the laser based rapid prototyping Compare the laser based prototyping processes with the LIGA processes

Approach
Apply four laser based rapid prototyping techniques to generate complex 3D microparts made of of polymers, metal and metal-matrix composites intended for rapid product development Use UV and Nd-YAG lasers in the rapid prototyping processes Microturbine made by laser stereolithography

Key findings
Two phonon microstereolithography can produce 3D microstructures with submicron resolution Beam interaction time plays a crucial role in the microcladding process The line width of metallic structures is limited by the particle size, molten droplet and surface tension effects

Helical microstructure made by microcladding

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Author

Momma, C.; Chichkov, B.N.; Nolte, S.; Alvensleben, F.; Tunnermann, A.; Welling, H.; Wellegehausen, B. Optics Communications

Title

Short-pulse laser ablation of solid targets Laser ablation; Material processing; Shortpulse laser

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Laser ablation of solid targets by Ti:sapphire laser radiation is studied. The solid targets are irradiated by 0.2-5000 ps laser pulses in the intensity range of 109 - 51016 W/cm2. Dependences of the ablation depth on the laser pulse energy and pulse duration are discussed. Advantages of sub-picosecond laser radiation for precise material processing are demonstrated.

Objectives of Research
Discussion of the characteristic features of the short-pulse laser induced ablation of solid targets. Explanation and demonstration of the advantages of short-pulse lasers for material processing.

Approach
Description of the physical processes and characteristics in case of sufficiently high-intensity laser Discussion of experimental setup and results Discussion and experimental results on the laser ablation in a low fluence regime

Key findings
Investigations of laser ablation are performed in a very broad range of laser parameters In the high fluence regime, short-pulse lasers do not provide considerable advantages for material processing in comparison with long-pulse lasers. Real advantages of short-pulse lasers for material processing exist at low fluences. In this regime, very pure ablation of metal targets in vacuum are demonstrated. The advantages of short-pulse lasers are very promising and inviting for precise material processing.

Hole drilled in a copper plete (0.5 mm) with short laser pulses

Schematic of short-pulse laser ablation in a low fluence regime

31

Citations
Allen, D. M. Microelectrodischarge Machining for MEMS Applications. IEEE Seminar on Demonstrated Micromachining Technologies for Industry, 2000, 6/1-4 Bhattacharyya, B., Doloi, B., Sridhar, P.S. Electromechanical Micro-Machining: New Possibilities for Micro-Manufacturing. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 113, 2001, pp. 301-305 Bhattacharya, B., J. Munda, Experimental investigation into electrochemical micromachining (EMM) process. Journal of Materials processing technology, 140 (2003),pp 287-291 Ehmann, K. F., DeVor, R. E., Kapoor, S.G. Micro/Meso-scale Mechanical Manufacturing: Opportunities and Challenges. JSME/ASME Materials and Processing Conference, Honolulu, Oct. 15-18 Engel, U., Eckstein, R. Microforming - From basic research to its realization, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 50(2), 2001, p 445462 Frazier, A. Bruno, Warrington, R. O., Friedrich, C. The Miniaturization Technologies: Past, Present, and Future. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, 42(5), 1995, pp. 423-430 Geiger, M.; Kleiner, M.; Eckstein, R.; Tiesler, N.; Engel, U. Microforming, CIRP Annals - Manufacturing Technology, 50(2), 2001, pp. 445-462 Hatamura, Y., Nakao, M., Sato, T. Construction of an Integrated Manufacturing System for 3D Microstructure Concept, Design, and Realization. Annals of CIRP, 46(1), 1997, pp. 313-318 Kathuria , Y.P., Overview of Laser Based Prototyping in Microdomain, Proceedings of SPIE, Vol. 4157, 2001, pp. 129 134. Kim, B.H., Ryu, S.H., Choi, D.K., Chu, C.N., Micro electrochemical milling.Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering, 15, (2005), pp. 124-129 Li, X., Choi, H., Yang, Y. Micro Rapid Prototyping System for Micro Components. Thin Solid Films, 420 421, 2002, pp. 515523 Li Y., Zheng Yunfei, Yang Guang, Peng Liangqiang. Localized electrochemical micromachining with gap control. Sensors and Actuators, A108, 2003, pp. 144-148 Momma, C.; Chichkov, B.N.; Nolte, S.; Alvensleben, F.; Tunnermann, A.; Welling, H.; Wellegehausen, B., Short-pulse laser ablation of solid targets, Optics Communications, v 129, n 1-2, Aug 1, 1996, p 134-142 Pham, D. T., Dimov, S. S., Bigot, S., Ivanov, A., Popov, K. Micro-EDM Recent Developments and Research Issues. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 149, pp. 50-57, 2004 Tadigadapa, Srinivas A., Najafi, Nader. Developments in Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS): A Manufacturing Perspective. Transactions ASME, 125(4), 2003, pp.816-823 Takahata, K., Aoki S., Sato T. Fine Surface Finishing Method for 3-Dimensional Micro Structures. Proceedings IEEE, 1996, pp.73-78

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CHAPTER 2. Mechanics of Micro-machining

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34

2. Mechanics of Micro-machining
Material removal processes exhibit significantly different behavior and characteristics at the micro/meso-scales than at the conventional macro-scale. These differences are primarily the consequence of the relative scaling between the principal constituents of the cutting operations performed. Micro-cutting operations are frequently used to produce features with reduced sizes and tolerances that necessitate the use of tools such as small diameter endmills that themselves have features, e.g., the cutting edge radius, that are comparable in size to the cutting parameters, viz., the feedrate, owing to current limitations in tool manufacture. As a consequence, the mechanisms of chip formation may have significant ploughing as well as shearing effects, which will influence cutting forces, vibrations, process stability and part surface finish in ways quite different than in conventional, macro-machining. A second significant factor in micro-machining is the need to consider the inhomogeneity of the material at the scale of micro-machining since the characteristic grain size, except for single crystal materials, is on the order or even larger than the chip thickness/cut crossection and frequently on the order of the tool diameter, e.g., in drilling or endmilling. Even for single crystal materials, the crystallographic orientation plays a significant role in cutting performance at the micro-scale. The first section of this chapter presents results pertaining to the size effect, energy considerations and basic cutting mechanics considerations in micro/meso-scalemachining. The modeling methods presented range from continuum mechanics and molecular dynamics approaches to mechanistic modeling. 35

The second section of this chapter is devoted to work performed to ascertain the influence of the work materials microstructure on the cutting force system and other process outcomes. Finite element and mechanistic modeling approaches are presented, followed by work on the influence of crystallographic orientation. The last two sections of this chapter are devoted to the few available results that relate to the important but theoretically-difficult issue of surface generation in micro-machining and more pragmatic machinability issues in micro-cutting, respectively. There are at least two reasons why surface generation in micro-machining should receive increased attention. First, as size scales down, surface-to-volume ratios for components tend to increase and surface effects, e.g., surface tension, surface roughness, become more critical to component performance. Second, in micro-scale machining the factors related to the machining process that significantly influence surface roughness become many and their effects become quite complex relative to macro-level machining where the surface roughness is primarily influenced by kinematic/geometric factors, viz., feedrate and tool geometry. At the micro-scale machining process dynamics, tool vibrations, the ploughing phenomenon and associated elastic/plastic deformation, material side-flow, and burr formation at grain boundaries in multi-phase materials all can have order of magnitude larger influence on the roughness of the machining surface than the classical kinematic/geometric factors. The last section of this chapter gives a collection of practical developments and application examples of micro-cutting.

36

2. Mechanics of Micro-machining 2.1 Cutting mechanisms; Chip formation and cutting forces

37

Author Citation

Nakayama. K and Tamura.K Journal of Engineering for Industry, 1968, pp.119-126.

Title Keywords

Size Effect in Metal-Cutting Force Size effect, Plastic flow

Abstract
Even though grinding is recognized as a form of cutting, gaps exist between the cutting theory and the grinding theory. In this paper the components of energy consumption in metal cutting are re-examined. The energy consumed due to plastic flow in the subsurface layer of the machined surface is found to be important when the depth of cut is decreased. This plastic flow in the subsurface layer increases the hardness, residual stresses and chemical activity of the layer. Size effect phenomena are studied by machining brass at a very slow cutting speed of 0.1 m/min and using undeformed chip thickness values in the range of 2 m and 40 m.

Objectives of Research
To study the factors contributing to the size effect phenomenon, while machining at low undeformed chip thickness values in the range of 2 to 40 m.

Approach
Analytical quantification of the energies consumed in metal cutting namely, surface energy W1, shear deformation work in the shear zone W2 , friction energy on rake face W3 , friction energy on tool flank W4 and kinetic energy of the chip W5 . Experiments involving measurement of cutting edge profile and machining tests on brass, measuring the cutting and the thrust forces. Analyzing the machining data to identify important energy consumption areas to account for the size effect at low depths of cut.

Key findings
Of the several components of energy involved in metal cutting which are usually neglected in metal-cutting analyses, the energy to cause plastic flow in the subsurface layer of the workpiece was found to be the first one to become important with decrease in undeformed chip thickness. The main cause of this plastic flow is the extension of the shear zone below the machined surface. Friction between the tool flank and the machined surface is responsible only for a small part of the plastic flow. A size effect for the shear stress on the shear plane was not found in these tests. Though the minimum depth of cut was 2 m the area of the shear plane or the volume of the shear zone might not be small enough to indicate the size effect.

Deformation and energy consumption during metal cutting

38

Author Citation

Joshi, S. and Melkote, S. JSME/ASME Int. Conf. On Materials and Processing 1, 2002, pp. 318-323

Title Keywords

An explanation for the size-effect in machining using strain gradient plasticity Machining, size-effect, specific shear energy, str ain gradients, dislocation processes

Abstract
Material length scales expressed in terms of strain gradients have been successfully incorporated into constitutive models to explain the sizeeffect in indentation, bending and torsion. Deformation in machining involves large strain gradients and is known to demonstrate a comparatively larger size-effect. This paper attempts to explain the size-effect in the Primary Deformation Zone (PDZ) of an orthogonal cutting process by developing a strain gradient plasticity based model. Considering a parallel-sided configuration of the PDZ, models are formulated for the strain gradient, density of geometrically necessary dislocations, shear strength and the specific shear energy. The analysis shows that for deformation in the PDZ, the length of the shear plane represents the material length scale. The model also provides an estimate of the lower bound on the size-effect observed in the specific shear energy. Trends in the predicted specific shear energy match well with experimental values obtained form the literature.

Objectives of Research
To develop a more realistic model of micro-level material removal phenomena for improved understanding of the size-effect in machining To develop a model for the size-effect in a deformation process using the strain gradient plasticity theory where the strength is considered a function of the strain gradient

Approach
Model of the Primary Deformation Zone (PDZ) using strain gradient plasticity Determination of the geometry of the strain field Evaluation of the strain gradient Evaluation of density of dislocations Evaluation of material strength as a function of material length scale

Size effect in specific shear energy

Key Findings
Models were formulated for the strain gradient, density of geometrically necessary dislocations, shear strength of material in the PDZ and the specific energy As the length of the shear plane reduces, strain gradient increases leading to increase in the shear strength A lower bound on the size-effect in specific shear energy can be predicted using the model, which is capable of capturing the trend in the experimental values. The predicted values of specific energy were found to match closely with the experimental values for <1.

39

Author

Waldorf, D. J., DeVor, R. E., and Kapoor, S. G. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 121(1999), pp. 550-558

Title

An evaluation of ploughing models for orthogonal machining Micro-cutting, steel, process optimization

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
An analytical comparison is made between two basic models of the flow of workpiece material around the edge of an orthogonal cutting tool during steady-state metal removal. Each has been the basis for assumptions in previous studies which attempt to model the machining process, but no direct comparison had been made to determine which, if either, is an appropriate model. One model assumes that a separation point exists on the rounded cutting edge while the other includes a stable build-up adhered to the edge and assumes a separation point at the outer extreme of the build-up. Theories of elastic-plastic deformation are employed to develop force predictions based on each model, and experiments are performed on 6061-T6 aluminum alloy to evaluate modeling success. The experiments utilize unusually large cutting edge radii to isolate the edge component of the total cutting forces. Results suggest that a material separation point on the tool itself does not exist and that the model that includes a stable build-up works better to describe the experimental observations.

Objectives of Research
Compare two basic models of the flow of workpiece material around the rounded edge of an orthogonal cutting tool.. Determine which model is an appropriate model

Approach
Analytical modeling using indentation to approximate ploughing Experimental verification

Key findings
The model which considered a stable build-up was more successful than the one assuming the separation point directly on the edge in matching the trend and magnitudes of the experimental results. When cutting with a large edge radius tool on 6061-T6 aluminum, a stable build-up adheres to the cutting edge and influences the cutting forces considerably. Large ploughing forces compared to shearing forces are expected when feedrate is at or below the value of the edge radius.

Cutting with material separation point on edge

Cutting with a stable build-up on edge

40

Author Citation

Lucca, D. A,Seo Y.W and Komanduri, R. Annals of the CIRP, 42(1), 1993, pp.83-86.

Title Keywords

Effect of Tool Edge Geometry on Energy Dissipation in Ultraprecision Machining Cutting,Cutting forces,Diamond

Abstract
An experimental study of the effect of single crystal diamond tool edge geometry on the resulting cutting and thrust forces and specific energy in the ultraprecision orthogonal flycutting of Te-Cu was made. The effects of both the nominal rake angle and tool edge profile was investigated over uncut chip thicknesses from 20 m down to 10 nm. Characterization of the tool edge was performed with the use of the atomic force microscopy. Both the nominal rake angle and tool edge profile (effective rake angle) were found to have significant effects on the resulting forces and energies.

Objectives of Research
To study the effect of tool edge geometry on the resulting forces and energies in the ultraprecision orthogonal fly cutting of TE-Cu.

Approach
Characterization of A) tool edge using atomic force microscope, B) rake and clearance angles using optical microscope. Orthogonal fly cutting: flat nosed single crystal diamond tool rotates, Te-Cu work piece held stationary. Experimental assessment of the resulting specific energies made by measuring the cutting and thrust forces.

Key findings
Both the nominal rake angle and the tool edge profile were found to have significant effects on the resulting forces and energy dissipated over uncut chip thickness from 20 m to 10 nm. When the uncut chip thickness is large relative to the extent of the tool edge profile, the resulting forces and energies are governed by the nominal rake angle. When the uncut chip thickness approaches the size of the edge contour, effective rake angle appears to determine the resulting forces.This is predominantly shown by the study of the direction of the resultant force vector with respect to the uncut chip thickness. At small uncut chip thicknesses the effective rather than nominal rake angle dictates the direction of the resultant force.

Direction of resultant force vector v/s uncut chip thickness for various rake angles. ( Notice how at low uncut chip thicknesses the rotation angle changes)

41

Author Citation

Lucca, D.A., Seo, Y.W. and Rhorer, R.L. Tribology Transactions, 37(3), 1994, pp.651-655.

Title Keywords

Energy Dissipation and Tool-Workpiece Contact in Ultra-Precision Machining Ultra-precision machining, Specific energy

Abstract
An experimental investigation was conducted to examine the dissipation of mechanical energy when machining at depths of cut less than several micrometers. Cutting and thrust forces which resulted in orthogonal ultra-precision fly cutting of Al 6061-T6 were measured over a range of depths of cut 20 m down to 0.01 m at a cutting speed of 0.8 m sec-1. Measurement of the tool-work piece contact length indicated that it may become the characteristic length scale when machining at sub-micrometer depths of cut. Evidence suggests that the process may be viewed as transitioning from a cutting dominant to plowing/sliding indentation dominant process. Tool edge condition was seen to have a significant effect on the resulting forces when the depth of cut was below the tool edge radius.

Objectives of Research
To quantify the dissipation of mechanical energy in the ultra precision machining of ductile materials (Al 6061-T6)

Approach
Orthogonal fly cutting: flat nosed single crystal diamond tool rotates and work piece held stationary. Experimental assessment of the resulting specific energies made by measuring the cutting and thrust forces. The range of possible contact lengths at the work piece interface was bracketed by using two methods: 1) Upper Bound: coating the diamond tool with a thin layer of AuPd, cutting at a given depth of cut and then observing the region of worn-off coating at the flank face (using SEM) and 2) Lower Bound: using the measured thrust force and an interface pressure equal to the plain flow stress of the workpiece material to predict a contact length.

Key findings
Overall trends in the cutting forces and energies for Al 6061-T6 agree well with previously reported results for copper. Bracketing of the tool workpiece contact length by two methods indicates that it may become a characteristic length when machining at sub micrometer depths of cut. Rotation of the measured resultant force vector and the increased significance of the tool-workpiece contact length suggest that the process may be viewed as a transition from a cutting dominated to a plowing/sliding indentation dominant process. Tool edge condition seen to have a significant effect on the resulting forces when the depth of cut was below the tool edge radius.

Orthogonal cutting geometry at small depths of cut

SEM picture of the flank face showing worn-off Au-Pd coating

42

Author Citation

Ikawa, N., Shimada, S., and Tanaka, H. Nanotechnology, 3, 1992, pp. 6-9

Title Keywords

Minimum thickness of cut in micromachining Minimum chip thickness, atomistic cutting model

Abstract
This paper discusses the significance of the minimum thickness of cut (MTC) which is defined as the minimum undeformed thickness of the chip removed from a work surface at a cutting edge under perfect performance of a metal cutting system. Following a brief look at the relation between MTC and the extreme machining accuracy attainable for a specific cutting condition, it is shown that a very fine chip with an undeformed thickness of the order of a nanometer can be obtained from experimental face turning of electroplated copper by a well-defined diamond tool. To understand the nanometric metal cutting process, a computer simulation using an atomistic model is proposed.

Objectives of Research
Outline the significance of the minimum thickness of cut Carry out experiments to cut undeformed thickness on the order of a nanometer with a well-defined diamond tool Better understand the chip removal process in micromachining

Approach
Face turning of electroplated copper with a diamond tool Atomic cutting model to simulate the chip removal process

Key Findings
Under the combination of a specially prepared diamond cutting edge and free machining of electroplated copper as a work material, a very thin chip nominally of the order of 1 nm has been experimentally produced A hypothetical atomistic cutting model supports its feasibility

SEM micrographs of chips

Atomistic model of micromachining

43

Author Citation

Shimada, S.,Ikawa, N.,Inamura, T. , Ohmori, H. and Sata, T. Annals of the CIRP, 44(1), 1995, pp. 523-526.

Title Keywords

Brittle-Ductile Transition Phenomena in Microindentation and Micromachining Micromachining, Ductile transition, Brittle material

Abstract
A generalized hypothesis for the brittle to ductile transition in micromachining and microindentation of brittle materials is proposed. By the hypothesis, complicated transition phenomena observed in practical machining processes are well explained. Experimental results on microturning, ELID grinding of monocrystalline Si and LiNbO3 support the applicability of the hypothesis. Microindentation testing is shown to evaluate the intrinsic ductility and critical scale of machining for ductile mode machining. To analyze the machining process at extremely small scales, molecular dynamics computer simulations of microindentation and cutting are made on a defect free surface. These results suggest that any material, in spite of their ductility, can be machined in ductile mode under sufficiently small scale of machining.

Objectives of Research
To study the brittle-ductile transition phenomena in microindentation and micromachining.

Approach
Hypothesis about possible mechanisms for brittle-ductile transition phenomena. Diamond turning and ELID grinding of Si(100) and LiNbO3 surfaces and microindentation of fine polished Si and LiNbO3 surfaces carried out to test the validity of the hypothesis. Molecular dynamics (MD) computer simulation of microindentation and cutting were conducted to analyze the material removal process in the nanometer or atomic scale.

Key findings
The mode of material removal, brittle or ductile depends on the dominance of two criteria: the resolved tensile stress on cleavage plane or shear stress on slip plane exceeds a certain critical value for each stress levels under a particular machining condition. The dominance of the criteria depends on the size of the stress field in which the unit process of the particular machining takes place. For larger than micrometer scale machining the brittle mode material removal is the predominant criteria. Since the critical tensile strength, which is sensitive to pre-existing defects, shows a remarkable size effect, the ductile mode process is favorable in the micrometer to sub-micrometer scale of machining. Experimental results on machining of mono-crystalline Si and LiNbO3 support the applicability of this criteria. Microindentation experiments are useful in evaluating the intrinsic ductility and critical scale of machining for ductile mode machining. MD simulations suggest that any material, regardless of its brittleness, can be machined in the ductile mode under a sufficiently small scale of machining, say nanometer level or less.

44

Author Citation

Lee, W.B. and Cheung, C.F. and To, S.


Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 124, 2002, pp.170-177.

Title Keywords

A Microplasticity Analysis of Micro-Cutting Force Variation in Ultra-Precision Diamond Turning.

Micro-cutting, Microplasticity, Ultraprecision

Abstract
The paper describes a microplasticity model for analyzing the variations in the cutting force in ultra-precision diamond turning. The model takes into account the effect of material anisotropy due to the changing crystallographic orientation of the workpiece being cut. A spectrum analysis technique is deployed to extract the features of the cutting force patterns. The model has been verified through a series of cutting experiments conducted on aluminum single crystals with different crystallographic cutting planes. The results indicate that the model can predict well the patterns of the cutting force variation. It is also found that there exists a fundamental cyclic frequency of variation of the cutting force per revolution of the workpiece. Such a frequency is shown to be closely related to the crystallographic orientation of the materials being cut. The successful development of the microplasticity model provides a quantitative means of explaining periodic fluctuation of the micro-cutting force in diamond turning of crystalline materials.

Objectives of Research
To develop a micro-plasticity model for studying cutting force variations in ultra-precision diamond turning taking into account the effect of material anisotropy due to changing crystallographic orientation of the workpiece being cut.

Approach
Analytical model development for shear angle and cutting force variation with crystallographic orientations Model validation using machining experiments and spectrum analysis

Predicted variation of the shear angle with crystal orientations on (001) and (111) planes.

Key findings
Variation of microcutting forces in diamond turning of crystalline materials is analyzed based on a microplasticity model and spectrum analysis technique. The model takes into account the effect of crystallographic orientation of work materials being cut. Experimental results validate the proposed model. The variation of the cutting forces is closely related to the crystallographic orientation of the crystals being cut. As the depth of cut increases the effect of the crystallographic orientation of single crystal materials on microcutting forces was found to be pronounced. Predicted variation of the cutting forces with crystal orientations on (001) and (111) planes.

45

Author Citation

Moriwaki, T.,Sugimura, N. and Luan, S. Annals of the CIRP, 42(1), 1993, pp.7578.

Title Keywords

Combined Stress,Material Flow and Heat Analysis of Orthogonal Micromachining of Copper Cutting, Micromachining, Finite element method

Abstract
Theoretical and experimental analyses of orthogonal micromachining of copper are presented to promote fundamental understanding of ultraprecision metal cutting processes. A method is proposed by applying rigid-plastic FEM to analyze the mechanics of the steady state orthogonal, micromachining process of copper taking into consideration the roundness of the tool edge. An FEM model is also developed to analyze the flow of cutting heat and the temperature distribution within both the workpiece and the tool based on the calculated stress and the material flow within the workpiece. Orthogonal micromachining experiments are carried out by employing both a micromachining equipment installed within a SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) and an ultraprecision fly cutting machine. The results of the FEM analysis are compared with the experimental results.

Objectives of Research
To study and analyze the mechanics of steady state, orthogonal, micromachining of copper

Approach
Use of FEM to analytically study the stress, strain, material flow and cutting heat in the orthogonal micromachining of copper. Experimental validation using: A) orthogonal micromachining equipment installed inside a SEM, for direct observation of the micromachining process, and B) Ultraprecision fly cutting machine, for measuring the cutting heat.

Key findings
The results from the FEM are in good agreement with the experimental results. The cutting ratio (ratio of depth of cut to the chip thickness) decreases with an increase in the ratio of the tool edge radius (R) to the depth of cut (D). The nominal specific cutting resistance increase as the R/D ratio increases. The FEM analysis shows that the affected zone within the workpiece is expanded as the R/D ratio increases. Based on the distribution of the maximum shear stress calculated by the FEM analysis, the chip is found to separate from the workpiece just under the tool edge. The measured cutting temperature reaches about 270K higher than the mean temperature of the workpiece when Cu is cut at cutting speed of 4.3m/s and the depth of cut is 1 m. The cutting temperature increases with an increase in the cutting speed. From the calculated temperature distribution within the workpiece it is seen that the temperature gradient in the workpiece becomes larger in front of the cutting edge due to the material flow relative to the cutting tool.

Temperature distribution obtained by FEM analysis

46

Author Citation

Ikawa, N., Shimada, S., Tanaka, H., and Ohmori, G.


Annals of the CIRP, 40, 1991, pp. 551-554

Title Keywords

An atomic analysis of nanometric chip removal as affected by tool-work interaction in diamond turning Cutting, micromachining, accuracy

Abstract
This paper discusses the significance of the minimum thickness of cut which is defined as the minimum uncut thickness of chip removed from the worksurface at a cutting edge under perfect performance of a metal cutting system. Following a brief look at the relation between the minimum thickness of cut and extreme machining accuracy attainable for a specific cutting condition, it is shown that a very fine chip the uncut chip thickness of which is on the order of 1 nm is obtained in experimental face turning by a well-defined diamond tool. To understand the nanometric chip removal process, a computer simulation using an atomistic model is made. The analysis of the experimental results aided by the computer simulation shows that, while the minimum thickness of cut is affected by the tool-workmaterial interaction to a certain degree, it is more strongly affected by the sharpness of the cutting edge and that the minimum thickness of cut may be on the order of 1/10 of the cutting edge radius.

Objectives of Research
Understand the effect of cutting edge sharpness and tool-work interaction on the minimum thickness of cut through an atomistic cutting model for computer simulation Estimate the minimum thickness of cut from the SEM observation of nanometric chips obtained in the experimental face turning of electroplated copper, oxygen free high conductivity copper, and commercially pure aluminum

Approach
Experimental face turning with a well-defined diamond tool SEM observations of the chips to estimate the minimum thickness of cut Atomistic cutting model to simulate and study significance of cutting parameters on the minimum thickness of cut

Key Findings
The minimum thickness of cut is one of the most important factors to determine the machining accuracy attainable for a specific set of cutting conditions The minimum thickness of about 1 nm can be obtained in facing of Cu and Al. Extreme accuracy can be attained if the cutting edge sharpness is maintained at few nm The minimum thickness of cut is more strongly affected by the sharpness of cutting edge than by the tool-work interaction The minimum thickness of cut may be at the order of 1/10 of the cutting edge radius

Atomistic model of nanometric cutting

47

Author Citation

Inamura, T.,Takezawa,N., Kumaki,Y. and Sata,T. Annals of the CIRP, 43 (1), 1994, pp.47-50

Title Keywords

On a Possible Mechanism of Shear Deformation in Nanoscale Cutting. Simulations, Micromachining, Cutting

Abstract
Based on the method of transformation from an atomic model to a corresponding continuum model, the stress and strain distributions in nanoscale cutting have been evaluated. These results show that a workpiece is subjected to concerted compressive and shear strain in the primary shear zone, though the area along the rake face of the tool is strained in tension. The results also show that the interior of the workpiece is exposed to a high, almost constant compressive stress. A possible mechanism of these different stress and strain distributions is discussed as well as its interpretation at the macroscale.

Objectives of Research
To evaluate the stress and strain distribution in nanoscale cutting and to investigate the relationship between the mechanics of microscale cutting and that of macroscale cutting using an atomic/continuum transformation.

Approach
Molecular dynamic simulations and analysis.

Key findings
A method of transformation from an atomic model to an equivalent continuum model is presented together with its various interpretations. Workpiece material is subjected to concentrated compressive and shear strain during cutting. However, the area along the rake face of a tool is subjected to tensile strain due to the adhesive forces between the tool and workpiece. Stress distribution in the workpiece during cutting is very complex with regard to its direction, indicating the initiation of a kind of buckling deformation. The interior region of the workpiece including the area of primary shear is not exposed to any concentrated shear stress but exposed to relatively constant and high compressive stress. The difference between the stress and strain distributions in the workpiece during cutting cannot be explained either by the theory of plastic deformation on the macroscale or by the theory of plastic deformation for a monocrystal. The mechanism of deformation in the primary shear zone seems to be related to buckling due to severe compression in that area.

Magnitude of the maximum shear stress and strain in the workpiece during cutting

48

Author Citation

Kim, J.D. and Kim, D.S. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 49, 1995, pp.387-398.

Title Keywords

Theoretical Analysis of Micro-Cutting Characteristics in Ultra-precision Machining Cutting, Cutting forces, Diamond

Abstract

The physics of the micro-cutting process at very small depths of cut (1m or less) is not well understood despite the successful development of ultra-precision machining technology. Sliding along the clearance face of the tool due to the elastic recovery of the workpiece and plowing due to the tool edge radius may become important in the micro-cutting range. To obtain a clear understanding of these two factors, an orthogonal cutting model the so-called RECM (round edge cutting model) is suggested,

Objectives of Research
To develop an orthogonal cutting model considering the cutting edge radius and the elastic recovery of the material and to quantify the plowing along the rounded edge and sliding on the clearance face.

Approach
Analytical model development, model validation by comparing against published experimental results and comparison with Merchants sharp edge cutting model (SECM).

Key findings
The size effect is unaccountable for in Merchants SECM model. In micromachining as the depth of cut becomes of the same order as the tool edge radius the assumption that the tool edge is perfectly sharp is no longer valid. As a consequence, micro machining may involve significant sliding along the clearance face of the tool due to elastic recovery of the workpiece material and plowing due to the large effective negative rake angle resulting from the tool-edge radius. A cutting model called the RECM is suggested to quantify the above effects. The cutting force predicted by RECM is a better fit to the experimental values than by SECM. Analysis of the components of the cutting force establishes that the effect of the clearance face and the rounded edge of the tool dominate the cutting force system for under 1m depths of cut. Cutting models of orthogonal cutting

49

Author

Yuan, Z. J., Zhou, M., and Dong., S. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 62(1996) 327-330

Title

Effect of diamond tool sharpness on minimum cutting thickness and cutting surface integrity in ultraprecision machining Cutting edge radius, Minimum chip thickness, Surface integrity, Ultraprecision machining

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
The diamond tools sharpness is a primary factor affecting the cutting deformation and the machined surface quality in the diamond cutting process. In this paper, the relationship between the cutting edge radius and the minimum cutting thickness was analyzed. Cutting tests of aluminum alloys with diamond tools of different sharpness were performed in order to investigate the effect of cutting edge sharpness on the machined surface integrity. Experimental results show that the surface roughness, microhardness, residual stress and the dislocation density of the machined surface layer vary with the cutting edge radius.

Objectives of Research
Analyze the relationship between the cutting edge sharpness and the minimum cutting thickness. Study the influence of the cutting edge radius on the machined surface integrity.

=0.3 m

Approach
Theoretical analysis Diamond turning experimentations

Key findings
The minimum chip thickness value was derived as a function of the force ratio Fy/Fx and the friction coefficient between the tool and workpiece. (0.249 ~0.322 ) With the cutting edge radius of =0.20.6 m, the attainable minimum cutting thickness was found to be 0.05~0.2 m. The diamond tool edge radius has a considerable influence on the machined surface integrity. As the edge radius increases, the surface roughness increases, the microhardness increases, the residual stress increases and the dislocation density of the subsurface layer increases.

=0.6 m

50

Author Citation

Kim, C., Bono, M., and Ni, J. NAMRI/SME, 30, 2002, pp. 247-254

Title Keywords

Experimental analysis of chip formation in micro-milling Micro-milling, minimum chip thickness, chip formation

Abstract
This study investigates the mechanism of chip formation when milling 360 brass with a 2-flute flat end-mill of diameter 635 m. Experiments reveal how chips are formed in the micro-milling process, which differs from conventional milling in that the feed per tooth is often smaller than the cutting edge radius of the tool. Several slots are milled using a speed of 80,000 rpm and feeds per tooth ranging from 0.188 m to 6 m. For each set of cutting conditions, the volumes of the resulting chips and the feed marks on the machined workpiece surface were analyzed.

Objectives of Research
To investigate the mechanism of chip formation in micro-milling

Approach
Analysis of the volume of the resulting chip and the feed marks on the machined workpiece surface Comparison between the volume of the chips and the nominal volume. Comparison between the feed mark spacing and the feed per tooth

Key Findings
For micro-milling system with a particular stiffness and cutting edge radius, the mechanism of chip formation varies with the feed per tooth If the feed per tooth of the milling cutting is relatively small compared to the cutting edge radius of the tool, a chip may not form in each pass of the tool. Instead, the tool can rotate several times without performing any cutting, meaning that chips are produced intermittently. A chip may also not form in each pass of the tool if the stiffness of the system is small.

51

Author Citation

Vogler, M. P., DeVor, R. E., and Kapoor, S. G. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, in print

Title Keywords

On the modeling and analysis of machining performance in micro-endmilling, Part II: cutting force prediction Cutting edge radius, Minimum chip thickness, Cutting force, Slip-line field, Micro-endmilling

Abstract
In this paper, a cutting force model for the micro-endmilling process is developed. This model incorporates the minimum chip thickness concept in order to predict the effects of the cutter edge radius on the cutting forces. A new chip thickness computation algorithm is developed to include the minimum chip thickness effect. A slip-line plasticity force model is used to predict the force when the chip thickness is greater than the minimum chip thickness, and an elastic deformation force model is employed when the chip thickness is less than the minimum chip thickness. Orthogonal, microstructurre-level finite element simulations are used to calibrate the parameters of the force models for the primary metallurgical phases, ferrite and pearlite, of multi-phase ductile iron workpieces. The model is able to predict the magnitudes of the forces for both the ferrite and pearlite workpieces as well as for the ductile iron workpieces within 20%.

Objectives of Research
Modeling the cutting forces in micro-milling accounting for the effect of minimum chip thickness

Approach
Slip-line plasticity modeling the cutting forces FE simulation to determine the minimum chip thickness values.

Key findings
For a twelve fold increase in the chip load, the magnitude of the cutting forces increased less than threefold for the range of cutting conditions tested. The frequency spectra of the forces were found to contain a component that is a subharmonic of the tooth passing frequency at feedrates less than the minimum chip thickness and appears as a stepping behavior of the forces in the time domain. A decomposition of the simulated forces showed that the stepping behavior is the result of the interference between the tool and workpiece increasing during subsequent revolutions until the instantaneous chip thickness is greater than the minimum chip thickness. The forces are more sensitive to the edge radius when machining more ferrite than when machining pearlite, due to both minimum chip thickness and the increased ductility of the ferrite that increases the ploughing forces.

ft = 0.25 m/flute

ft = 3.0 m/flute

52

Author Citation

Lee, K. and Dornfeld, D. A Transactions of NAMRI/SME,2002,pp.255-262.

Title Keywords

An Experimental Study on Burr Formation In Micro Milling Aluminum and Copper Micro burr, Micro machining

Abstract
Micro-machining by mechanical machine tools or micro mechanical machining, is an emerging fabrication technology that broadens the applicable material range for miniature workpieces to more metals and plastics. One of the problems in micromachining, however is burr formation.Experimental studies on micro-burr formation in milling aluminum 6061-T6 and copper 110 have been carried out. A range of different cutting chip loads and depths of cut using 127m, 254m and 635m tool diameters were considered. Different burr formation between micro milling and conventional milling was discussed. Flag-type, rollover-type, wavy-type and ragged-type burrs were observed in milling aluminum and copper.The influence of cutting parameters, axial depth of cut and feed rate, on burr size and burr type was considered. A case study of micro milling using the results of this study is presented.

Objectives of Research
Study and characterize the different types of burr formations seen while conducting slotting experiments on aluminum and copper. Study experimentally the effect of varying machining parameters like speed, feed rate and depth of cut on burr formations in aluminum and copper. To use findings of the study to generate tool paths resulting in minimum burr formation

Approach
Micro milling aluminum and copper using WC-Co , two flute end mills with diameters of 127m, 254m and 635m Scanning electron microscopy for studying burr formations

Key findings
Flag-type burr, rollover-type burr,wavy-type burr and ragged-type burr are observed.The rollover-type burr on tool entrance and flag-type burr on tool exit are bigger than in conventional milling processes. For top burr, up-milling produces a smaller burr than down milling. As the depth of cut and feedrate increase, burr size increases. Run-out in micro-milling causes a big wavy-type burr and form error. The information gained can be used in tool path planning for micromachined components.

Schematic view of burr definition in milling: shape and location

53

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54

2. Mechanics of Micro-machining 2.2 Influence of microstructure

55

Author Citation

Chuzhoy, L, DeVor, R. E., Kapoor, S. G., and Bammann, D. J. ASME J. Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 124, 2002, pp. 162-169

Title Keywords

Microstructure-level Modeling of Ductile Iron Machining Microstructure-level modeling, machining, ductile iron, simulation

Abstract
A microstructure-level model for simulation of machining of cast irons using the finite element method is presented. The model explicitly combines ferritic and pearlitic grains with graphite nodules to produce the ductile iron structure. The behaviors of pearlite, ferrite, and graphite are captured individually using an internal state variable model for the material model. The behavior of each phase is dependent on strain, strain rate, temperature, and amount of damage. Extensive experimentation was conducted to characterize material strain rate and temperature dependency of both ferrite and pearlite. The model is applied to orthogonal machining of ductile iron. The simulation results demonstrate the feasibility of successfully capturing the influence of microstructure on machinability and part performance. The stress, strain, temperature, and damage results obtained from the model are found to correlate well with experimental results found in the literature. Furthermore, the model is capable of handling various microstructures in other heterogeneous materials such as steels.

Objectives of Research
Simulates the material behavior of heterogeneous materials on a microstructure-level scale. Finite element analysis with heterogeneous microstructure

Approach
Finite element analysis Actual experiments for materials modeling Experimental validation by orthogonal cutting

Key findings
A microstructure-level model is developed and successfully applied to machining simulation of cast iron. The proposed model is capable of computing distributions of stress, strain, temperature, and damage in each phase making it particularly suitable for machining simulation of heterogeneous materials. The presented model can be used to study the influence of microstructure in heterogeneous materials on both machinability and part performance. Simulation geometry (above) and the distribution of effective stress (left)

56

Author Citation

Vogler, M. P., DeVor, R. E., and Kapoor, S. G. J. of Manufacturing Science and Engineering 125(2003) 202-209

Title Keywords

Microstructure-level force prediction model for micromilling of multi-phase materials Mechanistic force model, Microstructural mapping

Abstract
A mechanistic model for the micro-endmilling process is developed that explicitly accounts for the different phases while machining heterogeneous materials. It is shown that the frequencies in the cutting force signal higher than those that can be explained by the kinematics of the process can be explained by considering the multiple phases in the material. Experiments are performed on two compositions of ductile iron, pure ferrite and pearlite workpieces. These experiments show that the nature of the variation in the ductile iron cutting force signals can be attributed to the mixture of the phases. Additionally, simulation studies show that the frequency component of the variation is related to the spacing of the secondary (ferrite) phase and the magnitude of this component is determined by the size of the secondary phase particles.

Objectives of Research
Modeling the force variation due to the heterogeneity of multi-phase workpiece material in micro-endmilling. Experimental

Approach
Microstructure mapping Mechanistic force modeling

Key findings
A mechanistic model for micro-endmilling of multiple-phase materials has been developed. This model explicitly considers the various phases with a mapping technique in determining the magnitude and variation of the cutting forces. Calibration tests are performed for ferrite and pearlite, the major components of ductile iron and many other steels, in order to determine the force/chip load relationship for the individual phases of a heterogeneous material. The model is validated by using the calibration information from the ferrite and pearlite to predict the cutting force in micro-milling of ductile iron. The model is capable of predicting the higher frequency variation of the cutting forces when micro-milling a multiple-phase material such as ductile iron. The microstructural effects can accounts for more than 35% of the energy in the cutting force signal. The simulation shows that the frequency of the variation can be attributed to the spacing of the secondary phase, while the size of the secondary phase is seen to affect the magnitude of this variation.

Simulated

High frequency force variation due to the microstructure effect

57

Author Citation

Yuan, Z. J., Lee, W. B., Yao, Y. X., and Zhou, M. Annals of the CIRP, 43(1), 1994, pp. 39-42

Title Keywords

Effect of Crystallographic Orientation on Cutting Forces and Surface Quality in Diamond Cutting of Single Crystal

Crystallographic orientation, single crystal, cutting forces

Abstract
As the depth of cut in ultraprecision machining is usually less than the average grain size of a polycrystalline aggregate, cutting is performed within a grain. Single crystals are known to be highly anisotropic in their physical and mechanical properties. In this paper, the effect of crystallographic orientation of the substrate material on cutting forces and surface quality in diamond cutting of single crystal copper and aluminum has been studied. Experimental results show that the crystallographic orientation of the workpiece material exerts a large influence on the cutting force and surface roughness. The crystallographic nature of cutting force variation was analyzed based on a microplasticity model. Analytical results compare well with the experimental data. Measures for minimizing the cutting force variation and hence improving the machined surface quality were discussed.

Objectives of Research
Study of the effect of crystallographic orientation of the substrate material on cutting forces and surface quality in diamond cutting. Analysis of the crystallographic nature of cutting force variation based on a microplasticity model

Approach
Analytical modeling Experimental validation by microcutting of single crystal materials

Key findings
The experimental results show that the crystallographic orientations of the substrate material being cut has a great influence on the cutting force and surface roughness. The shear strength of a crystallite is not a constant for a given material but varies with the crystallographic orientations. The material induced vibration encountered in ultraprecision cutting has its origin in the changing crystallography of the workpiece material being cut.

58

Author Citation

Lee, W. B., and Zhou, M. Int. J. machine Tools and Manufacturers, 33(3), 1993, pp. 439-447

Title Keywords

A Theoretical Analysis of the Effect of Crystallographic Orientation on Chip Formation in Micromachining

Crystallographic orientation, micromachining, microplasticity, cutting forces

Abstract
The effect of crystallographic orientation on the shear zone formation in micromachining has been analyzed with a single crystal cutting model. Based on the minimum shear strength criterion, a range of shear angle values is found to exist. The most likely shear plane angle is the one that has the most negative texture softening factor among the ones with the same minimum shear strength. Theoretical findings for the shear angle and cutting force variations compare well with published experimental data. The significance of the microplasticity analysis to the understanding of chip formation in micromachining is discussed.

Objectives of Research
Microplasticity modeling to analyze the orientation of the shear zone in single crystal cutting Predict cutting forces based on microplastcity model and compare the experimental results.

Approach
Analytical modeling

Key findings
The shear planes are not necessarily slip planes but a result of co-operative slip processes in the crystal. A range of shear angles may exist for a given state of material anisotropy based on the minimum energy criterion. The uncertainty in the determination of shear angle can be removed if the texture softening factor is also considered. The pattern of variation in the microcutting force can be predicted if the change in the crystallographic orientation of the substrate material with respect to the cutting direction is known.

Example of variation of texture softening factor with shear angle in the crystal

59

Author Citation

Zhou, M., Ngoi, K. A., and Yeo, S. H.


Proc. 1st Int. Conf. and General Meeting of the European Society for Precision Engineering and Nanotechnology (EUSPEN), 1999, pp. 404-407

Title Keywords

Effect of Workpiece Material Properties on Microcutting Process Microcutting, crystallographic orientation, copper

Abstract
In the machining of mirror-like surfaces, a typical cutting depth of a few micrometers is common. With such a small depth of cut, the chip formation takes place inside individual grains of a polycrystalline material. In this paper, an orthogonal cutting of a copper single crystal was performed in order to investigate the dependency of the cutting deformation and the machined surface quality on crystallographic orientations of the substrate material. The experimental results show that the crystallographic orientations of the workpiece material exert a great influence on the shear angle and the surface quality. The measured values of the machined surface roughness correspond well with the experimental data of the shear angle.

Objectives of Research
Study of the dependency of the deformation and the machined surface quality on crystallographic orientations of the substrate material.

Approach
Experiments of orthogonal cutting of a single crystal copper.

Key findings
The experimental results show that the crystallographic orientation of the substrate material being cut exerts a great influence on the chip formation mechanism in ultraprecision machining processes. The shear angle of the crystal is not constant for a given material but varies with the crystallographic orientations. As the cutting force is a function of shear angles, any variation in the shear angle of the crystal being cut will cause a fluctuation in the micro-cutting force and hence degrade the machined surface quality.

60

Author Citation

Taniyama, H., Eda, H., Zhou, L., Shimizu, J., and Sato, J
Key Engineering Materials, 2003, 238-239, pp. 1518

Title Keywords

Experimental Investigation of Micro Scratching on the Two-phase Steel: Plastic Flow Mechanisms of the Ferrite and Cementite Phases Ferrite, carbon steel, pearlite, cementite, scratched groove, FE-SEM

Abstract
In order to produce micromachined parts with greater dimensional accuracy, it is important to clarify the influence of heterogeneity and/or discontinuity of workpiece materials in the micromachining process because almost all structural materials are composed of heterogeneous and/or homogeneous crystal grains from the microscopic viewpoint. Experiments where the JIS S25C steel had been scratched with a diamond triangular pyramid indenter were conducted under a field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM). The difference in plastic flow of a scratch groove between a pearlite zone and a ferrite zone was clarified through comparison of the scratch grooves of those zones.

Objectives of Research
Clarify micromachining behavior and surface quality of alloys

Approach Key findings


Experiments of indenting and scratching of alloys The scratched groove on pearlite is smaller than on ferrite, because pearlite contains lamellar cementite, which is 10 times harder than ferrite. The ratio of plasticity swell height against the scratched groove depth on pearlite is greater than that on ferrite. In scratching the pearlite zone, plastic flow occurs and concentrates in lamellar ferrite rather than lamellar cementite.

61

Author Citation

Ueda, K., and Manabe, K. Annals of the CIRP, 41(1), 1992, pp. 129-132.

Title Keywords

Chip formation mechanism in microcutting of an amorphous metal Cutting, amorphous materials, finite element method

Abstract
The chip formation mechanism of an amorphous metal is elucidated by means of in-situ scanning electron microscope observation and Rigid-Plastic Finite Element Method (RPFEM). The chip morphology of the amorphous metal exhibits typical lamellar structure due to periodical formation of the localized shear band. The chip formation process is simulated by the RPFEM with considering adiabatic deformation in the primary shear zone. The simulation results including the lamellar structure formation process, the lamella spacing and the angle of the localized shear band are in good agreement with experiment results. The cutting force and the surface integrity are also discussed.

Objectives of Research
To elucidate the fundamental chip formation mechanism in microcutting of amorphous metals

Approach
In-situ scanning electron microscope observation Rigid-Plastic Finite Element Method

Key findings
In-situ SEM observation revealed that the Fe-based amorphous metal produces a chip which exhibits a typical lamellar structure. This is due to the periodical occurrence of relatively homogeneous plastic deformation and the following formation of the localized shear band. The localized shear band occurs in a very narrow region less than 0.03 m in the width. The lamellar spacing increases in proportion to the depth of cut in the employed cutting conditions. The chip formation of the amorphous metal takes place without a noticeable size effect in the depth of cut. This can be attributed to the fact that the amorphous metal has no defects but homogeneous structure. The RPFEM to analyze the localized deformation process due to adiabatic deformation is formulated by introducing the adiabatic deformation factor. The simulated results are in good agreement with experimental results in terms of the lamellar structure formation process, lamellar spacing, the angle of the localized shear band and the specific cutting force.

Lamellar spacing Vs. Depth of Cut

Simulated and Experimental Observed Chip Formation

62

Author Citation

Komanduri, R., Chandrasekaran, N. and Raff, L. M. Wear, 242(1-2), 2000, pp. 60-88

Title Keywords

M.D. Simulation of Nanometric Cutting of Single Crystal Aluminum Effect of Crystal Orientation and Direction of Cutting

M.D. simulation, single crystal aluminum, crystal orientation, cutting direction

Abstract
Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulation of nanometric cutting was conducted on single crystal aluminum in specific combinations of crystal orientation {(111), (110), and (001)} and cutting direction <[110], [211], and [100]> and with tools of different positive rake angles (0, 10, and 40) to investigate the nature of deformation and the extent of anisotropy of this material. When the aluminum crystal was oriented in (111) plane and cut in [110] direction, plastic deformation ahead of the tool was accomplished predominantly by compression along with shear in the cutting direction. Also, the deformation in the work material underneath the depth of cut region was found to be along the cutting direction. In (001) [110] combination, the dislocations were found to be generated parallel to the cutting direction. These were relieved from the uncut region into the work material underneath by elastic recovery. While there was some reorganization, yet some disorder of the atoms was observed in the machined surface in the amount close to the depth of cut. In contrast, in (110) [001] combination, the dislocations were generated normal to the cutting direction, which was rather unusual in machining. In the case of (110) orientation and [110] cutting direction, the dislocations were found to be parallel as well as perpendicular to the cutting direction. In contrast, for (001) [100] combination, extensive dislocations motion at ~45 to the cutting direction was seen. Similarly, for (111) [211] combination, the dislocation motion was observed to be at ~60 to the cutting direction. In both cases, the material in the shear zone was deformed at an angle equivalent to a shear angle, which is the mirror image of the dislocations generated in the work material, i.e., ~45 (clockwise) in the case of (001) orientation and [100] cutting direction and ~60 (clockwise) in the case of (111) orientation and [211] cutting direction. The variation of the cutting forces, the ratio of thrust to cutting force, the specific energy (energy required for removal of unit volume of work material), and the nature of deformation ahead of the tool as well as the subsurface deformation of the machined surface with crystal orientation and direction of cutting were investigated.

Objectives of Research
Observe the difference in cutting forces with different combinations of cutting direction and crystal orientation of single crystal Al.

Approach
M.D. simulation

Simulation model

Key findings
Molecular Dynamics MD simulations of nanometric cutting on single crystal aluminum were conducted in specific combinations of crystal orientations, A systematic variation of the cutting forces and specific energy with crystal orientation and direction of cutting was observed. Three modes of deformation were observed in the shear zone.

Simulation plot Three modes of deformation

63

Author Citation

Uhlmann, E.; Oberschmidt, D. The proceedings of ASPE 2003 Winter Topical Meeting

Title Keywords

3D-Analysis of microstructure with confocal laser scanning microscopy Confocal laser scanning microscopy; microstructure

Abstract
The measurement of micro components and microstructures leads to special requirements of measuring gauges. State-of-the-art Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopes (LSM) are suited to meet these requirements. The paper shows examples of effective and accurate analyses of micro tools, micro components, and micro structures with a LSM. It becomes clear, that measurements with a confocal LSM lead to verifiable results in a very fast and simple way.

Objectives of Research
Verification of Confocal Laser Scanning Microscopes (LSM) as a effective method in measuring micro components and microstructures.

Approach
Two representative examples of the great variety of possible measuring tasks are used to explain the functionality of confocal LSM: triple-edged micro end mill with a diameter of 0.5 mm and a hot embossing tool. Measurements and analysis of both examples

Key findings
Confocal LSM is suitable for the measurement of microstructures. With the help of representative examples, the practical use could be demonstrated. Three-dimensional imaging of microstructures with high lateral and axial resolution is possible with this measuring principle. Imaging of steep slopes is another important advantage. LSM image of the face of the micro end mill (left), resolution 512 512 pixel, objective 20/0.50, median-filtered; measurement of the abrasive wear at a cutting edge (right)

64

2. Mechanics of Micro-machining 2.3 Surface generation mechanisms

65

Author Citation

Zhang, B. and Kapoor, S. Journal of Engineering for Industry, 113, 191, pp. 137-144

Title Keywords

Dynamic generation of machined surfaces, part 1: description of a random excitation system Machined surface, random excitation

Abstract
With increasing emphasis on the adaptive control, it becomes necessary to develop models that can correlate the surface finish parameters to machining conditions as well as to workpiece material characteristics. This paper presents a study that leads to the development of a model for the dynamic generation of the 3D texture of machined surfaces. In Part 1, the mathematical formulation of the random excitation system which is responsible for the random portion of a surface profile is developed. It is assumed that the random excitation system originates from the nonhomogeneous distribution of the microhardness of the workpiece material. Machining tests are performed to verify the validity of such a model development. In Part 2, a procedure for the construction of the 3D topography is developed and the relationship between the machining conditions and the surface finish parameters is established.

Objectives of Research
To develop a model capable of constructing the 3D texture of machined surfaces with both deterministic and stochastic components in it.

Approach
Determination of the sources of stochastic or random components of a surface profile. Development of a mathematical model to describe the phenomenon of random excitation based on the sample variation theory.

Key Findings
The nonhomogeneous distribution of microhardness present in the material has been considered a major random excitation source which affects the formation of surface irregularities. A procedure has been developed to compute the two model parameters in terms of the three cutting parameters, the correlation coefficients function and the geometric sample shape function, which make possible a quantitative representation of the random excitation system present during machining. At low values of feed and cutting speed, the effect of random excitation is more significant than the effect at higher values of feed and cutting speed.

66

Author Citation

Zhang, B. and Kapoor, S. Journal of Engineering for Industry, 113, 191, pp. 145-153

Title Keywords

Dynamic generation of machined surfaces, part 2: construction of surface topography Machined surface, random excitation

Abstract
In Part 1 of this two-part paper, a normal distribution model has been formulated to describe the random excitation system present during machining. Part 2 presents a methodology to dynamically generate the surface topography under the random excitation environment through computer simulation. The proposed methodology uses the tool vibratory motion along with the tool geometrical motion to construct the topography of the machined surface. Both experimental and simulation results confirm that when a small feed is used, the influence of the spiral trajectory of the tool geometrical motion on the surface generation decays dramatically and the random excitation system, on the opposite, is strengthened playing a significant role in surface texture generation.

Objectives of Research
To develop a methodology which takes into account both the random excitation system and the tool geometrical motions for the dynamic generation of the three-dimensional texture of machined surfaces.

Approach
Methodology consisting of four modules: input function module, system model module, tool geometrical motions module, and topography generation module. Use of the random excitation system formulation in Part 1 as input to the machining system model. Development of two parametric tool path equations which quantitatively determine the coordinates of surface profiles generated during machining. Integration of the tool vibratory motion with the parametric tool path equations, which leads to dynamic generation of surface topography.

Key Findings
A procedure developed to convert the random excitation system in terms of a normal distribution to an equivalent percentage variation in the nominal chip load. From the viewpoint of the cutting force generation, this makes it possible to evaluate the instantaneous cutting force during machining when subjected to random excitation. The effect of tool vibration on the surface irregularity generation is quite significant at low values of feed due to the presence of a powerful random excitation system. The decaying of the profile pattern in the form of an arc-chain when a low value of feed is used suggests that the prediction of surface roughness indices based on geometrical-based theoretical formulas alone may not be accurate.

67

Author Citation

Lucca, D. A., Seo, Y. W. Annals of the CIRP, 43(1), 1994, pp. 43-46.

Title Keywords

Aspects of surface generation in orthogonal ultraprecision machining Cutting, Surface, Ultra-precision machining

Abstract
The depth of the plastically deformed layer at the workpiece surface which results in the orthogonal ultraprecision machining of Cu over the range of uncut chip thicknesses from 0.01-10 m was investigated. Two tools with the same nominal geometry but with differing edge geometries were used to machine both Te-Cu and fine grain Cu. Tool edge geometries were characterized by atomic force microscopy, taking into account the AFM cantilever tip radius. Magnitudes of the measured depths appear to be consistent with values reported in the literature and those arrived at by simple analyses.

Objectives of Research
Determine the depth of the plastically deformed layer at the workpiece surface in ultraprecision machining of Cu

Approach
Experimental investigation Analytical elasto-plastic analysis Measured Edge Profile of New and Worn Tools after Cantilever Tip Radius Compensation

Key findings
The depth of the plastically deformed layer was determined by the metallogrpahic technique of taper sectioning. Two tools with the same nominal geometry but with differing edge geometry were characterized using AFM. Direct measurement of the AFM cantilever tip radius was made and compensated for in the tool edge geometry. Carboxylate micro-spheres with a diameter of 519 nm and standard deviation of 7 nm were used for the measurements. Two tools exhibited substantially differing force behavior with uncut chip thicknesses below several microns. The depth of the plastically deformed layer appeared unaffected by the uncut chip thickness. Analytical elasto-platic analysis results were consistent with experimental observations.

Measured Depth of Plastically Deformed Layer for Machining Te-Cu and Calculated Line Load on SemiInfinite Solid

68

Author Citation

Vogler, M. P., DeVor, R. E., and Kapoor, S. G. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, in print

Title Keywords

On the modeling and analysis of machining performance in micro-endmilling, Part I: surface generation Cutting edge radius, Minimum chip thickness, Surface roughness, Micro-endmilling

Abstract

This paper examines the surface generation process in the micro-endmilling of both single phase and multi-phase materials. 508 m diameter endmills with edge radii of 2 and 5 m were used to machine slots in ferrite, pearlite and two ductile iron materials at feedrates ranging from 0.25 to 3.0 m/flute. A surface generation model to predict the surface roughness for the slot floor centerline is then developed based on the minimum chip thickness concept. The minimum chip thickness values were found through finite element simulations for the ferrite and pearlite materials. The model is shown to accurately predict the surface roughness for single phase materials, viz., ferrite and pearlite. Two phenomena were found to combine to generate an optimal feedrate for the surface generation of single phase materials, the geometric effect of the tool and process geometry and the minimum chip thickness effect. The surface roughness measurements for the ductile iron workpieces indicate that the micro-milling surface generation process for multi-phase materials is also affected by the interrupted chip formation process as the cutting edge moves between phase resulting in burrs at the phase boundaries and the associated increases in surface roughness. Investigate the roles that tool edge condition and workpiece microstructure have on the floor surface generation in micro-milling.

Objectives of Research

Approach
Controlled micro-endmilling experimentation Geometrical modeling

Key findings
Surface roughness values produced in single phase ferrite and pearlite do not monotonically increase as feedrate is increased due to the trade off between traditional effect of feedmarks and the minimum chip thickness effect. Minimum chip thickness values were predicted using microstructure-level FE simulation. The minimum chip thickness is greater for more ductile ferrite than that for pearlite. The larger the edge radius, the larger the minimum chip thickness. The Ra values for multi-phase ductile iron are larger than that for single phase material due to the micro-burr formation at the phase boundaries. Spectra of surface height indicate that large component of the Ra can be found at the wavelength corresponding to the phase boundaries.

Single Phase Pearlite

Multi-phase Ductile Iron

69

Author Citation

Shimada, S., Ikawa, N., Tanaka, H., Uchikoshi, J. Annals of the CIRP, 43(1), 1994, pp. 51-54.

Title Keywords

Structure of micromachined surface simulated by molecular dynamics analysis Cutting, Micromachining, Molecular Dynamic Simulation

Abstract
Using molecular dynamics simulation, a feasibility study is made for the quest of the ultimate quality of machined surfaces attainable in diamond microcutting of copper with a fine cutting edge under hypothetically perfect machine motion. Based on the analyses of the surface generation process a microstructure of the work surface which is free from residual distortion can be obtained. The ultimate surface roughness is estimated to be less than 1 nm. In cutting of polycrystalline copper, a nanometrically distorted layer inevitably remains on the work surface. However, the ultimate surface roughness is estimated to be at the same level as that of mono-crystalline copper..

Objectives of Research
Predict the ultimate surface quality obtained in diamond turning of copper using molecular dynamics simulation. Analyze the effect of crystalline orientation and grain boundary on surface quality.

Approach
Molecular dynamics simulation

Key findings
In cutting of monocrystalline copper, the ultimate surface roughness is estimated to be less than 1 nm.. The disordered atoms by the plowing action of the cutting edge are perfectly rearranged after the cutting edge passes away. Therefore, a work surface free from residual distortion can be obtained when cutting is carried out with a fine cutting edge on a perfectly controlled machine tool. In cutting of polycrystalline copper, a nanometrically distorted layer inevitably remains on the work surface even under perfect cutting conditions due to the dislocation trapping effect of the grain boundary. However, the magnitude of the ultimate surface roughness is estimated to be at the same level as that of monocrystalline copper. .

Deformation behavior of polycrystalline copper (effect of grain boundary)

70

2. Mechanics of Micro-machining 2.4 Machinability issues in micro-machining

71

Author Citation

Friedrich, C. R., Vasile, M. J. Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, 5(1), 1996, pp. 33-38

Title Keywords

Development of the Micromilling Process for High-Aspect-Ratio Microstructures Micromilling, Focused-ion beam machining

Abstract
At the macroscale, the milling process is very versatile and capable of creating three-dimensional features and structures. Adaptation of this process at the microscale could lead to the rapid and direct fabrication of micromolds and masks to aid in the development of microcomponents. This task has been undertaken, and the results of the process indicate it can become an increasingly useful method. The micromilling process is characterized by milling tools that are currently in the range from 22-100m in diameter and made by the focused-ion beam machining process. The tools are used in a specially designed, high-precision milling machine. Results are comparable to other processes currently used to fabricate mold and mask features. The micromilling process can create trench-like features with nearly vertical sidewalls and good smoothness. External corners are sharp and stepped features can be machined simply by programming those shapes. The process is direct, and therefore dimensional errors do not accumulate as can occur with serial fabrication processes.

Objectives of Research
Adapt milling process to micromachine micromolds and other microcomponents Create micromilling tools suitable for the creation of trench-like features

Approach
Fabricate 22-m diameter high-speed steel endmills using focused-ion beam Conduct cutting tests on PMMA using converted micro-drilling machine and high-precision micromilling/microdrilling/micro-EDM machine Micromill three exponential spiral trenches (62m deep) with stepped and vertical walls Inspect machined surface using roughness/step tester and SEM

Key findings
Since feed-per-tooth is on the order of the cutting edge radius of the tool, macroscale rake angle is irrelevant Specific cutting energy can be 10-20 times greater than in conventional milling when the depth of cut is approximately the same as the cutting edge radius Vegetable oil was found as an effective lubricant when machining PMMA. Aspect ratio of 7.75 achieved (8m thick wall, 62m deep) SEM image of stepped and vertical walls of exponential spiral cut

72

Author

H-W Shin; C.K. E. Case, and P.Kwon American Society for Precision Engineering, 2003 Winter Topical Meeting, Vol. 28, pp.20-25

Title

Introducing Meso-scale channels on Ceramics by Machining Meso-scale processing, CNC, microchannels, ceramics, machining

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Most engineering materials after they have been fully sintered are too brittle and hard to machine with conventional machine tools. Mixing a binder phase with the powder and binder-burnout are undesirable. A new meso-scale processing method is needed to introduce a complex network of channels in a ceramic material. One of the flexible methods of achieving this objective is the CNC milling process. Machining is controlled to arrive at the specific component shape, size for application, desired finish and strength, and so on, at a low cost. A partially sintered ceramics has been prepared. It formed very few necks among the powders. Complex channels have been machined in the partially stabilized zirconia samples and subsequently sintered.

Objectives of Research
Develop a new meso-scale processing method to machine ceramic materials Characterize the machining process of the ceramic material using different speeds, feed rates, sintering temperatures, etc.

Approach
Use CNC milling process as a basic process for the new processing method Use partially stabilized zirkonia samples as the test ceramic material Machine complex networks of channels in the ceramic material The milling tool has a machining diameter 0.625 mm

Key findings
Use pre-sintering before machining the ceramics Unlike typical machining of metals machining ceramics does not cause plastic deformation but breaking of the necks formed during the presintering process Milling ceramics causes small subsurface cracks in the channels. Final sintering heals these cracks.

Meso-machines network of channels in partially stabilized zirkonia

73

Author Citation

Egashira, Kai Precision Engineering, 26 (2002), 262268

Title Keywords

Micro-drilling of monocrystalline silicon using a cutting tool Micro-drilling; Ductile-regime cutting; Microtool; Monocrystalline silicon

Abstract
The micro-drilling of monocrystalline silicon using a cutting tool was tested with the aim of fabricating three-dimensional and high aspect ratio micro-shapes. Micro-tools with a D-shaped cross-section and cutting edge radius of 0.5m were fabricated by wire electrodischarge grinding (WEDG). The results showed that, with a depth of cut of 0.1m, ductile-regime cutting was realized, and that a tool clearance angle larger than 0 was necessary to prevent fractures at the hole entrance. The smallest machinable hole was of 6.7m diameter, which is the smallest not just in the present study, but of all holes drilled using a cutting tool so far. Furthermore, an aspect ratio of more than four was obtained in the drilling of a 22m diameter, 90m deep hole.

A1

Objectives of Research
Expand realm of microcrystalline silicon mechanical fabrication processes using ductile-regime cutting Create 3D, high aspect-ratio micro-structures and microholes

Approach
Create single cutting edge 20m micro-mills with zero helix angle and non-zero clearance angle using WEDG Perform drilling operations with 0.1m depth of cut (inside ductile-regime)

Key findings
Ductile-regime micro-drilling of monocrystalline silicon is feasible Clearance angle plays a critical role in micro-machining of brittle materials Micro-hole of 6mm diameter successfully created Micro-hole with an aspect ratio of four successfully created (22m diameter, 90m depth)

Micro-holes of 10 m diameter. Tool clearance angles and feed rates are, respectively (a) 20 and 0.05 m/s, (b) 5 and 0.05 m/s, (c) 0 and 0.05 m/s, and (d) 0 and 0.03 m/s (depth = 20 m).

74

Slide 74 A1
AGP, 7/30/2004

Author Citation

Inamura, T Annals of CIRP, 50(1), 2001, pp.393396.

Title Keywords

Effect of Surface Oxidation on Micromachinability of Monocrystalline Silicon Cutting, Micro machinability, Oxidation

Abstract
Microcutting experiments are carried out under an atomic force microscope (AFM) using workpieces of silicon monocrystals that have been exposed to air for various lengths of time before cutting. The results are observed under the same AFM with decreased tip force. The results show that difficult-to-cut areas appear locally after 24 hours of exposure time and these areas extend with increasing exposure time until the whole surface is covered after 120 hours. It is also found that exposure of workpieces to air produces a SiO2 surface layer in which residual compressive stress is generated and whose hardness and/or elastic constant are lower than those of bulk Si. The molecular dynamics simulations carried out, based on the above results, show that the deterioration of machinability of monocrystalline silicon is caused by the viscoelastic/plastic properties of SiO2

Objectives of Research
Quantify the effects of chemical reactions present before and during microcutting experiments Correlate hardness and residual stress measurements with molecular-dynamics simulations of the cutting process

Approach
Conduct microcutting experiments with an atomic force microscope on silicon monocrystal workpieces with various pre-machining air exposure times Measure the surface profile with the AFM during the cutting process. Measure the hardness of the workpiece as a function of air exposure time and depth from the surface

Key findings
Microcutting machinability of monocrystal silicon decreases with increasing thickness of an oxide layer on top of the workpiece Molecular dynamics simulations do not completely agree with the experimental results from the AFM, possibly resulting from the difference in experimental and simulated cutting speeds Measured surface profiles obtained after 30 times of cutting for workpieces with various exposure time to air before cutting

75

Author Citation

Rahman, M., Kumar, A. S. and Prakash, J. R. S. Journal of materials processing technology, 116 (2001), 39-43

Title Keywords

Micro milling of pure copper Tool wear, Fluted end mill

Abstract
Unpredictable tool life and premature tool failure are the major concerns in micro machining using micro grain carbide cutters. In this study, the failure mechanism and factors which affect the micro end mill were studied during machining of pure copper workpieces. The machining operations were performed at various cutting speeds, depths of cut, and feed rates to identify the failure mechanisms using two different helix angles. Chips observed were spiral in shape based on the cutter geometry. The chip size drastically differs from conventional cutting, but the chip shape remains the same. Both spiral and broken chips were formed. Tool wear increased with machining time and has a significant effect on the cutting forces. The cutting forces were small compared to conventional cutting. Both feed and radial forces were proportional to the feed rate and depth of cut. Cutting force increased with time as wear progressed. From this experiment, it is concluded that the helix angle plays an important role. It is also observed that increase in depth of cut increases tool life, which is quite unique and differs from the mechanics of machining.

Objectives of Research
Explore the stochastic nature of the cutting process in micro-milling Probe the behavior of cutting conditions and their effects under dry machining of pure copper

Approach
Perform cutting experiments on pure copper using a Makino V55 vertical mill with 1mm diameter, 2 fluted carbide end-mills Vary spindle speed between 8k-29kRPM, depth of cut (0.15mm and 0.25mm) and use tools with 25 and 30 helix angles Measure cutting force and tool wear, observe chips

Key findings
The primary tool failure mechanism was premature breakage Both spiral and broken chips were created, similar in shape to conventional chips Effect of depth of cut on various cutting speeds at feed rate 200mm/min

Observed flank wear

76

Author

Schaller, T. H., Bohn, L., Mayer, J., and Schubert, K. Precision Engineering, 23 (1999), 229235

Title

Microstructure grooves with a width of less than 50m cut with ground hard metal micro end mills Mechanical microengineering; Microstructures; Molds for injection molding or hot embossing; Micro end mills; Burr removal; Diamond cutting; Electrochemical polishing

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Mechanical microengineering is an easy and cheap way to fabricate microstructures; for example, molds for injection molding or hot embossing. Restrictions remain in the selection of materials and in the minimum structure size. Especially for cutting microstructures in steel, these limitations include the lack of available small tools and poor surface quality. In this paper it is shown that microstructures can be cut in both brass and stainless steel workpieces by using ground hard metal micro end mills. The minimum groove width achieved is less than 50 m for cutting brass and about 100 m for cutting stainless steel. Burrs are removed by a subsequent diamond-cutting step or electrochemical polishing, respectively. The results represent the first step toward a microstructured, resistant, cheap mold made of steel, which is then used for mass production of plastic microstructures.

Objectives of Research
Develop hard metal micro tools less than 50m in diameter to reduce existing size and material limitations on micromachining Focus on tools that enable stable, repeatable micromachining processes (rather than optical surface quality or submicron accuracy)

Approach
Create single flute end mills from carbide via diamond grinding Perform cutting tests on a high-precision CNC machine with a 20kRPM spindle, with up to 5m feed per tooth and 20m axial depth of cut Control burring via polymer coating of the workpiece prior to machining (for brass) and chemical etching (for stainless steel)

Key findings
Successfully cut grooves of 50m in brass and 100m in stainless steel with aspect ratios of three and one, respectively Burring can be significantly reduced using the tested methods SEM of grooves cut into brass. Minimum groove width is 45 m, depth is 115 m. Burr occurs at the upper structure edges and at the vertical edges of the groove crossings.

77

Author

Schmidt, J. Microsystem Technologies, 8 (2002), 402-408

Title

Requirements of an industrially applicable microcutting process for steel microstructures Micro tool, Tungsten carbide, Cutting parameters

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Micro-cutting offers a good potential method to manufacture small and medium lot sizes of micro-parts with arbitrary geometry at an economically reasonable expense. Either by direct machining or as a means to fabricate molds for micro injection molding, the major advantages turn out to be large removal rates, good compliance with tolerance ranges, high surface quality and a wide choice of materials which can be processed. Particularly if highly wear resistant materials are to be processed, as it is the case in mold fabrication for powder injection molding, micro cutting of steel is a very eligible option. Consequently, the possibility to manufacture wear resistant micro structures of high aspect ratios by mechanical cutting is demonstrated with regard to its specific requirements in terms of transferability of the laboratory process into an industrial manufacturing process. Accordingly the paper focuses on repeatability of machining results and machining capabilities.

Objectives of Research
Use tungsten-carbine micro-tool inserts (as an alternative to diamond inserts) to improve the manufacturing options available for micro-structured steel workpieces Develop manufacturing approaches and cutting parameters for use with custom carbide micro-cutting inserts

Approach
Use tempered steel workpieces to homogenize the material at the scale of the chips formed by micro-tools Perform fly-cutting experiments on a high-precision CNC machine and evaluate the resulting geometry with SEM images and surface roughness measurements

Key findings
Surface roughness as small as 1m Rz were achieved with hard material states and high cutting velocities A measurement system analysis showed that further work needs to be conducted to ensure repeatable measurements at this scale Built up edge forming on the tool at a cutting velocity of 50100m/min

78

Author Citation

Weule, H. Annals of CIRP, 50(1), 2001, pp.61-64

Title Keywords

Micro-Cutting of Steel to Meet New Requirements in Miniaturization Micro-Cutting, Steel, Process Optimization

Abstract
Due to its hardness, single crystal diamond is the preferred tool material for micro-cutting. As diamond has a very high affinity to iron, micro-cutting is mostly limited to the machining of non-ferrous materials like brass, aluminum, copper or electroless nickel. The particular material properties of steel make it a very important material for extending the field of micro-technology applications. This paper discusses the prerequisites for the micro-cutting of steel using tungsten carbide tools and the interaction between the properties of the materials and the process parameters on the manufacturing result. Further fields of research are identified. The possibilities of this approach are exemplified on microstructured molds.

Objectives of Research
Explore micro-cutting with tungsten carbide tools Define a stable cutting process with acceptable surface roughness and accuracy

Approach
Perform fly cutting experiments on SAE 1045 steel Vary cutting velocity (5m/min and 420m/min), feed per tooth, cutting depth and cutting convention (up- or down-milling)

Key findings
Normalized SAE 1045 steel with average grain diameter around 50m resulted in very poor surface quality due to the large difference in elasticity between the ferrite and pearlite grains Tempering the workpiece homogenizes the grain size relative to the chip size Surface roughness values as low as 0.8m Rz can be achieved with high cutting velocities (420m/min)

Influence of cutting velocity and material state on surface roughness

Occurrence of burrs in different material states

79

Citations
2.1 Cutting mechanisms; Chip formation and cutting forces
Ikawa, N., Shimada, S., and Tanaka, H.,Minimum thickness of cut in micromachining , Nanotechnology, 3, 1992, pp. 6-9 Ikawa, N., Shimada, S., Tanaka, H., and Ohmori, G.,An atomic analysis of nanometric chip removal as affected by tool-work interaction in dia mond turning, Annals of the CIRP, 40, 1991, pp. 551-554 Inamura, T.,Takezawa,N., Kumaki,Y. and Sata,T., On a Possible Mechanism of Shear Deformation in Nanoscale Cutting., Annals of the CIR P, 43 (1), 1994, pp.47-50 Joshi, S. and Melkote, S.,An explanation for the size-effect in machining using strain gradient plasticity, JSME/ASME Int. Conf. On Materials and Processing 1, 2002, pp. 318-323 Kim, C., Bono, M., and Ni, J. ,Experimental analysis of chip formation in micro-milling, NAMRI/SME, 30, 2002, pp. 247-254 Kim, J.D. and Kim, D.S.,Theoretical Analysis of Micro-Cutting Characteristics in Ultra-precision Machining, Journal of Materials Processing T echnology, 49, 1995, pp.387-398. Lee, K. and Dornfeld, D. A,An Experimental Study on Burr Formation In Micro Milling Aluminum and Copper, Transactions of NAMRI/SME,2 002,pp.255-262. Lee, W.B. and Cheung, C.F. and To, S., A Microplasticity Analysis of Micro-Cutting Force Variation in Ultra-Precision Diamond Turning., Jour nal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 124, 2002, pp.170-177. Lucca, D. A,Seo Y.W and Komanduri, R.,Effect of Tool Edge Geometry on Energy Dissipation in Ultraprecision Machining, Annals of the CIR P, 42(1), 1993, pp.83-86. Lucca, D.A., Seo, Y.W. and Rhorer, R.L.,Energy Dissipation and Tool-Workpiece Contact in Ultra-Precision Machining, Tribology Transactio ns, 37(3), 1994, pp.651-655. Moriwaki, T.,Sugimura, N. and Luan, S., Combined Stress,Material Flow and Heat Analysis of Orthogonal Micromachining of Copper,Annals of the CIRP, 42(1), 1993, pp.75-78. Nakayama. K and Tamura.K, Size Effect in Metal-Cutting Force, Journal of Engineering for Industry, 1968, pp.119-126. Shimada, S.,Ikawa, N.,Inamura, T. , Ohmori, H. and Sata, T.,Brittle-Ductile Transition Phenomena in Microindentation and Micromachining, Annals of the CIRP, 44(1), 1995, pp. 523-526. Vogler, M. P., DeVor, R. E., and Kapoor, S. G., On the modeling and analysis of machining performance in micro-endmilling, Part II: cutting f orce prediction, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, in print Waldorf, D. J., DeVor, R. E., and Kapoor, S. G.,An evaluation of ploughing models for orthogonal machining,Journal of Manufacturing Scienc e and Engineering, 121(1999), pp. 550-558 Yuan, Z. J., Zhou, M., and Dong., S., Effect of diamond tool sharpness on minimum cutting thickness and cutting surface integrity in ultraprec ision machining, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 62(1996) 327-330

80

Citations
2.2 Influence of microstructure
Chuzhoy, L, DeVor, R. E., Kapoor, S. G., and Bammann, D. J.,Microstructure-level Modeling of Ductile Iron Machining ,ASME J. Manufacturi ng Science and Engineering, 124, 2002, pp. 162-169 Komanduri, R., Chandrasekaran, N. and Raff, L. M.,M.D. Simulation of Nanometric Cutting of Single Crystal Aluminum Effect of Crystal Ori entation and Direction of Cutting, Wear, 242(1-2), 2000, pp. 60-88 Lee, W. B., and Zhou, M., A Theoretical Analysis of the Effect of Crystallographic Orientation on Chip Formation in Micromachining, Int. J. m achine Tools and Manufacturers, 33(3), 1993, pp. 439-447 Taniyama, H., Eda, H., Zhou, L., Shimizu, J., and Sato, J, Experimental Investigation of Micro Scratching on the Two-phase Steel: Plastic Flo w Mechanisms of the Ferrite and Cementite Phases, Key Engineering Materials, 2003, 238-239, pp. 15-18 Ueda, K., and Manabe, K., Chip formation mechanism in microcutting of an amorphous metal, Annals of the CIRP, 41(1), 1992, pp. 129-132 Uhlmann, E.; Oberschmidt, D., 3D-Analysis of microstructure with confocal laser scanning microscopy, The proceedings of ASPE 2003 Wint er Topical Meeting Vogler, M. P., DeVor, R. E., and Kapoor, S. G., Microstructure-level Force Prediction Model for Micro-milling of Multi-phase Materials, ASME J. Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 125, 2003, pp. 202-209 Yuan, Z. J., Lee, W. B., Yao, Y. X., and Zhou, M., Effect of Crystallographic Orientation on Cutting Forces and Surface Quality in Diamond C utting of Single Crystal, Annals of the CIRP, 43(1), 1994, pp. 39-42 Zhou, M., Ngoi, K. A., and Yeo, S. H., Effect of Workpiece Material Properties on Micro-cutting Process, Proc. 1st Int. Conf. and General Me eting of the European Society for Precision Engineering and Nanotechnology (EUSPEN), 1999, pp. 404-407

81

Citations
2.3 Surface generation mechanisms
Lucca, D. A., Seo, Y. W.,Aspects of surface generation in orthogonal ultraprecision machining, Annals of the CIRP, 43(1), 1994, pp. 43-46 Shimada, S., Ikawa, N., Tanaka, H., Uchikoshi, J., Structure of micromachined surface simulated by molecular dynamics analysis, Annals of t he CIRP, 43(1), 1994, pp. 51-54. Vogler, M. P., DeVor, R. E., and Kapoor, S. G., On the modeling and analysis of machining performance in micro-endmilling, Part I: surface ge neration, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, in print Zhang, B. and Kapoor, S., Dynamic generation of machined surfaces, part 1: description of a random excitation system, Journal of Engineerin g for Industry, 113, 191, pp. 137-144 Zhang, B. and Kapoor, S.,Dynamic generation of machined surfaces, part 2: construction of surface topography, Journal of Engineering for Ind ustry, 113, 191, pp. 145-153

2.4 Machinability issues in micro-machining


Egashira, Kai,Micro-drilling of monocrystalline silicon using a cutting tool, Precision Engineering, 26 (2002), 262-268 Friedrich, C. R., Vasile, M. J. Development of the Micromilling Process for High-Aspect-Ratio Microstructures. Journal of Microelectromechanical Systems, 5(1), 1996, pp. 33-38 Inamura, T,Effect of Surface Oxidation on Micromachinability of Monocrystalline Silicon,Annals of CIRP, 50(1), 2001, pp.393-396. Rahman, M., Kumar, A. S. and Prakash, J. R. S. , Micro milling of pure copper,Journal of materials processing technology, 116 (2001), 39-43. Schaller, T. H., Bohn, L., Mayer, J., and Schubert, K.,Microstructure grooves with a width of less than 50mm cut with ground hard metal micro end mills, Precision Engineering, 23 (1999), 229-235 Schmidt, J.,Requirements of an industrially applicable microcutting process for steel micro-structures, Microsystem Technologies, 8 (2002), 40 2-408 Shin, H-W, C.K. E. Case, and P.Kwon, Introducing Meso-scale channels on Ceramics by Machining, American Society for Precision Engineeri ng, 2003 Winter Topical Meeting, Vol. 28, pp.20-25 Weule, H, Micro-Cutting of Steel to Meet New Requirements in Miniaturization,Annals of CIRP, 50(1), 2001, pp.61-64

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CHAPTER 3. Micro-machining Machine Tool Development

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84

3. Micro-Machining Machine Tool Development


Micro/meso-scale component and product development and manufacture is still being approached primarily from the standpoint of well-established methods at the macrolevel and executed on available equipment that either possesses the required degree of accuracy and precision or has been modified, often at considerable expense, to achieve that accuracy and precision. It has been increasingly recognized, however, that such an approach results in suboptimal outcomes in terms of both quality and cost. In the case of the latter, this includes both the costs of processing and capital equipment and associated maintenance costs The answer to this dilemma is becoming more and more frequently sought in the development of miniaturized equipment and processes whose capabilities approach or exceed those of conventional methods while offering significant additional advantages. Downsizing of manufacturing equipment contributes to accuracy by lowering the impact of thermal deformations and of dynamic effects, leading to the easier achievement of more stringent geometric and surface tolerance requirements. Downscaled equipment also reduces space, energy and maintenance costs and has increased portability leading to the ability to deploy such equipment in a wide range of application environments. The cost of the equipment, although high at the moment because of the use of high-precision sensing, actuation and control technologies in a one-of-a-kind design and construction environment, is expected to dramatically drop once such machines are produced in quantity. 85

The development of miniaturized manufacturing equipment is, however, not without its problems. Downsizing frequently demands new approaches to structural and topological considerations, reduction of the number of discrete machine elements constituting the machine, development of new key functional components, e.g., ultra high-speed and high accuracy spindles, high-resolution and fast axis servos, etc. Although the current trend in the machine tool and automation industries is toward the miniaturization of sensing and actuator components, the demands of miniaturized manufacturing machine development for micro/meso-scale products will place a demand for further decreases in size of these components with a simultaneous increase in performance. In the first section of this chapter, recent developments of meso-scale-sized machine tools are summarized. The results suggest that miniaturized machines are feasible as has been further confirmed by the appearance of commercial ultra-precision downscaled equipment. Current activities in the R&D community indicate that these trends will continue at an accelerated pace. The next two sections of this chapter report a number of developments related to component technologies that are required for miniaturized machine tools. Of particular importance are precision positioning and feed drive technologies and ultra-high-speed spindles with very low runout. Although there are only very few references that address these issues explicitly through the requirements of micro-manufacturing and, in particular, micro-cutting many of the new developments for conventional precision equipment are equally applicable in the micro/meso-domains. The principal exception here is the lack of relevant work on miniaturized ultra-high-speed spindles.

86

The last section of this chapter deals with issues that pertain to fixturing and handling of small components. Fixturing issues for micro/meso-scale products do not seem to be adequately addressed in the technical literature as opposed to micro-manipulation and micro-assembly that have received in the past and continue to receive significant attention. Therefore, most of the references reviewed here focus on manipulation of small objects.

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88

3. Micro-Machining Machine Tool Development 3.1 Machine tool structures

89

Author

Kussel, E.; Baidyk, T.; Ruiz-Huerta, L.; Caballero-Ruiz, A.; Velasco, G.; Kasatkina, L. J. Micromech. Microeng., 12, 2002, pp.795-812

Title

Development of micromachine tool prototypes for microfactories Micromachine tools (MMT), Micromachining, Microassembly, Low-cost, MEMS, Microfilter

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
At present, many areas of industry have strong tendencies towards miniaturization of products. Mechanical components of these products as a rule are manufactured using conventional large-scale equipment or micromechanical equipment based on microelectronic technology (MEMS). The first method has some drawbacks because conventional large-scale equipment consumes much energy, space and material. The second method seems to be more advanced but has some limitations, for example, two-dimensional (2D) or 2.5-dimensional shapes of components and materials compatible with silicon technology. In this paper, an alternative technology of micromechanical device production is considered. This technology is based on micromachine tools (MMT) and microassembly devices, which can be produced as sequential generations of microequipment. The first generation can be produced by conventional large-scale equipment. The machine tools of this generation can have overall sizes of 100200 mm. Using microequipment of this generation, second generation microequipment having smaller overall sizes can be produced. This process can be repeated to produce generations of micromachine tools having overall sizes of some millimetres. In this paper the efforts and some results of first generation microequipment prototyping are described. A micromachining centre having an overall size of 130 160 85 mm3 was produced and characterized. This machine has allowed the manufacture of micromechanical details having sizes from 50 m to 5 mm. These details have complex three-dimensional shapes (for example, screw, gear, graduated shaft, conic details, etc), and are made from different materials, such as brass, steel, different plastics etc. We have started to investigate and to make prototypes of the assembly microdevices controlled by a computer vision system. In this paper we also describe an example of the applications (microfilters) for the proposed technology.

Objectives of Research
Investigate new approaches to micromechanical device fabrication

Approach
Development of low-cost microequipment technology Analysis and characterization of micromachine tool prototypes Micromanipulator for micromachine tool changing Vision based controlled assembly system Application to fine filters (microfilters)

Key findings
Sequential micromachine tool development from generation to generation Developments are all based on inexpensive components (less than $100) Opportunities for further size reduction of micromachine tools and increase accuracy

90

Author

Vogler, M.P., Liu, X. Kapoor, S. G., DeVor, R. E. Transactions of the North American Manufacturing Research Institution of SME (NAMRI)

Title

Development of Meso-Scale Machine Tool Systems mMT, Relative accuracy, Volumetric utilization, Voice coil actuator, Air turbine spindle

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
This paper addresses the development of meso-scale machine tool (mMT) systems, motivated by the need of achieving high accuracy and process efficiency. The rationale for machine tool miniaturization is described first followed by the description of the design of the initial experimental testbeds that physically demonstrate the feasibility of the mMT concept. The testbeds utilize high-speed miniature spindles that are required to obtain appropriate cutting velocities for the efficient cutting of metals. The use of voice-coil actuated and piezoelectric feed drive technologies is also discussed. The mMTs are instrumented with load cells that collect force data for experimentation on micromachining processes. Three-dimensional features are machined on one of the testbeds and cutting force data, surface finish data, and machined feature profiles are presented.

Objectives of Research
Explain motivation for mMT development Determine appropriate technologies for use in mMTs Evaluate potential for mMT capabilities

Approach
Design and build two mMT testbeds Cutting tests in 6061-T6 Al, generating slots, planar features, and three-dimensional surfaces Collection of force and following error data to test load cell and motor effectiveness Analysis of machined surfaces using optical profiler

Key findings
Voice-coil motors have appropriate power and positioning accuracy for mMT systems Available triaxial load cells have low noise levels and adequate sensitivity to collect micro-milling force signals Smaller but less accurate mMTs can presently be built using piezo-electric actuators and dental spindles. Future developments in encoder technology will lead to further improvements in positioning capability

Voice-coil driven mMT testbed with air-turbine spindle and load cell

91

Author

Subrahmanian, R., Ehmann, K. F. Proceedings 2002 Japan-USA Symposium on Flexible Automation July 14-19, 2002, Hiroshima, Japan

Title

Development of a meso-scale machine tool (mMT) for micro-machining mMT, Piezo-electric actuator, Air-turbine handpiece

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
This paper explores the concept of meso-scale Machine Tools (mMTs) to address the growing need for producing meso-scale components (100 to 10,000 m in size) precisely and efficiently. A rationale for this approach and an overview of advances hitherto in this area are first presented. This is followed by a description of the design of a two-axis first-generation testbed that was developed to assess the feasibility of micro-mechanical machining in general and of two new technologies in particular in mMT development high-speed dental air-turbine handpiece-based spindles and piezo-electric actuator drives. The paper concludes with a description of the positioning and cutting tests conducted and an analysis of performance of the machine tool.

Objectives of Research
Explore the feasibility of different technologies in the creation of meso-scale Machine Tools (mMTs). Development of two-axis first-generation of mMT testbed as a foundation for multi-axis mMTs. Analysis of the machine tools cutting capabilities.

Approach
Spindle: air-turbine dental handpiece (320,000 rpm, size of 18X18X15 mm) Positioning subsystem: Piezo-electric actuator Sensing subsystem: 2 MHR miniature LVDTs from Schaevitz coupled with SMS/GPM 109A signal-conditioning modules along 2 axes Controller: two-axis E-109 from Micro Pulse System

SPINDLE

DYNAMOMETER

LVDT PIEZO-MOTOR

Key findings
First generation of mMT prototype was developed. (90X60X60 mm) Numerous tests and an analysis of the results reveals the validity of the mMTs concepts. A description of the shortcomings of the technologies and possible improvements to overcome/minimize them was presented.
SLIDE

The first generation prototype

92

Author

Werkmeister, J. and Slocum, A. American Society for Precision Engineering, 2003 Winter Topic Meeting, v28, pp. 79 82.

Title

Design and fabrication of the mesomill: a fiveaxis milling machine for meso-scaled parts Mesomill, meso-scale, tool stiffness

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
The mesomill tested has been assembled and is currently being integrated with the control system. Preliminary experiments on the stiffness of the wire capstan drives are very encouraging. The general ease with which the components were assembled suggests that the obtainable repeatability and accuracy of the system can be potentially very high.

Objectives of Research
Design a mesomill to evaluate the use of components new to the design of machining centers including wire capstan drives, ball-screw splines and an air bearing spindle with an integral Z-axis.

Approach
A test stand was built for one of the ball-screw splines whose nuts are driven by wire capstan drives to measure the performance of a single axis. Work path error and tool path error were estimated. A stepped shaft model of the ball-screw spline supported at its front end by the air bearings was proposed and analyzed. Experiments were conducted to determine the stiffness of a capstan drive.

Key findings
Error estimation shows that for the one ball-screw spline the tool path random error is 1.4 um for the sweet spot and 2 um with the axis fully extended. The stiffness value of a capstan drive is less than 105 Nm/rad and increases as the preload in the cable is increased. This result makes the authors optimistic about the obtainable repeatability and accuracy of the system. Structure loop of mesomill Mesomill single axis test and solid model

Representation of Capstan drive

Measured stiffness vs. angle of rotation for heavy and light preload

93

Author Citation

Iijima, D., Ito, S., Hayashim A., Aoyama, H., Yamanaka, M. 3rd International Workshop on Microfactories

Title Keywords

Micro turning system: A super small CNC lathe for microfactories Microfactory, Micro turning system, CNC lathe

Abstract

The Micro Turning System (MTS) is a palm-top precision lathe that has a machine base size of 150 100 mm (postcard size) and CNC (computerized numerical control) with linear/circular interpolation. The machine was developed to be a substitute for conventional NC lathes; heavy, high-powered machines even for manufacturing very small parts. MTS is capable of machining brass with a surface roughness of 0.20 m and a circularity of 0.19 m.

Objectives of Research
Development of micro turning system (MTS) as a substitute for conventional NC lathes. The micro turning system should be accurate enough for practical applications.

Approach
Cross-roller slides for the X- and Z-axes were used. The axis motors were Yaskawa Electrics AC servos that have a diameter of 10 mm. The main spindle used a set of angular ball bearings and a collet chuck with a maximum chucking diameter of 5 mm. The motor control system i consists of a set of motor drivers, the controller, sensor amplifiers, 12-volt-DC power source, a PC and a NC program.

Key findings
Several materials (Brass, Aluminum, Steel, and Stainless Steel) were turned. Brass yielded the best finish. A surface roughness of 0.02 m and a circularity of 0.19 m is possible when turning 5 mm diameter cylinders with a cutting speed of 23.6 m/min. MTS exhibits such characteristics that allow its classification as a precision lathe. Close-up of the machine

MTS packaged in a suitcase

94

Author Citation

Okazaki, Y. 3rd International Workshop on Microfactories

Title Keywords

Desk-top ultra high speed milling machine Desk-top, milling, ultra high-speed

Abstract
Downsizing of machine tools can improve the space utilization factor, and reduce the price and energy consumption including air conditioning and facility investment. The agility in reconfiguring the manufacturing lines in the factories will be evaluated. Furthermore, location of the machines can be spread off the factory floor, to the design office, classrooms and distributed to small manufacturing laboratories, even in residential areas. As technical aspects, the downsizing makes it easier to achieve high-speed machining and highprecision/rigidity motion control due to reduced inertia, and in turn, it leads to higher precision, quality and productivity. With these objectives, a desktop NC milling machine has been developed, using a miniature high-speed spindle. The purpose of the development is to evaluate the technical possibility of extremely downsized machine tools in practice.

Objectives of Research
Development of desktop NC milling machine using a miniature high-speed spindle. Evaluation of the technical possibility of extremely downsized machine tools in practice.

Approach
X and Y stages are commercial ones using cross-roller guides and ball screws, driven by directly coupled 30W AC servomotors. Z axis drive unit uses a M40x1.5 vertical hollow drive screw, driven by a brush-type direct drive torque motor. Spindle is a miniature blushless DC motor (200 krpm, 27 mm in Diameter, 26 mm long)

Key findings
Taking advantage of the downsized machine tool, the developed milling machine features high acceleration due to the reduced moving mass even using small actuators, and minimized power consumption. Ultra-high speed spindle enables high speed milling on hard materials High aspect ratio machining was also performed.

Outlook of the milling machine

View of the whole system

95

Author

Aoki, I. , Takahashi, T. Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering

Title

Micropattern fabrication by specially designed micro tool Micropattern; microcutting; micromill; oblique-cut micromill

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Microforming techniques suitable for fabricating metal microcomponents have been investigated. A microcutting-technology system equipped with a newly designed special shape cutting tool was used. As the shape of ordinary end-mills is complex, small dimensional sizes are more difficult to fabricate. This means that the microcutting of 3D components is also difficult. To overcome this problem, a simple oblique-cut micromill to be used exclusively for micromachining was proposed. A precision cutting device was also designed. The oblique-cut micromill is driven by a high-speed spindle motor of 50,000-100,000 rpm supported by air bearings. Results of experiments show that certain micropatterns can be fabricated on aluminum wire. Narrow parts of patterns that are 15-25 micrometers wide can also be fabricated. These results indicate that the system can be used to create 3D free-form micropatterns. In this paper, the results of the development of the micromill, of the machining system, and on some fabricated items are reported

Objectives of Research
Investigation of microforming technologies combining microcutting technologies for microcomponents. Development of a simple oblique-cut micromill for micromachining

Approach
Development of a tool with a new shape from with which forming can be performed for smaller products Experiments for Simple Oblique-Cut (SOC) mill in case of simple and complicated patterns.

Key findings
New cutting device for micropatterns was designed. SOC mill was proposed as a high speed cutting tool. The results shows that the system can be used to create 3D freeform micropatterns. Schematic view of cutting machine developed

96

3. Micro-Machining Machine Tool Development 3.2 Actuation and control

97

Author Citation

Holmes, M., Trumpet, D., Hocken, R. Annals of the CIRP

Title Keywords

Atomic-scale precision motion control stage (the angstrom stage) Precision motion control

Abstract
This paper describes a magnetically-suspended six-degrees-of-freedom precision motion control stage with sub-nanometer positioning stability inside a 100 m cube of travel. This stage utilizes multiple electromagnetic actuators and capacitance probes to provide control forces and position feedback, respectively. The suspended platen (3 kg mass) is floated in oil to enhance the performance of the magnetic bearings. The stage has been designed for use as a sample positioning stage for scanning-tunneling microscopy. Images obtained by scanning-tunneling microscopy which show that the positioning noise of the stage is below 0.2 nm peak-to-peak over 5 seconds are shown. These data demonstrate the utility of this stage as a new concept for precision motion control.

Objectives of Research
Investigation of a magnetic-bearing motion control stage (the Angstrom Stage) for achieving very high positioning accuracies with an ultimate goal of 0.1 nm positioning resolution. Investigation of combining magnetic suspension with neutrally-buoyant oil flotation.

Approach
Description of the Angstrom Stage design and components. Development of the control laws for one of the degrees of freedom. Brief overview of the digital controller Presenting the stages performance: Various STM images

Key findings
The Angstrom Stage demonstrates the highest resolution performance of a magnetic bearing stage which has yet been achieved. Magnetic suspension stage: for a scanned-probe microscope. Utility of combining magnetic suspension with neutrally-buoyant oil flotation: Resolution competitive with piezoelectric actuators.

Angstrom Stage Exploded View

98

Author

Kempf, D. J. and Kobayashi, S. IEEE Transaction on Control Systems Technology

Title

Disturbance observer and feedforward design for a high-speed direct-drive positioning table Control systems, digital control, feedforward systems, linear motors, motion control, semiconductor device packaging, tracking.

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Design and implementation of a discrete-time tracking controller for a precision positioning table actuated by direct-drive motors is considered. The table has acceleration capabilities in excess of 5 G, positioning accuracy at the micron level, and is used in applications such as semiconductor packaging. Unlike a ballscrew driven system, the controller in a direct-drive system must provide a high level of disturbance rejection while avoiding problems due to the relatively slow electrical dynamics of the motor and power amplifier. The stiff mechanical elements in a direct-drive system allow generous use of feedforward, but complete inversion of the closed-loop dynamics at high frequencies does not necessarily give the best performance. The controller proposed here uses a disturbance observer and proportional derivative (PD) compensation in the feedback path and a zero phase error tracking controller and zero phase low-pass filter in the feedforward path. The focus of this work is in two areas. First, existing disturbance observer design techniques are extended to account for time delay in the plant. Second, practical difficulties with excessive feedforward gains are examined and a low-order filter design method is proposed. Experimental results for quantized low-order position reference trajectories, which are commonly used in industrial systems, demonstrate the effectiveness of the approach.

Objectives of Research
Design and implementation of a discrete-time tracking controller for a precision positioning table actuated by direct drive motors. Presentation of a discrete-time disturbance observer which accounts for time delay in the plant.

Approach
Existing disturbance observer design techniques are extended to account for time delay. Low-order filter design method is proposed. Experiments for quantized low-order position reference trajectories.

Key findings
Proposed discrete-time disturbance observer is well suited to modeling the slow electrical dynamics present in direct-drive motors. The low-pass filtering reduces problems with high-frequency components and quantization noise present in reference trajectories commonly used in industrial applications.

Mechanical Configuration

99

Author

Yagyu, T.; Tanase, H.; Moriyama, T. and Matsui, T.


Proc. of 1995 IEEE Int. Conf. on Fuzzy Syste ms. The Int. Joint Conf. of the Fourth IEEE In t. Conf. on Fuzzy Systems and the Second I nt. Fuzzy Engineering Symp., v2, 1995, pp.86 3-868.

Title

Adaptive control system for multiple micromachines


Adaptive control systems, microcomputers, Gene tic algorithms, Fuzzy sets, Control system synthe sis, Fuzzy control, Associative storage, Planning, Computer control

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
In this paper, the design of an adaptive control system architecture for multiple micro-machines has been proposed. The architecture is made up of two parts. In the first, various numeric values from micro-machines are represented by possibility distributions and kept as micro states. They are produced as macro states by a combination mechanism and are recalled as the behavior of micro-machine groups from memory by a bidirectional associative memory. The second, represents the macro states that are compared with this system scenario, and the most adaptive scenario is selected by a fuzzy integral using a fuzzy measure so that it can change a plan to a new concrete plan by the Genetic Algorithm. Although this system is being developed, the preliminary study has proven that it was significantly useful for new applications of micro-machine control.

Objectives of Research
Design an adaptive control system architecture for multiple micro-machines

Approach
Reasoning part of the system: The system accepts the present x-y position, speed, direction and the rest of energy of the micro-machines as inputs, which are non deterministic. These data are interpreted by probability distribution and combined into macro states to represent group behaviors of the micromachines. A BAM ( Bidirectional Associative Memory) is used to avoid increasing fuzziness. Planning part of the system: The system generates a rough control plan for micro-machine groups and a detailed plan for individual micro-machines using the genetic algorithm. The control plans predict the future working states and directional signals for the micro-machines. An experimental system is built to evaluate the proposed scheme.

Key findings
The effectiveness of the application of possibility theory, BAM, fuzzy integral have been shown. The preliminary study shows that these ideas will be useful in micro-machine control.

100

Author

Mitsuishi, M.; Sugita, N.; Nagao, T.; and Hatamura, Y. Proceedings. 1996 Robotics and Automation, v3, 1996, pp.2194-201.

Title

A tele-micro machining system with operational environment transmission under a stereo-SEM Cutting, feedback, force control, industrial robots, manufacturing processes, micromachining, scanning electron microscopy, stereo image processing, telerobotics

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
This paper describes a tele-micro machining system which works under a stereo SEM and has operational environment transmission capability. The system includes a 3-axis force sensing table, the signal from which is converted into auditory information to enhance the operability of the system. Furthermore, the cutting state in micro-cutting is reflected as force feedback to the master joystick using a newly introduced index which represents the cutting state. Finally, the cutting force in the micro-world is analyzed and compared with that in the macro-world.

Objectives of Research
Develop a tele-micro machining system which works under a stereo SEM and has operational environment transmission capability

Approach
Force signal is detected by a multi-axis force sensor and the sensed information is converted into auditory information. A newly developed stereo-type SEM is used for visual information acquisition. The cutting state in micro-cutting is reflected as force feedback to the master 2+1 dimensional joystick using a newly introduced index which represents the cutting state.

Key findings
A high stiffness micro tool is necessary for micro-cutting since the cutting force per unit increases as the cutting scale becomes smaller.

101

Author

Yoshida, K.; Shinohara, J. and Yokota, S.

Title

A study on a micro-actuator using fluid power (2nd report, application for small-size in-pipe mobile machines with a single power supply tube) hydraulic control equipment, microactuators,micro-actuator, fluid power, inpipe mobile machines, inchworm motion, sequence valves

Citation

J. Jpn. Hydraul. Pneum. Soc. Japan), 25(7), November 1994, pp.857-69.

Keywords

Abstract
For more efficient use of micro-machines, micro-actuators using fluid power were investigated. An in-pipe mobile machine is one such practical micro-mechanism. The machine is able to move like an inchworm due to its three actuators, however, it has to pull three power supply tubes using a large load force. To overcome this problem, this report attempted to reduce the number of tubes. After examining the performance of bellows actuators, based on the analysis of the inchworm motion, the required characteristics were derived and a new supporting mechanism and small-size sequence valves were constructed. The newly constructed in-pipe mobile machine with a diameter of 25 mm uses phosphor bronze bellows with a diameter of 8.3 mm and length of 13 mm. The mobile experiments show that the machine is able to lift a load of 5.9 N at a speed of 1.5 mm/s with an output power of 9.0 mW. Also, a theoretical analysis of the mobile performance shows that the machine is able to produce a maximum output power of 120 mW due to the improved conditions.

Objectives of Research
Attempt to reduce the number of tubes for an in-pipe mobile machine

Approach
The required characteristics are derived and a new supporting mechanism and small-size sequence valves are constructed after examining the performances of the bellows actuators, based on the analysis of the inchworm motion.

Key findings
The mobile experiments show that the machine is able to lift a load of 5.9 N at a speed of 1.5 mm/s with an output power of 9.0 mW. A theoretical analysis of the mobile performance shows that the machine is able to produce a maximum output power of 120 mW due to the improved conditions.

102

Author

Yamazaki, A.; Sendoh, M.; Ishiyama, K.; Arai, K.I.; Kato, R.; Nakano, M. and Fukunaga, H. Proc. of 2003 Int. Symposium on Micromechatronics and Human Science, 2003, pp.39-44.

Title

Wireless Micro-machine with Magnetic thin film boron alloys, iron alloys, magnetic fields, magnetic thin films, micromechanical devices, neodymium alloys, permanent magnets, tungsten

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
As the magnetic micro-machines are driven by a magnetic field, they require no power supply cables, no batteries, and no controlling systems on the machines body. A spiral-type micro-machine (outer diameter; 0.14 mm, length; 1.0 mm) by a tungsten wire ( Phi 20 mu m) was fabricated. NdFeB film magnet was deposited on the spiral-machine by the PLD method. In the experiment, the wireless micro-machine swam at a speed of 0.2 ~ 1.6 mm/s. This result indicated that the spiral shape was suitable for miniature swimming machines.

Objectives of Research
Fabricate and examine a wireless magnetic micro-machine Investigate wireless magnetic micro-machines of planar structure

Approach
The micro-machines were fabricated from a tungsten wire of a 20 m diameter. NdFeB film magnet was deposited by the PLD method. The relation between the frequency and swimming velocity, and the relation between the kinematic viscosity and the torque were examined by a rotating external magnetic field and letting the micro-machine swim in three different types of fluid. Miniaturize the micro-machine and analyze again the two relations. A micro-machine of planar structure was examined, which is composed of propeller-shape with plastic plates and a SmFeN magnet. The relation between swimming velocity and frequency was analyzed using silicon oil for low Reynolds numbers.
Scheme view of magnetic micromachine

Key findings
Spiral shape is suitable for miniature swimming machines. The magnetic torque required for driving is small and the value can be realized with a magnetic thin film. Planar-structure micro-machines swim under low Reynolds numbers. When machine size is several dozen m, the torque can be produced with the magnetic film of less than 1 m thickness.

Micro-machine of planar structure

Swimming velocity vs. frequency for the micro-machine of planar structure

Photograph of the magnetic micromachine of planar structure

103

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104

3. Micro-Machining Machine Tool Development 3.3 Spindle technology for micro-machining

105

Author Citation

Dyson, J. E. and Darvell, B. W. Journal of Dentistry, 27(8), November 1999, pp. 573-586.

Title Keywords

Torque, power and efficiency characterization of dental air turbine handpieces Dental air turbine handpiece; Performance; Torque; Power; Efficiency

Abstract
In a previous paper the flow and free running speed characteristics of dental air turbine handpieces were discussed. The present work was to continue the analysis and characterization of these handpieces by addressing the issues of torque, power generation, efficiency and the specification of figures of merit to aid comparative testing and selection. Using the principle of the rope brake, torque was determined from stall to free running at a variety of supply pressures for fourteen models of handpiece. Using previous results for air flow rate and free running speed, power and efficiency were calculated. Stall torque was demonstrated to depend on rotor position. Dynamic torque was found to closely approach the expected linear relationship over the range from stall to free running. Several figures of merit (performance indices) were identified which might be used for routine rating and specification of handpieces. Standardized testing can now be performed and effective figures of merit derived to characterize the behavior of dental air turbine handpieces.

Objectives of Research
Continue the analysis and characterization of dental air turbine handpieces by addressing the issues of torque, power generation, efficiency and the specification of figures of merit to aid comparative testing and selection.

Approach
Using the principle of the rope brake, torque is determined from stall to free running at a variety of supply pressures for fourteen models of handpiece. Using previous results for air flow rate and free running speed, power and efficiency were calculated.

Key findings
Stall torque is demonstrated to depend on rotor position. Dynamic torque is found to closely approach the expected linear relationship over the range from stall to free running. Several figures of merit (performance indices) are identified which might be used for routine rating and specification of handpieces. Standardized testing can now be performed and effective figures of merit derived to characterize the behavior of dental air turbine handpieces.

Stall torque (upper tracing, 2.5 bar) and bearing resistance (lower tracing, 0 bar) v s. relative rotational position of the turbine for handpiece F: (a) for a turbine cartridge with faulty bearings; (b) after fitting a new replacement cartridge

106

Author

Barney, P.; Lauffer, J.; Redmond, J. and Sullivan, W. Proceedings of the International Modal Analysis Conference - IMAC, v 2, 2000, pp. 1288-1295.

Title

Active control of a magnetically levitated spindle Magnetic bearings, Magnetic levitation, Actuators, Shafts (machine components), Rotating machinery, Mathematical models, Computer simulation

Citation Abstract

Keywords

Active magnetic bearing (AMB) technologically has received significant attention especially in applications where contaminants are an issue. AMBs offer some important advantages over conventional ball, roller or journal bearings such as no physical contact in the bearing and consequently, no need for lubricants. Additionally, given the active actuator capabilities, the AMB is well suited to controlling shaft position and therefore offers the potential for actively balancing spindles and micro-shaping capabilities for machine tools. This work focuses on utilizing AMB actuator capabilities to dynamically center spindles. In this study, an intentionally unbalanced spindle was actively centered using an AMB. To perform this task, a modeling, simulation and test program was implemented to design the adaptive LMS controller. The LMS controller was implemented on the MBC500 where significantly improved the concentricity of the unbalanced shaft. This paper presents the dynamic system analysis, model validation, control simulation and implementation of the multi-axis spindle centering AMB project.

Objectives of Research
Investigate some of the issues of using AMBs in a machine tool environment. Specially, utilizing AMB actuator capabilities to dynamically center spindles.

Approach
Implement an LMS digital control algorithm to maintain concentricity of an intentionally unbalanced spindle. A system model is constructed and subcomponents modeled and validated. The model is then simulated to predict performance of the LMS algorithm. The 3D system is modeled as two separate two dimensional systems since the system is determined to be decoupled. The LMS controller is implemented on an AMB system using a programmable DSP and the controlled system is tested.

Key findings
An unbalanced AMB spindle system is enhanced with an LMS algorithm wrapped over an existing PID rigid-body controller. Concentricity is improved by two orders of magnitude.

107

Author Citation Abstract

Du, C.; Zhang, J.; and Guo, G. Proc Am Control Conf, v2, 2002, pp.1378-1383.

Title Keywords

Vibration analysis and control design comparison of HDDs using fluid bearing and ball bearing spindles control system synthesis, disc drives, hard discs, H/sup infinity / control, matrix algebra, vibration control

This paper identifies the system model and major disturbances in a hard disk drive (HDD) with fluid bearing spindle motor and applies linear matrix inequality (LMI) approach to design an H2 controller for the HDD. Experimental measurement of the head's position signal in ontrack mode is used to determine the spectrum of the position. The modeling of disturbances is based primarily upon the spectral decomposition of the position signal and is appropriate when the measurement point of PES is not available on the HDD. Upon determining the disturbances, an H2 controller is designed via the LMI approach to achieve a minimal track mis-registration (TMR) for the HDD. The simulation results show the effectiveness of the H2 controller to minimize TMR. Also, the performance comparison of H2 control in the fluid bearing drive and a ball bearing drive is made.

Objectives of Research
Identify and model the noise and disturbances in a fluid bearing spindle motor-based HDD and design an H2 controller for the HDD Compare performance of H2 control in the fluid bearing drive and a ball bearing drive

Approach
Disturbance modeling is based upon the spectral decomposition of the position signal measured via LVD (Laser Doppler Vibrometer), i.e., the position signal of HDD and optimized spectrum weighted curve fitting of both sensitivity and complementary sensitivity transfer functions. Associated with the identified disturbance models, an H2 controller is designed for the HDD via the LMI approach.

Disturbance Modeling

Key findings
The simulation results show the effectiveness of the H2 controller to minimize TMR (Track min-registration). Comparison of H2 control in the fluid and ball bearing drive shows better performance for fluid bearing drive.

Performance with H2 Control

108

Author

Huang, B.W. and Kung, H.K. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 45(1), January, 2003, pp. 57-72.

Title

Variations of instability in a rotating spindle system with various bearings Ball bearings, Drilling, Equations of motion, Rotation

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
To drive the speed of spindle faster and faster, especially for micro-via-drilling, the gas bearing-spindle is a must. However, most investigations of the dynamic characteristics of the spindle system are limited ball bearing type of spindles. This work examines the dynamic instability of a rotating spindle system with various bearings to elucidate the difference between ball and gas bearing-spindle systems. A round Euler-Bernoulli beam is used to approximate the spindle. Hamiltons principle is applied to derive the equation of motion for the spindle system, and the multiple scales perturbation method is employed to solve the instability solution of the system. The effects of bearing types and speeds of rotation on the dynamic characteristics and instability of a rotating spindle system are further studied.

Objectives of Research
Examine the dynamic instability of a rotating spindle system with various bearings to elucidate the difference between ball and gas bearing-spindle systems

Approach
A round Euler-Bernoulli beam is used to approximate the spindle. Spindles of real size (D=.04m, L=.2m) are considered. The equations of motion of the spindle-bearing system is derived using the Galerkin method and Hamiltons principle. The multiple scales perturbation method is employed to solve the instability problem of the system.

Key findings
Only lower natural frequencies of a spindle system may decrease if gas bearings replace ball bearings. The dynamic instability of a spindle system is greatly influenced by the type of bearings by which the spindle is braced. Unstable regions may enlarge and shift to a lower-frequency domain when gas bearings are used. The speed of rotation will dramatically affect the dynamic instability of a spindle with gas bearings.

Dynamic instability of a rotating spindle with ball or gas bearings, omega =0:75: (a) ball bearings; (b) gas bearings.

Variations in the dynamic instability of a gas bearingspindle with different rotating speeds: (a) frequency response; (b) instability region.

109

Author

Shoji Noguchi, Tadao Tsukada, and Atsushi Tsakamoto Precision Engineering, 17(4), 1995, pp. 266-273.

Title

Evaluation method to determine radial accuracy of high-precision rotating spindle units Spindle; air spindle; Lissajous' figure; error motion; radial error motion; vector; rotation accuracy

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
In this paper, the authors present a new technique, called the vector indication method, which computes and illustrates the radial error motion of a rotating spindle as the instantaneous vectors on a plane normal to the spindle axis. The radial error motion is measured by two sensors located perpendicularly to each other. A new algorithm is developed to obtain the instantaneous vectors of spindle axis displacement by digital processing. It is revealed that the behavior of the displacement of the spindle axis can be more precisely known by the vector indication method than by "the Lissajous' figures," which is one of the conventional methods.

Objectives of Research
Compute and illustrate the radial error motion of a rotating spindle by instantaneous vectors on a plane normal to the spindle axis Measure the radial error motion

Approach
Use two sensors located perpendicularly to each other to measure the radial motion error Use a new algorithm to obtain the instantaneous vectors of the spindle axis displacement by digital processing

Key findings
The repeatability of the radial error motion equals about 0.003 m using the proposed method of measurements A new algorithm based on the least-squares method can be used to find vectors of error motion on a plane normal to the rotating spindle axis by removing the eccentricity of the master ball (measuring target) The total error motion value assessed by this method is larger than that assessed by other methods, such as the error motion polar plot

Measuring device

110

Author Citation

Susumu Ohishi and Yasushi Matsuzaki Precision Engineering, 26(1), 2002, pp. 49-57.

Title Keywords

Experimental investigation of air spindle unit thermal characteristics Aerostatic journal bearing; Temperature measurement

Abstract
This paper presents a report on the first stage of research on the thermal analysis of spindle units with aerostatic bearings and an experimental investigation of temperature distributions. The objective of the present paper is to provide background information for further analysis. A test machine was used running to a maximum rotational speed of 20,000 min1 with a 60 mm diameter spindle supported by aerostatic journal bearings of 20 m radial clearance, and the temperatures of the housing, bushing and the interface between the bushing and air film were measured. In addition, the inlet and outlet air temperatures, the air film pressures and the deformations of the housing and spindle were measured. The experimental results show that the heat flow pattern is essentially a radial flow, although axial heat flow was also observed. The circumferential temperature distribution can be considered to be uniform, and the temperatures are proportional to the square of the spindle speed.

Objectives of Research
Thermal analysis of spindle units with aerostatic bearings Experimental investigation of temperature distributions.

Approach
Test machine was used running to a maximum rotational speed of 20,000 min1 with a 60 mm diameter spindle supported by aerostatic journal bearings of 20 m radial clearance The temperatures of the housing, bushing and the interface between the bushing and air film were measured In addition, the inlet and outlet air temperatures, the air film pressures and the deformations of the housing and spindle were measured

Key findings
Experimental results show that the heat flow pattern is essentially radial flow, although axial heat flow was observed The circumferential temperature distribution can be considered to be uniform, and the temperatures are proportional to the square of the spindle speed Schematic representation and photograph of the test spindle unit

111

Author

Yokoyama, K. Journal of the Japan Society of Precision Engineering , 64 (1) , 1998 , pp. 137-141.

Title

Analysis of deformation of air-spindle due to centrifugal force Rotating machinery; shafts (machine components); rotors, finite element methods, plastic deformation, micrometers, low pass filters, precision engineering

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
This paper deals with FEM and experimental investigations of the deformation of precision air-spindles in diametrical expansion and axial contraction due to the centrifugal force during spindle rotation. The deformation of spindle rotor is measured with a special experimental setup and the results are compared with the FEM analysis. Special precautions are taken in the experiments to realize precision measurements of the order of one-hundredth micro-meter, such as compensation for the thermal deformation of the spindle, protection of the sensor probes against exhaust air flow from the air bearing and low-pass filtering of the displacement output. The experiments are carried out in a speed range up to 7,200 rpm, and it is clarified that the measured results agree well with the calculations.

Objectives of Research
Measure the deformation of precision air-spindles in diametrical expansion and axial contraction due to the centrifugal force during spindle rotation Compare the deformation measurements with FEM analysis

Approach
Realize the precision measurements, on the order of onehundredth of a micro-meter by compensation for the thermal deformation of spindle, protection of the sensor probes against exhaust air flow from the air bearing and low-pass filtering of the displacement output. Speed range 7200 rpm

Key findings
The measured results of deformation due to centrifugal force agree well with the calculations The thermal deformation of the spindle was compensated for in the measurements

Experimental setup for measurement of axial displacement and expansion

112

3. Micro-Machining Machine Tool Development 3.4 Fixturing and material handling issues

113

Author

Hargrove, S.K.; Kusiak, A. International Journal of Production Research, 32(4), 1994, pp. 733-753

Title

Computer-aided fixture design: a review CAD; Manufacturing Data Processing; research initiatives; computer-aided fixture design; fixture CAD; production costs; total fixture design

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
This paper reviews some of the current developments in computer-aided fixture design (CAFXD), and proposes directions for future research initiatives. The literature has indicated a growing interest in the development of computer-aided fixture design systems. The motivation for this manufacturing research is stimulated by the desire to reduce setup and production costs, and the potential rewards of automation. Most of the papers published have centered on the micro aspects of fixture design that addressed singular problems; but as the research matures, more systems will be directed towards an integration with other computer-aided engineering tools for total fixture design. In this paper the recent developments in CAFXD and projections for emerging systems are presented

Objectives of Research
Review some of the current developments in computer-aided fixture design (CAFXD) Propose directions for future research initiatives in fixture design process Present taxonomy of fixture design research as well as generic working model of the fixture planning and design process

Approach Key findings


Generic working model of the fixture planning and design process uses IDEF modeling technique Fixture planning is controlled by the type of fixtures available, facility resources, and the specific machine goals Three subfunctions of fixturing have been identified: fixture planning, fixture design and fixture assembly (see Figure). They are based on process planning, engineering drawing, and production information. CAFXD system integration with other CAE tools will be one of the most important factors making for effectiveness and acceptance in manufacturing

Generic IDEF modeling for fixture planning and design

114

Author

Hargrove, S.K. International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 10(3), 1995, pp. 212-217

Title

A systems approach to fixture planning and design CAD/CAM; concurrent engineering; fixture planning; computer-aided fixture design system

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Within the last decade, the manufacturing research community has addressed many of the micro issues of automating the fixture design process using computers. Most of this research has concentrated on the geometric and kinematic factors that determine the configuration of a computer-aided fixture design (CAFXD) system. However, before the implementation of any of the researched micro issues can be accomplished, a systematic approach to fixture planning and design must be recognized that considers the macro issues (process planning and fixture design) of the complete design to manufacturing process. In order to improve the effectiveness and implementation of researched micro issues in fixture design, a generic model of the functional activities can provide an understanding of the process and information exchanged between process planning and fixture design. This paper presents such a generic IDEF working model that promotes the functional integration of these two functions-developed from a systems perspective.

Objectives of Research
Improve the effectiveness and implementation of researched micro issues in fixture design Develop generic model of the functional activities to provide an understanding of the process and information exchanged between process planning and fixture design

Approach
Use a generic model of the functional activities that can provide an understanding of the process and information exchanged between process planning and fixture design Use a generic IDEF working model that promotes the functional integration of the two functions-developed from a systems perspective Develop a taxonomy of the fixture-design process

Key findings

Generic manufacturing process flow

The IDEF modeling captures a better understanding of complex manufacturing operations The model identifies certain types of information that are shared between process planning and fixture design

115

Author

Arai, F.; Ando, D.; Fukuda, T.; Nonoda, Y. and Oota, T. IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, v 2, 1995, pp. 236-241.

Title

Micro manipulation based on micro physics strategy based on attractive force reduction and stress measurement Manipulator, Strain and Force measurement, Van der Waals forces, Motion control

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Micro manipulation is required for assembling and maintenance works of micro machines and their parts. This paper proposes a handling strategy for micro objects based on micro physics. Attractive forces are modeled and their reduction methods are presented. The authors show experimental results of reducing these forces. Based on the proposed reduction methods, the authors present a new micro manipulation strategy. Grasping of the micro object or press motion is required in some situations, and force information becomes important. The authors propose to use a laser Raman spectrophotometer with single crystal silicon and a strain gauge for the measurement and calibration of the force applied to the micro object. The experimental results of calibrating the force sensing are presented.

Objectives of Research
Propose methods to reduce attractive forces (Van der Waals forces in particular) and show experimental results. Force measurement and calibration using a laser Raman spectrophotometer with single crystal silicon and a strain gauge

Approach
Raman spectrophotometer with single crystal silicon is used for stress measurements. A micro silicon cantilever is made. Force is applied by the probe from the horizontal direction to the tip of the cantilever. Stress is measured selected point where the stress concentration is large. Experiments are done to evaluate the influence of surface roughness on attractive force.

Key findings
Attractive forces can be reduced by changing material, coatings and changing surface roughness. Laser Raman spectrophotometer with single crystal silicon can be used for force measurement. A strain gauge is suitable for real time force feedback but is difficult to measure local stresses.

116

Author Citation

Qiao, Y., Bu, H. Vacuum, 56, 2000, pp. 123-128

Title Keywords

An investigation on suction of vacuum pumps for micro-components Mechanical stress, Fractography analysis

Abstract
The effect of air viscosity on suction force of vacuum pumps for holding micro-components was investigated. The experimental data show that suction force for micro-components is much larger than the calculated results without considering influence of the lower pressure between the suction plate and the micro-component. According to the dimensional analysis, a theoretical formula for the suction force was derived, and then the optimization of aperture dimension of suction plates was discussed.

Objectives of Research
Investigation on suction force of vacuum pumps for holding micro-components with various parameters, such as pressure difference on both side of the components, aperture dimension and components dimension. Search for the optimized aperture sizes.

Approach
Measure the suction forces of various experiment setups Least-squares regression analysis of experiment data

Key findings
Almost two-thirds of the suction force for micro-components is due to the lower pressure between the micro-component and the suction plate, because of air viscosity. The new formula to estimate suction force is

Suction force is linear with the size of micro-components, and is in direct proportion to the pressure difference. To obtain the required suction force with as a low pressure difference as possible, the aperture dimension of the suction plate should be approximately two-thirds of the size of the micro-component.

Above: Experimental setup Right: Theatrical value vs. experimental data

117

Author

Zesch, W., Brunner, M., Weber, A. Proceedings of the IEEE international conference on robotics and automation, 1997, pp. 1761-1766

Title

Vacuum tool for handling microobjects with a nanorobot particle handling, particle release, vacuum tool, adhesion force, hand-in-hand operation, nanorobotics

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Because of the different scaling of gravity and adhesion, mechanical grippers are no more suitable in micro manipulation. A better strategy is to use adhesion forces or vacuum. Therefore, after a brief introduction to adhesion phenomena this paper focuses on the investigation of a vacuum gripping tool consisting of a glass pipette and a computer controlled vacuum supply. Special emphasis is laid on the optimization of the tool's parameters in order to improve its pick & place capability. The tool has been integrated into the ETHZ NanoRobot and tested on dedicated benchmark tests. It was possible to grip 100 m sized diamond crystals and deposit them at arbitrary positions. Also emergency routines that allow to reliably get rid of sticking particles are presented. Finally, the new setup of the multi-tool NanoRobot containing both the vacuum pipette and a micro fabricated gripper is presented. It enables handling of micro-parts with more flexibility by working hand in hand.

Objectives of Research
Introduction to adhesion phenomena Investigate a vacuum gripping tool consisting of a glass pipette and a computer controlled vacuum supply

Approach
Design vacuum tip geometry Provide vacuum Develop computer control strategies

Key findings
In combination with a computer controlled vacuum unit a glass pipette is able to perform pick & place operations of 50-300 m sized metallic and nonmetallic particles with a success rate of about 75%. To release sticking objects (25%) three alternative strategies have been proposed. The tool has been integrated into the ETHZ NanoRobot allowing the building of 2D and 3D structures in a reasonable time

Left three: Basic skills for micro manipulation Right four: Alterative release strategies

118

Author

Tanikawa, Hashimoto, Arai

Title

Micro Drops for Adhesive Bonding of Micro Assemblies and Making a 3-D Structure Micro Scarecrow Adhesive Bonding, Micro Drop, Microassembly, micromanipulation

Citation

Proceedings of IEEE 1998, pp. 776 -781

Keywords

Abstract
A dexterous micro manipulation system was developed for applications such as assembling micro machines, manipulating cells, and micro surgery. We have proposed a concept of a two-fingered micro hand, and designed and build a prototype. We succeeded in performing basic micro manipulations, including the grasp, release, and rotation of a microscopic object. If a bonding technique for microscopic parts can be applied to our current system, the assembly of various micro 3-D structures will be achieved. Various bonding techniques have been researched for assembly of micro 3-D structures, including anodic bonding, direct bonding, adhesive bonding, and others. We apply the adhesive bonding technique to micro parts with micro assembly, since this method can be applied to micro parts with various material qualities. In adhesive bonding, one difficulty is how to obtain a microscopic drop of adhesive agent smaller than the micro parts. In this paper, we will propose a method to obtain a micro drip by applying the capillary phenomenon. By using this technique, a microdrop only a few microns in size could be obtained. Combining the microdrop method with our current micromanipulation system, we succeeded in building a 3-D structure Micro scarecrow.

Objectives of Research
Demonstrate concept of using capillary phenomenon to draw a controlled amount of adhesive into a glass pipette and then dispense adhesive Assembly a 3D structure using adhesive and a two finger micro hand

Approach
Develop 2 fingered, chopstick like, micro hand Develop adhesive dispenser capable of controlled drop sizes ~ 2 microns Test apparatus by assembling a 3D micro structure

Key findings
Capillary action adhesive dispensers can produce controlled drop sizes as little as 2 microns in diameter A two fingered micro hand and the proposed adhesive dispenser can be Used to assemble a 3D structure

119

Author

Bellouard, Y.; Clavel, R.; Gotthardt, R.; Bidaux, J.-E.; Sidler, T. Proceedings of Actuator 98 6th International Conference on New Actuators, 1998 , pp. 499-502.

Title

A new concept of monolithic shape memory alloy micro-devices used in micro-robotics Friction; intelligent actuators; microactuators; microrobots; shape memory effects

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
In most cases where Shape Memory Material (SMA) is used in micro-devices, SMA material is employed as one of several components of the device, sometimes as the active part, sometimes as the flexible part. Wires, strips or springs are usually employed for the actuating part. These systems need to be precisely assembled, which is often very difficult to achieve and expensive. Moreover, additional undesirable effects have to be taken into account, such as friction and play between parts. The concept of monolithic SMA is to integrate the functionality of the device within the same piece of material. With this technology, one avoids assembling of devices with small dimensions. There is still considerable scope to achieve further miniaturization. This paper addresses this issue and presents the latest results in this field of research. The concept will be illustrated by two kinds of devices, which have been developed and realized, a microgripper and a translation stage.

Objectives of Research
Develop an SMA based microgripper and liner stage Integrate the functionality of the device within the same piece of the material Avoid assembly of devices with small dimensions Achieve miniaturization of the structure

Approach
Use Shape Memory Alloys (SMA) for integration purposes Use a monolithic structure concept

Key findings
An SMA micro-gripper and a translation stage have been realized using the integration and monolithic structure concepts New opportunities in micro-robotics can be reached by using Selective Laser Annealing, as well as by integrating the bias spring into the structure

Two-way SMA gripper grasping a 250 m diameter lens

120

Author

Sato, T., Koyano, K., Nakao, M., Hatamura, Y. 1993 International conference on intelligent robots and systems, 16741681

Title

Novel manipulator for micro object handling as interface between micro and human worlds manipulator, microscopes, optics

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
A manipulator system for micro-object handling is presented and the design concepts used for system construction are described. The manipulator consists of two robots (right and left hand robots) and an optical stereo microscope. The right-hand robot with a working tool and a 3-axis force sensor is equipped with two orientational DOF, while the left-hand one has a work table and is equipped with two orientational and three translational DOF. This manipulator system has a wide range of translational and orientational motions. Since all axes of the orientational DOFs intersect at the tip of the tool, and this tip coincides with the focus area, micro-object handling operations can subsequently be executed within the focus area. A micro air turbine comprised of three parts was successfully assembled by the manipulator system. A sucking tool composed of a drown glass pipette and vacuum pump were used for its assembly.

Objectives of Research
Propose a new design for a micro object handling and manipulator system Assemble a micro air turbine comprised of three parts by the manipulator system

Approach
Build a micro object handling manipulator system composed of right-left hand robot, stereo microscope and force sense sensor Apply this manipulator system to micro air turbine assembly

Key findings
Manipulator must be equipped with a wide range of operation and orientational DOFs Manipulator must have a configuration in which the microscopes focus area, termed view point, coincides with the tip of the manipulators tool, termed operation point, and the tools center of motion Manipulator should be positioned around a work space whose location and size is determined by a microscope Manipulator should consist of translational mechanisms which provide only linear-motion and rotary actuators which provide only orientational motion. All the rotary actuators axes should intersect at the operation point

121

Author

Koyano, K.; Sato, T.; Robotics and Automation, 1999. Proc. 1999 IEEE International Conference on , 3 , 1996, pp. 2541 - 2548

Title

Micro object handling system with concentrated visual fields and new handling skills Manipulators; micromechanical devices; optical microscopes; scanning electron microscopes; micro object handling system; adhesive forces; concentrated visual fields; graspless handling; handling skills; optical microscope

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
This paper proposes a system design concept of a concentrated visual field for micro object handling. The proposed concept features: (1) multiple microscopes, (2) fields of view concentrated on manipulators' work space and (3) rotational DOF for tilting manipulators and a worktable. Micro Object Handling System II, which consists of two microscopes (a scanning electron microscope and an optical microscope), two manipulators (primary and secondary) and a worktable, is constructed based on the design concept. The primary manipulator is equipped with two rotational DOFs, and three highly precise translational DOFs. The secondary manipulator is utilized to fix objects on the worktable. The paper also proposes new micro object handling skills to control the adhesive forces which are crucial for micro manipulation. These skills features include: (1) graspless handling of an object by a needlelike tool, (2) changing the adhesive force between a tool and an object by changing the contact area between them, and (3) cooperating two tools whose adhesive-forces differ. Several micro object handling experiments were successfully performed by the system to prove the feasibility of the new handling skills and the system effectiveness.

Objectives of Research
Design Micro object Handling System Develop new micro object handling skills

Approach
Use two microscopes (Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and optical microscope) and two manipulators (primary and secondary) and a worktable for handling Use graspless handling of an object by a needlelike tool Control adhesive force between a tool and an object by changing the contact area Use concentrated visual fields during handling

Key findings
Difference in contact area and material combination ensures the difference of adhesive forces between a tool and a micro object Electrostatic force caused by electric charge in the tool and object is dominant Releasing the microobject can be done by using two manipulators

Releasing object by two tools

122

Author

Alain Codourey, Wolfgang Zesch, Roland Buchi, Roland Siegwart Seminar on Handling and Assembly of Microparts, November 14th, 1994, Vienna

Title

High Precision Robots for Automated Handling of Micro Objects Nano Robot, Micro Robot, Micro Assembly, Precision Mechanism

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
In this paper, after a short description of the goals and the approach taken in this project, some important aspects of the design of high precision robots are stressed. It is especially shown that if a minimum of 6 independent degrees-of-freedom (dof) is required to freely position an object in space, redundant robots will lead to less complicated and more efcient mechanical structures. It is then shown, that if a global sensor is used, measuring the relation gripper-object, the only requirement for the mechanical structure is a good resolution. Finally, two new 3 dof planar robot designs are presented. Both of them have unlimited range of motion while having a resolution down to 10 nm. One of them has been controlled using a vision feedback under a light microscope and showed very promising results.

Objectives of Research
Design and build a nano-robot system with the following specifications: - resolution better than 10 nm within a workspace of 1 cm 3 - a minimum of 5 degrees of freedom (dof) for positioning the tool - micro-machined gripper with integrated sensors to pick and place microsized objects - suitable for vacuum and clean room conditions - small size, to fit into a scanning electron microscopes (SEM) workspace - handling of small octahedral shaped diamonds with a size of about 50 mm

Approach
Robot operating under a light microscope or a stereo SEM Stereo vision module and probably additional sensors (laser interferometer) will be used to locate the objects and the robot gripper Stereo views, force and sound are among the feedback signals that will be provided to the user. Use redundant actuators

Micro Crawling Mechanism

Key findings
3 DOF micro crawling machine has been built based on piezo-actuators Positioning accuracy is only limited by the resolution of the microscope. The robot is controllable down to a couple of nanometers under SEM. The resolution in a light microscope field of view (0.9 x 0.7 mm) was 5 mm.

123

Author

Codourey, A., Zesch, W., Buchi, R., Siegwart, R. Proc. 1995 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Human Robot Interaction and Cooperative Robots, 3, 1995, PP.185-190

Title

A robot system for automated handling in micro-world Computer vision, feedback, manipulators, nanotechnology, position control, stereo image processing, telerobotics, automated handling, microworld, micro-sized objects, nanometer precision, nanorobotics, microparts, nanometer resolution

Citation

Keywords

Abstract (same paper as the previous one)


In view of the emerging applications in the nanotechnology field, the Swiss Federal Institute a Technology, Zurich (ETHZ) decided to focus on an interdisciplinary project with the theme "Nanorobotics", i.e. automated handling of microparts with nanometer resolution. After a short description of the goals and the approach taken in this project this paper focuses on some important aspects of the design of high precision robots. Two new 3 DOF planar robots are presented. Both of them have an unlimited range of motion while having a resolution down to 10 nm. They have been controlled using vision feedback under a light microscope and have shown very promising results.

Objectives of Research
Design and build a nano-robot system (Fig.1) with the following specifications:. - resolution better than 10 nm within a workspace of 1 cm3 - a minimum of 5 degrees of freedom for positioning the tool - micro-machined gripper with integrated sensors to pick and place micro-sized objects - suitable for vacuum and clean room conditions - small size, to fit into a scanning electron microscopes (SEM) workspace - handling of small octahedral shaped diamonds of about 50 m

Approach
Robot operating under a light microscope or a stereo SEM Stereo vision module and probably additional sensors (laser interferometer) will be used to locate the objects and the robot gripper Stereo views, force and sound are among the feedback signals that will be provided to the user. Use redundant actuators

Key findings
3 DOF micro crawling machine has been built based on piezo-actuators Positioning accuracy is only limited by the resolution of the microscope. The robot is controllable down to a couple of nanometers under SEM. The resolution in a light microscope field of view (0.9 x 0.7 mm) was 5 mm. Nanorobot controller

124

Author

Kasaya, T.; Miyazaki, H.; Saito, S.; Sato, T.; Robotics and Automation, 1999. Proceedings. 1999 IEEE International Conference on , 3 , 1999, pp. 2189 2196

Title

Micro object handling under SEM by visionbased automatic control Force control; image recognition; micromanipulators; micropositioning; SEM monitoring; micro devices; micro object handling;

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
There is a great demand for the highly accurate and reliable arrangement of micro objects smaller than 100 m in order to construct micro devices. Since micro objects tend to adhere to other objects by electrostatic force, it is possible to pick them up easily by contact with a needle tip instead of grasping by tweezers. On the other hand, it is difficult to place them on a substrate. To solve this problem, a handling method that controls the contact face area, i.e. picking up the object by contact with the center of the tool-tip plane, and placing it by contact with the edge and also inclining the tool is proposed. To overcome problems with manual operation in this study, the pick-and-place operation is automated by visual and force control. Moreover, to arrange micro objects with high accuracy and reliability, all necessary functions such as calibration, object search, and positioning are integrated, and an automatic handling system is constructed. A completely automatic arrangement of several micro objects of 30 m in diameter under SEM monitoring has been demonstrated.

Objectives of Research
Highly accurate and reliable arrangement of micro objects smaller than 100 m to construct micro devices Propose a handling method for micro object rearrangements Automate the pick-and-place operation of the micro objects

Approach
Control the contact face area of the micro object to control adhesive forces Use visual and force control to automate the pick-and-place operation Use SEM monitoring of the micro object handling process

Key findings
Development of a micromanipulator which can execute complicated tasks inside the field of view by SEM and optical microscope Understanding of the manipulated micro object behavior Development of the manipulation algorithm for uncertain micro object behavior Obtained arrangement accuracy was 10 m

Configuration of the micromanipulator

125

Author Citation

Bohringer, Goldberg, Cohn, Howe, Pisano Proceedings of IEEE 1998, pp. 1204 1211

Title Keywords

Parallel Microassembly with Electrostatic Force Fields Parallel Assembly, Microassembly, MEMS, Electrostatic Force Field, Vibration

Abstract
Assembly is a fundamental issue in the volume production of products that include microscopic (submillimeter) parts. These parts are often fabricated in parallel at high density but must be assembled into patterns with lower spatial density. In this paper we propose a new approach to microassembly using 1) ultrasonic vibration to eliminate friction and adhesion, and 2) electrostatic forces to position and align parts in parallel. We describe experiments on the dynamic and frictional properties of collections of microscopic parts under these conditions. We first demonstrate that ultrasonic vibration can be used to overcome adhesive forces; we also compare part behavior in air and vacuum. Next we demonstrate that parts can be positioned and aligned using a combination of vibration and electrostatic forces. Finally, we demonstrate part sorting by size. Motivated by these feasibility experiment, our goal is a systematic method for designing implementable planar force fields for microassembly based on part geometry. Although artificial potential fields are well known, to our knowledge this is the first attempt to systematically design physical potential filed for manipulation.

Objectives of Research
Demonstrate concept of using ultrasonic vibration and non-artificial planar force fields for micro-part sorting and arrangement by geometry Model and simulate part arrangement with planer force fields

Approach
Development test apparatus Piezo-electric vibration stage Electrostatic traps Apparatus tested on surface mount components and gold wire pieces Planner force field models used to simulate motion of parts

Key findings
Friction and adhesion are overcome by ultrasonic vibration Parts orient themselves in traps based on part shape Motion of parts can be modeled using planner force fields

126

Author Citation

Dechev, Cleghorn, Mills J. of Microelectromechanical systems, vol. 13, no 2, Apr 2004 pp. 176 - 189

Title Keywords

Microassembly of 3-D Microstructures Using a Compliant, Passive Microgripper Compliant, Joint, Microassembly, Microgripper, MEMS, Snap-lock Microjoint

Abstract
This paper describes a novel microassembly system that can be used to construct out-of-plane three-dimensional (3-D) microstructures. The system makes use of a surface-micromachined microgripper that is solder bonded to a robotic manipulator. The microgripper is able to grasp a micropart, remove it from the chip, reorient it about two independent axes, translate it along the , and axes to a secondary location, and join it to another micropart. In this way, out-of-plane 3-D microstructures can be assembled from a set of initially planar and parallel surface micromachined microparts. The microgripper is 380 410 m in size. It utilizes three geometric features for operation: 1) compliant beams to allow for deflection at the grasping tips; 2) self-tightening geometry during grasping; and 3) 3-D interlocking geometry to secure a micropart after the grasp. Each micropart has three geometric features built into its body. The first is the interlock interface feature that allows it to be grasped by the microgripper. The second is a tether feature that secures the micropart to the substrate, and breaks away after the microgripper has grasped the micropart. The third is the snap-lock feature, which is used to join the micropart to other microparts.

Objectives of Research
Explore use of passive compliant MEMs snap-lock and release joint for microassembly. Develop MUMPS based MEMs fabrication method for proposed joints

Approach
Fabricate grippers, compliant joints, and receive socket a silicon wafers Solder a micro gripper to a robotic arm Demonstrate ability of passive compliant joint to lock and release Lock MEMs components into mating slots

Key findings
Passive microgripper is less versatile than active microgrippers but is well suited for assembly environment where parts are well constrained Proposed assembly system enjoys benefits of always having part securely locked in place which eliminates problems caused by unwanted stiction System can be used with any MEMs surface micro machining process

127

Citations
3.1 Machine tool structures
Aoki, I., Takahashi, T. Micropattern fabrication by specially designed micro tool, Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering Kussel, E.; Baidyk, T.; Ruiz-Huerta, L.; Caballero-Ruiz, A.; Velasco, G.; Kasatkina, L., Development of micromachine tool prototypes for microfactories, J. Micromech. Microeng., 12, 2002, pp.795-812 Iijima, D., Ito, S., Hayashim A., Aoyama, H., Yamanaka, M. Micro turning system: A super small CNC lathe for microfactories, 3rd International Workshop on Microfactories Okazaki, Y., Desk-top ultra high speed milling machine, 3rd International Workshop on Microfactories Subrahmanian, R., Ehmann, K. F. Development of a meso-scale machine tool (mMT) for micro-machining, Proceedings 2002 Japan-USA Symposium on Flexible Automation July 14-19, 2002, Hiroshima, Japan Vogler, M. P., Liu, X., Kapoor, S. G., DeVor, R. E., Ehmann, K. F. Development of Meso-Scale Machine Tool (mMT) System, Transaction of the North American Manufacturing Research Institution of SME (NAMRI) Werkmeister, J. and Slocum, A., Design and fabrication of the mesomill: a five-axis milling machine for meso-scaled parts American Society for Precision Engineering, 2003 Winter Topic Meeting, v28, pp. 79 82.

3.2 Actuation and control


Holmes, M., Trumpet, D., Hocken, R. Atomic-scale precision motion control stage (the angstrom stage), Annals of the CIRP Kempf, D. J. and Kobayashi, S. Disturbance observer and feedforward design for a high-speed direct-drive positioning table, IEEE Transaction on Control Systems Technology Mitsuishi, M.; Sugita, N.; Nagao, T.; and Hatamura, Y. A tele-micro machining system with operational environment transmissio n under a stereo-SEM, Proceedings. 1996 Robotics and Automation, v3, 1996, pp.2194-201. Yagyu, T.; Tanase, H.; Moriyama, T. and Matsui, T. Adaptive control system for multiple micro-machines, Proc. of 1995 IEEE I nt. Conf. on Fuzzy Systems. The Int. Joint Conf. of the Fourth IEEE Int. Conf. on Fuzzy Systems and the Second Int. Fuzzy Eng ineering Symp., v2, 1995, pp.863-868. Yamazaki, A.; Sendoh, M.; Ishiyama, K.; Arai, K.I.; Kato, R.; Nakano, M. and Fukunaga, H. Wireless Micro-machine with Magn etic thin film, Proc. of 2003 Int. Symposium on Micromechatronics and Human Science, 2003, pp.39-44. Yoshida, K.; Shinohara, J. and Yokota, S. A study on a micro-actuator using fluid power (2nd report, application for small-size i n-pipe mobile machines with a single power supply tube), J. Jpn. Hydraul. Pneum. Soc. Japan), 25(7), November 1994, pp.85769.

128

Citations
3.3 Spindle technology for micro-machining
Barney, P.; Lauffer, J.; Redmond, J. and Sullivan, W. Active control of a magnetically levitated spindle, Proceedings of the Inte rnational Modal Analysis Conference - IMAC, v. 2, 2000, pp. 1288-1295. Du, C.; Zhang, J.; and Guo, G., Vibration analysis and control design comparison of HDDs using fluid bearing and ball bearing spindles, Proc Am Control Conf, v.2, 2002, pp.1378-1383. Dyson, J. E. and Darvell, B. W. Torque, power and efficiency characterization of dental air turbine handpieces, Journal of Dentistry, 27(8), November 1999, pp. 573-586. Huang, B.W. and Kung, H.K., Variations of instability in a rotating spindle system with various bearings, International Journal o f Mechanical Sciences, 45(1), January, 2003, pp. 57-72. Shoji Noguchi, Tadao Tsukada, and Atsushi Tsakamoto. Evaluation method to determine radial accuracy of high-precision rotating spindle units, Precision Engineering, 17(4), 1995, pp. 266-273. Susumu Ohishi and Yasushi Matsuzaki. Experimental investigation of air spindle unit thermal characteristics, Precision Engineering, 26(1), 2002, pp. 49-57. Yokoyama, K. Analysis of deformation of air-spindle due to centrifugal force, Journal of the Japan Society of Precision Engineering , 64 (1) , 1998 , pp. 137-141.

3.4 Fixturing and material handling issues


Arai, F.; Ando, D.; Fukuda, T.; Nonoda, Y.; Oota, T. Micro manipulation based on micro physics-strategy based on attractive force reduction and stress measurement, Proc. 1995 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Human Robot Interaction and Cooperative Robots 2, 1995, pp. 236-241. Bellouard, Y.; Clavel, R.; Gotthardt, R.; Bidaux, J.-E.; Sidler, T. A new concept of monolithic shape memory alloy microdevices used in micro-robotics, Proceedings of Actuator 98 6th International Conference on New Actuators, 1998 , pp. 499502.

129

Citations
Bohringer, Goldberg, Cohn, Howe, Pisano, Parallel Microassembly with Electrostatic Force Fields, Proceedings of IEEE 1998, pp. 1204 1211 Codourey, A., Zesch, W; Buchi, R., Siegwart, R. High Precision Robots for Automated Handling of Micro Objects, Seminar on Handling and Assembly of Microparts, November 14th, 1994, Vienna Codourey, A., Zesch, W., Buchi, R., Siegwart, R. A robot system for automated handling in micro-world, Proc. 1995 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. Human Robot Interaction and Cooperative Robots, 3, 1995, PP.185-190 Dechev, Cleghorn, Mills, Microassembly of 3-D Microstructures Using a Compliant, Passive Microgripper, J. of Microelectromechanical systems, vol. 13, no 2, Apr 2004 pp. 176 - 189 Hargrove, S.K. A systems approach to fixture planning and design, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 10(3), 1995, pp. 212-217 Hargrove, S.K.; Kusiak, A. Computer-aided fixture design: a review, International Journal of Production Research, 32(4), 1994, pp. 733-753 Kasaya, T., Miyazaki, H., Saito, S., Sato, T. Micro object handling under SEM by vision-based automatic control, Robotics and Automation, 1999. Proceedings. 1999 IEEE International Conference on , 3 , 1999, pp. 2189 - 2196 Koyano, K., Sato, T. Micro object handling system with concentrated visual fields and new handling skills, Robotics and Automation, 1999. Proc. 1999 IEEE International Conference on , 3 , 1996, pp. 2541 - 2548 Qiao, Y., Bu, H. An investigation on suction of vacuum pumps for micro-components, Vacuum, 56, 2000, pp. 123-128 Sato, T., Koyano, K., Nakao, M., Hatamura, Y. Novel manipulator for micro object handling as interface between micro and human worlds, 1993 International conference on intelligent robots and systems, 1674-1681 Tanikawa, Hashimoto, Arai, Micro Drops for Adhesive Bonding of Micro Assemblies and Making a 3-D Structure Micro Scarecrow, Proceedings of IEEE 1998, pp. 776 781 Zesch, W., Brunner, M., Weber, A. Vacuum tool for handling microobjects with a nanorobot, Proceedings of the IEEE international conference on robotics and automation, 1997, pp. 1761-1766

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CHAPTER 4. Micro-tooling

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132

4. Micro-tooling
Given the extreme sensitivity of micro/meso-scale cutting operations to the geometric parameters of the cutting tool, as clearly highlighted by the evidence in Chapter 2, the importance of micro-tooling-related issues cannot be over-emphasized. This is, in particular, the case for general-purpose applications (excluding ultra-precision machining by carefully prepared single point diamond tools), which are apparently plagued by problems of micro-tool geometry consistency and overall tool quality in terms of tool-life and wear. The overwhelming majority of micro-cutting tools are still being produced by conventional methods based on grinding operations and the use of fine grade carbides as the principal tool material. However, as the dimensions of the tools are downsized in response to the needs dictated by the workpiece features, viz., groove width, hole size, etc., the relative accuracy of the produced tools has not followed suit. The consequence of this manufacturing limitation is that workpiece feature dimensions and quality characteristics are also adversely affected in inverse proportion to feature characteristic size. Particularly important parameters are the edge radii, the symmetry of the geometric features of multi-point tools, the tolerances of the relevant linear and angular dimensions and cutting edge surface finish. As the trend toward smaller dimensions is continuing, the above-mentioned issues will constitute a significant technological barrier.

133

In the first section of this chapter alternative approaches are presented for micro-tool manufacture and use in different operations and applications. The use of Focused Ion Beam (FIB) methods is gaining prominence in limited R&D applications. However, the cost of the required equipment and the extraordinarily long times needed to produce a single tool render this technique infeasible for mass production. It is apparent that in the realm of micro-tool design and cost-effective manufacture new and better methods need to be developed and refined. The second section of this chapter highlights a very few papers that have been devoted to the application of different types of coatings to micro-tools. And finally, the last section addresses a set of pragmatic issues that deal with tool wear, tool life, and tool condition monitoring. Attempts to model the effects of tool wear on the cutting process for micro- and nano-scale cutting are described followed by methods for tool wear monitoring and estimation in actual operations.

134

4. Micro-tooling 4.1 Tool geometry, design and fabrication

135

Author

Fang, F.Z, Wu, H. , Liu, X.D., Liu, Y.C., Ng, S.T. Journal of micromechanics and microengineering, 13(5), pp. 726-731, 2003

Title

Tool geometry study in micromachining microelectromechanical devices, machine tools, micromachining, milling

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
With the trend towards miniaturization, micromachining becomes more and more important in fabricating micro parts. Investigations have shown that unpredictable tool life and premature tool failure present a serious concern in micromachining. To further develop the process, a systematic study of various types of tool geometry has been carried out. The tool failure modes and the ways in which tool life can be improved were also studied. Experimental results show that the tool tip rigidity of the semi circle-based (D-type) end-mills is much higher than that of the two-flute (commercial type) end-mills, and the machining quality with the D-type tools is better than that of the triangle-based (type) end-mills. The tool breakage of end-milling operations simulated using real tool geometry is in good agreement with experimental data. Both the experimental study and FEM analysis have shown that the D-type end-mills are more suitable for micromachining.

Objectives of Research
Outline failure modes of three types of end-mills: two-flute, D-type and triangle-based Compute the state of stress of end-mills during different schemes of machining .

Approach
Milling experiments with three types of end-mills under various machining scenarios Finite element analysis

Key findings
Tool tip rigidity of triangle-base end-mills is much higher than that of the other two types. Tool breakage is not likely to occur as easily as with the other two types. However machining quality is poorer due to the large negative effective rake angle forming small undeformed chip thicknesses. D-type end mills have both higher-rigidity and better cutting performance, and are more suitable for fabricating micro parts Chipping may only occur at the tool tip when cutting forces exceed a critical value. As the cutting forces in the end-milling operation may not reach this threshold, there is no chipping but edge wear instead. Successful applications of micro D-type end-mills for bio-medical parts have been demonstrated.

Tool failures of various tool geometries in micromachining. (a, d )Two-flute end-mills (b, e, g) -type end-mills and (c, f, h) D-type end-mills.

136

Author Citation

Onikura, H., Ohnishi, O., Take, Y., Kobayashi, A. CIRP Annals Manufacturing Technology, 49 (1), 2000, pp. 257-260.

Title Keywords

Fabrication of micro carbide tools by ultrasonic vibration grinding Ultrasonic vibration grinding, Micro tool, Carbide

Abstract
This paper deals with the fabrication of micro cylindrical tools and micro flat drills of ultra-fine grain cemented carbides by grinding with ultrasonic vibration. The concept of this grinding is to reduce the grinding forces such that they will not cause any breakage of the micro tools. The grinding operations are performed using the end face of an offset grinding wheel. In grinding with ultrasonic vibration, better results in aspect ratio and tools of smaller diameter than conventional grinding are obtained. Due to the lower tensile strength of carbides, grinding under compressive force has made it possible to grind to a diameter of 11 m with a length of 160 m.

Objectives of Research
Develop efficient and accurate method for fabricating micro cutting tools like drills or end mills with diameters less than 100 microns by ultrasonic vibration grinding. Conduct tool fabrication on the machine where micro structures are actually machined.

Approach
Ultrasonic vibration grinding used to produce cylindrical tools and micro flat drills of ultra-fine grain cemented carbides Grinding performed using end face of offset grinding wheel. Study effects of the following factors on the size and form of the ground workpiece: ultrasonic vibration, direction of force on workpiece, up/down grinding, workpiece deflection, thermal expansion of spindle, grinding wheel wear, truing/dressing method and grinding conditions.

Key findings
Tensile grinding force causes more breakage than compressive grinding force. Due to lower tensile strength of carbide, grinding under compressive force made it possible to grind a tool of 160 micron length to a diameter of 11 microns. Better results in aspect ratio (50%) and tools of smaller diameter (10-20%) obtained when compared with conventional grinding. Deviations of spindle due to thermal expansion (33 microns at steady state with ultrasonic vibrations and 20 microns at steady state without) means that grinding must not start until steady state has be achieved. Grinding with ultrasonic vibration reduces wheel loading, which may be a contributing factor in reducing grinding force.

137

Author

Lee, S.W., Choi, H.Z., Lee, H.W., Choi, J.Y., Jeong, H.D. Key Engineering Materials, 238-239, 2003, pp. 35-40

Title

A study of micro-tool machining using electrolytic in-process dressing and an evaluation of the characteristics Micro Tool, WC, ELID, Electrolytic In-process Dressing, Micro-Grooving, Ultrasonic

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
In this study micro tools (WC) to produce micro-structures and parts were manufactured with a cylindrical grinding technique using the ELID (Electrolytic In-Process Dressing) technique. Micro-carbide tools of the shapes of circle, square, corn, rounded square, rectangular, and ellipse were manufactured. The size of the micro-carbide tool was measured to be about 30-50 microns. The minimum size was 3 microns by SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope). The surface roughness was 50 nm in Ra by AFM (Atomic-Force Microscope). The characteristics of machining the micro-carbide tools being made by micro-grooving were studied. A comparative study with the normal ultrasonic micro-machining was also made. It was confirmed that the manufactured micro-carbide tool can be used for micro-machining.

Objectives of Research
Manufacture of carbide micro-tools to produce micro-structures and parts. Study of the characteristics of machining using micro-tools

Approach
Cylindrical grinding using Electrolytic In-Process Dressing (ELID) technique used to manufacture micro-tools Several micro-tools of different shapes produced using this technique. Surface roughness of micro-tools characterized using Atomic-Force Microscopy (AFM) Micro-tools used for micro patterning of stainless steel plate. Machining characteristics compared against normal machining and ultrasonic micro-machining.

Key findings
Number of differently shaped micro tools and micro structures made using cylindrical grinding with ELID. Surface roughness was found to be Ra 55 86 nm using AFM. ELID thought to reduce the grinding force and surface roughness. In micro-patterning ultrasonic vibration lowered burr size and density. Results confirmed that the micro tool could be used for micro machining.

138

Author

Godlinski, D., Grathwohl, G., Kuntz, M. Proceedings of the 1st international conference and general meeting of the EUSPEN, 1999, pp. 298-301

Title

Development of ceramic micro-tools for precision machining Ceramic micro-tool, colloidal processing, sintering, machine tools

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Ceramic tools on the base of alumina are considered as candidate materials for precision cutting of iron alloys. For this purpose the conventional ceramic cutting tools have to be further developed in order to meet the requirements of a considerably reduced wear rate and in particular the absence of any intergranular fracture processes. To achieve this progress, pure alumina powder was classified by centrifugation to average particle size of 100 nm in low volume samples to enable fabrication of a homogenous, fine grained microstructure without any noticeable processing flaws. The green compacts were produced by colloidal processing. Sintering led to dense small sized inserts with sub-m grain size and high hardness of 2300 HV0.1. The surface was finished with a roughness of 1 nm; the tool tip radii had to be further artificially reduced to a level below 100 nm without damaging the cutting edges.

Objectives of Research
Reduce wear rate of ceramic tools on the base of alumina Eliminate any intergranular fracture processes

Approach
Centrifuge the raw alumina powder to average particle size of 100 nm Form green compacts by pressure filtration or electrophoretic deposition Two step sintering processes

Key findings
Classification of powder dispersion by centrifugal process allowed reduced particles size with average value d50 of 80 nm. Sintering led to dense small sized inserts with sub-m grain size and high hardness of 2300 HV0.1. The surfaces exhibited a low roughness with a roughness of 1 nm Tool tip radii of 300 nm can be achieved, and can be further reduced to values of about 100 nm. The overall wear resistance under the conditions of cutting iron was of the same order as when diamond tools were used.

139

Author Citation

Michael J. Vasile, Craig R. Friedrich, Bharath Kikkeri and Rob McElhannon Precision Engineering, 19(2-3),1996, pp. 180-186

Title Keywords

Micrometer-scale machining: tool fabrication and initial results micromachining; microtools; ultraprecision

Abstract
Conventional milling techniques scaled to ultrasmall dimensions have been used to machine polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) with micrometer-sized milling tools. The object of this work is to achieve machining of a common material over dimensions exceeding 1 mm while holding submicrometer tolerances and micrometer size features. Fabricating the milling tools themselves was also an object of the study. A tool geometry for nominal 25 micrometer diameter cutting tools was found that cuts PMMA with submicrometer tolerances over trench lengths of 2 mm. The tool shape is a simple planar facet cut by focused ion beam milling on ground and polished 25 micrometer diameter steel tool blanks. Pairs of trenches 24 micrometers wide, 26 micrometers deep, 2.3 mm long, with a 14 micrometer separation were milled under various machining conditions. The results indicate that the limits of the machining process in terms of speed, pattern complexity, and tolerances have not been approached. This is the first demonstration of a generic method for microtool making by focused ion beam machining combined with ultraprecision numerically controlled milling. The method is shown to be capable of producing structures and geometries that are considered inaccessible by conventional materials removal techniques, and generally regarded as applications for deep X-ray lithography.

Objectives of Research
Scale conventional milling techniques to ultrasmall dimensions Achieve machining of a common material over dimensions exceeding 1 mm while holding submicrometer tolerances and micrometer size features Fabricate the milling tools themselves

Approach
Use focused ion beam machining combined with ultraprecision numerically controlled milling to make a microtool Tool shape is a simple planar facet cut by focused ion beam milling on ground and polished 25 micrometer diameter steel tool blanks

Key findings
The limits of the machining process in terms of speed, pattern complexity, and tolerances have not been approached The method is shown to be capable of producing structures and geometries that are considered inaccessible by conventional materials removal techniques, and generally regarded as applications for deep X-ray lithography Tool geometry departs from the scaled down analogue, therefore ion milling is necessary to get the submicron radius of curvature on the tool cutting edge

SEM image of a microtool cut with four facets; horizontal field dimension 137 = m

140

Author

Picard, Y.N., Adams, D.P., Vasile, M.J., Ritchey, M.B. Journal of precision engineering, 27(1), 2003, pp. 5969

Title

Focused ion beam-shaped microtools for ultra-precision machining of cylindrical components Focused ion beam, Microtool, Diamond tool, Ultra-precision machining

Citation

Keywords

Abstract

Focused ion beam (FIB) sputtering is used to shape a variety of cutting tools with dimensions in the 15100 m range and cutting edge radii of curvature of 40 nm. The shape of each microtool is controlled to a pre-specified geometry that includes rake and relief features. Tools having rectangular, triangular, and other complex-shaped face designs are demonstrated. A double-triangle tip on one tool is unique and demonstrates the versatility of the fabrication process. The FIB technique allows observation of the tool during fabrication, and, thus, reproducible features are generated with sub-micron precision. Tools are made from tungsten carbide, high-speed tool steel, and single crystal diamond. Application of FIB-shaped tools in ultra-precision microgrooving tests shows that the cross-section of a machined groove is an excellent replication of the microtool face. Microgrooves on 40150 m pitch are cut into 3 mm diameter polymer rods, for groove arc lengths greater than 12 cm. The surface finish of machined features is also reported; groove roughness (Ra) is typically less than 0.2 m. Ultra-precision machining of cylindrical substrates is extended to make bound metal microcoils having feature sizes of 2040 m.

Objectives of Research
Shape micro-threading tools that have well-defined back and side rake angles, cutting edge, widths and relief by FIB sputtering Fabricate a variety of cylindrical components with FIB sputtering shaped micro-tools in ultra-precision lathe machining

Approach
FIB sputtering Scanning electron microscope imaging Ultra-precision lathe machining

Key findings
Demonstrate methods that allow for control of feature cross-section FIB sputtering can fabricate any conceivable microtool geometry on a scale that is below those reached by grinding methods FIB is a relatively slow process Left: Two-tip microtool having triangular cutting faces shaped by FIB sputtering FIB sputtering can shape diamond cutting tools with extremely precise dimensions and complex tool Right: A portion of PEEK workpiece machined by Two-tip microtool (left) face shapes, but great fabrication time is needed

141

Author Citation

Adams, D.P., Vasile, M.J., Krishnan, A.S.M. Precision Engineering, 24 (4), 2000, pp. 347 356

Title Keywords

Microgrooving and microthreading tools for fabricating curvilinear features Microtools, Micromachining, Ultraprecision

Abstract
This paper presents techniques for fabricating microscopic, curvilinear features in a variety of workpiece materials. Microgrooving and microthreading tools with cutting widths as small as 13 microns are made by focused ion beam sputtering and used for ultraprecision machining. Tool fabrication involves directing a 20 keV gallium beam at polished cylindrical punches made of cobalt M42 high-speed steel or C2 tungsten carbide to create a number of critically aligned facets. Sputtering produces rake facets of desired angle and cutting edges having radii of curvature equal to 0.4 microns. Clearance for minimizing frictional drag of a tool results from a particular ion beam/target geometry that accounts for the sputter yield dependence on incidence angle. It is believed that geometrically specific cutting tools of this dimension have not been made previously. Numerically controlled, ultraprecision machining with microgrooving tools results in a close match between tool width and feature size. Microtools are used to machine 13-micron wide, 4-micron deep, helical grooves in polymethyl methacrylate and 6061 Al cylindrical workpieces. Microgrooving tools are also used to fabricate sinusoidal cross-sectional features in planar metal samples.

Objectives of Research
Fabrication of microcutting tools intended for mechanical machining of polymer and metal alloy workpieces.

Approach
Focused ion beam (FIB) sputtering technique used to generate cutting edges. Tool blanks made of cobalt M42 high-speed steel or C2 micrograin tungsten carbide. Fabricated microtools and certain micromachined workpieces analyzed using SEM. Microtools tested by machining linear grooves and curvilinear features in planar workpieces and helical grooves in cylindrical workpieces made of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), 6061 aluminum and brass.

Key findings
Tools have cutting edge radii of 0.4 microns although sharper edges may be possible with other tool materials. FIB technique has the advantage that almost any conceivable tool geometry can be fabricated on a scale well below that achieved by grinding methods. Feature widths in planing tests best match tool widths for certain machining parameters. SEM images of tool and various machined workpieces

142

Author

Vasile, M.J., Friedrich, C.R., Kikkeri, B., McElhannon, R. Proceedings of the 1st international conference and general meeting of the EUSPEN, 1999, pp. 298-301

Title

Micrometer-scale machining: tool fabrication and initial results Micromachining, microtools, ultraprecision

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Conventional milling techniques scaled to ultrasmall dimensions have been used to machine polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) with micrometer-sized milling tools. The object of this work is to achieve machining of a common material over dimensions exceeding 1 mm while holding submicrometer tolerances and micrometer size features. Fabricating the milling tools themselves was also an object of the study. A tool geometry for nominal 25 micrometer diameter cutting tools was found that cuts PMMA with submicrometer tolerances over trench lengths of 2 mm. The tool shape is a simple planar facet cut by focused ion beam milling on ground and polished 25 micrometer diameter steel tool blanks. Pairs of trenches 24 micrometers wide, 26 micrometers deep, 2.3 mm long, with a 14 micrometer separation were milled under various machining conditions. The results indicate that the limits of the machining process in terms of speed, pattern complexity, and tolerances have not been approached. This is the first demonstration of a generic method for microtool making by focused ion beam machining combined with ultraprecision numerically controlled milling. The method is shown to be capable of producing structures and geometries that are considered inaccessible by conventional materials removal techniques, and generally regarded as applications for deep X-ray lithography.

Objectives of Research
Achieve machining of a material over dimensions exceeding 1 mm while holding submicrometer tolerances and micrometer size features Fabricate the milling tools by focused ion beam

Approach
Focused ion beam use for tool manufacture Ultraprecision numerically controlled milling

Key findings
It is possible to create macroscopic-sized features with micrometer tolerance by scaling down conventional machining technologies Tool geometry departs from the scale-down analog of its macroscopic counterpart Ion milling is necessary to get the submicrometer radius of curvature on the tool cutting edge, and the sequence of facet cutting is important

Trenches milled in PMMA at 14,000 RPM horizont al field (A)= 683 um (B)= 162 um

143

Author

Langford, R.M., Dale, G., Hopkins, P.J., Ewen, P.J.S., Petford-Long, A.K. Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering 12, pp. 111-114, 2002

Title

Focused Ion Beam Micromachining of ThreeDimensional Structures and Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of Assess Their Shape Focused ion beam, Accuracy improvement

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Focused ion beam (FIB) systems are ideal tools for micromachining three-dimensional structures. To mill a shape correctly numerous factors, such as the shape of the ion beam and the re-deposition of the sputtered materials have to be accounted for during the ion milling. In order to alter the ion milling process to account for these and other factors, the shape of the milled structure and how it differs from the intended shape has to be determined. For a non-symmetrical structure with high depth-to-width aspect ratios a cross-section through its centre, prepared using the FIB system, will not be representative and atomic force microscopy cannot be used because of the geometry of the atomic force microscopes tip. Here, the use of three-dimensional reconstruction from a sequential set of FIB-prepared two-dimensional cross-sections milled through a structure to determine its shape is outlined.

Objectives of Research
Study important process parameters in FIB-machining Develop three-dimensional reconstruction technique to measure geometry of FIB-milled structures

Approach
Use FIB-milling to cross-section a structure Measure 2-D cross-section with FIB imaging Reconstruct 3-D geometry from measurements of 2-D cross-sections Use measurement data to improve process parameters

Key findings
Tapered sidewalls are observed due to re-deposition Top edges of geometry are rounded due to ion beam profile Non-symmetric sidewalls caused by beam rastering The developed measurement and reconstruction technique can be used to improve FIB-machining process parameters

FIB-machined photonic band gap structure

3-D reconstruction of FIB-milled geometry

144

Author

Adams, D.P., Vasile, M., Picard, Y.N. Proceedings of the American society of precision engineering, 2000, pp.176

Title

Focused ion beam shaped micro-cutting tools for fabricating curvilinear features Focused ion beam, micro-cutting tools

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
A new microfabrication capability has been added to the focused ion beam system. This includes software that allows for sputtering of prespecified 3-dimensional shape. In the past, focused ion beam sputtering has been restricted to milling of rectilinear or prismatic crosssections. The code allows the user to sputter curvilinear shapes including sinusoids, hemispheres and parabolas of different sizes and symmetry. This is accomplished by numerically solving for the beam pixel dwell times required to sputter a shape of a given depth. The calculation of ion dose required at each pixel within the targeted area accounts for the sputter yield dependence on incidence angle, the sputter yield dependence on material properties and the ion beam intensity distribution. The creation of curved surfaces in initially planar substrates can consist of a large range of incidence angle depending on the depth and net shape. In general, each target material has different sputter yield dependencies.Tests of the 3-d ion milling code consist of sputtering a variety of shapes into polished, planar, single crystal Si(100) substrates. Sputtering of single crystal material is chosen for initial tests to avoid additional effects of crystal texture and compositional variations on sputter yield.

Objectives of Research
Propose software for a focused ion beam system for sputtering of prespecified 3D shapes Clarify the dependence on incidence angle, material properties and beam intensity distribution

Approach
Build software to compute the beam pixel dwell time Test sputter yield dependencies, incidence angle, material properties

Key findings
Sputtering a variety of shapes onto polished, planar, single crystal Si (100) substrates by using 3d ion milling code

145

Author

Hoffmeister, H.W., Wenda, A., Herrmann, H.


Proc. (Vol.1) of the MICRO.tec2000, pp.125-129, VDE World Microtechnologies Congress, Expo 2000, Hannover, Germany, 25th-27th Sept. 2000, pp. 125-129

Title

The fabrication and application of micro milling cutters Micromachining, machine tools, micro-tools

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
The production and optimized application of miniaturized cutting tools, for instance micro milling cutters, is a research field at the Institute of Machine Tools of the Technical University of Braunschweig, Germany. The smallest size of manufactured tools achieved was fifteen m. The specific geometrical shape of the tool depends upon the demands of the product application. These newly developed tools were successful in cutting tests. Furthermore, results from these experiments were compared to analytic calculations with the purpose to optimize the geometrical form. Some application fields of miniature cutting tools are the following: molding tools for polymer molding, hot embossing or injection molding and special products for precision engineering.

Objectives of Research
Achieve a design construction for manufacturing tool tips with an accuracy of 1.5 m Apply the miniature cutting tools in various fields

Approach
Sinter micro grain hard metal to form cutting tools Construct a micro machine center with CNC-controlled machine and laser measuring device Multi-step grinding of the micro cutters

Key findings
It is necessary to have a precision machine tool with a positioning accuracy of 1m for micro cutting. It is helpful to have a laser measuring system installed on the working table to maximize the tool set up and inspect tools. It is necessary to grind the tool using diverse angles to maintain a good surface area without burr. The resulting infeed forces were about 100% higher for steel than brass One application field of miniaturized milling tools is molding tools for optical telecommunication engineering industry

Micro milling cutter

146

Author Citation

Ohmori, H., Katahira, K., Uehara, Y., Watanabe, Y., Lin, W. CIRP Annals Manufacturing Technology, 52 (1), 2003, pp. 467-470.

Title Keywords

Improvement of mechanical strength of micro tools by controlling surface characteristics Micro tool, Surface quality, Mechanical strength

Abstract
Micro tools require exceptionally high surface characteristics, controllable to the nanometer level. In this research, a desk-top machine capable of achieving excellent surface quality and machining accuracy in micro machining was developed, and micro tools of various shapes were prepared using the newly developed machine. The machine successfully prepared pyramidal micro tools with tips of 2m. The surface of the prepared micro tools was observed closely using some advanced instruments, and the fracture strength of the micro tools was evaluated by indentation tests using a nano-indentation testing instrument. These observations showed a clear and quantitative correlation between the nanometer-level surface quality and mechanical strength. In another test, thin metal sheets were punched using the fabricated micro tool. The resulting holes were found to be of exceptionally high quality.

Objectives of Research
Investigate correlation between mechanical strength and surface characteristics of micro tools Use micro tools in micro machining to evaluate performance.

Approach
Development of desk-top machine capable of achieving excellent surface quality and machining accuracy. Micro tools of various shapes prepared using this machine. Surface roughness and fracture strength of micro tools evaluated using advanced instruments. Thin metal sheets punched using fabricated micro tools

Key findings
Desk-top machine successfully prepared pyramidal micro tools with tips of 2 m. Clear and quantitative correlation between nanometer-level surface quality and mechanical strength. Holes punched using the fabricated micro tools were of excellent quality.

147

Author Citation

Gong, Y., Lin, C., and Ehmann, K. F. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 141, 2003, p. 16-28

Title Keywords

Analysis of Dynamic Characteristics of MicroDrills Micro-drills, drill motion, geometrical cross-secti ons

Abstract
Micro-drills were modeled as long twisted beams. Models for the critical speeds and the critical buckling loads were developed based on the finite element method of analysis. The effects of transverse shear, rotary inertia and gyroscopic moments were included in this analysis. The models have the capability of analyzing a wide variety of geometrical cross-sections. A computer program was developed for the calculation of the variations of the critical speeds and of the buckling loads. The effects of drill geometry, boundary condition, rotational speed, and crosssectional area on the buckling loads and the critical speeds were analyzed.

Objectives of Research
To develop a mathematical model to investigate a micro-drills critical speeds and critical buckling loads.

Approach
Modeling of the micro-drill as a pre-twisted, rotating beam subjected to a compressive axial force and radial forces at the drill tip. Inclusion of the effects of transverse shear, rotary inertia, and gyroscopic moments. Development of the equations of motion by applying Hamiltons principle and solution of the equation of motion by the finite elemental analysis method.

Key Findings
The critical speeds and the buckling loads will improve with an increase in the cross-sectional area and of the helix angle and markedly improve by decreasing the flute length. The buckling loads decrease almost linearly with an increase in the rotational speed of the drill.

148

Author Citation

Vallance, R. Ryan; Morgan, Chris J.; Shreve, Shelby M.; Marsh, Eric R. Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering

Title Keywords

Micro-tool characterization using scanning white light interferometry Micro-EDM; SWLI; Surface roughness

Abstract

Micro-electro-discharge machining produces tools for micro-machining processes with diameters down to 3 m and lengths up to fifty times their diameter. This paper describes a metrology technique for characterizing the geometry of these tools by the standardized components of roughness, waviness and form. In this technique two-dimensional (2D) profiles are extracted from three-dimensional (3D) surface measurements acquired by scanning white light interferometry with height resolution below 1 nm. The profiles are transformed into the frequency domain and separated into form (wavelengths longer than 100 m), waviness (wavelengths between 10 m and 100 m) and roughness (wavelengths shorter than 10 m). Standard height and shape parameters are computed from the roughness, waviness and form profiles for 81 tools, enabling relative comparison of tool geometry in a quantitative and reproducible manner. This approach provides a more comprehensive quantification of geometry than alternatives such as measuring the diameter at a few points along the tool or scanning probe microscopy over small areas. The utility of the technique is demonstrated by characterizing the precision of three microtools produced by wire electro-discharge grinding (WEDG).

Objectives of Research
Description of a metrology technique using scanning white light interferometer (SWLI) for characterizing high aspect ratio tools for use in micromachining

Approach
Details of the metrology technique: 2D profiles extraction from 3D data, separation into form, waviness and roughness. Demonstration of the technique by characterizing and comparing the precision of three micro-tools produced by wire electro-discharging grinding.

Key findings
A new metrology technique useful in characterizing the entire length of these high aspect ratio tools using scanning white light interferometry and 2D profiles is described. Utility of this metrology technology is demonstrated with three microtools that were produced by WEDG with different process conditions and complex relations between process conditions, precision and production rate can be quantitatively studied with this technique.

Measured, form, waviness and roughness profiles and probability density function for a tool

149

Author

Trujillo, M., Li, W., Fallerio, B., Paz, E., Tansel, I.N. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 34 (8), 1994, pp. 1059 1077

Title

Inspection of Micro-Tools at High Rotational Speeds Micro-tools, tool surface conditions, laser, neu ral networks, threshold, RCE, ART2

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Micro-tools have been widely used in industry, primarily by biomedical and electronic equipment manufacturers. The life of these cutting tools is extremely unpredictable and much shorter than for conventional tools. Also, these miniature tools, with a diameter of less than 1 mm, cannot be inspected by an operator without the aid of magnifying glass. In this paper, evaluation of the intensity variation of a reflected laser light beam from the cutting tool surfaces is proposed as a method of estimating cutting tool surface conditions. Various encoding methods, including wavelet transformations, were proposed to obtain a small and meaningful set of data from the intensity variation readings of one tool rotation. The encoded data are classified using a simple threshold method, Restricted Coulomb Energy (RCE), and Adaptive Resonance Theory (ART2)-type neural networks. The proposed encoding and classification approaches were tested with over one hundred sets of data. The threshold method detects only severe tool damage. The RCE neural networks and graphical presentation of the encoded sets demonstrated the feasibility of the proposed monitoring technique and encoding methods. The ART2-type neural networks were found to be the best candidates for tool condition monitoring because of their self learning capability. Wavelet transformation-based encoding and ART2-type neural networks were found to be sensitive enough to recognize wear at the cutting edge.

Objectives of Research
Develop methods to inspect the tip of micro-end-mill at high rotational speeds.

Approach
Inspect variation of tool radius and surface profile by evaluating the intensity variation of a reflected laser light beam from the cutting tool surface. Estimate condition using various encoding and classification methods. Encoding techniques: Extremes of peak regions (EPR) & health coefficient (HC); Extremes of peak regions and slopes (EPRS); Wavelet transformations (WT) Classification methods: Threshold (TM), Restricted Coulomb Energy (RCE) and Adaptive Resonance Theory (ART2).

Key findings
Intensity variation profiles of reflected laser beams changed dramatically when tool tips were worn out or damaged. RCE threshold method only detected severe tool damage. EPRS had no advantage over EPR and the addition of slopes dramatically reduced the reliability of the estimations. TM-HC, ART2-EPR and ART2-WT combinations are the best candidates for tool condition monitoring. WTBE and ART2 sensitive enough to recognize tool wear at cutting edge.

150

Author

Hazra, L.; Kato, H.; Kiryu, T.; Hashimoto, Y.; Kuroda, T.; Tsuchiya, Y.; Sakuma, I. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 127, 2002, pp.169-173.

Title

Inspection of reground drill point geometry using three silhouette images Reground drill point geometry, Silhouette images, CCD camera

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Worn drills are often reground using a drill pointer. This paper deals with an easy and practical method for inspecting the geometry of a conically ground drill point using CCD camera images. In the proposed method, first, a CCD camera obtains outline images, or silhouette images, of the drill point, viewing from three different angular directions about the drill axis. Then, the three-dimensional coordinate data on the flank (ground) surfaces of the drill are evaluated from the images. Finally, by fitting the coordinate data to a mathematical model of the drill point geometry, five parameters describing the geometry are identified by an optimization technique. The proposed method is virtually unaffected by the lighting conditions and the surface texture because of the use of silhouette images. However, it can be affected by apparatus set-up errors such as angular positioning error of the drill to be inspected. In order to investigate their influence, the error sensitivity of the method has been analyzed through computer simulations.

Objectives of Research
Characterize reground drill point geometry Analyze the influence of errors on characterization method

Approach
Silhouettes of the reground drill points are captured with a CCD camera and the image is processed with a genetic algorithm to determine coordinate system and drill point geometry parameters

Key findings
A method for obtaining 3D coordinate data of points on flank surfaces from three silhouette images of the drill point by CCD camera has been developed An estimation procedure for the drill point geometry parameters by using a genetic algorithm has be proposed The error sensitivities of the parameters and typical drill angles against the set-up errors are calculated from computer simulation.

Set-up for measuring the coordinates of points on the flank surface and an example of CCD camera images.

Error sensitivity of parameters against set-up errors

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152

4. Micro-tooling 4.2 Tool materials

153

Author

Schmidt, J., Tritschler, H., Haberer, K. Proceedings of the 2st international conference and general meeting of the EUSPEN, 2001, pp. 624-627

Title

Cutting tools and material conditioning for micro end milling of tool steel Micromachining, machine tools, micro-tools

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
In order to utilize the potential of mechanical cutting by end milling tools for the manufacturing of three-dimensional microstructures in hard tool steel, e.g., in micro mold manufacturing, it is vital to observe the material properties and their interaction with the process parameters. Further, there are particularities to consider concerning down-scaling of the cutting tools. Using suitable materials and cutting tools it is possible to obtain steel micro-structures with surface quality suitable for mold making.

Objectives of Research
Choose tungsten carbide end mills to manufacture steel microstructures requiring high surface roughness Record the material properties and their interaction with the process parameters

Approach
3D micro milling with ultra-high speed spindle Choose vacuum-remelted tool steels as work piece materials

Right: Cutting tools with a single cutting edge for micro end milling

Key findings
Experiments show that micro milling tool steel microstructures by tungsten carbide end mills with one cutting edge is feasible Micro-milling machine with high spindle speed and ultra precision positioning is necessary Tool steels instead of carbon steels are desirable for micro molds Single fluted micro milling tools can help to achieve better precision than normal two-flute micro milling tools The surface roughness of finish part was measured to be better than 0.5 Rz without any polishing.

154

Author Citation

Gabler J., Schafer L., Westermann, H. Diamond and Related Materials, 9(1), 2000, pp. 921924

Title Keywords

Chemical vapour deposition diamond coated microtools for grinding, milling and drilling Applications; Diamond coated tools; Heated fil ament; Micromachining

Abstract
The coating of cemented carbide microtools with chemical vapour deposited (CVD) diamond is presented. The coating of the shaft tools with working dimensions between 1 and 0.05 mm in a hot-filament CVD reactor is shown. Application examples of grinding brittle materials and drilling printed circuit boards show the high performance of the new tools. A new method is presented for obtaining a rough surface without the need for thick diamond layers. This is important in manufacturing grinding tools designed for high material removal in short, economical coating processes.

Objectives of Research
Demonstrate the coating of micro spiral drills, two flute end mills and abrasive pencils with CVD diamond Apply these micro tools with CVD diamond coating on brittle material and PCBs

Approach
The carbide tools were pretreated by etching and seeding. Etching consisted of a roughening-etching and of a co-etching Tools were coated in a hot-filament CVD reactor with a two substrate position method: parallel and perpendicular Grinding of hard materials such as glass, ceramic and silicon with CVD diamond coated abrasive pencils and drilling PCBs with CVD diamond coated drills was performed.

Key findings
The abrasive pencils with diameters down to 0.05 mm showed good machinability in different brittle materials. Tools prepared with coated rough diamond surfaces exhibit grinding surfaces with roughness depths around 30 mm for machining brittle materials with high quality and high removal rate. The diamond coated drills were able to drill three times the number of holes in PCBs compared to uncoated drills. Left: SEM of a CVD diamond coated abrasive pencil, Middle: SEM of a microgroove ground in silicon, Right: SEV of a CVD diamond coated microdrill of diameter 0.15mm

155

Author Citation

Sein, H., Jackson, M., Ahmed, W., Rego, C.A, New diamond and frontier carbon technology, 12(6), 2002, pp. 381-390

Title Keywords

Deposition of diamond coatings to micro machining cutting tools Diamond, micro machining cutting tools, MEM S, HFCVD, tungsten carbide (WC)

Abstract
Conventional diamond tools used for grinding operations have a number of problems associated with heterogeneity of the crystallites, decreased cutting efficiency, and short life. Micro machining cutting tools are manufactured by imbedding diamond particles into the tip of the micro tool using a suitable binder matrix material. The use of a diamond coating may offer an improvement in micro tool technology. Chemical vapour deposition (CVD) of diamond coatings onto a cemented tungsten carbide WC-Co substrate is difficult. Generally the adhesion of the diamond coating to cemented carbide substrates is poor. It is reported that binder materials such as cobalt can suppress diamond growth and enhance graphitic deposits, which cause poor adhesion and low diamond nucleation density. The effects of key process parameters such as filament position, filament and substrate temperature and pretreated substrate material on the coating properties have been investigated using a variety of analytical techniques. The substrate characteristics and polycrystalline diamond film morphology were analyzed using scanning electron microscope (SEM) techniques. The chemical composition was evaluated by energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). Raman spectroscopy was used to assess carbon-phase purity and give an indication of the stress levels in as-grown polycrystalline diamond films.

Objectives of Research
Investigate the effects of key process parameters on the coating properties Assess carbon-phase purity and compute the stress level of diamond films

Approach
HFCVD. Raman analysis Scanning electron microscope (SEM) Dispersive spectroscopy (EDS)

Key findings
Pre acid-etching of the microdrills essentially removed the cobalt binder from the drill surface. Raman spectroscopy showed that as-grown films were subject to compressive stresses. However, the diamond films accommodated the stress and refrained from delaminating from the microdrills. Diamond uncoated and coated tools tested on an aluminum alloy showed a 300% improvement in performance.

156

Author

Sein, H., Ahmed, W., Hassan, I.U., Ali, N., Gracio, J.J., Jackson, M.J. Journal of materials science, 37(23), 2002, pp.50575063

Title

Chemical vapour deposition of microdrill cutting edges for micro- and nanotechnology applications Diamond, micro machining cutting tools

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Conventional cemented tungsten carbide-cobalt (WC-Co) microdrills generally have a low cutting efficiency and short lifetime mainly because they operate at very high cutting speeds. Microtools need protective coating in order to extend life and improve performance. However, CVD of diamond coatings onto the cemented WC-Co tool has proved to be problematic. Binder materials such as cobalt can suppress diamond nucleation resulting in poor adhesion between the coating and substrate. In this paper the effects of pre-treated substrate material on the coating structure are reported. The morphology and the crystallinity of the as-grown films was characterized by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Raman spectroscopy was used to assess the carbon-phase purity and give an indication of the stress levels in the as-grown polycrystalline diamond films. The diamond coated tools have potential applications in micro- and nanomachining of micro- and nano-sized components used in M.E.M.S.

Objectives of Research
Pre-treat cemented tungsten carbide-cobalt substrate material to improve the adhesion between coating and substrate. Evaluate the diamond carbon-phase quality and film stress in the deposited films Compare machinability of the diamond uncoated and coated tools by high speed machining test

Approach
Etch micro-drills in Murakami solution for 20 minutes in an ultrasonic bath. Removed surface cobalt by a 10 second acid etch followed by ultrasonically cleaning in distilled water. Deposit diamond films onto the tip of the microdrills by HFCVD Raman analysis Machining experiments

Key findings
Pre acid-etching of the microdrills essentially removed the cobalt binder from the drill surface. Raman spectroscopy showed that then as-grown films were subject to compressive stress. However, the diamond films accommodated the stress and refrained from delaminating from the microdrills. Diamond uncoated and coated tools tested on an aluminum alloy showed a 300% improvement in performance.

Left: WC-Co microdrill before Murakami and acid etching. Middle: WC-Co microdrill after Murakami and acid etching. Right:The cutting edges of the microdrill before and after deposition with CVD diamond

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4. Micro-tooling 4.3 Tool wear and tool life

159

Author

Bao, W.Y., Tansel, I.N. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 40(15), 2000, pp. 21932211

Title

Modeling micro-end-milling operations. Part III: influence of tool wear Manufacture, Micro-tools, End-milling

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
The characteristics of the cutting forces were studied at different usage levels and the analytical model of the micro-end-milling operations was modified to represent tool wear. A new expression was derived from the model to estimate the remaining tool life from experimental data. The parameters of the model are estimated by using the genetic algorithms. The difference between the simulated and experimental cutting force profiles for new and worn tools was less than 8%. The remaining tool life was estimated with typically 10% error from the experimental data. Maximum error was 20%. The introduced analytical model and genetic algorithm-based parameter estimation approach is very convenient for on-line tool wear monitoring without extensive experimental study.

Objectives of Research
Predict the cutting force an its impact on tool wear Estimate the remaining tool life from experimental data

Approach
Genetic algorithm-based parameter estimation approach Measure the cutting force from CNC machine

Key findings
The typical tool wear increases cutting forces Cutting edges wear out very slowly when soft materials are cut. Burr formation was different when new and worn tools were used The error of the cutting force simulations for both new and used tools was less than 8%. The proposed expression estimated the remaining tool life with typically 10% error. Maximum error was 20%. It is possible to use the proposed model and genetic algorithm-based identification for on-line monitoring of tool condition.

Above: Comparison of the cutting force profiles between a new tool and pre-failure stage of the tool. Right: burr-free and burr slots of an aluminum workpiece machined by a carbide end-mill from new to worn stage

160

Author

Miyaguchi, T., Masuda, M., Takeoka, E., Iwabe, H. Precision Engineering, 25, 2001, pp. 145 154

Title

Effect of tool stiffness upon tool wear in high spindle speed milling using small ball end mill High speed milling, High feed rate, High spindle speed, Tool stiffness, Tool life, Ball end mill, Cutting force

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Longer tool life can be tentatively achieved at a higher feed rate using a small ball end mill in high speed milling (over several tens of thousands of revolutions per minute), although the mechanism by which tool life is improved has not yet been clarified. In the present paper, the mechanism of tool wear is investigated with respect to the deviation in cutting force and the deflection of a ball end mill with two cutting edges. The vector loci of the cutting forces are shown to correlate strongly with wear on both cutting edges of ball end mills having various tool stiffnesses related to the tool length. The results clarified that tool life can be prolonged by reducing tool stiffness, because the cutting forces are balanced, resulting in even tool wear on both cutting edges as tool stiffness is lowered to almost the breakage limit of the end mill. A ball end mill with an optimal tool length showed significant improvement in tool life in the milling of forging die molds.

Objectives of Research
Analysis of model of end milling with two flutes with respect to tool displacement and cutting forces. Identify correlation between tool wear and tool stiffness.

Approach
Machining center with high-speed air bearing spindle used with ball end mill with two flutes of 1 mm radius. Two types of hardened steel workpieces used: large workpiece for tool durability tests and small workpiece was set on a dynamometer for measurement of cutting force and tool displacement. Tool wear was observed after tool durability tests.

Experimental setup: (a) Milling stage; (b) Measurement stage

Key findings:
Uneven cutting force on both cutting edges exacerbated by deflection, and this decreases tool life significantly. Ratio of true cutting arc length on both cutting edges increases as tool stiffness increases. Imbalance of tool wear on both cutting edges can be suppressed to extend tool life by reducing tool stiffness to the lowest possible value beyond breakage of the ball end mill. Machining time and balancing time can be reduced when ball end mills with optimal stiffness are utilized.

161

Author

Moon, K.S. Proceedings of the 16th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Precision Engineering, 2001

Title

A 3-D Tool Wear Measurement Method for Micromilling Cutters micromachining, computer vision, tool wear, 3-D measurement, stitching

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
One of the most versatile direct machining processes in conventional manufacturing is milling. Peripheral end-milling and slot milling are also one of the most popular micromachining processes. They present the most severe machining environment of any of the micromechanical processes. Typically micromilling tools are made using the focused ion beam process. The two diametrically opposed cutting edges are produced for a specific rotation of the milling tool when cutting. Typical milling tools have no clearance behind the cutting edges so there is rubbing between the tool circumference and the machined work material. This adds to the cutting forces in the tool but also helps burnish the machined wall and floor resulting in a smoother wall. This special cutting process makes the tool wear of the cutter a very important problem in micromilling practices. This paper presents a new method for measuring the tool wear of micromilling cutters.

Objectives of Research
Measuring tool wear in micromilling cutters

Approach
Method based on computer vision system Image of 50 micron end-mill cutter contains geometric information of cutter Focus information obtained by continuously varying distance between cutter and image detector provides 3-D shape of cutter Coordinate data of 3-D shape then fed into a geometric modeling platform in IGES format

Key findings
Method provides capability to measure linear and angular quantities, establishing datum lines and plane Can be used to quantify tool wear three-dimensionally New image stitching technique to obtain large view of field while maintaining high resolution

162

Author

Tansel, I.N., Nedbouyan, A., Trujillo, M., Tansel, B. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 38 (12), 1998, pp. 1437 1448

Title

Micro-end-milling II. Extending tool life with a Smart Workpiece Holder (SMH) Micro-machining, micro-tool, micro-end-mill, w ear, failure, monitoring, metal cutting, tool life, smart material

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
A new procedure is proposed to extend tool life. The new procedure uses a Smart Workpiece Holder (SWH), which monitors the cutting force and reduces the metal removal rate when it predicts tool breakage possibility. The response includes a quick move in the opposite of the feed direction by using a piezo-electric actuator and by reducing the feed rate. The proposed system was tested with mild steel and aluminum workpieces. Based on the experimental results, better than 50% of the tool breakage cases could be predicted and tool life can be increased by more than 30%.

Objectives of Research
Improve productivity of micro-machining operations Smart Workpiece Holder designed to predict possible tool breakage a few milliseconds before it occurs and reduce material removal rate to increase tool life until current machining operation is completed.

Approach
Smart Workpiece Holder monitors feed direction cutting force and predicts future values 0.3 0.5 s ahead using least squares method. Piezoelectric actuator reduces feed rate when triggered by a threshold value for segmented average of feed direction cutting force. Performance evaluated in slot milling operations using micro-tools.

Proposed SWH

Key findings
Prediction of tool breakage possibility slightly ahead of time and increase of tool life by reduction of chip removal rate found to be feasible. SWH predicts tool breakage possibility in more than 50% of cases and increase tool life by more than 30%.

163

Author

Tansel, I., Trujillo, M., Nedbouyan, A., Velez, C., Bao, W.Y., Arkan, T.T., Tansel, B. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 38 (12), 1998, pp. 1449 1466

Title

Micro-end-milling III. Wear estimation and tool breakage detection using acoustic emission signals Micro-machining, Neural networks, Acoustic emission, Metal cutting, Monitoring, Tool breakage, Failure, Tool life, Wear, Pre-failure

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Acoustic emission (AE) signals have been used to monitor tool condition in conventional machining operations. In this paper, new procedures are proposed to detect tool breakage and to estimate tool condition (wear) by using AE. The proposed procedure filters the AE signals with a narrow band-width, band-pass filter and obtains the upper envelope of the harmonic signal by using analog hardware. The envelope is digitized, encoded and classified to monitor the machining operation. The characteristics of the envelope of the AE were used to detect tool breakage. The encoded parameters of the envelope of the AE signals were classified using the Adaptive Resonance Theory (ART2) and Abductory Induction Mechanism (AIM) to estimate wear. Both methods were found to be acceptable. However, the reliability of the tool breakage detection system was higher than the wear estimation method.

Objectives of Research
Detect tool breakage and estimate tool wear using acoustic emission signals.

Approach
AE signals from a single sensor are filtered with a narrow band-width, band-pass filter and the upper envelope of the harmonic signal is obtained by using analog hardware. Encoded parameters were classified using the Adaptive Resonance Theory (ART2) neural network and the highly automated, layered feedforward Abductory Induction Mechanism (AIM) polynomial network to detect breakage and estimate wear.

Key findings
Software accurately detected tool breakage without creating false alarms when cutting conditions were changed. Both ART2 and AIM showed similar behavior and can be used for industrial applications. Graphs indicated that the parameters selected were correlated with wear and can be used to estimate wear. Estimation of wear more difficult in aluminum machining versus mild steel

Experimental setup

164

Author

Tansel, I.N., Bao, W.Y., Mahendrakar, N., Yang, S.Y., Shisler, B., Smith, D., McCool, M. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 40 (4), 2000, pp. 599 608

Title

Tool wear estimation in micro-machining. Part I: Tool usage-cutting force relationship Micro-tool; End-mill; Milling; Monitoring; Neural network; Wear; Micro-machining

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
The relationship between the cutting force characteristics and tool usage (wear) in a micro-end-milling operation was studied for two different metals. Neural-network-based usage estimation methods are proposed that use force-variation- and segmental-averaging-based encoding techniques.

Objectives of Research
Investigation of the existence of relationship between cutting force characteristics and tool usage. Evaluation of usage (wear) estimation capability of two encoding methods and back-propagation-type neural networks

Approach
Two different encoding methods used: force-variation-based encoding (FVBE) that calculates variations in feed- and thrust-direction cutting forces and segmental-average-based encoding (SABE) in which the forces were normalized, divided into ten segments and averages of each segment were calculated.

Key findings
Cutting force variations increased constantly during machining of aluminum or other soft material. Easier to estimate tool condition from cutting force characteristics during machining of soft materials. No such regularly changing distinctive pattern in machining of steel. Identification of pre-failure phase is easier in this case. Comparison of results for aluminum and steel

165

Author

Tansel, I.N., Arkan, T.T., Bao, W.Y., Mahendrakar, N., Shisler, B., Smith, D., McCool, M. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 40 (4), 2000, pp. 609 620

Title

Tool wear estimation in micro-machining. Part II: neural-network-based periodic inspector for non-metals Micro-tool; End-mill; Milling; Monitoring; Neural network; Wear; Micro-machining; Wavelet transformation; Non-metal

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Cutting forces are small, and in many cases insignificant, compared with noise during the micro-machining of many non-metals. The Neural-Network-based Periodic Tool Inspector (N2PTI) is introduced to evaluate tool condition periodically on a test piece during the machining of non-metal workpieces. The cutting forces are measured when a slot is being cut on the test piece and the neural network estimates the tool life from the variation of the feed- and thrust-direction cutting forces. The performances of three encoding methods (force variation, segmental averaging and wavelet transformations) and two neural networks [back-propagation (BP) and probabilistic neural network (PNN)] are compared. The advantages of N2PTI are simplicity, low cost, reliability and simple computational requirements.

Objectives of Research
Neural-Network-based Periodic Tool Inspector (N2PTI) to evaluate tool condition during machining of soft materials with very small cutting forces.

Approach
Raw data processed in two stages: Cutting force signals encoded by FVBE, SABE (see previous slide) or Wavelet -transformation-based Encoding (WTBE) For classification, backpropagation (BP) and probabilistic neural network (PNN) used.

Key findings
Performance of all six methods was acceptable. WTBE produced the best results, followed by SABE. BP training took almost 10 times longer but average estimation error was 2-5 times better. N2PTI cannot monitor tool wear continuously during machining of workpieces where cutting conditions are continually changing. Tool wear estimation using cutting force variations

166

Author Citation

Maekawa, K., Itoh, A. Wear, 188, 1995, pp. 115 122

Title Keywords

Friction and tool wear in nano-scale machining a molecular dynamics approach Friction, Tool wear, Nano-scale machining, Molecular dynamics

Abstract
The role of friction in nano-scale machining has been investigated using a new molecular dynamics simulation model based on the NoseHoover method, in which the restricted analytical region moves together with the tool advancement. Orthogonal machining of a ( 1 1 1) plane of a copper single crystal by a diamond-like tool with 3 nm edge radius has been simulated, where the uncut chip thickness and the cutting speed was set at 1 nm and 20 m s-i, respectively, and the cutting direction was taken to be [ 1 0 i]. Morse type potentials with various magnitudes of the cohesion energy were postulated to approximate the friction at the tool-work interface as well as the materials themselves. Chip formation in nano-scale machining is similar to that observed in macro-scale machining. With increase of the bond energy at the interface, both chip thickness and contact length between the chip and tool become larger, leading to increases in the average cutting forces and the temperature in the system. Besides, the machined surface is subjected to severe damages. Tool wear has also been modeled by taking into account a tool consisting of the carbon atoms which have a reduced cohesion energy and obey Newtons equation of motion. The atomistic wear proceeds with the repetition of interdiffusion between the work and tool atoms and re-adhesion of the worn atoms to the tool.

Objectives of Research
Analytical modeling of friction and tool wear in nano-scale machining. Use of molecular dynamics approach in building the model.

Approach
Area-restricted molecular dynamics (ARMD) based on Nos-Hoover method is proposed to reduce computation time. ARMD is applied to the analysis of nano-scale machining of a Morse potential type hypothetical copper by a diamond-like tool. Tool wear simulated by reducing cohesion energy of carbon atoms. Mechanism consists of interdiffusion between work and tool atoms and re-adhesion of worn atoms to the tool.

Key findings

Chip formation obtained using ARMD and moving boundary. Orthogonal machining of (1 1 1) plane Propriety of using ARMD confirmed by comparison with other reported results. copper single crystal by diamond-like tool with 3 nm edge radius. Computation time reduced by a factor of three. Supposing that the atomistic friction at the tool-work interface depends on the cohesion energy of the pair potential, the level of energy is reflected in the shape of the chip, the cutting forces, the temperature and the integrity of the machined surface to a great extent. Influence of friction and tool wear on cutting mechanism in nano-scale machining is similar to that observed in macro-scale machining.

167

Citations
4.1 Tool geometry, design and fabrication
Adams, D.P., Vasile, M., Picard, Y.N. Focused ion beam shaped micro-cutting tools for fabricating curvilinear features, Proceedings of the American society of precision engineering, 2000, pp.176 Adams, D.P., Vasile, M.J., Krishnan, A.S.M. Microgrooving and microthreading tools for fabricating curvilinear features, Precision Engineering, 24 (4), 2000, pp. 347 356 Fang, F.Z, Wu, H. , Liu, X.D., Liu, Y.C., Ng, S.T. Tool geometry study in micromachining, Journal of micromechanics and microengineering, 13(5), pp. 726-731, 2003 Gong, Y., Lin, C., and Ehmann, K. F., Analysis of Dynamic Characteristics of Micro-Drills, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 141, 2003, p. 16-28 Godlinski, D., Grathwohl, G., Kuntz, M. Development of ceramic micro-tools for precision machining, Proceedings of the 1st international conference and general meeting of the EUSPEN, 1999, pp. 298-301
Hazra, L.; Kato, H.; Kiryu, T.; Hashimoto, Y.; Kuroda, T.; Tsuchiya, Y.; Sakuma, I., Inspection of reground drill point geometry using three silhouette images, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 127, 2002, pp.169-173.

Hoffmeister, H.W., Wenda, A., Herrmann, H. The fabrication and application of micro milling cutters, Proc. (Vol.1) of the MICRO.tec2000, pp.125-129, VDE World Microtechnologies Congress, Expo 2000, Hannover, Germany, 25th-27th Sept. 2000, pp. 125-129 Langford, R.M., Dale, G., Hopkins, P.J., Ewen, P.J.S., Petford-Long, A.K., Focused Ion Beam Micromachining of ThreeDimensional Structures and Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of Assess Their Shape, Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering 12, pp. 111-114, 2002 Lee, S.W., Choi, H.Z., Lee, H.W., Choi, J.Y., Jeong, H.D. A study of micro-tool machining using electrolytic in-process dressing and an evaluation of the characteristics, Key Engineering Materials, 238-239, 2003, pp. 35-40 Ohmori, H., Katahira, K., Uehara, Y., Watanabe, Y., Lin, W. Improvement of mechanical strength of micro tools by controlling surface characteristics, CIRP Annals Manufacturing Technology, 52 (1), 2003, pp. 467-470. Onikura, H., Ohnishi, O., Take, Y., Kobayashi, A. Fabrication of micro carbide tools by ultrasonic vibration grinding, CIRP Annals Manufacturing Technology, 49 (1), 2000, pp. 257-260. Picard, Y.N., Adams, D.P., Vasile, M.J., Ritchey, M.B. Focused ion beam-shaped microtools for ultra-precision machining of cylindrical components, Journal of precision engineering, 27(1), 2003, pp. 5969
Trujillo, M., Li, W., Fallerio, B., Paz, E., Tansel, I.N., Inspection of Micro-Tools at High Rotational Speeds, International Journal of Machin e Tools and Manufacture, 34 (8), 1994, pp. 1059 1077.

168

Citations
Vallance, R. Ryan, Morgan, Chris J., Shreve, Shelby M., Marsh, Eric R. Micro-tool characterization using scanning white light interferometry, Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering Vasile, M.J., Friedrich, C.R., Kikkeri, B., McElhannon, R. Micrometer-scale machining: tool fabrication and initial results, Proceedings of the 1st international conference and general meeting of the EUSPEN, 1999, pp. 298-301 Vasile, M.J., Craig R. Friedrich, Bharath Kikkeri and Rob McElhannon. Micrometer-scale machining: tool fabrication and initial results, Precision Engineering, 19(2-3),1996, pp. 180-186

4.2 Tool materials


Gabler J., Schafer L., Westermann, H. Chemical vapour deposition diamond coated microtools for grinding, milling and drilling, Diamond and Related Materials, 9(1), 2000, pp.921924 Schmidt, J., Tritschler, H., Haberer, K., Cutting tools and material conditioning for micro end milling of tool steel, Proceedings of the 2st international conference and general meeting of the EUSPEN, 2001, pp. 624-627 Sein, H., Jackson, M., Ahmed, W., Rego, C.A, Deposition of diamond coatings to micro machining cutting tools, New diamond and frontier carbon technology, 12(6), 2002, pp. 381-390 Sein, H., Ahmed, W., Hassan, I.U., Ali, N., Gracio, J.J., Jackson, M.J. Chemical vapour deposition of microdrill cutting edges for micro- and nanotechnology applications, Journal of materials science, 37(23), 2002, pp.50575063

4.3 Tool wear and tool life


Bao, W.Y., Tansel, I.N. Modeling micro-end-milling operations. Part III: influence of tool wear, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 40(15), 2000, pp.21932211 Maekawa, K., Itoh, A. Friction and tool wear in nano-scale machining a molecular dynamics approach, Wear, 188, 1995, pp. 115 122 Miyaguchi, T., Masuda, M., Takeoka, E., Iwabe, H. Effect of tool stiffness upon tool wear in high spindle speed milling using small ball end mill, Precision Engineering, 25, 2001, pp. 145 154 Moon, K.S. A 3-D Tool Wear Measurement Method for Micromilling Cutters, Proceedings of the 16th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Precision Engineering, 2001

169

Citations
Tansel, I.N., Nedbouyan, A., Trujillo, M., Tansel, B. Micro-end-milling II. Extending tool life with a Smart Workpiece Holder (SMH), International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 38 (12), 1998, pp. 1449 1466 Tansel, I.N., Bao, W.Y., Mahendrakar, N., Yang, S.Y., Shisler, B., Smith, D., McCool, M. Tool wear estimation in micromachining. Part I: Tool usage-cutting force relationship, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 40 (4), 2000, pp. 599 608 Tansel, I.N., Arkan, T.T., Bao, W.Y., Mahendrakar, N., Shisler, B., Smith, D., McCool, M. Tool wear estimation in micromachining. Part II: neural-network-based periodic inspector for non-metals, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 40 (4), 2000, pp. 609 620 Trujillo, M., Li, W., Fallerio, B., Paz, E., Tansel, I.N. Inspection of Micro-Tools at High Rotational Speeds, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 34 (8), 1994, pp. 1059 1077

170

CHAPTER 5. Micro-machining Metrology

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5. Micro-machining Metrology
The assessment of the outcomes of micro/meso-scale manufacturing operations poses particular challenges. Well-established methods, for example, profilometers and CMMs, although applicable in principle, frequently cannot be used for various reasons, e.g., damage to the surface, size of the tip of the probe, etc. Similarly, methods that are used at the nano- and micro-scales also fall short in terms of required capabilities. Therefore, metrology problems at the micro/meso-scale are currently solved by adopting the least objectionable method for accomplishing the metrology tasks at hand. A second problem that arises in micro/meso-scale metrology is the need to perform measurements in-situ on the machine being used for manufacture to avoid problems associated with the repeated handling and repositioning of the part. While this is also an issue at the macro-scale, at the micro/meso-scale there is a more acute need for in situ solutions. Unfortunately, current technology does not offer satisfactory solutions to this problem. The above two limitations of current technology are being recognized by both the scientific community and industry as evidenced by numerous attempts to devise new methods for micro/meso-scale metrology as well as by the emergence of commercial products specifically geared toward this size domain. In this chapter the subject of micro-scale metrology, which could constitute a standalone report by itself, is given only a very limited glimpse through a number of current developments in this field. 173

Author Citation

Umeda, A. Proceedings of the SPIE, 2880, 1996, pp.26-38

Title Keywords

Review on the importance of measurement technique in micromachine technology Microtechnology, measurement characterization, Davies bar

Abstract
In the beginning stage of MITI micromachine project, the committee on the standardization established in Micromachine Center recognized the importance of measurement technique for the promotion and the systematization of the micromachine technology. Micromachine Center is the organizing body for private sectors working in the MITI micromachine project which started in 1991. MITI stands for Ministry of International Trade and Industry in Japan. In order to know the requirements on the measurement technologies, the questionnaire was organized by the measurement working group in the committee. This talk covers the questionnaire and its results, and some research results obtained at National Research Laboratory of Metrology working as a member in the project.

Objectives of Research
Determine the requirements on measurement technologies for microtechnology Discuss some metrological results obtained relating to characterization of sensors for microtechnology

Approach
Part 1: a questionnaire was produced and sent to the members of the Center regarding what are the most important parameters to measure in microtechnology. The results are discussed and tabulated. Part 2: a microstructure/sensor characterization experiment is described A projectile impinges on a Davies bar causing an elastic pulse in the bar The pulse is measured by a strain gage attached the bar The microstructures or sensors to be characterized are on the opposing end of the bar and undergo vibration when the pulses reaches the end A laser interferometer determines both the motion of the structures and the motion of the end of the bar

Key findings
Part 1: Mechanical properties of materials, force and displacement dynamics and shape in fabrication and assembly were rated the most important parameters for measurement. Part 2: The response of the strain gages is shown to be very fast (comparable to interferometer) but the overall response is limited by the amplifier bandwidth The technique is shown to be valid, especially for accelerometer applications.

174

Author

Cao, S.; Hler-Grohne, W.; Brand, U.; Gao, S.; Wilke, R.; Bttgenback, S. Proceedings of the SPIE, 4902, 2002, pp.52-59

Title

A three dimensional measurement system with micro tactile sensor Coordinate measuring machine, 3d tactile sensor, microsystem technology, metrology frame, laser interferometry

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
With the development of micro-technology new measurement methods for microsystem components are increasingly required. Many Institutes have developed new methods for these requirements recently. In the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) a precise three dimensional measurement system is currently under development. The probing process of a 3D tactile sensor which has been developed in cooperation with the Institutes for Microtechnology of the Technical University of Braunschweig, will be investigated using this precise 3D measurement system. The 3D precision measuring machine consists of a coarse and a fine stage. The coarse stage has a travel range of 25 mm x 25 mm x 13 mm with a resolution of 50 nm. The fine stage mounted on top of the coarse stage and driven by piezoelectric transducers in three axes has a travel of 80 m and is controlled by integrated capacitive gauges with a resolution of 1.22 nm. A metrology frame has been added on the fine stage, consisting of a three axis laser interferometer for simultaneous measurement of the displacement in all axes. The specimens to be measured are set in the measurement frame and the probing ball of the tactile sensor is centered at the cross point of the three laser beams (Abb measurement principle). The measurement system is aimed at a 3d uncertainty < 100 nm for the investigation of tactile sensors in a measuring range of 25 mm x 25 mm x 13 mm.

Objectives of Research
Develop an improved 3D micro measurement system with a measurement uncertainty < 100 nm. Investigate tactile sensors and the probing process

Approach
Design and build a micro measuring system incorporating rigorous application of fundamental principles of metrology including the use of a metrology frame and laser interferometry coupled with coarse and fine positioning stages and a newly developed micro probe Current work used a 2d inductive probe for first measurements and optimization

Key findings
Design and component testing has been done with first test measurements on a conventional inductive probe 1D probing point repeatability was < 30 nm (2) Schematic of the 3d micro measurement system (MS)

175

Author Citation

Potzick, J. Proceedings of the SPIE, 2880, 1996, pp.142-151

Title Keywords

New Certified Length Scale for Microfabrication Metrology Length, scale, pitch, dimensional standard, microscope, stage micrometer, NIST

Abstract
The National Institute of Standards and Technology is developing a dimensional pitch standard covering the range 1m to 10 mm, intended for the calibration of microscope magnification and of dimensional metrology instrument scales. Called SRM 2800, Microscope Magnification Standard, it consists of symmetrical nested linear pitch patterns in decade ranges printed in one direction on a quartz microscope slide. The array of parallel lines is printed on a clear background to facilitate use in optical microscopes using transmission mode or reflection mode illumination. This pitch standard is also useful in atomic force microscopes, and in scanning electron microscopes and scanning tunneling microscopes when coated with a conducting film (although there are other standards from NIST which are more suitable for SEMs). It can be used to calibrate the scales of micromachining tools. The positions of the centers of the lines relative to the origin in the center of the pattern will be certified. The linewidths are not calibrated. While this standard facilitates accurate magnification and scale calibration, care must be taken when measuring the size (left edge to right edge, or linewidth) of an object. The appropriate definition for edge becomes an important issue, and proximity effects and edge effects can become important when the required measurement uncertainty is less than the wavelength of the light used.

Objectives of Research
Develop a new dimensional pitch standard for microscope calibration

Approach
An array of parallel lines is fabricated onto a standard photomask blank using an electron beam or optical pattern generator, development, and etching. The line center positions, not the edges, are certified The author discusses the significant issues that arise in certifying a traceable standard Other NIST pitch standards for use in SEMs are presented

NIST SRM 2800, Microscope Magnification Standard. Overall view at top, successively exploded views below

Key findings
A new traceable pitch standard from NIST is developed and optimized for microscopes and microfabrication metrology having pitch scales ranging from 1m to 1 cm, with calibrated uncertainty less than 0.1m

176

Author Citation

Dickey, F.M.; Holswade, S.C.; Hornak, L.A.; Brown, K.S. Sensors and Actuators, 78, 1999, pp.220-235

Title Keywords

Optical methods for micromachine monitoring and feedback Micromachines, Actuators, Optical probe, Feedback, Performance analysis

Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms that impact the performance of Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) is essential to the development of optimized designs and fabrication processes, as well as the qualification of devices for commercial applications. Silicon micromachines include engines that consist of orthogonally oriented linear comb drive actuators mechanically connected to a rotating gear. These gears are as small as 50 m in diameter and can be driven at rotation rates exceeding 300,000 rpm. Optical techniques offer the potential for measuring long term statistical performance data and transient responses needed for engine control and state determination. The development of Micromachine Optical Probe (MOP) technology for the evaluation of micromachine performance is described. The MOP approach is based on the detection of optical signals scattered by the gear teeth or other physical structures. Experimental results for a prototype system designed to measure engine parameters as well as long term performance data are presented along with the extension of the MOP technique to LIGA-fabricated milliengines. Concepts and technologies for the development of integrated micromachine metrology are detailed. This work is targeted at enabling routine use of optical feedback at the microelectromechanical device level for MEMS optimal control and lifetime monitoring.

Objectives of Research
Develop a method of measuring MEMS motion both on chip and externally that permits the recording of the position and direction of comb drive actuated gears in real time

Approach
A surface micromachined (SMM) engine and a LIGA milliengine are laser probed and the forward and backscatter signals are used to detect direction, rotational speed, and out-of-plane motion. Current development of on-chip waveguides are examined as a basis for Integrated Optical Metrology

Key findings
The probe generates signals that are adequate for measuring rotation rate, intra-period fluctuations in rotation rate, phase of the rotation relative to the drive signals and rotation direction of micromachined gears. Integrated Optical Metrology is possible with integrated waveguides subject to the resolution of critical issues involved in individual designs: e.g.: waveguide layout, waveguide endface profile control, return signal to noise ratio, integration with SMM or LIGA processing etc.

Forward and backscatter reflected beams created by the geometry of the gear teeth and the substrate below the gear from the incident optical probe beam.

177

Author

Schmitz, T.L.; Davies, A.D.; Evans, C. J. Proceedings of the SPIE The International Society for Optical Engineering, 4451, 2001, pp.432-447.

Title

Uncertainties in interferometric measurements of radius of curvature Radius of curvature, interferometry, uncertainty analysis, diffraction

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
The radius of curvature of spherical surfaces may be determined using the well-known radius, or optical, bench. In this method, a figure measuring interferometer is employed to identify the null positions at the best fit spherical surface (cats eye) and center of curvature (confocal) of the test optic. A linear slide provides motion between these positions and one or more displacement transducers is used to record the displacement between the cats eye and confocal positions and, hence, the radius of curvature. Measurements of a polished Zerodur sphere have been completed on the X-ray Optics Calibration Interferometer (XCALIBIR) using both Twyman-Green and Fizeau configurations. Mechanical measurements of the spherical artifact have also been completed using a coordinate measuring machine (CMM). Recorded disagreement between the individual transmission sphere measurements and CMM measurements under well-controlled environmental conditions is larger than the limits predicted from a traditional uncertainty analysis based on a geometric measurement model. Additional uncertainty sources for the geometric model, as well as a physical optics model of the propagation of light, are therefore suggested. The expanded uncertainty analysis is described.

Objectives of Research
Thoroughly examine sources and magnitude of uncertainties related to the interferometric measurement of radius of curvature with a figure measuring interferometer

Approach
Perform radius bench measurements by identifying the confocal and cats eye null positions with a phase measuring interferometer and recording the displacement between the two with a displacement measuring interferometer Perform a detailed analysis of the 13 uncertainty sources, dividing them into two categories: mechanical and optical Incorporate the uncertainty analysis into the experimental results

Key findings
Primary uncertainty sources include location of the confocal and cats eye null positions, deadpath error in the displacement measuring interferometers, and deviations from a perfect spherical wavefront in the phase measuring interferometer Significant bias correction must be applied when comparing measurements of a single artifact with multiple f/number wavefronts

Summary of experimental results for Zerodur sphere with associated combined standard uncertainties.

178

Author

Kim, S.; Rhee, H.; Chu, J. Precision Engineering, 27, 2003, pp. 205-215.

Title

Volumetric phase-measuring interferometer for three-dimensional coordinate metrology Volumetric interferometer, Phase measuring, interferometry, Coordinate metrology, Multilateration, Abbe offset

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
A volumetric interferometer that has been specially designed to improve the measurement accuracy of the three-dimensional coordinate measuring metrology by reducing excessive Abbe offsets is presented. The interferometer is composed of two main parts; one is a threedimensionally movable target and the other is a stationary two-dimensional array of photo-detectors. The target made of point diffraction sources emanates two spherical wavefronts, of which interference intensity is monitored by the photo-detectors. Applying phase shifting allows the phases of the photo-detectors to be precisely obtained, and the measured phased are fitted to a geometric model of mutilateration so as to determine the xyz-location of the target by minimizing least square errors. A prototype built on a CMM demonstrates that the proposed interferometer is capable of measuring the xyz-coordinates of the probe with a volumetric uncertainty of less than 1.0 m.

Objectives of Research
Increase the precision of CMMs by reducing the intrinsic Abbe offsets in Cartesian coordinate system style CMMs with slide ways

Approach
Use interferometric multilateration with a two source volumetric interferometer: Generates two spherical wavefronts using diffraction point sources Emanated wavefronts interfere with each other within the working volume Two-dimensional array of photo-detectors fixed on the machine frame captures interferometric intensity field Obtain phase information by phase shifting and fit to a geometric model of multilateration Determine xyz-coordinates of the probe by minimizing least squares errors Error analysis is performed following ISOs guide to the expression of measurement uncertainty

Key findings
Total measurement uncertainty is 415nm for x-coordinate, 550nm for y-coordinate, and 9.7 nm for z-coordinate Volumetric uncertainty of less than 1 m will be further improved to a level of 0.1 m if large size photo-detector arrays are used Geometry of the volumetric interferometer

179

Author

Roth, J.; Felkel, E. and Groot, P. American Society for Precision Engineering, 2003 Winter Topic Meeting, v28, pp.87 92.

Title

Interferometric measuring microscopy applied to miniature machines, structures, and surface features Interferometry, MEMS metrology, SWLI microscopy

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
For the past decade, optical profilers based on scanning white light interferometry (SWLI) have enabled leading edge development and commercial success of advanced MEMS devices. The authors review the special requirements for MEMS metrology, general principles of SWLI microscopy, and show several examples of expanded capabilities including integrated lateral metrology. Long working distance objectives, and closed loop deflection measurement.

Objectives of Research
Review the special requirements for MEMS metrology and the general principles of SWLI microscopy Show examples of expanded capabilities of SWLI including integrated lateral metrology, long working distance objectives, and closed loop deflection measurement.

Approach
This is a review paper.

Key findings
Scanning White Light Interferometry (SWLI) is fundamentally a multi-wavelength technique, relying on a spectrally broadband source to remove the interference fringe order ambiguity characteristic of the previous generation of monochromatic interferometers. SWLI can be applied in the closed loop response measurement with MEMS controller. A special consideration in these measurements is long working distance. With the complete integration of an image processing vision system, the SWLI profiler is easily used to determine x-y dimensions and heights in z-direction of MEMS devices. Remote access needs to be implemented for some applications in MEMS.

Surface topology map of a MEMS micro mirror device

Automated feature finding Left: Example remote control architecture allowing for remote viewing and remote use of SWLI profiler Right: Typical MEMS metrology geometry for a SWLI type measuring microscope

180

Author Citation

Kim, B., Razavi, H. A., Degertekin, F. L., Kurfess, T. R. The proceedings of ASPE 2003 Winter Meeting

Title Keywords

Micromachined interferometer for MEMS metrology Interferometer, MEMS, metrology

Abstract
A microfabricated grating interferometer is described and evaluated by measuring the dynamic performance of a microfabricated microphone membrane. The device uses a phase sensitive diffraction grating for interferometric axial resolution and a microfabricated lens for improved lateral response. Experimental results show that both the transient and steady state vibration of MEMS devices can be measured and mapped using the micro interferometer. Since the interferometer arrays for parallel, fast measurement of MEMS devices and integrate optoelectronics. The integration strategy and photodetector arrays fabricated for this purpose using CMOS technology are also discussed.

Objectives of Research
Development of a microfabricated position sensing grating interferometer (PSGI) for dynamic MEMS metrology.

Approach
Measuring distance using a reflective diffraction grating on a transparent substrate and a microlens fabricated using a photoresist reflow technique on the same substrate Development of detailed diffraction models of the microinterferometer to predict the device response and the location of photodetectors for integrated optoelectronics Experiments for the feasibility

Key findings
The microphase sensitive diffraction grating interferometer has been used to measure the displacement of a MEMS microphone structure with nm resolution in a wide frequency range. The phase sensitive detection using lock-in amplifier shows improved scanning results for the vibrating microphone during steady state operation. The performance of the interferometer can be further improved by active control of the distance to the MEMS device for maximum sensitivity.

PSGI scanning system

181

Author Citation

Gower, M.; Cashmore, J.; Whitfield, M.; and Grnewald, P. Proceedings of the SPIE, 4426, 2002, pp.401-407.

Title Keywords

High-resolution 157 nm imaging for lithography and micromachining applications Deep-UV lithography, laser micromachining, excimer lasers, Microsystems, MEMS

Abstract
A Microstepper exposure tool for high-resolution imaging applications incorporating the F2 157nm laser is described. Details are presented of the optical architecture including beam shaping, homogenization and imaging objectives. Results from the high-resolution metrology, workpiece positioning and gas purging subsystems used in the tool are discussed. Use of the Microstepper for 70nm-node deep-UV lithography and submicron micromachining applications is presented.

Objectives of Research
To examine the suitability, capabilities, and limitations of the MS-157 Microstepper system in lithography and micromachining

Approach
Detailed descriptions of the key systems are given with experimental data Several examples are given of the systems capabilities in 157nm lithography and ablative photoetching

Key findings
High-resolution 1:1 110nm lines and spaces imaged into thin photoresist without any resolution enhancement tricks (50nm with tricks) 1m, 500nm and 300nm line elbows in PMMA and PTFE film by laser ablation 1m and 320nm elbows etched in 3 m thick AZ1350 and 5 m thick SU8 Critical IC repairs are possible without damage to underlying layers

182

Author

Tao, Y.M.; Yao, Z.Q.; Liu, L.Q.; Y. Xie J. of Materials Processing Technology, 129(1-3), 2002, pp. 227231.

Title

Precision metrology of micro-workpieces on their tribological performance with an error compensation method Micro-tribology metrology, Numerical error compensation, Tribological coeficient

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
A test system with a new compensation method is introduced to precisely evaluate the tribological performance of the micro-machining of workpieces under a load of milli-Newton scale. Since the tribological force is faint at the micro-scale, the tested result is influenced significantly by the testing error. The new metrology for precisely evaluating the friction coefficient of micro-bearings is developed by means of error compensation from two sets of testing data. The data are, respectively, collected when the friction counterparts rotate clockwise and counterclockwise. Because the friction coefficient is deduced from the measured force data, this method enhances the metrological precision of the friction coefficient theoretically due to the counteracting of the error values in the equation.

Objectives of Research
Improve upon the precision of the tribological measurement system previously developed for measuring friction in microsystems. Evaluate the tribological effects in micro journal bearings.

Approach
Test setup similar to a cable brake consisting of a weight attached to a soft cable that is wrapped around a journal bearing with an internal cylinder which is spun by a motor. The force on the non-weighted end of the cable is measured. Numerical error compensation: The equations for friction with clockwise and counter clockwise rotation are derived and combined to yield a third equation which is not as subject to errors in measurement as the other two individually.

Key findings
Repetitive precision of test given by rms value over average value of friction coefficient is 5.8% Numerical compensation method has better performance than average or individual clockwise or counter clockwise methods. Micro-friction measuring system. The comparison of the measured results.

183

Author

Zhou, Y.; Nelson, B.J.; Vikramaditya, B. Journal of Intelligent and Robotic Systems, v.28, 2000, p.259-276

Title

Integrating Optical Force Sensing with Visual Servoing for Microassembly Atomic force microscopy, force sensor, force control, microassembly, micromanipulation, nanomanipulation, sensor fusion, sensor integration, visual servoing

Citation

Keywords

Abstract For microassembly tasks uncertainty exists at many levels. Single static sensing con-figurations are therefore unable to provide feedback with the necessary range and resolution for accomplishing many desired tasks. In this paper we present experimental results that investigate the integration of two disparate sensing modalities, force and vision, for sensor-based microassembly. By integrating these sensing modes, we are able to provide feedback in a task-oriented frame of reference over a broad range of motion with an extremely high precision. An optical microscope is used to provide visual feedback down to micron resolutions, while an optical beam deflection technique (based on a modified atomic force microscope) is used to provide nanonewton level force feedback or nanometric level position feedback. Visually servoed motion at speeds of up to 2 mm=s with a repeatability of 0.17 m are achieved with vision alone. The optical beam deflection sensor complements the visual feedback by providing positional feedback with a repeatability of a few nanometers. Based on the principles of optical beam deflection, this is equivalent to force measurements on the order of a nanonewton. The value of integrating these two disparate sensing modalities is demonstrated during controlled micropart impact experiments. These results demonstrate micropart approach velocities of 80 m=s with impact forces of 9 nN and final contact forces of 2 nN. Within our microassembly system this level of performance cannot be achieved using either sensing modality alone. This research will aid in the development of complex hybrid MEMS devices in two ways; by enabling the microassembly of more complex MEMS prototypes; and in the development of automatic assembly machines for assembling and packaging future MEMS devices that require increasingly complex assembly strategies. Objectives of Research Create and validate a hybrid sensing and servoing system to span the micro- and nano- ranges Approach Optical sensing provides long-range / micro-scale feedback Atomic force microscope provides short-range / nano-scale feedback and servoing Sequential control approach (optical then AFM) Key findings Vision system compensated for thermal growth and errors in micro-manipulation mechanics modeling Combined sensing greatly improved dynamic performance

Test setup with vision and force sensing

184

Author

D. Wijngaards, R.F. Wolffenbuttel IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Magazine, Sept. 2001, pp.24-29.

Title

Opportunities for Microtechnology in Metrology MEMS integration, Josephson junction array, Multi-junction thermal convertor

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
This review focuses on the level of integration available in microtechnology, the advantages and disadvantages of each level, and on current and future applications in metrology. The levels of integration are broken down into hybrid, semi hybrid and fully integrated systems and each is described with its advantages and disadvantages. Fabrication compatibility and system cost are considered in detailing the issues involved in integrating microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). The Josephson junction array as a dc reference and the multijunction thermal converter as an ac reference are given as examples of integrated systems in metrology. Current research is cited in looking at opportunities for integrated microsystems in the near future.

Objectives of Research
Present the issues involved in integrating microsystems for metrology. Review examples of commercially available integrated metrological microsystems Propose future commercial developments based on currently investigated systems

Approach
Twelve references are cited of which one is on Josephson voltage standards, two on thermal converters, and the remainder on or relating to the integration of sensors, actuators and/or processing elements into functional microsystems. Two are the authors own works on integration and process compatibility.

Key findings
A limited number of metrological applications have benefited from the microelectronic and microtechmological processing industry. Only two metrological applications using microtechnology have been commercialized. On-chip and/or integrated metrological references, testing and calibration capabilities are and will continue to be an essential research focus for the increasing accuracy demands of microsystems applications.

185

Author Citation

Exner, H. E. Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Vol. 9, pp. 89-102.

Title Keywords

Scanning Electron Microscopy SEM, Materials research

Abstract
The scanning electron microscope is one of the most versatile instruments for investigating the microstructure of metallic materials. Compared to the optical microscope, it expands the resolution range by more than one order of magnitude to approximately 10nm in routine instruments, with ultimate values below 3nm. Useful magnification thus extends beyond 10,000x up to 150,000x, closing the gap between the optical and the transmission electron microscope. Compared to optical microscopy, the depth of focus, ranging from 1um at 10,000x to 2mm at 10x, is larger by more than two orders of magnitude.

Objectives of Research
Review of scanning electron microscope technique

Approach
Literature review Examine sample images

Typical design of SEM

Key findings
SEM offers possibilities for image information that are usually easy to interpret and will reveal clear pictures of as-polished and etched cross sections as well as rough surfaces. Energy-dispersive x-ray analysis using equipment routinely attached to the SEM features semiquantitative and, infavorable cases, quantitative analysis of composition from a small volume with good lateral resolution. Since its relatively recent origin, SEM has found a wide range of applications in materials research, materials development, failure analysis, and quality control.

Types of electron-beam-exited electrons and radiation

186

Author Citation

Rhle, M. Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Vol. 9, pp. 103-122.

Title Keywords

Transmission Electron Microscopy TEM, Materials research

Abstract
Transmission electron microscopes became commercially available in the 1950s, and it was soon realized that these instruments could be used in applied and fundamental research in materials science and physical metallurgy. Within a few years, the resolution limit for the direct imaging of structural details of solids up to that time limited by the light wavelength in optical microscopy to some fraction of a micron at best was reduced to approximately 1nm. During this rapid development, new aspects of research requiring a spatial resolution down to nearly an atomic level were initiated. However, it became apparent that TEM differs significantly from classical optical microscopy in that TEM, especially when applied to crystalline specimens, requires a more profound understanding of the interaction of the imaging waves with matter. This is particularly applicable to imaging of crystal inhomogeneities, such as lattice defects, and precipitates by TEM using elastic interaction of the imaging electrons with the specimen atoms, as well as to local material analysis with various processes involving inelastic interactions. This article will introduce several methods for imaging various lattice defects and precipitates by diffraction contrast constituted mainly by elastic interaction.

Objectives of Research
Review of transmission electron microscope technique

Approach
Literature review Examine sample images

Key findings
The technology of modern electron microscopes has developed to the point that commercially available instruments and the sophisticated attachments fulfill practically all requirements necessary for studying crystalline and noncrystalline thin films. Specimens suitable for TEM must have a thickness of several hundred nanometers. Diffraction spot pattern is formed in the backfocal plane of the objective lens. Diffraction pattern provides crystallographic information on qualitative phase identification and on the orientation relationship between crystals and the direction of the incoming electron beam.

Diffraction pattern of -Al-Ni alloy in [100]

Beam diagram

187

Author

Akkaraju, S.; Desta, Y.M.; Li, B.Q.; Murphy, M.C. Proceedings of the SPIE, 2880, 1996, pp.191-198

Title

A LIGA-based family of tips for scanning probe applications LIGA, SPM, AFM, scanning probe microscopy, atomic force microscopy, electrochemical sharpening, scanning probe tips

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
A LIGA based tool-set of tips for various scanning probe applications is under investigation by the LSU SET. This involves fabrication of micro-columns using LIGA, followed by an electrochemical sharpening process. Micro-columns ranging from 1.8 m diameter and 14m tall to 165 m x 165 m and 1000 m tall have been fabricated. In order to understand the sharpening mechanism, commercially available wires with diameters ranging from 25-800 m were sharpened. A computer aided design (CAD) tool, based on deforming finite elements, was developed to simulate the sharpening process.

Objectives of Research
Develop a set of scanning tips with LIGA and electrochemical sharpening to allow a variety of imaging techniques to be used in multiple applications Develop a CAD tool to predict effects of sharpening

Approach
Initially investigated electrochemical sharpening of commercially available wires Sharpened high aspect ratio LIGA fabricated columns Began on square 165 m x 165 m columns in 1000 m thick PMMA patterned by lithography and development Produced a second set using 10 40 m diameter laser drilled holes, 100 m tall Used x-ray lithography to produce a third set with 3.4 m diameter, 10 m tall Produced an FE model of the sharpening process Based upon the Galerkin approximation Followed a backward Euler finite difference scheme Developed an automatic mesh generator

Key findings
Initial results are promising but additional work must be done on the etching solution and conditions in order to compare with wire results Model predicts the anodic etching process and will be extended to account for convective effects and other phenomena

3.4 m diameter, 10 m tall probe tip

100 m tall probe tip

188

Author

Li, J.; Friedrich, C.R. and Keynton, R.S. J. Micromech. Microeng., 12(3), May 2002, pp.219-28.

Title

Design and fabrication of a miniaturized, integrated, high-frequency acoustical lenstransducer system acoustic focusing, acoustic transducers, lenses, micromachining

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
High-frequency ultrasonic transducers have been developed for high-resolution imaging applications, such as nondestructive testing and medical diagnostics. Several of these devices employ miniaturized acoustical lenses to enhance the resolution of the system; however, research has been limited due to lens fabrication restrictions at or below the millimeter scale, which also increases the difficulty in creating lenses of identical geometric shape. Alignment and assembly problems on the micrometer scale have also necessitated the requirement for developing an in situ integrated transducer-lens system. Thus, the purpose of this study was to employ a new state-of-the-art micromachining technique to fabricate a high-precision, integrated, microacoustical lens-transducer system of identical geometric shape. Concave lenses (d = 1 mm) were fabricated from either PMMA(R) or epoxy using an ultra-high-precision micromilling machine. The lenses were designed for three different focal lengths (3 mm, 4 mm or 5 mm) with a center thickness of (3/4) lambda. After fabrication, each lens was evaluated for compliance with the design criteria using scanning electron microscopy and a roughness/step tester. A total of 28 lenses with identical geometry were successfully fabricated. The errors of the radii of curvatures for all PMMA(R) and epoxy lenses were within 7.5 +or- 5.8% and 6.0 +or- 6.1 %, respectively, of the designed values

Objectives of Research
Employ a new state-of-the-art micromachining technique to fabricate high-precision, integrated, microacoustical lens-transducer systems of identical geometric shape.

Approach
Concave lenses are fabricated from either PMMA(R) or epoxy using an ultra-high-precision micromilling machine. Specially designed holding well is fabricated prior to the process to secure the transducer-lens system during the micromilling process. Qualitative analysis of the lens surface is performed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) and an optical microscope. The radii of curvature, center thickness and dimensions of each lens are quantified using a roughness/step test (RST).

Key findings
28 microlenses ( 13 of PMMA and 12 of epoxy) were successfully fabricated. The errors of the radii of curvatures for all PMMA(R) and epoxy lenses were within 7.5 +or- 5.8% and 6.0 +or- 6.1 %, respectively, of the designed values. Micromilling machine demonstrates the capability of fabricating high-precision microlenses of identical geometric configuration.

189

Author

Garcia, D.; Orteu, J.J.; Penazzi, L.

Title

A combined temporal tracking and stereocorrelation technique for accurate measurement of 3D displacements: application to sheet metal forming Stereovision, Difital image correlation, 3D metrology, Experimental mechanics

Citation

Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 125-126, 2002, pp.736-742

Keywords

Abstract
Optical methods that give displacement or strain fields are now emerging significantly in the mechanical sciences. Much work has been done on two-dimensional (2D) displacement/strain measurement from a single camera but the proposed methods give only in-plane strains. A binocular correlation-based stereovision technique has been developed: (a) to measure the three-dimensional (3D) shape of a static object or (b) to measure the strains of an object undergoing some 3D mechanical or thermal stress. In this paper, the application of the stereo-correlation technique to measure accurately the 3D shape of a stamped sheet metal part or the surface strain field undergone by the part during the stamping process is presented.

Objectives of Research
To measure the three-dimensional (3D) shape of a static object or To measure the strains of an object undergoing some 3D mechanical or thermal stress

Approach
Binocular correlation-based stereovision Stereo correlation with template matching 3D reconstruction using classical triangulation yielding dense or sparse reconstruction 3D displacement measurement by operating simultaneously on the two pairs of images (at t and t + t) 3D strain computation by computing the 3D mesh resulting from the 3D reconstruction of a Delaunay triangular mesh

Key findings
Using the computed rectification homographies and the distortion parameters directly in the expression of the correlation function to work on the raw images achieves the highest matching accuracy by avoiding pixel interpolations Combining the stereo-correlation and tracking operations enables bypassing sources of error found in previous approaches

Improved method for 3D displacement field computation.

190

Citations
Akkaraju, S.; Desta, Y.M.; Li, B.Q.; Murphy, M.C., A LIGA-based family of tips for scanning probe applications, Proceedings of the SPIE, 2880, 1996, pp.191-198. Cao, S.; Hler-Grohne, W.; Brand, U.; Gao, S.; Wilke, R.; Bttgenback, S., A three dimensional measurement system with micro tactile sensor, Proceedings of the SPIE, 4902, 2002, pp.52-59. Dickey, F.M.; Holswade, S.C.; Hornak, L.A.; Brown, K.S., Optical methods for micromachine monitoring and feedback, Sensors and Actuators, 78, 1999, pp.220-235. Exner, H. E., Scanning Electron Microscopy, Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Vol. 9, pp. 89-102. Garcia, D.; Orteu, J.J.; Penazzi, L., A combined temporal tracking and stereo-correlation technique for accurate measurement of 3D displacements: application to sheet metal forming, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 125-126, 2002,pp.736-74 2 Gower, M.; Cashmore, J.; Whitfield, M.; and Grnewald, P., High-resolution 157 nm imaging for lithography and micromachinin g application, Proceedings of the SPIE, 4426, 2002, pp.401-407. Li, J.; Friedrich, C.R. and Keynton, R.S., Design and fabrication of a miniaturized, integrated, high-frequency acoustical lens-tra nsducer system, J. Micromech. Microeng., 12(3), May 2002, pp.219-28. Kim, B., Razavi, H. A., Degertekin, F. L., Kurfess, T. R., Micromachined interferometer for MEMS metrology, The proceedings of ASPE 2003 Winter Meeting Kim, S.; Rhee, H.; Chu, J., Volumetric phase-measuring interferometer for three-dimensional coordinate metrology, Precision Engineering, 27, 2003, pp.205-215. Potzick, J., New Certified Length Scale for Microfabrication Metrology, Proceedings of the SPIE, 2880, 1996, pp.142-151. Roth, J.; Felkel, E. and Groot, P., Interferometric measuring microscopy applied to miniature machines, structures, and surface features, American Society for Precision Engineering, 2003 Winter Topic Meeting, v28, pp.87 92. Rhle, M., Transmission Electron Microscopy, Metals Handbook, American Society for Metals, Vol. 9, pp. 103-122. Schmitz, T.L.; Davies, A.D.; Evans, C.J., Uncertainties in interferometric measurements of radius of curvature, Proceedings of the SPIE The International Society for Optical Engineering, 4451, 2001, pp.432-447. Tao, Y.M.; Yao, Z.Q.; Liu, L.Q.; Xie, Y., Precision metrology of micro-workpieces on their tribological performance with an error compensation method, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 129(1-3), 2002, pp. 227-231. Umeda, A., Review on the importance of measurement technique in micromachine technology, Proceedings of the SPIE, 2880, 1996, pp.26-38. Wijngaards, D.; Wolffenbuttel, R.F., Opportunities for Microtechnology in Metrology, IEEE Instrumentation and Measurement Magazine, Sept. 2001, pp.24-29. Zhou, Y.; Nelson, B.J.; Vikramaditya, B., Integrating Optical Force Sensing with Visual Servoing for Microassembly, Journal of Intelligent and Robotic Systems, v.28, 2000, p.259-276.

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CHAPTER 6. Integration into Micro-factories

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194

6. Integration into Microfactories


The initial development of miniaturized machines and equipment has logically led to the emergence of the idea of integrating such machines, by the addition of material handling equipment and suitable control schemes, into table-top manufacturing systems for micro/meso-scale components and products. The conception of this idea and initial developments that followed, termed the Microfactory Paradigm, may be attributed to a Japanese government-sponsored 10-year Micromachine Technology Project (MTP) initiated in 1991 in Japan that focused on both a wide range of fabrication technologies and a wide range of materials, including extensions to more traditional machining processes. The Mechanical Engineering Laboratory (MEL) of MITI developed the first microfactory prototype that demonstrated the overall feasibility of this concept. In particular, this first microfactory prototype demonstrated the feasibility of: - miniaturized metal cutting and forming machines, - miniaturized robotic systems, - manufacturing operations performed on miniaturized equipment for micro/meso-scale components and products, and, - rudimentary factory layout, integration and control schemes. Furthermore, the 2nd, 3rd and 4th International Workshops on Microfactories (2000 in Switzerland; 2002 in the US, 2004 in China) have confirmed the existence of a global effort toward the miniaturization of manufacturing processes and manufacturing equipment.

195

In the very early stages of the development of the microfactory concept it has been recognized that material handling (tools, workpieces, chips, etc.) and assembly will pose considerable scientific and technological challenges. The principal difficulties arise because of the scaling laws that, at the micro/meso-scale, diminish the dominance of gravity in favor of friction, electrostatic, capillary and other forces requiring fundamentally different solutions and approaches to manipulation and assembly problems. In the first section of this chapter a handful of examples that demonstrate some of these new ideas are given. Microassembly is a field by itself in which the barriers become even more challenging as the object sizes shrink to the nano/micro-scale. The second section of this chapter offers a review of several microfactory prototypes that are being developed. The first microfactory developed in Japan as well as systems that are making their way into commercial markets are reviewed. The examples of systems under development suggest that there is an accelerating worldwide trend to capitalize on the advantages of downscaled manufacturing systems in terms of increased accuracy and general product quality, reduced capital, space, operating and maintenance costs. The environmental impact of this technology is also significant. It is certain that in the near future there will be numerous products on the market that are the outgrowth of an idea the Microfactory conceived less than a decade ago. It is also clear that considerable scientific and technological challenges remain to be overcome for the realization of fully-autonomous large-scale systems for micro/meso-scale production.

196

6. Integration into Microfactories 6.1 Microassembly

197

Author Citation

Seyfried, Fatikow, Faizullin, Woern Inst. for Process Control and Robotics, University of Karlsruhe, Germany

Title Keywords

Assembly Planning in a Flexible Micro-assembly Station Microassembly, Assembly Planning, Microrobotics

Abstract
A very wide range of micro-components, such as sensors, mechanical components and actuators can today be produced using microtechniques. At the current stage, microsystem technology demands for advanced assembly facilities which can assemble complex microsystems consisting of many single components (i.e. hybrid microsystems). To perform a fully automated microassembly, problems specific to the handling of micro-parts have to be considered. These must to be taken into account already at the assembly planning level to be able to perform an efficient micro-assembly. Furthermore, it is necessary to introduce flexible, highly precise and fast microassembly methods. After introducing the microrobot-based microassembly desktop station that has been developed at the University of Karlsruhe, we present the assembly planning system of this station which is tailored to the specific needs of micro-assembly. Additionally, the differences between conventional (macro-) assembly and micro-assembly are shown.

Objectives of Research
Increase productivity of microassembly station through microassembly planning used in conjunction with computer control Move towards goal of fully automated microassembly station

Approach
Develop layered software architecture for planning and control Make use of parallel computing architecture Develop micro assembly planner that accounts for part DOF, tool accessibility, and visibility

Key findings
Developed micro assembly system takes into account the requirements of micro-assembly including sensor issues and adhesion forces New assembly planning method accounts for visibility constraints in microassembly

198

Author Citation

Aoyama, H., Iwata, F., Sasaki, A. IEEE Control Systems Magazine, 16(1), 1996, pp. 6-12

Title Keywords

Miniature Robots for a Desktop Flexible Micro Manufacturing System miniature robots, micro manufacturing

Abstract
This article describes the basic structure and performance of miniature robots which incorporate micro-tools and micro-probes to produce micro-devices such as LSI materials. In the experiment, typical results at the microscopic level, such as fine grating and micro indenting, are demonstrated. It is suggested that a strategy of combining aspects in a centralized and distributed manner might be useful to increase both productivity and flexibility in manufacturing. The architecture, based on a production process including capability recognition, initial planning, grouping, and dispatching to the working area, are described to control multiple miniature robots under graphical simulation for the precise flexible desktop micro-manufacturing system.

Objectives of Research
Develop miniature robots consisting of micro actuators and micro sensors with the capability of performing microscopic operations (micro indenting, micro scratching, etc) Develop a framework for a flexible manufacturing system employing miniature robots

Approach
Design and build movement mechanism for miniature robots Design and build machining, forming, and inspection tools for robots Define control structure comprising of three levels of processors, each with different planning and scheduling assignments (combination of centralized and distributed structures) Define highest level planning and scheduling tasks in detail

Key findings
Miniature robots can be constructed and equipped to perform microfabrication processes and inspection Incorporation of these robots with the proper control architecture can enable flexible manufacturing Graphical simulation of control architecture presented

Top: image of miniature robot; Bottom: character made by micro-indenting

199

Author

Maekawa, H.; Komoriya, K. Proc. 2001 ICRA. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2001, 2, pp. 1444-1451

Title

Development of a micro transfer arm for a microfactory Compliance control; force sensors; materials handling; microassembling; micromanipulators; position control; material transfer; microfactory; SCARA-type manipulator; assembly; passive compliance device; force sensor; positioning

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
A microfactory is a new concept for an extremely miniaturized manufacturing facility that enables dramatic space and energy conservation. As a material transfer and assembly component of a prototype microfactory, a micro transfer arm that provides 4-DOF and a maximum length of approximately 100 mm has been developed. To achieve a compact-lightweight structure, large workspace and high positioning accuracy, the arm is configured as a combination of a SCARA-type manipulator and a parallel mechanism. To enable the arm to perform fine assembly tasks, a 3-axis device with an integrated passive compliance device and force sensor was developed. In this paper the mechanical design of the arm structure and the fabrication process of the device are described, followed by an experimental evaluation for the arm and device

Objectives of Research
Develop a micro transfer arm that provides 4-DOF and a maximum length of approximately 100 mm Achieve a compact-lightweight structure, large workspace and high positioning accuracy due to high its high stiffness Enable the arm to perform fine assembly tasks Enable fast motion of the arm for rapid operation in short time Micro transfer arm: 100 mm length

Approach
Configure the arm as a combination of a SCARA-type manipulator and a parallel mechanism Develop a 3-axis device with an integrated passive compliance device and force sensor for assembly purposes

Key findings
Active stiffness control of the arm is possible since the force feedback from the device has been experimentally confirmed Any significant hysteresis was not seen during experimental evaluation of the device The functions of the device as a linear elastic compliance and of the force sensor were confirmed

Compliancer/force sensor device

200

Author Citation

Nakao, M.; Tsuchiya, K.; Matsumoto, K.; and Hatamura, Y. Annals of CIRP, 2001, 50(1), pp. 9-12

Title Keywords

Micro Handling with Rotational Needle-type Tools under Real Time Observation Micro-Assembly, Micro-Handling, Micro-Tool

Abstract
This paper analyzes human operation of an arbitrary single micro object under 1mm while observing the object and systematically studies the design of a micro handling system to perform such operations. This system features the following mechanical elements; (1) a needle-type tool with a tip as small as the micro object to handle; (2) a palette engraved with micro structures to hold the micro object; (3) a driving mechanism not only to translate the tool but also to rotate it; (4) a microscope to observe the tool operation in real time. As the microscope occupies a large volume, the system sets the mechanism elements in a centralized arrangement so the micro object, tool tip, center of tool rotation, microscope focus intersect at one point and the remaining elements are radially arranged around it. We used this system to conduct several operations including a SEM monitored micro house construction by assembling and bonding walls and roof, an optical microscope monitored microscopic insemination by inserting a sperm into an ovum, and a fluorescent microscope monitored DNA surgery cutting out an arbitrary gene from a chromosome. These operations verified the effect of the above design guideline, that is the group of mechanism elements and their construction.

Objectives of Research
Propose a design guideline for micro handling systems Evaluate the design guideline through actual prototyping

Approach
Construct the testbed for micro handling systems

Key findings
Built several micro handling systems that can monitor and operate on an arbitrary micro object with size 1mm or less. Confirm the effect of such mechanism elements as tool, palette, driving mechanism, and microscope and a centralized arrangement structure of them through work of assembling and adhering wall and roof for a micro house within a 1mm cube while monitoring with a SEM

201

Author

H. Woern, J. Seyfried, St. Fahlbusch, A. Buerkle and F. Schmoeckel. Proc. of the International Symposium on Micromechatronics and Human Science - MHS 2000, pp. 135-143

Title

Flexible Microrobots for Micro Assembly Tasks Microrobots, Micro Manipulation, Micro Asse mbly, Vision Sensors, Force Sensors, Object Recognition, SEM

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
A wide range of microcomponents can today be produced using various microfabrication techniques. The assembly of complex microsystems consisting of several single components (i. e. hybrid microsystems) is, however, a difficult task that is seen to be a real challenge for the robotic research community. It is necessary to conceive flexible, highly precise and fast microassembly methods. In this paper, the development of a microrobot-based microassembly station is presented. Mobile piezoelectric micro-robots with dimensions of some cm 3 and with at least 5 DOF can perform various manipulations either under a light microscope or inside the vacuum chamber of a scanning electron micro-scope. The components of the station developed and its control system are described. The latter comprises a visionbased sensor system for automatic robot control and a user interfaces for semi-automated control and teleoperation. First results of the SEMbased micro assembly, handling of biological cells and integration of force micro-sensors into our microrobots are presented as well.

Objectives of Research
Develop a micro-robot based microassembly station Create an SEM based microassembly; explore handling of biological cells and mechanical objects

Approach
Use 5 DOF mobile piezoelectric microrobots Use a vision-based sensor system for automatic robot control Use user interfaces for semi-automated control and teleoperation

Key findings
A laser triangulation method is proved to give precise position (height) control over the microgrippers of the microrobot Micro-grippers with an integrated force sensor make the assembly cycle shorter and more robust Application of laser triangulation to the microgripper alignment

Microgripper with mounted end-effector with integrated strain gauges

202

Author

Popa, D. O.; Stephanou, H. E. To appear in the special issue of SME Journal of Manufacturing Systems, 2004

Title

Micro and meso scale robotic assembly Precision assembly; microassembly; micro robotics; multiscale manipulation; parallel manipulation; microscale; mesoscale

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Some of the challenges associated with micro systems assembly are examined in this paper, and illustrated with examples of on-going research at the authors institution. One of the basic challenges in precision assembly is the need for very high accuracy over a large range of motion. We address this challenge through a multiscale approach. This involves the design of assembly tools and processes at multiple scales, and their integration into coherent system architectures. Parallelism is an important aspect of this architecture, with the goal of enabling high throughput, fault tolerant assembly at moderate cost. The modularity of the architecture is also important, given the need to frequently reconfigure microsystems assembly cells for small batch production. In this paper, several concepts for the development of multiscale robotic tools for the assembly of microsystems are presented. Numerical simulations and experimental results are used to illustrate the relevance of the proposed approaches. Extensions to manipulation at the nanoscale are briefly discussed. Conclusions with some guidelines for the design of multiscale assembly systems are given.

Objectives of Research
Illustration of the interaction between the meso- and the micro-scales during the assembly of several MOEMS (Micro-Opto-ElectroMechanical Systems) based on analytical and experimental work done at the Center for Automation Technologies at RPI

Approach
Description of the microassembly testbed on which the bulk of the experimental work was performed. Discussion of the assembly issues involved in multiscale manipulation including precision, compliance, modeling, gripping, fixturing, tolerance and control considerations. Description of parallel manipulation using both microrobots, as well as gripper-free distributed manipulators.

Key findings
Based on the examples that have been used to illustrate the subtle complexity of assembly across multiple dimensions, quantitative design considerations for multiscale assembly systems can be summarized: task oriented control, gripping and fixturing with self-alignment, coarse-fine positioning, compliance at microscale, etc.

Shape memory alloy microgripper for manipulating 350 m diameter lenses

203

Author

Sitti, M.; Aruk, B.; Shintani, H.; Hashimoto, H. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Proceedings 2001 ICRA, Volume 1, pp.860-867

Title

Development of a Scaled Teleoperation System for Nano Scale Interaction and Manipulation AFM, Haptic interface/device, Telerobotics, Micro actuator, Force sensors, Nano scale manipulation

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
A human-machine interface is proposed for teleoperated nano scale object interaction and manipulation. Design specifications for a bilateral scaled teleoperation system with slave and master robots, sensors, actuators, and control are discussed. Phantom and home-made haptic devices are utilized as the master manipulator, and a piezoresistive MEMS fabricated probe is selected as the slave manipulator, and topology and force sensor. A force reflecting servo type teleoperation control is chosen, and initial experiments are realized for interacting with silicon surfaces and nano structures. It is shown that fine structures can be felt on the operator's finger successfully.

Objectives of Research
Develop mechanical 3D manipulation system (slave-master) Test feasibility of design through experiments

Approach
Slave design Nano manipulator (AFM probe) Force and vision sensor feedback devices Master design Manipulator Visual interface Bilateral teleoperation control Experiments AFM imaging (nano scale 3D topology) Point contact touching (AFM tip force feedback) Surface tactile feedback (human interaction) Telemanipulation (potential applications)

Key findings
Proposed bilateral scaled teleoperation control system is successful for providing tactile and force feedback at the nano scale Visual feedback alone is not sufficient for interacting with the nano world due to errors such as positioning drifts, nonlinearities, noise, etc Real-time force feedback is a viable solution for compensating these errors

204

Author

Bleuler, H.; Clavel, R.; Breguet, J.-M.; Langen, H.; Bellouard, Y.

Title

Applications of microrobotics and microhandling Closed loop control systems; industrial manipulators; microactuators; microassembling; micromachining; micromanipulators; micropositioning; microrobots; motion control; microfactory; nanotechnology; MEMS; nanorobotics; microgripper.

Citation

RIKEN Review, 36, 2001, pp. 26-28

Keywords

Abstract
This contribution illustrates various practical examples and activities at the intersection of MEMS, system control, robotics and ultraprecision design. The resulting new application domains include microrobotics, microfactories, and nanotechnologies

Objectives of Research
The main point of this paper is that closed-loop motion control combined with new mechanical concepts will open up important new applications such as microrobotics, microfactories, micro ECDM, microassembly.

Approach and Key Findings


Combine nanometer resolution and large workspaces (several cubic centimeters) Use small factories to make small objects Use micro ECDM instead of EDM replacing conventional dielectric liquid by an electrolyte Use Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) materials for microassembly purposes

3-D Micro EDM results: diameter 500 microns

SMA microgripper ( 1mm high)

205

Author

Han Zhang; Burdet, E.; Hutmacher, D.W.; Aun-Neow Poo; Bellouard, Y.; Clavel, R.; Sidler, T. Proceedings 2002 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2, 2002, pp. 1483-148

Title

Robotic micro-assembly of scaffold/cell constructs with a shape memory alloy gripper Biological tissues ; biotechnology; error analysis; finite element analysis; microactuators; microassembling; micromanipulators; polymers; shape memory effect

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
The paper describes an integrated approach to the design and fabrication of scaffold/cell constructs for tissue engineering. With this approach it becomes possible to produce scaffolds with controlled distribution of living cells and growth factors, a critical condition for successful grafting. The idea consists of building a scaffold/cell construct by robotic micro-assembly of microscopic polymer building blocks. The paper introduces the rationale and concept of this interdisciplinary project and presents some realized steps. A 3D contact FEM simulation has been carried out to study the forces involved on the scaffold elements and micro-gripper during assembly. An error analysis has been performed to evaluate the accumulated error when building a scaffold/cell construct. A dedicated monolithic shape memory alloy micro-gripper has been realized and tested, which is able to handle parts in the range of 50-100 microns

Objectives of Research
Describe an integrated approach to design and fabricate scaffold/cell constructs for tissue engineering Building a scaffold/cell construct by robotic micro-assembly of microscopic polymer building blocks

Approach
Use Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) based monolithic micro-gripper for assembly Use Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to model the assembly of the scaffold out of the polymer microparts

Key findings
With a maximal position error of 10 mm the microaparts will neither be crushed nor produce any plastic deformation. The distortion and remaining stress will keep the parts fixed together and reduce the final position error Although the friction force (max 1.37e-7 N) will increase the reaction force on the gripper, it will not cause any damage to the scaffold elements

SMA microgripper: a) heated b) cooled

206

Author Citation

Dewa, A. Mechatronics, 8, 1998, pp.521-534.

Title Keywords

Mesoscopic systems: bridging from micromachined devices to macroscopic systems High precision mesoscopic systems

Abstract
Mesoscopic systems are forming the bridge between the micromachining domain and the macro-world. Additional challenges and opportunities are presented by mesoscopic systems. They require more 3-dimensionality than micromachined structures, provide the mechanical interface to the environment (i.e., act as the package) and must resolve the difference in tolerances between the macrofabricated devices and the high precision microfabricated devices. An ideal fabrication technology for mesoscopic systems is deep X-ray lithography (DXRL) and assembly. The high precision in the X,Y, and Z dimensions of the DXRL-fabricated components provide unique opportunities for increased functionality and 3-dimensionality of mesoscopic systems. The fabrication, assembly, tolerance and metrology issues of DXRL fabrication of mesoscopic systems are presented. Application of these design issues to mesoscopic fluidic systems will be presented, with specific examples including a magnetically coupled gear pump, a gear pump driven directly by miniature brushless DC motor, and the fluid flat-pack, a general purpose packaging methodology for fluidic devices.

Objectives of Research
Examine the issues involved in designing mesoscopic systems as exemplified by several systems fabricated by deep X-ray lithography

Approach
DXRL and assembly were used to produce several mesoscopic fluidic systems DXRL is used to produce parts that are prismatic projections (plates) of planar shapes which can have vertical sidewalls with high surface finish and submicron tolerances on the X and Y dimensions. Thickness (Z) tolerance is typically 2 m across the wafer with a surface roughness of 2-4 nm. Two methods of assembly are used to produce 3-dimensional structures: (1) stacking plates and (2) rotating parts 90 and inserting them into slots or holes. Pegs are used for alignment or as rivets to bond the components. Snap connectors are also used for self-aligning and locking assembly. The fabrication, assembly, tolerance and metrology issues are examined as related to the interface that mesoscopic systems play between the micro and macro engineering domains

Key findings
The very high precision of the X, Y, and Z dimensions of the DXRL fabricated components allows multiple opportunities for the assembly of 3-dimensional systems with tolerances that bridge the requirements of micro and macroscopic systems Integral functional gages can be fabricated to aid the shortcomings of optical and SEM metrology on the mesoscale

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208

6. Integration into Microfactories 6.2 Microfactory layout and applications

209

Author Citation

Tanaka, Makoto RIKEN Review, 34, 2001, pp.46-49

Title Keywords

Development of desktop machining microfactory Microfactory, Micro-machining, Portable, Desktop

Abstract
The Mechanical Engineering Laboratory (MEL) developed a prototype desktop machining microfactory. The microfactory, which will enable considerable savings in terms of energy, space, and resources, is a downsized production system whose size is very small with respect to the dimensions of the products. The desktop microfactory consists of machine tools such as a microlathe, a milling machine, a press machine, and assembly machines such as a transfer arm and a two-fingered hand. The microfactory can produce miniature machine parts and assemble them as well as an example of an application, a miniature bearing assembly is produced successfully.

Objectives of Research
Develop proposed concept of a microfactory which has many advantages over current small-sized product fabrication Prototype entire machining factory that is able to fabricate and assemble parts on a desktop

Approach
Microfactory features Development of a desktop machining microfactory Microlathe Micro-milling machine Micro-press machine Micro-transfer arm Two-fingered microhand Fabrication of test product (miniature ball bearing assembly)

Key findings
MEL developed worlds smallest microlathe Successfully created machining microfactory Work done will be catalyst for future new manufacturing systems

210

Author Citation

Hirano, T., and Furuta, K. 3rd International Workshop on Microfactories

Title Keywords

Micromachine technology trends in the microfactory Microfactory, nanotechnology

Abstract
The national microfactory project has cleared the way to a real system and also identified new hurdles to overcome. With nanotechnology booming, microfactory technology is expected to support utilization of nanotechonology in the human sized world.

Objectives of Research
Overview of the concept and of the achievements in the research on the microfactory. Seeking a seamless technology chain between nano-scale manufacturing and human-scale manufacturing.

Approach
Explanation of the characteristics of miniaturization technologies and of microfactories. Clarification of the manufacturing technologies in micro-nano diffusion (top-down / bottom-up approach).

Key findings
The microfactory may be defined as a miniaturized manufacturing system as well as a manufacturing system for micromachines While the bottom-up approach is recognized as a long shot, top-down approach is offering practical applications now, i.e., near field optics, ion beam. Report on current microfactory research in the Japanese national project. The gearbox as product

The test bench system

211

Author Citation

Gaugel, T.; Dobler, H.; Bengel, M.; Weis , C.; Schlieber, J. 3rd International Workshop on Microfactories, 2002, pp.5-8

Title Keywords

Building a Mini-Factory from a Technology Construction Kit Control architecture, Minifactory concept, Modular design, JAVA controller, Planning

Abstract
As part of this paper, extracts are presented from the results of the joint project MiniProd", which was carried out by the Fraunhofer IPA together with industrial partners and sponsored by the BMBF (federal ministry for education and research). The aim of the research project is to develop a marketable, miniaturized highly-flexible production system capable of reproducing the correct size proportions between a product and its production environment and also able to intelligently integrate processes which had previously run separately. Using the plug-in" principle, the user is able to construct his own miniaturized factory from individual production modules. The overall system has been designed using the modular concept and is presented together with the hard and software interfaces of the individual production units, the plug- and produce" control architecture and a specially-programmed 3-D planning and configuration tool. A further topic is the presentation of miniaturized process modules for the micro-bonding, micro-screwing and precision handling of miniaturized parts and components.

Objectives of Research
Develop a marketable, miniaturized highly-flexible mini-factory Investigate related miniaturized processes Java-controller

Approach
MiniProd system based on modularity and miniaturized components JAVA based control architecture Planning and configuration tool Miniaturized production modules for handling, micro-screwing, and micro-bonding 2 DOF pick & place and process modules Courier Module base-plates Planar motor Platform Overall concept of the minifactory

Key findings
Less time needed for initial start-up, reconfiguring, and system extension due to the miniaturized modular construction Savings in both operating and investment costs Wide range of fields for applications in production of small components

212

Author Citation

Gaugel, T.; Dobler, H. Proceedings of SPIE, Vol. 4568, 2001, pp. 278 285.

Title Keywords

Advanced Modular Micro-Production System (AMMS) Production system, kit concept, interfaces, planning tool, hardware demonstrators

Abstract
AMMS is a new concept which creates a suitable size ratio between microcomponents and the production environment. The concept is also ideal for the integration and interconnection of processes which have yet to be separated. The AMMS concept can be redesigned or extended in an easy and flexible manner. By using a modular construction, small dimensions and a decentrally-organized control architecture, high-precision and sensitive handling procedures can be automated with acceptable investment and operating costs.

Objectives of Research
Introduce a new concept which creates a suitable size ratio between microcomponents and the production environment Show that high-precision and sensitive handling procedures can be automated with acceptable investment and operating costs using AMMS

Approach
Integrate and interconnect the processes which have yet to be separated Use a modular construction, small dimensions and a decentrally-organized control architecture Biochip application of AMMS

Key findings
AMMS is capable of producing analytical bio-chips on an industrial scale AMMS is considerably cheaper than the regular bio-chip production facilities Microsensor assembly can be made into a fully automated process using AMMS

Sensor application of AMMS

213

Author Citation

Ataka, Tatsuaki R&D Department, Seiko Instruments Inc.

Title Keywords

The Experimental Microfactory System in Japanese National R&D project Microfactory, Processing, Assembly, Conveyance

Abstract
The development of an experimental microfactory systems in the R&D project of Industrial Science and Technology Frontier (ISTF) of MITI is described. The purposes of this project are to investigate technological possibility of microfactory and to make clear the problems to be solved in realizing it. The microfactory system consists of three units; these are a processing unit, an assembly unit and conveyance unit, in analogy to present manufacturing systems. The system is about the size of a desktop and can handle small parts several grams in weight. Two different ways to reduce the size of the conventional manufacturing system have been pursued.

Objectives of Research
Investigate the technological plausibility of a microfactory and clarify potential problems that need to be solved for realization

Approach
Methods for miniaturization of the manufacturing system Microfactory component development: Processing unit Assembling unit Conveyance unit

Key findings
Experimental system is desktop sized Each unit performs successfully in the system Problems were overcome in microfactory development process

214

Author Citation

Verettas, I.; Clavel, R.; Codourey, A. Proceedings IEEE, 2003, pp.18-23

Title Keywords

Microfactory: Desktop Cleanrooms for the Production of Microsystems Micro-assembly, Microfactory, Cleanroom, Micromechanical devices

Abstract
Manufacturing as well as the manipulation and the assembly of microsystems (MEMS (Micro ElectroMechanical Systems) for instance) need most precise robots and a clean working environment. This paper gives a brief overview of the recent evolutions of this technology. To design new miniaturized machines, a new project "microfactory" is launched. Its main objective is to set up a mobile clean environment to harbor one or more automated micro-assembly machines. It will be suitable to work in a normal environment. This miniaturized system uses small trays for the microsystems' transfer. The designs of three main layouts of the microfactory are outlined in this paper.

Objectives of Research
Develop microfactory that has a mobile clean environment for assembling micromechanical devices

Approach
Application of minienvironments (cleanrooms) to the Microfactory project Modular layouts via microboxes Use of trays for component transfer to improve process

Key findings
Minienvironments are advantageous in the microfactory design Manipulation of components on trays instead of wafers decreases the size of assembly machines The new system for manufacturing and assembling microsystems will be portable and environmentally controlled (humidity, temperature, and vibrations)

215

Author Citation

A.Coudourey, M. Honegger 3rd International Workshop on Microfactories, Sept. 16-18 2002 pp. 9-12

Title Keywords

A Centralized Control System for Microfactories Microfactory, Architecture, Control Systems

Abstract
Typical microfactories will be composed of several modules such as part feeding systems, robot manipulators, machine tools and so on. All these machines have to be controlled to work together. This paper presents a centralized computer control system for the control and supervision of the whole microfactory.

Objectives of Research
Develop a centralized control structure for microfactories Develop a control structure that utilizes a minimum set of low cost components

Approach
Centralized Control Structure JAVA Framework A real time thread class that can be used to install periodic, high priority tasks for control purposes An embedded web-server that executes software codes within the robot controller through virtual cgi scripts. This enables control of the robot over a network. A hardware periphery abstraction layer that completely separates the application software from the actual I/O boards. Thus, changes of the I/O periphery only require updating a configuration file and restarting the application.

Key findings
Centralized control structure based on a new JAVA framework is presented Extension of the microfactory, i.e. adding a new robot, is realized just by starting a new process in the control system The presented control architecture has the advantage of being able to run several robots on the same computer, reducing the costs of the whole microfactory

216

Author

Jing-Dae Huang; Chia-Lung Kuo International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, vol.42, no.13, 2002, pp. 278 285.

Title

Pin-plate micro assembly by integrating micro-EDM and Nd-YAG laser Hybrid process, micro-EDM, micro assembly, laser welding

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
This paper presents a novel technology that applies the principle of Molten-Separation Joint (MSJ) from the micro-part back to perform precise micro assembly. This has been realized by using a hybrid process that integrates micro-EDM and Nd-YAG laser welding on a single machine to fabricate micro parts and complete precise micro assembly. To demonstrate this novel technology, a hybrid process that assembles the product, referred to as a pin-plate assembly was used. It consists of a micro pin with a 50 m diameter jointed to a thin plate with a 200 m thickness, and is made of SUS304. A tensile mechanism has been designed to measure the strength of the pin-plate after micro assembly. The results on SUS304 show that the joint strength is higher than that of the substrate for a micro pin with a 200 m in diameter. In addition, the pin-plate perpendicularity can be measured with a micro probe and a short sense discharge circuit specially installed on the micro-EDM. The detected results were quite satisfactory. This was further assured by observing the assembled joint cross sections through a microscope.

Objectives of Research
Create a novel technology that applies the principle of Molten-Separation Joint (MSJ) from the micro-part back to perform precise micro assembly Use a hybrid process that integrates micro-EDM and Nd-YAG laser welding on a single machine to fabricate micro parts and complete precise micro assemblies

Approach
Use a hybrid process to assemble a product, which is referred as a pin-plate Design a tensile mechanism to measure the strength of the pin-plate after micro assembly

Key findings
The results show that the joint strength is higher than that of the substrate for a micro pin with a 200 m in diameter The pin-plate perpendicularity measured with a micro probe is satisfactory

The hybrid machine: integrates micro-EDM and Nd-YAG laser

217

Author

Saotome, Y., Okamoto, T.

Title

An in-situ incremental microforming system for three-dimensional shell structures of foil materials Micro-forming; Incremental forming; Hammering; Piezo-actuator; Scanning electron microscope; Foil materials

Citation

Journal of Materials Processing Technology

Keywords

Abstract
The aim of the present study is to establish micromachining technology for micro-electro-mechanical-system parts such as various threedimensional body shell structures for micro-robots, various micro-devices, and facilities. For this purpose, the authors developed a CNCincremental sheet metal forming system for foil materials as a microfactory cell. Using this system, they formed a 600 m long micro-car body shell without dies in a scanning electron microscopic field of view. The principle of this flexible sheet metal forming system is called incremental forming by hammering. Small increments of sheet metal bending and bulging deformation are generated by hammering. Repeated step-by-step cycles result in variously shaped shell structures without dies. The tip of the hammer is 10 m in diameter. The system is installed in the vacuum chamber of a commercial scanning electron microscope (SEM) and controlled in the microscopic field of view. The deformations of very thin sheet metals or foils are directly observed on a microscopic scale. To realize these systems, small actuators, such as piezoelectric actuators, small linear sensors, and an X-Y stage driven by ultrasonic linear motors, are selected. The resolution of the positioning system for the sheet material is 0.2 m. The hammer is installed at the end of the beam, and the beam (handle) is resonantly oscillated by a piezoelectric actuator. The displacement of the hammer is detected by a displacement sensor. As a result, this flexible sheet microforming system transfers a three-dimensional shape to sheet or foil materials directly from the designing (virtual) space. In-situ observation in the SEM field of view contributes to the analysis of the local deformation and to the optimization of the forming processes.

Objectives of Research
Propose and develop a new flexible sheet metal forming system for fabricating micro-three dimensional structures in foil metallic materials of less than 10 m

Approach
Presentation of the basic composition of the system Explanation of the hammering mechanism and positioning system Performance tests of the system

Key findings
A CNC incremental microforming system that hammers foil materials has been developed as a microfactory cell. With this system, a micro - 600 m long car body - was formed without dies in a scanning election microscopic field of view.

Schematic diagram of the micro-incremental forming system

218

Author Citation

Breguet, J.; Schmitt, C.; Clavel, R. Proceedings SPIE, 4194, 2000, pp.1-12

Title Keywords

Micro/Nanofactory: Concept and state of the art Microfactory, Nanofactory, Microsystems, MEMs, SSA, Micro-manipulator, Piezo-actuator

Abstract
A Microfactory is a set of cooperating micro-machines dedicated to the production of Microsystems in small to medium quantities. This paper describes the Microfactory concept currently developed at the Institut de Systemes Robotiques (ISR). A state of the art in this domain is presented. Several novel designs on micro-positioning systems are discussed. Emphasis is put on piezo-actuators with nanometer resolution and large workspaces (few cm3). Finally, a vision for the future trends in the field of Microfactories is briefly introduced.

Objectives of Research
Investigate and explain current microfactory concepts and status Discuss the development and application of micromanipulators

Approach
Microfactory concept, scope, and current state of the art technology described Theory, design, and application of Stick and Slip Actuators (SSA) Application of micro robots for use in microassembly and micromachining Future trends in microfactories

Key findings
Microfactory concept is growing in popularity as a result of both economic and environmental incentives Stick and Slip Actuators provide the necessary micromanipulation systems that are integral to developing microfactories Application of the microfactory concepts can significantly lower costs and improve manufacturing performance

219

Citations
6.1 Microassembly
Aoyama, H., Iwata, F., Sasaki, A., Miniature Robots for a Desktop Flexible Micro Manufacturing System, IEEE Control Systems Magazine, 16(1), 1996, pp. 6-12 Bleuler, H.; Clavel, R.; Breguet, J.-M.; Langen, H.; Bellouard, Y., Applications of microrobotics and microhandling, RIKEN Review, 36, 2001, pp. 26-28 Dewa, A., Mesoscopic systems: bridging from micromachined devices to macroscopic systems, Mechatronics, 8, 1998, pp.521-534 Maekawa, H., Komoriya, K. Development of a micro transfer arm for a microfactory, Proc. 2001 ICRA. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2001, 2, pp. 1444-1451 Nakao, M.; Tsuchiya, K.; Matsumoto, K.; and Hatamura, Y., Micro Handling with Rotational Needle-type Tools under Real Time Observation, Annals of CIRP, 2001, 50(1), pp. 9-12 Popa, D. O., Stephanou, H. E. Micro and meso scale robotic assembly, To appear in the special issue of SME Journal of Manufacturing Systems, 2004 Seyfried, Fatikow, Faizullin, Woern, Assembly planning in a flexible micro-assembly station, Institute for Process Control and Robotics, wwwipr.ira.uka.de/en/Publications/ download.php?id=1026137452&filetype=pdf Sitti, M.; Aruk, B.; Shintani, H.; Hashimoto, H.; Development of a scaled teleoperation system for nano scale interaction and manipulation, 2001 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, Vol. 1, pp. 860-867. Woern, H., J. Seyfried, St. Fahlbusch, A. Buerkle and F. Schmoeckel., Flexible Microrobots for Micro Assembly Tasks, Proc. of the International Symposium on Micromechatronics and Human Science - MHS 2000, pp. 135-143 Zhang, H., Burdet, E.; Hutmacher, D.W.; Aun-Neow Poo; Bellouard, Y.; Clavel, R.; Sidler, T., Robotic micro-assembly of scaffold/cell constructs with a shape memory alloy gripper, Proceedings 2002 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2, 2002, pp. 1483-148

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Citations
6.2 Microfactory layout and applications
Ataka, Tatsuaki, The experimental microfactory system in Japanese National R&D project, R&D Department, Seiko Instruments Inc. Breguet, J.; Schmitt, C.; Clavel, R.; Micro/nanofactory: Concept and state of the art, 2000 SPIE, No. 4194, pp. 1-12. Coudourey, A.; Honnegger, M.; A centralized control system for microfactories, 3rd International Workshop on Microfactories, Sept. 16-18 2002, pp. 9-12. Gaugel, T., Dobler, H. Advanced Modular Micro-Production System (AMMS), Proceedings of SPIE, Vol. 4568, 2001, pp. 278 285. Gaugel, T.; Dobler, H.; Bengel, M.; Weis , C.; Schlieber, J., Building a Mini-Factory from a Technology Construction Kit, 3rd International Workshop on Microfactories, 2002, pp.5-8 Hirano, T., and Furuta, K. Motion control for linear motor feed drives in advanced machine tools, Int J Mach Tools Manuf, v14, n4, January 2001, pp.479 507 Huang, J.D., Chia-Lung Kuo. Pin-plate micro assembly by integrating micro-EDM and Nd-YAG laser, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, vol.42, no.13, 2002, pp. 278 285. Saotome, Y., Okamoto, T. An in-situ incremental microforming system for three-dimensional shell structures of foil materials, Journal of Materials Processing Technology. Tanaka, Makoto, Development of desktop machining microfactory, RIKEN Review, 34, 2001, pp. 46-49. Verettas, I.; Clavel, R.; Codourey, A.; Microfactory: Desktop cleanrooms for the production of microsystems, 2003 IEEE, July 10-11, pp. 18-23

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CHAPTER 7. Miscellaneous Papers of Interest

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7. Miscellaneous Papers of Interest


The papers reviewed in this chapter are not directly related to micro-manufacturing. They were, however, included since the concepts they discuss are of a more universal nature and may have relevance to future micro-machining process or system developments. Three subject areas are covered, including parallel kinematic machines, machine tool drives and adaptive control, and metrology. The reader is cautioned that the very few papers in each of these categories are not particularly representative of the state-of-theart in these fields but rather were included due to their availability as a part of the ongoing projects at NU and UIUC.

225

Author

Bohez, E. L. J. International Journal of machine tools and manufacture, 42(4), 2002, pp. 505-520

Title

Five axis milling machine tool kinematic chain design and analysis Five-axis; Machine tool; Kinematic chain; Workspace; CNC; Rotary axis

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
Five-axis CNC machining centers have become quite common today. The kinematics of most of the machines are based on a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system. This paper classifies the possible conceptual designs and actual existing implementations based on the theoretically possible combinations of the degrees of freedom. Some useful quantitative parameters, such as the workspace utilization factor, machine tool space efficiency, orientation space index and orientation angle index are defined. The advantages and disadvantages of each concept are analyzed. Criteria for selection and design of a machine configuration are given. New concepts based on the Stewart platform have been introduced recently in industry and are also briefly discussed.

Objectives of Research
Conceptual designs and actual implementation of Five-axis CNC machining centers based on the theoretical combination of the degree of freedom. Clarify the criteria for selection and design of a machine configuration

Approach
Classification of five axis machines kinematic structure Analysis on the advantages and disadvantages of each conceptual kinematic design.

Key findings
To determine the best instance for a specific application are, several parameters are defined and compared. An algorithm to compute the machine tool workspace and the diameter of the largest spherical dome which can be machined on the machine was outlined. The use of these indexes for two examples was discussed Variax Machine

226

Author

Chen, J. S. and Hsu, W. Y.

Title

Design and analysis of a tripod machine tool with an integrated Cartesian guiding and metrology mechanism Parallel kinematic machine; Tripod; Direct metrology loop; Static rigidity; Dynamic stiffness; High-speed machining

Citation

Precision Engineering, 28(1), 2004, pp. 46-57

Keywords

Abstract
This paper introduces a novel parallel kinematic mechanism (PKM) machine called Cartesian-Guided Tripod (CGT) developed for highspeed machining of precise dies and molds. CGT has two kinds of functional independent legs, the driving functional leg and the integrated Cartesian guiding/metrology functional leg, parallel-linked to the platform. The guiding/metrology functional leg constraints and measures the platform motions in Cartesian coordinates. Because of the separation of metrology function from the drive mechanisms, the metrology loop of CGT is immunized to the geometric-, thermal-, and force-induced errors of the drive mechanisms. Another feature of this CGT is that the kinematic parameters can be auto-calibrated on line. CGT has explicit solutions of the inverse and forward kinematic analysis. This allows system specifications, such as the footprint/workspace ratio, maximum Cartesian speed/acceleration and even stiffness, be easily related to the machine component specifications. The CGT drive mechanism can be divided into two basic types: sliding leg and telescoping leg. The telescoping leg CGT has the higher edges in the kinematic categories than the sliding leg CGT. Conversely, the sliding leg CGT has better static rigidity and dynamic stiffness than the telescoping leg CGT.

Objectives of Research
Development of a new kind of parallel kinematic mechanism (PKM) machine (Cartesian-Guided Tripod) for high-speed machining of precise dies and molds. This CGT should overcome several problems in accuracy and rigidity etc., as observed in typical PKM.

Approach
Derivation of the architecture and the characteristics of CGTs Inverse and forward kinematic analysis of the CGTs

Key findings
A novel CGT shows high precision and high stiffness. The CGT metrology loop, separated from the drive mechanisms, directly measures the cutting tool Cartesian movements. The inverse and forward kinematic models for the CGT are explicated solutions that allow the designer easily relating and analyzing the system specifications to the component specifications in a systematic way.

Kinematic relationship of the sliding leg CGT.

227

Author Citation

Kim, J. Annals of CIRP - Manufacturing Technology, 48(1), 1999, pp. 337-340

Title Keywords

New parallel mechanism machine tool capable of five face machining Machine tool, Parallel mechanism, Rapid machining

Abstract
This paper introduces a new parallel mechanism machine tool that can machine the top surface and four lateral surfaces of a prismatic workpiece with one setup. No B-axis motion is necessary. Five-axis simultaneous machining can be executed in any workspace. This machine is based on a new parallel mechanism, Eclipse, which was invented by the authors. The Eclipse allows the spindle of the machine tool to tilt to 90 degrees from the vertical posture, and also to sweep the lateral surfaces of the workpiece over 360 degrees. This paper presents the overall structure, the detailed design aspects, and the performance evaluation of the new parallel mechanism machine tool.

Objectives of Research
Development of a new parallel mechanism, Eclipse, to machine design that can machine the top surface and four lateral surfaces of a prismatic workpiece.

Approach
Description of the overall Eclipse structure Performance evaluation of the proposed mechanism machine tool.

Key findings
The Eclipse based machine tool allows the spindle to tilt to 90 degrees from the vertical posture, allowing the machining of the top surface and four lateral surfaces of a prismatic workpiece with one setup Actuator singularities can be avoided at tilt angles of approximately 30 and 60 degrees (overactuated mechanism)

Prerequisites for rapid machining

228

Author Citation

Baptista, R., Simoes, J. F. A. Journal of materials processing technology, 103(3), 2000, pp. 398-403

Title Keywords

Three and five axis milling of sculptured surfaces Three and five axes milling; Tool type and orientation; Surface finish and machining time

Abstract
The aim of this work is the analysis of the influence of milling parameters on surface finish. This work is of interest to both science and industry. On one hand, it tries to reduce the manual polishing time, which represents a high percentage of the production time of moulds. On the other hand, while the literature mainly refers to steel moulds, this work was carried out on aluminum because of its advantages for machining and its suitability for moulds. In small batch production the manufacturers are interested in the production of aluminum moulds. A 5 axis CNC milling machine was used for surface finishing of several parts, previously 3 axis machined, within equal cutting conditions. Different machining conditions on 3 and 5 axes finishing operations were tested. The comparison of the results allows to conclude that a better surface finish is achieved with 5 axis milling using an end mill inclined in the feed instead of the traditional 3 axis milling with a ball nose cutter. The application of the Design of Experiments technique together with multiple linear regression enables the establishment of a mathematical model of the process that gives the process parameter values that lead to the minimum machining time in order to achieve a certain roughness.

Objectives of Research
Analysis of the influence of the milling parameters on the surface finish.

Approach
Using aluminum for machining and suitability for moulds A 5 axis CNC milling machine for the surface finishing of several parts, previously 3 axis machined, within equal and different cutting conditions and compared the results

Key findings
Better surface finish is achieved with 5 axis milling using an end mill inclined in the feed instead of the traditional 3 axis milling with a ball nose cutter. Combining the experimental results with multiple linear regression gives a mathematical model of the process with parameters.

Minimum machining time

229

Author Citation

Ulsoy, A. G.; Koren, Y. and Rasmuss en, F. J Dyn Syst Meas Control Trans ASM E, 105(2), 1983, pp.107-112.

Title Keywords

Principal developments in the adaptive control of machine tools adaptive control, machine tools

Abstract
Although adaptive control (AC) systems have a tremendous potential for improving productivity in manufacturing, their acceptance by industry has been slow. The major research and development areas for AC machine tools are identified and the principal developments of the last two decades are summarized. Current research at The University of Michigan, which is aimed at the development of stable yet high performance AC systems for turning and milling, is described.

Objectives of Research
Identify The major research and development areas for AC machine tools Summarize principal developments of the last two decades Describe current research at The University of Michigan, which is aimed at the development of stable yet high performance AC systems for turning and milling

Approach
Previous research is reviewed. For current research in University of Michigan, digital simulation studies of a variable gain system is carrying out. Digital simulation and analytical studies will be extended to other structures and the most promising structure will selected and studies in further detail. Machining tests on an NC lathe and a CNC milling machine will be finally conducted utilizing cutting force measurements and manipulation of the feedrates.

Key findings
AC system can have a major impact on productivity, particularly in conjunction with developments in the non-machining parts of the production cycle. AC system must be reliable and easy to implement if they are to achieve industrial acceptance. Thus the requirements of AC systems must be considered in the design of the machine tool and the CNC controller. Reliable sensors must be developed for the hostile machining environment. AC systems can have many objectives. Simple and effective strategies should be applied initially and more advanced schemes incorporated in a modular manner as they are tested and proven. The design of parameter adaptive system is complex. The investigation of more comprehensive methods are required to obtain good performance over a wide range of cutting conditions.

230

Author

Altintas, Y. International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 34(4), 1994, pp. 461-472

Title

Direct adaptive control of end milling process Milling machines, Speed control, Motion control, Process control, Adaptive control systems, Parameter estimation, Poles and zeros, Algorithms

Citation

Keywords

Abstract
A direct adaptive control algorithm, which is spindle speed and drive dynamics independent, has been developed for machining operations. The combined dynamics of feed motion and cutting process are modeled as a third order system whose parameters may vary with spindle speed and part geometry changes during machining. The algorithm does not use any specific time interval, thus sampling time dependent discrete transfer functions and pole assignments are avoided. The adaptive controller is designed to have a closed loop characteristic function which behaves like an open loop regular and stable machining operation. The proposed direct adaptive controller is practical, can be used in any multi-axes machining, and can be combined with chatter suppression techniques which require spindle speed regulation. The algorithm is applied to the adaptive control of milling. Satisfactory results are obtained in constraining the maximum cutting forces and dimensional surface errors in milling experiments.

Objectives of Research
Development of the spindle speed or tooth period independent adaptive control strategy. Presentation of the application of the direct adaptive control to the milling force and indirect dimensional accuracy control.

Approach
Modeling of the combined feed drive dynamics and cutting process. Formulation of the direct adaptive control algorithm. Simulation and experimental of the algorithm.

Key findings
Contrary to classical pole placement controllers, the proposed algorithm does not use any specific time interval. Closed loop characteristic function of the adaptive controller is forced to behave like an open loop regular and stable machining operation. The proposed direct adaptive controller can be used in any multi-axes machining and can be combined with chatter suppression techniques.

231

Author Citation

Brussel, H. V., and Braembussche, P. V Annals of the CIRP- Manufacturing Technology, 47(1), 1998, pp. 325-328

Title Keywords

Robust control of feed drives with linear motors Machine tool, Control

Abstract
Linear, motors experience a real breakthrough for machine tool applications. Besides their outspoken advantages, they have the important drawback that load variations are directly felt by the motor. Robust controllers are needed to cope with these problems. This paper presents results obtained with two robust control schemes, one based on Hinfinity synthesis and the other on sliding mode control. Excellent robust performance has been obtained, like e.g. load changes up to 300% can be dealt with and have only a negligible influence on the tracking error.

Objectives of Research
Present two robust control scheme: one based on Hinfinity synthesis and the other on sliding mode control.

Approach
Hinfinity controller design: Weighted mixed-sensitivity approach, Selection of weighting functions Sliding mode control synthesis: Control law without discontinuous term, Selection of the parameters of the slope of the sliding line. Comparison of robust performance

Key findings
Hinfinity controller with standard weighting functions becomes unstable for a 300% load increase. The sliding mode mode controller achieves the desired robust performance. A better selection of weighting functions and desired closed-loop poles, results in sufficient robust performance for the Hinfinity and pole placement controller.

Comparison of robustness: tracking error for different load

232

Author Citation

Renton, D. and Elbestawi, M.A. Int J Mach Tools Manuf, 14(4), 2001, pp. 479 507.

Title Keywords

Motion control for linear motor feed drives in advanced machine tools High-speed machining; Linear motors; Servo control

Abstract
Minimum-time path optimization (MTPO) and minimum-time tracking control (MTTC) have previously been introduced as effective strategies for controlling high-speed machine tools [D. Renton, M.A. Elbestawi, High speed seruo control of multi-axis machine tools, Int. J. Machine Tools Manuf. 40 (2000) 539-559]. It has been argued that the effectiveness of these strategies is due to their ability to accommodate the dominating saturation effects in control of high-speed machine tools. In this paper the application of MTPO and MTTC to linear-motordriven machines is examined. It is found that the attention paid to saturation limits by MTPO and MTTC strategies provides significant performance improvements for linear-motor-driven machines. Issues such as improved stiffness to periodic disturbances, improving holding torque through heat-reducing commutation methods and improved sensor feedback are also examined.

Objectives of Research
Examine the application of MTPO and MTTC to linear-motor-driven machines with focus on the dominant small- and large- signal characteristics of linear motors Examine issues such as improved stiffness to periodic disturbances, improving holding torque through heat-reducing commutation methods and improved sensor feedback

Approach
A commercial and a custom linear motor were used as testing facilities MTTC was compared with GPC, Hoo and PD

Key findings
The advantages of a minimum-time tracking controller developed previously are clearly seen in superior disturbance rejection property. Broadband stiffness can be improved through the use of a periodic observer. Driving each winding of a permanent magnet linear motor separately enables communication strategies to be implemented which reduce the heat generated in the coils of the motor and increases the continuous holding force of the motor.

Bode plots of the closed-loop position controller

233

Author Citation

Taniguchi, N.; Tomita, Y.; Makino, K. and Sugimine, M. Annals of CIRP, 45(1), 1996, pp. 359 363.

Title Keywords

High-response XY stage system driven by inparallel linear motors Servomechanism, Electrical actuator, Position control

Abstract
We present our newly developed high-response XY stage system driven by in-parallel linear motors. Briefly described are operational principles, associated mechanical and control system design based on analysis of stage dynamics, and typical results of system performance experiments. Stepping motion with high--response and accurate positioning was obtained by incorporating a force disturbance observer and jerk--continuous trajectory generation into a conventional control system operated under PID and acceleration feed-forward compensation. Measurements of stage stepping motion demonstrate a highly suitable design, e.g., in response to 2.54-mm step-motion command, positioning error was reduced to 10 m in just 37 ms.

Objectives of Research
Develop a high-response XY stage system driven by in-parallel linear motors Demonstrate the design by evaluating the system response to a step-motion and repetitive step-motion commands

Approach
Measuring the positioning capability and dynamic behavior of the stage in response to a step-motion command. Measuring the positioning capability and dynamic behavior of the stage in response to a repetitive step-motion command.

Key findings
Advantages of the control system incorporating the force disturbance observer and jerk-continuous trajectory generation are evaluated. Experimental results show high-response and accurate positioning capability. Force disturbance observer significantly improves stage response to repetitive step-motion commands.

234

Author Citation

Weck, M.; Krueger, P. and Brecher, C. Int J Mach Tools Manuf, v41, n1, November 2001, pp.65 - 88.

Title Keywords

Limits for controller settings with electric linear direct drives Linear motor, Linear direct drive, Position control, Mechanical oscillation

Abstract
In considerations of machine tool feed axes directly driven by linear motors, the machine structure has been assumed to be ideal stiff up to now. The reason is the lack of mechanical transfer elements (ball screw for instance) which create the first dominant natural drive frequency. Raising the controller settings with electric linear direct drives with intent to improve control behavior, mechanical oscillations occur. Thus, the mechanical structure itself represents the oscillatory system. In fact, even high natural frequencies can be stimulated due to the stiff anchoring of the linear motor with the high control bandwidth. In this paper the complex interactions between control and mechanical structure are theoretically derived and verified by measurements and investigations on a test bench.

Objectives of Research
Theoretically derive the interaction between control and mechanical structure Verify this interaction through measurements on a testbench

Approach
A testbench which can be fitted with various drive systems is used Exciter forces are recorded with a strain gauge load cell. Following transformation of the force and path signals in the frequency range, the frequency response of compliance are obtained to describe dynamic behavior. Various modal analyses are performed to identify the individual types of vibration for the relevant natural frequencies of the system. A measuring principle according to the reflected light method is used for mechanical oscillation.

Key findings

The behavior of the mechanical structure must be taken into account for an evaluation of the maximum settable controller factors. The results of the experiment show a very good coincidence with the theoretical calculations. The Nyquist criterion leads to a stability condition for the speed control loop, on the basis of which the controller factors can be calculated One further condition is that the limitations of the drive (maximum motor current, maximum voltage) are not reached during normal operation, which leads to the condition for the Kv-factor

235

Author Citation

Hanna, N. H. and Tobias, S. A. Journal of Engineering for Industry, 96, 1974, p. 247-255

Title Keywords

Theory of Nonlinear Regenerative Chatter Regenerative chatter, nonlinear, stability chart

Abstract
A mathematical theory of nonlinear chatter is developed. In this, the structure is represented by an equivalent single degree of freedom system with nonlinear stiffness characteristics and the cutting force by a third degree polynomial of the chip thickness. This model leads to a second order differential equation with nonlinear stiffness and nonlinear time delay terms from which the conditions of steady state chatter are derived. These are then discussed by applying them to an equivalent system derived from experimental data pertaining to a face milling process. The theory provides an explanation for the stages in which chatter develops and also for the finite amplitude instability phenomenon.

Objectives of Research
To explore the nonlinear regions of chatter To develop a mathematical theory of nonlinear chatter, which provides explanation for the nonlinear effects such as stabilization of chatter and for the finite amplitude instability.

Approach
The structural dynamics of the machine is represented by an equivalent non-linear single degree of freedom system. The cutting forces are assumed to be a polynomial function of the chip thickness only. Equation of motion with nonlinear stiffness and nonlinear time-delay is derived.

Key Findings
Keeping the rotational speed of the workpiece constant, as the chip width is increased from zero, three ranges (unconditional, conditional, and unstable) can be distinguished. In the conditionally stable range, the system is stable for small disturbances but unstable when these exceed a certain level, which is the range in which finite amplitude instability occurs. When varying the width of cut, the level at which it starts to chatter may differ greatly from that when chatter disappears.

236

Citations
Altintas, Y. Direct adaptive control of end milling process, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture, 34(4), 1994, pp. 461-472 Baptista, R., Simoes, J. F. A. Three and five axis milling of sculptured surfaces, Journal of materials processing technology, 103(3), 2000, pp. 398-403 Bohez, E. L. J. Five axis milling machine tool kinematic chain design and analysis, International Journal of machine tools and manufacture, 42(4), 2002, pp. 505-520 Brussel, H. V., and Braembussche, P. V, Robust control of feed drives with linear motors, Annals of the CIRP- Manufacturing Technology, 47(1), 1998, pp. 325-328 Chen, J. S. and Hsu, W. Y. Design and analysis of a tripod machine tool with an integrated Cartesian guiding and metrology mechanism, Precision Engineering, 28(1), 2004, pp. 46-57 Hanna, N. H. and Tobias, S. A., Theory of Nonlinear Regenerative Chatter, Journal of Engineering for Industry, 96, 1974, p. 247-255 Kim, J. New parallel mechanism machine tool capable of five face machining, Annals of CIRP - Manufacturing Technology, 48(1), 1999, pp. 337-340 Renton, D. and Elbestawi, M.A. Motion control for linear motor feed drives in advanced machine tools, Int J Mach Tools Manuf, 14(4), 2001, pp. 479 507. Taniguchi, N.; Tomita, Y.; Makino, K. and Sugimine, M. High-response XY stage system driven by in-parallel linear motors, Annals of CIRP, 45(1), 1996, pp. 359 - 363. Ulsoy, A. G.; Koren, Y. and Rasmussen, F. Principal developments in the adaptive control of machine tools, J Dyn Syst Meas Control Trans ASME, 105(2), 1983, pp.107-112. Weck, M.; Krueger, P. and Brecher, C. Limits for controller settings with electric linear direct drives, Int J Mach Tools Manuf, v41, n1, November 2001, pp.65 - 88.

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