lntroduci ng Cultural Studies

ntrod uci ng Cultural Studies

1
Elaine Baldwin Brian Longhurst Scott McCracken Miles Ogborn Greg Smith

The University of Georg ia Press Athens

Contents

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List of Key lnfluence boxes List of Defining Concept boxes Preface: A User's Guide Acknowledgements

page xiii
xv xvii xxi

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part; Cultural theory

1

Culture and cultural studies

1 .O lntroduction 1.1 What is culture? 1.1.1 Culture with a big 'C' 1.1 .2 Culture as a 'way of lite' 1.1.3 Process and development 1 .2 lssues and problems in the study of culture 1.2.1 How do p eop le become part of a culture? 1.2.2 How does cultural studies interpret what things mean? 1.2.3 How does cultural studies understand the past? 1.2.4 Can other cultures be understood? 1.2.5 How can we understand the relationsh ips between cultures? 1.2.6 Why are some cultures and cultural forms valued more highly than others? 1 .2. 7 What is l he relationship between culture and power? 1.2.8 How is 'culture as power' negotiated and resisted? 1.2.9 How does culture shape who w e are? 1.2.1O Summary exam ples 1.3 Theorising culture 1.3.1 Culture and social structure

3
3 4 4 4 6 7 7 9 1O 12 14 15 17 17 18 20 23 25

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vi

Contents 1.3.2 The organisation of meaning Cultural st udies 31 41 43 43 44 44 45 47 49 3.2 Legitimating inequality 3.2.1 ldeology as common sense: hegemony 3.2.2 ldeology as incorporation: the Frankfurt School 3.2.3 Habitus Culture and the production and reproduction of inequality 3.3. 1 Class 3.3.2 'Race' and ethnicity 3.3.3 Gender 3.3.4 Age 3.3.5 Structural and local conceptions of power Conclusion

Conlents vii 104 105 108 11o 112 11 2 117 120 124 126 128

1.4

Communication and representation

2.0 2.1 lntroduclion Language, communication and representalion 2.1.1 The attributes of language 2.1 .2 Language, culture and thought 2.1.3 The Sapir- Whorf hypothesis 2.1.4 Sociolinguistics 2.2 Signs and semiotics 2.2.1 A semiolic analysis of a photograph 2.2.2 Roland Barthes: semiotics and myth 2.3 Advertising and representation 2.3. 1 DiHeren l types of advertising 2.3.2 A semiotic analysis of a soph isticated advertisement 2.3.3 Advertising and gender 2.3.4 Promotional cu lture 2.4 Language, representation, power and inequality 2.4.1 Language and power 2.4.2 Language and class 2.4.3 Language, race and ethnicity 2.4.4 Language and gender 2.4.5 Language as culture: language as power 2.4.6 The ethnography of speaking 2.4.7 Language as comm unication and representation: a summary 2.5 Art and represen tation 2.5.1 John Berger: oil painting, realism and capitalism 2.5.2 lmpressionism and modernism 2.5.3 Art and gender 2.6 Television and representat ion 2.6.1 The language of industrial disputes 2.6.2 Stuarl Hall: encoding, decoding and ideology 2.6.3 Television: ideology, discourse and power 2.7 Summary: reflecting and constructing

3.3

50
51 52 54 54 55 58 60 60 62 63 66 71 72 73 76

3.4

j)(lr/

Cultural studies

131 133

4 Topographies of culture: geography, power and representation

4.0 lntroduction
4.1 4.2 Cu ltu ral geog raphy 4.1.1 Cultural geography 'old' and 'new' The power of place: locality, language and cu lture 4.2.1 Philosophies of place 4.2.2 Critica! understandings of place 4.2.3 Culture, power and place: Stockholm 1880-1900 The country and the city 4.3.1 Representing the country and the city 4.3.2 Cu ltu ral images of the rural 4.3.3 The country and the city 4.3.4 Cultural images of the urban: imagining Los Angeles 4.3.5 Concl usions Culture and national identity 4.4. 1 Nations, national identity and territoriality 4.4.2 Nations as ' imagined communities' 4.4.3 Making the nation 4.4.4 lmaging the nation 4.4.5 Nationalism, landscape and women 4.4.6 Nationalism: inclusions/exclusions 4.4.7 Conclusions Orienta lism: discourses of the East 4.5. 1 Orientalsm 4.5.2 Power and geographical representation 4.5.3 Critiques of Said's Orientolism 4.5.4 Conclusions Travelling cultures, diasporic cultures and global cultures 4.6. 1 James Clifford's 'Travelling cultures'

133
134 134 140 140 143 144 148 149 149 153 154 157 157 157 158 161 162 163 165 167 168 169 172 173 174 175 175

4.3

77 77
79 80 81 82 86 89 90 92

4.4

4.5

Culture, power and inequality

3.0 3.1 ln troduction Theorising about culture, power and inequality 3 1 .1 Marx and Marxism 3.1.2 Weber, status and inequality 3.1.3 (aste societies

92
95 95 101 103 4.6

viii

Contents

Contents

ix

4.6.2 Paul Gilroy's Block Atlantic 4.6.3 Doreen Massey's 'Global sense of place' 4.6.4 Conclusions 4.7 Conclusion: separation and conneclion

1 76 178 1 79 179 181 181 182 183 183 184 185 185 188 190 193 194 195 197 199 200 203 204 208 21 1 212 213 214 214 218 219 221 221 222 222 227 233 233 235 241 250 25 7

6.3.1 Performing identilies in unconventional politics 6.3.2 The limits of transgression: The Sotanic Verses 6.4 Conclusion

257 262 265 267 267 268 271 271 273 275 276 278 284 286

Culture, time and history

5.0 1 n troduclion 5. 1 Now: modernity and the present 5.1.1 Modernity 5.1.2 Task-based time and industrial time 5.1 .3 Industrial time 5.1 .4 Time and difference 5.1.5 The paradox of modern time 5.1.6 Wornen and time 5.1 .7 Modern lime versus traditiona l time 5.1.8 Conclusion

7 Cultured bodies
ntrod uction 7. 0 1 7. 1 The social construction of corporeality 7.2 Techniques of the body: ernbodied instrumentalities 7.2.1 Mauss on body techniques 7.2.2 Feminine motility: 'Throwing like a girl' 7.2.3 Body idiom and body gloss 7.3 Culture as control: the regulation and rest raint of hu man bodies

7.3. 1 Power, discourse and the body: Foucault 7.3.2 Civilising the body: Elias 7.3.3 Eating: a disciplined ora civilised cultural practice?
7.4 Representations of embod im ent: cu lture's depiction s 7. 4.1 Fashion 7.4.2 Gender difference and representations of femininity 7.4.3 Representalions of masculinity 7.4.4 Effects of bodily representations and t he limits of
represen tation

5.2

5.3

5.4

Then: history and the past 5.2.1 History as facts 5.2.2 Marxism and history 5.2.3 History as narrative 5.2.4 M ikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin 5.2.5 Michel Foucault 5.2.6 History and difference 5.2.7 Example: 'A maiden tribu :e lo modern Babylon' 5.2.8 Past and present 5.2.9 Conclusion lr/when: the future 5.3.1 Utopa and dystopia 5.3.2 Narratives of the future 5.3.3 History and the future Conclusion

290
290 293 295 297 300 300 301 302 303 307 311 314 316 316 316 318 318 319 323 323 325 327 328

7.5 The body as a medium of expression and transgression:

culture's idiorns 7.5. 1 The em otional body 7.5.2 The sporting body 7.5.3 Body arts 7.5.4 Discoursing the fit body 7.5.5 Bodybuilding: com ic-book rnasculinity and transgressive femininity? Cyborgism, fragmen tation and the end of the body? Conclusion

Politics and culture

6.0 lntroduction 6.1 Cultural politics and politica l culture 6.1.1 From politics to cultural polilcs 6.1.2 Legilimation, representation and performance 6.2 Cultures of political power 6.2.1 The cultural politics of democracy in nineteen thcentury Britain

7.6 7.7

Subcultures: reading, resistance and social divisions

8.0 lntroduction 8.1 Subcultures: power, divisions and interpretation 8.2 Deviants and gangs 8.2.1 Deviance and subculture 8.2.2 Mike Davis: gangs in Los Angeles 8.3 Folk devils, moral panics and subcu ltures 8.3. 1 Stanley Cohen: Folk Devils and Moral Panics 8.3.2 Moral panic today 8.4 Youth subcultures in British cul tural studies 8.4.1 Resistance through Rituals: the general approach

6.2.2 Perform ing identities in conventional politics 6.2.3 Bureaucracy as culture 6.2.4 Performing sta te power 6.3 Cultures of resistance

x Contenls
Phil Cohen: working-class youth subcultures in East London 8.4.3 ldeology and hegemony 8.4.4 Structures, cultures and biographies 8.5 Three studies from the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies 8.5. 1 Paul Willis: Leorning to Lobour 8.5.2 Paul Willis: Profane Culture 8.5.3 Dick Hebdige: Subculture: The Meoning of Style 8.6 Youth subcu ltures and gender 8.6. 1 The teenybop culture of romance 8.6.2 Pop music, rave culture and gender 8.7 Youth subcu ltures and race 8.7. 1 Simon jones's Block Culture, Whil e Youth: new identities in multiracial cities 8.8 The Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Stud ies and youth subcul tures: a general critique 8. 9 Aspects of contemporary youth culture 8.9. 1 Symbolic creativity 8.9.2 Postmodernism and youth culture 8.9.3 Rave and dance cu lture 8.9.4 Going out and extending youth 8.1O Rethinking subcultures: interactions and networks 8.1 1 Fans: stereotypes, Stor Trek and opposition 8.1 1.1 Fans of Stor Trek 8.1 1 .2 Fans of daytime soap opera 8.12 Conclusion: from resistance to ide11tity and performance 8.4.2 335 337 338 339 339 340 341 342 34 4 345 346 347 348 352 352 352 354 356 357 358 359 361 362 364 364 365 367 367 372 375 377 377 378 381 383 385 387 9.6 9.7 9 .5.1 The tourist gaze 9.5.2 Postmodernism and post-tourism The glimpse, the gaze, the sean and the glance Visual interaction in public places 9.7.1 Categoric knowing: appearential and spatial orders 9.7.2 Unfocused interaction, civil inattention and normal appearances ln terpreting the built environment 9.8. 1 Marshall Berman: modernity, modernisation and modernism 9.8.2 Reading architecture 9.8.3 Reading the landscape of taste 9.8.4 Reading cities: legibility and imageability 9.8.5 Reading landscape and power Visual cu lture and postmodernity 9. 9.1 Postmodernism and capitalism: Fredric jameson and David Harvey 9.9.2 jea n Baudrillard : simulacra and hyperreality 9.9.3 Digitalisation and the future of representation Summary

Contents xi
387 389 391 392 393 395 398 398 40 1 408 409 41 1 412 412

9.8

9.9

413
416 417 419 422 450

9.10

Afterword Bibliography lndex

9 Visual culture
9.0 9.1 9.2 lntroduction Visual culture and visual representation Modernity and visual culture: classic writers and key themes 9.2. 1 Georg Simmel: metropolitan cu lture and visual interaction 9.2.2 Walter Benjamn: mechanical reproduction, aura and the Pars arcades 9.2.3 The figure of the flneur Technologies of realism: photography and film 9.3. 1 The development of photography and film 9.3.2 The documentary tradition 9.3.3 Coln MacCabe: the classic realist text 9.3.4 Laura Mulvey: the male gaze Foucault: the gaze and surveillance Tourism: gazing and postmodernism

9.3

9.4 9.5

List of K e y lnfluence boxes

1.1 1.2 1.3 2. 1 2.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 5.1

Raymond Williams Michel Foucault Antonio Gramsci Roland Barthes Stuart Hall E.P. Thompson Karl Marx The Frankfurt School Richard Hoggart David Harvey Paul Gilroy Edward Said C.L.R. james

5 28 38 52 88 96 97 109 113 156 166 168 191

5.2 Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakh tin 6.1 bell hooks 6.2 judith Butler 6. 3 Julia Kristeva 6.4 Max Weber 7.1 Donna Haraway 8.1 Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies 8.2 Angela McRobbie 9.1 Georg Simmel 9.2 Walter Benjamin

202 223 231 232 243 313

327 343 368 373

xiii

Lis t of Defining C oncept

boxes
1.1 Psychoanalysis 1.2 Structuralism and poststructuralism 1.3 Discourse 1.4 Semiology and semiotics 2.1 Representation and rea lism 2.2 ldeology 3.1 Power 3.2 Hegemony 3.3 Feminism 4.1 Essentialism and difference 8 24 30 34 61 84 94 106 120 138 4.2 Space, place and landscape 4.3 Globalisation-hybridity 5.1 Colonialism and postcolonialism 6.1 ldentity 6.2 Resistance and transgression 7.1 Ritual and symbolism 8.1 Cultural capital and habitus 9.1 Modernity, modernism, postmodernity, postmodernism 141 159 189 224 258 288 355

400

XV

Preface: AUser's Guide

\\\ think tha t cu ltu ral S!Udit' i' Olll' of tlll' 1110~t ~tI11UiatII ~ < trc a ~ o f" act il'il l' 111 intcllt:n ual li le. lt is als< so an<thi t1 g th:ll is ~ tucli<:d a t cl ii'Jl:rtn t ltHI,, J rming a n IH' proli lc o l 111:1 11\' ltllil'crsity COUI"\('\, J ltt' l'l' < 1l't' 111<\ ll\ b oo k.~ ()JI illlpOrt <lll( pat 1 or L cullllnt l .. tud ic, , ll m,el't'r. a-. lit l!.t\t' fou nd in m ar own ttacll ing. tll ere is 110 in trodurtion lo tite lield tltat ,eeJ.,, w olf<t an mt'tYicw :tll(l txploaation o( ~omc of tlw 1110'-L imponam a1en ues of' 1 e~caa eh in thc fidd- hcnn: th b book. 11hich dcliberateh and lt'tY consciou h' seb out tu be: a tc~thoo k for studtnts wlto an ~tuching cultural ~Ludie'"" pan of a u niHrsitl courst. In stekin){ LO ' 'Tite an introch tnio n ,,e ha\'e nu t at te 111 ptcd to bt complctc l) compnhcnsiiT. \\'e think that \\'l' con: r thc nwst importan! :t ' ( WCI ~ o f cultural q ucl ic~. but lllt itll <ttd)' this Can 01111' be OUt' illtC' I'prc tatiUil u f" tlll' licJcJ. ll'l'ill l'll f"ro rn particu lar s t : II Hi point ~. \\'('han organbcd tlt t book into ni tH' chapttT'- d il'iclcd into lll'o p:II'L S. Pan l. 0 11 cultur:tl theory. contain ~ tlt n t r hapl lTS. In thc ri rst 1\'l' itlll'lld UCl' su tn e di lfe retll tntan i n~s o l' tite con cep t of" n tl tn n :tncl !111: i:-'-llt'' ari,i ng (roan tltc:st nH:>an ings. Tlti~ ll'acb 11~ tn poilll lo tite imponanct o ( cultu ral studit')> a~ an ac tii'tl that produce~ knoldt:dgt that ~eparate di.,cipline~ cannot. Our mm disciplinan training ami affiliaton s \~11'\', tak ng in anthropologY. 'ociolog,. geogmph~ an d l.ngli-.h. ancl we continut 10 110rk in uni\'ersity depanmenb thal 1d lect discipline'. 1-lo11ewr. \\t' \\'Oltlcl all auest lO the '''aY' in wh ich nu r contac t~ 11 it h cultu ra l suaclies h aH~ changl'<l lhe "'"''' in 11 hich ,,e thin k. ttach <tll(l re~ea rc h . 1n Ch apt er 2 I H' exami ne so am impon :1111 ;t ~ p ec t s nr con1munic:11io n a nd re?presentalion , illll'<llh tcing critica ! SS11l'' ur lang uagc andlllt':llling . This is l'o liOI\'l'cl bl' a chapter conct' l'lt N l ll'i th mult iple el i nH n ~ i o n ~ :111 d tlwories u f pnwl'l' and i mqnal i11'. T oge ther tht th rtt chapter:> in Pan 1 addrt'" ianpo rt<ull gen eral iNtl'S :t nd d cba lt:-' in cultural ~ltldic~ and p rovide a m ap around 1hem. In lhese chaptc:r;.. and in tlw rest uf thl' book. ll'l' an particularh concerned with the dil'i~ion of cu lture along tht linc-; of cla~s. raCL' am i getHkr. Paat 11 of thc book contaim ~i' chapter:- ,,h ich txamitw in 'onw de tail diffcrcn t din1('n'ions o l cult ure. O m of thl mo~t ~igninn1111 dt,elupautnb in tht' humanitits and xvii

xviii

Pre face

Preface

xix

~oci a ! ~cicncc~ in rennt ll'll'S has been thc incre<~~ecl auen tion lO the imponance of ~pace 0111d tim<'. lndctcl. W<' 1\'0IIId argue that cultural swdies h01~ bccn an intpOI ta t\l

mpetu;; bchind ~11 ch clt'\ do (>lllcnt . \\'e rc fkc t lh('Sl' COIICl'l n~ in C h a p ter,<, -J .1nd .-l. wh ic h pointto lh l 11a~~ in11hich coll!e mpo ra ry cult lll'l' canno 1 b e u n d er toud witho tll ~ig nifka nt a tte ntio n l O ~pncc, pince, con ce ptio n s o f' time a llCI social cha nge. Q f ru ur~c t h e se acade m ic cl<,d oprntn IS are con te xtu;tlisccl b~ 1he inc rcascd p ace of con te m pora rv lifl' ancl tlw t'i\Sl' of comnntnicatio n a ncl lra1cl which a re produc ing n c ,, cx p e ri c n ccs of tinl t: :tnd spacc. :\nothcr im port:Hll lthi f't in conte mporary cull\11 e a llCI th c Sllld)' of it h a~ bl'l'H a rcddini tion of politic,. Oftcn ari ~i n g fr om 1hc n c11' socialmol'e men ts of the 19C)O, and aftcr, th t'IT i~ no11 an unclcr~ 1 a n d i ng of th e \\'ay in " h ic h poli t ic~. as actii't\' concern ccl 1dth po1rcr. i all .mwnd 11~. In Ch apter 6 11e cJdre~ ; n u mbcr of i'sues raisecl b1 thi cx pamion and chan~l' in th t mca n ing o f poli ti c~. .\ no th c r ~ igni fi ca nt area o f con cern in con tc m pnrary lifc is the bocl~. \\'e :tl'l' a ll awa rt: of thc state orour boclit:s a nd th e f'o rms o f tre<liiiiCitl l'o r th c m ll'hen they :m;' n nt t'tul c t i nnin~ a de quatl'l~ 1\to rt:OI'Cr the re is illc rc ased clcbatc around IH.'II" techno log-ics of he ding <ltl el bod~ a ltc ra i ion. Ag ain. c ult mal stud les ha~ be e n in th c 1an g uard of' considc nttio n o l' ~O I II(' or thesc issu es - a con ccrn r c fl cncd in th e subjec t matt l'r of C h a ptc r 7. Cultu re can ot'ten h l ~ccn as a ll c n co m pa.<;..~ in g in th a t ma n y th in gs a n cl actil'it ic . ' are sccn to be pan of a cultu r e. 1l m\'e,cr, cu ltures arL' (so cli1id ed a long the fines of rlass, racc. gender am i agc .111d. a~ ,,e ha1e suggested. b1 )pace ami ti m e. One imponantwa\' of discussing am i charauerising su ch d i1ision s is th ro ug h the concept o f su bcultu rc. C:ha ptcr H is d t:nn tdto th is area. In p llrticu lar it exami nes work on youth su bc ultu res. Thc fin al c hapt t'r of th c b ook r e tmns 10 son1c o f th e ~,u es o f re prcstnta ti o lt n utlinccl in Part l. L',ing idc.s abo ut tech n o log ica l c hange and broacl shift s in culture, \\'C adclre ss imponan t d c l'l lopme m s in ,-~ttal cu lt ure. Pa n of o ur con cem h tre i~ to loca te f'o nns o f l'istml rc prcsenlatio n allCI the l'iswtl asp ects n f c1 cryclav i ntc r actio n his to rica ll ~ ancl spa ti a ll~. T h a t is th e outli llt' o f tlll' ~t ntctu re a nd con tent of our bool... \\'e c xpecttha t you ll'ill rcacl th o~e chapter~ t hat mmt in tcrc 1 you o r ,,.IJ b e of moq use at a n y one time for a panicu hu purpose. T o fac iliwtc th c use of th c bool... liT h:11c l unh e1 d i,id ed all thc ch a pter~ intn o;cctiOJh. \ 'ou ,,.JI fi n d cxtensi,e croo;s-re fercncing betwecn c h ll pter~ .111d ~ec ti ons, but it is al~o im p ortant that yo u use t h e tab lc of conte nts :~n d th c in dex f'o r th c~c purposes as wd l. T h t sectio n s o f c h a pte rs c a11 be read o n th e ir 0 \\'11 , but vott ,,.JI a lsn fi nd that tit e~ fit int o an a rg ume nt Lhat is d e ve loped throt lg h a c hap te r. \\'e ha,c indml<:d o th < r typcs o f d el'icc s to COIII't')' o t1r ideas: figure~. cling rants, cartOOIIS, photographs o f' hui ldings. m o numc 1111. o r painting.-, discu ssecl in thc text nncf ta blcs. \\'e h an a l!'n in ch1ckd thrcc typ es ofbox: Ke~ J nflu c n ccs. Dcfining Conr q ns ;ntd Extrac ts. \ (m 11 il1 ilncl concq >ts ancl people ll'h o are boxccl high lig htcd in bnld in th c tcx t. for exampl<' Donna H araway. Dl'fining Conccpt bOXl'S pro1id e a n mcn icll' to h dp gcmI.Ht a ba~ic uudtr~tanding. Extract hoxn incl uck matc1 ial that , of't<'n thtn cJi,rus~ecl in the ll' Xl. hut ,,hic h 11<' t h in k alsn rl'pa'' IIICII'l' <k tailccl "lllch on \OU t part. Kl'l l nfluence bn:-.n addrt"~ thc mos t salien t :lsptrt.; of' the lik a n cl 1\'nrk of ~o me o f' t lll'

1 n:~ot thinl..er' in cu ltural ~wdil- . \\"l' h.tH'IIl'd inth e~c to IIHhtdt thlt'l' difll'rtnttlpe' ol 11tll'l : li r;;t. tho~(' who h.t\'l' bt'l' n panicuhuh impol'l:tllt in thl' cll'll'lopmt' llt of c ullu ra l <;tudit' (cxamples ind\l(k Ric harcl ll ugg-art. E. P. rh 11111p~on ancl Rm monrl \\'illia m"); ~tcond . th o~e a utltOI' " (u h i,t oricall~ initi:t tl'rl lli(>Uit.tn t ~l' n era l approa c h e ' th.Hil<tl'l' S tlb ~C'C]tt e nth bcl' ll d ('l'l'ln ll'cl or influc ntial in cu ltu1al ' t ud i l'~ (exa mpl e~ hcr<' a n K.trl :\lar:-. . :\ lic hc l Foucau lt, ~la x \\"d w r and C. I .. R. Jt llll'S): finalh , th e re :tl t th o~t " h o arl' c urre nth- pa n i r ipa tin ~ in th l' rl'd e ,e lo pmtnt uf c ul tura l ' llldic ' a ' it lxco na.; 111n rc :t lll' nti H to i"ll t"' etf tW il d n. r<t ce . po~ tco lon i:tl ,111. e ultu ra l lll'bridi ll' a n cl ~o on. ~u e lt a~ _l udi tlt Bu t kr . . \ ngl ht :\ lt Rnbbic. P<lltl (; lt o 1 a n cl Ldward a id . 1 hi~ approaclt ntean' that tlw maj01 i11 of our Kc1 l nlluttH l' i)Cl:-.<'' reprl'sent 11 hiH mtn. \Otm of 1dtom are Ion~ ck.td . Thi' in it-ell reflcct' th e d<ll'lopntt'lll ol' tltl' fidcl and tlw po,,<r 'lrttggft, that ,(Japl' it. \\'l, ll'i,h tltat tltl ,u,nion ,,ert othen,i-e. Jl mll'll'l . it i~ )Jl'rhaps of -onw ,jgn ific.tiHT th :n l'\'Cn lll:tll\ o f th1 ,,hi t<' nwn '''t'l<' m arg-i n al to 1 11ai mt rt am acackm ic 1 ifl'. \ \ \ an a J,o con '-CPtl ' ol' 'O ill <' of 1h e n. lmts 1ha t <ll't' nli ~s i ng ( fn r e :-.a111 pk Derrid a. 1.~ nta rcl . .Jan1 c~c 111 ). ,,lt irlt 111.1~ llll'all li ttl l' to I 'OU a t tit e 1 1tonwut. btll ll' h ic h 1'011 wi ll Cllllll' ar ro " in t h i ~ book ami oLltt l'' \ 'OII ~tad . l lm,cTcr. '''l' lt:ll'l' tril'd L o ho x tl1nst ptopk ldtn'l' id<'a' <trc mns t u~ cd in th c hook. rd l(< ting- thc scn'e tlta t thi' i' our HT~i o n u f c ulttt r:tl 'utdi<~. .\llth e Kc1 lnflue iH'l' a u d l kfi ni n~ Conccpt hma, co11ta in f11r tl te1 t'l'.tclillg t lta t c:u1 bl' u,td 10 deepcn thc tt lldtr'tall cling uf the con cq>ts. apprnadtt'' a ncl JWoplt t ltl'' con tain. \\'e lta\'t' al~n induclecl ,, guick lo funher l't'ading lor tlll' ll''t of th e hool.. al tltl' end of t.tc h chapter.

A cknowledgem ents

.-\11 book' a re th t.: produc ts o l' a numhcr of inf luc nces. Tcx tbooks a re C l 'l' l1 ltWrt .so. \Jan ~ pcoplc OI'Cr 111 0 l'l' ~c:.::n, tha n ,,e \\'otdcl carc to re me mbe r han al'f\:cttd thi ~ book. \\'e \\'ould likc l o btgin b) ack no \\'led g ing- 1his ge ne ra l d e bt. \ are :1 l~>o p:ut in da r ll gra t<ful to the :monytn ou' rdt rtes for 1h e i1 lw lpful commc nts. Ela inc Bald,,in ,,o ul d likl tu than " lt<'l' collcagues for the ir con tribu tion 10 1h l ''Ti ting of 1hc boo". Bri:-. n l.ongluust 1\'0illcl likt 10 thank 1he ~lltdents 11'110 h:-.1( ,,orkcd 1\'i h h im un tlw m:-. terial in lh'\ book. Pa t tiru lar thank~ are due 10 J ulic \\'cir for pctmi,~ion 10 u~r her excellen1 p hotograph\. . \~ a l\\';1\, h i~ biggest dehts mT 10 Bcrn:~deu e Ox ley. Jaml~ Oxle1-Longhur"1 ancl Tim Oxln-Longh urst for sh:-..-ing it all. con \ lcCrackc n ,,ould like 10 thank for their con1rib11tion~ and c n lh tt,i:l,lll. tlw swdcnl'\ on E ngli~h ancl Cu l un~d . tmlic~. o n Sociolo~ :-.nd Culnu~l Sluclit<; ancl on thl ~1.-\ in Culwml , tudil~ at the L'n inr~itv of , alford. Panicular thank' go w C:lorgin.l \\'a~l<-n for her <;uppon. \ liks Ogbotn 11ould likl to than" Ph il C.t-:lug.John Gou ld. Cat hl'rinc 1\'a~h. ancl tht sccond a ncl 1h i1 el ~ tar Cu ltural Gtograph, ~~ ude n ts at Qucen \ latY and \\'e~t li c Id Collegt for t heir com t lll' ll l~ on l'nrlier wr, iom o f c h np1cr -1. Greg Smit h ll'oulcl li kt l o tltank .Julie .Ju nes fo r comme m s o n an <arl~ d raf't of Chap ll' l' i :ntd .Jason Rutt l'r for as.s ist;n1ce 11ilh C ha p te r :t Cra1 cfu l ac kn ml'l eclgc m t' tH is madc 1 0 the fo llm,ing som ccs f'o r pc nnissiotl l o repro du ce m a te ria 1 in tlt i' book. El'e ry d Tort h a~ he e n m a de 10 1r< tce cop)'l'ig'lt 1 h o l ciLr~. but il any ha1e bntt inaclnrtt' llll)' m t rl o okLd 1h e publishe r ll'illlw pk:tsecl 10 makl' tite ll CCl'Ssary arra ngtlll{'lll :11 th t lirsl o pponttnit~. Box ~. 1 : re p m dttncl by ptrmissio n of Seckc r & \\'arbu rg, a nd C u n is Brown cm beha lf of Dal'id Lnclgc. Box 2.:'>: reprud uced by ptrmis~i o n uf :\larion B o~ars Publi, h trs. Bo:-.. 2.7: rcproduccd ))~ ptrm i" ion ol 13r itis h ocio logical .-\ssocia1io n. Figure 2.:~: flgtt l'e from ':\ IIth rodal' from ;\ ll'l hologic' b1 Robnd Ban lws. trans la ted b1 :-\n ne tte l.al'('r~: lramla timt CO))I'l'ighl 1!172 bi.Jonat lta n Cape Lld: reprinlcd bl' permi~sion or llill ami \\'an){. a dili!'ion ol F.IIT<tr. S1m u ~ & Giroux. lnc., ancl Ra nclom ll ousc. Figure 2. 1:
xxi

xxii

Acknowledgements

n produccd b1 pt'l'llli,,ion of.fackie Fkming. Figure ~ ..): IL'j>HJdlllt'd b1 plnni,.;ion of Rmllkdgt & Kq~an Paul. Figure 2.1): rcproduced ll\ C0\11 ((_'" or tht rru~ll't''- T lw :"\;uional Callln. Lonclon. Figure ~-~= 199H. Thl' . \11 llhtitute o f C:hirago: reproclmLcl h" pltmi"ion. Box :t2: I'('(>IOdllll'd bl penni'<<:ion ur Cambrid~l' L' nh ei\I~ I'H''' Box :t:~: exllaCI from 'lllill'l,tn 'Pl'll' mi~en fm ~ million b1 Donald \f ad.cocl. 1 .Juh 1!1!17: Tlt1 (;urmlinn. 19!17. Figurt, 1.1 & 1.~: Johu Lcighh. 1991 . Figure -1.-1: reprocluncl h1 nHtl'le:o.\' of th e rru'l<'l'!oo. The :"\ational (;alkrv. Lundon. figure -1..): (;"(1(//lott\/l!ll'jllll!f. 1epmcluced h1 IH' IIlli~'i on n i l he 1 kar~l Corpnr;uion. Figur<'' l.li & l. 7: rcprodurcd lw pe1111i~~ion o[ "lla :"\ational (;allcn ni ln: land. Figure I.H: rcproclucecl b, wnni,,io n n i the \lu~c du l.n uHl', T:1i>l v 1.1 : IL'procluced h1 [Jl nui>sinll o J' .\rn o ld. Figlll'l' ;", 1: n produrnl b~ pt nnission ol' T h <" \ (u.;l'lllll uf' \ 1odl' l ll . \1 L. :\l'l\' Yor k: . \l > h~ .\1dri c li Rurkdl'i ln Fuucl: 199R T h t \ h ht' lllll o l'\lndtln .\1l. :\l'l\' \'orl-. Fig u rt' li. l. li.2 & ().:{: I'L'>rnclutTcl h\' fK' rlllission of P:\ :'\LII'S. Fig u rt li. 7: rqmH lu cccl b\ w mi s~ ion o J' lllL' \ lus(-c C;m ;mlk-l. Paris. Box N. l: rcprncl uce<l ll\ f> <'l'lllissiou ol Ru ull cd ~c K Kq{a ll 1 \u d . l3u" H.~: (tt'X I) re prnd 11('('([ 1 )\ w n ni"ion or RouLlcdge S..: Kcg-:1 11 1'a ul: ( phologi.IJ)II 'l re procl uced bl' pt'llll i s~ ion ol Cttt' lnagts. Box N.~: rcprud und h, ( )l'l'lllis~ion o l Rnut kclgt S..: '''gan I'.HII. 1\o-.; .~. 1: 1l-prnd11nd b~ pt'llllissinn e>1 Hl ack11l'll P11h1ishl'l ' Figurt H.J: 1 \'produttd h\ JH'IIIl\Sion o l \'(.'('\(), Figllrt' H.2: l'('prudund b\ pt>lllli~,jnn or Bl:tck\\'l'll PuhJi,IH'I ' Fi).\tllc H.:t reproducecl b1 penni,o;ion uf Black\\'dl Piibli,htr,, Figun R-1: rq)l odund h1 ptJmi~~i on ol Routkdgc &: Kq~an P.1ul. :\tllnbtJ'ld li't on p. :12-1: 1tp odund b1 IWIIll\\on ol Hlad.,,d1 Publisher,. Box !1.:\: 1ep10dund b1 pcrmis~ion of Dukc l' niH~ I ,, P1e". Box 9. 1: reproduccd b1 pcnn ission of \ l iT P1e:.,. Fil.(llll' 9. 1: ll'P' oduced b1 pc1111,,iun uf l'lnguin Hook': .\lan Shcri<bn. 1977. 1a bit 9.:\: nprocluced b1 pt'lllli"ion ol ~agt l' ublicationo; and J L' rn. Tah1l' !l. 1: rcpruclund IJ\ ptJmi~~ion o( Bl.ttl-.1\l'll l' uhli'li l'l''. :\ulllhertd lb1. p . .JO 1: Briti-h Soriulogiral .\"tll'iatiu n: np oclmnlll\ fH'I'IIIi"ion of Camb1idgl' L' ni\ersitl l' n''

part l
Cultural theory
l. Culture and cultural studies 2. Communication and representation 3. Culture, power and inequality
poge 3
43

92

chapter

Culture and cultural studies

J.Q j lntroduction
Cultural studies is a new way of engaging in the study of culture. Many acaclemic subjects have- \ long brought their own disciplinary concerns to the study of culture; chief among them are ( anthropology, history, literary stuclies, human geography and sociology. H ~eve r, over the past ~d~ad es or so there has been a renewed inlerest in the study of culture which has crossed ~pl inary boundades. The resulting activity, cultural studies, has emerged as an intriguing and exciting area of intellectual activity which has already shed irnportant new light on the character of human cultures and which promises to continue so to do. 'vVhile there ls lillle doubt that cultural studies is coming lo be widely recognised asan important and distinctive fiel d of study, it does seem lo encompass a potentially enormous area. This is because the term 'culture' has a complex history and range of usages, and thus it has provided a legitimate focus of inquiry for severa! academic disciplines. In order to begin Lo delimit the field which this textbook considers, we have divided this chapter into four main sections: 1.1 A discussion of some leading definitions of culture.

1.2 An introduction to the core issues raised by the definitions and study of culture. 1.3 An analysis of some of the principal occounts offered to date which address these core issues. 1.4 An outline of our view of the developing field of cultural studies.
By comrnencing our book in this rnanner, we hope to show the complexity of the field of culture and to begin to provide a map of the importan! issues. We shall consider some of the ways in which these issues have been addressed in studies of culture in order to define ancl explcate the new and developing field of cultural studies.

Learning objectives
To learn the different definitions of the concept of culture.
3

4 lntroducing Cultural Studies To identify the principal issues in the study of culture. To learn about sorne of the leading theoretical perspectives in cultural studies.

Culture and cultural studies 5

Key influenre

J.J

R aymond Williams (1921 - 88)

J.J

What is culture?

cl~~ ~ l op rl lt'lll ( 1. 1 .:~).

1 hl ll'l"lll 'u11l1nT ha' a compllx hi~tol~ .111d clinr,e r.111gc of llll'.\lling:. in contenlporan cli~rour,e. Cu lture can reflT to Shake,peare or Supcrman cumir'. optr.t or foo1ba ll. 11ho cloc' the ,,.,.,hing-up .11 hom~: or 1hc urg-ani,atiun of thc offiu of d1e Pn.:~i dl'lll of lh< L'nilt'd ~1.111'' ol' .\llltTic.L Cu ltu re i> founcl in nn1r loca l Sll'l't'l, in ~our mm ci t1 ancl rotllll n. " ll'l'll '" 011 tht udwr ~icle t>f thc worlcl. ~ n aal l r h i l clren . tnn.lgtr;., aclult- .nacl tlckr pvupk a ll h;1 w 1h l'ir ,11,11 cultur<'s: baat 1hcy mayal"' shar1 :1 na 1 1urt. 1 'taclth of'the term . it i.s <'SSl'11li:d 10 h1gi 1 1 In 11') ing to <ltfi ne ,,IJ at (;i,v11 tht l'I II L11l l> n 1lll1 1 'l' ,, C:ul tlllt' i ~ ;1m1rcl th:u ha, g rmm on-r the Ct: ntur i e~ tn 1v:Hh i1' prL.~L nt broucl 11 1l'i 11liug. Onc of' lhl' f'o 1ntde ro.; o l ca tl t11ra l s1udics in Brita in. Rnymoncl Williams (p ..'1) , fl a, 11':\nd li H: clnl'fopilll'lll OJ thc COI1t'<'j)l <llld j)l'<ll'icltd ill\ inffl 1 t'III< tf OI'C it-ring or LS mod('m ll'l'' Oi ll.<idc tht 1 \illtlr:t l scien ces. tll<' te nn 'cullll rt' i..; chidh' tl,vtl in tlll'l'l' rt'1:11 lc 1 ~ d i..;ti 1 \t 1 w 11 \t'~ 10 re f1 to: 1he an' :1ml an is1ir acti1i1~ ( 1. 1.1) : thl' ka1md. pri lllill if~ \\ lllbofic f'cat111'{'.\ uf a J><11'tCUiar 1\'a\' of' fi f'v ( ( . f .~): <IIH ( a j>I'OCl'~~ of

fu_.l) Culture with a big 'C'

In t'\'tnd.ll' r,tlk. tt1hun. i' bdieHd to cothisl ofthc 'lwtk:. ancl pracricn. ol'imdlcctu.tl nnd t'spccialh :uti'-lic ac1i\11 . thus cultltl'l' i~ the 1\'0rd that dc!.rribcs mu~iL, lilerature, painting and ,nalpturl. tlwatrc and film' ( \\'illianl~. 19S~b: 90). ( ultun in thi\ \l'll~e il, 1dckh hdil'l'('d w llllltl'111 nfinecl' pur!.Hit~ in \\hich tlw cululrecl' pl'I\Oil cngagc:..

~ .1

3.J Culture as a 'way of life'

\

n tl 1c: 1111111an ~citnn, the ll'orcl 'cnltllrc ha~ achicl'ccl II'd(' CII IH'IlO 1 0 rcf'er tu tl w cT(';H itlll allCiu.-;c of'sp ubols (p.~~~) 1dtich clisting ub h a pa ni cular ,,a~ uf lifc, wlwther ora peopk , n pcric>d o ra gru11p. o r humani11 in ge lllTal' (\ \'illiams, 1 91:t~b: HO). Onh htiiiW IIS, i1 i.~ of'tl'll argu('(l. ar~: capable ofcre;ui ng ancllrall\l llilling c1il 1un :u1cl we ar~ abh- lo d o this hl'Ctusc ''T LTl'illt:: a nd use sy1 nbols. llu mans pm'l'~' a ,~rnbol i,i ng ' -capacily whic lt is tl ll' ba ~i s of our cultural bcing. \\'Jial , 1lH'II. iS a M lllbof? ft is 11hc11 1 wopJe agrcc lhat SOII\l' II'Orcl ()!' dr:lii'ilg 01' .{L'\1111'1 ' wi ll sl:tnd f'or ti tlwr :tn idea (lor examplc a pcr~on , likl' a pilo t). oran objl'ct (a box. lill l'X:t lnpk). or n ftTiing (like contempl). \\'hcn 1hi' ha' bt'l'll clont:. rhcn a '~m bol COI II'l'l ing a 'ha red icl<a has btcn crcatcd. Th c~e ~laared idea~ an. .w mbolicall\' 11ll'cli:necl 01 t' 'P1l'"-l'd 1hrougla " rllboli,m: for ex.1ntple. b1 a 11orcl in the ra~t' of''pilot:. or b1 .1 clra\\ ing- 10 ronn1 1hc icll'a of a box. or IJI a 1-{<'S IIIre 10 con1 l'\ rnntl'lllpt: ancl it is

Raymond Williams was a Welsh cultural analysl and literary critic. His 'serious' allention ti ) 'ordinary culture' was a key influence on lhe development ot the idea of cultural sludies, of which he is normally seen as a founding figure. Born into a Welsh working-class family, Williams studied at Cambridge befo re serving as a tank commander in lhe Second World War. He returned to Cambridge after the war to complete his degree. He taught for the Workers' Educational Association during the 1950s, before returnng to Cambridge lo take up a lectureship in 1961 . He was appointed Professor of Drama in 1974. Williams's earliest work addressed questions of textual analysis and drama and can be seen as reasonably conventional in approach, if not emphasis. His influence was enhanced and reputalion made by two key books: Culture and Societv (1963) and The Long Revolulion (1965). The former f;'examined a range of iluthors to chart the nature of the formation of ~as a response to the dcvelopment of indlJstrialism. The latter pointed to the democratic potenlial of the 'long revolution' in culture. Williams distanced himself from the elltist and conservative perspectives of F.R. Leavis and T.S. Eliot in argulng for both socialist transformation and cultural democracy. Williams emphasised these themes ir'I....CommunJca lions (1962) which also contained sorne proto-typical media analyss. Television wa; lhe subject of tl;e later Television: Teclmology and CultumLEamlil21.11 which introduced the concept of 'flow'. From lhe 1960s on, Williams's work became more influenced by Marxism, resulling in_M.arxism and Lilerature (197]J ~1 ! His Tl!t.S.otmtry and t~e City (1973a) greatly inJiuel)~ed subsequenl interdisciplinary work on space and place. H1s vast corpus of work (including over thirty books) also addressed drama, cultural theory, the environment, the English novel, the developmenl of language, leftist politics and, in the period before his death, Welshness. He was al so a prolific novelist. The impact of Williams's rather dense and 'diHicult' writings was"ofteo)n terms of his overall aeproach, cultural materialiso1, and emphasis rather than in U1e detail of his analyses. Hlslifelong commilmenllo socalism, combined with the desire for cultural communicalion and democracy, was greatly attractive to a generation of leftists. ij!uurre~at~s is enhanced by the use of his concepl of ;_~uct~ of fee~~[. to_::udx various pheno~ena from lfefarytexts to urban ways of life.

Furlh.er reading
Willlams wrole a vasl <1mount, so much so that his identily has been seen as lhat of 'writer'. The flrst reference is a revealing sel or inlerviews, which combine the lile and work. Willia[)ls, R . (1979) Politics ond Letters: lnterviews with New Left Review, London: New left Eldridge, 1. and Eldridge, L. (1994) Raymond Willioms: Making Connectiom, London: Routledg~ lnglis, F. (1995) Roymond Wil/iams, london: Routledge.

Book~

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Culture and cultural studies

thesc nwan in).{' that make up .1 c u lture .. \ '1mbol def in e~ \\'h:t l 'omcth ing mea n s. a , ing-lt' '1111bol m a~ h aH m a m m ca ni11 gs. Fnr cxample. a fl .tg m ay ta ncl for :1 m ;Hcri:tl lnt il\' likc a cu un 1n nu<l an abs1rac 1 1a lu v su c h as patriolisnl. To sllldy c u lt11n S t lll" lO :t'K \\ hal s th l' lll l';t llII !;' o f a .'l ~ [t- e (' d r t'SS. a Cuele oJ' lll< IIII HTS. a place. , la ug u agc. a norm o( rondutt. ,, w~tl'lll o( lwlil-1'. a n a r chiteCllll .il stdc. ancl so nn. Languagl'. both 'poktn and 111iiH'n. , ob1iou'h .1 1,,,, n: po~iwn o( 'lllii>Ois butthcn <1rt' ;t11~ lllllllhCr of thing-; that lunction a' "lllbok fl.tg,, hair~t~Je,, 10<1d "'igns. smile,, B~ l\\\. b1hines~ '11i1s - tht li'l i., Lndks:>. l ;iw n th e \\a~ lha t \\'l' h an d i,L'IL' .' l'd c ultu l'l' '" l: tr. it mig ht be 1h o ng h1 tlwt culturv i ~ l'l\'1 '\ thin g a tid t' l'l'IYII'h l tc. l n ck e d . som e ap pro ac h l's to t h c swcly u f c ulture ta kl' !>llc h a p n, itio n . espccia lh. J'u 1 in ~ 1 a n ce. th o,c cu ming at th l wp ic fro m a m ul'l' .tnthropo logical puin 1 ol 1 il' ll', Thn~. thl' ll int' ll'e tHh-CL'lllllt"' anthropologist Tvlo 1 ( 1H71: 1> gan the lollowing cll'linition of culiurc ;t- Jmt complc" "hok 11 hich in elude' knmdcclgc. bdief'. an. ntorak la11'. cu~tolll', .uHI an~ mhl'r c;pabi l i t ic~ and habih acquirl'd b~ man [sic] . 1 ~ . 1 1 11l'111ber or \lll'l' IY J'hi' de li11i1 iun poin ts lO th e p t'1 Y<t1>il l' ms~ (J( n liiiii T in ~oc i a l li ft. l t e mphasist'' 1ha1 culiu rc is a p ro dn n o f humans li1ing tuge tlt t' l and th a t it i~ ll'al'md . .-\ ~ imil:\r .~o 1't o l' <~p pro<t c h info nn' th c d escription u f th l' En g lisll 11ay or life b~ tite .\tlll'ricl n poe1 and crilit l.S. Elio1 as inc lltcling
::~ lih u u ~h

T h e d iiTe re lll 'l'liSes in11hich tlw roiKl'J)l ol'ud tnre l'all hl' 11 '-l'cl are illuqrated in tl w to llowing e xa mpk, . . \ phi\' b~ S hakt,pearl mig l11 be ~a irl to be a di ~tin c t p it'Cl' n i cultura l wo rk (se n Sl' 1.1.1 : c ulture ll'ith a bi ~ ' C' ). lo lw :1 product o f' a p a nic ul a r ( En g lish ) \\';1\' o r Ji le hl'll'(' 1. l. ~ : cu lturl' ;,a \\';\\' u f li fc) a n cl lo n presen l a cer t;t i11 stagc of cult ural de1 elopmtnt (l'l'IISC l. 1.:'\: culturl' .1~ process ancl cll'l dopnlt'lll l . Rork u ro JI mar bl' analy ed b1 cxantining tht ~kiiJ... ol i1' perlormer<. hl'il'l' 1. 1.1 l: in ttnn-, ol i1' asS;)cia tion ll'ith m111h cuh u H in the latl' l!l."llh ami eath l ~)(ilh ( 'en~e 1.1.2): and "'a lliii SC<l l fo n n . Jooking f'or i l ~ ori~ill ' in o lh ~r 'llll'~ o i' mtt~ C .111d ;t],o 'et.in g il' in lltu n ct

musical fonn ~ ('l'llSt' 1.1.:1). ) 0 11 l:11e 1 In 1his book ll'e sh a ll r onsicll'r allt l. " ~~ o( ili l'Sl' di r~ 'ere nl ~e.n~~~ ol' culture. lloll't'n' l . it is im ponam to notc th:t l t h e~t cld lll Jllo ll ' a n d the1r ll'e l'< ll'l' a nu mbc r o( t'O tll p lex is."ues ami prublem~ J'or th e anah'l'i~ of culture ll'hich ll'l' inll oclun i11 tlw n txt p;tl'l ol th c rhap ter.

J.2 l lssues and problems in the study of culture

T h e th rel' ~t'li!>('S of ntlllliT identilied in tht Jlll'l iou~ pan uf thi' chapter han lt'IHkd to \ bl' ~llldiccl fn>lll diff<t l'lll J>Oilb of 1 iell'. Jil'net. arti~liC' Or intl'fll'CIU;]J aCII itl hL'Ihl' 1.1.1} ha~ commonh' bt'<'n tht' prminn ol 1he humanitie' srhobr. \\'a1o; ol lile ('ense l. l.2) h :w c becn eX<lll iil t'd by th e anth ropol o~is l o r th c so cio]cgi'' ll'hi k th l' d lHIopm c nl o f c ulture (SL' Il \l' 1 . 1 .~) mi g h 1 S<Till 10 h e th c pn)\ 11 re oJ' ilw his1o ria11 ''' ing h isto ri ca 1 d ocum e 11" a11d m e th o d s. T h t''t' d isri pi im, ha1 t lL' Il ckcl 111 ap p roa r h t ult 11 re in d il'l'erellt 1\'a~s and lrwn d illert'll l Jlt'I'SJll'(' l in:-.. II O\\'l'l'l'l'. a' ll't' shall demo n ~tl olll' ill thi' chaptcr. thc central imp01 tamt ol a cJi,tinn cultmal ''udit, approach , that i1 faci litatcs thc idcntilical ion of a ' e l of 1 01 < i"ue' and pwhlt'll" 11'h irh no o m di'r ipline or a p proach can so h e on j , 0\111. l.tt '" c:-..plain 11ha1 11<' mean through the ik n tilicatio n ;m d t'Xt.:mplilka ti on o f th t'M' tore q u esti o ll ' .. \ , lc HI 11ill St'l'. th tl bm h stan a nd fi n ish 11ith lht b su c ul th e rl'la1iun ~ hip b e lll't'l' ll 1lw JH'rson:d :111d th c cultural.

[.\] 11 lht charanni,tk auh ilk~ and intl'rc~t' ol a pcopk. Derb1 Oa1. 1knle1 Reg.ut.t. Cmll'' the l ~th ol .-\ugthl. ,, (IIJ> linal. tht do.:' tan~. 1he pin t:tblt'. the dan hoarcl. \\'tn,ltl dale chl'e,c. hoiktl 'abha);(C c111 into 'tctio1", bcc1root in 1 illt'gar. 1!h h Century Lo1hir rhii i'Cht<. ilw m n ,ir ofEigar ... (Eiinl. 1\ 11 ~. ;" CJIIOtc d h~ 1k bdigl', 1970) 01 h t r "ppro ac h f'" h al'l' tl' n cletl 1o arg m ti"'' sonw arta' o r ' ocia 1 1 i l'e mT m ore p rop1 rly th ought o f as po lit ka l 01' eco n o mi c 1ha n u il tural a nd thu' can in so111e fash ion b e se pantttd lrum cultun. T ht i'. tho e 11'110 ll'otdcl dd ine cult ure:: in ~en e 1.1. 1 (a ns ;md ani,tic aui1 it1) II'Ollld tcll(l 10 xclude so me imtilluions an d plwn omcna 11'hich tlio<>c acccpting and ming ddinition 1. 1.2 (\\<11 of lil<) \\'OU id see as pan of c ulture. T htrt io; li ulc co ll \L'IlSII ~ o n this mauer h n1 it i.s clcar th a t it 11il1 be an isstw in 1h is hook. Cul t. u rr in ilw ' eme o!' ll'ay ol' lil'c . lwiiTHT. m m t b e clistin g uish ect rro m 1he n e ig h b o u ri ng conce pl o J' so c il' l1. 1n ' JK'a ki ng o l' o;or itty \\'C rd 'el' 10 111 e p a ttC'l'll o f soci:il inltruion s and n :J tio n , IJi ps belll't't' n in cli1 id ua b a tl(l group~. O f'l cn a socie t\' 11'ill ocn q >~ a ll'l'l'itor~. bl rapabk ni rtprorluri n g i1w lf a n d s harc a cu lture: but for SOllll' ( esp e\ia lh largc-scale mockrn ) 'ocie1 ie, it 111.11 make more <.cn~c 10 ':" 1hat sc1eral cullun, ('Ol'X'-l (no1 hannoniotl',h') 11ithin 1he '><>riet~

1.2.1

How do people become parl of a culture?

'

"'";''

1.1.3 1Process and development

(Ti,c earlics1 uses of t hc ll'llrd rullure in th t 1:11(' ~ l idcl le .-\ges rdi: r to the lend in g or / culli1ation ol crop<. ancl ani111al' (hcnce agrintltme): a liule latt r the same semc wa~ 1 ll~lll,fl'l red (() <k~cribe tlll' cultil~llion pcopll\ minds. Thil> cliliH'llSiOII of the \I'Orcl cult ure ch~ "''S alll'll tion to ih subo;equen t u~t 10 d e,cribe t lw ck1dopment of tht \ inclil icltta l's capac itits ami it h a' bt'l'll cxtl'mk d 10 l' l11 bra . ce th e idea 1hat cul t il'atio n , lt.~dl' a ~l' IH'I':il , so c ia l a m i 11 istori cal pro ces~ (\\'illiau1s. 1983b: ~10- 1 ).

or

C:u h tn-e is 1101 someth in g 1hat ll'l' 'in1ph ,d, ,orh- i1 i' k<nJll'd. In a n thropo log1 1 h i~ p toctss i' rc l(.' rrl'cl tu ;, arc tiltura lio n 01 t' ll t' lllillra ti o n . In ps1t h o l ng-~ it , d t, cribtd ;, co nclitioning. Socio logi,ls h ~11c te nded 10 use th e ter m 'su r i:disa l io n 10 d c~>crihl' th l' proccss b~ 11hic h ll'l' bl'CIIIIIC socia l a n d cultma l bei ng'. T h l' 'oc iologisl .\nll to m Gidden;, ( 1989: 87) <il'~n ihcs socia li:.ation "' thc prucc~"'l hlt ebl. iln ough to n tar l ll'i th other human lwing,. tlil' lwlpless inl;nll ..(raclualh bccome;, a ~dl-m1are. knowlcct~-:cablc h11111an being. ~ k illed in th e "."'.' o l thl' gil't'll culture all(l emironmenl. Sociolngi~l' h <We clistillguio;lwd (11'{1 'lagt' ' oJ' Socialbaticlll . l'rimatY wciaJi,atiOil IISII<tiJ y takt'' pl.tn ll'i th in a fa m ill'. ur t:un ih -1 i ke g-ro u ping. a nd l:t,ts fm111 h in IJ 11111 i 1 ilw eh i Id p an it ip:tles in large r HIHlmo re dil'l'I'St' ~ro upin ~~ I Jl'~'llncl tlil' i:11nill. "'u a ll ~ IJeginuing 11'ilh sdwol

ln troducing Cullural $ludies

Culture and cultural studies 9 influential psychoanalytic critic, jacques Lacan, argued that the unconscious is like language. In other words, culture rather than biology is the important factor. Lacan's work has been importan! for feminist critics, who have developed an analysis of gender difference using Freud's Oedipus complex. According to leminist psychoanalytic criticism, the context in which ferninine sexuality develops is different to that of masculine sexuality. Men and women enter into dilferent relatonships with the syrnbolic arder through the Oedipus cornplex. The Oedipus complex arises through the primary identification of both boys and girls with their mother. Paradoxically, it is the mother who first occupies the 'phallic' position of authority. The cliscovery that the mother does not hold as powerful a position in society as the father (il is the father who symbolises the phallus) crea tes the crisis through which the boy and the girl receive a gendered identity. The boy accepts his 'inferior phallic powers', sometimes known as 'the castration complex', but with lhe promise that he will later occupy as powerful a position in relation to women as his father does. The girl learns of her subordinate position in relation to the symbolic arder, her castration complex, but for her, there is no promise of full entry to the symbolic arder; consequenlly her feeling ofJack persisls as a sense of exclusion (Mitchell, 1984: 230). In cultural studies the theory of the unconscious has allowed a more subtle understanding of the relationship belween power (p. 94) and the formation of subjectivity. While psychoanalysis has been found wanting in that it suggests but does not actually show how the social relates to the psychic, that suggestion has been the starting poinl for sorne of the most fascinaling investigations in cultural studies.
Furfht'r rmding
Weedon, C., Tolson, A. and Mort, F . (1980) Theories of language and subjectivity', in Culture, Media, Language, London: Unwin Hyman. Mitchell, J. (1984) Women: The Longes t R evolution, Essays in F eminism, Lilerature and Psychoanafysis, London: Virago.

in \\"e ' l('fll '0( ittit' Jl1 i111.11 \ 'llCia)i,atioll imohl'' 'lit h l'kllll'lll' .1, tht' o ll<Jlli,ition of bngua{e and .1 gt'll<kl t'd identity (p. 22-1 l: 'l'Cnllcl.n' ,ociaJi,at ion rdl'r' to .di tlw 'ub~t'C'Jllt'nt inlhlt'll Ct'' \dlic han indi,idualt~JWI t'IH t'' in .1 lik1ime. p,, cholog\ .md j, 'ubcli~ci plint'' likc psychoanalysis ( p. ~) Jl"' p.lnind;u :lllt'lllitm '" childhuud and 1he nmditio ning th a1 rclat t'' to tht an uisi1i on n i a gcnckrand :1 'tx ua lil\. (;enrl er rl'l'tr.; to the ~ocia lrok' th.ll d ill'l'rt'lll 'oC'ie tit:' cle li11 t' as lll :l'culine or l'cminint. Sc).; llal it\ n l'trs lO lil e CJc,I'l'~ <l lld ~tX u;d lli'('I IIalion nf a Jl< lll it ll lal' ind\'dua J. - ht fOU IHil' l' 11[ ps,chuanahsi'. Si);, '111111HI Frcud (p. H). argltld 1l1a1 1 11:1~< ulini t' :md l ~ rn ininil\' :u11l tl11 choice of a ~l':o- Ua) 1 objtrt :ll'l' lllll rli nCl ) ~ rt):lll'd lO bio)o.,f\, ])lit art a ll',llil ol tonditioning. Ft"ntilli'" hmc ll'td Fnud, tlll'OI in tn nppo'e the idta that 111en :lit' 11 a tu rall~ 'IIJ>t'l io1 . t'H'n though Frtud him,l'll ''1' not panicular!\ ' ' mpathttit tn reminism (p. 120). Tht ronrt'ph ofanuhur;Hion allcll'nlllltllratinn. condit iuning .IIHI 'oriali'>ation cl ra" .tl1t'n1ion 1 the 111am ami "" inth 'ocia) arrangl'I1W111' "hith pl:l\ a pan in tlw wa" i11 \\'hic h hum:ub karn abuut 1 11t'<l11ing.

structured~

Dejmi11g mncejJI

J.J

Psychoana lysis

sychoanalysis is the narne given to the rnethod developed by Sigrnund Freud (1856-1939). Freud hirnsell used his interpretative technique to analyse literature and art. Psychoanalytic theory has subsequently developed in lo a nurnber ol differenl schools, sorne of which have influenced feminist (p. 120), Postcolonial (p.1 89), Marxist (p. 97) and postmodernist (p. 400) cultural criticism. Critics who have used psychoanalytic ideas include members of the Frankfurt School (p. 109), Julia Kristeva (p. 232) and Juclith Butler (p. 2 31). Freud's method ol interpretation is first cleveloped in ThgJnterpretation oL Dre.ams (1900). He describes how syrnbols in dreams represent condensed or displaced meanings that, when interpreted, reveal the dreamer's unconscious fears and desires. In The Psychopothologt, of Everydoy Life ( 1901 ), he showed how slips of the tongue and lhe ( inability to remember words are also symptoms of unconscious mental processes. Condensation, displacement and 'symptomatic' rnethods of interpretation have been r deployed by critics to decode cultural texts. Psychoanalysis has been particularly influential in film criticism. Freud developed a tri-partile theory of the rnind: the id or unconscious; the ego, which adjusts lhe mind to externa) reality; and the super-ego, which incorporales a moral sense of society's expectations. Perhaps his most lmportant work was on a theory of sexuality. The psychoanalytic concept of sexuality posils a complex understanding of desire. The fi xecl binarism of masculine feminine given by earlier biologistic lhcories of sexual difierence tended to assurne an equally fixed desire by rnen for women and by wornen for rnen. In psychoanalysis, there is no presupposition that sexual desire is limited to heterosexual relations. Rather, the adaptable nature of desire is stressed and an importan! role is given to fantasy in the choice ol sexual object. Freud's work was still partially attached to a theory of biological clevelopment. The

1~1 a1 persons aunbute 10 ther he hanour ancl 10 the1r thoughh .'111d flod 1.n~~ :'" cultural. 1 IH ~ ap proarh to culture rerers 10 llw ~h arccl undc:rswnrl lllg'' ol mcll\ 1 d u a l ~ :tiHI

Anthropolog~ a1~d ,omc: ror~u' o l 'o.nolo~ ~ce mc<.ll1111glu l acuon. tht.uncler,tanchng~ s a)

1.2.2 1 How does cultural studies i~terpret what thin~s mean?

_'

)c;v

grouping-!> in socicry (or to sen se 1.1.2 ol' r ullure- '"a" nr li kl. Snnw sncinlogists. ror , ex;un ple Btrgcr and Luckmann ( 1!l(i!i). ' "'t s~ 1liat 1111111< 111 kuo\\'l< dgl' o l' rlw 1\'orld is 1 oci~l ly co11~1 ructc.d. that is. I\T apprel~c~1d our 1,orld throug h <HII' suci;.d si~uation" ancl ) O ll l' lll lC'n\C liOilS \\'ll h o thcr pcopk. JI ll IS 1he C;tSl' lhat Olll' lii Hil'l'~l: II H I III g' IS ~ l l'liCliii'C cl b)' om social situati on~. thtn our \'t'\\'.>\ ol' tllf' ll'orlcl may be partial. .\ltllnll).{ll Lhe re 111:1\ be a rea l wo rld. \\'t' can o nh' \t'\1' it lrnm ccnain an){k-.. Thu~. our kntmkc\:{(' ol' tlll' ,,orld is i nC'dtabl~ per,pc:Cl\~tl. T hi' \'it,, compkmC'nl~ tht i"ut of cultural r<:la t\ ,m (~ec ~ect ion 3. 1). Hert' the tutpha'i' , on tht' "''"' tha t 'ocial rolt' aliCl rdation,hip~ \ shapt thl' ''"' \\'('~ce :1nd g'H" llH':t n i 11 ~ to thc \\orlcl . ldlt'n:al- nth ural rdath ,m 'll't''-'l'' tht' ,,a~ that habitual. 1aktn-fol-l.!,l < llltl'<l "'"" ni thougl11 . ao; t'lo.Jl1l'"t'd in ~pecrh :m el

1O lntroducing Cultural Sludies

lang1 1 agl'. dirt'CI u ur uud e rsta nclin g-.... .-\n e xamplt' of pt r~p ec lilal knmd edge , 1hc di fl c rin g ;\ccmull' ol tlle di,;;olutiu n o r a marria~c gi,t tt b1 !1w't' imoiHd ami affeCit'd h1 it. l'h t c:--pla n ation giH' tl for the brt' ak-up nf a ma t t i.tgt b1 1111t' pa tll1tr 11ill rareh mi n dck '' ith 1he tx p bnation {i1en b~ tlw otlwr ( 1b tl. 1~)/tl). T ht ~ociolo.," of kno\\ lcdgt:. a~ thi~ appmach 10 utHkr... landing i, kuo\111, ~ug~e~ls th.ll tlw \l'll'l' tha1 IH' mak< or IIH' 11'orld can be m acle intdligibk 1h1 ouglt tht cx.unination of our 'otial :.ituation. For t:xample. i1 i~ ~omttinw ... p~t>poHd th.ll om.., 1il'\\ ol tite 1101 Id i' linked to d al>' po~ition. so that working-cb'' pcopk 11ill hall' a difltrtnt, ie11 of 1he \l'orld 11'0111 liJ>(>tT-cla~~ peoplc. Socinlogi~h o J knmdtdgl' do 1101 ptopoH t lt.ll ott1 bclid~ can alw;n, lw n :du ccd w. or o;imph n:ad off f'rom. ot lt' 'ori.d 'ituation. hut th e1 do ~ ugg<.'.'l th:nth t't' ll'orld-Yiell'' <lt'l' cu ltura l. and that cu lllll t' h a' tn ht , lllclicd in rt la tion to <.oC'il' tl . :\!on..mt l. 1h t inte rpntation of' c ultlut in l'l'l.uion t(l "Ki.1 l ~i tu a t ion introd liCl'' fllrtl1t'r is~ue' < t'lide n ce and rclati1 is1n. 1 kiHill'itd gt i' ... <lt ia 1 11 u> l1."11'11rttd. can t i H~c h~ Sl l t~1 a thi11g as ' trm knmd edge.; IJ'pcrcqHioi1Sa l1 d btlil'f, arl' ah.' a''' l't' l;ltiH' to ( SclCI:I I ~ 1111 :1110 1 1. lhl'll \\'))\' ... lwu ld 11'(.' bl'licll' :11\\' p:ll'li cu la l' lit'\\', ('\'(' ll t ht \'il'll or lhl' ]>I'I',OI1 a'~trt i n ~ tlli, .'\ lal t' llll' tll. si n C't' it tu o "iiiiH' influ cnctcl b1 th t llt' r . . on~ ~ i t u a1ion~ 1 In Si.'t kin.;- lo intc rpnl a 1\'::l\' uf' lif'c of < t rli1Tcrc n1 sncic t\' ora dif'!trt' 1 1l gi'O up i1 1 our 11111 1 sodc1 ,.. 11'111' , rwu ld ll't lwliei'C' OllL' int c rpre1:11 ion ra 1h c1 1i1 :1 11 illl\ ol il t r~ 11 ll'l' are 10 l>l'g in to :tdjnrl icaLl' eH' t,aluate diflere nt in1crprtl:llion' lht'l1 ll't ll'ill tH:td 10 < ol1'>iclt-r 1lit IY]Jl'' of' ('\'icit n cl' o f'krtd Ji)l' 1lll' p:1rti cu l.ll' i 111 crprl'l a 1it H1 . 111ll'I']Wi.'l al ic tll or nH'an ing i ~ th crdurt .1 core issll t' in nd tu ra l s1udies. o~nd i1 rl'lalt' ' to ho11 ll't' und trsta nd till' ll'l.ll i o n ~ h i p hl'lll'l'i.'ll 1lw pa'L a 11 el 1lw p rc~clll (\l'l' Clt;q>tt'l' :).

Culture and cultural studies

11

Box

1.1

Tradition and traditional

'

,r

1.2.3

How does cultural studes understand the past?

~\'ithin tlli~ COilll'~l: cuh. u n:_in. E!l~]j:ll '~t.ldi.~' ha~ oftcn ht'l'll ( Olltt'iHd in lt'l'lll\ or mfhtcnct .uHit r;tclttiOtl. ~ho1 ( 1!Ul: 1.1 ). fot ex<tmpk. 'no pott. no art i't of a m art. ho~' h i' co1nplt-tl' nw.111 ing a lone. !Ji, signilicance. hi~ app1l't.uion i' th e a pprccia( tion nf hi' ~tl.uion to th c cll'acl poth .tnd .mi'h . .\l ore l't't'l'lllll'. Eng]i,h ,tudits h a' lwg un to ([ lll''lio n thl' l'a!un of' the canon. that i~. lllost 11 ri 11en lt'XIs selccted a' o l littT:ll'l' ,alut .mcl as rtq uire d reaclin g in ~chon l s ancl ll llil'tr,ili l'' T cx ts that han httl 1 pre\'iou ~h' IH'glert<d lla1c be e n i1Hrocluced i 111 o schunl and un iwrsi 1' ,,, ll : illll'l'~. ~ t ore II'Oilli.'n\ ll'riting. IITiting b~- mino ri11 grnup~ in British ,;oc it t ~ . 110tt-!~riti~ll 11ritin~ ;u1d popu lar fiCli on h ;l\'l' ht'(' ll indude d in th c canon . For l'Xa n1pk. 1il t' poe niS or De re k \ \'a lco tt (SI Kills. <:a li])l)l'an). th c 1\0il'l' ofC:IIitllla .\rlwbc (N igtTi:l) :nH i tltosl' o l .-\ lice \\';dk('l' (US. \ ) an IHII rcgankd as dt'Sl't'l'i ng l itl'l':l l'~ t'<tt1,i ckra ti on . 1 :1 1g'li, h , tudits has ll'itk' ll t'cl ih ott tlonk bcyo nd tite influe nce ni' nLitel pot't~ and ll'l'it c rs 1o lo ok :11 so cial :llld jj qnrical ia rtor' :1ffec1i11g' lllt' production oJ' lL'Xh. 11 S 11011' ('0111111011 1(11' l'l lit'S tn loo k <11, f'ol' l'X:t lll>Jto. 1il t po,itiOI I or \ I'O ll1 t' ll in tiW IIill'll' t' lllh Cl'llllll"'' ll'hl'Jl COilsidt'l'ing tlw 111)\'l'b uf tia pcriod. Cri1 i c~ like Edward Saicl (p. l liH) :m cl ( ,;1\.llri Spi1ak han a l... o looked :11 thc Jti,wn of Eut opean impe1i:tli:mt :md a,J..ed ltc111 tii.H hi,lon 111a n il(,1, ii,C'If in litt' l a tnre.

One lw.u, muth 1a!k in E n~land of' th c tradilion.tl nallll't' ol ttlltlne ('l'l' Bo:-- 1.1 ): England i' ' l'l'll b1 'ouu to han a cultllrl' th.u ,rttcllt, h.t< k o~t r a tltou ...and 1ear~.

Ocriud frmn tlw Lnin Hrh fwdut nwanin g to pass on or w gi1e do1111. COJnmonh u ... td in t uhttt.ll \tudi t, to rcfcr to dcmt'llb of cuh lttt th.n .ut tran,miw:d (e.g. langu.tgt) 01 toa bO<h of colk ni1l' 11i~dmn (t.g. to!k talt-, ). ,\ , an acteclil'l' (tradilional l it implit, con tinuit, ami comi,lt'll(l . Tt.tdition :. and traditional prart itn ma1 he M.'t'n po~i1iwh or ut~a t in h . \\lH:1e dw pa'>t , w n c i~H td. 1rad iti o 11~ 111 a~ lw '~ 't' lt a' a sour cc of !egi liman a n d \'a lta: in rc,o luliona n ,111at io 11' th t p ;1,t 1nay bt 'it'\\'td " 'ith contcmpt and 'ecn a~ a brakt upo u progres~. The ttTm raditiou h:1' ,1 1111111lw r nf diffe rcut m caning,, al! o r whic h a~t centra l to llo11 ndtlll't' b \111cler.~ tood. !t can 11\ean knoll'll'clge nr cmtoms 11.111 (kcl dmm lrum gt'lll'l'illilll1 1() g'l'll t'J': IIiOII. In thi, 't' ll SC th e icle;J. ror exampk. o r ; nationa l 1radi lion can ha1c :1 po~ i1i H ~e n se a~ a m01rkcr or t lll' ; t~t a nd d tt. p mu1cd natlll'l' n i a nation;d r nllll l'l'. O n tlw u thcr hand. thl' acljcctin 'lr:Hiitiona l' is of'lt.' l1 11 ~ed in a n cga til'l or pt:joratI't' sen sc from 11iLhin c ultu res lik(' llt ost ol i'\nrt lt ,\n wrica (11' \\'tstt'l'l 1 1-:uropl' 11hic h dc,c ribe thtmselles a s mocltr1 1. 1 kn ' trac!ilional', 11hc n ll'tcl 111 dl''iet ibe non-Europcan cultures and ~ocit t i<'' can nlt'< \11 bac k11a rd or ullcll'rdtl elopecl'. term' 1hat aso;ume 1ha t al! sori< t it, n11 1\l m odcrni~t in th e ,:1111t' 11'<1\' a ncl in tht: 'ame dirc ction. Cultural 'uu lit, is a l 11.1~s ct itical o f th i' kind ol impo,ition of tht :.tanda rd' of un e culture u pon ;molh tr 10 define it <h in ~omt 11'<1\ inle t ior. ' T r01d itinn a l' can abo n fet to :.ocia! rok' in socicl\ 1l'ltirh an olttn 1akcn !or !{rant td. but 11'itich mig-h1 bc cptc:.lion cc! in cuhtu~t! ~t udie': fi 11 t:--amp le. wha t it is 10 lw a mothet ora father.

T h b parlicnhll' (':--amplc lrom tht dbcip! ine ol Engli~h sh011, that t radit ion~ arl 110-;) n e utra l a nd ol~jtrtiH. ,nn1l'itoll' ll'ailing 10 be discol'ered. but a re culturalh coll~lrtlctt'd.J In ~><.ing cons1 ructec~ anc! l'l'ro n slru.ctl'cl som c thin~s are i.ncl~1dc~l all(( ot hcr..- cxchu lt~j Tl11s rdlc c ts. accord ul_t w 11\:tll\ llt'll t'l''. pattern~ ol th e d1stnbuuon ol powcr ( p. 9 1) 111 socic11 . l.et u s ;u te n1 pt 10 c l:1r i1~ S< nlt' ol' thc'<: poi n ts 1h r o u g h anollt t'l' l'XOI111 pk . T lw kilt :n1d 1 lig h land cln~~ are preo;e nted , bnth in Scothtnd and IHII,ide. :1~ Snouislt tracl it ional costlll11t.'. T his g:u b , Ol1 l' of th e mo'l iTC'ognisahk ancllisih!t> componc1HS ol' Sco11 ish e u 111 ll'l' ;111 el ,, ll'ol'n hy Sccll ti ~ h JKop lt a 1 a ,aril' l,. ol' -"lw c i.t 1 tKCa, ion ~. 11 i..- 1h ~~ ~ prescntccl lO ti te non-St'o ls \\ Orle! as ;t COIIIJ>Oilelll o!' Scouisl1 nns- ihl' :t ll rihttl('S ora panicu lar plan. J1 :1lso f'un r ti o n s in tilis lnanner fur ma111' Sco t ~ \1'ho ro 11.~ide1' th i. \\'Caring of lh(' tart;lll lil be a IIH' IItod oJ' ide ntificai U11 \\'ith tlll'ir CUitllnd lteri lag'l'. IIOII'C\'Cr , it apxars tilatth t kilt a' a 1raclitinnal c ultura l f'nrm hao; IH'(' Il consl rn c lt'd and rcpac kagcd 10 llll't't ~e 11\lt' hi ~torira ll y 'lxc ilic lll'cds. l>;11id ?.kCronl' ( J!lD2: 1K 1) h as su~gcs1cd dt;ll " lo rm o [ cln ... ~ .md dc,i gn ll'hic h had solllL' rc<ll but lta phatard ignilican cc in th e ll igh la ndo; of Scot !a nd 11a, taktn o\'l'l by a lm1 land popu lation anx ious 10 clai111 ~OIIIl' di,linrtil'l' .l'Pl'Ct ofcult u rt. a l a lillC' -IhC' late IIlll'lt.:l' lllh Cl'llltl n '

12 lntroducing Cultural Studies Culture and cultural studies 13

- whcn its economic. social t~nd cu ltura l i dcmit~ wa~ cbbing away'. Thus a widely accepted <~nd represtntative culll!nll form is sh01m to h;l\'c bccn E1r from uni\'crsal bUL rather associa ted wi rh a panicular group a t a spccific momcnt in rime. Funhcnnorc. this mcans rhm th c meaning of the kilt is constantly c hanging ,,ir hin couish socier~. For cxample, in !he 1950s ,,earing a kilt \\'as th o ug h t eneminate b\' cenain sections of thc yo u nger genenn ion: howc,-e,, sincc t he recent incrcase in Scouish n;Hionalbm the kilt has come back into fash ion. ancl is often ,,orn at occasions 1ouch as we dclings.

1 Box

1.2

Azande

1.2.4 1Can other cultures be understood?

t\n issuc or rel iability of e,idence is a lso raised rhrough rhis cxamplt: as it may be diffic ult to know prccisely who ,,ore the kilt a n d whc n. Fun her. it raises th t: proble m of what h<~ s been termed ' h istorical rel<tLi,ism'. \\'hatthis dr;n,s atrtnrion to is 1he cxtent 1o whic h wc, < tS conre mporaries of the last decade o f rh e L\\'Cillie rh centUIY. dwe ll in a world th:u is sufficien tly d iiTere m fro m the worlds of our prcdcccssors, so 111;1c h so that i1mar bC' rcry clifficulr for us lo understa nd 1hose ,,orld s in th c wav th nr rh cv clid. How wc ll Gll.l II'C tllld<.:I'Stand wha t \\as in the middle-class, lnwland Seo!~ pcrson ~ mind wh~n he or shc a<liqncd a ncl ado pte d Hig hland d rcss? The rc a re somc si111iletritics he lw~c n the i s~ t1cs raiscd u nde r this heacling and others tho ug ht mo re o ne n to be a~soc iatccl wilh c ultu ra l re la ti,ism which ,,e discuss next. ( F'nllwr to 1he difficult)' of Sludying culture across his rory, 1llen: is thc parallcl problcm Of i nte rprett~tion of c ultures fro m diflerent pans o f th<: \\'Orld O J' in differcnt sccri ons of o u r own socicty. Is it possible for us to u nclcrsrancl the cu ltures or othcr pcoplc in rile war they do themseh-es, orwill o u r u nders1<1 ncling inerirab l~ be mediatcd ria t hc disLOning prism or ou r own cultural understanding ?- T hese problems ha,e ah,ar con fro ntcd a nt h ropo logists in their a uempts to interprct thc ochcr worlds of n on-European societies. ls il possible to comey ad cqua tel~ ch e c\'idcnt ~eriousness that rh c Anndc accord to t he consultation of oracles (scc Box 1.2) o r the conccptions of rime held br Trobriand l sland crs (see Box 1.3), in tcxts designcd for co n~umption b~ \\'csrcru a udienccs who hold ,-ery differcnt te mporal conccption ancl ideas abotll magic and witchcraft? ~o\'e l isl~ . sociologists and jou ntalists abo facc thi~ problcm in dC'SCribing thc wars of Ji fe of d iffercnt groups in thc ir 0\\'11 ~OCiCI\', ~ 1 <111\' quitt" scr OliS practica! el iITicullies can <1 rise f'ro111 this prnblem. For cx:nnplc. one in fl ucnlia l ~ ttld\' of' ron,cr-.ar io lt (Tan ntn, 1990) Sltggcsts thal 1hc many ntisundcrsta ncling-. 1ha 1 .. .-i ~e hctwttn me n a nd ,,onwn do so becausc ,,hat we <trc d caling ll'ith i~ a n l'\'t' tYcla\' \'(rsio n of rh e d il'lic lllrics o l' cro~~cttllura l communicatio n . In th l USA wollll' l; ~ ;ea k and hc ar a la ng uage o l connectio n a nd inti macy ,,hi lt IIH.' Il s ptak a nd ht'ar a lang uage e)!' status ami indcpcncle nce' (Tanne n, 1990: < 12). Di fTering co ll\'t' r~aliona l p r01nices are c ntploycd b)' mcn a11<l ll'o mc n. Tan nc n obser\'C.S rh a1 in discussing a problem, wo m e n ,,.i11 ofl'er rcassura nce whereas m e n wi 11 se e k a soh11 ion ; ,,o m en ten el to cngagc in ' ra pporH a 1k wh ile m en a re more at home lcct uring <1 nd cxplai n ing-; m en are poorcr lisreners than wo111en. According ro T a nne n . wo111cn cngagc in 111orc cye con ract :mcl less inlerntption than men in con\'ersation. 1kr argumc1H is 1hat men and "omcn employ d istincr comcrsational styles wh ich shc la beis gen ele lecrs. T hese are

Thc Atancle. an .\ l't ican pco pk. lin arou nd the 1\ile- Congo d i\idc. Tht cla~sir \\'ork onthci1 belief '''-lt'lll' i' 11/tdtrwft. Omdt'!t aml.\lagiramfmglht.\:rllldr l)\ E.E. [,an~Pritch :ll'd . publb.htd in 19:r1. T he .-\Lande belie\e that mam ol rh~: 111 i~lonum' thar bclitll rh e m are camcd b, ,,itchcraft ( mangu J. ,\laugu i' in hcritcd: the .\/ancle beli<:HIItat il Jta, 1hc form of a blackish S\\'elling in 1hc intc~tincs. ancl ir i' this .sub~ratt<'t' 1ha t. \\'h ln acti,atccl. causes harm 10 other~. E\'cn though indi,iduals ma~ hm< inhlrited IIWIIgu thc~ do not n eces~ari ly cause hann w others becauw it is nnh had . <~nli -~oria l J'cl'lings that set o ll\\'ilchcral't. A~ lo ng as a pcr~on re n~;lin' ~ood lt'1 11ptrc:d l h t~ wi ll not cau e witchcraft. Sincc witc hcrafl is th c produc t c>l' had fcd in ~s. rhtn a p e;T son 1dto ~ uffcr a mi~fonunc -.uspects rh os< who do not lih.t h t' l' 0 1 h im and \\'li o han reason to wish ha rm . T hc lirst. Sl1Spec ts are thl' rtforc ont\ (' lll'llil'S. -1h t r c: are fin; o.-aclcs that a Zande (sing ula r ol' Aza ndc ) tna\ constdl in ordcr to han' lllt' " itc h na111ed. r\ftc r a n orack h 01s n;uncd tit e wi1ch. th c pc rson idtlllilild is to ld thal the o raclc h:ts n:uncd th c m and ~ h e or he is ;tsked to withd raw th t w il d t c r<~fl. L',ttally n;lmtd pcopk prole~! II H.: ir innonnct ancl -.taiL' 1ha1 thl~ tllL'<llll 110 harm; if thev did ca u~c witdtc.T;tf r ir wa~ u nin1enlinnal. b an, Pri tchard ~ tar es 1ha1 .-\tancl<" d o not bclic\T rha1 witr hcra n c;HI ~l'!> ;tllmisfoJ'Iulll' '> and indi,icllta l-, ra nnot blamt: their mm moral fa iling, upnn it. .\tande ,m tha t \\'it chuaft ne\er caused anyone to comntit aduhcr\', \\'itchcrafr is 1101 1he onh "~rcm ol' explana tion among the ..Vande: thc\ do rtcog-nise technical cxplanations for e \e nts: for example. ama n is injmed hccau~c a house collap~e~. but ,,itchc.-.,(t attcmpls to an "er the que tion of \\'lw this homc colla p~cd .. \11 '"'lt'l11'- of cxplanation imoh-e the 'ho\\ ol C\'Cnts a nclthc 'wll\' of C\Til l'; tht homc collap't'' btc:n~t tht woodcn suppons are rollen - this is thc ttdmical ' ho''' of explana! ion - bur why did it collap~e ata panicular time :tJI(I cm a pa tintlat ntan:O Tht '\\'11\'' ol' txp lana tion cll:Jb \\'itlt ,,ha t E\'ans-Pritchard calh thc ~ingula il\' or e\'l'll lS: '\\'11\' nw~ . 'wll\' 1101\':0' Relig ious explanations offer rh c <111~\\'c.'r thac it 1\'<l~ lhc \\'ill o( Cod: scic ntilic .'xpla n.llinns ~peak of coinc icle nces in tilllL' ancl spacc: ag noslic'> m a~ ~t:c th c a 1 h wcr in cha ncc: lhc A1.andc know th aL il is wi1c hcral'l . E\';ms-Prilc ha rcl cnm nt L' n ls 1hat ,,hile he li\'cd among th e Aza ncle he fo uncl ,,itc hrral't "~ sa l isf'ac tory a f'o rm ol' ex planallo n for C\'etHs in hi ~ own lif'e as ;111 )' o 1lte r.

urficicn lly d if(('l'l'lll (rom rar h < Hhl'r tha t tht ta lk bcc,,een mtn 11() \\' llH'Il 1nigh t ))(' appropriale Jv rq~ar<krl as :t fon 11 of ( I'O~~C illtura l COIIIlllllll iCation (SC(' St'Ciion 2 ..J .J ) ~ 1loll i ~ and Lukl'' ( 1\ll'\2) inclndt both h iswrical and c ult ura l rclati\'ism undcr rh c brnad lwadin.{ ol 'ptrctpllla l rl:'lati\ ism' ancl argue thar there are 1\\'0 clill'ercnr cl imcn siono; 1 0 lw examined. Firsr. the1.' is the dq-\ree to ,,h ich eeing or perception i~ rclatiw:

14

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Culture and cultu ral studies

15

Box

J.J

Trobriand lslanders

The Tro bria nd l ~ lancl s ar~ po liti c:tll ~ pan of Papua Nc11 Guin<.:n. T hc bcst-kn 011'n II'OI ks on the T 1obriancl lslnncb are b1 .\lalino11ski but E. R. l .< :ach has IITitt<.' n on Trobriand idea' of time in 'Prim itin: cale n da r~ ( Oownia 20 ( l 950)). a nd t h i~. alo ng 1\'ith o thc r wo rk. is clbcussed in Elnf!irl's o( Ti1111 ': Crdendor.1, Uorlls a111/ C:11lfurps b~,\niiL on~ :\l'e ni , 1 990. T hc Tro bria ncl cale ndar is g uiclcd br the nwon : thcre ar<. lii'Cln or th i1tccn lunar C\'cles but o n ly ten cycles are in thc calendar: thc remai n in!.{ Cl'cle~ an free time' ()llbidc th t cale ndar. rhe prim a r~ ('\'e nt or th <: T robriand calend ar i. t he appeara nce oJ' a ,,onnwhic h appear~ for three nr fon 1 nig ht~ o nce a l'car 10 sp:mTI on the .,urfae<: of' the wa te r. T h ert: i., a lestil'al (.\Ji/ama/:) in this mon th which inaugurates thc pla nting ~ea,on. Tht 1\'0n n do~s 11 01 app ear .11 cxactlr thc 'flllll' time cl't'l) yea r a nd planting does no 1 1 akc place a t cxactl ) the samc timl' l'le n nar so 1herc is ~o mc1 in tes ;t mismmch bc tll'cc n \\'DI'lll :m el planting. This situation is cxaccrhatecl bccause th <. Tro bria nd h land ar~ a r hain ancl thc worm appear' at thc southern t'Xtremity of the chain, ~o ne,,s of it\ a ppea1<111n' takc time 10 communicate. rhe constc ucnce i~ 1hat the rest\ als, and ~o 1lit ca len dar. I'< H)' g rca tl y in tht time o r 1ht'i r cele bratio n from island l0 i ~laml. \\'hc n th e discrepancit:;, are fe ltto ht' too greaLLO b<.: manageabk thcre b a realignmc nt and tlw calendar i~ altcrcd 10 achic1c comi~tl'llCY. Trobria nd reckoning o l time is cyclical, associated ,,ith tlw agricullttral ycar. Lunar cyck!> th < ll a re n o t connecrt:d tn this ac ti vit ~ a re no t r~cogni sed so th <.'l'l' is time ou t o f th e cnlc:nda r ; a clifl ic uh IHHion Lo gra~ p i1 1 mocle m industrial soric tics 11hcrc time is bclie,eclto be a natural ancl inevitabk comtraimupon ac1 i1it1. T hc T robriand bnguagc has no tenses: timt is not a limar pro~rcss i on t ha t, o nce pa,~c cl , cannot bv regain ed ; in thc Tmbria ncl ~~s~t tn . time rc tums. Trobriand ick-as ol Lhe natnrc o l' existt'lltT are no l s<.'l in time bttl in pa t tern~: it is o rdcr ancl pautrn ecl reg ularity tha t locates c1en t'> and thing'. not time.

boundary or 'zont of contact' . For examp-lt)iL would be possible lO considtr thc interactions bctween thc TrobriallC~Iander~ t r the .-uandc ancl th e Europ eans who :1niled as pan of thc proccss of co loni~ 11 (p. 189) (i ncluding. or course. the nnthropologists who swdi t'd the n1 a n 11 1'ftt' nbou t the tu ). T his ''"Yol' thinking a bo ut culture olh:n d escribes thcse relatio nships in terms of ' d e~tru c L ion ol' cultures o r their disappeat~l nce as one cultu re replaccs or corrupts a noth c: A.gOQ_d l'Xample would be the fcars ofAmericanisation as :-.lcDonalcl's h a mburg~ s. Coca-Col;~:l nd Levi\jca ns sprcacl w Euro pc. Asi;1 nncl Africa thro ugh proccsscs of lobalisatio~(). l:l9). How<:I'Cr, Lhi po int or,iell' is lilllitcd in Cl'rtai n 1\'a~s. 'rst.JL-~ ntpo~~ ibl e l O dil'ide t hc " orl cl up i1110 th tsc exclusin cult ural ttrritorics. As we have p oin ttcl out. cultu t e i!> ni o a mauer of age. gender. class. <;tatus -so tha t any such c ultural bloc, definecl in 1e rms or nation, tribt: o r socie t)'. will be made 11p of many cultures. Th i~ mea ns tha t II' C will also ))(' positi o ned in relatio n lO no1just om culture butmany. Second. cu lture cloes not opera te simph' in tl'rtns of 11101 e powerfu l cultures de tro,ing weakcr un es. Sine< it is a nen~r-t ndi n g procc ~ of sociallv m acle m~ani n g. c ulture adapt. ch;mge a n d mutate into ne11 lo rms. For t'X<t mplc. thc T ro briand l ~la nde rs took up the English gamc of cricke t. bttl they did so in tc nns o f th eir O IITI war-making prac . c ric ket did no t simpl~' repl:lce ot her Trobrian d games. it wa~ made in to a n cw hybrid p. 159) cultural form ,,h ich 11':\S neitlwr English cricket nor Trobriand 11arfa . : allv, it m ight be uscful L o think about tite rebtio nships bclll'tt: n cultures in tcrm ~ or a serks of ol'c rlap ping webs or 1 w tworks nulw r than as a paLc hwork of cultural 't e rrito ries' (scc. fo r examplc. Chapter R). Thi ~ ,,ould mean that under~tan d i ng thc meani ng ol' a m culmrall'orm ,,ould not sim ph' locate it ,,ithin a culture hut would look a t it in te nn~ of ho1~imo Lhe intc rsec 1io n betwecn dilfcre n t c ultu ral networks. Fo r examplc, Coca-Col<t hJ~ takc n o n cliffe re nt mcanings in cliffere nt J XII'IS of th t' ll'orlcl: signifying neo-coloni (p. 189) oppression in India (ancl being banned for sotm time). while it .sign ifi re('dom ami personal at110nom1 to 13rili~h-Asian 1011ng peoplc in Lond on. lts nl('anings cannot be con tro llecl b~ the Coca-Cola compa ny. a hhou!-(h tlwy 11~ thro ugh 1hc ir adl'crtising n unpaigns. ;\lc itlt e r d o the ir tll('anings simp h imoln c" 1hc e xttnsio n of an 'A.Jnelican cultu re. 1n tea el th ese m~ani ng> cleptncl u pon L h e locatio n of' the product in a complex 1H.'tl,ork of rcla tion sh ip\ ,,h ich sh a pc its ignilicnncc ami ,a lit<' 1~ d i ffcren tl~ positio ned consumcr!>.

( ) (

:o

L ha t is. when we lnok a t !'Omething or sceJ.. 1 0 undl'l'sta nd it. do ll'l' ac tuall v scc th v san lt' L h ing a~ ano thtr per,on looking m it? Second, there i' 1he cxte nt lO wh ich percq)lio n ancl underst<1ncli ng rcl~ on l a n gtHI~t. These qmstion s abotn pe rception rcmind 11~ thaL. as StllclCil lSo f CUlture, \I'C llHISI ('(lllStantJy 1hi n k aboUL ll'hO \\'('are -ll'ht'l'(' \I'C CO illt' !'ro m a nc) what o ur position ' .,-in o rdc r tu under~tand who anclwlta t we arl' st udyi ng.

1.2.6 1 Why are sorne cultures and cultural forms valued more highly than others?
In English stuclies. litc tmure h a~ traditionall~ lxc n seen as pan of higlt culture (!>t'nse l . l.l : a ns a ncl artistic anivi ty). Cc r1 ~1 in lit<nu~ texts han' bcen selectcd as 1\'0rth)' o r stucly, lor l'xamplc thc nmels of Cha rles Dicktns or the plays of S hak e~pear~. T h is process o r sdection ha~ meant thc: simultaneo u> t:xclu~ion of o tiH'I tcxts. del'inecl as no n-litcra t)' lt h a~ ;tlso kd to a n cmphasis on '' ritin~. to thc dctrimcn t of o the r. more m od e rn ro rms o f c ult mal ac ti,ity. fo r cxamplc lilm a nd ldtl'isio n. In ;1 f11nh e r s1 e p sur. h fo rms of litermure o r hig h culture a re rcgarded by somc LO be c ulu1re itselr. O the r excludecl forms of 11Titing or text' are dcfimd a~ simply 111bbish. trash o r. in a n oth er ofte n d erogatory p h rasc. as ma" c ulture. Tlt i ~ entails a j uclgcment of l'alue, which i

.2.5 1 How can we understand the relationships between cultures?

This qucstion ol' positio n raiscs anotlt cr proble m in te rms of ho11 ,,e under:.land thc relationships bctll't'l'll cultu rt~. Om com ( ntio nal wav l)r undcr'tallding thb i~ 10 see culturts as mutu a l! ~ c xclmi,c block 11h ich intersen. in te ract ami im erface along a

16

lntroducing Cultura l Studies

Culture and cultural studies

17

oflen assumed lo bt elf-e,idtnt. Thtb some form~ uf c uhnre a re to be \.tlmcl ami prmected a ncl 01 hcr:. '' riucn ofT as \frt hless a nd inckecl pos iti,el~ dangerou<.. IIOII'tn-r. :1s ,,e ha\'e aln:ad\' ~ccn. ~urh canons or tradition~ are th em~elns cunstruc ttcl. Fu nhcrmore. as ll a11kin'< ( 1990) h a~ maintained, things tha t are t h ou~h t tu ht' high ntlture :111cl lh osC' dtlinc cl a~ ma~s c ultu re oftt'11 sharc ~i milar th e nH:s a nd ; p<utinilar te xt can be see n a<. hig h c ultun: al o1w puint in ti 1ne :111d po pu lar or nw<.~ c ullt1rl at amnhcr. The exa111pk o f' o pe ra may be usecl LO illustratc thi<. po int. In lta h' o pe ra i~ a popular ancl widdy rtcngnisecl c u ltural funn. <.ingl'l'' are 11e J1 kno1111 a nd pcrl'orm:IIH'l'S draw big uclie nn.., ,,hich are knollleclgcablc ancl critic:d. In comra<;t. open1 in l>ritain i.., regarcled asa n e lite ta<.ll' :m el resea rch s hows that t\ pira l k auclic nce' f'or op<:ra are o lclt1 a n d are drawn from hig h er SOCia) dasse~ than Ollll't fonns of' entertaillllll'nl. \'ct in 1990. fo llo11ing thc u~t of .\'rs5un Dorma from the opeta 'J'umndot. !.ung b~- P.11~1ro11i. to imroduce the Bl3C w l rd~ion CO\'erage ol thl 1~190 \\'orld C:up Finals. O JK' t~ t rocJ..tted in public popula rity in Britai n . In acldition w incrcasLd anclknces at Jj,e pt t'formann' in opera houses, then \\'CI'l' largc-scale co1nntt' tTia 1 pmn to t io ns ol' concens of 111 u sir lmm o pe ra in public p<ll ks a nd :nT nas. Te l t,i~ i on , vick o a nd compact clisc ~;d es o l opera increased e n o rm ou ~ ll' :tnd a n nlbum. In r :ol/{t'li. s11ng- b~- Carrera~. Do1nin..:o and Pmaroui. w;1-, tnp o l' tl w music c han.s in 1990 (C ul111ral Tre nds. no.i. 1 ! 1~10) . Th e example illustratt>~ 1he poitll that it is often cn tpiric:tll\' difficult to a<.~i..:n nil tma l practices 10 neat concep111al cJi,i ions. T he question of'bounclarics between le\'tl, ol culllll'l' ami thtju ti!lcation fot thtm i~ an arca ofccntral concct n for cultural 'tudit;.. PietttBonnlieu ( 1 9~-1 ) (<.ee Ddlnin~ Conccpt tU. p. 37>5) has maintaincd that thc bmnHiarie-, betl\'l'en popula1 ancl high an are ac tu all~ in tlie proccss of d i-,soh-ing. \\'lt e tlw1 ur 1HH <Hle acrepts this 'iel\'. it i... clcar that t he stucl y of boundarie~ a ncl margin!> mm bl' \'l't" n:,e aling a bout c hcri... hed \aln c.~ \\'hich ;m:: ma intain l'd \\'it hin bounclarie~. Tlw reln tiomhips betwcen cultura l '~'s t c n1 s are a fruitftd atTa lo t tht stucl y o l'th e prt>Cc~sc:. o f'bo und:11'\' mainte nancl' and but tncl:tr~ c ha nge. linked a~ th cst topics are to issues ol' c u ltura l cha ngc ancl c u iLttr:ll conti 1 1uit1' (sen se l.l.3: n tl turc as a proccss oi' cle,elopntl'lll). \\'i thin social a n tlt ropo log~ thcre is a n ts tabli ... hccl prartiCl' uf clemumtrati ng thc ,-aluc ami \'iabilitl' of culture~ that are ofte n n gardcd )), thc reJe,a tH authm itit.., as poot and impo\'erished ora.., anachronism~ ancl. .t~ :-.11d1. ripe for phllllttd intenlntiott to bring about changl. Stuclics b~ Ba,aer ( 19!1 1) and Rig b' ( 19R~ ) han argutd that nonmdic pastoralisn1. that is a \\'a\' of lifc in ll'hich l>t'ople mo,e \\'ith anima), and in \\'h ich a nimal produc ts are 1hc staple d ict. b a ,,Jtolh rational and e lllc icn t u ... t of' resources. Suc h ptopk.., a re a blc to lil'e in inlw~ ) il: t blt arcas ll'he rc n tlti\;nin1t i.., 11o1 possible and t' njoy a ic lt c.:u ltmal. socia l and po litica l lil'c. lkspi tc this t'\'idt' 1 1l'l' tlat'l' is prcssure fro nt dcwlopmcn t plannc rs to l'nf'orct cha ng-c throug h land polic ic.s that . compe l paswralists 10 g-hc up their tradition:tl " ay ol'lil'l a nd hecon1(' scttlcd r ulti\'ato t, or 11agc l abou rer~ . Simi la rl y. Jud ith Oke l ~ in IHr <.tucl~ uf'gyp ... ies ( 1 9~t~) h.t.., l- hlll,'11 tiH: complcx ric h tH'1-' of b'Ypsy culumtl bcliefs ancl ]>l'i1nicc~. identif,inK a :-.lt of' corl' principies around "hic-h gi')JS\' lifc is anicula tl' <l a nd 1d1ich gi,e!> mcaning 10 a JI act hities. Gyp11ie<., lil..l pa'>tora list . are u ndtt prc~~tlle to.Sl'ttle dmn1 and to cunlotnt tn pre,ai ling idcas abotll .. propcr and fitting 1\a\ lil'c. 13mh these cxamplc ~ dril\\'

atlcn tion to the issues of po11er :lllcl inequality in cu ltural a mi social lifc to which ,,e tu rn in t hc next section o f 1he chapte r.

1.2.7 1What is the relationship between culture and power?

lmplicit in o ur discussions so far has bccn the issue of powcr (p. 94). Sin ce it is a pro cluct of i ntc raction. wlturc is <tlso a pan of the social \\'o riel ancl, as suc h, is shaped by thc sig nillcan t lines o f fo rce whi clt opcnuc in a socia l " orld. All socictics a re o rganised politically a n d economically. Powcr ancl au thority are distri bute d within thcm, a nd a ll soci e ti c~ hmc mca ns fot allocating scarcc rcsources. T hese arrangcmcn t~ produce particular ocia) fon nations. Culllln.s are affcctcd b~ thc intcre ts of d omina nt groups ;tlidate theit positions in pan icu la r structures. in ocieties. which seek 10 expl11in allCI ,One of thc ways in wh ich gron p'> d o 1 hi~ is thro ugh thc construction o ftraditions and thci r pro mulgation through the population. Thus it might be a rg ucd 1hat the idea of a traditio n of British Parlia me nta ry d e moc racy e xcludes other ideas of d c moc rac~ and social o rga nisation that a re against 1hc int e res1 s of tlw powe rfu l. l.ikc wisc, Lraclition in English litc ra lllre exclucles and marg innliscs o 1her ,oices. Tlw ddlnition of trash o r mass c ul ture might be seen to nc~atc forms of c ulture tlt;tt art a c tuall y e t"Uoyed by oppre sed gro ups. 1 0 ,,-c,c . :mot hc r way oflooking a t thi~ suggesrs that suclt mass or populat fo n ns are aclllallr u~ccl by those in power to drug or indonrinate suhorclin:nc groups. Fonns of popu lar c ulture can in t his ,ie\1' be sccn to be like propaganda. For exam ple. onc commentary on moclern c ulture. that of the f rankfur t School ( p. 109) o l critical theotT. argues that t hc c ulture industries c nge ndcr passi,ity and cun lormit y amo ng their rnass audic nccs. Fo r example, in this typc of analysis the rclationship betwecn a big bancl Jeaclcr a nd hil' fans could be see n to mirror thc re lationship bc twcc n thc to ta litarian leadc r and his fnll o we rs; both f'an s ;tnd fo llowc rs re leas< thc ir tc nsio ns by taking pan in ritual (p. 288) ac ts ofsubmission ancl conl'im11it}' (Adorno. 1967: 1 1 9-~~2). \\'h<HC\'Cr \'ie,, is a dopted. it is clcar that power and cul tu re: are incx tricably linkecl ancl th;u thc analysis of c ulture cannot be cli\'orced from politics ancl power rclations. lndcccl, wc " ould a rgue that t his is a vcrv imp onam reason for s tudying culture and for taking culture criously. llowe,er. the precise way in which fonns of culture conn ectto po,,e r rcmains a n issuc to be studicd al grcater length.

1.2.8 1 How is 'culture as power' negotiated and resisted?

Gi\'e n thc pcrspecti\'al nature o f snciety, it is int.:\'ita ble that c ultural a uiwdcs will a lways be in conflict. Thus, the process of negotiation is encle mic lO, all(l c ultural resistances (p. 258) occur in man y d o ma ins of lif'c. Four key a rcas of stmgglc ami 1t cgo1ia tion th a t ha\'e conccrncd cultural swdies are arou ncl ge nder, race ', class <llld agc (for more on these catcgorics se e scction 1.3. 1 and Cha pter 3). These conccpts define social ) relationsh ips which are oftcn fraught. To takc one area asan examplc. thc concep t of gencler encom passcs both how m asc ulinity and fcmininity a re clt~'i~lcd (see s~ction 1.2. 1) a nd how m e n a nd "omen relate to o nc a nothcr. Gcndcr clefintttons are pomts o f

or

18

lntroducing Cultural Sl udies

Culture and cultural studies

19

truggk in 'iOCictit' ,jncc 1\'h at i1 10 1, . ;1 111:111 and wh ar it i<> to b<: a wo111an arc 1CH' r fixcd . ln d ec:d . l h C~t d di nit OilS lh l'I11 .~C h-t~ a re. in p a rt, tllc produ rt of iJO II'CI" s 1rug~k i>clll'een lllt'll a nd 1\'tl lllCJL Ft m ini' t write r' h an- btcn m ost innuc.: n tia l in gc nde r s tu d ics. Fc mini t cli ~c ussi o n o f' gtttdt' l m i){ltt be d hidtcl hroaclh- into argun t l'ttl~ J'o r c:quality. for commottalit~ or uniHr,a l it~. ancl l'ur difkr<:tH'c. The argumctu liu cqualit,tmplta,j.c. tite pol itical itka of righh. Equalin hel\,'tTll mctt ancl ,,mmn i~ cldi ncd b1 aiNract rights. w 11h ich hot h ~l'Xt'\ are c:n titlcd: inc:qualit1 can be defincd b1 11'0111('11 ,la e k of rights. lar examplc: ro \'o te or to L'Cjua l pa~ 7\q('ot ia tion h e re i~ ai'O lii HI 1 h e con cq n o f 1\'0IIt c n 's r ig h t.'. T ite a rg tllll CIH f'o r co mmunalit ~ or uni,e, a li ry strcsses th a t a lthOl tg'lt wo llll'll m m bc lnng 10 l'l' l'\' d ill crc nt social. 1-{t'ogra phical a n d cu ltura l grou p~ th e1 ~ h <ll'l' cont111o n or ttni \'l'r1-a l intcrcst ~ bccau~e ol tiH.:ir gcnrkr. .:\eKot iatio n It ere i> around t it e fundame n tal inccualit1 ol 1\'0ilH' n ht ra u~e of thcir :.ubordiuatiolt in all 'ocittie'. T h c argumcnt 101 dillerencc i, more complkrttecl; it rcjcch both idea' of - implt' t:quali tl aml uniHr,alitl'. [n ~ t tad , i l argu es that l h l' d il'f l'l't;' llCCS be\ 1\'t> t n !111.'11 a n d 1\'0tlll'll ,lJld between d i rft'l'l' lll gro tt ps of '''o m e n nw:ttt th a t a n m ccpt ol gt nde r can twn r be a bstracterl o ut o l :t parti1 ttlar .silt H\lio n. ,\ egotia ti u n , thcrdmc. ,,h ilt not dem-i tt< i n <.'q tta l i t~. "'ill lx a r o u n d th c s )('c i li ci t~ ol cliJ'I <:-rc at ccs. Critir' ol' gc nd n d ili ~ i o n s .\ tr ugglc to rccldine cult ura l cons tr uctions o l gntdt:r. \\'onwn\ llllllt' ltttnh. but abo ran1paign s for (('sbian ami ga1 right~. 't'd. 10 redraw tlw cultural bouudarie:-. ol men'-; and 1\'0illl'll , t''\fJl'l icnce. uch politiral mmen1en~:> an: olttn drawn into ronllic t \Ith the 1 ;11, ;md 'ocial and pol itical in, itu t io n ' li kt rdigiow, organ i" ll ions an cl poi iti cal pan ies ,,h iclt do n o t 11 islt th c c u lt ura l ' uppo n l'o r thcir d o anin a n ce to be t> roclcd o r destroncl. In tltis txampk it c;11t bl' 't-en th a t th c ,,ickr lramc1w>rk~ o t' socie ty (po\\'~ 1 ancl au tlt ori tl ' tr un ures) infl uc n c(' < llld imposc t lt t' l ll'<c h'c~ o n cultura l hl'licl' and practicc to al!'tn outcotncs. \ \'e lt;nt a ln:ack int rocl1an:d .1 awmber of otlwa .lrt;~ ,,her ( cu lture can in 'iOmc: son ol 1,;1 he hdd lO be ronneclt'd 10 rcdation,h ip' ami pallnn~ ol
fJ0\\('1'.

man~

i~

Box

].4

Conrad on Africa

11te p r c h isturic tn au "a' cursing us. praying to u'. wl'lcotni n g "' - 11'110 cclll ld ltll ~ \\'e wtre cut on from the com p rehen,ion of our sun'tHnHiings: ll' l' glidtd pa~t like phantoms. wonckt ing ancl ~ccret!l IJ>p.lllecl. a~ sane mtn 1,ould b{' bl'fore
<l ll emhusiast ic u u tbreak in .1 madhotht:. \\'e coulcl not IIIHkrstan d bec:H1Sl' 1\'C 11'Cre roo f'a r nn cl could a w t re m <. m ber beca11se \\'e l\'t' l'l' trme ll ing itt tla nig ltL of first agc, , oi' t. hosc agc~ L hat are gonc. le aviug ltarcll) a sig n - aiH l 11 0

m c m oric >. rhe eanh Sl't'llll'cl u11 eanh h. \\'e are accus10med to look upon th e ,had.kcl form of a conqn t'l't'cl monster. but th ttT - th{'n: you coulcl look at a thing m o n<>trous ami fnT. lt wa;; uncatth l~. ancl 1he mc n ll'l'rt - ~o. th e\' 1\'t're tH>I in h uman. \\'t' ll, yo11 kll\1\\', that 11a , tlw 1101st of it - tlt is 'uspicinn of tlteir 1101 br i n ~ inhuman. l t II'< Htlclcom c slowly 10 O ll L'. They IHJ\d td a nd k a p ed . and ~j) llll , a m i m ad e h o tT icl f:trcs; ln n wha tthril kd \'tl ll wa~ th e thuug lt l uf th t' il' hu allaali l~ li kc ~ou r - tl w tlto 11g h t of l'lllll' n: m ott kins hi p l\'ith this 11 ild a nd pas~i o n a t e upruar. L'gl~. \'e:~. it 11as ugly e n ough: but if 1'011 1\'l'I'C man e n ough \'011 would admit 10 \OIII',elf that therc ,,;~ in ~011 j11~t lht laimcst trace ol a response ro thc ten ibk lrankne~s of that noise. a dim su,picion of thcrc being a nH'an ing in it \l'hiclt \'0\1 - ~o u so remo le lrom tlw n igh t of li r~l ages- nntld cc ,ntpre h e nd.
J"'ql lt Co ttt ad. 1/rarl of /Jml:lll't' ( 1 ~9tl): ruotl'd in Ch ittn:t .\ch c ' h<' i 1 \J~:-<: lil

1.2.9 f How does culture shape who we are?

T ll t' a h on cxam p lcs demon,tra te th a t ~t a llgg l c an cl n cgouat1 on :t rl' o l'tcn aro u ncl c ut,tiott~ of cullllr;ll id cntity ( p. 22-1) .. \n cxample that gi\'1.''1 tlw que, tion ol' ickntitl tnort promitH:nce b th e w;ll in which tht 01 igin'l ol' Engli,h ,uclico; in tlw nineleenth C<.'llltt l'\ \\'ere: closell' linktd 10 thc grm' 1h ol unin..-,al eduration . \s a di'icipl inc En.{lish \\; , , in th l' 1 t'l\' of 11\all\ (Oillllll' lll :l l ur~, de~ glll'd lO g'\'t' 'l'h oolch ifdrl' ll a SC' Il St' o l ; n a ti o n;d cu lt un ( Batslttr rt al.. l ~l:-).J. as cli,n tsstcl in ,-\ sh c roft l'/ al.. I!JK9). Lit e ran tcx ts 11ert ustd tu insti l this s< n,e. Con o;eqm atth. a lt hou~h Eng lish litt T;tturc ll'a s . o l't<. n p1'C1-l'lll ed as a propct ~t n cl~ in it;.c ll. tlw 1\'ot\' it ,,as t<tuglt t wa~ o l'te n <k~ i gmcl. con,l<Ht'h' or uncomc iou,h. to encoura~e a p:utiCt:la natiottal identit1. a St'll'l' of what it mcant w lw l~riti,h. In te<tching thi, 'tnsc of lkitish iclttltitl', ot.her nation. 1 1 rnhurc, or idcmities witltin Hritai n 11ea T eitlwr trcatccl uncriticalh rt, part of En~li~h c ultll rt', or 1\'t' IT lel't o u t o l tl w r: m on. . \ n or hc r l'm:ct of 11 tis procl's~. 11h ic h , u nw \\T rc rs h aH' d ttn ' t<cl. was to in fu st a

pride in the Briti'h Empirc. Fnr exampk, tht ~i.('cri a n 1\Titc.:r ancl critic Chinua .- \ che be h a~ rri ti ci~ecl th t " ''" ' th a t th c nOI'd /1!'111/of /Joriiiii'Ss by .Joscph Con a -acl is ~ till o l: n p rtstn t<'cl as a f{H '< It t'X<Hll pie o f Eng lish Cll lL u re. T h c n ol'tl ck scribes a n ig h tma ri;;h e n cotnll L' t' II'th Al'rira fro111 1h e Eu ropt'<lli ()I)tltof d el,. (st'<.' Bm: l .l l. l lm,eiTr. Ar h t b e Itas cfemonsL ratecltltat t ltt r l'prese n t:tlOil oJ' .\ fri can cu ltlll"t' li ta! it COtl latlS j~ p:trt ia l. In ecl on linte knowleclgc and is thus gro~~~~ dis torted. Constcu cnth. to a Tad tlt t nmTI asan English or e1cn a European (Conrad 11as Polish in origin) 1\'ork of art is w n < t' i\( rt \'t'ry onc-sidcd 1 it-11 ol Eu ropean impet iali .. m in .-\frica. Through s11ch prore"~'' a n Enp;li' h 11atio n a l icknt ity wa~ consL rucL L'd " h ic h in i'OI\'ed com m ac ting .\l'r ican icktl tit ic' in p a rt ic ul a r wa\'~ : a ~ irra ti o n a l a ncl ,a,agc:: 'otl1Crs'. l ckmi t i l'~ a tT l't' l'\' o ftc' tt conncctl'd l ll p lace h o th localh a n d m o re ll'ide h. \\'t ma~ fte l th at 1\'e ident if\' ll'i!l1 a part icula r lm:al :ll'l':t, a cit1. a rq~ion anda counll'\' and th at thc extent to 1\'llich ,,e place empha,i!t on ont of theo;e 111;11 dcpen d on a contexl. for example. 11'110 ,,e are talking to at am panicular time. Holl'l'\'('1. it , ckarh the rast 1hat thcsc iclcntities can cause con l lict ami clisagree m e m a nd tlt :ll impo rt an ! iss uc:s in thc stud ~ o l c ulture con ccm th c 11ay in wh ic h such ide ntilies a t'c ctm ,uuc tecl a ncl h o 11 thc1 rc llcct a ll([ inll c::cl panic u la r clistrib u tio n s or power.

20 lntrod ucing Cultural Studies

Culture and cultural studies

21

1.2.1O 1Summary examples

In orde r to examine ~onH: n r th c ideas conwinc d in sec tion 1.2, ,,o sllo rt txamples are ghe n belo ,,: the fam ily a ncl Shakcspeare.

assumed that a11 Eng lish rami l it'~ han: ide ntical c ultures. Th is npens up thl c halle nging iss uc of h oll' part ic ul a r local n tltures relat<: 10 th c hro acl tr. m o re ge neral em e~ of ,,hic h thcr may be thuught to be .1 COJhtit ue n t p;u t. lt is a lso cle.1r t h a t fami l\' stn tc tu re~ a iHI organisa1ion ch a nge on:r time. n ot just cl aronological. his10rical time . but al so st ru ct tn al 1ime . 1h a t is a~ re la t ion!>h ips b e t11ecn fami lr m e mbl' rs c hange as a con scquence o l' age and lll < ll.llnltion. In al l soc ie ties, a s c hilcJ;en g ro " to ad ulthood Lhe po\\'er o l o ther a du lts o r c r th e m dimia1i ~hes. Thi ~ orcurs both a' a result of phy-,iological change (ch ildren no longer dep e nd 011 their parcnts for lod) ami also a!> a result o_r cu l uu~ll expectation~ a~out th e roles ol pare ~H~ a nd c hilclren. T h r~e cultural cxpectallo n s ma~ be genden:cl: [o r example. th e Eng h sh idio m th at dtscribes adult c hilcln:n as 'being tiecl to th e ir m o th e rs a pron strings' can lw rcacl as a ge n e ral disa ppro,a l tlf adults who d o n o l lca\'t: th t immcdia tc 'phcrc of th e ir 11101 hrr. Yel this idiom i:, ovcrwh c lming ly applied to adul t mate c hildrcn a nd thm cx p resses a 1iew about th t proper. expcc Lecl rcl atio n s hip~ bctwcen a d u lt males and th e ir mo!11cr'. ~len are e xpc:cted w lx free from th e closc: innue n ce o f th(' r 111nt h crs. whc rcas the rt il' ol'lcn ft'lt 10 lx a n identity bct\\'een ad u lt 1\'0IIlCn a nd thtir mo thcrs. Va riab les su c h as th t sex of r liildrc n , th e nnanbe r of t hi ldrt' ll a ud the age of th t' parc:nts "hcn ch ildrtn are born. all a t'ftn th e etJurst o f family li ft. 111 \ 'icLO rian F.n g-la nd. wh en famil l' sizc ,,as big-gcr a nd lifl' cxpecta ncv les!> than 1101\', sonw paren ts hacl d e pendeut c hildre n for all their lil't.'S - th crc "a~ no time in "h ich a ll thtir c hildre n h ad g r01m up aJl(l left ho rn c. T hese d e mographic and 110ti:d I~I C tors g rcntl y influe n ce th e course or famih life ancl d c monstratc 110 1 only t h c h e te roge n eity o f c ullllre bttl also the mall ~a bilit\ of' culture .. \11 cultures are reprod ucccl in speci[ic circttm11tan ce~: ideas a ncl 1n lucs are .intcrpreLed ancl unclcrstood in thc lighL o f local condi tions. Thi ~ las t p oint brings u o; back 10 t h e i ~suc. of jud gement ancl relatil i<.m in th e u n dcr~ ta nding ol cul1ural prac tice that ,,e raiscd e arlier in thi~ srction. A cultural a pproach toa common imtitutio n. in this case th t f'a mih, d e m o n strates th c po wcr of c ultural studies w gr n eratc a 11ide range a ll(l n umbe; of p o te tllia l a r eas of II H'sti gatio n . S01 n c of thcse hm-c bc::en allu<lcd to in th i' txample bul 1'011 ,,ill be able 10 idtntif, more.

Exampfe 1: The family

r\n CXtl lllna ti o n o f famil~ Jif<' re1 eals ~Olll C of the iSSU<.'S th < ll 1\'C h;we i<k n tifi ed in th e tud\' o f cult u r e . For imtancc. ,,ithin a fami l~ adu lh lul\'c ){real po,,er O\'Cr the li1Ts of ch ild ren be cn n ~c human inl~mto; are d epcndcn t on adults for thcir SIIJY\a l for re latin.> h long periods of time. One 11':1} or und c:rstancling famil y tire is to examin t.: re la t ionship~ and proccsses in te rms of clol1linant and subord in a te c ultures. T his approac h has b ccn used e xtl'n'i"c lr bv man ~ li:minist 11ritcrs 1dw h<we uwd th c con cept of patriarch~ tu rcfer to the asscm b lage of cultu ral a n d m a terial p01,er that mcn c1~oy tiNitis "om e n ancl ch ildrcn (Camphell, 19HH; Patema n . IHH9). Thc peliod of d epcndcnn ofchilcl ren , \'a ries fro m culture to culture. hnth hiswricall y :md cont('111poranenmly. ami a numbc r Of\\'rilt:rs han: C lllllWIIIl'cl thal th e \\'t>Sll'1'11 llotion o[ ch ild l100d is a l'l'l:tlil'e h rcctnt concept (Arie~. 1962: \\'ah-in , 19{2). Funller. in umn~ pans of' th e conten1pora;, . wo rld it is a mistake to th ink of thc lil'l'\ ofchilcl rtn inttnn o l dtildhood as it i~ u u der~tood in th c \\'e~t: t h i~ pcriod of growt h a mi lc:arning is seen quite diffc n :nt h- from t h a t in \\'e ~tern socie tits. Calchnll ( 19R2), 11riting or India. re rlt;rrks that in lncliat l rnral socit'll. ti acre is th c cultura l belit-fancl p ractice th'.t wca lth flows Jman c hi ldrtn w parents as '''t ll as from part nts to c hilcln:n. llc comrne nts that. ~ ~vi cally in \\'este nJ ~oc i e tl', resotii'C(':, llow in a OJH'I,m clirection frorn pa r enh w r h ild r en aiHI parcn ts do not e:-.pect ,oung ch ildren tu comribme lo tht material 11cllbeing of the l.lmily o r origin. ll owe1 er. in man y p a n s of thc world c hild rcn are ,;dmcl , al lcast in pan. for the contri bu tions th<tl they make to th t donwsti c tt.:o n ornics of l'ami l ~ allCI lwu ~dwl d; th cre i~ ll'hat Ca lclwc ll calls a 'reciproca! fl o w' of goo d~ and ~t' t Yiccs h c: tweetl pan:nts and e l'l'JI q uite ~o un g ch ildren. Fo r exam ple. wdd ler' can join in gat hc ri n g lirewood a n d thi~ is a valuable con tribu tion in cconomit>~ wherc this is th e only fu el a1~ a i l ab le for cooking and b o iling ,,a te r. This c ultu1 al l'iell' of c hilclren is significant in und e rstanding res ponse s to fa n1il~ p la nning pr~j l'CI S. Cald,,ell argues that a ll too oftcn \\'(~crn cultural a~surnptiom abou t famil y lifc ancl clesirablc family size din:ct the p o licy a nd goals of t h t~t' projects. Loo ki ng bei'Ond th e English lamily LO familit~ in other pal l'> of the ,,ortd rem inds us of th e h etcrogene itl' and din~ rl>ity of culture <l nd aJe n ~ u ~ to thc d<ln){t' I"S lor u n d crsta nding in asS11111ing that c ultures a ncl cu lurral m canin g~ a re th e same 1h e ll'o rlrl o1er. lndeecl. CI'Cn in \ \'estl'l'll socie ties thtr( is much c u ltura l di,crsill'. Novels a ll([ acaclemic studics pointto 1he cfftcts o f class and powcr o u fa mil y lifc . Jn lw ecent pa~t criticisms hmc bcen le,cl!('d against sum t trad iti o n a l read ing for childrt n b ecausc it ponrays a miclclle-class 1ie\\' of famih s trtlCillres a nd r clation sh ip wh ich i~ far remoncl from th e expericnces o f manr c hildrcn. ,\cna~a ti o ns o l ~exis m a ncl racism in lite raturt fo r c hildre n hme also becn made. These cri ti cisms gai ta draw o ur allc nt ion w tlll' re lat ions h i ps i>c tii'Ccn ge n eral. el ifluse c ultuns ami lcxa l. panicular c u l ltnc~. Al thoug h ,,e may identi~ an Eng lish c ulture as d is tinct f'ro m. sa~ a Frcnch cultmt'. it cannot be

Example 2: Shakespeare
T h e sLucly of' Sh akes p eare has a [l,ays been central LO English s tuclies ~111cl 10 somc construcom o l Eng li h ide n tity ( p. 224). raditionally. in English stu di e~. hake~pcarc play' a n d Shake~pcarc's languagc h;n-c been prc~e nted as tht c:.,cnce of Eng lishn tss. J'h cy hme b cl'll macle to st'tYt' a-, th e d efin ing fcatur e s o ra h omogen ous aJl(l un c h a ng in ~ culture. Subsequcnt au th o rs h an: o fte n bcl'll j u clged in tcrms of h o " 1h e\' ti L int o 1ha! tradi 1io n. lkcause o f th is con 1 1ect ion b CI\\'Cen Shakesprare ami national identitr thl position of these piar~ in sclwols h as bccome a n impo rtalll issuc. f he argument is p ut fon,ard that c hildren nHJSt r ead Sha kespear c in o rckr 10 learn Eng-l ish a ncl Engl ishness. Shakespcare's pla1~ b ecom e l'a lued O\'CJ . and abol'e o th e r fonns of cultura l procluctio n . A~ a res ult th c teaching of' Shakespearc . ancl Eng lish hisLory. was also a pan ol colon ialism's cultmnl project (p. ! S9). H owenr, cultural stu di t~ a~k~ ra t hc r dilf(nn t q u estiom abou t Shakc~peare. l nstcarl

22

lntroducing Cultura l Studies

Culture and cultural studies

23

o f taking h a kesp eart"S pOSillOll for grantcd. it asks what llt l' SOCia ( p ' lllOll of tflt' th catrc was in Eliza be th an times. Funhe r. it a'ks h ow plays IW ' r<. wriu<.n a ncl produced in l.lt <' ~ ixtCC lllh < lllcl St:l'l'lllCCIIlh CClllurics. Evidcnce th a l sh ows a hig h ck g rt:t' collabora tio n betwccn pla~wrig hts a nd adapta ti o n of pla~, o n th c ,tagc chan ge:-. 1h <. conctpti o n of Shakespearc a~ indi\idua l gc nius: h e a p pcars as pan of a 1\'idet cu ltu n :. Shakespcare is th en placed h iswrically rat h er than his pla1~ being 'cen as 'tim c l e!>~ ot 'etemal'. T he qu estion o f the aud ien ce is nddressed bot h in t h c sixteenth and sc,e ntccmh cetHuries ancl tl OII'. T h is gi\'es a ~eme of wh o th e p l a~s 11c rc ime ndcd for ancl how they h a\'e bce n l'l' cci,ecl. funh e r c hallc n g ing th e ron ccpti o n th a l his ll'urk is uni\'<. rsal: th a t is, fo r l'\'l' ryo ne, all nf th c l ime. We mi ~IH ask ,,h at group~ of sch oolc hildre n tnake of Sh a kcspearc's p lays depending o n l las . ra n. a nd gendcr. o r wh<.th er thc1 h:l\'t' ~ce tt th e pln,s in th e th eatr e or in I'CI'iom madt for th e cinema. T IH timele s nalllre o f ' h akesp earc can also be challengccl b\' ~t ud ies t h a t h o\\' that lht texts h a,e bcen altc rcd consick rabl ~ O\'t'r th e yea rs: ami 1hat h e was no1 a lwa\, considcrcd a s impo nant as !te i~ no w. Cultural studi es looks at 1he c han g ing co n ce)Iio n s o f Eng lishn css - ancl i1s re lationsh ip.-: 10 the rest o f th c world - that ca used Slwkcspcare to be rcdisconrccl in th c e ig-ht C'l'lllh ccn nt tv as the nat io nal poe1. T h is extcnd~ from stud ying di ITere n t ,er~ions of 1he plm~ to lookin g a t 1he tou l'i ~t in cl m tn in S trmforcl-u p on-A.,o n . l t can a lso imoh'e s tuddng 1he ,ersions ol Sha l..espeare that ate produccd in other p an:- o f th c \\'orle!. The'c d o not sim p l~ sho,, the imposition of En g'lish cu ltura lmean ings. bu 1 the complex p mcesscs of n cgotiatio n 1d1hin n etlmrk~ o f cu l1urnl intc raction 1\'llic h m ean 1ha t Sh aktspearea n his1o ry p la r s ,,e re ,chicles for disc us:-ing poltica! a uthotit~ in th e So,ic t L.: n ion , all([ ,,hiclt recen ti~ brottg h t a Z ulu 1crsion of Macbeth f'rom post-apanheid Sou th :\frica to th e r<.co th lructi on ol Shakcspeat e 's C lobe T h eatrt in Lo n do n .

or

1 Box

1.5

Troilus and Cressida

But \\'hen th e planets ltt l'l'il m ixture 10 d i..,orcltt 11ancler. \ \'hat plagues and \\ hat po rt e nts. what llltllin\'! \\'h:n raging of th e ~ea. :,hakin g nf e arth ! C:otltllHHio n in th c 11inds: J'ri g hts, c han gts. h orrors Oil'{'l'l ami crac k. rend ancl d e rac inat c Tite unit y and m a rri c d cal m o f s tate~ Quite from th cir fixure! O h wh e n degree i<. sh a l..' d , \\'h ich i~ tite laddcr of .111 high d esigns. The CtHcrprise is o;ick. llo11 cou ld commttnitie,, Deg-rt'l'S in school,, ;llld b ro th crh oocb in c ities. Pea ccl'ttl cotnm e rn l'mm cli,idable sh ores. T hc primoge ni1y < tnd du e of' binh, Preroga the o f agt'. cro11n..-. scc ptrcs. lamcls. IJtll that dcgree ~tattd in a ul hemic p lace? Take but degree ;n,a~, ll tltli! H' that tring. Ancl h a rk wh a t discot el follmrs. Earh t h in g m cets In nw rC' o ppug nac~: llll' boun ded waar' S lwu lcl lil't th e ir bo!'om s hi ~h t r 1han th e sh o res. An d makc a so p of a ll this so lid g lobc: Strc n gt h sh o uld bC' lord of' imbcc ility. . \ nd the rude on should s tri ke h is father clead
l1mllll flml

Al! of these proce~sts of qt testion ing :md n egotiation are of cou rse p olitical: tht' sho\\' that t h e interp rei<H io n ofShakespeare is a maner ofpo,,er. 1 h i ,,as clearlr ~hown b~ ~largo 1 llei n e mann ( 19R!l) in h e r essav ' llow 1 3rccht read Shaktspearc'. S he ga,e 1h e exa m p lc nf N igel La,,~on. C ltan cellor of tl w l~xc lwqu e r in th c lnl e Hlt\Os, 1\'ho fJU Oll'd from S hakespeare 's pla ~ 'l '~tJiluJ ond Crl'ssida ( 1()0 1-2). Lawson m e d 1h e q lttatiott 'Ta k< but degt ce a11ay. untu tt t' that s trin g /.-\ncl hark '"hat disco re! l(lllo,,s to argue th at Shakc pcar c was a Tory. llo\\'CI'e t. as H ei n cm:tn n poin ted out. t h c character who ma ke' the sp eech. U h-sses. is in fan a wily, cu nn in g politician . who is u sing 11t e t h reat of social disonler to :tttain his 0\\'ll en e! ~ (~ee Bo x 1.5).
Al 1 of t h e se q u esti o n s a nd issues d e ri,e from adopti ng a rather di ITe ren t approa c lt 1o th c s u tdy of' c ulture to thal represcnte cl by Eng lish studi es in i1s m o re cotwentio n:tl g uises. T h ey a re th e ~o ns of qu estions pos<.d b~ th osc acl o pti tt g a cultura l sw dit'!> pcr~pcctil't' a nd a re sh a p ecl by th c e o re iss ues t hat \\'C han identified. llowc1er. th c1 a h o itl\'ohc a~ki ng q u estion s whiclt lcad u~ on 10 examining thc theor etical per pe~tin~ used II'thin c u lt m al studil~: what is the rclation,hip bet,,een t h e \orial position ol tlw audience (e.g. race, class a n d ge ncler) and t h t itHe rpre tatio n o f th t tcx t? Ho,, can wt uncle rslancl th c \\'<1)'S in 1\'h ic h 1hc m e anin g ' o f Eng lish n css (and th e ir link 10 S ha kcs> < arc ) ancl 1h e m e an i ng~ of Fre P<.: h n ~:'s beco me clcfi n cd as o ppnsi tes? \\'hat

Or.sidfll.iii.91- ll :,

i d c~b ancl m e th o d s cnn \\'(' ttse to int trprlt plays in tb c ir histo rica l come xt o r llH' con te m p orary m e an i ngs o l' Shakcswarc ,,i1it i tt scltools? 1n tit l n ex t scction we exa111 in e ~0111 (' o f' th e m o 1 inlluc n ti al 1\'a\'S o f th emising c ulture.

J.J I Theorising culture

T his scctiun introclttC'l'S thc o ri es of c ulture 1\'hich a n empt 10 addrcss th e issm'S < HHI problcms set out abo,c and to unile tltttn \\'i thin fralll e\\o rk~ of cxplanation. The bringin g toget her ol' cli\'crse issues aml prohlcm ~ in lO a s inglt- lonn ncce arily inl'ohcs a procc~" of abstraction. Theorist~ mm e a\\'<1\ from 1he det a il o f panicular in.,ta n CC'S ami loo k f'or conncctions in tcrm ~ of general princi pies o r conrepts: the ron scqucn n of 1 hi~ l~ lu(knt is th a ttiteories ;;:e o l'te n dil'fi cult to g rasp a l lir~t \ight , ro uc h e d ilS th l')' are in abs trac t lang ua gt. l tmay h c lp ~o ui.O 1hink o l'issu es ancl proble m s as th e builditlg'

24

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Culture and cultural studies

25

bl oc k~ of th co ri~s; bm 1llc re i~ no tscapin.;- thc t'ac1 tha l 1he Jang uagt t lf thcory is abstract. and \'Oll may ,,ell find it diflicu lt 011 lirst reacling. Gtne ral lhcori<"s of cullure addres~ o rrc or more.: or thc.: following quc.: <.tions:

l. \\'h:u is thc relat ion of culture to

~ocia)

Mnrcturc' (

2. \\'hicll ideas ancl mcthods uf innstigation olfer the must prornisi ng prospcc ts t'o r in teqJrcting culture~ 3. H o w is mcaning orgaui,cd ancl paucrnecl? In adclressing each of 1hcse in nrrn \\'e ll'ill tn O \ l' th roug h a r:rngc of thtnrc rical approaches. Bro<1dlr - a mi this i ~ a raricalllrt tha t can be fi llcd out b, looking ;u cxamples in the rtst ol thc booJ.. - ,,e s1 an wirh fu ncrionalist ancl s tructlllalis t (p. 21) forrns of' undcrstanding ll'hich s ugge~ L clt:arlr clefi necl. ancl of1 en ra1hcr rigicl. rcla tionship,. From the e \\'C mmc on to theorctical appro:tches (\d1 ich some1imcs rnight still be c:lllcd s tru cturali~L ancl Ht'C of'tc.:n infhttnccd hy 1\arl Marx (p. 97) that place tmphasi' 0 11 th(' unckrstancling of rulturT and lll('aning through thinking abou t their relationships L O poJitica) l:'( Oil Olll)' (for ('X ampJc, cl aSI' SlJ'UC tur<:,, rnod t.~ or jJI'OdliCLol1, e tC.} a nd lhcir irn portancc \\'ihin con0 ic t~ btLWC\.' Il difl'e rentl\ pusitioned ~aci a l groups. Fi na ll ~ ,,e s1rcss 1\'h:n are often callcd poslslmcturalist (p. 2.f) or postmodenr (p. 100) th eorc tical approaches which rctain a conccrn with polilics (and sollll' concern tor c~onomic ) in explai ning .cultun (see Chaptcr 6). but use a IIIIICh mor( nexiblc e n ~~. \:> 1 how culwrcs and meanrngs are maclc.

societies and texts; Foucault (p. 28) (history and philosophy) who pointed to the way j ' that underlying epistemes determine what can be thought in his archaeological method; and Althusser (philosophy), who drew on Lacan's re-working of Freud in a re-reading of Marx (p. 97) which emphasised the role of underlying modes of production in the determination of the course of history. Debate around L acan was influential on the work in feminism of writers like Kristeva (p. 232) and lrigaray. Poststructualism developed pa' OLJ.L O L([iti.que Q.Uhe binary_Qivision.u .o often char.acled~turalism. So, for examp~it cri~iclse~ t~~d~a t~a~ere s actu~y .a distiQs.t structure unaerlying texts_or_speech, plurong such d1 st1nclloos. Moreover, 1t 1s critica! o~ oftheScientific pretensions of structuralism. ~-~a lism tended to work on the 121~JhaLthe truth or .the. realstructure couli_be found. Pos!~ruct.!J ralis!ll is more..concerne,d \-Y.[lJ:l t~~ay in whic;h_versiQDS of tcu1h a~_;>.roduceg in~xts_ and thr.Q!!9h which is always in can structuralism therefore tends to be more playful in practice if not outcome. The work o Derrida and Baudrillard exhibits sorne of these po~tslructu ralst ideas. Derrida sh~~s how texts subvert themselves from within and B audnllard explodes the neat oppos1l1ons of sign and signifier, use and exchange value. E~~~oLstruel!l!.alist and po~stru~ l analyses ca~ b~und in cultural stu 1e . More formal structuralist analyses have sought to find the hidden meamngs f fcifk tales (Propp), james Bond (Eco), the Western film (Wright) and romantic fi clion (R adway). Poststructuralist influence is more diffuse, but can be found especially In more llterary forms of cultural studies, where the complexties of text.s and their multiple meanings are "- lnterpreted.

inten~retaton,

disput~and

n~ver ~resolved. Pos~

Defining concejJI

1.2

Structuralism and poststructuralism

Furlhn reading
Hawkes, T. (1991) Structurolism ond Semiolics, London: Routledge.

Wright, W. (1 975) Sixguns ond Sodety, B erkeley, CA : University of California Press.

Structuralism was an intellectual approach and movement whch was very influential in the social sciences and the arts in the 1960s and 1970s. Th~sl.c i~ of structuralism is ~ ( th~t a phenomenon und.er study should be~ssonsislli!g of aysle~t~s. Tb!.U.Ystem and the relat1onsh 1~ ~m ~s are p Q_re imRQ!lant than the individual elements that make up the s stem. " The Sw1ss mguist de Saussure 1s regarded as the founder of structuralism. In his study of language, he drew attenlion to the structures (langue) that underpin the variation o! everyday speech and writing (parole) and analysed the sign as conssling of a signified (concept) and signifier (word or sound), founding semiotics (p. 34) as the science of the study of signs. The emphasis on the slructure to be found below or behind everyday interaction, or the variety of literary texts, was taken up by a number of (mainly French) writers working in different areas of the social sciences and humanties. Examples include: L vi-Strauss (anlhropology) in studies of kinship, myth and totemism; L acan (psychoanalysis) who re-worked Freud, arguing that the unconsciousness is structured like a language; Barthes (p. 52) (literary studies), who examined the myths of bourgeois

1.3.1 1 Culture and social structu re

Sociulog-ists oft('ll li'>L' 1hc ttrm 'social SllliC tun' lo ' IIH> en<.lming. an;; paucnll'd re lat inn~hip' bctll'l'Cil dLment'> of a 'OCICI\' (. \ lwrnorn hit' 1'1 o l.. 198-1: 198 ~"\ CO lll \11011 1\'\\' of dt'~cribi rl~ lht ~I J'UC!ll l'l' of a particular '> OCiely ~ I D f'OC'l iS tiJ'O il h ruain lin c~ of' d t a\'agc. In \\'c~ tt rn socit-tics 'ocia) \CL'rlli'-lS most comn1only identif\ thl''-C '" cla~s. age. ~l'IHkr aml cth nidt\'. In this tradition thc realm~ are sttn a ~ intcrconn ected and iuteracling b11 1<'SS<' lllially.uuequ;rl as force~ fo~ changc. \\l1crc th.c\ pri mt' n:alm i~ that o! ~ocia) Slntcwre, cult ure ' ' tr<alt'd as a (kn ,au,c of '>tnrcture. Thrs j is clearly the case in frm ctionalism.

cle~rribe

orclcrl~

} :j

Functionalism O ne infltrential fon rtnltion of 1hc rclationship of n llture 10 social trucnrre can be s<:c n in the II'Ork of 1hc r\mnican sociolngist T:dcoll J>arson.~. l'arsnns trcars culLUre as

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lntrod ucing Cul tura l Studies

Culture and cultural studies

27

for th t.: propcr run c tiqning ol ~ucil ty. In gttH: ra l ternl ~ n tlturc -l h ~ll is. l'a)U('' nornt:-. a nd s~mboJ ,- prodck the linchpin uf l'a r:-.on,\ '-olution to thc prohkm ol ~oci a ) o rckr. This p robkm i :111 ana h tical i"-111.: ro nretning- the sou n .t, ol tlw t' IHl u ri ng qua litl' of social lil't- how i ~ tlt t' reg-u larit~. per,iste ncl. t'tbti,c stab ilitl' a ncl prtdictabilit~ or social life a c h itlecl:' P;r~on ~ maintain~ that ru ltlll'l' i' th t Cl'lltral d t;> IIH'Il l oran a dcqttatc solu tion to th i' problem berau~t it pr01 ick' ,alue~>. t he ,ha red idea' about what i~ de~irable in sociell (pcrhaps ,alnt'' like matl'l i.tl prospl'l'i tl, indi,idna l fhcdon ancl ~oc i a l justicd, a nd n orlll.'-. tire acrt'pt ah le nwa 11' of obtain ing t hest' 1h in g-s (for t;..;a llt pk. Lhc iclt.:a 1ha t hont''-1 e nde;t~ Jttr is t lw wa1 to succe:>'-). Cu ltu re a lso pml'ide~ languag-e and o thcr ~1'1 n bolic :-.1'\LC'tm l'"l'lltial to orial lili:. P;u soth fnnhe1 ma intaim that culture i~ in ttrnali,ed b1 pcrsonalitit, a nd that inclil'idual mo tilation th n <; ha~ cu lt um l orig ins. ~ l orcmn Ll,o or 'oc ict~\ basic ft.:atnru. i1 s ecotlnlll\' ami ih po lit ica l s~stclll , a re maintai rt ccl b1 c ult ure . Hc n u t hcre is a n i111po n a nt ~('ll'-l' in whirlt c ullllre 'oils tlw ll'het'i~ of ~ociet\', In L )l( fn ctionali~t 1 ie,,. of' l'ar<;on:.. ~orit'll. cultllll' ,11\clthe indi1idual are intnrelated. earh intcrwllctrating the other, b u t culture orcu pies a n ' ntr.d >lace blcall'-t' o nth e one ha ttd it i' i nt c nwli ~(cl bl' ittclilidu;tlsand nn tite o th e r J .....__ i1 i~ inst itu tiond iwd in lile Sl<~hk pauen1' o f ac tio n th:t l ,nakc LIJ) lite so c ilt1 ..
ll i:'CL'I>'<I r\'

Box

].6

Subordination and patriarchy

Submdi 11 otioll of 11'01111'11: a phra~c usecl 10 dt:scrihc tltt gc n era l i ~cd situatio tt wheHbl' mcn a:- a ~roup haw more ~ocial .lllcl economic pm,tr titan 11ontt'll. including po,,er Ol'er women (Pearson, 1 ~1~12). ~ l e n .tr(' dominan! in 'ocie11 ancl m asc u lin i t~ ,r,ignifles dominan cc mtr re min inity in te nns of idea,. Potriarrhy origina lll an anthropological tcrm that <k~cribes a .;ocial ~ystem in which authorit\' i~ inwstecl in th(' m a Je hcaclol'the housl'110ld (t he patriarch) .llld o thcr n1alc c ld~rs in 1he kinship group. O lclt:r tnt'll are tn ti tle d LO exerc ise suci.tlll sanc lionccl a utho rity m -cr o thcr me mbl' rS o r th e hou~eh ol d u1 kinsh ip g ruup. both \\'Omen ;1ncl 'ounger nH..'Il ( Pearson. 1992). Patriarch1 ha!> bt'l'll criti ci~td b1 somt ftmini'\tS '" too all-embrarin~ a tenn to d escribe the dinen.nt fMnt~ of mall' clominancc in difTne nt socic tic ,.

Social structure and social conflict: closs, gender ond 'roce'

"li e scpa ra tion oln iltu re ancl wcia l stru ct urc is n vt fiuti tcd tn /unrtionalisl tltcori,ts. 1t apptar; nl ~o in lite wnrk or thcorists wlw arg ue d tha t ronf li<:t i~ at the core of ,ocie, ancl 11ho nnder,tancl cultun in tc nns of tlw 'll'll<ll lll'<l relatiolhhips of poli tics an;l economic~ (or political cco 1 to 11 1~ ). Ka rl ~l arx (p. 97), th l' n illt' lt'l'llth-centun philosop hcr ;md rcm h1 tinna r '. ;m el tit e social llt t'(H'io; Max We be r (p. ~1 :1) tre attd IH' Iiels, ,alul'' a 11d bt'l1ai'our as produc ts of 'or ial a nd l'< tHHln tic i nl'qua liti c~ a11d powe r rela tiomhips. ," \lthoug h \latx', idea' ,11(' ,en compk' ,onw of hi\ lollo11er' h;\\'e argued lha t those ll'ho ho ld t h t means ul production in ,ociel\11 ill con1rol il ~ idea~ ancl l'al ue~. T ite r ulittg icll'a.o; ora SI)<.:l'll' (i l ~ fol'lll\ of btll', politics. r~l igioll,l' IC. ) ll'i ll be lltO!'l' of' th t dtH IIi nant das~. The~t ick<t~ ,,. bl u., cd 10 managc and ]>l'l pcllt:tll' an trnequal ancl uqju<.t s~sttm . In t h i~> ,cJwme. cuhurt ~cnl's <l' a prop LO thc ~ocia l ~lntcturt. legi ti mi~ing t he l'Xi,ti n l{ orcltr of thi ng:-. Fcminis t (p. 120) 1h l'o r isls haH' al so Sl't'll c ul turl' "' a prod tt CI of' social ro n fl ict: b nt wh ercas ~ 1arx iM ~ Sl.'l' socia l con r lic1 ;" bc tll't'l' ll classc~ . l'cntin i~t:o. '-t't' gc nde r rl'ln t iom a' justa' impo nant. T\\o kc,te l n t ~ in femini,ttheon ar1. ~~:uion ;u~a1-ciH (~ee 13ox l.fi). Both these te nus cle~criht hclll me n ltan. more social and l'COnomic po\\tr t ha 11 II'Oilll'l1. Fe mi n ist 1htntY for u st~ on tlll' pul 1ica l ami econom ic incquali 1ics be tll'l.'\.'11 n tc n aml ll'llme n. l lmH'\'l'r. b tctll'-l' wunttn ha1-c ofttn i>t'L' Il c xcluclcd rro m ~h e mainstrcam o f political nncl cconomic life. ftmi~vt al'o empha'i'cd thc m~t ud\lng'Cltlturt a~ n "h ich-incqna lity i' rcprod u red. lkcatt~e it is within cu llll'l' 1 tat ge e tr is fonn cd . ll' nt in ist,., tan stucf~ in 11rdcr to exa 1~1 in( tllt' way~ i11 ll'h ic h c ul1 u ra l cxJl'na 1io ns ancl ;t <;~ um ptions abo ut stx haH f'ecl thc lclta that !{C'ncln inequalitl' i~ natura l. Cultu~t ancl nmflict are abo linkcd in lite ~tudy ofracc' anclra r i,m. T ht.: conccp1 ol

race is oftt n put in iii\Trted con1ma\ bccall..,l' rart. likl gcnckr. i' a l\o a '>ocial rather) than a biol w ical categ-or\'. Altlw Hg h peopk arl' oftl'n cliiTcrc~ficcl by ra cial' ;, a clc!in ec.l as betwcen raCial gro11p~ ( F1e lds, 19\lO: 9t). hw1 ( 198-1) h .t, .11guc d th.n t a oal ptCJllcltce i~ cult ural in t he sem e that it is tlw anic ulation ofpopular bl'iief~ hl'ld by a pcopk abou t othe rs 11ho nre felt w be diff('rc nl frtJ lll thtmselws. Rarism, hoiiT I'cr, artic nlatt'l' c 1tlt ura l cli flcrence ,,i th stntc turlcl inc qua lil)'. using pt'ITt'!)tions uf tl ll'Sl' d inen n ns LO valiclatc opprcssion. T hc arguml'n t i' that c ultural domina tion is an e~~cntial e ll'mcn t or economic ancl political con tro i.Ju~L as rem ini ~t~ con tenclth:n the cu ll\ll'.l l roles a"igned 10 ,,om t' ll (genckrlcl role~) serl'l' 10 acco unt fnt th c ir wpar;ltt ancltrmq ual re l a tion~hip ll'ith lll t-' 11 , SO critiC'- of l'<lC !> Ill arg ue tha l prl:jucl iciaJ l'; tlllt.:~ a nd a lti tlldl'S lOII'<tl'dS colon ist'd ptople!> dl,doped as Europe atl impn ia lis t' slaugh tt'rld thcm. too J... their lands and dcstrowcltht'i t tllltllns ( Rich;mb. 1\l\lO).

cJ1 a~L~ "ays ma.r~ cl~fll'l'~nccs 11itl~in.

'r.ac~al' gr~up.

Culture in its own right andas o force for change

llo11enr. culture nc<:d not be ~l'l'll as ckpcndtnt u pon .m el clni,atiw or tlw c conom ic o ra m othcr dimension of socia l ~truc turc. TIH: cclebn11td case hnt i\ ~l ax Wc be r's (p. 21~~) aC( tl\ llll th t p:trt plal'l'd by the Pro lotalll e th i(' in l'xplain ing- th c o ri g in.- of mo d em capitali'>lll. \\'l'l>l'r a rgm:- that t iH bl'iief' of tltl l'arll' Prott~t; lllt '-t'CLS plal'ed a kt, camal role in tht t~tabl ishmt'lll ol' the ,pirit' or c ulwrc of ca pitali:-.m. a nclth trch y co;Hribu tcd to clel'l'lo)tnem of th c capi ta)i,t cconomic .,~s rem. ;..ra.w of the early Prote stan! g roups su b<.cribecl LO thc tcac hings Ca hi n '~ doc trine of' pre d cstinn tion whiclt ma intaine d that thc belil'l't:r's e ternal ' a ll'ation 11a, clctcrmimd at binh a nd that no amoun l or goocl works coulcl alter God's deci:-ion. r h i'i pland a liTllll'IICIOilS psycholog-ical burdtn on bcliel'<:rs ,,ho ha el n n ,,a~ or K\10\l'illK 1\'hClill'l' thcy lllllllh(' recl

or

or

Culture and cultural studies 29 28 lntroducing Cultural Studies <lmong th~ Ekct (those who achicve cwrnal sah'::uion in thc li{'(' hereafler ). Thc pr;'ICtical solution offt>rrd b~ the Prote talll religion lO the anx1e1~ thus gtn('lated la1 in thc notion or mcation: thc beli(:n:r was instrunccl 10 work long ancl hard in an occupation in <'r<ler ro attest hi~/ her confidcnce ancl colwiction that Elcct l-tat u~ 11as a Mlrcd. bner. thc doctrine 11-.\ relaxcd so thal ~}"temati c labour 11ithin a 1ocation ami thc material prospcritl' thal accompanicd it came 10 be secn a\ a sign of Ekction. Thc conscquen cc~ of these bdicfs ancl relatcd n.: strictiom on consumption and indulgcncc 11a~ (a) to imroduce a ne11 goal-Oii(ntatcd attitude toward'> economic actil'it~ to replace the dilTu~c auiu1dcs that had per i~tcd through the ~ f iddlc A~e~. an<l ( b ) to facilitale tite proce~s of capital acC U1 11lii<Hinn. Weber of course ,,as well awarc that a number of factors othe1 than the cultural contrihuted toa phe nomcnon as complc::x as capitali!>m (Collins. 198U). His intention was to show how idea~ can be 'effcctiH force., (\\'ebn, 1930: 183) in the hiswrical dcvclopmcnt of socicties. CulttiH' (hcrc in the fonn ol religilHI'I ide<~~) ran hape as well as be shaped br social s1n 1 cturc. A more intcrwoi'CII 1icw of thc rclation:.hip bcrwecn cultu1 e and society i<> !>hOim in rhe work of ~ J a n Douglas ancl Michcl Foucault (p. 28}. They bmh suc <;in thc ir writings thal ou1 understanrling of panicular objeCls relates as much 10 the 11ay 11e think about tho~e ol~cc t~ :h to :1111 qualitics tho. e objt'CIS ma) ha1e in lhcmschts. Therc is a reciproca! rdalion-.hip bcrween thought ancl thc object(s) of thought: a 1wo-wav proce'>s ,,here objcct<; han~ q11ali t ie ~ that mnkc an impressio n 11pon us, bt1t that impression is influenccd b1 thc w:ws i11 11hich 11c ha1c been conditioncd to think abo11t that object. Thought and objccr are. the11. inseparably liukcd but this doe n<H mean that ,,.e al11a}s d d The Birth of the Clinic (originally published in French changing patterns ofknowledge pr~ u~ e. 11966) and The Archaeology of Knowledge (French in 1963), TheOrderofThings(Fr~n~ ~ngll1~archaeologies' to describe all these projects. The original 1969). lndeed, he use t ~d er~wer which the treatment of the insane had r~vealed connectlons between knowledge a p . 1' ed groups in his Discipline and Pumsh: The 1 f to other margtna 1s . were further explored 111 re a ton. . F h. 1975) his edited editions of the hves of the Birth of the Prison (originally pubhshed 111 rene ~n d't H~rculine Barbin (1978), and his three murderer Pierre Riviere (1975) and .t~e herm~~li:~e~ ~ French: Volume 11976, Vo\umes 11 and books on The His!Oryof Sext~a/tly(or.rgtnally p d enealo ies- he used theories of discourse (p. 1111 984).Jna\lofthesestudres -wht~hhec.alle 9 gd knowledge are connected in the o trace the changing ways tn whtch power an 30) l rtes <p. 224) production of subjectivities and 'd ' entt h .h ed the ways in which we think about

Foucault's impact has be~n ~c~demic. He ~~ e :Sn~ look at the ways in which they are ower knowledge and subecttvtly, encourag f 9 ntext to context In emphasising that P ' . h' h they chilnge rom co . . . stin in the analysis of society' he has encourconnected and the ways 111 w '.c 'Nothing ls fundamental. That .s whatts r~tere- ~AJer relations, ways of thinking, and ways of aged us to thinkabout the ways tn whlch thld tnbgs d~ff ent This means that his influence has also 1 curse1 ltes understandmg ve s and others- cou e er h' h shape institutions and subectiVI . t the forms of power w IC been political. Hts attentton o . prisoners' rights and gay rights. has been influentlal in, for example, campargns over /

Fw1her reading

d Other Wri!ings !972- 1977, ed. Coln

Foucault, M. (1980) Power/Knowledge: Sele<led lntefVIews on Gordon, Brighton: Harvester Press. . . Ph'l hv Culture lnterviews ond Other Writings . l O (ed ) (1988) Michel Foucoult: PolttKS, 'osop ,, . Kntzman, . . 1977-1984,London: Routledge. . uin oucoull Reoder, Harmondsworth. Peng . 1984) The F Rablnow, P. (ed ) (

fey injluence J.2

Michel Foucault (1926- 84)

Michel Foucault was a French philosopher and historian - indeed these two categories or identities become blurred together in his writing and thought - who has hada dramatic and far-reaching mpact on cultural studies through his work on the connections between power (p. 94), knowledge and subjectivity. Foucault's varied career took him through several disciplines- including philosophy and psychology - and various countries - he worked in France, Sweden, Poland, Tunisia and Germany before taking up a position at France's premier academic institution, the College de France, in 1970. Significantly, his job in Pars was, at his suggestion, a professorship in History of Systems ofThought and in this we can trace the themes of m1.1ch of thework that he undertook from the 1950s through into the 1980s. F oucault's early work traced changing modes of thought in relation to 'psychological' knowledges. His book Madness and Civilisation (1961) traced the relationship between madness and reason; reading the changing reactions to madness, and the incarceration of the mad, in terms of thinking about ratiorality as tney changed from the medieval period, through the Enlightenment's Age of Reason, aod if'lto the nineteenth century. The issues that it raised were explored in varied and chang!ng ways i!' hiS subsequent work. Careful attel)tion to the.

.....

. " tncl th:t1 idea-. nt>n>r changc. lt dm-. lllt::lll that 1 think in tht s:llllt' ,,.a, ahotll t1n ng ' . 1. ll ., uni<lirl'Ctional cau,allll lrom r . . . ocal 1cl,\11011' IIP' IH 11 . changc is tlll' mucmne o anp1 . . . ll lucnce ,nlcltuT. a~ IIC a<. ) ' -. . . , tll'\l cuhw e 111a1 11 su ucturc LO culw rc. 1 biS me.m .. 1. . lttiH' i' a fnnT fnr changt (n cH . . . 1 he rcco rn 1uon t 1.11 e ll <.tructurc inllmncln~ cuhul e. gl l. 1 1 'll t'ltllliiT t'\11 be e:-;aminccl as a '"~tclll ) J' 1 lO 1h<. )t' ll' 1 l o ' 1 sim )h thc object ni chan~e t:a~ ~ . 1 /) . \hn \)ougla., ( l~ll)l)) <lr~llt'<. 1 ~<ll . . .. 1' \11 Pullll alit rmg' . . . . 1. in ib own nght. For ex.un.p t:.. . . 1. . . 1 t' " 'lllCI a colllJ)llhlon. nol '""P 1 . 1 ~ont'l\' l,tl t.: a CJI ~ ' . idca<. ab0\11 clirt ancl 1II'~ICill' 11 11 1 uh icll'a.., aboul COillannnatton. o. 1 lh . m,\ll'rtal \\01 e l ll 011,.. bccau'e thev can he n:1 atcc lO t ,.<1 to"nol<>).,". or \\Orlcl-11<.' \\. 111 . 1 t i 1 ' II'C p 111 O ,\ \\1 l: 1 , aclllh ancl illnc'' but )l't.lll't e . . . 1 tnn:-. llr thcir 1ctauon 10 o . 1 .. 1 . a culture not u-.t 11 ' . . .. 1 and hlaicnt' are un del <.tooc 11 tl 1lll . . 1. l Jnl >tll il 1 ' versus 111111101 ,1 < M f1 1 Of'1lll\ [Of t' X:llllJ> t.: tl l ' disca'c bllt aho in ll'rlll' o H l ' <b o 111 ' . . ' 111 - 10 IJke into ccount thc nwann~ ' 1 r ,r cJI clut ,,.. 1 Jall' ' . 1 .. ,, 1 .. 10 undn~tancl dlrt' pace lihh. Thu,, ' <uhur:.Jl \UH t' l~t.nH m,.. . . dinl 'cn<.l'. l 111 l ol\l . . 1 of dirt in lllOl'l" lhan JUSI ,1 II H . 1 J ifl ill" ol l'ITill~ \\'htcll 1t'Sll l 1 11 or<kn11g .tnc e 1" ' " historicatly. \I'ihin a SJWCIIJC Cll 1111 t'. H

30

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Culture and cultural studies

31

fmm ideas about thc "orld giH~ meaning to bdl:wiotn. The M< HC of be i n~ clirt~ is thus <~s nwch the pronuct of ideas as it is of tlH : mat(ria l world. In turn. Fuucanlt ~~ rg ues tltat social g ro u ps. i de nti tit~ and po,itiom - likc cJ,,,,es. ge11dcrs. racc and exualitie~- do not pre-exi't :me! sonwho\\' cktcnni nc their own ancl o ther cultura l m ea nin g~. Th cy <tre prod ucccl within discourses (p. :~0} which d t'fin e ,,hat t h c~ are ancl how the~ opcnHe. So. fo r Foucault, <.'\ 'tn though theH han: alw;\\'s been men ''ho han' ~ex with men. therc ,,as no 'homosexual' identill. and no 'h01110SCXUal S<:X' bcfOI'l' lha t icJ entit~ <illd t h ~ li~ure 01' tht ' hOillO\t'XU:lJ' \\'C .I'e cJdined in tlledical. pwchologiral and !ite ran text~ at thc cnd of thc nilletcen th nntun. That tho,t cliscotu ,es about homoscxuality both produccclmm<~ to regula te male sex~tality aiHI the refore de fintcl lliOJ'e cltnrly a g'I'Ot lp ol' holllOS<.'X llaJ llH'II - ancl provided the basi' for po..,itii'C identilicatiotl '''itlt that te rm 0 11 thc pan of sonw oJ' tho~t men. mcant th;u 'homosex ualit~ cn me to hme a ,ignificant place '''ithin thc social ~tn tr tu re. In Fo uc ntlt 's n rsion of thi ngs there is no cktttJni n< HI.' relationsh ip beLheen social struc tu re and cultmt. lnstcad there is a flexible 'ct of rdationship~ betwetn powcr (p. ~) 1) . cli~cour~e a ncl11hat exist~ in rhe world.

Dejining concept

J.J

1
Discourse

ro

that there are Jots of ways in which the world can be descri bed and defined and that w~ have no sure grounds to choose one over the others. In turn this also means that he is dedicated to recovering those ways ~~ kno:-'ing that have been displaced and forgotten. Discourse is also about the relattonshtp between power and knowledge. F oucau t (1980) argues that we have to understand power as something productive. For example, it is not in catching a criminal that power lies but in producing the notion of 'the criminal' in the first place. As he says: 'T~~ver relat)Qo wltb.Q!!tk correlative constitution of a field of knowledge, nor any knowlecige 1hat does no~restppose and co 1~ute at the same tirnepower relations' (F oucault, 1977: 27). To continue the example, it is the body of knowJecrge-:-the discourse - that we call 'criminology' that produces 'the criminal' (and, in the pasl, now forgotten figures like 'the homicida! monomaniac') asan object of knowledge, and suggests ways of dealing with him or her. The criminal, the criminologist, the policeman and the prison are all created together 'in discourse'. _ . This does not mean thatthe world is just words and images. Foucault i$ keen to talk about the institutions and practices that are vital to the worklng of discourse. lf we think about medica! discourse we soon realise that the forms of knowledge and language that make it up are inseparable from the actual places where these discourses are produced (the clinic, the hospital, the surgery) and all the trappings of the medica! environment (white coats, stethoscopes, nurses' uniforms) (see Prior, 1988).

L J

iscourse is a way of thinking about the relationship between power (p. 94), knowledge nd language. l.n part it is an attem~t to avoid some of th ~ difficulties involved in using he concept of rdeology (p. 84). lt rs a way of understandtng most associated with the vork of the French philosopher and historian Michel Foucault (p. 28). For Foucault a 'discourse' is what we might call 'a system lhat defines the possibilities for knowledge' or 'a framework for understanding the world' or 'a field of knowledge'. A discourse exists as a set of 'rules' (formal or informal, acknowledged or unacknowledged) 'which determine the sorts of statements that can be made (i.e. the 'moon is made of blue cheese' is nota statement that can be made within a scientific discourse, but it can within a poetic one). These 'rules' determine what the criteria for truth are, what sorts of things can be talked about, and what sorts of things can be said about them. One example that Foucault uses which can help us here is the imaginary Chinese encyclopaedia about which the Argentinian writer Jorge Luis Borges has written a short story. Foucault uses this to challenge our ideas about the inherent truthfulness and rationality of our own classification systems and scientific discourses. In the encyclopaedia: [A]nimals are divided into: (a) belonging to the Emperor, (b) embalmed, (e) tame, (d) sucking pigs, (e) sirens, (f) fabu lous, (g) stray dogs, (h) included in the present classification, (i) frenzied, {j) innumerable, (k) drawn with a very fin e camelhair brush, (1 ) et cetera, (m) having just broken the water pilcher, (n) that from a long ff way o look like flies. (Foucault, 1970: xv)
-+

Furlhn ml(/i11g
F oucault, M. (1980) Power/ Knowledge: 5elected lnterviews ond Other Writings 1912- 197 7, ed. Colin Gordon, B righton: Harvester. Purvis, T. and Hunl, A. (1993) 'Discourse, ideology, discourse, ideology, discourse, ideology
.. :, British ournol of 5ociology, 44, 473-99.
,

In coJv>idcring cu lture ancl <;ocia! stntcture m: have dtmon<.tratccl the rigid cktenninism of the lunnionali<.ts; thc <.trong connections bel\lt'tn cult ural struggl e~ and tht social relatioll ~ of dass. raCl: and gendcr madc bl' :\Jar)( ist<., [(:n tinists and anti-rar ists:, ancl the iutportanct of cu lture in rcciprocalh shapin~ social suucturt<. ancl social positions and identilits. \\'t can take thcsc th lori e~ funhcr b' co n ~id erin g ho,, cu hmal ni ti c~ appro:1ch tht p:Ht erning- and o rgani:-a tion of mcaning. _

f.i).

1.3.2 1The organisation of meaning

Ra~1no_nd Williams (p. ~) at gues that the p;~~ning is a e ucial :.taning ) p<)tllt lor n tlwral anah-sts: [l]t ~ \\'it ll the di~c o,ery ol pattem~ o r a r h.tractcrbtic kind tlt:t t ;m~ u ~c ful culw.ral anahsis bt'gin<.. ancl il , with the rclation,hips hcrween t h c~e paucrns. wluch ~oruetim cs rc,eal un cxpcctccl identitics and correspnndences in hithrrto se pan~te h <.:nn~id ertd ac til'iti r~. soml'tinll's again re,eal d iscontinuities ol an unexpl'cted kJJld. thar gener.tl cultur;tl an<th,j~ i~ con cerned. ( \\'illiaul~. 1960: . 7)

/...

\ Foucault's aim is to problematise the relationship between words and things. He suggests

32

lntroducing Cultural Studies 111<1111' diflcnlll ll'a~s ll 1\'IJic h LJ js ~Larrh for p:tll l'l'l l' of llll'<l llilj.{

Culture and c ultural studies

33

ll o \\TIT I", lil L' J't ca n procetcl.

<ll'l"

5peech, language and text

T I _o ke\' C OilCl' )IS in thc lh cories of llll'all in r are i~JI1 :md. ~ pt i on. lll'itlw r or 11'lnc 1 can be nnclc rs looc 111 a comnHlllSl'll.'L' wa\'. Fur L'Xantpk. it c 111 be arg ue d il m1 lhtTl' is lll'l"t'l' pnl'eCI ro mntltnic uio n bctll'l't'n 'lwa kc r a nd and icnce. no1 lea'1 bec:ntSL ' a 'pcal..er ma1 ronCL'a l nwaning ( inten liona ll~ or uni niL'Il liona lh'). :-\one the lt'~l-. 'JlLTCh ans do ro ntain cl u l~ ro 1he itllt' ntions ni 'Jlea l..e1' The wnc uf ' o ice llla1 spea k' a bont th L rc huinn~hip bct\\'('cn 'JlL'<Ikc-r alHI ;lttd ie n n. 'o one 111:11 tHH he ll'ho ll \' clependL'Ill u po11 the COllll' ll l of' tlll' spcLc h a et. l n listl'll ing- tn sp~:cc h ; 11ll' lea m, abu u.t tht ,,iclc1 l' ttllll ra l .-a lues 11 hic h a re in1plici t in 'lwech. Speech allCIIan~ua~L' haw prmed lCI hL rir h lield~ lor an.th'l' ol tlw u-.llhllli~<-ion of } c ulture. Sem io logis ts (p. :~ 1) h a,e argucd tha1 :tll I'Uitura l pr.o dnc t'> sh nulrl be seen ;, tcx ts . .-\ n drura l p rod un 111:11 1101 be ac tualh ''Ti ttl'l1 btll i1 ~till consi,t s o l' sign ~ (~L't' ( il:tple r :l) ll'il e l il('r \'btt:tl. anr:1 l u r <:ITJl ta c tik (e.g. ~c ulplnrt. ll'llic ll nta, be touch ed ) ll'hicll can ht read ' or itllL'I'ptt'tLd ..\n txantple oft ll i~ 11oul d be a flag 11 lticlt .>ta nds lr ' pa rticul:u L<H ttlliT. .Scmiotic' a~sum ts -.t.ltldard :t'\soci.uions tlta t art' ll'dl l..nmm, a n c~iahl blwd part of the cultural repe tiOi n. a nd 'o can be rt'adi h all(l cas il~ called u pon. 1 ~in k. Jt <H nr:tl u waning o l' :tm ~ig n . lts 1a l_ue o r Jneaning ra n_ ~Jt; l y be cJ CL ' 'JJII IICCfi''l.'l:ttio Jt lO co tlt L'I ~g' ll.'>, ll'il ll' 1 in llll'll l"l'CJl iJ'l'S !'C:lrCJlii~ 0111 O~IOI1 ' :1 11rl rlirflow., ~ -,.,..-. :---,--...._ - ....._ "'-~~11 nc tJt' Jd cl 'L' IlltOllC-" 1 1 Gitmpon;lltt to temcmbt..-.lha.u.l.tcn:..Jlla\..bt

mam a<.<.oriation' fo r a 'Jtrific r ulw ra l itL'tt t a ncl tht' n~_. ~hcn K!:QIIpcd toget lcr. ;,!.Wltar conllictin g or contradiCiotT. Tht ' itua tional :md coJti L'X Illal ttat u re of mean i n ~ m u: be ~l re~~ed bttt th e no tion u f' cc~x t ~ n:111t n~;uings_:!vo..ll!!..LJJJle- cn:l t i~ J li'C'~l' l H't () othcr Jl)( :tn ~s. In ti )(' r:tS(' o r thl' llag wiJi(') l't' pi'I.:'I>L' Ill~ ; n nmtry. 1\T can s<t that lo c\Jtc gru11 p o f wople th i, llag mal' han tlw meaning o f' p.111 iotism a11 d ,1Jared hi~totY. btn to a d il ktTIIl grnup ol peopk )t j.., ,,une llag- II HI\ rq>resell t opprc~~ion and injustice: lor txample. t hc 13t iti-, h fbg , thed pa1rioticalh in sume pan -, llf 1 3ri l:tII_' bu t .ll lrtl:JncJ S ~011 1 L' I .ilt('~~d't' l J'tcJ Lo~ ' th c iJIII Ch tr's apron ' IJeCa ll ~l' o f'iJ S L'o n n o t a tt on ~ II'J th blooch l't')J J'tsston. 1 he St'll 't' of uppre~~ion or injtt.-;tice is IL-'s like h to be recoguistcl by Lhc fin; ~ro up. ifthe\' npr~'t' J ll a d o ntin:utl ~o cia.l grn up, hu tthi~ d.Ol'-" tHll mean tha t th1s sen,e '' 11111 prc~cnt. fltJ ~ ~<'arch for int l't prcta tion can he lllOI'l' 01 le" orclet t'd tl11 ough thl couHntions ol '11'11( tllr;tli~m.

~tructuralism and the order of meaning

Stntctun1li'" St'l' culturt' a' a n ordered "'ll'lll 0 1 ~tru ctU t (. C ultu re is p resented a' a "'tem or cocll-cl nw a n ing"' '"' ich arl' p 1oclncecl ami tl'produc~.d t h rough social in teraction. Thcir int e rc M ,in hcll,. p;uti c ipaut~ in intt ra ct ion lcarn a nd 11-'t' tile cocle ' 11 COillllHiltiC<Hion ..\ Jll JIIllwr o l' 1 Wrspe1'1il't.s ha~ becn hro11g h t to 1hi ~ ,Stl\.'. Cenai n 1h loric' o f 1in g nist ir ,. lo r ex;11 11 piL t hosL o f Ft' rdi na ncl ek Sat '"ure a ncl l\'o am C:ho nt'l..' . state that there , a Ull\'L'J'"tl 'lntctu ri ng prinripk in :tll huma n

lang uagc: 1h a l o r hi nary o pposi t io ns. Bi narr o pposi lions COlh SI o r [1\'0 o ppc.,ing L e rms: ror e xample, blac k a nd wh ite, man a nd wo ma n , high a ncl low. Ll'i -S trau~s ( 19fi()) a rgues that these oppo,itions are not a m c-nahk 10 dircct obsen a tiou or anah~i,. l nstead. they o pe ra te at a level that is not conscio us, a lc,cl som e timcs cksc.-ibed a, th:u o f deq{ , stntc lllre. 1)1e Mudy of cullllre, according to st nt c turali ~.f..O n'i s.bJ..lf.an..Q_aminatio t of c; ult ura l fot.:,ms. Thcsc cu ltttra l fo rms are the result of thc human mind bcing hro ug ht 10 bcar 011 panicular c mi ronm c nts. L1 i-S trauss a rgucs that thc resultalll c ultura l fo rms a ll exhibit the ame pauern. that o f binary oppo~i t ion s. The con te m of particular c ttltures may be d ilfcrcn l bu t th is is thc rcsult o r d ilfcrcn t e miron mc nts. \\'hat is signiflcant is no t tite clilferen t COili CIHS, bu t thC icJenticaJ pa UCrnin g of c ultu ra l form s. \\'~!.!.2_~o m tit e a ~sumpt ion tila t Cl d t ura ~CO I}~,t_gl~C t t l ica l l?!!.!!s:w~, LYL.Strauss sa1s t ltal 1nCfi\'iduaJs ha\'e a 1 1 innatt' bio log ica l c~paci tv, what he ca lis a ~b.io.-gra mm a r. ~~ i c h th t:y use _Lo decode' o r interprc t coclc of cultu ral in fo t ma tio n. Co s are cultural in tile sense t ha th ~v ;)f; !_he cx presston o~a pcople's sh a rcd co~l\emi ~n a t ." p~1 ni cu lat timt'. Accu l ~ ura te d mt' mbc rs o f a socJet\' kn~cocks fo r the n sonel)' Coclc~ are c nltt trally spccillc, b tlllhe abilitl' to d ccodc is uni\'e rs:tl ancl inna1 e. ~ This tneans tha t e1 eryo1H' ma kcs sensc nf th c II'Or!d at 11\'0 dis1inc t i<'l't l, which take place simultancottsly. The firs t is at t hc lc1 c l nf d eep stntc llllT whne tlw binary o ppositions o peratc. ll1c second , at thc 1'Url~ICC' lc1et of con t e mpor:mtmt ~ ani\'in ,,h e rt' kn owle d gc u f a c ultural cock a iiOI\S son in~ a nd classif) ing 111 o pera te anclme:ming lO e me rge. L1i-Stra uss like ns 1his thinking to whal ll'e e n g-a~t: in ,,he n 1\'t' listt' ll 10 music. \\'e hear b u th th c me loch a nd th c lta nno n \', b ut in o rde r tu ac hie1e a n unclcrsl:lltding ul' the music IH' Jta,e to int~gr:llt' tlte nt. l t ) th t 1d10le that gi,cs us the mt~,agc. a ll{l so it is both su rfacc ami d eep stntc tutt' that g in'llllS our under ta nding of cuhua.tlmessages. u~,i-Straus~ 11orked o ut th esc ide as t lt ro ug h 1he analysis of myt h , ,,h ich he a rg ues is ont o ft he cleareSI form s ofcultura l ex prcssio n ofa socicty's \'C\1' n i itself'. 1\ la~}' ~.lli.. ( 1966) anc!.J;&Jllt.Ul d.-L.~ac lt ( 1~170) adop t :~ ~ imi t ar s ta ncc to that or Ll'i-Strauss towards c ultura l ltnderstancltng ancl the rt'cl puon of cu ltural messages. T hcy both a rrct ~l'lll i ng :trises_OlJl. o r Pt!!!f!!l~ a iiCI onkr, but th l.'\.:..iliffi:LJrom l~trau s~ ;;t;;'c;ning tite source of orcler in the so~_world and not in phy~iology. lt is.J.b.c social a nd cullllral contc xts and th c ag ree~rt.!:! ings o f sha H'd cxperie n n .: t l ~ nterac t i o n that a llocate and setmcaning~Leac h , ro r e xamplt-. ill1ts1ra_te~ his case " 'it h colo ur el a s ificauo m . l"i1"Eglish culture thc re a re c ustotllary a~soCtau ons ma cle betwecn colours a ncl fac t ;ltld feeli ng- thus re d is thc colour of dangcr. red i also associated with po mp, it is thc colo ur o f the Br itish Labour Pany a ncl it is a tc nn used to describe mentbc rs of the Communist Par1y. A n a ti1e user of Eng lish is aw;1re o f some if 1101 a ll of tite rc pcrtoirc of' :l\'a ilable me a nings and 0 11 ltcarin g th c \\'Orcl ' red ' II' II d ecide. accordi ttg to con t{'X l , wh ich meaning is ap pro priatt. T his will be th c tneaning tltat makes scn<,c w tht' htarer and gi,es a message. Thi ~ ~ociocul tural explan:uion of culture ancl comnH tnication a lso pays attcntio n to other feawres or conve ntional cultural systc ms. such as ges ut re. drcs~. physica l appe arance, ,o lumc a ncl tone o f 1 con1mu nication . The sta nclardiscd mca nings t hat cluste r arou nd c ac h cultural ite m pro1ide sup pon a nd e1 ide n c< fo r siwa tionall y prefc rn~ cl read ings. Semiotics ancl tructurali~n t are d iscus ed funhcr in Chapter 2.

34

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Culture and cultural studies

35
~

Defining concejJI

J. 4
Semiology and semiotics

The ~ tudy or science of signs, known in Euro pe as semiology (a term coined by Saussure) ~nd rn North America as semiotics (a name devised by C.S. Peirce (1839- 1914) for his rndependently developed philosophical system which shared many common premises with de Saussure's). . Ferdinand de S~ussure (1857- 1913), a Swiss linguist, saw language as a system of ( sr~ns whose meanrngs are arbitrary. His m~st influential ideas were set out in lectures grven between 1907 and 1911 and publrshed posthumously in 1916 as Cours de Linguistique Cenera/, edited from Saussure's papers and his students' notes. Saussure emphasised that what a sign stands for is simply a matter of cultural convention, of how things are done in a given culture - it has nothing todo with what the sign refers to in the world or the sign's history. He suggested that 'the linguistic sign uniles, not a thing and a ,9D..Lc;,gmerised ~o elw..i!~a signif~d, a name, but ~ conce~t a r~d a sound-image.' Si cooce.~Li.de.a. -w.hrc h rs materialised in a si g,r2if~r, a sound-image such asan advertising ~oa_rdr~g ora newspaper text. The meaning of signs must be sought in the relations (of srmrlarrty, contrast, etc.) between signs. For Saussure, the cardinal Qriociple was ' that n~ng can ever reside in a single term'. ~ A further influential distinctron suggested by Saussure is between language as a atterned syste~ (langue) and language as embodied in actual speech (poro/e). The study f lang~a~e was. rts~lf lo~ated as part of a larger science devoted to 'the study of the life of gns wrthrn socrety whrch Saussure named semiology. Semiologists maintain that it is possible to discern certain Iogb or structures or codes ,vhich underpin the multiplicity of cultural lile as we experience it. Saussure's ideas have ) ~een developed especially effectively in the broader sphere of culture by Roland Barthes (p. 52). His writings explcate the laten ! meanings - the myths and codes - that inform { suc.h divers~ cultural phenomena as guide books, steak and chips, electoral photography, ' \JII-rn wrestlrng, margarine, and the Eiffel Tower. lf. the sign is ar.bitrary, .then its meaning can only be established by considering its relatron t~ other srgns. lt rs thus necessary to look for the differences and oppositions between srgns. These are classified in two broad ways:

- there are people lhat it supposedly oppresses who are perfectly willing to die for it). In this way the ideological functions of signs can be exposed. Certain cultural forms can be seen as myths which serve lo render specific (often bourgeois) values as natural, universal and eterna!. /

Fu rf lil'l' tNtd i ng
Barthes, R . (1973) Mythologies, London: Paladin. Gottdeiner, M. (1995) Postmodern Semiotics, Oxford: Blackwell.

H ermeneutics ond interpretotion

Anotlll'r ~ignifican t tradi rion in thl 'ncial ~ci ences ronnrnld 11irh inH:l)llL"tarion i' hel'llll'llC'Illi('\, De l hed in i1ia 11 ~ rronl dl'hatl'S in GerlllallSpl';l ki 11 g' C0\1 111 ries 0\'l' l' thC' intcrprc rar ion ol' thc 13ihle, rhis approar h 1 ,.,, becollll' IIUl'asing-h conn: m ed ll'i rh wiclcr ~,uo or interprct;ll ion :111 d ,,.rh phi l o~u phi ca 1 ckbal l'-' mcr the conn ecrion hct\\'ecn nHani ng and ex isrPnn. ll t'l'lnemurics ar~u es ~~ b lllf)Os.~ ib il~ d ~(' tlw llH:an ing ur a lCXl rrom thl' cuiru G'contl'Xl ur it~ ll lcrpr('lt..:L In orrkr 10 imcrpret :ny ll'Xl - thc in[crpmer nLcc~':" ih :u1d u n a,oidabl~ brin~, ,., ri H ll'Xt cenain prior undtr~tanding~ or Jorc-u nder~tancli n.{s lrom hi~ her 01\'11 culture . , ht intcrpreter's fort-u n dl'r~wnding~ racili tate tlll' (>1'0( l''' of intcrpretation ancl :11'{' l hem~eh'c~ ,,orked upon (i.e. conlirmed. modi fied. rl'fliH'<l. .lllll'llded. etc.) in tlw cour~e o[interpretalj!)n .. This comer,;u ion-likc procl'" , 'ometintt'' cksnibcd b1 rlw tt'l m ' the hermencutic ( circk' (Gadamer, 1 ~175 : ~ :~.1--J:i), .\cii'OCa tts of the hcrmcnt'lllir circk 111aintain that ~rprerar inn , not .1 simple OJH:-11:11 rr:1 11, 111ission of ideas f'rum ttxr lo rtackr bm it is rarl1cr :111 lll erar rin process in 1d1id1 rlw readn's f(.m::-unckrstancl ing-s are IT(JIIired fo r a n ~ f'lll'lhc r lllld l' J'S i a ndill~ or tlw ll'XI ro be IJOssii>le. T hm. 1\"h cn 1\'l' reacl Shakespearc's J /amfl'l ( Jli00-J). or 1\"<llc fl a performance o (' il. 1\'l' bring LO bc:11 O lll' presc n r -da~ culttmtl understanding!' abou t filial clutl'. jealom' and rlnng-t. Sl'Xtml propril'll'. t' IC.. and rh t~c uncler,tanclings an l'lahor:Htd and moclifiecl in com tqutnn or our reading of thi' pla~. T he notion of rlw htrnJt'IH'uric circle ha~ fl into 1n.1n1 t h eorie~ uf culutr in the 'ocia! ~c i ences and huntaniries. One ol it:-- cen tral implit:ll ion' , to underscore tht ab,enn of an~ pri,ilegecl po,ition or .\ rchimedean puint for tlw inrerpretation or culr nra l phtnomL'na- knl)l~l-;,..c.ulr~Jar~~!~~-:_. \m l'ril.:i!n sociolggist I.J.;!.DJ.W..Garfj nkc.Lis al.)q\s kn<>\l'l.:d~l!.!JJ-~I rc. Olll' txample of thc cle,d upml'll l ol a soriologic tl appruach to interprctation influcnn:cl by 111 (' IWI"IIIl'll l'lll C traclition can be f(JtnHl ll tlw 1\'ork o r tlll' l lungarian sociolog isr of' kn01dcdgt' Karl ~lannhl'im. ~ l a nnh c im arg ms rh :H a n llru ral actor text conrains rlll'C'l' le\'cls of lllt'aning: o l ~j lc ri,e. cx pre~~i\'c and clo r lllll t"nt;ll ~. ~l :mn h e im ust~ th e h ~ pothetical exampk ol' a fritnd gi1ing alms to a hq~ga1 10 hring ou t rhc,. dif'ltreuce' hetwcen these thnt laHr' ol mt'<Jning. T he objectilt' nt<:.111ing of the act product inherts in the act ihl'IL .111<1 in thi, l'Xampk it ._ a~~i~t.tnn. 1 he Sl'Cond lenl. t~sin mean i n~. itll"nh'e\ thl' LOn,ickt .Ilion of what a n acror in ttnckd or ,,.,he!> LO expnss b\' am pa11icular act. :\lannhvim\ l'ri ~1H I ma\' ha\'c ht't'll ''ishin.{ ro come)

"U

Synta matically - the linear or sequential relations between signs (thus traditional English mea s consist of a main course which follows a starter, and a dessert which fo llows the maln course). P~ica lly - the 'vertical' relations, the particular combination of signs (thus soup or meiO but not apple pie for starters). The meaning of signs may not be readily apparent. Semiologists speak of different levels of signification. The skilled semiologist can proceed from the leve! of denotation the obvious ~1eaning of t~1e si~n (e.g. a photograph of a black soldier saluting the flag), t~ the connotallon of the srgn, rts taken-for-granted meaning (e.g. colonialisrn must be right

oJ

36

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Culture and cultural sludies 37

'~mpath~ to tht b egga r throug h his a c t. T h< third ht}'er of m e atting i' tit e m os t imponant fo r .\ lann lwim as it liuks th t ac t w wider context;.. The act can fu n ction a~ a clocumc:' tll u f tht friend\ pn,onal in a~lld be~ clncut~nt h~po~ lor eGnplt-. tlw (n t:nd wa' a multi ntil liottaire wll o tnadt his m one1 b1 tu a king th e beggar rccl u ncla n t from a job in thc;' lit, plan:. Ho\\cwr. 10 lornlllbtc th i~ interpn:t:nion ''T h :n-e to knuw lite ,,id er c;otltt:xl of ll w art. for tx ampk. that its a 11th or 11as f'xccp ti on:tll r \\'t:llthy. 1 his co ntwc ti u ll to \\'ider c:o nt exls e;.w blislt e~. in thi' C:I\C. link' betii'Cen th e act and llw poli tictl t<onom, \\'ithin "hich it takes plact. In the n e xt s<T tion we disc u ss pnl it ical tcotHJ tny and tite i111 pon nnct or ideo logy ( p. K-+) as a " al' of uncl c rsta11 el ing pallnn' o i' llll'aning.

cultural clil'kre n n and id<:olog ira l cliHr,ill' teu cb tu gL' I sqnt t'! Ccl tlltt o f' tWI\''P" Pl'l',, , Jealing onh a tThtti1eh natt 011 mi del le ~round. ,\ 11 a ll!'e-" using thc as~ umpti o n s of' poltica! t'C<HHIIIll' ca n abo lw li11 ked
10

issn e ... ol

" hat ougl11 w be. For cxamplc. thnt i' .1 widd1 acnptld h e lid 1h.n '""" tha t nwn m ean'> " 0 r,l' . .\I on ch:llnWI', more p rog-r;lllll11l'' ;11HI llllll'C' broack."' IHn tr'> ol radio and telcl'ision dt,igmd to appca l w a 111:t'' a udi c tl et' " ill kacl to :t lm1ering of tlt t ualill' or ,tnin ( 'l't' 'l'Uion l.~.li). Sotm lll'tl<l' in Cllltul'ill ~tuclic,, di~Cli'SCd in q . r ,. ,. C ltapte r 2. lt ;ne 1oi!'cd kars a houl th e <orntpltng nat.tll t' o 111a'' me e 1:1 nr auc wn cc '. :\ mo n , np hi,li C:Il t'<i ll';t\' o!' tU IH ll'<' l in{ th t conct nts o l political cco m1tn1 ancl qm,tio n :. 11 1 culttn.tl mt;niII~ art throu~h tlll' tO il CC)~ t .or ideolo_g> (p . ~. ) ..~leologit'' can be 0 [' l':triou ' so n s. An ton io G r amscl_( J,__;':-1) dtiJciL"cl li[ LJckologies ILllO tltrt" l' cawgori c~. J'h c l ir~ t i~ th at of common '<'11't'. Common-o,cll'l' i<kao; an t hn~e 11'<' allt..l for gt::l~H ed . Co ntt11nt1-Sl' l1 '(' ick:t' :tlld \itlllt'S .!_!rt:_pan o!' C\'l'l')'clil.)' li lt-. n~l..tl)l twcl roc k of' our ilcler'-la n t liJlg ..PLillt.:.-.~-~odd: IJ111 1dw n l'Xaminl'd t" lmel1 tit e~ 111.11 aJ)j){ar 10 b :-litl;l.r conu.uli< ton or H'l 1 '"JWtlicial. \11 l'X.tlll>l~ o~ ; _ rommoll-!>l' ll,t' icl colog~ i' g i1cn in tlw phra't' ' Bm s :Irt IJc ller :ti [ootball tllan ).\ trb. 1h1 s csp resscs a widcJI' hdd icka . C011111Hlllil hdd lO he lllll' .. \ rl<>'>t'l' l'X;tlliil:liOII OJ' lhi'> ' tr ll th ', hOII l'H' I'. mig ltt CJll t'~ ti O II itS \';tJiditl' h1 as kin g ' .\n' bOl'<. L' llCOIII':tg< d lO be 11Wrt physic:-tlll' a CII'l' titan girl o;~ o r '. \re g irJ, allull'l'cl to p :uli r ipatt in ln<tba ll '.'r ar~ tlay cxclmkd a t homt. at sc hoo l. or at d n h Je,cJ?' 11 tlw all,l\l'r to tiH:'L' <JIIL' 'tton' ~~ ~l'' tit e n the r o utnt on-sc nsc idea tltat bo~ s are bclll' t < 11 loothall than g irls i' ..-h o\\'11 to IJ

Politico/ economy, ideology ond meoning

{ .-\n in1cres1 in political eco no1111' m ea n$ : 111 intcrc:-. t in bs ttes of powc;T and inl'qua lilr 1hat ;n( as.soc ia l<.'d I1'th thc: a llo ca ti on of n.: ~<Jtll'C<'~ atHI tite fonnation ofm.alt lt. T he idea ~ of politintl c cono m~ han-hada ll'idespread 1a lttt' all( l application in soci:1l scicn ce ancl in
d i sci plin e.~

such :1'> histo ry and E n ~li sh stncli cs b cca m c th cy lla,c pnncd fruitf'ul in th e

imc~tigat ion of pattcrm of tn eaning. T o rdate politit'al econonl\ 10 cult ure is to p ro ntpl

so me of IIH: l lloll'ing q tt c.stiott ~- \ \"l.t ~ll <1 re-t ill>'- Coalt1 l'C: Iions h c tll't'l'll mmcrsll j p and ro tllrol o f' 1he tlll'di a an d cu ltma l ~(.:ioni' \\ lla t i~ tlll rolt- o:_.lte-ewn<'nic ipfrastnt Clttt'C in dw di"cmination ni (lt-asi' \\'hat are thc links lwtll'ce n c.:cJ11~~1og1 ~~ - ~ lransle r a 1 1d thc 1ranskr <lf knoll'lc~gy~ ltt a ll 1hc:-.c arca~ ol' im];giga t <lllJ.!. t~c l a l i Oll ~ltip , \oughl bctii'CCH politit'>. l'COIHitnic:. and ct.),hllre.
- - - - 1

.\n examplc of lh\ :tpproac ll \l'flltlcl be an anal~s i ~ of' 11 ell,papcr CO nLCtll tu ~C I.' jf a cu nn cc1ion ca n bt c~ tabli ~ h ed bl'li1Ten th e Oll'nn~ h i p a ncl con trol of the ncwspaplT and the 1~ J>l' ami c haracll'r of tl l'll~ p ri ntcd . In simpk l<'rnb, it ~uggcs t.' considc ring the l'XIC' Ill LO ll'hiclt lil e Oll'ner's I'CII'S <tllCI nLCI 'l'S I~ are re n ecltd in LltC C011l l' nl of th c ll l'll'~pape t . :'>le11,paper cowragt of tlw tWII' ha' beeu fi~tm d to be on: rwhclmingl~ procapitalist, pro-<,fulu.\ quo in c haracter. Tllc. qttl''tion illl' ll beromes: how is 1his coi n c id e n ce 11ith llll'lle rs ' inll'l'l'Sts 10 be cxplaine d ? Onc explanmion point~ tu tll e conce ntt".l lion o f <lll'nershi p and con trol of B1 ilio,h ncw,paper~ (85 pcr cc nt oral! newspaper circub1ion is contrullcd hy ~eH.' II larg e co mpanies). Nl'll'spap <. t proprie to rs h an. nHtlual inlct-csts in otiH:r n na ndal all{l indtN t ial undenakin~~. and a l ~o h a1e an upbringing and lifcs tyle in commo n : in slton . th e~ han slta recleronom ic inlerts ts all(l a s hared c uhun:. T ltus it ~ hardl y ~urprhin{ lhal lile prcss's CO\'cl'ag<. j, biased in fmo ur or llll' intcrest' aiiCI , a lut, of pri~;ne etltCI pri~c .. \ n a ltcmatiH explana ti o n clraws a lt cn tion to 'o m e di ll'c ren L l(: aturc' of 1lw poi i ti ca 1 <.co tt o my o f ncwsp;t per product io n. l lcn ctnp h a~i' i;, placcd un tll<' p rel'ai ling lugic of the 111arkct in ll'hich newspape rs are p rcse ntll' produced . T h<. co mmt' ITial """ i1al o f n e \\:-.papers depcnd~ u pon ad1enb ing rel't' nu e wh ich in lurn ~cnc r;ne~ a prl'-"-"III'C 10 tnaintain a n e11spap e r'~ circ ulation. To t'l' tain a largc re.tder,hip lll'W'J>a p crs gi1e ptoplc wh a t th c~ are hl'lic1ed w wan t human itltcrcst 'lories. c rinw. se x, ~pon ancl scand;tl. Enlt'rtaining the rc adcrsltip co nH.:s to take preced en< t' owr prmidin g inlorma tion abou1 , gni lirant worl d e1ctHS all(l cducating t h l p ub lic in thl' 11;ws o l tT,pom iblc c itilcnship. J\ la1erial doc umenting

tnt< o nl y bcGH t'<' ol' paniullat titt unt,tann, ( ~t'L' o;euion 7 . 1.~ ). ( ~ram~ci's ~econ cl Cill l'g'U~ jdeoh ~ ~ora p.ti'I<:lll.tl J1~1 il o~ , ,,h~. T hi,. ll ll':lllS 1101 \() mu c lt tlll' tlt o llg ltt ora panicular plti lo so plt e r but <)~a p:trtt: ul,ll g roup nl _ peo pll: in \OCit'l\ \dlO put forw.ll'< l a l'l'a,onahh rohc:nnt ~l'l of tdc';"' 1 hc,l' pcopll- ( .ram'o calls inlclkctuals: a nd lw inc luck s bollt tradilinn a l int c llec ll t:tls su c h a s prie~ t s. ;utd iutdk rt ual:-. 1dw tmergl' front ~ocial mmt ntl'tlls. li kl' tradl' tutionisl' or politi ra l ac til'iSl!>. Thus. <.xample~ of ideo l o~l'' th at ate philo , ophi<, are Roman Cath o lic teac hi11g~ or thl ccological id('a ~ of Cr<.'C' IIpl'aCe or tltt belids ol Rig ltt lo Lile a nti aboni onisl gro 11 p~. Gram.,ci's 1hircl nl\{'gill" i' th.tl ol a dominan! 01 hege m onic ( p. 1()!}) idcol()~~. th:ll , ot~lat lw~'a h.ading ro k in ~ocit'tl . An txa mpk of a l~tgtmouit" icJcoJogy in a p.trlicu Jar SOC i C' l~ tni g lll lll' lhl' clomin,tllCl' of Olll' )Jt'l''Oil'S <k:t,. fo r exantplc in a cliu.ttor,hip. Or il migh t hl th<' de~cription of a socl' l' .1~ capi tali'>t or incJil'idualisli C. \I'IH'r<'h} idl'il!' (t1r icleolog it') Ji kl ' liH' prilllat' l' o!' lll(lllCl;u~ profit' or

'tlll' SlltYiltJ Of' lhl' li tt l''t' :trl' lhl' cJotnll;tlll idt:t\,

,\n lllHit-I'Standing o( h oll' llll''l' thl'l'l' cJj(ferellt C<lll'~O I'il'3 uf idco]o.,l'\ lll;ty illt C' I'relatt' can be g ai11ccl b~ tltinkin g abcnllthc ickul ogY o[ radsnt. In tlw lirst ca tegory. contnton sen:-.e raci:-.111 might con'i't o f p h r.l'\l'' likc 'T hl' Engl i'h .m: cokl'. 01 Black [>t'ople .liT ll:tltlral alhl< t< ~s . rltcsc p lt rast'~ l'XJ'I'l'SS l'l'l'l')'da~ prejuditTS ;ts ('(111111101 1 M' IISL'. They clo IItH. on tlteir 011 11. l'XPI'l'" annhing mon 1h a n 1he i11Cli1 idual p t <judin o f' th<. spea k<.t . 11 , h O\H'H' r. thew ro mlllnll>;t'll'l' icle .J' heconw pan ol a coh l'rl'nl '~ ~ll'lll, th <. n 1hey etl lt'l' Gra111sci'$ ' l'COIHI ca tegor\' o i' a pltiJo,oplw. :-\ill l' tce nthetntun anthropolog iM., cJa.,.,iliccl thc r.tt l, ol humani11. pl.tlin~ Eut~ p<..tn~ at lhl top ol a put poneclh l'\'Oi ttliunar\' lacldtt with Oritntab atHI .\lri can' < 'OtHin g lurthtt dmm : 1his i:-. plainh an

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lntroducing Cultural Studies

Culture and cultural studies

39

Key influence

J.J

Antonio Gramsci (1891- 1937)

V
1

f:

Antonio Gramsci was an ltalian political activist and writer who was influential in the development of Marxist (p. 97) cultural theory. He aimed to develop concepts that would enable the understanding and transformation of twentieth-century political and economic structures and social and cultural relations. He is best known for his work on the idea of hegemony {p. 106). Gramsci was born in Sardinia and was educated in Turin where he joined the Jtalian Socialist Party, and worked as a journalist. In 1921 he was a founder member of the ltalian Communist Party {PCI) and, after a visit to Moscow, was elected to the ltalian Parliament. He later became leader of the PCI and, in 1926, was sentenced to twenty years' irnprisonment by Mussolini's Fascist government. At his tria! the official prosecutor demanded of the judge that 'We must stop this brain working for twenty years!' However, durlng his lmprisonment Gr~msci wrote his most famous works, published as Selections from Prlson Notebooks (1971 ), whiCh combined studies of politics, philosophy, history, literature and culture. He died hottly afler being released from prison. Gramsci is important lo cultural studies because of his attempts to develop the onnectons betv.:een class relations, culture and power (p. 94) without reducing issues of ulture and mean111g to a superstructure determined by an 'economic base'. His concept of hegemony aimed at understanding how dominant classes could organise their rule thfough consen.t when their politi~al and economic power was not in the interest of those they subordmated. However, th1s was not a static situation within which the ideas of the powerful we~~ unchallenged. Gramsci used the metaphor of a 'war of manoeuvre' to suggest that poht1cal. struggles were continually being fought in a whole variety of arenas: political, economiC and cultural. In turn this meant conceptualising the role of the intellectuals who were part of fighting these 'wars'. Through his notion of the 'organic intellectual' he argued that everyone who used ideas was an intellectual - it was not just a label for a small prof~ssional gr?up - and that these 'thinkers' and their ideas were organlcally tied to particular class mterests. lt can be argued that it is Gramsci's ideas that form the basis of the notfon of ~ult~ral polit.ics', dueto the ways in which they were taken up and reworked ,by those work1ng 111 the B~rmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (p. 327) in the 1970s.

organi ation of' lh.ll \CH'it'l\ . "'o. fc1r l'~<l111(lh-. 1he ll'l' OJ' raC'>1 idt'.l\ (CI jll'iil\ lht 0 e~clude blad, people rrom hou ... ing 01 European roloni,:llion ol India .lml .\frica 01 1 panicuhu jo b" i' an ~.xampk ol a hq.temon ir ideolog' . In pranicl'. 1h e'1.' 1h rt'1.' ca 1 egories ;u e olkn combin ed. Th u ~. a tommo n-~en~e 1 aci,1 re111ark i., oftc:n macle in he 1 con1ex1 ol :u1 acceptecl knowledge ol a1ailable I';'! Ci~t ph ilmophie' and ol raci'm ,,, a hegemonic i ckol og~ .

Poststructuralism and the pattems of meaning

Thinking through 1he concepl ol ickologY lllL'ans con~id ering a 1dw k r<lllg't' ol ~oci a l groups and 1heir re l a 1ion ~ hip w idea' ancl cultmalmcaning'. In thc ,ruc1urali, 1l<'r,ion these 111 eanillj{S are stricth' p< lltl'rnl'rl according to specilk structliiTS anrl ws1enh 'll<u h as binary opposi1io11. 1n ihl' p<~ li ti ca l lTUIIDrn~ I't'll' thl'rl' are 11\0IT ur k-... 'lrong link' belll'l'C'Il the dil'ltrt.lll groups :md tlw ickas all(l llll'anings 1ha1 1 l w~ hold and propo1 11 1d. Postsll'llt'llnalism ha' e lli.'Sliomcl 1hl' n <ll lll't' ol lht conmc1ion ~ 1hat arv 1nadt' i11 b01 h o l these o lhe r 1htorelir:d appro;lt' llls. Firsl, l (jllt'\(OIIS 11'11:11 arl' ~l'l'll ~ lil e ri~idi i t'S or SlnlCILLr:1 1i, , S\'Si t' lll ~ ol' llHHLglll. ' Jns1cad oJ' binan opposi 1 io 11 ~ it 'll)o{)~,sl' 1h:H llwrt are lllnr h nwre C0111plicalt'd and cvcr-c han~in g :-~~lt'llls o l nHanin ~ ,,J irh nccd to be unders1ood in lhti1 p;u 1iud:~r ) con tcx ts. T hus, llw llll '<lllin g~ 1h:t1 1 lling~ han.. are not lixcd - IIH'\' are lluid a11d changing. ,\ ., in ~~;:~hakcsreare example;-tlJC meatli1gs oJ' thc pJa, s are 1101 ckftnccl by fixcd ~~'S l t'lllS of' ~ ig n' - for examplc, lhinking abO U! !he reJation.,hips bctllt'{'ll ha1111011\' and cJi.,harmom or OIC!t-r a mi di,ordcr in thc comedie - bu1 are dependtnt on tllt' erpreiL 'd. 1 hu " Sha\...t comex1s in 11hich lht' .1n 111il!en. c nartcd. co n ~u nwd and in 1 speare ~ undcr,t.lndi n g~ o l rarc aiHl moiH.''. - in a pla~ Iikc '/'/11 .lltlfllll//1 of \ 'tllill - c.111 be in1e1prctcd in lt' l'lll~ ni con temporan cli.,course;; of t'Cnnom ic, aiHl nHH a lill . 1 hi, need no1 be ba~td upon d irt'Cl \...nowlnlgt. 1hat Shal..e:.pean hacl. hut a ,l'l of imerlocking cultural coclt.' .h Stcplltn Gretn blall alJ~uc:,. < k aliug ,,itll the cm n ,. pondenccs betll'i.'t'H 111t'dic:d ll'XIs aud Shal..espeare's tex1s: [Tl he s1 :11e o l Sha\...t'pt:uL ' l..11u11 kdgl' of medicl ~ci e n re , 1101 111l' i111 pe lll:ull i"ue hcrc. Thl.' rela1inn l ,,,J 111 ~. ,ta hJi,h bt'll\t'l'll m~_ di ca l and lhe:llriral prani< t ' , 1101 OIH' of' cau,t and tfll-u nr """Tt' ancllilt'l~H"> rtalil.<llion. \\'e arl' cl<aling- laliar ,,ith a sharccl ('ock, .1 't'l of' lllt'l lorl..ill).( li'O(ll'" .111cl ,jmi Jitudc' thal fllllClOll IH>l Oll l\' ;t\ lilt objcc l ~ hu i "' 1 lw cOIHiilioll' uf rt'pi'l''l' lll<ttiun. (C:r<enhlau. I!IHN: i'li) lt is not, thcrcl'o rc. 1lw '~~ll' III S and ~ l l'lH'lll l 'l'S of nte;111ing 1h:n an lllJlOrl<tlll bu1 11tc ways in wlticll llloi't' di lfmt p:ll ll'l'lts ol' '"'''IIIilg'S in tersen in panicular ' illl<llinm. Second, po~!Sini C lll ra Ji,l s <JI Il'Si iOII llw ~u l iditl or lh<: relationship' thal iht. poliliral econotn)' approarh '"l~ lll':- t'Xis1 b<:iween er onomic re la ti onships ancl ntlll tral lllL'all ings. Jnstcad ol ass<'Lii ng tltat 1hen: arl' ickulogil'Sappropri:ue 10 dasscs. lht'\' arguc 1ltal ~h e re l a ti on~hips are bu1h con1ing:cnt and con textua!. .-\gain . cJao;qs. ~< ll dtr, ancl racu. are. in pan. forme el 1h I'OIIg h 1ht idea", ickologies allCI cliscttrses that are ll~t'd ahonl tlwm ancl1ha1 lht' "'l' in thl'ir 'trnggll's: all{lllttst will difle1 dept'nding on llll' time. thc place, the nalurt nl!ht \li'll).{gk. :md 1lw hbtm"> ol'that o;truggk. Th11' 1lw pallt'l'll'

..

Further reading
' Gramsci, A. (1 971) Selections from Prison Notebooks, L ondon: L awrence and Wishart, Grarnsci, A. (1985) Selections from Cultural Wrilings, L ondon: L awrence and Wishart. Joll, ). (1 977) Gramsci, London: F ontana.

('X:lllplt ol' a rar i ~ l philosopiH. 1 he ~a7i :md Fa~c i'l bdid!; abont ,\ 1 ;-an racial nonic idcologT ~ upnic~rit.'' are ni ! l ~t. ~;une 11-pe. Racism becomc:s a dominan! or heg-< 1 whl'n 11 1s "'l'd ,,.llhm a panicular 'oril'l\ to k gi1im:11e llw ~()cia l di1 i~i ons and

40

lntroducing Cultural Stud ies

Culture and cultural studies

41

of 1neaning c.muot be traccd b.tck lO unclerl~ ing political.uHI t' conolllic ~trmtu1 ~~: thc1 :tl"l' rela ted tothem btn in "a~' th:n an l'H'I'-c llanging am i \\h iel! lllll'l be explortd a n cl i nterpre tld b) tlw ('tJ itural a 11 ;d ~-,l. T l111'. Sh a kt,ptarc doL'' 11c H alll'al'' dd i n c En {lish lll' " for a ce n ain rla'' b111 i' tal..tn up in that ,,a1 in panindar bauk~ 01cr l'clur:llinn. 'ta111s a iHI c ultural capital (p. :tJ:) ) .-\11 ol thi~ pnt' mnch mo11 of a bnrden on cnn mm intcrprctation s nl t tdtu re . . \ n ' l1 lr:ll eltme nt ofpo.' l ' llll l'l ll ra ti~t tlloug ht i' t lw idea that cu ltll1\'- in all it ' li>n11' - i-; a 'tt'''. 11hidt (':tn be 'rt.tcl'. Thi' tlworctiral mmt ltm,trch 'lt''ll lalitl ,l!i lh the lons ol tl w ~lllch o l ru llnl l'. \\-h:u i' 'tudie d '" no t -.o mu r h c ultura l fn r m s ur . nprest'llla1u11 as tht tcxt iL'l ll . \\' h c n ..as hdc n it ha~ bt'L' I1 a'' ll lllt'd th a t i1 nti ~ht be pos~ible to gai n l..nmd cdge b1 tlw 'wch ol cullllral filnn. poo..h!ltltlllrali~t theori,ts ( ~th~s (p. :12). ~J p. ~~) .. l a~ut~ lJe 11 itht l h a1e q tlt'SlOill'd th c 't':11Th for nH:anin g- < llld collt'l'l'11 Ct' . .Jacqlll'' Dt' l'l'iC I.I h,t, :11 g u cd th :u th e tc :-. t ~ thal 111ake n p 1. ln ~te.td ol l'illding nuaning and l..uml'lcdKl' to tll t n dturc can n enT be pinnecl ele m 1 -.tudent ol ru ltlll'l'. thl'l ddl-1 it. Tlw la'l.. ol 'luden!\ ol cullure , not. tllerd<.ut, 10 loo!.. lor explan:Hio n,, b 111 lo ' d ecoJ1 q1'1K t' llll'<ll li n g- in r ulturt. S ttulen t~ o l c ulLun ~ houlrl not louk fr 1r !>l'~ l (' lll ~. ~lntc ltlres ancl icko log it, i>ut sJo ttlcl look ;u th e gaps. clbton ti1Hi itie., ancl illt'Oibi'lt.'lll<s in I<'Xh. Followl'l ~ ol thi~ .1pproath contt.nd th:ll thcrt' i, ah,als panial i t~ and subjLr ti ,it~ in IIIHkr,t:IIHling: n tltllrt' con'i''' of nnlitipk l'l':tlities \\'hi c h :ll't' lll'I'Cr un c kr~tood in th<'ir L' lllirl'ly tith c r b1 Lht sc ndc r nr t.lw rccein-r u l' i111'o rmation. Tt"'l' are ah,al, 'u l ~jl'<:l 10 illlerprt.t;uion. douh t alHI cli,pute. \\ hall'l'l'l' t lw :tllCIIIJ)I' of :llltluu' 10 e:-.erri'c conll o l. O n e olckr H' rsic 111 ol' po,lSIIII C'I urali, n1 cloes ;1l1 l'111Jll tn r<'l:u c tex tu;llit y back 10 wc ial l: t c to r~ . Th t ' Bakhtin Sclwol' (p. ~0~). a 11 cl partir ut.u h- \ '.l'\. \ 'olo ,inm. a rg nt'' th:ll the 'ig n is a 'itc or 'ocial COilll''-I;Hion . Thi~ mean' thal difll'll'lll grOIIJJ\ 1\ihin ~lCC!I strug-gll'. <11'~lll' :md cli , putc 1)\t'l lh c llll' <J II ing' or cli lrt J'l'lll ,jg-n s. In .\/onis/11 (11/(/ / l 'hilowilty o l .rlll.f!.'llflp,'l' ( 197:'.) \ 'olo~ ino1 arg-u t'' th a l it i' clas. , conllict th a t co nditions rh c )>trug~l e O\'t.r ' ign ~. BaklHin', idea that an~ tcxt rcu1tain' multiplc I 'Ol'c'\ \I't hi n it hao; been cleldopcd 1)\ Julia KristCI'a ~ ( p. ~:,2) influe nti al COI1Cl'J)I or ' inlL'I'll'Xlllalitl'. This idL'a con et ns tlw rdarion ol' a g i,e n ttx t 10 nlht. l' te xh . \n ~ rc xt , it i~ arguc d , ' can h t a n a l ~secl in 1LTI11 ~ o l' liH o thl'l' te:-.t' t ha t it ha' absu liWd ancl tran . .,f'nrmtd. I'h11~ intcntxtu.tlit~ tm lu.ttl'' 1Mio11' fonu' ol ll'Xtua l hornming and nhoing. ,uch ao.. :dlll\t 111. p:ll nrh. P"'' ir-lw .lll d q not a l ic111. r h e ('011 Cl'Pl allnll'\ ~~~ 1() :t pprt-c i:tl l' 11 11\1 a 'l'ic i1 Cl' fi n ic111 lll~>lit li l..e Fl/(1111' f-1111 11111 d r: 111~ 1111 l !l J( h han l-boi ll'd ' rl e t<T ii\ l' ~ loric~ a ncl j!lm 11oil ,, intt'llt'Xh ( 7/u \ Ja/1!11' Falmn. 7111' llif! Vn1. l'l< .l. \\'ltat \' ~l'l' in IJ/adl' llrt llllt'l i' il11 intn1p111.11ion .uHl tr.tn,JoJnl.llionolilll'-.e in1l'l'lt':-.h in ,lll lltlri~ti c \l' lling ( 11ll' 111u1il' i' , e l i11 ~ (11 \11. :\Jost .,f t lw an ic111 1;1 l..e~ Jlla re in 'h<icl<HI: rtH >Ill ~ u r al'Ll'l' dark in pourh lit publi r plar('s: tltt lilm ~ h e 1o m al..t, ,1 lil'ing otll o( a t echno l ogira ll ~ a(l\;mccd parody ol the cht"il gum,hot role: tlw IHToinc cln,-,e~ in 1!1 1 0, retro ~ 1\ le: likc m:uw jtl111 nrJi 111 01 ie~. lll t' clt-n lo pnttnt of th l plnL i~ ;11 1in1 cs o paqnc ;m el. ;liso ikl' 111:111\' 1110\'t'S ol' thi' gt nrt. il1 th ~ 01 ig in:d I'CI'Sion or Wrult Nllil/11'1' th l h tro prm i de~ '1 oice-owr' 10 linl.. 'rene~ htt .tbo <;eUion 1.:\.-11. J3, dt-rou,tntctiug Blrul Nt11111n in ll'llll' ni ih intl'll <':-.h it ht'COilll'' po"iblc lo n.a li ,t ont po'1~ 1111 Cl11r<d i '1 pre mi ~t. ' th e d e ath of' Lllt' au tltm'. \\'hat thi~ 111<'<111.< i ~ that tlw < lltilwr'< int e ntion' are a c!judg-cd

irrelel'<llll 10 tlw int<'rptTtat io ns ol the text: the te:-.t i' a 'eparatt' and auto n omous e ntit)'- Thus, inste acl of 'llld ~ ing th e in flttc n ~ on L il e a utlwr ancltl w ~nurce' s/ h e dre\1 upon in ;nuhol'ing th t ttx t (a nn w rion!-h co ntc lll <H I'> int e rprt til't stra tq;Y). tlll interprete! is left imtead 10 con sidcr the inteJtexto.. figuring in a gil-en text.

J. 41 Cultural studies
\\'hat. th e n . is r ultura l stuclics: Throug h o ut thi' ch apttr \\'C' h al'e 'tnssed 1h t betW<'t'n <;Oillt'thing that ~~e hal'e calkd cu ltur.tl ,~ud i e' an.clthl.' di,cipline:. ol .' orioloh'\ l_ili.!m). gcogr ap ll y. En g ilshj nHI a~~ ro~O!:,':' \\ e h a\'t' cl i,CliSSt' d a sct of lot ~ for th esc ~ (1is(ipli ncs, a rg ui n g that. g i1 e n th t: ir co111111nn intc rcsts i11 c ullllrt. 1h e r e are ISSII CS ami problem th a t th t, all mu t ad dres.\. r h e e foci we call tlll' co 1 e is~\IC' ami problemo.. in th e swch of c u lture. lt i the sh a red intnest in the topic ol cult u re :md thc recogn i1ion o f co rnn;on th e nt('l\ that h as broug ht prani 1i omr~ from dilkrtnt disd Jlincs tog ttlwr in th e lxlid' th a t it i~ thro u g h COOJ)('I a ti n n a n cl collabmatiun th ~ll undno;ta nding ami cxplan a tion 1,ill den lop most pm,e rl'ulh. -, h io; clust<.ring of clilferent di,ciplinan persp er1i1es arou ncl a commo n ol~jcc t o f ~11 1d~ olfe rs tit e po~s i bi lit y nf th t d t'IT lopm e nt o f a di ~ tinc til'e a rca or ~t ud y c h a rac tc rised b1 II C\\' llll'lho cls of ana h~i_,, ,.(L.i.'s._ljli'con figuration ol.wlllibm:a tiu~plines a!l'l!lllL.t.hc. wpic ol' c nltnre that 11-c ~ee ro o .,titutin g both dw sn b~ta nre a mlthe metlHH I' or cultura l smclie,. T h e an' n :r in 1rhich this tilkcs place i' labe lle cl an ' intc rclisntrsi1c spart '. c qmnin g- th c lluidi1 y a ncl foc us that ch a rac tcriSl' cultural studi ts ami ro nua,dnglh e ('lll(' rgcnt. intllll'< ll my th t nJt ~ in subst<uJ C(' a ll(l met h od " h ich aril't' 0111 of' collabora tion l\'ith the traditional. l'n>lution ary th e m cs ol sing le di sc ipline~. T h e 111C'l:tph ur or sp;l('(' a l ~o dra\\'~ attcntion lO lhe pennea bk na tu re of ru lwral s tud ils: 1h e re a re n o fi xe cl bounda r ics :tll(l 1 10 fo l'lrt'SS \\'alls; th cories ami thc111e' are dra1,u in from cli rip lim, and mal bacl.. in a --' transro n necl stat e to innu tnre th inl..i ng th e rt. Ri c h a rd Johnson ( 1986) h as puintcd 0 111 tiH dan ~l' rs n ( acad c 111ic codili ca tion in regard to cultura l 'ltldie1>. suggcsting th:ll its )>lrL'Il){th l il~ in it~ opl'nness a n cl h encc it' capadty for t ran~forma t ion and grmnh. Hl' :wgtus that cu ltural <.lUdies 111i1 ron; tlw co mpk xin and po l y~l' mi c q11alitits nf' th c nbjt.ct of ,, s ttHI~-. <tdltl rt'. Tllt poll'er ol cul ture a ri ~co; l'mm its dill'ust'lll''': th e 1e rm i' u~ed ,,twn i111prt.'l'i,ion ma tlL'I'' ll'h cn rigidit~ \\'Ollld ckqrm 1\'h,ll it ~l'l'"' (() IIIHki'~I.IIHI. Ctlll~COII~IH'" .tlld 'ollbjl'UIl~ olll' ker terms in.J o lnl,nn ., p01 11':ll al o J r nltural 'llal ie~. Cun't iou~ll l'" i' ll'l'd in tlw ~lar"i 'l sen st of knm,led ge :1ml a lso i 11 a l'l' llt- x il't' -"l'IISt' lO g'I'l' the idea ol prodt lCIil'l' :I CI i1i ll , Subjectil'i l\' is ll~tcl lO rdcr lO th c (()llSII'IICiion indi lidual' bl tu lturt. C:omhiiillK these two ronrepts leads ,loh n so n to de>rribe tl w pr~jl'CI of Cll~tll l ~JI stuclie~ "' bein~ lo )

linkagth~

-----

no"

or

'abstrac t, d escribt ancl rt'l'lll1,titute .in concre l.l' s.lu(hes th e son~l lt.ll'lll~ thro ng h 1d11Ch0 hun mn h c:ings "lil'e''. becmm ron~no m . su st:llll th e nsh'l'' su ~Jl'(IIIT h . T h i pr~ject ha' been inHt-ptT ttd in cu l~ra0tudie' in tenns of th ree l~:t~lcl'i of r ese:u-ch: (a ) t?rocluc tio n-based '!..!_l_<!i.t;': ( b) t~d..sJ.U.dic.:: (e) st~li ~'--Uiu:d cTttH'l'S.As 1'0 11 ca n see. tll e 1 e is a clost coiTL''JHlnden tl' h c re l\'itll th e thrt't' .sen ses o l
.

42
r

lntroducing Cultural Studies

chapter

c tdllt n whic h ll't l'laho ratecl lal'iie r in 11li' c hapltT. Eac h o tt t o l' Llt t''t' .trea' has a diflerent locu.: tlu: fir-.1 dra,,, .nteJHion w p r oce"t'' imoh-cd in .111cl '>lrugglt' me1 tht prodllttOil Of" tu h ura) lt'lll~: t he ' l'ConcJ itl\l'Stigalt'' th e for111' of t'tlllltra) )J I oclnct: tht third , co nre n wd ,,ith r c prl'senta ti o n .. Jo ltttsn n poi tth 10 llll' ntcn~ari h in rn an p le lt'n t" o f' tiH'~<.' \'t' lllli i'Cs: likc dt t ll'i<kr :ll'l' ll :t in ll'hi c ft lh tl' opn:lll', lh tl :lit' fcd IJ1 i nt trani~t comllll lnica ti on . [at h om 1-{il' ' 111 ami tal..c, l'n11n th t others. In 'nmman. \\t' ,uggtst .tpproachin~ c nllu ntl \ll tclin :han a1 ea of ac ti1 i11 1h.11 g ro\1', rro111 llll' raction a nd l'oiJah o l :11 io n 111 procl ti Cl' i s~ m,, and thl'lllt'' ilt:ll :tl'l' llt'll' and clw lll n g-ing. C: ulLma l \Lltdie' , ne~t an i .~ land in :t sta o ( di~t' iplim ' but .t l'lll't'tnt t h;u ll'a~ lJ t'\ th e SlJOfl" o f ot)lt:l' d\Cp)ilt'\ lo U'l'.\1<' 11 ('1\ aiiCI Changing formalillll,,

Communication and representation

2.0
lntroduction

R e-cap
In cultural studies the concept of culture has a range of meanings which includes both high art and everyday life. Cultural studies advocates an interdisciplinary approach to lhe study or culture. While cultural studies is eclectic in its use of theory, using both structuralist and more flexible approaches, it advocates those that stress the overlapping, hybrid nature of cultures, seeing cultures as nelworks rather than patchworks.

Further reading
Although lhey are not always easy reading, the best place lo begin explonng the issues raised in this chapter is to look at the acknowledged early 'classics' of cultural studies: Richard Hoggarl's The Uses of Literacy (1958), Raymond Williams' Culture ond Sociely 1780- 1950 (1963) and E.P. Thompson's The Moking of the English W orking Closs (1968). Each of these works has had a profound influence over the subsequent developmenl of cultural studies. Graeme Turner's Bntish Cultural Studies: An lntroduc!ion (1990) plots the institulional development of cultural studies while fred lnglis's Culturo/ Studies ( 1993) offers some singular interpretations of its history. lmportanl stocktakings of the fiefd's development are Lawrence Grossberg's Morxism and the Interpreto/ion of Culture (1988) and lhe substantial collection edited by Grossberg, Cary Nelson and Paula Treicher, Culturo/ Stuclies (1992). )ohn Storey's An lntroductory Guide to Culturo/ Theory ond Popular Culture (1993) connects debates about popular culture to the concerns of cultural studies. Richard )ohnson's 'What is cultural studies anyv>'ay?' (1986) critically charts the possibilities of three models of cultural studies (produclion-based sludies, text-based studies and studies of fived cultures). The collection edited by jessica Munns and Gita R ajan, A Cultural Studies Reader: History, Theory, Practice (1995) atlests to the dlversily of cultural studies in the 1990s. for original recent work in cultural studies, the reader may wish to consult the following journals: C J!!turol Stud~v~mations and Social Text. You will probably need access lo a university library toread these periodicals. - --

r\
\.)

In this chapter we explore a number of important aspects of communication and representation. The idea of representalion immediately raises a number of issues that have been the subject of much philosophical debate over L he centuries. Many of time will be addressed as this chapter progresses. However, it is imporlant to be aware of some of the dimensions of this debate ) immediately. Thus, it can be suggested that we are all familiar with the idea of representation in what might be termed a photographic sense (see further Chapter 9), where the image is a representalion which seems to capture the whole of what is fram ed . The picture is thought lo be a copy of what exists in sorne form. In Lhis sense language mighl be seen as a representalion of ~ what already exisls in that it describes or copies it in sorne way. For instance, it is often thought that the language of natural science captures the nature of the world in this sense. The example of the photograph immedialely introduces a difficully in that photographs can be cropped or ~ framed to re-present the world. R epresentations, the.n, do nol simply copy lhe world, they produce a version of it. Con~, re.present~ons are involyed ia.lbf.Qroduclion of a vellion of the world, the~o not simply cop~it. ,Alu!thfu?.osition is reached when it is maint.illnecl that t~tio~ ~entrally involved in the constrt!0Lon._9f l~orld. Al Lhe extreiJ.lC, s~ch positions imply L hat t11e world is thal which is captLJred in l~uag~. Thus, returning to thc idea of the~n belweenscience and the world, it can be suggested that scientific language does not simply represent in the sense of describing the world, or capturing certain features of it, b~at tl'lf-Oatur~ l..l<.'t'.Oilll. iuctually defin ed through the lang L~9~,!:'d co n ce~used to discuss il~or e~~eca u se we havc a concept of 'radioactivity' in ~ur language, we are able lo perce1 ve risks thal in a real sense did notexist for people lacking lhe concept. ~ - ::;consider these is;esand others, we begin with a discussion of the centrality of language to human culture and society as il is Lhrough language that we communicate. In section 2. 1 we consider the main attributes of language and examine debates on culturl relativity of language and thought. This is followed by section 2.2 which focuses on the important approach known as semiotics which examines the construction of signs and meaning in language. This approach has been very influ ential in cultural studies, in particular in the analysis of advertising which is

43

44 lntroducing Cultural Studies

1

Communication and representation 45

discussed in seclion 2. 3. These sections on semiotics, signs and advertising raise a number of imporlant issues concerning the relationship b~ween languMJ_e.__representali~n ai}Q_ p_ower. These are addressed more specifically in the next section, where the dimensions of class, race and gender are emphasised. This section also considers sorne of the discussions of the ethnography of speaking. After this lhe chapter moves to consider a specific instance of communication and represenlalion through a discussion of art. Again, the dimensions of power, class and gender are addressed. Finally, we explore sorne dimensions of representation in the mosl importanl contemporary cultural medium: television. This discussion will lead to consideration of the complexities of contemporary representations and discourse (p. 30). Alllhrough the chapter we shall be pointing lo lhe importance of representation and communicalion to relalionships of power, bul also lo lheir problematic nature. The learning objectives for this chapter are to: introduce key debates concerning language, communication and meaning; examine different ways of sludying representations; explore particular dimensions of representations in different media.

Box 2.1

Achievements based on semantic universality

To ,hart' infonn.11ion.
Tu h:1111 the anttt nu l.u n l kiiO\\'Iedgt o J' IIW I co11111 11 1 11 1 1 1\'ih o tJI h al'i ng L o ex wril' I\ Cl' t h i n~' al li~ t hand .

Tu 111.1l..t' both 'lll't i lic a u el

ah~t 1.1t1

'>l:Llt'ltll'll h .

TP ~flL':Il.. in tl w pn,<.'lll ;1ho111 t'H'Ilh in tlw pastor tn .ltllicipall' t'H'llh in tllt' rutll l'\' - lli t ' cl i~ pl : i ('(' lll e llL ((: a lt tn' or l:lllg' ll:lg<..

2.1

Language, communication and representation

tlHHt,and and the ll'>l' ni 'inp111 ' "' hoth a noun .1ncl a \l'L h. Tlw~e rh.lll).(l'' an lt:.lllll'cl ))\' lll l' JI1 b<.r~ o ( a lang u :tge cn llllllll ll ity ; , ti H\' :~ cqu irt c< Hllt'llli ona l la n guagt l11 111

1 1~<1~(.' Ita' ht<.n l'l' l'l 111 11CII in flllt' ll Ced b1' tlll' ' IWC :tliwd la1tgt 1 :tgt or ('Oill llll ll'l' 1 echnolo~\: .m e:-.ampk of thi' , tlw ll'idt,plt'.lcl 11'1' ol th t lett11 K' to nlt'.lll o m

.\ll llllman soci~ t ies h a,tlan~uagT. and 'o intimateh t'llll n cctcd ;uttlte rcquiltintnts ol ~ori<.t1 1\ith thc: lt-.llllll'' ol lan g uag~ that it is clillicult to imagim h cm a 'mic:t1 mi~ht e:-.i't 11ithottt it. .\s :1 minimtllll co ndi tion lor ex i~tt'lltt l n H n <m ~ocit'l\' ITquilt'' nnkn:d ami q.~ uhi r re la litlllships bttlnc n indidtlttak tll t' l'tTog niti o n o J' shartd 111t'ill ilg' :1nd ilw abi li11 tu tr;ulS IHl k L tOII'kdgc and inlurmat ion .l lllollg' a p opu l.uion. l'lw\e lu n damtnt a l leaiiiH'S o( 'ocict1 ckptJHI u pon .1 llll':llb of 1 tlll'-litutin.: thc ohjl'rh and ewnt' ol ltum.m exptritnct' alH l coilH' I ng thti meaning in .111 elllt <'lll :md t'lk clht 1\:11. 0 1'1' 1'\ l'h e lmingh'. L l1 o ug h n o l tx cln~i,e h . l is l; ng uagl' th a t l'ullil' tlll'sc r<'q ll ilcn te n L s.

in i'a iiCI' t h roug h t h t l > l otl' '~ kn o11 11 "' sucial i ~a Li on 0 1 accu h lll'a lioll. l ltl' l..no 11ll'< lgT o r meanin ~ ,111d nt cnnlt'n lional 11'-agt in a lan~uage cnmmunit1 i:> 1lw wl..tn -forg l.lllll'd , 111>1\kclgt ol tllt' n.uiw ll'l'l'. 1 ht ttl11\l'111ion:tl 'tand.ucli,ecllt'alurt' ollanguag<'. tllc ~o-ca l k el 11'111111/lir 1111hrt 11dil.\. en a hit- 1llt'l1l hl'r' oJ' .1 L1ng uage ce H lllllll 11i11 lu d e1 e lo> 1he ahi liti l's li'll'rl in Hn'\ ~. 1 . Tlt 1 l..ncmltclgt .111cl iultlllll:llit 111 1ha1 , ccllllllltllticall'd in l.utgu;gt , an artil.u 1 of languag1 iht'lf ,ill< ,. 1.111\!11.1!{<' i' rnlhtitulecl 10 iclcntih .111<1 gin 11\t'lltin~ lo 1111111.111 t'X ]WI'it' IHt'. Th n~ tht t '\t' ll l ~. ohjtrl\. wrson,, t'llln L nll\ <H iel '>O o n tl1:t1 L it<. la ng ltag<.' ide nlilies Hl'l' 11 0 1 di ~rn t t' t'lltit it' in hum a n experienn ~~ ~~a iLi ng a [;l w l to bl' a lt.tr l11d to t hen1: tlit'' are con,ti tlltecl th10ug h l<lnguagl' and the m e .llling g iHn 1 1 language. In this ,,;\\' l.111g11age ~1ancl' lor or r c p rcscn ts (p. l) l l 1hat which i1 n;unt''- ~incc langua.?;t' i~ r11 llllral, tlll' Jlroch tll ot' h u man in tera<.tion. tlwn l c.111 lw ~;tid tllat it i~ 1hrnugh f la 11g ua g<. tll a l llunt ~lm d c li nc t ll \lll~t he:- a11 d tl w ir 1m !'lcl .u:aisl'onl. l ! l~ l ).

2.1.1

The attributes of language

r Ling ui,li c

an al\'~is h as id e nti licd

syn ta. \
-

that all hum a n

hln~t 1ages a re

b u ilt ttpn n co n11linatjons

-- - -

o~ u t ds n amed fJhunel/11'.1; th e p~ 1 g....oJ SQ!!_12cJ2. ~;~ri~~~~ng tu

g.roce~ses,-;s ~lw
- - - -

the e patterns and

l ~cugnition of ntain palll'l'll~ "'~ord-. are all cuhur.tlh ~pecilic

m a languavl' -....., 1"1

the

come1Hi~ ahout ho;. 'hlntences or

2.1.2

Language, culture and thought

phrases a re co~fi! . T lll' cnl tural a 11 r ihnti o n o l' 111ean ing ., th t ou 1cum c o J' < 'l't'llls a nd processc~ in pa nic u la r socia l ~e lli n g~>. aiiCI a lth o ug-h mean ill ).{S a re sta ndarcliscd a u d coJIH'1llional. thl'\' do chang<. owr time :1\ .1 rcsult of th e actio n ol social allCI cultura l lo rrn. SonH'tnH~ t hi~ changt' b ,ery rapid. at other tilltl'S it can he \'cry slo\1'. ll mn,er. a lll.lngu agl' II Sl~ a nd m e n ing c hangcs m er tim e as a l't''111t n l' th t c han ged t mi ro nnJ c nt~ in wh ic h th tv o p e ra l<'. Fo r cxam p le , 1lw la n g u agt of C h .u1 n't' or o f Shal..l''-IWare is clil fcrcn t from th e lan guage or latl' l1\'l'lllitt h-C<'IIIllry 13titai 11. (.'\'ell 1hough tht,- :1re alllabclled 'English'. To take anoth c r exampk. contempnr;u~ English

---

lf lan g uagl' rq m't' lll ~ 1ltc 11o rld a~ ddirl<'d lll' htlnlan .~. ra11 lang 11ag'l' tlt c n he 't't' ll a' tlw rcprt''>l'lllation o l lnn11a11 thnuglll - are languagt ancl 1houg h 1 nnt and lh t 'ame thing~ lntl' lt''>l in 1he ll'lalion,hip hel11een bnguage. tultute ancl thougln ha~ a long hisL on: .\ ri swtk (:\H 1 -:t~~ nc 1 ,;,, 11nrch ,,., l''\pression~ ol mental cxper itnce' ;111d o;o for hi111 thoug ht c:1 1nt' be lu r~ 1\'0 i'd s in . i ) p re hl'ndin ~ th c II'OIIcl. T lw . \n ~ t ri :nl p hil o~np h n l.uci11 g \\'itt~('ll'ttin { IHH9-I\l:"'. t ) p1111kd ahout tlw li11k' bt' lll<'t'll in- di1 idual t houg l11 . pt i1 .u e languagt .111d tlw lauguagl' ol t h1 puhlir n.il111. condudi ng that 'tlll' limih ol 1111 l;tng-uag<.' a~_2!n1i1o; ot 1111 IItH Id' (\\'illgt'IISlein. HIHI ).

11

46

lnlrocfucing Cultural Studies

Communication and representation

47

. \nt h 1opo1o~bb in tlwi r '111die, ol orlwr tul! un< 11 an: repon t'd llw t' Xbtenn ol' 11 ig ll h t la b oi.Jltcl lcx i rnn~ (() ck,criiJl' itnponanl ''l'l' Ch or ,oci:ll t'Xpl'ric:IH t'. In ('Ol11l'lll>O 1.tn \\e, tern ,ocil' ti l'~ :1 ~i ntibr k.t ll ll"t' ha.' 1wen dou ii11Cilll'd . p:1nic ul ar h 11i 1h rden: n cc lO 'ubc uhull'" h te ( haptt1 X ) ancl to pnJ e ,,ion:ll group' ('t'l' bt'lcm 'l'C1ion ~. 1.1 :tuc l ( .hap tcr :~) . l ilc'v :mcl , jmi lar l'lncli ll).{' h aH. prompltd que,tion' abu111 ldH'th t r hu1g ua g l' , tmhtillllilt' ol thought anc\ pt'I'Ct'IHion: can IH' "llllll' IH111 pt'nplt think lm n 1 tht' l.u1 g 11agc: t htl IN'; L>oc:' l : t11~11a~l' n prt''t'lll allCI CCllllllHinicatt thougl11: ~onw in1 1orluuion 111 tllnc i"ut ' can be lotlllcl in Bo:-.. ?.2 on C: lltlc . spo n a nd
l;,llgl ttlgl' .

She lielckcl m1 qut,tion' 1\l' ll

\'o u' n 1\'il\' ol r b.t'l'

y011 're h.ll lin g I.!HIO (!'lllfl. !lro)
\\' hat an thl' g ound ruk<
,11

lar

1 1\'ollll

ltl lllllt la all tht ba'l''

He ll'l' l1t 111 h a l lilr me

1k ha'

\II' O

s11 ikt, .tgain'l hi111

Th.11',; 1\ill' out in kit fi1ld

Box

2.2

1 k eh ill'' mt tlp tit e 11:tll

Cattle, sport and language

He's a tc:un planr (:1 r lt 1tcll phll'l'l )

Shr ' ' an o<lclh.1ll ('<Tcllha11. Ion] b ;11l )
lt '~ ju''l a hallp.1rk t' ~timat e

T IH :\1H' I an c ut k-Kt't'p ing pt'npk 'lltdil'llil\ tlt c all thropol ogi'l 1-:lall,l' ritch.lrd in th e 1!1 :\th in 11h.11 11:1, 1111'11 t1w \n g ln-Eg~pti.lll Stul.t ll. E1an, l'ri1rh:ucl ( J!Hill: IK- I!ll a t'g' tl t'' t l\:11 : \\\ ilal'f 'l't' ll in
:t

t-.. , 1 , ,,1111 1 .1111 J, 'II.t,ill in Briti,la 'eH itt,. Tla L languagt' o l. r (IOL 1 >a 11 .1nc1 tt't "~ l'licklll in ~u e h t'\.l' l 1cl:1~ l'X pn "ion~ a~: \lolin g 1he gc>a l po'h ht.d>Ji,lling .t lnd (;iltn tll t rtcl c m l
Takin~ ;111 tarh b:11h

hril'i' '111 l'c'l ni ~<l ll lt' .' \ucr in,lllll inl h .utd ru,lcotn' 1ha1 1110'1

o f lhl'I 'o!.11 hdi:IIIOIII diH't1h Clllllt'l lh tlwir Cll lle . . \ fulltl '! U d~ o f tl lt'i l

( lil l111'l'II'Clll ld , 1011 t'l't'l'\ ld1t'l'l' tltl' ,,lllll' clliliiII.IIll llll'l'l''l ll (,llill'. t'.f!;. 111hd1 ln(._Jclll'. 1 ll,tcl '0111l'III1<'' 111 dt ,p:til 1h:11 f llt' \l' l' cli'l ll"t'd ,lJl\ tJJing II'lil lh l' \lll lllg lll t'tl lnll li H,tnl k and gir l'. and t ' H ' II tltt' 'llbjttt ol gitl, ltcl inc1itabh- 111 (.lltk . ..,1,\11 llll llh.\lt'\l'l' 'llhjnl I IIIIIIICI. ami :q>prn.tt h l lrom ldl:l lt'll' l' olll g' il'. II'L' 11nulcl ''Hlll lw 'lwaking ni tnl" :me! oxcn . hl'iltr, antl 'll't'l''. 1a111' ami 'hl'ep. ht-gn;ll, :111rl 'hl'g <>ab. t .111'1', .uHI la11 1b' and J,. ick 1 11:11\' a lna<h indi, :ul'cl illal thi, "h""ion- !111 'lll hit 'l't'llh 111 .111 oiii,dt't - i< dut 1101 nnh to i11< glt'l l ccnno1n i< ,a iul' ol r: nll c hu 1 " '"' 111 tlw I':I CI 1h:11 JIH'\ arl' li 11k< i1 1 tlllllll' I'OII' , o cal rdalion,hip' . .\.:ut'l 1nul 10 ddilll' all 'orial pro ct'S~t'' antl ll' i,lt<lll,)l)l' ll ll' l'l ll'> OJ' lil t'I' t:t llil'. ( hl' ll "'ci;Ji jc)jtlll l j, ; iJ IJI'ill' iciIIIII.

pla' in~ lidcl

lki11g a ,aft pair ol ha11d' Pl:11 ing .1 -;traight i>a l L l'l'icons burgton
to

captlll t' sig- nillt :111t ru ltur;d cl't' tl h a nd l wr:ttl~t ol tl1 ~ir

Frnm 1hi' qu o 1atic111 it can 1)1' ~l'l' ll th.ll ra til l' <111' lh L Cll l"t' ol' 1lii' ~oc il' l \. El'all~ l' ritt'li;u d h11 ill('l d t''l 1iht' 11111\ pol' ll'\. 'iOil\,\ 'i. lml' llta._illg'. 111,11 ri,lg't' olllcl l':nllih. rl'l ig ion a nd ~ pirit11alil1 . cl i' Jll lll' an cl ._j iJiug-. lift- .tnd dl'a d l. arl' .dl t'(prc:.,l'cl aml tn< ll111pa,..;td in the imag-tn ni ':ntll'. 1 ht \IJC.lhnlarl' liH t1 w colours :1 1 1d lll a rkillg or C:tll lt. IIH' po~i li on ol hol'll' on lh t lwatl. lltt l':lll l{l' allCI kngtlt ol honh. and 1111' ' i11 ancl ,)l;qw ol r.ntlt i, t':- lt' ll, in: auclunnpkx. 11 <:111 lw 'll){!:{l''lt'd lhat tlitlan g ll<l\,\ l' .111d ima g-l'n nf 'pon i, 'imil.1rl~ pt-rY:t,ile i 11 rnn tt' lllj)OI :11\'. \ Jn crit :111 ;1ml B1it i;; h 'ncil' 1i t~. For ex: nn pie. Ferraro ,.o!. ( 1\l!l 1 : 2\H\) dtlail a lon g , ol t' 'P"'''ioll' 1111111 h.l'th.lll l,l._<'ll lrom llitktN1n ( HIHO: 1 11-t) 11hi c h kallll'l' ht';ll ill' i 11 l'l'l' l nla1'. \i lll'l'Call l an ~ua~\ :
1 lt- III:JCk ,1 ~r: tlld'ti tiHI phtl'

pena,innt' ' ' thtl :lit' ll'tcl idiomatic.dh to raptun :md coll\t'l 1ht 't' ll~l' ul c~ullt' difft'l'l'lll J'l'alm' l'Xpt'rit'l\(l'. Fol' t:-.uHplt. lhl' hlll~llagt u( 'POI l. Jl:ll lit ul.ll" ul 0111 ball. i ~ 11id l'11' ll '<' cl i 1 1 tht s ph cre ol' pol iti t ' Thb 111.11 bt :111 .lll t' llljll h' politiria11, 10 ro 11 ~-t'~ politir .d ;u g tnllt'nl throu g h popular t:-pre"ic.llt.: itm.ll be an ;!lLL'IllpliO ; I ~SIIt' iat.t' SL'Clill ll:ll illll'l'l''h ll'ilh lll<l~S pn p tdar Clllllll:l': ll l~ aJ,o litt 11'1' of la 11 gu.1g 1 from a prl'domin.llllh mak 'Pht' lt' to cap1 nn n.ll1nlml 1"11t' ' antl "' SIICh j lll:tl J't\'t'H lthl' ma,n tlini ' l :tSSillli) HiO il ' o J politil' <l ll' ,lilO III ldl:tl lhl' 11'11rld is likt ami ho 11 hest 1n coiiH' I 1hat nH"age. 1 hi' poin l i~ dahoratcd l.llt' l in t11l c hap ll'l' in tht' 'l'Ctiou 011 geuderl'cl bn~u.lgt . You 111iglll )._,. 10 il1in._ ahenll. otht:l

or

1 xpnssi nn .~
t' X:l lllpit-.

lro111 cl illtrtJ11

:tl't ':IS

ni 1ik tha l

ll )>t' I':U l'

in tllt " '' " o l 'pon 11 1 tllt.'

..,lit' thn11 me

o1

e 111'\l'

2.1.3

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

.-\n l'XpiCl ,JIIl'lll>l lO ,\CCIIlllll Je )1 1h1 nl,ll iOII' hl'lll l't'll lall ~ll:tj{l' ;tncJ 1hought j, tlll' !!llil~L'' ol 1 on 1I1L' t'Xbtt n n in ;di l a n . S(ljJir- \\'lmlf h ~po ih l');, 1d11l' h b.l"'' '" propo-.a' .

48

lntroducing Cultural Sludies

Communication and representation

49

'lwciali,td and el.tlmrated k...;i cons ckcli< atcd to the clt,n iption ;uul uncltr<tauding o l imponant katllrt'' o l 'nci:tl ancl rult ur:tl lik. lt , pri 1 11.1rik <ollCL'IIll'cl 11iil1 tl w !-:"' amma1ical 111 lc... ,1 11d ('<lll,ll a in 1s 11))()11 1h oug-h 1 a nd pnc vp ti nn. lk n.j:11 11i11 Le< \\' lwrr. 11lw ll'il' an e n g i ll lTI h1 pro f't"io n . IKcm lt intc1 < ''Lcd tlnoug h h i, l\lll k i 11 t ht 11 "' , 1 h.u 'P('Cialiwd gnH1ping' " 'tcllan~uagt- an iutcrc,l that <k~tln r wcl nHIIt' ,b,tr.tuh intn .1 co usi ckr:11 ion or illl co11nectic111' bttii.L't.'ll langu: tgt. u '\t.'. cnlt 111 i1 1 nt v. lll ing a nd " " s u f th in kin.l.(. In the l ~l ~( h th c .-\lll <'rica n :utthropolog i't Ed11a rd ~ap i r h ;tcl 11Ti1tcn th.u thc cln<'lopllll'lll ol 'Pl'tiali~ed l.tnguagn n ,uhtcl in thc Cl'l'.llion of langu.tge commullitie, 11 hirh in h;lbi te d di,l i n r 1 II'Ollcl ' 110 1 nwrely 1 IH 'l llll' 11 orld :h l'l c' ITn nt t' l'v 11i th di lrc n ' lll lalw ls a tl at h c d to t'l't' lll~ < 111 d ol~j l'Ch. ,1, son1e ha el ~ ~~ggcst vd (~a p ir . 1\1~9). \\'lwrl clrt.'ll' o n tlli ~ work 101 lli, rc,< an ht., .unong 1hc H opi ..t nati~t .\ nwriuut pcoplt>. l nlikl' mai n -;treanl .\meritan ntlwn 1d1ich e:~.plt'''e' lht UIHlel'it. u Hiing ol tintt' in -; p a tialm t Laplwrs- fo1 txanlpk . ''lll' II HII s:11 j , :t lrmg li111"' in ce . . .' c1r ' it ll'i fl h.tpp e n in a ~/11 /lillll: - LIH ll opi l':")li'L'\'>l'd t'H'IIl~ a.; h appc11ings 1aking pi<LCl' i11 a '>lolll' o J' /Jtil!g. a tundition that d ol'' not kllCI itsdl tn hdng r:H tgot ,l'd in llw ,anw "" ;h mailhlltam .\nwric .111 n o tion ~ oltime. ~imil . lrl~ tht l t' ll ~L' ' ufll11 llopi l.lllg"nagc clid not coiTl''jloncl wilh r\nwri can cu . . IOi ll< H'\ 11n 1i ons ol p:'' ' p t'l''t'lll a11d l'lllurl'. T hc 11 0 1k nn lh t ( lopi. IOgl'lhcr II' lh ~ap it ~ earlitr a lla h-.i .... ('tlllll i))IIJtd 10 tlll' lonn ul ation or lht Sapir\ \'lw rl 111 pothe'i' '' hidt ''lll'' 1h:n l.tngnage crt:llc' ment :ti catt'g oril'' 1h rongh 1111 ic h h11rn a n o; lll:tkl' ~l'll'il' o f tlw ll'orlcl. Tlw proposi tion i' th a t lil t' 1 1 o rld i' fi ltl'rtcl 1h ru11g h ll11 concqHu a l gricl, produt c d b1 la n g uagT ancl t ht llilttilu: a nd rq:{u l:u ll\l' o l p;uticulal i< ngt ta~t'' prodll tt'' h abitual lhoug h t )Mtt<tm 11hirh aat e ult111.tl h '>)Jt't ili r. 1t , th e~e ndt u r: tlh '> pcrifir li1o 11g ln palll'rn ~ th:ll S.q >ir :11HI \\ 'h o rr 1 t'lc r to as lho~tgh t nw'llls. \\' horf ex prt'"l'' th t: iclt-a in llw lollo11'i11g 11 .11':
\\'e cli,,tt 1 1 1.111111' .tlong lill t'' htid do1111 h1 0111 n.11ile l.ulgo.tg-c' Tht t:llt'.{orit, and tqw -; th a t lit' ,ol.ll t' fro m th l..' ll'll1 lclnl phcllnmtna 1,.,. d o llt>l finrl th crt l wr: u L~t 1i 1c1 starc t'l't' l ~ nlhe l l'l't in th t l':tcl: <111 1he co11l1 arv. ti te 1\'o t ld , pn,tnttcl iu a k;tleici<N'II)>ic lit" 11! illlj>ll'''iclll' 11 hit h ha-, lo ht organittcl h1 0111 111iucl~ .md thi' me;"'' largel~ h1 tht lingui,lit '' ' 't'llh in <1111 1nimk \\\ c111 n.llurt 11p, ()lganite i1 i111 u conCl' jJI, , ;111d :t~l rillt' sig11ilicat1 n s ,,, 11'1' do. l:trgt h be atl'c 11e ar partics ,. an .tgrl'l'lll t' nt lo orga11itc it i11 thi ' "" - .111 agln' lllt'lll th.ll ho ld, 1h ro ugh our 'Jll'tch tOIIllllllllill :111<l i' l odified in tlw )>.lllt'lll' o( 0111 l.mg u.tgt. rJw .tglt'l'lllt'lll i,, of COIII''it', :tll impl iril ;111d llll,l:lltd un e . /Ju/ 111 /rl/1/1 1111' 1/II\PIIIirh oMi!!;rllm) : ll't Cllllll!l 1:tlk ;11 a ll e:-;up l lw '"l>~cl'i bill.l.( tn 1ht ll g an it:Hion :11 1<1 cl ;l~~ ili.ra 1i;" o tl ; 11 01 11'1 1ir h 1ht agnT uH' Ill dccrn' ' (C.trroll. 1!l:) li: ~ 1~- 1 l. iu Blatk. 197~: ~l/ )

0 11 the i" uc of llll'fllling- the nwanittg that peoplt gin 10 anion a nd thc meaning :tttribtllt' cl b~ u ll1 t11al :mh, ls- a ke~ ro ncept in c u l11u .tl 'llldit.;, ;1.; ll'l' han 'L'l'll in Chapt l'l l . Tht ron 11e< ti<Hh betiiTt'll languagt .llld ro11reptual tlHllt~ht th.ll .11 e ...;pre"ed in h e 1 ~~~ p o t h e<.i~ are 11ide h acrep ted b~ n lit tira 1 a n.th ~~ ' 11<111 t'l'lT. 1ht'lt' i, le,, .tg reemenl ah oul lh t cau., al rdation, ll ip hctll'tT11 th c m ; so llll' quc,tin ll wltult t l' lll l'l'e ,a dirc c l unila teral re latiomll ip he tiiT<.n lang u.tgc and th o ug hl 0 1. 1iCt' n :r,a. bt'III<.Til though t and language. Ot he rs CJUt,tion 11 htt hc r it i, po~~ible to d i-.tillf.{tti,h thnu){h t !ro m Jan g uagt. Somt' s uunu r;tl i'ts ( st:t' l'ull hn stctinn 2.2) co ntc nd 1h a t i L i~ i111 possi h le 10 loc:ne forms ol th ough t f rom 'pokc n or '' r ine n lang uagc ~incc th t''l' are ~im pl~ local (c ultur.tll~ sp<.cilic) manife ,lation s ol th e pron" of th c mine! 11orki ng un tmironm e n ls. In this <~pproac h th c r awgorics of tiHHtg hl ;11 T la tc 11t. th c~ :m loca te d in 1hc working' o r llw l111ma n mine!. In thi' n,pectt h t' art subco n~ciou~ .ltlcl a~ )>lll'h the1 artincapahk o f dirtr t obsen~11 io 11 m a nah ~ i ~ througlt su rfan ph e n Oilll' ll<l. F'rom thi' point o fvit-w l.111g uagc i~ a co nlt'Xt-s p eriric (c ultu ra l) rcpn:sc.:nta1io n ni' 1hc 11a~ th:H hidde n th o ug ht proce~~n .tnupoll l' tll'ir01 1111tn t: o n t' 111;\1 lea rn about panit ular l'1ll'ironmellh but n oth in g ahou t t hc 11a , th e mincl " o rk.: th a t attah~j, l i c ~ in tlw field of na tura l scie n ce. probably in lhc dbc ipli n e biochemistr\'. " Soria l :111cl cu l1mal an a il,is 1a kes tiH st;n1 cc tlt a t care l'ul sc-rutin y o f wc ia l ancl c u l tur<~ l p lwnomena is rt>l'ta ling a bmll !'o rce' th:ll ~hapt a nd ch;utgl' soria l life. Tite argument i' th at m:~jor prin ci pie~ of o;ocia l ami cultural or~a n isation a re gi1cn exp re -...ion in all() hro ug lt la ng uage SO th e Mud y of lang wtgT bL' )lOII'iOUI' is boilt IT \Iarcling a nd iiiSi fiiCLil't'. In this ~~. n o;c la n g uag t ca11 b t saicl 10 re presen! ( p . ()l ) sorial ancl c ulturalromtruct' . Thc fi dcl of stuch know11 "' IOulingttillin b con cerne d 11 ith th t. broad ;11ea of th t conn t'c ' 1ions bc1 11cen J a n ~ ' t;t!{l' u se ancl social rl'i:ll io n' wh i le 1he arla ol' s tucl~ knmn1 as 1he p/fuwgmJ!y of''/ll'flhiiiK look' at ~pvcc h ans in .~ Jxc ili c ' e ttin gs. '

or

2.1.4

1Sociolinguistics

Tlw cu lturall~ ' lwc ific nallllc or ll10ng h l. lang u;1 ge a 11 d a c1ion . ll'lti ch llw S:tpir\\'h orr l11 po1hesi' pnrpo't'' rai'l'' que~ tion' abut ll t he po ~' i bi l i t1 o l ulld t.'l''landing and rt' j)ITSl'llti ng thc llH':tllill).t~ ol otht-r nduu es. ll n11 can lit' repn'-t'll l tiH' th o 11gh1 ol u1h er~ ll'lil' ll lhat thou ~h t i' ~x pr<ssecl i11 a langu;~ gt. 1h :ll i' 110 1 our 11\1'11 anclwhi c h h :1 ~ ils 011'11 (dil kren 1) lllt'lltal c: ll q~ori cs~ Si111 ilarh . h o11 do e, , Hlt' tramla tv an elahoratt'd Sl'lll;liHi t dclln,till in lllll' langu,tge (u litllll') 111 :IIHIIhl'l ).lllgllagc (CIIIIIII l') that clttl'' 1101 hall' suth elahoraliun: Q ue,tio n' .tbou1 thl trn,l.ll ioll .111<1 i11tc1 p n t:llion o! nd tu re an 1cn iii'I)Ortant i11 t lw p ra t lkc ol r ult11r:d swd ic.'- .;in n 1h t'se prucc"c' bear dinnh

r\n und e rl ying a~~u mpti on or .sociolinguisti c ana l ~,;. i' tha1 langu.tgc' an r ultma lh specific phc n o nwn a amlthat languag l is ~nHinclcd in ~o< i.tl and cu lt u ralt>:~.pt 1 ie n ct'. 1t is th est c h arac tcristi cs that make l:li) J{IIagt a 1nluable so tu"Ce uf Cllltural and socia l anal ys i.... Socio ling-11isti c ;111alysis e mpl oys se111iotit a n a lysi'; a llle llt ocl nf ana ly, i~ that is p ossibk b eptu -c langua~~ in its g ram mar (~llli:IX) ami 1ocabuh11Y (kx icon ) , ~on~en tio n a l a ncl inckccl 111 11 ~1 he so fo r i1 to be ;m cff<:cti1 e mea11s of comnHIIlt raunn. Stan dard iscd m ts,agcs are g i1c n in language bet:111se t il c rc are 11'<:11-kn o wn a~so c i a ti o n ~ for word ~ . m eta plwrs a nd l'01 n1s of sp ctc h and ll'riti n g. In thi ~ wav languagt nprcscnh th c sig n ili ra nt flaturcs ofsocia l ami c ult ura l expt'l icn re that are regula1 11- and ICllllitwly comm 11 11 icate d < llnong speaker~ and writ er~. h is is ex plai n e d by tl w Engl i:-h 1i L e ral ) ' a nd cull ura l critic f. R. Leavis in llox ~.:t l.tal'i' in his 11Ti ting ~oug il1 to e mpha,isc th c orga nic d<.,elopmclll of socict1 up w incluo;tri.di.;m~ rupwn: 11 ith 1he traditional. Tit ~ lcd him to cC' rtain concl11'inns abo ut l:lnguagl' 11hi c lt haw b ee n l ri licisecl lrom o 1ht' t pe rsptc ti ~ts. as ll't.' shall S<'l' bdm1 (stt ti o n 2.-l).

50

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Cornmun ication and representation

51

B ox 2.3

2.2.1

A sem iolic analysis of a pholograph

Leavis and language

Sttnioti<' (ur St' llliolo:;l 1 , IIH ,,.,ll' llt<tiC ~lllth o l ~ign,, Tn illii'Cldll tt ,CIIllt' ol th 1 (lllll'l'Jih aiHI idt.t, '"oti.ned 11i1h tht,t .tppro,trll<'' \l'l'\<111 con,iclt'l tlll' pl u>LO~ I .tph ol 1110 111<'11 1eproduncl ht' IL' in Fig111 t' :?. 1. CtJI,tin k.lltllt' ' ulthi' pholtl~t.tph ran hl' icl<ntificd imnwdiateh. lt ''10'" 11111 lllt'l1 emhl.tCIIJ.{: OIIL' j, hl.ltk .111<1 Olll' ldlit'. 011 dtN' in'(ll'CI011 il , j>O"ihlt 10 'tlg)4l''llh.tt the,e are 11111 'J>Oil,lll{'ll .uHI thn look likt thn h.llt' fini,htd ~omt kind ol 'JlOIIllJ.{ acti\ll. In tiH' I.IIIJ.{tt.lgt oJ' 'L'Illol it ' IJj, , 1\'hat Lht J>~1Logti!1~!.~-~ 1~/1.1. \~ l an undcr!>WIICI. u1 rln mlr. 'll< l1_ llll'aning~ fai:J~~htfonl"arcl l!,l<llll1t'l'. a' thtl art rcbtileh 'objt< ti\\''.
Huii<' H ' r. 1ht~"l'"ion o l othtT knmdcd~t m a~ faci li t.llt ' non deta i le el tlruulmg of lll t' p lwtngrap h . TIJtt,. t ia running l' JHIJu.,iat ma~ l't'l'O,l\'tlist tltal tlll''l' ll'<'l'l'

lndi1 idu;ll human b~:ing-., can m er in ntL'.IIln!.l in langtt.tj.{l' - ot let 11' ,;, a ~angtt.l~t . llll'aning thl' EngJi,h l.tngua~.;t ( ltu rht'l'l' ,no ''Kh thin{ :h l.utgll.l){L' 111 ~L'IIL't,IIJ - ir, 101 dtt' lll in <111\ plntnr .t li\ing .tuu.lli11 rh.tl , organir.tlh at Oltl' \\th lltt' ' human '"'riel' lhe~. in f.{llmiug ttp into i1. h.l\l' n.ttttr.tlh t.lktn lo1 gJ.ttiiL'<I. rltt'IL' , in languagT a renrral tclll' in "hid1 lot gt'tH' t,Hi"n' indi1 idual 'Jll'akn' lt.l\l' lllt'l '0 th.ll llll'l'III,!{ takl'~ pJate ,J\ \(IIJH'IIIIIIg' III L'I t.tbl\' and llllllt'd,tlt' in 1d.uion to \\ltirh it Sl't'llh .l\ra1n irou' to Llaink of ' lll t'l' lin..( " l>ting imo h td in lllL',IIlillg . or uf co mcntiom at a fl .

1i,IJt'1':- in 1l1v n1nlll'I S .111d th t \'t' l') knnll' ln lgtabk fa11 Lhat t hest II'L' I'C' t ht fir' 1 1\\'0 li 1 19:{5 I.onclon lo Brig llloll I'Oad rat'l'. Fnnhcrmorl' . h l' o r sl11 tnig ltl k111111' Jl1 a1 th t''l' :J I'l' htHh So tlth .\lri ra n I ' I III I H'I'~. l'a rt ir ipalitlll o r IJiad. anc l llili tl' Sott lll .\f' it: lll' ill Jlli~ jlll :ti iJ k ii('\ ('\'(' 11 [\ j ~ 11 0\1' ( UI])I])CI!l l)li\l't', (( CI\I'l'\'l')', ll )!):-);) t ll S \\'ilS Oll il ;l\l l'd ;11 1rl

22
(

Signs and semiotics

thr p ;1rt idp:11 ion n i lllt''t' l llll n l'l'' Cll l~l'd grl'al contrmers1. Thl' ' IH'C i irs o l 1his
cnn tronr,~ ' llOtt ld 1 101 t'OIH'<'I' Il 11s lwrt. a~ \\ha t i~ impunam a rl' the l'tl llht l' l;llt' l'' n i
-

:tn 1 :1tu11 ol llll';t ni ng ha.' hc en influtnnd b~ s truc turalis m (p.!! 1) , 111 d sem iotics (or SCilliOiogyl (p. :1 1)' Onl' 11llpo1t<tlll 'Oi lJ'( '(' or \(I IU'IIIrali,lll 1\ " ' 1ht l ht'OI't'' uf t lll' ~\\ is, lingni,l h adinand d l' S.Ju,un ( IR"i/- 1!11:1). \\ho,t i<ll'.t' \1t'l't' <lt\l'lopl'd in the J!llil), b1 inllntnti.ll \11 ll't' '11d1 '' .-\hhu''''~' Bar thes (p.."i!!). ( hont-kl. Foncau h (p. !!K). l..tCIII .md Lt'I-~It.tll'' Ke.tt ami L'tn ( 19/."i: 1:? 1- <il idtntih tht ntain katn1n ol 'nlllttn.tli'lll " lollo\1'<

\ , ll't' li ;l\t'

'uggv~lt'd abuH. tt tn ch rl't'l' tll 11t iti 11g on IIH rn llllllliiilation .tn d npr

nwaning. n 1 ro JJJro/{1/itml, of' 1h is pllo1ograpll 11ltic lt ca n br huilt up on tht b.t,i~ ol tltis kno11kd g-t. lt migl11 lw pns~ihlto 111 arglll that tiH' rt'p roduc ti on oJ' lh t photug r:~plt i ~ ~ llg'g'L'' ' ing th.ll b l :~rk aiH I \\'hitv ra n be brought tng lth t'l' in 'J>otl in Sott th . \!'rica. or 1h.ll t lw di1 j,iun~ lw111 <'l'll hlark and wh i LL' han bren nH'I'L'Il1 p iJa, i.,ed ,,, lhl'st 1\\o runntt ~ look plta~td to lw in tach uthn~ compam. .\lort'O\t't . tht implica1ion 111,1\ he th.ll 'J>OII 'hould h<' ahon poli1ic' and frel' lrom politit.tl interlctTiln.

.... l . ~1:-lt' llh nnt,tlw 'lltclil'd ,,, .1 -et ofintt't rd.ued t'l tnlt'llh. l mli\ idual dttJH'nt' ,hould 1101 lw 'L'l'll in ,nJation. For l'X<llll(>k. in a,,. ol trallit lighh. g~ttn onh 111\':ttl, ~o !}( ;ttl\l' ltd llll'otlh 'lO>.

~>

. \11 Hi l'lllf>l lo di"'('O\'l'l'

lite.:

"lltt< tu n : Lh.tt

lit" luhind

or

ht' J H.:ult ''"h:u ,, din:t 1h

kncm;d lv.

:t

T lw ~ll.L;,l\l'' li o l1 tli :tl th l' ~lrlll lt11'< ' hehind 1he clinrth 1,,k :~n d lht cliJn 1h , ,iiJk j l ~l' IJ <ll't' IJot iJ j)l o d litiS of \ II'I ICllt i'; JI prope1 1il'' o( 1ft l' 111 j lld.

l. rJw lll l'l hod' o( lill,l.{lli,L t' ' C lll be app liecJ lo ot iJ t t , Ol'< Ji a n d hl llll;t lt ~C icnn ~.

:"> . ( n l1111'c l':111 he :t l1 :t ly,tcl in l t'l'lll~ uf' hi 1 1a r~ o p pno;i tin 11.' : J'o1 x;un p k . bctiiTl'Jl ,l{nod
< llt tl h;l( l,

1\. ' ( he adoptin n ol ;1 di ~tIItLtl l l ill' I\\Tt'll slnciJro tlic (,L,II<' ) .111d di ac hro 11ic (c h :u wiu ~) .ula h't''.~

~ '1ht aliL' Il tplto iden tif ~ , 111 ilar 'tnlfllll'l'' in cl iff(t t'111 ~'(H't 'h o l ,otial lil t.
Figure 2.1 Two runners.

52

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Communication and represenlation

53

2.2.2

Roland Barlhes: semiotics and myth

Qnt' ol llw bt,t-1-..noll n t~.tmp1 1 '' of 't'lll< Hit an:il1 ,i, C:lll hl' f(l1111d in Rol:111d llarthcs' nagat illt' /'11.1'/1 .~lalrh ( 1\l/(i.). fltis ( I91 ) - Ht)) :tll:lll, is ~( .1 plln l n~r.tp h l'rom ~ h t 1

Key influenre 2.1

Roland Barth es (1915- 80)

Jhuwg r:tph 11.1' pubiJ,Itccl .11 da lllllt' 1\'IH'n l t.nHt 11a' tnthrcllkd 111 llw umlltu o~tr :he tkt olnn i~a 1ion o( . \lgt'l i:t . . \, \\' 11 hl' 'l't'n. th i' con tc~l ol con (lit 1m l'l' tmpin i.; 1l'l\ sivnil it::nll to thl' ll1 l' :t nin ~ a1Hl ana l\ o;j, o( tltv plwlogtaph. B:n tlll'' '''Y': ' 1 an1 .ti thc b~rbtr ,. ;mcl a cop1 of l'rnll-.\lnlth , ofkllrl 10 llll'. ( 1!1/h: lllil. 1k tontitiiH'' o11 tlll' . .. 't 1111111 "" o ;\eP'ro i11 a f11 'IH h unilonn , ' :tltnitw. ll'ith hi ~ t'll'' tlpliltttl. prnhabhcO\l 1 L'l ,.., (i ~l'cl on thl' (olcl ol' tia tricolo ur . .\11 lhi~ , lht /1/l'flllillg ol' tlw pict m c.' lbnlln ha-, identiliecl thl' dt'IH>t.tliH m t .tnin ~ ni tht photo~t;tph . ll .till ~ clmw llti,. Batthl'' dc1'l'lnp~ hi ~ .t n:th,is. 1k ~a" :
Hit l. ldlt'lht'l n.tin l~ n1 11111. 1' t'l' l l'll ,, di" hat it ,gnilin
ltt nw: tlt.ll F~<llllt' ,a ).(l"l'.tl ~ mpilt', th.ll .111 ht'l ' t llh, IIiht>lll ,1111 1 ulotll di't 1imin.ll ioll . l;tithfulll ' t' l\ t' nndt'l hcr 11. 1 .;-. :~nd th <~ 1tite,,. , 1 1, lJt'llt'l < 111"''1 '1 '1 o 11 w <1111 :tclnl' ni :111 allt-g-l'd colo11 i.di"n 111.111 illt' /t'al ,ho1111 b1 thi' :'\q~ro in 'I'I'I' il~ IJj, ' oc ilkcl <~(>P" ' '"".' ( 1\ll i\: llli )

Roland Barthes was a French literary critic and cultural analyst. His development of structuralist and poststructuralist (p. 24) ideas in the context of writing on aspects of everyday lite was particularly lnfluential in the early development of cultural studies. 1 Barthes' early life was dogged by tuberculosis. He taught in French lyces and abroad before being appointed lo the Eco le Pratique des Hautes Eludes in 1962. He was appointed toa Chair at theCollegede France (Pars) in 1976. He died afterbeing knocked over by a truck outside the College. Barthes' earlywork concerned the nature of language and representation from a semiotic/ structurallst (p. 24) point of vlew. Examples of his general approach can be found in Writing Degree Zero (1953) and Elements of Semiology(1964). He worked on the formal properties of literary texts and carried out influential specific analyses such as Sil (1970), which addresses the structure of a novella by Balzac. His identification of proairetic, hermeneutic, semic, symbolic and referential codes was innovative and consequential. Barlhes was also concerned lo apply the ideas of semiology to aspects of everyday life. He wrote a regular newspaper column in the 1950s which covered toplcs such as margarine, the brain of Einstein and wrestling from this point of view. These short analyses were collected in Mythologies (1957): a bestselling text which encapsula tes so me of the key aspects of decodings based in a cultural 1 studies approach. Barthes sought to dig below the surface of the everyday for deeper metnlngs and to show how those meanings were implicated in relations of power (p. 94) and structures of domination. He mounted an attack on the role of such seemingly innocent representations and activitles in the ldeological (p. 84) dominance of the bourgeois class. He also examined fashion in The Foshion System (1967). The somelimes playful nature of Barthes' analyses beca me more prominent in hfs later work which, under the lnfluence of poststructuralism (p. 24), is less con cerned with the methodical mapping of codes and meanings and more with the interrogation of pleasure and the self. Examples of this can be found in The P/easure of the Text (1973), Camero Lucida (1980) and Roland Barthes on Roland Barthes (1975). Barthes' attention to everyday lite and popular texts from an academic point of view was groundbreaking.lt is likely thal his la ter work would have developed further in parallel with the postmodernfst (p. 400) emphases on identity (p. 224) and pleasure. He remains, however, one of the seminal figures of postwar French thought, who influenced a variety of disciplines in the humanities and the social sciences.

,\ll er irk111il\ ing th l''\l' contll l!atium ol the plwtog r:t ph. lbr1h 1'- lncalt'' his di,t tl' siun \l'ithin i111' laug uagl' ol 'l' ltli<HC': 1.tnl 1he1 d olt' .lg.tin f.lttd "ith .1 gn .lh'l 'l'llliolotgir.tl '"lt'lll: tht'll' ,a -,i).(nifit-r. it-1lt ;dl'tarll l'ol'lltl'cl ll'itliII :t pre1in11' ,1,11'111 (a ltl.u k -:olditl , gil'i11 ~ lht Fn11 r h '"'"'l') : tltl'l'l' , :1 ,j.;nifj('r] (il i' ht'll' ,1 (HII>O'l'fll l lli'-Illl"t'lll l'll'llthlll'" .tnd III(I.li'IW"l: ;uul fin.tlh ,, pn't'IHT oltiH' , jgnified iltHngh 1h1 ,jgnilil'l. 'l'cral itnpol'l:lltl puit11' .tbout Thl' dio;cu"ion Di' thl''l' pholograph~ ha' iutl'lldllCl'd M o;cmiolic' 1dtiC' h t an ht 'umm.u i,td ' ' ln llm":
1.. \111 imagt o1 1ex1 ran ht 'aid tn ront ain dill'l 1 't'lll l:tW I'' or lt'l'tl..; ol mcaning. In

pat.ticul.ll tltl'l'l' i' a di,I IH'IOil bt'l\\t't'll l:t inl'd. 01 1hv

~llllltliiH iing

dtl/11/lliht'a lld

1111//111/f//l't' ltl~~ (, ,
t/atio1111f.
or

2. 1 ht' nalllll' ol ,urh llll':tlling. ' ll'ill dt"pend 011 tiH' rutll1~1 i11 ll'hirh 1IH1 art r on-

r irt tllll,l.lll l'l' ,\1\-an illg' i'

~oc ial

3. ~omt o ( tht k~tl' ol nH'.IIlil!!, o1

oth crs 11'ill ht' s:Hur.Hcrl \litll

ltHit\ an tl'l.llil'l'h llt'tllr.tl. llll'aning,; 01 tlbco111 s<"s.

objcrthe. lllll'reas

-1. Tlw nc ov;11ition ancl ducicl.uio n ol thc<.t clilftonnt lllt'attin){' inn>ln, a nah'i' or d,nulilw 11'11 it 11 olttn rltwncl' nn tl1l' nalut l' o( 11 H' l-..111 H,Jt-clv;e .m d l'~ [WIilnn
~

h11 tttgl11 10 thl' ; uta l ~ ,, , ,

Furlherreading
Mytllologies is a great place lo start Barthes.

L',ing tlw l.111guagl' ol ~t mi o tic~. tlw pll~lo~~ aph' rothic.kll'< .l lwlt' .n ~ ar l.ing. ao;; signo;. Tht~de.ut l:.Jli.,~ :-tlt C-~l f4 1llli i.:Lill.lJJ ll.ll.:-Sl~J.lll tnU lt . \11-\llillt' l' '' ." SOUIId, !JI illll'cl 1~ llj' i.Jn.gc .Uld U lC hlgJl( itd , a IIII,'IJJi.!LCUW . :q u._l ltt' '11'\lllllrt' IS reprt''<'lllt'd in Figt11 t' !! . ~ . (,___

e)

Sontag, S. (ed.) (1982) A Barthes R eader, london: Cape. Barthes, R. (1976) Mythologies, St Albans: Paladn. Culler, J. (1983) Barthes, london: Fontana.

S i ~n llitl

Signillt'd

Sign

Figure 2.2

The structure of the sign.

54

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Communicalion and represenlation

55

1 Si~mii c1 !. S1gn

2.

~ i gn iii NI

1SIGi\11 lfR
111 SIGN

11 SIG'<IFIEO

se n irc. - htJ 't' is ~onw clq~rtt o !' t'lt courage llll' l1 1 ' " bu1 lh l' pmduct. ;\l:ttll ach't rti ~l'111 e nl ~ in 1h c lrtt localn tl,paptr, i11 !1rita in are o l 1hb II'IH'. In compou ucl achl'rtistnwnl' tlu..tT i~ 111ore e n courag<'lllt'lll. ,,h ic h lll.ll b<' ol ,,
~ubtlc kind. Piet11re' arL" mot <' p<t ~~~a~in a n cl l.tc h m:l\ ht <o nt.t ined in tlw rop1 th.u acCO iHpan i e~ t h t ach'L'rt~l' tiWIIl . Tltt~ pin 1 n't , ofte n 'glo"'. a nd it i' t lw i lll t'l11 ion o f 1lt t' acll'ert ist'l t ha1 t h e rl'adtt wi 11 a ~~oriatv llll' procluc t wi 1h t lt t 11Jw ll' i 111 p ressio n cn :!led b\' t h t pic llliT . .-\cln:'tl iw ln ttll~ i 11 t 111' 111a~a ti ilt'' a~~oria l l'<l 11i t h lll'"''P" J>L'I'S ;1rt' thi' khHl. In complt-x ;ulll'rti't'lllt'ill' thc bad.grotillcl lakt' \ 0\l' l :111(1 tllL' o ftt'll product uwrgt~ i111o it. lt i~ 'olllt' l ime~ clilliutl1 lo ~<.l' p1Tti~l'h 1dtat , lwin).{ ,old. T hc 11 ho lt imagt (.' oll\'L'I'' a 111 t'"1gl' nf statu~. lll':t llh ami pull t' l . Sophisli l'< ll <.' d :1ch'erti't' 111 t i11S nlolt bt ~ nncl su ch ce~n ) ll' X achl'rl i st' l1 1t' lll ~ anrl Llttl c>ll l'll co ntaill :lit :tlll'lll)Jl to dr:111 upon h idcltn t'ed ings tlt roug h ... ubtk " "u c ialie~n' . \ dtcp-,t:ul'd P"d to logiral

Figure 2.3

Language and myth. (Source: Barth es, 1976.)

or

Sam~u l'l'.

The ~tm io 1ic appruat 11 . 11h ich 11as d t\'l' lopl'cl 1ro111 1lw '! tH \\' o/ l;111g uage ]), ck ha., IHtn a ppl il'd ,,idl' h. Th 11,, 13arthes (p. ;", ~ l :1rg tt <'s ( 1~171\: 11:\) :

takt .t IJ I.tt \.. pt bhl t: 1 r .u1 ltt:tkt it ,g ni ll in ,e,era l ll':t'' it i~ a mcrt ,~nilil' l : htll il " dgh it 11i1h a ddinilt' 'ignifitcl (.t <k.llh 't'lllt'llet'. lw ithlanu. in au .mommou' ,otd. it will lwcomt ,, 'ign. BartiH', ~ h o11 s ho11 difft'H' ill le1-c l ~ ., llll'n nin g art a~suri:llt'Ci. Thi... , , hown in Fig ttn
~ . :~.

a>pl'al i. ot lt'll tu aclt.

2.3.2

A semiotic analysis of a sophisticated advertisemen t

Thb dtltHl ll' trates llt t' t dation:. h ip httll't'l' lt the clt' IHII.llii'L 0 1 ro lln nt:llilt' lcn: l' o l "1 itt'' lwre a ho111 th< di,timl ioll ht' lll'l'l.'ll la ll~nagL" and tm th. Fnr Ban ht~ . 1111 t hs ~ h on up txisl ing 'l i llrt llll' " ol po1H'1'. ,,h ic h !:11 o u r t h l' bourg-coi' class . .\ In l1' 111akl' 11 ha1 i' h is10 ri cal ur e h :lng tabk a ppt':n 10 b e na tt 1ra 1 a nd sl: tl ir ami arl' 1hus ickolo g ical. Thm, tl ll' 111\'Lh co n , trll Cicd in p an b1 th t ph u logra ph of't l~t blac k ,n)dier ll'otllcl ~nk tu ll'l'l'l''t'll t th t .-\lgt'l i:nt co nflic t in :.lt t h a wa~ a' to pnHn l r h a ngl' ami dtroloniali,alion.
nwanin~. 13;utht, al~o

,\ )tlllliOI'<Ilt' ,, cntitl tir :111ah ~ i ' o f a sc,pl1 i,ti ra ttd aclntl i ~t'lllt'lll (a t'! ltltl'llljl<'ral'l' adltrtiSt' IIWill f'm the ciga n ttt S il k Cut ), to ntained in tht t'XIr:ICL from Da1icll.odgt''s ( 1 ~1~9 ) nmel.\'ur llillfl. l nthi,non l a uniHt,illlectutet in l:u~li,h. Rob\lt l'cnro,e .lt:h bec n detailcd lo ,haclow' :111 i11dnstri a list. \' ir \\' ilcm. IIt h tht ai m o t t n couragin g g rc alt r mutual uncll'rsta nclin g ht'l'' 'l' t' ll a ciCitJnia ami bil~i l ll' " ~1 ult o l tht ltn nwu 1 i11 tl ll' nmc l rt,ollt, aruund tl ll illttr:Htio ll h t'l ll'l'l' ll tl ll' t11o 111 <t i11 r lia ral'll' l '~ 11'110 n prL''e nL nn dilfl'rl' nl ll'u1 lch.

2.3
,..

Box

2.4

Advertising and representation

Si_n' an organi~ed into ~\SI C ilb \\'hich tom:q ..J.neau.iug: l h t~c s\~tt'll h art ol'ten callee! end e~ in ~li'l l t lilrali., t and,tmiotic appr..a r h ts (Fi,kl' a11d llart!t-1. 1!17::\: :'i!l). Onc uf'tlw
: n :~ a.s ll'lat t-c s u: l ~ cocl ~' hal'l h cc n 1110 ~.t ' "~di ecl i~ :tdl't' lli,in ~ (st'l'. tltost imponantly. \\ ilhanhO il . l !lt~). ,,Jn c h fotnh tit e to m ol tl11s scctl o tt.

A semiotic analysis of a Silk Cut advertisement

2.3.1

Different types of advertising

1L i ~ 111pcnta111 to recog n ist 1h c r;111gc of' cliff( rtnt I~"J>L'' of'ach"cn i ~i ng in coll ttmpor:uY
soc i e tit~ ..-\ 11.\l'ful ca tego rba tion o l' lin. dil'l't Je nt t ~pts ha~ h tT n ,ugg<:~ l cd ll\ G. n~c 1

( 19R2) " ho clistingui,lat, bttwcen itlfot malinnal' . ,impll'. compoun cl'. compll'x' :md ':.ophi,licalccl' a<h'c rt i~t'llH'll l ~.
ln fun nati onal mh-crti~t' lll t'll h ar<' likt lht classifil'<l achl'rtist menh linmcl in 11 l'\\~ papcrs. Tltl' ~ are often hrid <t ncl sntal l, .utd 111 :11 conl ;lII l'l'i'\' litllt c laltoratinn o J th t

ba ... ic lliL'""I-\'<'. Si m plt a<h'c l t i't'll1 l' IHS art l.t rgn ; han i 1tl 'orm:t; io n a 1 a<h't' l'ti ~<'111l'l1 " hut 1he1 ~ ti ll r ont.tin rclatild l' j)lt'risc aud ('ll'.1r i11f'unnatio n about a panind.u produn or

.\ t~-pi ca l in ~ l : ut et of' 1l1i ~ 11':1' 1h e Curie~ u o; arg tlmtnt tht' l1 acl < 1hou1 th t Sil\.. Ctll <tC h'ertiwllt L' llt. T lwy ll't'lt' i't' lll nl ing i11 hi' r ar l'rom ,.i,i tiltg a folnldt 'l' in lkrby th a t liad lwl'n I:Jkl' ll Cll'l'l l11 '"l' l-,trippt' l'' 11hn liT re w lli11g nllan atl lOillat i<. co r<. nHHIIcltt \\ 'ikox \\a, inlt'll''tcd in . though it hacl tlllllt' cl out to ht 1oo old ,,hiotw d fr h i-. pmpow. l:~t n le'' mill',. i1 'l't'mtcl. l h t\ p a:.:.ed tlw 'antt hu gt j)OSlt'l C)il l'll,tcbick h oard ing .... ; ph o togr;tpltil clt-picti011 o l :1 rippiin g t'X J)<tllSL' uf p11rpk ... ilk in ,,lt iclt t h l'l'l' 1\'a' :1 ~ i n~lc ..-li t. as if'tll(' tnal tri:d ltad hc c n slash c d ll'ith a nt1.or. 'lhl'l'l' llt' l'l' n o llord~ n n th c ach't' l' ti ~e mL"nt. <"Xn"> t tor th t (:ol'lrntnt'lll llealth \\'arnin~ abotll :.mokin.{. T hi' uhiq11illlt1~ imagt. lla~hin{ pa~1 .11 l"l').{llla1 i11lCIYat.... ho1h i1 ri 1atl.'d ancl in1rigmd Roh~ n. :tlHI 'he bq~.lll 10 el o htl ~emiotic Sluff' un th t dt e p Sll'lll llli't' hiddc n lw n l': il h it ~ bbnd ~ lll'l':tn. lt ,,a~ in lh ( lir~l ilt,l:i11Ct' .1 kind o [ riddk. T hat is to ,,, in orckr tu tkro dc it ,

56

lnlroducing Cultural Studies

Communicaton and representation

57

I'Olt had to ktun1 th:H li ll're ,,as :1 brand ol cigarettes ra lkcl ."ii lk Cu1. Tlil' po~l t' t ,,as liw iron ir l'l'j>l't''t'll i:Hinn ol':t t tli ~'ing tl:llllt', li kl' a nhtt,, Bttlil tl' iro n ,,.a, :d'n a ttH't:tphnr. ' J hl' 'h itn tnc ring silk. ,,ith i1 ~ l'tllupltunt' nt tl't"' ;111cl ~ 1 muoth ll':>.llttT. ubliou'k "mbolit.:d tht il-tn.tlt buch .tncl tht l'lliplical ,Ji t. Jure gtmuukd b1 a li~hlt't colour 'ho\\ill{ IIH<Htgli. "'' ,jiJIIllltt ollliothh a 1 agin.1. 1he adnn IIHt' 'PJ>l'.tled w hnllt ~~n,u.tl .mcl ,,,di,tir intl"'''''' the de,in to ll111til.tll' as 11eiJ.t, ptnelratl lht' l't>tt1.tk boch . \ 'ic \\'ilco:-. spltt tll't td ll'it h tHIIt".t,L{t'd d eri,ion ;" sl tt' l''\j)Ott t1dcd 1hi' it 1ttr j)l'l'la tion. lit' .\ ttlOklcl a tl if'fi: rt nt bra nd . hittN II . hut it 11a, as il' l11 i'l' lt h i ~ ll'hok ph ilo,op111 ollik 1\'a, thn:a tcnccl b1 RoiJ,ns anak'i' o [ th t ach't tt. Yottn1u't ha~t .1 111 .,tcd mi u el to 'l'l' a ll tltat in a pl'rknh hattnlt,, hit o l t lollt.' IH "a id . ' \\'Ita, tlw llOill ni it. lhcn: Rnh111 thallengtd hiut. ' \\'l11 u~c dolh 10 achtlti,t cigarl'llt',;. '\\'l'll. lhat, IIH ll.tlltt ol l'lll. ,n l it? Si lk Cu1. lt ., :1 pinnrc ol llw 11 a nw. i'\othittg- nwn: ur ),.,,, ."inpHJ.q tltl'l'.lill qd :t p icturt ol':t ro ll oJ' , jJk cu t in hall - ll'llU id that clo.J ttsl :t' ll'l' 11:' ' 1 ''tppost' ~o. \ .' 1d11 no; 'Becatl,t' it ,,ould look likt' a peni' n11 in hall. th;u, 1d11. 1k lorcccl a laugh 10 CmTr hi<. t'111h. ut.l"ll'l'lll. '\\'l11 <:111'1 11111 pl'ople l:tl-.e things a t 1h cir lace l':t lut': ' \\'ha t pl'nple :111 ~ou rl'f<'rril1g ' ll i gltbro11.~. lttt tll~ ~ ltt :tb. \',.u rt :ti\\ .ti S 11 1i n ~ lo fin el ltiddcn IIH':tll illg-, , in tltings. \\l1yi- .-\ t ig.ll't' llt b a LigantLt', .\pi<< e,. si l!-., .1 pi,.,. n i 'ilk. \\'l11 tHII lt':tlt' it :11 that: ' \\'lwn tht'l .lt' II'Jll'''t'lllt"<l lltt\ atquitt' .Hldition.ll IIH'.Illlltg'.' ':tic! R11h111. ''.ign, an ne1 er itn1t JCt'lll. '.l'm iotir' wac ht' ,.., 1h;u.'

r,

r ~;11111' up II'th .l hl' idt:t o l ripp ling ~ill., ll'ilh." l'llt ill it. Tl ~t .. rg iHall1lt'l<1p hor is 111)1\'
rcprl''l' IHCd ltttr;t ill'. Bttl llt'l,. ntelapiHtt lt al r.,n no lalll>lb anrttl'- sexual O JH'" \\'hcther illl'l' 1\'l'i'l.: cothciott:.h intcndtd 01 no1 do<'slll rt;tlll' m;ntcr. lt ', a gc.od t=-:.1mpk olthe ptqwttt<tl 'liding ol tht 'ignificd undtr tltt 'ignilit'r. acutalh-.' \\'ilrox chel,'l'd on tlti~ lnr a ,,hik. lhtn ..aicl. ' \\'lt~ do 11oi1H'Il "lll"ke thtm. lhL' tt. eh: 1li' lritii1Jllta111 t''\j)l't'"ion ,h1111'tcl that lw 11111ng l11 1hi~ ''"'a 1-.ttot kcJ01,n r~ull l t'lll. Jr ~nH ok i n g Sil k Cu1 i' .1 J'orm .. r aggral.lltcl n tpc. a' 1ou tt 1 reo 111:1kc tllll. hn11 ('ot1H' \l'lllllt'll 'illilkl' l' ll l t oo ~ ' \l ,llli' I''Pilll'll .ttt t tt:t~uth i ,ti< h~ lt'lll j>L'I<lllll'IH.' ,,Jid Roh1 1 1. 'Tittl\ , karlltd 1\'lt:n~ cxpeutclol llwn1 in .1 pau i;ut hi.tl ,ocie ti.' ' lla ~ \\'leo'\ t'" 1.1n1t'd. w~'ing b.ttl-. hi, lll'.1d. 1 111i~ht lta~tl-.llo\\11 1011.<1 halt' 'Oillt' daft :IIISIITI'.' 1 clon' t 1-.tHJII 1,)11 1'11\l.rl' 'o 1\W ktd u p.' 'l:ticl RoiJ\11. ' lt ', 1101 a~ il 11111 'lltlOkl' Si l!-. Cu1 ltll tr,l'IJ'.' :--.;.,, 1 .;mul-.(' ~ l : uiiHn o~. F1111 11i ll' t'I IPttgh . 1 'mol-.t llt t'lll hcr.tll'l' 1 lil-.l' JI , t,l,ll'. 1 IH'I .111' tiH om, th.ll h.llt' !IHIotll' <1111hu1 acl'.111'11.1 !IHI: '1 '-ll)lj>CI'l' lh,ll 111,\kt'- 11H' ,\ H'Jlll'"t'd Jto!llO'It',11,tJ. dlll'' it: ':\o. it'~ ,1\t' ll ,ll,lightltli'IIIIHillli'IOllllllit llll''"11-('l'.'
~fctollhat ?'

1. S<ntt hrigl11 spark a1 rhe 111 1paign 1n g il't' tlt t' brand a hig h ptolik agai 1

agtnc~

w:

'Stllt-II'h:tt~ .

sl'miotic, . Tltl' slttrh ,. , ig-ns.' ' 11 tear ltes lh to lt:tl't' <i il'll tnitHk il l'llll ;.;._ tn t.' \ \'111' el \ ou t h i 11 k tia 1\ll'ld tl'cl tig.tn'lll'' IH'rt <a lit' el Si 1k ( 111 111 tlw ti l'll phi< t:- ' 1 dunno. ) , j11'1 .1 n.nlH:. ., good ,,, ,1111 other.' "Cut" ha~ 'OIIll'thi11g 10 do11i1lt lill' loh:ttto. do!'m ' t ;,; rJw 11:11 tht 1obann le.tf i., ntt. Likt "Pla~t-r, i'\mY Cu t" - 1111 ttllclc \\'alter ll'td 10 ' IIIOK{' l htnt.' ' \\'c ll, ,,IJa l il ill' d1 ws'' \ 'ic ,;jr( II'Urih'. ' lh u ~i l k ha, 11utlting lo do ll'itlt to ll:tCI'P. lt '~ a nwtapltot . a tlll'l:tphor l h:tl llttan' mmtlh ng lil-.e ... ,tllooth a' ,j lk". '.otndwrll in :1 11 aclll'rti,ing .lgt'IH'I drtamtup thc n.tnll' "Sil!-. C:u1" In 'n~g'''' .ttig<nTllt' lltatii'(Htldn't gi1c 1011 a ,orl' lltrnat ora hacki11g <o11gh 01 lung (,1111 t'l . 1\ut af'tet .1 11hilt- lht puhlic got u,ed 10 1ht 11 :une. 1lw ll'ord .. Si lk .. u,,,,.d 111 .,ign ih. "' lh<' rll'cidcd 1o h:lll' :111 :H ll'l'lti.;ing

'i\ ktnn1m ir. 011t' o l tl1t' lu tHiotiiH'tt l;tl IIHJ), ., 'l'lll ioti<' i.; tht d i,tit1('1"II ilt'lll'l'l'll llll'I,IJlltut ;t llCII tll'lOilll lll . J) \oll\1':1111 1 11(' [11 t''\jii:III l 111 l'llll ~ ' 11'11 P""" tl w ti tnt.' ht ';ticl. \ k taphm i' ,1 ligutt' uf 'Pl'l'lli h.t,td < 111 'i111 il.u i11. 11 ltt'lt".h 11\t'lllll\'1111 , h:Nd on ronti~uitl. In uwt.tphol IOll 'uh,lillllt' "lllh'thing ,,., tlt, 1hin~ 1011 nw.u1 lot lht 1hiu~ ihtll. 1dwn,, in tllt'llllll 1111 1011 '"h,tilute '1111111' .111 1ihu1t' or C:llt'~l' or l'fft'l'l or tl w thi llg lol tltt 111ng irwll .' 1 dnll .llllldtr,lancl ; 11urd lutt 'rt ':t1 i11g.' ' \\'c ll. take o i H' of'1t11 1r utottlck Tlw hoii O IIl hit i' ra lll'd tht rlrag bcca u ~e it', clraggcd acro~~ tht Jlom and tltl' top l1i1 , ralkcl tllt' copt l wratl~t l coll't' lltt' houom bit.' 1 wlcl 11111 tha1. ' \ '' 1 kntl\1'. \\'h.lt lotl clidn't tell nw "'" tita! "drag" .,a mtllllllll\1 :11111 "cope" , a llll't:tphor.' \ 'ic grtLutcd. ' \\'h:n di lf<:l'l'lll'l' rlm, it nta kc:- ' lt , j"'t a qu<stinl1 ni' uncltT'-l:utdi t1,1.4 ""'' language l\'ot "' 1 tlto ugln 1ou ll'l'l'l' illlernr,cl i11 ho,, 1h i11g' m11k.' 1 don 't '<'<' "Ita! i t'' got to el o 1\' 1h dg;~ne,.' 'In thc ca~e ol 1he Sil!-. Cut pmt<t. IIH pirt11n 'ignilit'' lht Jemale bnch' mctaplwricalh : 1lw ,Ji1 in ilw ~i l l-. , /i/wa ,agi11a-

58 lntroducing Cultura l Studies

Communicatio n a nd re presenlation

59

\ ir ll i1H hn l .n tlw 11ord. su 1nu ':" ." ',\JI l wl t~. hoiJm, 'J><ICt'S. fi,,urn a nd lold~ np1e't'lll tht lttn:tltl.\t'llit.tk' ' l'rm e it." 'Frntd p1mT<I it. b1 hi ~ '-tiCTl'"fttl anah'i' ol <IH,m,." '.ticl Roh111. ' Btll tht .\ l:11 lboro a eh don't 11'<' a m lltltaphot ' Th:u' proh.thh 11 111 1011 ,mokt 1Jwm. .IUII.tlh." ' \\'ha t do 11111 llll':lll; he 'aid 'u~picio 11,h . \'o11 clon't haH an1 '' mp:u h1 wit h 1hl' llll'l:tphot ic.ll \\,1\ ol lottki ug .11 th i ng, . \ c igat t'llt' ,a l ig.tretlt' ,,, l:u "' ~011 a re cott nrnecl." ' Rig ht."
'T i a .\l.t l lburo :td doc:o- n ' t d i stt~rb th:H tt;\l' l:tith in th t ,t.thil itl' 111' tltt' 'ig nilil'd. lt l''l:t iJJi,lll'." :t 111l'lflll\llliC COil lll'CIi!ll - lO lll)> l l'td~ ' J>lll OII' o l l'OII I't', bu t l l':ilistic:dh pla usi hlv - IWtll't't'll ~nwkin g th:tt bt.11tcl .tnd tlt(' lll'.t ltlll . hnoit , nutcl\lot lil'(' ol' thl' cowhoy. B111' the r ig.ll'l' llt' .111d 1 n u htl\ tlw lii'L '\11 lt. o 1 tlw f :tlll:t'~ lii'tlg it."

whic h acheni't'lllt' nt' .1nd ntl llr ln1 1 11' nf lt'Jlll''l'nt:Hion con,llllllt lw 'J>l'CI:lllll tn It'll JJ('m ..\ kn iclt:t IHt t' i' th.ll \\ hvn \1t' loo k al panicular imagt'' tht\ an plaring "' in >artiutlal pmitioth ho111 \dtil'h lo n .td thtm. TJtj, , import:illl ,, thi' 111.11 lw 1 t'llll.tllo 1 . lt''lllllt'C . 1 th<' pro(l''' ol optt.llion ni ideolo~\. in th.tl ,,.l . .ti'L' J> 1 < ll't'C1 . tn tt'll.llll > O'itioth. 11hit h IH' do tHll tdlnt upon ( 'l'l' .tho 'l'c:tioth ~1.:1.:~ .tncl 11.3. 1). rJtu, tlll' !ti-.r11 ,,imt ol tht .tchttti,tnttnt in tlw l''ll al'l lwlo11 'ho'" IH>II p.ttlt!ll.ll teptt''t'lll.t tion' ol gencltt .lll' dlJ >IoHd in '11d1 .1 11:t\ a' lo makl' an appl:tl to nwu . In tltt''t' appt e~.lt' ht ' 10 ~l'IHkl .tu el ,ulnni,i u~. aclnni,ing- nptt''i'llh 01 ton,uuu' paniutl.11 nuage' \\ lnt h l\11111 ihlltl' to thl' owration ol pn\\tr in tontl'I11POI,II"'

Box

2.5

The invisible man

'J'Itj, \l'tlill:tll ,. looking :11 ; 1 11: 1 11 (,,Jw m:11 roi nriclt 11i 1h lh t l'l'< lcitt : lw i..- d ta11n in : htt 1"11cJ, an i11 l'l'Jl l ~ to lii' .,dt:1 1 ,,ill ''ll' d t ink:O' 1kt clt'l'" , llnhn llllll\'cl )11'()\Cl( :t tinh . indit\ lting ht'llllltl clnlll ll lh. tl 1lw im i,i])J, ch.u.tt lt'l i1 nl.tlt: tlil' linal i'.tt'lol i, tiiL' cht" '~' ' \i,ihk hehind IHr. imph ing a 'l't ond pt r~on . an imimaL'. ll'l ddining lwr intcllenual qu.tli11 in rdation lo tht man . ,,, dot' htt dtt i<kcl prlfl'l'l'IH l' lor , l l'l tain cl1 in k. rht IIH',~.tgt i' th.tl ,Jtl' 1' .11 ltouw in .t ln,ut , 1\'0IId. \l.'l i' 't'\.\ : a1td 1101 in .1

or

' RultiJi, li !' sa id \\'ilwx. 1 hat ( JIIl' C< Hillll'~' <litd lite o pe n :ti r. l' 1 11 ,.c;u l'd 1o go in :t fi vJd 11i11 .1 Ce>\\' tl i1." ' \\\11 tll t'tl. 111.11he i1 \ lite solila riltl'. ' ' ol th t < 'O\\'bCJI in tite;([, ill :tl :t)liH':tl, l<> 11111 . ~t' lf -n l i:mt. indcpl'ndcnt. H'l"l tna r ho."
' trc ntg

'I'I L' llt'\t'l' ht':tlcl 'lldt a lot ol baiJ , in :tlltll\' lik." ,.tid \ 'it \\'iko:-.. ldtirh "'' langu:tgt coming l'rom him. ' J\JI, - no11 t ha t, an illll'i'l''ting l':-.pt t ...... ion .. ." Roll\n 11111wd. 'Oh 11</ ' hl groa md .

' \\'lwn 1011 ''~ .ttnan "Jta, halk . apptmin.l.\h. it', .tntt'l!tll\111\. llhtrt'ot' il 1011 '" 'OIIH'thing j, , " lcl( of (),JI,. or " b.IIJ,.up" . it', :t '011 ol 111\' t.tphor. lhl' nwtoll\ 111\ :tlll ihllll'' 1.1l11l' lo 1he ll':.tide:- ldtl'lt,-. tllt' ntctaphcn "'l'' tht'lll lo ckgr:ldl' '"IIIC'thing dw. t.lll. l takl :1111 llHIH' ol 1hi~." 'aid \ 'ir. 'D\ou 111incl il 1 'litokt; .Jtr...t a plain. rclin:11' rigm t'ttl:- ' 11 l tan han Radio Thrn on . ~.tid Ro h,n.

"DRY SACK ON THE ROCI<S"

IT'SMJffK I

In aclcl ilit tll lo l'OII\ t'l'iltg' Rnb111 , < llt:td llllenl to tlll' JlOII'I'I' o l , ll , l<tilt t'd ra ti nn.tl :l tt :lh, is. tlti,. t'X Ir:tn ;thn iltlrod llce:o- tht' impur1:1111 tlit'lllt' ol' gt'lld<r.

2.3.3

Advertising and gender

.\ 111111l lll'r ol'll'rit l'l'.' han dra11'n :tlll'lllion lo tlll' 11'< 1\ in \\'hith :ldl'l'i'tbttlll'lll' dl'plo\ Jl' n irula r 1t' )ll'l''t' ni a 1ic m' ol' g-encle r relat io11 ' Ftm in i'' "1 itl'l'' lt:11 < '1 1 gg l''tLd 1hat 1hL'' o Jlt' ll C"lil.ti 11 {le ,_,J~ C:ll C:Illl lt'd <JI Slt'l't'lll \ fll'd 1t'J>Il''l'lll :ll iCJII' nf \\ 0111\'n . . \11 intpnll.tlll lhl'lllt'. 11hirh i' clt' \l'lopl'd l.tlt'r in th i, r haptt'l . tlliH't'lll' thl' 11:11 in

P'"'H' ,,a,. " i:. '""''n '" l~t r uniJlllltlllltg' o l llt'r d t t'"" \\ Ollll'll ( il lllt'd ia ) ;tt'e 't'llli l't'h C 'Cill,.titlll t'cl .... b1 thc g<lll' t1l m :m ' . 1 Jj, 11o111:tll 11 l \\1111\\\ .. 1U \IUl R I :do n<'. 11 dtl'bin antl illt t' lltC ilt:t l: DI~YS/\CK ' Ft lnininit~ i' pu re. lrcc , pnll'ttl ul : \\torlfi611U "'''n lt,.'tft';.\fft h111 tnan is L'\L' I'~ \1 htrt < ll<illltd , J , . Pl'l'"L'' "11 .tll ,. jtJc,, li t llt:tkt s t' l'l' l'\ 1h ing- t xi ~l; he i' in a fl t' lt' I'II I\ 1111' f l'l':ll il't' <th~tn n .. . ." J'h v 111.111 in thi' piCIIII't' , ltoll littc antl t'\'l'l"~'dl L'I'L .t Jl t' l"':t'i't' )ll'l''C'IIl'l' d din ing" :mfl tkll' I'IIIllillg' \'\'t'l\th 11g . otllcl ll 1\'li Cl'l' 1<'1'111 ' liH' \\'Cllll< ll l mn't dc lint ht r~tll'. Slil' i ~ doo1 11vcl lo 'l'l' ltu,eJr th roug h , l'\'t'' tll''t rilw

{,(/ .
"',~/

\l'illi.Uih"ll ( i '.li~ KO

60

lntroducing Cultural

Studie~

Communication and representation

61

sot ,., t'' hu1 htr cdd enr (' ol' 1lw gtmlel i11g or adH' I'I i ~t' llll' lll' ca n lw lo uncl in llw 1mrk uf Col finan ( 1D7!)) 1d1o ll~t'' thC,l' t"\alll>lc' LO ex.1111i1H' thc n.tlun uf gl'ncll'l cli~pla~. rallll'l 1han in a di,n ,ion ol .Hht'rli,ing /11'1 11 (Snlith . 1 9~61. Tlw implic:uion of ,onw of II H''l' ~UL h di't u ''ion~ i' 111.11 :1 cri ticuc or un m a.< king- of ll1csc gcnder rl'pre~e lll atiom ll'ill l'llllt ribu tt lo t ht fig ht :tgai n't ~u eh g'l'lldcr inl'qlla litl' o r opprt,~ion. Sonw a~ wct' ni ronlt'lll>Oiill'\ utltma l poli1ic' Cwt (.haptcr (i) ''en initialh ha,ed arouncl ~urh p1l'llti't'' llo11 t'l t'l. mon 1e< t'lll appro.tdll'~ ha1c ll'ncll-cllo o;uggt''l lhat ;uh tni-ing ha' at lu.tl ll' f>n.,nw 1er~ poll'l' lilll in contt' 1 11porar~ 'O( l'lit, a' :1 1111111 ber o l dillcrcn 1 j ll~li ltl l t 111' hal'l' :tclo 11 t'rf pr.H 1Ct'S a111 [ f'or111s o r I'Cfli'CSCillal ion (p. () 1) 1ha l 11 l'll' < ll lCt' lht dtiiii.In ol acheni., ing. IIHI' in tiH phra't' n f .-\ncht'll \\'nnid. ( 1~191 ). w1 illlll',l'ill{h Jilt' in :1 'prnllll>littll:tl Cllhlll'l',

Dejini11g ronrt'fJI

2.J

R epresentation and realisrn\

2.3.4

Prornoliona l culture

\\1'11111 k' Jt)<)J .ll~llllll'llll' th.ll 1('1'\ 111,\111 COilll'lllJ>Ol .ll'\ iu,lillllIIII' ,tlld J>l.ttlitt'' h .llt' ,,.,.,l iH' l.llllt'l lik(' adlt' 1li ,ing. 1 hu'. \\'nnitk txamint'' thl' prnnto lion.d , lr<lll' git, ol IIII\t' I~I t ~ :111cl ll po lii l'.' lo rlr.t\1' o ut tl uir sim il;lritit, to acher li ~i n g. Fm t' \;llnplc .di unilt' l',itll'' 111111 lial'l' logo,, 'imi tar ltl llltlllinational rorp01.t1io11~. Furlh~l1111111 ' . poluit' , 1111\\ pl.t\td 0111 in ll'lllh ol ,ouncl-hit~~ ,,hich a rl' t.lllwr lik~ .uhc11i, lll){ <.)cg.lll' ('1'1' lt 1 1lla1 Chap 1 ~ 1 !i). 11 i' nnt tlw de1 ail o l tlw casl' tliat 111:111<'1'~ fl111 tlit 'il,l f>fl.l pii i'OI\l' 1h:1 1 11i ll .lll l'<tl l < llll'll lOII. l'rilll(' \[ i ni ~ l l'r'' Cj lll'Sl i\111 IIIIl' ll th~ H1 li'h 11<~11'1 ' o( ( 'onllllom i' ol'tcn dtl o tl'd lo tht txdmngt ol' tlll'\l' ITI11.11 J.., h1 tht 111.1111 p.llllt ip.tn". In thi-.. 't'nw. ad\l'lli~IIg' h:h bcconw incrt'.l~ingh inlf>Oit.ull. nol jthl ht t .111'1' 11f il' IIH ll'.l'l'cl Jll't' \ :Jit'IH't'. htll hi'C:III.'I' of tllt' in lftll'JII'l' ni tlit l'<'flll'\l' lll<llnll ' i i<llq~ic, il l'lll lllotf ic' 1111 1 1 1 :1 1 11' diiTl'n'll l :i' !Jt'CIS o ( <:OIIl l'll lf1tt1.tl'l' ctl hlll';ll nd 'UC:II Jjft- \\ t' l .111 1111\1 \'\:ll ll ilH.' \llllll' 111 th ~'l' "ll('~ o r pO\\l'l ll l<tl hl'l IIIOI'l' lktail.

2. 4

Language, representation, power and inequality

Reptt''l'lll.llitlll .111d rolllllli111r<llion ol nd tu ralmc:mi 11g 1ake' place 1hro ugh l:mg11agt ' l'l' of Sla nclard isa l o ns: tltl' Cl.l ~ lOlli<J I'I' 1 11(':111 ings <lll:tC ii~d [11 1\'0I'rfS and tlit t'll'lttllla1' '''"'' o l ~pe<tkin g- in g i,tll ,ocial and l'llllt1ra l .st ttin g-~>. l11 btll h in,t:lllces llll'llllwr-hip ol llll' langua~t COilllllllllill m:n lw lt'<.H:d or dedcll-d according to tlll' f.m1ili.11il\ ola hutguag~u,t'l'\lil h llw ronlt'lllion~ of'me. In cnn lr;"tto lht ~l'lllimt n L<. (1 [ thl' C fii Ol:ttion li'Olll Lcai' ~ ('l'(' Box ~.:~ carl ier). l:lllg'll<lgt liSl' in lhis ronnll la li nn i' SC\'11"' jllu/f,llw/11 ra thl'r 1k111 < llllOIII<ttic Th i' appro,lt h O\\ es 11lttCh 1 0 the dtHIopmclll ol 'u< 1.11 .1ncl nillllll llheori,iug 11hith ~trt~,l~ 1hc p:u tial and cwllt'l>lt'd na1un of ~ocia l lile:''" h 1hcw i'i" ~ i' of'll'll l.aht'lkd '" postmodc m (p. 100) 1 )111 i1 aho tharacteri -,t~ mut l1 lt'lll ini'l .t n :a h,i~. as ll1'1l :a~ racc. t' ll111 ic an d das~ anahsl'S. ht''l' iclt',!>. 1\IIcll CI'iid'l' IJtHll tiH' ll'aditionai \ 1 l'l;lph:t'l> or f.t':l\'\ :111cl Lht 'onwtimn ahtHI\l 'mech:anical ' ~nactul.di, .tncl 'l'llliotic .tpp1 tt:t< lw:.. h.aH bce11 inllttt'llli.il i11 lllllt h cllllllral ,udie~.. \ kt'\ 'ourct fo1 th tm i' IIH 11ork ol' the R11;.,ian
Jwc.tll\1' llf' l \\'1!

Raymond Williams (1983b: 296) points lo two meanings of 'represent' that have developed through history. A representation, he suggests, can mean either 'a symbol or 1mage, or the process of presenting lo the eye or lhe mind'. The meaning of symbol or image is particularly 1mportant. A represenlation re-presents or stands for something else. As Williams explains, this meaning is complicated by the clevelopmcnt of the idea of an 'accurate reproduction'. Hence, a photograph represents that which was arrangecl before the camera, but is also often thoughtlo be an accurate reproduclion of it. \Ve are familiar with the common phrase }b.~~ However, we should e1lso be aware that photographs may be cropped or doc tored lo produce il pMticular meaning. Realism in art or culture seems lo be simply cap tu red in the idea lhat it attempts 'lo show things as lhey really are' (lovell, 1980). However, such simplicity is illusory and realism has been hotly debated. Berger (1972) poinls lo the way 1n which realism in arl develops ata particular hislorical moment. Likewise Wall (1963) illuminates the beginnings of the realist novel, which used real na mes for characters and was set in recognisable places ancl so on. Some versions of realism allempllo capture the details of cveryday life in all its aspects. This approach was labelled naturalism in the n111cteenth century. The novels of Zola are hcld to be an importan t example. O!her forms of realism have wo rked through the praclice of typicality. ll does not maller, it may be suggested, that all life is not shown (incleed, how could it be?) as long as recognisable types are used for characters and events. However, some Marxisl (p. 97) approaches to realism oflen criticise these ideas, as they suggest that there is some deeper tru th or reality lo be known which wlll nol be caplured by conventional realist depiction. Somewhat paradoxically, the a ltempt to capture this reality is often through avant-garde methods. Debates between the Marxist critics Lukcs and Brecht pointed up some of lhese 1ssues, as did the later work of MacCabe. The latter used a very wide definition of reahsm, which he then criticised as being unable to capture the real. Des pite the clifficullies involved in clefining realism, lhe term is much used in everyclay discussions about fi ction. Being authenlic or real is oflen seen as praiscworthy ancl being melodrama tic a criticism. However, such simplifications evade the diffculties surrounding the terms. For example, soap operas are often criticised for lheir inadequate representation of the real: too much happens, they do not con tain enough ethnic minorities, whole rich families share one house and so on. They are no t empirically or objectively real. However, as Ang (1985) in her discussion of viewers' reactions to the American soap Dalias shows, lhese representations may convey ideas and feelings that viewers feel to be subjectively real or importan t. They may be emo tionally realist. Criticising or praising realism is not to be done lightly wilhout a clear definition of the meaning of the term.

Furl hl'l' rm di 11 .,
Lovell, T. (1980) P!Ciures of R eoli!y: Aesthelics, Politics ond Pleosllre, L onclon: BFI. H1 ll, J. (1986) Sex, Closs ond Reoltsm: British Cmemo 195 6-1963, London: BFI. Williams, R . ( 1983b) Keywords: A Voeobul01y of Culture ond S oC/el y, London. Fontana.

"'

-- -------

62

lntroducing Cultural Studies o r languagt \ '.:'\. \ 'o( n, II C)I ( 1 97:~)

(~t'l' :!O~ l.

Communicalion and representation

63

.\l : u ,i~t a n a l ~, ,

Bakhlin . p .

\ 'olminm

argm, th at languag e h:h w hl' undl'l,tood in '-mialt"ontl'Xl aiHI in social anili11. l t i' 1 ( . thi' ,uc,, on 'oci.tl ac1i1 i11 that , >t'l h :tp' ol t t'lltl al i1npo11anct to ,ub't'C( II t'lll cl ewltiJ> II Will'-. ,\ , Rapnoncl Williams (p. :"1) :t rgues: \\\ llt t ll llud 1 1o1 .t rt'iil'd ' l:tllg'tt:tgt .111cl ,ocie l\ 1nn a 11 .trt in 1111inllnngunw. :'\11r (to b.td. at pchitili't .lllcl Olthodo:-- nl.ltt'l ia(i,t thtotYJ i' thi' la ngu.tg t .1 ,impk ' tdlntion ' "' ,,pt t'''ion' "' m;ttti.tlle.tlitl . \\'h:11 11c hmt. t:tther. is a gl:t ( ln~ ni thi, reali11 lhrcoHgh langt~<t ge. ll'hic h ;, pran it':d !'<~l ht iull, lll'" , 'aturated h1 aml 'lll 11 .tic,, a l( " tt' i:d :tf l I'll'. IH l11 cling (li'Cidt l<1l\' .tt 1l i11'..\mi. \I It'l' 1h , g r.tpi ng is ""i.d and t <llllIIltuu~ (,,, di,tinu fnul tlll' a1htl.llt t'lltotllll<'l' of m.m .uHl 'hi' llot ld'. 01 '< lllht i"u'nt" :md '1ealit1 . o1 (.mgu.tgt .md m.llt'l ial t':O.,It'n l l'. l. it oc< nr ll'itlt in .111 .H ti n :md 1 h. 1 ngin~ 'oc il' tl . (\\'illi:1m,. (!177: :'J
~la un

o l .rrammar 11' 1'1\' a ll .t"l'"td and rnnkecl ag.ti hl tit e ~oda ( tlllll'l' ll lcll" of (1 ll '" \,._ :--. ' hn<Tuagt "' 11pifkd in 11ritttn lang uagt { ~lll't't . 199:~: L.tbol. 1!17:H. Tht"t' r.111kin~' o ' 1 1 1 11 ert c:x t1nde d to nt ltt'l :1rea~ ol '"' i.tl t'XJK'l'l'llll' atHI. 1h t e11 tg l 1 ti te m t' l :11111g o "1( 1.1 ;lc ti on b~ rt lhural 11a1'.' o J' sp eak in g. III'C'a ll)(' ,, ~~ 1nhnlic rtp rc ,e tllatio tl n i ll':li S ni lile- - a
(l ll

silllati<Hl llll1nHclup h1 Pulgranl in d1t' lollot1ing 11a1:

1
1

\\'illi:lnh look ill c.'l' iclc.::t H' IY ' c rio tlsh iu h i' 0 11'11 ll'lll'k- ~O IIItH h 'o t ha t la cltI'Olt:cl (''\lt'll'ilt M.'ctitllh ol n1a111 ol lti' 011'l1 hook' w tiH' t Oll'-idtt.Hion nf tht hi,totY and cltldopmelll in '()(ia( contt'' ' ol impo tt:ll11 counph. T ht /ellith ol tl1i' 1101 k c:tmc in hj, book f..',:rmnr/1 ( \\'ill i;ll m. l !l~:~b). 1d ti <h . t ppear~ to be a dirtiun:uT. bn 1 , ;tllt l:llh an o f tl ll' t'Oill l''-ltcl llll':t llillg' and "wia l lll(lllll o l' ~cliiH' t ~rnh a 11d ro11 r~-pt~ tlt.tt \\'illiam' t.tkt' tu ht nn 11 al in rnn tt' lll(lorat'l social ancl poli tical 'llllg~lt'> . .-\-, . .tg leton { 1!11{:1: 11 7) "Xllt'' <oncet ning \ olosittol' hut whit h < onlclequalh lw .tpplicd tn \\ 'illiam,;. ' lt 11':1' 11111 intph ;1 11~<llt c t cd a'k i11g "ll'hat tlH ~ig n nwant ". ht ll o l i 11 \'c .,, ig: u i~~ ~ i 1\ l':tri ed h i\le JI'\ . :ts C11nl l ir ti ng 'lll' ial grou ps. d : t ~St'' incli,iclua ls ;md di'<eHu,,~ , soug lll tu appmp1 i.ut it ancl intl)lll' it ll'itlt tiHir mm nttaning'.'

\\'t r;lll lt'tO~II,t' .t ptr"'" h1 hi, pttt h quilt' :1(>.111 hnlll tht mtelli~t'llll' "' lllt'lligibi(itl' n f (l j, lllll'l':.l lltt'. . llt t 1lll'l'l' phi ,t:t) Je.lt ll l'l'' o l hj o; ' (WC ' ( lt. liiiHlt tllll'c( :wl tllll: ll icalh :mcl lll h:tbih . Mi ll in lor idt' lllilil';llion. 11 . i11 :lclrlitiolt. ll'lt:ll lw ':t" :111d how (ll' 'a" it. in othtr II'Orcl' hi, 11 k . pt o1 itle ltnthn t lll<'' all tht lwun. Tlw 11 ltat amll um ,trt ,oti.1lh tOIHiitinul'd. hul\l'll't , h1 llw pea ktt , c dtll'.llinu. 'uno11mlin~' prol'1.,,ioll t'lt. Di 1t't tor~ ancl .u 1or ni racli pi.'"' 1~ ho 1 .111111 l rn~11 , ., .1111 p:tl '. ol .llll' CO IIi l'lli' n f lhl' ptl ltlllll < lll t t' li,u:tlh :1n 1'<' 1 ~ , J..I IIlll ll l 1l w .11 1 ol l'c>l ll' l h:ll .ll ll' lt, a llclll. En 11 tlll' pwrhl': th t ttt llpcr:ull t' lll ni .t ptr,cH I find I':O.(lll'"ion i11 (ti, ' (H't'l h. 111 :11 nothin~ of his tcmpot.tt'l mood' .utd l'l'l'l'l lll'<tl'l' t makt' .tll'l't,tin l.thll' Jilcl~t' lll< ' lll o l a ~p<'ak('l ,imph on thl' h~t'i' ol '11h.11 he talk, like'. (l'lll g"r.tm . l ~l.) l. in .'\11Tct. 1!1!1:\t
.-\ cu ltlll':tl stu tl ic' ap proarll l'l'tllillcl' 11, t lla l 11h :n i:-: lw ing dc\l t'illl'd , tlll l ,j up l1 differ e u cc {p. 1:~~>) lmt hi,t.trc ltit, o l prl,tigt ll'hitlt art Cll ttn a ho lti t t .trl hit, ol puwc r (p. 9-1 ). "iltt'l' l ( Hl!l:\1 .tltt hu ~ to tht t t,on.tnn, ollloHk hl' :trgut, th.H the nt oltlw 11ord ' cJI1 e ''in ont k11o1". itllplit~ ~1:1111 ': lltl' tl't' o f tlll' 11111d ,,e can l' :O.Jll l'" so lid;uitl bu t ll'hc n llSt'd b~ a d or tn l', a' in 'a 11 d lto11 :1rt' \l'l' fn litl .l{ lc1d : 11 ~. Lcan itn p h' powt'r and ''"lll~ (Sti'l't'L 1!1~1:1: 7 11. Thl' ,ptciali cd lt,ilotb ;11\cl fotnh ol '(H't'<'lt th:tl c ltaractt' l i't' cenain 'm i.ll grou ping' ~l' l'l'l' L O (;('JitalC COilllllllllC<IIic 111 ,JI I1111lg tltO'l' 11 hn ()((ong 111 thC' grt~np ht ll excl ud t 1ht~s l' 111t o ' " '' eH 11 ~id t a u el c 111 1 1111 '()l':l k 1he la ng nagt'. lt is ckhat ab le ll'lt L' t lte r ,pcciaJi,t'cl ltxiro lh ,ctnantic clnmain' ) ran hl' raukl'd in ttrm' o l' ftllt ctinn:tl ""' ~omt ht in~ nwH' \t't'llll than othtt, ( ~tt wuion ~.-1.~. ~ . 1. :1 ancl :.1. 1.1 ) : but 11h.ll i' ccnai n , thal it , p o,,ihle 10 t,1nk tht ~ori ;t l grouping' 11'1 10 ll't~ p.trtintlat \l'lll,llllic dom;tim. so . for tx:ll nplt-. ill t' pmlosio n a l lang uagl' o l d o ctor' and la111er, i' lllll l't' pre tigiou' tit a n l lt;tl ol' 11111 th g1o11>' (~ ,.,. l>dllll a11d ( h .tptlT 1{). 1 a ng uagt ''a communit'< ll\'e l'onn 11hich H'Pll'\l'nt,, cnn,llnrh altcl t<produn, 'mial and ulillH.ll inequali11 , 1hc.: louh oJ' tht> ne:--1 ,,nion,.

inu~tigation

2.4.1

L anguage and power

ht't' C lt:tpter lil int r11clun, thl' d inll' lhion ol' itttqu:tl itic.' in power ( p.

{'tf/111111 j1ulillll

~ll l .uul autlwitl in cnlttu.tiiOitn' and lhl' toul''''"lnawn: ol nt luu~tl practin: it ,

(

tlW'-l' concnn.; tlt:ll cl t l'l' thl' an.thi' ul'bnguagt'llltt'll it i' link('d ll'ith 1lw do1nains o l
d: 1 ~s. r:1 cc or g't' lldct . T I 1m. H ~ ll'ill lw ' llggtsted lw l""' la n g uagl' Ita:> btrn n 11 illtTea'-

ingh 1Hli 1ici.;ed :111 el imp lic lll'd i11 -,nc i.t 1 '' l ' llg~lt>.-;, t''(Wria l h i 11 ti 11 argtumnt' .trou nd politic,tl cotTtTIIH'" Con't'((llt'tllh . .u g nment ha' lllm tcl ltolll 'tTing bngu.tgt a' a lll'llll .tl ll'>trnnH'Ill lor ol~jtetilel~ rl'prt''l'tll ing and tou n nuni< .ui ng tht 1 it'\1, of a u nilit m gro11pi ng lo '>cl'i ng l:1ng uag" "'a politi n tll ~ a1H I ntltt ll a llt dtargt'd m c dium un1 tdli ch gn u p' 1\TI'.' lle lo 1 ('lllll rol. lknedict .\nckr,on ( 1~1!1 1 ) clrt11 :lllt'lltiuu 10 tht tcle ofprin 1 lan gua!{c~ in tnabling tht t j, :mrl spn.tcl ol natiolt:tli,m. :\t pn' 't'llt. it , ~ulfi< ietll to ,ll ~le o n1 1hat thread ol .\ l)(k-r,on 's arg llllll'IHlhat sa1, th ;Htll t illll't1lin n nl'p1 int lang u;tg l' g;11c a ' n t'll fi x it1 111

2.4.2

Language and class

lan~n:tgl' and c re:uccl l.mg uagt' ol (HII~tr: p:1rtiut la r lonn' o l' la n g n ;1gt' lwc;lll1l' dolltill.llll. Spoktn l.tngnagt'' 1hat lll' lt' clt"t' in lonn and lll< abuh11'\ to printecl l.tng n:t).{l' 1nre tlll' nw~t ptt'tig-inu~ (. \ncler<;on. l \1\11: -l-1 -.-). In thi, ,,;11 1ui tten l:H1gt 1 agl' C< tlll t' lo bl' I't'll'l'd as m ore cor rcct' tlt :111 'POkl'il l:lng u.tgt :11 1cl ora l t'OIIIIIltlllie<nion 1\,t,. and o l't t' ll ~ Lill is. l'l,tlll;lll'cl ~ocia lh anorcli 11g to j, rk g rce ni'
l'l''l'ttiblance to II'I'tttn language (Sti't't'l. 1 !1!1:~: Ltt<h ,al.. 1 \1/-1~) . In thi~ prole~ ol t' lalu.ttion. 11al ' ol '(Waking 'lldt a~ clialtt t (loc-al 1.1111-{lla~e ). :tcrcnt. choicl' ol word,

T h e II'OI'k of tlll' \1)( iologi-;1 l~.ti l g l'lll,lt' ll ( (q2..J-) b an iniiiii' III:t l t'X<lllt(>k or rcsearc h lin king ,oc ia l c lass. la ltg llagc :11t d 'Pl'tr lt. Ed ura ti oual polic ics ami pr:1 ni< ,., in Britai n and tit e L nittcl ~talt'' in lh t l ~)(j(l, IH't'l' mu c h af'fectl'cl in tlttir d ('si~ 1t an d implcnwnl:ll ion h1 lt i~ explanationo; ol th t tducation.tl lai lurc ol 1o un g woplt'. In cssen re. lkrn,t tin aq.~ tt ed 1hat hi' l'l' ' t'arch<'' ~hollt'cl th a t IOII't'l-t la'' 11ll'ltlbl' l ' ol Fng lislt socic t ~ spokl' a l:lll.l{llag't' ll tal 11a, n 1/!'I'/1'1/ in co n1p;1ri,o11 11it1 1 t hl' frrli(ll'fl/1'11 roclt tlll' tuicl clle d,t\\L'\, T hi' l'l'\li'<'Il'd codt hauclirappcd lhl'tll in tlt lir C[lll':>l lnt \liC ia(

or

and erotwmic bellt' t tll<'lll bc<.tn,, rhook '' hidt ll't'l't ' 'l'l't1 h1 lknt,tl'in '' tlH < hid agent~ lor ,ocial mnbili 11. requirl'd tl w tht' ol (' labor.llt'd rodt'' El:thor;lll'd eodt' IH' I ,.

64

lnlroducing Cultural Sludies

Communicalion and representation

65

nc c l''''" 11!1 the in td ke lll:tl :u til ll ni k.1111ng :111d l01 1111' ~ot i;d ami poli lit .ti p1 1 1pmc, o f ctccil ing- f.11ou r:c hl, ncog'tt ili~>n lrolll le.cr he r,. Rl''-1 1inl'd 111 pc 1hlic '!Jt't'c 11 rodc, ,IIL' r h :cr:JCit'l'i ~ ccl l11 lll l' followin g: l . '-,lcn11 . ~ I'<Ctlli ii :C1c.tlh ' i111pk. o("tlu uulini,lccd 't'l lll'lll'l'' ,,, .1 1>oo r 'llli:C<l lcal lo1111 h 1n"ing 1h1 :cl!II' 1oiu l.
' 1

\inq>ll' .llld rq>e1 lll

ll't'

of e on jutH 1ion' ho. tllt'n. het.lll,t'l.

:1.

1 il llc "''' nf 'llboJclin.ltc' Clall'il'' lo hH.cl. doll'll thc ini1i.1l t .H q~olit, ol' tiH dc llllilalll '-lll>jcc L.

l. ln< 1hi li1 1 lo lwld a lo JJ IJ:I I '-ll bjen lh mug l a ' JKn h '-l'<j lll' IH't: ""'' .1 cl,lot., ltcl llfo 111 1 1:11 ion ;tl l <~lllt' ll l j, bi' 1 i l~lll'd.
.>
11

Ri ~id

.mclliui1tcltl'-c' ni :cdjct 1in, ancl .H h c h,_

lnflcqlll'll l lht' ol intptJ,oH:cl p1 ououu' ,,, '"hjtc '' ol tOIHiiliou. tl d:cthl''.

111

' l ccuc'nl ll'-t' ol ,l,llt'lllt'lll' ldlt'lt' tltt 1e""" .1 1 1d t; llldll,ion .lit' 1 o uf(HIIlcll'd p 1od 111 e :c c.u q.; nric- '-lalt'll lt'lll .
H.. \ ltll'gv 11 11111hn

ol' \ l alt' lllt' ll l ~ ph ra't'' llt:tt ' ig 11:d :t l'l't II I'l'lllt'lll lnr lll t' p1 'l'\o ll ~ '-IH't'l h WC] IIt'lltt' 1<1 lw l'l'inl'orced: \\'o ulcln ' l l ~ Yo11 ,,.,.;. You l.ucm : c' ll. T hi' ll cH t'" , t<'nne d "111p:t11 1t'1t ti rn d.u it1 .
f

'l. flld \du.d ,cf,c 1oll f111111 .1 _(I'Oll> ol dolll.llt piH ,I\l''- 01 wqliL'IlH' IIll flt'Cjlll'llll\
11 '

111 .
;

10, lf ll' ind I idu.I J f lll:t li(it :IIOII , implio l in IIW '-l' lll t' IH'I' 0 1g < uli,:ction ; l i' ni lnp lit l 1 11\',llli llg.

f,u lg ll,lg'l'

'' 1 o~it. l uu,difit.uion' and 'ttl,, ut nu<h.tled through .t g-t,tl11111.llicalh tnnlplt' '''l lle'llt c < on,t lll< 1iu11 . l''IH'c:tlh- 1h1 cu ~h tlw ll'it' o l .1 1.11 1 gc of' 1 IJiljllnttiulh .cncl ' llholl .iJl:llc c lotll'l'' .

'lll 11'-L ' o( prt' pu~ i li tlli S 1h:1t ll( l it; tt t l o~c~d rl'l al i<~n '- llljl ' ~1 < ll l'll ;t~ prt pcl'-itiolh :\. IJt'<l lo 111 .11 i11clit .Ht 1t' 111p111 ',d and ' l).lli;d <OIIligu itl .
l. h 1'1111 111 "'l' 111 tllt' pt'l ,1111.11 prollollll '1' .
.1 . . \di'-< lllliII.Ilil' '-l'lt< 111111 h 11111 .1 l.lllg t ol ,tdjnt\\'' .uul :uhc1,

fi. lnd l id11.tl qu;tlilic .11 ion " h ich i~ 1t'l h:tlh lile el i:lltd tlll <Hig'll ti te l c l a1<~ Il,1Jip' II'th u :n1 rl hl'tlll'\' 1 1 '-t' lll t' l l<'l '~.
1.

-; n

lllll l't' ,IIHI

r , lllt''-'I't' 'll llhiii,III 11h ir h cl i,c rn linot ll'' IH'III'I'<' n 111C'a n il,!.i''- ll'i ll li ll ' IH'l'C h 'l'< llt' ll tt'' l.c1 1Hr than lt'illf'orri ng clolllill.lll 1 11111<1' 11r p hr:l'-t'' 111 :u rump.u11ing tite 'l''llll'llc ,. in a diflu,t. gt'IH' ralis<d 111:111111'1.

~-

1 olll~ll.lgt 11'1' "hilfl p1ill' 10 tlw po"ihilitit, inhtJ t'lll in .1< cnH qHnal hin,lrtlll le u tlw <llg.lll'-il~olt:o-ptlieJHe. (lkrn,ttin . l!lfi l: l!i!ll .. in Dit1nt :ll. 1!1/fi

l\o-n,ll'il IL'I j,('(( tlll' c ll.tl dl'll'l i'-I C\ of l l''-I I'\'l l'd o iiHil'i;lhe~l'; l t('d codc' a llttlllht'l' 11f I 1 11<'' i11 11 11' lig l11 oltm pi l'ic :ti a nd tltclll'l' II'a l 1\'nrl. a nd l'IC'11111:1ih :l i ~<lllduncd 11H'11 1. 11

;_ hnport<tlll 111 not l' 1hat tl w ( h.lllg' ng to nlig ur:nioJh l't'lt:t l th l' dill1111ltto, ., idtntif\ing .1 M'l .,[ inll l't'c'll l t h:nae 1<'1i'ti r' .,( l' lil1111 :tl 111111". ' '' lw i:1lh 11lwn . "' in lhi..; c:c.<l'. lh tl a rt lin l.t'd in o ppo~ ition 1 11 car h o lher. Bt l n~tei n , ckpicli olll uf lh l' Jc l :uiu n ~ h i p ht'liiC:l'll L 1 11 .~ ll :lg'<' :u1d da" 1' 1t' lllllli' t'lll o l tht ')api r-\\'llod lllpotht'>'; ndl'l'<l it , po,..,ihll' 111 l't'l,l'-1 Bt'l ll'lt'lll , .lll,dl'-1' 111 lt'llll'- ol lollt'l- and 111cldk-tl.1" !.{lllllj>' llttii>\ilg clfltl t'lll ' tllottght lle~tld' 1\cllh ~, potht'" '' gi1c l~ti~ht tu 1lw effet h ol 'ouali,:uion in e,,hli,hing l.tktn-tw l'l.tllll'd ,,;~' f 'L'l' ng t ltl' 11111 Id 1h.u ronn llw le ' XII II l' o l IIHIIIg'lll r011 g'I'OII p llll' lll h tJ ' \nd in l>o lh ca~l'~ 11ay~ of 1hi 11 kin g :1rc: a rc., poll\l' lo ~nO t'CO ilOIIIir t'll\ ir.,llll\1' 11 1'-. BcJJI'- It'ill\ 1mrk i' distin c til'l' in lh:tt it i ~ itHJk in ~ :11 la ng uagc: 11~1 II' ihi n :111 .tpp.11<'1Hh ho1110g'l'1H'0LI' l,lllg li:Cg't' g'I'O ll>. lllll'll':l' S~lpir '._ <tlld \\1101 d '~ '-lUdi e~ lcl;l[l' l\1 CJ II ilt cliffelt'lll :111cl di,t IH t l.nlg 11agc grou p': thc 1110'-l 'tanlng clilll'nncc lor out plll po,, , Bt'lll'-lL'n, lnl.ing of 'f>l'cch ancl l.lllg'll:l_(l' ll'ith thc: ,uuc lltiT d IH:qualillt'' ni IIH' Engli'h cla'~ SI '-ll'lll . For Bl'rnstcin. da,~ha~td languagt , not ,jmpk \,UJ,l! nn h111 rdk ct~ the hiera rc hii:.; o l 1ht Engli'h da,s '~,,m II'th tht const'!Jlll'IH t' tlt:c1 'illi iH' hcng 11 age~ aH' 'oci:tlll' a nd n tltllra ll~- dcHninant. Surt'C'S' Cll l lll'~ to lho,< ll'ho ' ilL':tl- 1l1l' clolllin:c n1 l<~n gu; gt :u1<l uw iL.s ~ l.i l b . 1\l- Jil\l t' ll <~ rg u es L ha l l'orn1a l o r t l:thor:t ltcl languagT i~ bt'lttr t han puhl ic or lTSI rlll'cl l angt~agt lll'CIII't' i1 is UJ11~1 Lll tld tln oug h tlu: owration ol logit a ncl .dhtrau tho11g h1 - q11al itit' that are fHnninn a lh llt'tt'"an for k.uning. l.oll'l'l<:la,-, lang uagt' i~ mo1e conlt' X1 bnund a nd t'III'OIIragt'' thl' :1'-'l'ltion ol Hnifonn i t ~. no t tlw :1ppnciatiun of dilkn ncc In thi' ' ' '""' lmH'It 1.1" l;~n gu age i ~ a k ' ' C<llllj)l'lt llt Ion u 1h :~ n mdriiL'-cla's la ng u:cgt and i t ~ ' IW:tl-c" :cnd uS< 'I'' are: n u t ahlc 1 0 lw ndi 1 l'rom <dnn ti<\11 ll'hic h rtqurvs cli-;crim lnllioll :nHI log ic. lk rnstc in '' a na[y,s '-llgg't'<h tha t tl w t la" l m~c ni' Eng li' h -;oc ic ll' , wrpc ltla lt'cl .11HI mack l'i,iblc throug h l:u1 g uagc; la ng uaK(' bmh n:o pesents (p. Hl ) a ncl ' "" 'lillllt'' tite cla~.., W'-lCill. i\e11 emph.t,c.. ~ in 1ultur.d ancl :.ocia! tltcon. more cmpi t it .11 'lttdit' aliCI l'h:l ll ~t'' in poln making and incpl<'lllt'lll<Uiun haH' c:llkd n to que~ tion malll' ol thc cunch1,ons Of' lkt'IISII'ill'S \1'()1'1, , C:ulnlli'IIS<tlOl'\ cclllt:11ill1 \\';" l'l'C01llll1Cil((tocl for c hildrcn II'IJII !Jacl allq.('edh su iT rl'cl li1 1 g ui, 1i r d e pri1a tiu n . a cond i1i ot1 s:lid to be rootc d in lht lwnw li't o l' thc child ancl in p:u1 ic ula1 in 1ht llloth c r-c hlcl l'l'latonshi p. Sm h po li(n ha1c 0 bt 111< re al'<'lllllllllHI.Illlt)\1' bL'cn sii' tc htd w working witl1 ' ' lwo J, tu enabl<' tltt'lll 1 inK to a ll ch ilclrl'n. 1101 ju't thO'l' ,,ith I.II Ollll'cl cultural ch:u a rti'I'tic' . Thi' '111t h lt;, bccn p rom ptcd ll\' tmpirical <~mi thetll t' tic.d 11o rk 11hic h h,1 , ,ho1111 that a ll l .ul~l l.ll,! t' ' are.. ch ara c t eri~ec\ bl' t he ca pac 11 for logical argume n 1 a n d .tl> '-1 r:wt tiH11 1~ 1t 1: 1hc prI ikg ing Of Olll' fo Jl'lll 1 1f ],lll_gll<lg't' .1gai 11 \J 0 111\'1''; s a jill/i/imf :llld IH >1 :1 1i 11g11 i'l ir .Ct'l . Conscql ll'n th thc l't.':I'-C llls 111 :11 c hldn.> n l'ai l mnst he soug h1 in lht realms n i' "'t ia l < ulcl politica l !'conom1. 11 i:-. in lht;..e an:a' thaLt iH' 11'11rk o!' lkrn,Lc in l't' lllOIm inlliH'IIIi .ll. as h i~ linking of .;.ocia! '-ll'l ll'llll'l.: II'th la ng uagc opened up a 11ckr illl'l''-tigation i1ll11 idta' ol' domin;mt c ullllrc..' a ncl th eit fo n11ation . tra n,mission 0111d maintc nanc<'. g, eh ,1\1 ing allt'lllion to tlw ~oc ;d ami political d i n lt'n,ion~ o l c ul1111 a l lon11' lkrn~H n l t' hlllll'd 11H' con tC'nton th011 lang nagL' is ~ mpl~ :1 11'<1111ical de1 icl' lor llll' rcprc..''>l'llt:llion :n11l COilllllllllCa tion ni r nl1ttl't'.

,r

66

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Communication and represenlalion

67

2.4.3

La nguage, race and eth nicity

In 1~lli li Bttl'ilt'l ancl En~d t n.tn ll appl itcl lk t ll ' ttin, IIHot ,., hl tlw l.tnguagl' ol hl,\( k <hildn:n in llw L'11it('d ~l .llt' ' .me! cnnt lwkd th.ll 't hl' pool lltdlet tu.tl .tl>ilitl o( BI:Hk Dium.tr. 1\1/ti: Stl a11rl tht lmn'r da''< llilrlrL'Il , re ll !'l'lt'd inthl'i t ll:t(Jtoqn:ne ~J>t 'l't h' C 1\ :1 dl'l'iCt' I(JJ :1\'CJl iI'i llg .I IHI c hildnll shn\\('d ' ; total l:l< k or ;thi lill 10 ll>t' l:mg ll :tgt' < prn c e-.~ i ll g illl(mmiioll . l.:111g 11 agt I~ J t lh t' lll io; 1111\l'il'lc h <tncl 1 1nt ,.,.,, INfttl ' ( lkH ilt't ancl b lgl'h n.tllll. 196!i: :~~~ . i 11 Di u mar. 1!171\: ~ 11. flll'-"t' t o m hl'ioth ,;.l'l't' 1 h.tlktwl'd h1 1 ahm ( 1 9/~h) lrom iltL li nd 11g' of a lllllllhtt ol 'llldt'' 1h.u IH <ondtu lt'd 011 1ht~ ''t' ol 11011-'l.uul;u el E11gl'h In l>l:tt k IIHttll'. 11i' 11ork dt' IIIOi h ll.ll e cl 1h:11 iiJt l:lllf{lla.; 1 ol hlac k 1'0111l1 ( 1\l,tt k E11g l,J1 \ '< 'l'll:lCIII:II CJI' Bl:\ ) ll':ts diff(rt'lll lrnm 1lt<11 ol llt cldil'-r l a ~' ' Jll'l'Ch l'cot nh: IHlll'l'l<' r. tu dl' ~tri bt B l~ \ :ts .1 1 m11r l:ll lg' Uagt ,,;t., ,111ph m idd ll'-d:1'' iclcolog1. 1 a i)C)I critid,l'CI IIH dat.t to lln1io11 11\t' iltcd, o l HtTt' it'l a11d Lngdt11:11111, ~lllch on 111o toll tll': (a 1 tlll' data did 11111 dnt rilw 11.11111.tl black lan ~ll.l~l' "'t' de,piH purponing In d1 ' o- in l.tt l tht lllaHI i.tl g.nhl'rl'd 11a," '1'1 ol l'l''jllll1'1'' to i''llt'< 'L'I In t)ll' l'l'Sl'<ll'<'lll'J''; (1) t]W illl t'l\ itII'L'I in IIJ t' '(11()1 ll:tS :111hi lt' .HiiiJI - J.:thm l'll lll l' ll ti~ ill:il \ ildl ; JK' I'SOII\\'CIIilrJ IJl' ~ ('( ' 11 h1 IJ Jad, 10111 lJ ,1\ an :ll lli tol l l ffg lll'(', ; l l'Jllt''l'lll:III.t' 11[ ,1 do1 11in a11l n lh tl t ltltllll'. lo 11hom tht'l II'O Uid IH>I 'JH',Ik l11'1'h .md opvnll. \lih nugh lht u itit 'ill , .1 metlmdolo{iral o11e. it , anotht'l' remi11dt1 that J.ut~ll.l~l ' a11cl lan!{ll.tgt lht' .trt polilit.tl ami th ;u it , in1po11.1111 111 ll't':ll tritit:ilh' :1111 t l.li l1h 1h:11 languagt ' l)l'ak' fcll t'H'I\1111('. Cl'l'I'III'IJ tn . :11 ;IJ lillll'' fl1c f'abt ir:11 ion ni la ngt l:tg'<' " ~a ll :llt ii':J I. poli1iralll llt' tltra l dt'l in 1d1id1 ' ltIJ, 1hi11g., "' the1 :lrt i, IIIH' ol il lt' IIH'<III' h1 11'!ticl1 I.Hig ll.tgt ;utd ll'l ltlt arf' a~"'< iaH<l. 1 ht'll' ,in E11gli'h < uhtu t' .llliclt~pH.td ht'litf' th.u n.lllllt' ami tlw 11.11111.11:tl'l' llllthlul .me! l'l'l iablt ,11ce tht' .111' appa lt'll lh otlhiclt the ll',lilll ol lu11nan tll:tnipul.uinn: l:mg11agt ,, ;" 11e h:tl't' ~l'L'I1, fl'l 11o hl' pan lllll.llt lrt a,it i ~ 'o ill,linniH.uHII.t ktlll cn g t < llll l'cl. It ,; , 1J 0 n gc :h 11'11 111 . T hi' d iscour,t :1ho11 1 la nunao 1 ' lt'Jl l'm111 lll! '.' t' : 1 ~St 1111 p 1 i o n s lo St'<' la ng t1:1 o lfer' 1lw "PJ>OI'lllnitl' 111 knoll' tnnll 11i r nug h la ng uagt. In Jj, rva,o11ing l.tngt;~g<.'"', t'' ll t'lllt'h JlOII'L 'IIu l lot i1 hod1 ron<.tit ult'' 11111h anrl gu,u.llllt't'' 1n11h. In 1hi~ lonnula 1ion. I'JIIC,tiolh almut I.mgu.t,gt ll'l' all() " !10 ,pe:~ k, 101 '"""n; arC' 111:11 wr' ol gn. 1t ,ig11 ilicant t' 1or 1d IO t'l'tr gi ~t' 1lit acn11 1 111 i' ; hle lo prononn ce 1he tnllll o l llli ngs. and:11d l:ll lg'll:t,L:t' 111:11 ~ ul'kr IIH' f:ue 11( 111 lltl, c l :~ i 111 i 11g 1 0 S peakcrs and 11'1'it'l'' o f'non, 1 spcak l'or th t' lll 111' or tlwir 0\111 ;1('(1111111' ol lluir 'iln:llCJII IH'ing dtd;ut'(l llllll'l lt' 01' tlltllo nlll o l allt' tllio n. Smh practi<c.'' halt' markcd tht cli,tipline ol litel,ll'\ critici,111 "lll'IT. lor t''\am pk. 11 ri 1i11g'' 1n un fonnt'l <o Ion ial COII11 1rin 11 1i1lt'11 i 11 111 t' lllt'l ropo! ita11 l.angnagt h '" t httn derl:~ rtd 11111 to IH' 1 i Lt'l:l 1urt (. \ ' IH rol 1 / ni.. 1!l ~\ 11 . l'h i' l't'l'd in i' dl'l iwrl'd n 11 1 1\'o cn unts: (:tl lor<~ l 1arian 1 ~ o l lllt' nwtropt1li1 a11 lang-uagt' ill t 11u t ll'g itllll:tlt for th t IITiling "l'liltr:nurl: 1bJ ll'l'il ing a ho ut colcll lial c)l' pm1 co lon ia l ,ocit' tl (r0111 lhl' l'XIK' rt'IH t'' o l 11atiw 1woplc, , 1101 :1 ll'gilim.llt' 'lllljt< 1 lor lii<T:tllll t'. ' J hi' l'Xampl 1 't'nt~ "' another illu ~u,uon ol l.mguagt .1, ' tlw meclilllll tln oug-h which a hil'rarchit;tl 'II'IICLUI'<' o l )>Cl\l't'l , )ll'l)ll'lll:llt'cl :nHI illt' llll'dilllll thl Ollg' h 11hic h COIICt' J>Iion' of " 1111th .. . " urdtl ". and " 1 t': d i 1 ~" he tOIIH' t'.,l:th li'hl'd' (. \,h crot'il'l al.. 1 P~! l ). In 1he l:itt' ol th l' iul ptriaJi , in,\.\ cu ltural po11er o f 111<' 11'tl1HI I i~:m l.u1 g 11agt 1he 11'1i1 n' a ud 'Jlt:tkt'l' ol loca l l.tri.uion' o l tht langll:t).{l' arl' t'11CIIll l'.tgtcl ), tl1ti1 tll111)l:tll iot' lo

Box

2.6

lnglan is a bitch

11\ ' 11 lll .in, Clllllt' ICJ J..t11d.tn ICJIIII 1ni lbl' lo 1\'tJ I' k pan d i :liH I.dl gl'oll ll IJII I llorki11 ' p:1n di :mcla hg ronn i ll aroun 1'u do11'1 g't' l fi k111111' I'CHII ll" lngl.m i~ a hitdt derc , no t''tapin it Jng la n is :1 hil t h dl're's no l'll nnin ' ldlt'l' lt ,llll il

' t h \'i r 01111. 1htl' arl' lll'g'l'd to ' ln11g o lf tlw llll'lropol it:tn 1nat thc I;JIIg ll .lgt "' il' i1 w;1 llll':tllillg' :J IIcl a." ociat iell l' o l lh t )ang uagt :111d 111 <~ppropl :llt' i1 for l lli'I' ll\\'11 lhl' ;md 1, d1 e~C' auion' 'makt langu.tL:t' "bl':tr tht hurdl'n ul ulll, 011 11 culturalt:o.JH'ri<'IKt'. (, \ , h croll 1'1 al.. 1!1~\1: :~ll) in orckr lO "'comt'l in a b11guagt th.u , not ww, 01111 lht ,pi 1it 1ha1 i' elllt' ' mm"' ( R.to. 1!l :\~: 1ii. i 11 \ .;)H ro( 1 1/ lfl.. 1\ l~!l: :\!l l . . \n l':O..IIIlJllt o l 1hi' l'flll he st't'll in il w vx lran l'ro111 il lt' pot'll l ' ln ~l:tn i' .1 Hitch ' h1 tite black Hri ti,Jt pm1 l.illlo ll Kll'l'~i.Jo lt11 '0 11 ( ~t't' Bo-.: ~.li). TIH' ll'tll k n i' Eci11.11'CI Said ( 1~1!1:1) ('l JH'I'' 1h e 'allll' ll'ITitol ,. ol t ullura l illl(ll'l'i.tlism a~ ri~tcl ahull' .tiiKi t 111 1i a pt'l\)>tclill tli.ll ilhuninalt'' h1111' III'll'l'' fnun uwtropolitan cotlllll il'~ h.llt', tlllottg h llwi1 lan~na~c. t l'l',Jll'd .111 iu1.1gv ni 'oiiH'r 'IKit ti t< 11hith is a procluc t ,{ languagl'. H i ~ arg tlllll'lll i' 1ha1. :tlollg,id t llll' cl t~: tlui11g orloca l c ullurc ancl n tltt1ra l prud u CI~ o l' 'uth l' l' ~oc i t lit>. a p:u.t lh- 1 pronss 11." I:I Kt'll pbuT i11 11'ltic ll lllt'li'O poli ta n H'r,ions ni th C''L' '"tittt'' ha,e btt'll t onlig url'd. Tilt''t' ll'l',ioll ' :11(' in arrord ll'ith tht in1a~i11i11 ~~ ulmtllupoli tall 'llt't'll . 1101 11ith llit'l':O.)lt'l l'IHt'cllt':tlilit' olnatil<' ~ocia) at hno;. ll w t-.:amplt 'l'l'\'t'' ,1, ,1 lultlier iJiu,ll~llion ol tht poiH'I ol l a 11~ 11.1Kt ' 1 0 l. cnlls tillll t' lhl objt'l'l e ( reg;1rcl and 'imnll.tll t'U ti,Jyartirmlll t' lllllh n l'th:tt l t'g< II'C Tltt fotCt' of illt' ('11111111\' 11 1' ahtllll tll t' polilic:llu 't' o r l;lllg ll:tgt 111(1\'t'S tll t' cJi,c u,sion ;\11,1\' J'rom J a n g ua~t a.; ; lt'till ti r al ll,ll'lllllt'lll ('CII\IIIIUili('ali11g' po Jitil.'all\ ll l'llll'.l l inform.uion 111 one 1lta1 ~~~ t'"t'' 1ha t langnagt t:tk t' l' lllt'.tll in~ 1ro m 1ht ,o<i.ll ' e u ing' in 1rhich i1 opt'l a le.,. \\'Jwn it , w.td h1 tlw JlOIIt'rlill it 111:11 bt a .;ubtlt in,numt'lll of oppres,iun . llll' 111UI'C' ~o bt't':lll,l' or it ~ app: u't'llll\' ll l'lll l'itl alld ll:tllll'ill a n ihute,, In IIH'st c irc un1 s l ~ll l Cl'' iL , no ' urprisc Llt < ll a'pir:11H na tio na l gro up~ '<'l'k 1n recrca te o r r1,i, il\ lucalla ngu:tges w "111boli'e lhl'it iclt' lllill' ancl c.11 1,. tlie ll'eig h t ul 11ll'ir puli tcal ambit io11. T ht n1 ,al ol 1khrtw in tht 1 l't';llion ol tlw nation -~l<lll' ol hra d is om txampll': latlgll.l!{t' "' a politkal ,,lit' in C:an.tda, Sp.1in. F1.tnce ami \\',tlt' .tre o the1 t'X:tmple,. In .tlllht''>t' ca't'' 1111' in1 e n1 , w rid thtm,t'ln.; n f idc ntities (p. ~2 1 ) impu~tcl b~ tht l:lng11:1 g t ni' o l lwrs. Sudt pmnssts han- :~ l 'o htT II l't' n lral 10 lh l' d e ba ll'S ;IIJo ut ' political cntnt llll'.,!' and l .l ll g u ag~ in ill(' 1\I!Hk So 1ilt' l'<' )a;, lll'l'll a coi1Ct'l'll lo c ha ng t l.tngua~e tht' tn L'limin.llt' "Jlllll'"in 11\t'' a 11d impl ic;uion~. ~ollll' prolt"ional groll)>'

68

lntroduclng Cultural Studies Communicalion and represenlation

69

130.\'

2. 7
BSA Guidelines
10 :1 111;111

t 'lt'l\lll l t>. llll.tllil\Oll'>h . I\' IIi tlll l t' " l'Jll ioll

BRITISH SOCIOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION

111 anhn111' \ltll ki11g 111.111 1 11ockl' of 111;111

1 11
Ollt' 111.111 ,JIl\\

GUIOEUNES ON ANTI-SEXIST LANGUAGE

tonlt.rUI ~L I~IJ>l:l:o. ;u~d 111 1he dellltry of ~nth paper' .11 conkren t n ,111 cJ , 0 nn. 1 ht''t gnrdl'lrnt~ .lt'l' llllcndc:d toa,,,, BS. \ n 1trnber, 11 11, 1 cr .,, " . 111,.., 1 1 . ,,t,, 1 ' 1 .t llg narre
h i,. ~>

'.. 'x~lin

. . that

1~011-~cxiq . langna~e

,!Jo u Id be 11 ,ecl in ih jou 111 af,. in

'' ' 1011111.{ j)t'oplt ~onH ol ll1 e fm ll h it take '....' ,, 1 c! ''' '' '" .' ? ' ,...,~ t'\ 1l ll g' ;t llli WX ISI L~ lll.t lrl cs.. 1 htr ,,rJI hl'lp rcacltr, to t'Othidcr tlw t' \l l'lll 10 ldlkh :lllclth t' .a ~ 11 ~~~IIC'h ~~e t.thtr clt<tl l ct~gt or reproducl' iii:ICl'tr l'a lt'. ~e~i, and h et<.'I'< J~txi~l .t.'>'> l1111ptton ... 111 ou r IHlrk. fhc guiddint, 1\'ill bl' rclt-lant lO lt"tchers 'illd . l . 1 a 1tt h o"' i 11 ~CJr i o 1 <1" 1 . . t 11 ' .111 e . .,.
f . .
.t

polinm.tn ltnmatt fon:f.llltl'r' louncling fal ht'l' o ld m.l'll'l''

lll<l'>ll'lllll
lll:l~ lt ' J' lllj}l L k;tr Si r~ cf SSL'Ill 11<11 l', fm l<ld r: t~l 't'lll in ;d

11 1

11 o1 khu111' "<ll kn. 1' ''k in).{ ptt pk modd' ol tlll' I)L'I''on ont ptr,on d1o11 po hu ol flrcr fi rc-figh H'l :llll l ''lOI' loutHkr' t l,t.,.,i t ;ut :tni'l" donli!H't'l'illg: H'IY , J-jl ft tl top r op1 original lkar ~i r :-- Iada m iulonn . puhl icist c l a~~ i c:tl . lonna1in

'1-IE/ 1\'IAN' L\J\IGUAGE

Do 1101 ll~t '1111111.to
t11 e; u1

lrttlll', tllt. ll' 1 ' 1r ".'l'tl 1 . TII< 'I'C' :lrt a lt crn: 1tI't'~: ,.., t' t",1 ANTI-SEXIST fJlTSOII . pcopJt,
htJJil:lll

SEXJST 111:111 rnan ki nd

lll.tn ki nd

Tite 'gt'lll'l ir' 'III0/1 . , 1dlt'll .IU'Illll l>a niccl h~ 1ht ~e n er i r' '/110: T lt t' '.(l'll l't ir ,,; should bl' .11oickd. Botli f'cllli ll IIt' a11d ntasn tlin l' pro 1 HHII1' cau lw 11\l'cl 1\'il l'l't' ap>ropr iate: 111'/.,ft~ . .1/ l!t. lti 1/ hn. t'lL .\il emaliH s tratcgic~ in cl11dl' (;t ) tl11 I L't' of he plural :111cl ( b l lhl' o111i"ion ollhircl pe r,un ponollll' l'lllrl' il:
(a) SEXIST:

l.arh

tt~ p o ndc nl

l1as :hkt'd 1\'htIhcr he 11'b hcd l<) pan iLip:11e in th t

ll't'l'l'

bl'IIg''>

\IILY('I' .

nH'n and 11omcn. hnm a nit~. lnnna nkind

\~'htn rdt'll'lll'l' to both ~~xe' i~ inll'tldl'cl. .1 l.trge 1111111 bc 1 ol p lu "'l'' 11 , 1 IIW 1101 el 111.111 01 ollwr ma,culnH crlliI'akllb ( 1 . , r.11 t1,.1 111 cl ., 1 . 1 . . ...... ,. t. .11 ){t' 1111111 )t'l' o 1 1\l' PI ncn l IHllllh "'t tht ~ullrx 11/au . lht'rcb~ l'Xduding 1\'tllllCil lro111 ll tl pir 1111 1 t~l llit 1\wld. 1h<'St' '11011ld he rq)larecl b~ 11101 e preci,1 11011 .,1.,i,1 .tht'l ll:Hilt'~ ..., lhl tcl hdtm:
SEXIST lil e 1 11:111 in 1h c 'iiTC I lal'lll,nl lll ;nHnadt thl' rig ht1- uf lllall Chairlltillt l'o l't' 111 a 11 111 a 11 pol\'tr r r:t f'hlllalt ' lllt'll lll< lllllIIg A:\'TI-SEXIST
people in gcnnal. pcoplt !:11 pc rson. 11 011 e~ wn ~~m h ctic. ani licial. lll :Hltti;H.Ittred pcup l e~' t ci li ; c n s righ1 ~ : th l' ri ght.~ of llil' i11rliridual C:hair

A:\'TI-SEX I T: i 11 IIH' '" l'\'~'1.

( b ) SEX IST:

Rt''Jl<llHit-nl '

a-; kt'd 1\'IH'Ih<'t they 1\''-hl'd lo p:t tliri p.llt' amplt- timt lo f.lnti li.ui,t himsclf 11i1h

1 ht t hild 'hould hl 1lw ll':-1 n1a1et ial.

gi~tn

A.'-'Tl-SEXIST: .\m pk lime ,flollld be .tllo1Hd lor tht r hild lo bt< onlt' lamilia t ll'ilh th l ll''l lll.llni.tl .
BSA Allli-Rn c is t Lang ungc: G uidancc for Good Practicc
Tfii ' Ji,f{ illg !1'/111 11'11/1 (/J/111/11'1/ /.1 /l lt /flt
ll'llll:

1/111,1.!,1' 11/ (1'/11/1 b_Y I Ot'tf

lf'iJI/I/1 11'"1'1/

11'/ll'liii,L!, /IJ

1/(/.l f'd r11o1111 d t llllllt it.r . 11 i1 1~\ 1 w 1111'111/ 1 1111 1 '.\ll!lllllil, /i.11.

11111 rt drjlllith, guif/, , . \1

1 0tia/ ltitltlt \1.\ .1hun/d {l(mt tnr'. failgua. w i 1 no/

lll{i~jl 1 111tl mjudil'l'\, fmt it i .1 ollfl 11.\'lll llllir.

un(r jJOll'l'ljuf a .1 i l llru l'l lll'l'' I/ IId o ill/lil'/'1 .1 As \ II t h , it 11111 11 b1 nmguimf tllfllilll'\1' allll
I/( /

olhl'l fl' /11/,\ u illl'l'-l'l/11'1 ,1!.'1', lw 11'1'1.\l'd 111 disltfllwu r rt/ 11 jrt\IPI mlr llta11 !ht g uill!fill l'.l 1110,1' !11 jm!J/i.l /11'1 /. / 11 tll/dt/IIJ/1 , lf/111' g llitf fill l' \ ~/111/1/d
II'/111' 1'1111111/ llll i l r.

~UJlL' I'I'i~u r

11\ 1111 ill l l'l'l'fUII!.f!l' 1tilftill // ,1(/1'10/ /hit! fftl' /f.\', \

1 11111111 IIJIIIIIII'IIIS 11 i ll b!' trtlm1 info atl'/1/1111 1 111rf l'l't 'il'wl'll wriodiwl(r.

1\'0rkf'orre. ,taf'f . labour pol\'l'l', t'lllpfont's r rafhptr,on peuple swJling, 1\'o rking. l'll lllling

nw US. \

)!.l'fl /1/1

/li'l

u g ht\ /11 l l j ll'flll/11'1' IIII'S/' (;lliddil/1'\; 11'1'

1/1/:

/1

ru li1111111!1 tlg1'" /f .\1111 f1111''' f/11\ 111111 11/t'll il ;,,. ltlllt'lllf lltl' /1/\ lo t/11lt' (;fidtlinl'l , jJ/1'1111 ' mll ltttl 11!1 /J.\ .\ Ojj11 1 ' f/1 t/11 odd"'" g;n'l'/1 uf 1111' tlld llj llil'.ll' CuiiMi/11' 1.

70

lntroducing Cultural Studes Communication and representalion 71

African-Caribbean: T his tcrm i ~ ,., uradualh l l'llhtinu tllt' lt'l'lll \ 1111- ( .;11 ' 1 '1 1 ,..., J Jt'an lo rd"t1 to Cariblwan peoplcs and 1h11st of ( arihbl'all 111 ig-it1 1 11! 0 are 0 .Vrican de~tt.nt. l t 'huuld al~o be nottd that thtn , 11011 "'lllt' t'l idt'II(T 111 ~ 11g-g-c, 1 that tht tu1n 'hould 1101 he lnphen.lltd and th:u indt't'd. th< dilftnnn' bet\\'ten 'll< h g1 0111>- ma1 mean tht term' 'hould h< kept \t'par.llt.
American.: \\'J.H.>II rcft'ITill{ w .-\merica. it , impo1t.llll 10 ht ,1\\.JI'l' of tlw ;H' that 1 tht'l'l' , .1 :\u11h .-\merica ami a Sonth .\ nu-rit.t - 11 ot 11, 1 tiH' L~.\. Con'-eCJlll'ntl~. "htn rde11ing- lo thc L'S.-\. it i' bt,, ro he txplitit ahout thi,.

t h i ~ cou n1 n ll'ottld bt to dt,uilw lhtm a~ ' Briti 'h . \si a n ~. 'Ch int''-l' Kri ti,h ' t'IC. Ont' acll'anlagt i' th at h1 1t'ltTng- to 111o cthnicilics it a,uid~ :1111 'ugg<'<tion th:lt a per,on ha~ tn e hoo't' bt'lll't't'n thtm lor thcir identit1. l lollt'l't'l. tlll' idea ol Bri 1i,h a h o implit'' ,, lal ...c '-l'll't' oluni11. \l;tn1 Scm< \\'tl~h .1ncl lri,h lt''i't lwing ickntificd a~ H1iti,J and tht ll'll itor~ dt'llOtl'd 1>1 the tcrm contai11\ .1 \I'dl' 1:11 itll of culturn. languagc and 1digiwa-.

Asi~n: .

(;l'lll'r.tlh- rekr~ lo )ll'opl<' fro 111 tl w .\ ,i:m ~u b-con ti llt' lll - n.unl'11. ln d i.1 . 1 1 ; ""'" 11 B.an~laclc,f ami J.:a,h 111 i1. Hm ,t lcr. under ~OIIIt' ci rt tlll l,ta n n~ t he rt 111;1 1 he c~~Jl't ii O ilS lo lll':tch.c ting tog-ttll<' r a 1 1 idt 1a 1l' ll o f cl ifl't- re n l c ultura l and t rhn K g ro ups o lh n 1\'ith l" tn diff('rc nt pt~~i rio ll ~ \\ithi11 Hriri., f .-.ocitr1. . \J,o, \CI Ill(' lll l'lllbl'l', o r panic uJ:1r t'illl1iC f{I'CillfJ' 111:1\ o bjc'('( fe l>ti1w rl'lt'ITt.'cJ lo b~ their 'countn or origill ' \l'il l'll thc~ ha l't he:n ]j ,ing- ~:~1' ' t'\'l'J'a l .1.\t'll l'la l ion ~ i11 Brit:1in.

Ci,iliscd / Chilisa tio n: T hi' tnm c111 ,,JI carn r;u: 'l oH:IIom' 11'11it h clt'l i~t from a coloniali't pt'l nptio n ol tlw 11orld. lt i' oln '"'odatecl ,,irh 'orial Darwi ni't tho11g lll :m el i, lt1ll ., ln plit it ,-alut jucl~c m tnt' ancl ignur;ut t't' ol tht hiswn of tl w n un-incJu,tl i:di,l'cl 11orld. 1lo iiTI"lT. in -;omt C:l'iC,. ' IICh ; , th l' 1\clrh. ol :'\orbert Eli.1, , cil iJi,ati"n ta h.c-; on a d irt t rclll mea ning ll'i tho ul rar i't o ltrto nc<. Colourcd: Thi ~ tt'l'lll is l't'g;mkd as ouldat td in thc L' K ancl ,Jtoultl hl' ai'Oickd : 1 ~ ir is g-cn c ra lll' l'iL'II't' cl : 1 ~ o l'f'l-11,il'l' ro 111 ; 111~ hlac k pl'npiL. \\'h en app litcl L" So utlt Ml'ic:t. tlw l t.' l'lll rt.ll vc l'- ,~ ti <'S ol e thu i(' d i,ide and ap:irthl'irl, and l l t'i' d ' t<, ht con textll:li btcl and ll'l'<l ,,ith ~ J H'<' ili r itl . In th l' L' n itccl S talt'.'- ol" .-\nll'rica. the tl'l'lll pcn plc ol' tolou r' i' ofkn U't'cl "'a J'onn sd l ~re f'ert n cc J'o r pcopll' ,,Jw " tf"fe1 f'ro111 raci'lll :md di't'l ilnin ;llion o n I I H' ha~is ol l"isihlt' skin cnlnu r dil f'trt nct tn th t 11hitc :mg-lo-saxo 1 1 (\\' \SP ) politiral 111.1jori t1' popul:uion.
1 1'>.\ \ n1 i-R:ui'1(,l llcll l innl~tl ( ,.,.,d l'1:1cli!t': \ l:tH it l\1!17

c r11 r: 1f ami Bla.ck: . B~;IC"k i~ :1 COII CCJH Lh :ll t'lllbra ct., pcop le whc t'X]h'l i('11 et s tn 1 IIISIIIIIllona l di., crimina tio n llC'causc o /' tlw ir ~ ki 1 1 colo 111 . IIHI , o f'L L'll ll't'd po lttlc tlfl 'l 'll>l>t''lll 'II ICI .S<111111 \ ~1a n o ng 1 11 In . . to .rd i.1 lo . J)t'OJ) It' o l -\frican ( 1 11 ~ PII S<.'lida n ll ;.gw n-.t rari,m. llw ll'l'lll orig inalll look c111 polit ical c 0 1111 n 1;1 !Ion~. 11 111i tlll' n -.e ol black act il i'-1 11 in tl w L'S.\ in 1lw J~HiOs 11fl l'll ir 11 ;" l.td.ullll'<.l "'.a SOII~'Cc ol pride ancl iclen ritl' in oppc>-i tion to rh t mam ncg-at ill' 01 11 ~ 10~ allc."~' rl'latJ ~~~ ~<~ t he ll'ord 'hl:tc~ in tlw Engli~h l.ulguagt ( hl.ll k Jeg. >l . u k lt,lllt .). In lht L 1-. ho,,e1cr. thelt' "antm-going- clt-h.1tt .thoutthe "'l' of r_ hl' lt'llll. lo clefinl' South .\,ian ptoplc:. ht'l':lll\l' ol' rlw l''i'll'n< t' of diltlw So11th .\'J:lll < ult11r.tl iclentitie'. Some .\ ,ian gro 111h in B1itain objnt Lo tht u l' o/ tht ll'ord ' hlath.' being applied to thtn ,IJlcl 'OilH' 11 o 1dcl .ttg-ut thal ir abo rcmlu-,(:. a lllunht'l of t't h nic groups which ,iJnuld bt tnattd 'l'pa r:uch _ l'aki,ta ni'. Bang-ladt'hi'. 1ndians and '0 on.

now olf(:r ck.1r guid.lll<'l' on tht,t mallt'l ' " tlw txtran' from tlll' Ulifi ,/ S~~tioi"Jf""'
.hwali1111 (,ltiff,lilll'l -.he m ht't' l~o:-. ~- 7).

2.4 .4

Language and gender

lllt' r aplt:!lrsallnll oll he lt LtlT w i11 tllt' tc nn 'BJ t" 1 ' S -1 , . 1 J1. \ '-10111 al'l' 1 " >111 1 ll 1 IS -c rl slul t1n g g- mund .111 cl it should bl' stn:sscd i11 :1 1 social ... cicntisr~ lllTd 10 hl' 1 indl't'd confl :ll<' ck;u: t. har th1. l!'c o l' tlwsc t<rm, dtll'~ nor pric11 itise 110 1 l' tlllll('lll and Clllt:cn,hip. British: ,\ Ja ny m ~ttlcl argllt' tha1 rhc one 11a, ro d l'nOtl' mi no 1ill t th llic

\\'hiJ,~ Lht' l l' art lll :tlll d!lfncn ce~ hc tl\c'tn ancl ll'i thi 11 l'.IC h of t ht gro 11 p..,, th t 1ndu'.l.ll~ .ll'llll blac k n.fer~ lo ."10.'>(' ll'ho 11:11'(.' ;1 sharl'd f li,lJr~ of Ellrop l':t tl <OIOI.II.lll~lll , lll'Ol'olollla iJslll. llll)ll'ti .ll i,m . tthnoct nt 1 ~ 111 ;111 cJ r:H i., 111 . O nc :.olu t1 o 11 t.o th b i~ lo l'l'fcr ro ' blac k pcoples'. ' blar k con 11111111 ir it-., l'IC.. in rhc ph.na.J tn 111 1 ,p:fy that tl.ll~l'l' is <1 l,ttict~ o('~lll' h f{I'OI IJl' Ji i.\ a JS(J i111port:ttll lO IJe :11\dl l of. th~ l.lCI th:t l 111 ,\ Oillt' CCJIII CXIS "bJar k' Ca n tJ, 0 !)(' IISI'd in ; I'< II''l \l'n~<.

group~ in

Elscwhcre in th i, u hllllt' ( C:hapttr 1l rlll'H' i~ cli-;cus-;ion ol lang-uage "'a u cxplt'"iou ol patriarrlll. J n't a~ po,tro lonia l II'I' tl'l'' a nd .-:ptakn-; ni nun-'la nd.trd langu.tgt h.lll' protestC'cl lhat th l'i l \IIU'' :Hl' 111 .ttll' iua udihll o r ckrland ilkgi ti ma tt hl' rlw pollt' l of do nlin:1111 la llg'll:lg'l', ,o I\ CIIIll'll ;d,o as~t'l'l tha l ril e~ a re 1o i n l e~s in l<lllg-uag-t.. \,in th l c a~l' of la ng uagt ;HHI t 1 .1 " di -:ru" c d e:ufi tr in 1his c- hap te r. th t n msic kr:n ion C)l' lang uag<' ancl g'l'llcll' r :.t'I'I\'S a' .1 rc mindcr that a l:lllg uagt i ~ 11 11 1 ll t't'I'Ssarill o lll'\ o \\'11 en n il' ont is a n:li\t ~ pcak vr. J'h l' lllt':ming and the po,,cr of'lang11:1 g t is dtlt'l'lllinc cl b~ social prar ri cc: l'l'<.'ll a na1I't' ~ p eakn ma~ be mute ur dumb in cer1ai n ' l'lli ngs. T hc la1v ol 1\"0ilH'II lang uagc u'e rs. sug-gcs riun i-: rha 1 r h i ~ i' 1h1 In lhis I'C'-Pt't t. Echlin .\rdtntr ( 1 ~1 7--1) snggl''ll'd tha t 11o mt'll a rl' o i'Lt'll lllell't' "ina i'ICUJ.lll'" lha n 1 11 l'll ' ))~ 1\'hit'fl li t' llll':t lll that tht :ltl'll;t-; Of p11 blic d SCOIII'S(' <ll'l' t ~v i ca l l ~ dclmi nall'd h1 lllt'll .1 11<1 tl w l:tng uagt' of pu blic di ,co ur~c i' '(ncodc d ' 11ith ma k llleani ng-; (. \ rdl'lll'l', 1!17 1: l iii). T lil' i1 11plicalion of lh is ror \\ OIIll'll i' lh at thl'\' 11111'-l ~t rugg lc tn lw lw.1rd and th:u l hl'l 11111\l learn male bngu;tgl'. Rnbin l.akofT ( 197:i) i, .111 inllut'Jlli.tl e.1rh 1uite1 in thc di ,cta...~ion of \IOill(' ll :111cl

72

lnlroducing Cultural Studies

Communication and representation

73

la ng u.1ge: IH'I book / .11 IIKIIflgt' ru11/ \\ lll/1'11 \ 1'/tr,. 11h ir h 11 ,,, ha-,td 0 11 1he oh-,tn .u ion of l ~ta cllln :1 nd her fril'mb' hcng uage u~c. ~c t :111 agt'IHia loa iltl' d i'c""ion of the lopic, arg11ing rhar ,,onwn 's langnagc , c haractC'ti,ricalh 1\'eak in foam (nor in rontt'lll) ami rha1 rhi' lir~ IITIIIIirh 1\'0illt'n~ 'uhordin;llt' pmilion l'IIt'l' lllt'll. 1 he tha t;ancTi-,alion of' ll'onlt'n \ lani{U.lgt ,,, ,,cal.. t'C\h on l.akofr' ,,,,earion th.ll II'Olllt'n ~ 'Pl'l't h h,,, more '1,11{. li1rm-, rh.llt nwll\ '>etTh ..\ L1p<'alex.llnple ola rag lollll , rlw 'lall'llll'lll 11, a nict cl;l\, i-,nl it:: in thi' example i,n't i1: , rhe Tlw '\>l'otkl'r i' 11tH ,cekilll{ infotnt.llion hui tonfinnation: thcn i' thl' dc,~;irl' 10 ,1( hit'lt' < on't'll'll' ll'ilh tht lw.trer a nd 1hl' ht'.lll'l" i' ill\ iltd lO pan ici patt i 11 llw '''"l' nH'lll ollld 'h:llt' 1ht IJll il'l. Lakof r S <otllt'lll ion i, 1hat 11 onttn' 'flt'C'ch i' IH'a kl' r 1h:111 nHn ' ll'" dtc i,i1 t' and fu nn innalhlt" "'elul. l.abm 1l!lliti). in hi" l'l'~tarc h 1111 l.tllg'llagc a11d d:h~. t!Oit'cl a g't'tHil'ltcl clifiL'I'l'lltl' i11 l:ll1g'll<l!-(l' IISl' 1\'ltich ~llgg't''iL'clih.ti \I'Oilll'll l\l'l\' lllOH' dl'J'cl't'lltial ; mclll'~S :1-,~t' tiI'(' tha n nttn . 1 k found th a t lo'''l'l' miclcl k-d: t' ' 110il1t'll ll~l'd fc11l'l' ~ tig rnari ~tcl f(mll' rhan IIH'n ,, tht -;;nnl' '"cial l'las,, T IH' p inllrl' 1h :11 l'IIH'r.(t'' 11<>111 iiJi-, 11ri1ing i~ 011 ~ o/' liiglil~ g'l'llcll'rcd ~ pcer h: lit e n :~re.: 'aicl to mt ron1 w1 i1 i ~t, ag.;n.,.,il't' ~p t'l't h ll'li ilt II'Oilll'Jl 's 'jJt'l't li is coopcratI'C.:. lkiJora h Tanllt'll ( I P~H)) oll ',l.( ll l'\ 111.11 clt:lr:tt'll'J'istics of't ll e 111'o lcH'Ill' nl'spl'ech a re so cl i-,tincr il t:n t:tl k hl'illt't' ll ll ll'll :II HI II'cHHt' ll rl'al l~ nprt''t' llh .1 l'onn ,,, < 'J'<Jsvcu ltu ral cotlllllllllit :tlicJII . In ilit langn:tgc of'l ht S;1pir - \\'lwrf l11 pCJ!Ili:, i., 111t'll :uttl II'Oillt'll i11h:liJi l d ilfl'l't' lll ihtHt.~ lil ll'tJ tld '. l l1v t li :t r:tne a,tic~ of' 111.ill' and f't'llla lt t: tlk (l annvn l~l!lfl) :1rv .J' folloll-,:

''A'

Figure 2.4
I C' I 'Ill ~

Communication between men and women. (Source: Flemi ng, 199 2.)

ol' do111 ina1ion :111< l ~u i Hli'Ci i n a ti on . . \ lthoug lt T :llltHn , l111di ng' :tll' hro:tcl il

COII S i ~H'Il l 11i1h Jlit"l ' of .\l'cltllt'l' and J..1 koff'. ht t illlt'l jll'l'l:llielll Hl't'''l'' l llhtll ..d

.\InIr 1 fl!l,

11 t'l.tl'( ",., lttdqwtttft IH 1' lttlw lll:tliott \llt'ttl ion Hi~ t.tlk 'lupcr101 iJ, I'IIIH't lul

1 '/11(/h l id/: :\('1\\C!I k 1111 imaC'I

""" ing -;, llltltt'ln '>m.tll l.tlk fnll-1 icu i11 l't>l\l'llt"

l'ht b,uc.: ol <1o"-tlllllu .tlt onamtttlicalion ht'lllt't'll 1111'11 .uad 111 lllt'l1 i' .u ldlt'"t'ri in tlil' c.:.u toon h1 J .tt k1 Flemin,!{ in Figurl' ~.l.

differc ncc (p. 1 :\14~ I':JIIitt 1hau '" llt'l' :11td ,ubonl iu.nion. 'ihc thw~ ll<il ,,.,. I\Olllt'll" ]angu:rge ,1, inlt.aior lo tlll'll, "' lor lwa. 1he tilo langl~:tg~ , "."t: dinc ttcl loll.ll'<~' thl' r rra1ion nf dill'trtlll di-;course,<, (p. :~O ) .tbotll 11ie ,,otld. l'ht' chfft-ntH e d.,,., 11111 rntph that II'OIIH'n, t.tlk i~ 11i1ia l o1 h" lunuion.tlh ll'-eful rilan lllt'tt.,; inclnd '"l' 1\cHtld argue 1h.11 1\'uJlltn, t.tlk ha' 111<1111 po,iri~t lil'llll''. 'trnsing. '" i1 dot'' incl1hion r.uhc.:a rhan exd11,ion .md t<Jop~ 1.11io11 r:nhtr than cumpetirion. 1ht po"ihili11 ol irllt't pteling gl'tHit'J'cd '>ecch a<> diffcrcncc 1.ll~lt'l titan l~itt ,u ~ l11 tTlllilld"u' th.lllall~ll.lg't' i' l''\>l'l'"ill' .tllcl ht'IHl' nptn lCl llll'l'IJI'l'I,IIHlll .. \11\ clht 11"1011 of languagt a< a JIHaniugful "''lt'lll 11111'1 lakt an 011111 of Jlw lllt'llliolh ni iiHN' ll'ho lltll'l' lallg'llagt ,liHithow 11 ho htar tht lllll'l ;tll('L''- ll OthtT 1\'Cil'CJ... ltc111 'JWl'l h at h olll' trammitlecl ancl 1('( t'I'l'ci. '1ht t'lhllograplll of' '(Waking i~ (llll' ll'Chllique lhal l':\plot l ' ' hm, mcaning , gt'llt't .lltd :uad l'l'al uatccl i11 ' peech .tt h.

2.4.5

Language as culture: language as power

lkborah '1antwn " II'OI'h. i nt rcJclnccs tiH' ro n.-.itltt'<t 1j; 111 of' < 111 ill1 pon :ttll issuc in 1hv ~ tuth of' la nguage. l'tJJII tn 1111 ica 1ion and rcpr<:stlltal ion . l'hl' cli-,ut."ioll of' la 11gnagc.:: u'i ng a 'nt iol ing11 i~ t k 1nodv 1 11 as akncd m to 1 1011' langnage is t' 1nlwdckd in soci:li pr:tr 1i<'t' and l1:1' drall'll :tll t'lllion lo tht ll'a~s in ll'hicli l:ul,l.{ll<l,!{l' is ' 1tlf'nsl'd ll'i lli th t -,ig llirl r:lllt sJ1li<'II Jri11g pri ncipk-, of' 'ol'iel1 . \\'e h :tl'l' l'X:t mi necl l:mg ii:Jg'l' i11 l'l' la1 ion In t l.l'' r.1n. t' ihllkitl' and gtllckr: rgtt<lhl~ . thl're i~ al~o a c:t~l' f'or lookillg' ,,, .1 gv. \'o u llt:tl ll'isli Lo con ~ id tr 111 i ~ a~ a projecl as :r ,,a~ oJ' putl i ng i1 11 o n w rar io11 'onw oJ' tltl' idl'a' all{l :llt<lfl-,i, 1h :11 \ou han lwen pre~c nt ed ll'illi i11 1hi' clt :t >lt'l. Tltt 'ucinlillgui,rk .an:tfl',is ih;n Ita~ httn c.:'111plmecl in thi~ chapttr ha.; link<cl l:r ngu.tgt 11 i1 11 hivran hic' of' pm,tr: 1ht :11 g tlltH n t ha' bcnt :t boul iiH poli 1it" ol' la tH.; n.agc t''(lll'"t'd lllt'l :t phur i<.t 111 i11

2.4.6 1The ethnography of speaking

Erhnograph ic inqui t'\' ' l'c k-, lo 11ndcrsr:llt rl < IIHI account fnr ~oc i a l lwha1~o11t lro111 tl.tt' actors' poi111 ~ o l' de,,, l'ht nl c tllnd ~ :11c.: ohsena 1n 11 and inqtliaY; cla1:1 are tnlet )rt tc.d 111 ICrlll S Of':t ll'idt 'Ol'ia \J il'itl - tii C i1ll l'11 lillll i ~ l OIIO(l' Jlw 11':1~,.; i11 II'IJil'li ..;ct:i:tl hl'liai'Jc )J ir is lin kcd 1 0 t'\'t' J1h, itkas .,,. ill ' liluticlll' 111:11 are prc..;t nl in 1h c lil'ld finq11i 1 ~. '''llt'i litl cxpli c itl~ or 111pl il'il l ~ . TIH: l'tlinngraphl' or ..;pea kin ~ t' X <llllIH'~ ' Pl'l'C' Ii :tri ~. l> nlh natur:tlh uct lll l i11g ;nad txpc tinwntal (~l' l' :tl-:n L1h<ll. l9 7~b) in o rdtJ lO dctt'l'llllllt' th t prinr i >1~' 1haL Kt' lll'l'alt' a nd ' " :~ w 'Pt'l'c h i11 a giwn ..;ocial -,i 111< 11 io n . In 11 tHil'l'l:t ~ i11K llw re!>t>arch, l'l'l'\' dtlai lcd infur111:11inn i' IH'cckd about 1he panicipanh - ihl'lr backgrou nd. inrerc'" ,oti.tl and pn-,onal charactnistics. thl'ir inarr-,t in lite \petc h cnroUill~'l'. c 1 c. - ancl abou1 llw st ui n ~ - the pu rpmco; aml inwn1 of the spe('Ch

74

ln trod ucing Cultural Studies Communication and represenlalion 75

Selpc 111 l' J"ou,11h"' or pa r.lfll;l11atlf 1clii11L'IhiW1 1 me1,1phor In ahb c:l,t', allh o11~ h lfl t'l't' , ' ll''P' Hl,t' it , :111 inapp1 opa ia 1t' eme in lt'l "'' of tite e n count er :1' dc,nilwcl ( ialht ' ' ' n' l betll'ecn 1110 acquaini:111Ct' '): l01 ll'h ;1 lt'\t' l l't':J"n .
1

--+--------- 1111(-(CIIl\ 111\

Figure 2.5

Cumhin,1111e ''nl,l~m,J i il el mtn-1 on

1'\ rcp lkd 1-ith an tliiUlll\l'lliona l p.tr.tdi~matit t hoil'l. Tht inlt' lll 111,11 h:tH' htTit to clisconcta 1 . \ . 111 .11 o id 1t 11 1h t a <on1 t'l',at ion. or ht'tau 'L' B , dl'al .m el 111 t 0111 "'td a bo11 1
he ~itualinll in 1dtich thc t'lltlllllllt'l , takin~ place. \\'hill' 11111. llat rtotclta. au,l\ gttt'" ,,hic h , tlat mo'l likth t'\f>l.m.uion . tlll' 1r:m"ni11erof lht' llll' ",lgt (. \ ) ttli~hl ht .1hk 111

Syntagmatic and paradigmatic axes. (Source: Fiske and Hartrey, 1978: 50.)
i.1

f hl' llludd o l )J.II \ ldigmatic and ~~ 1llagn1:ll ir e haim u-.tcl i11 tu lt 11 r,tl a nafl,, h ,l\t l>t:tll t:lktll lrn111 11urk 111 ~~ruc lll rallingll i~tit,. T lw lllOcl l' l h;1, )11 11 uwd (':\ ll' lt,iwll in tll.lll\ folllb nf s lru c lu ra lls t (p. :?-1) illquin (' < '1' 'l'( lion J )) Tlt . . r 1 . ' . .. 1 . -- l ll lll ll 111 ti l )(.' .' l ll l.lg lll.tll( l Lllll rl'fl' r' (() l h l' 'l'CJ II L' IHT 11f lh l' l' IHO II IIll' l' : h i1 C l('\'t')()p,; i11 l II I(' IIIIC l'\'l'lll :t ftl'l :II Hll lll'r' \1'hc 11 l'X j) ' ~ c) 1 ' 11 1 ' ' . . . , . " l t"l g l.t)l li LI \ l lt'"lll:t,~ I II : IIH' I'h:t lll is tlll' h oriiO il l:tl .t:\ 1 ~ o l tit e ll la ll'l x - Wt' h,l!;11 re ~ .. 1. 1 ll' ~~n t :tgllla t l c :1x " 1 ll' lt' ''a corn,; po n d illg ft-~ 1 11ll 't 011 l h t 1 P~ '.C ~ I~ lll,lll~ <t~ " ~111cl Lht seq utnr~ n f t'\'l' ll h ll ll fi,Jcb :t' :t pi'Odt ltl 11 [ lh t illlt'l piar 1 >lllltt l1 lllt . tilo .t:-.l'~ .. \t t'\'tr~ pnmt 011 tht par.tcli,!.( lll:llit :t:-.i .; 1he 1,. , a ra ,,.c 11 I)()"Jbl t t ll nJn~ :tl < ti l:1hle : in ~landardi.;<'d t'IHOIIIIItJ, lh t 1 t ' ll'l' comt' llt 1 ' 111 . 1 ,., . . 1 1 . . . ( .1 l':\flt't'l;tliOih >ou t 1 lt' e h u llT thal 1 ~ madt. For t'X '1111J>I , 11 e . . . '. 1 an1uaiJllann~ llll't'l 111 1l1t ~ ll'l'l'l 111 E n g la nd a l1piraltllrcHmttl might 1)(' a~ (( 111 01":
. .. . ,. . . . 11

plact'. lht rcl:uion~hip' ht'liH't'll tlll l't' 11 11 0 an pani< ip, _ 11 111.f.: lH ..01Jl of liH lt,l:.ll(h lncthocl, o l cthnographi< illlntig.lli<~lh ol' l.u 1g u:we , . 11 111 t'X.tlll lllt ' t h l' paradign1~11it dwin,; macll' 11 'fl('.d,tl, 11 'Pt't'< h at t, . ' "' t h

~n~o~ llllt'l'. ~~lw.n

i~ 1.1king

111 trptt'l illl' 1t,poll,t' llllll't' fui 11 (.tllcl pe ,_,ihll mo1 e acn11 .ut'll 1 ht( att't' , hl' "ill h.11 t'
acCC'~ 10 otht'1 inlcnm:uion t h.u , dilfi< 11ft lo U111\-t'\ in 111 i11en l.utgll.tge. Tht ll''f>CIII't'

b\' B m :11 haH' btt'll ~ltllt1ltrl :111d ;uomp;~nit'cl b1 lhreal~:II ilg g t''lllll'' o1 i1 lll:l\ halt' b~t' ll ,ajcl Cjiil'lh 11i th .1 'III IL a11cl th t 'j>l'akt.T . \ ma1 knu11 1ha1 t h i' app:llt' lll llai,l'ltl' actuall~ at' ltr, tn .1 p i1a lt' jokc lwtll'l't' tl illt' 11m o l thcm aiHI -;o, tnlin: lr intdligihll. The p n inl aL _,ll l' , tltat 'fWvdt at l' h all' llltnecliatl' c on,cq utmc fnr th l' tra Jb allill t' l' ol s peer h :1ncl illl' l t't't'\l'1: t'<J IItiii1111 r:ll il'<' r< HIIj)t' ttnn rtquirt, 1h:ll l)() lh i11l t'a pnt Ullti';Jll('t','o in ,1 -.; lli,f at iCI I \ 1\':t\.
T h c lllt',l' lll't' lll l' lll ol tll ll lii 11111 t'.I II't l'lll il lll'lt'llt'{' < IIHl t h t l'XIl'll l lll 11 h it h l i ~ ac hi tl't'cl in >ptt r h :tt' l' is
.1

ll' t' llll ic a l .ut d ' IH'c' i:t lbtd hr:111 c h of' ct h llog r.t p h it i11< 1111 ~

For t'll' l'\ l'\'('111

ti

and imu l\'l, lht p:t i11 .;1:1ki ll g t'ot1 1l l in ..: o l g t. ll l llll :ll i r~l l it'al iii'L'' i11 n rrlt-r to cft' lllt> ll '- ll':ll t'
~p<'Cd l pallcl'l1:-> :ut rl lh l' n egol ia tion uf' aue:11ti 11 ~ ht' lll't'l'll tran s anitt tr aiH l nnilt'l' o!'

or

!III C'r;tll((',;, rfll' 'l';ll't' h f'o 1 tlt t'OI l'' \l f CO lllllll iiiC<IIO II ti\OII'l'' I1',;1 11g ~ j>l 't't ' fl

;1(' ),;

ll a

ol

n11ict~ oJ clif f'lore nt d tu a tiet n,. " llllt'Lill t'' Jact' tn J'ace. a ' in ll at txam pk ahun-. :t iHI

som e l illl'" 1dll'l'l' j>l'oplt t:ll tlltll 'L' t' t:tch o1 h e 1. as in lh c c aw o l lt'lt IJIHHH' ('1111\t'l'':tlio n ~. Rt,ull.; fro111 lh t''l' l'\)>t' l 1lll' ll h in dic:lle that it , on ll H ' 11 rarl'h 1hat pvop lt i11 C011111lll ll C.ll il't' :t('h 'flt'olk ,lh-.ohlll'h .tcrording lO Lht' 1u le~ of ~a.J llllll.ar ancl IIW ftl ll ll:t l principln of l.111gu. t ~t. I IH co1111111111t'.I I\l' < h:lllltl'l , ,1\,til.thk. lor t'X<tmple

.\ :

( ;ond 11101 11in~. ho11 .lrl', o u~

B:

.\ :
B:

\ 't-r\ llt'll. 1ha 11 k \cm. and 1011; l'm fint. l.o\t'h d a1. i'il.l ;
Yt'' l \. l' m looking lcHwarclto 'CIIIlt' g oocl IH':IIhtJ.

on ,,,, 111, ll'lttn flj, clot'' happe11 lt' IHIIO lw '' htn o11h o m 11 hc.:11 u'in~ llw ll'lt'phollt'. l11 'urh .111
11 ho

instanre 'IH'< 'dt lt'nth In ht lon11.il .111<1 lo~iral in an allempl lo coll\t'l t' \an lll t':tlling. Rccnrdi11g'> ol 11:1111ralh o<< 111 ri11g- 'flt'l't h art ollt'll unimcllig"ibk lo lwartr, llt'll' 110 1 pal',t'lll al IIIL' II1H' olt ltt at'< onlin~ h111 lh<>'l' 11ho ,,.t'a'l' then can tllake 11111rt 'l'll't' bccamc thtl .trt ablc.: 10 Ullllt'C\lllali,t tlw rerorclccl .;pl'l' cla :tiiCI nlltt' JIIIwr t'H'lll' th:u g< li'C llll';lllillg 10 p<111tl11:11 ,l,lll'll1l' lll'. \\'a llt'll illTIHa lll' of ll:ttlll.tfh llU 11 11 llg 'fll'l'l h
111:1~' bt' l'l'l'~ 111 j,ll' ;c]j 11,~ llllft'" t lit'\ J>l'l )1 icft ttcf l'.1l ll ll:' of 'Jll' td a Jl<l ll t'I' IIS, 1lllll'.
\O lllllll'

COJlli nw in thi, lt'II lo1 "11111 lim 1 h111 01 P"'l><ht'' of !IJt olllo tlhh ht' lt' 11 1~ 'llflll'lt'lll lO .;;11 th,ll 1he 'l'(lllt'lll'l' . \1' \ 1' l' 'l)ll""lll lla l' "lll:ll'lll;l(l(' . . . . . ), . ) ' " ' <. h 1 ~ 1 '..th t l~ll'llt:ul:lr lt'~pon~t'' '.".~:adt Ollt' ni llat''t' p:111inda1 poi111' lt'prt~: t., a 111 lht p.ll.!dagm;ll lt dfftITIII t lw ice' h.td htT lllll.tclt lh t ll lht't'lll'llllllll~a t llllllt 1\0idd h all' h.tcf :1 dlfkl't' l11 lO lllt' lll olll<l pta hotp' a difli.rt' l1( f()) 111. (ti )' l'Xo llllj>f t:

.ll~e t~ 1 11 1 t'l ~.nic!" mi~l.ll

"""11

11

.\ :

C:ood 111orni11g-. hmr n \'o ll : :'\o1 \l' 1~ 11'<:11 :111cl 1 don't 11';111 1 LO ta lk :~ ho1 1 1 i1. O h. f' n t .\ o rn.

and pit c h :tn cl th t ,L(t' ll l'l'a l dt'lllt'.IIHHII of th c 'Jll'akc l ( ~). "' lht t'X lr.at t lm 111 a 11 a ll q~td inciclt' llt i11 a lllltrd t l' tri.tl ~~~~~"' ('t'l' Box ~.K) .

B: .\ :
In

Bo.\'
t'llt'lllllll tT Lo t l1<1 ,tfJI. 1II)I fl '~Id llll'lilllplt-te h . or <il lta-; lo 1 '111 1 .1 le" 1han t'XJ>t't ltc l c ottl''t'. .\ ll11rd lt r~ l o n oJ lhis romer,a tion -.hm" .11101ht 1 p 0 ,, ~ :

l ll l llg'~ l 'h ~1~ I IU I't' l h~.-. rc~pon:~<'. \1'hi k n ot inappletjll i:~tt. 11 ;1.' )11ol >ahl~ ~ lid .'11 . "'ol' ~1.'11 t' ~ ll c dltTl o / cJ sconnrti Jlg 1h e ht':trtr :11td c ; 11 -.iatg tht
B.

11 lt' .'eu;11 cl tx:un p ie '.li t' co n i.LT!'atin n i' l' ll l ,IJo 11\' 1lw p: 1rad ig 111:1li1 e h o in ltla cl t 1)1
11 11 ,

2.8

t'Xflt'Cil'cl I' Rn' l 1 1 l llR:

An alleged incident in a murder trial

.\ I r:\ . l lll' poli tT ill:tll , II Oll:'' ,lllht~ Iilll' of'quc, li olli ll g at' ll<ll l \Cil ll

:111.- .\lt' l' ln f1j ~ ' li11V111VIlt to \'lllllft:tt hl' bl'fil'IL'cf th;ll \lll l ll1lladtll'<f \O ll a llift ;, ,
.\h~ :\ :

11

.\ :

B:

(;ood lllOI'Ilillg, ho11 < 11<' nna: .\ ' ingk at'llll'll lick<~ l. plt-a-.e.

ll lllrclnc.:cl lwr. \\'hat i' "1ur rt''])C)il't' lll that; 1 1H'It' l ,;;ti el tlta1 . "11.11 1 -.a id 11;as 1 ( illcreclu loll' g .a,p l 111111 de red
(di,bl'lid ) lwa (ai-.ing lllt'JJogal\t');

76

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Communicalion and representation

77

Tht pm cl'~~ ol' .{iling arco unts o J' th c transrll i,sion a mi rt'Cl' llliun of m ean iug in lll t tt hu ograpln ol 'Pl'a kin g dra,,, atttntion to tlw cli,tinctiH' lt',tlu re' o l l.tn~uagt in tontnHmicouing iuformation a n d rq >rncrHing i cka~ <liHI thotrg-ht. 1! , th ro ug'h thc o iHe na ti on :tnd a n :1 ll'~i' ol langu;r ge u~c th a t 1\'t' un ckr~ t ancl h m, l111 i tl \l< tii Cl'~ ol' lllltlllal irHerp t't' t<ll ion 1\'iliclr make trp ~ec iallik ;uc possiblt ( /t' ttkith. 1\HII ).

2.4.7

Language as cornmunication and representation: a surnrnary

oflanguagt 1\ ll not ptolide a hlu c pri111 olt lll' truth olt h ir1g': indccd tite llcxibi lit' a nd indctt' llllinan o l lang11a!-{L' ma\ m;hk meaning. olr tn ddilwr:ueh '-el. Ptople m.11 u,c )a nguagl' e, Jie: otlwr~ m ay c mpl m it w cent c:1 l th e <tc tnalitl' o! tltin g , . f11r c x. unple. e ttite d e lihcrate h n tll'll te 11inn al lang uage 111 :1 ~ lll' ll~td [el ceH tllten:IIH't' bru t;rl ac ti o n l:r ngtagl' o l " " pnr1idc' ill u,tl.llions " ltcrt solditr:: going into :t< 1ior1 art' to ld 10 cleal ,,ith' tlll' t'llt' llll. Lmgu.l).('l' ' cC'k' to t' IH omp.l" c nlture bnt dul'' n o t ddl1ll' it. l.a ng u.rg t' map' th e social [l'l'l;tII ofa ' fH't'< ' h ('llllllllllllill bllllll'\'t' t C oloni st~ it.

,Le

Tlt<:re St't'lli S lO bt a paradox at tll l' h l':tl'l or lan g uagl'. O n O IH,.' ltand j i' el'ft-ctil'l' ;, a 111tam of COillllllllliCation a ll cl I'Cj>l't''l'lllatio n beca u~e j fonn :tlld its a"ociatUI1\ <11 t' Kll()\\'11. regul.u :111<1 C0111't'l1lional : 0 11 t h c ut lwr. the 'ucce s or lallguage \(:l'llh to ckrilt' from itS option;d llallll't' - l i, arbitrary SO <.pcer h COillllllllli ti t~ (;lit <.et' t1lill g l~ 111:11-.t oJ' it a11 ~1 hin g th at tlwy c lloo.sc. Tltt argunrc nt h c rt is th:llthi~ appan111 n mtradit' ti nn i~ Llw es~t'IICe of la11g uage: la n g uage i ~ 1'1111\I/ulnl lh11111Kh di[jil't'llf'l'. l.a nguagt i' llexihlc htc:ru~c it i ~ 'imu h aneo u ,h' both rq~u lmecl aiHl crc:ative. In a n~ spccch an ci thtr frecdo n1 or rl'g tt la tion m ay he <. trc~scd httl tlw othn is a]\\'<1\',, 1hlrt a nd it~ preS(' Il Cl' carries l\illl it tll t' pll' llli:rli t ~ ora 1:\ihll'l' ( f ( OI11ll11111icati on. So cla l lil t', 1\'lltch is madl llp nf' ll~ l ;t ll Cl'' o f' llHilll:tl illtcrpl'l:'lOition. i., ]XJ'>'i hJe bccaLJ~l' Ja n guagl' offc r" tht po-.,ibili ty ol tht negotiation of nw:rning. Tht room fr ltego ti a ti on ma~ d ilftl acrord i ng 10 tlll' 'ocia) situ:u ion ami llw sc rnan 1ic clolllOI 11 : ,,e lta1c ' l'l'll ta r lit T in 1h t c lt ;~ ptcr that St11H' SCI1101lltic clormim h mc I'Ct'l' spcc ialised a 11d precist h1ng tragl - th t langr 1 age of tit e law is onc ~uc h exampk. Yet c'l't' ll lwrc then i, n egotia ti o n . indcl'!l lll<hl legal arg n nwnt i ~ ah0111 tlw m e .111ing of lmgna~e. Thi~ negotia b!t: asp en of Jan guagc S :r111 pJ ifi t>d b~ tllt' /111~\'11'11/I' c Jt a ractl'J' of Jan guagl' - II'Ort ( ~ )t;)l'(' 111 a 11~ 11ll.':tni r1gs. lt j ~ 1he <1CI nf ('Ollllllllll iCa ti OII that rt'l'(a Js tit e pat'l :r ( am ) tlt(' IIC'gttiatecl c lta rac ttT o l' languagc. :l', \\'eincr ( 199 1) ~:11~ 'un'ipokcn la ng uagt i.; la ng nagc ta ktn li>l .:rantcd. spoktn language , la ng u agt pmb le ma tilcd all(l thc rcfore cuhure p robkmati~td . In Olll' llllSpokcn la ng uage ,,e ma1 cs tabJ i,lt cle arl y, linca rh and logicall )' t lw nr e:rning ;me! tltt se nsl' ol' our th o ug lt ts. 13ut in illtnac tion 1\'C canrmt g u:rr:rntCl' :111 ag rcecl u ut con1l' in m e anin g. 11 0 1 Jc:r, l bccau't' 11ltilt la ng tt:1).(l' i<. linea r t hough t i~ tll' tii'OJ'I..-Iikl ( 13loch. 1991: Park in. 1991). T h e a u e mpt lo an ic ulat(' .1 pn:c i ~l' nwan ing nra~ make a pcr,ell1 s peec h ks~. habitual lang uagl' is 'gnclt ttoug h ' for routinisecl int e rac ti on nnd. ns Bourdicu poi111s out. mtldr soc ia l ani1ity i~ on tlt t 'h itlt n~ide o l lan g u age'- tlti:. , III/II'II- anion , o habi tu a l. , o ta KL'Il for gr:t lll t'cl tha t 1\orcJ, are 11 01 nct<kcl l>t'cau~e tltere i' a pr:rttical lll:l,ll'l~ (/tnkith. 199 1). Beca ll'l'la n :,.:n <~ge , ']Wl'i lic. nut gt r1 eral. tlt l' n .rltt'mph lo irttWI <ti C'. w bt c re:Hil'l'. lt:r1 e l o L a ke plaCt' 1\'thin 1h t metapho r, o J' th e .~pl' c ili c bt ngu:rgc il' meaning i~> to bL' <outlllllllicatecl. l'hne arl' lonn' 0111(1 s t1 le~ ol' l;mgt ta!ls ll'l' ,,Jti clt -'l'll COII'i('OU\h' Sl'l'K to COIIH'\' 111l':lllin~ thi'IH Jg h lltt' incll'tl'l'lllillat 1' of' l.lllg'tl,l).(l': poetrY i' OIH' l''l(alllplt-: hnmour. p an icu la rl y tlrt ll'l' j)1111\, ~ .rno tlwr. T ltl' Cl l':ll ii'll' ol k11r g tr:tgc L'Xpln t t'.' rh e upponuniti c~ to tll'go ti:ll t' llll':llling in repr<'~l'lll:llio n and co rllll lu ni cation . Those 1\'lrD :tl'l' not pt>t'l\ hu un" lang uag t " it lt II UIH'I't'h:tl gt''Lllno; 1\'h id t cu nn1 nrc'illl in~ ( \l'l' Ch.lj>LL'I' 'i) .rnd ex ploit tire 01\\ociat ion~ ol \'Oiurllt' and pi td 1 in ~J'L'I'Ch lO (011\'l'l' m e .ming .rnd. of l'Olll 'l', ~ikmt 111<11 speak j)lll\'l'I'IU JII', I"IH' .rna]l-,i-;

2.5

Art and representation

So rar in thi<. dtaptl'l lit' han I''I(:IIIIlll' d ; rall~l' of dilll-rent approa( h e\ 10 la n g u.tgt ami commtll1ication. \\\ h.llt' hcTn part intl.Lrl~ co n nnwd 10 ickntif1 dilft l ellt me tltod' w th c stu cll ol' represct11 ation as tlw1 co nn cct to tit e ex{' rc is(' and di ~ Hr,itio n of pnll'e r . In d enlo ping this r ot11111t' t1t ;tn . 1\'l' c:111 no,, l'n nt' on Slllllt' llH > rt ~pcc ilic form~ ol rq>rtscnta l ion . 1n th , 'l'U ion 1\'t' l:'X >lo re ~Oilll' '"Pl'Cl' ol ;u l.

2.5.1 1john Berger: oil painting, realisrn and capitalisrn

11 1\'a.YI nf '11'1111gjoln1 lkrger ( l\17~ ) coll,idcr, a 111111l btr of clill'ell'lll dimcn,iolh ol th c Euwpt.ur tr:tditioll ol' oi l p.In ti ng. !11 p.rrtil-11l.lr ht ec hol' ' tlll' arg un1 t'llh of \\'alwr lk 11ja1ni l1 connming- th l' dll' c t ~ ol tlt v cx tt'1Hkcl rc prnduc 1ion C)r pairllirtg., (see C h :rpt;r 9 ) . di'(' liSSl'S tl~t' l'l' f>l't' \ t' l1l< llio t1 ;tnd r on,tl'l tl'lion o l' ge nd cr. ancl lo Cillt's tit e oil painting uaclition in thl ckwlo pn tl'll l of \\'t:-.tcrn ca pitali~m. In this sect ion 1\'l' "'l' Berger', :11 ){llllll'll ha' a ~ta rtin g poin t for ronsid < rat io n ol l he con n ct tion o fth e rl'pi'l''l'n ta ti on ol painting to pattcrn~ ni c la~~. capit a lism. g l'ndcr and scxtr:t litl. Berg e r lirst o l':rll le~ca t c~ oi l painting histm i ca ll ~. Despit t tit e l01ct tlt:ll tit e ltT httiqun imoh-tcl in thl' produttiOII of oiJ paint h an h l'('ll kilO\\ 1 1 ~ill CC' i\IH iCII I Iille\, (\erger ( 1972: R 1) argue, th at the p r;H'tin tha t is l.mriliar a~ oil p.tirHing ,,w, 11111 ptrftncd until itwa<. tl ~l'd to exprl'" a p.ll'linrJ, r 1 it'll oflifl'' . . \ rco rdin g to Berg<' r. th is occurred i11 th t sixteen tlt ('t' ttllll'l'. 1[(- J'unher arg ut' ' that . ll'lril t i1 i' 1101 possiblc tn datt rh e end ni th e traditio11 of o il . pai r11ing etndu,il'lh . it "'' lllldtrrninl'd b1 lr npres~ioni,n1 and o\'Crthto\\11 lw Cubi,rn'. T h crl'lott. ' the pl'Lio<l of the traditio11al oil p ainting ma' be rough l ~ se ta ~ hl'l\\'t't' ll 1.100 ami 19110' (197~: :-{ 1). In ~ L r~e r's arg tll tll ' tlt t it ~ tr:tclition o l' ni l paintinf.{ in,nll'l's rl'alisnl. T lti~ d ues 1101 m e a11 th a t it ~imph c:rpturl'<. tlrl' n:r l. btll ra tl wr tltattltc ni l .rllo ii'S th < pai lll <' l to crt;u e th c 'ill11'ion' thatii'L ' alt' ~t't'i ng tite real. Thi' lllllllL'C I ' 10 tht ''a~ in ,,)ti< h m:111~ ol thc painti11 ~;. cli ~c ll ~'ecl h~ Ber~e r clcpi< l objl' ct ~ "' 11'(11 :r~ ptopll', " , '""'''11 h~ ll n ll wi n , A111t11swlrm (scc Fi ~ un ~.fi). In illl irnpon;rnl 'l' ll\l' tll l' lt a ditielll oil paIIl II ~ dq > it ,.. tltt P<l"t'\\Oil\ ol' thO\C ll'h o '' trc pa i llll'd. or '' hn rorn 111 i"io11l'cl tlll' l.lin ti 11~ i 1,,.f. Th i:-. for rn ol r l'J"T~l'lll i ll io11 , con cerrll'd 1\'ith po,,l',..,io n in othtr ,,a1, ;r, 1\l'll. Fir~t. tit e p:rinting' 1\'t'1 'l' tiH' tll\t'II'('S

or

or

78

lntroducing Cultural Studies

rc pr{' scnlatioll ~

Communication and representation

79

a l'l' prl'llontin:llllh l'l'albt. hvg:111 to brtaJ.. clo11 n i11 1h c la tl <' l pa rt o l tht' n( Clark ( l!lN.J). wlto :tnah'scs the itnpn,.;inni'>t 1110\t'llll'lll in an in lhl' collttxt ol lhl Lh:tllgillg n.1111n of Par~ in the ,~.con el hall ultlw niiH'letnth ll'llllll'l. 0 11 ctl't'llth Cl'lll ll l'l. Thi'> l':lll hl' illu'lratecl 1hroug h tlw 11ork

2.5.2

lmpressionisrn and rnodernisrn

Figure 2.6 TheAmbossodors(l533) by Holbein. (Source: reproduced by courtesy of the Tru slees, The National Gallery, London.)

po,~e~~ion~ "hich can lltll\ bt exch.angtd 1011 markth: lht~ :11 ro mnHHiit k~" hirh olttn

Clarl.., argullll'lll , complcx. h11t to ,lltplii\. he atgll<'' th.n lht rc-dLIdoplltl'lll o! thc ('tl of Par' in .acconl 1\ith th t granel 'dll'llll' ' o l B:11o11 llau,,manll. "hctt' the b<Hl k1ard' 1\l'l'l' d 1i1tn 1h rough p1,., i o11~h dln ,lh pop11 lat,d 1,orki ng-cl.t" area,, w:1-; part of a JI'Ot'l'~' o ( Sl rugglt IWIII'l'l'11 'e JC' a J rJ:l SSt'~ . IJ;t I ISSIII:l 1 111 II'<IS pattJ~ ('1 11\CCI'llL'rJ ll'ilh facilitaling the ckploYilll' lll of lmops :a rross th c citl' tn ('Cilllllt r a111 1\'otl..i llg-cht" rcvolt. h11l tht clcleloiHill'lll ol these 1oacf\I':IIS " '"' al'o a 11:11 to ratilln:tli'l' th1.. cli,lriblllion ol capilalbt p rorlllCh w mal..t ll~tm more ea,il~ .llail.thk. l11 mam othn wa1, Par" l\';t'i a 1 1he lord ro111 ol 111<' dl'lt'lopmtn 1 o!' modnn 'orial rtl.tt ions. :'\t'\1 <k~t' lopmt' ll h i11 slwppi 11g :111 el o llw r ao;1 wr1.' ol kisu re too k 1 ) la <'t' lttTl~ ( Wt' ( .h a ptcr ~l). For nwch ni lh t' nilleltT1llh t'L' Illlll'l' J>:u , "'" a c it1 in tlll'llloil. C:larJ.. argut, tlaat impressionist art (a nd tht :111 tl1a1 immedi:ttlh lolltlln:d itl 1\,1, a procl11l't ol 1hi' cuntc:--1 ami i11 suhtl ";11~ acldrn,td m;m, o!' thl' i"llt'' 1hat it rai,ecl. Thc painting' clcpiu funns of citl lik .tnd cit1 ~p:ttl'. :\llHTulcr. 1he1 ol'l<n clepin the olll~ki tl '> ol l'aris and

lctcl t t~ xlrcnwh high IJI it l''. Stcond . tlll' \\'al' 'lTilg lh al is Cl) ll,ll' liCit'd hl tlw paiming itw lf impli cs lh :il 1hin~s :ntd plop ll' ca n be po"l''~t'd. Tht gatv o f the oi l painting tt,tclition , onl' o l po"V''iun. In lkt~tt, ;uguuH'IIl tlll'~t :t'-pech ol oil p.tinting :tll' tiiIII;neh cotll ll'Ctcd 10 lht dewlopiiH'III of capitali,m. 1\hich .,a tnod l ol prodnnion b,t,t'd on tlw ptnduction ol good-. 10 lw htntglll allCI .;uld - 111 be posstssLcl in .. uch a 1\:ll' 1hnt th t~ c:m lw exchangvd. T h e dui1111illll r lass of Mtcl l :1 au ocle ol' production i ~ 1h t' ca pital isl or bollrgcoi' r la ~s. 1l'laich 01111~ lht prupl' rt ~ c tp.tbl<' ul prodlll ing tlw goocl' 1hat are L'Xdl<lllg't'd 011 thl 111:11ktt. In lkrger, I'CI\ tht Jl' l iod ol tltl' do111inance ol oil painting rotn,pmtd' 10 lht tl:t'>\cal ptt iod o( tht domin.tllt'l' ol thi' el." To ~implill hi-. argtt tlll'111 ,Oillt'\\hat. il c.m he ''').().(l''tvd 1ha1 1lw p:tr:tlll'J, bt'l\\'L'l'll :111 :tllciiiHllk of procl ttCIon in this p eriocl are of l lw II'J'L' dt' J> t' ll'd i11 Fig m v '.!..7. Thi' rd:IItllbhip hL'lll'l' L 'It a nntpl'IIil' ctpi ta li.'-111 ba,td <tround IIH frcl' ro111 pttition o l a l.lrge llllllli>l'l ol rdati~th :-mall comptting capitali~t'. 1.-ltl'rl' pictori;tl

or

Figure 2.7

Realism and competitive capitalism.

Figure 2.8 A Svnday on Lo Grande jatte (1884) by Georg es Seurat. (Source: photograph 1998, The Art lnstilule of Chicago. All Rlghts Reserved.)

80

lnlrodLL cing Cultural Studies

Communicalion and representalion 81

""""""'' ''

1 ' "'

li""

Figure 2.9

Modernism and monopoly capitalism.

art'' of jll'li/IH,III'Kf'"' (mi cldle-cla ~s) Jci,ure. rl'lating- to llw <klt lopnl t' nl oJ JH'II lt'i,ure :teli 1i1k~. JWII' cl.t.,, rcl:11ions :tJHI ~ u burba n lifC.. Tht''l' p.dn1in g' ;tl,o hegin tl ll' brl'a h. ll'ith 11 1l' re. di 't li 11 111 . .' o d esc ribecl b~ 13crg tT . . \ g<~cod l'\<lll iJJk ni llli..; can he li ntnd in St'tll :ll , . 1 S111111rr_1 1111 l .rr (;lllndP.fallr ' ('-ee Fig ure ~.;-{). The't' d t'l'dop ll ttn t~ rep resen ! l h<' h egi nn i ng ol' .1 1ll'll' St'l ol re l.ll i on~ . . \ g ain 10 ~ ir np l iJ\ '-0111\'ll'll :H, lltt' n ew pauern i .~ as nprt'.~L' JIIt d i11 Fig ttn ~-~1 . 11 , pu~~ihk tll c n te Sltggc'l that t lle se r:llht l' dil't'tnn t f(H 111~ ol rl'prc,cJH :uion in < lll - rcnlis m (p. (j 1) :uHimodcrnism ( p . -10()) - :tre r u tl nt'llt'd lo pa 1tc 1 ns o l' " c ia l changc~ Hucl j>llll'l'l n l:11ions. 11 hi c h lile~ bo1h re prt'SL'Ill anrl Lo llll il>l llt' lu. So lar. th t pm,e 1 H' l : llion ~ cli ..;crh..;cd h a1( b e<'n one~ of c la": ecuall1 iurpo11a11 1 :trt lhn..;t ol' gl' ncler.

2.5.3

Art and gender

lkrgtr ( 1!172) ..;how~ holl' gt'IHitr rcpn~tnla t ion , in p.riruing art inhNd 11itlr pmHT. \\'ollll'll are clepiCll'd tu he lookcd at b1 nttn ( ~tt al,o ,ntion !1. :1. 1). Thc ohliou..; Gl'i(' ol th i' i' llit nucle. ll t-rgtr argue\ 1h:11 tlw 11ucle i, a 'J>tciliralh \\ 'l''il'l n .11'1 lotlll . rgain par1h ron,liiiUl'd 1\'ithin tlw Eurowan oil painting tr .ulitioll. 1 )(: :trl{lll' ' 1ha1 IIH' n 11d t i' a nlll\l'lllion.tl li um: \\'t 1.111 11011 hcg in lO '<'t' 1hc diiTen nn ht'll\'t'\:'11 ll.tkedllt''' .rnd n11di11 in thl' Elllll)lt':tll 1radilion. In his booh. 1 111 Tlu .\'udt Kentltlh Cl:11 k maint.rim 1ha1 10 be ":tktd , 'i111ph lo hl' 11i1huu1 clothes. llhtr-ea' lhe llltCk ,a liot 111 o f .111. ,\ tT ntcliug lo h1111. ' 1 111tle , 1 101 1hc .\lilrlin~ pni111 ol a painting, b111 :1 11,11 o l 'l'l'illg ll'h icli th 1 p:li 111 it1g :rcli t'I'C''. To m mt degrl'e. thi, , 1rue - a h lioug h ll lt' 11':1\' nJ ~cd ng- a 1111de ~ 11111 tll't'l''i~:u ,. confinccl lo :111 : ilw re an .d., o n11d c J l holll).\1aplr . nudt po'l''. nudt gt.m rrts. \\ 'h:ll i' 1l'llt' , l h:11 lite nudc , ah,a, ~ c1llll't'll l ion :rlittcl - :rnd 1lw <lllthoril.l' fo r its I'Oill'l'lli<Jtl' d C'rI't'' f'rom a cc nail 1 lrarli1io1t o f :1r1. ( 1 !1 7~: t1 :l )
Foi J m, i n~ ti lis. Bergn arg uts that:

in tltt~t p;ltllin~s <li t ' pa,-.il'l.' a nd pu,,erles~ ( Parkcr and l'ulloc J.. . 19H I : lll)): th CY are th e -.ubjt(t ol 11le malt g.rte C'd uh'e1. 198 1: ~ee section 9.:t 1). fh u~. 1hi' co r; ,.e 1 1lional a n cl hnni li:n dq>iuion i, ,,lllll';llt' d 1\'ith po11er ami rtprodme' i<ka-. ol fcmininil\ a ncl m:hutlinill: 11mncn .rre :wailablc to be lookcd at. the' art P"''ilc ldHre 111 en are actiH'. dre1 an: 1a in in i mi tin~ t he luok ofmcn. and ..o un. A' Berger 'll~gt' 'h . t llt~c forms of representmion are not confin ed lll tlll' high .111 u-:~diti on of oi l p a inti n g. lllt' art CITl'\'ll'h ere in comcmpm-;uy popular cuhur e. mo'l notabll 11 tlH pagt'' o l m.h, tircuhuio n tabloid ne'''P:lPCT~ ami achtni,ing. T he 11 aditions o fth t''-l' t~pt' ' nf'reprt' 'l'lllation h an 1 1<11 go ne : 111; 1\ . dt,pitc com ing undt:r .111:1ch. front fcm inists (p. 1~()) am i lht clnelopmtnt modernis l ami pos tm odernis t (p. 10()) fonn ~ of reprcse nl a t ion ( p . (i 1). Hol\'t'HT . lkrgc :r co rne nd ~ that iltt' flg-nre o ! lllt nuck becam<.: mu r h lts!- impol'l < llll innrnckrni.'>l :lrl . ri1ing the c tS<' of \lane l, painling OlrllljJio wltich . hl' suggl'~l.,, l.' halltn ges 111<111~ of 1h e l'OilH'tllions of thc tHt ck (~tt al so ( :JarJ... 1 1'1 '-II'< IH'gics han al~o cTilii'~td a nd redeliul'd th e rl'prtscnl < llion ofilrt 1985). Feminist < fe m a 1t- body ( l'arkvr and Pol lo ck, 1~)~ 1: l'arkc r and Po llo ck. 1!11-17) . In thi." ~e r tion 11'< h al't n l:lltd sonrc paniru l:11 f( ,rms ot' rcpresl'n talion in :111 lo re lation s hip ~ o[ powcr (J>. \1 1}. 11 ran lw ~uggc~ t c d 1hat in 1er~ bmad LL' l 'lll~ dut llin:ull fonns or rcpnSl'lll.tio n su ch ;, n :rli"n (a.., in Tli r '. \111/ia,.lwf111'1 ) can hl' 'l'l'll Lu clt'l'l'iop in ;,oc i l'tit~ of .1 paninrlar IIJll'. l n1his ca,e . it i~ a socie LI' ami a c u ltlll"t' that ill cna,ing h cmp lt a~i~t 1hl po,'-l'. o;.,ion :111d IIJaLcrial ancl >llllbolic ce llt ra li tl o !' pmw,..,ion ul go1 Hl:-.. As ~ocie!l .111cl r ulltllt' s ltilt. 'o do J'onn' ul rcpre~c11latiun in a complt x manntr . lt C.lll be ~urrg(~tecl th at thl' ~ lt i lt lrum tlll' duminancc of realist (p. Gi l lorm' to th:\1 ni b, modernis m in hig-h utlurrt.' connec t'> 10 thc cliflerentl\-pe ol po,~c"-ion :111d rq>rt''l' lll .tlio n ol conutwd itit-. that heg in' to dc1T iop in thc late nimtttnth C'l'lltlll'\ . Furth trmol'l'. it can ht. -.u~gt.' 't td t ha1 1 h o~e fonn., knoKn a..; poslmode rn an a l'o rl'l:ut'd to diiTere n t -.trunurt., o l p owcl'.

~\'onJen

n:-~lc spectator. inl'lllng hi:; looh. rath e r than challe 11g-ing it (Sl'l' al'o '-l'Clnn 2. :~).

or

2.6 1 Television and representation

So me ol' th e mn'L clctai lcd ,,nrk n n rc prese nt:nion h as bee n ca rriccl nnt on tdl'ision. In an ob1iou~ ..,cn~e this ~ll'lll " 1ro m 1he nr11ral importancc nf tt'l e,isinn as tllt. clomin:1111 form of t n n lt'lllporary rt.' PI't'Sl'll l:llilln a n cl C01lllll llll iC:11ioll. \ llllllilK'r 111' difkl't'lll dimensiom ol'1dt1isio n han ht'l'll su hjeC11o dc lail cd ana lysis (stt' .\lwrcrombil'. tmHi). ) \\'ithin nrll u ra l studk.s " " in1por1an1 t.'lllpha,is has bccn p laced on lh t ' flnw ' o l tc ]c,ision prog-r:llliiiiIIg (\\'illiarns , Hl7-l) in that it is recug nised that watching ll'lt.'l'ision is oftcn a11 expe t't'llLt' or a c til'itl' in it' 0\\'11 right. The co ntrast is with 1ht idea 1haL ce na in progr:tllllllt'' are ~L'il'Cl ed carel'ulh lo be 1\'atchccl (11hi c h or C'ottrM' lllil' ."l ill happen) ancl lO !h e idea 111 :11 !Cil'l'i:-iun S Ollle Kind of S lillllllll~ lO parti cu la r fnnm of bchal'iour. ILnm1 be cultun: in 1h e scn~e of a tcxl, but i l is also :1 cenit al pan o l l'l't' l ) dav lifc. 1-lowtn r. dt,pitl.' tlli-. t'nlph:t~i~. thtn hanl wt n a numbc r of impona nl anahsl'-. o f diiTc n .'tll p;tns ol ll'it.'' i,io11 p rogra mn1in).{. For txample. examination of'tele,i~ion llt'\1 ~>

In thc :ll'tragl' Europl'an oil pai n1i ng o r !lit nmk tli l' pt ita ip:r l prol<lgonist is ncnr p.titlltd . lit' i' lh t ~pcc1 :u or in front uf't lw pinun .111d li t , Jll'l'~ l llll t'd lo be :1 111:111. l:l'l'ryiltt1g j~ cJdn,'-t'd lO flim . J-:ll'IYthing lllW.[ :lJl)>l':tl' l O f>l' lfll' ll'~ ll l t nf flj , fwing ilr trt. 11 i, lor him 1h.11 11ie llg nrt;, han "~'llllll.'d tiHil nudi11 . 11111 ltv. l11 cldiniti11n . , .1 'lt.tllgl'l - 11 i1 f1 h , dollw. , ,ti 11 011. ( 1\)/~: ."i 1) fh l' l''Jll'n,ions nf ill t' nuck. in Berger , argunH'IIl . trt illl ili ng. Tht\ g:l/c tJll( al lht

82

lntroducing Cultural Stuclies

Communication and representation

83

dt'IIIOil'll:ll<'d th,ll l lOIHbIIl'' ,1 lllHIIIJl'l 111 dilfcrt'lll tht'llll'' 10 ploChl<l' ; p.utindar nll'~~ag e ..-\s ;11\':1\ ol brin.~ iu g- toge tll t'l' 11! c ,,,in l'o r i ol't hi' c h:qJitT 0 11 ' Pl't ilic H.' j)lt' \l' lll<ltion.ll lt'Chllifllll'' ,111d lllc' 1''\l'lt bt of jlCIIHT. 1\L' wi,IJ 10 ( Clll( hu k\\ i1h \Clllle consick rmic >1 1 ol illt''t' t upir ~.
11 ,1._

L \BOUR

Th~

ll\n ,iclc, ot 111dll,ll\

\1 \N\GE\\ENT

2.6.1

The language of industrial disputes

d.11 111. dtm,lnc1. di'< li'>'>on
lhl l 'o l l , llllj>ll'<ll - - - -

One o J th t :l l'!.~a ' o r lt'l'\''>OII tha t h:l' t' lll p ha, bccl llt' IIII'<IIII , 11\'11:>. -, deli,ion ncw~ 'tTk' to loJ\\arcl e l.tilll' o l objec t i 1 i 1 ~ a nd :1 h~c n u ol' ])j; , , In :1 ' L' I't'' ol ~ nu l ic s rl:l ti ng l'rom tlll' mid - 1 ~ 1 7/J,, thl' Gl a~go11 L ' n i ~tr,i tl :-. ~toclia Gmup h,t, 'oll!:('ht tn auah~t ancl lllt im:u ch 111 to ntt'' ' IIH ''l' e l aim ~ . lt' ll'cll k h,1, ra ged :tt l'!l" 1he rq>nr tJlg' < JJ it ldu,trial di, putt'' tlw Fa lkl:lncb \\'ar. thl' 1nace tlloleuwnt ol tlll' 1!lt\U:.. thc 1\riti,J mitHr< '" ike o l l~lK 1 .md . \ ID ~. ~nn11 111 tll t' nw'l rk t.li ll'd ana l 1 ~b e x: nni ncrl tht 11 ~c n l lang nagc :tnd \ j,ua l' in tlll rq>ot ting of 'indU'\11 ia) c(j,putt'' in llu i ~)jfl,. 1 ht'' l' di s plllt'~ 1\'l' J'l' rep<>!l l'cl i1 1 lcn ns o!' a t' Ja, h betll't't'll lll'n ~i t k~ . u~ i11 g :1 re i:III <.: il' n;IITOI\ 'l'l ef 1\'Ul el'. In lhl' clcla ilcd cxand nati111 1 o J thc l<>t.lhlti,Jn IN'cl 1\c' hall' dtlnon,ll.lll'cl that iu cli'Jllllt'' thl' 11 :1 di tio nal 'olfct , n f lll.IIJagt'llll'lll .liT inL"d t.lhh ( Ollnl c'l'l'd l\1 ti H 'de111<111d'' nf 1\tll ker'- 111 tl!c poin t " hl'rt llOllll' ancl \1'1IJ, clt,n ihill!{ m.uJa~l'llll'lll :1ttinth .11'1' gt'IH't,!l h po, ith t 1\ hill' thl' lll:tlr hing- \'llr :t h !ll.tr~ I>I' II'<H k<t , <lt'tion~ i.~ mg".Uilt'. ((;1 .1'\.(cm L II\'l'l,l, :-.kclia (:wup. 19HO: 1 01) ;\ l,ln:tg t'lllell l \\'as Sl 'l'll ,,, be lll:tking olll' l'' a rca'iona hk ' ac tion . 1\h t'l'l':l~ II'<JI'ktr, lll'l'l' ttllrt',l'onabk in utakill){ '<letn.uHt,. T IH '11).\'Kt''tion i~ tha t t he la ngll.tgt uf 1h e m\\.~ rt' porh i111 pi its th:tl 1,..,, kt r~ :11t C:ll l, 11g 1rouiJk l'o r 11 lt' lll:lll:l){l'llll'll l a 1HI l ht ('<Hlllll'\. -llh' conn-ptu,tlot g.111i,,uion of incllhlt ial ne11s i' 1 q >l'l''l'llll'cl diag 1< lllllll.lli c ill ~ in the

l - - - - 1
1

oill'l (OI1(1.'''ion. lh rt.l l, Jl'\ljlll'<ll

1
1

1
\\llr~

111 rull.'

'lopp.n~e

1.'11.

RESOLUTION

,11\,ml, <h;al. ,\greenwnt, 'tlllenwnt F igure The concep tual organisalion of industrial news.

13ox

2.9

The conceptual organ isation of industrial news

T ht., e ddici t nc ic.' . a bsl'n re~ a ncl cli, tortin n' !llal ht~t bt illll'ti':Ht'd 1 ia a cliag r:mtm; n ic l't'( )J'C'~t' lll : lli o n o l 1hl' n HlCcpt u a l org:u1 i.'al io n of i 11 el tl.'il ri:d th'\1',, ( Fig ure l. Tite ' trt'c o t diagra111 , maclt up o l tht 1110'1 lrcq llt'lllh nccllt'I'II){ tl't lll' i11 tiiC' barg-ai 11 ing. hrl'akdol\'11 :111d l't'Mllut ion st agl'~ n f tlt t' ind u ~ tri : ll rc l. u ions proct '~. l t , arrangtcl H' t ticalh ,inn it H'(>lT~ttll' .1 ttmporal a' ll'el l :1' a logic:1l ~t' l(lll ' ll \l'. Tht n lttgorit, :dio\\' o nh tlH' 1110'1 si 111ple <li ... tinnion' to be lll<tdl'. T IH 11 011 11 l'orahl il;ll 1 clot'' 1101 prm idl' a hala tH l'cl ,l'l ol' clt''ictiption ... of tlw ~~H alled free culkrt in harg-a inin.( :1ppro:1c 11 lo inclthll ia l rt"l. u ion'i. 1 1' 'u eh a p l ura l i ~ ti c a ppt oach 1\ t'll' 10 OJ>l'l'at< then :ut a lllllHiwr ol ke1 ll'l ll h '' h ich ate <tb . . e ntll hirh
-+

1\'cHlld ltal't 111 he prt''l'lll. Fn 1 1xantpk. laho ur II'Oiild oll ~'l' ai!Ci tn;lk t CCHit't'"ions and 111 , 111 , 1 ~~llll'll t 11 ould 111 ,11, 1 daillh :mcl clctuantk Enn lt'"' d o tltc1 .tllol\' .~~olll fol' tltl' l':\ pl'l~~II Il offlllid:tllll'll l<IJ cliffcl't'll tl'.<; p( \':tlllt'S li:l'l'd 0 11 das~ oppo~IIIOI\. )l'tt' unitu \ h ' lllH: ol rdet tnn ,J,e,, td to11.11'<b tnana~emtn t. 1 lt' <lll"ll<l~l' llll J '.1 . ' ' . 1\'l!o e=-t~rris<' conllol a~ ol' ri~ht'. Tht d u mi 1 Lilll 1a lue assumpuon~ \\'hJc h are e ntailecl b1 thi' 1il'\\ Jimit a nd q 11 ali l ~ t h e n~e ul cau,al an<l interprct;t ~IH' conc~p t <> (t.g. co nCt'ph 1\'llit h llolllcl L''\p la in bl h.llio ur in ll'ltlls uf .d a" l ll' ' r<.ICitl'.:ll ' lm bi o ru o ll ~ a~g"l'l''~''T l'!Jilll()tallotls). o ppu~I I!O il llb t(.',H 1 o1 'milil'ln t' . 11 ith ih . Th i;, d d ic ic n t 1 i, JI tllc 1110 1 e wrio u.- ht( ,lll'l' nnnt \\'o r k b~ :-.t oo~ l w mc on po litic 11 con,r io u-.mss :tnd hd ich aho111 cht~~ in 1\rit ..lill rt'lt'ab th.ll 111 till' ;.,... prrnption o l tllt da"' \\Sil' nl i, clidmtuntou' . l t " l'lT\ r. l o~l' tu th c "' ~~el 111 ' tltcm ' 1i1. 1, . \\'ht'll a-.kr d in a pnlitkal ro tll t':\1 \\'h vth e l the re '' cla~~ ~lll t~gk _111 Bl itai n 1110, 1 pl'opk sccut 111 bdit~t th.ll tl wn ,, C.tll up , JIIHH'clt h.ll tn ~la 1 -~ ~~ / -~ : 60 pc 1 ('t'lll uf thc respo !Jclc Jll ' hclil'l't'cl lhat tlll'l't' 1\':IS ~la!>!> ~ll'llgglt: ":'".lt. ~2 pt~l u :nt olthe f)ail\" 'lih-grttf'li poli in thc ~alllL' l'l'.ll' al'o bcltt'I'Cd th::u tlu: t~ '''' ' cl.1' ~ 1 r 11 ggk . 13tll ;;~ the hiii ~Uaf,\{' ul ll L'\''' rcponing riL:ar~ ~ rt'l'eab. t l u~ do cs tHII apptat 1111 0111 'lll't'll' 1t , lc " t i11 the pnKt''' uf tlled tal!on. ( ,1 "'1.\'"". L II\tr'"' ,\ kclt .t <>tH> p , 1\l:-\11; li'Hi-)

. '"c.'

84

lntroducing Cultura l Studies

Communica tion and representation

85

t'X Ir:1 ct frn1111h e Cla~g-o11 l 'ni\'ersi l,- .\kclia Crnup \\'l1 id 1i' t''PI.liiH'<i in lhl' arctl lll)l<Hllillg l<"'\l in Bn'\ ~.\!. .\ccorcling tt tht Cla,gm1 !{rc>up. ,-i,ual' in ntll~ lndk1i1h :ut al,nu~ed in .1 ,l.,111L'<I' lll<IIIIIL'I'. I n paniud.tr the ~tal\h of thl' per:-on 11ill aflnttiHi li,u.d IL'Jlll''t'lll.llion. l t is ohLn ll<ltl'd 1h.u 11'1Wn the~ appear on tele,i,ion. at.tdlmic' .tl'l' H'l' ofll'll ,IHm n in front ol .1 hookt.ht'. Thi' mm he taktn 10 'ignif~ (or cknotl') thl'il k.u ning. b111 alq lOillt'l' (ol connotl',) ~ome nea<oure ofauthori11 . IJlltnitlling .111 .tt.I<ILmit 11hill' he or 'hl' i' c:ngagt'd in ~onw other :hfX'ct of 1lwir worl..ing lile or claih HHIIHl nlight np<.tt ~<mt ol 1he~~.. conception~. fl~,,ol..er,are ttflt'll illlenit'llt'd 1\'hik hal'ing 1hdr pl.ll'e r nul... In 1he (.1.1'1-\''lll' l ni1er~i 11' .\1<-dia ol 11'o1l... acacltmic' llt'llT in lhL uni~tr~itl c 1 Gro u p~ a n al~~, ' uch cli,l i nnio n~ enn conw <Hll in l hl' natll rt ol lh< cap1ions 11,ed to labd cliflt'l'l'll l ,.i,11.1 l prt,ent:uiom. Eq ualh i1npon : u11l ~. lht-rt :lit' grc:ll ,imil.irilie,

Defming tolltt'fll

2.2

of society, is at the same time its ruling intellectuo/ force' (Marx and Engels, 1968: 64). lndeed, these ideas are part of their rule. They serve to legitimate their dominalion (e.g. the Swedish ruling classes legilimating capitalist modernisation with ideologies of both progress and tradition - see section 4.2.3) and to reproduce the unequal social relations from which lhey benefit (there are a whole series of arguments aboul how education 1s part of the reproduclion of class relations, e.g. Althusser, 1971 , and Willis, 1977). Generally, then, ideology (the realm of ideas) is seen lo be shaped by something 'deeper' - the social (or class) relations wilhin which people live lheir lives or even the economic organisation of society (or 'mode of production') which shapes those class relalions. There is, however, a recognition lhal ideologies have real consequences. They operale as 'maps of meaning', used to inlerpret and define what is going on. That they work better for some groups than others is the second componen l of Marxist lheories that Williams identifies.

ldeology

Theories of ideology are an allempt to understand ideas in tcrm s of power (p. 94). This has been most fully developed within Marxist (p. 97) theory (see Williams, 1977) and what follows is a consideration of that tradition and critiques of il. Raymond Wflliams (p. 5) (1977) stresses the various meanings lhat the term 'rcleology' can have from cxplicitly acknowledged poltica! ideologies to more subconscious 'common-sensical rneanings' or 'taken-for-granted beliefs'. He identifies two components to Marxisl understandings of ideology: ldeology as the ideas of a particular social group. ldeology as a system of illusory beliefs.

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This is the argument lhat social groups (and within Marxism lhe debate has revolved mainly around social classes) have particular beliefs associated with them. One source of lhis is Karl Marx (p. 97) and Fredrich Engels's The Germon ldeology. In this critique of idealisrn (a way of thinking that identifies ideas as the main properties of a society) they asserted lhat ideas were not independent. lnslead ideologies come from social classes in lheir social relations with each other. Or, as janet Wolff says, 'the ideas and beliefs people have are systematically related to their actual and material condilions of existence' (Wolff, 1981 : 50). Ideas, or ideologies, are seen to be rooted in the material condltions of the everyday life of classes (including their relations with other classes). Yet these classes are not equal; some ideas domnate because of the unequal material social relations of a class-based society. Marx sums this up in a famous phrase: 'The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the rufing ideas, i.e. lhe class which is the ruling moteriol force

This is the suggestion thal, because of their origins as part of uneqLJal social relalions, ideologies are a distorted representation of the truth. This relies on the points sel out above lo argue thal there are sets of ideas appropri ate lo each class, generated by lheir position within exploitative social relations, but that people may have adopted other ideas va education, the media, entertainment and so on. S ince a true class consciousness with an objective material basis is being claimed here, then people who do not think thal way are said to have 'false consciousness'. There is a sense that they have been hoodwinked. Their real interests are concealed from them and the real interests of the exploitative classes are also concealed (for example, nationalism which serves the political, military and economic interests of ruling classes might be said to be false consciousness for a working class that 'should' think of itsell not as divided but as internationally united). There are a series of problem~ with these ways of thinking. First, 'false consciousness' is always something that someone else has, not oneself. lt has a tendency to define people as 'cultural dupes' who can be led out of their ignorance by a right-lhinking vanguard or the visionary theori sl who knovvs lhe 'Trulh'. Second, can classes and ideas be matched as neatly as this way of thinking suggests? Can we allocate ideologies lo social groups in this way? Third, can the world be understood in terrns of class alone? lf not, do the form s of analysis (often rooted in understanding economic rela lionships) set out above work for social groups defined in term s of gender, race, sexuality or age? In response lo lhese problems the 1970s and 1980s saw the development of more and more elaborate and difficult theoretical work on the relationships between ideas and power (sec Alth u~ser, 1971, and Thompson, 1984). The main palh thal this took was through understanding language, thinking about ideas not as something 'free-fl oaling' bul as existing as words spoken or wrilten. 1t al so meant a move away from only studying class.

86

lntroducing Cultural Studies

;:;----

This work has stressed that ideology is about the relationship between language and power. lnstead of thinking about ideas being fixed lo particular social groups or about them being untrue there is a sense that meanings are not fixed, that they arise in lan. guage, in communication and representation. This means thinking about many compet. ing ideologies, not one dominan\ one, and about a whole range of social groups. The connection to power lies in the ways in which meanings present lhe world to the advan. tage or disadvantage of particular social groups, and the ways in which those groups can attempt to fix or challenge those meanings. For example, a set of widespread ideas about nalure, motherhood and domesticity which served to legitimate women's dependence within the home benefited and were reproduced by men, but have in many ways been effectively challenged by women. As Thompson says: 'To study ideology, 1 propose, is to study the ways in which meaning (or signification) serves to sustain relations of domina. tion' (Thompson, 1984: 4). This way of thinking is very close to other theoretical concepts that look at the relalions belween meaning and power (e.g. discourse - p. 30) and has raised the question of whether we still need the concept of ideology. Those arguing against using it suggestthat it slill brings with itthe problcms of believing in something called 'the truth', and of being too rooted in economic class relations (Foucault, 1980). Those who want to retain il clairn that it brings a necessary critica! edge to rnakin g judgernents about the power relations involved in staternents (Eagleton, 1991 ; Purvis and Hunt, 1993).

Cornmunication and representation

87

lt'' To '1Chinl' thi~ \l:tlll~ tl ll'\' 11HISI he (.'lllelcil'tl h1 1' 1 cJ t' t t< . 11 .1ptc r 11H'' t, oJ1'. )us e : . l .. 1 :n tlll'ir l>mcl un io n . and bt capal>lc ol' being dtuHkcl bl ti H 1 1. 1 Hl 11 1 O S(' 111\ 0 \ t:( .. tcll thelll T h L I .11 , ._11cia l pltcnollll' ll<t 'u Jce 1 10 ' tnt.u; e .u 10 \l .t lic net"' \l 1 ' 1 1 :HIC . , um 111 11 ,,.el b\ 11 ,111 in th t di.1~ 1 a m repro< unc 111 f(.' ,UICIIh1liP' .11 t ' e11a1l .; T h t''t' ll' 1 F'l, o ,"-e '2 . ro. l lll , ll'k\,t>ll ll'XI lll , j<rn. \ \l'l'\ (enllplt': rllllll'l 1 ll\Oil l1\ ,llll (,\11 1-1'1 1 1 trg u t''> 1 '' 1t ,.. . . l' . . !el in diiTl' tT III wa\S h' lhc .ntclicncl'. 11 a ll idc nti fi c:; lh rcl' po,nten ' 1ro nl lJc .e~c e;c t ding' of ., tdt\ ,u al cJi,cotu,l' m,,\ bt cun,lluut<l' 1 HI~O: 1:\6). T h t>,t' he \I' III C 1 C eco .' , 'e' tit e ' tt <roti ' IICd' 'lllrltlt l' 'oiJI)OSiion a J' ( 1 9~0: l :'.ti- H) . .. JI ' tllt' ' Uilllll<llll ll').{l'IIHlll l . 'n ' ' . , . . . .. , . t' ~ . 1 . . ~ , <111 ( 1 ' 1Oti) th t ltwtc ol l h l' l!'lt\'lston p t ogt .111\IIH " rIn lhl' clom ll ta lll 1egemomc po ' t
gnne :d o n ~ \l'ith .

. . '1 , di, \'t'\le'l' 1.1l..t'> lltt ( OIIIIOit'cl lli(;';I II II!-i il<llll . ~;11. , tdl'I I 'IC~il ill'l\ ~l:l ~l ill \\ 1tll ' , . 1 l, 1. t1 . llll''' l!{l' lil ll'l 111 ' of dtt . 11 tlfair' prog .nllll1L' lu11 and 11. .tn< 1 < t Colt' '' . . . C\l~l~l :, ) .11,\1'lli<h j ) t' 1ll't' ll e'I1COilcd . \ll' lil)4hl ':1\' lll<tt l1 11' l'll'\1'1'1 l\ 1'/ll'lll//1:,1.! rd t' l t'lltl ~ (O( II ' (ll.dl. 1!1:-:0: 1:1h) 111/1' t/11 do11111111111 rt!llt.

'""l!.

TI

Furthr r rrarlillf!
E agleton, T. (1991) ldeology: An lntroduction, London: Verso. Thompson, J. (1984) Stud1es in ihe Theory of ldeology, Cambridg e: Pofity. ( ~lfiams, R. ( 1977) Marxism and Literature, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

1 1 . l<f' 1hi' i' the rlnmin.mt end e of te le\'isin n n ew~ :1bnlll mcluqnal rl to;pule~. clCIIl.lll( l 111 ,-.. . 1 J' \ uc h l 'll'O . , ulir ula ttclth roucrh tlw p r o l'c..,.,ional p rat 1icc' o l' te l'\'l' l<>ll .JOUI'Ila 1 st>. ' !' , \ '\ ' b ' . 1 "11'\ \()l ll'l\' . . )rt''l' nts ;111 inllnentiallonn 11! cnmmon ' L' IISL ' 111 r n t11.t'I11P 1 > . :. . 1 CJ Thl' m golial l'd ro< k 1 11;11 '''o opnatt' \l'il hi n t hi' lra liH'\I'Ill'k. bu l \\111 .'tilo~' .1m. disavrc cntt'llt s 11 i1hin i1. T fw s. 1111 th t basi' of t'Xpl' ritnct, fol' t'X;1 111Jlk . Lht'll' lll.t\ ht

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h t' I\H'l'll 1h e rlillcl'l'll l l t l ed~ion ch.t ntw ls in lile s on ~ o l pic tures :ntd graphic~ ll1at lh t\ ll\L'. h1 ll tt'\l' rc, pcn,. thcu. lll'\' " , roulini~td an d con\l'tl lional. In :tddition Lo tnakin g- th l' ~t c l aim~ lite C lasgm, g roup ~ ttg',l~t'' l that lhl ~u u c lil l'l' o l' lhl' 111'\\'' a iJow<. l lll fll ll rtilll ideologicaiJy ( ' L'L' 1)efin ing C.o n n p1 ~.~) ll t h:ll i1 pruclu tcs a \'t-rsinn o l' rtal il \' 1 hat J'an111r~ 1h c d o 1ninant el a" . 11 doc' no t do t hi' b\ ~i n t p h aCii n g as a lllou lh piect for 1lw g-~>\ CI'I11l lt' lll or m.tn :tge nlt'lll. bn 1 throug lt :1 'L'I of rt' llrl'~l' ltl a l io ll S \lhich \\Sle matic<~ lh s kt'\1' ~ l o rin i11 pa nicu lar dire nion' .

2.6.2

Stuart Hall: encoding, decoding and ideology

\ \'o rk e111 l llll ' d ia d l'\ d o ped a 11() opcra lion:.~l i~cd ~0 11 1(' or llw l..t'\ <k halt'!> 0 11 idcology. In p < ulicuhtr 1lw rt;c,nT h carrin1 out a l 1h c Binningh;tm Ccnlre for Conte mpornry Cuhural S rudics (p. :\27) \1as h u){c h infl n l'lllial. ThL conwrstonc of 1hi<. \1a, lht wotl.. ofSruarl H nll (.'L'< ' I'C'\' lnflltC'tH' t' :!.:!). In ' 1 ncocling clccod ing . ll a ll ( 1 ~11-i!J) ;u g uc<. 1h.u td c\i,ion pnJ~t~u n nH' ' ;mcl h) impJiC<ttlll ;111 eliiiC'I' fol'l n;, oJ' ll' XI. \ l10u ld IJl ltlldt r~ I(Hid ;, ' lll(.'<llling Ju J diSCOUI'SC'( p. :'.0 ). In lhe l.llllo{Uagl' o l s tntcltuaJis m 1p.~ 1) .ntd s emiolics (p. J 1) in tro d uced e arlit'l in

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Encoding and decoding. (Source: Hall, 1980: 130.)

88

lnlroducing Cultural Stud ies

Communication and representation 89 In thl' oppmilio1 1 :tl po,ilioll ll w rl ominant fnune1mrk , diil'Clh n,i,led. i11 a l!,tnlmll\ um ( 11.111. 1\lXtJ: 1:1/-,1.{1. . Thl'"' poten ti.ll JlthiiiOII,\\t'll'l'lll)>ilitalll t<llhicllred 1)\ .\ luiltl ( l!lXO). Rtitt'latinu Jlw inllul'IHl' ol thl' 'ntiologi't l1,111k l'.ukin ( I\J7:1) 011 hi' :md 1la))', po,i lion. \lorle~ fo und t'lidente fo1 tiH' l'\i,tt'IH t' o( tlll' dille:>relll Jllhition' .mton~ ,orial g"lllli)J' lo 1 hich hl' ,IH>IIt'd t'\antplt' ol 1lw B1i1i'h ( 111 rem affitir,. m.l~a7ine progr;mlmt .\fltu111 1 !l'idr(,et' fu1thl'r \ ht'IUolllhit. 19!11}: .\ beiCJI>Illbie and l.ong-luu,t. I!J!JK ).
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2.2

S tuart Hall

(1932-)

Stuart Hall is a l~born intellectual and political activist who can in many senses be seen as the crucial figure in the development of contemporary cultural studies through his own work, his slimulation of others and his continued attention to the interconneclions between politics and the pursuit of knowledge. Born into a middle-class family, Hallleft Jamaica in 1951 to study al Oxford. He was active in left politics and became the first editor of New Left Review in 1960. In 1964 he was appointed as deputy director (to R ichard Hoggart) of the newly created Centre for ontemporary Cultural Studies (p. 327). He subsequently became director, befare taking the Chair of Sociology at the Open University in 1979. Hall's early engagement with the New l eft stimulated his interest in popular culture and he published an irnportant text with Paddy Whannel, The Popular Arts (1964). This interest continued in a number of papers on diverse lopics in the area of media and communication including news photographs, the magazine Picture Post, and news and current affairs tele: vlsion. Hls ongoing concern with issues of race was combined with thls emphasls in the influential (collectively authored) P olicing the Crisis (1978). He wrote on subcultures specifically on l1ippies, but most importantly in the key collective text R esistance through Ritua/s (1976). His theorelical interests were developed in papers on ideology, which were influenced by both Althusser and Gramsci {p. 38). He was one of the first leftist analysts lo confront Thatcherism and from 1979 on developed an analysis and critique based in a Grarnscian approach. This resulted in the concept of 'authoritarian populisrn', The Po/ilics of Tlwtcherism (1983) and New Times (1989), both edited with Martn jacques. Confronting postmodernism (p. 400) led Hall to increased concern with issues around 'race' and 'identty' (p. 224) in the 1990s, when he also continued to reflect on the development of 'cultural studies'. T~1e i~pact of Hall's own. ~ork, centred on the interconneclions between ideology (p. 84), 1dent1ty, culture and pohtKs, on cultural studies cannot be overestimated. He remains al the cutting edge of developments, continuing to argue for the relevance of a sophisticated Marxism to the understanding of contemporary social formations, as well as a force for social change. Moreover, especially during his time at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies in Birmingharn, he influenced a generation of researchers who were thernselves to become some of the leading writers in the field. His commitment to collective work 5 reflected in his joint authorship and editorship of many volumes.

2.6.3

Television: ideology, discourse and power

Fu rl.h er readi ng
Morley, D. and Chen, K .-H. (eds) (1996) Stuart Hall: Critica/ Dialogues In Cultural Stvdies, London: Routledge. Hall, S. and Jefferson, T. (eds) (1976) Resistance through Rituals: Y outh Subwlwres In Post.war Britain London: Hutchinson. ' Hall, S., Critcher, C., jefferson, T., Clarke, J. and Roberts, B. (1978) Policing the Crisis: Mugging, the S tate ond Law and Order, London: Macmillan.

Hall a nd .\ lurit'l .~ argu lllt'lll reprt'St:'IIIS a soph i.;;tiGHNl aCCOillll ni 1hc rt'lat ion 'h i p bclll'tcu media ua,~ag't' ' ancl idcology (p. X1) ancl powcr (p. ~~ 1) . .\ k di.t lll t'":l~n a~t (0 111p lc~ . i>tll CClllll l'('l lo llil' 1'\laiJij,llld J><lllt'l'llS of thl' di,tl ibnl iOII of j)OII't' l .111 d inOucncc. Tllt'~ do not ,iJnp l ~ rdkn tliis. ln11 ;m : ordered in .. nclt w:1~ s :t> lo tdtiul :llt'h rcprtsen t :1 par1ini1;11 l'il'll' .111d L'O ll>ln Jt lion o l tit e ll'orld. T lt csL' m c'.~,a~t, :ti'!' normnlly dl':tl l 11ill1 in ltnns ol lh e dnmi n:mt o r thc ncgoti a1 cd codt'. T lt l'~- n ~ lw ch a l l e n ~ed in a' ptns ol' dvl:til. bu1 not in 1lw ir l'lllire tl'. T lwrc is. tliL'Il , a IH'g't'llll>nir undc rsl:tnding and r<'JliTSt'lllation ol th c world. wh ich bc nelits poll'l' llul gro11ps :llld 111tich i ~ ~ h arcd . a~ a J'cmn oJ r on1n1o11 ' l'llSL'. b~- llit m:uority nf 1lw popuhnicm . TJt j, logic wa' 11orktd ou t lll 11.111 .md Jti, collahorato rs in f>ofil'ing 1111' C'ri.1i.1 ( ll all ,,, o/.. 197K), whl'i'L' 1h c llit>l al p:11 1it (~ct Ch.IJllL'I' K) m t'l ' mu){gin.( gc nt'ratcrl ])~ llil' l~~tdia in tilt' ] !)70s j..: l Cll111t'Cl!'d lO lill' sliiJting p;ll(L>IJl'> Of tltl' rcorg-all\llillll of' \lalt JlOII'l'l' in con lempor;ll'\ B1 ili,J 'ot it'll :tiHI tu the rnmmon '>t'lhc : o l Engl i'>h r;lt>Ill ht'L' funher Barkcr. 19!12). 1n tJte,c argnmen" t lit nwdia :JI'L' St'L'Il 10 act idcologically (p. .; 1). l hc, rcprcwnt a panial ,-iew of the IIOIIcl. 1d1ic h owratts in la,our ol thc dominan! ~roup,. 1 lit''t' :ne some of lli( llH>'l claboratcd ancl cw11plex dc\Tlopmcnts nf .1 ~l :n ~i'' aeccnnll .111d theon ol rcp rcscnlatiou (p. lil l. Ont ol lh<: kt~ prohlenh 11ith IIHm. hcm't'\'l'l. h;" bccn thl' Ulll(l'J>lll:tli,:uion a nd arrolllll or i(kology that lhl'\ conlaill . In p.minil:ll thcrc i~ ptHL' Itli.tllr 100 (]llit k .1 llHIIL'IlH'Il l lrom tlw ana l1:-i' of tlw -'llllrllln o l lli L media lL'~t 10 i1 ~ intplit :Ilion in tiH: rrprocluct ion of commo n St'llH' abotll iJHI!I'll'ial d isp tllc ~ or raci>lll. ~ l o rl' i'l'l't'nt 1101 k ha' sugge,ttcl that tlil' 1 ~ ~ 1 i' ra tl1 e1 llHII'L' compk~ 1h:111 lli L'M' :ttrolllll' .tl lo11 and tlia t its cnllllt'C tion to auclienct~ is t'll'l1 less str:1i:.(hllor11:1rd. Tlim i1 t.lll hl' 111aintai nl'd th:-11 lh <:s<: so rl ~ ol \br~ist accollllt ar~ UL' thal thcn i, :1 rt':di11 1h:11 is npn.'t'lil l'd in tlw media. ll'hicl ulli n;ltl'h ll l i, l 'l'J)I'l'~l' lll ~ thc ll'lll' pil'l ti i'C '. \\'hilt t lii ~ ll 'X l 111:11" l>c' CCIIl l j)k ~. a ll'lllli C:lll lll' J'OllllCJ. 1\'III'Ii i' Olllsicle I'C'j)r(''it'nl:lli on. , \p prcoa c l a~ lha l ofl l'll han ~011ll' of tlll'il' 1'1>111 ~ in tlit \1'111 k uJ' Foueau lt op ).,~t tlii' 1 iv11. 1krt lh l' 1 <'~ 1 i.' i t ~d r al11a1, rJ i,rursil'lh ro nslrnt ll'cl ancl slwuld IICil 1 )1' III Hll'I''I<HH I IIi tll in :1 J'r;lllll' e [ i 'l'Jll'c'~l' nlali o n (;hi t clot, 11111 tt'-j)J'c''L' III ) bu! in lil t' rr:lllll' ni ('CIII\lllll'lion . IL':O.l' :tl't' ('()lhlnll"lt'cl ll"illtin l.lllg'll.IJ.!t'. Tli i' \OJ'I ol' :lj>j>I"O:tl li pl;l! l'' t'lliJ>It,hi' Cl ll t} H' loltl').!Ctrl of dj ~('Oll l',(' (11hirli i\ llf"ll'll lh1d i11 litt llH II< .\l<u ~i' l ,H'lOIIlll' .1, l~e l l - .t l lct~~inL\ 'oliH' ' ll'.tkagt ht'lwt ~n ll~e n 1 ;,, lllliL"h 111 liw IIOI'k in 1he 1!JK(), ,uH ) 1\)\JO, nf 111 iltT' likL .\lo riel ( 1!J\12) and llaJI ( 1!1!1()) inclicalt', ), 1lm1't'll'l'. it don 'ug~L''' th.11 111,- l!'l;llion,hip~ helll"l'f'll the produnion, ,li'IICIIIl'l' and

Communicalion and rep resentation

91

90 lnlroduclng Cultu ra l Stud ies

. f . ~ u-e 1111 ,ch mon 1 ontingL'IIl 1han t'H'Il perll.qh llll' llHI\1 consumpuon o 1t x 1 ' . . . , , ., ,. s - r co ul ;d io"'' 1 he 1 onnp1 "' clbco 1 1 1'~l' ;l( 1 ~ 1<~ Jaci lil<lll' 'l iCh sop 1ll ~ ll catc. 1 '' 1 1' 1 1 '1 11 . . Thu' smnt ol 1ht' c )(Je, 111 C<llllJlll'x 1('~" ma1 ,,ell lw irkolog-ic.tl. . con llll !{<.'IIC~. . . . . Jl o \\T I't'r. ot h t 1 s 111;1\ no l be or m;l\' bt' 1tk-ologwal111 cllffL'Il'l1 1 ''"~ ' - l-< 11 e~ampk. a ll'Xl mav wd l con,lruCL a di'c"urse uf eh'" 1ha1 mighl be 1hougl11 10 hl oppo,itional (tH' non-ickctlo~i call " 'hi le con,lrtlrlin~ a di,conl 'l' of rau lhat , h ighh idLologinll. T hus. in tlw rt'celll Brili' h lt' i!'d'>ion seril'~ 0 111 :-111111 i11 1/11 .\'ollh. a ~l'rie' ol polilit.tl dl'baa, ancl ,ruggll's n n1rcd around '1.1" and ineqn.di11 in B1 i1;~in si n ce lhl' l!l!i(l, wen: dramati,ed . hn L olllt'r pnli1ical i~~ll l'' (n<H.Ii> h o l racl') wert L'IHinh .lb't'11l. .\11 inll'l'l'~l in cJi;;cnur'e i~ aJ,o a >lt'l,tll'lll li.:'.t1\lrt .. r 'o1 ne cmlt'IIIJlOrarl' ' oci.d pwr holngical appmac ll t' ll'hit 11 c ri1icise lite :'ll ar"i't approach. Th , cmpha'i' on d ,cou1 ,t. opn<llt'' to mm l' cull1t'l1l i>"r.1r> rk balt' ;t\1,1\' l'l'lllll l'l'J>I'l''l'llla iLOII , ldlt'l'l'bl rta iII j~ l 'I'Jll 'l'~l'llltd i11 :111 adt'CJllall' lH inadl'CJll:lll' Ja,hion. towa1cl' an t'nlpha._,, tHI the 11a,, in 1d1irh difkrl'lll 1t''\1' t'O lhlllltl dbr<~IIISl'' wi1hin IIH'Ill 1d1 ic h arl' colnpll'xh- rti,\ll'cl 10 lht p rarlit l ' ' a11cl cli,tom,t o l' 1ho'e 1d1n produu: ami roJhlllllt' theu1. l'his .tllm,, a ~n.llt'l ~cope fill 1he Cct n,i clt-ration ol lht 1 11hi t h 1l':'\ ls a rl' :11'1iru i.lll'd ll'ith :t ph1t;tl i11 u( a'wns ol J>llllt'l' (Wl' ll'i<k 1\'a\S i1 Chaptt'l li).

Re-cap
This chapter has considered: 11 lhe significance of language and communication and lheir connection to issues of power; the semiotic approach to lhe study of signs and the application of lhis to advertisi ng; the nature of artistic and television representations in relation to social change and the d islribution of power.

Further reoding
An excellent short introduction to issues of language and representation, especially as discus~ed in the structuralisl ancl semiolic viewpoinls, can be found in Terence Hawkes, 5tructuro/rsm ond Sr?mloliCS (1977). The classic study which appties these lo adverlising is )udtth Williamson Decoding Ad1ertisements ldeo~ogy ond Meaning in Advertising ( 1978), which might be used lo prompt analyses .of your o~vn. Cor_ 1necllons between represenlation and power (especially ol class and gender) are economtCally and tnlluentally dealt with by john Berger in Woys of 5eeing (1972). ]ohn Fiske and ]ohn Hartley, Reading Television (1978) apply semiotics lo lelevision; Fiske's Telel'lston Culture (1987) develops the argument and approach.

2.7

Summary: reflecting and constructing

1ht conccp1 ol l't'J>I't'St'11la1ion . rill' sub~tqu.c l l l eo1 1 ~iclerat i<nl o l _i.lllg llag't' a lHI _ , nm c sp~rilic fi mn~ .1nd tx:unpil, ol 1t'JliT~t'tHalioll ha'. Wt' hopl'. >ollltl'd up ,omt of tht''t' 1\\lll'~ 11\Pil' \ 1 ; 1rk) ~. lkoad it 1\'l' han . ' kttt h tcl a 111P\'('111t'l11 rm111 CUIH'tptin lh uf hlllgll:lg<: th ;ll \ i1nph 1ha1 i11 sonll' ~t'll'L' it lt'J>I'l''t'lll' or t'ntoclc~ 1!11 11111 Id. 01 in n1on :\ l:u xi,l ;lCCotmiS n prtst n 1s i1 p ;tl 'l i; tl h . lo Olit' ldJ tn l'l'Jlr<'Sl'll lal ion i' i 1 1t rea'ingl~- pmbk 1tt a tic. h h:l~ ht'l'll argucd b1 ~onw po'l111ndl'llli-.t ancl po,htlllctlll~lli,t 111 i1cr~ 1hat thc ll'orld i~ actttall> madt LIJ> o f imagt., a tt cl disrolll''t'' Th i.' i' no11 lh t real. In malll ll''Pl'CI~ l11i' ,a mclical ll'l',ion of' lht idea thal langu.tgt dot'' 1101 r l'fJ 1 or l't'Jlll'. ' l'lll. bnt thal i1 ron~lrtiCLS. Co nttnuni r;11 io 1 1 :HHI rcprl'stntal ion 1h tn :l.,.,llllw c rttl ial i1nporlanct'. '1 hl' 1 irttll'lH ,. ancl ~alit nre ol co ntt'lll(>ol.ll'l' cli,p11tt' ' aboul langua~t "'l' and da ...sifi c;llitm are not. thu1 , ~o l lll' sidl'lin c 111 real ckiJ:Itcs: rl c~ are Ct'll lral. 11 'huuld COI1ll' a' 110 'lli'J>I i'c 1h.11 lht na1ning uf gtoup~ and attil'i1i t'' an ol \lllh \ignilit<\1)('(, rht J'ta J S IH>I, itt SOilll' ~('11\l', llllt..,[rlt- IJI!'S\.' l'l'J>I'l''l' ll l:lliolllo / Cllll'11llt' 1ions. Ra tiH'r 1han being jokc~ 111' ~idl' i~~llt'' ma11t-r.s ol lang11a~l' thl' '11d1 ;, 1ht' ti lll' 1 \ 1!. ;\l)d thc rl'cbi111 ing of IL'rtll' likc 'nggtr an a l th l' 11'1'\ h l'art uf 'ocia l a nd poii1i n d \.con 1c,lal ion ( 'L't' llll'llll'r Chap1~r {j).

~lll' hq.{inning of thi' ch:plt'l' 1\'t' inlrodttetd 'omt i"un rai.,rl b1

Culture, power and inequality 93

chapter
1

Culture, power and inequality

3.0
lntroduction

514,'130

1.\HrJ gL' 101 fe,l Ol

IIW 1\iJild

5 1,090

~~~

Si

111 HI

Sl11.111 1i l

S 1 i ih hl

Figure 3.1

The clevelopment gap in 1995.

The development and global expansion of a world capitalist system of production has generated increasing clisparities ot wealth, income and life chances within and between the populalions of the world's nation-stales. In 1996 the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) c~mplimented the British governrnent on its economic success in controlling inflation and reduc1 ng unemployment in the British economy but warned that there might be a high price to pay in terms of social disharmony and civil unrest beca use lhe policies of sound economics had produced a big gap in incomes and wealth in British society. Similar warnings have been given about the relationships between the induslrially developed and economically advanced nalions of the world and areas of the form er communist world ancl countries of the so-callecl Thircl Worlcl. This is a politicalterm which is used to describe poor countries in Al rica, Latn America and Asia, many of which were form er colonies of European sta tes (see colonialism and postcolonialism, p. 189). In all cases the warning is that there are dangers to social cohesion and political stability as a resull of the operation and continuing expansion of the capitalist system. lf we consider the global economic differences between societies, it is evident that the c~ntrasts ar~ very marked in ~cale and conlinuing to grow. Economists speak of these increasing d1fferences 111 lhe wealth of F1rst and Thircl World societies as the 'development gap'. One way of measuring lhe development gap is to compare the Gross National Product per head of the population (GNP per capila). This is the total value of goods and services produced annually in the society clividecl by its population. In 1995 the richest twenty-five societies in the world _ whKh mcluded the United States, Ca nada, Western Europe, Australasia and the Gulf states of the Middle East - macle up only 16 per cent of the world's populalion yet hadan average GNP per cap1tc1 well over twenty times higher lhan lhe average for the rest of the world (see Figure 3. 1). Of course what these data overlook are the very considerable differences in income, weallh and <mocittted lite chanccs lhat individuals may experience witl1in any given sociely. Even in a rich ~oc i ety such as the United States, the poor encounter real cleprivation. Neverlheless, the difft>rences between rich and poor societies in a global perspective are striking and remain an undt>1lymg sourcc of lension and instabilily in the conlemporary world.
92

lt seems lhat the pursUil of capitalist goals is 111imical lo social, economic and polilical egalitarianism; capitalism produces inequality. lt is also becoming more and more ilppa_ rcn_Lthat the sources and manifestations of this inequality are not simply produced by the globallsat1on of markel logics and mechanisms. The cultural dimension is increasingly significan\. T.llis...illWLer explores this idea: first, it examines theorising about the relationship of culture, power an~ in~ng al explanabons of lhe origlns of ineQ.llillily in capitalisl soc1 el1 es. Second, 1 1 cOscr"rs how and whx_1nequality is mainlained_ in capi~alisl socielies with particular reference. to lhe role of culture. Third, it Jooks al systems of mequallty lhat are commonly seen to be rooted a~essed in non-e~es, na~1elyr~c~, ethnicily, a~ e and gender. This will aliow us to examine the principal sources and charactenst1cs ol mequallly (class, s~us a~cas~~), the ways thal inequali ty is made acceptable to people, L hal is how it comes to be seen a~ leg1 llmate, and some of the leading cultural consequences of inequality. In the concludmg secliOn we shall examine the idea that differen t kinds of inequality interact to produce mulliple clisildvanlages. ) This chapler is designed lo enable readers to: unclerstand lhe main structural sources of social inequality; appreciate the various conceptions of the part played by culture in legitimaling inequality; learn about the Jeading cultural manifestations of inequality; grasp some of the ways in which cultural power is displaycd.

9~

lnlroducing Cultural Studies

Culture, power and ineqlJality 95 monuments or the bocly - where we have tried to offer this sort of interpretation. What we fin d is thal power works in many different ways because, as Foucault says, 'power comes from everywhere'; il is part of alf relationships. Yet this is nota matter of reducing the world lo a grey arena in which we are alf totally dominated and controlled by capilalism or patriarchy or 'the system'. There are always resistances (p. 258) (which we need to think about not as qualitatively different from power but as forms of 'counterpower') which - logether with the fact that the forces they oppose are often in conllict produce a vibrant world of many contending people, institutions and discourses engaged in never-ending contests over resources, meanings, spaces, identities, positions ancl representations.

D~fining concfjJI

J. ]
Power

Po 1er has come L o be one of the crucial concepts in cultural studies. lnterpretations of / cu ture that draw up_on ideas of 'cultural politics' argue that everything is political and, as a esult, that power 1s everywhere (see Chapter 6). For example, it is used in this book to ~ derstand relalions of class, race, gender and age; to interpret the body and representa. t ns_of people and places; and to make sense of our understandings of time and space. J s M1chel Foucault (p. 28), one of the theorists responsible for extending the use of ideas f power, put it: 'Power is everywhere; not because it embraces everything, but beca use it omes from everywhere.' To understand what he meant by this, and its implications, we need to look more closely at how power has been understood. S even Lukes (1974) argued that there are lhree views of power. The 'ene-dimensional iew' is_ that it means that personA can gel person Bto do something thatthey would not otherw1 se do. The 'two-dimensional view' is that group A has power to the extent that ~hey ca1~ defin_e not j~1st ~he outcomes but the 'rules of the game' to their advilntage. The three-d1mens1 onal v1 ew 1s where the powerful have power to the extenl that they can prevent people, to_ whatever degree, from having grievances by shaping their percept1~ ns, cogn1t1 ons and preferences in such a way that they accept their role in ~h e ex1sl1 ng order of things either beca use they can see or imagine no alternative to 1 t~ ~ r because they see il as natural and unchangeable, or beca use they value it as d1 vmely ordamed and beneficia!. (Lukes, 1974: 24) !his third view has many similarities to that which is pul forward in the notions of 1deology (p: 84) ~nd hegemony (p. 106), and it helps us to understand the importance of th: ~a~s 111 wh1~~1 the unequal distribution of power is made to seem appropriate _ the ay 1t1s g1ven leg1t1mation. Th: challenge _ that is offered to these views of power is that they are essentially negottve. They all uwolve trying to understand how people are prevented from doing what they want, defini~g lhe 'rules of lhe game' as they want, or thinking their own lhoughts. lnstead of th1s Foucault suggests that power is productive. Power lies in the creation of_ discourses (p. 30), institutions, objects and identilies (p. 224); power is all about mak1 ng. ~nd _ remak1 ng the world in a particular way. Thus, in his analysis, power produces class1 f1 cat1 ons of knowledge which defin e our understanding of the relationship belween people and nature; power produces bodies that can be made even more productive in fac tories and prisons; and power produces sexuality as the site that telfs us ~nos t about ourselves. Power is not about saying 'no'; it is about producing things, lcfent1 t1 es and 1cfeas. ....._ Taking thes_e views together, what we have are multiple forms of power. In each case, rather than try1ng lo lrack clown who finally holds 'power' and what thal power is in the sort of abstract language that Lukes uses, we can try to understand how the relations of power work. There are plenty of examples in this book such as analyses of orientalism,
-+

Furlhl'l' rt'adiJ w o
Clegg, S.R. (1989) Frameworks of Power, London: Sage. Lukes, S. (1974) Power: A Radical View, Basingstoke: Macmillan. Lukes, S. (ed.) ( 1986) Power, Oxford: Blackwell.

J.J
3.1. 1

Theorising about culture, power and inequality

Marx and Marxism

:O.Iurh COIIIl'lll J>ol .ll'\ thto i'ing- abou1 culture-. powc-r ancl incqu.dit\ <le1 H'' 11 on1 l\latx's theorie' ( ~hll:\ and En~tl,. 1967: ~ld .L"IIan. 1977} .md ~J arxian anah't'\ .1ncl modd~ of the 'ocia) .111d l't<liHHHt pnln'''l'' ni da'' fonnation iu capi1 ali,t 'oritt\ .. \ , R:Hmond \\'illiam' ( 1\ll-tla: i()) ha, notld. ~lat=--bm ha, maclt au iuflmHial U>llll ihution 10 mockrn cuhur;1l 1houg-l11. !'H'II though ~lar=-- hilll\l'll IH'\l'l cleHIupecl a l11ll\ systematir thcon of ntluu ('. file hroacl otulinc-' of ~larxian an ah,~ dtlinl'att .1 historiral progre,.~ion lrom 'Ol !lil'' that ~larx ,a,, a.;; exhibiting primiti\'l' rolnmuni'n' 1h m u~h kudal .'or itt~ a u el iutu \'al iou' lollliS of' capitali't ~ociet~. fl'aclin g I'H'IIlU;tlh In a n\ol utioll in 1\'IIdl tflt agcUC l'' of' L he ~ tale \I'OU]d he 11\C'rthrtm ll .UHI a 'IH iaJi,l SOCl'l\' I.' IIH"Ige. Thel't' al'l' ' 11Lt1111W r or kallliTS or ;\larx ian ana l rse~ lh .ll :tl'l' ,jg nilit'.l lll for c on~idtration ol tht l'Oilllt't'tio n' lwtl\'l't'n cultun: :mrf inn 1 u:t lit\ : tia IIIICitl h ing < :Connm ic ~lfi i C ILII'l' of c l a~~ n equalit\: ~br=--\ emphasis 011 Lhl' OJ1J>Il'l'd ;llld ;ul lagon istic rdat ionsh ip bcl\\'lT I1 tlw d: ISSls: :m el thl' r nnnect ion hl'lll.t'l'll fl' nn-r and cul lllll'. 11s C'C DIHl lll (' 1 TiatiOIISI1ips lh;ll 11 11 <fnp11 ll<"<j lla i I ~ f'or ~ l ar;.; : ll :1fl k110111l 'Ol' l' l t' ~ (san 1ht l'<l rf )' S I <li t' of' pri 111 II'(' ('01111111111 '>lll) 1he re ha<; a(\1':1)'5 be e 11 the h:IS(' <llllf f'untla llll'llt:tl C OIIIIadinioll tl l<ll SOI1H' lll l' lllbc r~ of' ~OcLl' l l' haH 1\1\'ll t'cl :1 11cJ C OIIII'Oifl'cf th(' 11H'at" ofprotl1 1 r1ion ." t h.trarlt'l i-,tir thal 11<1" ~i\'l'll thcm pm,c-r onr th c l't'lllainiu.; nwmb!'l'' of so< i vl~ 1\'ho. in urckr to makv a liw lihnud, panicipatl' in produnio1 1 on term<; ancl tond il iulh \l'l b' thl'\C nlllll'l''. For :'llarx. incq11a lit\' in ra pit.tli ' l 'orl'l\ hil){l'' 011 \\'flelh l'l llllt' \ ,111 li\\IH'I of lht llll':lll\ of produCIOil 01' .111 0\l lll'l Of Ollt", labour . .\, capit.tli'm <11\l'lop,. tfw la" ''nnurc: ,;mplilies .trou11d ,,,n m.tin d.t"t''

96

lnlroducing Cultural Studies

Culture, power and inequillity 9 7 labour. IL i~ tlti' ant.tge~ni:-n t .111d contradinion at tht ltcan ol .,ucil' tl tltat an' ,,, tltt xploitation . .\ , i t ., iniHIl'llt in drnamic tltal prcoptl, 'Ol it' ll' 011 10 nc,, form-; u f c capir a li~n1 to l'Xp.urd and 1 0 dc,trm a ll otltcr frm:. of pre~rluction. tlu tdatie~n,ltip belll't' l' ll tlw pr inl i pal d,,.,.,,., , t 11 ~ lmnrgl'oi,il' (1he mnwr~ of tht mtan' of pt oclnu ion l and tht p1 okt;ll iat ( tht. 011 th'l' of 1 heir labour). bl'coJn e~ t'\'l'l' 'lt;n pcr ami ill O ll' anlagoni,tic nlltil l '\l' lllllalh rht prokt.triat ri sc up in ren1lntion al)(l mtJtltro,, tht
bourgcoi~ie.

K~y i njlu e11 ce

3.1

E.P. Thom pson

(1924-93)

Edward Palmer (E.P.) Thompson was a very influential English Marxist historian and political activist. His education at Cambridge was interrupted by war service in ltaly, but he returned to finish his degree and then took up a position as extra-murallecturer at Leeds University (1948- 65). He was also a Reader at the Centre for the Study of Social History at the University of Warwick, where he influenced a whole generation of social historians. As well as writing on history and theory, he was an active campaigner for nuclear disarmament and a novelist. E .P. Thompson's most influential work is probably The Making of liJe English Working Class (1968). This social and political history of the working class in the English industrial revolution attempted to present a 'history from below', one wrillen from the perspective of an increasingly proletarianised and politicised working class. lt sought, as he put it, 'to rescue the poor stockinger from the enormous condescension of posterily' and lo presenta history in which the workin g class were active in their own 'making'. In doing so he offered a challenge to Marxist interpretations of history which saw the history of capitallsm as foretold by the inevitable movements of modes of production and social formalions. Thisaltention to agency - the power of people to shape history - was stated in opposition to Lhe structuralist theories of Louis Althusser in Thompson's caustic attack entitled Tlle Poverty of Tlleory (1978). lt also offered an understanding of class and power which saw them not only as economic relationships but also as social and cultural ones. This led to studies of law and custom that considered class relations in eighteenth and nineteenth-century Brilain in terms of the ways in which classes defined themselves and were brought into conflict over queslions of criminality and customary rights (see Whigs and Hunters {1975); Albion's Fatal Tree {1975) and Customs in Common (1991 )). Thompson has been criticised for failing to pay sufficient attention to issues of gender and race in the 'making of the English working class', and lhe role of agency and culture in the history of capitalism is still a matter of ongoing debate. However, his impact on cultural studies has been to stress lhe importance of theoretically informed histories, especially 'histories from below' (see postcolonialism, p. 189), and in attention to the active role of culture in the making of class relations.

Key injluence 3.2

Karl Marx (1818- 830

Furf lier l'f'(tdillg

Kaye, H.j. and McCielland, K. (eds) (1990) E .P. Thompson: Critico/ Perspeclives, Oxford: Polity Press. Thompson, E .P. (1968) The Moking of the Englisl1 Working Closs, Harmonds worth: Pengun (orig. 1963, Allan Lane). . (1978) The Poverly of Theory ond Other Essoys, Lonclon: Merlln. Thompson, E. P

nuh-1 :11 i.tl :11HI I H Hli'J..~l'(l i,i ~ . Tht rel.lliclll 'hip i>l'lll t'l'l l IIH'M' cla''('' i' :t,\lllllll'll'ical: lht rt '' .111 tntcqnal clb11 ih11tion ol' pcn,lT lw LIH'l'll lhtrll . In tlt l Ulllll'XI nf rile tlltcltrhirrg t'lclltolllil rdatiun,ltip tlti~ a"lllllll'tric cl rdation,lt ip i~ : 111 :t lll .tgoni.;t ic onc , h tia """''"' col thl' J1l(';lll' o( prodttnion inc-re,t,i11gh' 'l'l'k 111 ~.,p lu i t tlu prodckr' ol

Marx's work hasbeen widely influential in the social sciences, arts and humanities. He did not write much about culture itself, but Marxist cultural critics have developed his ideas and those of his collaborator, Friedrich Engels, on alienation, ideology, history and value. Marx was born In Trier, Prussia, In 1818 to a J ewish family which later converted to Christianity. He studied law at Bonn and Berln. In 1842 he became editor of the Rheinische Zetung, and in this year he also met his lifelong collaborator Friedrich Engels. In the 1840s 1 Marx began to study French utopian socialism. Combining socialist ideas and an intcr ' pretation of Hegel's philosophy, he developed a theory of consciousness as a product of human labour. In the writings later collected as the Economic and Philosophical Monuscripls, he argued that capitalism is the l ast in a series of modes of production that alienate workers from their labour. E arlier modes of production include primitive communism, the si ave mode of production (employed in ancient Greece and Rome), and feudalism. In 1846 he published The Germonldeologywith Engels, in which they argued lhat: 'The ideas of the ruling class are, in every epoch, the ruling ideas.' The Communist Monifesto (1848) proposed that all history is the history of class struggle, and predicted the victory of the new industrial working class, the proletariat, over capitalist society. The demise of capitalism would lead to socialism and ultimately a higher form of communism, where alienation would be atan end. Marx's radical political views meant that he ran into trouble with first the Prussian, then the French and then the Belgian authorilies. He and his f<~mily were eventually exiled to England. Here Marx worked on his most ambitious project, Capital, a detailed analysis of the development and workings of capitalist political economy. At the centre of the three volumes of Copita/ (only one of which was published before Marx's death) les his account of the commodity. He noted a contradlction within capitallsm between the market value (exchange value) of a particular produc~ and lts v~lue as an item that somebody might actually use (use value). Capitallsm holds the market 1 value of goods and people to be worth more than the people themselves. In effect, both goods and people are commodified: they bf COme no more than their exchange value. The capltalist allocation of goods by their market vale leads to] inequalities of wealth between rich and poor and large-scale wastage of resources. In cultural studies it has been Western l\1arxism, and especially the work of Georg Lukcs, lhe ~o l (p. 109) a~sc (p. 38) that has had most influence. Marx's

98

lntroducing Cultur<ll Studies

SUPERSTRLCTURE:

Culture, power and inequ<llity

F,lmil y 'I I UC IUre~. l(el igion o l llrl
~\'~IC'111S. tllflll'

99

lwhcl

theory of alienation has had a profound impact. Marxist cultural theorists view culture in relation to the mode of production, as a historical product of human labour rather than representing timeless human values. Marxist cri tics have understood art both asan expression of human alienation and as having the utopian potential to imagine an unalienated world. Marxist-informed theories of ideology have allowed critics to interpret cultural artifacts in relation to social structure. An understanding of cultural production in relation to poltica! economy has been a vital part of studies of the culture indus try and mass media.

oi poltlil,tl

orgJ 111<,lt i 0 11 . <) ~l l'l11' ui 1,,.,., J ncl l'dll(ollion

t,Lo\TERI.>\L B.A~ [,
J\tODE OF PRODUCTIOf'.:

Further readi 11 g
Mclellan, D. (1975) Marx, London: Fontana. Baxandall, L. and Morawski, S. (eds) (1973) Marx and E ngels on Literoture ond Art New Yo rk: lnternational General. Kamenka, E. (ed.) 'rhe Portoble Karl Marx, Harmondsworth: Penguin.

1\ei,Jtinn< 01 pmducrion

r
Jt thco workpiJrc
contr,Kiu,ll

,;ociJI rt"l,lllon;

\\\orker-~upto>n ,~ur.

,;gr~:l:'n 1ents COIKern in; IC'I'Ilb ~mp lu 111<'111.

oi

elc.l

properly rel,llions: l aw~ ,1nd

regu l,11ion' .lbuullht IJ\\ ner<hip 111 properly

rorcP n1 pmclucl ion
pO\\'l.!l'.

For \Jarx. in cq ua li1~ in ~nc iet y is gro undcd in ant ;tg<>nil'ti ralll' rl'lai cd socia l c lassc~. 1\larx addrcsscs 1he Cjli{'Stion of hnw and 1d11 it i ~ pos~ iblc: lr 1hc honrgcoisit to ma intaintheir posi1ion ofdominan ce ro, pro11<Kt<:cl pniocls, gi1e n Lhe !itn 1lmt1hcy an <1 11\llOrity in SOC il' L~ and g'i\'CII lite l en~ ! of opprtssioll ancl harclsh ip t:X ptriellC"l'd b~ the m ~LS't'S, th(' pro le taria!. Pan of 1hc amwer i ~ Lhat the bourgeoi.'> ie. thro ngh thcir economic po11-cr. a lso e xe rci-.e pnlitic tl po11-cr and sn s hapt and cotHrolthl' age nci('s of thc :.tale. Effecti n : control o r the siale appara tus a lso gi1-es 1ht'll l :1 monopo ly un tlw use o f force. :\nm hcr aspect nf their p01rer to shape ancl COllll'O[ 1he statC is tht Cltltllra( con trol excrcised 1)\' tite hourgcoi~ic . .\l arx sc('s the bo urgeoi~ i c prnmulgating and implemcnting be li c [~ and ,alucs that sustai n tite 11neq ual ~~~ c m of rclatinnships 1)\' legitirnising it through I'Cft' I'CllCC 10 non-eC0110111 iC clo ntain s or SOCia( l'X(JCI'il'll CC. :\l'l exa mple ol' thi~ i ~ thc real mol' spi rituality and rc l igi o u ~ be lie l. .\ larx ~t' l'.~ thc panicu lar bc lief<; of o rganiscd rdigion a~ hllllt'C'~sc'> ro ran uncqual , unju::t ~oc ie r y. Rdigion. in hi ~ cclcbratcd phra~c . i ~ the opia lt' of th t masse;,. Th 11s \larx prcscnts cu ltm c as icl colugy. as a panial. bias1:d prop for the b01 1rgcoi~i e. whi r h is fas hio ncd by thcm i11 1hc ir 0\\'11 intc rcst ~. Cultme as id co logy blu nt s thc unclc rs tandi 11g of thc prolcrariat: ir i~ tht ins trtllllCill or th eir ckr ept io n. occhuling thc ir ll'liC imerests. Cu lture in this St'1 1St' sta ncls as sonwhow op>osccl to thc truth of things. T lt is is an impo n am aspen o f' :\larx's and \larxistt ho ug ht and 0 11 ( ' that rc\'c rb<: r<lt('~ in l\'i(kr disc u~si o n s uf culture, many n f' which are discusscd in thi~ book (scc e~ pcc i ally C hapH r~ 1, ~ . () and S) . Thc propo~al is that culitt 1 T is panial. of"l en promoting a ri1lse cun sc i tntsllc-'~>. o l' tlw 1,orld and thercby acti11g as an instrumem of npprcs~ io n. \larx SCC'S alllht agt'IICC!' n f !h e qate opnating 1\"thin Clli ll!ral \a[UC!' that S(' 1 '\'C thc intcreSlS or the bo urgeoi~ i t . T hc bo urg-eoi-.ie han: puii'CI'. through th cir pO\\'CI' tit e~ haH' kno\\'lcdge ancl throu ~h thcir po\\cr and knowledgc rh c~ crc:11c the dominan t cultu re. :\larxi:-t thnug-h t draw~ attctllion 10 thc conncctions bc t"cen poll'er, knu\\lcdgt ;11Hl

lh( IJ11CI. r,1w mJteri,ll<, l.1hour pli111l. tonl< Jnd tt-d mologie' nccdcd lo makc l hi ngo;

Figure 3.2

IVIarx's base- superstruclure model.

culture ancl pmposcs a ~~ s tc tnat i c relatioll'-hip in ll'h ich culltt ral he lie b and practict's an a c ulw ra l coclt' l'or re latiunsh ips ol' >ol\'t'l'. i\Iarx s I'<1H>t1rcrl m cthorl 1( 1r colle<' IHu;d isi ng 1he se con nccl ions is thc b;1~c - ~u persuucrtt1T nwt aphor (st-e Figmc :t '2) . T ite formu la th at ~ larx prnposc.s is 1Ita 1 ilw eronom ic ( nr 111 :1l~ ri a 1} bast of' a -.ocit:L ,. clctenn i ms 1lte broa el charact t'l' or it ~ supcrstniCIIIrc. In o th t'l' \\'()t'ds, ir \\'( \\'~h [() unclcr~tand ih t prin cip:d l'l'<tl iiH'S or tllt' superstrtiCIIII't' (i.t. cultu rt'- in c l ud i n~ thc legal institutio ns, poliric d organi~;uion;o; and belief ~\ SltJillS) of a so C il'l~ l lll' 11 liT 11ll1Sl C<trc rt di\ a na l ~sc lite forres nr pmdt iCIion (proclucti\'c Lc.:cllnolo.(ie$, inqitutionaliscd propt' 1W nl:llions) and rhe ~oc ia ! relatinn~ ofproduction consl:'qucnt upon 1hcsc productiH fret'$. In" hmous passage ;\larx and Engcls ( 1968: 6 1) contcncl tha t 'tlt t: ideas of tllt ru ling cla:--. <tre in t'\'C1Y epoch the ruling ideas' (sce Bnx ~~ . l ). \\'llcn ni lll'l l'('ll 1h-ccnt u n capit alist Eng-land i ~ anal ~scd i 11 th ese tenns. i1 is no surpri~t 10 l't ndl h;ll 1he -.a lt' is tht' ' eXl'Ctt lil'l' CO II1111 i LLCe nf l he bourgcoisie. ( 1\Jarx ancl Engcls, 19(i7), 1hat tlw la\\, aml co1u r~ consbH:ntll' l;mnt r tlll' intnts l ~ o f' capita l as againsr tl1 ost' ofor~<~ni scd lahour. anclrhat Christian doctrine as insti1111ion<tli scd in tiH esrablishcd Clt urch e ndorses tli t' exi-.li ng e rclt:ri ng 11r ~t 1Ccl ~ <tnd preacllc~ 1h e 1 irtlll'S o f' humilit~ to 1he poor. ,\hhough ;\larx i ~ som eli lllt'' tqu il'ocal abo111 hu\\' strict a rela tiun of d etcnnination obtains be twecn base and ~ " lwrs ii'II C Lu re. rlw broad 1hesis that lw ach-anccs is that lo rm-. ol' cun:,ciuusn css n:~ r:tll ise into cu ltural forn1 s and prac1ices \\'hich < 11T to be unclc rstood ~1s originating soc i ;1 1! ~ . Thc ~uc ia l rt lationsh ips thal prmicle

1 00

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Culture, power and inequality

1 O1

8ox J.J

guidt' in <Jlli l , ..

1101

a o;olutinn . ll i, to l ical h . tllt ~ignifi c. un t h .lll t ngt' 111 ~ l a1 xian

Marx and E ngels on 'ruling ideas'

co11 ceptio/Hrlll'' i1TTlrrtk<.1 1 lit ol ~lax \\'cbcr ( l ~li 1- 1\l:!Ol.

Th<' id ea-. ol' tht r u li ng d;1ss are in t,c-r~ cporll tiH r 11 ling ideas: i.e. tll c class 11llic ll i ~ tllt ru ling 11111/niol force in -.nLicty is al tia -.ame tinl t' ih r uli ng inltllntual lorcc. The rl;l'~ wh irh ha' th c nwa1h of nnllt' l ial p rodunion a t i t~ di'l)(l~al. h a' cunt rol a l tia 'ame 1i nw m tT tlw 111t'<llh of 111 L' nt.ll proclnc 1ion , so th a t tlltrc b\', gtn c rally ' >eaking . tl 1v idta-. n f th o't' wllo l~1 d. il 1t' m ca ns o l m e nt a l prod11 nit;n .11c subj cc t to it. Thc ruling icka' an nothin g mon th a n t ht id eal txpn"ion of t h c d om inant lll<Hel ial n : lationship,. thc dwnin.u\1 materia l rdatioll,hip-. gra,p ecl a-. ick as: lu: ll t t' f Llll' rtlatiunship' ,,hi ch nlill..e tll t om t the ruli11 g o n e.

(.~ (ax l~'~bl'r ( 1 9/~)

3.1.r:fW:eber

tus a

Ja,,

therclil r c. th e ideas o l it.' cl01 11i n a n cc. l'll c ind ilid uals cu n1p o sing tll t r uli n g- cla~~ po--.c-.-. a mo11 g- u th e thing > con-.t iou-.nes!". ancl tll c rl'liHt' thinl... In -.o lar. tlwrefot. '' tllc1 r uk a' a da" a nd cletermint tll t cxlt'll l ami cumpa-... of a n q )()ch. it i.; .;d f:t.lident th a t thtl do th i> i11 it-. ll'lw k ra11gt'. htnce aHH Jn~ othtr reg n la tc Ll ll' prod n nio n ami di'\tributiclll o l' llw id ea' of 1hei1 ag-c: tllu' llwi1 idea.; an tl w ru ling idea.; u f' tht t'poch. Fo1 ill,t<IIH t'. in an a.{c .md in a cotlllll 1 "hl're ro~.1 l pm,er. ;u i-.tm ran. a nd ho1 1rgeoi,it an: u!n ll ' I H l in~ lor ma~H' n ,111<! "hc n. th tret'nn. m a, L t' IY i~ ., h arccl. 1he don ri n e nf ' e p a ra 1ion t x prt-...ecl ;1' :111 ' ctcl'll:t l lall'.
t ll i n g-~ nd e a lso as th i11 ker. , , as prod tt l'l.'l'~

ropo,ecl a tnmpkx appr(l:lt ll to intqu.tlitl 11hir h txprt'''h t.tl..t, ~ o unt of nm - Oll\llllir dimen,ion' ol' ranl..in ~ ami ill t'qn:tlill . .\ g:1i11't ~larx , \\'l'lwl ;ll:tinta ills tll:tl thc npt r;n inn n f p owc r ( p . ~l-ll in ~ocit ti l ..; b l't'l ll Hll't' fll n d;Hnt' lll:tl th:m 1cd a s IIH cap;1ci11 of' iucli1 ict. J a l~ 01 g ~tHtps to l'l'allsc diCI' no no111i c b;1si-.. l'oll't'l' io; ddi 1 thcir will. t'I'CII in tht f:H t' o l th!' oppo~itioll ol nl h l'r'. 1hi' ,e (cl, t l11ec. categcllit' flulclanl!'lll.ll w tht .lll.tll'i~ ol jpl'qnaliJ.~III, :_la/u' .111d uut\. lncq11alll\ Jll,\1 ht locn tc cl in t'ti! IWilli ta lh ddintd t l:t"L' ' (h tJt' \ \ 'l'he r t'111pha~be' 1narkl' t capari tl' i11 contrast to ~ l.1rx~ o;tn ~' 0 11 proptT II') htll < ~>tdd alo;o lw loundcd iu o;t:l lll\ grotl)>' (orgnni,1d :~roll ncln otilllh of p1ntige .111<l llonot ll ) .m el polit.ical par.tit, .utcl grouping, . In this e lab01a tio n lw ,o11ght to 1l'linl' the nw;t-lllt' lllt'Jll ol llll'CJUahtl .tllclto 'h011 1hc )Olt'IHia l ~i n gular i 11 col lti' critl'ria :1~ ,,c ll "' llll'il Ulllllt'C t l'dliL'~' Fo1 t'~< llnpk. pollt'l' b o l'tt.'ll ll nkcd to cla"-IJ,,,td wt'alth h11 1 it can lll' 'cparalcC 111 ' ll uau u n' \\' 1c rc poll't r ~ linl..cd to knm"ed!t'. ~t a tu' rcfcr, to ~Lile o l lil'c. lt a h n rder-; 10 'ocial estcc n . tllc rcspcn a nd admiration accorckd a Jll'I',OII ancu clill){ w lli' 01 hcr 'odal .po,ition het Box :>.~ ). a n<lthi ~ c 111 l!l' lotal rathtr than '"'lll llll'a l ;111d t,li,l' a ccn u11 l ol tllttrwr:-.nllal

,, i<ka., , a n cl

1.

"r p ull'trs prm es 10 be t h t. do m inant

id ea a n d i,o,

~u bj ec til i til'> , ~ J arx'~ ' li t''!'> 0 11 ~llll t' llll'a l rt:la t io n , ll ip~ :tnd 011 t h l' clupli< IIHIS 11;IIUI'(' o f cul;urc tl' IHI' 10 lw rq>lattd b1 .1 \'it'll <f'cla"t'' '' t.uth.('cl llitI.IIThit' ,,,. lixc< l _{rouping' through 11'11ich indi1 idu.11, mm ht 11lllbik. \\'h ik 1ht ctlt~o in .tre fi Xld aiiCI d.t"t'' :ut bo u 11 d ed. incli1idual-. 111;11. nonl' lh t k~~. c ll an g e tlt e ir r l;,,s p o., itioll . F't lrl lwnnnrv. \\'c lle r 's di~ru.~ -.i on cmp l ~<;,ises h clll' bcth e la" aiHI s utlu' d i ~1 inc tio1 t ~ c:11 1 a l'fi: ct l>copk'.; lifr rha!ltt'' tltat is. tiH c h:111 et'S th a l an illdilid 11 a l has lo 'liare in th t eco n umic. a nd
cultura l goocl' o f a 'ocit'l'. ~l:tlt' l ial aiHI <ulttll a l good' ,\I'C nhcn ''' mmc m calh di~tribtll t.'d :11HI rlas~ a nd ""'"' ra nl..in ~o; ,,illt' ll'>lll'e lh a t pt'o p lc 11'ill h al't' clill'eHnti;ll acccss to 1hc'L' good s. J'lll',L' f'ea ut rts n i'\ \'e her s 1h o ug h 1 ;ll'l' i 111 port:llt l L o ht:1r i11 111 ind 1dttn coll,id t ing non-d a:-.-; ba~ecl "'l t' lll~ o l' illl'CJIIa litl', The openi11g u p ol thc rel.tli<>ll'hip bct\\'tT II mquali11. lll t'.lll illg :111<1 nanift,t;tLioll a iJo,,; [( 11 tiH' con -.ickr.ll ion of "''t'll" of imq 11;1li 11' ot hl'r tllan cla~s. Th e 1e .ll't' 1a n ke el sucie L ies ll'll tre tlwrt b ll ll l'CJll;ll a cre., , to p ositioiiS o f' ~ t a tu s an cl prcstig t' a iiCi liH'St' ;11e 110 ncCl'-"'arih li n ktd Lo c.:-ron nn1i c ,,t:a llh .. \11 t ~amplc i' l'ound in t hn sc tradition:d Af1 in111 sorittics whe1T th e eh id:-. did not lile :11 a hightr 't:mdard ol li1 in({ th an their subjects a n d ll'hen tconom eo; ll't'l't' rcdi~tribtii I'C. th at i' th c ch ief' rtcei iT d trib tllt ' ll' h ic h h e th tl1 g:11t IJac k w h i-. f'o llown-. a-. ;1 mark ni' h i.~ sta tll' a n d la rgess('. T hc po-.ilion o f' m :u11 Eumpvan n o hk f;unilies ,a ronttmporan ~.x;llnplt- o l' r;lllktd .;oril' t ~: accts, 10 t.l.ti m .~ ti tk , limited. u' ualh to f.unih- llll'lltht ' a 11d 111;111\ u f 11H''l' titlecl fam ilit'" :lit' 11o lnnger ll'l',thhl a 11rl han 110 J>llll't'l !>1 'illnt uf thti nuhilit~ in thl'r ~OC it t I.'S. \\' ith in f;uni lk' l h l'l'l' ill'l' IIS IJ;Ii h r;ntktd OJ'cll' i'' Slllllt' lillll'S 0 1' _(L'llCI'al OII ~. ..,umetinlt'' ol Kl' lltT~Ilioll :111d ~l ' I Hkr . Onn o ne ''an-. Lo loo!.. aiHi nuti n . it is ck-:11 thal notion' uf ra11l.. ami il1t'l(llalit, .trt ptll.t~H' i11 Engli .. h ,mittl. In Englancl arnnt ,ill
~l'l'\'('!) a~ a telli llg sign ol stalt '' Othl'l fcallll t'' u r ~pen h paltt'l'll' :ll ' () e;oprl'"' '1ai11S

tht to ttclt;.tom lor Ullden.tandin~ cuhtn~ll f ornh a nd pract it t'' :nl 1ho'c prediratcd 011 tlw m o cle of' p 1odunion.
:\1 first sig-ht th is lorm ui;Hion snm,.. ' '' a lloC<II t' a . - .en melan ro le t.o nli lll l't' as a me re rcf lc nion o f' th e lllilll'l'ia l b;l'> l' ora ~li Ct' ll . ff UII't'l't r , (.'1(' 11 Engt' IS. II' hommall\' rcgard "' a 'imp(licr of' ~l;u:-;':-. id t',l'. bauii..S al Llll' im p iCaiOih of lhi~ p o,i tiOil. Jt i~ , ICII' th.tt gil't'' c u lt u re 110 -.i!{ni ficant rok in ~oci a! c h angc: lor exa rnple, it cll'nics th t po tentially rt,o lu t iona 1 : d k c ts art f'orm !' su e h a-. ti wa tre a 11d nmd.-. i 1 1 1r;111 sfo 1111 in g wople 's fl t' I'Ct' ption L h t \l'llr ld ;li te! 1hus t lll'i r a CIion \l'ithin it. Tite deba te fo c uw' arouncllhe clttt'l'lllini n.{ )>OII't'l' nf th t m a tl'ria l ba,t. amltht. d e~ret. of a utc>llOIIII' 10 he g\'C' Il to the 'l ljlt'r'll'll(llll'l'. \\'iJiiam:o. ( 197:\h: 1) 'll!{g'l''\h th at .\ 1 :11 X u se' th t lllllO il of clCll.'llli n alion :111d co n cli tio11ing 1101 in Lile n armw ~c n st h u t in a llllll' h loosn stnst ol' sc ui11g' limit-. cxcti 1 1g prtssure ancl do-. in.{ o J'I'option.s. 1 -k gcH's on to arg- uc 1ll a1 ~ f arx el id not

or

or

or su p er,l ntct u rt , lixcd ent tie, bul a' dn ta mi c a n cl ,hifling n :lationshi p ..mcl t h i!> llwrdore prtclucles am ,impl1 lonnula ic con ctptio n or t lw rdatiu n ~llip h <.' lll'l'l'll th c ,,,..,, fl clttl' nll ina tion i' to lw lllldcr:-.I(HH I a~ 't'lling li mi l~. t'Xl' lti 1 1g press nl 't' and c lo sing o ff options. 1h c 11 ll'h a t '''t' h an inst cad is <111 ag'l' lld ct f01 <:I II J>I'ical inquirv. Thi' i;. preri,d1 tlw 1 icll' taktll 1)1 l't r-;ioll' o f' t ultural ~1:11 xi"" (t.g. J.tll ll'l\011. 1mlt ). ll'ill'I'C l h~. ba,e- su p cr,nll('l lll'l' llll'laphor bt'('l!llll'' simpl\'" P' ohle m lu

~te t ith cr

'"''l'

102 lntroducing CulttJral Sludies

Culture, power and inequality

103

130.\'

3.2

Weber on status

ranking-~. Studit, ol 11 l111 int l' tTuph 1dtom lt:t' fiHIIHI th.ll p:lll'llh inlt' tlll>l r hild nn. nJl'li inl t' ITttpt \I'Oilll'll. clonnr~ are 11o 1 10 la interruptl'tl IJI p:llitnh . .-\ll I I H~t an llu ~l rat ion, of th t pv r'l': tsil l' n.tlttre ol' 11 in:11d 1\' and qa t u, i>~t'l'<i i 11 cc u:ili 11 i 11 daHo d:ty 1 ing in ll'hidt a 'ori:t lh adeptmembct o l 'ocil'L\' 111Lh1 fll 1\'tll \l'f~Lcl.

l11 m ockr n 'de rn on.uic' ~oci e 11 ....111 txp lic ith n:gulaHcl sr:tl ll' prhilcgc' lor indi\icluah are dom :1\1;\\ 11'ith. [ In son1~ ol 1hc 'malkr S1d" titit'l only lamilit, bdonging ro hn1adh 'imilar mxat ion !-{1oup' dance \\'ilh t'<H h olhtT . .. 13tH '1a111' i' not ncce~~.rrih tcll111l'CIL'd 1\'ilh ,, 't l,,,, 'illr:uion': 1101 111alh i1 ~tan d s ra1l w r in g lari n ~ con 1radin i 111 to 1h e prc 1 e n~ion ~ ol' na kl'cl propl'rl ~ c111 ll t'r'h ip .. . T IH u ual ity' o f s1:1111' 11f' th l' .\ml'ricau 'gcntk'111:111 1'111d\ l':-.pn,sio n in thl' fact th :ll ... it ll'o u lcl hl' rou~ickrl'CI th e h e ig ht ol h<td la'ill' - ldt t:' rtn r tlt t o ld traclilion pn,ai h - fr t'H'll tht rirhl''>L 'chit:'l. to treat hi:. 'ckrk' a' in ,un wa1 al all o l tll1l'C(Ual rauk. e~tu in dw t'\'tning in IIH' t luh. owr billiard' 01 at th t carel tabk. lt \l'otdd be unaccq>lahk 10 trcat h im 11 ith 1hat kind ol totHk,tcncli ng allahilitl ll'hich marks a dilkt t'IH'c in pmitiu n. and 11hic h tlw (;t t man r hid can ll l'\'l'l :11oid e n tire J~ - on t' 11! tlt l' mmt i 111 port:1111 1t':tsous 11 h~ ( ;t'l'lll:lll du b-1irt ha' llt'\'l'l lllill1 il)4L'd tu xl't'lll .xo a lll'at'lin: lhcre :1~ IIH .\n wricm cl ub. In con te n t. social '1 :1111s is uormalh txprt'''td a bmt <tll in dw irnpu iation ol' .1 'Jil'Ci lica ll~ regtii.Jttcl '''k ol lik w eH' I\ Ont 1d1o ,\'i,ht' lo hdong to tht circk. fh ,gol''- wgc1 htr 11 iil1 .t l'l'St rir1ion ol ,m ial' inltTcour'e- iltat i,. intercmtr't' tltat dm, not ~ene an1 t'c onomic. commt' t'Ci.d 01 othcr practicar pu r pc"es- indu d in g e~pct ialll' norma l intl'rm:trriagl'.to lhl' t irde of statuscqu.rlo; ... [ lnthc L'S.\ J llllt' c x:uuplc uf' this i ~ that on ly thosc: 1dtu rc~ick in a ctrtaiu "il't't' l ( 'TIH' ~un i ') art regard ('d as bc longi 1 1g 10 ;;uriey' and ~~~ li 1 l'or social int t'l'('(llii'Sl'. a 11d are a ccorcling h l'isi tcd a11cl lll'ittd ... Fm the l't''l . ..;oria l ,ta tus' i' murwcl 1>1 nnaitl f'amilit' 1dw h:tll' re,iclt-d in a t't'ttain area lor a I on~ time ( ,111cl 1dtu :tt-c. natur:dh. ('Ot'l't''iJlOtHiin g ly "l'll-lodo ). ~u eh ''' ti H ' FF\" or 'lirq l:uni lit~ of \ ' irginia . o t ilw dl',rcnclants. real ot .tlkKed. ol l h t ' lncli.lll prince,.-. l'oc:tlHIIll<b or th c Pilgrim failttr,, or thl' l-i.J1Cktri>och.cr~. (11' lhl' IIH' Illi>er~ nf SO illl' l' )..ll't'lllcl~ txcJmI'l' ~l'C I , or :tll kind" of' c:irck' ul :t~soc i :tlcs ll'ho lll:trk tht r n~ch'ts ull' b1 sot11c critcrin tl nr ol h n . l 11 t his case it i ~ a lll< ttl tTol':t purl' h c on~t uti n ll :t l social clil'l'e rcn tiation b~1scd l'" t nti:tlh' o n u~urp:uiun (aliltong lt tlt i' i~ admittedl~ tlt t uonn a lorig in o l' ahnmt all ~oci a l 'status') . Hu1 it i' a shon ' ttp lrom thi' lo th e kg:tl ,alidation of p rilikgt ( .111<1 lack of pri,ilq.~t ). a ncl th i" 'll'j> i' thtlalh ca'' w takt '' 'oun as, ctrtain :11 rangtmtnt o l tlt t social orcll'r h as lwromt d"lecli\l'ly ,tllkd ' and ha~ .tcclui rl'd Sl :tb ilil~ as a t't''illlt oftltt SlabiliS:t iOII ol t'('C111Cl i11C p011'l'l'. \\'ltt'l't' the l'CIIl, l'<JIIe iHT . .. are lnl lowe d throug lt lll lh tlimil. th l' 'talu~gmttp d c,clops ir 11o :t tlosed r((l/1'. Tl1:11 is, dislinniotl ol' 1-talu~ , g t~:tr:tllll'l'd 1101 e111l> b1 comtntio lt a n d law. but al'o 1>1' ri111al ' 'lllction tu ~uc h .111 e xt t~ lll that :di pill,ical cuntaClll'ith a llle lldwr ola c;t,lt' rq~.t rckd as jnkt ior' i' helclto bt r illtal il pollu t i n ~ lor mtmbtr, o l tht ' liJK'I'ior L"tl. a ,a in wh ich llllt't be relig'ionsh txpiatccl. T h c indil iclu.tl ca,te~. indtT<I. in part dt'\ L'lop quitt sq>aratc cults an d g-oc k

3.1 .3

Caste societies

Contp:trimn' a re o lttn drall'n betll't't'll ta, tt and eh" o.;od~ til''. Tlwse ro1npar j,on' sollll'IIIIL'' clra11' .tllt' lllinrt 10 thc :tpp~lrt' lll ' int i l :tritil'~ ol't llt' 'llllllitncl s~':'ll'ln ol g mup' :utd il w lixecl rcl.uin lt." hips bl' IIITt'll cc HhlIIIt' llt ~ro t rp~ . ll clll'l'\'t' l . it is tnisll':ttling to linh. th t l\\'n ,,,tetn' i11 tlti' 11~~~ "inct 10 do "l , to locu' upo11 ~ lltttllll'l' aL the to' t o l' Ol't'rlooki ng cult tt t L'. ( 'la" it1tqualitl' , h,t,td cttt trouoJnic t 1ilt'l ia :tiHI culluralil i1 i' optn 1o an indi1 idualto .tt hitw hi' o1 h.t. 011 n e 1 .,,~ pmi tiou . l.ncli1 iclt~al cl:t"' mohili 1 1.i' >os,ible in ela~',, ' ttm,, and inclt-ed th t' '' tlH' tthos ol mo't tncht, tna l cla'' ,,.,lt'llh 11 1 1 l 1' g1oll' . 1 . 1 . . (. lht' contcmporan \\o rlrl . Ca 'le S\'Sl<'t ll " art' h: t ~t c on r e 1 :11H l'llll:l crttl'n:t. :l'tt~ ra nnot lw ttll(ler~tuud i11 o.;en dar tt'l'llh ol' llit-riori ty a nd 'upe rinritl' l'o r t lw pri ll l'ipk iltal ranks th l' parh in tlt t wltole is rcligiou' ( Dr11nont. 19O). !11 llinclll India tlttn :tn fo ur c;tll').{oril's (l'arnas) 1dtic lt art cli,tillgui,ltt'd l'mm tlllt' anotht'l' ll\ dtgrtt..; o l ritual purill' ( p.~};~ ) a' L''tahli,lted in the Sa n ~k i1 tt':-.t,. TheH \,trn.t' arl': 1\ra ltmill'. 11'lto art t11(' prit''t:> an d ,cltol,u ': l,,hatl'il .1~. 11 ho ,ttt' 1hc ntler.;. tht \\';li t iot' aiHI ilw l.lllCit l\\ t\l't ': V:t i"~'~ 11'h o are tht t ntrlprttw urial micldlt- chl'~t': Suclt-.1,, 1d1o an tite c uli ii.IIH". 1\'ork<'rs aml lntclvr,. -lltt llarijan s. or Ulltonc hahk,. pnl'onn tl11 ntost 111L'I1.d la'h.'. ltt lh tcll'l' th t, lie ot t l~id t th l' Gtste ~,sttm bvc n tsc tl1 c~ are ritu;ilh itnp u re .. \lthoug lt th t''l' broac ,an~ai' art' a'"lt i:lll'cl " 'ith .occupa tion , in pr:tctic<' ll'it h ill :1 l'illage thl'rc ll'il l bt a 111 tmbtT of occupatinu~ a"ociated wi1h a partindar Yarua. "' a ltl w ug h th c s,,tt' lll , dear aud u nambi~ttOlh in principlt'.t'11tpilic.dh thertma~ ht \,lliL'I\ ami contpkxitl . .\ J>l'"on's ca'lt' tntmbt r~hip i' "niht'cl: 1hi-. a~n-i ption i~ g-iH n rdi~iou'h attcl i' dq>tndem upon tlw indil'id u a J', conchtrl in tlte ir p a'i li le. Rtincarn:nion i' a nn tr:tl doclt im: of llilldll lw lid'. :tncl tn lcad .1 ~oncl lil't 'o that om 111:1\' lw ~in 11 a f:11our<thle ca~ tc pnsition om lllliSI 1,.,. :tccorcli ng lH c:t,ll' 1:tlues a ncl cull\l' lllion'. lk in ~ .t goncl ptrson me;ms l'ullilling ra, tt l':-.pcctatioll~. (J' ott e i'ail., tn llltT I ca, lt' txwct:uicllh ihl'll inniltcantation o llt' 11ill co m e bac k ""a 111t'lllbl'rofa lcl\\'tr c:t,tl' or e1cn in I1Cill hun1;111 lorm. Tlw in<i,tttHt' upon liling accorclillK to ca'ic c x p(ctation' place~ ~rtat ,ahtt' on maintaining ca-;H bou11cl:u ie'. "in ce nntl.H t "i th lo11cr ca,tc' ma1 be polhtLing a u el otH' ma1 on h carn ou t tltn'l' 1 a~b tha t are lit lot ont , u11n C:l'-tt. I'IH con-.equ enn o( 1his is th:t.l thc;t is ,; hi~h d tgn'l' n i' o.;oci:d o;egrcgatinn ilL' L\I'ten ca,lt'' b111 . ol' mct"il) . a ltig-h rlcgtTt' ol' ccnrl omic ittt l'rrl<-pt'IHitnn a' r:t~ l t'' rc ly onot lwrs to pcrl'onn tasi..' l'or lli t' lll ldtic lt tlt l' \' th t m~dn' are l'cll'hidcltn LO c tl'l'l' eiltl. :\11 intpon:tnl a:-pt't' l ni th e maintt n;llll t' o l group bcHtndat i c~ , thal m arriagl' i~ t'tHlogamou'. h,u i,. iudil iclu:tl~ mu,tm.un 11 i1hi11 thtir cm 11 ('.1'>1 1'. Thi' is :111 import.Hll clill't rcnce frout da" ,m ietie:-. "hc'l't' marriagt i' 1101 lormalh ti t cum,rribecl hl'l\\t't'll cla ~sts. ,\hhough in prac ticc pcopk in d:tss ~ocictits 1end 10 m:HTY ll'ithin th tir ' ocial class. i1 , ll<'l'c rthd l''' lll'rmissibk to tll:tl'l'~' in1n ann thl'r "lC~t l cla"s a n tl thi' is :t knmm a11d sori:t lh- acnp1abk mt:tm .. r ac hi t,ittg social mobi li t~ t'.' lwcialll lo r 1mrmn.

104

lntroducing Cultural Studies

1

1 1 ~.').(< lllln u .o, gro nps of klll ll'itn < 11 ~- :h snci:Hl'cl 1\'ilh Cl'l'lai n o r e up:nio n.' . hl' ~l' locai ~u~ g P' o l ca~1l' o fl t'll l'o 11.1 p~ lt' 1\ll h <~lll' a ll<~l lt e1 1<11 r.lll ki11g i11 tite c;1, 1t. ,,,1<'111 and clnp1i ng the 11 .' ' ncll. llllll,ll.d lc.lr a lo_ tal ~11f11o 'l'l'k. 10 lllj)IO\l' 1hei1 <.l,ll' 1.111king b1 ,1 n_ l.IIIIH'I a nd pral'IH_l'' ' '1 . .1 h 1 g-he r-ra nk1 _11g g rn up. 11 111a1 to~ kt I111t' lor tht,1 .~, 1 i ra ti 1 . s 1 1 1 to H ' llle t aiH 1 ltll: r l.11111' ,., bl' l't'ah,ld l>t 1 1 II IOil'llll'll l , po"ihle "il hill l he Chtc ~~sttn .IIHI bou_ ndane' ;11 ,. more (ll'lllll'ablt than lllight . 11 lirst Wt'lll p 0 ,,ihk. II0\\'1.'\'t'l 11 ~'ou lcl he a 1111'.' 1ke to .l"llllll'l h :lllll t' po. " i hil i11 ol'mohili11 r:t i\t'' aga in tll l' pch~i bili t\' o f_co m_ p:tnson 1 1 '11 11 c ht.,s "'te nts. T llt' 1nobil it1' i.;sue i11 tl~t c:1 ste ~,-,1 1' 11 1 is 1ha 1 tite rJ a ' 111 ol tiH nlt. tl w 1\ holt g-roup. 1 1111'1 hl' f'tToglti,tcl. llot ju,tlia clai111 o!' a , 11crlt indi1jd 1 \ 1. \1 . "' 11.1. < 11.111 . t'I<T ( 1\JhO) oh't'IYtcl th:tl in one ,-illa~e in \ 11111 h India 1dlich hl , 111 ditrlt httt' 1 ll't'1'1 .' 1 '1'11 ~~-1 h n t ra,tt~ 1\'h ic h g ro ull'd tite n l't ' l l'l'~ :~ rcord i 11g to ill t' 11 se ., J 1 e ,;1111 c ~111ok 1n g PIJW. l it e pro~ i'i11 11 of 01 din :11'1' food lo r co11111101 1 llll'al-. a 11d tlw pn 11 ,ion of lood lor least> 1h(' lnghtl castc' in 1he lillage \\'otile! 'h:trt tlw pipt llilil .lllllfN nll C: l ~ln ''"repl ~~~~~r: bttl\'l't'll III'Ch'C ancl , j:-; uc n < :1'11' ' 11 o1 tld ,rnokl' 10,'-:'t'l lw r. :il1lwug h in SOIII !' < ':t''.'' .1 cllff <'l'l'll l r lo!l l lll ll'\1 be p l:trt'd ht'lh'te n tlw pip(' all(lt il l li p' of' t!1 1. , 1110 k(')'. \ ll'1l'l' \\'1~IL'' l h.llt:htl'' thattnjowcl po,,er in1he 1ilb~c IHTe 1101 hhwahout 1,hat thtr " 1 so 1,a' al(,and 1111h 1d10111 1hn a tl'. l1 ,,... , tht lltiddle ra ng1 ol ca,1, 1 d 10 ll'l'l't 1 e 1 y f 1 1 'I't' l l\'ittd lo .1 f(~t.~ t b1 :1 mo n poll'nful group. 1h c 1 ll()n ld 11 ,~ tf. lo r ~ :~a mpk. ii iL'' II'L on h:tl'lll).( thl'll lood ~~.rncl ra1, and CIIT\ i11~ it ho mt 1o cook. r hl u nto 1111Jahlt, _ lht o u tca'l' .- an lill'l~lll~ on l,idc 1lw r:t,te '' ' '''111 ahogcl htJ. Ca, t1 cl i,trimin:uion , 1 101 al~C>\\ l'cl. 111 m_oclt-m l1 1dia. h11 1 in m u 1icc thl cli'lcr~i11 o / g roupings :t nd tll t' ('om ph:xilr n f r(' l:ttlo nslllps makt suc h a ruling d if'l icu lt to l'ltl'orn:. .. -~h c1c an-~t l u: r t~antplt, ol n l igiou~ ranking that 1011 111a1 "j,IJ 111 explore. J>rid \\ 1llt:un, ( Hl ,,)) llot c, 1h a1 h icrart!11' i~ a dd in ing- c h:traUl'I''tic ol Hll\' <:h r j, 1,111 0 1 -cJt1 u . l r tht 11 11 11 ~ . :utd o f 1 1 1a 11 ~ ot lw rs too . S l~t sl ucliccl :1 gro up o f' llllllS ancl rc ma rktd IIH ll'."al lll:l~t t'J'ec_l :utcl 1rltat C:lllll' lir\1 \l':t' 1!1<: i"ut o l ncanlt'" nr cl i~l .uarc fmm (;()(1. Tht ha eran htt'' ol tlw comc111 1\\'rt hit1.11 e hin ol 'Piritualill. 11111 po111- 1.
t' ll l

P H tlll tht '1!-{IIIIK<IIH . g_'I'IH1pmg' o l ra,tt 1n d:11-tn-cla1 rl' i.l1 io 1" h i)' ;111. thl' 1 1 11
1 1 011

. ':'~~".';u it~l _of ~~~-cupationa l _ranking ,uHI ".''' diHI,tl 1dthin 1 ill.t~t, lltl'.llh th,u in 1
11

Culture, power and inequalily

105

1 lll<ll' tokrau: 11 l'qualitl' ancl ,ubordi11.11ion. il 11111 .tctu.1lh emb1aCl' it. .\ peop ll 1.1 t ciiTl'l'l' llt ra ngl' ol' , n luti o n.; 10 th i-. j)l <lble nl g in-. m o rl' explicit a lll'lllinn lO 1' ' sol11 1 . th<' cull unll clill1l'll '-On . \\'t r on, icll' l'. lll' "~; l : ( l'illll ~ll " " . hl'.g't'II IOIII: tlw 1 r;lll~fur 1 School\ ckn:lop . llll'l1l ol tlw thlon olult-olo.,": .111d )mncltL'II 'thton olthe h.lblllt'-

1 h 3.2.1 Jdeology as common sense: egemony

O nc clt'l't'lo p11H'II1 of \ hux, thinking .1hou1 icln.'l"h" \\hilh h:h pn~1ed inlh,n tial :tJl(l o nce pt ol hcgemo ny lp. 10 11\. achatHt c~ h~- tlu: )rodn r thc in r n ll tn al ~ 111d l's is tl tl' < 1 'ltt'" ' l st \n1 o niu Gnmsci ( l N\l l - Hl:)7) (1. :\~l. 111' 1\':tllll'd 10 t''-' j)lalll lwll'. Ita 1 a11 ' ' 1. capi1ali'1 1uling ~ l.t"l'' nlllilllll' 10 r11ll'. Onh despilt' 111 anifl''-l t'' idl'ncc ol inequali1 ) :11'1 u f tl w c xplan.11 ion . (;t.llll' Li bllit'l L'cl. 1, ,, cltiL' 1o 1ullll~-~la ~~ t<l l ~ t rol n f thc 11H:'<l l1 ~ ~f coe rcio n in sociL' l\' ( th L 111 ili 1:u1 a11d pn lice) . \1 1hl' b:1c k ol l'l'Jll'l'''ll e ~t:lll' jlO \\'C I' lay hcgtnHllll . ' ; ~J)l'l,\1 J...ind of J>O\\'l'l - thl' pm'l' lll f'lilllll' . t J H tJi aiI~.;- and 1 Olll<l II o pponu nitics. lo wi11 a111l 11tau 11111\1'111. ~~~ th.u th e g 1:Ulllll).t o l legll1111.1l' . lll thl' dolllin;ull d as~l'1' a p pear!- IH>I o nh "s pollla n t o n ~ but ll:ltll r:tl a nd 11 orma l' (U.1rke 1'1

al., I 97:J: :~l:l). J l q~t m o m , abnu t ll'ha l pa"L'' a~ 1hc r oll1llllll1-'l' ll' ical. ll l~q ll l' '-Iot~ld backd rop uf rdkniun on tlw "orkin!{' of ~ocic 1 1 . Con,~.q~ ll'llth. tlll' l tr~;un_ on_ ,,h trh hege nH Jil> ' is \\on nr Jo,t , thc tC JT~I i n n i ~u wrst rt l ct u ns . l he n.nt ral ll l ~ ll l liii Ons ~J I capit;11j, ~oc t' ll'- its cou ri' and sch oob. ,, e hnrc h c ~ a11d 1 11 a'~ nwd 1 a- a rl' H111 11 ll rt dl~l ideas a nd lxlid' that p rontolt' rul i n~d,1,, i n ttn~t.;. T hl pctYasinne" ol h q~l'l1 1 0111' '' described b1 111i t er~ fro111 II H f\i n ll ill!{h< llll School lh u,;
A he).(L'Inon ir r ul1 ural onkr 1 1ies lll jl'tll/11' <1ll c111 1 Jll'ling-_ <ld itl.iti<?ll' < lf'.llll: 1\n r l<~ \\i hi.ll l!> mup. h p1u1icle' tiH' hotitoll ol 1 h ou~h 1 .111d aC'IIIlll 1\'llhlll 11'111th conlllt1~ .lit' fuught 1h rough. approp1i:utd (i.t. l''lwrietH l'cl ). oh,nlll'cl ( i.t~- collt ~-akd " 'n:tt ion al in1 i<',) u r colll.lllll'cl {J.t'. < l' lt kd tn lhl' 1rcs1 1,hi r h , Jtnulcl 111 1il' :tll r o nflin ing p.tl 1 pro li l oCthl 1uling d a, <) . . \ lt e~l' IIICl ll i c urdL 'I j>l'l''>crihl'' 1101 tltl' ~ Kci fl< l'OIIIl'll l o!' idea,, but th t limil ll'ithiu 1dtid1 iclt-.1, and conlliu< 1110\l' anclare IL''oh ed. ( ( );u kt tia l .. 1!l/:1: :~~))

The nn tio n uf' hege lllUill' , l'l' bted

[el

tit e Clllll'l' jl l or icl vo l o~\' but can be di, ting ui.<:h l'cl

3.2

from it:

Legitimating inequality

\\'h cn~'l't'r tlw te 'Jl< of in l'qn;tli tl i' adclrc~~tcl. tltt qut'~tion that , 001tt'l' or latl'l llllhl be a<;kccl h : "111' do jll'n>lc :tllm, 'uth 111:111ilt-~1 inecualitit' cl i,ach~ull.lgt, a nd i11 j11,1 ices tn i'l' lll alll ;" :1 11 acn pl:th/c p:111 o / th t'ir l i1e~? \\'d)e r ~ :1 1 1.\ll'< r is 111 :~1 >l'oplt bd i11c in ~T I't;ll ~t lc~ lll lll~lll' f nrlll~ o f a n thori11 - .1 11 ordtl ing ni' 1ht 1\'orld 1dticlt th l'l acnpt a~ ngh t "' Jlhtllmbk and 1ta,nnabk. 1 hrn h,l'l'' ol lq.{ilim;uc :nu horit'l' a re icltn tiliecl: lmdllllmol ('acct'pt 1his. btral h t i1 i~ ,,ha 1 011 1 Hop lt 11 alt al11a 1, clone ' ). t!l!m smultf' ( acccpt f h is. 1Hr a 11se o f' tlw leacll'l' nr propiHt 's l'M~L' Jll inual po m 'J's ll'h ich c:tn t1 .11 1 ~f'orm ,our lifto'). o_ 1 /gniJIIIinmtl ('.1rccpt th i,, hec; 11 , 1 thi' i~ "'h;u i' ~rwcilhcl inthc l;n,-, .ll~cl-1'111~-- gmt'l lllllg' 0111' 'llCt'l\ '). nw~l' lclllll\ ol' kg it I11.1C'\ ' hOI\' IHlll' 1'11 1 111 1';1 1 ,hid t pnl\'n 1 ' ll l ~ ll lllli iHia li .~ l'cl ancl g il'l' ll 111or: tl grou ncl ing. T htl p ro1iclc the ba.-.l'~ 0 11 1

Heg-t'lll<lliY1m t J,., throu_(li idcnln)..r;. h11t il dot~ 11<<1 ~"1 Hl 'i' 1 ol l:d't' id l'.t<. P~' l't'l_' Pt i om, dl'i i11i 1io ns. 111\'lll'k> jlriutllrilr 1 > 1' in' t'l'ling tlil' ~ ll hord 111 a lt' rla's lll lll da kl'\' ll" ll liii iUIIS ancl ~uun 111 t'~ "h irh -;uppon dtt p l\\l'l' a11CI "11 i.1 1 .1111 ho1 l 1 ol dw el o mi n;Hll '" clt'J'. l t i~ . .1hm c .tll. in 1hnL ' " IICIIII'l'' .111CI rd.uiolh 1ha1 .1 '"hwdinalt' cl.L" /il n , .\1/bOI'I/ JJ II/tl/1, (CI:It'kt t'l fli., 1~17 :1: :1~1 ) Gramsci bd ie1'l'd that capitalism uHlld 11 11t be OITJ'ru mc u n til lite 'm rkin~ cla" dcnlowd ib 1n,n cm m ttr-ht~emon~ 1d1ich ~~~~ tl''-'lulh t lwlltngtd tiH txisling- 1ulingclas~

c ultural hq.{t'1lHI111'. Ex i s1 i n ~ po\\1-r rl'la i ll l l.~ a mi lll'Cjllalilit' .tri' th u' \la bi liw d 1 hro u ~h cultu ral hcgl'll10111. T h 1 cotK<'pl J,,, lwen inllutnli.ll in cultu ral '1nclie~ 'int'l the HI10' hl'Call,t'. it oiTt-rtd a I110i l' compk:-. .1n a h , , ni ndin g-c ht~' clumina tio n than o lckr 111ocle h of idtological clnm inm io n . Th t l.~irnt in g li a n l Scll ool lin kl'd 1h e cn iH't>t o f' lt egL'111Uil 1 . lil

106 lntroducing Cultu ral Sludies

Culture, power and inequalily

107

Defining ro11rejJI 32

Hegemony
The concepl of hegemony is used as a way of thinking through the relationships between cultu~e and power (p. _94). lt was. developed within the work of the ltalian activist and Marx1st theonst Antomo GramSCI (p. 38). His concern was to understand how so 1 groups .organise t~eir ru.le and, more pressingly for him, why there had been ~: prole~anan revolut1on. H1s conclusion was that rule involves both domination (the coem:e .use or threat of force via the military and the pollee) and hegemony (the organ1s~t1on of co~sent based upon establishing the legitimacy of leadership and develo~1ng shared 1deas, values, behefs and meanings - a shlred culture). Rule for GramSCI was hegemony armoured with coercan (Gramsci, 1971; see also Williams 1977 and Bennett el al., 1981). ' ' In his lheoretical and politi~al. work Gramsci's aim was to show how this consent (hegemony) had two chara~tenslics. F1 rs t, L hal il was class based and class biased. He wanledto sh~w that culture 1 s saturated with class power. As 'hcgemony', shared Villues shared m~an1ngs and shared beliefs are seen to act in the interests of the dominant (o; heg~mo~IC) class. The examples Lhat Gramsci uses are ide<1s like religion in ltaly and Ford1 sm 1 n Ar.11enca wh1ch promote certain values and form s of conduct over others, e.g. t~e. work eth'~ He connects both with the economic and political development of classdiVIde.d soCiet~es. Secon~, hegemony does not just happen; it is something that has L o be orgarliSed. Thrs ~lso cames the positive political message that the situation can be altered. In r~any wa~ thrs goes .beyond Marxist (p. 97) theories of ideology (p. 84). 11 rejects the not.lon that 1dea~ are f1rmly rooted in class positions and sees them as 'material torces' wh1ch can orgamse groups, shape terrains of encounter and debate, and define positions to ~e attacked or defended. lt afso has a rather deeper notion of culture and meaning ~vh1ch see~ the11_1 ~s basic to the formalion of all social relations rather than as something added ~n , the rCing on the economic cake. Her.e. class.e.s are..defined as much culturally as economiCally. severa! problems that must be noted. First, just as for ideology, Gramsci's concentrat1 on on clas~ mak~~ the concept of hegemony problema tic. Any suggestion that people ~ave Singular 1 dent1t1. es (p. 224) and interests and thal there is a singular poltica! proect 1 s n~tusef~l when trymg to deal Wlth the multiplicity of interrelated identities and power relat1ons w1thrn ';'hich "',e aJI live. These singular class identities also carry with them L he unhelpful not10n of false consciousness'. The question is whether we can extend lhe tern: to use il to talk about race, gender and sexuality. Second, the tendency to use the nollon of 'hegem. ony' lo imply the existence of one dominant, totalising ~ul. ture of .powe~ musl be avo1 ded. Grarnsci certainly did notmean the concept to be a rrg1d, sta~IC, un1 form and abslract one. In part this means talking about counterhegem~nles and a whole series of competing alternalive hegemonies. lt also means recogn1 smg thal heger~10nies ~re constructed: they are forms of rule that socialgroups try lo pul together. We m1ght th1nk of them as ongoing 'projects' of Jegitimating leadership

and negoliating consent lhrough a whole series of channels. He re is Gramsci on American Fordism: Recall here the experiments conducted by Ford and the economies made by his \ firm through direct managemenl of transport and distribution of the product. These economies affected production costs and permitted higher wages and lower selling prices. Since these preliminary conditions existed, already rendered rational by historical evolution, it was relatively easy to rationalise production and labour by a skilful combination of force (destruction of working-class trade unionism on a territorial basis) and persuasion (high wages, various social benefits, extremely subtle ideological and political propaganda) and thus succeed in making the whole lile of the nation revolve around production. Hegemony here is born in the factory and requires for its exercise only a minute quantity of professional political and ) ideological intermediaries. (Gramsci, 1971 : 285) These 'projects' are about the organisation of ruling groups, the creation of alliances ('hegemonic blocs') and the forging of collective identities (perhaps via religion, polilics or culture). They are also about the organisation of power-laden relation s with others in order to create a rnanaged consent. This is all to be understood as a continua! process with a whole variety of different social groups involved. In arder to understand this we can use another, related Gramscian term: 'war of manoeuvre'. This means seeing society as both a real and an ideological batllefield where everyone is trying to establish what side they are on, who are enemies, who are allies, what position they are in, what the terrain looks like, how lhe battle is progressing, and what weapons they should use. ll is a constant ongoing slruggle within which ideas, beliefs, values and meanings are among the weapons. However, what is importan! is nol any innale characteristics of these weapons bul whether lhey are effectively deployed. This sense of hegemony as a process of active organisation is a useful one which is not restricted to understanding class relations.

~:e

Furt!trr muling
Bennell, T., Martln, G., Mercer, C. and Woollacoll, J. (eds) ( 1981 ) Culture, ldeology and Sacio/ Process: A Reader, Mllton Keynes: Open University Press. Gramsci, A. (1971) Selections from the Prison Notebooks, London: Lawrence & Wishart. Williams, R . (1977) Morxism and Literature, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

All h usscr 's 1101 ioll or 1S.\ s ( iclt-ologiral SI :lit' apparatl lS('!( - schoob, eh lll'l h t'S, ll H: cLt. etc.. ,,IJich suppoat s1 a1 e icko l og~ ) to pn:,enl a mon compkx an: ly,is of lw11 class domination worklcl. 1k g l'lli O II Y tmpha ~ist'~ 1hat lht' ru1ing clas~ was itsclf' compos(d ol' di!Te rc nl rrac lions. lh :ll r la\\ lllk alsn re quired thc ,,innin~ o f' the comt'lll or th l subordinate cJa~, . and 1hat it J'ar ilitated the em pirical explor< Hion ol tlw i n ~liua ti on'>
throug h wh ich cu lt u ral h q~e m om 11ork~ such a'i ,outh subcuhlm:-; ( 1 lall a nd.Jdfi: r~on. 1976). schools (\\'illis. 197H) and broadcast n ew~ (Gias~o~~ L"n iwrsil\ ~kclin Group,

108

lntroducing Cultural StLidies

CLIIture, power and ineqLiality 1 09

1976) . lmponantly. the notion of h egemo n1 i ~ amc nable to h iswrical anahsis sin ce it is 1101 a 'giHn. of an r partintlar class or organis:uion htt l is ~om e thing that has lO be wo rkcd fo r and su, tained . So it can be argucd , for cxampk . 1hat hlgcmonic cultural d omin ation "as a more ~ign i fican t -,o urce o f' ,,o rki ng-class suborclina1 ion in Britain in thc 1950, 1han in thc Hl30s. T hat s t:~bi l is;nion 11as obtaimcl in tlw 1~~ ~~Os bv markct '' in the prospereffccts (tmc ntplonncnt ''~ an imtrumen l ol l.tbou r cJi, cipline ). l,herl" O ll ) 1950s \\O rki ng-clas~ cotbent wao; obtaimd th ro t~g-h the htglmo nir dominatio n nf an iclco log} uf' affl uc.:n ce.

Key influence 3.3

The Frankfurt S chool

3.2.2 j ldeology as incorporation: the Frankfurt School

of thc Frankfu rl Sch ool (p. 109), in panicul:lr T hcodor .\clonw ami \lax llo rl..heime r (in l>io/('(/ir of 1~11 /ighll'lllllf'lll. 1!17~) del't"lopecl an analysis of the patt pl<~~ed by the ~up c rslnt c turc in acco tulling for lllt' lailure of the l'l'I'Oiution :IIY ~oc ia ! changc 1hat \Jarx had p ndictcd . T hcv foCII'-l'd on thl' role playcd b~ m w..s cult tiiT. or ll'lllt they prcfe n ed to call the culttnc industry' ( lO di,tance thcmsehts fro m tlw - erroneousidea that mass ctillttre is a ~ponlatH.'IIltsl y t ruptil g' popu lar culture) in sccuring the incorpor:u ion ol tltl' \\'orkiug cla~~ into capi t:dist ~ocit t\'. Th ro ugh radio , 1\', mmies and fo rms o f' popular music like jau, 1he ex pamli11g culture indu<;trics wcre diss<minaling mling-class ickologies \l'ith grea tn c iTec lil'eness than \ lat X cou ld hai'C e mi~aged . T ite run htr del'elopme nt or {'(}115lllllt't sociel\ in thc ll\'l'lltieth n nutry po,,crftlly aickd the p roce ~ of' 1\o rl..in g-c la~~ iti C orpor:llion hy pronwting- ti C \\' llll'lhs ol cla~slcsstwss , and 1\'tdded tite 11orking e l;~, l' l'l' ll nto n.? tightlr LO acq u b i ti~t alHl propet tl'mming hdieh. E~t n o pposition.d aml t t itical lorms of cu hu re C:lll be mark<ttd (co11sickr \11dy \ \'arhol o r thc Sex l'i '-lo l.-;). 1 he dcwlnpmcnt nJ'thc ndture illdU,Iti e ~. Ollt' part oJ'1he supc r-trutttll'c , sel'llll'cl clcstilt l'd to;.llbiL'rt 1lu: 'ocia! rhan gc~ that ~ l ar:-. 'aw .t<> origin:n i n~ in '<lC'it-t,~ material ba,t. O thct Ft~tnl..fun Schoul th tori,ts. 1 101 abl ~ \l. treme, ro ncle11111l'cl tlw one-d illh'llSiona 1 i1 ~ nl tlt t ' socicl}' tlt ;ll th c cu lture illdll ~ tri e ' l'f'e ,Jtapi11g wi1h incrc.t,ing \li (' (T~'i. l ' t~l ( l rtllll :l td l'. tht loHc ol tltt Franl..run ~dtool' ~ e ritiq ue 11,1, 1\'e ,tkl'tll'd h~ the it appare nth diti't el i' "1 ,,a) of' 1orm' uf popul:tt cult u rv. rile cc ki>ratcd - SOI11 l' tnig ltt ':11 11 () [ () 1 io uo; - l''<lllt p k o l' tlw Franklu t t Srhool's di-.mi~~iw a pprnat h to popular u tlturc i~ T ht>odot .\clorno, ( 190:~ -69) ;ma h~is of poptd; lr music. \\'t iting in th e lat t l!l :~lls and arh 1!1 10, ,\clnrno proposcd tha t tht indthtriali ~:llion o l lltllsir:d pt oclun io ll and lht comntt rt:iaJi,atio n ol' 11\lt,ical ro tb unt p tion hacl a h.lll'ful illfllll' ll< t' on 111\l'k.tl fonu . Popular lllll~ic h ael be< otil e ~l a n cl.ll clist"d: l';. 0\'t' l':t Jl StnlCIItrl' (thl' thin~ t ll'o-IJar ';tl l :l')W l l ~ of lllmi C:II 1( 11'111 - .\dof'llo illSI:lll C t horm ), tlll' ludie range . ~o ngt~ pes ancl harm on ir prog t-c" ions - clq>l'lld 11 pon pre cx i ~t i ng l'onnu lae ancl n otm,. 1,h irh ha,e thl ~tallh ' i nu all ~ o J' n de, , a re litmi liar 10 listc ncrs :t tHI henn are entircl1 preclictable ' (\ lidd leloll , 1!1!10: 1 5) . Popu lar llllt'ic ha~ beco me standard isl'd in to panicul:u tiTJC'- (cotllllt'\' &: wcstert1 . hca1v me tal. e tc ) ancl 1 d th in each II'(>C panicular lw mu las d en~ lop . .\domo con tr:-t,ted popul.n 11ith wrious music which 11as nol statld : trd i ~td b11 t d istitH ti1c and origi11nl. lkcthol'l' ll 's 11nrk 11a~ .\do m o's (xcmplar o ( scriott' mmic :"-101 onh' \\'l't'l' pop11 lar a 11cl ~t' d ou~ music d ifft'tTill
~ l c mbe rs

The Frankfurt School descri bes the social and cultural th eoris~s who worked for, ~r :v:re ected with, the Frankfurt lnslitute for Social R esearch. Thetr method, known as cnt1cal conn fr . . d .t theory', has influenced the study of mass culture and elements o emtntst, postmo ernts and postcolonial theory. The Jnstitute was foj!Oded in 1923. Al its inception, il was very much a prodLict of the freedom and olilical slruggles of the German Weimar Republic 1918-33. K ey cult members of the lnstitute were ax or 1etmer, heodor A o~no and He.~bert Marcus.e. Walter Benjamn (12:.) 73) was ao important associale. Along wtth Gramset .s (~. 38) wnt. s critica! theo_!)' forms the main body of Western (as .QEpos~ Sovtel-tnflu~ced) lr}9Jc , Marxism (Q ....2Z). lnrtuenced by the ideas of Marx (p. 97) aoclfL~d, 1 t r~s~sl~ systemattc, univ~plaQations of_gJlyraland .sodii[phenomena. In 1933 the ~ans nse to power rorced the lnstitute into exile in Germany. Many of lhe members were jew1sh and faced death f they stayed. Hor,kheio:u:r._Adorno and Ernst Bloch all went to .the Unted States. PostWemar, the School began its critiques of the Fascist system from whtch they fled and.t~e new experience of North American mass culture: tor example, Adorno's well-known cntt~ue ~f popular muslc. This culminated in Adorno a~d Horkh~imer's ~est-known work, The ~~~lecllc of the Enliqhlenmenl (1972, orig. 1944) whKh contatns semmal chapters ~n the ong; ns of modernity (p. 400), mass culture and anti-Semitism. After the war, the lnstttute returned t~ Germany. Adorno contributed works of philosophy, Neg_gt~Dial~ctics (1 _973) .and Aest~e.tlc tl!!ory (1984). H~h.hrendt continued the critigue of authoritanan regtmes.m T~e Orl~ms ~58). Ernst B loch and Herbert Marcuse exQiored the utOQJan dtmenston of_gitkal theory ill The Principie of Hof?.e (1986, ori~. 1959) and Eros..ond-Civilizaon.(l25,S). The polilical events of the 1960s ld to a reviva! of ~nle~est in t1. 1e Sch.ool's .wojs lls recoQJ1J~f.d.b~r is Ji.l!:9!~~rmas. True to its impulse, tn hts The PhlfosophiC~f Dtscourse of Mo{iernity (] 987} he criticlses QQ!!unembfiS....Q!Jh.e School an.Q. postslructuraltst.tbo.ught. The key to understanding criticaltheory is the recognition that ~l is not a unified body of thought. Rather, it defines itself 'negatively' against o~her. theoret1cal systems.. Eac.h strand criticises and debates in a polemical style. Each thinker 1 s best understood tn hts or her relation to other thinkers. For example, Adorno's apparent resistance to utopian solulions is best understood in relation to the more overt utopianism of Bloch and Benjamin. lt is this tradition of critique and debate that is the School's most important legacy.

FurthPr reading

Bloch, E ., Lukcs, G., Brecht, B., B enjamln. W. and Adorno, T.W. (1980) Aesthetics and P oltics: Debates between Bloch, L ukcs, Brecht, Benjamin, Adorno, Londoo: Verso. )ay, M. (1974) The Oia/ecticallmogination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the lnstitute of Social Researcll/923- 1950, London: Heinemann. Held, D. (1980) lntroduction to Critica/ Theory, London: Hutchinson.

11O introducing Cultural Studies

in fonu, th r~ encou raged cli!Tercnt r(spon e~ from li-.tcncrs. e dou~ 111 11,ic made challe ng ing demancls on 1hc liHener wh ilc popu l:tr music macle lilllc - popular m u ic had beco me just an otlllT tultif,i ng ekment of nmss cul turc . . \dorno mnimai ncd 1hat: .\ lusic for o.:IHf'rl:tinmclH ... .~eem~ lO co1 npkmcnt the rcduction of peoplc to silencc. the clving out of ~pctch a~ C'\prt"ion. the in.tbilitl 10 communicatc at :~11. 1t inhahit<. rhe pnckct' of ~i i c n Cl' thar rlenlnp btrwecn peoplc nw uicled b~ anxie ry. work ancl tmdcmanding docilill . ... Ir i pcrccivcd pmely ;h b<.J..ground. lt noboch can any longtT ~ixak. rh cn cn lainl\ noboch can :1n~ Jonger listen .... Tud;,1 ... (rhc j powcr ni rhc banal <.x tencl~ Ol't'l' thc 1~hole socit' ll . (.\ dorno. ruoted in :\liddlcton, l9UO: 3-1) .\clonw's ~cnring Cri tique of popular 111\ISiC pbces it a long~ide film. cheap hoJicJ;w, and comic books a~ a mo.:thocl ofi ncorporaring tlll' \I'Orking cb ss. B11 1 il is an ;r mtly~i s thal has a numbcr o r flaw<. (s<.'l' Longhurst. 199:1: 10- 1-+ for a Mtmm;rY). Thc popular serio11s di,tinction illlroclt ces a ,alut judg-emen t lwfore th e ana i ~si s h:rs bcgun. T I)(' ~cope of .-\clonw's thl'<H Y (;11 popular mu~ic uncler capita)i,m) secms lar too broacl ;ncl Adorno rlnc~ tHH appcar 1 0 apprccia l<' how tha .~copt mig h t he comtrainecl by his twn social and hi,toriral location. Some typcs or rmtsic Uan. hlucs) migh t h an non-standa rd structurcs or mig ht exprcss re!'istanre 10 domi nan t ideologies. T IH: dcHJc,pment o f ncw musical technolo{ie might also 11ork a,rain't tlw tendcncits that .-\dorno nmecl in popular music. T hus critics Mrg~~..s t thaL the daims or thc th torv cxcecd whnt c;n be rca,onabh ~n-.ta i rwcl. . \ ~ a cri tiq ue of fin Pan Al k~ in t he i 9~0s and 1D-IOs Adorno mad c ~o 1 n c scnse. but the application of his id t'a~ tn the prolifcrat ion of popular mttsic<tl ~t ylc~ ~inct tho.:n tclls onl~ a .small p:rrt of tlll' story. T ht contributio ll of tlw Frankfun School 11ns lo indicaH : tlw enonnou~ expansion of thc culture industries nncl their incrtasing in fl tle nct' in 1 11odo.:m capitalism. Leo Lowenthnl ( 1961) capturt'CI this change well in hi~ study of thc biogr:q>hical anicles appearing in pnp11lnr US mng-az.irH.'S bl't\I'CI'Il 189(} a nd l 9c JO. J k founcl that in the o.:arlier period it was predominantly captains of inclu~try a ll(l financc' 1dro liTre profilccl . T hi' gaw wny in tht la ter pcr ioclto a prepo nrkr;rnct of inte tvicws \\'ith mmie ~tan; and singcrs. T h ere hncl been a shift fromthc 'i<lols ofpro<luct ion 10 the 'idoJ, of rn n~umption ' - 1hc culttlrl's hcroc~ wert' 11o11 firntll locatcd in ~upc rs trucurral occupatiom. notthe material ba e. L'nlikc the cconomi~m of e;rrlie1 :..ra ndn n trad itio ns, l1 c Frankfun Schoo i auributes a sig n ifi can! role to 1hc do mai n of cultmc in analrsing rdations of cuh11rc nn d power.

Culture, power and inequality 111 . tlttrral habitus is Jrefcrrcd o~tr o thc rs. Schooling is a proccss in which dominant therr Cl ' . '. . .

k ' a .,,;ctencc of fai h rrt'. In dlen. one cultural '"'tcm of S)1Hbolism (p. 288) and pupt ' ' ~ " is im:>osed o n rhm uf ano the r socini gro u p - a proccss tcrmcd 'svmbolic ,. mcan u10 .olence ( Bourdieu ancl Pa~scron. 1990). . . . . 1 Bot~rd i e 11 i c'pcciallv interestccl in the 11ays 1 11 whrd r p~n ucular gro ups (clases) ur society 111a 1 k thlir idcmit~. th e ~nnbolic " ;11s in which t he~ cxprcss ,ah_ r e~ ancl se<k to 1 bet\l't'l'll tlr t msdvcs and other ,grou)'. lk d escnbes tlns a~ tllt' 1 ))Ollll(hries rna1ntnt ocess o l ctistinnion (BcHrrcliLu . 198-1) ..\gain there i' a ~tres' that tulture i' ~~ccptirc. \\'hill- non~lty and rrcatil'i ty i' acklt tndccl~ecl. thc <.'mpl m~is _l i~~ o n tlw . s in \l'lrich whal i~ lear11cd :mcl practisl'd i~ ;m alli rmatio n of ;n ext!>llllg st:t o i 11 11 hi:rarchicalll' organitil'cl S\'51CillS or rt'latiOll'-. Rourclicu's pn~ition ha' bccn descnbcd

,er works symbolicalh' to lcgitinralt' the ~llld~ of accomph~h_ment thal w~ll count cJass po1 leclgalJlc ancl \,onlw leat.ure' of th c hah11us uf \\'orklllg-class as nO 11 '' and w rt'letr;lle ,.,

thus: Toa ven largc cxtcru 11e do not choose o1rr idtntitl. \\'t' ncciw the cuhuml identi11 \,hich ll ;r~ been h:1 nded clown ro W fro1 1r pnl'i otr~ ~t' l1l'r<Uion ~.... \\'e adl11.: re 10 groups. 11hethcr clubs or politic:~l nr rdi~imro;. or~ani Latinns .. :rnd_ 1dc~pt the idcn ri fring iumgcs or social gmups. wllcthel' 111 h;llr-."lylt 0 1 r luthlllg. ~o .1~ lCI (()l)filtll our so~ial ickntit1. For thc :.<uue rca ~on. ,,e tako.: step~ to di,tingui~h oursdHs frolll those who bdong- w d i iT~. re l ll ~ruup~. 0111 rastcs ami our lifesL ) les han- no i n r rin~i c l<llue h111 serYt' 10 maint.rin tht' cohet'CIICl' of tht group ro ll'hich lll' IJtlong. (Robbi ns. 1!1\) J: 17-l )

":e..

.. 1

3.2.3 1 Habitus

T he wnrk of l'ie rrc Bolll'ditu (Robbirb. l!l!ll) ~ t ress<~ tht' learncd. 11nqucstiomd. takcn-for-grantcd a~pec t of cultural bd1:11 iour. He: p uL~ fon,ard thc notion of habitns. rhc cultural lram t'\lork ldlt're in and whcrcbl' thc habi tual aspens o f l' I'C r~ ch11 social th o u~ht ancl action operate. People', pcn Tptiom. tho ughb. tastt~ and so fonh are shap ed by tlwir habir us. Thes(' princip l<s arl' symbolica lly m edi a tt~ d in actio n and are karned throngh cxpericnce. llo\\'CI'Cr. the pm,er or the <lominant rlass<s cnsures thnt

Bourdieus focus on distinction' betwcen groups rathcr titan on the 11holc ~~s u m o l 11hich thev are a constitutivt pan contrasts with thc ~Ltrxiar1 and thc dominant iclcologr approach: Bourdicu sees cultural stril'i ng for indiddttal exptTs~ion as .a !'ham b11t in a v wav~ he has ; more organic approach to thc issut of mccualr~ than :.. larx. 111 11 Cr;u~1sci or thc Fr;111 kfun School. T his di!Tennct is expre!N'd in .1 sharpcr rorm bet\,ccn those t heorist~ 11ho stT i ntqua lit~ as funnional to thc op<.ration of socie11 ) (Daris nnd ;\loo re, 19-1~) and thn~c ~~~w se<.: i l as co_nll in u a i (;.. lar x_). TI '.t i ssu~ of crd tu re as ickologY is neutral 111 tltc "e posurons: rclcologtes that :.uppor t tlll ~~51<.111. ~uch a~ those based on religio n (" for cxnmple . the bclief in rhe di,in e right of tl w ~l't'ITign in mcdie,al Europe or the secular belief in dcfcrcn cl' in contcmpora1' ~ocic11) can be used to suppon cithc r r iell' of in cq uality. . . \ T hc e debate' aro und hcgemon1. inco1po1~11ion ancl habitm s~10,,. ho\\' mrslcncl1~1~ J l is lO th ink of culture as a lllt'rT su pcrstnrctmal ctTcct' d ctel'llll lll'cl b~ tite ma lertal base. In the 1iC\\S of th c theorists rcdcllccl in this scction. <uhun pl.ws a pan in legitim i.sing ancl na t ural i ~ing many fcmm n f inequality. Thl exll'llt 1 0 wll idt dorninant ideolocrir' nre themsl'IIT~ gunran tors of social orcler has been cue~tionccl b~ sonw sociol;gi~ls. Abcrcron1bit 1'1 of. ( 1980) prnposc that tite dominaru ideo~ugv u nh bring~ coherenc<.' 10 the dominan! cla'' not tn rlte sociery a~ a 1 d10k. Suborclm atc cbs~cs aH incorporat<.d lw political ami cconomic cotllro l. n ot icleological clominan:t. A ~li!Tc1:er ll approach is takcn by oth lT thcorists ,,Jw arguc that the n dr nr;d . d ll lll'llSron ' ~ a signilic;nt ~CHIITC of inecualitv. \\'e ncxl considn a selcction ol stuclrcs thnt cxnm1nc

~S --

112 lntroducing Cultural Studies

Culture, power and inequality 113

3.3

Culture and th e production and reproduction of inequality

Key injluence J.4

n this ~e<t ion 11c t"\plort the rde1ance ol the explano~tiuns ol ineqt talit> di-.tu'.~t'c\ 1bo1T 1 .)'. mean ~ ol a t'L'I'ie11 ol ~o lll.l' t:tdtm:ll ntanik't:n~un' uf incqualit1. \\'e 'hall look a t :.tudlt'' that fotth on tite ktl' ,.,1 11 able~ ,f cla~~ - ethntCll>. gcn<kl and .1gt a' suurn~ of cultmal in cq u;tlity.

Richard Hoggart (1918- )

3.3.1 1 Class
Th e notitn that culttlral dillnnces l'olluw da~' linc' Ita' a long hi,toll . \\'t hcr~ comept ol ~tatth inrhlcle, 1h t notinn ol stvlc ni lile anclopt'IH thl' " " l'or t ()ll,ickring O l'trbps and di,paritk' betl,ee n r l a~~ and ~talll'. rl1t ca1ll da,-;it' ol tultural 'lltdics. notabh llogg;1rt ( l ~l;-}7) all(\ Thomp,on ( 191iX) ll't'l't' H'll mut h contTrntd 11ith thc , ) ; pi ng. e: h;m1t' ttri)>lir.' ancl denlopmc 1 1t or 1\'orki ngr la'' cnltuat. In mun rtcc all 1mrk on 1outh 'ubcnlturt, lhc notion of t1.1" nallnrc' ,abo promincnt {set Chaplt'l K) . Culillral cnmutr ntan h a~ Ion{ addre"t'cl illt' li fcstdcs ol tlw ri ela a~ well ,,, tht pom. Tlm'c lil'ing a t thc CXII'l'lllt'' ofsorict>. it i~ ~ometimc' ftlt . are 1 wrhap' 1e r~ difTennt in thdr ,,a>s of lik frunt thc i>road 111<tss in thc nticlrll c. In thi.~ w <tion tht i"t le ., da,s. culture :tnd lll'CJII.IIil\ i~ approat hcd lw nw.m' ol a '-111'\'t' l ol ex pl.111.11ion' nf tlw lil't, t ~ l es oJ' tht poor: 11c sltal l considcr intm11 thl' uil ture ul'ponrtl tltcsi'. thl' l'l'rlc of <lcpril-;uion tlwon ancl the ptllalit' l'IIH'tl-{t..'IHt' of .111 tiiHkt-cla~' / -lhl' t ulitlre ol pol't1,. t h c-;i~ ll';ts pnpt~lari,td i11 tiH' 1!l:'(h a n d 191)(1, b1 tite .\nwrican ,ulllll opolo~i:.t Chcar 1 ewi,, 'tuclie, ol tiH' poor i11 :'lkxit o. l'uetto Rit:t :mclthe L' nited St< tlt's. 1k 'ott ~h t to ll lt<lcl st;liHI lto11 i1 11a... tlt at (Hll'e rtl 'l'L'Illl'd tn rcprudHtl' i t ~cl f .tero" ~tneration': hm' poor IH'opll' ;1ppe.11 ccl to proclun' mort poor pcopk. ll i~ c;.pl:t nation ronl't'llll :llcd 011 tit e rl i~ t i i H' II't' n ilwral l'l'atuns ~hancl h~ tlw ~o-t allt:cl umk<et~i ng m cli,rqnnabk poot. l.t,,i, ( 1\Hil. HHifil pmptl'l'' th.ll tlw 1 111or h.11e a cJi., I IICtil'l' Stlbt lillll l'l ll ifL'\ [~)t- ll'lt \'h , likt :1 111 t til tll l'<'. is :1dt~ i g n J'or lil'il1)-! l h<tlllt'\liclt'~ a 'lrttclltrt .m<l rationalc cnahling tlu: IJOor to ~o on 11ith their lht'' ( ontro\ tr~ia lh. lw sugg-cst,<. t.h:ll thi' 11a> orl il't- is p:tsscd d nll'n across t he gt'llt'l'atinll ' throngh 1 he nwtl ium ol' tht.. famill' . .-\t thc et'lllrt' of thi' thcon i~ tht iclentilic11io n ol .1bout SL'H'llll' u-ait' 'aid to characlt'l'ise the culture ol' ponrty. -1he~ ilt C ittdt the liJIIOII'ing: Tlw poor aH 1101 1 (.-:trful of thcm.
i nl <.'~l.llt'cl

into tht major it"titttlion ... of tlH.' .;orietl' atHl l't'tllain

111

T iten i' a 1011 knl ol community organi,atinlt 111' ig-h bou rhu1 Hls.

iclt'tllifil;lliun ,,ith pbre i11 ,)um

Best known for his singular 1957 _ study of wor~ing-_class culture, TI~ e Us~s of Literocy, wri~ten when he worked in adult educalton al the Untverstty of Hull. Subtttled aspects of workangl s life with speclal reference to publications and entertainments', the book focuses on how ~~~king-class culture has been affected by mass p~blic.ations in t~~ de.cade~ leading up to the mid-century. The impact of Uses stems from tts ltterary cnttc s dtssectton of popular ublications by an author who imaginatively draws upon his experiences of being brought ~p as an orphan in the Chapeltown and Hunslet wo~king-class d~strict~ of Lee?~ Uses ortrays northern working-class life with a striking evocattveness, partiCulanty and VIVtdness. ft also marks a significant intervention into debates about the cultural value of the mass media and emergent forms of popular culture. The Uses of Literacy contains two parts. The first examines the remains of an 'older order' 1 of working-class life, a collection of cultural altitudes and beliefs.. H~ggart describes. the binding influences of home, parents and neighbourhood the orgamsatton of theworld mto 'us' and 'them'; the focus on the personal and lhe concrete rather than the general and the abstract; the attractions of the immediate, the present and the cheerful. The second part of Uses comiders some of the ways in which the old order is 'yielding place to the new'. Hoggart critiques the personalisatio~, oversimplification an~ ~an~ erin g t? base moti;:es of much popular journalism and questtons the real worth of sp1cy magazmes and sex-andvlolence novels. (In places Hoggart's critique seems dated, as in his denunciation of the 'jukebox boys who while away their evenings in milk-bars' .) His general argument is that the older culture 'of the people' is under siege from a 'new mass culture' that 'is in some important ways less heallhy lhan the often crude culture it is replaclng' ~Uses, 1958: 24). ~hi_le The Uses of Uteracy heralds a new sensitivity to the nuances of worktng-class culture m hterary and ethnographic terms, it also participates in an older tradition of judging its worth. In Uses, as in much of his writing, Hoggart displays a sharp appreciation of the subtleties of everyday language as a finely culturally differenllated communicative medium. Hoggarl's other pril}cipal contribution to cultural ~tudies was to tound the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (p. 327) in 1964 shorlly after he became Professor of English at the Unlversity of Birmingham (S~uart Hall (p. 88) was th ~ Centre's first reseacch fellow). He became an assistant director-general of UNESCO in 1970, gave the Reith Lectmes in 1971 (published as Only Connect, 1972) and later played a leadin~ role in the Britis~ ~rts f cpuncil. His long career as a writer, teacher and public servant is reviewed in three absorbtng 'V'olumes of autobiography.

F.uniliL'' di,pl:tl' tht follo11 ing- kalntT.,: - abscnct of' ,, lengtlw cltilclltoocl p lt:t~c ol !lw likn'Ck earl~ initiation int o stx - free ltnion~ or con~cnsua l marriag('' - high incidtncc ol abandolll'clll'il t'' ami t hild lt'll - l'cm;ti('CCtllrcd hou ~c ltolcl'

Fmther rrading

Hoggart, R. (1988) A Local Hobitolion, London: Chatto & Windus. Hoggart~ R . (1990) A Sort of Clowning, London: Chatto & Windus. Hoggart, R . (1992) An /magined Ufe, London: Chatto & Wmdus. ,

11 4

lntrodu ci ng Cultura l Studes

culture o f ~onn~ b ut h e fa ib lO sp c c if ) full~ tlw cri ll' ri a o f incl11~iou. 1t St'l' ll1S p la usi ble that ~ h i'OI~I Calh (lt>lll' pcople 1\'JI lead diSI IICII'C' ~ ~~ les of life . but L ht'~C ca nnot be expla m ecl 111 ]Hirch cult u ra l tenu~. . Th~s al-.o th c conclusion arrin: d at b1 ~ocia! ~cietHists in 1he 1970~ ch argccl 1, h 1me~11ga tu_tg ~h~ cl'ck of dc pri,ation. Tlw iclc:t r:1n1c to p ublic a lll'ntion in a spccch ~llade .b': Sir "C~th .1<~'-t'ph. t h c Secrctan Sta te for Social SeiYiCes. in 1 97~. 1k as ked , \\1t~ s ll th a t. 111 spne of long periocl~ ol' f'ull c rnplnnnent and rdatin pro.'>pl'ritl' and

l.c\\'is a rg uts thal th l' c ulture o r pmer ry on l~ < : nwrg es in sp ccilic histori cal :mcl social co ntexts. natrw h lh l' caril free t nt<:rJrise ll ll'lSl' -. ' t'1 1 1 ' ( 1ll<t 1 . , . . ' ' t>f el''"" " ''st 1 11 1 e ,, III C 1\'1 IStic captta l1 st SO Ci l' t~ l. xcl ud cd a re p1 TIitera tl' soc i c tit~ ,,lw r e j) O\'t'l'll' ~ n c> 1 ) te . 11 > ~nc 1 al ~ntegra t ~on ;mcl lit e I0 \\'('1' Giste;, of Ind ia ( lwcau~t castc m t mbn,IJi p b ;1 ~ <Hil 'C<' Of l ntegr~llon) . 1 he culture of po1er t1 is rcg-a rdccl a<; a crc<lli,e. adaptin: I'<'.'>(>Oil.S(' 011 th pan. o~ tire poor lO their material clcpril;uioll . \ n implicatio11 of tlll' Cllltun of ponn~ t lw~1s 1~ that thl poor \\'ill ah,a,s be 11ih u-. a-. long ~ their cult 111 e 1 , 1 1 .1 . 1 1 11 ~ ~ ' 1n 1< ea 1 1a1 ha, fcd propolll'IH~ of c ultural d eprh-atioll he<' '-CCtion 33.2 bclo11) . T he , thcun h as been ro undll CTi tici,ed (slT \ ' tl ent 1 \ltl1011g 1 1 ' 11 e 1<)6) . o . . 1 _e\qS 1eco~n1 ~es th.t fun damen t a l!~ matc l ia l orig i11' of POI'l'l't~. h e docs n o t allc mpt 10 a ~scss th e rc lal ll'l' unportan ce o f social and econon1ic comparcd lo c ultura l f: tc tor-.. He ass t11n c~ '.lratt.ll(' cu ll lll'l' of po1e n~ ,,.JI Ol'l'ITid t othc r c ulwra l tracl iti u 11 , , such s thosc th at 11('1\' lllltnlg r:lll l ~ brin g wi th th e m !le 'lgTtl'' 1ha 1 ll OL11 tllt']J<><> I' ]l'l 1 . " 1 lt'l]l:t l{' 111 t c
1

- predbpo-.ition to .111<1 frcqucnt u e of dokllcc ,,, a resoh ing co nflict - competition for hou~ehold m:nnnal alfen ion ~ib ling rh-al 1 \.

:ntthoritariani~m

Culture, power and inequality

11a 1

11 5

of

'":h

or

th.c impron'llll'lll il_l 1 ;,ilC'l' tht \\'ot Id \\';u ' ami \ Jroblclll~ ol malac\)ustment '<> con-.plcuou~h pt.rsl't~ llts reph "''tu po'n a cycle l . . (sel F' . ,1 ., ..'') depri 1g-111l:' 1 1 ntmn In Sir Kc ith \ 1 ie11. paren t-. 11h o I\'C I L' th Lrn.,t h e~ d e pri1Td in Oll L' o r more ,,ays in childhoocl ll't' lll o n to b t:CC>lll t' th l par<: nls o l a nothe r gt:ll l'l'a ti o n u l clepri,cd childre n T his po liti c:i l inilia ti1e ,,as l't'C ISl in socia l scie ntilic 1 n111 ~ as ;111 imcs tig atio n of th e intc rgc n c ratio n a l co ntinuiti l:~ in ' di sach'an t a~c. a nwrt in r lul'il\' l l'l'lll th an cleprint tio n . 11 a b o co n ced ed tha t fano 1 , o th er th a n fa mil l' and c ultt1n migh t C<1 use di~ advan tagc. such as socia l grou p llll'lllht'rsh ip. eth nic cli.;;crimiu a tion nr re~icleu cc in a particular loca lit~. The outconw o l th i' IT\carc h ,,as to llllild a nmre comp1ehensi1e pictllll' ol the multipk disach :1111a~<.~ la('ccl especial!~ b~ nwmh<.1 ~ of' thc lnwe~ t ~ocial classe (~ce Ruucr ancl ~lad}te. 1\l/6). fil:tnlit\.{ tht p oor for 1heir c irct llllSt:mcc., is still a popu l<11 actility for cultu.-al comn i C iltalOr~. lt som e t ime~ ~ 111face~ in debates abo m th e ' und ercla.,~. lkgi nning wi th J\larx 's comme n ts a b o ut th c lu m pen proll't :1ri;n . c lass a n al ~sts h ai'C lo n g nco ;11 iscd t h e existc n cc n i a l' l a~s h e 11cath th c c s tab l i ~ h e d ll'<lrking class. t\ u cm pts han bccn 111aclc to idc nti f'y thil' ('}ass in stru clltra l ll'l'llh. that is. ll ll'l'lll ~ of' L h l' l'\)llcl iti ons of' lif(: e nCOlllltCI't.'d h )' p eo p lc in pa n icu lar t ircu lll"lauces. For cxarnplt:, iu th e L' ni ted Kin gdom the un ckrrla~<. is oftcn felt tu comprisl' gro up~ su r h a~ th c lung tcrm un e mplo~ccl. singlc-palt'lll families and t'ldlrh p en ,ioner~. In the l' n itt.d Stall'\ it b often <1\\0Ciatccl with poor bl:1ck resi den!~ ofilllll'I'Cll ghellO\. Structu ral l'xplanation\ olthc uncle1-cla.,s are uMiallv ad 1 anced bl' a('acltmic ~ociologis~:> ,,ho e m p h a-.bt. that these group!> of peoplt- h:ti'C mol.l lO I()SL' lrom procc,~e~ or COlliIIIl0\1 \ i ll d \l ~trial J'C'\ll'liCllll'ing

('()llllllllllit~ ~CI i~t''

s~~on~l

dcp~j,ation

BoxJJ
1

Poverty and ill hea lth plague unskilled 'underclass'

'

than ~ million ptopk 11ho ld 1 ~dwol ,,jh a poor gnt.,p ol reading ha1e \li nk imo pon:1'11'. ill heahh and depre~ion. acconl in~ 10 a ~tud1 b1 th e Ba~ic ki li <; :\gene~. Fi nan c irtl inccn ti,es \\'ere ntTclt-cl to ge t thi p oten tial ltl ldt' IT iass b;Kk in to bas ic ccl u cation a ncl trainin g, 'a id t\ lan \\'e lls. director ol tl w agt' ll ('~. Those who bccanH: nwrg in a liscd 11c re not on ll' m o re like h to be out uf' 1\'ol'k or 0 11 low 11ages, bu 1 wc:rc lc ss li kdl' to l' ll' or belong 10 < 'OillllHII1itl nrga ni ~a t i o n s. \\'o mc n ll'i th l'e ry lo ll' lit l'I'<K~ II'Cre fin tim l~ a' lih.c ll' 10 be dass ifi ed as ckpl'l''Sl'cl ,1, th osc with g()o cl basic ~ki 11 ~. Eclucational prospects for th ti l chilclren. bein g brougl11 u p in 'stressful concli t ion~. 11ere bleak - parl'lltS ,,ere le likch LO slto11 a posi1ile atLi tude to ed u('ation or get inmht' d witlt sd wol. \ third o r thc adu h ~ -.aid thCI' had diffic u lty
~l orc

~inn

Figure 3.3

The cycle of deprivation.

116

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Cultu re, power and inequalily

11 7

rcadi ng a loud from a chilcl's book . .-\dult l i 1 erac~ Feelgood factor and Jtu mera c~ pmg r:~m n1 es ll ll t\l be expanded Percentage of 37 }'E:W olcb LO pt'CH'Il l large ti\Hnbers bcing excludcd. the ~alisiied 11 ilh liie ~o w repon saicl. O 1\\en O Wo111en \ 1r \ \'t' 1h said tite Con..-n nw n t had 111:1de ilnpn.>ling IJa~ic .'>kili:. a priorit)' in its \\'dl'a re to Verv low \\'ork programnw lor nHmg wopk. 'Thi<> litt>rac~ rtprHtcmph asi sc~ lh t dangl'n, 1\'C fa ce in d ei'C:> I~kills 45 opi ng an underclass of' excln<kd IH'op le- outof' job'. 1101 pa11icipat ing. imrt'.l'ingh deptt''"ecl. and oft<.n l:tbtlled :t~ f:tilttn-,.' L' , 11~ tlu: ~a 1ion:d Cll iId Dt,l'lopmc 111 Sur\l'l of mol'l' than 17.0()() ptople horn in 1 9!H~. .Jollll g, ntu.- r allCI S.tmantha l'ar,on' of C:it1 L' n il l' I'!>II' intenicll('d a JO 1 wr rt nt ,atnpiC' lro111 England and \\ .tlcs all!Hit th til littran and tlltmcran 'kilk job'. ltcalth . anciiiH'ntal mnlook. O m in liH ha el lo11 or 1 en lo1, litl'ra<. ,. and tlltllleraCI prol>lem~. ,,tid the rl'pnrt, // / )olll 'l (;!'{ . 1ny /1 1/f l'. Tltis ,,a~ :dntml cntai n 11 :111 tt nd<.l'l'SI lll:l lL'. ,,,el J>rol{ssnt B,tt lll' l'. \\'lwn tiH'Sl' mcn ami \\'OI1lcn kit 'chool in 197-1 lhl'll' IH'n'j11h~ ;llailahk. bnt. II'tho11 t qualilicatiom. illl'r cll:tllt'l'S o(' l' 1 11pl01 ment ltal(.- d ccl itH'cl steadil)' 1'11 e~ ~ l <tl'll'd I\'OI'k yo ttnge 1'. httl J'I'O ltl 1ht ,tgL' Of ~:1 1\l'I'L' lllOI'l' 1 (.;.('11 [O bt lltl('tll plon;<( :mcl b1 tlll' agl.' ol' :)7 '' lutt the1 ll't'll' inttn t'IH'd h;u l lttOI'L' 'lo, lt;n< ol lull-tinw 1\01 k. .\n m ng tlt<.n. J<i PL'I nnt ,,ith IL' I'I lo11l itcrat1 antl 11 pn nr1 1 11i ilt lcm litt-racy llad 11 0 q u:tlilicaliom. nnnpared l\'ith -1 wr CL'Il l 11ith good liiL't':tCI. Figtlll'' lot 1\'UnH'II follo11<.d lhi, pallet lt. T l w~ ,,l'n' 111nre tita n f(,ttr 1inw' :t~ l ikt l ~ to liH itt :1 lt ousl' llllltl l\'h<.' l'l' IH'itlt cr pannn ,,as working. .\ \tandard pwcltologic.ll 1<.' '1 rncaled rmn ancl. l''PL'rialh. "omcn "'itlt ,cr~ loll litcracy \\l'll' 111\ICh IIIOI'L' Iikdl 10 ~ h OII' 1hl' ~~ 111j)l01l1., of d cprc ,~i o n tlta ll ihOSl' l\'ith mcragc or g-ood ski lk

80

ct -- nlt'cl lot thl' 11tnhlem' ol lltt' tuultn 1,,,, clill!-t . S11 111 1ttr.1l txpl.m.uion' 1 11 . . .. . . .. . ' 'll llltCh-1 C):t" l>l'etlJitlll, :ttl' t'llOil'd 111 1111' 'Ol l,cl ;n 1 d l'l O II Oll ll C -,11 tl(.. illl . (S o] cmp 11 ,,, 1 ~t th ( '11 1tLII"l li'l llCllll ilt' o l' tltc: II ILde lchl'' 'l'l'k t lt:l11gt, to tlt t 111oral lahrtl u l . sonett <.'!>. 1u;r 1' rircunl,t.IIHl''. 1hl' dcb.tte betlll'l'll the'e 1110 in<l . tn< 111 cl tlwil lunih . .und . t't g of' thl' lltHiercla" t't'l'll ll' l'll'llll'llh n i a lllllt h oldcl Cllillll'<ll dt~ll11 C ll011 . stancltn, ' . . .. . etii'L't' lt lltc ctesl'lli ng ' :111d 'll nde,l' l'l ing poor' .. \ 11 a'Sl' I'II Otl ol cultu ra l cltlk l'tnce 1 sa 1 : espon'l' thal , apparcnth Pnh acceptable in tht lir~l caw.
sohttt Otl~

3.3.2 11 R ace' and eth nicity

Tlw ll't tll ran i' oltL'II pi.Ht'cl in llll'l'ltd nHnlll.l' in cultural 'ttrdit' to 'ign.tl l., historical clubiou,ltl'" .tncl i' rm,tiun;tbk 'l:lill' ~' :1 1 1 .llla_h tie ~onnpt. In tl.1~ ninetetn 11t tTn 111 1 '1 thL'I'l' 1\'t't'l tlllllll'IC ill" altt'ltt pi~ bl' b 1rol~l'<lll llll'l'' ll ~:rtur~ 1o c- l ;t~~ ~ h )topk :record in~ lo rat ial group' ('l,hitt. '~tllow. 'bl:u k l ami a ... cnbe uuchang-ntg ~haracl!'t i~tics lo thcnt. lltc,c :liJcntph 10 ll'gititnatt ~l'b ol ~l.thk racial clill<'rl'lll'l'!> scienti lir:clh art 11e 1 1\' 11 ichoh rvg:trdtcl a' 'PL I I'O II ~ 1\ liln. 1~JN~I: 7111 . lloll'<'l'tr, rat t is a1 1 ~\'erycl; 11 <.e ;nnpt tltat pv~>pk 10111 i tll' 11 t'lll plm 11, rat q.~c ~~ iw_1htrn,t l ~t'' and o l htrs. \ ltn,pt<.till ol IIH 'Il'IHtlit utilil~ ol lltt H'tlll. r.tu '' \\Hieh hl'IH'It'clto_ 'l'lll' a<. .1 j poten! nl.trl..er u l 1 lil illt'. tl cl ifkrc IH'L '. Tltt,t dilll-rtl.lCl'' ll'ltl'llttr tlt tl :ll'l' bl'ltt'l.l'cl LO lH' ~ro und l'd in t'tt lli ll't' 111 hiolo!.\' art o i'Lt'll Jltantll''t 1 11 l'XPI'l'" lllli' ol t.lt 1 an . lht g . . 1. . 1' discrimination .1~:rin'1 nilttr' nn tltt 1>.1,, ni lhLir llll'lllhtt--.htp ol ' IWI'Cl't\t'C raet:r gro tt J. Raci--.111. 11 hl'tt i t , pt :u 1,td lll .111 incl i1 idt t:tl lOI\ .~t d'. <lll. otltet llL't '011. i~ ul'ten c,1 11 ca n :tl'o l<lkl II IS!tlll llotta l IPrlll . a' 1d1c11 :1 ternwd r;tci:-t l p tt jt~ d i ce'. ll nlll'H'I. 1:1 .uucrl th.ll inHnigr.u_ inn _ , .1 _ ~mhlern . or ldlt'lt 'chonl' politir:tl polic1 t akt ~ it lur g 1 wsttm.ttictlh' lltHit-r,l.ttt tltl' u11111 ilnliI>Il ol ttltlliL lllttlCIIlltl'' tn tlw dl'l<'lop111l'lll ol ;{rl and ..;e i<.ttn all<i Jc:tt lt llbiol'\ 1h:11 lo,il'l'' .1 IHg;IIit' pt'trl' plinll eti .\lt ic:t nr .\,ia. lnstitulion:tl r:u \111 Jll:tl lw lltc>l'l.' dnph taktn l'o1 grantl'cl a ttd 1lt11' ltardtr Jo di sl od~c than a pnjudi< i.tl .tttitudt. So 1nttil11t'' thc lt'lllh c tltttit i11 . 111<1 'eiltnit ~ ~ cHtp, .t ll' emplo~td in an .11lt'111JH ICI pul ~onH d i-,1 atllt' 1H'll\'t'l' lt tite h i' ' o tict lh t'o lt ~l i111 p iir:u ie 111 ' ol' _rae~' : tnc~ t: L' lll phasi'L' 1hat il , utlttu.tl amlnol biological clilll'tt'lltL' tlt.tt i~ tlw kt\ cltsttnt'ltoll. l ltl\ 1110\T ma1 not be ,llllicicnt 10 l'~Capt t ;JC'l collllot.ttion' ol dilkrttHl' ancl inll'riorit1. '' l\'(' can set l'rom snme ol tite rcsl'arrh carritd out em l:lll.{U<tgl' cocll's. Tltv 111:trking u( (onn' o l hmguag1 (bngtt:tgl' rll<lt' l a., prell't t't'clor di,pn-l'tlrcd in panicul:u rnnlt''" , a r o111111011 tlll'lltocl ol k gitimi,ing t 11h11r<tl itwqualitil''. In tltt iO-, ~ttin , 11 g-gt'tl'rl tltat J11c ,pctt 1t or 1101 king-cla" t hildrcn l':o..ltibitecl :t 191 re~tri t t td rodt'' col sitnpk ~c' l t l t' I H't' lot m,. ittet>ITl'l' t g'l'a11LI11<JIL'al ~u unnrt ~ ancl impol't't j,lll'd 1or.lblll:tll . ~ !iclcllt-da" '(>l'l'tlt di,pl.tll'cl .1 gt.l"(> 1101 01111' o(' liH' rt~trit ttcl todc: lmt .11--.n ol .111 'l'lahot ;mclrock'. tite ,ancl.trcl Engli'h of p11hli<. life md thc u t : 1 ,~ 111 ecli:t. ltt tit e L'ni ttd St;IIL'' til L''l' irl''"' II'L'I'c trans1:1lccl h1 ~or ia l !--rittli .'> h itt to notion' o[ cult 11 ral ckpriation' o 1 't llltural cldhit' <lk ttt ~lt' n quirkh rqJIH iiated tltt as ocia1inn ol Jtj, icka' ,,itlt thc~c tlttorir-': 't'~'~" 1\l\1:~: 16-l . ll)~)l. Tlw l.tg hecamt attach td t''P~'l'i.tlll Jc prtclominanth IJiack 111 h:tn ghrJtn pe1p111.11ion ~ 1d10~L' apparc nt 'l'erba l dc>rimticon ' rli~ach.lltl:tg-<.<1 tlt i' gnllr >. di'L'nl't.mclti,inK the m lrom 11 1l'

( .umrhan. I.Juh 19!li

or

:llld it., impact on tlw patttming- of\\(>rk. 13tti other comm tntator~. notably thc influential 1'\t'l'' Rig-ln tlworis t Charles \lu1 n ty. han -,cen this phc no nlt'non in pri111ari ly cu ltuntl (and by l'Xt<nsinn high ly llltii'<Jiistic) t<nth. \ltHT<t ~ fncusl.'s 0 11 thc sig 1 tilicance illeglill:lC\'. 111,11 lal breakcJOI\'11 , n:tcl<qu:tll' (>:lllt't'llS ni childrcat llg ancJ ('I'I11 llalil~ among thc poor (lot .1 r<.1 it11 o(' tl w rlt-ba t<:s abot n !lw IIIHicrcla"' in tl w Llnil ccl S tates sce \\'ilso n , 1 9!1:~; J'or th l' l flt ited Ki ngdo m . ' l't' Li, te r, I !I~H)J. Con<~p<mcli t t g l y. lltt

118

lnlroducing Cultural Sludies

Cu lture, power and inequalily

119

ma instre un uf .. The l'lftct- of thi' '"PI)mtd dl'litit tlll' ca u ~t of tlw hu lu n ni blad. clnldren tu do ,,.t'JI in ,t hool.

in,ti~t~tion' ~ocieti

11a~ clainwd a~

Tite tlt c nw of' r:H i;tl i~o;u e~

'P'" !..in~ a

heg't' IJJonic et .,i, in Bri1ain 1dwrc t'<, tahli,ht.cl

lite idta tllattlw l a n~u age DI blad. , cJwokh ild ren ( Blad. E11gli'h \ 'n11a1 ul:1r- BE\') IH.'.II' '~ flexible. <~S 'ubtle a11d a., dl't.likcl ,1, ,t,md;u el micldlt-da,~ lornh is thallel1gtd b1 Labm ( 1972bl 11ho. 1hrough n fktaikd .mal\,j, of .tttual i 1 hta nn~ uf child1e11., 'Pl'tch. p1 e't'IH, a 1en dillt nl1t pittwt. 1 k dtnwl1,tr;Hn tht 1irh .m.11 of gr.Hntn.llil'al cll'l'ice~ (p. ~ 1~~ through whi c h tlll' rhildrtn c(i,pl;ll HTh.d dextnitl and

unckr'\tanding~ .tlmul tlll.' ordc1 ing oltlhnir gro ups ce tllll' to be challcllgccl i' ta l..ttt up in T/11' J :'mpin .\,J:,., llatl: (C't' lllt l' for C:ontl'mpuraiY Cultura l Stuclit' 1 9H~ l. 1 Jt j, is lht.

, 11011 lltrt

,,0 ,-1., of St'H'Il nlt'm bt'l' ol 1he Bi1111i ll){ham cenu e" ho set 0111 to anal\ '>l' t~tcc and l\tCi~nt during tiH' 1!1/(}, 1ro m .1 '.111 t.t.re c omm ittt.d LO blacJ.. re,i\tance. Thc1 cmp h a~i,c tlw lH:ed 10 loca te ntei'm 1101 in indil idu.tl lhll'ht, but in lar~e-~cale ~ocia l procc''l''. 1 h c 1 clt~ 111 panicul ar allt'lltitll1 to tht r h ange in Hritain'<. ime1national po.,ition ,jnn thl' tncl ollht. Serond \\'orle! \\';u. lltt'l' '>ll~~l' 't 1hat tlw prominenct' of raee " an i"llt' i 11 1he 1!1/(h , connec tt'd lO lftt' ckclilll' of 1\ritaill , p o ,ition .t'> a m:tior 1radin~ 11.11ion . 1t i' 11 1lw contt'Xl nt thl'Sl' c lta t1gt'' tlt:tt inmtig ration policiL"' ttltnic h:hl'., of t'0111petitio n in h ou;;ing and labom 111a1 h.th. t'lt .. 11111'1 ht 't' l. In lhl' n i~i' of' ltegelliOIII faring 1\1iti,Jt c;~pi tali ~lll. tltt Cc n lre for Co nl c mporary C uhural Studies (CCCS) (p . :\27) coll t't' lI'l' maintai 11 ' tlw Bri t ish , att' i ~ 111ming i11 .1111 hnri tarian di l't>c t ion )> (ll'h ic.: h \\'en ~ho n h lo beCOilll' l'l'l' l1 1 1101'(' prot1 lllllll'l'rf ,1~ Tha ldt t'l'i\111 bl'C<\111{' l.'Stablishcd ) . . \ t t llC' )('l't l or Jii'Ccl expcrit'll f!' tll i~ ,~l i t'~ J( )l'tl t itt J'nl'lll\ of pe tpu Jar <lllthori 1:t r ian Mil 1 tf' 11'1 1ir ) l':tl' is111 i' th e lllO> t co n., pinlot ts l'Xan1p le. R;lc i,m. t h e n. c:11111 n l be Lt11CI<' r~ t ond as a ~in1pll' irfl'olugical phttt ollll'llnn . To :1ppt'ttiatt' its force rc qu irts a d c taikd :111d ,pcci lic anal\,~ u f chan g-cs in tl w l\t'itis l1 st;llt' atH I B1 i1ain '~ dun1ina 1t l ;tll(( ll'orki t1 g c l :~,sc.~. Tllr l:'llljlil'l Slri/u' /J((r/: ' P:tl l..ed a good dta l uf ro ntrmt'l'~l' ll'lll'll i1 appeartd. not lta,l bccattsc oJ'its tri ti ti~lllS o J lht rarl' rdation ' ind 11stn 11hich tltn sall' ,t'.ll'l Ollt'lllOil' insln tm tn t of' Colltml un-1 l>lat J.. 11orki ng-c la" cunnnntl i 1l'' The1 :tre t''Pt'Ci;tl h u i 1ical of 1ho'e ~111dic~ titat .tnount f(tl hl.1 c k dio;,ICI\antagt in telllh uf' f'r:ttlllrccl nu c lear fami lie' th:n tailto p1mick .tdlqu.tLL' lll:ll<'lial ancl emotio11;,l M1ppon to rlt ilclr< n . Such studie~ pathologi,t hlat 1.. 'ubnthllre:-. Tlll' CC:C-'i collcc tii'C are hl'i 'lllll aboul oiTcring 1e t Ollllllt' IHI.n iolh btl mHI a geiHT.tl endor~l'lllt'nl ot hlacJ.. .-esistan cc (p. ~:1:-l). In the an.tfl,i, ol c uhn1.tl f onu~. thi' empha'i~ on ;1 con1pkx .\l.trxi,m in ll'hidt do~t histori cal anak,is of political a nclt.'COilOillic d rctllll~lallet>' , co mbinl'd 11 ith a t ollllllitmcm to blac l.. 'llugg l<, ha' ht't'll t.lktn tn,ard nw'l notahh in tlw ''orJ.. of' P au l Cil r oy (p. 1()(1), Another pa 11 oJ tlttlargl'l pittll l'l' i11 11hich race' and ~td,m i' localt'd , tht hi~t oll and cntt'l'((lll'llCl'' ul colo tti a lislll (p. IK9 ) . .\lalll inllll t'lllia l umnption' uf r;1tia f diiTcr(llt 't' lt.tl't' t lll.ir ori~i11 i11 lite to lo11 i;tl cncounlt:rs ol Euro1wan pm,ns "itl1 tite socic ti cs tlt at 1htl ... on~h 1 1o clo111 i 11 ate. Cultural a nahsts 'llch a~ Edward Saicl ( p. H i~) and Ca~atri Spi1ak 11:1\l' lo< u,tcl o11 colt11 ti a l ll'Xt.' 10 co u,id cr 11ha t tlt l'l t t llu~ abotll opprcs~( tr and opprt'"l'd. :-,:ti( 1' s ( 1H7~ ) n1oll n111('11 la l qud~. Oril'll/oliwt (set 't't'l , 111 f.; ' i) slt m,s ho11 Etll OJWa 11 II'I' ti ng. f'ron1 t lw ni 1H'l<'l'l1 tlt cc n lttn Ol111':1rrl . colbll'ltCtl'd a concc ption n f tht ' O rit- nt ' ( tlt l' .\ liddk East in IMrl icula r) ;ts txotic. g l:11norou' a n cl dangc ro tlS. r ltis fiCII) t1:1 1, '111j)fifkcl fr:tllll'\\'OI'k ll l'ITI'I i1t'(e.s'> 't'l'l't'cl 10 :1('1 as a j)O il' lll cultma l g-ri d 1h roug h ll'lt ir h 1ht n tltllt't'' or lite East ,,e t'l' ap preht' llcit'd. Gil\ a tr i Spi1ak (1987) i~ morl' COIIC'<'I I1 l'd 11ith i~'\111'' of' po,,e r anrl rcprestn 1:llion. 111 a 1\'o rld dominatl'd hl' \\ 't''ll'rll cfi,('Oll t''l'' ho11 can tite ,ubahern stat u' of Thi rd \\ 'o rld \'OCl'' achin p:tt itl' in dialogut ll'ith 1lwst' o J t itl' \\'es t; Said ;m el Sph'ak rlclp<n om llndt'l',landillg' of r:tti.tl rlilftt t'llCL' b1 u'ing tltl' t ool~ ofliteran and ctllt tt ral a n a fl,, 10 problenlll'>l' tllt' rcprt''l'lltation' of' the 'mher con ta incd in \\'e'tl' ln te""

argut' tha1 m.tm 11on-aandarcl fo1111' art 110 lt" adtqu;m in t tiiiH'' ing ,, rca,oned ;u g u tm nt tha n 'tall(fard nticldll'-cla~' En,!{li'h ;111cl. f'tll 1ltn. lltat in '>Pillt' n ,pen' 13E\' l'"j)l't'''l'' ttao;ontd .tl'gunttnt nwre dirtt ti~ a 11d cogtnth tit a n ,t.tltdard form~. (Standarel l tt g fi.,lt. l .abm ( l~li'2 h: 222) cl<~im'. cu t be ,inntltan t' tllt'h m npanitular and l'ag ttt . llllttt' ' th t arctii1Hlbtil1,!{ llo11 ofll'orcf, burit, rarlwr th ;111 'trikt ~ tht targct' .) 131' llll':tth ol clo't' t:xamil1ation of actua l usagl' l.abo1 ' IHt\\'' lllll\' l'O IIIll1t'lllato t ~ ha\'~ fon t ~ld o 11 .surfa cl' clilft: tcn ns bctii'CCn s1:mdarcl ancl llttii,Lanclurcl t(l nns an d misl;tkLn ly (CJ11Chuil'cith:tt [\J-:\ ' is :tll inferio r llll'lhocJ f'ol' Cttlllt'l'illg logica J J'( 'a'OI1 1 1g'. l .<tblll' ami ltl lll'r socinling tt iqs cs tab lishl'd 1l 1t. ltg ic<tl :t 1 1d t'IH11 tlllllliratht .tdcquacl' of

Bl-.\ ' in tl tt l(t io~. Sinn tl ~t:n tl1 c idea h:h t tn e rgcd th:u l>lad, l a~tg u ag b l'SSl'I Hi.1lh' d i[krl'IH f'ron1 ~tandard Eng lisl1 ;nttl t ltat i1 ' h ou ld bt tau glt t i11 ,c( 1ook . \dl'llt'<tlt'' of' 11mits
$1lgg't.'' t t h.11 h111gnttgc , :1 f'tlll Ct ion nf pm,r ancl. i 11 01 dtr tu rnu tllt' r t'Siah li,itcd di stribu1i011' of' )Jill\'l'r. l is ncns~:m lO im ti llll ion a 1i'>c 1he teaciti ng ot'IH'\' Login it k giti man. (u 1lw Oaklancl Scitool Board ca~l uf 1997 it \\'<ts n e ntu:tlll' agncd that blad. E11glis h ~ hould h.tw tltt 'taltt ~ of:t ~cco nd langn<~ge. sincc 10 dtscribe it "'a p1 iu1;11~ l.mgu:tgt'tt ligh t imph a dispchition tu11arcls its acqui~i ti on th a t co ttld he ncgal I'l'h cot 1,1rttt'{l. Th 1 politics o.f muhi c uhuraledu catio n - thm is. cducmimt that i~ organi,td to promott' a recognition o f r ultttt al difltIHT - :t1e notminu~l~ co mpkx. Sdwoling- tal..t., plau in 1ht o 1111ext o t\lid er d i... trihutinn~ ol p olltr allCI h q~tmom .. \nd . " ' notl'cl in Ch.tpll' l' ~. '' :11., ol taiJ..ing 1111amidahll' loca tt' ptr:-.on' in lll'lii'OI J..~ ofpm,el a nd di .... tchanl.tgt. ,/' \\' itt. r, 11i1hin rultu1~1l 'll ldit' h:11e le ndl'{l lo a1ni d tht .uwchn<' ltTminolo~ of 'etlntit i11 .utd lw.tded 'lmi~h t lin tht freighttd lt-rm l.tn in ;111 attt.mptto .I{I~I'P tlw l'l'al,,ollcl ~ignifiranres of thb dimension of c uluu al el'. te t. ancl t1t.qualitl . llt' carh ,lltcll' ( in tfti, tracfition . b1 S111an llalll'/ al. ( 1 97~). t' :nnil1t'l he ntoral l>anit , 11 nm11 tdi.tw th ~ "' l..'tllergt' lll't' of ' mu~gin .( as a social pmbltnl. ' .\htgg'il1 11.1, tHII :1 kgal ttn 11 (' robben ancl 'larn111' l'ron1 thc pn,on' bcing- tit e Engli~ -lc"g. tttms) IHII it quit J..h Cllllt' into popular a11d rncdia clisr o11rse f'rom 1 07~ . Tlll' ca ttgnl'l '''"' impcHlt'rl f'ront tht L' nitcd St:ll t'S antl. tra t1slatcd i1 11u Hriti ~ lt sucicty. it r.t lllt' lo , t.tlld liH' a pani r ubr kind of p('rpt'll'<ll u t - a yonlll{. b larJ.. m all'. usual ll' .H'tit1).\'ll'illt DIH' or tlllll'l' at'CC1111 p iiccs. ll;tll l / rd. tracl' tl w ckl'l'lnpnH' Ill o f' a 1110r:tl panic tltat lwars 'ontt n., trnblanns itt tnm1 tn tit e l'a rli er m oral pan irs ~ ~~ rro u nd ing 1~160s ~out h ~ ll beu h tms ( ~l '(' tlw rl isetts,iDIJ of' nwcls and rnc l..tr, in C:hapte1 ~). Thc 111\'th ufth(' b lack ltlllg',l\'1'1' cn ndt' ll '<'<i lllilll~ txaggnatl'd l'ears ~be t\11 ~ out ll . cri me and pnsonal saf(t~. r;1 cc ancl illllll igra t io11. 11 a l( , / o/. 'l'l' m 11gging as ;111 'Hkological rnnductur' uf th e 'crisi~ of' hcgc nwm of earh 1\170~ lki1ain . Th 1, sitoll' 1 1ow tlw mural panic mer mugging. a social con,,;uctl'd c.ln i:1111 lwlt;11iour. , ;twnhdt~s anic ttl a1cd dcqwr co nccrn' abnu1 13riti-;lt ~oritll. litt l'"<tggtt :utd n,pomt lo tlw prob1<-m' o f' mug,l.{i ng i' indicuii'L' of a drih LOII'ardo; morL' 01111 he u it.u ia n ,tall iltlt'l'\ tntimh.

120 lntroducing CL iltural Studies

Culture, power and inequality

121

3.3.3

Gender

l)j~Ctl'-'illl'- ab0111 rela t Uil \h p~ betiiCl"tl llll"ll :111(1 1\CIIll\"11 IIIII 111 111<111\ of tite :tt"){ll lllt'llh lltat han been di.;cu,~cd abon. ll , olttn nntatl,t>cl th.tl. 11lt.llt'H't tite natnrc and 11 pt ol 1 d:Hiun,hip-. IJl't\\'t'l'll men .111d IIOIIlt'll in ldtatt'\l't p:ut ol the 11orld. tlwrt i' inequalit1. mtn .trt the dominan! 't''i: .111d att' rq~.utkd "' 'upttilll 10 ll'tHIWn. lt i' ,ug~t,tcd th.u there , ,, natur.tl hitTan ~~~ ht'IIHTII IIH'II .111cl 11otnen .. t natural inequ.tlill. Suppon lor thi-; iuequalitl' i~ oltt'll dr,l\\n lto111 hi,tw it.tlt\denu and lrom collll).ll i'on '' ith the animal ,,orld ( tht 'rittH t' 11! t'tholog1. pe 1Htl:11 i,ecl b1 tlw 11 orl..' of De\IIIOild ~l oni,). lt 'l'l'lll'i that it i' illl]>O"ibk 10 thinl.. aho11t gL'tHll'l IIthcntl thinl..ing ahout h il'rarclll' (~ lourl'. 1!l9:~). O m sttg-l.{t''' ion .IIH>lit tlll' 'l't'tll ingh itH'I it.thll' con llt'C tinn bC\II't'Cil mak ,;uperioril\ :mrl ltnJale ini'triot i11 i' th.tt thi' thi 11 l..ing , congntt'tll ll'ith o ther p:llt l'l'll' o l thtHJght in \\'t,ttm .;;urit' ll . n.unl'l~ Lht hk-rarchical relation bttll't'tn nattll'e :md cnlttlrt. ~loon ( 1 \ t~t\ ). Oltntt 1l\17 1 and ~ tt .llh l'ln ( IU-.: 11 ha1e all dr:tll'll atlt'llli on 10 th c a.;;sodatioll ttl i'tnt:llt ll'i lh IIH ttll't' .11Hl malt' II'th r nlttll'<:; ((ntalt- ,,ith tite pril,llt' :t nd lite doHJt',tic .lll<lma lt ll'i th th t' pnhlit :ul<lt lll' collcctil'il)' he\' arg uc th at. in '-Ot'ittit''- ll'ht'l'l' ctt ilttrt i' S('t' 11 a!< ptt f't'l'abk- :11td .~ ll>t.' t ' io r to nattt t't' and ll'htt'l' tltl' public a l\1':11 ., tncompa~'l'' tlll pril<tll'. Lltl' l1 it i' inni tabk th<tl K t'ltdtr n.: l a ti o11~ 11ill bl' appn:ltl'lldcd in lt ierarchical ll' l'llt '-.

Defining conrefJI

3.3

F eminism

Feminism describes both the broad movement that has campaigned against the political and social inequalities between men and women and the school of academic criticism that takes gender inequality as its object of study. Feminists all critique the subordination of women to men, but they differ widely in their strategies for empowering women. Feminist accounts of the role of culture in gender inequality have been central lo the evelopment of cultural studies. Acrude periodisation of feminism might identify three phases: first-wavc, second-wave and postmodern feminism. First-wwe feminism describes the women's movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. While it contained many different political strands, first-wave fem inists generally accepted a fundamen tal, nc llural difference belween men and women, but argued for their polilical equality. The besl-known campaign of firs twave leminism was for women's suffrage. Second-wave feminism describes the women's movemenl fro m the 1960s on. This period has seen an enormous growth in feminist scholarship, which has employed various forms of understanding inequality. An early concept used was patriarchy. This was originally an anthropological term which describes a social system in which older men are entitled to exercise socially sanctioned authority over other members of the household or kinship group, both women and younger men. However, this term has been criticised subsequently, because it does not discriminate

between the differe t form s of inequ lity manifested in different cultures. An alternative concept, proposed b~~1Sin \~sy~ This makes use of an important distinctio between se and geoda.wbere sex describes bi~i.cal or natural differ~e ~ 6es the social roles of masculinity and femininity. Rubn argued that different societies assign differenl kinds of-rolesbasedon biological differences. The objecl of feminisl inquiry should then be the kinds of cultural expectations lhal lhese roles presume. Research inlo gender identily has taken many ditferenl paths in lhe investigation of how gender is socially conslrucled. One influential strand ha~ost slrucluralist, psychoanaly.tiUe!nnism. This arg~eader identity is constructed lhrougb_la[lguage. In Western culture, languageis phall~tric, ~ Of_JJ]ale centred. Because lhey are excluded from full access lo language, women are refused enlrance lo a masculine syrnbolic order. However, psychoanalytic accounts have been crilicised for universalising male dorninance. More recently, postmodernist femin ism has queried the sex/gender distinclion. Judith Butler has suggested that it is a mistake to assume that there is a foundational, natural sex upon which gender identity is constructed. lnstead, she argues that sex itself is socially constructed. To use a usefu l metaphor employed by Linda Ncholson, we use lhe body as a coat rack to hang our cultural assumptions about sexual differences. For example, women's bodies are soft, passive and yieldlng, men's are hard, active and forceful. Butler's argument usefully problematises the idea that sex comes first and that gender is sornehow created from it. While no one argues thal there are not physical differences between men and women, Butler directs the spotlight back onto Lhe question of how culture interprets those differences. As white academic feminism has been challenged by the diverse strands of the women's movement worldwide, the question of cultural difference and the relationships between gender, 'race', sexuality and class have moved to centre-stage in feminist theory. However, there is a continuing and productive tension belween this emphasis on difference and feminists' desire lo assert a collective identity lo combat the abiding social inequalities between men and wornen. _)

F1111hrr l'!'fltling
Haraway, Donna (1991) 'Gender for Marxist dictionary', in D. Haraway, Simions, Cyborgs ond Women: Tlle R einvenU on of Narvre, London: Free Association Books. Nicholson, L. (1995) 'lnterpreting gender', in L. Nicholson and S. Seidman (eds) Social Posrmodemism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

The argtllll ~' l 11 i ~ silttiht 10 tltt cli,cttssinll o r r a:>tl:' ancl dass .tilO\ (', lt b 11 \ ' t'l' "ill'\ I n nndcrsta nd th:11 n d ttt n~ 11 w~ l w or~a n i secl clilfe rttHh' atHI c:-;pl:'rit ncnl dill'c:renth f'ro11t thost: in tlw \\'t ~ ;mcl tlt :tt il is import < HH not to fall inlll th e trap o l lltin king- ' tltat all societics strugg-lt ll'ith th (' ;.:nnl' g il'lns of' na turc. so th at a l! social liJtmatioll1' appcar eqnil'alt-nt ly anclt h w. holisti c tlh urga nit.l'd tn Lhc .sa mc cncl'' (Strathern. 19HH: :{ 1 ~- :~) . A gcnl'r.:tl thetttt of ll'<llll('ll : uuhro pnl og ist~ 11Titi11g about i-.sues ol' gtncll-r all(l incquali t\ (:111d ~O IIH' ttte n.twlabh .-\rdtJllt , 197-L and Et-ri11gl0n ancl (; l'll'l'l' ll . I H~7) , that much ol the 11 1 iting- 0 11 non-\\'este l'll sociLtics is fonuulatnl in tt-rm-. pf' \\'t:-.tl'lll

122

ln troducing Cultural Studies

Culture, power and inequality

123

a sumption abo111 J>lT'on' a])(( relariomhip~; th c rt i' a \\'estern folk mocltl 11 h ich ~ces ocia! life in di chorolllOIIS tcrm' ancl rhi ~ i' imposecl onro rhe substancc o f other lhcs all(l orhn arrangcmcnr'. In making rhi ~ lim of argumcnr- naml'ly that t h t di c h otomies are a fcatu rt o l :1111 hropological di,coul's<. nor th e 'ocial aiiCI symbolir s,,tenJs of th e soc i<: li t:~ st udi r d b~ rh e mn h ropo logisr - rh t rra,o ning is similar to 1h:11 1naclr in d isc ussio n s <~bn ul 11'r i1 ing n il1urc (set Cha plt'l' :)). Erri ng tn n a n d Ccwerti ( 1!1 H7). who studie cll llt: C h ambri penple of Papu a i\ell' Cuinea (a peo ple made fam o us b~ \ l:1rg<1rc 1 ;\[eacl a ncl Rt:o Fo rrunc a' rh l' T c h am bulil. IITilt' 1ha r in h cr ll'ish ro explore l'a r iations in cultme a ncl ptr~onal i 11. \ 1ea d. paradoxicalh. llllcltresti m:ucd the t'Xtl' lll 111 11hich cultures differ f'rom o m anor her. In a complex argunll'lll 1he~ contraq \\'e,tcrn 1 it'll'' of pcrsom as cli~linct a ncl competcnt indi1 iduaJ, ll'ilh pr i1ate ~u bjectil'l' ~l'il't'' a n clu n ique rl isposi tion s 11 ith tlw C:hambri 1ic11 that pcN>Ih are comtilllled bl' <;ocial rd < Hion,hips. l ndiliclual ~ arl' 1 101 bnuncled en ririe' 11ho po,St'\~ ('('llain characterislirs a~ rht'l art ,aid lO be in the \\'t:'l (a nd note rhe \a tu e-lade11 tt' l lll 'po"l'' '. - den otin.{ a lllattrialisr 1 iew Of persom) btll JWrSOllS ll'hO ~ha re and 1\' ho ilrl' part of Oth el'\ tltrutt~h lhcir re lar io 11shi p1:- a n<l are tnu ltiph COJISiilllltcl (ste a J,o Strath c rn . l!JtlH). E n in ~to n ami CC'I\'t>rt7 ( Hll'l7) :il'g'tlt' 1hal II'Om e n < llll11g' tht C h:unhri : 11T ,e n dill'c re nr !'ro m II'OIIle n in tit e \\'e~ll'rll 11 o rld a nd g-end e r con npts lt ave a dilfcn11 1 mcan ing. The caution agai11'1 : 1 ~sum ing unil'l'r."al pa tt l'I'IL~ of '-li]Jl'l'iority ami inftrioril\' h:h a l'<l liclir~ bcmnd that of IIH' d iscus~ io11 o l gtrHier a ncl Ita' panicular impo11ance fnr discussiom about tlw wa1~ in 11hich pc:oplt are mnlriph rou~ti tuted in \\e'>lt'l'll ~ociet\ th rough l';l(l'. cth nicil\. da ~~. age ami gtnckr. r\11 1ht:~l' ;u(' l! tribute\ p t'l '011 hood aml the ra~k lor t lw ana l~ ~ ~ is to see 11011 lht''-l' cli fTercm :mribures constittlle 1lw pl' rson rather than a'~uming rh a r rh est: categu1 it'~ of clifkrrnce simph auach to thl' JH'rson (St ra th ern. IDRR). Thc rcflexil'e procc~' ll'itlt 1 e~ard to \\'tstern idta" nf JX'r~on h oocl a nd !{CI1dcr h aw bt'l'll l<ikcn runh e r b~ ~Oillt' 10 <JI II'Siion th c distin c ri on belll'l'l'l1 Sl'X a n d ge 11de r (Collier :nrd \'anagisa ko. 19H7: st'l' a lso C: h ap 1cr 7}. Colli t r :1 1 1d \':tll a).{i'ako ta ke fro m Fo uca ult ( 1q: lh) th e idea th ar stx is an e f'f l.ct ral h e r than a n origi11; ju ~ r a~ i1 has bee11 a rg utd :tb('ll'l' lll:tl ge nder is llll' Jli'Oclli CI of' cJisc ur~ii'C practil't'~, M I ;rJso iS sex.

or

co n 1 ention. a com ention in 11 hich IIH'll a H' prmninent - 1111'11 han n n.1i11 intere ts in the fnuning of' cultural comention' 11h ich gi1e 1hem powtr all(ll'\cludc II'OIIlcn from po11er. L' si ng th c dichotomous mudcl of \\'csre 1n rhoug hr. Su<llht' J 11 ( 19XH) statcs that wonll'll cxperi e llcc a do u b le arbi 1r;1ri n e,~: 1h e \ \'es rer11 di ch ntolllotts muclcl crea tes opposccl ca rcgurics so womcn are 11h a1 m t n a re n o t. a nd ~ in n ir i ~ lll t' llll'lro d ecide 11'1 10 111 e n a rt. 1h c n \\'o m e n are clnubl ~ cxcl ucl cd . These le minist arg tt llll' lllS rc~ t 0 11 th c cu ltur:1l cO nlt: ntinJI." abu ut tltc naturt o f' pcr~ons in \\'e~ tem soc i t t ~ . l lll' idea of dua li t~ and cJi c )I OI011 1 ~ :t ll() t it e COll lll'C'lt'dllt."'' of' tlt CSl' ideas lO the doman<, o[ lh C indilidua l and socl' ll' and to 111e n and wollll'll 1 malc and f'emale in \\'e~ttrn 'ocie11. Strath ern argtre.s 1ha1 titen i, in "'t~tem !>oCil'll a ~ocial contract l'it'w o f' !>OC it' l~ - culture i:. collcclil(' - hcld in comntcm .utd "' indi,iduaJ;; ll'illingh' ~ubo rdin atc rh emM:hes to it (Stral h ern. 19RS). Thb ma~k~ rhe n alill' 1hat culture is 'aulhon.. d '- 'it i' p a11 ia1clll' that produces nrl ru re, (Stra rhem. HlSR: ~2:~). The't' 1L'\\'S h ;11e also been .{iWIII'oin in discussions abnut " om t.ns participation in scien cc ( Jlarcl ing-, 199 1). ll'h crt il i~ 'aicl rh a1 lh t idea of' II'Olllan rh t 'knn11cr' is a ro n lr:rcl ic rio n in 1erm s. 1 -1ardi ng poi 111s ro th e m a le do rni na1iun in ~ci~. 111 ifi c fidds. The p roduc d n n o J ~cic ntili c kn01d edgl' tcncls 1 11 lw t h e pnwin c(' ot' lho~t "lw haH' maJe charac lcl'i'> l ic' a nd si n ce i t i~ precio m in a ntly m e n ll'h o h al'l' 111:1 lt eltaracte risric' so II'OiliCII are cxcludecl ( llard i ng. 1\191: -IH). Dalt' Spencltr ( 1!lH2). 1\'1i 1ing- ahout wonu: n in cducation. makc~ a 'imilar c ultural argument: lhat 1\0IIIen ran nor hall' a 1 oice "' producers of art ancl l..n1m ledge became the1 .m, n<ll mtn. pender cites thc mar.{inalisation ol m a m II'OIIll'll in th c ficld of litt:ratnr e ami wonH~ns right.s, f'or exanrpl<' ..\pina lknn, ;\tan \\'oll~rone croft. Catherirw ~lacaulcl' (see also Chapter !1). \\'hile lt:mini~m ha' St'IYtd lo rl'IO<' II' aucntion cm t lw n a1ure aml ~ourccs \I'Ollll' n_'s .~'" b(Jrdi n:ni o n i1 h as a !so, obliq tt t l.l. s t.imulatccl i nttnst i" . il tt (' h a1 :ac1cri~ti cs of' masc ull n 1 1)' and rlw so urces of 1n:d t dom u1 a 110 11. T lwrt " wl 1<1 1 rs \CHII C lllll t~ te nn c d ' hegcmon ic masc ulinity (Connl'l l. 1!){7) (~l'C' abo 7.-t-. :~). rht icl<-:11 fnn lwi n g a man: cn nfl g uration of couragt, pll\,i ca l !.trength ancl toug iH ll''~ rh ar b encllessl ~ parackd in thc ma'>s media ( et ah o C:haptcr 7). One codi lication ol t hc L'S 1 ersion i~ offe red b1 Bran non ( 19761 :

ol)

,,r

Tht notion ol .,t., made it pn,ihk 10 ){1'011)> rogerht'r. in an .utilicial IIIIII. anatomic;ll dellll'llh. hiological hmcrim h. 'ondlln,, ~en-.llion, .urd pll':"llll'' .11ul ir enahled Olll' lO 111ake u~c o l this lluitiou' uni11 :r< a cau.tl principie. an omniptc,crll meanin~: 't'lo. 11': t' rhu' ahk tu functi o n ;-, .1 uniqul' 'ignilicr .md a' unil'l'l '"' 'ig-nifier. (Fonrau lt, lHX.Jb: l ."ll ) T his dots not nwan rh a1 an ato mical diiTt r't'n tes are IWL notc d bttt rl wse an: 1 101 n ccessa ri l~ rlw basi.s o f' a hi 11a1 ; sex c l a~'i fi cal ion (.\ loorc. 1 99~). No twi 1h sl:nt di ng th c suggestinn rh at pt r h aps SL'X tl:rl dif'fcre ncc' an ct rltura ll v COihll'llctcd. 1herc stTill' lO 1){' ge n eral agreen ll'lll a mon g con1mcntator1> ahou1 th t c ultural con~t ru c l ~ tJf .(l' nckr in \\'estl-rn societ~ (S trathe rn. l~lR~: :\lnorc. 199:t Brukr. 1990; T c h erke1off. 1 9U~~). Taking up th e ,~lll'-" of' knml'lecl~e ami thl' po1H'I' to impose panicular l..nc>l\ledgc construch on 'ocit'l\' " .1 1\'ltole. which ll't'l'l' con,icknd carlicr in this rhap ter. l<:minists hme deleloptd lht idea of patriarcln. rh e a l~ll1111'111 " that ocil'll is bascd 0 11

' no

~i&.\ ~udr

- the al'oidanct: of all kminine bch;wiollr':. and u aits

a cqui~ition

' 1hc big " heel'- t h e

~ H'

of \IJCCl'SS.

~1<\lus

ami

bread11'nnin~

cOill J>Cit'ncc

' 1h e \ lllrdl' oak - !>trengt h . ro nli cknct: a u el i ncle JWllde n ce cm h l'll' - aggressio u , lio le n n .111 d clariu g

1n rece ni 1i me~ masc uli ni ty i tsdf' ha,, in so m e quanns a t ka~L. he come a n o th e r terrain . T h e pcrY<Isinrr <.ss of h egemon ic masnrlini tl' ha~ h een cmpiricalll' questioncd a n d it is sugge~tccl that thcrc are in fact multipk- discn u rses of masculinit,. rathe r than a si ugk ideal ( Edl e1 a n d \\'t rhnall. 1996). ;1 si111aliorr 1ha1 has lerl <;ome comnwmator.; 10 'peak in the plural ol 'ma~cu l i nitics ( llcarn. 19!l) . \l aswlin it~ 0 1 rnascu lini1ies are 11ndoubt edl~ n al bu1 11he1her the concept on it~ 01111 '"" much efficacy in cxplaining thc gcnd ered ba'i~ of domination seem' open ro quesrion.
conte~tecl

124

lntroducin'g._ Cult ural Studies

Culture, power and inequalty

125

3.3.4
.-\ge ;u 11 age in~ p :mt:s~ a re, like glndt-r a nd the hoclv (sec Cha p tcl 7) . ap pareml) mllural p1o(n~e~. h tll 1\'111 come a~ 11 0 \tll p ri ~e tha t l\ illti n t his chaptt' r, as in tiH: hook as a 1\hok-. 1hc a rg umt'lll 1 dll be maclr tha t ,,ha t setms straig htfon,a rdh n<~t ur;tl is highh n dt t.ral and. cult~tra ll ~ spccilic, wi t h the <tddcd 11\'Sl th < tt tlw c nl1 111:< 1l o rd e ring lo cates ag-t.: 111 the b tologlr: tl ll'o rld . Cul ture 1Hilllr< tliscs agt'. a~ i1 also n:nuralises gcndc r racc. t.t h n it it~ - all th(lSt' a-, pcct ol huma n e xperien ct tha t ~el'lll to he ro,otcd 1 ; hiol og~ . . \ge i~ a cultu ral construct ~\'lll hol i ca ll~ locatecl in a biolo~ica l m etaphor ( pennr. 1!l!10). T ht> ap pa rc ntl y na tural p rocess of' tlw pc rsun ':. pa.,,age from h inh 10 dcath in. cl11 on ~Ji ogi c~ l 1i lile is ~rdc rcd . so m c tinH:~ co n trolled. bu t a l ll'a~ s shapcd b)' c u ltu ra l td c:h ul 11ha 1 s ap prup n a te a ncl Ce)I\\T iltio naiiJdtmiour at cntai n ages. .-\ge ha' cliJ'fcrc n t 111eani 11gs amo ng clilfc rtIH peuples 1 101 o nk lo t he indi1idual blll gc ~r statu~ fo1 a n ind il'idu:'ll m: al ~ ~h m<. ':~~h_,,hom t ht. ind i dual b ;~ "oci;_ned: a cha 1 n ohc<. otht lli 1 11 IIC\\' 101l'' :tllCI nlauo nshtps. A l ~o as ,,uh gend cr (~tc a hol'c), ' theorising- :1boutthe significanct:' of age m ust gi1e rcgmcl to, a nrl acconn1 for , tlw ,,a1s i~1 ':hiel! agt.' _i ~ mcdialcd b\' class. g'<' lt clcr. racc, clhnicill' aud a ll o lht c ullu ra l,ly ( Slg'~l l fi C<llll 1.11 a bl e~ at pa rtic ula r 1110 11\t'lll,o. ancl collli.'XtS.. \ small ex a m pie to ma kt thc poun ~~ th:u mo~t ptoplc ll'ho lill' in Bri t i~h l.ocie t ~ t n' al .tge al. if it ll':h a liut'ar pro n ~ in 11hidt Olll' i5 born ancl o nt pa''-l'~ t hmu~h lllL'<ISllrccl tim e 11 111i l onc's dt'a th. HOI,'l'l'cr. lll LTt' a re t h o~t' in Briti~ ll 'ocictl' 11hn bl'lieH in re incarn:ui nn a 11 d so tl lt' ageing P' o re" i ~ lor t hc m :1 circ ular a nd 11 0 1 a l in e ar j ou n c~. a nclthey look fo ward tn a re i>i rth - ~.qu.tll ~ fe JI ll1 o' t' ,,lw hl'licl'e in t he rcsurrt'c tio n oJ' the ~ pi r i t a m i or o pc ratc 11ith .t dillt.'ltlll '>t'll' l' ol time 1han 1hml 1\ho belie1e that clea th b lht: eud ofbei ng. In l,tu 'onll'thing th.u ~L'l'lll'- ~o tal..e11 fnr g ra n tecl .utd 1m n mal..ahk empiricall\' lllllb out to he .tn impo11.1111 principie o l' ~uc i a l o rga ni., :uio n and m:ul..<.: r ol ~oc ial d iffl'l t' IIIa tio u, IL ,. :lrg u:ihll' 111 :1[ agt an <l g'l'll<ll'r are llw 11\0Sl lll ]>O I'I<llll sha pcrs or ' ocial expt' l it ll cc Jor indi,iduals. IL ~t't' l ll' tha t in all , , nri...tic:- ptop le are 1l'l'aled cl irftH'IIIh o u t he b:t,, ol agc. ll i-. po,~ibk w 'PLal.. ol .tgL role,, tlw clu~tl..-, ol e:-.pl'tlalieul' th:u an m to n tain t ht nnolog-ical allCI ~tn lctu ral ag'l' b.uHk ~l ost al' 10 1 ,ociell'' h:tll' ton n ntiem~ a ho111 1he .1gc :H '' h ich it i' , u it:tblc JiJr illdilicl1 1 1101111 (t his n w~ l w gt' llrlnecl) . 1 11 l ' ll ~agt i11 ' e:-.n<il tc la ti ms. ;111 cl i11 Bri li, Jt 'eH ic11' 1hn c :ll'l' .1 se1 of agc-dtt ellll ilt l'd I:J\\'' lt'gard i11g t'lltplmm<' tll a iHII'I' II'l'lllt'll l. ' T IH 'igtlilit. < llll'l' ol agt. , no t jm1 a m.utn lor 1he iuclil'icl tal: it i' a 1 c:lational matttr ~ouc hing 011 _ho11 lll~l' l)('h.11 l'' Lo olhl'l ' T lw icll'.h ahotll th1. 1d:niolhhip .u t.' IIH 01 JlOI .u\d 1 11 to ' oua 1 l'" pcc1 :n ion' cf1<.'11 i1 1w 'Cie n 1i lir. 'II,Hur.ll' idc.h ab011L hu,, cl t iId rt 1 1 shn uld d en lop a11d how lht' \ ' hn t del lwhaH lo otltl'l'' T lw d iscip li n es o l' r h iId (J~'chu l og l :11tcl d cl e lopnll' lll al psyc ho logv a n d tlll' Jl~'c lt o l og'\ ,,f'agc iug rt'' l o n moclels of ' nonn.tl ' ( cu ll ural) t'' 1wuatious. 111 1ht iud ,-iclual li k cours<. tl w t'X IH'rit' net and practicc ol :t){t' roles is l'Ollll\Hlll ll'ith in tlw domcslir lifctl'd e . .\ l o~llwopl c gr 01 , up in t hc com pam ol ol hn., a u el k.trn tlw ag-e-a ppropriate bl'lt.l\'iour fo r 1lw ir sex. class. 1are or clhnic g1eH1p aud acrord ing 1 0 ~ciL nt i fi r :md mcclical knull'lcdg-<.. ll_ iste ic tl ~ ,id t." n n siHJ\1', 1hat o tt r icltas o f' agl'ap propria tt be ha1io111' ha1e c hang<.:d cu n ~ICk-1 .t hh 111 tlw n nn t pa't in \\'cstt'l ll ~oci t. t ~ ..-\ rin ( 1 9ti~ ) ha' wrill t'll tha t t hc idea

of r hilcl hood b :t recelll o nc. :utcl ~ l a~-hl \\, ( 1\lliH\ 'll l'\\'1 ., tlll' Lco ndon la bnuri n ,~ -1 ' 1 1 thl' ulidcl lc of thc 11 il l' ICl' tll h Cl'lllll l'\' ~ Jt m,c cJ e lc.ll h tlll' r la._,.IJ,I,Cd CX)JCI'I e1a'i'>l'~ . . ncc of rhildhood. \la1hl'\\ cll't. larcd lntmd l app;tlkd lll tht. l.trk o l ..-lu lclhn.,c] lnr ~heS~' cltiltliL'Il. 11111 ing- hcl\\ thtl lool..ed oldt.l 1 h.1n thtir 11'.11' .uHI liuding- th.lt t hildHn "' ,oun ~ :H 6 or H'<t r' e,I d ,,tn 111.1king :1 1iling- 1nr 1h:n1'"'" ,., i11(\ t'j>t'll~ll'n.t h ~ 111 llw strec t,o. nfLolttl<lll. Rq11l t ,, ll thl' ( ' ( ll l i L' II lJ H li ': IL ~ \I'Cirld o iH'II ' IH':tl.. n r tlw ln.!,lt 111( Hk ll((' elf child la ho ur in -1h ircl \\'o tld tonll ll t"' ld Hn C' h il< h tn :11 ... 'l't'll :t' a l't''!lll iTt' tn tn.tkl , ron trihu tiou 10 IHHhL' hold L'l onellll ie .... ( a l dl~t' ll ( 1~~~~ ~ JlClLII\ out that tht llo1' ol 1 ;T,tllti'Cl'~ Jrom p.11Till' lo l hildnu iu .1llhH'Ill \\'t~lt.'lll 'e u itlit.., , uuiclitnion.tl. \\'IH'rL'<lS j 11 h inl \\'tllld I'Oliiii i't.'S 11':-0lliTl'' JI0\1' ho th \1:1\\ 11lll'll 1 h iJcli t.' ll '1;tt l IO III<tl..t. a con trib utio n to lltt ho tlst.hold . In o;ollll' ~tlf.' i t l i e~ tlw t r:11 1 ' iti o n ICJ llt'll , t:tltL' m ln h.l't'd upo 11 :t.!,\' i ~ lt igh h . SuC' h h ig h l~ 1 llt.tli-.t.cl 11\o\'e lltellh .Jl't' 11anwd 1itn u l P'"agL 1h L' ,.._.minal ituali,ed 1 1\'0I K ou rilt'' ol ll.l''gt.' ,,,, t.lllit'cl out b1 \,11\ Ct.nntp ( l!lliO ) ,,J., t,t,lhli~lwc\ a COillll\Ci l1 tln t'\'ltlld p.lll\' 111 in 'lit h 1ite': tht. ph.l, \' ol 'L'P.IIIlion (ldll'll thL' initialt' lcal'l'!> ole! ~ ..,,nri.ttio m a nd rvl.llion,hip,J: tll t' limil t<tl ( li lll ho ) ph< t-e: .1 1 HI tht pha'l' o(

inr or)o ratio n in l o thL' li t'' ' ' ' "' " ' lt .., pn.,.,ihle lo ickn til1 'l'ln<tl 1 i L~.~ o l' pa,sagt' in tge bu t IWl 1110 d n n !'ocitll . \\'t clcli ng~ <tlld lumr;tl' ~lll' hot h loo,eh a"miatcd 1\lh < ncn,..,arih -.o. 1 hL'l'l' .tre a lt''' 1itt'' ni pa.,.,.t~l' th.tl are ti~hth linkcd 10 .tgt .11HI 10 major ~hi ft , in lif't 1 wn ,L'.,, Tlw rollllllOIIL''l L'X.Inlplt. in \\'t.'l\'111 'eH it.'l\' , thal ol thl bar lll III':t h for ~ lll lll ).\ .) l'II,J 1 >1'~' (;utd ha l mill\ :tlt (el! gi1l' ) 11lti t h I,L Kl'' pl<l\t' .ll'OII Il d tiH' :1!:(<' of 1 :~ ldl t'll bol'\ iJL 'COilll' 1llt ,t]h- J'ull :Hhtl t llll'lllht r' o ( iiJ t' re ligin11' t'O illl ll l l ii I ~ . Tht IH',t-1..11 <1\111 Ct'l'l'I1Wil it, n i ,1< 11\ 1~ ('ha n ~t .ll'l' to lw loltllcl in .-\ rri ra n 'nt it'l in. lor ex<uuple an1 on){ th~. ~l a-.ai ,lllcl 1he l l:11da 1anpk. \'oung 111\'11 . ldHn the1 al\' initi,unl into 1J.._ '!al 11 , ol 1\ arrie u-~. b\t. olllt.' t ht: ht.'l dtl' ol t attlt :md '1'1'\ 1' in 1hi' 1o k for '<'H'r.tl )'t::lrs until .1 lll'll ntl1o rt o ( ~ ot t n g llll' ll < lit.' i1 1i tia ted . Rill'' !J I Jl"'' t).\1' u ll t'll im o h l' sca rill ca 1io n o t o ll w r f'o nt ts o J hod ih Lt ll t t il ~ tt io ll so th< tl tht.t'L ' , a IK'IIIl:t lll'lll. ,j ~ibk sign of' c h.utg ... cl ~t:uu, _ S o l'io l og i'l ~ h,t\'e taktn thc'c idea' lillthl' l', ad1anci ng thc idc.t th:u -.t;llu.., pa".lgt. Cia'l'l :11ul ~trau~'- 1!171 ) i.; a 1'\'1' t. enmon kalun ol modcrn ~oc i e tic:>. F(ll t,.un ple. nt. t upation.1l lik i' in t. 1.... ,,ingl~ lnqnt.nth thtHH.:ht ol in 1.11 tt.r ll'rlll'i :lllclllll' \1:1111' p.l"<lg't'' " " ilC':Htd 1\ ilh lll <llllotio n . II'I I'I'IIH'Il l .tnd \11 lo 11 h :ttt.' lllj)On:tnl e't' I'L 'IllOil :JI O('l':t\OIIS ll C11'~, 111 ba i OII:t l l't il lll l't'' :\JI J j, lll :t \ ' \ t lcJ tllt' III,Jt , l( ] jn ~ IIIJli'I'\\UII tlt .tl 'l:tll l\ p:t",IL\L'\ oll'l' J>l l' j>l ogr.l lll lllt'd hr the ndwn .tncl unprnhlt'lll:Hic.ll h "''Pl'l il'IH tcl h\ tllt Jl.l".tL\n'. Olttn tlwre , comid e ~t bk indi1idual di11r,it\ nf t:Xpclilmc in ttt'L\<lli.ning 'l<lllh J>l"tg .. -,. l'll'll a mong perso11' i11 hroatlh ,jnil:ll ... itu:tti ulh. <.on ,icle l llll' 11:111\lit>ll 11 <>111 ,cJw ul lo II'UI k. .-\ lt houglt i1 is bl'cnm i11g i n r rL'ao; i n ~h' k s.; com nw 11 lor tlt i, u,tm ilio n In he madc :'ll the agc uf lli. ll ltl il the 111id- l!l ll' th i' "'"~a ' t:mcla rd tr.t jt.< 1or' ln r \1'1'\ 1 11 .111\' P.ri li,lt schoolch ildHn (a, la te "' 19t\ onh ~:) IH'I < t'll l ot J>HJlih " :IIL'd 1111 ht.leHHI th,il ~i-.; t (cn t h lt':ll). \l mo'l .1 q u.u tt.r ol ~~ hool-k.llt'r' t'tll\'1etl tlw l.tholu m.ul..tt '' ith no tclura tio n.tl qnaliticalion,. :'1 !.1111 e nd np in poorh p<tid oc t lljJ.t1 iu u.;. 01 t < ll tr'l'. 1h L pro ccs~ i~ uo t random : th i' i' :111 im ptlll.ll tl lll Oill< 'IL I of MH'i:tl .nul r n lt u r:d lt.'lllotl nc ti ou. r\, Pa ul \\'ill i' po i n l t'cll ~- pt tl ' it :

1 26

lnlroducing Cultural Sludies

Culture, power and inequality

127

1 lw clifficult thing- 10 ~,pl.tin about ho11 llliddk cLh" kid' g-t' l 111ic\d \e t la"job' , ,,h 1 othL' I"' Je t th t'J tl. T lw dilfl cuh thing 10 ~" pl . lin :~buut hm, 11orking rlas~ kid ~ gt t 1\C)J ki 1 1 g rlas,job~ i.; llh~ the~ let th t'I IJ , e h'n. (\\'illis. IU/7: ) )

1 11:111 if'l'SL<IIions. Ol'ttn th.tt po,,er St'l'llt'- LO lw cnco mpa~sing- in li1rm . lo clged in 11tt da,~ stnl Cill t't' nr e thni c h ivrarc h y or instittlliunalisccl arr: u1 g't'111 t' nts bt111ec n 111 t'tt ;tnrl lll' 1\'0tl iCil. But. a' Fou u wlt I'Cmi ndedtt'. poll't' l' i ~ abo ~O il H' 1lti n g- di lf t"ccl thro u.{hotll L .orkin gnf a ocictt'. So pnt,t r i~ abo local ami can be unckrstoocl com e:-: tualh r;tlft tr 11 han snucwralh - .1 rt(omnwncl.uiotl lor a lwrnll'neu tir approach 10 unclcr,Lanclingcuhure. p ower .111d ineq ualin. This ca n lw ill us lral t'cl bt ti\O stucli t , ol p011Tr ancl tontrol itt ,,ork orga n i-.:niom:
~ l : tl colm \'oung's '1t1d~ o l th c pulire ( l! l\ H ) and Sallic \\'< .;tll'ood ~ study o[ ,\,i,tn 1\'0 1111'11 g anllell l. 1\'orhl't'S ( 1~);-( 1). ) 1\ bol h t' ast'S COilll'fJI 11a, i 11 Lltl' hattds ni' llll'll . :tttd ill

"lile comtn t ion;d so ciolo g-ira l ,,isdoJn i111 o k es a dL-.~cr i ptinn ol' da's r ult u rt llta t ~ll.(gl'' l' th at 1\'o J'king-cia" ch i(d rcn an l'll llll''h td in Cttltu ral llntion' '\liCh a'; (,t().. of rldcJJ ecl g-ratification, 1\Tak or ab~t'lll ltnutL' cu icntatioth .111d tlw likc. For \\'ill i, ,u eh txplana t ion~ are douhh in adeq uate. li1r thtt fa il 10 ,ug-g-t,t tlllL'rt tht'M:> anitttdc, originatl' ( 1977: 1-11 ) and th ty 1\'0 rk tl'itlt a notion of r ttiiUre a~ somtthing- pa"inh' ai>,o1 b cd by thc childrc n ratltn t han ,,, al leasl in p ;llt ac tit't h cons tn tctccl. a prod 11 r.L or c() llc ct in hum a n mtx i, (\\'illis. 1 ~1 77: 1). Tht rn rt o!' \\'ill,, t,planatio n turn' on his intc rpret.tti o tt ni' tltt' (ach' < 'Otllllcr'< hool c ulw rc. lli' l'lhllograpln ol ~cll ool-lt:.tt'l'l''- in thcir liual ll':tt at ,chool cli,ting tti,llt, the 'lacb' ftolll th C' lllotT conn mion.tl pupil' (L h c 't',ll 'oll,). T lw lacr, ndtlltl' i' 'l'X'>I and tacisl. "' 1\ tll a~ a n I'-clHJol and :tlll -<'CIIlH'Il lUn,tl 1110r;1l ill. ~ lo,l of II W bch 11ill en el up tl'ith un skilll'rl . lwa1: lahottritlg ,iob' tlta1 pal' rl'a,on.tbh 11 e ll ear\1 on 1>111 ,,hi r lt ,,jll ~oo n take thl'i r liill on L lll'i l' ht':tl 11t. l roni c: tll~. thi' , :1 lu turt that tlw bcl~ clwo.~t and ,,illingly t' IHI>race. \\'illi' clnc ttl11t'lll' tlt t katun, o l' tht lacf, <Olltll tr-;,c h uo l e uhure - drinking a11d 'moking. ~ticki ng up for thl'ir ruatc,. 'clo:-.,ing. hlag-~ing- ancl ~~agging. ' h ating .1 lafr at gm tha t Llw <oumcr-,rhool ntltun , bmh i<kologiLtl i11 rh.lt'.ll'1l'l' and a r a ti ona l n,po n s< tn 1lw rcalitics of 1hcir ,itu:nio11. rlw hui' n tlllll'l' , i<ko log ira l b t'c tttst i1 f:IC'iliLa tcs Llwir '111Ciolh 1ran~i1ion int o ckacl-encl 1mrk. .-\~ ;1n id tology thc c ulitl rt' ma.'-k' lhc re :t litt' of' 1lw lacls' siuwion and dTtnitL' i ~ d u pts tiHm itt lo acc<'pting llw II'<H'St,ioll'gcoin g. Bttt 1h e co tt ltl t'l'~c hoo l cu ltttl't' i~ alsn a considtl'< 'd , t a liona! re ~ pon~C'. Tit e l.tcls po~itil'l'h " tlu e 111an ual 1101 k 11ltic h thct rl'gard a~ nw'< uli n c. a n ac1i1 i1~ infuwd 11ith marhi,tno. :\lotTmcr thtt do not much can 1dt:tl 1\'01 k tlwy do prm icling th.u it i~ a m.uwa l job (t,h itl' collar tmrk 1hc1 ddim ,1, dll.mi n .nc). In t h c it in d i!Tl'ten n L o on upationa l ('hoicc Llw I :HI~ cfkctiHh rl': tlfitm thvir rnntic Lion that .tll job~ art t~~cnlia llt tlw . ' a me . . \nd thi,, f'or \\'ill i ~. rc j) l't'Sl' tt l ~ a p t' t1 (' ll'<l1ion u f lh e rta l t'c lllclitions ol lltt'ir t' XiS1t'llC(' as a das.; - it , it prol'o11nd txpn:s~ i on tlfthc n :alitt' <lf' 1l1e ir 'il tla lion . . \' rapita lhtn a ch-an ct,. l,tlour btcomc' ntc lt't' ab~trat'l a ndthu ~ it tn ;tll t' IS fe,, and k" 1d1al occ u pa tion n111 11ork in ~o long"' 1011 11ork. In 1hi' scnse tlw lacl' ro tuJLtr-~dlool ntl ttllt' i-. a ration al a"L'"-IliCIH ol tht rtalitt ol tlt<:ir si tuation in tlll' lahmu rnarkcb ol ach:ulrtcl capitali,m.

1he case of 1h t L1 r IOI'I' 1hl' e un trol II'<IS t'X 1wr ienrcd Lh muglt 1ltt d isc ipl inc t~l 1ht openuion of a ra piL.tli,tic t'lllcrprise. T h t lirn1 ,,as. \\'e~lt\twcl ,,a~s. a rt' putablt :tllcl
1\'CI'l'

pattrn.lli,ti c li nn. ll'hidl '''l'''l'd good tillll'h tTpin~ and ma:-..itni,in~ ou Lput. hlt t' :-.epar:ue c.m lt'l'lh for managcmt nt Call mtn l and IHJl ht'l\ ( mainh- " omtn l ancl th e n tnre con~idt l abk difkrenccs in pat ancl condition~. tdLh Llw managl' tt ll" ll1 rccdl'ing co mpam cars ancl :tll!ll\a tHT!'. \\'t'''" oocl clescribt' IHll\' Lh c ,,omen dttd o prcl 01 slt npfloor cul tu re ol rt,is tann ;m el nil'bt a tic n ' . E l :tb<~r:tl t ri 1u.ds 1\'l' t'C e ngag'l'd in 10
llll'

cclt'llr:ll t' th e ctcnt- ol

11 1d

1\'CI IIICn's lit't' ' (tdding~. l'ngag't' l11 t nt ~) ancl Lltt' 1\01111' 11

rompan~ time an cl t'l'\Olii'Cl'' lor tll t' t U\\11 .tffair,. llt t 'hopllnm c ul1tllt' ''''

.llld 'o on. He gol'' on

10

0 11 e 1hat tmpha,i-.tcl lt L'nd,hip a n d "'liclaritl. T lw pl.11 fui antir<. ol th e twlllt' ll can bl' regarckd a' t itu.tl, of' re,i.:L:IIH t' '' hirh 'el' e el to l'lllpha'i't' ,istl't hoocl ancl ~trcngth again,t ti H' p. u ri. trcht .rncl g't' tHll'r itwqualitie' ol tl w compa nt ( \\'c~ lll'oocl.

198 1: 2). Tht' tmlllt'll pnlicc p f lin 1 ~ dcscri lwd ~~~- You ng hacl ~CII'II o ppollttnity Lo dcl't' lop a COlllllt' I'Clllturc lO tlt l' ltc;w ill' ma~c u l iiH' t'tlll\\ Lht poln for n . Tlterc \\'(' \'(.' l'l'\\'l' t'

or

won1cn a nd the1 tl'ncll-d LO be murt bol;llt'cl. . \ddi1i ona ll~ th c~ \\TI'<' n< H 't't'll a~ legi tim atc memb<r, o! Lite li'>rce h~ t ht polinn1en. Yo u ng cll,clih<' (1991: 2 1 ~1 . 212. 23:3) 1hc 11ays in tt h ich LIH twmcn 1\'l'l e m:ngi n a li<;C'd all{l cknigr:necl bt tlw mtn. ginn <~bu~i,c a nd hum i l ia 1 i n ~ namt"' a ll{l rtpt.ncclh sul~j ert to ~tX ttal innttt'IHio in :111 oq.;anbation that 11as clt'dicat<'d LO .t tr;tcl i1ional masc u li1 H" t' 1hn' otl)(l imagc ry. Yo~tn g re mark~ th :t 1 tit e Sl<llt' ol' thl' instittt lio n:tl n tincl kcp 1 \\'0111t' n i11 n iliTmd~ dclincd roles ai1CI .~ 11bjen to th e f'nrmal and informa l dutninaLi; 111 uf m en. In Lhi~ la,t ill u~ll';Hi u n thc p o 11l't tx<n i,tcl was in tc rtn '> o f' g-endt'r hicrarc hit'' a remindcr th:u t11mkrn socictics are ,ul~ject 10 tnam w~Lt'lll' of d ominatiotl. n ot 'itnph 1ha1 of class. 11 hirh lll'\'tnhclc'~ Lene!- to lw tlw prl'dnmi na n t 1\j)if\in.{ ft':ttun ol mo clcrn indu~tria li wd ~<iC l' t~. l'o t,t-r a l ~o 1\'<11 kt'd in a ctpi llan l'ashion. in 11ta1 it "'' Cl'iclc nt in c\'e ryclay arts :11td 11ll'ir implica tin ll'\ ancl co n M'<jLL l' II Ct'S. lf1 h ere arl' difl'trl'll1 h inarcl ti l'S lh I'Utt ~lt 1\'11 icft jlOII'(r i ~ 't'Xl'I'Cist'Ci' . 0 1 ' cli I:t'l'l1 1 fonll. ' of puwer lfl 1'011g'it which domination 1\'0I 1-.s. lto\\' are tltt~t ~~., tt n, of clomina tiun intcrrdatcd? Tfti, i~ !'omc tim e~ form ulatt'd a~: 11011' do race. gend c t . ag-t a mi class d isaclt'a n t agl'~ relate LO each ot h tr: :"\ole 1h a t the l't'l' 11.1\ 1h:11 thc q uc~tion , fcllutuhued di spo\t'~ ll\ IOII'ard~ a ~trttc lll r:tl nuhcr th a n Fo u ca n ldi a 11 coucqHion of pcmer. \\'i th in the frame ' l' l by a stn1c nmd appma c h th crc is. a' ,,.t. sa11 in co nsidl'rin g tlt l' c~cl e o f ckpril':llion. subs tantial cl'iclc n n th:u econo mic ancl cultural Ernors can m cr l:1p or int <ran lo prod uce lllll itipk di.~:H il':ttl l agc. Bc ing a b lac k 1\'oman ca n itt CI't'a'e the likelihooc\ of 11tt

.3.5

1Structural and loca l conceptions of power

o ro n clucll' 1lti' se~ 1i o 11 ca n makt ,,,o gtnc ral obsena 1i on~ abcnn thc workin g-~ o!' ultutT. put,er ancl utcqualtt\. Tht<>c r o u l't'l'll p ml'tT a' a loc.tl phenorncnon ami th c \1(.'11 clat ion-; or \\ ~1('111' ol do m in a ion and di,ach <llltagc.\11 1hl 1hcuril's rl'l it'\\ ,.d a bol'e Ll'ncl to takc a n ohjectitisL ,, n ICilt ral ,icll' of jl<ll\'t' r and int'fJUalit~. T lwl' ckr ock th l' cultu r;1 l lo n tc:a l tiH' Ll'lll' natttn ol' tltl' rdatiotl\ltip' tll'oht d :mcl . a~ ha' ltct n .trg ul'cl. nwdt ol' t h:t l retda ti o n has ltll'lttd o n power an <i its

1\'t:

1 28

lnt roducing Cultural Studies

Culture, power and inequality

129

pc ,o n bcing lnuncl in .111 11 de re la" lot ation . . \ J)OOI' b lad. ''oma n , likt'h tu late.: di,.lch-antagt' th.n ththt' ,ilu.ncd hig HT up el a~' rae ial ancll,\elldt-r hier.ut hit' 11illnot. J) w~t ,lit.' IH'JI,11pptl1lt'd l;1l'l' . rJ H.' I l' j, :1 ri,J... hoiiTITr. o[ 111111111g' :111';11 \1'ii J1 \ UCh ).\1'!llll l'll icil llH'l,IJ lhnr' 1ti 101 e l'iappi ll ,l{ d .<;tcl\':111 lag'l'<>1 1< Cllegot t'S of c Ja <~. ran. g'l'lldc r .tnd ;tge. Thc,c lanur' tt' llai nh- cJc,u iiJt 1hv bn1;1d pallcrning o f cli,ach .llllagt a nd thc opprc"ion' (t.H l'mt. ,"i'm. <l.t" opptt'''ion. l'IL) 1h.11 l'l''llh . \\'lwllu:a 1hc1 illumin.Hc.: th t' paniculaailit' ol pl'opk'' ordina11 culaural t' Jll'til'tH't i' mo te npcn lo quest i1m. a~ in 1'\'l'IYda\' lik ll'l' ;tl'l' ;di gndtrccl. t.ucd . c);sst tl .11HI agvd .ttHI lltt:'l' c;llt:gnrics 111ay hal't' lari;dJii- rl'l t:l;tlllT lllhllll liT ;ll'l' ll'l'illl'cl i1 1 p.ll'l icu Jar imt.ll1l'l'.' ill l'\'t'f\Cfal li(c (~t'C \\'t, and r t'lhlt'llllaktt. l!l!l.l ). For iu,lann. 1\l' 111:1\' ~Oilll'lillll'! le!'l Olll"'l'h'l'' lo he haclh trc;ucd l>1 ,, ~hnp '"i'1;1111. b th i, hecnl't' 11l 011 1 ran>or da" o r gtnde r 01 agt; In :tu u.t l in,;lllt't'' llw all ~ll'tr c;nt bl' l't' l'\' 1ari:~hl l' lo 1 n n ~ gi't' ll lk' l',oll , 'o it ca n he l'l'l)' d ill ic ullto pi 1 1 doll'll 11hid1 pal'lirt d.tr source ol' d i,achan tagc i' ctpe raling. Thi' dilllut hl' dm... 1101 dt'll\ the tcalitl and toan ot thl'<(' di,ach.IIH.lgt,, Hall it doc, 'l'l\l' w rurthcr unclcaline l'otttauJt', lunclament al }I) ill ahmtt the ni1111presenct ol pm,er .tnd n,i ~~;m ce : dcHni nat ions ol < la <~ eH ';H't' Ol' gcndt'r are IH'It' l' 1 nmple te 111 lo l.t l a nd can IJt t.'laal lc ngcd i11 tlw 1 IJIHi un o l' 11111' l'lt'IYCI.tl lin '

Further reoding
hel fui survey ol the base-superstructure debate and beyond can be lound in Jorge larrain's The Concepl Af id:Otogy (1979). Some of the ramifications olthe dominant ideology debate are explored in Nicholas ~bercrombie, Stephen Hill and Bryan S. Turner (eds) Dominan/ ldeologies (1990). Ruth Lister's collcction Charles Murroy ond the Underclass: The Developing Debate (1996) contains short, lively contributions about the concept and reality olthe underclass. On race and ethnicity, The Empire Scrikes B~ck ~ 19~2), collectivel>' uthored by members of the (Birmingham) Centre lor Contemporary Cultural Stud1 es, IS Sltll an engagmg ~ead. There is a video ol an llluslrated lectu re by Stuart Hall entitled 'Race as a Floaling signifier' avallable lrom Media Education Foundation. PO Box 570, Wembley, Middlesex HAO 2XN. Judith Butler's Gender Trouble: Femmism ond the Subversion of ldencity (1990) has been inlluential in shaping recent debates on gender. Many or the olten overlooked cultural dimensions or ageing are discussed in Mike Hepworth and Mi ke Featherstone, Surviving Middle Age (1982).

3. 4

Conclusion

'\c'll' hro.tth.l,... cl.aih Jll < l\itk 11' 11itlt inloamallnn .tboul tlae nthua.tl clillcn: IIH'' lll' t\\'n n 1 1l'"llk. TIH i taeqt~ .l l i ai t>,. pr1nai,l'd un tlwsc dilit'tTnrc , an lit e IJ.t'i' o l 111;111~ "' i.d co11flir... ('''iiiH'.' ' lc11 txaanpk . 1lac longl llllll ing Co 1d lit. " in t h ~ B;h iJIIl' ng io 11. '\otthem la l'iand a n d tlw lu nntt \u).{o.;,Jmial . In 1hi< <la;tptt.'1 1\l' h.llt' aclitIH'cl t''plan.uion' ol tlll' ot ig n1 ol incqu.tli tl in ctpit.tJi,t ,ocittit, .111d toahidtncl ' onw of 1hv k adi 11" 1111 o re 1ical id\'.1' - hc<t'll iOitl . i l1l 0 11>oral ion .1 1 111 !1.11ti tth- 11 lt it l1 ha1 t ht.'t'll " ~' -..,.:...._.. usl'c l to C''\ pl;tin laco11 i nn 111 a l i 1 ~ i~ j u<li lil'd .t nd I'I 'IHlt'l'l'd < HTt'Jli ;JI)il'. T h1 daap tc r h;h .tJ , o loul>t'd 11 11 tia t. 11 .11' tia al tlacw iiH'l Jll:tlitic, ;He 111ack naanilc,t tluough char;u lt'l' i'1ic tllhllll'' ol dib,'. t.tlanit i11. ~e n dl 'l .utcl agc. Tht comt'J>" 1hcu1 it, .tncl ~t ucl it, t t'l it'll<'d .tiJ0\1' ,Jw" 'o~~~ tlil-li.u11 ~' in 11 la k h all c nlt11 1 T' are ,lttlnured in d~tlli I \all ('l ' . l la i:-. 1\C )I k ll th!;l.lt bo II!' I !J..l.l..l...:ill~LII :IIS ill ll'iJ k ll stra l c~s or n , i ~ t ;ll l t'l' 10 '"lt'lll' o l d ; Hll i 1101111 t 111 ig 111 lw 111 ~a n i'cd.

R e-cap
This chapter has: reviewed lhc principal structural sources of inequality; surveyed explana tions of the ro le of culture in legitimating forms of inequality; examined how class, race, gender and age inequalities are culturally produced and reproduced.

p a rt ll
Cultural studies
4. Topographies of culture: geography,
power and representation
poge 133

e e

5. 6. 7. 8.

Culture, time and history Politics and culture Cultured bodies Subcultures: reading, resistance and social divisions

181 221 267 316

9. Visual culture

364

chapter

Topographiesof culture: geography, power and representation

4.0
lntroduction
Cultural studies is becoming increasingly aware of wha t we might call the geographies (or, ) indeed, topographies) of culture: the ways in which culture is, among other Lhings, a rnatter of differen t spaces, places ilnd landscapes. One sign of this is that the language of cultural studies is full of spatial rnetaphors. Chapter 1 of this book, for example, understands culture in terrns of 'fields', 'maps' and 'boundaries'. Yet there is more to it than this since there is also a sense thal culture - particularly when it is underslood as something that is diverse, fragmented and contested- cannot be understood outside the spaces that it marks out (like national boundaries or gang territories), the places that it makes meaningful (perhaps the Statue of Liberty or your favourite coffee shop) and the lc1ndscapes that il creates (from 'England's green and pleasant land' to the postrnodern shopping rnall). What this chapter aims lo do is to use a variety of examples, both historical and contemporary, lo show Lbe ways iiL'IY.hich is~s of culture, meaning and repr se..!J!ation ilffLQCogr~l..m.allfr_s. lt does this through discussions of issues such as )iaee, ter riality, landscape, travel and globalisation (p. 159) which connect culture and geography a ery scale from the local to the global. In addition, these examples also serve to introduce a r e of theoretical issues central to cultural studies and to this book - issues of power (p. 94) representation (p. 61) - to show that these are geographical too. Whal all this demonstr is that there is a broad set of fascinating interdisciplinary issues that connect cultural studie nd cultural geography, from the basic connections between iclentity (p. 224) and place, lo re complex relationships which concentrate on flow, flu x and change. lf all this is new to you s worlh starling with a brlef look al how geographers have understood culture.

objectives
T

arn about the conneclions between 'cultural studies' and 'cultural geography'.

see how culture can be understood through its geographies: from the local lo th0 obal.

133

134

lntroducing Cultural Studie.s

Topographies or culture: geography, power and representalion

1 35

To understand the various ways in which spaces, places and landscapes (the subject matter ot geography) can be interpreted in terms of cultural issues of meaning, representation and power.

4.1 1Cultural geography

4.1.1 1 Cultural geog raphy 'o Id' and 'new'
( l'c rhaps i1 , unrem~1rkahk tu !>Uf\"~t~t thal Cttllurc's han gcographic'. \\'e o ftcn think _ ll't 1\'a tclt lY or 111akc tntlc l plans - of cl ill'crent place~ lta\ tlg dilfi:ren l cultmts and in cloing- so w< map otll a more or k" 'ophi,liratcd cu llltral gcograpll\ . Yc t ju, a~ cuhure is a collll''ll'cl co11ccpl. ~o i' ru lnual gcograph1 . \\'e h a\'C? 10 1hink e<Htfully, anclmake se d ou~ choice~. abou t hm, ll't' uncler~land Jw-.e map., of cu h ure' ancl ,,hat liH'ir i m pi ic u ion ' are l'or o u rsefw, :tiHI mhers. In el ce el. 1he re are man~ ''av; of ttiHkrstancling 'ntllt t1 ':1 1 gcograph~ an<l man ~ ll'a~ s of underl:tking a stud ~ nnckr 1his ll < llll l'. lt is also r kar th:ll 11 hat pe upk un ckr~ wnd as cultural g(ogra pb~ is clifftrl' lll in cliffi.'l'l'IH parh ofthl ll'(orld .111d ha' chaug<:cl dralllatiral l ~ owr th l' Jaq thir11 war,, \\'ha II'C ,,;uHto do hert i, 10 t<>llccmrate 011 1d1al ha' bce11 callld 'lll'l' cullllral geo~raplll'' ''hit h b char<Kted,tcl bl' i1s <.trong link, w 01he1 ~tra1Hh of n tliural ,udie~- and ~how IHn, ih practi lionn-. unclcrs t:md ndlllrt's topographies. In orcltr 10 d o ~o it i-, uscfn lto sholl' holl' it cleveloped in rdation to :lllothcr innut'nti:1l fu n n of cultural ~eograph)' ll'hich {l\I'('S m u eh l O lllL' 1\'ork u/' Carl Sauc r ( J Sf\9- 197.1) ll'ho ll':tS pro f(ssur or gtograph~ al the UniiTr,it~ o f Ca li rorn~kde1 from 1 9~!:1 to 1~15-1. Saucr'.s cultural ~cog-raphy had pani n dar r h :naneristir~. l t11a~ coucern cd wilh 1hc 1<:l.uionsh ip$ bctw<tn human, ( he ''otdd haH 'a id man ') and natu re 11i1hin p.tl'licul<ll tegiom Ol'er long ptrind-. of lime. One of h i, snul<'lllS ha~ '<tic! ol h im that mon 1han an1 lhing else. his 'lf'J'l'l'tiatio n of simph pcople li1i ng in tlose rontac t 1 1'i ilt i n or~a 1 1ic llallll'l' ancl in ~~ 111b i o,is 11i1h pbnts and animal' di~t i n gui l'h cs Satt tTs IITitin~ aho u1 man [sic] on thc eanh' ( l.t'ig h l ~. Hl6~ : :~- 1 ) .. \ s :1 rcsu lt . lht rq.~i o n ,o; lw r hose lo stuch wcn: ~l n c ra lh rural O JH'.S ll'hiclt 11ere o nl y ch:111g ing ,f o11Jy. !1 aJ,o . , haped holl' he 1hough t il 'hould bt practiscd. s~llll' l \\'as a ' li'Ollg' admrale or <KII'l' fie ldll'ork. El'l'll for past la n d~capt'' it ,,.;, 'l'('ing their lran, f01 n,tl that mallt'rtcl. H e also strc"tcl thc l'l''t'011'Cher'-; long-lc'llll inuner,ion in .1 p.nli< ular region in orcll.'l lo undcr,tand it, ' '" ing 1ha1:
,h

lield sys1 e ms. h ousing 1ypcs or IH'III'OI J..o; o f 1racks. pat iJ, and rua(k Thu~. disti nct cul tures created dis1inr 1 lan<f,cape.s as 1iwv ,IJ:1pcd the na lltral l'lllirunnl t'lll slowl) m c r liJllC. ll 11as tl w role of' lhl' cu ltural geogr:1phn LO ~ tud ~ t h o~t l:t 11 clscapes. Figure -U reproduce:- a cliagram f'rum ~a ll t' r' s cssa1 'Tiw ltwrp hology of landsc<tpl (192!l) in 11hich he ~e h ou1 his unclcr<.tancling ol thc rel:llion,iJ ip betl,een tht IJallll.d Janchcape and thc cttltmal landscape. lle -.)un'' a cultu~t npnating o1er lillll' on a n:llural Janclscape' 10 p10dun an amalgam of ' form< (population. housing. producliOll , comlllllnication ) wh it h can be ~ umnwd up a~ a cultural l.1nd~capc'. ll is IIHHiel hl'rc is he ll'al's in ll'hicll ph~si ca l proccsses - pf' nusion o r \'t').(t'l:llion - act OH'I' time 10 produce a na tural l and~capc. This H'r,ion o f' n dtural ,geogn1pll l' can hl' sun unecl up i1 1 his worcl~: T hl' cultura l landscape is fa,h iontd from a natural landsca w b1 a cultm< group. Cu lture i!- th l a.{l'lll. 1h c natural arla i~ ilw nH'clium . thc cultmal land~capl' ilw re u h.' This mean! thal i1 ,,a~ cuhu ral g'l'l>gr;lplll s role 10 'lllch 'the impres' of tlw work~ o f man [sir] upon thc area 01 man, [<.ic] record 11pon 1he land'-<'.IJ'l'. (quOta 1io ns from l.tigh 1~. 19(1:': :q :~ . :~~W and :\ 1 ~). :"llortonl', 1he 11ay in 11 li k 11 th:11 'i111 prcss' Or ' l't'CorcJ' 1\':t'\ 10 be Slllclied or rt:Jd 11':1~ in l t: J'Ill.-, of d l'f imiting 'culture <ll'l'<lS' . Thcse wne undcr,toocl a<. n :g-iun o, o f tlt t' ll'orld 1hat liad di,tinnil'l' lanclst':t)ll'' 01 11 11 iqtiC tnse mbll'-. of building,. brmin.{ ltThnique ancl population pauem-.. For cxalllpk. SaUCI. in h i<. l'\\a\ Oll 'The lll'I ~OIIalitl' :"lle)..ico' ( 191 1). de~crihecl i he ~lcxican cu l turallancl~<-.lJ>t' as di1ided in tu 11111 'l'l' of cultll ll' ' : 'ilu high cu lture~ of tlw

or

Factors
Geognostic

Fonns

Clima tic
\'e~N.1110ildl

Climate L and suriace ,oil

- -7imr - - -

draina).\E.> mine1al re;oliiCl'

Natur,1/ Lanrl)c:aw

SC'a and co.1~1 \'egC't,ilion

Factor

Medium

Forms

Populauon
dens111

mob1 ilt\
Cu1ture - - T 1mt -

:1lll'ms lhlrt n1u't lw IIH ha,c, the a rca lnr ll'ilich lile nb~t' l 'll'l is 11 1aking himsdJ' tlt t t'X jWII. T ht II Ulll<lll ).(l'Ograplter Glll lllll ht a lml'ld tuuri'l. 111tning l'rum peuplt 10 )1l'opll' .tnd lall(l tn laiHI. and knowing 111 111 c a~ua l h' < llld clouh1 ru lh relatld tiling' .dJtllll :1111' of lht'lll. ( l.eigh h. 1%:~: :1!;:!) Onrall. his argumtnt """' 1ha1 thc ma1nial 1ehuiomhip~ hl'illl't'll tand' ami ' lifl-' ll't rc 1m1J..ecl out cli!Te rtntl~ in diiTcre nl plact'' In his I'CII' dilli.n n1 culiures crcatL'd. lor cxa mplc. diO'e renl ag1iu llitlral ~~sl c lll S, difl'l'rt' lll cttle ml' nl s~stc ms ami difl'crcnl. 1ra 1 1 ,. , pm1 tll ion sy~ l t' l l l ' a 11 of' 11'11 ich lel'l 11l d r I'ible. nHllerial Ira ces in thc landscapt as

Hou~ ing

,'\ iol/llfd f

1 olllC1 'C1fJC'

plan
<.lruclure

C llfillra l

Land~cape

Produclon Commumc a11on

\\

Figure 4.1 Carl Sauer's understanding ol the making of the natural and cultural landscapes. (Source: Sauer, 1925: 337, 343.)

136

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Topographies of culture: geography, power and representalion

1 37

...
T

M EX I CO
--._.. cF H~ll Cvltur
iYortAtm

6.a:Mc'~Q'

~asis 1o under~wnclmat erial a n<l c u lt ura l mock~ nf' li fc' .

owe r , both b ega n ll'itlt 1h e relati o n ships bvi \\Te n natun: all(l c ultu t ,. a n d usccl tha1 a~ a

x.

r--....... .-,~;&~K ~ ~~:x:T:':st S

\'el he di n :ction in which c uh ural geogra plll' wa s modng '' ,1, a,,.a, 1ro m San cr s vision . ln 1987 Co ~gro\'e :lllciJ ac kson scl o u1 ll'hCttthcy tonk lo bt ilw n e11 clirection' in cullllra l geogra pln. lt ,,asto IJl:
1 contcmpor;11")' a~ ll'e ll ao; historical (but ah1a1s rm Hex1ual a nd th ton tical ):
1 con ccr n ed ll'ith spat'(' as ll'ell "' landsrape:

t;ulf'

ll: 1 urban as ~~el l ao; rur<

1 co n ccrn ecl ll'ith rel a titlll' ofclum il lll\iu n ancl r csis ta nce

(p.

~ :1H);

, asscnhc of tlt( centt ali t\ o f culture to human lift:

1 co n rc rn ed ,,ith reprtse nta ti on ' as mnch as na Ji ~.

lt 11; 1s n oL goi n K 10 bt ' 1ur:~l a n d a n tiquaria n and it ll'ould 1101 he conrcrn e d ,,ith 'phr~i ca l a n t: lac ts' or cultural a reas. 1 he JW II' c ttlltl r:ll geogr. tp lw \I'O ttl rl b e \'l'l'\

diiTerent rrom wltm "'"' seL'II HS Sa uer':- conset-ra 1in an 1i-tnoclct n ism . 1n o tltn \1'1'iti n g~
the '11C11'. cultu ra l g tograph, 11a~ u ndtr,tood a~ a rejection of th e 'olcl' . Fo 1 ('Xam p lc. in th e fi rst few c h a pter!( o l Pe te r .lackso n 's ( 1989 ) .\l(ljJs of ,\lf'rwing he clcpins Saur rs unde rs 1 a n d ing~ or c u lu trc a nd cultu ra l g cog rap ll 1 a~ ' ba clly outd:ntd ' and "unn ecl'S sarily li1nitcd' (p. 9) a n d rejen~ th em in f,I\'OU I of a n anaho;is that 0\\TS muc h to thc cultural pnl i ti c~ uf' Raym o nd Williams (p . ."1) ancl !ltt lmrk of 1hc Birmingham Centre for Conte mporary Cu lt ura l S tudi cs ( p. ~~ 2 7). Alt hough ' tH'''' cultma l geogra plw h a~ mam clif'fncnl '''' 'nd' - all(l it i' 110 longer quite so n e,, - it can lw arg ue d tlla l ,,h a l r h a rac t ('l'i~t~ it i~ 1h e ll';ly that i1 i' con ctm e d wi th issu es centra l Lo r n ltura l s 1 nd i c.~ mon gtnt' l':ll h' (Sin liTll l' r-Sm ith :u tcl Hannam. 199-1: ~lcDowdl. 19H 1: Cartel t'l al.. 1 9!1:~: 1\ircl t/ al.. l!l!l~). In Lurn . th ese in ln discipli nan contH'ctiolt '- h:IIT 11lt':u11 th:ll Sllclt i"nes :uv g il'en a lll~\1' 1\\' i ~l by b e ing con~ickred in a g'(o g rapllical Ct Hilt'XI. ;111d tha t t li t~l g-tngr:tphi cal idl'as- a~ liT arguecl aL th t ouht'l - .ti'(' hali11g a wickr influttltT o\t' l the l;u1 g ua~c ancl thcotY of cult ura l s tudic~ "'a 11h ok. Tht ,,,... kt\' i"lil'' ,IJ'(:

Figure 4.2 Carl Sauer's map of Mexico showing the boundary between L he cultures of the South and lhe North. (Source: Sauer, 194 1: 106.)

Sott 111 and 11ic rud ~.t n ilw rn ol tll t :'\ Pt tll ' ( Le ig ll h . 1!lti:\: 1o:q wh it li n n ilcl IJl' tuappnl 1 110 r uh 111e an.t, hl'l' ri~nrl' -1.~ 1. l'lllh ~.tttt' t ' l u h ut.il gtogt ;1ph1 t 1c'.llt'd a lll.q> uf th t 11\>rld tl 1d lidt u dttt rt~ oCt tt picd a n <l ~li< qll'd hotl ll tkcl ;tn d llHIII' or l l'~~ ltomo g'l' il () ll~ are'a .... C: ttl ltllal g'l'cigt.lphl'r ... llligh l ''"el' llit l.llicl' tapt'' or th nw :11'(':1, llil'llllgh lli.Hl'ri.tl .utl'l.ltt' o tiH dillu ... ion ol ttillln.il ohjc n, .111d 11 :t th - l'.g. clonH,Iit:lltd ani tnal.' - ilt' lll'l'l'll illl' tll . l m lel'C l. llllll h ni' 11li<tl i' I:Hig h t and ..;uclivcl "' ' llillttral gtog rap h ~ - p:lltittdarh in tlic L' n ittcl Statt'' ldlt't't' 'iauer, inlluenn '''" 'li'llll).{t',L,,iJI retain' thi~ h.t ... ic tiiHk t,tanding of t nhnre'o; gtogr<tphit .... Ye t tlw contH'Ct ions hell\'l'(' ll g vograph~ .tnd o 1lin br< lll t'hc..; o l nll ttl ta l 'ludi e-; lial'v. i11 l'ariol" 11'<1~ ~. lCJ~It'l't'd 11 h .1 1 ha' btt n ca llcd a m 11 cultural gtog1.tp l11 11 hkh C!'''''litllh tnanl o f S.tut.r, 11 0tion'. I'IH.' fi1~1 sig 11s 11f t ll ;lltgt ( ':111 \t' 11'<>111 lkit.t ill II'IH' I'l' t' llllll l'a l ,l.(l'O,l~T<ljlll\' 11a, Jt'" 11'\'JI t!>ta blishnl. Thi' dicl nut. hcl\\l'\'t'1. inllllediatth tntail a fllll,l'alt' rtjtnion o f ~:tllcrs idta~ . Pct~r ,l ack,on ( l!l:-tOl arguecl 1h,11 g togtaplll ro11ld lea111 , lo l lnnn a n1hropo lugy and thatlllltl h conlll'I011 g i'OII Il C l co ulrl be fn111 Hl in S:u 1 c r \ h11t 11:1 11i ~ m anfl hi.< a ll('lllio n to tite rdatio n~ b tt\\t't'llllatul'l' an<l t'll ltu re. lkni ' ('o,.{rme ( l \11':~ a1guccl lora radica l cu ltural geo).{ntplll ,,hirh 11ot1ld align .\L11 :-:i,t hi,lt>rical m. tll'1i.di'l11 :1 1 1\l r ultural gcog-r:1ph ~. Thi, 11 a~ lo be based u po11 :111 a f'li11 i11' lw tll'l't' tl Karl l\l arx (p. \17 ) .111<l (.a rl S;llll'l' ,,ho. de~pitt 'iaun':, l.td. o f' atll'lllion lo< la'' rtl.ttion, a ncltlw :.IItH 1111 e' o l ,oci.ll
;,

l. Cultm''' ol cli lf'l'rtIH't: llt t'<Hling. pollt'l'

aml rc~ i,lanct.

2. l lll' poetic' .md p o litics of rtpresell1ation.

Cultures of difference: meaning, power ond resistance

Thc main iclt-a lle n: i' tllat C1tl111 rc il> ; r oll\l',lc d clomain . lt i" n arena o f co bel\l'l' < :n difft'l'l' lll ~ntial group'> (ckli ned h1 racc. cla'" gtndcr. agt:. 'txualit~ :tiiCI which are tryi ng- 10 d e fin e and impose tlllir 11a~s o l undt'l',tancli ng-- tlwir s1ste m s of me ani11 g -0111 o th e ll'tlrld: ' h i' a dom ai n . no ll'" than tl w political or llt t economic in which \ocial rd atiom of clominancc ancl 'ubordiu ;Hinn .m: nq~otiattd a m i rt ~i'>H.'cl , wher c meanings a re 11 01 j ust impos<:"d b ut conll''ll'(r (la ckso n . J!l R0: ix). 1 -krl' th e cultu ra l is political ancl cnlturt'' n ecd 10 be undtr, lood a' cork , or maps nf nwanin.( with ll'hirh dilknut ~o ci al ~WIIJh a llt'111Jll to clefi tll' t h tnt,dH~. o t her~ all(lt h e i p laces

l 38 lntrodu cing c ultural Sludies in th c wo rld. Social. cco no1nir. political an d pt.I'M)na l l't'btionship' are dclined through cultura l mcaning. 1 hert art. mam e:o;ample' o l thi~ in what follol\s: baules h<..'twecn classe., m-cr the meaning- a nd naming nf urban pinces: )4<:nclcrtd conflicts o\e r the 11 an1rc of natio nali,m: and the co1npeting dt'flni tiom of racial id tntilie,. In pat t this is .1bou t a cclebr:ttionof' diffcrence (p. 1:i~) .lt , aboutrca l i~in g- tha11h ere i~ a plltl'alitl'of cttltttl'l'S and a multiplicit\' of gcogra phies. ll owcHt. tu tlikc for Sauer. thi' i' al~o a n:a(i,ation that 1he'e gtottp'> are oftt n mak ing nw;~ nings in 1hc ' 'une place' and are bound to cac:h o tlwr through n:latio n., of powe r and resistance (p. ~:"', :n ra thtr lhan peacefulh occttp,ing separa te e ult un.: area,.

Topographies of culture: geography, power and representalion 139 the emergence of new social movements (femi nism (p. 120), gay rights, black struggles, the greens) and create the social basis fo r identity (p. 224) politics. The celebralion of difference brings diflicullies of ils own. The relations between groups are power relations which mark off who is to be included and excluded and therefore entail valuations of relative worth made in the contexl of material interesls. The policy of 'separate development' in apartheid Soulh Africa was nol simply about maintaining cultural diflerences. Also, the plurality of identilies avililable can make fo r some strange alliances: for example, bell hooks (p. 223) (1991 : 59) observes that 'sexism has always been a political stance mediating racial domination, e_ nabling white men and b_lac ~ m;n ~o share mportance of male dommat1on . R 1ghts to a common sensibility about sex roles and the 1 difference, it seems, can only be sustained within an agreed framework of rights and provision universal to all members of a society.

Dejmi11g concejJI

4.1

Essentialism and difference

Essentialism is the doctrine that ascribes a fixed property or 'essence' as universal to a particular category of people. To propose tllat women are good childcarers because they are women, that b/ack people are good al sports because they are black, that jews are good at arguing because they are lews - all because 'they are like that' - is to engage in essenlialist thinking. The basic principies of stereotyping any cultural grouping operates on essentialistlines. In cultural studies there is a wariness of essentiallst reasoning for at least four reasons: (1 ) positing supposedly 'essential' characteristics often simply involves the reproduction of the prejudices of one group about another - essentialist reasoning imposes a parlial set of judgements grounded in the situalion and interests of one social group upon another; (2) essentialist accounts of persons and activities as ' lypical' usually involve enormous overgeneralisation which ignores the differences between the members of a category (are all women really like thal? al/ black people); (3) it follows that essentialist reasoning cannot explain why these differences within a category exist in the first place; (4) essentialist doctrines are especially pernicious when they postulate the presence of essential characteristics as a malter of biology and genelic inheritance. The alternative to essentialism is sorne form of social constructionisl account. The prototypical view he re is summed up in Simone de B eauvoir's statement: 'one is not born a woman; one becomes one'. Social constructionism emphasises the part played by social learning in the acquisition of supposedly 'essential' characteristics and can be regarded as a more realistic poinl of view which is better equipped to do justice to the diversity of experiences encountered by persons within a category. Constructionism does not have it all its own way, however. Some would maintain that we can speak of 'black music' or claim that only 'black' people can fully appreciate it on lhe basis of their shared origins and common experiences. Cultural studies tends towards a valorisation of differences and a corresponding cognition of the plurality of idenlities to which persons can lay claim. Some of these entili e~ arise from the increasing scale and complexity of modern societies (class, ccupatlon, educat1on, race, gender, regional and national identities). Others derive from
~ ~

Fu1I lt111' INrd i 11g Grossberg, L. ( 1996) 'ldentity and cultural studies: is that all there is?', in S. Hall and P. du Gay (ecls) QueSiions of Cvl/urollden !ity, London: Sage. Sarup, M. ( 1996) ldentity, Culture and the Postmodem World, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

The poelics ond politics of representation

The kc' poittt h e re , .!_hatutt clcrstattditt~ ('ttl tul't.'' i~ nut a C(Ltl''tiott ot t tt tcltr,tan din~ an objccti,< realit~ tlt:tl can be 1<~ 1 c ; tl 11 ~iilill ,,urlcl. Tlw in1plic:t1ion ol \\'hat lt;;~j 11 ~ 1 bccn ,a~~ i' tlta tthlrc arl' mam clil k retll rcalitics: ead1 colkn i, it' h a~ a \'<'I~' or thC \\'o )tlcl \\'hich C:t tl claitl_Llll b e ' ll'<tJ'. rltt'Sl' \ C\\'S 11( the II' Orl d :t l'l' otth lll,tC k <l\'aibbk throug h tonns ot' re ) rcs ctllatio ~. () 1l. l'hl'l 11111~t be ' pokc lt a' ' to ril'' writtcn, paittll'tl. lll nH'cl or '11 11~ ;nHI phl\ccl. \\'l nnd to p.l\ .llll't11 ion to the ,, ..,.,in which 1IH 1mrld i~ ponral'l'd ( ()1' rtprc,tuted ) in a ll Slll lS o l' tucrli a (Dun r.tn attd L<'' 1993: Barttl'' atHI Duncan. 1\)\)~ ). -, h i ~o b qn. cl il f..n n t fu un Sattcr, ht'lict 1h;~h tt rl' is sin~y gi\'cll 1 0 u~ in 1he l:lllcbrapt th:tl '''l' c tn ~c \\ 1h <Hir n~rn l '\ 'CS. \\ l: n_ccd w_b: < llttnti\'t' LO a \\'ltok -'l'l'il'' o( nc\\'~te,t iotl' abottt any l'l' l ~\l' ltl:t t iolt: wha t t' 1 n cl uclcd ~ \\'h ~\'1ta1 ,, the aim: \\'hat :m 1lw ittflue ncc<' \\'hat media lta11 IK'l'tl_ill.l'd ancl 1\'ll\':- \\-hat ~ 1 l~t' role nt' the alliliencc:- .\ g-.tiu tlwrc willlw mall\' e:\antpk., hl low. These qttcs t i nn ~ all 1 aisl i"ues of "ha t \\'e can rall pcwtic, - tiH' \la\ in \\'hich so m c th i lt ~ is t'l'j)l'l''l'tt1 cd - :tncl r ottt1l'Cl then1 lo i~~llt's o f' 'politic, - th e >< lll'l't'laden rdation, ltip' bc1 \\'l' l'tl ,ocial gro u p~ a nd in<li' id ttak \\\,hall 'lT ltcm tht.'' alo;o imoiH' spaces, phltTs :mcl l.tn cbcapc,. .\11 the.,e ttt'\\' conn m ~ ,,ith glograpll\'. pcmn ami t l'pt t''l'tllation ttt ;tt 1.. ~u h,t ;ttttial dilfe ren r<:~ lw t,,ectl 1h c 'olcl' ntltttral gl'ogr;tplt, and tlw ' ne1/ nthur:tl geogr:tph~ (t\nclet -.tm ancl Ca k. 1 9\1~). T hl'\ haH also bl'l'tl in, uu men tal in thc inct'l'<l'ing imponance ,. n tltttral g'l"ograph' <tn d in tlw ";n s in "ltich it ha~ ,ubslilt11ialh' in! lucnt:l'd thl' di~rip l inc o( gcog r<tph, a' a ,,holl- as \\'1' 11 as rotllrihuti lg' a nc,, anglc to

138

lntroducing Cu ltural Studies

Topographies of culture: geography, power and representalion 139 the emergence of new social movernents (feminism (p. 120), gay rights, black struggles, the greens) and create the social basis for identity (p. 224) politics. The celebration of difference brings difficulties of its own. The relations between groups are power relations which mark off who is to be included and excluded and therefore entail valuations of relative worth made in the context of material interests. The policy of 'separate developmenl' in apartheid South Africa was not simply about maintaining cultural differences. Also, the plurality of identities available can make for sorne strange alliances: for example, bell hooks (p. 223) (1991: 59) observes that 'sexism has always been a political stance mediating racial domination, enabling white men and black men lo share a common sensibilily aboul sex roles and the importance of male domination'. Rights lo difference, it seems, can only be suslained within an agreed frilmework of righls and provision universal lo all members of a society.

in thc ,,orlcl. Social, economic. political ancl pn~on;tl l'l' la tion,hip' are ddinccl through cultural ntcaning-. Thnt' are mam examp l e~ ni thi' in " hat fo llm,,: hau t e~ bctween cla~'l'' 0\Tr t he mean ing ancl na m ing of urba 11 plan,: ~~ ncl ~ Hcl con fl ich mcr 1 he 11 a 111 re of nationaliml: aiiC!the com petin~ ddinitinn' ol r.ll ial icklll ll'' In pan thi, is ahou t a cc:lebration of'di fference (p. 138). h , abmnnaJi,in~ th.u thcrc ,a plurali t\' Of culture~ and a multiplicit\' or gcographl'' lfm, l'\l'l. unlikt lor S.\ller. thi' i~ al,o a rlalisation tltat thcse groups are oftcn making- meanin~' in tht 'ame place, ancl are bouncl to each othcr through n:lat ion~ ni' po\\'t:r and rcsistancc (p. ~.->::1) rat hcr than p c.1 cd'ull~ oc e u pyi ng ~tparatl' ruh lll'l' an a-;'.

Defming conrejJI

4.1

Essentialism and difference

Fu rt her /'1'(/r/iJW M

Essentialism is the doctrine that ascribes a fi xed property or 'essence' as universal lo a particular category of people. To propase that women are good childcarers because they are women, that black people are good at sports because they are black, that jews are good at arguing beca use they are jews - all beca use ' they are like that' - is lo engage in essenlialist thinking. The basic principies of stereotyping any cultural grouping operates on essentialist lines. In cultural sludies there is a wariness of essentialisl reasoning for at least four reasons: (1) positing supposedly 'essential' characteristics often simply involves the reproduction of the prejudices of one group about another- essentialist reasoning imposes a partial set of judgements grounded in the situation and interests of one social group upon another; (2) essentialist accounts of persons and activities as 'typical' usually involve enormous overgeneralisalion which ignores the differences between lhe members of a category (are al/ women really like that? o/1 black people); (3) il follows lhat essentialist reasoning cannot explain why these differences within a category exist in the first place; (4) essentialist doctrines are especially pernicious when they postulate the presence of essential characteristics as a matter of biology and genetic inheritance. The alternative to essentialism is so me form of social constructionist account. The prolotypical view here is summed up in Simone de B eauvoir's statement: 'one is not born a woman; ene becomes one'. Social construclionism emphasises lhe part played by social learning in the acquisition of supposedly 'essential' characteristics and can be regarded as a more realislic point of view which is better equipped to do justice to the diversity of experiences encoun tered by persons within a category. Constructionisrn does not have il all its own way, however. Sorne would maintain lhat we can speak of 'black music' or claim that only 'black' people can fu lly appreciate it on the basis of their shared origins and common experiences. Cultural studies tends towards a valorisallon of differences ancl a corresponding cognition of the plurality of identities to which persons can lay claim . Sorne of these enlilies arise from the increasing scale and complexity of modern socielies (class, c:pation, education, race, gender, regional and national identities). Others derive fr~

Grossberg, L. (1996) 'ldenlity and cultural sludies: ls that all there is?', in S. Hall and P. du Gay (eds) Queslions of Culwro/ ldentty, L ondon: Sage. Sarup, M. ( 1996) ldentity, Cu/tvre ond liJe Postmodern Wor/d, E dinburgh: E dinburgh University Press.

The poetics and politics of representotion

The.18_1.lliint ht'l'l' , thatuncltl,.,tandin,g uiluut'' , not.l qut,tion of'uncll'r,tancling an objectiH rl'alil\ that r:111 ht l o~o ut thl're in tlw ,,orle!. 1 h ~JI ~11 1 oil dtat hasju'l bttn ,,1icl abllll' i' that then illl' n~iflerent rl'alitis; earh rolll'li\~a ,ie-:..2[ tlH' 1\'orld '' hid1 <.111 d aim 10 bt rl'al'. T hs ,.e,,., ol tlll' 1\orld ar(' o11h tn.tdt a1ailahlt through loan1' ~~1 ~prcsc nt ati~. t) J . Th<, 11111'1 bl' ,pol..tn ;, ,torit' wriuen . patlll'd. lilmtd 01 sung ancl plancl. \\'t lll'Cd to pa1 a u tntion tn tht 1\';t\, in which the ,,orld i~ ponraHd (or l'l'-pl'l''l'llttcl ) in all -.orh uf ml'dia (Du nn m .111cl l.!\. 1 99~; B;-arnes :t nd Du1H < 111. 1q!l ~ J. litis b H'tl di lkrrH 1rwn Si!!I!T. ~ lll' 1 id. that a t 111t ll ll' is sin2.Hb ginn lo u' in thl' landsC".t>l' that 1\L' ca~t "i ~h our .,,,n t'\'l'' \\:;-; tw d w be auenti\' 1d1olt 'l't it' ol llt'\\ IJI Il'Stinn' abont any repre,en tatinn: 1\'h~cl ll ckcl? What is lcG ou.t.:...!\'hal 1 !\ lt' :aim? \\'lt:n are th e in llt ll'll Cl'';. \\'hat llll'dia haH IH't'll tl ~td and Whl';. \\'h~lLi' tl~t' mil' of' tlw audil'nre ? .-\~ain thtre 1\ill lx~~np lt' lwlow. Thesc <llcstio n,, all rui't' i" llt'' of' 1\'lt:ll \\'l' can call 'poc tic, - tlw 1\'a\ in ll'l1irh something i' rl'pl't'St'lllt'd - atHI r onnecl t lwm Lo jo;;<;ue~ of' 'pnlitirs' - tht pol\'t'l'-ladl'n relation, lti ps IK' l\\'t'l'll ,nci:1 l !-\'I'OI IJlS :111cl indidch1 alo;;. \\'l' ~ hall s<t IHJ\\' tllt'\' also inmll'l' spans, pl:tC'l'S a ncll:u1cl scap l'~. All Lhl'l-t' ll L'\\' r eHlt'l' l'll < wi 1h gtograph,. pol\'('1' and rcpre.<enta 1ion ma 1 '1.. ,, ilJsta 11 t ial difl'erenCl'S hl't\\'!'t' ll lhl' 'old ' ulltlral ;-.., "l'!IO'I~1J)h\ and thl' ' lll'\\'. r ultura l "l'cwral)lt\' ;-, . (A ndcr~oll a nd (::ak. 1\J\1~). l'htl lt:t,.l. at-.o lwl'n imt n llnent.tl in tht itH'I't':t,ing ~mpon~u1n ol cu lt mal gograplll ancl in tlll' 1\';t~,. in 1\hich it ha~ ~uh,.tant i:tlh lltflucnnd tltt d i,riplin t ol gcog rapl11 .1' a 1d10k as ,,e lla~ nmtrib11ti ng a ne\\' a nglt to
~~ ~

1 38

lntrod ucing Cultural Studies

Topographies of culture: geography, power and represenlalion

139

in thc " o rld . Social. econo111ic. poli t i c~d al1(1 personal rc lati o n ~ hips a rt clc lin ed throu)!,' h cultural mcnning. The rc are man1 ex~ un pJc, oJ' th i~ i1 1 ll'ltat /'o ll ow.~: batllc!' hetii'CC n classcl' Ol'l' l thc meaning and namin~ of urban p1.1tt'' : gcnderccl conrtich me1 thc na1nre of nationali,m: and tltt competing ddinitiom of rotcial identitko;. In pan this is abou1 a ccilbration of dirrcrcnce (p. I :~t{). lt i' abou t rcali.;ing that 1hcrt j. a p l u ra li t~or cultlliTS a ncl a lllnlripl icity o! geogr;1pllit' Ho"e,er. tlnlike fo r S:nwr. this is ab o a realisatin n tha t th ese grou p<. a re o rtl'll ma king me;1nings in thc 'all1 (' placcs and .trc bound w cach other thrnugh rdation' of pown and rc.sistance (p. ~:1~) rathn than peaccfulh occup1ing 'tpar.nc 'cullllrt .Jrta,.

Defining concept 4.1

the emergence of new social movements (feminism (p. 120), gay rights, black struggles, the greens) and create Lhe social basis for identity (p. 224) polilics. The celebration of difference brings difficullies of ils own. The relations belween groups are power relations which mark off who is lo be included and excluded and therefore entail valuations of relative worth made in lhe context of material interesls. The policy of 'separate developmenl' in apartheid South Africa was not sirn ply about maintaining cultural differences. Also, the plurality of identities available can make for some strange alliances: for example, bell hooks (p. 223) (199 1: 59) observes lhal 'sexism has always been a political stance medialing racial domination, enabling white men and black men lo share a common sensibility about sex roles and lhe importance of male dominalion'. Rights lo difference, il seems, can only be sustained within an agreed fra mework of righls and provision universal to all members of a sociely. Furlhl'r rmding
Grossberg, L. (1996) 'ldentity and cultural sllJdies: is that all there is?', in S. Hall and P . du Gay

Essentialism and difference

Essentialism is the doctrine that ascribes a fixed property or 'essence' as universal toa particular category of people. To propase that women are good childcarers because they are women, that black people are good at sports because they are black, that jews are good at arguing because they are jews - all because 'they are like that' - is to engage in essentialist thinking. The basic principies of stereotyping any cultural grouping operates on essentialist lines. In cultural studies L here is a wariness of essentialist reasoning for al least four reasons: (1) positing supposedly 'essential' characteristics often simply involves lhe reproduclion of the prejudices of one group aboul another- essenlialist reasoning imposes a partial sel of judgements grounded in the situation and interesls of one social group upon another; (2) essentialist accounls of persons and activities as 'typical' usually irwolve enormous overgeneralisation which ignores the differences between lhe members of a category (are al/ women really like that? al/ black people); (3) il fo llows lhat essentialist reasoning cannol explain why these differences within a category exisl in the firsl place; (4) essentialist doctrines are especially pernicious when they poslulale lhe presence of essenlial characteristics as a malter of biology and genelic inheritance. The allernalive lo essentialism is some form of social constructionist account. The protolypical view here is surnmed up in Simone de Beauvoir's statement: 'one is not born a woman; one becomes one'. Social conslructionism emphasises the part played by social learning in lhe acquisilion of supposedly 'essential' characlerislics and can be regarded as a more realislic point of view which is beller equipped to do juslice to the diversity of experiences encountered by persons within a calegory. Constructionism does nol have it all its own way, however. Sorne would maintain that we can speak of 'black music' or claim lhat only 'black' people can fully appreciate it on lhe basis of lheir shared origins and common experiences. Cultural studies tends towards a valorisation of differences and a corresponding cognition of the plurality of idenlities to which persons can lay claim. Some of these entilies arise from the increasing scale and complexity of rnodern societies (class, c~r pa tion, educatlon, rae e, gender, regional and national identities). Olhers derive fr':

(eds) Queslions of Culturalldenlity, London: Sage. Sarup, M. ( 1996) ldentity, Cvltvre and the Postmodern World, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press.

Thepoetics ond politcs of representotion

Thc kl'\. pni nt htn , that lltHkr,tanding rulrttll'' , 1101 a qttntion of unckt 'tancling ;11r objccti1e n:.liitl rlt:n can bt li >und oul tiHn iu the ,,orld. l'hc implication of 1d1at 1tasjm1 bec11 ''1id abo1e , tha l llll're are m :1111 dif fcn:n1 realitit.,; each colil'l'II I' ha ~ a vic1~; of t11 e \\'Orle1 \\'11 ich Clll e laim L O be rca 1'. T lwse ,.t 11s o f' 1he ,,o riel art n n h m a d e ;\\'aiGblc thruugh lonm ol cprcsentat~n_(p. ()1 ). Th~111~1 hl' spnken a' o;torie~. wriucn. paintccl. lilmcd nr 'llliK ami pl;l\t'd. \\'e nccd w pa' :tll<'tllion ro tl1t' wayo; in whirh rlH' ,,orle! i~ ponra~t<l (ot lt'-pn,entl'cl ) in all '011' ol ntedia ( DIIIH :111 .m<l l.tl. 1!)!)~ ; Bal'll l'S ll(l nun can. 1~1!1~). Tlr is is \'<'1 ~ di l'rt'l'!'ll l !'n un.Si.L.ill'l'.' bc lief 1l] :t~ l 11 11'l' is ~in~ !{\'l'll lO li S in Lht' hutcl,cape thal liT f :111 .1C,:l' 1\'i th Oll l' f.ll\'1 1 C~T~. \\'e lltNWJ>t' :ll ll'lltil'e u a "ltok 'l'I' C' nf' 11t'\\' qm, t iun~ .thout :111\' rtpn,tnta tion: 1d1a1 i~ inc l ucled~ \\'hujs lel'l or 11 :. \\'hat ~~ 1 w aim ~ \ \'hat an tlll' inllnenn~~ \ \'ltat mldia ha~lt't~ccl .... .--. and 1\'111':- \\'haU, tlw rok o( thc oll1dienec: .\ gain there 11ill lll' mam c:xamp!t, bclu11. Thcsc qucstion ' al1 r:I'l' is'lll'' ul' ,,hat '''l' can cal! 'mc lic, - 1lw "'"'' in \\'hich something is re prcscntcd - and r on ncct lill'lll 10 ,~ liC" ol' poli lics - tht poll'er-ladcn rl'lationshi p' hl'l\\'Ce n social ~nntp~ ancl incli,ic lt tak \\'e ~ h a ll 't'l' ho\\ tht'\' :tl'o l1\oh-e ~pace~. plan, and lan<lo;cape'. Allthl'j:l' IH'\\ tomcrn' 11ith geograplll. pm't'l .md rqJn''l'lli:Hion nw1!.. ,u1h1011llial diffc l'lnct' l>c ll''l't'll tlll' 'old' nd tttral geogr:1 1l h ~ and ll H 'tll'\\'. cu lr m;tl gtngra ph ~ (r\1 rde r,nn :md ( ::1lc:. 1~~ H~). Tl ll'~ haw a lso ht't'll il1'11'llrlll'l11 ;d in tht inrrt'asing imponann ni n rlt ural gtogr;1ph1 and in tite \\'al~ in 11'lt it' h it has sn b' t ~IIHia lh influcnnd tlw cli,riplim of wogr;p[, a\ a" ho1t a-; ,,cll a' CCHitrihuting a lll'\\' anglc LU

140

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Topographies of culture: geog raphy, power and representation 141

th e co nc e pt ua li ~<Hinn of ctd lt tra l studic<> (:'\ lru ll'ss. l ~l\Ji)a). \\"hc:tl wr 1h i' cnntinues in1 o the ruture rc:main' tu be ~ee n . \\'hat lhe re;r o l 1h i' ch< tpter ll'i ll do is to consider snmc o thc ,,.a,s in ,,hiclt tiH.'Sl' concenh ,,ith po,,er ancl re pre~e ntatinn hc lp us to unci<'rs1and culllt t'f' ' gcngraphies. So l~r 11e ha\'e tt,ed 1he e rucia 1 ~e n ns space, place and landscape (p. 1-1 1) ll'i tiHHIL any refkc:u.on . 1Jo,,e,e r, the' are I'C l'\ nnponam to what lo iJm,.s an d ncecl <;omc preliminar)' d efi n tl.lon , althou_{h ll must be renwn1bcrccl that 1lwse dcllnilions are. Jike al! represenwtio ns. <illl'als rontcslecl in \\':1\'s 1hat \\' 11 be explon:d 1h roug houl 1he ehapter 0 cxplorc cultur;d ~eographies (see .JohllStnn t'l al.. 19~1-l ). l 1sing th cs~ tenns \\'(' gu on 1 at ,arious scale.s rro m the loca l to llll' global, staning \\'ilh 1he 11a~s in ,,hich ,,e can uncl er~ Land ideas or p lace:- - ata Inca) lel'f.l - in L e rms o r Clil lund politics and c:-ncling With ,,a~s o 1hin king th i'Oltg-h our posilio ning ,,it hin prncesse~ o f glo balisation (p. 1:19). This chapter liso mo,e ~ 1h ro ttglt clitTeren 1 1\'a~s in wh ic h cu lture 's geograph ics can be co n ce pu t :tli~c d ; staning from thc id ea~ of conncctio ns to p lace:- ;md representatiuns of those places which make 1he m m c:-~ningfttl and , by the cnd or 1hc chaptcr, conside ring issues of hybridity (p. 159) and syncrctism ll'hich m e:-~ n 1ha1 \\'C all ha\'t l o rc lh ink notions of Oll r p lace n the \\'Orld. Jn be l\\'('("11 ll't' consider the d iffercntm eanings of the urban and 1he rura l in te nm ol' the poll'e r relations of class. ge mkr and race that they t'C\eal; thc "'"Y that terrilories illld landscapc' are implicated in tlw making of nationa1 id en litics; aml thc poll'er rc la1ions lhat :-~re a crucia l pan of'und e rsl :mclin ~ hol\' lhe \\'cst hns representl'cl thc Eas1. In cac h case - ancl 1\'C shall be in 1roducing a larie ty of II H.:orctical pe rspccti1es - 1he re are di tferent 11a~s of thinking th roug h the con nections be l\\Ten geog r;lph~. power and rcprcsentalioJL Ho"c,c r. each in.'>lancc also rcinl'orces o ur claim that cu ltura l stuclies necds tn think abotll cul ltlre's geogr::~phi es beca11se of the ways in 11h ich 1hat can in\'Oive a rc1hinking o f how we conceptua lisc:- culture .

' col/cejJI efiuing

SjHI('f

4.2

Space, place and landscape

Considering space means considering the ways in which, in 'reality' or 'representation', the distribution of things and activities, the formation of boundaries and patterns of movements are both culturally produced and part of the construction of culture. The spaces that we inhabit, whether they are lhe sacred and profane spaces of an African village or of Wall Street, are intimately bound up with the ways in which we live out our lives.

Place

Considering place (see the more extensive disc ussion below) means considering the in which particular locations are important in the making of a cultural world. Our understandings of the world are tied closely to the ways in which we construcl and con test the meanings of particular, often named, places. For example, the ways in which certain meanings of 'home' are used to support specific understandings of how families ) should work, or how understandings of 'London' capture the different political and economic relations of North and South.

ways~

Lo mismjJP
Considering landscape means considering how both an area and the look of that area are laden with meaning. 'Reality' and 'representation' are not easily separated here and the objecl of sludy can be a city skyline or a country scene in oils. What is at issue is the ways in which areas and representations of them are part of our cultural worlds. This rneans os Angeles skyline can be read as an assertion of the power of big money and , that the L that depiclions of cerlain sorts of rural landscapes have been made to representj particular notion of Englishness.

4.21 The power of place: locality, language and culture

\\'hile the brie f ck+initio n or 'place' (p. 14 1) i.s a stan, it d oes not really capture the d iffcre nt ,,ay,<, in ll'hich this con ccpt can be used Lo connect geograph ~ and cultural me;:aning . \\11<11 this scction aims lo do is to consider some of thc ,,ays in ll'hich p laces (ht:re unclcrstood '" thc localle,el al liwugh that is by 11 0 means the n nly sc;tle a l \\'hich place is important) arc g inn mean ing. \\'hat iL sho11s is that undcr~landing places in terms o power (p. 9-1). esistance (p. 2!)~) ancl representation (p. 61) d ocs much 10 ( ill u mi na te hn,, cul lural II'Orlds are cons1i'HCtcd and con tested . In o rder 1n 11 nderstand lhis, holl'eH' r, it. is necessaJ\ ' LO begin ,,ith an approach LO p l ;-~cc thal consiclers its mcanings in a rathcr d ilfere nt \\'a~

peoplc's relatiomhips to tlic \\'orld h~ nsing plii losopli ics that conccntratt:rl o n how pcople know, understancl and rcspo ncl 10 tlw ir tmironments (pliilosophics 0 1he mat hsueh as cxiste ntialism a nd phc: nomcno log\'). Tht' ' e ,,er(' an an 1idol<:' 1 cmatica l stuclics o f human re l ation~hips 1 0 space the n d omi nant 11ilhin geography which largc ly ignorecl people 's meaningl'ul re la1io nships in l~t,our o r a l'ision or them as 11'110 11 ~ ratinnal be ings. Fo r Tuan. p lace ,,as to be uncle rsloocl in tt:rms of meani ng: Pince . .. ha<; more sttfJ,tancc titan tl u.' "ord lot alion suggests: it i;; a uniquc cnlity. a 'special ensemble': iL has a histoJY and u1 ctning. Place incarna1cs thc cxpelience and aspirations of <t peopJe .... 1111 , ... reait\' tn be cJarifiecJ <111(1 llllderSlUO d from tht perspec1i1es ol' liH' p<:opk 11'1 10 ha\'t' K \'C 11 il ml'aning-. ('-Fn Tuan . 197-1: 213)

4.2.1

1Philosophies of place

Ideas o r ' place', senst' of place' and 'plact:lcssncss' \\'(Te central lO lhl' \\'Ork or early human istic geograp hers like Yi-Fu Tuan a nd Ecl\\'ard Rclph . T hey trice! 1o think throngh

142 lnlroducing Cultural Studies

Tht,t geographcr' 'ou~ ht a nnin rsal unck t ~tanding o!' thl' r h:u artcri~t i c~ of ,pan and place. IH'Iie1ing th :n tht~ co uld make ~ talt'tllt' tH.s about tn ea nings. feelings and tnw tional re lation~hi iJ.~ to pla('t' th:11 all ind i\'iclna ls sharcd. At tilllt'' this bl'CIIIl t' tootcd i 11 biolugY: \\'t tlt'l'cl ... to bl' rnnindt'cl ol ~patial lwrnptioll' ami ,al lit' ' th:u are grouml\:<1 on comll\011 tr.til' i11 hum.tn hiolog1 .uHI lwnn tr:m<cen<l tlll' .trhiuariness u f rlllttltt. . \1 tho11gh ~p: 11 ial t olltt'J>h .md hehadoural IMllt'lll ' 1.11'1 t'llot mot"h. 1he1 .lit' all IIJO tl'd i11 tiH' o rig in:tl p:ttl bt' lll't'l'll both .tnd 'pace. (\-Fn ru:nl. 1 ~)/.J: ~ 1\1 ) ltl,tv:Hl ol'thc dil'l'ertntts tl' cu lture, thtn 1,as aucntion l<t ~u r h ' ba~i c' 'patial rthuions as ' np!C imnt . ' b ack J'mtll ' and centrt 1wriph c ry'. Su m l' o f thi .; can b e ~ee n in Tablc 1.1 1d1L' re T uan di1 idt'' plan, into l\\'0 sOtt': p11hlic '~ mblll' a nd flc l<l ~ o f cart. 1'11blic '"nboh ' lldt a' motlllllll'lll''. an1,ork,. b~tildi n~:. ami citie' an p lace<. becaUM' th t'\' can nr~a ni'e 'P:tCt' into t'l' tlltt'' ol meaning ... ctntrcs of 1alm :llld ~ igniflca nce ' (Tnan, 1!17 1: ~:1~1 ). Tht'l art p lact' that .are comri o11"1~ m acle. a n d thcir me:ming~ ll rc co n ~c iously n aan ipul:tt ed . Fit lcb of c :t rc :lit' l)lan. s 1hat becumt tllt':llt in g ful as l' lltot iona lll c hargtd n: lations hips lll'l\1ccn pcopk fi tul an an chorag t ill a panic ular site tlt rottgh repet i t iu tt a IHI f'am i liari t1 . fh c1 art \\l'll-1mrn :111(1 ,,.t ll-lond corners' wltich bccom e llll'aningful t ltrnttg h th t wm., in \\'hidt reJlated use bi11d'i th l'm into thc rda tionsh i p~ bet\\'t't'll 1wople and IHtild' up a :.tonh ou~t ol mtmorie, a n d "'"Otiatiom. T here j; a dl'linitt moralme,~agt htn.. lking roo ttd in 'atlllll'ntic' pl.tces is nlt'aningful and Kood . 'Fie lds ol r:trt are twttcr' - nwrt tlll':lllingfnl - th an pnblic !-ymbols'. Tltcrc j, ;d\Cl ,( ~e me Of 1h l' lO\\ Of' phtct'S 1h rottgh tite hOlllOg't'll j, , j ng f'orCL'S of' th l' lllod n n \\'o rld amlthrottg h ll'a\'t'i. 1,hic h '"''more titan a fe,, e c lto ts of Carl Sauer (Tu:tll , lU74; Rl'lplt . 19/(i). Fur th t'M' tltinkt-r- . thett. :tltac ltmen t to p lan (n11de rqood as a 'lll'ld of C:tt'e' ) \ though t o f ;l\ IIII HT!'al. indi\idua i<.lC a ncl a goocl thing. "!It ere are. ltO\\'CI'(T, othtt w;m; of th inki ng a bm11 p lace.

Topographies of culture: geography, p ower and representalion

143

4.. 2 2 1Critica! understandings of place

rowards the geographies of intersubjective lifeworlds
l)arid Lt'\' ( 1 98~) ha' arg lll'd that \ -Fu Tuan , prl'~l' nla ti on ol' p lace , essentialis t (p. -p l.tCt' rd.lliothh ip'> tha t hotel lor a ll pl'opk. all p lan., 13s). 1t attetnpts to ddim IWopk and ;llt illle' \\'hat Lt' \ '-llg){e:.t' is that \\t' nted to nnder,t:tlld hm, dillerent plopk, relations h ip~ to plact a re difTe rc lll. Ew n il thc re are ~omc 't,~tnti.tl, in th i' rl'lation sltip. tlwn " h a t tll(.' clifl'e re n cl'' ttll u~ !. mure lllt ' t 'l'~t in g than ;;am c ness. lltt'' l' rel<llion~hips can o nl~ be go t a t thmtt ~h g muncll'cl. con ttxtual and 'pec ific s utdit ~ nf holl' plans are 1>art of 1d1at Le~ c tll < ( lm n o \\ing a lt' rlll front hllmatli,Lic p hilosop l11 ) tltl' ' Ji Ct\,orlcls' o f' dilkrcnt gro n ps rath tr tha11 ~~~ ab~t l ~ICL th <.nri,ing. Thi ~ a h o lltl'<lll\ 11 01 j 11,t :;a~ in g t h al pl.t<'l'' are mean in gful btll 11 ling to g tt ~olll t' han elle on ,,h at 1ho:.t' 111 eanings are a ll(lt n i11g 10 ,h0\1' )H)II' th t, .tl't' difl'ere11 t for cliff<.rtnt ' oci.tl group'. Slll h studics ,hm, a gttlttim CO il Cl' t'll !'ot tite III O I'C' ' t'H' t'Hi a~ g'l'Og'l':tphic s' oJ' liJe pl:t l.'l'~ ll 1\'ltich 1\'t I H' and labou r: for th e holl~ts. 'l l'l'l' ts. bnorics. ollict's. schools.litl<k parks. ci nl'ma~ a11d so on \\'hnc ,,.t. >[)t' tH I nH" t u l o ur da'' a ncl :tbottl wltidt 1\'t 1111,1\oidabl~ d l'ldo> a .!111\1' of j1lfllt' - .1 rudilllt'tllat ~ un<kt 'tandi11g ni ho1' Lhb plan '1\111 J.., :111<1 a n aggil).: fcding wwanh thi' plan of liking . dbliJ..ing. !01 ing. hatiug..ttttpting. rej<.cting. '" 1dta tCH'L (CioJ..l' 11 o/.. 199 1: 1{ 1) \\'ha t les b e ltind t ll is , an idea thal nt canings a re c re ated ' intnsubjccti n h' bc twccn peopll' (snl!itns ) in ' local' places. lt is social g roups tllat ntakc meaning' :tncl makt places m ea ni ng fni 1h mug h socia 1 itll('l':tt'l ion. The~e root c d ro n stcllatio n s of' sh;trcd mea ning ' a r e ' lil tl,or ld <.' (l,e coulcl also call thcm culture:.) and we can St't' tlla t thcsc a re tied into p:utindar p iares. In sh otl. \ll' ran bcgin tn ta l k a h o ut 'local c ultu n.:< bo nn d up wit h p aaticul;u p l an~. l h e p robkm th tn btcntnl'' one of u ncle t'$ta ndi n g thcse meanings. t h e ' e ' local rulturts'. il \\'l' a ae nm pan nf tha t c ulture. One :.olut io n. bo rrm,td from tht Am t t ican ant h ropo logist (.]if'f'ord Cet av (wh o 11 \L'S th c te rtlt ' ]ora l ktlllll'kd g-<s ) is tn 1h i 11 k abo u t t lt e rn '" tt' :>: 1~ or l anguagl'~> tltal r< t" b e i nterprL'tccl a~ long as \\'(.' t Ta li ~c that 1\'l' are :di pan of ' lor;tl knm,leclges a nd Lltat workin g h c t\\'t'l' tl thc m is a m a ll n o f illlttjm tation n o t /J flllllolio11 ( Cce rtL. l~ l~:h). Thinking throug h ' lif<world ~ nH":IIl'\. th trefore. th inki n g ahtllll p iare. langu agc .mcl cult u n. in tenm ol ho\\' pl ace~ are colltn i,th' made meaninghtl. lt d oe' not. h <me\ct . mea11 thi nking about powc r.

Table 4.1 Place and meaning Places as public symbols (High imageability) Sacred place Formal garden Monument Monumental architecture Public square Ideal city
Source: Tuan (1974: 237)

Places as fields of care (Low imageability) Park Home, drugstore, tavern Street corner,neighbourhood Marketplace Town

Power and place: the constitution of society

A seri es of m o r e ...ociological u nde rstandin g:. place bega n lO introduce n oLOil\ o r powcr rcla tions into our wms of u ncll'r~ta n ding localities. In patt th is continu c d the earticr humanists' intt't'l'"l in h011' placl'<. a rt ro n st ructed through t h t in t tT~l.ction ol peo plc's rou tine mmt 'IIH'Ill ' ami act i\'i t ie~ {tlw \\'a,~ in whic h rt' p l tition makt, ' lit'Jcl, o r care') all(l a l!>o th e ir implil'cl intne~l in hm, tlt t' po\\'erf~t ltn:tke placts through lll:tkillK public ~ymbo ls. l loll'('\'tr. a lll' \\' ancl cx plic it in t Nt'~ l in tllt cltr., t:uading the ll'orld itl

or

144

lnlroducing Cu ltural Studies

Topographies of cu ltltre: geography, power and represenlalion

145

1('1'111, ol IIH l'owtT rclations lwtwcen 'oc ia! gro up., lounclthc l':trh humani,,, :1 11 aly~is 11.111ting (c.g. Ro-.t. l!l!l:\). In turntl!i-. wao; ccn 1pkd 11ith a rt'l!l).(llitioll that !lit' ,,o Id was 1101 bt'UliiiIIg lllolt' IH>IlHlgtIHlll' but that tht dili't'l'l'll{t'' hetll't't'll plaCt'' and thc lllcrcolntUethlt'" ol pl.tce' 11a;; nucial w tht way' i11 ll'hich ,oti.ll. poltica! and tconomic \ltucturts .tncl ,ocia! rclatiolh optrattd (t ht da,,i c c'\amplc , :\las~er, 19Hl). 1hi, ,,;1\ of under~tan d ing p lace' in ll'l'lll\ of both lllt'ir incli\idualitl ;md their llttrckpt'llclencc can be seen in .John :\){ne11s ( 19~7) Plrut 111111 fJultin. HtTC he unclc r~IUIJCI place a, ha,ing thrce dimemion,: loe ale (plan ,1, tht wuing lor action. e.g. Parliamtnt or a ci11); Iocation (thc locale a' '"' '''ithin 11 ickt ~orial rclation'. e.g. the po~ition of th c cit~ ll'ith rcspect Lo national politic' 01 glnhaltcononlic rle1T iop111ent); ancl 't'll'l' ofplacc ( the subjecti\'e dimensiono; of'pl:lrt') . . \lltlwo;e 1\'t'l't' to he unclerstood as hound tngc th cr. anc\ all 'ocial. economic, politiral :1ncl 1 tlltural rd11iom ,,ere ultdl'l',tCHld a~ madc 11ithin panic ular places. anc l madt uf' pmnT rl' la tions. T h e dctails of thi' :ll't' not importanl. l t io;, hm,en'l'. l'italto note th at tlw l:ul guagt' li t "'es a11d his 11';1\' or 1111! krs ta ncling p lace i11\'0hT 'pra c\ ices'. 'pn~jech . '1'(} 11 11\ t' soci:1 J i11 tc rac t io n ', 'rollslrai nt s'. 'sl ru ctures'. 'lime-s pacc paths' . ' n oclc:-' and so on. lt is :1 socological lnllg ll:tg<' (st'<' .\ g- tH'\\' ami Dunran. l9H~l ) ami i' not pri111aril~ conctTII<'cl ll'i tlt th e lllC'I prctation ol c ultures. For cxamplc. for ont o f tiH~t a ttl!wr., n illlll't' i' 1Cl be undtrstood as 'a compltx ~cdimcnta ti on ul tite ~llii C llll .llion proct,~ (Pnd. l ~JS -1: :?H ll . \\'h a t 11'1.' 1\':tllt to argue i ~ th<ttthc cldicicncit'' ancl 'li'l'ttgtlt' ot' tlt1. ' lil(,\orld' ,,.a, of uncltr,tancling place and th<.: social constitution or stnlrtlll-:llion 1\:t\ ol under,tanding place are complt meman. In the fonner then ,a ckar a ncl ' thid..' no tion o f cult ure but a ''t'tY 1\"cal..h clc,clopcd scnse or po11cr relati<Hl'. In tlw l.llltT tiH:rc i~ a strong sense th:n pi.Ke~ are madc within ''Tbs ofpo,,er rel::uiun~. hut thi~ i~ roupkd ll'ith a ,en 'thin' notio11 of cuhn1T. \\'hat can be Ten in discu,~ion' ol pl.ttl' nm' i' that tltt ba,ic building block' of the'c two ;.on '> ofthinking abmn place are bl'ing put togttlttt in dillcrcnt ,,a) b1 difl( rcm people in order to undtr,tand culture in wrm' o l pmn:1 .1nd power in lt'l'lll\ n i cu lture. \\'e ll'ill gi\'t'' ont example h ert.

f igure 4.3

Pred on place. (Source: adapted lrom Pred, 1989 and 1990b.)

(ind difl'ercnt "orcl,, phrasts. 'a~ ing', nallle-; a ncl meaning~ 1\'ltirh ' l'l that place apa 11. The reason for 1h i~ conntc t' plac<' and latt){u:tgc to practice. 1n t'W' t"l plan t h trt are diiTerent tHeanings (a dilknn t l:tnguagt) because each plac(' ill\'Oh't'' (linertnt matnia l practi et~ " ltic h gt nNatt th me nw< llting;.. The hiswn of a plat'e i' tht hi ~t t1ry of itS pr:tctil' t'~- O ( 1\'0I'k. of hnllll', 11( p J a~ - ll'ltOSC COI111Jinati oi1S < 11" ( lllliCJtlt' lU th a t place ~ i\'t' it llH'<tning. 1t slwu ld be nowd that. t'o r l'rccl . lang llotg't' prl' tl\' 111UC: h stancls in f'o~ , ' lid \I'O I'cl S pre ,' JllLJCh Sl:t ll d ll for (anguage. ,\\ lH' p11tS it , ex p eri nwnting ll'itlt langnag 1 ~ 1 1': \\'nrtb ~po ktn in p lau. /lkaning~ lll:tck in pl.n. . \\'or(l\ alHinwanillg'' htrt. hut (h~~:.l9K~I: ~ l l l ""\
11 01

titen.

4.2.3

1Culture, power and place: Stockholrn 1880-1900

In S<'\tral diiTcrcnt con ttxts .-\llan Pred has 11Tiltt' tl abnut holl' placcs are implicatccl in t h e transformations of poll'cr relations a n d lif'ell'orlds. a ncl abotll h nw pcoplc's lang-uag<s and d:tl' lo-day pnKtices of lile. lcwe anc\ lahour art II'O\'l'll in a nd thrnugh th OSl' p la ccs. T h e cxampk that \\'{' \\':1111 tu takt i' rrol\1 his II'OI'k C)Jl late lliiH'lC'L'Ilth('L'J\liii'YS tocklwlm \1hic h sceks to rccmtr nl t'a llingfu l \\'c)rcls and n dtur:ll ll'orld' lst in tita l ci ty' s jin-t/-,,;rf m odern i~at ion ( Prtcl. 1990a and 1 99~b}. 1n o clcr to tllldtr~ t and wlt y Prccl work ~ to re co,er the lost ll<llllt'S for tlt in gs. J)l'<lplt. p lace!\ and pract ice' 11e lli.'Cd to look a t th e tltcorc ti ca l framellork ,,ithin wltid1 hl' und er~ta ncl' place. Figu1e -1.:) ~hm,s t ite arch itccture or Pred\ ,,ay ot tlt inking. 1 k i' concc rnecl with ' thc localh 'Jloktn 1\'0rcl' ( 1989: 2:)0) - an intimatc Cl>llltt'CIon bt'II\'Ct'll place and langnagc ,,h ic h mean!> that t'ITIT place has a clitlercntlanguagt. In adt pl;.ce mu can

St't~~'"''"Ht'4.-;lrc. . :Jtt.l.i' 1101 thtre. cach or the poilll~ of tht triangk n<.:ecls (() be undtr~tood in ttnn' ol po\\'tr. Tite pranices th at make plac<'s are forgcd 1\'thin social rdation~ ol el,,,,, race and gend<'r ,,hich cxtend ,,.a, bcqmd tht bounclaril'' ol any particulat pl:tn. .\leanwhilc. th e 'pecific relationship~ bel\\CCII rapital all{l l.ll)() u r. men and women. bl.1ck atlCI whitc, ~hape thc pbrcs within ,,h ich the'e n I.uiomhip' art lired out. Finall~. tht'\l' rdatiom h ip~ of po,,er also \lruclllre the l a nguage~ that art spokcn. dillen:ntiating tlwm bt' I\\Ten more or Iess po11erfu l o;ocial group' .111cl t~ ta bJi,h ing their 1\'nrd' ancl mrani11go; a' I'ta l pan~ of the ne~o t iations ami conflicts bt'll\'t't'n th em. This i~ . ltoll'l'\'l'r, rather ab..,11 art and it is t':tsicr to sce how it ,,ork~ throug-h looking at what he makes or tite lOS! 1\'0rcls or nine tcenth-ccmury Stockholm. Broadh', l 111 Ca ll ~ that in h is \\'ork rt'Colcring' t h e se lost words - and th c rcforc lnst practicl's :tnd lost con n cctiuns lw twt't' ll pcoplc's li1-cs ancl th c piares in whic h th c~ lilnl - i~ also th e reco1e r~ of lost lil'l's. T lwrt art. a~ h e sa,s. lmt \1orlds as wd l as lo. ' L 1\Ttrd' ancl \\'llill S\l tYii'C." ur b t'orgollt' tt is :1 maLtcr nf p owcr. Thi~ is p e rltaps nHlSl ,.i,icll~ St't'll in ltis diSC IIS~OJl o f' plan: JlalllC'. Box -1. 1 l't prucltlt:es ~olllt' of tht 'IITl'l ancl p lace namcs that Prtd cli ~ut sst~. l'I11.:V al! come from a Stnckh ollll ( 1HHO- 1\100) t lta t was u ndergo i ng ca pi t alist mockrn isat ion an cnornHHIS tra n,fonnation ol' it~ l'Co tt nn ti c. poltica! ancl !loc ial rdation' :ntd its gcographie\ .. \ , tht c i11\ 'paces .md p l an~ ai1Cl thc ways ot lil'e 11'ithi11 tlll'lll ,,.lre lhrown itHo tunnoil. ~o 1\':t~ tlw lang uage of g-<'lling a round that cill. Pl.'oplt tH'l'cled ways of' oricnting thl'liiSl'h'tl' in spacc. the1 nceded to be abk to dirl'Cl thl'lll.'-<.'h-t' and
Ycl, lO

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Topographies of culture: geography, power and representation

14 7

/3ox

4.]
Changing Stockholm place names

T1, 0

\\T I t'

adckcl latn:
/rtlt

f(oiiOII\

\ urdith mtlltm 1

p ,-o 111i llt' llf 1111 11 utt/1111

""'".![_\' a llfltngi 111'1 ri11g

11\'l)

Folk geography
Pub' .111<1 t.tft' natntd after thcir uwrawr':
.11/JoK-1 111 A.'n llfllr:llilln- 1\.arlherg:. 11ift

Think .lhOIII tlw clillt)l'IH l'' bt'l\\l'l'll lht''l' 1( O \\ are tl tC' ll:JIIll'' <ildckd in each

li~l~

or ~l lel' l .tncl place llilllll''

ca~e~

01 !lttit .{t'ographic origith:

N_ r,/:ml- tite Ru., ,ia tt 11oman
.~/:o !lll:o 11- lht 11oman fruan Skaaw

\\'hal role dot'' humo 111 pb11 in cach case:

1Iow h.Jil' d a" ancl gt'tHkr pla1cd

parl in 'ltaping thl'~C' namc,;.

\ (llu:

Pt<d ( l!l\11/a .Htd 1\l!l:!aJ

or tlttir real nr imagi tt ed dtarancri,tin -: 1orlmt fmn - the heallliful ,,.,-<' 1/o/ta /.o//(1 \ - Ltntt' Lot tas
(;ftlllllllln -

urinal ing)

C:l a~~ 1\;~rl,,ol t' (a rdi:rcnn to his dt'ptttd tnn o 1t a gla~s lltl>e for

1 tlw t h a r:1neri.~t i c' oftht' ph1ce:

Fllllt'll - !ltt' s lt abb~ pla('c f..'fl/1.1 /~)flingm- tlt t .-\rtiflcial Fenili;cr IJiitlm i /:'Yitl/1- lkath in thL pm Umlnlrilt 11- l'lt t ' 1.o u el Fan

~lll''t' mt~ of lt 111110ll r or irom a J,o ex te nded to tlw name' fi>r otlt 1..- part- o f tlw
Cll 1 :

:-Jilitan ltou,ing- A.' onlmltlll- ' all'.tg-t ban~tck, Polit l' ,,Ilion- Tmjnl - tite croft \\'ot J..hmt'l'- F~tlfirn- lltt meeting place \at ohl'fi,k In King Chrar 11 - A.' nngtn\ ftllidf111fllr- lltt Ki11g\ lootltpitk /'y/1/mtl:rn - Boo;e H i 11 .\'/ilt/wlmul- Stanal ion l ' ll't - for a HT\ p<>or par1 of' tit e , i11 Sllolilnrillllt'/1- 1lre Snobg u tl tr - f'or prontc llatk in lhl' Rm.1l (:ardt 11 , .\fttltogn,\l'il{oma - :'llalwgall\ \ 'illa, - Jr a po01 arc.1 o l'II<.IO<k n hou~ ., 1

Official geography
Fror11 lH:-\!"1 tite l': ll cgo ric~ li11 \lr<.:et nanws 1\'c rc:
/ )rrlrintit
((lf(/

hi llorimlllrl/111'.1

.\ 'ol'llir 111,1 lh olog1 Ftl/111111 1 filfff'l'.l 11m r tlu f'ilr '1'/11' .10// // ('/'11 jJIII! ' /1('('1 .

l'l11 norll11'111 Jmn i111 f ' \

and lo arr allg'L' lllt'l' 1i ng p lace.' . Tlt us 1'red 1rae e~ a burgcon ing 'l'olk or popu br a I;Jngll:lgt oJ' 1d1a1 lit' rall.; ' fovtin g it aro tt nd rlw city' ( t~in g 1ogvth er words, plans all(l pr:1 cl i ce.~ l. Tlt , l:mg uagt h;1s ccnain charactt' rsl ics. l1 i' ' loca 1 ' a1 1<1 prac ticc b:1sed. \::11tl t'S rder tn meanings sptd li c to p l acc~ :11HI 111ta1 gm, n n '''i11ti11 1hem. Thi ~ llll'alls that thc langnage i' di ~ lin nh gcmkrccl . Thl' fi1lk gtograplll rhat Prcd studil'S is a pnclorninarrtl~ r11 a~c ulitH' Oll l'. giHn tite plan, .r11d practin, ht ha, choscn 10 collCL'Ill tall on . lt i' aho rudc and anli-authnri tl' in it'> ironir arad hui,ttro u' humour. The nanw, o llt't l conLt'tllratt on l>odil~ runniun~ cJi,ta>td'nl lo tL''J>tnal>k middfto-cla" S\\'cclt' T h i~ , inq)Ort:tnl. giH'Il 1he compaison that Pred mal..t, \\'ith tltt 1 IH' It' itlCrt';t,ingh being enf(wced acru~' tite ci11 fao1n II{S;'l a~ official \ll'l'L'I n:l111l'' 11t.1 par! Of :t \t'l of 'lra((.giL'' of polici ng. cJcallilg'. ligfllillg, rcg-ulat ill.{ a nd '111'\('illalln imendcd to ordcr thc 'J>:Kt'S of tht mw cit1. ln con trast 10 th(' folk gcograplll''. l hc~t namt~ arl' ladcn ll'itlt m iddkd :t" idta' ami \'al ue~ of progrc,-;. tradilion. n.uio n.d integr:uion. rililisalion ancl higlt culture. \\'hat i\ imponant i' that tltest 1110 culuu .al geograpltiL,. lltl'H' ,,o ,,a~' ol gi1ing ntt;ming w .. pare and of making place,, a re in competilion fw tlll ' 'lllll' dt1. fu 'ho11. inqJllsing tlll' ufli cial plact n;Hne' thro uglt lhL statc apparatlh rutatll l'l'a,ing tltL f'olk gl'ographY . Allan Precl , inlnpttta li on o l tltc'e pl.tce na lllt'S i~ that t h c~ ,,ere IH':IJ>tlll' in a cultural class ,,ar bcing l'oiig'ht out in a rapiclh r haug ing citl'. Th csc rcprcSt'lll:ll ions o f place~ art p;m ol' ba 1 !les lor pnll'cr bti 11).{ 1\'agccl b~ coniiH't i ng socia 1group.s. L', ng rwk ancl ironic ll<llll l'' l t p l a Cl'~ ,,as a f'or111 ol ~~mbo lic rcsis1ann guaran tecd to shock tite micldlc class('s. ( :a lling a plwllic lll<lllllllll'lll - the obelisk lo King Osear 11 - A.'ungt'/11 landjJr/rm' (tht' Kin(s IOothpirk ) ,,as a ,-nb;~ l ac t cumbin ing poli1i ca lll' ladtn irn1 ercnce ,,ith al ka'L ''lhl'<ilhl'iou' ul>scnrill'. ( l'nd , Hl~l ~b: 1:1:1). Rt,isting 11t c la llg uagl of thc po11c a!'ni 11a' also t< re~ i'l tlwir Jlr:l('lins. thcir pl ace~ ancl lhtir IHII,vr. l'lt t attem ptcd im pmi 1ion of .1 ll t'\\' geugra pln ol ns1 wcta bil itl', o n 1he o tlwr hand . \\'a' a comcious cf'fnrt lo di,tnanlk ,1 1ibran t oppo~i1ioual culture and tite oppo~itio rwl poli1ics tlla1 ll'l'lll 11ilh i1 . This hr il'l' e:o.amplt- h:" sho1111 u ne 11a1 in ,,hicll a co11nm lor culture .111cl a r onrvrn for pm1e can be ro m binecl in :11 1 HndLT'>l:lllding- of' place. (St'L' al~o . \;ana hu. 1!l!Hi. and
geograph~.

o 1h e r~

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149

Ycoh. 1!19~. Fo1 a clilkHIH ~on ol c:-..unplt- 'tT Ro,c. I!JI-(1-(, a11cl .\lorg.lll. I!JH:\b. ) llcre thi' i~allht kHI olllw loc.Jlitl a11<l IH' Illi.tlllllttlt' l'lccl',olln explan:uion ol 11hat hcis inlcrt,tnl in : pl:!tT'fJl't ific r u1Jura1 (re)/nnnra tionl<. in lora 1 i,ed 111t'.ll1 ing-cen trcd c1 en d:" < 11'11).().(1< , 1ha1 art <1 1 nl1<'t' p< lilir;, 1:111<1 cuhur:ll. (l'red. 1~~9~: 107) lndcccl, b\'l'n rt 11101ing on to thi1tk :tholll cor1lc,tcd me<~ning~ al otlu: r scalc:~ it is

4.. 31

Representing the country and the city

li n<lnHl<l

e .,,s ill bl' ,en dim: nnt for dil'i'trtnt Jll'ople. Tite cuuntll,idt and lit e cit1. lht~ :utsll t , 11

\o

\'h;Jl i1n;tgl'' dn 1\'l' h al'l' ol tht ronnll \Si<k and 1he C11~ \\'ltal 1q>n-.L'nlaton" uf thcm
1\'l'

poi\Trfu l~

\\'hal l'l')>ll'<l'll l:l lion"

nr thl'lll du 1\'l' mal...t f(Jr othcrs~ T hc

won h comparing ,c..-sion ~ or plaCl lo 't:t' mo1t' clearh' ho11 tite 'nc:11 e uhural
g~:ograpl11' di~tinction'

11'011...-.. lf ~011 compan T ahk 1. 1 11'ith BD:-. -1.1 HHI can -.ec that the being macl<' .11-c: 1cn 'imilar- hoth mal...e the ~ame binan di'-linction-.:

olllcial unoflit ial;

i m po~ed 1n rga 11 ic;

bad/ goorl. Their interptt~ l a lioll s. l1m,e1er. are l'l' l~ dil'f'<.: rvnt. T 11an ll1inks in tcrm-. ollh c lnun~n uniwrl!al-. tha t arc bound np int lw 1 1o1ion ofplact. Prl'd 1hinks in lnms o l 'f>l'Cilic class stmgglcs and tlll r('latinns uf (Xlll'tT and nwaning lhat art titcl tngc thcr i11 place-.. \\'e can sec th b a~ a mark o( thc c hangc~ in tlw undcrstanding of place ll'h ich ncw pl'rspcclI'<''> 011 <lllltll'( hring. The~t art t'X tcndccl in tht next stction b1 looking a1 rcp1T~cntation' of tht <otllll" and tht ril' in ttnn' of po11er.

'trban and tl tL' rnr:tl , h;l\'t 1 W fi xtcl inlagts. 111l'aning-s or re prcstnt :Hion-.. T hc1 mean ~liiTerent 1]Jing.-; i11 <l iiTcnnt con t<':-\ 1,, T lw ccnltllr~ ~ide can be th c bLau liftrl rural icll'll o r an dglll t'L'Il tlt -cl' nltll~ Eng Ji,lt oi l pai rning or tite cxc ilill ~ ll'ilrlt-rnc.~-. nf a tuuri't brochurL'. B01h Cllt bt' po.'> itil't' image,. On lh<' other hand. th l co unu~ can be portraycd .1-. dull ami hacl...,,ard ... ~dtat KmI. Marx (p. 9 7) onct calkd 't h ~ iditK~ orrural life'. 11 lt1111. tlH ri11 can he thc ~lll' ol t':>.Cill'llll'IH and plca,un:. oro( ,111 ami dangcrboth po'-itill' and ncgati,c .u thc 'ame tinl('. Thcsc are all rcpre'L'1ll:tli01t'> of tlw conn tn be ,;jc( w be ont ora mixture olthl' lollo11 ing-: pro-rural. amnl(ll hL' ci11 . thal mi<,.ht n rural. pro-urban. ant-urban . Thc1 m ig ht al'u be ~aicl to be idLological or pan of hcgcnwn ic pn~cc t ~ as di lferl'n l gTou P' are a<h:mtagtd or el i':tdl':llttagLcl bl' di ITeren! meanilg'' \ \'Jta l \\'(' 1\'alll lO d o ht'l't' is 10 look ll sntn <:' C:'X <I111j)k' of hol\' images o [' thl' counl r)' ;tnd th t: city are nm mn~d Lu i s-.ut~ of p < n,~ r (\\'illi:11n-., l\l7:b).

4.3.2 1 Cultural images of the rural

john Constoble: class and the represento/ion of rurollife
\\'ithi n ,1 p.micnlar E11glidt r nlllll al 1rarli1ion John Con,tahll-', lanHHI' painting Tlu !lll)-1\'oill (J.;~() - 1 } prt~tms an IIIHklli.tbh po,til'l' I'l'\\' of' tiH' t'O\I llliY'idt (-.tt Figun ...J.). ( k rt 1]1!' 1'111 ;t ( j, rep re,t'll lt'd ill IL'IIll'- of hartll<lll\', bt',IUI\', ~l:lh iJit >' traditioll . pcan:. innon1H l~ .1 11d l'irtue. \\'1 11' ;11l til c'c nwanings bcing- atl<1dHcltotill' rou ntryside i11 thb ;1 1 Hln 1 : tn ~ utllt'l' ,imi lar paill lin g~~ .Jo ll n l~arrl' ll ( 1 9~0) 1! :1' St'l hirn,l' lfth t las~ uf expo~i n g tit e icleolog ies ;ll 11urk II'1hin cigh ll'l' tllh ami 11 i ll l'lt't'lll h ' llllll ~ J::ngl i'" lanclscapl' paiming (1mrk~ Jrocluccrl l'nr JIH' 1ich \ by intl'l p~tting tlwm within lhc contcxt o l tite coming o( c;tpilali'l agrinlltur e anclthc el:"' -.uugl(lt'.-. th:u tilat irll'oh-l'cl. As ht sa, ....:
q~alit.ll i.111

4.3 1 The country and the city

As 11-ell as u ~in g l'r('cl's work to tal k abo111 pl:tct it , irnpo nan1 10 realist it~ lin1itations and lO loo!... al other ll'a''' of' ro nnt'C ling idea~ oJ' l'lllturl'. po11'l'l' a nd geogr~qJ i ll'. Tll'o limita tions that ll't' ,,alll lll ..,trc'' nm , are thc 11':11 in ,,hich languagc gets reduccd to ,ingle II'Or<b (-.et the ho' on discourse. p. 30) aml thtlack ol a ncnton tha t i-. paid 10 i~~ucs of repre~l'ntation. \\'h:u wc 11an1 todo in thi~ -.en ion is to think les~ ahotll pa11icula1 places and mo1 e aho111 li'])CS of places - tht rural and thc urh:m - amlw ~n ho\\' n.prc'lcnta tions of t he~e ~t' IH'ric places are bound 11p in m;m~ rclat i on~ of dominann all() rcsisl ance (p. ~5~) inmll'ing '-OCal group!' ddintcl b> e]a,,, 1an~ ancl gcnd er. Thi n ki ng a boul tlll' pocl ics and poli 1i r~ o f rtprcsc n lation m cans ackn owledg ing that in orckr f r u ~ lo in tl'rprc t thc ir meanings ll'l' 1 11u ~ t unders tand thal all rcpre~c ntations are mack fru111 pan in llar position 11 ithin 1lu: ~ t runurc or social rtlations: thc~ :1 11 come o ut uf panicular conll'XlS thal shape both thcir lnn ancl tiH'ir conlc nt. In underq;mcling how cul tura l procltct.s are part ol (>011'('1' r('lations it mal' be usdul w u~e lii'O rclatecl COIIl'l'Jn': iclcology (p. R-1) ;tll{) hcgcm ony (p. l()(i 1. 1n U'-ing 1ht~t ll't' do not ll'ant to apph tht'llt ri~idh' but 10 th inl... almnt hull' tht' mighl be ,...,l'llll in undcr standin~ gL ograplll'. powcr ami rcprt~l'lll.lliu'2.: ldl'ology attcmpb to 1l'l.llt' idL'I~ 1 0 notio ns o l powtr. whik hcgemom allt'lll JH' w u ndcr.;tand pmn:r in cu lturalll'l ms.

Fo1 thl 111o'1 pa11 till .111 ol 1111.tl lilt olllr, '" tlw imagt o!',, ,tahlt-. llltilil'd. almnq "H l'll. '<' thal 1111 l OIH t'lll ... , to 'uggt''l th.u it , po"ihk 1<l loo k bcne.uh tlw ,,ul.\cc o( 1he p.tinting. . utd tu di,cnnr thCI'l' l'l irltnu ol tia 1<'1Y conllict it ~l'l.' lll ~ 1 0 rl<n1. ( 1\IHIJ: .) \

\\11al ill' i ~ panir nl.trh int t rt,ttd in i.; ho11 pcople. pani n darl ~ laho111't'l'' anrlt ile rural poor, arl' ckpirl l'd in th l'~t l a nd ~c; qx,, lit- argul's tlwt rq >rt''l' lllillg th <'St' peoplt1inn-. ol 1ill' time (are tlt t'l' prcstllh gre:ll dil'fl c ultil'~ 1\'itllill tht ilig il ll' r hargcd dass rd:1 lo be giHII prominence. sltu uld th t'l bl' -.h01m ltapp1 or -.ad .. 11 1,urk or at pht~~) and that thl' figure:-. in the'e painting' ai'L' .1 nul'ial p:ll'l of d t> H' rnlining tlll' nwaning' thal thesl' ll'(Jil''>l'll t ation~ anribulL' to ll11':tl lift. \\'hat Barrcll 1en dltni~th ,ho11:-. i tha t difircnt paintcrs at dillcrcnt 1i11H'' dl'.ll 11i1h thcsc i::.~ue" 1en dilkrcnth. In th\. r:t'l' ol Constabl<'. B. u rdl .11 glll'' that he paim~ pr()(ltt<'lill landscapes. He aims 10 pt udllet' ' tlw i rnagt ol .1 pn Hl ltt t i1 t' a nd wcll-nr~an i<tcl land,C.lJW. as it relates to

150

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Topographies o r c ulture: geography, power and re presentatio n

15 1

Com1ah lc ' roJII J.tl'\' allt'lliJH In Jll't''l'll l 11 i ~ p<'npkcl land~C:IJ)(' a' .111 imagl nl 1li t harrnonl' bt JI\'t'l'll lll.lll .ualnallllt'. al a timl' '' hen ... thc ril h f..ne11 o11h 1on lll'il he m r:~agecl ancl ho11 Oll' I'IIOJkl'll \\'l' l'l' thc rnr.tl poor. l'ICil tho'l' in reg-ular l'lllplolllH'Ill. c'I9Ro: 1:r\ 1

lt is ideolog'ica l nol bt'l.llht' it i' in '<llllt' wa1 ftf,e hut htc:Hto;< Cotbl,lhk i' .1hk .11 once 10 depict .nld u nual tltt .t< tu.lli 11 of' nn-.tl life (19~0: J.)(i ). Th i~ po ,itill'Il'll of tht toll llll'-'ick i, -till nn nwch 11 ith th. L'l<:n thmtg-h lhl' 'oti.tl
relations of nn.ll lilt- h aH cltangl'cl 'onlt'ldtal 'incc thL' carh ninL'tten th n'll ltll'\'. Otht'l ex :u npl e~. 1 h i~ tinll' lllOi l' conttnpora tT o n e'. ~ho1, ho1, snch rcprc~etllil!ion' an ahonr gc nde r a nd poli1ics a'
ll't'li a~

cla".

Gender, nature and the rural

A se ries adi'CI' I ~l' lll l' lll ~ 1\'l' l'l' lllll ill .\ llll'l'can Coad /-l(il t ic'lil'i'fiill,l!,' mag-a.dn c.: ill 111 (' carl)' 1!I!'Hh i 11 m clt-r to a lll'a c t acll'l' ,., ..,i ng . One dcpi c ts a 11'h ite. 111 iclcl lt-c la" ll'ol1la 11
COillCllliO be ' al hcnne' in th l' W lllll n ' ll'i lfl hn ralllil\' (scc Fi!-{li i'C 1.8) . Th h itnage 1\'<IS actomp:111icd hy IL'Xlll'h ic h ninf't'CL'd its 111L'.'>sages: 'Sh e swned a l'l'l'o lntion 1\'lh ~t lllH' 110 1 1cry rcm ln t ionan i<k-a ls. Sh t 11a.., ..,earching lor something tu bC'Iit,e in and look 1rhat she found. ller J1ll,b:111cl. ill'r c hi ldre n. lw rst ll' (quotecl in Lcslie. 1 9~1:\). D.. \ . Lcslic ( 1 ~1!):1 ) arg u<s that. in p:111. th c~e image~ n eed 10 bt intnprt ted in IL'l'lll ~ ol' da" a nd sh c ~i l lli1H' '- th t'lll II'lh in the :1rgum e nts abo nt h o 11 ' tht 11L'II' seiYC<.' clas~ ha' tried 10 appropriat l' lht ro nn t'Cll'd cu lt ure~ of 1hc co un1 r~s icl e and of hcri1age aml1raclition in both Bri1ain and .\ narira in orckr tu create a 1iable h ege m o ny (p. 106) ( lo ddim them~eil'e<; ih l eader~. 10 crtatt' :tlli a nn\. a nd 10 media te economit rhangl'). \'t t lht'"l' images cannot bt und<.t 'tood witho111 inlerpre ling them in tcrm~ of gt'IHkr (atHI i1 nHtSl al~o be saiclth;n BarrcJJ', rt.tcling of Thc 1/ay-ll(tin h ould con .. idcr the tna~ntlinitl of th e \\'Orker~ cllpiued :.. tht '!Okt n.., of induqp/). Lcslic arguco;, that 11hat \\l' ate ~eeing is an allempt 10 rcassocia1c II'Omcn ancl domesti c i11 duough lht <kplm m<.'tll o l 1hc po~i1in m ea ning.s as,orialcd 11'ith n a tll l'l' ancl rmali1~. Thi~ is 'tL' II to lw pan ola reconlining ofwomcn lotht honte a-; part olthl crea1io n ol' a fk"ihk ftma ll' la h our f'o rct. l'h is mean~ maki ng lll'll' id e n 1i1it, le)1' II'OIIIt'll ll'hi r h are ba~l'd in hon~t :111CI l:nuih : In all cll' thl''(' :ldl't' l l'l'llh'lll'. llillllll' .., llOl 1'\.'IY la r <1\l'a\. Fall lean' large II'ilciCIII> lookiug CI Htclc 1or,. 11 \011'('1 '.' lcll'l'M I('II'. appk~. ila1. a u el l'ann ilcHI,es >ig n i1 \ tlw 1it> betii'L'l'll ll .lllll'l' an d l~'lllill in ill . T ll t hnuses , (Hll\' 11 arl' o ld Cll' d ecor:llccl i11 a tradil ion:tl ~ ~~k ... . Thl' ll' llll'll lo tr:tdi tion. an .tnti -nrban ~e ntilll L' Ill . clca rly a~'or i a l l' ' \I'CIIIH'II ll'illi 11<111111' :111d l'llt:llitl', (f.e, Ji l'. 1 \1!1:~ : i O~) Y e 1 llO II t' of' tlwse n\t' :lllin ~s an li xtcl .. \, ll't' turn o ur cri ti ca ! a ltc nti un lo tlll'Sl' imag<'s we han 10 t'('Co g nisl' th c ro ll' ol th( 'sptttar or or readc r (lnd nur abi lill' 10 t'I'L'Oi lt' dilferc n 1 in tc rp l't t:ll ion~. a h l'ma t il'l' idtnlog-il'' o r r otllll(' r h l'gl'mon i e~. l)if f'l'l'('lll l'icll'er' e11 readt, 1,1 111 art d i ll l'rl' nlh l)(l'i lionl'ci 11 ill pn11 id e di ITL'l'l'lll i nterprl'tal icllh Of' SUCh illl;tg'l'' COIIIbi nillg cfilfi..nn1 lll,llii'C:i of' ~COI'Il. 'Cl'ptici,lll, IH h l,ilg ia. l'll\Y :1 11d othcr rc<,po n,t~ .

or

Figure 4.4 The Hoy-Wain (1820-1 ) by john Constable. (Source: reproduced by courtesy 0 the Trustees, The National Gallery, london.)

tiH' icll'a ofa

r ~uo thrs allal~ "'' ., hl' pai 11ti ng i~ orga ni,td ,o th ar 1\'l' ' l'<' lfH fa ncf, apt a ncl IH H th~ ~l).(lll'l'' 01tr t'l't'' are dral,'ll lo 1i1cr. trcl's :mcl ~b. T IH h;llm. 1 ktr~ in tiH d i~ta n n: are 1"'' blob~ ol 1\'h i 1<' pa i111. h a nl to m a k< o u1 tnn 1lw ng lt lh t'l' ;ut li lt' brig h lt''l lh 11 g~ 011 11 ~ l' Clll 1as. l 11 lill' .foreg rottll d thl' 1\'ago n dri\e h;, h is back 10 us :IIHI t lw a ngk r i~ half h1d (.k :" l ll. ~~gt f:lllon : 'Th c hmdscapL' is .~ till . 111 imagt of',t :lhi l i t ~. nf p t 1 111 ;111 L ' Il('t': th e ~ a i>tl 11 ~ ~1 Ell~ltsh agrin " lllrt' ~l'l'lllS lo p :ll'l a ke or 1he Jl{' l'lll :lll l' ll ('t' nJ' nal ll l't' ill th is '. '~la?~ '.''. In;.; una n1 ~~~:ad1111'ia nd ( 1 9~0: 1 ~9). T IH ll'orki n g 1igmv.~ s 11 ppon 1h i' idtil of ~l.tbilill .11 1d. on le r. 1 h ey are lwrk t'I'S anrl n o llllll'l'. ' tok t ns o l ;1 calill , cn<lk~' an d

bl' an ol<f-,tl lt Ton puliric~ 1\'hich ptT,ent~ agrirulrure 01 , thl' root of 1\'taltlt bttt <i<' tl. f f f . . . . , ICS t H' a >our~t ~ pan 111 n: ':\o paillll'r olli: rs 11'> a more eh iJi,ecllancl,r.tp<. litan Cothtablt. bttt thl' t~t\lenn of tite llt<'ll 1\'lto han~ ci1 ili~tcl it ha, lilt' the mo~t ,. 111 10 lw inlc:rred 1 lron1 thl' nnagt ol '' hat rlttir tffon ha, ach il'\ld ( 1()~() 1'\ '') 11 1101. 11111 11~ n eat 1 . . . _ ' . 1

1\t'il-oraani~td socict1 ( J!)l{() 1 '\'~) TJ .. 1 k 'clcolom. (J> "1) .11 "' ' ' ' ' ::JI n 1\'01 . 1'- '-l't'll lO

na~e 111 bt llldi1iduals and btcomt 'g<'n cra l fi g url',, ~1111bol' and token~ o.f h1111~;u~ i 1 1 . 'ol~j<'Ch nl'co iollr'. fn cJeecJ !he~ h:ll'l' (O l)(' l'l'Jll'l''l'll ll'( in tfli l,l\,1\ . . \m J'uJicr d<pl<. 11 0 11 : a~~ bl'i ng-ing- lh t' nt furth l' r nnd cr 1hc gatL' ol'th(' 1 i<'l\'t'l'. 1mn ld 1101 be ab lc 10 ~ll'-tall l ''." ' tdto log-ical portr:11-al o l con ten tt'd 1\'orf.. in :1 tilllt' cf d:1~s cc11 dti n. BatTtll
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:111on ~ mom m clits l.r~ ( HIHO: 1 -~H ) 1\'hi c h i~ 1he ir natm:tl ~ l:ne . Rtp 1 c,, t'lll t<l in thi .-.

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lo 11 .~ ..

152

lntroducing Cultura l Studies

Topograp hies o f cultu re: geog ra ph y, power and rep resen lation

153

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1111

Challenging the rural idy/1

This abil i 11 lo Cl l':l lt' a lltm;Hin rt,>< lo l h a lleng t ickol ogit' 11 l h ot h l'l' ick ;h .m el cons1ruc1 a llt rn.tli~t hq{t'll\llllt' ' - llll-.111' al o;o loo kin~ .ll im .t~l'' ol lh t n lllllll'\ ,ick 10 thal presenl olht 't'l , oth of l. Tht'lt' .1n .1 "hok ...l'rit''> of 'alttTna l lt' 'n ... io n' o f lllt' conntry,idt 11h irh .lit' a ...... o<i.llt' d \\ilh tht 'ahernatiiT. lik-,tdt' of ll';lldltl'. lt' J>Ct dwellc r' ;md tmi ro ntllt' lll :t l p ro lt''lt' l'. amnn g o 1h er~. That th n t CO illl' 111o tonfli u 11; 111 nlo rt' comt'lll o n ;tl ckpic lOII\ o f ' lhl' nu~tl id\'11' is illrlI'aterl in l'l'SJlOII'<..,Iikt llt;ll giren by ~ IP judil11 Ch.1plin in 1'.1rlia nwn1 in 1\l~t~ durin g a dehatl' on thl' Ca r,l\ :tll Si1n (Amendmcnl ) Bill: Peoplt> are \1'01 1it'cl . btt:tll\l' l;ll'~l' l number' .u e ;u-ri,ing. \t'llling lw lo ll ~t' l pe iwJ, and doin).\ immt' ll~l' d.t111a)4l'. Thr lw :mlil'ul llunge rlc11d cnmmon ... h.h ht,n th sccnt' of ).(l'l';ll clil'licnll it-,.... ThiT<' l'c;u~ ago. a largc comn) or lr:ll<ll tr, \lO I)JWd on thr commo n aiHI r au,td grca t di,u.-~~ 111 th c inhabilant~ o J' llw lu\1'11 . ' 1 hty thtn ll't'l1 1 inw dlt' toiiTI, llllll\' ol' th t n 'l l'allgd) dres~c d. and in tu , J w p~ . ll'lwrc th l'l ollcndcd 1he lue<1l peo pk. (quutcd i11 1 lalfau'l'c. 1 ~1\)(j: ti:~-.J) Such ddt'll(t'S ora parli<'ll lar wrsion or th t' lO ttllli'\'S clc kaw lh t S(Jr<dkd ~l'\1 Ag'l' 1raw: llt::r ' solllewh al ' out ol plan. T htn are, holl'<'\'t' r , clif'fe re nt \'t r~ion s o f' tllt n1ral which s<Tk 10 bt: III OI'l' indt1sin. Fo r cxamplc. 1he 'Th t I.and $ Our~ Cllnpaig n i11 Brilain - condtt n td 1hro11gh tlst of' th e m edia a11d the l nl e n H'l- COtnlJints t'II\' I'o n111enlal po liti c~ wi tl1 no1ions o l 'oc ia l inclusion and comm u n it~ own er,hip 10 'ug-gtst a diiTerenl fttllll'l' lo r llll' COlllll i')Sidc basccl around social h ou,ing . organ ic slllallholdings ami 1ig ht\ ni aCCt ''' to u n c uhivatcd lancl. l nclt:c cl. this ch alle n g ing o[ 11le English '1ural id\'1 1' on 1he ba'i' o f thc inclu~ions a m i e xclmiom that l ~l'l:. Olll "hik represe111ing thc cotnlln,idc '" :\11 are na of h a rmon\' and tranquillill ha~ a l<.o b <.' <.'tl a fenure of th<. \\'OI'k of .ul ~ I\ llll'n:slrd in th e c ultural poli tic o f ract i11 Britain. Fm cxample. th c pho togntph tr lng ricl Po llard aims to c hallcng t directh' idt:ologi<. , o f ruralit~ n a turc: a ncl Eng lishncss wh ich unpro blcmaticalh define thL'IIl as 11hi1e . ~h e secks 10 m a kt rtprt' ' t' lll<ttio n<> thal 11ill disn1p1 any cas\ a~~lltnp1io11s 1h a1 lht COlllllr\' side ancl il' ' lraditi o n<>' .ta onlv p ;u1 o f" hiH' Engli,hne,s. This is aho u t ckwlopi 11g .111 awarenc:ss o f h1n1 ideas or n 1ral i1,. and ll<lltll'e, u f Englancl ' ' gret'll a11cl plea~a n1 land. cannot be sepa n11ecl rrom lll t' exc lttsinn<ll' a ncl ,iulcnt practiccs ni prtsenl raLi ~m a n cl past sla1 cry. He lt'Pi l''l'l1l < HicH1' o ll t' r a clircct political c h a lk n ge 10 th e icl<ological aSS11111plOI1S lha l le bt'llt':tlh llll' ~tll'f:lCl' of' hegem o ni c rc prc se ntatio n s nf 1lw l:ngJi<;h cottnlryside (~ce Kin sman. 1~1\1:1, ancl Ci lrm-, 199 ~a).

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t U\ \\tlfU,\11 \\f tH'"I \ ,tlth ''~>, tft l't t lnll ll lt,t dl tlt !l', fJ,, tlJ,!Iitl. PI hh 1h h,h t hu"\'1 l" lh l'l. lllh~tlimllllt~ J \' \ l J\thi i H.;I h. ll (,llol\l l hlll .. !.' ~l \ 'J' III).!h.t.. .,l l H I\.I tH l lh \ ._llth .. "'lhl,. ~~ 1\I!U II h'i l

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4.3.3

1The country and the city

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Figure 4.5 Gender and rurality: the new traditionalisl. (Source: Good Hoosekeeping, The Hearst Corporation.)

Yct images o fliHt'<HIIHr~sick ca11ttol bC' cn nsidcrc cl a lo nc. h , impunanttn uncle rstancl lha l th ey :ll'l' g in11 nwa 1111g IHl l on l ~ b~ o lher imagcs o f' th c co u1Hnside (ancl tll t'rL' arl negatin~ one.' 1\hidt 1 \'l' lt<ll'l' no l rea ll ~ clcah 11ith here : set \\'illiams . 1\l:{a) . b111 b~ images o f lh t city. \\'t ne c cl to 1hin k about them togctlwr. Co11,1abk\ rura llands capl'' wcr<. bl'ing- producecl at lltt' 'ame time a~ ,,orrics wcrc IJtin!-{ txprtssed Ol'l'l' t h t 11<.'11' ind u~lrial aiHI commerc ial c ilil',, .mcll.eslil' notes thatlht nmtlit1 ofn<.'O lntclilioll.tli,lll i'

154

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Topographies of culture: geography, power and representation

155

a l'o a 11 ;n11i-1 u b:nli,1n . Equalh. thc posll1\'l' undtr,ta1Hiiug ni' llw t itl' (:1' txri tement c hangt. a non ~n 1 ill' :tnd progrt,~) dt>pend 11ponnq;ati1'l' imagt, o ltl tt co11nt rl (a, Ma icl: bw ing. hiclebntu1cl. deferential ancl bark11ard). In 11 1 1'11. th e iruagt, ol .1111' onc ci t1 are tcpr.tlh com plcx a ud co nu:tdiuorY and ca n lw ~l'l'll to undtr piu rm.tning' that can be itllt't pttted in tt't tm of pcm er. T h t ex a m plt> 1h.ll 11e '' .tlll 10 t:-.plort hett' i, l .os .-\ngdes.

co'(Jora ti o n s) ;1rc il'adi ng to l'l'l'l' dif'll:rcnl n u lco mts. On tlll' ont h:1nd . t iH:I't' .., tlt t roduction o( maJI.., and pla!ih dclotl'd w con,picuo us con sumption ami onn di:-pl:t1'

~f lhe po11er o f l'api t al. On 1he ot ht'l' haud. tlr is pril-;u io;ation ' of puhlir 'IJ.I<'t' Ita' 111<':111 t thal certain a<'lilitiL'' in .111cl inltahitant' ol thtse 'Pact s- likt L\', 1':1'1 ltorn t'lt''
tlw cit~ anrlllw li~t, that :ut li~td 11ithin them. Jt babo imp011a n 1 to 'lit'" 1hatthi' mean' that it

population. fot t:-..uuplc- are rt''t.ic t ~d arn_s~. t~ > and t'l't'~1 'clt,igt.ll'cl out' o l ~lll''l' space-.. The conu.tdir tiou' o l ~tnhiHm' ancl :--:mr are th ert m ma tet ta l gtow.tphtL'' ol
i~ nmtlw ca,tl hal llt'CIIl 'otndw11 Jick whic h i'> the 'tol'l'l'rt' It'll ol Lm .\ngelcs (a nd. some miRht 'al. lhe hlltlll' ni ot h e 1 lnsteacl 11 e llHI'I re.1l i'c a 1e both 1isionsofthe :-ame cit1 whith ran td l abo1111hc l'ulll l l' l'rom dill'cn. nt ang-Jcs. People will be li1ing on the '>lree l~ and h ing on 115 th e btarh. Jndeecl, 'omc co mmcntatnr' ha1L u scd th e m u !tiple ;md cnnlraclictcll\ ' II'Orlds pn:scnt in Lcs . \n gelc:s and ih rcprc,ental ions (and thc 11m arl' bl' no m ea n ~ l':t '~ 111 di scon n ecl) ltl ~ u gge~l 1hat 1.:\ is llw tt ltimatc pmunodc rn ci ty . David ll ar1er ( 1\1!10 J. i11 biS in ll11l" IHia J ;lll ;1Jy,is o(' th t Cll it ura l <lllcl CCOI10111C rc (al io n ;;ltips o(' J>OSilllOd e l'lliSnt

4.3.4

Cultural images of the urban: imagining Los Angeles

l'he r i11. a' ha~ bctn ,aid abon. ca n be 'l'<'tl ;, po,itiw ot ntgatilt'. ~d onme . hoth h.tppen al lht \(/11/t' timr a' dill'erent peopk inttt pre t in clilh-nrll 11a1s th c social ' II'IICllliL'S and c ultural rhange' indicaled bl' llt t 'h il't ing 111 ban ~Cl' l1 t'. lndeed. :11 cenain lim es ce r rain ci ti e~ btcomc the piares pcoplt go to loo k :n 11h a t tlw future mi ~ht be li kt. L' n snrpri ~in gl~ a ltl wugh th ey are Joo kin g in lht san w pbn. tht'l' 1111(1 qui te dil1 vn nt things. \\'hat II'<IS trllt' of .\lan dre~ l t'l' in thc IHl!b. C: hi cago in 1hc 1 ! 1~0 ' and :--;l'll' \'nrk in 1\1-10;, h as lwen lrue or Lo' .-\ngcks in llw Hl!lOs. ,\ s it~ (qrenw;;t nil 1ura l l'lillllll l'll l.II OI' ~~;;, 'the nl limale \\'OI'Id-hi ~ tol' i l':t l signi licil11((' - a r1d oddill' - orLos

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thatthe~e

(p. -100). prmidt,, nn illl t'l'p rc la tinn o ( lil e film I-Jiruh f1111111r'l'll'hi d1 rcprt''l' l ll~ ilt t Los loclay's urban form ... txtrapohlttcl in lo !he fll ltlfe . .-\1 ~ ll'l't' l kl'l J !h e C i t ~ i .~ ';1 cJec re pil Jambcape of dcincluqria (i,:llOII :t lld J>OSlindUSll'ia) dcca1 ( 1~19 0 : :l l 0 ). lt is a tni ~ h -mash nf languagt:s. c u l ture~. and h ig iHl'C' h ;111d low-tcc h 0 11 a . drippin~. din1 ,' lrtt tsca pc ll'htr(' 't ite d1aos ol' ~>ig-ns. of ('OII liH' ting sig nili c: ui o m ancl nle~~agt ' <.ugg-c~t' a co ndi1ion o f f'ragm en taliun a nd unccr rain t1 ( 1990: :1 11 ). 1 lo\l't'l't'l, lht'IT i~ a notlw r world ll'ithin th e ci t1 too lwrauw abow lhl ~n 11 t'~ of ~llt'l'l-kl'd an d imttior ch.lll' .llld dee<ll, 1hnt -.o;u ~ a lt ig h-ll't h "otld ol' tonming ll.tn~potll'l''. o l ach-<ni;;ing .... of J:tmiliar im.tgt~ o l t c11 pm;llt' pmn..- ( P.m .\m. '-lllpri~oing!l ~til l in h1"ill''' in ~0 1 9). Cora-Col.t. Buclllti,tr.l'IC .. and th c ma,~iH P' r;uniclal building ol the '1nell Coq>or;uion thal domin.lll'' nnt p.ut ul th e C!I '. ( 1990: :H fl) Haney read\ lht lll'o cit~scapt'' togc ther as a represe ntation ol' lhe co ntradi c tion' o l pos1modem i'm .md h i<. 1cading h<h many !>im ilarities ll'ilh l~dll'ard Soj.t'' illlerpre talions llll' L M \ ci t"ca p e ll' h ich o;uggcs t that complcld)' nl'\\' gTograp hie~ - Snja ca lis 1he m po~lmodern too - ;trl' bcing fo rml'd in Lo' .-\ngeln. So ja , a n ah ~i' is a co mplicalcd onc. bu1 it rclits u p o n shm,ing bo1h tht 11ays in 11h ir h 'i mage' a ncl 'n:1lit1'' collapse in Los .\n gdt., :mcltlw mnlti> licil~ of contradinon ' worJd, 1i 1at txis t in 1ha 1 ciL~ (S<~ja . 1~196 ). CotH't'lltra ting o n 1hc c it l''s cco n om~ h e no1cs th a t:
An~el es o r 20 19. l it- reacl' it as a l'i'ion

.\ng-elt:.'> , 1h a l l h < 1 S co nH: lo p la~ 1lte cl ouble ro k ol' UIC) JJ: l

r:1pi1 ;1iism' ( Dal'i.~. 1U90: 1H) .

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dNopia l'o r adl'an ced

or

Dal'is ( 1q~10 ) th in ks a hout th is i 11 lcnn~ uf' co111 p t ti n ~ lltHil-rstancl i n ~s of Los . \n gelcs: 'S un shine ancl':-\oir'. Tlw liro;t isa C0111binatio11 ol bon~tcr i'1 drt<ll1b ni 11rhantcon u nti c g' I'OI\'lh a nd tit e L \ m yth o f 'un . St'X a ll{l ,, ucn" Thi' i~ Lh l .\u wrican Dn:am ol (' tcrnal J>I'CI'-IH'I'i ll .111d all its trappiugs. \\'e ca n " t'l' 1hi~ in kt) boo'll'rist dncunH'tlls su c h as th e L 1 20fJ{) re pon ll'hic h proclai 1 11 ~ that Lo~ .-\ngl'ie~ 11'i11 bt Tl l E ri 11 ol tlll' 2 1st C:e 1lllll'l-'. \\'e ta n 'ce it in tht op1imism of thc micldk-clas:-.. ,,h itt. \ ngl'icno' tha t Da1 id Ridr rnc~1s 011 h i, tr;ll'tl, round L \ ( Riefr. 199~). \ \ 't' ca n sn it in L \ , ntlnn a l proclucts on lil m ami 1 \ ': in /Ja_\li'Oith and Bn rrlt') //i//1 902/0. \\'e can 't't' it in thc tll'll huilt e lllirorunent of l)m, 111011'11 \~la'~ ~1" 'crape1s and unb<:lic1~1b l~ rk h l~ c tHiml'cd lll11WIIllls a n cl galkrie~. lt 'hou ld aho hl' dcar thatthis ,-~ion oft hc futun ,da". ran ancl gt' IHkr 'pecifir inmam 11'a1s. re!l i n g a.; il do es on weah h~. whi1e. m ale ddln it ion' ,ucn~s. :--;oir' (namcd alter a stylt of bleak L-\-prodlllnl film~ and nml'ls) paints a rather d ilftn11t p ictlll't' of th c ~a nw ~cene . Tlw h unt for ll'ta lt h bcrulllt'' :1 ,)alioli'. parasitic en 1cT>rist 1( ,r 1ht poi i1icalll' and nw ra lh- cotTI1J>l :1ncl 1.. \ i>t'('Oint' ' < 111 au to nH ll iiT wa,l('l:nHI .... a 'mog-,ml'ared. lo h o lom iscd uni1c 1~t ol lasl fnocl . ~ tHil ess car tri p ..., a mi nirllla<J.., of hoth g tndc rs .. : (Riclf. 1 ~19~: l!l). TIH .\m erica n Drt'<Hll bccom es a nig h1111:tl 't' ami J.o, .\n gt'lcs is tiH' p lace l\'h l'l'l' Am c r ir:11l -'ll!'l'll' i... ' JX'C ll C II) arl~ r;dling apa n a long ib c la.~.s a nd race diddt' Thi' , tlw l a n chcap~ o!' c ul111 ra l prod 11t'h \llC h as lh t: nmel / .1.n Thrn Zrm. rht: li lm Cmnd (.'rlll_riiJI ;u1tl :--! \\'.\ ', a ll ll ll11 Str11ight Out/a C:rwtjlfrHI . lt , a lso th e l andsct~pt rq)l't~c Hecl in th t l'iclco o f lh t 1.-\J>D lw: uin g Rodney Ki 1 1g' allCI tltt llltdia ('l)l'l' l'<lg'l' or tlH' l'llSUing 1ioh. ,\g;lin it i~> a l'i~ i on , hapl'd hl' l'<ll'l'. r Ja,~ :u1d gt rHkr in eomplt:x 11<1~s.

or

or

l1l' can find in Lo~ ,\11!-(t'il"' 11111 on ly rh c hi g-lltcc hnol ng" indmtrial romp lext'' ol ti1l' Sil ic:on \';1ill'l an<l lill' t'1 '1':11C' Sllllhell l'('OilOll\1' nr Ho11SIOII. IH1l a lso lhl' t:u-reac ltil1g industria l d ;rli lit' :111d han 1-.rupt urban neig.ltbourltoo ds o( rus L -bcltccl Dt uoi 1 o 1 Cll'\e hutd. n 1l'l't' i ~ ; Be IS [ ()Il in Los :\ng-l'les, a LOII'l.'l' .\lat1 h <1ll~lll :111d :1 Sell1ll1 Bt e)l) S. ; S;'io Paul< ;1nd a Sing-apnrl'. (Se!ja. 1mm: l ~t:l) Thi' ci1y- ll'htn. a~ S<!ia arg 11t'S. ' it a ll comes togc thcr' - is i mpo,~ ibk to rtprt''l' tH as c ilher 'S un,hir w' 0 1 :--;oir'. Ir ah,a~~ bri n g-s with itl h (' co n1radict io n s o l lht ci 11 nnd o l pos tm ode mi<.m. 1itJIIL'I't' l'. it i:-. ah,m, po"ib le 10 ask qut'Slion.., about tar lt rq>n'M'Illalion allCI 10 uncltr,la n cl th e ll'a\'' in ,,hi c h 1hc1 pn:, e nt th t ci t, in a par ti rllhu li~ht.

11 , i111J>OI'ta tH Lo ... tre '" th a t tht T C<l 11trad iction~ :1rt tllH , ju ~t a m a 11 c r o f rcpresentali<Hl,, D.11'i,, hrilli:unh ;.IHn,, holl' th e sa m c e-i n u ll'c t s n..-, dill'tnrH expl'l itn n , a ncllife 1.11 l ht Jli'O('t'SSl'' or tite r lta tl( l'' 1()1' tltli~L' 1iling wit lt in it. For ex; unp le. he ~111m' 11 procluct ion ol p11blic ~pan ll'ithi n L -\ b~ prilatc t'lllerpriw' ( of lt'll llllge t ran ... n at ional

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Key injluence 4.1

David Harvey (1935- )

lntert,ting-h. \lil..c D,\\i~ argul'' 1ha1 'ioj.1, rtpre'c'lllaliot" ol ll~c ' .i11 IIHm,dH' .,,,, 1\'ilhin tht l'Oil\TIIliOil' or rt'f)ll'\l'lll ill" ~m " L \ ;h l' lldh"h l.b e 111.11111 ~ .11111 appal ling. and npc-ri.dh ,1, tlw ci11 1\'herc lit e 1111111 e t.lll be '>l'e ' ll .

David Harvey is a Marxist (p. 97) geographer who has, in various ways, written studies of lhe historical geography of capitalism. He has worked in universities in Britain and the United States of America. From 1987 to 1993 he was Halford Mackinder Professor of Geography at Oxford University; he is now Professor of Geography at Johns Hopklns Unlversity in Baltimore. Harvey's early training was in historical geography. He then wrote a major work on spatial science, Explana/ion in Ge09raphy (1969). However, his ideas underwent a dramatic shift with Social justice and lhe City (1973) which claimed that problems of urban inequality could only be understood and solved with tre tools of Marxist historical materialism. This commilment to understanding the social and spatial inequalities produced by capitalism - what is called 'uneven developmenl' - at all scales from the ghetto to the global inequalities of 'First' and 'Third' worlds led Harvey into an attempt to rethlnk the theoretical framework that Karl Marx (p. 97) had set out so that jt could deal with these questions of geography. This was published as The Limils lo Capital (1982). Many of the ideas that were set out in this book In rather abstract terms were further explored in relalion to nineteenth-century Pars in The Urbanisation of Capital (1985) and Consciousness and the Urban Experience (1985). This combined studies of the political economy of urbanisation with discussions of cuJture, consciousness and politics. He argued that they could be connected together through the experience of the new forms of space and time which capitalist urbanisation brought, particularly the continua! transformation - or 1creative destruction' - of the city as capital sought to realise profit (hrough cydes of investment in t~e built environment. The same 'loglc' underpins liafvey's best-known work, The Condilfon of Postmodernity (1990). Here he argues that the cultural e~periene of postmodernity {p. 400) is a resuJt of new forms of economic organisation,' for whi.ch he uses the term 'postfordism'. The' increasing speed of change, llow and circulatior - particularly of lmages and cultural goods - which has been labelled postmodernism is, he argues, the result of new ways of realisjng increased profits within capitalism. His latest work has returned explici!IY to questions of social justice, lhis time in relation to nature and the environment. David Harvey had been criticised for presenting a version of cultural change whicp argues that it is determined by economic change. However, in dolng so he has provided an influential Marxist interpretation of postmodernism which counters 'postmodern' clairns for the primacy of the culturat He has also brought attention to questions of space and the city wjthin cultural studles.

4.3.5 1 Conclusions
\\'IJjk 1 hi ~ \l'l lioll has 1101 ht'l'll :111 l':-: h:llhlill Sll iYe'\ p ' lhL l"l'i lllll c'>;'> ., II Oii !lll\ tJ I icleolog}' (p. M IJ and hegemon)' (p. 1011 ) 1o un rkr;;tanding li ll' lll\11111\ .u.~rllllt' ci tl in lt'l'lll' ol gtoglapll\. 1eprL'M'Il la lion and poll'n. 1\l' can clr.tw 'olllL' t IIH lll,lllll'. lt 'l'l'lll' ckar 1h:t1 alll' "'l'' ol idl.'olog' and ltegc'lltom till all!:tnpl ID li111i1 1hvn 10 tite pcmr rd:nion'- ol cl.t" 1\'illn ot unclc-r,tand lhe t ,tllg'L' ol cmttc'tl'cllll\',lllillg' 1h.11 .1n i111ol~td 11 n:pl'l''l'llling- 1he ,,orld. T lw c:o...llnplc, hcIT han ,flm, 11 1h.11 el.l"c'cl . 11\l',lllill~' ol collnll'\ .111cl ti 11 C:tll iHil be 'l.'pal alt'cl l'r0111 dto~c lil'clto t.tu :11ul gcndc1. 1flj, h,,, ll11 t'\' implicalic lll,. The lir~l i~ IWllle ah';"' nc't'd leo 1hinl.. ahutll 11Hd11pk iclc IJiilic, .11ulliw 11m~ in 11hi ch 1hc1 .ll'l' rcl.lll'cl. The iL' :uc an iuliuilt' ll1111ilw1 ni' Jl"'ilio>ll ~ fi'OJII 11hic h re~rt~t'lll :ll io n., can bl' madl'. \h llt't'd lo ll1i11k abou t ideolngie ' in 1hv plt11 .d iu,tea~ l.''' 11, 11 g lo ,judgc tht tn as ' lrliL: ur ' l:il.w'. \\'e a lso ncccl lo tlnnk .dhlll l llt t ecllnple:o..l llc'S tl;m 1hi' i111rodun~ intu alll'lllf>l' a l c:~labli,hing hq.(l'lllo nic llll':JIIi llg, . \ uc:l.'d Lo nIIH'IlliWr li1a1 1hl'r<' ,_. :tlw;11, ht ai iL'I'Il:llI'l'' 1hat arl' lwi11g ,llltu l.lled. l'hl' .;econcl impliration , 1h.ll llti' ntan' 1h:ll lill'l'l' an lllllltipk 1lll':JIIing' lw clllilit, like tltt COIIIIII'I aud 1he d11 (aiiCI li11 p:utitlll:u plan,. \\'t 11111..,1 lllHitl 'land hco1' icl.oolo~iL' ' shift :mcl t h.mge a11d tH>l :t"lllltt thal lhl'l' .tl'l' lixed. \\'e al"' mtd In tutdct ,,,mcl ho11 thl'l' art bl'i ng dcplmed wi1hin .uul hvl\\cTII hq{cmon il hlot'. linalh . tftt,l' ll1l'<llling' an r onl t''lt'd. \\'l' ~~~~~~~ thiul.. .tl>olll ick.,Jogil's ami htge'III<JIIic, " l'll~.lgcd i11 a co n ~1a111 '11:11 ol manoem re 1\'Wt e llw OIHronH i ~ lll'l'tT ctrtain . Thu ~. takin!-\' up thesc idc' ;t~ oi' gt'llg r:qJII\. rl'prnc:nt:llioll .uHI Jl"" tr thrnu ~h thc 110tions 11l irkolu<>'\ ' a nd heg'l.'illl >lll l1 a~ ll'd L o a co111plt-x 1111Cic1~ l a ndi11g ol Iil' conttstatioll ni' the"';ncanings ~, thc r ollllll'l :md thl' ci t~ . h ha.; aJ,o rai~td the que~t ion of Ill' rt'i:Hioll.'- hip bClll't'Cll till' 1\ll':lllillg'' :\llat hcd 10 pla ce~. 'f).lt'l'' .lllclialld'caJl'S and is~u c, o( idcntity ( p.~~ 1) (' l't' ""' L' I'I Y. l!1 9:i. and .\l atk". l!l\l."1h ). 1 hL''L' lht'llll' ~ .u e COIHilllle'< i11 lhl' IH'Xl 'l'Ction whitli ('011\iCit'r' lht-,t C'OIIIIl'l Ioll' IIHIIL' CJo,L\.

4.4
4.4.1

Culture and national identity

Nations, national identity and territoriality

Further readi.ng

Harvey, D. (1982) The Umits lo Copitol, Oxford: B asil Blackwell. Harvey, D. (1988) The Urban bperience, Oxford: B asil Blackwell. Harvey, D. (1990) The Condition of Postmodernity, Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

Onc ol' lht kt'\' concerns oJ' cullul':tl 'tudies i~ th l' nu1io11 ol idcntity (p. '2'2 1). ll o1' do peoplt llllclt'l',.;t:llld \,fl o thc1 al't' :111d holl' do tltcl' diJ'krc ntialc' lh l' lll ~l'ill'' II'CII\1 < )tlwr< Thi~ i~ abo a m :llln ol thl' wa' ' in 1dtit'h 1 )l'opk idcmih "ith pl.ltl'' nr :11 e idcnti fil'd with thtlll 1>1 olhcr..-. This mig-h 1 i111oln .1 11'11 'll'l'<'l'. a rq~io11 . h1gl.tncl. ' thc \\ c<l. or Alrica. One ol thc crucial diiiH'll'iolh ol idelllil' i~ 11alioual icle111il1 . llo\\ a11d "In do peopfe iden1ifl iltl'lll~dll'' <1'- IIH'illhel, u f di,lillct ll.ll ion,d colletii\lle'' ancl 1\h:tl olll' 1he implicailllh ol 1 h i~~ In n:11 iunali''" 1cl1a1 l' can 'l't' '' illl' f llltural rdalion-,hip

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bL'ti,Len tllc: i1Hii\'idual a 11 d til e rol ll'Ciil i11 ao; it i., tlll<kr,Lood lh roug ilterritori;tlit~. \\'~ p01 tion ol tlll' e.mh ,,u l~Kt' ora 'pcrilic l;,mcl,capC' 1ha1 i' cli,ickd off and ~il'<n panicul.u llll':tniug, 11 ith 11 hic h pcople ick-n tih. J\ationaJi,m , :t rl'lal inh 11Wdcrn 1hing .. \ltl11111g h natiom cl:~im n :n long- h istu ric:s , nt tching bad. into Jn~ tlt o l tlgicaiiJ<l'h . n:uio11 al idt' IIIL~ i11 j , 111ockrn f nn i' :t produc ol tht tightt't'lllh .tnd nint'ltTIHh ccn lttrie~. TheH i, a li1ch ckb.llt' m e thc ori~in;. 0 tht nottion .uul 1he n:Hiotbi:Hl' (i t' poli1ical f01 111) and ill(kL'cl there :11e prohabh clifftlt'nres lw i\I'LTll thtir f(ll'lll:tlinn in rlilfL'I'ent plat'l''- (~L't' Cookt. I ~IH9l. III ~ Lcad 1 rdtl':ll, ing tht't' clch:llt'S. liT \l':tll 1 L o g iH a I 'L'I'I gvneral t':-;pi.IIJ ;nio n of' thc ri'L' of n;llionali,n '' ilic h ttn<kT,t.uHI, it in lt'lll" of' ~t'ograp l11 and rullm:tl idemitl . Tili' i, 10 .u~ue 1ha1 pnntodern idtnlifk:tlion' 11i1h loc:tli11. tribC'. lamil~ or religion al'( ~hal lclt'd in a llltllkrn ll'tH id 11 hme llt'll 'ocial ancl n dtura l rel:11 ion' (cap i1:il i~111 , state lo t'lt1:11ion . g lol>:tl CCJilllllUnir :llion ) cli ~n 1 p1 botill lit ' lahk, loca l rd:lliotn :ltlcltilt global ickn tifica1ion' o( n:liginn. :\a1ional i ~m i' almut fincling .111 ahertt.uiw that i' i11 t1111c 1rith tht tnodertt wollcl in l,tritllh 1rms. lt i' .tbout 1umiding a tolkctil'ill that ha' ~o 1111 dllclillne ..., inlht new .'> itu:uion and 11hi1 lt ofTers sonwthing around 11hi ch )('oplc r; 111 huifcl tlie ir iclt'I11tk, ;l ttcl t i Hl~l' OJ' Olliti'' .\ Kt:y 1 1 '< 1\' nf' Ullclti''lattding this jo; throug-h l k ll t'dict .-\ndu ~ott'' ( l!l!ll) nmion oJ'nat ion.; ,,, 'inmgined cotnmunitics'.
~ce tllat il , a

;f

4.4.2

Nations as 'imagined communities'

of lhcir nat ion. Seconcl. th io; llH'il ll' 11ta1 11:11 ion,tli"n' :ttlCI 11aticmal ~el\' 111 it t'' arl' a ~~~ :11 ~ . , 111 uch on lht l''\l hl'-ion of IH'IlJ)IL' ll'ho clonot !it and tlw dra11 mg ol bound.u LL' ' , bu 1 1 a. . . tnn1nnmit, .tnclthL' ternlon\\'hL're thl'l canl11e tu~e tlwr . ) on lile 111,vnincrofa ~ l"'' L't Tlll' imag ining oi' tlti.s ron llll ltllit ~ is a colltr tu (or lnlt'l ' tl bectl\ cl Lllltural prOl'l'" is abuttl CIT<Hing tltt nation thrmtg h i1' t'L'pre~C'Ill~Hion 10 hotlt membt~r' .uJcl 11 c,. \\'1il in n u fiel io11' ancl his101 l'' p.tinti ng land,cape' ancl pon r.lll' .. m el QLIISl ' 1, 1h rotwh n . . . choreo~raphi 11g par:tcl<'' ancl et't tmonil',. lt i~ .tbmtt 1rying lo t<.~al~lt'h IIH' CXI,lL'll.r ol lhc colkrti\'IYb> dl'llning 11h ~IL nt:tkt'' it a com 1111111l1': i~o l a1ing nattcn~al c harartl'l'l'~'r'. dcfi ni ng Cl'lll'i:t[ hi ... tmical tlltlllll'lll ' or ~ig nifi tollll placl'~ (Jclt' r. ngit'l.li1C:'~ l~'l' 111.1 g i~1 think ul 'tht Bullclog hrc..ccl' or England c)l.ptt 1' ell'l'\ lll:tlt w ~lo ht' dut1 _ m th~' grcen all(\ pk:~:-ant lancl' ). :'\om o( 1hi ~ implit., that lht''l' mea11mg' l'i\~1 be: ft~t:cl (ti tllicrht be II.Sl'f'u[ w thin k o{ natiu n' '"' pn~ j ec t, ll'hich are 11 C\'l'l' lull ~ ;Killt.'ITd ). 1hc..rt ar: a[ll';,ns a ltC'rtliUI'l' accoun LS \1'h ich are bci 1 1 ~ gh'Cn. ~111cl ~~ 1ten a 1in i t tli'I'J >l'l'l:tl ir 111' beincr ma<k frnm diflttt'lll po,itio11'-. \\'e ~hall ,.._.e omc uf thl''l' bdtlll. l1 clOt'' mean. holl'~\lr. thal 1he comnHmitl i' a cull\11~11 tliW. Cuhll l'l' , 1101 som1hing aclckcl on 1 a1er: il cll'li n c~ n;11io1 1'. na1cmal idt'l11ilic' a11d tl'ITiiClrit' T lll' gtographic' ni lhi~ prm't'SS or l'tlll'li'IICIilg iht ' ilnaginL'cl ('lllll tllllllil~. uf a nation throug h a national cuhu'l'' can btlool..td at in 1110 ,,.,11~: fir,t. lhl' praclicalitit' of crcating a national culture' arro~s lht span of a Jlalitlll-,l:lle: wt oncl. 1he ro k ol lanclsril pe i11 f'nrgi ng and contt'Sli 11.{ na tio nal icknt il\'.

l:

.\ttcJvr,on ( fm tl ) ~tt~ out to unclt't'staud tiH' iniC'mt a nd clt'l'P pt'I''OI1al auach1nento; th:u n:uioth ~enna1t. \\'11\ , it tltat 'o mau1 pcople h.tl<' heen willin~ 1101 onh 10 kili btll lo dil' for Llll'ir ro nn1 ries~ 1 lti ,. lw aq~llt'' i<. l'~pl'ci. tll~ harrl to htlie1e, g-intt that 1he philo,oph ira l b:t~t'' oJ' tlll' na ti onalist argtl llll'll l.'> lor ,,hich plople go w 11:tr are so , J fl u,,. l11 p~11 t.lti.~o answtr is ahnuttht 11';11, in ll'lti ch nation;. oiTer a 'l'll e o( identill' and 'l't 111 it1 in 1he moclcrn II'C>tlcl lll repi.King- ll'i<ler .111cl 'wnicalh ot clerC'd rdigio u~ and dlna,lit f'orn t' of' 'ocial c>rgani,:nion ll'ith .1 11<:'11' 't'll'\l' uf tinw ( lilwar ' histon rallwr litan . 1 t'~T i ical Sl'th(' of' lilllt'} :t11<J a 111 '11' Sl'l1:"(' o f spn (tht II'Orld di\'icJeci i;HO ll'c [J. dtnJ:trc:Hcd ' ll' t't'itmies') 11'hich sltort: up ~O illl' ol'tltt in~tcuritit,., of' m ocleruit)' (p. -100). Tltt''l' rolll'Cl , it ieo;. and 1ht ,,.a,s o l ickn1 if1 i ng 11 ith 1he m. ~oltoulcl.. \nclt'Nlll ar~ut'!'>. bt uncltr,toocl a o i ma~i necl cont 111 1111 iti e!>. -1 h l'l' a re i lllflgi 111 , ht'Gllts< 1lw mtm h1'1'-<lf' CH' Il lltt '111 :t lll'sl 11.11 ion 11 i11 nc1 l'l' k 11 o11 1 110,1 o f 1llL'ir l(:llo\1'-lllt' miJ<'rs. lllt'l' 1tlwm . on,cn h t'il r oi' tll t'lll . l't'l i11 th c m indo; n[ t'iiCit [i,t, Lite imagt of'lh<'ircomnnlnion' ( 19~1 1 : ()), ft i~ n nh' in tl11 im,tginalion 1hat colkt ti1 itil':- at thi' 'cale rant:-; i,t. :\lonmet . in onkr to imaoin 1 " 11 11, nnmber of' l>t'opiC' ''a colk'Ctil it\' 'hat ing tl Hl~t <haracteriMic)> that an mo't f'undallll'll tal tu tl ll'ir idtnlitit' ntt:n, thal a lo 1 ha;. to bt forgou t n a lwu t i11 lt'l'llal social d il'i,io ns. In .o;IHHI. lhe~ ill'l' i111:tg ined "' flllillllllllili''l. 'bcntu~< rq.{ardlc'' oi' the aclllal intqualit\' and t''\ploitalion tlt:H m ;11 pt n ail in caclt . 1ltC' nation i' al11'<11s conniled a' a dt<p. horillmlal tomradl',hi) ( 199 1: 7}. 1his in llllll mean!' lhat 1lwsC' ~omnlltnitit ' are im.tg nC'd "' flftilf i l 'bt'<:llt'l' t'\'t'll the laq..('I'S l o( thcn1 ... h;" linit t', if e l:lstic. bou ndari t~. bc~o 1td ll'lti clt li t olhcr nation ~. i'\o nation imagilll'' ihC'lf' cotcrnli t1 0ll' wi1lt mankncl' ( 1~1!1 1 : 7). Thtt t' aH 111o poin ts hert. Fit 'l. 1hi' lllt'< llh 1hat natitHI' are idtnt ified \1'ith p:11tiutlar ten ito1 il' parhof tltt ll"llt'ld lhat.u-c nwa ningfnlto thtm as thc historical homt

Pefining COIW'fJI

4.3

Globalisation- hybridity

Globalsation describes the process of gradually inlermeshing world economies, politics and cultures into a global system. While some commentators argue that a world trade system has been in operation sin ce ancient times, the contemporary world is marked by a greater and fas ter flow of goods, images and communications than ever befare. The trade routes that have linked Africa, Asia and Europe for hundreds, if not thousands ol years, cannot compare with the present vol ume and speed ol interactions and flows. The growth of a wo rld system is usually associated with the rise of capitalism in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The capitalist mocle of produc tion spreacl with the expansion of European powers into the Arnericas and later Asia and Africa. Capitalism undercut earlier forms of economic relations, lor example, the non-money economies of North and South America. However, while the European empires linked far.flung parts of the globe, their economies were characterised by the import of raw materials from the colonies by the European power and the export of manufactured goods in the opposite direction. Thus, the European empires marked the beginnings rather than the establish0 ment of a world system. Two periods of what David Harvey (p. 156) has called 'timespace compression' (see Chapter 5) saw an acceleration of this process. The first occ.urred al the turn of the twenlieth century. New technologies like telegrapl~, t~l ephon e, ratl an ) steam ships permitted speedier flows of goods and !aster communtcattons. The volume

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161

of world trade grew rapidly until it was staffed by the First World War. The inter-war period was one of protectionism, bul since 1945, world lrade has increased lo lhe poinl where lhe concept of a global system seems plausible.

Thc debate abou t globalisation in the late twentielh century has fallen into two camps: proponents of hyperglobalisation and lhe globalisation sceptics (Pcrraton et al., 1997). The proponents of hyperglobalisation maintain that a world system now operates and that national and regional economies are both subject to the global economy. S uch is the hegernony (p. 106) ot the world systern that there is little that national governments or regional bodies (like the European Union) can do lo protect thernselves from the ups and downs of international financia! markets and trade cycles. Globalisation sceptics argue that lhe volume of world lrade is, in facl, not much grealer al the end of the lwenlieth century than il was in 1913 (Giyn and Sutcliffe, 1992). Perraton criticises bolh these posilions as too simplislic, because they posit an idealised version of a perfect global market. lnstead, Perra ton argues lhat globallsalion is a process. lt is not that nation-states or regional trade blocs have no power, but that their power is now dependent on their / place in a cleveloping, but unequal global system. Globalisalion affects culture as well as trade. In fact, rather than one global system Lime are difieren! processes of globalisation occurring at the sarne L ime. The world system has facili!atecf the global distribulion ot Hollyvvood's films and North American television. Chinese, lndian, American and European cooking is available in most of the world's large cilies. lnternational communications are now more widely available. A three-minute telephone caff between London and New York cost $244 .65 in 1930 ( 1990 cost equivalen!); in 1996 it was possible lo ring London from the United States for 30 cents a minute. While it is possible to point to large-scale population movernents in the past - for example, the voluntary (migration) and enforced (the slave trade) movement of people Lo lhe 1\mericas, low-cost air travel has meant that contacts between distant cultures have increased in frequency. Cities like Los Angeles are made up of a patchwork of ifferent cultures from around the world. The speed and frequency of international contact have led to a phenomenon which has been called, variously, mestizo culture or hybridity. Mestizo culture referred originally lo the mixture ol cultures, African, Native American and European, found in South Arnerica. lt has been used by Gloria Anzalda and Cherie Moraga to describe the permeable and shifting identities that come into being in the human and cultural border trafric between lhe United States (particularly the state of California) and Mexico. Anzaldua writes of 'the new mestizo' (literally 'mixed woman') as on the border between two cultures. The new mestizo is not defined by an essentialist identity (p. 224), but by vnolucha de fronteros (a struggle of borders). This mapping of boundaries has much in common with comparable postcolonial (p. 189) projects, fictional and theoretical, which have attempted to engage with the intensifying pace of global interactions. Salman Rushdie's The Satonic Verses (see Chapter 6), for example, charts lhe metamorphoses that occur in the process of migration from the lndian subcontinent to the former imperial een re, a process that crea tes, in the words of the postcolonial critic, Homi Bhabha, a kind o ird space of cultural hybridity.

forme the irnportance of h)!bcidity is not to be abi.P to tr~ce tw~~inal m~me~ts from which the third emerges, rather hi:bridity to me _rs ~ th1r9 s~ace_ wh1Ch enables other positions lo emerge. This third sace drsgla~~s ~~~ ~ ~~tones, lhal constitute it, and sets ue new structures olauthority, new pohllcalrrlltlatrves, whrch are inadequately understood thr<lli9_)1 received wisdom. (Bhabha, 1990: 2 11 Paul Gilroy's concept 0 the 'Biack Atlantic' (see 4.6.2) constitutes a similar allempt lo think outside the fixed and misleadlng boundary fines of nalion-s.tates and t~ create a s ace in which a double consciousness that is both inside and outsrde mode~nrty c~n . be The point here is not, of course, to say that the new Bhabha s G'lroy's development of du Bois's double consciousness dehneale the same space. lt rs to suggest thal current conditions create the same kinds of problems meaningful narratives in different parts of the globe. Gl.o~ia Anzald~a, between Mexrco and California, tackles similar kincls of dislocation as (albertrn a very drfferent wa~) Sal~an RLIShdie between Bombay and London . They all give example~ of n ~w rdentrtres whrch, altl10ugh created by the new global capitalism, are reslstantto rts logre.

-"'

t~oughl. ~:th~r

n~eslizo,

hybndrt~, ~or

Fu J'f her readi ng H o (1990) Tile Condition of Postmadernity, Oxford: Blackwell.

Sage.

F:a~::;st~ne, M. ( 1996) Undoing Culture: Globalizotion, Postmodemism ond ldentily, London:

\ )

4.4.3

1Making the nation

) 1 .1. ( ' D" S'l\'er ( I()H!1) h a\'e arguecl that 11 :Hior1-states n eed 1 11 1p .orn g.u 1 .111cl .._ rck . 1 . 1 to be t undn,tnod a~ both p o litical and cu ltu ral c ntities. For th c m . rlw ~ta ~t l\ a ~ u tur a. c1: ~ 1 ~ whirh is ac ti 1 e l\' in\'Ohcd in regula ting c ultu ra l lo n ns (see C ltap tcr l.>_b.t' l o~: >: l n/~~;~t- 1 ' \ undc 1, 1and tltb '"'' nced w tltin k abmtt how tlw ~ta te prom<~t~l> cc1t.un '~1" e~ . 1_t :;nc . d iscou1ngl'~ othcrs across its wholc rcrri wrv. In la1xe pan rhto; t\ ,\ m_a~tl'l uf< 1c.'lllll':' ;> 1 m~kin thc mttio11 as a cultural cmit~ ( Gn1f'fud d. 199j). In the Bn mh ca'-e "~m~~ ll th;nk tht. wa,s in which diffcrc llt hai'C bccn or ' t ed e du catiOil<l 1 Sl,ll' lll . TI 1c1 , e is much trurh 111 .rh c u e t 1at bv tit e ~ 1 tt.-rq~11 1 a . a lcct Wll 1 CI\CS 1\'C ll la' ng uag< ,is ,imph a d1a 1 ;1 po rre.e j'or "te. In th e F'ren . r lt or brach . . mlg . 1 "

:~>out

hul~llagcs
bce n

suppor~td n~alkg,ln;llltscd
a

thinJ... < lhOill h ow ;nass miliwry servirc

h a~

u~ccl_IO l o~gc

llaii~Jnal ~or:~C IOUSI~ess

....___________________

a mon g. in th e first case, llll'lll\'ilh disparate regional ~dc ntlll(:s and.' .'n th~ <;~~~ n;: ~;,'~~ m en a nd 1\'0 m e n from a 1d 10k rangc ol' o t hcr pans o l 1h e ,,n1lcl ( \\ e bc1, . .. 1 1 . , . in a ll cas<:s 1\T might think abollt h ow statts ra re f,dl..- CotHtrtiCI bot~l e<. rtn10~lles, ~ nd ad m in i ~t f;ttin ~~stcms 1 h a t wo rJ... at 1 h e national lt:l'el ancl :-:cek to ~>1 ocht~ t .',co_h e 1elnt n at ional .lren.l a ll(l e x pcricncl' l'\'('11 a~ thc'\ represent and or<kr 11. In l.n~t _ p,lttl t ~~ . <1. or tn nation , llla(k lw 1he s iate. . tt . 1~ .1 prc~ll . ing LO crcatt a h01110~t'll0lb Cll llll C ac1o~s a gino n terri tory.

162

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Topog raphies o f cultu re: g eography, power and representalion

163

4.4.4

lmaging the nation

\\ e lllltM al~o unclcr~ t a n cl t he I\'01\ 'S in ll'h ic h n<llion' clairn a dttp .tf'lin itl' ,,ith a nationaJ tcrriwn mack meaningful to them through a ~t'll't' or comm11nit' and lti,tory connected tu p:trti cular s~m bo l ic p bns a11(1 1 attcl ~ca pt., ll'ithin th < tl te rritory. \l onme 1:, it , leso; tlt <:'t' LC'tTi toric:,, p latt'' allCIIancbcapc:' t hcm-,lIH':. tltat are imponan t th.m the rt' pascntation' that .u e made of them. J ust ,,, the mtmber~ of the na tiun C:lllllOI all kn o\1" caclt o tl ll' r, n c ill w r can tiHr kn o 11 intim < tll'l ~- a ll tht $paces. place!' :1 11(( lanclscapes o J t ha t nation. Tlte1 can. l umt~t r. expt-ricn ce 1IH1n t h101tgh rt'J'IT~entation' 11ltic h are ma-., repwdute d in all 'IOJ'h of fo rms ami tirntlatccl ,,;de)~ within tlll' iln.tgined COI11111llllill'. Tltis COtlllt'Cl iou ha~ htt n cxplored in ckwil b1 S1cphcn Daniel' ( 199:'. in his di,tu~~iolh ol 11 ha1 ht can, thc -~~ mbolic l.md~l.t (>l'' ol national idcnti11. in En gland a n cl 1h e L' 11 i 1c d S tal es. D:m ids tuH kt, tand.' tl<ll iotwl iclcn1i ti es as b l'i ng g inn sh a pe ancl l'Otltcn t by lcgtnd<, and landsctpt'' a' bciug f(>llllcd b1 :.torico; of' golckn age . traditions, htroic dccds ancl dr:unatit dc.' ltinics locat!'cl in :mcitnt or prom ised lwmc la nd ' 11i l h hall oi,'C'd ~ t ~ ~ ancl SCt' IH' tY, C ontHcti ng- 11 ll'~l' icl (':t~ II' 111 .\nd trso tt' , he ~"~' th.u the tnaking o t tht:sl hbtorit~ ancl gcograp lt ic~ 'giH'' ,h.tpl' to the imagined communi11 of tlll' na tion a n cl tha t 'Land,capts ... pictlll'l' tltt nation ' ( Da nil'b. I ~HI :1: i'l: and Schatllil. l m lfl) . O nc exa rnplt a ttto ng 111.1111' th a t h l' g i1c, i ~ tite 11'01 k of J o llll Con~tab l co and \I'C c;111 rttttrtl w Th1 1/a_l \\ ' a i n lo rt.tcl i1 in tl1co e ll' rt1h. \\'ltm Danil'ls clue~ is lO .~ h o11 h o 11 Co n s t<~ bil''s ll'urk can b e ~l'l' ll as ' h a rn cssing th e lll'i ll l'inue~ or ll:tllll'l' ;\llcl nation' ( 1!19:1: ~00 ). l" hi,. he argtus. is ll10l'l' a 111all("r of tlw changi n g 11'<\\'' in ll' hich t l1l' pai n ting.' ancl th e paill l<'l' h ml bccn u mlt-rstood titan a n ~ lixcd inttr pre tation o f C:on,tabk\ an. ; tni c ls slw ll's h oll' C:onsta b lt-'s L::ng Ji,IHH:ss wa~ ron~uurtcd th roug h nittt'lecnthet'llliiiY biog1~1phi<.~ ami ltow. ll'ith its prnc nta tion to the ;\;nional Callen (:md extcnsi,l t ht:tp rcprocluctio n ) in 1RR6. T/11 1/ny1\ 'oin lwga tl 10 b econl t' a n a ti o n a l ii'Oil unclt-r~tood LO rep l't'St'lll a tlp ica lh Englisi1 natural ami cu ltural landscap<. Thi~ ~~ mbolil' p<m'el mean th at it ha~ b ttn mcd and l'l:' ll\l'c\ 0\'l'l' tlt t' Jaq Cl'lltU I~ lO bring \':ll'iOII' fOI' lll.$ o f p a tr ioti' nt lO bLa r in COIH l'SlS m tr c hange 11'ltich lta l'l' a lso h <TII co tll t''~IS ul't' t' Eng li ~ hn css. 1t ll':t'> ttsl'd in battl l'~ ti1r 1110dc mi<.t planning bl'tll't'l'll tlw 11ar,. lt ''"" tnli~ted agai nst :\ati Gennam ;mcl po,t ,,;, p lann ing. lt ''"' rec ru itl'cl in argt ll1ll'lt h o\'cr r la' s po l i ti c~ in th c 19711s a nd nur ltar cli ~<t rm a ni L' Ill in th l' 1 91')0~ . lt t tll l' HI~H is it i ~ p laring j ., pa n itt deba tt;. m cr L::urope. \\'lla t it i~ n ccessa r\' tu S ll'l'~S is tllat th csl' I'L'j}I'L' ~tnta ti on s u l tllc n a ti o n a re ah,ars p rod tt rtd lro n1 panin lla r posi ti o ns- th cy hal'l' :1 politic~ as wc ll "'a poc ti rs. l n tl! i, ~~-e Sl't' 111'<> tlling': firs l. llw p robltntalic rl'la1io n~hip betl\'l't' ll the im.tgined con1muni11' and 1h e ~oc i a ) d iris io n s tha t i1 is u ~ ing to con tai n : ~t rond , 1h e wm~ in ,,lt iclt na 1io n a l i.~ 1n j; ba' t' d u pon a scri t' o f l'Xclu ~io n s ll'h iclt art tnade rea l in t. hc wa1;. in 11hich tht connn u nit~ i' imagimd. Thi' i~ clear, lo1 exampk. in l.11e ninett< ' lllhcenllll'\ C;maclian n a1iu n a lism (Osbo n tl', 19HH. nn d Sltidds, 1~~~~ 1). Tlw t ru cial ') m bolir lan~lsr:I)Jl' \\'as th c lar :'-!on lt . Th is 11as uncltr, tnod ;" a n in ancl 11n pcoplt"d ll'ildt-rne-,, wh ich ck tined

Box 4.2
0 . 11c are tlt l' 111l'll

Men of the Northern Zone

o!' th c \'or1hcrn '.o 11 e; h all a bit bt p land in our nlmllll~ lfa ;"\orthman twr loq hi' 1hrone Oid 1h e conq ue ror cotnc fron1 1h e Sottl h ~ \'ar. na' - and th t .111'1\'l'l' hk111 11 a chon" i' smttlll\ard !>ttll: 'Sitt Cl' ,,h c n ha~ a So uth t rn tr p lact"d hi' h t"t l On 1hc nwn of th e \'onhern tone~

R.K. '"''"i).(h.11 1. 1~!lli. qw ''"d in Sh idfl, ( 1!l!ll l

;l'o l'u n danwntaiiY di iTtr<"lll fronl FranCL'. Britain .me! th t l ' nittd St.lll'' (.111 ol' ll'h ich chalkngcd its national 'O\'tTt' ignt\' in 1<11 ious 1\'a\, ) a n d arted " a p lan of sahation . r tcknt ption a nd mora 1 rcgL' It l' ra l ion . T I! is nat ionalisnt ll':ts ddi ncd as 11'11 i L L ' (exclucling i n digcnou~ peupk' and olh l'l' IIOIHdtilc Canadians). 11 ll'aS abo dt"f1ncd a' m a~ru l i n e. For txampk. R.K. K<n1 ig h ;111 's p oe111 ' \ lt' n ol'tlH' nortlH'rtl t.O IH'. ( Box l.~) shows lto ll' this t't'giona lism and n a titllt a l i ~ m :tt'l' ~c n ck rl' cl ..\n o th e r l' XH il'lple ll'ltic h delliOilStratl'' tia rdationship' lwtl\'l' t' ll bndscqw. na1ionalism ancl genckr and :.lum, the implication' for 1\0illl'll ancl nwn is t'<ll h lll't' ll titthCl' ll ltiJ'\ lri,h t tational i~m (\'. t,h,

Canada

J !:JH:~

a ncl :'\a,h . l m H I ).

4.4.5 1 Nalionalism, landsca pe and women

Tht CJIICstiml o t IIOIII\'11 .mcl nationaJi,m raisc:. 1110 conntcted i'-'lll'~. Tht li1st i~~m is th e rolt o l' \l'otnc n , n a tional ~1 ntbo l ~: tltink ni Fra n n t mbo di t"d as ';\ la ria nnc ' ancl Britai n a:. 'Bri t;utnia'. "' 11el1 a~ the ll'l"' of a lkgorical tigtnT' of II'Ollll'll n n n a tio n a l momuncn h ( \\'anll'r. 19K). he ~l'con cl issut i' tht lllt<kr!>tallcling of 1\'0IIH:'II '" 1he m o th l t, ul tlt t nati u n ami th t main ~ l<l''' n f its l'a milic,, , Na tiouhuilders ofkn ,a hu: wo m L ' Il for thdr mlc' a~ 11'\'C' aJHlmo lh t rs a n d o t'tt' lt ~<'<' 1hc n atio n a s hot h httilt u pon strong ta 111 ily 1alu<< lor ,,hkh '''Ollll'll .trc IH"lclrc<>pon,ihlco ami as a I:mtilr itsclf. Thi~ bcgitts lo ddin t p a ni n tbr rol t'' f( ,.- ll'olllt' ll ll'ithin th e ' imagined to mmutlit y . . C:athnint :'\adt ( 1\19:\) disrll''~'~ t h t~c i"ue:. in relation w thc comtrucuon and repll''~tnt <Hion nf tht 11 i'h na1ion in the l'arly lll'l' ll tieth ccnuu'l'. One of the ani~h thal slw co tt sid e r~ i' th t p:ti lllt' r P:ntl 1le n rr. ll e ll'il~ a modc rni'L ancl nati n nali ~ t 1dw 11as setking :-pit itualitl. 'tahiliii ancl autltcnticill' on thc Cclt ic fringt . 1k ll'<tS looking for a cet tain ~t1 ~io11 ut l ri,hness and looking for it in 1he \ \'t't of lrl'lancl. In tu rn lw wa~ < 1111 0 11 g th osc \I'IJ U Cl'l':ltt'd illl:tg'L'\ o f th a l <ll'l.':t 'as <1 11 lrisJt n tlll.ll'< tl l'l'gion . ll'hme pJtysicaJ lan clscapcs prnl'idcd h e grcattst con tra'l lo thl' la n dsctpe of English nes~ ( 1~Htt 1 1-!>)

164

ln tro d ucing Cultural Studies

Topographies of cullllre: geography, power and representation

165

( for ex a m pk. 11 i~ p.ti 111 in~' ht i>r!/a/n /Ji,L..'l!.''' 1 ( 191 ~ ) and (.tllll/1 '1/lftl/1 Cntlagnl . . \ n II C;I 1~' " 1 ol the r rcatton o l lh" Sllllholic l:lll ri~t".tpc o ( n.nional idl'll itl 11;-a~ tite rcp rl'.>t' tlta. 110 11 of ll'tllltt' ll hct. Fig u.rt l.l iJ. ,\, :'\a.;lt ar~u es. 'tiH' '''O III l'll in l l c n ry, ;111 1 11

fl'lll tlllll l~' ha~c.d o n a 'll)~pno;e~ll ~ natural ide n lification 11itlt n:uurc aiiCit lt t lancbrapc' (.1993: . '.~>). Thts. n:.llural tdenufication ' .l c:picwd mothcrhoocl. hlahlt a nd nu~tl t:unil) '.'llucs .h 1he blll_ldtng block' of the nauon ancl challcnged mor( ac tiiT politic:tl mies
for 11'111lll'n. Thttr pl.tCt' in the n a tion ll'as ca p1ured in lll(' im:wc of 1he co u a<.rt (s - _ ,.., ,.., . ce 1 tg lll'l' l. t):
T lt11s th c i ~o hntd rura l 1 o tt agl' rqJ rl'~C' I Ill'd the rva lisation. hotlt in tit e phvsict l fahri c ol tllt land,cape ancl itt the mora l a nd ~pil'i tual domain. ol th t ideal fCIIIII o l lri'h ~uc ictl'.. .. Reprt''>t nt:llion of land,cape in tat h 11\'Cntil'tlt-ctrHtll'\ lrdand ll'a' codnl 11ith nwaning in ll'l ll\\ ol both nati on.tl .111<1 gemlcr identitl', ( 19!: 1!1)

l~tn"'~ l' .pa n

u l tli c

1'1~11<11 tconograph~

o( t ite \\'c.\ t

:111 cl

actl'd

:1s e

mbit-m.~ ol

a 11 idl'a

0~

l11 1h c~r 1isio n \ oi' t he g'l'lldl'ri ng nf tlw n at ion, 1\'omen 1\'l'l't' 1 ied t( 1 cc nai n ich: nt 1i c~ tia')' '.'cr~lim i l cd i11 t la ir l'lllcs. T h e ir pl; rn : i11 1he ll t'\1' natiun 11a, IC be m the n : nlrc of th~ hH~lll}' ra1h c 1 ti1 ;111 < ti th c ce11 trc ol' politics. In turn . ma,c tdinitic:s ,,.t~ rc a lso ~-~ 11 \l<lg'llll'd through panic ular undcr~t :lndi n ~s or nat OII ancl na\ u re ( ~ash. 1H!lli). 1 h t'l'l' ll'erc. of cour~l. c hallcngcs to the" icll.,, nt in all of tlwm \\'e !-CC holl' 11 ;11 i011 , a~ 'imagine<! communit its are imagirwd a~ ge ndcred in l'<triou s ll'a,s (.\l o rris. 19!lli) , and hc111 tlwse are ah,a~, p:trl of' 1hc indti'O rh a11cl L'xclu~io n' uf' thc making oJ' naliOII:ll idc ntilies.

Figure 4.7 lreland.)

Connemoro Cottoges by Paul Henry. (Source: courtesy of the National Gallery of

4.4.6

1Nationalism: inclusions/exclusions
or

Their gcogra phieo; ~ h ow us that nations :tl'l' \'C' I Y often b u ill upon a projcct' uf thc crc atiun cultu ra l homogcneit~ aJHlth t p ioriti,:uion ot cctt.lin ,,ays ot imagining th c comnHmitl', This ,a mall<:r of bot h imh"io11 ancl cxcJ uo;ion. ldclllilics of all kind' are f"ormecl <1>. llll1Ch through S1a\l'll1l'll t'> .tbo lll ll'hat Olle S 1\0l ,\o., lhi'Ollgh o;tall'lllt'llh of ll'h ;u Olll' is. Tlll' pro('(''' ur lllaking grou> a nd inclil'idual idt' llliti e~ i ~ aboul ickntit'~ in~ dirf(' t'('nces aiH I nwki 11g tll tm m c ani llg f'ttl . So it i' thl' p cn:L' il'trl diiTc rc: n ccs bt' ll\'l 'l' ll n ntiom tllat art \' italton;llio nalbm. fo t c=-ampk , Lincl:t C:olk1 ha' argm:d tha t Bt itain " '"' fi>rgtd into a natio11 cluring thc l'i;htl'l'tllh centu n h~ it' f'ran rop h obia "' 11\ltl' h "' an~ thing el se ( Colle1. 199~) ..-\nothcr ' l'l uf exclusions art th ow based on d e fining g<:ndcr iclcmitics with in thc nation. so that rc nain forms of 1\l:t\Crrlinitl' and fe minini11 clo no t li t (sce abo\'e). '1hi~ ., a l'o possiblt in t crm~ el a~~. Thoq wh o too k p a n in 1h c lllimr~ ~ trikc ur Hl~l ll'l'l'l' dl'fimd :t' ' tlt l' ('\lt'lll}' II'ihin .' t' ll t' III(.'S of th e naliun railll'l' than 1h e gmcrn llll' ll t o t 11 w cco nom ir a lh po11'l' t'II. T h ci 1' l"\C iu,inn f'rom th c n :ll ion

Figure 4.6 The Pototo Diggers (1912) by Paul Henry. (Source: courtesy of the Nalional Gallery of lreland.)

or

...._______________________

f
166 lntroducing Cultural Studies niJm,td llw tt.'>t' of forn agains1 thc111 b1 thc pCJiict. The llna l txcfu~ion' lhat 11<' .; 11 111 1hosc ba\ed u pon racc. lo Topographies of culture: geography, power and representation 167
di ~(.' ll'' :11 t'

. 'Jiwrc :u e dc:;u h conncnions bciiHTil na1 ion a li~1ll a nd rari'm 1d1 icft aJ'l cl'idence 111 1he 1 _ nmt obnuu.; cxclw;ions: ~ hro_uKh inunigr;uion policie.~. 1 11 ough raci't l'iolenc~ .md 1h1ough lhe programme~ uf rac1S1 poli1ical panic,, Y<'l 1lw~e ronncction can 1 la~e.. nH~rl' ~~~~~fe ~on_n.~. In. thinkin~ through the implica1iom of tht d iscourses (p.~~~ of 1.1cc all(l. nauon 111 hts bool.. lhl'rt' :Hn'r .\'u ntatl: 11 tlw l '11,111 jfllk. Paul Gilrov ''<ls con rcrneclll~lh th.t wa1, in 11hich under~tanding~ ot' race that ck.'al 11ith it in tt-rt;lS of culttuc ancl tden tll~ haw led to a nell'' raci<,m ,,hic h i!> in dangcr of pr>clt ' l ' IC IIlg a ~lllla llon 111 ll' llrh ' 131acl..nc,s ancl 'F.nglishnt~~ arl' lllldt'I'Mood a' 11111111 .1 1 l'"Citt . TI 1 ' ' ' sn e . 11' 1 \ e n:enl~ ltc:d lo na.tiona list or ethnic abmlu1i~1 llllcltrslancling!' of cultme l\'hich. lmtcad of >-t'l'lltg 11 a,o, flUid and c1 er dtanging. clil'irk i1 llfl itllo sol id national blocks . d' r .1 . . . .tn 11; 10 ~ ~ IC t'tl llllts o nce ancl li. 1r all. \\'ithi n 'li ch a ,,a\' ol thinking. contplt'x Cllltural 1111 <JI' tlt e 11 pronssts are rcclnccd of tite clilntion nr d c< a<111011a or . .. . . to llll'laJitors . ,, tr 11 c1 lto~l cultlll'e. \\ha~ ~~ happenmg hcn. i., tltat ddini1ion~ ni' Engl bhnts~ are beiu <Tl'<He<l b~ < 'onsln tCll ng Lhe hlack prc....cnn ll'i1lt i11 ()ri 1ai n a~ :1>mble m or iltrett _ . 1g 'O .J S llC 1 tlr. a~:11m1 1l'lnclt tdnt!l)' is construrtccl. Cilro1 ~('l'' llti.~ lt:tpplning in politin l c:unp: ugn~. in hi~ tory ll'riting or \'<ll'ious !'OJ'h, ancl ilt I'('Sponscs IU Frank 13runo an'd
J

new connections and the re-thinking of the work of major black writers led Gilroy lo whal he called a posilion of 'anli-anli-essenlialism'. For example, in discussions of 'black music' il has been mainlained lhat such categories should be rejected as there is no 'essence' lo black music in either racial or musical terms. Gilroy accepts this critique of essentialism but argues that il is possible to trace the interconnections in 'black identity' in social and cultural terms. As with his earlier works, many of the examples discussed come from the area of music. Gilroy's influence has been in re-thinking aspects of cultural studies from within. His arguments tend lowards suggestions for the transformation of the approach to take accounl of ever more complex connections of identity (p. 224) formation in modernity (p. 400). This is in many respects a workng out of the implications of poststructuralist (p. 24) critiques of tixed identilles and characterisations.

Further reflding
Gilroy, P. (1987) 'There Aln't No Block in the Union jack: Tlle Cultural Politics of Roce and Nation', London: Hutchinson. Gilroy, P. (1993b) The Block Atlantic: Modemily and Double Consciousness, London: Verso. Gilroy, P. (1993a) Sma/1 Acts: Thougllts on tlle Polilcs of Block Cultures, london: Serpent's Tail.

Key inj!uence

4.2
P aul Gilroy (1956- )

Pa~l ~ilroy is a black British cultural analyst. The main focus of his work has been 011 the cultural pohl1cs of 'race'.
Gilroy sludied as a postgraduate al the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) _<P; 327) at lhe .University of Birmingham. He is currently Professor of Sociology at Goldsm1lh s College, Un1versity of london. Gilroy's early work on race and culture appeared in contribulions lo lhe edited colleclion fro":' CCCS, The E~pire Strikes Back (1982). In There Ain't No Block in the Union jack (1987) he car~1ed out a multtlayered analysis which emphasised the complexily and centrality of interactlons and s_truggles around race, class and nation in contemporary Britain. He was critica! 0 cultural stud1es' ~enerallack of consideration of 'race' but more importantly suggested that conce~n wllh t111 s arena wou~d have to tran~form cultural studies itself. He paid particular att~nt1on t.o the nat~re and 1mportance of black expressive culture', especially in music, wh1c~, w~lle appeal1n~ to. m~ny. whites, articulated core concerns of the black dlaspora, espec1ally m sorne ~ntt-cap1tahst themes. lf this work is contextualised by capitalsm In his 1 more recent work G1lroy has taken on conceptions of modernity (p. 400). In The fJiack Atlantic (1993b) he argu~d for the integration of the experience of black people lnto conceptualisatlons of moder~tty, but perhaps more significantly emphasised the hybridity (p. 1~) of cultures as they mteract and develop to form new connections and patterns. This emphasis 011

Salman R1"hdie. 1k a l ~o 'l't'" i1 IJcing chalk ngl'd in hlack Hriti-.h cu llllrl' and polilic, , in, for e~ampll'. illt' mu ... ir ol Sou/ 11 Soul and llw photol{raplll' or lll{l'id l'ollard and Dal'id ,\. 13aift, ('>t.'t.' Cilrm . 1\IH/. 1992 and Hl93a ).

4.4.7

Conclusions

Thi scct ion ha'> bccn conccrntd ll'ith undcr~tanding holl' cuhmc is crllcial 10 1hc making of na1 ional idcntit,. \\'hik dtmonstnning tite 11'<1\s in 1dtich n:uiom "' 'imag incd conntlllll itit:.' and pl'oplc':- idl'nlifirations willt lhtnl are nthurally con Sli'IIC it:d, i1;),o ckaJ., ll'ilh oi iHr a:-:ptTh ol Lhe co n1tec1 i on~ ht.'lll'l't'n ruhtJrt. gTograp h ~ and idclllity. Fir~l. ll't' can :-:ev again lh.ll ickntitits arl' multiple. :'-la1io nal idtn till b 1101 somcthing separall' f'rom o iltt'l fonn s ot' cultural iclt-nlity. The1 art e tllll'inl'd in 1':11 ious wars. Seconcl. 1he ,,ays in whir lt tl11:y are cutliH:'Cted ., rundamentall~ g'l'Ograpltical. Th t making or nalional id e ntit ~ i!> a pmccs~ or inclu~ion . of d c finin ~ ll'ha l '\l'c ' are !)~ id en 1ifying l1'i1h \':1riot" gcogr;tph ies. h is may be thc space of Lht 11<11 iona) ltrri l!ll'~' madc nH. '< lllingh il cm ntap., and b:lll llt'l'S. This may be tit e natinn as 'place'. Think. f'o r examplc, ol' lit e ('(Hnpkx rclaliolls lwiiiTt'n n:nion and gcndcr \\Tillen i1 11 o lh t lt'l'lliS ' m01hc rland' and ' fatltl'rl and'. Finafl ~. 1h is ma~ bl' 1he nalion as land.;ra pt, , isicllt~ tlt:ll symbol i ~e illl' cltaraCil'l'SIi r~ or place ancl ptople u po n ll'hiclt id<'IH il ('S an IJa,vd. Ytl this making' is af,o Ofil'll p1oi>ftmatir pruCl'~~ of l'~cfmion. (1 i ~ abottl <fl'fining u ~ by deli ning '1hem' and . in 1111'11. c\i,alloll'ing ' thcm' real or ~ym b o lic ;u ce~.., 10 1l w n:llion, gco){raphics. Tlwi-t' prott'"t'' a' 11 e -.hall stT in thc ncxt scCiion. are pre,clll in ot hn ways of con,ll'liCiing- ick1 11itits.

168

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Topographies of culture: geography, power and represenlalion

169

4.5

Orientalism: discourses of the East

hl idt.t that ~dentily (p. ~~..) i' huilt u pon tht ch.tr:tOl'I,ation ol othtT' a~ diflt'l'ent

O (

ltom OIH''l'll h .1 u,eful one. lt tie' into hmr 1\'t might thi nl.. ahou1 lht cultural geogr;tphil'' ol 1lw dilfertnce htlween people and pl.tn, in ll'ttll' ol powe 1 1 l'lalions :ul<l .llow:-. ."' w thinl.. abou 11he citl anclthc COIIII II'\ '' 1\tll '" nationa!i,111 .tnd na tiona tclt'llllll . \\ t' can al-o \et' i1 at wo.-1,; el~c\\'hert. One of tite l.tl "'t'' ol 1hi' idea ~ in :dward S a id !> ( 1971l). nution of Otitn tali~m wh iclt .tddrt,~t' ' hm, rq>rt''t' tllation~ of lhe t:'~.' tnacle b1 lhost lro m tlt(' \\'eq han ])('('11 ini'Oil'ecl i11 thl' ick ntilication of ntltural cltlltrtnce' ancl llw making- ofa .St' l ofuncqual pm,e a rt l a linn~. In duing tlt i<. he makes ~tst: of tltenries of discourse (p. ~()) w 1hink ahou 1 holl' )01\'l'r and kno\\kd J't_: are conmctld in l tl' n prcsenlation nfplace' . \\'lut wt ,,ant to clo lttrt ~ w 1hink tltmugl what Saicltl'l ls u~ about gcograph~. represl'tll< Hio n ;tnrl poll't'l', ;,, ll'd l a.~ Jook al MJme ~ thc cri1icisms of hi' 1mrk.

Said's other work has attempted to publicise and analyse the plight of the Palestinians. This has been done through historical and political writings (some of which use ideas of 'Orienlalism' lo undersland the hislory of Palestine); through allempls lo show how they have been misrepresented in a range of texts and images; and lhrough lhe production of alternalive images which offer another view. For example, Said's After the Last Sky (1986), which combines his text wilh photographs by jean Mohr, is an allempl lo evoke and represent the experience of a people who have been displaced and dispossessed. As such it offers an allempt lo avold the discourses that Said set out in Orientalism and a correclive to their more recent counterparls.

' Furlher readiug

Said, E.W. (1978) Orientalism, Harr1;1ondsworth: Penguin. Said, E.W. (1995) 'The Pol/tlcs of Dlspossession, london: Vintage. Sprlnker, M. (ed.) (1992) Edward Said: A Critica/ R eader, Cambridge, MA: B lackwell.

Ifey injluence 4.3

Edward W. Said
(1935- )
4.5.1 1 Orientalism
Said'<; Oril' lllflflll/1 i ~ a SliiCh' or ' lht \\'(~t' s' reprcsentations ni '!he Ea~ t ' ancl. in particular. hm, they unckt pintH:d intpnia lisl poli1ical ambition~ ami admin i\tl'< llion ,. Th('re are, howel'et . \ O illt' limi1 a1iom on 1his. lt i ~ primarih a stuch ol tlle .-\rabie or Islam ir ,,o riel r;u her 1h.ul ol htt 'Orienl~ '; it dtab al mosl ('Xel u inh 11i1h 1ex lltal ~o u rce~ (for painti ng. ~ct >-:ochlin . 1!l!)( " ami HdTe man. 1991: and for phowgrapll\', ~t'l' Schwarl/, 1996): ancl it i~ concetneclmainl\' ,,ith Engli~h. Frcnch all(l >-:ort h .-\merican reprcsetHalion:. in 1hc.: ninetccnth ami earh t\\'enLielh cetHuties. \\'ltat Said is rhall<'ll){ ing is IIH 11a~ in ll'hich thC\l' rcpt'C~(' ntati ono; d i,ide up 1he globc. a ~'u ming 1hat thtn is somc realmcaning i11 IIH no1ion' ol '\\'c.,l anrl ' East (or Occidcnl ' and 'Orienl '). ,\, he says: 'dtt' no1ion that thc.: rt al't' gtographical ;;paces with indigenom . racl ic:tl l ~ ''differenl inhabitanls 11 ho cu t bl ddi tHd on tht' ba,is of 'omc rdigion. culllll'l' 111 racial csscncc propl t 10 th:ll ~tographical span i.s ... a hi~ltl~ clcb;nabk icka' (Saic D , 1978: :~22 ). \\'h ~ll he i~ cnes1ioning , ll'h:tl 11e can cal! 'gc.:ographiral essentialism' (p. 138): 1he :d>~n lul l' fi xing ol' a ~i tt g- ul :tr ~e t ol' nwaning:- w a portion or 1hc g lobe and ,, pcopll'. T his ob jcction is notjust a lheorelical one but an ethical and politica l otw loo. He asks us 10 comidcr ll'hat. thc.: cunsc.:qucn ccs for ' humanty' :~re o l' llwse fo rnas < di\ision and rt'prtsc nl ill ion. ') S;ticl'' argtuHCil l is 1ha 1 1ht 'Orien1 ' is a \\\stern innn ton: a place o l' m m a nce. exo tic b e in g~ . ltallnl ing n~tan orits and l;mclsr apcs. rt'markable e'\periences ( 197H: l ). This imaginar~ CJ IIali ty di~Iilg'll i ~ Jws l rrom lhe lllOI'l' pro.~a i r 'F.ast'. 11 i~. lw arg ll l'S, proclu('('c) \\' thin thC' cli\C O\II'St' ht caJJ, '0ric ntali ~n1 , a ll'ay of 1alki11K <tbout 1hc II'Ol'ld lhat ha~ oper;H('cl in a grc;n \'at ie11 o l'll'i11'.'> Ol't't a sub~LatHial peritlCI. Orit:nlali''" i' .1 "'"' of lhinl..ng abnu1. ta lkin).{ abou1 ;md represcn1i11g the 1\'orlcl 1ha1 make' se n~l' of t. a11d makeo; s1 a1enwn1 ~ aho111 it. bawd o n a di1 ,ion of it into 1\\'0 pan~: \\'e\1 and Ea'l. So wt Edward Said was born in jerusalem in 1935 and educaled in Cairo. like millions of other Palestinians his family became part of lhe Palestinian diaspora afler lhe foundation of the State of Israel in 1948. He completed his education in the Uniled States of America at Princeton and Harvard universities. As Professor of Comparative Lilerature al Colu~bia University he has published on nineteenth- and twenlielh-cenlury literature and music, and on lhe politics and culture of the Palestinians. He has also been an outspoken critic of both lsraeli and Palestinian politicalleaders. Said's book Orientalism (1978) has had an enormous impact on cultural studies (and on many of lhe disciplines that contr.ibute lo it). lt offered a way of understanding the 'politics of ~epresentation ' (p. 61) in texts and images which connected their words and pictures to 1ssues of P?~er ~P :4) and domination. Drawing on the work of Michel Foucault (p. 28), and cornb1ntng 11 wtth close attention to a range of texls, Said offered a reading of 'The Wesl's' representations of 'The East' - in novels, poems, scientific lexts and academic monographs - which fmplicated the written word in the practices of fmperialism. He argued that the versjon of the East which was created within this discourse (p. 30) was one that was crea te~ for the West. lt was both a romanticised view of what the West lacked - spirituality, exotiqsrn ~ and an image that justified the West's imperial domination of the E~)l by portraying 1t as weak and degenerate. This pioneering work has been followed by a range of similar studies - on other sorts of texts and other places - and has been an important part of the devefoprpent of a body of postcolonial (p. 189) theory and of other studies which co1~nect languag~ and power. Mueh of this has also involved criticisms of Said for the ways in wh1ch he dealt w1th power, agency and gender (see section 4.5.3).

170

lntroducing Cultural Sludies

di!llfllflllll\1' 1.

Topographies of culture: geography, power and representation

171

c;~ n s;l\' th;~t Oricntali~nt

about . th e~e parh in gctwt.d term,, .\, Said 11111{'' one could 'JWak in l.ttrope ol an

Seconcl. tiHre is .111 .l,~lllllption that

<llll'

can 'Peak

Oricnctl pcr:<o na l it~. an Ot itnta l a tlllo,pht'l\', :111 t't'll ta l ta l<. Orictll:t l dt''P<II'I11. or ;1 n Oril'ntal 111udc ol'prodttllion . aucl be lltlcltr,lood' ( 1 !17~: :t! ). Thi' allol\,:.lattmcnts such a~ that mack by Lord Cromet (' E~1p1 ' , ma,ter' ( l~l7X: :~.q uncler Rriti'h impt tial rule) in 1!)OX lO bt acr eptabk: ' \\'<1111 uf' :tCCttran. 11 hich t'a'-i l\ degcllt'l'alcs lllO utttru thfu lncss. i~ in bct tl w 111<1in ch:trancri,tit oftlw O ri tn tal nti nd ' (quottd in Said. 1978: :lH) . H umanit~ ., :.ttipped dolltt 10 rutltlc" cuhur.1l and r.1t ial es,enn, ( 197R: :1!l) . So \\'l' can ,,11 1h.u Ot icmal i'm 1'\.\l'llfirrflll'' Final h. rlwre is in all uf' 1h i~ a SIrnng :.{nsc that E<tst a nd \\'es1 :1rc lo be CIHllpart'd. ll'i th thc E:tst c1cn tu alh co111ing olfl,orsc, t'ITil IIHHl{h thi-. lll;t\' ht lingt-cl II'ih llO:.talgia. ,-\-. l .ord C:rotlll'l COIIIillll'd: ''fhc Europtan , a dt"e rca,otH'l': hi, '>IOllt'lllt'nh of facl art den>id e~f an~ .tmhiguin .. .' (CJI IOil'd in Said. r 07K: :~;-{).So 11'(' can 'a~ lhat Oril' tllalislll rlt'f/(('\ liI'/'fi/'('//I',\ , l'l tl',' l'. llt< u, are thl 'ru les' accnrd ing lo ll'hich tfli , cJi,cmu s< \\'ork~. Ro:-.. 1. :~ ~ho11~ ~Ollll' of tlw charactLTi'>tin of Oritnt .111cl Occicl<nr prorhJc<'d 1rithiu this cli,cour~t. 11 i' intpollatll to JIOit' th:u a~ it dic hnto tlli.,ts. L'~'L'lll i a ] i.,t.-. and cre:Hes hier:Jrc hi<~. Orit'tJI:llisnl i~ ta lki ng ilbout til t' \\'{'q a' llHt r il a' abo11t tl w E:m. 1t i~ crear i ng 1he f;, a~ 1hl \ \'c~ t ~ 'Otlwr : 1hL place 1hat it usn lo di:.tinglti'h ih 011 11 idtIHtl . Tll<' pair' of \lord<. sho11 lw11 rhe F:ht is prodllred "' both '>OIIIethin){ dangtrott.\ and 'Ollll' lhi ng clt ... irahlt. In lll l'll 1l w \\'c., t is hoth poll'crftd and llll l'Xci ting ( this par:1 llels tht ;unbiguoll' mtani tlg'' of' the cc lllllll'l' ancltlw cil~ abmc ). '1u should also note the 11a, in ll'hith tlll' cli\Ullll 'L' lllll'J.., rhroug h ){l'IHkrecl carcgoril' making tlw binary di,idt llH'aninglttl b\ <l'-'ot i.uing rht Ea~tlli th II'OIIH:' ll allCI tlw \\'L',lll ith mctJ ( Kabb:~ni. 19XIi). Ddacroix~ pa inti 11g '{'J , f)l 'tllli 'lSrndoNriJ(Iflfl ( I H~7) dr:uu :H i'L'~ and del-clops many ol tltese i'-'tlt'' ('l'l' Figurl -I.H). Ba.,ecl upon a theme fiom l~1ron , it repH''L'nh Sardanapalw, h ing un a magnifin111 hLcl cm 1op of' a f't111eral p~r('. lle i~ COllllll:t iHiing iJj ~ L'llllllch,>, iiiH I o ffir l'l'~ lO Clll lilt throal.' o f flj~ 1\"I'l'' Jt i, <tlll' IHiaii iS. IJis hor't'' and his clog~ so 1ha1 the1 11'ill tHH ~lltYiH him . l t reprcsenh thc Ea\1 a' a place of 'l'X. clc .:arh and p01n'l' and 1oumigl11 rhinJ.. about how thi~ painting (no1, in thl' Lo\1\re in Par\) reprl'.'-t'llls is,ues of poli1ictl JlOII'l'l' th ro ttg h ic ka~ o f ori<tn;tl cll''J>OIi:;m', issuc!'> of' gTn cln th roug h idl'as o f' 'Orien ta 1 L'l'Ot ici>;m . and i~~ u e' oJ' h istot'\' rh ruug-lt a mnhical 'Oriental pa<.,r . ' (nr might aJ,o think ahou1 lum ~uch an image \I'Oitld haw been wcn b1 a nint'l<-'l'lllh-n ntut 1 French auclitnn a-. ho11l p lta,urablv ancl :b a j usrification for Europeatl IIIJll'rial txpa n ~ ion . \:t thi ~ i~ lllll !'> impl~ a nta ttcr of worck it \ al'o abo111 power. t icntali,nt , IHH ju~l a 11a~ o( cle~cribing tiH: E:N: ir is an in,litution ' 11 hich ha\ 1hree part<.. First. l i-. llw style of thouglu a:. ' l'l out abun. ~wcon d , l i\ an aracll'llic di,ciplinc. Acadl' mics as.\ot'a ttd 11i1h insti 111 1ions ' " eh as tlw Roya l .\ ,i:uic Sor ilty iclentifitd r h enl~t I Hs a~ 'Ot it'tHaliMs' ancl <.t'l out lO produce J..rw11 leclge about th t' Orient. lndtlcl. tlw ~011s of J..nowledge:. that th t' prodttncl \I'C'rt' p iori tiscd. -lile \\'est,, in tclknuals spokt fot the Ea't. Fi n;tlly. it is 11ha 1 Siiicl cal ls 'a cmpor;He insti tll ti on J'or cl<;tling wit h tllt' t'i<n t' ( l 97X: :,)_ This ctrta inh in,olncl11onh .tnd J..nmdldgc 'i ncc a htrgt pan of clcaling with the Orient wa\ about 'making '-l<llt'IIH'nt ~ abotll it. a111 hori'i ng 1it'I\'S of it. ckscri bing i t' . ~ < 'l th is 11 "' al ...o cunncnec l 10 a 'L'l of' other institur imts anc l materi; tl pracll'l'' of' cduca tion :11HI

Box 4.3

Some characteristics of 'East' and 'West' within Orientalism

11 .,,
L'tilitl lkmot rae~ Fa ir 1rta 1me n i Sd r:con lm l Stl f-gol'ernmenl Prac1ira l Stn,iblt Rarional Logir.tl Straig l11 J'c IIWa rcltt t'~' Tru:-1 . \cti1 i11 \ "it'lllllll'
~l attlll'

/~a.,/

Spkndour Dl,potism Crut' lty SL'II'll:tlity ~o '>l'll:gontiiiiH.' nt .\rtisric

~~~ ~t i ca l

1rr.ll ional lllogical 1llli'g'lll' C:unn i ng Lerhargy Dt pra\'t'cl C:hi ldlike E-.; o tic F:H.tli,t , pa'>'il' i\ lI'SIcrious Siknt \\';tJ.. DatJ..

L' neXtll ic .-\ctiw Qb,iot ts .\ ninti.HL' St rongLiglll

Do 10 u thinJ.. th.11 tlww clil'krelltiarion' t''t.lhli'h the \\e,l ,1, 'ttclr.mal' a.nd thl'

Ea,, '' 'di lltJ't'll( . ll tht di,l'Olll''t' nr Orit'llt:lii,lll; Do thl'Sl' (':t ll'glltl t'S ckl tlll' rile Or\'ll l " J'e lllIIIIt' .111clt lll' Ocl idt'lll "' nt:t>rttlinl':

1 72

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Topographes of culture: geography, power and representaton

173

senl i ng a nd gonrn ing- 1ht F.ast. For examplt, Said ( 1 9H~l) 11'1'i tt' ' of 1he DrsrrijJiion rlt 1'/~J!.J/Jit'. This was a 2-1-I'Oinlllt' product J'\apokon's 1798 expedi tion to ronqucr Egyp t 111 a cconnt ol' Egyp tian hiSLOIY, dnoga tc d 111lich lcg il imisccl Fre n c h conqucst ll'ith < cont t mporarl' Egvptian c ulutre bY ob~essi vc atlt:ntion toa 'glurio tts past' and prol'iclcd th c grounding for admini~tration. cttlcmcnt and exploiwtio n in i t~ e xhauslil'l' MII'\'C I' of land and resourn~. T hc Frcnch hacl 10 kn011' E~'J>l in o rdcr 10 po~~C!" it aiiCI to J 1 i~ cnd lhe, marchccl on F.gypt with an aml\' t>f Orie nta li't~ as \\'ell as a rq.{trlar ; 1m y (Godlewska. J99:1). In t h is a iHI ma ny 01 hcr i n s1 :111n:s tht connec1 iom b e ll,'t'cn Oricn ta lism ancl imperial po11T r are c learl y 111acle (Dri1er. 19H2).

ur

4.5.3 1 Cri tiques of Said's Orientalism

1hc

IIO\I't'\'t'l', Said\ 11ork ha, 1101 escapcd critici"n. Tht following ~cction ou tline~ ~om e of dillicuhies \\'ith it ai1CIIooks at 1he w;ns fon,ard 1hat othtrs h:l\'c fo und.

The problem of agency

This i.~. in pan. a matttr of h ow Said dl'al' \\'th 1h c Oricntalish ..\llllOng h h t c lairm tu be tning 10 hcar liH' cliffercnt I'OiCl'~ ol' diffCI'Cill pt:opk 1\'thin 1he diSCOUr~t Ol Oricnta lism. hi~ critil' hmt !'aid tlmt lu: f'aih. Thel' argu1. that 1herc is not cnough ancntion to how therc ll't'l'e mam ~trand-. lO Orien1alism ( includin.{ a ~elf-consciou,III.'~S on lhl' pan of Orit:tllalist!. abont how th cl' "ere crea1i11 g lltt' Oricnt), h o\1' th el'l' ,,.trc con 11 ic b ll'i t hin i t. :111cl holl' na1 ional trae! i1inn ~ and c hangt. m er ti m e lllt.'<llll t hat Oricn tn lism spokc 11ith 111a ny \ 'O ices ra llH: r than the sing-k ,oict. t hat ,,e h ear in Sa icl '~ book. lt is also a lll:llll'l' hol\' h e dcals ll'il h thme being descril>ccl a~ 'Orientals'. 1 kn h e gi1 cs th em no ron111 10 repl~ or to \ II<I J)(' the l'orm~ that thc discur-in, :lllcl real rclatiom bet,,een Ea'l .111d \\'csL too!... Tlu:ir ,oiccs need to ))(' h card too in making dl,criptiom ol' thermd\'l'' and desniption' or thc \\'est ( ~ l it c hdl . 19R9). lndced. thc im pnmtn l place or Saicl'' "nrk in the clel'elopm t.nt of postcolo11ial (p. 189) critit.ism :llld s~rba ltcrn sllldin (mJonjal histories 1\ riltl'll from .Q_do\1''). as wc ll as hi< Ol\'11 poli1icctl ac thism. sugg-tst that t hcsc \'OiCl'~ are l'o rceful ones.

nr

Figure 4.8 The Oeot/1 of Sordonopolus (1827) by Eugene Delacroix. (Source: by permission or The Louvre, Pars.)

4.5.2

Power and geographical representation

Rq Jrl''l' ll lalion is ; Cl'llcial pan or tllt 1\,I ~S ll llhich th e lllaking ol'idtntitie: i~ a lll:lltt'l' ol tiH pnl'l' or~tlllll' gi'C >liJ>' 0\l'l' ollltr.., In thi' l<Hltl'Xl Said ( 19/H) la lks aboul ,,hat i~ illlohtd in tlw nt.llion o l 11hat lw c.dl' 'in1ag-inatiw ~log1.1phit!> . This pruCt''' ol n1.1l..in ~ )!L'O)!raph ical cli'' irH 1iolh bcl\H' l'll pl.11 ,.,. ol dra'' i ng bnund:u its ami ol naming pl.llt'' , pan ol tht 111.1ki ng ni ickm i 1L'' tln ongh opposi 1iom ht' l\' een u~ and h tm. A~ he.;;"' 1 hcrl' is nu dntdll llrat i111aginatin gcngrap h~ :uul hi,tol: hl'lp tlw n1inclto i r Hc n si l'~ i1 s mm sen 't' ol' it,t' ll by d r:u11atising th e distann a ncl dil'ltl'tnt:t hetll'l'l'llll'hill , do~e to it am l what is l'ar a11a~ ( 1\1714: .-1:"1), ,\ , such. Oricnlali.<m i< nnt 'impl~ a proct~~ ul dt''t ription. lmt a ,t'lation of pm,tr ancl domination 11 h t'll'hl one group g'l' l' LO ldint idtntilie"i lor .111 h1 ddinin~ 1lw orknt ancl orient.th' in nnain "':1\ ' Ytt lht '-Oil' ol l..rHlldtdgt produttcl 11i1hin 1hnc repre,tnl.nion' are conntc1ed 10 IIH pcllll'l ol 1lw \\'e,l 11\l'l 1he Ea'l in a murh lll<lll' ditt't t '''11'-l'. \\'e nLTd 10 und ciH:ll ld 1lw '''' ' in 11 h id1 knclldl'<lg cd tlw Oricn t ,,.a, lht h:1si< o l imptr i:tl clor11i11a li on. l t pru,id<:d .1 '~' ' ol' icll'a~ tha l ll'l'l't' ,. 1~1 1 L o t lw pmn" n{ conqttt'l ing.

The problem of humanism

Saicl'<, hook r a isc' a '-t' rit'' of dillicuh qucstion' <tl>t>lll how ll'l' ca11 'lwak ahout :tllCI kno11 abont othcr cu lture~. lli ~ g'tncral clai111 is t h a l 11e sh ould t-.;po~c 1hc cnn~ecu t:nets of disco u rscs 1ikc Oril'n 1;1lisn1 in 1he lWill l' ol' a 1ih eral h u111:111 ism t ha 1 'ee k~ le~s oppHssI't.' l'isio n ~ of 11 1hn~. 1ltlll'l'\'t.'l'. h e do e ' t h is bl' tlllcle mi 11 i n~ Llr t. h1 1ibcral huma n i~ l idea: our powtr 10 knm, th c tr uth . His criLi cs h;ne -.aicl that he c<uttto l ha\'C it both 1,ay:- and han crilici~cd thc humani~m that undt:rlil'' ,,hat he does (Ciiflord. 19SS).

The problem of gender

Cen ckr largcly ig-nort.tl by Said . ..\lthollgil we haw cnnsickrtd i1 abow, h e d nts pay atLCil l ion lo how 1h t l't' httionsh ip be tll't'tn powcr (p. 9-1), icle nc ity (p. ~~4) < lll<' )

i~

1101~

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175

geograp hica l re prcsentation ,,ithin Oric ntalism o p c r a tc cl th roug h ge nde re d cuego r ics which cldin cd th c \\'cst's rc hnio11~hips to th c East in ttrm ~ uf a po\\'cr-lade n di c h o to tm b e twccn male ;-~nd f'e malt. He a l~o p ay:; 110 a tt c ntio11 Lo 11he ther t lw rc ;~re 0'{'11de re d clifl"t-re n ces btl\\'t't'll tlH ~ort ~ of kn cmJcd ges ;!11([ rcprcscntations o r lht East ~roduccd by m;-~lc a ttd fc male Oriental ist; ( for c~;n11plc. l.e11is. 1 9~1(), ancl Grcgo ry, 1995). Thesc c riti c ism s do not n ecessari ll' imply tltat Sa id 's g e lll'ntl fnnm1mrk . or his ttsc of disco u rsc. are lU b e abandun c d (Sa id . l m13) . T l w~ do. ltml.('l ( ' r. ca 11 f'or : 1 m u c h more 11 uan ced accoum o f h cm di lle rc nt fo rms o f p 0 11'e r an d difl"t-re n t forms of kn oll'led ge 1wrk 1\'lthin th e l'ariecl a nd c han g ing cli~comst~ o f ' Oric n talism ' ( Drin:r. 1 99~). T ltis more 1aric d p erspcctil'e ll'ill e n ab lc u~ 10 bctt c r und e rstand t lw l'<l i'('I\' o f conn ccti o ns th at th ere a re bct11een ~pa ce . pu,,er ancl kn01d ed ge.

4.6 r Travelling cultures, diasporic cultures and global cultures

cli~c u ssion of' u lture 's gcug rap lt ic-. Itas b et'll a mallL'I' o r 1hinki ng ahot t( lt OII' spaces, piares ami lan d scapes a re g i1en mean ing b~ being ~e l apa rt f'rpm o th e r ;.pa('(.'S. places or l a nd ~ca pe.s " ' sp ccia l ur cli iTt rt nt. ~ l ea nin gs a r e g i1c n tu tltcm b~ clral,ing boundarit ~ around tlt c m. In pan this has nwa nt a ~ k i n g cenain so n s n f quc~ tio n s : 11'1 1:tl is tiH' c u ltutc oran~ p:micula r p l ace~ Ho11 i ~ tit e c it ~ u11clcrs tood ~ \\'hl' are natio n a l cultures ge ndn ed in cert;t in ,,ay< 1 lu1, is tit e Orient r!'prt ~c ntecl: \ 'ct at rim es II'C haH co n11 ccti o ns hf'lwr't'll places: in t lti11ki 11g about lt n1, ideas o f also had to be ane nti1c tn t hL th e co untrys iclc ca11no t b e s!' para tc cl frn rn ideas oJ' tlll' c it ~. :111cl abo ut ho11 clif'lerc nt na tio na l clc nt iti('s a nd ideas o r East an cl \\'est :t re clc pc nd t. nt upun ~l' LS of oppnsitio ns th at pco ple u ~e to ddin c tl w ir id t' lllit ics. In tlti ~ ... ectitHl \\'(' 11a tlllo take this l'u rih tT tu argut th at th c re an' ll'<ly.~ in ,,lt ic h liT can uncltr,ta ncl tlt!' gcog rap h ic:. ol' c ulture ll'h id1 pay nutc h mure at t t~ n ti o n to th e r dati tllt,Jti p!> hel'll'l'Cn plat !'s and s pact' ~ . Todo tltis ,,.l' \1'<111 1 to tal k a bou t th e II"Ork ul' thrct' p eoplc : .Ja nt es Cl illu rd . Paul Gilroy (p. 1(}()) ancl Don~ e n ~ lasse~. T ilese a utlwrs ~ llg'g'ts l tita! 11 e Iwcd tu u nclc rsta n d c ultmes in t ~nn ~ o! hybridity ( p. 1:">9). T h e1 ;trg u e that no cultures ;nc l(mnc d in isn htio n: the1 an' a ll thc proclu c t or <1 C0111 p lex h i stor~ o r in H'l rt' btinn and COiliiC'C Iun . T ltey :tlso sugges t (h at \\T Jl(~ed LO tlt in k c ul (11 ral procl uc ts in tc..T111S o f sy nnt (~m. T 1 1is S t tg,_ l!,'l'~ts 1hill...0111J.J.ra 1 oqjccts ; IJ( ' l(mnccl <ll tit e i nt c r~c ti u n bt.'(\\'('l'll Clll !lJH'S r:uher t);;~ :ti tite ' hc artlillJ..l of anr~' Fo r examplc , .la nw s\ \ 'ahilt ( 1m t7: i:x) .~ tans lt is lt i'!c)('\' of' c ig lt lt'C nthCt' l'l1l11"1' l3rit ish taqe by a~kin g ' \\ lta t coulcl b e tllort Hri ti~h tita 11 a c u p uf' sm t~ 1 tl'a ~ befor~ goi ttg O ll In slt m, that this icon o r Briti s httc~..- ... i... tit e h ~hricl ;t11() sy n creti c procluct u f long histories u f i lll l>e ri a l re lat ions \\' t.h 1nd ia and th c C:t ri bbean . T h c ai m of 1h is sec ti o n is to sho,, th at historie" a ncl geog ra phics o f c ul tural conn euion su ch as this ont inl'u h'c co11sidc rations of tra l'l'l. cliaspora ~ ami g lobalisatiou ( p. 15!1) .

So [;n this

4.5.4 1 Conclusions
This seclion It as tri cd to shm1 h o ,, th e urics o l' clscoursc (p. :'.0\ mig ht b e ttserul in conncning ideas ol' po\\'c r and iden tit ~ lo gcograp hical represcn ta ti o n . Sai<l slw11s us tltat th e lllaking oJ' 'i m agi n ar~ geograp lties' is part or a polle r-lad e n pmce ~s of ddln i n ~ us aiiCl ' tlt c m which has , .CTI' real co mcqut n ce~. 1'C'rall. Saicl's II'Ork, o beg in to see tite e1e r-c hang ing C(H tp lecl ll'itlt tlta t ni' ltis critics. :-tllo,,s us L compl e :xi t i c~ of t lt ls~ rt'lationshi ps bct11-een lan g uagc. po ll'cr. ickntil)' ancl geography. 1nclee d. 1\'e nee d 1.0 lw all'an: of hm, 1he.. lang u agc..s a n el prac l i ce~ o f O ril'n ta li~m are sti 11 \'e 1'\ ' muc h a pan o f 1h e discot trsts of po li ti o ancl economics in tite contcmporaq 1mrlcl. T his b ecom es a ppan.: nl ir ~o u th in k abo ut h ostik Am e ri can respo n ses to .J apa n cse ccon o mic pii'Cr (11' hic h mig ht be read thmtt g lt lilm~ lik(' 8/ar/1 Rai11 or Rising Su11) n r t h e di sc u.s~i o n s of pol i ti c~ in th e ~licldl c Ea~ t "hic h arC' condtt cH d thrnug h IHllions or tc rmrism . dcsp ot ism allCI ru nclamcn ta l j;;m ( fo r e:xarn p ie. in 1h t T\' ( 0\'tT<tge o f' tlt t G u ll' \\'ar ami in lilnt likl' J p!l'{ (f ,,,, .\'i/r-) ll'hic h rc..p lal o lckr no t i o n ~ or thc O ri e nt (Sai cl. HI KI ). 1 -lmn:Hr. th c situat ion i.o; 110L -.impl ~ th e sam e no\1' a ' 1he o n e tlt <11 Sa id d escrilw d for tlw ninelt't'11llt ren tut v. In some 11a~s th e tab les are turn cd , partic u Ja rh' i11 rt Ja 1ion 1O tl 11 inc rcased J>OI\'lT of japa lll'St' corporal io ns ( .\ Jo rl t'\' an d Rubins. 19!)~ ) . In aclditi o n . ll'e IH<tl' also b e ll'itnessing k :;s d ic h o tom ised cu ltural lra n sac tions b Clll't'l' ll 'East. and ' \\'es!. a~ .lapanCSl' 1 id eo ga mes or Jnclian foods, f'a shio n s ancl musics are g lobalisccl :nHI ittcorporat cd inl o ' \\'('sw m ' cu ltu ra l prac tices (TmtH.:r , l 99 J; Shurme r-Smith anciJJa nna m . 1\1~1-J. ). This reali!>atio n , h OII't.'ler. should n u t be con11ncd tn th e prc~c nt. Thinkin g abu ut the ,,ays in ll'h ic h th e re ha w a h1a~s becn c :xc han g<'s all{l transac tions bt'll\'l'l'11 East' ancl '\\'eq ' - in tite IJaq as 1\'c ll as thc prt~e nt- m e ans think in g r rit i cal l ~- abuut the bo rcle r~ a ncl bounclarics that are se t up bcl\\'('l'11 th ese l' tllitics (st'l' Sidal\'ay. 1 ~197 ). On ce \\'(' start lO do this. 11 ('\\' \'e rsiom o r th c re lat io n sh i p he tl,een c ulttt n :m el gcogr:tph1 com e in to I"l'l\' 1dt irh e Ita ll e 11~e lll<LI1)' ck eply h e ld assuntptiom.

or

4.6.1 l lames Clifford's 'Travelling cultures'

Clilford's ( 1992) ,,ork h as gnnm out nf a sen se th at anth ro p o l o~is t s an cl o th c r~ ll'hc

swdy c ul111 re ha1-e m isscd so m e o l' 1he lltosl i ntnesting 1h in gs tltat are goi ng

0 11

bl'cau~t'

of thc ir hc lieJ' th a t c ulllnTs can be nca rly pigco nh o led and tie cl do,,n to partic ular p laces. 1-J e suggests tha t. instearl s tud~ing peoplc stadng al homl'. 11'(' sltCiuld s tucl~ tnwe l. llc ,,a nts ' ch,cl li ng' 10 lw th o ug iH of nol ;ts n o rmal b ttt as so nwthin g th at need s e:xplanatio n ll'ith in a n ttn d e rstandin g o r cu lture th at secs it a.-. th t tT ia ti onsh ips bt tll'l'Cil dwc lling ancl ll'a\ e l. T his. h e s uggests. II"Ot tld g iH' liS acCe \;. (() ' t it e 1\'dc r \I'Orlcl inte-rcttltmal impon -expon ( Hl92: 100) tu ,,h ic h \\'(' al/ belong. Q tt oting .-\ppadttrai :ts mcl by the p iares to whic h th e1 hel n n g. g ro tt p s saying that ' nati,cs. p cn ple confined to < unsullied b~- contact 11 ith a large r ,,orld hm'C' pro bab l ~ lll'H'r existe d' ( gq:: 100 J. h t prcsttH:, th c ,,or lcl of c ulture as a h ~bri d. cosntnp o litan e xpe ri e n ce. Thc so rts o f' anal~s is 1h <t 1 he suggests are form s of 1ran l ( o l' tral'el pa n e rn' ancl 1ra1 e J prac t.iC('S) and h e has in mind SO ill l' \'t' l'l' cJ if'l'crc nt sort': t lt v kisure d 11'<1\'C J o f th t Westc m bourgcois maJe; tl w f'cHTl'cl displac~nwn t rdg'('('S: th~ tral'c l-as-lmrk of

or

or

or

or

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177

eightetn th-centurY .-\ tlantic- sa ilot~: pilg.-imagn atl(l ,,.a,s ol tr:n ell in~ in tlw mine!. T clifTcrenccs bet '''l'L' I1 t hesc l('acl hi m 10 q ut-.~t ion usi1w 1he ten 11 tra 1c 1 ' 111 cu1.,. 1 .. 1 1 he .. . . ,.., " t t 1 lesc \1 ,\I S ol 111m mg. lnck-cd. otht-rs haw ~ll""l''ttcl that nn1iu ,,.. ,,., clf' 1111 c l 1 -t~ 1 1 cl' . .. . . . . .... . ""' ... , .. lllt:;' tral'el ut ~peetflc.llll 111.1'-C uhttt' :111 <1 ~lt ould not he >romo1 ed tu 1 cent rtl >1 te ' . 1 , . " 111 e u tur;rl 'ltlf~H:s ( \\ol f~. I ~Hl:~). (011 11Tll1lt'11 tra1dll r~ scc Bl1111 t. l~l !l-1: Blunt :111d Ro~c. 19g.. ~lcE,,a_n. 199b. ) llc_ " '-e'er, lw retain' the tl'llll bccau,c. of thc. 11ay' in ,, hich talkin ' 0 . "~tn:lhng culuuts _ca n a1oid tl~ inking of cu lttll'l' in tcrn1' of us' :mcl 'thvm ' 111 ~te; e[ 1111 der.--tal Id ~ lt 1n l(.'l'llts o! :1 ll'l1olc load of COII IIcc t i on~ ..-\ goud cxa111 pie i ~ what he calls ' tit e Squa ll to ciTen ':

;n :

Squanto ,,a~. of cnursc 1he lndian ll'ho grcctccl tite. pi lgri111s in 16~1) in l'ii'IIIOllth .\ l ;"tssa c htt.~c tts. ll'ltn hc:lpeclthem throug h a harcl ll'il11l' l and 11'ho Sl>ol..t good '._11.,- 1 ' T . . 1 .., l>t. ~~ lma((JJIC' t H' lull effttt. ~ou hm c to remcmbct 11hat 1hc :---ew \\'01ld' "'"' like in lb~O: you coulrl ~m clltl w pinc~ lif't ~ milt-.\ out tu sea. Think of rolning- into ;, IH'II' place l~kc- th:tt anrl h:11'11 1 g the tttJcanny l'X ptriei1Cl' nf ntnning into a Patu'(et_ju$t b.trl.. from Luropt. (CiillniCI. 199~: 9 / )

. 1 , )rt';tcl o l bl:t< l.. 1 wopk 11 hit lt lt :t- t t''t tlted !1 e1111 ,, 'l'l ic, ol lnrcccl .1 ncl 1 glob.l . . 1 ,, 1-1tion, ) 1d1 iclt hi nd ' ltJgc ilH-r tlw bbcl.. l'l'"Jil<' ot \ !'rica. tl 11 .\ nwrir.t-.. 11 \'Ohtntat ~ n ' ' . . . . . . bhean ,tnd Lut opc nt .1 Ion~ 111,101' ol 111\l'l'l ultur,tl <nlllll'l 11011. f h1' h,l, th<' ( ..lt 1 . ,orkccl thn 111 gh th L' llo11, ., pt'nple. Hk.t'. lll!llll'l. "hlt't t' ancl llllhll J,,H k .tncl 1_'~1111 / ~ .~ tite .\tl:tJllic. 'l'l1i~ not uuh iudtlcll's tlll , ,1\-t' tradc h111 .ti ~., IH'l' )>Cthttt.tl \ ,tCI , . . 1 1 ) tl"t\l'JiiiW in tl1l' ntlll't ditl'( 111111 . I Jt, .tll{IIIIH'III 1' l l;tl llo lllll' p.lrt 11 l ll' agnatol' "' . . . . . l ' ro ilw 11 1IH'r Black .\l lantir t.l n he tlllfkl,ltH1tl IIJthotll ccJtt,l <kn ng. "' run tll'C tt cll_ '1 ' )111 , ,, i1hin tlll' dia'IJPI:t a ll n tlliJJ'c' .ut lt~ l mcl .111d .tll tlt c1r p 1odurt- are art' . p -c c ( '1 l1111 ,11111" tlti, m.u1\ tinll'' in hi' "ritin~' nn tht lllll,lt of tlll' hl.tc k S)'llCI 11 ' . . ' .. Jjr~ s pnt'n (C:i 1t m. 1\l!l:1). ll e <kr ai l, ho11 ' lllllsu 1 ,t1h fron1 Hn t;ttn :ti\(1 ptc el ucers !1 .. m e ' .. t ctn cu111c tcll''tthc r in ~c11 Y ot k to 111:tkc a r<'rurd ,,hid t 11'ill ht pl:twd in a . . Jaln.uc. " Caribbc:m club in .\l.tnchcstcr. fhc lin.1l produtt '' a prodtttt of tlw cll:t'por:t. !le gi,es 1he ex:u 11 pie- of r:1 p:

11

This m~an~ t hat the Nc\1' \\'orld en cottnt ~T <::111 IJc undcrstoocltwt as a ,ing uh1r 'culture contac t . or c.:1eu a 'cullluT rlash . bttt as the miugling of' h ~ blid ancl ~~ ncretic lrms of lral'el and ch~-cll i ug across tite Atlantic. lndttd , it i<. the ,,ay:. in which studic~ or thosc who l~ai'C' c n ss-cm~~e d 1he ocean lwt11een :\rrira. Europc. th c C:aribbcan and 1\onh :\menea change how ,,e tlti11k abou l the Joralion of cu lture 1h:n h;ne bcen dcH'Ioped 111 the II'Oik of Paul Cilroy (p. 166).

Rap i' a l11h1id fi.11tll toottd inthl' ''ttrt'('lir 'od.tlld,ttUJI' ot thl Soutlt B1onx ldll'l<' am<ticatt ,ottttcl-:-."lt'tll cttltllll'. tratt,pl.ttl lt'cl clttring- thl' 1070': ptll _ clo1'11 ttl''' nHII' 'aJJd in conj111H tion 11 ith ~JWl ilil tcCllltcllogic:tl II IHll':tt iOil\. stt 111 tt':ttll a J> l 'tiCc~~ 1il:tl w~ 10 trall.,lorm blat k .\tnl'l ira, St't1't' uf' it~dt a11d a lar~t propo11on ni lht popul.tr llltt~i c incht,ll'\':1'> wcll. ({.ilrm. 1\l!l:l;: ~~~~ )

\ )

4.6.2 1 Paul Gilroy's Block Atlantic

In a series or bu ok~ and anicles Pau l Gilroy ( 19R7. 1992, HJ!I3a. 199:1b) ha~ triccl 1 0 llll~lerstand issw..s oft he polit ics and culturt of race ancl racbm in Britai 11 (~ee ..J .Ui). ln do111g so he has arg ttccl thal in British politica llife (:tnd also in :\frican -.\me rica 11 black ll:tt innalism) th ere is a dangcr thinking of cultlll'l' o nh' in terllt-. of intc rnalll' hc"noge11ous and nati onall~ bounck-d uni1~: the ~o n o f pre~elll:uion of cuhu re ;s ddincd ll'ithi n thc natio n that dri l'l~ man~ o f' rltc t erri to rial!~ basecl fnrms o f natio na li'm ;~ml national idc ntit~ di.~c usscd in a pre1 inus section . This. he: arguc~ . is hoth raci t ~~H ~ lad.s to un der~tand blad. culture and t'X)><'ricnce lull} lxcanse it is opcrating ll'ith a l l ~ltne~l geographKal fo cus. r\s he ptlls ir : '''an1 w suppot'l lht idea that cultural h1stonans sho ttld takc the .-\1 lantic a' a 1n1i1 or an a lysi~ in thcir disn 1 ~~ion~ of the m~dc.rn ~~orld to prod uce a n explicitk tran .~national pnspt'c1i1c' (Gi lroy, 1992: 192). 1 lt ~ aun 1 ~ lo s tud1 tra nsatl:tntic intc:rconncctions. l'ltis follnws thc wavs tlta t Peler l.inc baugh ( 1982) and :\larc:m Rcdikcr ( J!JR7) h:w( u icd to IITite histo.ries 0 cightecnth-cenwn :-\tlantic cr~ssings a nd intern::uional COJ111Cetions: of the Atlantic 11o rking class: of lht ~ h1ps ai1CI sa1h ng rntttts lhat bouncl rhcm togcther; of the c:ommoditit:s that \l'l' I'C traclt:cl: a11d of tht poli1ical srrugglcs that nowcd back and fo nh across tite orean (~ce als~ l.incbaugh ancl Rcdiker. 1090). Btll Gilt 01 al so ha' hi~ 0\\ll paniwlar j)(' r'pec rne.

\\'c might al'n think about11 hat Ita' lwppe 1 H'clto tlti' :-.~ ncn :ti t nlltsic nu11 that tltl'se conneCiiom inmh-e Ca liforniath (CI]>It..'" Hill). Sou lhtnt black' (Snoop n ogh" Do~~: Arnstcd Dew lnpmctll). Haiti.1n' in :'\t'll \'urk (Tlw Fllg't'l'' ), lri ~lt . \merican ~ (l lo ust of Pai n) and British .-\~ia11 s (. \pal11 e lnclian). In tlw lattC't ca"~ wt ll tTd to btgin lo tl1i11k whatt h l' tlll't COtliH'tli01_1of d i.t,por:' lliC.lll<>::tnd the .\''o'~' in."h~(h Britai.~l i~ lot:~ll('C,l in. rclation tu tlte\c lll'hnd nHl tll'Cltom ( BaL k. 1~~~lb). 11 u r1.t 111h llll .111-. th.il .111~ 'etlnt ically a h'olu ti ~~ uot ion' of' Bri 1ish or European e: u lurn Ita,.,. to he r;tdica ll ~ re' istd:
[T] he cw n pkx plt tt.di~m ol' l\1 itain s inncr urhat1 s trel' t ~ dcmnn.-. r<1ll'~ 1h :11. a mur tg thl' pool. l'ia i HH<lll' ~~ ttCI'l'Il (li'Oet'dltt l ' ' .tll' Ultcll' J'\1,1\ , Jj, '> 11\ll \lll)lll' i_lllq.~~-aliOII. bttl a co 1 ttpkx non-lint'ar plwtwnwnun. Eath Ullllihttllltl' dttnc:lll '' thcli 11.111\: furm cd in ll ll'ir co1tti 1 1 g tCJg'L'thc r. Thc bkido~copit forn 1 ,ttio 1 1 ~ ul u am-r:tl'l.tl cultural ,llll'l'l'ISlll Hl't !:(10IItl).\ tl.ti fy 111nrl' cletailtd and mort lwa util'ttl. (( :ilnll . 1!l!l:~a: 1O l l

or

\\'ha t he dncs i~ lo consickr the moti: . \ 1/rwlit ( 1 9~1:~1>) . or tht .-\frican dbspora (tht

--

T ll(se co1 11 plcx rd < ll innsh iP' - prod uci 11 ){ 1tt'll' hyhrid fo 1 TII' :t~ carh clt-111l'ill ~ tramfirmtd ;..; tht'l nm n crt - are un cler~tood ancl t'XJtTitnced ITI'I clifferenth' b1 1 difTcrcn 1 1 wopk ancl d irfe n: nl ~ocia! grnup,. \\'e nccd ro tltink abnut ho11 people 1 dif'ftr i11 I(:'I'JllS of ilt l'i J' loC :ttOIIS (ol' j>OSilOIIS) \l'ilh J'l'~j>l'rl lO t iJ('~( ' gloiJ;t l-scalc cultural fl o11-. ancl rouncnions hcc:n1 ~e ol r.tc:c. e la'' RC nckr. ;;exualitl. agt' and - , cthnicitl'. This " illnw.m 1hinkiug abo tll diaspor;p,, tht intcrsertinm betllt'L'I1 dilf'L'rent j dia~por lc cultttres. ;t11d rlt e ''''" ' in 1dtid1 we :tll - ,,-htl htr ll'c lt<ll't' mig ratecl or 1101 lil-e in a 'dia-.porit: ,pace' w lt o~e 'mi.rl ancl cultural nlation' .liT -.haped h~ thL' ~t' procc~~ts (lktl1. JmHi). One J)t r~on 11ho h a' tnn,icleled tlti' i--.ut ni tnratiolh. ,,i1hi~~ [ glob;tlisa tinll in rc la tion lO IHJII' l dtall_:l'S C) llt' tiiHlcr, t:tJ Hiing' or cu ltu l'l'. :-.pace a n ~ plan , Don,n ~ l o~-.-t'l.

Topog raphi es or cuiLure: geography, power and represenLalion

178 lntroducing cultural Studies

179

4.6.3 1 Doreen Massey's 'Global

sense of place'

T lwre art a ,.,trictl' o( diffcren t \l'al,. in 11hich \\" L' <.111 1hink .tbotll utltnre and llk global ~ca k. \\'e: ca n look a l lw11 t ll t g lobe it,ell h a' l>tTII n:plt'Wnlrcl in dilft'IL'Ill ro ntcxts ( Co,~rme. 199 1J nr ll't r: 111 .1 rg ttt' :1 bu ttl ldlt'tllLt g loha l t Olll tn Ull ica t ion' are p1 oduring ...omel h i n~ '' L' <ou ld t ,tll ,1 g-lob:1l rul 111 rt. \\ h .ll I\'L' ll':tll l 1.<> el<> il t'll' i~ 1<> lo<> k ;11 1h e 1\"llrk uf llw'c 1d10 h aw arg u ed 111.1111 ha1 11e llt'ed 111 unde1,l.IIHI a 1e a 'u ie~ ni g loba l c ulturts (itl 1he pi mal) and .1 'L'l o r protX~\L'' ol globali'ialion (p. 1:1~1\. he\ .lrgnc th.tl lli L \\" !JIId is n nt bvco min g 1110rc liotnogtfH Hh (,1, lhe p rophe t' of IIIOdtlni~;uion and .\mc liCnni,ation arg u ed in tlie l!l:'l lh) but th a t t lll''L' intnto ni H'ctitHh a n making- it mo1c cli!f('r. L 'llli,\led. \\lli)t thi~ j, 1101 a lll'll pJll'IIOilll' llU II ( \ \'aJIVP>ll'ill ( 1 ~1 7 1) cJalL'' lhl' clt'\'l' )OJ>Ill{"nl ola rapit:tli '>t 11o11d " 'lt' llll o 1he liltttntil nnlllll. ;llt d .\bu -L tg-hod r 19:-\\1) traces Olll' 1hat Lxi ... wd ill'lon l ha1 ). i l 111.11 1}1' '"1rkin g l h roug l1 di 1 ll'renl pro rcs.~t~. \\'L. cm cvna inh SL'e thal tl w 'illlalion h a, rhaii).!;L'd 'inu thL hh l rellllll~. \\'_a re 1101 now txpnie n ci 1 1g p ro r l'~'i l'' ofg lo ha Ji,a ti<>n clrilt'll lll tht daillh ol powululllatitllhlates. ln fan t))l' 'ilUalillll i' CJlli ll' till' COII tran. iltl lt,ll 1\'l' are :.ni11g til t' b rtakdo\\11 Of111 .tll\ nl th e t lo~l' ~~ I.Hion,hip~ ht ' lii~L' II c111tu r;d idl' nli l\' .u td tht: I J ;Hiun~t;tlt'. \ ll t' \\' lllnnatOIIal clili,ion ol lahtHil. IH'II' lollll\ ni ndtm;d pwclut 1ion (li.t (.:'\:-\ . .\ ITY allCI sa1ellite ltmaclra,li ng). tW\1 poli tit.ll loma ... lt'.g. tltt E111 opea n L n ion l and 11t'l,. t t ndtT~ tand i ugs t1J" t' CO ) O~t'; J illltrd l'Jll' lldc tH't h.l\l' c haiJLIl~l'cJ lht JlOIIL' f o(' t) lt' ll:lli!lllSI:Ill' a 11d CfC .ued a t' l il lll ra l gct~gra pll\ tltm tlol'' 111 H 111atd1 i1' lmrdtr' ( 1lall. 1!Hll. :u1d h a t ht'l \lonc. 1!1!)0). In l'l'SJillil .' l'. in lll:tll\' pan ... nf tlw mal'id . tlt mc 111111 f'l'd lhrc.lll'llecl h~ tht~e t hangc ... hall' nH: t thtnt "ith .1 rtstrg cnCL' .. r II :Jtiollali'm ( jo llllson . 1!l~l:1). To undt-r,t.md 11h.11 i' goi n g 1111 \\'l' nnd 111 t n Hivr~t: m cl tite f1.,1,., and intnto nlll'llOII' of llllllll'l. woph-. it11agt''- .md Ull lllllnrlitie,. . \, 1 111i1c thi' 1 .1111 11 ca ri ng a II" <Hdt mad c in tht Smi_t L'1tiun 1dll'11 i1 , ,JI ''a' lh l' c;;mitt l'nion. \hm, madc in thc l' n itl tl St< ll l'~. a 'h in lll:tCit- in tiH' L'n ittcl Kin gclo111. l r<llhtr, hom Sing-apon aiiC) tnHkrl,tar fr11111 llong Ko ng .. \nrl tl 1:1 t i~ o11h- 11"11at tl w lahl'l' tdl me . \\'hcn thc 111awriaJ,. thc 11orker' < nHI 1lw capit:t l Clll ll ' lrom. 1 do not ktwl,. \\ 't' llt'L' cl to ,t,k ollr'dll,Janw' Clillonl'' CJIIL''tioll: ll'lto :u1d 11 h.tl i.; tr< IIL' iling .t n d lww~ \\'e a l ~o n tecl ltJ 1 )(' altc nti H 10 how 'dilltnnt 'oc ial gnliiJl' a11d clilhn .> nt indi1 id11als :~re plarLd in lt'IY rli., li nn 1,.,t, .., in rl'la1ion to tlll''e (Jtl\\, ancl IIIL'I Conlll'U ion< ( .\la ...... t ~ l!l!l l : 2.1) . rhcl l ' i' a g l l':tl rlj f( l'l"t' llt'l' bt' lll" l'(' ll itlllTIIaliOII <L i hll'illl''-' JWOp lt- ,\lid l l'fll~('t:~ .111d ho\1' thl'l , :-..w1 itnct :tl1ll 'i111.tgiue t ite g lnha l and tllt"'e g lu ha Ji, ing prnct''-'t:'. 1t i' aJ,u hy lll tde r... t.md i n~ t lt t'\l' p o , ilion ings that liT can IJt'g in lo ll ltdvrswnd plan, lt a lllllt h 1iclttr 'l'll,l'. \\'t: (,111 bq~ill lll \l'l' hLJII t)H' 1111iqucnes~ oJ' :1 11\ pl;~n 0111ci it~ lo caiOil II'thin lltll r h widt'l p1 o cl'~~L~ art coll lll'lll'rl in a11 tlllcler,t:~ncling ol 1h:tt placl' ll tl t "'a hotll tcil'd l' ll lll bt tl "' < LII III L'I''ec ti oll or thl''l' lltm.... Dol't't'll ~1<1'\l'\' ( l \1!11 ) ll~t' ' th e tx;llupk o( Kilh ut 11 ll i~h '->liTc t in l .ondon tn clclllCJil,tratt tite 111 bricli11 .111<1 ~~ ll('l'eli-.m of thi ... l'H' I ~(l;l\ loralitl - IOIIlll'cl Olll uf tl tl' coming ltJgtthl'r' of a \'<II'l' l ~ or n lll\l l't''a 11rl1o ,Jum ho11 thi~ ~loha l 'l' ll ~t ul pl.tn ' L... ;1 pmgn:s~ ilt ~l' ll 'l' uf p lace wltic ll :11o id' cldC. n,il c a nd e xdu!-ion an cldinitioll~ of pl.u t ,t ncl utllun hec;tll~c thtl c:11111ol be ~ ll, l ainvd in :1 ll'tH icl 1dllrc undtr,t:ntclin g .1 pl.ttt IIIL'.tll~ IIIHkr... landing ih et lltn ct tiun 10 l ol ill'l pl:tl'l'' ( (or .uto ll ll'r Il'll. ~l't' .\l.tl , 1 9~Hi ).

1 h llotion' ol l't' ll :Hitilul \lhtl ,\l l' ll\itlg [() l 1 1111" l llllll).\_ brid d i't 11' 'ioll trit'' of lll'll' '' ,1\' ol ThiS . tlo\\ . hd>l idit\ .In el '\llCit'li,lll hq?,lll ' \ti npt'll 11)> 1 ' . . cofllll'CIIOII. 1) . . l ' l l 11 t\ltlll illu- till' ( olliJ>k-:ill ll( lht 1\0IId ').\l'll\!l'aph1L'' TI .,..tle t 111 ' 1' u " ' "' 1 1 thinking. H . .' 1 11 ' tlllllll" h ratllt r th.lll ,illing till'lll ,,1. 1 1 l lt' Jii'XIlll'' o l Cll llll l' lO , ll' ., . J . J . JI and th e ttHIIII . 1 1 11)\tll<iI,.,L., lltc ir ill,h tc nn !lt:l l all ru lltliL'' are lnbttc .tnc ' . . 'lrtl 11.' 1<\ . . 1 iiiiJO~ I\IU II O ' . tll 'll 1\'l' Jnn 111 lll' ll lll l' h lllUI'C' ,\llL' II ll\" 1' l O 1 1l . Chlt 1, "ll'l' ~\ lll' IL' lll lllt ,\11 ' ' ' . l l ( tl)llfl'o l i J)l e) . . . ) \ )1'1\l' bttn IIJ ) lllllil IHI\1. 1 hl' ~l'L igl ;tp 1\ 11 1 ' ~ ,, lllll' l lllllnl'l lll lll ll.lll \ l ' . .. gcograp fl t . . 1 1 uinu e llhnn, lmt .lllnutundei'I.IIH ht l~ thl' tolllltttlon' 11111 ot' i n ot 'nllp 1 1 > ,., . 1 1 t 1lll'n 1 1 . 1 . 11 Ir 111'' tnd tltt hol<ltl ' .tlld hoiiiH .trtl'' l 1:1 'o t Cll1lllft' ' )L'OJ>k IIH p ,\(l' \1 lll ])CI\\TCI1 I ' , Ollf 'III<I JI'-. e~( Cllillii'L'. (1 (' 1 lll l
u(
;

.4 4.6

l conclusions

....--

4. 71Conclusion\ sep~ration and connecti o~bl: . . .

. .. .

1 r. IH' "''l dilkH'IIlt'' ht'l\ll'L'n ,, h eiT lhi' c h aptt-r ,;ncd ancl ,,htlt ll In sollll' ,,~' ' ll' t . . 1 . 1. l ' tlll htllntn ~eo~rap lll' l ca nltol lw a lllllid 11' IU (" 11 ) <:;ttll'l o; d t( ,ll.lllllll l , ' ' cnch. Rtca 11 ,., . . 1 . . '" \Cih ldl'lt 'ht nr lw It a~ to he ro lll l' 111 . . . .. 1'. ll lll llllltolll\"\\<l\ ' ll.tll' l." ' . ....... IOIIrLSl lllL'< IIIO. ll o l f\ ll l)!. ' ) ) ) O IIH' lllt' l't''llll )!. . 1 . . '. " hit'' ( tllltlll i" lt \\('llllg 11 ,1 ,o ..... ' ' ordcr t o tt iHkl ~ t: II H 1 I' II!II ' DJ...~U,.,li .'. " . , Y l in o tll t' t ""' \ll' h alt' . 1 1 . 1' . ll tl',l''- .tiHI Hleolog tl'' ul liHIII'III . t . . quc~u on~ a >O IIl t H < 1- 1 1 ' Ilio n lllll "' ltl u n <k t,t.ltld <.pau,. \ 11 '.,. ' (\t\LII"IOI\\ tl )!; el ),1 1'' . 11.1tt 1 1. conw lt1 1 . ' ' t . . liH''- linthdtltillthtm. and tl ll' ,,;, 11 d n>e' in"~~~ lh.tl an ~l'll'lll\l' lll 111 L . 1 place~ ;llll .111 ' . l 1 \\'1 . t thi o; clnlll'l' Ita~ ll'L'CI tu , )llll,. i' ~O IIIL' e1 l IL' h n Snter hu utll t:C te 1< 11 l.t ' ~Oilll'l 1 ung l . . . . .. 1 . . ncl c u lLUI'l' are ini (T\1" 0\T II " ' . 1 . 11 'lllL' Il Lt ll11 l< 1 ll oll' <'l og t .tp 1\ .t - 1 wal'~ i11 II'IIIC l S ll P :._ . c- l ..._ ~ . .- . . )JLJ\\Tl' ancl IIH':111i11g , 1011 0 10 ) . )' . . ' JI ._ 11Pht be 11li'Ollg 1 111\l ' 1 ,.,. 11 . . . ' . sll~pmg_~IIJl l ~ L' ti 11 ,., 1 . . , 1 l'111tlc I)Jt, ron , icln;uion' o l Hknll ll --..:, . (" . . '1 . 11r 1 H' p llllllJi u t J ' 11 throu gll tlw n ;lllllllg ~llt:l ~ ' . "' \ . - .... or tnrin tlw traii'>OlL'.llliC 1 ki w ol utlll lll~ :lll< Llllp1h ' ' ,., . d In gL'IIl' lal. . . .. all<l rcpr~.,tntallllll 111 lll' m.1 1 .-. ' . .- 1 1d 1idt llt'\1 cultural prm111<1' 11 1 1 m u 1t flo"' :lile\ rtlllllt'nton' "11 lnl . . .. 1 . . . 1 iu <> thmtl l)tHlt SL ' )Jaratitlll an d . 1 lk 1 l ll illll'l.' ... gt:og t .tp IIL " '' IL "'' lhl'rc fore . \\'l' tlll)!; ll i<L . a ltlll L . . 1 . .. . . 1 h irh 11\ ea ning ' ;ll't' tnadc. ick llt i . l l. . 1 tii Hkr,nllclll lg t IL 11.11' 111 ' COn ii L'CllO I\. li S 11 1\'(1 \l'~ ' . ) . . J . c\thl<lll") tlll' dual pron~~l'~ of . 1 1 .. 1 den rclauolb liJl' ,II L 111 ~< "' . . tll ll t:~: IIT I"Il 'Hll'( <llll Jllllll i.L ,1 \ ' IK'll:l) . 1 1 e ., ' lnns tnd lan<bca pl'' ''~ ~nllll lO' ' c p.11'~1l ion - l he ,clung a p an 11 p .t .l . 1 .'. . . .. . , IJIIC''' m el ickllt i 1<'~ an ah~< ll s . 1 ' 11 . 111 \1 11< 1 IIH.llllll' ' ~ ' c\iltt' ITill- .tnd COillll'lltUII-1 ll' 1'' ' "

w:_

J
J

ti t.'d up 11itltotll' a nntht J'. . . . tcl nlilliiT . 111 d nlitura l . . . . . . thinkill" (1( IHII,. \l'l' \I IH1L'l' 1" . lhHn g tiH ' prollli'-L' 1 IL "'. . . L' r1 r 1. 111 tti 11 u n li ttll't thrn ttgh ll~ ' . ( Jl v iiii\' JdO.t l)>llll<tll l'X t'l'L'IW . 11 lo. n ' wll ich I\'OII1e1 m;l"t ' ti ; u . . . lrt>tt r 1h.tl l\'l' might . .. d nt tl ,\1 th t lwglllllllll!: o 1 11 "' 1 .' , 1 . , llf ol ntltlll';ll rreogr:t phtl'' ~uggt 't'. 1' ll ( ponl 11 "' . l'fl .. , tnd Ctllll l''l :llllll l~ lll.ll llll"l 11)> l ll 11 lhm-.. )>o,iloll'> .111<1 lul.ltiolb. bc\l co111 tpluah,t tht l 1 l'ltiH l . J J 1\1 ' l IJlhtll ..tlf IL'I ralll'>. 1 )OI ( 1 ll ' . . 1 , r ultlll t' _ :tll o11 us tu thi11k sutclie~ 111 t t'rtll~ u -.paua L . J J h l\"l' (() J)l' ' l'L' Il <h \1,1\, ll 1 l 1 llllll'll ).\ Thc c lt'I LII' - " II C ' . . . . . , a n d lr.l<>ltll'lt l at iun ~ ol c ultltn mor<: ;Hkquatdl'. thmug h :Hiel I'L"Jli'L'' l' lllthL dlll t llii( L . "'. . J . 11 ln tl'"l''- llll' w;t\ in wltidl l,c 1 rdlltOII ' tln t ll 11 1\ CI \t.:' l ' ,., . ) am\ ;tl ~o tltt dllltrtllll:t poli U . .: ., In )ll'l' 11 ,1, al"' ,IHIIII1 thatlhi' i..: 1101 1 1 11 think .tbont t 111t11rv :md lllhur:~l '-lll tlil'' h l. l '1

~tud ic~~

,
180

lntroducing Cultural Sludies

chapter

a lllillll'l ol ')>ati.d IIH'l,tphm ' 11i' ,J,o .1 nlillll'l of iliH''I l{<ll ing ~pares. place<, :llld I:Jtldscq)l, - Hal .111<l imagi nl'd - lor ll"llaL thtl Clll tel l "' ;~l>cn 1L 11lc dilltTl'lll ""'in 1d1ich lllc::lnin~s .111d po"er an tied lo){L'Ihl'r in <lill ell'lll ~i111:nion-;. 1 1 is up 1o 10u hOII'L'I'l' l . ll'llt'lfll'l" IU11 ill'l' fll ()f'l' ("C H11' IIl'l'cl 1 >1. J'cf' l'X,IIIl)>ll' . l ' XfJl<tiiOilCIII' li l:t l I;'Otk 1111 ou~h 1hto ie' ni' idcology (p. ~ 11 01 1hoM' 1ha1 dcplm nc t intl' ol discoursc (p. :~O). llldl'l'C I. then i-. mucll ll'ctrk ' lill lo he do1w i11 tracing illl' ,,a~, in ll'llicll gcog~<lphicaJ rq)n''l'lllatinn\ .ntcl i111.1l{in.11i1e ).{t'ct{1.tphie' :1rc 111ack :nHl ,hapcd in dillercnl pm1crladtf1 ron tcxt~. Tfti, chapte1 lt :1' 11 il'clto ~tt 0111 'OIIIt' ot lht too!' 11 illt ,,hich 1h.11 ca11 he done. llwn are .d~o othcr qnc,qinns 11hirh :11c beginning 10 lw addre~>'t'd. TlH lu tHre clitcnicm ol cultural g-ogtaplll' -;t't'lll 10 lie in tllinkin~ through tht rcbtion,hips IWI\\'een the ~~mbolic and tlw matnial. T his 1 11can' 11101 ing : 111al' from s1rugg lcs that are n mccil'l'd a' hcing onl~ o1'Cr 1epre'L'11latinn ancltht politirs of imagc cu la nguag<' 10 1he ,,a~.~ in ll'hid1 material ol ~jc c t -; .111<1 111ate1i:1 l ~oc i a ! rei:llions art al ~o mau<: rs for cultural ~111dic' (lor cxamplc. ~ l :nll'". 19\Hi. and ~litrhell , 199.'1). Thir. has imohTd cartful consideratiu11 or. for l:'X:IInplc. 1he "'" 'S in whi cl1 wlla1 hacl prl' l' i011~ 1 1' hel'll qucstiom of e< ononlics (t'.g. cothlllil)>lion or corporate m1{an i'a1ion) an nm, seen to bt cultural q u<stions. lt :liso i11\'ll ll'c.~ a l'tldiral I'Cl hi11 ki ng 11f' tlie wavs in ll'hich 1he snn bolic and 1he material come tngethc in o11r rdationr,hip~ to natlll'l' and tcchnology (Li1ing!>tone, Hlfl:'i; ll ar<ll\'ily. 1~~~!1: LaLOIII'. l m>~~). Again , thl'Sl' question~ are being comidertd in 1\'tli'S that connect the local and tlw global ancl sngge~t that ho11 1\'C unclcr~tand cnltnr~'s ,l{l'ographics a lter~ tlw "ays in ll'hich ll' l' th ink aboutt he llorl<l ancl o11r po~ition in it.

~imph

Culture, time and history

5.0 l lntroduction
In this chapter we discuss time and history as cultural formations. By this ~-ve_ mean. that our temporal and historical perceptions are constructed through culture. Thts 1s an tdea that as a linear p~ogress1on of ev:nts; and (b) challenges two common-sense assumptions: (a) history_ time as objectivel mechanical dock time. Both assumpttons are relat1vely recentl datmg from the period known as modernity (p. 400) which covers ~pp~oxin:ately the_~ast 400 ye~rs. Both simplify temporal experience which, on closer exammat1onl ts not umfted bu.t vanous. For examplel time is perceived differently under different circumstances. lt wlll go qutckly ~hen w_e are enjoying ourselves drag when we are bored. In a diffe~ent. but related sense, htstory 1s experienced differently by different social groups. The v1ct~r s _h1st~ry ls not th_ e same as .the history of the defeated. There is not one history, but many htstones, ~st as there ts not one ltme but many times. Both a temporal sense and a historical sense are achtevecl through culture. Our perception of time comes with the culture in which we live. A history can~ot be ~etached from the culture in which it is produced and received. As we shall see_ belowl 1~ 1 s only tn t_h~ last 250 years that there has been a clear distinction between tales or stones and h1story as a d1st1nct form narrative that attempts to represent the truth of pasl events. As cultural forma_tion~~ time a~d 0 history are subject to the issues of relativism, meaning, value, po~~er ~nd c~nflict d1 scussed m Chapter 1. Time is experienced differently by different cultures. lt ts 91~:n dtfferent values and meanings in different places and at diHerent historical pedods. The ~b1hly to control ou~ own time or that of other people is a matter of power and confhcts over time occur at homel tn the workplace and in the wider political arena. . . . In this chapterl we have split the discussion of time and h1s,tory _mto. ~~~ee secltons. Now 1Then' and ' lf/when' each of which corresponds to one of the tnparttte dlvtstons of time _ 1 nto the 1 present the past and the future. Beginning with some common preconceptions about ttme and history ~e move towards a more complex argument about time and difference and htstory and
1

R e-cap
Cultural geography is an important part of cultural studies. Questions of culture help us to understand the ways in which spacesl places and landscapes (and their representations) are laden with meaning within varied relationships of power and resistance. Questions of geography help us to understand the ways in which culture is differentiatedl fragmented and contested through processes of both separation and connection.

Furlher reading
Differenl sorls of introduclions lo the new cultural geography are provided by Peter )ackson in Mops of Meoning: An lntroduction to Culturo/ Geogrophy ( 1989) - who draws on cultural malerialism - and Pam Shurmer-Smith and Kevin Hannam in Worlds of Desire, Realms of Power: A Cultural Geography (1994)- who provide a more poststructuralist inlerpretation. Kay Anderson and Fay Gale's edited collection lnvenling Ploces: Stud1es m Cttlwral Geogrophy (1992) and james Duncan and David L ey's Place/Culture/Representotion ( 1993) are selections or essays that use a variety of perspectives to address a wide range ol geographical subject matter. For a general diswssion ol changes in cultural geography, see linda McDowell's essay 'The transformalion of cultural geography' (1994).

difference.

181

182 lntroducing Cultural Studies

Culture, Lime and history

183

Learning objectives
To learn about the relationships between time and culture and history and culture. To learn about conllicts over time as they are mediated through culture. To learn about history as a cultural rormation . To learn about issues of conflict and difference in cultural history.

5.1.1 1 Modernity
The h i, torira l ptriocl dt,cribed ,1\ Jllocktll is ll'uall1 dl'lillL'cl ,1\ bl'ginn in g' .11 th t t'tHI ol tlw ;\ liddk .-\ g't~ .llld , \.tricllt'-h <lat<'d lront tht Rl'form;Hinn. tht lt ali.m Renai"ance o r d lt' I'\t' of t'< tpita l i ~ lll in tlt t placl' ol it'ucl;t lbnt. .\l lc a~ l !-i),. puillls l :tll ])(' lll:td<' aiJulll
11 wdc1lll\

and ih '>l'll~t ol timl':

1. \\'h ill- prl'mocl L'rn ]>t' ITc ptio ll.'

o[ till l' ar t' u ltl' ll r ha ra t tnis<'d (1101 a l11; ~s co rrc tt ll') a' circ ul a r. tlt L' mod t ttt s< ' ll'l' i' linear. 1\'th a pa~t. a prt''t'lll ancl ;a fnt llrt'.

~. In the mO<kl'll pn iod tht ht~tmo nit culture of tinw has btTil mcchanical clnck

5.1

Now: modernity and the present

tillH'. :\. fltt' ntodetn 't'lN.: ol time i' t haracttri,ed h1 a heiglllt' llt' d 't'n~c ni' thc pn''L'lll. whirl t \ \';tl te a lk n j;n nin rallcd nolltimc. ' e' that o ut ,n~e of time btcomc<. IIHII't' o p tJt-L' ncle d . a tinH o l' pos,i bilit l'.

In th i' '>t'Ctinn 11c look <ll nu a sc n't' ol th l' p t t'\l'lll. \ \'c ' lt{J.{l''l tha t th t co n cept o l th e prt~ttll is a l't'htliHII l'l'Ct'lll illl'l'11li o tl. lt i ~ ,, >rodu t 1 o ! m o d e t nitl'. a ro n ct:JI th :u ll't' luuk :11 hdoll'. Thl' nw<k-rn 't'n't' ol' tillll' ha-, nnique t haractt't ,,e,'' hit h dilltntlliatt it l'nun pntttod crn [>t'tTeptiono; ol ti tnt. 1101\l'l't'l'. tl tt' m o d tt 11 sc n st uf tin w i .~ 1101 llll( ( lfl)l ; l l'tllll;til \ 11 dil'l'I'S I \ o (' c(j(fl' t'c n t pt'IH'p ti o tl \. :\o t onh do 'O II II' p t t'l lloclnn 't'll\l'' of tinte (KT-'i't. hut dillncnt ,ocia! ,:{niiiP' ha~t dil'krcnt uncltt 't ;mrling' ol tht tilllt' or m nde ani tl', Fi ru. hc>ll't' l'e r . ll't' tllttS ll'l'Cog ni ~t th at it , d ill ic ullt o thi 11k o ttr., dl't'' cHll o l' o tt r (11,.11 t'll ltun: o l time. Succt'" with this matl!lt'IIIT<' ht ing" a 't' mt of' cld:unili.u i,arion .tkin ro th ;n gai n t'd b1 reaclin g a llc tio nal acto ll lll ol' 1ime tran l. \\'c .: ll'll. like \\'illiam ;\lor ri,s titllt' tr:ll l'llt'l' in hi ' n o l'l' l .\'1'i11l jm111 .\'m, !t('ll' ( lirs t p ub li , hccl in 1 X9 1) ~ t r i p pc rl l>a rl' of t:ll'l'\' habitual tlwu gh 1 ancl \\'al of at tin.( ( :\1m ri,. 1~IHti: 2H6-7). Thr ca,ic~t nwt hod i~ th rottgh a ro mparison witlt a 11 o tl wr n tlutn\ 'L'IlSe o f time: hut su ch i' ota r imtstmcnt tt o u ro11n ll' lllpura l stme th :ll th e ro nll'<tSl ca n be clcrtptilc. h t' I'C is ;ut Ol't'l'whd 1ning de,in to impo~C' 0111 m,n 1ie1' oftinw omo thc othcrnrhurc. 'oth.ll tlw othcr tcnporal st n ,c is di \lo rt t' d . Di f fn t' n l 1('111po ra l s< n 'iC'\ an so un<~ o f Cl tltur;ll conll ic t. T l w poll'e l' to lllaktotht l'' conlmnllO ~o nr titn t' i ~ a \'ital pa n of' any f'o rtno f',oci<t l co n tro l. In tht modetn world tite htgemonic or dominan\ tint<' , llll'C hanic.tl doc k time. E1er~ pan ol' <Htl' lil'es i., dil icl<-cl tll" hour,. ninuLL '' and ~econrls. Tina is l' tll i'aged as a tas!...nta'tc r. \\'e ha l'l.' lo kccp ttp ,,itl t it. \\'t \\'o ul cl li ke lll OI'l' o fi t: but 1\t' ratinn ittu make surt' t hcre i~ l'IIOUgh 111 go nlll ll cl. Tlw hegcmo n\ or llll'Ch.ulical el oc k t illlt' lllt'<lll' tha t it , difliru lt ., im agi ne o th c r kimh o l tim e: h111 nwc hani ca l clo ck titn t is a rt l:uinh rcn' lll cll.'no lo;llll'tll . lt clatt~ l'rnm tl tc carel'u lh ordtnd rou tin l' olnHna!'tic lift in t h~ ;\ lic\clle Ag e,. ll'httt cach p.ut of tlw chll' hatl .1 d ilftnJH ta' k alloue<lto it. .\ k c hanira l t lock-. II'L' I'l ' liro; U't'd ron,i s tt' nll~ Lo orckr lil'c in m o n ;l,ll'l'it'' makin g f'nr a str;lllg'l' nHllhinati Ott o f' ' acrtd a n d ll tt'c h a n ical 1im e ( Zt'ru ba~t l. 1\lH~) .. \ n objtct iw. ,cient i lit :-t'll'l' ol' tillH' becanw the nmm in thl w1iocl knm1 n " moclt t n it~. Sut h i, tlw compltxil\ of m ude rn . ind11qrial soc i e tic~ that mct h<nlic tl t loc k titn t i~ neCt'S'a n li1r thC' cuo rdi n atiotl of' th l.' largc ll ltlllbl'r' o l' di fk rt' lll " ''k' that hall' to bt done. L.argt. pol\'l'l'fnl organisation' likc ho~pita ( ,, hii\ilt' "l'' and goH'I llllll'lll' could not optr:llt' 11 itlwu t it (Ze rub;wt'l . 1!17!1). T ite hi ~ to rica l j)l'riod in 11hi r h t h i ~ p c accpaion uf ti lll t' h;" ro1 1H' ro d o minatt' i,.; knoiiTt a' mocltn titl .

.J. T ht umdt 'l ll ~<'ll'l' ol timt ,global in h impatl.

f1. lt. i' pulltrf'ul. und crn alling Jrtmoclc-1 '1 1 ntl ltln s of' ti lll t'.
ti. Dl''pite ib htgl'tnulll. tlll tnockrn 'L'll't' ot' time , lHH all-mll'l'l'ful. 1'1 cauodtnJ con re ptinn' ol time pe1~,, in ano<k rn itl. Dillcrctll ~ocia ! gro u p' cxpl'rit'IH'l'

dil'l't l't' llll<' lll(JOral 't' nsc;; ll'itltin modnnit~ In the folltll\ing- stniono; wc look at thc de1dopmcnt o! tlw modern ~l'll'l' of tillll'. \\'t l'xaminc tlt t homog c11ising dkct ol indttst ria ltimc and tlll't' lt;ani ra l r l11ck tim t: 11<'''' tlt e 1 a tt l'lnpt tu l'l'a' c c;ul itr ,ariotl' ~l'll't'' o l tilllc. \\'t t lt tn look al th t parado:- o f' mockrn timt: thl' ''"in whith. dt,pitt tite honwgeni~ing l'fkct o f indmtrialtimt. tlt'\1' ancl di lli. tT nl
pl'r~ pc n iws

t' IIH'rge .

5.1.2

Task-based time and industrial time

In hi' e;.'>al 'Tinw. ,,ork-discipline a11d industrial capitali,m' (in homp<.on. 199 1l. the hist ori;an E. P. Thompso n (p. \Hi) ci('~CJ ilws tl w l'ha n gt'' in tl' m pnral IIIHil' r"l:tncli ng that n rn trre d i11 tlw m ode n1 >l'ri o d . !l e IJl'g ills ()1' ll\ing t'<l lltpa ri ~o n ' ll'itll otlwr cullllr<'' 'taniug with the famoll' accotull by tltl' authropologi't E.F.. 1\an,Pritchar<l or tlw t't lltt ll't' o l tl H' :'\u e r . a p:l~ I O t-;d j)t'np lc lilillg in Suda n ('l'l' 'L'CtO II '2. 1. 1). llll' i'\ u t t di,idl'cl tit e cl.11 lll <l u11its llll':t'll rl' cl h1 tlt l' ll'lll'k pa tte l'll iln po, t d h1 lt' l1ding ca u k : ]le cl.til ~ tinw-pk-cc , lln t;llt ll'-c ln r k ... 1.1king o f' tlll call k ll'c>lll 11~ 1 \' lo Kl';c ;d. m lkiug. cli,phll' ul' ,outh' 11i th th tit o't'll. dJiling ol tite .tdctlt ltnd lo pa-.rut.l).\l'. mlking of rhe goa" .uHI <hctp. clr1 ng of tht lluck... and t.lht, ro P''llln'. tlllcl'llil).(. clc.1n ing , r h~n ;en el kraal. cil'l ing ,,r cltmg Jud. hn cli llJ..\ in tlt t p:~ sttt l 'l' '. hrin g-ing lliJillt' cJf tl lt' llcc " ' a 11d cth't'' rc tlll tl ,, th c ad u l1 h .. rd. ( 1-\ ;ub -l't itrh.II'Cl. 1\J:l!l: '2071

Tlw moclern industri:tl c nltu n of I llll' di,cipli llL i' cli!li.rt lll in im p ortan! l't' ']Wt 1 ~ to
that o l 1h e prt-indu,lt'ia l w riod . \\'lt tna ' prtlio usll 1\'0 I' k h acl lwe n la' k orie n ta ttd. that i' judgtcl h1 tht ltngth of time it tonk 10 dn ' partiutlar ta~k. the nlll<lt'rn pt' l iod

184

lntroducing Cultu ral Sludies

Culture, time and history

185

s:111 1\'0rk blcom c syste J11:11 i<.e d in lo d i ~ci pli n ccl 1111 i t' m ea~u r~cl by weeks. cla~s . h our~. minute ancl ~econds. Th o mp~on g i,c~ otlwr examplc' ol time nJ c asur tme n!'- likt th c time it takt~ to rook riu: , lhl'd in ~lad aga snu. a n d tim ing a n egg b' eci 1ing a n ,\,e 1\la ria' in se,en lcenth-ceni iJ ry C hile (T homNl n, 100 1: ~ .'i~). T h esc exa mples d e rn onstrmc thc rclathc nu\'e ll ~ of doc k time. ll'hic h o 1ll ~ .{1 -adua lh' a"t-rtccl i1' h ege m o m iu Europe front 1hc fo u1 tlTnth tTntiiiY om,ard ... This dominance 1\'a' l'acililated. h\' tcchnolog ical inno ,miom in clock maJ..ing a nclthe g~ 1dual iu c reas<. in tlw mme rship of perso n a l clnck' a n cl 1\'llc lws: b111 th e r h:u1 ge ll'a' :1s rnurh CJdll! ral as tcclmologit'al. Th c po~scss i on o l a cloc k or 1\':llch "'"'a sy111bol n f' a cli~r iplin ed auit u dt to ,,o1 k. Thu~ thc g if't o fa 1\'aldt lrom a firm1o a 1\'orktr nn reti rerntrH repre~e r11 .; n01justtin1c serYcd (or, m o re macahrth. time kit bcfo re dcath ) but hi-; 01 llt'r sen icc to tlw cu lture ol time impo~ed by 1he flrm.

Box

5.1

Charl es Dickens, Oombey and Son

. \~ lt> th c n cighbo urh ood wh ic lt had h esitatlcl to acJ..nowlt:dge thl rai lroad in i1~ straggling d a\'s, tha l h a d g rmm 11ise an<l penitenl. a .. am (.hl'i,tian might in 'lllh .1 case, ancl n ow boa ~tc d or its po11e r fui relation. Then \H'r L' railw;t~ p:ntern~ in i1 s draper's sh o ps ancl rai1way journ a b in th c ,,indo,,~ ol' i1 s n ewsn1e 11 . The rc IH' I'l' rai h,a, h o te ls. offin -h o m t . loclg ing h omt'~. boardin g-IHwses: railwa) p la n s. ntap~. 1i c"~. ,,Tapper . bo ttles . ~an ch1ich-boxe~. and time-tabk': t a ih,a, hacJ..ne,-coat h and cab-~tall(h; raih,m omnibu<.e,, t-ail\\';t\' Sll'l't'ts a nd buil<li ngs. raih1a' hange son and parasitcs, allCI lla tte rcrs u tll o l al1 c dc ul:nion . T llt' re 11 :1s c\e n raih,a~ time obscrn :d in do c k~ . as ifthc sun i t~c l fhad !,i\'C JI in .
Did..tJJ, ( 1!1111: :!:-1!1-!1111

5.1.3 ! Industrial time

T h e ind ustrial rc \'Oiution ~ pread 1111: modcrn sen'L ' of time. incorp o r ating th e Puri1a n ti me e 1hic: lillll' llacl lO bt usecl well :11HI n o t \1'<1Sil'd . in nrd('r Lo build np profit' for tite r111urc. a worcl that 01ig inall\' m t:nH all-round bendlt~ a!> ,,eJI a~ i t~ Jllore swcific monetar\' ~tmt o!' toclm. Tlw timt'tab lt, o! school' a n d railll'a~ ~ and tllt' shift pauern~ factoril's conclition t>d a more cJi,ciplinccl a n d ws lematis<d c ulurre of' tim e in 1hc Jllo clc rn period. Railwa \'S ir1 p a nic ul a r Slandardistcl tim e b e tll'tTn diiTen.:nl pans ol' th c l'OIIIllry, ll'h t' I'C d il'fe n n cc' of lll illliiCS Jtad 1101 ll1:llll'I'C'cl for slowcr tlll'thocl ~ o f tt a n spon . A P"''agc (!.l'<' Box 5. 1) in Charles Di< kcns's nm l'l /Jombf') ollfl Son ( 1H IR) <kscribes lto\\' th e rail way' l ran~f'onn ed an:a.-, of London l'rom isolated , nrn-dmi'JI cl is1ri cts into par1 ora u a l iona l sys tv111. i\o1.e tha l h e inclnrks a s i ~ di g at tllt' Pur itan t thi c in tlw lirs t ~en te n ct. and in tlll Ja,t sen tence conuw.t~ 'rai)\,a, time' 1\'th 1hc m ore u-ad ition al. r u ral l N ' o f th t' '>trn to mark th e hcgin n ing and th e. end of 1he dar. In IJombP) (11/(/ Son, tlw ubiquit~ of' railll'a~ time ~ ig niries th e prcssurc to discipline allCI l time th:n is n ne of' tite dl'li nin g c lt:rrac le risti cs of modcrni1y. syste rmllise thc c ululrt c> E.P. Thomp~c111 specu lates that th t trot o ri m t~ \ 'ic torian ohse~s i o n 1\ith death ancl nwurning ll'<l!> pcrhap~ a l'l'!'p on!>t' lO lht hcightcncd ~CIIM' of tirn c p:"'ing in thc ptriod . H m1cn r. Thorn N>n i., card'nl to makL clear th:rt '''hile tiH' ncw time disc ipJ in e of i nd liStria l c:rpi l:t1 ism i ~ 1H ;ge rnon ic. i1 is 11 0 1 J)-j)OII'Crful. 1n (~J et , a C ( O~l'l' c:x:rrnin a tiou o l modc rnil\, c u lture ol time ~> lun,, t\\'o 1hing~: (a) th a 1 e arl icr ti111c ~lmcs a re s till '''ith us: a liCI ( b) that ahhough moclernit1 i~ c haracterisld b1 a singlt:. norma1i1 e c ulture of timt', d il le rent social group~ L 'Xpcrie n ct th:H c ulture in diiTeren1 ,,ays. Thc la un point is a tnaue r o f po'''LT and collS< ' ()ttc nth :1 sorrrcc or so cial con llic t. In a Study :lll l ntt' IISH' Can l ' nit th e .. miolng ist .J od Lton Telles ( 19tl6) dc rnon~Lnlted that t il o~<. of higher ra nJ.. wert> gin-n greate r control OI'Cr hm, the, u~cd t h c ir time. "hik tho~e lcmcr dmm in the hospi ta l h icra tT h~ h ad to < liTange their ti me accnrdin g 10 1h e < o m e ni l nn t1w ir ~n pc ri ors. Sn c h cliffcrc n ccs can lead to conllict. Uill' da\' T h e battlc ror lirs t a (('11-hfllr r :tll<l su h~cn u cn th :tll e itrht-h n \\'aS a Sl rtl"g o (._ le b\' 1\'orkers conduncd within tlw dclinitions of' nwchanical doc k time to \\TC'l more control o1 e r t lwir livt'

5.1.4 1Time and difference

(o\H'\Tr, IIH' dominantL' o l llll't h a nical el m k time
jo; tHil lota l. IJl''Pill' ~4-h o n r \\'cll'k sc hcd uk ~ and ro mnn1ni ra tion acrnss tinH 1ones. all c u lt urt~ rccng nisc th e dil lnet tce bc l\H'l'l 1 da ~ ami n ig h 1. 1ime~ goHrr ted b\' th c re ll.ll ion o l t ltl' planct. \ \'l'l' k.;. on 1l ~e nt llt'r hand. ,an lll't\\'('l'll ntl tu t-cs. In prc-in d u '-lria l c uhul'l~. \\'t'l' k' ta n bl lound that .ltT :1'~hon a~ thr l' l' d < "' {the ~ltty'e<' in Bognta ) a ncl "'long a' ten (t hl' Inca, ). In thnt

or

or

socieli t'' t11l ,,ce k, t' ll cl i' a lm o~t :J1,,ays rl'btl'd to a pl'riorl ic marktl :111d thu~ to :r so r i:tl r:nh e1 1h:111 :111 asl rono lnica l f'u iH'ti o n (Sorokin :rnrl \I('J'lOI I. 1 \1:~7: (i~-1 -:-ll. T h t m o d n 11 SC\'{'11-d,l\ \\L't'k (\\hit h .;, a {)llillll'l ollht litii:Jr ( \Ck. al'o corn,p orHI' 10 a'll'tlllUilliC time) datt'' lromtlw lltbr t'\\' 1\t'tJ.... 1\ih the ... ahh.llh punnuating 't'tul:n toil " ith n, a n d wo rsh i p. C h ris1ian i'>nrHI Islam adoptcd 1h l' ~t'l't r 1-da1 1\'tTk, bu t c han ~ecl1lt e ~abb.u h ( lO Sunda\' l'o r C hris tiani l\ a nd to Fricla\' for Islam) in o rder 10 mark tlll'ir di iTercn ct l'rnm jucbis;n. T hi<> c h a ng(' ~lcmon~trate'> ;he impmwnce o r a dilfer e nt ttmporal semt in 1he CSiahJi,Junc nt ora llt' \\ tll ltlll-al or<kr. T he ' l'\l'tl-danl'eeJ... 1\th itsdili,ion of~acrtcltillll' and non -~ac rccltinH'. Ita~ prmTd t'XIraordin.1ri ly durabk in the nwd,rtl 1\'orld. n .. i~ti rr g a11ernp1s 10 changc it :11'1c r th c Fre n c h Rc,o ltrti o n to ten clm, :11l(ltht n :tf'ter tll L' Rus~ian Rc1olution 10 fiw ( '.l'rt r h~I\'CI. I H~~ ). Rel igiou~ fes tiYal' likc C:h risltna~. l'a...,oH'I ancl Ramada n a te impmt.tll l 111011\l'lll~ in the c:lll'ndar l'H'Il "hl'l't' religioll' ob~c n .Ul((' has be e n lat')~L l y I'L'placed b~ '>CCI rl ar se!Ct' l). Th 11 ,, c : a tl icr Sl'J ISl'' ol' 1illll' rdall'<l 1<, 1hl rnll l l r~rl world a nd n l ig io n rol'x ist in t lw 1i 1nc o f modl'rn i 1y. Cor tlli ns on~ r th l' ptT~nY;H ion ol a sacred cl<l\ like th a t ro nclucte d by the Britbh u unpaig n ' Knp Suncl:l\ Swcial' n ,is l th c pcne1rat ion of' a ti me ' lliiCilll'ed 1 )\ tiW dem<Utd' o f a 1110(ktn COII,llllll'r l'COI\0111\

or

5.1.5

The paradox of rnodern time

~l

lt is Olll' ol thc g r c;ll p.tradoxc' ol' the tinH' o l moclemil\ 1h:11. on tlw o nt hanrl. time.~' organisecl a rrordin ~ leo a n ol~jtni\'(. scitn li1 k m"dl'l. and. nn tht otlwr. Cl't' J'\(1.1\ Irte

186

lntroducing Cultura l Studies Culture, tim e and history 187

lh tg mcIHS in LO lllllltiplt cuflure~ ur lilll l'. Tlt; , , llt'J'h 11)~ ('' J>I'1. 1 11 cll 1 . ' t 1\ 1 le rt1o 1 11 110 naltlrt u f nwdel'l lllt' ll'luc h 'lll'C'J>S , 1\, ':t\' o )d ordcl\ 11 l llt' 11 11 f l 11an. , " 1< n 1 1t' nnr. hu 11.1 . 11ch is con ~ l anl k crt>:tllllg' ne11' formo; ol cnlinn 11 h ic h 1011 1 . . . . l '1 , 'lllg 1 l ', llOI'IIl <tll\ 1 1 he con lh c1~ 1hat eme1xc are den 1011 , 11 . 111.d 1 > , ,. . . 'l.tndard -.tmp.llglh 1nr Pllllntl 11 . marktd nut in the calend,u. lil..e \1 111 11 1 11111 1.1 1.. l) . . "' 1" lo be ' 111!.: "' 111 1hl' L , 11 , . 1 ~ 1 11 11 . <hSt'll di,li ncrin cuhun, .tgain-. 1 lht J 1. ., 1111011 1 . . t''. which ..... \ (l ol 11111 1111111 11.1110 11 ti udtur. (' ., 1 l'rtain 1 . (;1\\. '"t' \la1 Uat . are lou.rJu mer ll\ 11..1c 1 . 1 . "' ' l IOIIol hl\ 11 1 lO 11.1111 lO 1>1 ., . . 1 1 ' ... ancl \l01 11' dancinu th IJI' 111:1\ polt . I'H UNo1 11~ like ~ ' ' 0111 lllottlllt'lll 11 lllt h r 1 1 dat :tiHI con'C'I\': tiH'' llho "i'h lo.,,, . . . . r l l ll.llt'' JI a' a llorkcrs' ' f ,.., Ol( 11 111 lol\0111 o/ olfltl odtrn I illt' _ , clnWil"l l"lltc ' l 11 1(hl l 1 l'< ll 1 1. 111 . 1 . . p.lll . . I!H . ir n ll\al . .... Thc .parado:..: of n1 1ht h tnc h p ml. C ha l les lh udl' ltl ,.,. rl . '1 1 moc <1111'1 .111 and lll e r:n ure . ' '' l''fll)l '( IIHtcl tJn 'l ' lrot ll ~ll' lll. lh l' ll tTliltr, t!Jt' Cllii (I . II U' ' ( I/ J 1 1 ' ' l 11\t' of 11111(' ;(\ ' the . ,.., ,-,l ll olll'llll'h l 'l~7 ~) 1'1 l. ... . ' . H' <uhu ra l hi,lrnian Sl t'flh t' ll 1\l'l'll h,,, dt~r ri l >l' d llo ll lh 1. l. . 1 . . llllr o IIH>( t' tlllll' l\ ,1\ t c'J . . 1 . o llll\[1(' 111!1\ l'llll' lll,\ of tite )J<'I iod 1KH II- 1(J ' l l) 1 . . ." . ltl \llll l( 111 lllode rnist \ l'l ll'tl'''ll " '' l l1.11 11te ncw . i ol . ' IJl'l'<l. 'll'<lllt thc l .., .. - ( O.L(Il'' . \tl ll .)!lK.I ) 1 , ..., , ltt 1111o 1 . J ' ll l ,..,Ltp 1 1 .t ll d lil l' lt'lv JJbttll t' , J \ 11111 1 l:t lll'0\ 1 , llllll' :t ll d 'j)' l( . rJ . . . . l l l.ll t'( <t \l'IISC of . t. lt geog l ap hvt . Onl'id 1h rv' . ( - . . prr wc" 111 ltTill'i ol Jll'l'iod . 1 . . . . ' C) P ,lb) d e~ n 1h e\ thi~ ~ t ll llH "' Jl.ll l' 1 ltll i p l 't'~'-11 !11 . 1J ' J . .. 1 lll 1 1\('l l' lll ll _lli'l ll'Chno. log t('; d IJtll l'l'OIIOIIIt'. llr l' I 11 . .. ' J . 1 l\ IC ldl\1:1\' l !llllll cJ ~ , .' J I J J) ' 1 l':t l'h' L 'X:IInple; ' Fit'll lholl<rh lor .. 1 . l l ll l U ,, ll'M'Ii' :tbolt' a< one "' . l X,tlllp l', t'\t 'l'"l\l' SJJt'CIIh i()JI 1 ' 11 1' ' 1 . 1 .11 1""< Clllhlruc-

11 jcnrcrcd tl w fl1 ' 1 Et 1rope.111 rr i-.i-; ol' 0\ t' racctllllllla tion . lllt' rt, ohHio n nlth L c1,s u pon l't u1her e!o.plor;ui nn o l 1empnra l ;md ' Jl<H ia l d i,p lactruent' (1 -Lir\'l'\', IIJ!lO: ~()J). I n a la ler pcriud oftime -~pacc complt'"on . llw mndt'lll\1 pro,t of ;\ l:u r e! Pl tl\l'l and Jtllll'' .Jm n : and tht~ Cubi~t paintin~' o l a11 ,h likL l'ica' <.o repre.,1nt a tll'\\ 'l'll'l' uf liw <Oilll'lllP>I.tn. h.crn ~IH'' 1he t"\unplc ol Dtlalllll'\, p<ti nling of lhl 1-ilfl'l l ollt' r ( 'l'l' Figure .">.1). ihell a powerllll "mbol ol tuoclt'llt cuhu re. 11 lll'rl' ll w Milllillg 1\'Jlf'twnh litt' tmrcr a~ if i1 '""' being \'t'\\Tcl from W\\'l ,tl ;~ngle~ , jnltlll:tmcnt'h. f111 n,ul l , 1 0 fr<tgmcnt tlll' \leach rc.tJi,l' g.lll' ol t.ulitl paitllillg (,\ ('l' e h:t(>ll'l'' ~ .tn cl 9 ) . 111\ll'<td. lht \'l'\l.l'r i~ prnt'll lt'd \\'i h .1 lll'll f't.tlil\ whcrc dl t' culllll t' o f Iillt' , 1lw ,i rnul!;mit' of llll' p rt.,t nt. Th i~ ~ imuil . tll l' I\' 11,1, lt'lllll'd .fl'l: /:l'/ o r ' nmn imc ' b~ litt C tflnall u tll ttt.tl u itic \ \'alter Jk nja111in (p. :17:\l IBtJJj;IIIItl. 1970 ) . . \ p;ls,.age (!'t'C ' Box :1.:?1 florn \ ' i1 ..; in i~1 Woolfs .\/n l>nllmt'fl_l' ( lll~t ) g' \'l' ' an t:..:;nnpk- o[ lw11 i1 ., tt prl'~t' llll'd i11 modt'lll'I prosc. lt <i l'~ t'l ihl~ a tii OIIIt'lll i11 Lontlo11 1dtt'll a car p;lso;c ~. cun taining an unklttll\'11 dig nil <try. 1\0 il' lh<t l lh l' llll>llll'll l j~ {'t)ll ll'a';ltd lll ; lll<Hhl'III:IIC:ti. ((l l:t llli i:III'l' \';li lll' sysiCllt : ' no malh t m;ll ir a l inslnllntnt . . . ccmld f'l'{,It' l' 1he \'ihratio n . In liw p< t.,.<agl', lhl' paradox o l mc>cll'l'llitl' is l'XPI'L'"l'cl 1>1 lhl' Co llll'adic tion bl'lll'l'l'll 1hc r;1r. ,,hi t h nprestnt., ;1 poll't' tflli . honHlg'tni,ing. c ui111ral lrcl' 1ha1 radi:t t t ~ ttlll iiii'OJJg h sorict~ ami hc uollcl En g l ~ mcl tn 1hc B1 iti ~h I::mpire . a nd th c lrag mc ntl'd JWI''Pl'I'I H' whi r h. likc lklalllll'l , painting. ckpie1s ~c,cra l dific n n1 Yit,,-~ o f ' < lllll' t'\'l'nl : l'or txa mplc, 1111' oppo,itio n 10 Empirc txprc ~sed b1 the e .n lo ni:tl '. 1 ho ng l11 ' ol' ' li11 ck ;HI' rcfcr lo ti H nuw l', ~~ 11 i ng i11 Fng l.111d a l'tcr 1hc Firo; \\'orle! \\'.t r. h u 1 llll'lll ut ics ol th o~t
uot 1 "'" ;~ fler J:i:)O rt~ lld h ea1 ih'

B ox ).2

Virginia Woolf, Mrs Oalloway

Figure 5.1 The Eiffel Tower by Delauney. (Source: The Museum of Modern Art, New York.)

The t'ar had goJH. bu t it hacl k l't a , light rippk whic h fl ollt'd th tnugh glm t , hop' allCI ha1 ~h op, an tl 1.1ilor, ' ho p' 1111 ho t h si des ol Ho ncl S ll t'l' l. Fo r lit il ll' 'I'Ct lltd, a ll hc;HI' 11 t' IL' im li lll'<l tl11 '~nn c 11 .11- 10 1hl' windcl\\. Clwo;.i ng a pai r Lf g lu\l'' .;honld li tl'~ he 10 IIH l' lhcm u1 aiJ1J1~' i1 . icllloll 111' pa lc gn1~ - la clL '' ' 1uppc d : ll'hc n tlw o;ellll'IHL' 1\':t' lin i'ltl'd '"lltt'lhing lmd happe nC'd. So tll e thing '" 11 illing in ~ II g'k lhl< IIICl'' lit,tl 11 1> 11 1<llh L'111aiC:d in ~llltllll'lll , t)Hlllg( c;tpabil' o lll':tll\II1 I 1 it~ l uli ll l':>'~ rat hl'l' ting ' lw c k' in ( lt i11~1. t'cHtld rq.~i,ter tlle l'ibratio n ; l't'l i1 fim11idahk .111cl in i t~ r on1 11Hlll appe:d l'lllutional: fnr in ;d i 1hl' ll:ll ~ r.np~ .11td t.til!n < ' " "P' s t r; tn gl' l'~ lookl't 1 ~ll ea eh othcr aiHI 1.houg h1 o l' IIH' d t'ad : ni lllt' flag: n i' E111pitc'. In :1 ptthlit IHtli ~L in a back ~ liTl'l a Co lo ni ;d instdtcd lltL' ll 11 11 ~~ ol' \\'indscn. whidt 1<-d 1 0 won l<. l>mkt' ll IH'l'f' g lasst's, and a gl'nl'ral sh in cl1. 11 hir h tchotcl \lf'uJ gt h an .. ~, tllt' 11';1 ~ ill tlll' l':tl'\ or g irl' bung 1\'ll i ll' und t rl i 11 l'l1 1hn a dnl ,,ith JHII't 11hilc ril>bon li n lhL ir 1\'vdding~ . Fo r thl' ~urf an ag-it.ttiun ol th t p:t"i ng t :n . t ~ i1 ~ 11 n l.. gr:ttl'd ' <>llll'tlting \'C'I'\' profnuncl . \\'nnll t l!lti 1 ; ~ti-JI

188 lntroducing Cultura l Studies

Culture, time and history

189

1\'110 llnl't' d icd cmtld be seen L o relate Lo an olcler percc:ption ol time bci'Ond f"f, 1 c~~tn i tl'. Thth. thc global climensions of modernity coexist with a 111 ~d tipl ic e.' of ddlertn t cu ltmcs of tim<'. Thc e manife t themsellcs abmc all in thc moclcrn citvt)(s of Clmpter 10). . ee

situn e' it,elf 011 1\iclt. illt" lintar tirnc of idt'IHitics (Kri.'o te1 a. IDH!i: 1!1-1). llluch feJtlllllSI 11 ' . . . . . .. . "st cri ti ci~m ha~ antH'cl that 11"lttk mockrnllY ~ charactl'rt"t'd b1 ''~te t uatt~auon remtnl. " . d homogcnismion. ''omtn~ t':<-p<.'t icnce of those procc ~es ha' ;tl11a,:- be<.n dtllttent. an . . anc1 cu 1 . . 1 Ri ta Felski poi nt~ w the confu,tng n umbtr of ~ocml tura 1 pracucc~ to 11 1 ltC 1 11 lt' tenll modern nfet ~- and argucs tha1:

5.1.6

Women and time

One <~f tlw per,pectil"e ~1ighlightcd in \\'ootr~ noH:I i~ the diffenn t per~pecti1e 011 1 111 <xpc:nt'IH'td b1 ,,om_c n 111 modemity. :'l luch of tlw text is f"ront thc point of, ie 1 r o(" .\h~ D.dlm\"il\. ~1"11o cxwnencc~ tlle capital or thc British Empirc from an obliq 11 e an~le. This erpta.tt~ \\"~ 1h rh~ Fr:nch fe m in ist, Julia Kris te va s (p. 2:32) argumtnt 1hat \\"o men 's rda t J on~ hp to r1 111<: 1s "diagonal': \\" hi!t' ir _ i' ~b,ious that \ oung peopk" oa "\\"unwn ' in J::uropC' laaw rhcir 01 , 11 p:~l:w.:.u l_ " ''' '.t' noncthelt'~sjust as nbl"ious that ll"ha t ddincs thtm as roung pcople'

For t'\"t'l"\ account of lh(' moclern tra "hich empha~LC~ tlw clominatiou ol m.t,c ulint 11 Jitie' of t:llinn.llitalinn. proclu cthit~ ancl repre~'ion. one ca11 find ,ll1otht ll':O.t ~-hich poinh ... to tltt ll'minit:ll ion n! \\"cqctn societ~. a~ elido:nced in the p.t"ilt. hcclonisti c. rtnrl decenmd n:11 11rc nf mndcrn '"bjcni,itl". (FcJ,J..i, 1~lH.'i: l)

'[Je.ft:ning concept 5.1

~~ ~ ~ ''OIIIt'll _pl :.ltT.~ tite m 1 11 ;1 ch<Jgomt l re l at i o tl.~hip 10 thl'ir J :urupta n 'origin' and lank, tllt>11 1 l< \1 111th11 "c:ul'gnries in :\onh A11 terica ot in Chi na. :ut10ttg othcrs.

Colonialism and postcolonialism

(1 \ rht l'l" a. IDH6: 190) \\'hik

~trg~t:~ tl.. ;u '''ot~l~n art nwrt u_ sualh de_fined in Lcnn11 o l" sp;tce than nl"tirnc: IIH'I occupr \, T he . ' clllluutt po~11 1on to that ol mert. \\ o men are Olll!-ide lite lim e ol" ltWde m iL

_ , IJ ,. acttp h

that the ac\jecti\" t' "diago11 ;1i " i!- spatial r:1the1 th a11 te mpora l, Kriste a 1

!'-l"l~ll'\",1 dt,l\1'' on Freucl ian psychoa.nalysis (p.~) to u ttdcr~tanclthi~ a' r<'l:llt'd 10 1h e \\":ti" ~n 11hirh ~t.mi~tinitl i~. ~Tprod und in 11ocict~. \\"omcn OCCIIJ>I a '~tllbolic position a.s <.l'tratt.d. 11hrc h lor l\.lt,tel"a mean~ thc1 are dt.nied a full pattit ipation in cullure. JI we
apph l\.1 i'tt1a, i<le,1, tn tlw exccrpt l"rom .\/11 /Jollowoy thtn not onh (.Jari"a D.tllowa - 15 po,itiou huttht pmition ofmost ofthe b~"lander). tlle IIOIIWII !-hopping.llw occupant~ ol lht pub .wd lhl" "Colon ial" in tht.' a hme JM~~ag-c might be dt,cri b<:d ,1, "dia..,.011 ,1r 10 tht ~~mholic pm,tr ~ignificd by thc car. " 1\ri\LCI.t goes 0 11 to argut. that fe minis m (p. 120) has produccd clilfncntimecltimcs ll"ith in modcrnitl', The response or tll e first gcneration ol ftm in ist' (at tht l"IHI of thc llinctt.c ntlr ({'111111~') ,,as lo try to claim a p lact' for themscll"t's in ' linear time as tite time ol prc~J('Ct and h i_~torv' _< Kri stc,a. 1986: 1!l:3). Thc~ did Lhis h1 clemanding the m te, eq uaJ pa~ a11d cqnal llg"hl ~. fht 111ight be dcscribed a~ a nw dern i,t' pro jcct in a clilft.rcnt St'ttsc '.o m_ o dcmism (p. -100) in art and litc rature. Feminists ,ought .ro make 1 m n1c n 's l:tna_ : pal llll <~ 11c nf th ~ ~ra nd political projeus or modern it )' Tlw sccond phasc of ft'lll l ll l.~ l tl ck~cn hecl b~ h.nstel'a occurrcd aftcr 191iR. T IH:n wo nHn 1 d 'uscd thc Jiucar ~t'lllporal itl' of mndcr~1 hist ~rical narratil"t all(l the po11<r po li tirs th:tt il implicd . An lllll't':l'l'cl lllldtrstancl rng- o l women 's position in cultuH n~tant th:n ~tconcl-<rcnen ~i~~~. l"t tnin b ts <lltl'~11ptt:d l o create :1 lang uagt thatll" tntlwyoucltht' ho pl' of pa 1~icip::1 mg tn ~ ultu rt _a~ 11 c:-. rsh, and pro mi~cd Lo change nncl tx pand cultun: to in cluclc ,,o rnc rl ~ cxpe n<aJ n. lrhtead of_j trst dcmand ing a political icltn t itl', ,,orntn dc ma 11 clcd a rttogJti tion nf thcia cliffcr<' nce (p. ~ ~~;-; _ ,,h ich 111a 1 halt' 110 (rna~c ulitll' ) cqual in naltun '' 11 <tra l"t'llth t:-.i,l\: "txplodcd. pl ural. fluid. in a nrtai 11 ,,m awn-i<leruical. thi~

r~:n'H'Il l

ctt'l"n i11' or npc1i ti un ra ther than historical progress ( Kri ~tt.'l " 198: 191 /

There are a bewildering number of terms that refer to the history of colonialism. These include: imperialism, colonialism, neocolonialism and postcolonialism. or these, imperialism is the broadest. lt describes the dominalion of one society by anolher. Thus, we can talk of French or American imperialism in terms of the sphere of control that each country exercises over other parts or the world. Colonialism describes more direct control by settlement and mililary subjugation. Examples are the Spanish colonisation of Soulh Ame rica or lhe British colonisation of India. In practice, however, the terms 'imperialism' and 'colonialism' are often used interchangeably. Neocolonialism and poslcolonialism refer to the period arter decolonisation and the end or formal colonial rule. Mosl North and South American slates gained independence in the nineleenlh century. In the decades afler the Second World War, nations in Africa and Asia assumed control over their affairs. Neocolonialism refers lo lhe continuing control of such countries (sometimes referred toas lhe 'Third World') by imperial powers through military, polilical and economic means, despite lheir formal independence. Neocolonialism is characterised by domination of former colonies' economies by large transnational corporalions and their dependence on the exporl of natural resources and the import or manufactured goods. Postcolonlaltheory, by contras!, is a catch-all term for the theories that have analysed at leasl four distincl areas: (1) imperial cultures; (2) L he cultures or resistance thal opposed imperlalism; (3) the cultures of decolonised states; (4) the relalionship between Firsl World metropolitan and Third World (sometimes called peripheral) cultures. Postcolonial theory now finds its origins in those intellectuals who were L he champions or lhe national liberation movements that fought for independence, for example: Frantz Fanon, C.L. R. James (p. 191) and Amil Cabral. However, the first example of what is now called postcolonial criticism was Edward Said's (p. 168) Orientalism (1978). Said used a combination of Gramscian Marxism (p. 38) and Foucauldian dscourse (p. 28) theory to idenlify a colonial discourse, orientalism that denied and misrepresented Eastern and parlicularly Arabic culture. Subsequenl theorists have also used poslslrucluralism and

190

lntroducing Cultural Studies psychoanalysis to analyse imperial cullures. However, equal emphasis is now given lo the problems of understanding colonised cultures. Gayatri Spivak has questioned the ability of rinding the voice of the 'subaltern' when, of necessily, that voice is heard through the academic discourses of Western metropolitan culture (Spivak, 1994). Homi Bhabha has attempted to understand lhe stereotyping that occurs in colonial discourse, for example 'racial' stereotyping, in relation to psychoanalylic theory. He argues that the need lo repeat a 'racial' insult indiCa tes an unconscious ambivalence in the mind of the coloniser. Repetition demonstrates the need lo conlinually remake the relationship of dominance between the coloniser and the colonised (Bhabha, 1994). Postcolonialliterature describes wriling thal has emerged in the aftermalh of decolonisalion. ll refl ects on the colonial period, as in the Nigerian novelisl Chinua Achebe's Ti11ngs foil Aporl; it criticises the mpacl of neocolonialism, as in the novels of the Kenyan wri ter Ngugi wa'Thiongo; or, as in novels like Salman Rushdie's The Sotonic Verm (see Chapter 6), it explores the increasingly interrelated cultures of the First and Third Worlds, in this case between India and Bri tain. These kinds of relationships mean that there are strong theoretical cornmonalities between postcolon1altheory and some strands of postmodern theory.
l-11 rt hrr n ud iIW , ....

Culture, time and history

191

modl'rnil\ . 1dlirh lll'l'ckd cullllrt'' lh:tt l tould tk,iu;n:Ht' '' 'talir i11 orckr

111 dl'linl' t~i.'ll as Jli'O~I"l'"\l'. :"\qll-bllllJH':III "H it'le'' 1111'11 ,llffl'l'l'(l b1 ('0111p:11 io;(Jil ,111<1 rrc1 111 lile' ftll'('tcl III J m~i tiu n o( :1 l: u re~pt.t n III(Hk l 11! dcl'tlopnlt'lll. l'lli' j>l'l''j>l'llin t:Hl lw 't 't' ll

Key iJ~flumtf 5.1

C.L.R. james

(1901 - 89)

C. L. R. james was a historian, political activist, literary critic and avid cricket ran. He excelled in
all these areas bul, as with many figures who have influenced cultural studies, it was the way he combined his diverse interests thal made him an ori ginal thinker. As a historian, james is best known for his pioneering work Ti1e Block jacobins (1938). lt charts the history of the Haitian revolution againsl French colonial rule at the end of the eighteenth century. lts contemporary polltical relevance was that it saw the Haitian slaves as modern political agents ralher than as victims of imperialism. As a history of resistance it looked forward to the nationalliberation movements thal ended Europe's ernpires after lhe Second World War. In the 1930s and 1940s )ames was associated wilh Trotskyist groups in Britain and the United States. lt was during this time that he developed his theories of biClck polilical organisation. He gradually moved away from Trotskyism towards an independent Marxlsm (p. 97) which anticipated many of the ideas of the 1960s. His views on black political autonomy and self-determinalion have remained particularly inlluential. In 1952 he was interned on E llis lsland, prior lo being expelled from the Uniled States for his polilical activities. While hnprisoned he wrote Moriners, Renegodes ond Castowoys (1953), a powerful readng of Herman Melville's novel Moby Dick (1851) asan allegory of modern capitalist society. He was himself a novelist andan advocate of black writing. He was ene of the first people to recognise the importance of writers like Alice Walker and Toni Morrison and was responsible for bringing them to the attention of a Brilish audience.ln the 1950s and 1960s, )ames became the leading intellectual in the struggles for independence in Africa and the West lndies. Perhaps his bestknown work is Beyond o Boundary(1963), a cultural study of cricket. ll brings together ]arnes's historical, political and cultural concerns. He treats cricket as a cultural form lhat is the product of centuries of poli tic al struggle in Britain, its colonies and ex-colonies. Beyond o Boundary al so expresses)ames's lifelong enthusiasm for the game. james's impact in cultural studies reflects his wide range of interest.s. His persisten! exploration of the relationship between culture and politics was exemplary. Hls development of an lndependent strain of Marxist cultural analysis is perhaps more studied now lhan in his lifetime. His contribulion to decolonisation and his criticisms of post-independence polilics have meant that he is an important figure in postcolonial {p. 189) theory.

Chrisman, L. ancl Wi l liam~. P. (eds) (1993) Colonial Discourse ond Post-colonial Theory, Hemel Hempslead: Harvester \Vheatsheaf. Barker, F., Hulme, P and lvcrson, M. (1994) Colonial Discourse; Postcolonial Theory, Manchester: Manchester Universil)' Press.

5. 1.7

Modern time versus traditiona l time

.-\ l'l'l:ttcd :ll 'gllllll'll l h a~ lll'l' ll 111<1d v :t iJo ul lil e ll't'' o l 1hc lt' l'lll ' utodtnl il l to l t'j)l't''t'll l 11011-l lll owan ict t'' \u eh "ll'itt ic, an of lt'll ck,ignated pli 111 it iH or ., r:ulit ion.tl'

,.,

in tu mp:ui,on 11ith mudtJn , ' rltle lnpc d' natP 1 1 '1llll'~. In a IHllnriol l' s ta tt' lllt' ll l, 1he (;t' llll.lll ph ihN>plltr ( . \\.F. 1k ge l dt''t l iiHcl .\lrit ,,
:h

11itiHHtt hio;ton (Snt'.tcl. 1\)!'{ 1:

t):!- 1). 1hi, llti,COilC'l'J>ll<lll i' h,l,t'cl

'odetic~ do not l'"l'ncl

011

ol U1111p:H j,oll bt'l\lt'l'll lht ltll lll' oJ' I IIll' ll ~('<( in

lllll-li tera tt' : l~ri c ll l t llral 'ocittin ;Hiclt llt' tillll'' o J llloclcl'llitl . rhl' ora( h io; tol it'' o( 'll('h

had,

IJI'\IlllCI

lhnT 01 four ~l'llt'l ,lli<Hh

.lllcl tht fu tu l t' i' ol lt' ll

dc., ITi b ccl i11 ll' l'lll ' q ( 11'11<11 f" :11 11':1 \'' lltT 11 clet ll l'. ll elll"<'\r l', it ii'Cl lll d bl' III"OIIJ4 lO 111i.-.t;tke
(j, t mnption

of Iilll' a' .1 l.u k of hi,ton o1 clt'\TiopnHnt. In I.Kt. Oll t' .111tl11 npologi't ha' e l.linHd th.ll ' :"\ot h in g , le., , 11'adi tio11 :11 tl1:111 a p1 in1i 1i1t sc)('l'll ... lo i111 p 111 C

ll.idition ICl o;u c h ~ocic lit, i' 1lllrch 10 pn'h tlll'lll IIIO tht bad.giiHIIHI .llld leme thcm a,idt llom o ur 011 11 'Olt'tl.' flll' bd. cd ' ' 11 1illt'll 1 ulitl l'l' n wan.' thatllt'll' d tH Io lll lll'lliS <ll'l'llelltliii1Jl<ll'l'cl \l'ith liH :l llCl'llt p:l,l. 'lhl'\ .11'(' 11<11 'lll)jtt t lO IHII'l'oll l(l"<ll il' nntrafj,(cl ''alt'' 11hil h rapit.lli,t nn dw 111 itt(' ll 11orcl .111<1 l'l'< o1clcd ,1, 'progr('". 1>111
<lit ' 'l'l'\ t' ,,,

Furllwr reading
A useful introduclion is Anna Grimshaw (ed.) (1992) The C.L.R.jomes Reoder, Oxford: Blackwell. J ames's Selected W rtings are collected in three volumes published by Allison & Busby (london: 1977,
1980, 1984).

hoth gn.tra nl or ancl

11 illl l''' 10

~Ol' i .t l r l ~<t n ges' (. \m sv ll l'. l !l\l~: :) 1 )) , T l111'. e ll augt'' in th c

pa11cm n i' lill' .liT no t

'imph littl'd in 11ith e tiiTtnt pratti<l'.

In ' u ch C:1Sl '' lh l' idt':l n f 11 adit ie JII ,, p:tra do:-.: il':t li l', :tll illl't'I11 et1 1 ol' l:urop t'< ll l

192

lnlroducing Cultural Studies

Tho1np~o11 a~pcct

Cul ture, lime and history

193

in llm of thc ruluu.ll rri t ic~ a i read~ discusscd. E.P. Thompson descri be~ how he th inks the tran,ition l10m a tradi tional LO a morl<:rn culture ol time will be rep<:a tccl in the 'cle,eloping natiom' ( f hompson, 1991: :~~l~l). Ju lia Kri~t c,a u n i\-crsalises ,,o n H.:n \time 10 includt not ju'-t Eu 1opt and the U nill:d Stalt'' btn a l,n C hina. Ho ,,ewr. th t idea that the Tltirrl \\'ol'ld is ' be ltind Euro pc aJl(l m cd' 10 cat c h 11p has bc:en criticisccl br postcolo nial ([). 1~\ 1 ) cri t ic' . In a ,,ork ,,t discuss bc lo w, The Blurkjarobin 1wlt id1 was flrst puhlislwd in 1 u:~H. a hi, tory of the 1-l aitian rc mltttion in tite 1790s. C.L.R. James (p. 1U1) a rg m' 1ha t th l' ., t an:~ 111to ,,orke d 0 11 th c p ln111:11io ns o f H ait wc re s uhjt' C'l to the forccs of modt'l'l1 it\' a ncllind a mo d ern lile. Con,l'quc ntly. a ltho ug h ll ai ti is tltll\' o n t of the poon:st countrits in th c \\'Orld ancl ,,m lld bt cla~'i fi cd b~ economists a~ 'dc\'cloping'. it~ hi~ton i-" a \ 't ' IY moclcrn onc. Simil;uly 1fatd Carbv. in her essay. mal,.e, tltt' ca~c that coloniali~m brougl11 cohmistd people clirccth' i1110 a g lobal economic ~y~t em. and it is thcrefon: inco1 Tt'CI 10 11ndt'1 "tand colonisl'd rulltt rc~ as p remodt'l'n (Catl)\. 1982). Fran lZ Fa non crit irise-, 1he idea 1hat postcolon ia l African c ultu re re p rese n ts a si agc o n t he road tl n,an l., a Ett ro pean m o d el ( Fa no n . 1968). The re is no o tH.: pa th o f d e iTiu pm e nL i11 11t o d n nit) . Diffe rc nt c ultl11TS wi ll d t:r c lup in diffe r c nt wa\'1-. 1\o th

Box 5.3

Alejo Carpentier, The Kingdom of This World

\\'ha t d id tl w \\' h i t e~ know of ~cgro m a11e rs? In his C)'cle of m c ta m orplwsc~. .\lacanda l hacl olk n l'111c red th c mys tc ri o 11 ~ \\'orlcl o f th c insects, ma kin g up for th c lac l.. of' his h11l1 Jall arm witlt th c posscssion of Sti'Cral lcct, fuur wings, o r lo n g anttnn ac. 1k h:td h tT II lly. centipe dt. mo th. an t, tara n tu la, lad)'bttg, c1e n a g lowwonn \\'itlt phusp horescen t g ret:n lig ltts. \\'hen tite mo me nt ca mc, th c bo ncls of the .\ Ja ndin g Ul' . 110 (ongcr j) OSSCS~ in g a bOd) 10 hi m ), \\'OU[d trace tlt t ~ h apc Of a mnn in tht air f(u a second beforc they '>lippcd d0\\'11 thc po t. An d .\lacan dal. transforn1l'd in to a hu11i n g mosquiw, \Wtlld light on t hc \'ery t ricomt ol 1hc commanckr of the 11 oops 10 la ugh a t the dis nH\\' of thc " hites. . . . That a fh'nwo n 1hc slowes rcturneclto t hcir p lan ta tio ns la ug hing a llthc way. .\laca nd al had kep t hi., ,,o rd . rcma ining in th t Ki ngd o m o f This \\'orlcl . O nce mo re tlw whit ts had bccn o 1111\'ittcd by tht ll lig-lny Po \\ers of tlw Othe r Sh n r t . .-\ncl \\'hi le :\1. L1'1IOI'ma nd d e .\f zy in his nig ht C a l) comme nte cl to h is d e \'Olll wife 0 11 tite \!cg rms' )a('k of' fee)ing at th c lOJ'lttrC of Oll C o f the ir \\'11 - cl ra\\'ilg' the re fro lll a llllll1ht r philosophical conside ra tion, 0 11 the inequa li ty o r the human r:t rl~ \\'hich he pla n necl to dtn:lop in a spccch larcled with La tn quo latiom - Ti :\oi:l got C)ll(' the l..i tch l'll \\'C ilCh t:., \\'i th t\\ill' . ta ki n g- hl'r tl HCC times in a 111illlg'l'l o f thc Stablc-.

an cl Kri;c,a unin.' r.,a t i~l' a temporal ~L'll!'t' that i~ in f.H 1 p.uticul.\r w an of thcir 0\\11 culture. ,\ lt:jo Carpl'ntin~ non:l .tlmu t tlll' ll:ti tian rt,o lut ion. '/'/11' A.'llt!!;dllln of TIJ i, \\nld ( I!J 1\1) , ex plore' the di fTl'ren t l..i nd -, ofcu ltti LIIwr~ptT t iH'' th.ll .1 1i,t lrom thc'l' kincl' ni conlli c t ~. lt clescri l)('' hm, .111 t:rl\ rc bd le:1cle r, .\ l a ra n d ~1l. i' htH IICd a t llll' s t~1ke h) tll t' Frt' n r h c:o ln nists in u rd l'l' to Hlpre . .;s upon tl w .\rri c tn ' l:tl't'' tlw irre~i sli b le naturt o f' their po"tr. T hc d c monstra t io n is unsuccessrn l l>tT ~1liSl' thc slan ;;; l tltTprc t tite l'l'l' 111 i n ll' t'lllS o f' a m agica) 1\'0iicl-\-ie l\, ,,he rc :\!acand:tl C l llt'~ 11 0 1 di t. )mt m cta 111 0 1' p h o~cs n nd escapes. In commo1 1 with m uc h Latin .\11l l't iran magical rta (i, m'. th t pa ~agc gi,cn (see Box !>.:\ ) juxtaposts two \\'Orl d -\'it"' cotn,ptHHiing 10 1\m d ifkrcm ttmporal ~cn~es: onl' a Sl'll'<' ol temporal progrc~siotl. thl' otlwr .1 rnlt of dcath a m i rcbinh. La ti1 1 American magical realism ca n lw clescribecl <L~ a later form of modern i ~m. \\'hirh ex pl o re~ the com ract i u ion~ of mn cl nni t~ fro m o ut:.icle En ropc. lt i,. in the ,,o rcls o f Ccnllcl .\l a nin ( 1989: l ~7), ' a juxtaposit ion all(( fusio n , on cqna llt' tiiiS. of the litc ra te and prc lit e ratc \m rlcls. futurt: ancl past, mnden1 and traditio na l, tltl' cit\' a11d the countn'. In lltcsc passagcs, ~ l. l .c 11onna nd de ~! t.~ fits the C\'t'IIIS in10 ltis prcconcei\'e d cttlltlnll stns< o f progr css, his ' p ltilosophical considna tio n ..,'. wlt il'h ju~til y a rac ist thcory o r dew lo pme nt. Con\'c rsdy, )'j No~ l. o n e of th t Sla\'CS. (j , it int o a temporal sense of dca tl1 all() rebi n h. 1\ lacandal' s rc i ncarnatio n is cclebrattcl \\ it lt a jmful act ol scx, ,,hich i~ lt umorou h con trast<'d ,,ith de .\lzy's CJIIOtation o f L.atin to lt b wifc aL beclti mc. In tite nol'cl Carpe ntier s ltow!> h m, the sla\'es' tem pom l ~<.nsc prmides onc of the cultura l rcsources th a t allm'~ tite succcssful o,enh ro\\ ofthc colon ia l rcgi n w. whosc o,,n r ig icl scnse uf history pe n n it s no room fo r the sla\Ts c ultu re or ' thc O ther [African ] Sho re' o r fo r thc shock o r 1'{'\'0IIItiu n .

5.1 .8 1 Conclusion
\\\ conc ludt th is sec tio n wi t lt .1 -, u mma ry of the th1TC aspt'C h ol' n1 odnn it\' that com plica tt 1he hcgcmony uf 1ntc ha n inll el oc k ti me a nd th t culturt of i., cli,ciplin ed obsetYann: .

l. 17tr jlt'I)IIrnrt' of radirr 11'11.51' 1 of lilllr. Thc hcg<.mony or modt'111 I1l1(' ~ llOl tota l. Earlit'l' .,en ses of time persi\t a11CI rocxi~t \\ ith industrial timt .tnd llll'< lt:mical clocJ.. ti me. T h ts<. d iffc rc nt se n w~ of tilll t' 111cans tha t a modc m st n w of' tinw 111ay de1-clo p dilfc 1t'ltlly in diffc re nt places a ncl a l diffc rc nt histo ri ra l pniods.

2. 'l'ltt' difJ'rrl'lll rX/JI'I'I'IICrs

or

or

of ntotlemil) by dilf'rrl'lll wcialp;ro u{Js. Tites<: dif'lcre nt tempo ra l sens<.s lcad to conllicts ,,ithin tll <. 111o d c rn sensc o r tiiiH;'. Suc ll t'O tdli c t ~ o t c:ur o1cr 111ar kin g- pa rtic ula r d ays or h o licla~, , in th c wo rkplace (whc n cont ro l O\t:l' schl'cildes a nd lll1Ciablcs i ~ i1 kc~ ind icator of (>01\'l'l') anc( at th t: bo rckrs IJCt\\'l'Cil d iffcre nt cu lture:." hcrc rc ligio n . politics ancl ccono1n ics structur c time. 'f1u 1'1/II'IKI' I/tl' ll 11/Qc/t'mI_\'
.\1'1111'

C:upeutie1 ( 19!11): :11- i )

3.

oj

111' 11', lt'IIQ(/1/O//al)'

jOI'/115 oj ( OIIIriOII\1/t\\, ll'hirh }mKIIIf /1(

oj hiiiiiiiKt'llllrd obrahe limt . \\'t: m ig h t poit tl to thc aucmph af tt' t tlH Frcnch and Ru~sian 1emh 11 ions to c hangc tite lcngth o f' thc week, 10 arguml'llh h~ feminio;b that

194

lntroducing Cultural Sl udies

Cultu re, L im e and hislo ry

195

\\'Oill t' '' l'"-Pl'' it' ll< <' li11w clilkn.uh. 01 tn the ll'<l" tT lion of :111 tpprt'"t'cl tu hure\ 'l'll'l' of tim e in upri"i11g' ,,g:IJhl b11ope:111 Jttlt d u r i11g tl w '1-\'l' ol im p eri:Jii, m.

h iston :lit' ~tro~igllllor11,11'dh pre-elnintnt. li htt.ICI. tht' l .ut mort lil..eh ro argue llta t (1ere , :t t o mp lt' 1l'l. ni u 1h hi p bt: lll't'l' ll 1lt L' lii D. ' ;\l<t l<'l i:tliq' h i,loria n ' 11 ill conte ll tl 1ha l Ll ll' t c a litl' o l h i, ton is ' n U llll plintl c d a tt cl con lracliunn 1hat liD ,inglt- ll'r, ion tould po"ihk rt'J>It''t'llt tlw tJuth : lllll't'Cfllt'lllh clifftH'lll intt' I J> I t't,ltion~ :nt int'li t:tblt. O nt o l rlw ht, t-k ll o\111 in 1ro d u c ri on, 111 histo r ic:a l '1uch . ,,ll ic h w l.. t., :1 s ir~ titk th l' q ltt'' tio n ' \\ llar , lli ~ r o n: . is a ,.;n ie~ o l lcCillrt'' b1 E. l l. ( :liT. Can bt'g' II\ hi ' cli,t u<,io n o l tit e lllj>t' ln lool..ing 01 1 holl' h i,ton i, 11'fill t'll, 1.1ki11g hi' l'Xamplt, lrom tlll' 11a\ th.u hi, to1 i.nh u l tlw n inett'l'llth alHI 111e 1llitth t t'lllll l ie\ t t~c ;ll d t :t11cl \1 1i11 h i,loi'('.tl .trco tt ll h . ll i, arg u m en 1 i ~ tll:ll i1 i\ 111 possil> lt to kn<>ll ,, ha t .llltt:tlh lt .tppt' lll'cl ': lhl1'a cl . l h t h i-,loi'at l 111 11o;1 m al..t d o ll'i th th l' l'\ idt'lll'<' 11'" 1'" ht'l'll Id 1 (1'0111 l't )\ lll t'J' 1imt'' r hi' t'\ iclt '1HT dt ll'' not rt'j)I L''l'lll 1ht tr uth , h111 t'ltnthing 1'1<>111 th c opi n ion' ollh"t' \dto II'L'rt' pt >ll"t' Jlu lt twu ~h ro gel IIH'11t reconit-(l 1<> rht .H' id tnl :tl ldronr., 1h:u ' 't "i'l'tl 11:trs :u td tta ruraltat:ts lrop ll ts (C::11T. 19li 1: 1-:IO . HoiH'\" t r. t hi ' , JHII lo ' ' " tha t C.ttt h ditll'' th a t ohjtc riH h i, IOJY doe ' 111>1 r xist: Ja ll wr o ur idea or 'ph ilo-,opln ol hi,ltll\. 11ill he lorml'cl onh' 1h ro11Kh llll' in co tHp le rt ,., idt n ct: :lla ila b k . lt a [, o r n n 1ai tt ' ,, 11a n ling. in 1h at il lh t t'l ickn ce i.' frag n tc lllt: d a nd t't>Jll ra cl ir llll'l t lwn it 11ill a l11:11 \ ht po~~ i l > l l'. an cl incle ed lt'lllplin g . ro illl j>O'l' :111 itllt'I JHl'\,IJoll Ull il th .Jl C onfol lll' lO .1 pnjlJclgt:d \ it'\\ ul '\\ h a 1 .ICLU,\Ih happt' tll'Cl'. Jl i'ltli'a lts a n tt ,l'd tl l" ' iclt:tli' m h1 ll 1:ttl'rial i.;l lt i, tur i:tll ' llli\1 n< H :tt ltla lh cl v11: a l"l' il l hiswn . IHII " 'ill .ugut t ha t rta l hi,ton i' unh .trn,,ibk rhnnrg h th t donrnH'llh th.ll reprtst'llt it. dot llllll'llh th.n can in rlnck t'lt'll thing 11om tlw D oom~da1 h o ol.. 10 painiitg , , ' cu lp1111 T ;m cl 1h l' litc ra tUI"(' 111 a pa r1ir 11l ar )l't iod . Colt M'CJ IIt'nt l\ . LlllT< ' is 1 11> poi111 in :-.p c aki ng o l a re a li 11 o ttl:>iclt t IHN' d ortllll t'lll' Ut,p itt' t lw fan th al t h e., t tll'o fmm ' ol h io;wrkalllnde1 , 1:tllding tnt'i't. i1 i' 111111 h l..ttpinlo{ t htnt in m incl. btc:n'L' t h r~ ac1 " ' a sr:111ing )oi nt 11'0111 11 h ic l1 wt can h l'gin to undtr,tand rh e compfe xir y o f tha Lrl'la ri onsh ip . lu t lw lll t',\l l ti lltl'. lt< tll"l 'l t'r. it i' 11ol'l h co ll ' id l'ri n g h o 11 n d 1u ra l s luclit, approat h t, a l.llnili:u aiiCI '1i ll t'OIIIIIltltt arrot u llol 1 1ha t h i, ron i': lJi,ton a' l.tc t ~.

5.2

Then: history and the past

lnt hi~ 'l't lion. 1\l'ton,ide r lh t p :ht a 11d th e d ilk rcnt ~~-~"' ol u ndtr,tandin~ h i,tnn. \\'l' loo!.. at 1he d illen11ce bet\\'l't'11 the iclt.t ol an " l* c t in !Ji ,lt\1~. o l ' ''lt' l ll a l tl't'l lh that ha ppe n lo p l'u plt. :tml o l \ t tl ~jt'C i il l.' hi., l o ri l'~ . hC)\1' history , p e tTt: il'<d h: 1h o'l' ll' hu t:tkt: pan . lJilkre m thtq r ie' ol' hi,lor~ .ll't' d i~c tt"t' d : lu r e":un pil. h i,torr a, ;u , , \Ja rxi, hi,ton. !Ji,on ,,, narratill .111<l FottcHJidi.ln hi,ton. T lw clilkn::nl hi,torical nan.11i1e,

th at l'lllt' l'g't' throu g h t h t' t'"-pl o rat iu n o l da s~ ..1..\t'tHll' r. ract' ' :111cl ' l'' ll:d ill :tn d t'' l l'ib ed , Fina ll: . ,,.,. look .11 lh t: ex:11 nplt: o l tlll l' c u ltt tra l h i ~ t01i :111. _l uclit h \\'all..oii' ll. 1d lli rombint'' 'OI1H: o l lh t''-l' dillt'l t'lll a p p t oache in lwr II'Oil... 11 is on h in t h t 1.1'1 2.10 ~t.t r' th~ll tllt' re h a ' bt't'l1 ,, clea r rJi,ti11 c liu ll ht'tll't't' ll l:tlt' 01 storic:,

and h isto l 1 : 1 ~ a d b till t 1 fo nu o l' lliliTalI'l' l ha l a llt' lllj)l'i to l'l' Jl l'l''il'llll iH' lrt tlh u f'

Jl''L t'll'll l,. ' l ln". tlt t' ick-a o l a n ol~j<Ttin: h i,ton 11 hit h t"\i ' l' ollhick t ulturt , rdatiwh Jlt'll'. In th t Ut~l k t h t' h i,tol ia 11 Ltupold \ '011 R. mkt' ( IIH.)-J K~tll t:tll..ed o l 1 1rir itt g h b ro n as i1 ill llla lh h .I IIJl l'llccl '. T lti' 1111H ln t1 hi.,lt11'ica l .st'11St' ''."' lll ~td l' >os, ihle b1 mod tJ'II i t\'. ' p a ntdu x ic:tl u ti tun.. o f' t l11t'. O 11 1h t O II C ha 11d . a n u b jecl i\1' se m t o t rime allmwd .111 l t lldtr,la n din~ ol h i, ron a' an objt'( tin. progrl'ssiw m n un1tnt. In rhe II'Ord' o t lhl' a n t h ro pDiogi~ t L<:\iSII'il ll '' hi,to l\ is conli n ttOll,, ( , ill1Dg tI H111' and lin ea r . On ril e o lh t 1nock m it1\ lw ig lll t'll <'cl co nscio tJSill'" ol lll t' Jlll'' L 'll l pt' llltilled :m un d tt ,anding ol h i~ton a' 'un1e 1h i 11g 1h a t i' con ,l.ull h in lht p t on" o l httoJuing. :'l lode111 h i,toric.ll n a rra r i ~t tmerge' lro m t h i' con'<io tt,nts~. So11H' o f 1ht' g a nd h i~ rori r: tl t1 :11Ta lil t'\ o f' rh c II H>d nn a.:e . inclucling 1\ationa lism . ill1 jll"l'i a li ~1 1 1 . commu n i'lll and l:t\ c'111. c nw rgt ou l ol th l' lll tH krn tt ntpora l '('" ''' l loll'l'lt'l'. lh t Jll tdt iplic itl

ol \itll p oinr.;; opt'tlt'cl up 1>1 t ht t in1t' o l mocltJnitl "' ' llll':tlll th.n en:n 11here an
o b jl'CI iw h islo ry i' h e li tn d possibk. it is tw t t'<tSih .uTcs., ibll' .. Jllst a' d i 1ftTe n 1. e xpe r it'11Cl'' o f lillll' lft' ;1 .... 0\ ll't'l' o r \Ot ia l r<lll ll ill . 'O h Sltll"l' i' f'nug ltl 0 \'LT bl' dili'crl'lll " ' cial g~t HIJ>' In rh t II'OJ'd' o t \\'altt:r lk n jamin. ' lhcn i' 1111 clonumnt ol d1ilitatinn wh ic h i' 110 1 :H IIH' ' illlll' ti tn t :t clo c tll11t'll1 o fharhari'm . \\'ith lk nj:11n in . r uhura l ' l ud ie~ b i 11 ll' l'l'S tt'cl 1o t' Xi llll il1l' bn1l1 sid ts o f' h iSLO JY: ' lo bn1 sh h i\ 101'\ ilg':IIISI l ht g r.III ' ( lknj a min . 19 10 : 2:)6-1 ). Btcuo;c Ll w rela 1 io n ~ h ip bt' liH't'll o h jtrtiH an d 'ubjecti1e iclt:t'- Of h i,toiY j, C0111 j)lcX. i1 i~ a good id ea lO ' tp;U,IIt' lhl'lll 011 1 bl'lon g'Oi llg <111: l'nrth l'r. . \11 objcc tin hi 'ilo J'\' :t"lllllt'\ 1h a 1 hi~r o ry , abm 1t re a l t'H' tll~ th a t lla ppen in objeni\t lime. Ir ron ' i~n' r u ltn n to lht nwditnn t h llHJ~h 11hilh h i~LOn i, pcTcti~tcl and tllld e r~ I Ood . \\'ord ~ th a l i1 1't' U't'd 10 clt'sc rib t th is Ulld t' r,1:t11cling o f lt i~ l o r: ill'e ttni a li .;t. rea l'. ' : lh~olul t'' u r 'ol ~j t' C II'c. Su l~j t c ti l< ' h isroric' g in 111on IIT ig llr ID 1lte ' tll < c ultura l ro n tc:o.t in ll'h ic h lt i,lorie' illt' macle a n d to lcl. \\'orcl, rha t ;u e: tl'ot'd tu dnn ibt t h i<. II JH it" randi n g ot h i,ton a r e ' icl(';tl isl. ' linit~ n ,, 'rl'l.nh i,l or , d~j ,niH. In filct. 1n~ l'e11 h i-, ruri:llt-" 111 it c h isto ll' in a ll'il: th a Lil"llll tt'' thal t'i tl tt' l' c u ltll l'l' u 1 an ohjl'Cii n'

5.2.1

History as facts

The ht,tkllo\1 11 and lllU\1 t 1i1ici,cd l tT,ion ol ohjtctilt' h i,tnn i, hi,r or~ ,, f.lt h : lllr <xam plt. h istu1 ,. "' a o;ucct'\\it111 ,r cl:1tes ''' ki ng ' .t n d qut't'l1,, Tht :wq 11i-, i1io n 1tf fan' ;,, a su b-,1i 1lll t' for a hd k r kllo wkclg t ol' 1he 1\'o tl d 11, l: ll llDllsh p:1rod ied bl' Cl ta r k' Dic kc n ' ( l:-\ 1 ~-10) in hi' noll'l 1/rm/ '1'11111'' ( 1:-t:, 1). 1d1 t'll th l' c harautr :'llr (:ractg r i11d sa:s: 'h1ch .do n l' .tl't'll'all tt' cl inl ifl'' ('t'l' 13o x :), 1). Dick""'. ' paroch h a~ b et' t1 a l:ll'o uri tt '1'o lt' thal rlu: 'bcl ie f i11 a h an l o f h is tm i an ~ likt 1-:. 11. Can an <l E. l' . T lHtmp,. . Dn . C:trr 11 core ol lJ i, torica l l.tn~ txi, lin g objtU ill' h' a n cl in de p e nd t'1llh n i th t interp n 1.11 io n o l t lw h istorian i' ,, p epmLtroiJ' fall.t< 1. bu t u n t 11 h ich i' h.11 ti 10 t'l adica te ( C.1r r . 19ti.J: 1 ~). Tht assu lliJ>Iio n llt'lt in d :'\ Ir(;, < 1C ig ri 11cl's ph ilo sopll\ , th at l'a n' p ro\ itk p nsitii'L ' ot' t ll( world . T lt i' kllollkclgT is cl e~n ill tcl a ' posi1i1ist ' aiHi u nq utstio lla h lt kn01d l'clg< or 'l>1n p i1 icis t'. lllt'illling th at th t t:lt l' gain td .liT p rmabk h1 t'Xj>l'l'il'lltl'. l lml'l'\t'r. it i' ''tilbli' " p ruol [m 11 i ~to 1 it a l lact ' \\'h i lt ~Oilll' l'ac 1' 111:11 Wt' lll incli~p nr abk . d ifli r ult to L tiH;J'(' is :tlll':l\, ruo ll t tor :1110 1lt n ill'l'OI IIl l. Fo r l' -.:a nt pk. l hl' h ,ltH'l':t l rae r 1lta l Q tiL'l' 11

196

lntroducing Cultural Sludies

Culture, time and history

197

Box

5.4

Charles Dickens, Hard Times

\'n11 ,,hat 1 ,,ant i-.. Fan-.. T tad 1 il1 t''t' IJm, .u1d ~irh nothing hut Fan'. F.1t h alo11t' arl' ,,anH:d in lik. l'lant nothing d,t. . u1d root outt'\\'1\thing dw. \'ou c111 o uh found tlu: mind' ol1t';honin~ .mim.t'- upon Fan': nnthi11)-{ l'hc 1\'ill t'nTiw ol ; u ~ ~cnice to thtm. Thi-. i-. the principie on \dtich 1 bring up 111\' mm childrl'n. this is the principie o1111hidt 1 bring up thcse children . Stirk to Fans. -.i r:
Di ckt: 11~ t

1\lli\1 :

17)

11 nq ttL''' ion a bit- L'l itk ntt' ht'C Bu.\ :1 ..1). 1n,ll',td. thl' h i'tnt i.tn , IHtl L't tnHht , tood " hl' ilg' in <lial<,g tiL' 1\itlt tan-.. fittin g Llll'llt iltl ll tlttontital lt.tlllt'\\'Ork' in 1\'hi r h tht'l' 111 ;1ke ,c n ~c and tlt L' tt IHrhap' r lt a tt g in ~ tll t' ' lr:llncllork' het'd ii,L' tit e lltc t' inl;~l i d:llt' sOiltl' ol' it~ as,u lttptinll'-. l ltomp>ntt tt-.l'd tlt t l\cHd (rallll'\\Ot J.. .1-. .1 l\0\\ .,( rt,ohi ttg thl' pruhktn for m.nni.tl i-.t h i-.ton 1ltat lan' llt'H' I pro1idt pe hit, L' t'l i<kttct. Thom P'un'' fratlll'\\OrJ.. i' cotllpar;tble 10 1 .JI. (;u r, ' pltilo,oph, ni hi,tot 1 .. \ ch.m~in!{ framc11orl.. 01 plt iJo,oplll' aJim,, tht hi~tnrian to )!.L'I ' " dme a~ po"iblt- to :111 objecti1-c- hi,wn. u>ing tlw elidtnce ;11 h:t lt d. Both Carr ancl T hom Nm I\'Ot ktd ,,ithin tht :'llarxi-.t ltistot ic:tltraditiolt. .\ \ l:tt'Xi't ttndcrstancling of' lri,lllry h:1 ~ lrad att i111p()rtan1 inllttt'IH't.' in contentpora tY cultur:tl ' tuclil.~.
; '\

5.2.2
\ 'ictoria died in 1901 a ppt.tn to be suaightlon,ard. T h c imp01tance o l the quttn in British life at tlw histo1ica l periocl in ,,hich ,he dicd mcan-; that th crc are pk-nt~ of documents that can pro\'icle this c,iclc nct', ancl tlw accounts pnwid<'d b~ tlw d nntmcnts are un li kc ty to con f t in. l3tll 1\Uch accmarr is un 1 ike ly i11 1he casl' of ~nmcone \\'lio i~ ltss rt' tHrat LO th c 1\'a\' that ~or i e ty i ~ organi~l'd or whn liled ;na time for 1d1ich thert is lcss clor utll t lltation. For tx:unple. there is 110 rn memporan IITillt'n t'l'idcncc w tl'll us a bout ' l.indo11 ~lan. a man whose ,,ell-pn.:M:tYcd bodv 11-::1~ louncl in a peat bog ntar \\'ilmsloll' in the :"\onh o l l ng-lancl ancl is 1101\' in the British \ l u ~cum . ll i$torians h a1c 10 re ll' 011 cliffcrcnl kincJ, n f' Cl'idtncc that an ks~ acc urate :~nd th:tt mal' conflict wi tlt 011(' anoth <.1 . T his c1icle nn .' inchtdcs thc agc ol tite pcat in 1d1ir lt ht ll':t ~ l'o uncl, tht clotltcs ht was wcarin{ ancl el't' lt tite undigested l'nnd tlt :tl was lo uncl in his stumac h. From tlt tse fac t~ hi ~ toria 1t s ancl a n: lt aco l og ist~ lt:tiT atte11tptccl to picce togtthc r a pictut-c- ni who tite man ,,.,1S and how lt( clicd. but. unclcr:.tanclabh. much of 11hat the1 l>ugg-c-.t is :.pcculation. As a con!>eq mncc. 1rhaL St'mt i' maclt of these fach i-, a mauer o l dispute. 1t dq>tnds upo n the airead~ existing tlworic' about Linclm, \la n\ soc i ct~ and rdigion, :tlHithc lack o f elidt nc< lllt'<llts thatthesc th t ories are n ot fixl'd nor do th e~ n en-;saril~ agnt ll'itlt one ano tlt tr. J \ l r Gradgrind ntigltt arg uc tltat this dot. ntH invalidatt his clain1 tltat a ll ll't nttd to knoll' is facts. l t is ~ intph tha t lor somc pl'riod' ami pcopl e ll't' J..n ow more facts and for Othct ~ 1\'C know le~. 11istOI'I'. th cn . is still thc p roccss or acquiring I~IC ts abo m tht J>il't. Bm il we rctum LO thc clt:ath of Q uecn \ 'ictot ia in thc light of tlll' 1\'0rJ.. of making ~en~c done by his10rians and archaeologists. it i~ pos~iblc to \t't' th:n the Graclgri ndian approach nssumts th at h is facts make St' l1'-t' in thc msches. T1,o ;tssttmptions that mnkc scn,c nt' thc dcal h ot' Qu(cn \ 'ictoria art'. firs t, that 11c knn11 o ( 1dtich coun111 s hc 11a.~ qucc n. ;mcl second . we know th c rute ol' tit e mo ttilt'Ch in ijritislr ltinctccnthnntut y po litic-. and socie ty. TIH:~e l.\.SIIIII]Jlion:. are cultural in tl\'0 wny,: tht Jact of \ 'ictoria', dcath hada cultural nwaning and thc l'nct~ make scnsc on l~ il th l'l ~ig nif~ somt'thi ng ,,ithin a known cu l nu~tl con text. Culwralnwaning i~ always a tllll l<'l' ofin te rpn' t:ttion; a nd tlw interpteta tion of' lact~. c1en whcn they ai-e kno1,11 and agrced u pon. i ~ a mattcr for d isput e a mon~ hi~torian~. E.P. Tltompson ( p. !)(i) argucd tltat f':t c t ~ cannot simply he l'tnil'ld b~ tite hi-.tcHi;lll

Marxism and history

As a matet ial i ~t pltilmopl" . otw of tht nntral p t incipks of ~larxi,m i, that tlwre is a real hi~IOI'I. and that ndture txi~ts :ts p:ut u( that real lristory. ll o\\TH'r. in u rder to 1111 clcr.~1 an~l thc long-Ja.tin~ inllnt' ll('(' th;tt :'llarxism has hacl 0 11 lt istorical s tucl)' ancl nn cultural ~ Lu dies it is importa m to undt'rstand hnw h i~torica l 1 11at er i:tlism , the narn t that Ft iedr ic h Engels gal'l' tu lt i.-. ancl \ larx ' plt ilmoplty. cliff'er.~ l'rotu an idea of h btur~ a~ i l actually ltappenecl'. \\'hill- crude or ,ulgar ~larxism maintaith tha t culture i ~ patt of th t Mtperstntcture ,,hirh i' determined h1 the economic ba,e. the ra ngc ami rompkxit1 ol ~ I arx~ ,,orJ.. suggl~t' that there i~ .1 ll\'t)-\\'<11' n:lation-.ltip be l\l'el'n culturt and ccono mics (\\'illiarm . 1~)77: 'i!l-8~). E. l'. riwmpson lt ;ts ckscribcd thc n: lationslt ip bc ti\'Cl'll th t material ami thc r uh1tral as ana logous w thl.' rt lationship bctwcen a block ol'lw>od allCI ll'lt ;ll tit e joi nt'l' d ocs ,,itlt tltat 1\'00d (see Box :i.ti). Fir~t. 1dtatc1er ma terial i~ a1ailable. ln11nan agc n cy is tsstn tial. but the h uman ptTstnct i~ not enough 011 i t~ o11n. T h e nmterial' clo 1101 rletermim tite

Box

5.5

E.P. Thompson, 'The Poverty of Theory'

T ltat ck ad. imn tl'X t u( ... e1iden n is b1 no mcam 'in aucli blt-': it Itas a deafcn inglitalitl of i t ~ oll'n: 1 oi<< s dantonr lront the past. assc1 tin; thcir m,n mcaning,, appcaring 10 clisclo-.t thcir O\\'n self ~knmd cdgc as knmdcdgc. If \\'e oflt'r a cummonpbce t;tct' - ' Ki11g Zcd dil'cl in 1100 A.D.'- 11'<.' art alrcacly oll'cn:d a conccpt of ki ngsh ip: tite rcla t ion ~-o o l domina 1iott ami su bordi nat ion , thc funnio 11 ~ a11d roles o!' tl tt' ol'fi ct. tlll' charisma ancl mag ica l c nd oll'tll l' l tt~ auar h ing LO tltat role ... t h , c1ide ltC:l' i~ rccti,cd b~ tltt' lt i-.wriall ll'it hin .1 tlt con tical fratlll'\\'Ol'k ( tlw di.ciplinc of h istotY, ,,h ich it~elf ha:. a hi ~tory all(l a di']Hllt:d pn sem) ,,hid t h a~ rdincd tht connpt of ki ng,hip . . . \ l' l'l clill'crent from tite immediac~ ... of thml' 11'110 anuallr l\';ltrhed King Znl cliL.

11 1 198 lntroducing Cultural Studies Culture, time and history 199

~56

1'\l'l' httn l..nm,n lo m.ll..t a rabk out o l a ir. or ,;,,<(u,l. lltt juintl pprop i.H<:~ tha t tim btl . 111<1. in 11orking- it up into a tabk. lw i' go11rncd bot h h1 hi' '>kili ( lhto rtlif,,l pranin:. ihell ari-:ing from a 111111111. or 't'XJWI itnn. ol nul..ing- tables, '' 1nll a., a hi,ton ol llw t'loltuion ni the approp1 i.llt' loo), ancl by tht cual i1i e~ ('ilt'. grain. 'c:a~oning. etc.) of 1he timhc:r ihdf.

l '" , ;," "' '~:,~: ,~,~~.~~~~'~'~ ' :~:.~, ;.,~~~~.t:.. ~~ ~.~~.~r~:

ironic reltr~:11 " of 1ltti1 owr1 1\lt'l1 1ion ' ( l ~li' l : 102 ). T lltl';. it can be Sl't'n lil :1l tll tl..ind of ~ larxi~ 11 1 Jl1~ 1l'I't' d bi'.J:mtt''tlll st't'' n o oh\ io11' 1ela1o 11slti p or cau,ation bt' l\\ tTII lt:d hiswn a11d lh t rq>n~t'lllalion o l hi,lon. lt , impo"ibk w l'l'Jll't'~l' lll lai,lllll a, i1 actuall' happnwcl t'lt'll llwugla it dicl happt'tl. Bera11~e ol thi' d ifficu lt1 0111 ro11<e1n oJ' cultural ~lllcit'' Ita' ht't'll 10 an.lil''l' hi,ton a., narr;uin:.

5.2.3

History as narrative

prod 1H'I :1 1 >snlwl'll', 'th< ll'ood Clllll<ll dl'ttrmir rt ;r !tat i' ruadt' ', hu1 i1 ca n limit the procllll l: ' it c:111 cn tai nl y clltc rn im ,,hat can 11111 he 111.td1. tli v lirn il., (~i1.e . streng-th, t' lt'. ) ol'1dt:H is t11adt', :ttH I Iil c sl..i ll' anrl toob a ppn.pri:llt' lo lllt' 111akin.( (T hompso 11 , l \l 7~: I K). Tlnr, , 11hi l< tlw 11pc of produtt ma1 IH' l'or'llltd ll'il hin a ,,idt :n rrl dil'crsc c ultu1.1l 'Phl'l't'. in tiH lina l in~tan ct thc malvri:ll qua l itit~ ol tlw block o l' ll'ood will ddi ra lh t ('OIHiilion:; 11ithin 1d1ith that c uiL11n can exi,t. l1 1 :\hu x's 1h o ug li1 it , the rdat ic111 ., o l procluu ion that cund lion thc c ulture oJ' a pa l'l icular 1i lllt'. :\ larx II'I'Olt: 1h:u hi, 1 o11 , abuu1 tht: g rmnh o( h uman produt'IH' poll t r: tllll'. 1 1'i1hin tha t co nlt:XI, huma n n lil111't' tno 1dll gro,, a11d cxpancl in a diall'('I ca l rdalion,llip wi1 h 1he rdations ol procluCiion . In hi., mo<.l fa n HHI~ prono11nnnttn1on IIH ld, ll iolhlli p hl'l\\'l'l'l1 human lwi11~' a11<l hi,lon . hl' ''Tolt': ' :\knmal..e tluir 01111 h i,wn. h111 art hmn i1110 rond itio us 1101 ol thtlr 01111 lll:tl..ittg.' T IH' :\l.trxi'l li1 e 1.1n rritic ancl rul111 ralthc:w ,, Fncll ir,lanw,on al{ll<'' 1ha1 hi~LOJ"I' is ~tal, hll l ' ' fu nclallH'III.JI h 11011-11.11'1':11 l'l' a11cl IIOIII't'J>I'f.''l'lll :11 io11,1 J' u.l11H'~OI1. 1!Ji) 1; H:!J: hi,lo1 1 , 11111.1 lt':-.1 . 1101 ,, Jl.1 1 T:J1ie. 111:1~1er or olhl'l 1\,e. h111 ... a' :111 ab'l'lll ra u,e. it i~ in:1n l'''ihll' lo "' c:-.t l'fll in ll''l(l11:1 1 lill'ltl. .tnd ... 11 1' .q>pl oadt 10 l a11Cl 10 tht Rtal ii'dl llt't\'"11 il~ pa'"'' 1h rougl 1 h pt ot te:-.; tu.di,:ll ion. ih 1 1>11'1 :11 , ,;11 ion ... (1> 1 1 Jlt'M>n. 1!}~ 1; JT1)

Qne of t ht: 01 igin.tl nw:ming' o! lht 1\'0rd 'hi ... wn ""~ a narr.11i1 t' accotn ll ol' t'H'Il l'. ancl a , 111 pli lit' el \'t't',ion or II H' iclta l'l' h bwr~ is 1la al h b lol'\ ~ 11 0 mon 1han a collection of nan.ttil'l'' C:i!':trll' :di hi,wri e~ are ,lruCilll't'cl as 11arr:ui \'l'~ in MI lar '" lh t'\ gii'C :1 11 ,ICCOlllll n( pa'll'lt'llh. h111 l'l't'll jf lh j, I'C: I'~ll o f' ~ubjeCI\ t' h3lUI1 S al'<:t' (>ll'd . il harclh ,jmplilk~ till' prohlt'lll. f'<HTa i\l'~ can be of lll<lll\ 1~ pes. 11'0111 tht simpJt,l sentcnce - 1ht , tonning oJ' lil e H:1 ~ till t wok plact' un 1I J ul~ 1 7 8~1 - to llw rhtto rital complc:xi ll .. r Thoma' ( :ll'hk.' la is l()1\' or ti J(' Fr ('1H'll Remlut ion ( U'tH) ( St'l' Box :"J. ). ;.JarratiiTS ;rrc o ne oJ' lil e f'o rm,.; llt rt>ug h ll'h ich a c u llllrt' unders1 ands l'tll' a rtcl i1' past. Thn lmllidt origino; ur lwginnings ll'hiclt cxplain suh'l'Cflll' lll t'l't'IIIS. For exa ntplc . u1an y n dllll'l'S il :nt ,,h:ll an ktHll\'11 "' lnu ndi ng lll )'ths. ll'hic h prl)lick a o;ory th<tl gins a "t'IISt' of' pridt a nd idc niII'. Tht Rom:111 p<~el \ 'irg il 1\TO\t' 'f'lu' . \uu-itl ( 1\)

or ""*'{'[

1 B ox 5.7
1

Thomas Ca rlyle, The Storming of the Bastill e from The French Revolution

.l antt,on

ll ~l'' 1l11 1mrd 'text i11 i1s posts tructuralist (p. :!-1) St' ll ,,. In lllt'<lll a m h iswrical rlon111H'nl or anif: tcl ll'ltic h can lw ' rtad' f'or , gns 1ha1 tdltt' :ti)C)tll 1lw p:1s1. lln\\'CI'Cr, th is (( 111111 rl:\1 OI1 o (' l'l'<ll. 111< lll'I'al h SlOIT 111 ig h 1 ,,l') l ht' Cl'i1it' iSI'<i f'or j lS l'ag'lll'IWSS. ( lt)\1', itrniglll lw ash.l'd. clo 1\'1' kno,, tha1 1lwrc is a rt'al hi,lo rv lwhi rHI ;rl l thl' lt'X I s ~ To :IIISII'tr lhi,. J ant ewn 11.~es 1he conccpt uf' nec!'ssi tl to dt''tTi lw thv t'll lldilion' thal lintil nrl1111'e, j11s1 :1' th t hlork nf'wood (ahc11'c) limitt d tht ra rpt ttl t'l'. For :\larx. Jti,tnl"l , :1lm ut 1hc .' ll'll ~!{k bel\1'1'<'1 1 frecdom alHI ncccssi1~. wht'l'l' f l'l'l'clona is " '' Hl 11t ro ng h IIH "'l'S of ht1111an prodllclil't' pcmer. ll istory is li:l1 througll 1111 limi t' im pos<d b1 ntce,,itv. ' ll i:-ton. ''Ti H~ .JauH'"Hl. , 11hat h ull;.. i1 is 1dt.ll re h''''' ck,iJ t ancl 't'h lll':-.o 1.thle limi t~ 1 0 incliliclual a' ll'dl a~ ('ollecti~t p 1 .1:-.i~. 11hid1 j., "n,,~,., .. 1111'11 in1o ~ri,h a nd

On . l htn ..111 h t'IHilllll'l1. 1h.11 h.tH' hl.rh in \'01 11 hod i1'~ Ro:11 IIth .111 10111 1hroah. or C.11'1ilaKt' a nd lllt'lal. ll' So m of l.ihe11~: ~1i1 'J>a'moditalh 11 h.ll,Ol'll'l ol llllllO'l f.lt lllll ,in 11111. 'oul. hwh. 01 'JlI'L: ror l , th e hour! Smill'. thou l.cnl i' Touan.ll'. tai'I\ITigh l ol :\l.rai,, olcl-,olcliel of 11te Regimc:n t Dauph inl': 'mitt .11 that Ottll'l' D1 a,,briclgt c hain. 1h1111g h lht' lie1 : hail ll' hi :>tk~ round lht'l': :'\nl'r. o\e r naw o r l'dloe. di el !111 a:'\t' .,1 ri l..t' ~u eh a ~trokt'. D01m ,,ith i t. 111:111 ; dm,n 11 i1h it tn Orcu': lettht 1dtoit' accurstd blilice sin k thithe r. anrl Tyra1111Y IH sll':lllm,ed up fnrt'I'LT! \ lo1111\t'cl . '011\l' ~m . 011 illl' r.Jo( of tllt' gt 1 ard-roon1. 'olllt' 'on ba~ <~lll'l ' s1uc k into joint." ol' ti1t' 11'01 1 1. ' l.nu i' Toumay "111Les, bran- .\uhin Bon1tt'llll'l'l' (al'o an o ld ~u l dil-r) snorHiing lrin1: 1h e cil:lin l' i e ld ~. brt'01ks: lht huge nrall'bt idgc slams dn11n , 1ht 11Hh-1 ing (111'1'1' jmr(/.1) . (;foriou.'<: ancl ~l'L. ""'" it is ,i ll bu1 lhl' Oll lll'oll..'. Tia Eig hl g rir11 Ttlll'l' l'~ . 11 ith the ir l nl'alicle llHt,ktlr). tlll'ir pal'i11g sto m~ aJHI c. lllliOil nHnllh ~. ~ lill ''"11 alol'1 intac t:- Dilrlt ~.11min g intp:t~:o.a hk . stont-l'an:d : tl w inntr [)ral,hridge 11ith j, liwl: to11arcb u,: the lb,tilk ~1ill ltl takt: ( .11 h 1 t 1!171 1~:!1

200

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Culture, lime and history

201

11<.), a 11 ~pie p oe111 based ~ 11 1he Cree k epi e puc ms o l lltlllll'l', 11hiclt te lis hn ,. 1 cscapcd from Troy ll'ht:n 1 t ll';lS destro1-ed b1 tlw t 1 ck . 1 . . ..\eneas . ' t ~ .tll( , , 1lt'l a Sl'rJ(;'~ of 1 ad,c ntllres. fo 11nded the citl' of Romc T he f)Ot'll1 .. . 1 . . leroic g.t\ e q.('J tJman lO Roma11 1 col1 ncctmg ll LOan tarlier heroic period . tllt' T . . \\'. . ' . ru tllre by cultun:. \\'hile there i~ lillle in The . lrueid that t I'I:~J~n. 1 .'". :~ncl .to an earller. admired ,, igins of Ronw the t 1 H ll\toJ J:\11 .tbout tht ran~ ofth poem L<:JI, us rnuch about tlw Reunan <'llhllrt of\ ...,,r e In tlw mocltJ n llorld. nation-state~ hme COI1\tr . ~ . . 11,..,1 'lime. llloment<.. o f collt.>ctiH: ac hit,ement ld1ich >t'rformll;l< ~1 '.''"'11~\.t'!> that ~-mpha ise (:\ 11der on llllJI ) ( ' CI . 1 . lnlll;u 11111<:11011\ tn lhe ,len .d . M. 't l.tptcJ -1 ) . For example in t h . 1 . . 1 . . ~ i~nl. Europeal1 historical narrati,c~"ere more likell L1 c.'' '\'.11~~~~.' :lll:uro~ta,~ imperial. bcen brotrg-ht lw a Euro){''lll nlliOJl to , , 1 . e ttnp 1.N\t t H:' hellc:lrtslelt lo have . ' ' 1 l> <O 0 111e.\ a ncl 10 l'l'J)I' ' (' f I-0111L'th ll1g grantcd bl th e coiOil l so L o tll 1 . 1T U 111 1 11< epende nce as e e ' <' CO Oll iSec h 1 f ' [ [ lht othc r h ~IIJ cl . ~~"t' l'l' lll ort like l, tcl . 1 .. .. . L 1 <: 11 ~ rnc tpenc {'11 1 ~ a r es. on . ll ll P l .J~I ~l' I'CS ISt au cc ( >)" H) . . puwc r and repre~l'lll independ ence as tht I'CI<ll'\' rJ : 1'1 . ~~ _,), ag.unM ilw Imperial .. . . . ' 1 lt'l a 11 o 11 ~ truggl e . TI . 1t m oclt lll ll<tl ratlles thm constitutt history (incllld in cr . ... . :.ta te) rrea tcd a llt ll', more precise distin cr 1. 1 i' ~~~\IOIItc~ ul tite n;ftiOnll;llr:Hil'ts ;~ fi el io n tnd 1 . . .. 1 . 1 0 11 t 1,11 md no r prt\' Hlllsl~ txislcd between IISIOI IC.I ll(ll'l'all\'t'S ii S ll'fl'l( ' l ' ( JI , l . .. wid ti n tlw lliOde rn understandin g ol' ti n . . . ~ , .'e ll.l ~ .OCCIIITtc. 1h,~ occurs f . . l l h ~Oillt' l llll g' Lflat l\ ll i'O"'I'l' . 1 011\':tl'(. \\ hlft' t he I'CS<." ll'{' fl lll"'tf 0 1 1 . . . SSII l , llllll'lllg ' ' 1 e~ o 111oc e l'll 111\tori 1 1 S('Cntific (a m l this itsc l fi~ ., tt'I'Jll tllrtlllt" 1 . '" ' 1111.{ H e cllln lo be lllOre " " se 1 l'l'l' IH 1 '" ,.,. 1rr l'a llk-r n arrati iT~ th t: Jas t. rhe IITitiiJ<T of .l . . .. . ,...., ".1 e 1 l'n nt co ntext~) than 1.. . . . ,.., ll\(())'1 ~ Sllll (()IJSI(Icrt'd bl e 1 R ,. )( .111 <11t. .\ lod crn 111 ~ ( 0 1'\' lns to tak 11 . -r f . .. .. . . dllles lo . ' ' e- -' 10 nlls rom alrcach' <'x i,li 1 ,- . -. a11ah-sls o l 11ll<.'ttTnlh-ct11 tu iY j)hilo<oJ>Ilc . 1 ' 1. . 1 g 11.1 11 <1111'1:''. In an . 11 \\'1 . ho11 IITillT~ fikt 1 legcl ~h r . n kJ 1\ () ll\101'\ 1"'\'('(' 11te 1 ras de,cribecl 1 . ' ' X a!l( Dlll 1arcl t 11 \e the 11 '1 1 1 1 '. , f 11 . . comeck. t ragtch .m el su ire 5111 . . . l 0 1111\ o f romance, 1 Ol 111 cmnbma11o 11 1 ' g' ,, '" >. .. 1 . . . . hl\101\' ll'otJ..,. Dilfen~m kind~ r . . . r t 1 1t ~' t llll \lew ol how . o 11all.lll\e mrm Clll tx ).. . 1. happellt'd blll t'lt nwnts o f de,ire '111<1 t . . , . 1 lt '' not Jll'>t ll~ton a~ it ' 1 ansgress10n ep. ~:,li).

or

5.2.4

Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin

.\ ' o ph bticated approach to thc l,m lhat n.urui\'ts r . . . . . pt 0\ ickcl !), thl' Ru,,i,m crit ic Mikha'J 'J'kl :, . . t PI< ~e.l1t J(it-a<.. oltlllll' all(l ~pace is 1 1 . . . . " 1<11 ov1c h Bakht111 ( ). !!O!! (' . Cl . 1\.tl..h rrn , wnrk , llliJJOil'lllt b . . . tl .r.rptel. 1). 1 t camt 11 meO II }() J " ll c~ 1 1 1 induckcl in an ab'ii"ICI lti ~toJ Y of r. 1 . . . llo rc t'; h 1 lat ~ll l' no t usuafly ' ~<LCls: ( ('~ I H' .11 1(1 tflc C'll'llil" 1 n kl ' COilCl'Jl l of t)lt' 'rh ro notoy ' ' . t . ( '. ,J l 'q ll ('. Df\ . 11111 l"l'~ tflc 1 II'Orcl~ lhm ( ) 1 ' 10 m 1\ 0 l l'C't>. dtscribt hnw ta rlie r Io m r . . .. . . .. . 1/IJ,I lll lll lll ( lojms (.~pace) . to ' U lldll <l (ll't' COII\'t'l' dr{J T ' l , . f . thnst of th t 111 odcn r IJerio{( 1~ . .. ~ t. " M lht'' 0 tmw a 11d historr to ,tlllp 1 <:: tire l'JliC for 11 f .. f' k . Ul CX \ 'irg il l'cprvscnt.\ ;111 ah.~o fll t l' l)'lSI ~ > tt f' l . . 1 n lllllt'l'' 1 e 1ftllll t'l' ancl ' ' " '~ O )L'ITIJllllllgs 'llld ) k hr .~ t OJ'\' (Bakh tin , I ~Jtl l 1'1) \\'l . . . k . . ..., . . 1 (.r lllll c~ 111 ih e 11ational . , . . . . . . l,H ~ ~ ll U\111 as t' plC d ~ t a J J ce' sc Ja r; Ht~ ll w 1 . . . . . . o l 1he.: c.: p1c ,.0 111 tl w )restn 1 11) 1 , 1 . . . . tu 0 1 c 11111 Id . :00 liiC 1 . 1 1 le l'}JIC lll Od( l't'll . . , 11 . l . lt H 1 ~ '" IIIH t r,l andmg of lllllt' and histonwfli ch , Sti'IJ . . 1 . ". lht e 111 t 1 H nwdcrn world 1 1. 1 1 . i1 hacl in 1he cttltllrt of the l. . . >tl1 "' llr 1 la' ln\1 tlw authori tr 1 i em~. th:.n ni nncil'l1 t C:rtt'Ct'. T he norl'l. uJ~ the otiH'I hal1d l'l'lll'l'\t' nt tclll<~gt~na cf)IC po . ,, 1111(' o 111oe C'rtllll" '11 . ' . . . ,. '1 .. in language. tire pa;r and the futllre ( 198 1: 67). . "tXII.lOI( 11 1<1 11 1 't'l1' 1 ll\'<. to time

y 1,o othcr kc:1 cxan rpl e~ in Bakhtin 's c:s~m Forms of time and chrono t.ope in the ,.cl' (in Baf.. h tin. I!JH I ) are ackenw rc time ancl what he calls 't:\erydav 1ime'. 110 Adrenw re time is tht tilll<' ofdesirt ancl is found in the romance ofancient Gneet. In adrenwre time no th ing mallt' r~ except tht passion of the two lmers and the d csire to satisf)' it. In thc t~ piral Crnk romance the 1 <>,-ers mcet bm are th e11 sepanued ancl tht' en tire nonl is con cerned" ith the time tha t elapscs bcfore th e1 are final!~ re 11nitccl. In thiS time the IO\'l'l':> CI1C01111lt'l' lllllllel'OIIS adn: nlliiTS. m ay visit fou r 01' five COll ll l l'i('~ .111d rna)' d i~CO \I I'Se 011 llllllll'I'OII~ topCS. bu1 i11 ach-enttiiT ti me 1101hing act ua l!~ ch ange~ both th e lmTrs rcmain total h in low. both remain chastc an d faith fu l to onc anoth er and there is no devdopn1e11 1 of their indi,iclual characters. In c\crydar tim t: th is \\O IIlcl not be possibk btcamc: l'\'l' lll'> woulcl occur d uring thc ack cnturcs and jo u rncy that ottld changt th e lcwcrs' rcla tiollship. Thc chronotope for c1e ryday lifc is tit e road, 1 1 dJiclt fornrs tite l'Sscntialnlctap hor fo r lifc in many kinds of narra tive from thc fo lk ta le 1 10 the nonl. T ht road or p:Hh o l'li fc' rq>rescnts the episodes in a charactcr's li l'c ancl gires cach 11rrning or in tt rscctit>ll a nreaning. B<tkhlin IITites: 'Space becomts mort concrete: and sa 111 ra 1 t ri wi tlt a ti me t h:u is more su b~tan 1ial: space is flll ed ,,it Ir real, liling menninK,a nd l'on ma crucial rcla tio nshipwith the hcruand his He ( I!IR l: 120}. He gires a 1nodtr11 ro manCl'. \ 'o ltairc's Ca ndidr . asa n exarn plc of a m odern tCXI whcrc ereryd ay time intrudes upon <tciiTnllln: time. T he t11o low~ rs . C:tmlide ancl Cunclt gonde, are finallv r< ' II IIi l'd , b11 Ltlrcl' art so o ld that all their yo uth ful b ca 111y i ~ lo ng gnnc and the romance is lost. ClearJ~ mude1 n h ist orit~ han llluch mor<. in rom mon11irh the llH'laphor oft hc road than thC') do ll'ilh IIW f.lllt<JS t(af <llld pas~i()ll:tt(' C'fCillCil tS Of adlen ture time. IIOII'C\'<.' 1, 10 represe m h i,toJ~ ~imph '" 1he ewrycla~ or a ~ a steady progres.~ from one plact. to ano ther ,,otile! be to mi~' 011t ptoplc , hopts .111d de!>ires: it ,,mtld be to ignore pcopk~ f.1ntas, li'T' ami their c:o..pc:rilnce or time wh ich cannot b( mea~ured in ttt m' of ct. thl''>l' ('X(>l'l i c nce~ or time ami hisLOIY <liT "" lllliCh pan or culllll a l biograplw. Y expnienrl' a~ what , traclitionalh u n clcr~toocl as hbtorical nan~uin. Perhaps 1\akhtill, mos1 importan t ltTm is lit<.' camh;tfe,que 1dlich describes how laughtt.'r ha~ the :thilill' 10 dis~ohe all powcrf ul aiHl aut ltmit;llile ,ersions or temporal 11nde rstancling- in tht' p bysical i 1 ~ or ob~n llil ~ a ncl tramgrl,~io n that marks festil'ity. Carni\'al I'C\'l' ' ' ill thl' topsy-tuJY}'. i11 l't'\'l'r,.al. tia lmrl..-to-lront, ami in w rsion . the up>idc clown . In thl C;:trn i1a l e~quc , lt Kh bt't'OIIll'S lo11. t ht 'iJiri tu al beco mes the hod i1 )'. thc re ll nccl. n rlg;11 . Com-e ntion:t l icktui ri es are 1J ';Jif\gt'l' '~l'd. th t masculim is l'tmini,ccl , the ll.1uinir1 e masc u lini ~cd and dcsire brt.aJ.., l'ret !'mm it ~ rorren o l~j cc t . Bakhtin cla i111 ed 1 hat 1hl trul y mnclern I(Jrnl ol' narra tiH ,. the IIO\'el becatrse th e nmel cmuains all ptT\'ious llndcrstandings ul' tim t but dOl'S IHJI. prioritise an y of the m. incorporrning ;r l(mn of' thc Carni raf t'SC] IIl' within itst [f'. rh c 110\'l'f represelltS thC CUlture of lllOd CrnI )' fr0 111 Witfrin wltich 1he modcrn h ist nrits or 1h t' ni nctecn tIr ami LII'CJHie t h ce nutri c:~ han htt' 11 IITUCil. lt Oj)(' lll'clllfl <1 ' ll l'\\' /011 1' ... f(r Sll'll( (tJI'ing ! iterar~ images. ll<llllCfl', thl' l.i..llll' of maximal co nta( 1 wi th tl w pn~t' lll (wi tlt rollt<mpor;u-y aa li t~} in all it ~ opc n en d edms~ (198 1: 11 }. Jmt ;, 1hv non!, oJ tltt nillelt:t'll lh c-entu ry broaclerlt'd n 111 l'rom the 111C1aph or or tlll' road (() l ' ll COIIl P''' tlll' E11rnpean c i t~. S() 1radil ional f'orm~ or te m poral a11d hi,wricalll ndtr,tall<ling llt' ll' 11':111\formed IJ, pl11rali1\ a11d tr.llhgrc,.,ion'> of 11 1ban

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Culture, lime and history

203

Key inflttence 5.2

Mikhail Mikhailovich Bakhtin

(1895- 1975)

. erictlCL'. :\at rai\c .1nah 'i~ cknwn,ll.lle~ 1h.11 liuea1 hi,lorie:. ;ue 1101 1he onh model C)(P l. 1 . 1 . . l for recPrctin~ th c pa,l. Bakh1i n, accmnll ol thc 111 11 l ljJ ~ rqnescnta ll.oll ~ o '." ne 111 1 w n l , 11 1111 th;tt hi ~ 1 o 1 Y IH"(d nn1 on h look al causattlll 1 a 11d CIJ11 IIIlllltl': ll t an al"' . 1 1l IL'OI'I~h . . . hlighl cli~coniIHtilies aiHIII~III'-grt "ion . O m ol the lllll'l .111 fl lll.111la 111 1l"' Jug .. , l>en \ lirlwl Foucn1h. Fnucauh argutd 1h:11 111l' 1 ' . l l . . . > ro1wr 1,,,,.. ol lll' ll'tnn.m 1' ] 1rea 1 1 ; 510 n jn 1lw l"o n n n i a ro11 cn1ed c:m lilal" (Foti C:tult. 1\IH l:l: \H ). 1
110

Allhough B akhlin's rnain ideas were forrnulated in the 1920s and 1930s, lhey did nol reach the West until the 1960s. Since then, his theories of the novel and lhe carnivalesque have infl uenced studies of the cultural pollics of transgression (p. 258). Bakhtin was born in Orel, Russia. There is now some dispute about his universily career, but lhere is no doubt that he was influenced by the debates about literary forrn and avantgarde art that took place in Sl Petersburg, immedialely before and after lhe 1917 revolution. The 'Bakh tin Circle' fi rst formed in the years 1918- 20 in Nevel, West Russia. lt included Lev Pumpianskij, V. N. V olosinov, M.V. judina, 1.1. Sollerlinskij, B.M. Zubakin, and Matvej lsaic K agan. In 1929 Bakhtin published an early version of his theory of the novel as a modern, transgressive form in Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics. Several works of disputed authorship, but in which Bakhtin probably had a part, emerged from the circle in Lhe late 1920s, including Freudianism (1 927), Marxism ond the Philosophy of Longuage (1929) published ormal Method in Literary Scholorship (1 928) under the name of V. N. Volosinov, and The F published under lhe name of P.N. Medvedev. Bakhtin's work lhen became submerged in the Stalinist purges of lhe 1930s. He was sent to Kustanaj in Kazakhstan. One manuscripl of his book on the eighteenth-century German novel was lost and B akh tin used the other to roll cigarettes duri ng the Second World War. He was refused a doctorate for his dissertation on Rabelais. lt was not until1965, after he had retired beca use of ill health, that Robe/os ond Fo/k Culture in liJe Middle Ages ond R enoissonce was publshed. ll was this book more than any other that estilblished his international reputation. In it he described the important infl uence of a transgressive popular culture, particularly carnival, on Rabelais's (1494-c.1553) early novel, Gargontuo ond Pontogrue/(1532- 64). Bakhtin points to Rabelais's use of the 'grotesque body' as a collective popular form that persists In opposition lo the 'classical body' of hlgh culture. As a study R obe/os has inspired critics to research the cultural politics of transgression in high and low culture. The publication of The Diologic lmoginolion in 1981, a translation of four of Bakhlin's essays on the novel from befo re the war has changed the way that lhe history of lhe novel is understood. While before it was commonly understood as a middle-class fonn, B akhtin's history of its relalionship wilh a multiplicity of different popular discourses has caused cultural crilics to reassess the relationship between lilerature and popular culture. Bakhtln's influence on cultural studies has reached into literary, social and historlcal research. Perhaps lhe most lnfluential piece of work using his methods is Peter Stallybrass and Allon White's T/Je Politics ond Poetics of Tronsgression (1986), a study of the emergence of middle-class, individualist subjectivity in opposition to popular culture and collective conceptions of the grotesque body.

5.2.5

Michel Foucault

Tite 11ork ol .\1id ttl Foul':ll tl t ha' bnn c n ornl<~ ll' h im portanl in ltrtIH ,c;u, in ncw und('r'mndiugs ol lltt rt'latioll,hip hltiiTl'll culture aiHI hhtOIT. \\hile Fouc.llllt wnuld )robahlv 11111 haH' g-o1w a.; lar " lo .;ay tlwt ol~jL'CI\T hiWII"~ doc~ 1101 exi't. lw ~onsidNtd 1lw q uv.;tio11 t"v 11 1ia 1k i1nJv,;111 t. Foucault .; ,,,.rk i' ro nre rn crl 11 itlt 11H under,1<111ding ol hi'lorv "' rul11 1 rc. allcllakl'S '' il' o l~jcn ni 'llich- tlt t w;11 "h.ll ht ralh

he 1 1111 nan , Cil'lltt< Lreall' '''ll'lll~ uf kltollh-d~l. (;ra~pin!{ hm, Foucault u,i..\ 111u of his kt\ lt T lll '-- . t rr lt aeo l o~\ a11d ~t ll t< tl ogl - ,.. l'" l'llli.tl i11 gc ltillg 10 grip,.. with hb un ckr:~ l a ll d i ng ufhb1on. 111 the fir,l ol tl w clclini lioll" int lw cx trac: t (wt' Box :i.K). trutlt is 1111 ckr,tood a' a11 ;u chaeolo~' . in tlw 'econd " a gtm.tlo){' ( David,on. 19Ht): ~~ 1). \\'ith d 11 li r"t dclinition. Foncault P' oposes a n arch:t eolo~~ o f kum,lt-clge, a lt isto n of how disco urse p. :w l ha' l)len , 11 (ILrcd at p:t nicular ti m r' or h i.;to1 ; i11tn 1\'a~s ,. kuo 1,ing or tfJ\/1'1111'1. ''hidtunexpeLti.dh link app.trcnlh ' cparale .u ea-; of kllol,kdgL in wriod. ll i,ton lw Fnucault. 1lwn. , '"'' a limar na1 raliH. 1dtt'rl' u1w tHnl 1he sm1~ 1 foll m,~ ano1 h er. hn t m;11 be d i.;co i11llt lous. 0 11t orck r o l d i. , courst, ca n hrc:tk d cm n and giw ,,ay toa IJt\1 nrdt o l lhi ll,li;' :\L11 id ta, do IHil tnwrg-e i11 j,uJatiun. bu t in thc contt':-.1 of d1.111gt, in wltok w~am~ 11f k1undedge p1 oduc1ion. Foucauh '"~'' lltt conccpl or gent.tlogy. fro lll tl w Cc nn;m ph ilosophcr :\iL1t,clw. lO IICkn tlw ll'rms o l nn arc: ilacologiral anah'si-. (Dal i(bon . l ~lH: ~~7). In h i' c '~a, ' :\ ivtt,chc . g~ n ca lug \". hisw 1 ...- ( Foucault. 1\J~-Ibl hl' ar){ut' tila t. in o1 dt-r 111 p1l.'il"lll ilHnl,eh'e~ ;1' 1 alid ami tn nhful. m n~t hi,llll ie~ roo1 tiH: m~eh l'' in nn i(ka ol origib. lclta' ol Cll i'L' and dfccl in histol\ ;md o l il i~ l on as a 11 aiJ.;c nt r: tu , t (!'-ce a bmc) reh 111 d c1eru1 i11 is1 or rcdllrt io n is1 conce.ph. :\br:-.i,lll. or c:-.;unplt. bdiLH, in a l't.tl hi,tor\ tilal dcttnnim' and Fnudian

Box

5.8

Michel Foucault on 'truth'

Further reading
The Oialogic /moginalion, Auslin: U niversily ol Texas Press (1981 ). P roblems of Dostoevsky's Poetics, Manchester: Manchester University Press (1984). Bokhtin Scllool Popers, ed. Ann Shukrnan, Oxlord: Russian Poelics in Translation ( 1988).

1ruth. S 10 be llll<lel',lllOd as ,,,~111 nf o rdtred proccclurc:; fnr the prodllliOil. regul.uion. di'll ibu1ion. drcubtiun ancl optralion uf 'laltmenh. ,ll th. is lin kcd in a cir( u lar rvl.tl ion ll'ilh '~'1l'111' n f power " il icil prod un alHI '"'tain it. .uHI to dln .; o f powcr ,,h it' il il ind tttt' ;tncl ,,ll it il e xtt ' I H I ~ it. .\ rq~illlt ultnlllt.

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Culture, time and history

205

J''' ~ ho<t ll<t h-~i~ d e pend~ on t he idea o ( rtprl'"ion. 'n 1h:1 1:1111 eulllu.ll phlnomenon can
be lllll'l pntn l a~ rcalh ahou t, ~a~. ' exuali11 . Tht''l' idea, o l eu igin' t'll :lble 1110..,1 hi,tories to ap1 war tnuhlul. ff lll,l'lt'r. Foucault .1rgw.., th:u: \\ h.ll 1' fnuud al tfll' hi ... tlll ir.1l heginning ol 1hiug, .., 11111 lht im iol.thk idt'IIIII of their 01 igiu: it 1' tfw cfi...,en,ion ol othtr thin\.(' 11 , tlll'il cfi,p.u i11 . .. . tlll' odgin tll.tkl'' pos,ihle a fil'ld of ktltll' kdt:l' 1d10'l' hiiH tion i' to l'l'C'fllt'l it hut """'in .1 f.d,e tnognition due 10 the l'X CP'"'' ol it' cm 11 'Pl'l'l h. 1ht 01 ic;in le, a pf.tu of intlil,thk lo". tlw pnint 1dwrc lfll' 11111h o( thiug, l<ll'l't''()t11Hied lo a 11111hl111 <Ji,l'lllll''l', llll' 'ilt' ofa fk<ting .lllilltl.llitlll th.lt di,Ullll'l' ha' ob,uued .111d fina lh lmt. ( Fcllll.llllt. 1\1~-la: 79)

a;

For tht lti ... tori;lll tu '"b~criht to am p:nti CLilar :tl lllllll l of 111 ig in ~ ..,tu ... ub~cri be 10 lit e po\\t'r th.ll ha' 111adl that account appear 1111 1h f'ul. u r 1\'11:11 Foucault r al ls a rcgime of tnuh '. T ite ,,ork of tite Fuuc tulclian hi,wri:lll i... 11 01 to SC'l'k nrigin~ . l>tll to trace the ll'a~s in 1d tich ' d isscnsion dc\!'lops intn a regillll' o( tr11 1h . \ ~ 1\ith otltn poststructurnlists (p. ~1 ). Foucau lt' S gl'lll':l logie~ are dt'lll'lldl'll l 011 "" :111 )~ ... i... or el isco u r~es. 11 istorils a re di ~nlr..,iH h co l1 ~ t r ll c t ed , ancl FollC:II il 1 is pri mari ly i11 tt' l 'l'~ l ~;d in ltm, thev ill'l' disc u rs ilc l~ Ct lll SII'li Cll'cl ra tlter tll:tll aclt it'l'illg" illl ('III II I'iC a l lCU HIIl l o fll'lt:tl :tCll lal[;. on 11 rrcd . ll'hiclt . fo r Fouca ult , would be a dis('ur., in collstruction i11 itsdf'. Th 11s a l{l' ll l'<il o~y ll'ill ll t JI look for an o rdered narrati n . bn t :11 tit e camiiJiesque o f 'accidcnts, t' ltann :. pas.-.ion, pcll ,. malices. MlllJrises. f'e,t ri~lt agi 1 :11 ion. unstcacly I'rt ories and poll'('r (Dal'iclson , 1986: 224). Thc last of tltis list, powc1 (p. il 1). i... a ke} l:tctor in d('ning tlll' 'tnttlt rtgimc. \\lwu Fouca11lt t a l k~ abo ut p<>ll'l'r hl i~ not just talking ahottt ' n mc thing- o utside discourse. "'hich i mpo~c~ 01dc t u pon it (a n~way. in Foucaull's thcOtY it \\'Ould be impossihle to talk about po11er ll'ithou t tal king about tht di,course through whi<'h it maniksts i t ~elf): he i ~ 1 alki11g abou t ltoll' d i... cou.-~~;~ arl' mgani,ed in rd:uio11 10 ('ach othn. how tht~ a re ordereclto acltie1< ' tlteir in tcrnal r~;gime of po,,er' ( Foucault. 19R.Ja: :}:) ) . T hrouglt 1ltis ki nd of ana h si ~ it becomc' pw.,ible LO anah" t the wnrki ng' uf po11~cr 1101 a~ o nc tlting on another. for example th t ruling cla-,!> 011 the II'Orking cla~~. but di.-.pt-rsed . II'Orki11g tltroug houl tht real m uf' di~COU J'St'. Fmtcault's idea' gt't round manl' o!' tite tradit io11al prnblcms a......ociattd with the practk't of h Morians. H is methucl aw>ids si m pli~ti c accou n t ~ ol ll'hilt i.:- re a 1 h i~LOI'Y or the tl'llth: ' th l po litical que:-.tion ,tosum up. is not <.:rror. ill11sion , alilnattcl co ll'C ious;,es~. or icl co l og~: il is truth it~e l f. II OI\'CI'er. tite F'oucaulclian hbwric;ll meth od hri 11g'- ncw pmble m ... orils oll'n. lt can be a rguecl thaL Fo11cault d ocs not l'l'fl ll}' con fro n t tlw problem of' historical ch;111g<.:. "'hich takt.s p lace uw r tin1e, but .stc ps back a11d looks al holl' ltistOI)' is disctlrsi,e ly COI1SII'I1Ctccl at :111)' ont time. lit.: ca tJnot rca lh accoun l f'or tit e 'cve 11ts' that Cl'(':lll' chan~('S in llll' cpi~teme. As lll l' or his critic..... J'Irf.:t' n 1lahcnna.s. pttlS it. thc rl'l a tion ~ hi p betll't'l'll discourses and pn1cti cc~ i ~ 111H:xplai11ed ( ll abcn 11a ~. 19:-\7: ~-17). J lis i<ka of' poll't'l' is neb11lous and ah islOrical. so clif'l iet dt to in corpnn11e in 1 o an accounl of holl' 1 111111;111 lt istor~' is maclc:. 1lcre :\larxist accounts nfhwnan ag-cncy :tl'l' mor<. u ~crul.

5.2.6

History and difference

.\ gai i1Stth b. o11e oft he n:aso ns that Foucauh's historir:1l methocl ha' httn m inlluen tial

. ecent )'t'i'll'' i ~ tltat he pro1 icks a ,,.," . of undt'rStanding ho,, m,, subjccti,itil'i' an )11 1 roduced in hiswry. Foucau lt d o e~ no t "'""nt' a human ubject ' man ', ll'ho make.., ~istory; n11 her he stes s1tl~jech being cunstructed discursil'(:l~, procl ucccl ll'ithin the rpis/tllll' of a pnrtirul:l tin1e. Thus. in T/11' Onlrr of Thing~ ( 1970) . Foucault argucs thnt 111 an' is :t relati1 cll' rcccn t im e ntion, and ,,ill soon di. :tppear again. B1 thi~ h e meam tllal the idea of thc sd l -co n sciou~ human sul~jec t tltat emerges in moclcrnitl' i ~ historicnl. lt did IIOl cxist. for example. in the mediel'al world. wh cre h11man bcing~ ,,-ere pan of a large dil'i n e p lan. This accou m of the subject has been used by feminist' and historian' of sexualit1 to ~ho,, that n ew gendered and sex11al idcn tities emerge. for example the mnle honH>~txua l at th e e nd of the n ineteenth century, ami that the systems of knoll'lcd~c tha t an a~~ociated ,,ith these iclentities permit nell' :1nd potentially sub,cr~ i,e hiswries. Current hi ~torica l work being clone in cultura l s tuclic~ muall1 borrows from bo th ~larxist aiiCI Foucauldian influe nces. T he fol lowing scc ti ons look a l the kinds of hiS lO I'~ that are produced by ltistorians interested in brushing hi st 0 1 ~ ag:tinst 1hc grain LO examine thc cultural h istot~ of class, gend ercd histories, histories of 'race' and nation and histories of Sl'Xuttlity. Tht books of lii'O pio nctring ll'ritt r~ in cultural studies exemplif}' tltis ki11d o l historical work. E.P. Thompson 's (p. 96) historical stud y The Mnlli11g oj tht' l~llgli~/, \Vodllg Clas~ ( 1963) cht111Kt'd thc u nde rstanding or thc ro le or cla'\S in h istOI)' by arguing tltat cult tll'(' was a kt'l' ekmen t in it.<, fo rm:ttion . Peop le makc cla~s romciotlsn<ss th rough culture. T h omp~on paid particul:tr anention to the culture of Protc~tant dissen t ancl it:. relationship to radical poltica) actil'it~. He reassessccl tite Luddi tcs. arguing that thev werc not j11 ~1 m ac h i n e breakers. btu ,,ere conducting their ca mpai~n s as pan of a c;n npaign of pol iticalt esistance. Jn Culturt and Socil'l_\' 1780- / 950 ( 1 96:~) and Thr Long RProlution ( 196.)). R aymoud Williams (p. 5) rei merpreted \'ietorian and twcnt ic t h-ccnuu~ culture so that culture was u nderstood not as something tha t ,,as owned bl' the middk a llCiupper cla~~es ancl aspired to by the working class, bu t as 'a way of lifc' in which :tll d as es patticipated . Both Thompson ancl \\'illiams m ed methocb takcn from literarv criticism to look at IITiuen culture. inclucling pocu~, n ovd s, d ra ma and tite writings or cu ltural critics all(l joum a lism. T hey reinterpreted tlt{ 1';\l u e~ contain cd '''ith in thtsc t cx t~ in rt'lati on to the ,alues and connicts that n111 through th c wltolc of socic ty in the p criod-" t h e~ studied . T h ey differed in that \\'illiams paicl more auentio n to ,al11cs and what he called 'structures offeeling' . wltile T hompson cri ticiscd The l-ong I?I'T'Oiution for bcing insul'liciently concerneclwi th culture in h istory as not so mucil a 'way o r Jire a<. a 'way o r conflict' (Tho mpson , 196 1: 39). Both, hoii'CI'Cr. 1\'(.'I'C essent.ially agrccd o n the need fo r th c historian to ex tend thc range of el'idenn beyond what ltad hithcno bcen co 11 ~id e rccl prop(r ' historic"r clocumcnts. Nc ithtr was a~ concerned as more rcccnt p ractitio ne rs of cultural swclies wit lt thc qutstioll of the inclividu:tl histo rian 's reltll io nslti p L O ltis or her maH:rial, what is s(HIIetii11CS callcd tht' 'subjectil'ity' o f the h istorian or cu lt ural critic. Tltis iss11e relates to tlw cptcstion or id en tity raisecl i11 Cltapter l. T he lar k o r in terest in q uestions of ident i ty o t he 1 1han cJ:t;s identi ty has lcd 1 0 \\'illiams and Thompson being criticised for thcir :tpparcn t disi nterest in quest ion~ o r !{tndcr. 'race' ancl sexualiL y. Con temporary reminiq hist01~ has bcen consisten ti~ critica! o f tite ide:t of' histo r, as

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207

homogtnou~.linear ancl cau,al. Fcmini~t hbtor ia11' haH' pointcd ou t th:u 1\'0illt'll\ lircs han bet'll llq~lc.:tHd in almosr all historical rtcord' a11<l are 'h idden fronr hi,01, 1l01,e1er. l<mini'L hi,nrian' han ar~ued that 'impl~ 111 i11<lude women in lraclitior~ai h istorical narra lin, i~ n ot t'llo ug lr. ;" 1hn,t n.rrr. rl iw' han betn 111 illt' ll rr0111 a m asc ul in e wr,ptc1iw: 'adding 11o rn e n 1o h i'ton i' 1101 1h e samc as a el di ug 1\'omcn 's Ir isto rY' ( Fox-Cc. IIO\'l''l', 1~~8~: 1 1) .-\ s .\ l:ti.t( .-\ l bi~ t 11 r h :1~ argue cl. wo m c 11 \ Ir i' L ( " ' is as compkx as nwll 's hi s l or~. b111 f llo 11i11g a si1ni l<t 1 ' ai'.{IIIIICII I L o KrisLl''<l in ' \\'om cn 's 1im e (1-;,.,c.l .t. 1\l::\1\ J.-\ lhi:>tur 11ri Le~ 11e 111 ;n : h~l ll l1L' t ha L ti m e "' liHcl b1 1he lc.malc pan o r h u nwn itl' cines not pass accord ing to th c 'ame r h1tl11 ns aml th at it i' 11 01 pnccind in tlll' ,:11111.' \\')\as that or II H'II. ( Ho ck. 1989: 7). Femini't h istOIY rall~ (or ; ~cnckrccl anah,is'. 1h.n is an u nder,tandin g o( 11 hat a masculilll' or .1 kminiuc per~pcnin might nlt'all in an\' one h istorita l 1xriod . .Joan Scott dl' \tTibl'' the ta,J.. a\

to llllciC' r' I.IIHitht 'iguificaurl' of tlw " '1 ., 1 of gcudtr group~ in thc hi,1n1 ic. al P''t. Oru goal i> l o di~c. nltr 1hc ra uge in '"x m lt>s a nd i11 'l'XIIal ,~ mbolbm in difftr't'll l 'Ol it1i1, ancJ JWI'icHk l o find 0111 what 11H' ;li1llg tlt t~ Jtad ;nu l hm1 ll w~ run cti Oilt'<Jto lll:til i:I il 'ocial onlt-r n 1 In promol t' c hange. (Seo ti. 1!IH(): 1llT H)

Historians nr g'l' lldl' r rd ations h an~ arglll'd wi tlt Scou that th e rclati o n, h ip bt'III'CC I\ lllt: n amlwomen i' no1 fixcd- it is 'probll'u talic nu hl' r th a n known - :tll{l thl' t a~ l.. of tlw historia n lO imtM i!{ate i1 ha.~ becn 'cotllt''\tuall~ delined. repeatecl h ron~llll('[l'd' (Scou. lm-H>: 10711. .\ s importan! l01 1hc <knlopment of cultmal 'tudie:- ha~ been thc IIOtl.. of thc historiau C .I..R. J .um:,. 1 lis htst-knml'lt hi~to" Tlll' /llrul:.fnmbill ' ( 19HO). lllt'lllioned in 3. 1. 7. ll'a' IITillt'll 1\\'t'IHY IL'ars befnn: T/11' ,\/ol!ing uf/111' f:'gfilll \\{ /!ing Cli111 or Cu/1111 '1' a11d Soril'tt. btrt il \1'a' a 1mrk lhat lonkc:d fo tward to llw deco lo ni ~:ni on of.\t'rira and has bttn m m t inf lliL' Illi:tl on po~ tco l on i a l and aJIIi-r;t c i..,l etlli11ral cri1ics like Edward Said (p. l fiR) ancl Pmrl G ilroy (p . 16!l). Jamc:s.., book w;~ s ori ~ inall~ publis lwd inthe.-arm yt;u as The /'rufJII\ 1/i.,IOI)' td .~nglr111d b~ A. L. .\lu rton ( Hl!):"), a no1her ,,ork tlra t piollt't'l'l'cl th c mmenH' III lor histnry ' t'ro m b e lo \\'. ll oll'el<'l . ll' hik :- t onon~ ttxt \\';ts radica l f'or its time and dttph- infltiCtHial on latt'l' Engli'h .\larxist hi~torian' li kt E.l'. ThomJNlll, Chr iqophtr 1l ill an<l Eric llob~bawm. it ""' rda ti\(h 11;11TOII' in it~ gl'ographiral and political focu:.. 'f'ht II/ml: Jamhin~. b1 conu."t. cxplored thc rel:niomhip b<.'llleen European hi,totl .md colonial hi!>tO n .. J amt~ 'IHmcd ho\\' thl H aitia n tt'\Ohtlion drew on both . \1'1ira u cu lture ancl 1he Eulig h t<.'llllll'll l ideas 1hat in spi red IIH French Re\'OI111io n. :-Jusi impona ntly. h e ponraltd Af'rican slaws as agents, aeti\'l in 111aking 1h c ir cll\11 h i,lCII ~ and in c h a ng ing- Eu rowan pcrccption s. Fro m th t political a nd ' pari$<111 . p t' rSJJL'C iilc of IIIC' n ational libcr;uion s1n1ggll's agains1 colonialis m ( p. 1149), James cxplorl'cl i"LI<.'S o f ' ra<T' and c l a!'~ i11 hi ~ 1 orr and shuwed IHIII' th tw ca1q:\'o ri cs delined c111t' a n o th <.r bot h in [urope a nd in 1he C:~ribbca n . 1le d e nto n ~t ra t<.d 1h;u the ideals uf l'rndont a n d citit.cnship dl',l'loped in E11ropc werc tormed in r'thlliclll 10 an oppre~~il'l' inqwrial polin. 1 '\1- wriling frnm a po,ition 1hat ,,a critica! ot th t political ntlture t'rom ,,i1hi n 11h ich mo~t Euro1wan hi,toll h ad bt<.n IITillen. h e ,,.,b abk both 10 shtcl IH'II lighl 011 Eurnpean hbton all(l lO P' mi<k a historical r.:1111('1\'0II.. for uud<.'I'Sland in g tlw hi~ t orira l and cultural proct~~<.~ u t dccolo nisation altc1 the S('cond

\\'orld \\'a1 . Tht Blark jwobI11 legititmll<.'cl ,uuggle!> for T hird \\'odd indqwnd<'ncc. becaliSC i1 -;h<med that th o::e strug~I e-. h. tcl 1he ir rom~ within .1 hi,tol ical rcb tion,hip between European modernit\' and tlll' hi,wn o!' European imptr iali~m. In etd 11rra l swcli<.s. "ork bv .J ame ancl othL'I h istnrians ha ~ influence cl p o~ t cu l on ia l ~ ludi es - ,,ork thal has acld rcssccl. for cxamplc. h ow colo n iscd cu ltures ll'c: rc reprcsen1cd in th e \\'est 1 111 cJ funn~ of cu ltu ral resis ta nce lll coklllia l c u l ture~ (C hrisman aml \\'illia m s. 19~l:~). Qnc o f tite mosl recent a rea~ o( histori ca l rc~l'arc h h as bccn tire hiswry of ~cx ua l i t1 . T he lesbiall ancl ga1 IHOI'Ctnl' IH i11 tite post\,ar periocl lhpitTcl alll'111ph 10 1racc tite histor\' of ~;lln <.-sex rclatiomhip'. In it!> carl\' lnrm this m l'anl th c cl(lcumenting uf famoU'- figures who liTre 'homo,exual' - for cxampk. Shakc-;pcarl', .\ lichcl.tngclo a nd Julius Cac~ar - a' a wa1 of legitimating ,\ ~a1 idcntit'' in tlw prcscnt. l..:uer rcsearch stanccl 10 cxamim ho,, sexual relation'> influence form::cultural organi~;uion and powcr. ,\nthn~p<~logic.al rcscarch h a' ~ho11 n 1he 11'id e 1-arictie~. of sexu a l rl: l:~tion~ f~und in human sone1us (L h:nm cn rl al., 1991: 10-1 1). Rcsearch rnto 111l''l' dlflctT IH lorm s has lcd hi ~ tori a n ~ of~cx ualit, IU ar~ut 1h:11 'l'Xtlalit~ is rHH about riwd o r csscntialis t (p . 1 38) ickn l i1its; rat h e r i l i ~ conSII'llrlt'cl' . Sodal con stnr c tion ist \'l' rsiclll ~ ot' 'l'X u al i1~ rg m il l<l l Jl<l rl tr lllar fol'lll S l'llll'rgt ll'ilhlll p:lrli n da r kind' l)(' ~Ot' i t'l\'. :\gain iiHc' inspi1atio n l'o r muclr n f this rcsearrh ha ~ lwc n lesbian a nd ga~ his torv. ll is1oriam lw n argucd 1hat con ttmporary Je,hian .tnd ga1 ide ntities lta\c. o n h t' lllt'l'!{t'cl rdatilel \' recenth'. Somc hi!>torians date.: tht>ir .q>pearance tu the u rban 'ttbcu ltu rc;. ot ei!{htc.:ent hcen tun Elll ope an cilics. Olhl'l~ l the late nilll'IC'Cillh centUI'\' 01. in the C:I,L' or lesbia u identi ti<~. earh t\\'entie th centun. Bel011 11e loo k at how thc hi~toria n .Judith \\'alko,,itL rcp1T~l'11l ~ the c ultural conllict~ thatll'd to kgi~latiol1 011 scxualitl in E11glancl in th e late nilll' lt'l'll lh cen lury. \\'ork 011 thc ~ociaJ COil\lrtiCiion of h0111Cl~l'Xll<t 1 i y h as openccJ up reSl'<li'Ch in1o 1h e social constructinn ofh< l <.' rnsexua l it~. Histo rian ~ h an ~hmn 1 thatthc modcrn, ab~o lu tc di\'iclc betii'Ct'll h t'll' I'O' l'XIIal a11d sam e-sex rt: lat io n s !' 1101 ll'llt' ot' a ll socie tits or a iiiK'I'iocls. Id ea ~ o fa cc<.pt:tblt IWtsnrlim o r ft minillt' lw ha\'io ur \ 'i ii Y wickl y and ~l'X tral prac l ice i~ often m u e h 1IIOI'l' 1'<1 ri<"d 1lw n 1h e dmni 11a 111 codn o!' acn p 1abk bchal'iou r would ~ugge:,t. \ \'o rk b1 c ultura l cri 1ics 1i ke he Kosol\k1 Seclgwick ( 1~-1::1:1 l. who is pan o t' th t niticalmme mttlt l..no\\'n a~ quce r theon. h as :.hown th at 1h e end es of hehavio111 1h a 1 signilied upper-cla~\ ma,lu linit' in nine teetll h-n: nllrn England ,,ere gmTrncd b1 "hat <the ca lis malc honw~ocia l desire. U ppcr-cla'~ mcn 'ocialised in a lima le in<.titut i on~ likc public schook Parliamcnl. thc arnll' and lh<. Church. Strong bond~ 1\'l're L'\tabli~hecl betii'Cl'l1 m<. n to lhl excJu,io n of womt'll an<lnw11 ckemed les~ thau ma,c uli lll'. \'c t tite nalliiT nf 1h t~t bond~ \1a~ co111 radi nory. Dt,pi 1t' 11 aei r mTrt he tl'I'<ISl'Xll< tlity, a cm-en honHJl' rcll iris nt c ltaraneristd 1l11 mtn s n laliclll, h ips wi1l1 o 1te an o ilttr. Social p011T r a lo n g class and g't'lldl' re d lines was re inlrcl'd ])~ 111ak h o mosocial clesirl'. Scd )o.."''ick's th esis cltmollslr:llt:' how a panicular socia l l(trm u f urgan isati nl1 can dt'l'i\'l' som t' of ih p ower throug ll 'cxual re la tiom. ew n \\'II C' n 'cxualil\' is 11ot seen by 11lc. ac10rs 1he mseh'n as an impurtant clctcnni11a11l o t' th eir bchadou r (Sed~,icl... 1\l~!'l) . 1n an essa1 on ~chnolgirl crushc,. :-Janha \ 'icinu' <:x:un i11c-; samc-scx auranion bet11ccn ,oun g womt'11 ami tincl~ that mam ol thtm lacl..td a language o f sexualit~ inw 1dt ich to p u t tht'i r kding-. 111'tc.ad. thtl t-.:pns~td t hti l 'L'IItimtnt" through a S('l1\l' o t' dll t\' or 1hrougll religious kiYOllr (\ 'ici ntL', 1!l!l l ). :\onellwless.

or

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Culture, tim e and history

209

sexuality was as imponant. in the socialisation of young wo men as it was amo ng )'oung men in sing le-sex schools in Britain a nd the U nitecl States. In the tlle m icth cenlllr) political a nd cultural mmem ents hayc identified more stro ngly '''ith panicttla-sexual ide mit ies.jo na than Dollimorc has d escri be<! how lesbians and gay men h< we deplo)ed both essentialist and non-essentialist strategies to legitima e 1 what he calls 'dissidem sexualities. r\ write r like th e Frc nch noyefist Andr C icle argucct lh< tt his honosexuality was as naLUral and normal as he te rosexuality. The Eng lish piar wright Osear Wilde. o n the o the r hand. d eliberatd)' subvertcd the idea of naturalness it~e lf in his writing. He practiscd 1\'hal he callcd paradox in an and pen crsiry in lifc. for Wilde, 'life imitates art'; in o ther words, therc is no essential or natural way of being, all identities are perJo rmanccs. in which we ac t out roles that our cul1ure has airead)' written for us. This idea has been purs ued b)' queer lheorists like .Judith Bllller. 11'110 arg ues that ide ntity is afl,ays a product of the powerful discourscs thattry to constrain it (see Ch<~pter 6). The most comn1on examplc gi\'Cn in the histo ry of sexuali1y is 1he response of many m en to the tria 1 of Osear Wi !de in 1~95, whe n he was sen tcnced to two years' hard labour for acts of 'gross indecency' with another man. Thc Wilde tria! and Lhc publicity tha1 surrouncled iL conf'irm ed for lll<lny men that their d esires for o the r me n constitmed a 'Wildcan iden1i1ya nd resistancc LO the repressive legishuion agairlSL male homosexuality prol'iclcd thc impetus for lhe early rampaigns for ho mosexual riglns. 01er the 1wentie1h century. mo1e ments e merged thar rcprescnted sexua l identities in d iffe rent '''")'S. Jn the 1960s. ga)' libe ratio n arg1ed (o r a gn) ide rllity 10 be rccognisecl for an c nd to clisc rimination . Lcsbian mol'encnts eme rged allCI d iffe rentialed themsehcs from gay libcration, ,,hich was primari ly a rnoYcm ent o f rncn. Jn the 1990s. groups likc Qucer 1\'atio n in the Un ited States ha\'c tried to rno1'e away from l'ixed icle ntities altogethe r and arg ue for a specrrum o f' sexual behavio urs and performances. To recogn ise this, in 1996 the annual de monstrmions fo r Ca}' Pride in San Francisco, the ga~ capit al o f the world. ll'elcomed lesbian , gay, bisexual, transgende red aiiCI 'cuestioning'. In cultural slllclies this new pluralism has effccti1el)' changed r ritics assurnp1io ns abou t the na tu1e o f sexuality. H oll'el cr, d espite che 1 ibe rating naturc of ideas 1ike pcrlrrnatility', historians of sexualit}' neecl to keep in m in el the panicular cultural circumstances that pe rmit cliiTe rc nt kinds of sexua 1 identi ti es. One solu1ion is oJTercd by Dollimore 's St'.\'11(1/lJissidmu ( 199 1). Do llimore has becn o ne o r L he forcmost practitione rs 'cultura l mate rialism '. T llis historical me lhod of cri1icism , orig inated by Raymoncl Williams. a tte rnpts LO bring an acti1ist politics lo the polilics o f rex ts. lt alloll's Dollimore lo approach essentialist (p. 138) theories of sexuality as pan of larger po litical d ebates. lead ing him to arg ue for liJe necd 10 'clisentangle a radical essen tial ism from i ts conser\'< Hi,e cou nterparts'. Dolli more suggests what he ca lis thc 'parado xical perve rse and 11Je 'pe rYerse d ynamic' as me thodologics that allo1'' for an account o l' sexual clissidcnce. H e argues (see Bo x 5.9) for a four-part me lf10clo logy for historical e nquiry in relation 10 the sexual.

Box 5.9

jonathan Dollimore, Sexual Dissidence

/wl ~ reprl':;sl'd ancl disa\'0\1'\'d - 1he ur~<~ccc ptablt. , )Lino lO n :cme 1 Jn att{ll11 ;:, .. . : l lorllla " 1 ele r l1 lO ' l 1 lnn lw en lec! bc1ont 1111 t 1u ' iswnes o pc1 1 l'l ~ 1 0 11 , , . . ~ 1 1 )ttl'11 clen ' IO()llll' nt 1 ,hich 11 turn has facilitated h i.'LOI'JC .II reCOI'l'l): conet:f )1 S 1 '1 This f'o' url'o lci Jroccdurc- (J ) att en tio n to rnrnJ<If eJe:: f11 11' t'1 1 1 . , )1'0\'0klllO' , ~ '?.('J) -. :, . . c~ e1elu pm l nl (,tuht.t tm,.., hJSlOI 1 " I CJlqllJY . which in lurn fc ad s w ( ~~)a con ceptual , . .d . (4) .1 further historical rccmcry - 1 scc as a m<ncn ;lhst fll !!Jt'Cl.
' Dul lilli OI't' ( 1!1 \) 1:

~2:-< )

1 \\' !k : 1 ( ft)() 'J) bno k Cily of Drtrulfull>r!ie;ht: ;\ 'armlivts of Sexual /Jrrng;er in 's judlll .1 Ol\ l/, \ .. _ . . ' ' e 1 ' Jc h ~ 1 .. . ,. r 0 111011 \ \'tlkowi 17 uses re mini "L ;\ larx is1 a u el poststructura J~L app1o, e1 Late- ' 11/0 t WII ' 1 1 t ~he In~ _ 11 )lic ue tlw idea o l' wlwt llisto rl' i . In th t intrnd ucuon \ 1e 1\Tlll'S 1 1a ' lO cOl ll ' . 11 0 1' cfnngt mer til;1e' lhal is lh c kind ol narratile ,,.\. 1\'<ntld c.x pect resistet a na-ral e ' 1 1 l tC' tl 1 1I.SlOI'.I C'S from m oclet1 f mtC'lfl ' she e mrJIJasiSeS the diffcrl'lll '('U tura ;\11( ~l ' , .... 11.0 ,ecl in ., hislo rical fKTind and how thC)' ,,ork Jll re 1 a 11011 to O lll pcrspecll\ e~ 11 ' 1 r 1 . S he chooses lhc cill'. nin etecmh-ccntun Lonclo n. a~ < 111 e.xamp e o m oc Cl llll) '. 1 anol teore t, ler LO exp , 10 1.e, ti1 e ~lilfcrent Je rsJccti,cs ,,ihin m ode rnlly rather than hstor~ but 1n

or

5.2.7 1 Example: 'A maiden tribute to modern Babylon'

A11 example or recen histo rical writi ng that excmplifies so me oJ' thcse new approaches

ancltime a ~ a un-linear progrcss. . . h .. im )'lt' l of He r work, publishecl as li\'O co n sl.-c ulin~ chap ters m the book. o n L ~ . ..l. , . . . 1 . 1 th e }Ja/1 M a /f Ca:r>/11' 11 1f\8:1 ha:; prmokecl a ckba1.e aro uncl no lJI ISt fenHn~sl aJ Uc rv c~ but u . ssues 1.. . , 1 the chalner. inclllclinrr hi'LOtYa nd moderllll)' . hislo m a m of 1he 1 ,Jstc 11 ' "' ;_ .fO(J). h isto ; : as fact ancl h ~lor)' "' narralin~. T he r :,ns. wh ~eh ha~c hetn. t 1~~~~tsscc,1 . . r e s)ecti,cs b, .1 number of fw,ton:-. 11.-, are as lo lloi\ S. ln.Juh th t lr01n a l'111Cl\ O p l. ' f ' f ( th ' Illt' ' \ editor of the 't'rr/1 ,\/al/ Ca:('(fr. \\'.T . Stead. published a sen es o a rll c t'S une e 1 e _ . . B,Jbrlo n '. clai i g t o h<wc txpo~e d 1he sale o ( ~o un g )llo([c). 111 11 1 1 lo maiden trih11te A . k' _ .1 s crirls ror the )urpses of prostilllliu n. f hc anides causecl a lu ro rl' . . 11 01 111g e 's. '"' 1 \ - ..,. nssecl 111 ' ~ 1 1m. ~) . thc Criminal La11 . -\nH'JJC ,. month hu er. o n 1() .-.ug11. . me . . nt .- e1. "' ~ . ... Parl iamelH, raising thc agc COl1SCIII J()r g irls rrom [ :) 10 . ' b. gl\~ng poltcc ne_ " J~Ol\ (: ~ , ..,1nc1 1 Jt'Oihel-kee w rs aml nwking111cl.ccc nl , a c 1 ~ , bct11 lO prosecute p1.os_-. ututt~ . 1llegal ,_ l , ec n_ 1 .. . 1 . [ ll < ) ') -\ug 11 st a CI'OII'cf I.'Sillll<lLCcl a t ;b().IJ(l() ptopk t C l1 lU I1 1 co n ~el11111 0 " J11 ,\ (.' e l( 11 ~-- . ,' ., ' .. . f ' 11 . ( . lYII'h f'or l.f1 l' C::llfOJ'CC lllC'Ill of I!Jt fegisfa tOil lO prott'l'l )'O llllg g n S. su .ucc 111 \Ce ' . l ll 1 1 ' 'Hre::.. ' -\ s '' t el'~ ''ll " ~: , ~t " L u) me! \'igllancc co mnntl ' ''lttacked m u te J<t s ant t Jt:, 1, ' 1 cc cn ckcd clown 0 11 prostIIliOI1 ancl holllO$CXtl<ll lllCil . In 1 1C 0 r1 conscq u ene(' t 1 e P ' 1 1 \\' T Stcttf ,,.. ~ ~ ' thc circu [alOII of the /'al/ :\[(1{{ C:rru/1(' increascc )LII 1 S 1011 lCI 111. . ' l)lll'C f s' ncr' a \'OUI10' gr jr[ as l)aJ'l o (. hiS ' llO tht 'llld lllH:StJgaiiOllS 11 . trade 1' 1 1 ,., . prosecu 1e(l 1111 :" spentllm;> e mo nlh s in Ho llnwa\' pnson. The uuthl'ulnes~ n r Sleacl's ~CCOU111 \\'<lS qucqioncd aL thc LlllC t~s 1 ~~CII~ C fli.("Stio ned .subsc uenll\' b\' l1istoria ns (Corham. 1~17t\ : \\'tck: . 1_9~ 1) .Juc lt ~ . '~ ~~~~:~~ ': q OciC ' 1lt.~ tt: ' 'lrticlc 110 1 in L erms or IHl\\' Ll'llthlul 11 bu t a.s ,[ 11.111 .l tii C. 1 101\'C\'t' J', app1

~~

l ~:->.1.

or

;md

1\'a~.

21 O lntroducing Cultural Studies

1 hi' kind ofn pprnar h '"" lwe11 piom't'll'd h1 1h c 'chool !1( lt i,lw ilal c ri1ici,m kiH!I\'n as ' lll'll' h bt,H'CSIII .. Tll t' i11\'('11 IOI' o r tlli., ll'llll . S ltphc: ll ( :l'l'l'll blat l. ( ldi 11 L'\ tlll' l Clllt'l' j)lllal OI'g'ill' of nL'II' hi,lu lici,lll <1'> ,1 l't':ICIOII lO lh t n aciCCJll:lll' ll'l'<II IIH' IIl o(' hi ~l<t l 1 1 )1' both i\lnn.:is m ( p . 97) .111d posls lrucluralis m (p . ~ -1 ). :\'c itlwr. ht ;Hg tt t'' can co pt 11i1h thc Lomplexitl o f m ockr11 n tl tu r c . Cn'1'11hlau Cl i ti (' iw ~ Fr1clri r ,I.Hlll''-011 :. ~l;u :~.i'lll for argtiI1){ t hat a liL 'Itatiun cr<'atc<; anifidal di1 ,io11'. 11'hik 1 IOtai(J', po,htruttlnali, 01 a1g11l'' that capitali"l1 makl'~ I'ITr~thing 'l'l'lll 1h1 ' ame (Crnnhf.111. 1989). In orclc1 10 'ho11' lw11 :1 propc:rh lti,twi cal ;I Jpro:tt lt tan n snln .' th i, dil tm m a. Greenblau tl'l l ~ 11 ,<ri el' o f' '1nries or antccln tc:~. :\'arratin~ ~loi' L'' i., :1 c haran cristi c of thc nc:11 hi , l<>t ic i~t sd I!ICI I and i1 is \U il H' 1h ing 1ha1 l;ree n hl:11 1 do e., 11i1h g-rc:al II' 1 and s kill. ;'\ t'll' h istorkist 11'1 lt'l',, , inl'fkc l.l'l' ltll'lllcttltt' ttldl'l' f 1111 <tlll i'LIHYas naiTniI'l' a' a ll'al ofrc,i.'l ingg rand ll .ll'l~ llii'C~ ol nmclelli ( ,I ) hi,IOI'I'. 1hl'il llll'll'\l s dii'C Cil'd liJ\\;ll'd' lil t' \\';\\'' ll 11flich h ,IOn , lt'prt''t'llll'd '' nan~11 ,.l' aiHI ho1, dil l'enut 11a1 ral i11, rd:H l' lo OIH' ;llllll h 11. L' 'ing 1ht langu.tgl' of Foucauh. 11 how 1hl'on ha, hl'l' ll \'l'IY i11lh1l'111i.tl on ncw hi,lot ici.,m. \\'alkOII'itt 's inttrcst i~ cli t l't lcd 1 0\l'ard~ llo11' Stc .~rl\ anick imp.,,cd 01 ' tl'l'lain narratin log it 1111 IIJ< stor~ ol' p 1 o,tiltttion ' ;111d lto\1 1hi' n arratill' onlttw l 1' J'nr lllt'n a n d ll'ollttn ptnplc ~ cxpcritnct' :u te 1 11 t' lwd colhlt ll t' l .1 '-l' Xttal su b jl't 1i1i 1 1\\'afk<lll'i lt.. ( mJ ~: ~:\), ltll l'l'l'~ lill g l l . \\',tiJ..<lll'ill afso tttiJll.'\ ( l'l'cli'Cj:IIIICSOII 's ll'tll).. 011 n ;u rat in an d lti~tol"'. ldtt'll.' lw sa" tltat l ht na1rati1t can ' ll'ad u~ bad. 10 thl' concrete hi,totit.tl '>ituation ol thl' IL.'Xl ihdr. In othl'r 11U1ds. slll' clt.111' on both ~lai:I:'>I and Fout .utldian tlwon. hui. .ha le 1nini,1 hi,lot i.m. <.he i' critica! ol bo th for gil'ing link o r 1w sp:tn lo tlw qm,tion ul II'OIIWII~ plan in hi<.lor\', .-\m ong- tite n:trra till' lim th shc lind,., in Stcad ~ < II'Lit ll' :t t't' thnsc o( tnl'loclt :tltta, late \ 'ir torian pol'llograph1 and f'nt:tS}' .111d tlt l' Cuth ic l'ai 1 '1' 1ak: httl m e luclr: tnla p 1 m id t' th c prin tn ."ll'tH'III t'e t. h rouglt ll'hi ch tlt l' tale o l th c 'l'duuio n ol puor girl~ 1>1 1 it' ious ari,tocrat., i' w ld. \\'alkm,itl. ;u gucs lhal. a' thl' mo~l im ponan1 llll.'a t rira l aliC I litt'lill\' f'onn ol' thl' ninl'tl'l'tlllt et'IIIIIIY ntdodran1a appe.1kd lo ,, popular auclin iCl'. lt iiiC;>rpc u attd both a class an d a ' l''";,j ll:tiT<III'l.'. thl. 1110'1 r ummon .,nnario in rlnd ing an uppl'r-r l a~~ mak 'illain, a 1101 kingr la'' lll'rn 01 grie1 in g- lal h e r ancl tlw ht' l'oilll'. Chtss ex ploi1.11 ion :t ncl 1\'lll ' kin g-d as~ l'it 1i1n i'a t ion 1rc n : n pnst n tl'CI tltro u gh a tta rra1 l't' or sexual cxploi 1al ion. Th is tt :t t'l'al il'l of ll tl' rapac iom ari stoc r;n \l'as ttsl'cl b~ bollt r<tdi cal. 11orkin g-r l;"~ O l 'g'an i<;Hi o t t.~ and by l't-lltilli,ts in tite nill t' lL't' tlth cc mnt'l' as parl o l arg ttiiH.'IIh lo1 ~ od a li,lll ancl IIOillt'll's l'lllanripation. TIHI'. ~tcad\ narralin had bo1h popul.1r ami politic.tl rlson a n n, lor its aucli tun. 1 IOII'CII'I'. \\'alkm1iv., point i' 10 ,JlClw th.ll 11<11 onh ll'a' the narratiH of 'A 111aiclen t.-ibute' ho th popular ancl political. bu1 tha l it~ l'l'Cl'ption and th c lU iiural ('CJil\l'<(lll ' li('L'~ n( thotl n ceptioll 1\TJ'e COiltradi c tor~. 1\'th intplicatiO IIS lor tiH' histOII t ia", getHkr. racl' :ut<l 'l'X lt:t li ll. In rl'lal io 11 10 rlass. :11 lir't th e anid e :tppc:ll'l'd to han a ttnil'~ ing- dll'lt. 1Jrin g i11~ IO).{t'I IHr a ll'i<k c o11 ~ 1 ituc nn of m idd 1\'-rla'' and ll'urki ttg-cla!>' womcn. malt- lr:tclc u n io11 i'-h atl(l Chri,tian~ in a cuupaig-n ag.timt upplr-d.t" ,i('c. T h t C1 i111in al J..m \ nwn d llll'll l .\ u 11a' 1111' most t<ulgibk tl,uh of tlw popul;u mobil i,a tion. C:lthing Parlianwtll LO pass ll-g-i,f:n ion 1hal ha el htt n ,,IJecl for nar,.. \ , cn:n 1s ll lll'all'lled. holl'l'IL'l', th c cc>tl\t'tlll' ll ll'' ll'l'l'l' un tnn .tnd tl con~ i\l t'lll. \\ ':tlktmil; poi11h uutlhatthl' polti ca ! posi1ions tlt:ll nw loclr:nna Ct\':t lt'' :11'1 th l'lll~l'ht' contradictor\'. \\'ontl' tl ;u 1d

Culture, time and history

211

1\'0 I')..tl).{Cla:-' llll'll 11'('1'1' l'l'j>l'l''t'll l('c\ ; , 1 it lil11 \ o(' Cb sS :tlld \L''Il,tl l')>plnitatiOII :1 11(1 1hi' r;ti'C tl H' I11 a r:tlhing poi111 lor pro lt''l. On tlll' o1 lwr h :ul(l. llll 'ubjc:c tiliti.e~ c rea 1rd h1 ~11' ('O IISIIll t' IOII o l lhi'I lit li lnhnctd 1\'tt't p:ts\il'l' a nd tltt tS lhl' polt(a( di SCOlii'SL' linllCd tlt l' pos,iltiliil'' lcll' IIHir , c lf-c otl\ll'll t' Ictn :t'- polilical agt'llls. Thi' con,uuc tion uf ,u f>jlrt il'ill hada 'Jll'tilicdh gcndl'l'l'cl dilllL'll,ion. The hcroine i~ co n ~tnlctecl.l' llll.' IH'.tkt,tthai~IClt' l' in lht narratill' and i' cknil'cl :1111 l'Xprl' ,ion ol hl'l' 011'11 ck~I'l''>. De,i tl', in l.trl. i, t'lllil'l'h lht propCrtl u f llll' \ illaitHlliS ar io;tocrat. \0 th:tl 1)tcrc !> n u ruum lot ,t ~ual txpn,sion tlt a l is ttot a n cxprl~~ inn ol l'icc. This 111l':t111 tlt:tt 1hl' d e bate 11a, co nrlt tCtL'd in term' th:tl rd "'l' d a l'l'tog n i1io11 o r ll'omtn ' dt'i l'' Tltt' poli tic:t l :tiiCI r ultu ra l l'< HI\L'qm n n~ 11'\'rt' ,jmilarh CO II tradinon. \\ 'h ile tit e prol t''" -c tT .tg.1in~t tlt t t''P I.,it:uicHl o l' 1\'orking-c l.t" ll'llllll'll. illt'l'l'a~tcl policl' ac ti\'ll tllt':lltl 11 that unaccompanicd II'OIIlt'll. cspccialh 11'orki11~-cb~~ IWIIlt'll . lll'l'l' 'ubjcct to ll',ltit lion' nn thcir llHIH'IIIt'lll in public p la n ,. \\'.lll..m~ill IITitl''- tltal tht tiiOWlllt'lltlot 'odal p 111 it y impo~l'CI .1 (\i,t iplin:u' regime o n llorking-rla-., ,,omt'll . btll it caused midclkcla~~ II'Ollll'll to ' t''J>lon 1h c:i t 1111 n se)> ttal ,ttlljtni1 i11. lc;tdi ng 10 l' X p crinH' IIt~ in nnn 1 11adta 1 r c l;ttion ~h i P' and a l't'Co n siclt t <ti iu tl o( tlt1 ro l<' ol' ltirllt r ont rol. l s~ u l'.~ ol n dlu ra l rli l'fto t'l'll ('(' might 'l'l' lll l't' lll<ltt' rrnnl tlw polit ic d l '\'l'lll.'. 111 l'au . Lo udctll 's pu,i tion '' t.lpital ol ;111 inttTII.Hiollal e mpire mt:ull 1ha1 upltta\'altlttt'l' lt.td rtlctlwrations aro u nd 1hc 11nrld. Fnr t:~o.unpfto. thl' co nscqut'tlt'l'' ola t han~t in t ht 1.111 J>l'l':td th roughout thl 1\1 iti'h Fmpirl'. Euro p ean Coll,ll un ion' ol f<>mininit' ll'l'l'l' expontdttnptohllmalir.tlh 111 th1 rol clllit, 1dH'I'l' 1he1 tomhimd 11ith rac i't p1auin' Allt'lllJ>I'> to ,uppn:-' p1chlilttlion in l~n g l a nd ll'l'l'l' ll'<'lll'>I nn cd into lt'galllll'i'UI't'S 10 ~wp rt'l:ttiull'>hip. , i>v lll'l'l' lt ll' h itts and r o loni,L'd p eo pJe,. \\'alki>II' lt. reconl' ll t<tl. in sonH r:t'L'' thl' al lt'lll l)l 111 " 1ppr ess pro'l i 111 1inn nwant tlt t' i m posi 1io n ol' ol'l'trial prolt ibi 1i u n ~ agai 1 1~ 1 1iai ,ott.s wit h "n:ll i1 t' II'OIIH: n . hU ' . a 1.111' tnactl' d i 11 th l' impl' l ia l llll'lropoli<. had lar-rc.lt hing l'lftct' in 1h1 ddinition of rarial' ami 'cxua l idclllitit, in B1 iti'h colon ic' Om in1ponan1 olhhc~tll ol th c: . \ ct 11.1' lht rna ti on of .1 lll'll' n ime rc la 1ing 10 holllll~txt~ . tl mtn. and i1 11';., tiiHler tlli -; la11 1hat Osear \\'ilck ll':t~ ~~ ttl l'IICt'cl t o 1 11'0 nar;' h:t n llaho tt r ll' ll ~t ar' l. llt'l' (sl'l' abme). T lttl, , t.lllll'r titan pro1icl in g- cqua lit ~ lJL'lll'l't'n llll'll a tt d 1\'l)rtll'll , t it e 1.111 and 1lw ,-ig ilan tl' comm iLLt'l''- atll'd wgtt ll<'r to l'l'SII' t' l :tll t'Xpl't'~~ill th llf dt'\I't' . lfi,llll'l Jt;, tu l'klll th t' llll>rl'clCiahk ll'\ttlh o r IIIOdl'l'll,ll).\' plan~ 1dtich. lar ft 0111 p 1m iding an llli(>I'Oblt-matic 11\u\ l'lllt'lll ft~rwarcl. han co nseclll' IICn that 1equin a< on1pltx narr:IIit' :-lr.uq.," on thc patt of thc hi,wrian.

or

5.2.8

Past and present

\\'alkow itt ., :tccoui H uf th l' .tlt<'rlllatlt o l tltt pt th licai<llt ofo111'. :tlhc itltig h ll sig ttillr:tll l. anir k ... h ows ltow rctn tpl it':lll'cl tlt e re la tion,Jtip hetii'L'l'll ntllltl'l' .111cl hi~1o n anualh i'. \ \'ha1 in .1 linl'ar. (';llt.,ai Jti,wn cnuld bt ~t't'll "' onl legal :lll ol p 1og 1e~' i' 'l'l.'ll lo t t'l'.tll' ~ubjl'CI i1 it ie' .tlollg clh j,iolh ol gtndt'l .111<1 da" (idea' ol P'"i~t. 1 ict imi,ecl. 11 nrk ingcl:t" kminini11 a ncl ar1iw. pndatnr\'. u ppl'r-cla" ma~cu l inill ' ). ol 'l'X Ualitl' (n t'l,. legal d e lin i tiun ~ ul male lt ut lloscxt t:t lill) aucl ol ' ran (th c rl'rldi ttiti nn of tiH' re latiun,hi) bc tll'l't' tl Europcan tlll'll a n d th t ~~onw11 ul ro lo11ised cou nt t'il''l \\'alkoll'i tz's p o in t is

212 lntroducing Cultural Studies

tltaL th cse c ulwral conscq utnccs ca nnol he undcrswod a~ pan o f o ne hi.swrical narra. 1hc. Thl, are. in faCI , produccd h1 lltl' ll < llT< ll hes th rough ,,hich peopk- undcrstooct thlir 0 11 n ti111 c. :~n d lhl' busin<'ss o l histot 1 is w a ua lysl' llw sc 11arra i\'CS. This aCCOlllll or \\'alkO\\'ill's h i'>loricalllll'lhod lea\l'' out ()11{' important a,pect. that XISI. Tlw ro nclusion to Cityo is ho \\' 11 1<' pn,cn l <kal ~ with lht n:ll rati,c~ lcftto it by llw J /Jrradjul IMi!(hf mal-e!> it d car t ha l th l conccrn~ that guidt:d tiH: boul-'s fot m and con ten t 11ere pro\'01-td b~ the poli1ics of tht wnmcn's moHnwnt ;utd in panic ular the ck batl'~ abmu ~cx ua l ,iole nn 1hat occurrcd with in Bri 1i'h ft' tlli ui m cluring tlw 1980s. \\'alko,,ilt. n :ad\ thc late uinetnnlh Cl'llturY 1hro ugh 1hc political conclTns of the prl'Scnt, 1\'hich 'inc itcl thc c ultltra l nnd historical in q uir~ l'l'Sulting i11 City oj /Jreodjul Uelight'. Sh e dtsnibc' th e hooks projec1 a' an aucmpt to rewrn 10 'a forma1i1c momen t IIT< ltiles ofscxu<t l d a ngcr' ( 1992: in 1hc prod uc1ion of fc m ini., l po li1ics a nd ni popular n< 2-1:~ . Jn 1h is 'e ttsc tht cu ltmal politics of the presetll can in lurm out undcrstanding of thc pasl. ln dti' case, a femi nist pnspecthc ill uminatl' ~ cen a in aspccts ol ninelccnthCl'tHury hi~ to t'\ , l-lo\1'(.' \ 'lT . \\'a lkowil7 is i'are ll w poin t outtltat conletuporarv fcminist debate\ abo ut :.txual dang-cr. for exam ple tha1 over dte ca~e of Pe 1 e r tncliiTc who mnrrkrcd thnn:n \\'o m en i>c tii'C<'ll 1~1 7!i and 19S l , arl' a lso fralnccl ,,ith in narratil'es and dm1 1\ ritin~ history is ahout nlating 1he narrali\l'~ of 1hc presen1 10 t hose of the past in snc h a way t hal 1hcy do 1101 show i1 to l)l abo111 single Gtttscs a ncl dfeu~ ( 19\!2: ~ 1 1-5). \ \'IH: rc nc,, h i~toricism h a~ use el Foucault and nana! i1e analy is w re-txamine histury, thc imponancc ofco ntemporar~ po li1ics in \\'alkowi1z's 1mrk 1a kes hc r c loscr to Do llimore\ u tltura l tnatcria li ~m. For c ultura l ~lltdies 1hc contcmporary poltica! mesof c ultural histOr\' remain an imponanl fac 1 or in all hi torical work.

Culture, lime and hislory 213

The kind of historic;d "ork clone "'ithin cultu ra l stud~ts is c_m~ce~necl to .l'ore~r~un.d es "O tll'll culturt is nol ~een n~ a sub-bran rh o l t he dtsttph nc uf h1stOI) '' het e }lCSt' ISSI1 ' ' . .. . . . .. . .. . 1 J1 btorY i ~ bncke te d a long 1\'tlh miluarv htston, SCICtHt hc htstot~ ancl so on, bu t culntta ' . . . . 1 . tJ1-11 all forms of his10n 1\'111 1- "'tlhlll a cntHeXI \\h e1 e culll.u al 1:1lucs .me . ra11e1 1 ,:,eanings act so as 10 eren te lll tclersl:lncling~ and di,p111es.

5.J I If/when: the future

In his section, ,,e look :nth e concep1 of llw future. 01 nece \ty ~hi' means that ilti~ seclio n is shorter 1ha n Jw previous two. The l'uturc does no t yct_cx tsl. l t ac1s . ."'~ther, a~ a border or hori1on be~ond which 11e canno1 go, but onto wh1ch \\'(' ca_n p!OJCCI o ut es a ncl lcars. lk low we lool- a t 11te l'uturc orie nlation of mod c nlll \'. ttS preoccupa10P . \ . .1 1 1'i th th e ne11' ancl it\ belil'f in the pro~pect ol change ra ther than MaSIS. \e cons1c er uon ' . . . lhe conccpt of uto pia :md the impo nance of utopianism a ncl d~: l.o pt~nt s m 111 o ur 'CC]l tions of futurc time. Thc scicnce lktion gcnre o l' cvberpun k "dtscu~sed asan pet . . . . r .. example of na rra1 i1cs of lht future. \\'e suggcst lhat llts thc un cenatll l) of tl.t c tttllt ~ m odcrnitv that spms 0 11 r intl'I'CSI in hi~tory. \\'e wish to karn to pred1ct poss1 ble lll . 1 \ ,. 1 13 . . outcomcs from !he _xperienn o f lht pasl. Fin all~ ,,e <ou~gesl t tat . a ter c n~am1n_ <; concept of the constc llalio tt is 1ht> hl'St ,,.,1\' 10 uncle rswncl the no n-ltn ear rc la tuntshtp bct11ccn past, prtsent and fuwre. . . ]L wo u\cl he \\'1'011?,' 10 S<1)' t.h ill the f'u ture i!' a m odern ll\'Cilll O il . rh e C<~ll~'e ]>IS Ol J)<1SI, prc ent and fu tut e exi~t in clillerent f'o rms in mo~t cultures. llm,enr. ~~ ~~ t n~e w _ s~, that modcrnit, hns been unusually orientatecltowards thc futurc. Antom ( otcldens 1,1\ks of modemil\';S 'coloni ation of thc fmure. its projcction forwanl into 1ime in an aucmpt to con trol ancl organi~e t ht o utcomc of current c1cn~s (Cidclc ns. 1991: 11 1) . The modcrn idea of an o bjcctivc linear hi~tm~ a~'ume' a cen:un past ancl a 1utllt'l' 1ha t can be planncd for. lmtitutions. businesscs, g01c rnmen ts and i~tdi' iduals prq~aH' lot what is lO co 1m bl' considc ri ng what has happe nl'd be forc. Fred n c j a mcson a rg ues thal 11 1he micl-ninelc~nth nntun a ne11 hiswrical sense in the nmel gin~~ way w a sensc of the ftnurc. The e me rgc nce of scic nce fi c lio n in the scconcl half of tlw n ine lecnth centur\' lcd to a sh ift in our re la tionship to hi<;torical time' ([amc~on. 1982: 149). (\ovels of 1he fu litre succeecll he hi~torical no1Tis o f thc carl~ nine teenth cenllll)': 'S F as a fo nn ... now registcrs somc nasccnt sc nsc of th l' fu ture. a ncl cines ~o in the spa~c on whirh a sen se o f the past hacl once been in~cribed ' ( 19R2: 150) . For .Jamcson .sCtcncc fic tin n j:o; a ho ut 1he difri culty of coming 10 te nns " 'ith tite prcsent. lt clrama lii'CS o ur ' incapaci1y to imaginl' th c fut11re'. ami as "'eh b 'a con1Cmph11 ion of our o,,n al~sohllc limi ts' ( 1982: 1:3). 1nl tresl ingl~ mocle rn scie ncc fic tion e me rges a 1 1~t e sall~ t utn t as moderni~m in an ancl literature. ll \ appe ara nce in the seconcl half o l the n metecnth centu ry ro rresponds 1 o the c mergence uf moclcrnis1 fi ction ami po<'l t')' _i~1 Frat~ce: ~~te no1 cls of G ustave Flauhen ( 182 1-HO) an<l 1he pocttY of Cha rle' Bauclela u e ( 18_1-t>') j ulcs \'ente ( 1828- 1~05) publishecl 1'oyagr to the C1'111re o( the l:arth in 1H64. In Englat~cl, mo cle rnist rra its do no t become full~ prcscn t until lllt' 1 890~. a mong acsthe tes hkc

5.2.9

1Conclusion
ke~

\\'e can conchtde thi' o;ection b1 m nlining fin

cul tu ra l ~ ludi es:

a reas of inltTcst 1 0 h is1orical ,,ork in

1. T ht l'orm a nd conte nt of a particular hislorical li'Xt. Fnr example . its na rra1i1e struc u1re. !iterar) tec hniq ues and re la1ionsh ip to o ther tcxts in thc period. 2. Tlw 1ahus a nrl conflich COIWtincd ,,jJtin 1he li'Xt. Fnr exam ple, i1s ideology, disco u r'e~. ho\1' lltl te x l tal-es sieles. me diato nlltll ic t' or atlcmpl~ re olutiom.
:~.

T he ,,ay 1h:u tht historie;, [ rc~<:arch has btTil conduned: ho" tlle <.' l'idencc ,,as ~c lcnccl ancl IIS<.cl. For :xa tn p lc. ha:. i1 uscd historical clorumetlts o r archeological e1iclence or bu1hi- \\'hal phito~oph, oflti,lot~ or historical fntme\\ork is 1he hi~10ri<1n IISilg'?
llistorie~ ntcd lo be placee! in dtci1 broadcr c ultural conll:x l, Sl't'll as of their 1ime a m i place. \\'e ll<.'l'cl lo kn o11' ahout 1he c ullttt'l' ll'ith in 1dticlt the history was resean hcd a nd 1\rittcn. il:. \'ahtt ~ and conflic h.

l.

5. \\'e also nc td to kttow 1hc place n i thc indiricl11a l hi ~torian within 1hat culture and her or h i' 1dationship 10 it:. ,al u es and conllict: fot e xample. hi:. or hcr political belic l\, 111<.' ac:td c m ic chool to ll'hich ~ h e u r he be longs.

rr
1

214

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Culture, time and history

215

Osear \\'ildt and IHI\Ciia' like Jmcph Conracl. Tht 1S9th \\";h 1he decade \\'h<n I I.C \\'e lls pu bli<.h<d hi~ fiN nmeb: Th, Timt .\larhint ( 11'\!J."J) and Thr 1\ iu oft/t,. \l11 td~ (189f{) .

Bo.\'

5.11

Donna Haraway, 'A cyborg manifesto'

5.3.1

Utopia and dystopia

The futurc o ri e nta li on or m o clc mil,. aJTnls ll lt' ,,a, 1\'t 1h ink a hout hoth I I1lt aud hi:;toiY. The ht ltl rt ac 1~ a' a kincl oJ' h u ri.wn. 11'ltir h . in llw ,,orcb o f :'\ikJa, l.tthma nn can ll l'l tT bcgin ('t't' Bo:-. :l. IO). \\'t pn~jccl h t':-1 ;11\clll'or>l outcome' 0 11 10 1hc l tttur~ hori;.o n : uwpia' ami ch,ll>pia~. T he word ' utopa' , .1 neolo~i~m lll t' llltd 1)\ 1 huma~ .\ lo rc. combining 1he Gl t't'k t'lllofJia (a happ1 placl') and outoJia (11n planJ. This comhinationiH:';IIh ddinc~ 1hc dio;;tinnion bctiH' l'll a 111upia a n d utopian'-111 .. \utopa is a hlucprint ola ht'llt'r \OCl'l\' - a h a pp1 p lac<- b n1 h.t'> tiH di~;uh-;uHagt ol cl o~in~ dmrn o ther possibk ,,...,' of im a~inin~ imprmTm cnt. l ' 1opiani,m, b~ con 1ra'1. i, k,, 'Pccific; i1. o ffers no p lacl' in panic1dar. lm1ead . i1 clt'fi lll'' a scn <:t of lack 11h ir h ' IIIHtla les il ' cle.sire for a bcllt' r ll'a~ uf hcing' ( l.t\ i1a,. 1!)!HI: K). Th e rlirt<:rt n rt h l'lll't'l'll 1hc represen l;ttion o t' a 11 tu pia a iHI u wpia 11 ,11 1 mi ~ IH bt d escri be el as 1h e d i 1f( 1 1nrc bctween d etl'l'ln ina lt' and co nditio11al futll l't'.' . Dt' ll'l'lninat c futUI T:. ex lr;l pobl< from pre en l te n dl n cics ;m el m a1 ponen el ch,lu pia~ '' ll'd l a~ Ul<>pia'. Condi1 iona l ftttures explore th t con t radinion~ of the pre~e nt. pt r~uin){ 1heir conpltxitl'. ancl ollt t 111 urcs that are po~'iblc n11hcr 1han predett n nined ou1 come~. 1\'aiT<li\es of conclilicmal fulllre:. re'i~l tcc h nological cletcrminalion and <oncentrate more on lh l co111plcx in tc r actio n o f social rt'1:11io n s a n cltechnnlogic.tl thangc.

Frn1 11 Oll t' pt' l ~ J)lT iiiT . ,, (~ b<>rg \\'ol'id , ;l>O UI lh l' tina! in1po~ilion of' :1 ~riel o f ron1rol o n illt' p l;n1t'l. about th c fin ;d .Jbclication c mbu di ecl in illt' S wr \\'ars apnra l\ p.\ l' \\ a~td in lh t 11 :1111l' uf cll'fi. n Sl' . a (HJtll lil e !1na[ appi'Oj)Iaion O J' 1\'0IIl l'll .' l>odic, i 11 < 1 1nasc 11 li 11 i't nrg1 of 1\'ar. Fro111 anuthtr p e L '' I)L'ClI'c, ; ry borg 1\'tHid m ig h1 be abo ttl lil'td 'mial and bucli l ~ l t'<lli tit' in "h it:h ptople an mll af'1.1id o l t ht'irjoi11 1 kin,hip \\ ith a nimal' .mclnlachim' not ah .lid of pcmamHly panial iclt'lllitit"' and conlradiltol\ ,,lllclpoinh.

5.3.2 1 Narratives of the future

r h e Iilll' o!' nwclel'l l i 1~ ll('OI'J>Oralt'S a k i 11cl u f ~ t'al'll n g f'1 11' a b c ltCI' plan tha 1 \\'(' 111 ig ht be ab le lo :tl' hien in 1h e f'uiiiiT. ConS<'fJUl'll th. wc :uT;t ngc o u r cuncc 1llin n o/' 1hc p::m aiiCI th e )>l'l.:''l'nl in rdation lo our d e.-.irt' ' J'nr th c fntli i'L'. Sonw n arrat\'t l'o nn~ are ablc lo 1 Tp re ' CIII litis betHT 1han 0 1hc rs. Roman ce \ 1 wr hap' th c moo;;t dfecti\'l. lwrau~c it

Box

5.10

Niklas Luhmann, on the future

Futurc il st lf, and 1hi' mcans pao;;t f"tttttn s ;b ll't ll ,1, 1hc prescnt f'u llll'!' mu' t be rn n cc ilc cl ;ts pos, ib ly quitt' clif'ftTc nL fro111 il a . pa'l. !1 can n o lo n gcr lw r h;tr:tcL c ri nd a~ a pproar hin g :t tttrning p o in1 ,,h c rc i1 re ltii'IIS i11to th c pastor 111wrc th c o rd cr o f thi~ IHJrld 0 1 tnn lime ibtlf i:> c h angcd. 1t 11\a\ con1ain . as a f"lll llliona l eqni1alcnt fi11 lht c ncl of time. Clllt'l"gcnl proptrtiL, and not-yet-l'l':tlited p<>-,ihilitie~. 11 b<come~ :m ope11 llllurc.
Lulun.11111 l l!lit;: 1.11 1

incorpora ll'\ clcsirt into i1s Sll'll t' lli H'. f h t \llupiall~Ill of 1'0111:\II CL' les llOI in its co n~ l ntt' l h >11 o J' a pan in da r 111 opi;111 b lu epri 111., btll in i1 ~ tx p n s., ioll of a scn SL' ol'lack. so th at 1\'t' kt l th.u ll'h at 1\'e h:tH' b in ;1 ckq u ;u e. b1111hat ~a 1bfitn i on 111:1\' b l ;\llained .som (' lillt' in lht lu111re. \\'h a lewr o ur l'l'll:till\' abou1 1he pa.sl o r th t prt''C'II I. th e futurc alwa\:> i111oh e.s a en~e u l unnai n l\' ll'hich un~c ulcs o u r 1cmporal stn,e. 1 h e e nd of 1lw l\\'l'lllieth celllttiY has bcen a p.u1indarh' unccnain periocl ol 1nockrn i 1~. to lh e ex1cn1 111.11 i1 , ~omctime<. e ha rae 1<'1 i'ccl a <o pmtmodern. P ostmod c mity (p . ..JOO) descriht''- a 1111111her nf dillerl'lll 'mi.ll l hange': the g J uba J i~. l lion' ol llll' I\'OI'Id'~ eCO IHl lll ~, lllt' gro,,h in popuhtli<>n llHln' llll'lll' an cl t h e 'IX'l'cl and quanl II' uf inrorm a lio u l'XC h a nge... - ;JI nr \\'lli r h h.t\'l' t h:lnged our ,-j,ium oJ' lht rulllrl'. In hcr cssay. ,\ Cl b(Jig III;Lnir<.sto ' ( ll a ra\\'a~ . l ~ l~ll ). Donna H a rawa~ oulli n 1.~ llwst d eiT lo p lllt' 11l~ ;t\ pal'ill..;" ii H' 11'<11' f'o r l\\'0 pn~s iblt f'tlllll'l'~: a l t' l'rirYill ~ I'SOil u f social !'OIIIrof 0 1' ll C\\', t' lllan r ip;UoiY pos.sibilitits (~tt l~nx :"1 . 11 a nd rcfer lo ~t'C ii on 7.5). - his o pposili nn op lr;lll'' a dia lcc lic between d<lennina lt' aml co ndilional lutures. \\'llcrt a determ n a te f'u1un promisc.s Ji xcd and conlrollt'cl icltn tilie'. an alte1 n a iI't. a nd pcrhap ~ eq u all~ fri~l utnin~. prmpect i~ the lac J.. ol :111\' unillccl iden ti t~ at a ll. Po,lmt>cltrn n borg liction, txplorc Lhe kind' ol ickntitk' lllT<kd l<> lin in th e mw 1\'Udcl ( :\kCrackc n . 1997). f h ty allt'lll j>l 10 thinJ.. tluough llw prohknt of lht ~el f in a cnl1 1l'XI \\ h tre the cuhtn a l honndarit'' are co n ~ 1a nth ~ hif1 ing. T lw n e\\ p h wali-.m ~uggc\tl' d b1 pnstmod tn i, lll , orlt'll d iffic ultto I'(.'COI1C1l' \\'ilh lh t' l\\'t' l11ielh Ct'nltll'\' ..\ ll'lldt'II C\' IOI\"<l rcls glubal i,;Hio n ;nd ,, mdard i~; uion . Sollll' of 1hc con1radic 1ions ot' lh e ll l'l\' CUI1\ ICll;1 1io n an: t'X p lm td in a scicn tT liCi inn 1110\'l' lll t' lll ,,hic h t' m e rged in il11 1\IIHk c~be rpunk. Cyberpu nh. h a., becn de~cr iiH'd ]y Frt'C iri c .Jam eson as a nc1,. l~'Pt' ol sct' ll Cl' fl c ti n n . .. ,,hic h is fulll a~ muc h an cx prc"iun n( lr:IILsn ;Hiona l cor p oralt' rla lit it.~ as i1 is o f g lobal paranoia il \('lr (Jamcson. 1~l!ll: :\J. "lla tllo\'t' lll t' n l is tru e 10 it.- n al1\t' in ih ~kilru l o;clf: p romotion. lt t'Xtrapolate~ from lhc r ul-lhroal nnsumcr socit'l\ o t' the 1\lHOs aiHI th at d ecacJc', in( na,ing di,ide btl,,nn 1ith and poor. Tlt fiuional "orld ol' th t hestknown p1 opomn t ol cybcrpunJ... \\' illi.1111 Cib,ol1, describe~ a ITcogni,ablc geo-p nl i1 ical ~~Sll'lll, c harat H'l ,ed b1 1\'C'.tk nation-,tal<' ' and dominan! lr:u1,11<H ionals. 11-. incq n ;1li1ies

2 16

lntrod ucing Cu ltural Studies

Cultu re, time and history

217

rcfkc l th c lo n g--te rm te ncl c n c ies of lil e g loba l cco norn~ predict e d b)' David Har\'ey: h c ig h te n ed in te rnali o na 1 a ncl inte r-rcgio n a l co m p e ti lio tt , ,,ilh th e lcast acll'an taged co untric~ a nd rcgion~ sn ffcri ng th e ~c,cres t con sequ enccs ( llaney. 1990: 183). Btu, th o ugh in,pircd by the ckl'clopnwn t o f llC\\ tech n ologic~ like ,iru ra l r cality, p ersonal rompulers nncl th e lntt'l'lll'l. Cibson ~ n a rra ti,es focus as much on lhc socia l con ttaclic lio n s thn nm up b~ ler hnol ogl' a~ thl mac hin e r~ itself'. On 1he o n e hancl. cyberpunk is resolu lc ly posthumanist. lt cle lig hh in th c transformario n of ,,hat is m cam by b eing huma n : G ib~o n 's charac tc rs c mplm genc ri c e n g in nring. drugs a n d adl'a n cecl fo nns of surge~ lO tran sfonn th e tn~cln~s. On th e o thcr h a nd . t h c cybe r"'orld i\ p to ple d \\'ith thc descenclams o f postwar co nnte r-cultnres ,,h o repre~c nt a persiste nt rom:mtici~m . Gibsn n 's St)'le is influe rH' td by hard-boiled detectil'e lic ti on . A co nscque nce is that th e mostm a rkcd aspc c l o /' his ,,orld is a se n se of lac k or unfulfillecl pule nri a l. l-lis n o"els ancl sh urt ' to ri cs e xplore th e forms of h ybr id , cyber co m ciou sn ess that arise fro m th e emplo~mcnt o f n ew tcchnologies a~ a means o f d o mination. lli ~ most famous conuib ut io n 10 thc gcnrc i ~ the idea of 'jacking- in '. u~in g a jack into th cir ce ntral ne n o us sys tc m , his c harac rc r, are ab le lo plug lhe n1S<:II'c' directly into the malrix' (a n r nhanced fo rm of 1he 1nt cl'll( t) ancl explore a I'rtua l wnrld of information, descrlbed as ' A g raphi c rep rese nta ti o n o f' data abs tracwd from tlu: ba nk~ of en.-ry compute r in 1hc human s\~rem. Un th in kab le complexitl'. Linc of ligh t ranged in t h e non space of thc m ind. clustc rs a nd conste lla ti ons of elata. Like cit'' liglm, reced ing' (Cibson, 1986: 67). T h e marri x ac ts as a m c taph o r for th e kinds of c ultura l collisio n s allCI re-inl'cntio n s of th c self' tn aclc possiblc by n e " tc chn ol ogil~. Cibso n 's sc icnce fi ction a lte rn a les b e tl\'l'l' n 1he tra n sccn d e nlulopit~n frccdom o f thc m a uix an d th e banal orcl i n a ri n es~ of e\'Ct 'da' lifc . One cri1icism l ha t ha~ bcen m acle of c"bcrp u n k i ~ that it is litlr:uure for bo,s (:-Jixon, 1 99~) and cenainll' Gib~on's ficlions are oftt n stnr clltrcd as a J..ind of masc ulir1 c ro man ce. lio we ,< r , this is n or inlrinsic lo 1hc lurm. T h c f'cm in is l wri tc r ~ l argc Pierc)' sc ts h e r nul'e l, /Jody of (;tass ( 1992) , in a crberpunk wo rlcl, butlhc s hil'ting boundaric~ o f th atll'tlrlcl are us eclto l'Xplore, among other cultura l borders, th c limit!' a ncl ddinitions of gcn d e r . In h er acknmdedgemc n ts. Pie rey recogn ises the inn uence of Do n n a llara,,ay s essay, 'A cyborg- manifes1o'. H arm,ay argucs lhal rh c boundarit!. be twet n hum a n and animal a nd human and ma c hine we rt a lwnys ancl will a lways be fi ctio nal hccause o ur in tcrac lio tt wilh lcchnolo.,ry wil l a lwa,s c hangc whal it m ca ns 10 be human. Central lo l-la ttlwa\'' argument i:. th c ~ l arx i l id ea th a t what is impo nam a bout mach in c is the way thcy lit inlo ocial organisation. lt is not t h e lcch n ology itself. but thc ,,ay th a t th c m ach ines r e lat e to a ncl 1 ecrc:nc re lations bctll'een p eo pk. This is om of' th e rh e m cs of

, vio > . l'hl' s1oric' ni' t lt l Pr:w tte lttttn :md Til..l'a td l or rhl' honnd il t ie> thal 1l: ,... )tC111 11 . h n . , ., define a partic ular c ulture a~armr tl~e tl ~re<tll'lltll.g II'Orid be:uncl. 1ht: ~h l.tro lt.t~ nnl~ th cl tlll' itwtnttil\' of it' Rabbt. T tk,a 'l l t'l t\'l'~ a' an tll(kpendent lrce to11n b1 o . . . . . 11 .111 llin ils inno1 .Hin high-tl'l h prodttcts 10 lhl cor porauon' and protl'tlln ~ thell f t o m 5 e . )~llulion .mcl raclial ion th:tr ~~i't bemncl j, limils. Bot lt TiJ..,;t :uHI tlt e g lw rto are 11 ll 1 . . 1 ,. 1 - s ,e11 .- J)I'01c:-r ttd ;otll'' Th e )roten ion that th t' l' :ti fonl t ~ a remttH t' l' u t ll' pnso1 ~ 1 1 . _ . . . ,. . . . . . . . 1S . J)ltl nn th l IIIT~ ,, th e tr rnh ahtta tlh. 1hn~c lllllll' i li L' d e fintd ]), t ltl clonun,tnl )ttll . , > ,-er n :;idc tia ghtllo: in Prague the C:hri,ti.m 'late. for Ti ha tite hegt:mon' n f ~IH 01 01 : n:uion ak ll owewr. '' hik in th c :>C\'l'11lt'l'tllh cenlln'\' ti u: hounda_r_t~, are f;urh 1111 1 (b:cd , in th c t\\'l'l11Y firs t tlt e 1 ha1 e b ccoml' nwrc fluid. <kfi llld 1,- th e ~htftrn g- 'pan of tit e glop ;md t ltt' po~~ibi l i t ~ o f'j.tc ki ng in ancl 1110\'ng throu g lt <._, l~e rsp_ac c . In . t:tc h case. tltC g h e tt o is a tll t' !ap hor fr tltl' ntln c rabilitl' a' ,,.lU .,, lltl ~- rva.lt\' ll\' olm tnnrttl' t' ttltntTs wltich allow ihe possihilit ~ o l dillc t cnl ki n d~ ol ~t(fclctcrmr nat rott. \\'he n th t hor(kr~ o fTi k1.1 .ll't' lhreat<.md. ,, modern-d.t\ (;ollm. Yod. i~ crcaltd h~ th c sc ienti~t Al'r<lllt. \'o c! i ~ p a n ma chim, p a n ge nt:ticall y engincerecl C\ boq~ :tt\cl a 111aS(l ti in e ancl km i ll int al! rih lll l'$. H i ~ pn.dc t'l'!'S() J'S, starti n g wi th Alc f Sll'illlgC hyb rid (rhe firstl e ttt'r olthe H e bre ,, a lplt:tbe t: \'oc! is th t te nth ), al ltu rnecl l'iole nt amlltaclto be destroyed. \'o d h as b ee n hall~ program n te cl lll a ,,oman. ami has a nH>rl' b.tlanc_ecl p crsona lity. H e is a construc tcd 11\hl'id ~elf. cre;-~ted . like th c Golcm. 10 poltce bounclaries, bttl is no t h imsclf of the place h e pro tects o r 1hc place that thr('a te n s. As a cybo rg he h a~ n o ts~e tHial idc ntity. H e is th e bo rdc r. Haraway \\Tite: of rc lnti~,n~hip bc l\\'ec 11 boclies a nd machines as a 'bord e r ,,nr' ( 1 larawa~. 199 1: 1:>O) . Sc rtn ce ltcuon, specula tive fiction ancl fa n ta-.y a n : usel'ul m o d c -. ~n this :ontl'X I be~a use t_ ltcit su bject i ~ th c p o int a l wh ich the boundari t~ bet\,een wh a t ts rea l ;mcl what ~ ~ p os,tblc are dra,,n
,, . ,.

or

tl.ll:

Body ~! (;!ass.
The n ol'el a lte rttale~ l\\'O narratil'es. onc hislo ri cal ;-~ncl o rt e of tlw ftllure; both are co n cenwcl with bou n darics. , \ histot ical narratil'e abou t sennteen th-ccn tltiY P raguc tc lls 1he story of lh e Cok-m, a gian t m acle out o f el ay hy thc Ra bbi j u d a h Loe,, 10 protccl t h e inhabiran ts of th f' .ll'I\'s h g h e tto. Tlw paralle l !>! Ot'V the l\\'t'lll)'lit ~ ~ cc ntury also co nccrns a g hetto, Tikl'a. T ik1a e xists a t a tim e when transnmio n < tl co rpor<'!tions nt lc lllOSl Of' tit l' g lo b c. Jeai'il~ tit e parts lhat tit e~ do llOl II('Cd lO aclntiniStC'l' 10 \ 'Oit- II CC, pol'en~- ancl anarchl'. In Gibson's sw ri cs thc~e arcas are callcd 1h e 'sp rawl' . Pie rcy calls

or

( 1991: 201). C~ borg fictiom a re '''"''' of t h eorising a ncl narrat in~ 1h ese bounclaries. T h c con secuencc is m o n slcr stories: :--J o nsle rs h al'c a l11a~s d e fin e d rlt e limits o l' comrmtnit\' in Western inwg inations' ( 1mll: 1SO). Cd Jo rgs are th e ti\ OttSL e rs thal pop ulatc th e margins o f discottr!'e: These bouncla ry crtaHtrts are . lile ralh. monstcrs. a wo rd tltat sharcs m ore than it<; root " 'ith t hc word lO dt/1/0IHimiP. :--Ion;,lcrs signi r,- ( 1991: 2 ) ..\1 th is point, anal y!;is of the narra tilc, o f the 1-ictiun, b eco mes a<> imponan t a ' 1h e di<;cmery o f t.hc facts , ,,hi c h h a\'e lhcmsc hTs b ec n co n stitllle d a s a sro ry. Scien cl'. "' rhe mosl re~pcc tab le lq itima tor of lll'''' realities' ( 19\11 : 78), can prol'ide 1h e narrali\'e~ ll~al socic tv n eecb to rcsoll'e 'th c co ntradic ti o n b ctwccn , or tht ga p bt't\\ee n. human rcalt ty an d l;um an po~~ibi lit\' in h i~wn ( 1991: 12). Bu l Harm\'m' i-. tHH conten t 10 let those narratil'es b e a u th o ritati,e. T hc1 ar e ah,ms fict ions, med ia ting ~ocia l realit\'. /Jody of Cla~1 describes a pro~co.~ whcrcb~ m ac hines are lxcnming m o rl' ltttman ancl hum a ns more li kc machin es. :\ s Yod says: 'l'tn a fttsion uf' ma chine aiiCI lah-c reaLed bio logical com pomnt s - mu ch as humans freq u e ntl~ are f'u sio n s o f tl eslt < tnd ntacl_ line' ( Pic r c\'. 1992: 96). Yocl's cou n lcrpart is a human. :"-/ili. 1\'ho has b e < n genc u cally e nhan.ced lO gil't' her su p e rh ttman powers. Thi' corresp ond -. to Harawa~ 's ne,, 1\'0rlci o! 'panial ide ntiti t'S an d contntdicto ry sta ndpoin t ~. \'o cl combines aspec ts of hum a n atHI ma chine, masr u li nil\' ancl ft'mi11inity in a way th:n is gc nuitldl' tttopian in it~ lransg rcssio n of o lcl b o uncl a ri cs a mlthc c reation ofsomt rlting n ew: ' Crcati on is a lwms pc rilou ~. for it g i1'es tr u c life to wh a t h as been inchoatc ;tll(l \ 'OCt' to \\'hal has bl'l'l1 cl1t111b. h

218

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Culture, time and history

219

Box

5.12
Marge Piercy, Body of Glass

Bo.\

5.13

~kr <kq~ .and. ahn o 'l 'i~>lt-111 ,txn:d pk''lll't:' no1 'nh di~lllrbtd hu 1 Clllll'uscd ht'l'. Slw had 1 111agmed il.a:11 11 .11a~ lw a Ion lor Gacl i. l hat e:111~ emotio1 1:1l IHII1d i11g-. that had lll:lci< !h e sex ll'll h l11111 Jt iiiCil iiiiii'L ' sat i,.h in cr a11d L ' II""Wino lh ' ltl th lllg ' . . h ,..,. ,.., ,., 1111 111
h t'r hk 'lllCe. Bu 1 11 h :11 'h e 11';1, l l'' I)IJilding- 10 i11 Yocl '''"' '> itll ph t<-rhniqut. lit had ht'L'll ~)rograauantd to ' ;lli,h. ami he , ai,fit<l. Sh, hacl to ad anit ~he ''<IS 1 wrhap' a hllk di,appointcd in lu r,t'JI that 'IH r ould incked lw pll'a~ed 1)\' 11 hat ll a~ jll llg 1Hil111H.:d lP do jll,tlh:ll , .
l'it rcl 11U!l:!::! 11 )

Walter Benjamin, 'Theses on the Philosophy of History'

H btnricism co nt t nts i tsdl' ll'i ll 1 t''il a l> li'il illf\ .1 ramal ro n iH' l'l ion hL' lii'L :l'll ':u iou.~ e t, in hi,to a ~. But no faCI thal ha l'<lll'l' i' fo a lh.ll 1\'asu n ln, tni iC:tl. h 11 1110111 hecome' hi,loa icll po~t h tllll<lll'h. a~ itl\t' ll'. tlu ough nt'lll' thal ma1 bt 'ep.tr;uecl l'rom it b1 d HHh.IIHI<. <>f 't':ll,, .\ hi~torian \\' ho l <~ kcs 1hi ~ ;, hi, poitll uf <kpaa1u re
stops tcllin g 1h c ~eqiH;: n ct: nltnnts likc 1h e btacl ~ of a"'~: ".,. ln s t~ad h e g-r~ 'ps thc co nsle lla tio n ll'hi c il h is 011'11 era h a' lo nncd 1111h a dd 111 1Lc carhcr u n e. 1 hus h e e tabli,ht'' a co n ccp1ion o f thc p rt.sc nl a' tla c ' lillll' <11' n m, ll'hic h i' shm 1hrough 11ith ~ l c~~ianic time.
flenj:unin 11\lill: :!ti:>!

makt~ k11o~,1111'hat ha' bn n 11 nkno11r1. 1h :11 Jll'rhap' ' ''l' ,,ere 1110n Cnlllf> I'I :lhle 11i11 11101 s tl tt'l'ssa rill ci:Hig<rou, ( 1~1! 1 ~: Ul ). knoll'l ll.l(. 1 lw tw11 1

L~kt (;i.l>wn~ f~ction> /Jtf~\ ''./ (;/'"' i' :1 I'D IIIance.l>anthi' lina t tht l r.tcli tional g 1ndcr rdat~on,lup, 111 L aiNIIl 'lall'~ art l'l'lt'l " 'el ami qne,tioncd. Tlw lll'o 11;11 rati'e' are tCJid
1101 lrom man lO n.1a11. lm1 1hrough 1110 fi: lllinint 1ni1 l' ' Shira a 11 d lwr g-ra 11 d 11101 hcr, :" :dkah . ll'iln lt'IJ~ ' IHith<' 'lor~ of'tfw (;oi(m. l nl\' l' lillg llw Sll'lltl ll rL' of'(; ihso 11 , pro~c. 11 '.:, ' Ofl 1d~o hecomL~ ol ~jccl o f' S h ir:1\ de., irt. \'o d o lf't'l's 1h e ran1:1" of' c re a ting :t be mg wlao '' fl tTfectll 'llltcd 10 o n nl'lf. llu 1 bectthL' lll' h.h been manulacuarecl. Shim's r~latio~l'h~p ll'i th ~l ill i' 111111('1\ ing. S he ran llt'l't'l' ))(' 'lll ,. ,,hctht'l' 11 ha1 ,he txpnil'nccs ~~~~.~~ ~11111 "){t'll liiiW or pre-progTamnwd hce Bo:-. ."l. l 21. Sleeping ll'ith Yod co nl'mcs Shara" ~~~~~~ o l sclf'. 11hith 'lw h ad hdi<,c ct \\'; ,, ba~td c;n t'X IH'I'it 11 ce... 1h :n 11e rc par.ticu l:u 1<.> re l'l.<~i n rl'l;u io n., h ips. L illl t'." an d p la ccs. J h l' u top i;a 11 p 1 011 1iq of' p e l'fcct ''lll~/a{'!IO~l 1 s ag;u n cn.napa omisccl b1 ~lat ll~lClllll\ sen't' 111:11 1rhat , Jw i... 1xperie nring- i~ a 11 mhtllll.lll. an echanacd rqwuuon. 1 he 11nage ronl'l'l' a wn'e of ahtrn;ui,c futurts. 011(.' clc,ir;ahl.e. 011(' llll ...."ltlil.lg. In \ Cit'lll't' fin ion tlw 'lwck or .alicn L'llCIHIIHCr produces ~1n1 Co111racl 1llory po"lblfnll,: <~IH: ol :1 bt'lltr plan. th L ni hcr o/ our 1\'or~l n ig htnaart. 1lw nhcrp u nk narra uw ... oJ Crb~o11 a n d l'il'l'ry n egoliatv 1h e d ia lectit he lll't'l' ll llt'll' plc:bll l'l'' :uHI lh(' grid o l nm1rol' clirtc., lao11 liT ex pcri,nn tht m .

''. 1\'

pa~t 11jJI he hrongl11 10 fruilion . Tlw con,tl'll.nioll i~ p~1 ~~'P' lht llH~Sl thdul lllt' 1:1plwr for how c 1du 1ral ,ludies .approat hes th e pt o bit m, u f ht~tnl'\ , JJl(\ lllllt'. R;uhcr th an ' linear h iswry. ll'h ic h Be nj <Hll in d escrib es "' li kt ' th e I)L'<I(f, oJ' :1 rnsary ll'h t'l't' C\'t'lll' come o nt' a lkr th e o th er. it rcrognisn th c co mpkx it1 of bo1h 1h e prc~t'lll :111d lht p ast. As with \ \'alkoll'il/')> account o f 1he multipk nm,cqutnct:- of a ~eri e' ul nn,~paper anirl t's. we nttd tu look al a hi~torical moment in ttnn' of all tht 'm ial nla1ion~ 111 oh'ed ancl th c n relate t llO'L' rcla tions to tlw comph xi1y a11d o iH'IIl'lld tclii<''S of o n r 011'11 prcscnt. T h b is cas itr ';lid tll ;m do m ; bl tl i l is 1h e di llirult y or l he las k tlant IHC I't'S l~

cu ltura l 'tud its.

5. 4 1 Conclusion
In lhi::. c haptcr 11t han co n sidcrcd but h Iilll' a11d Jai,t<ll'l' ;1' cultural f o rnaa 1ion ~. S1aning ll'ith baic concept' likt moclern and p <'naodl'rn litn<. 11e haw mo~tcl to11~rd' a con;eption lha l introdun, diflt 'l't' llf\' ancl complexitl' in to our 111Hkr,lan.da~1g. Prt'IIHHkrn tim e '"'' o l1e 11 htTil daar:ac ttris,d ;as slatit. b111 ll'l' h ;we ~ce n l11m th a s IS a modt m '"~ 11 11 1 p t i on . i na po~cd o 11 th t' pretntHkl'll tl urckr 1 11 tmphas i.'~ t ll t: d l' l~a~n i s m of 11111 clt' naitl . 111 ran. r uiln ra l ,ludies ,ho11 a cfi,cr~i ll' o f' connption~ of umt 111 clll fc-rtnt ('llhu r e:.. \\'ilhi 11 moderni11 ihdl'. 1\e lincl .1 ('omparabk dil'l'I''ll which c halkngt'' th t unifoam i11 of nwchanical do< k or indu,trial lime. 1 h t n,ohui onan n.llu rt: of modernit1 mt.u 1s that it , l oii.,I<Ullh ll't'.ll ing- nc11 f'onu~ ni c ulinn ,,hie l! ro JII t' SI a si 11 ~1e. 11 0 .rn 1;n il't s~<m dard. Coml'quc.n th. di ll(: nnt soci:1l ~l'Ollj>' t'X Iwrie11n na o d er nil ' '. in di J Te re ut 11 11,, \ \'h j k 11 i'ton as a 1 ill l'ar. prognssI't' narral l'e i' a pt oduct o f modernit 1. difkrcnt , 0 cial ~I'IH'J>' h aH 1o11~1runecl <lillcrent historical narrmi,cs 10

5.3.3

History and the future

T h c. nn cc1Ji 11 1~ uf th1 f'ntltl't' i~ o 11e of' II H most t' Jf 4 : ni l t' ~pu 1, w ll i'llll'i('a l H'St'< trc h . 1t 111sp1re' lL' ~o t'Oil lI IU<llh rct'\';IIWtle ilt t pasl in thl' \'IIIHt-.;1 of' a c 11 n,t a nth e 1 o hing pres.e nt.. !In ~ procc." ll:h b<Tll rfe,crihtd 11111~1 dkCiil'dl h1 lknjamin (M't' Box ."l.l :' ). dox of nwdtl n "i 1h i1 ~ 1win 'l'lh<' of Benyun 111 aucaHpll:d to ll'toncile tlw p a1.1 h iston : on lllt' IIIH:' hanrl a ~L'll'>t' of';m ol~jnlin. li n car hi,ton. o n 1he n tflt'r a sc n ...c of rle prcst'1 11 ~ open-enclcd :111d c h araclt'l i't' cl h1 nwd c na i11;.s .sensv o l 1i1n e . b1 ' t hl' lransit'lll. th tl le<tillg, l il e to n ting-e n l. 1f t t ;afl s th c f'o ll ll t' l' hi,turi ci~ 1 u : ancl he coa;tr:N'> i1 ,,itl111l11 lw ca JI, ~ft,~i:mic tina e. a '<'lht' of'the ftu1 t' in ll'hich th t poiL'II Iia l of llw

,,

220

lntroducing Cultural Studies

ex plai ~ 1 1hLi 1 modcrn identil ies. These narra1 ii'('S 1 .. 0111 p iic:lle 01111 't'nSL' o!' ;a:.,.".u~<. hislol'l' ora ~imple CaiNtl relalion,hip bell\'ttn and .prne:~::\{ gra~ld' t lt !),~sr to lhc ~J~e~cn l thns bccomcs a las!,. tha imoh'cs ll'l;lli ng a wlwlt conste~) at~ng ';' chlkt l'nt IJO'Illon'. IW aspccl of nwdcrnitl , its orieiHalion lo thc fnlllrL '11\ auon 1 1.11. ~IIH'ther 1\'l' belien iu a n ol~eclin hi,IOI\ or 1101. 0111 ~Cil\c of hi\tOn .' o lll~ans de<.n lbtd "' onr philosophy of hi~ton or the frame\\'or' ,, 1 .111 . 111 ' 1, 1 . 'cmwumes . 1 1 . . " 1 IC 1 11 C II'Ork . <Olhl.ll~t ,. t ~~ngang a'> "'<" incorporal<: nm ju~l IICII CI'CIII~. bu our hOJJt'' d , . . IS fca1' of '' h.11 ~~ 10 come. e 1e~ and

chapter

of

i>''''

Politics and culture

R e-cap
D

Time and history can be understood as cultural formations. Conflicts exist both within cultures of time and between cultures of t' rme. Histo~ is characterised by different, confllcting accounts or narratives whlch comphcate any sense of 'what actually happened'.

6.0 l lntroduction
One of the ways in which cultural studies has been influential is in its transforrnations of the ideas of what is 'political'. lndeed, many of those who want to use the term 'cultural polilics' for lheir work on culture would argue that 'everything is political'. By this they mean that everything is a matter of contested power relations (see, for example, ]ordan and Weedon, 1994). bell hooks (p. 223) argues that 'Vigilant insistence that cultural studies be linked toa progressive radical cultural politics will ensure that it is a location that enables critica! intervention' (hooks, 1991: 9). This means a move away from more conventional notions of what is 'political' - the realm of parliaments, political parties, international relations, state institutions, bureaucracies, trade unions and so on - and broadens out the field of study to include the politics of art and literature, the polilics of gender and race, and the politics of everyday life. Much of the rest of this book might be seen as a product of this expanded notion of 'politics' as 'cultural politics', but in this chapter we focus specifically on the relationship between politics and culture. We acknowledge that it is still important to retain something of the conventional sense of politics as a particular set of arenas in which certain strong claims lo legitimacy and power are made. What we want to do is to understand formal politics through the lens provided by the expanded notion of politics we provide, that which includes what is sometimes called 'informal politics' (Painter, 1995). This focus offers a sense of the particularity and peculiarity of formal politics as a set of arenas of power relations, and as a set of arenas that operate in tern1S of some quite particular cultural practices and products. In the end we hope that this serves notto maintain it as a privileged arena of power but to show how it claims that privilege. Thus, this chapter looks al the way that the arena of formal politics is made through culture and, more generally, at the politics of culture.

Further reading

. .rn' y s e~ ture of time. The best way to approach questions of time in history is to read the k ) E~ h1stoncaf s~ud1es, for examp~e: Stephen Kern, The Culture of Time and Spoce: 1880 _ ( 1918 1983 Th~mpson s fa_m~us .essay 'T1me, work-discipline and industrial capitafism' in Customs in Common' ~; ; judlth WalkowllZ s Clty of ~:eadfu1 Delight: Narralives of Sexual Donger in Late-Victorian London (199~) is a~ excelfent example of a cnt1cal narrative approach to history Wifliam G'b . 1 son' s eo11ec t1on Bu Ch . of short stones rnmg rome (1993), prov1des sorne terrifying visions of the future. '

g~od ~ntroduction to ~he cultures of limeis Eviatur Zerubavel, Hidden Rhythms: Schedules and Calendors in Octal Ltfe (1982). Dav1d Harvey's The Condition of Postmodernity (1990) is a compell' mode 't ' 1 1ng account ot
;

Learning objectives
To learn about the role of culture in the formal politics of states, parties and bureaucracies as well as in the arena of informal politics. 221

222 lntroducing Cultural Studies To understand the importance of symbols and representation in establishing political legitimacy. To learn about the ideas of performativity challenge formal poli tical power.
iH1cl

Polilics and culture 223

Key iujluence

6.1

transgression as cultural praclices that can

bell hooks

6. 1
6.1. 1

Cultural politics and political culture

From politics to cu ltural politics

l_ IIV. ' ~lln"" u l ru ltmal 'tudiv.' ,lllt' tia l!l71h aiHI tiH t1.11hlor111.11ion ol 11 idcr cl 1 ,n pilm, 'llclr "' l.!.t'ogl .1plt1 . "lCiolt~g l and 1 ngli'h lit ~ r; lltllt ' i11 tiH' ' llllt ' w riod ha1c ht t'll h,,, l.cl upo11 .llllllldtl,lallding o l po luu, th.lt !.{Ol ' ' "" ht'lllllcl tlll' tonf illl'' 0 thc \ .. ".'~ ut i otl .tl. delilllitation uf it in tt'llll' . '!' lel.!, i,J.ni\( hodi 1, . ,l,lfl'' .111d diplo 11 111. 1 <~ IItH' 111111 1' a~ llllll'il abuut textual pcdt ll <' 01 't"'(li.tl >uli tic, ;~ it i' ;1hotll l'kl'lion~ .1 1 111 p; ~11 1 "'ti1i, 1 1 1 . 'l )j, rllangt i ~ lxr.w< l t>ll .1 ' l' l l>f' tl nckrsl.l ll d ing> c>l tht mrlcl. lllalt}' col ll'h 1 r h o11t a lo1 lo il ll' 11'01 k of' l\lichcl F'oucault (p. :.!Nl .1ml ot lt 11 IH'oadl po.s l.~ tm~tur:tli.st lp . .~ ll .tllll~or.;. 111lo 1hink ;d>o11l it in 11'1"111\ nJ' pu\l'l'f'.IIHI p <.~ II'I,LI H .'II' . \\ lnl_t .111 1 11~t 'lt''l 111 Jlllllt'l 1d.ll ion' i' ;)< o ,lta11d lll ' 01111' Marxi~t fp. !l7) ti 11 111 1 ''' l\lmx ' ( )> ~) 1) 11 11dt1,t;lllclinl.\ ol 1>e "''l'l '' da, , P"" t'l . 11 lrtn on 1 c),1" 11 tlr ;111111 ~~ ~ 1 o r ,1, 1111' poll'l'l ni c tpit.tJi,ln tn 11 .llhlonn II'<'' .111cl I;IIHbrape,, h:h btcn ll l t~<lt~ l vd .uHI I"I'IHit-rl'd llll!lt' complt' ll\ \l.1r"i't and ptl,l\llllCIUralisl j)i)li lic; 1 ) llrton'" c o nf ronlvd 11i1l1 1111' -~o< i;rl lr; lll , l ol l li;HiO i h ol" lh t 11\'l' llli tlh n111u 1,., 0; 011 -. J(w ~' ' "."Jl l ~ rhinking in a l.lload_h fHJ'" '. I ll t ' llll;rli~l ~ti n . auilll>l'' li kt Cll'llll _'orc1, 111 ,111 c1 < l11 1 ' \\~Tdo11 ('<111 'a' llung' ilkl' tlw lollml'ing:

011

bell hooks's work explores lhe cultural poli ti es of rae e and gender. In a series of books she has written on racism, lelevision, lilerature, feminism and postmodernism. Her work considers tapies such as black subjeclivity, whiteness, community and utopian longing. hooks was born in Kenlucky and teaches in New York. In 1981 she published Ain't 1 o womon: Block Women and Feminism, a major contribution lo feminisl debates. She has published Block Looks (1992) and Art on My Mind (1995) on visual representation. She has also written on education in Teaching lo Transgress (1994). Her work is an example of a move in the 1980s and 1990s lowards the study of our subjective underslandings of w lture ancl politics. Readers of her books will notice lhal lhe copyright is in the na me of Gloria Watkins, not bell hooks. Although she uses autobiographical experiences to insert her own subjectivity into essays on culture and politics, bell hooks is a pseudonym. Thus, in essays like 'The chitlin drcuil: on black communily' she writes about her own childhood in another persona. Allhe end of Yeorning: Roce. Gende1; ond Cultural Politics (1991 ), in a piece subtitled, 'no not talking back, just talking to myself', Gloria Walkins interviews bell hooks aboul her work. Walklns asks her why she chose to do the interview and she replies: for me these are two parts of a whole self that is composecl of many parts. And as you know in many parts of my life 1am such a serious person. To be contemplative in these limes is to be seriously serious and 1 have lo take a break now and then to balance lhings. S< 1ndulge the playful in me. Thal me thal in a very childlike way loves play, drama and spectacle. Of course there is a way that play is very serious for me. lt is a form of ritual. (hooks, 1991: 221) Through her double persona, hooks is able to show the gap between how identities (p. 224) are defined, for example by categories like gender and race, ancl how they are perforrned. She demonstrates lhe difference between represenlng one's experience and analysing ll as part of cultural sluclies. Her interest in the fragmentecl self has much in common wlth postmodern culture, but at the same lime she is critica! of postmodernism (p. 400) for absorbing many of the insighls of African-American cultural politics, but still not recognising the importance of black culture. Her work demonstrates that concepls like postmodernism are contested. There is, in other words, a politics of postmodernism . bell hooks's work is an example of the importance of critica! writing on the cultural polltics of race and gender to cultural studies.

l11 1ft , hool.. l \ l' nt.ll..t .1 <.lllclalou' t l.lim: 1'u)fltlltlf. in '"ti.d .11ul 1 uluu al )ift- i~ lll nd.lllll'lllalh to d o 11111t Jm;~,, Po\H'I " .11 1)1<' t t'llll'l' o ( t11h111 al polilit ,. 11 i~ itlll'~ l.tl lo t llllltn'. . 111 11(!;111/.111/g /11111/lu 1 - !ha! ;,, al/ f'111rliu 1 1/lf//1(11 1 11/llllll l l g - im IJh 1 11fa ltrlll \ uf /"'''" !Jor.l. ll t .II HI \l'ctdon. 1 ~1\J 1: 11. t'lll)1ha'i' i11n1 igi 11al l Powcr (p. 9 1) " " IJt't oll lt' ;1 (il not /, J l..1'1 ltTIII in n tl ttll';l ' '" d i ,~ and , llslcl in 1hc illlt'l')li'L'I;Uion ol tht 11hole r;m(\'<' "' utlltll.ll prac1in' .IIHI p1oduns. So. il 11-e t.tkc ' polil ~<_, '' tite rtalm ol . )>I>IHT rl'l;uioll' in gtnnal. thtn ' polilir , has e"~;p.uuil'cl il~ dl'lnlllloll '" cm tT .111 'on;tl a11d ntl1111 .ti ttlal iolh. 11111 jtht llto' l' o l da". \\'( 1101, 11 1; 11. . 11111111 ~ ntll<'r thing'. ol lllt' po lilic' o l m:1'< lllillill. CJllt'lT politi( , . llw politic, ol'1i~io 11 .tllcltll(' poli 1ic~ of itll'ntill (Si nfi dcl. 1 ~1\1 1 : :\orhlin. I!Jttlh: K 1itlt a nd PiJe. )\1\1:1). 1 ndvN;Intling tlft rnn ii'CIII'f''ia l i.' .' "l' ul' iclcll li ty (p. :2:2 J ) poli li t~ and ils impol'l;t lll'(' ,1l ich F11 " rllt' ~ 1 HI o l 1ilv Lll't' ll l l ~lh < l' llllm nwan' 1hi11king abtHil llll' r lll ll'" l in 1 ,11 ch 0 Jl '''11lltlllr.t l i't~ .IIHI 1-:uropt.tn :-. I< IIXi'L' ltalt' dtll'ioptd 1ltti1 tltlorie'. 1 1 llll'am t l 11 n~i 11 ~ ahout 1 d11 llti' ll l'l l cld initio11 ol pul\ ('1 llli_ghl lt.l\ l' 111acll' '<'IIW to pvoplt lltll 1-111).!; lu undtl 'l ancl tlwir ,.,cial .111d <ul1111 .tl 1 \'0I)cJ, hnlh ilhi<k and o tll'iclc 11 .Hitflli.l . \\'hile 1hi' , t le.1rh a complit.lll'd l)lll''lio11. :111d 11111 om w 11h iclt 111 ltou ld t''\J't't 1 lo rind ' ~ in g-k .111,\'l, ll'l' "''"Id .ll g tl l' 1h:n it i~ bo11 1 HI u> ll'ith a 11 ) 1 oJ 1 , 1ril'S qf ' lll'll ~~~r i ;li 1 110\'l'll lt 'nl.". lllthl Jll'llllli ll l'lllh llt l' \\'Oilll' ll 's fiht'latiflll 111()\'t'llll'fllS,

Fartlzer reading
hooks, bell (1982) Ain't 1o Womon, London: Piulo. hooks, bell (1991) Yeoming: Race, Gender and Cullurol Polilics, London: Turnaround.

224 lntroducing Cultural Studies an ti-rac:ist mmcn1cnts. lcs~)ian <~11CI gay libcration mmcmcnts. allCl pcacc and grcen ~no,<.ments. AJI of thcsc.' 111 ,anous ,,.a,s, began 10 hring into the realm of politics' ts\t~c:::. t~l<H \\TtT not ~reno~t~ly ~ons~dered <1 political. Onc key c::xamplt is the feminist Jogan th~ pcr~ona) IS pOhllca) \\"htch ough t (O J>lll ;) \\'hOJe 1':\llge Of questions abou personal tden tll~. p<.T una) li,es ancl per onal conduct on to an explicill~ political agenda. In .tl.ll'll. _lh(;'St' 11~\\' politicalmO\'t'lllCn ts h;l\'e becn responded 10 in \'ariou wars by nc::w poht1cal tdeolog1es- of the ';\e" Lcft' all(l thc ':"\e" R.ight'- 1\'hich ha1e also ch< lllcngcd come111ional dcfinitions of politics, though in quite differcnt wa1s. We ,,oulcl also wantto arguc thatthe context for thc~e changts in the ddini1ion ofpol'IUcs . . . . tS a nJ<tss,c sluflm g<.opoli tical organisation ,,hich in\'Oh<.s both thc globalisation ( > 159) ol thc world's cconomr and transitions from ' industrial' t ,ostindustrial' frol . 1' . ' m soc 1~ 1 st to post~oc iali s t'. from colon ial' to 'postcolon ial' . Thcsc changcs hal'e cntmlecl th c translon nation of li\'eS, form;11 poliLics ancl broader power relcuions for lll OSt ol 1hl worlcl's popu la tion.

Politics and culture 225 subverted. The first of these four can be described as essentialist slrategies. They assert oppositional identily as essentially unchangeable. An example would be the cultural movemenl known as 'negritude' which emerged at lhe end of the French Empire. One of its leading proponents, Leopold Senghor (1993: 30) argued Lhal African culture is 'more sensitive Lo the externa! world, lo the material aspect of beings and things'. However, the result of such strategies is often anti-essentialist. An assertive African culture will in fact change the nature of both African and European identities. The fourth reverse discourse is explicitly anti-essentialist. ldentity (p. 224) is understood to be performative, not based on any essential characteristics, but rather is a performance based on cultural expectations. Dollimore's example of an anti-essentialist identity is Osear Wilde, who famously argued for the primacy of culture in his statement that 'lite imitates art'. One of the most interesting developments in identity politics emerging from this insight has been queer politics. This has developed from lesbian and gay politics; bul queer politics resists the division of sexuality into a binary opposition of essentialist homosexual or heterosexual identities. lnstead, judith Butler (1993) argues thal idenlities are the products of the dlscourses (p. 30) that define sexuality. We perform masculinity or (emininity, hornosexuality or heterosexuality according to a script already written as the cultural conventions of our society. In this view, idenlities are cultural constructions rather than pre-set. The concepl of ldentity politics has been subject to criticism from a nurnber of different perspectives. Sorne Marxists have argued that a focus on identity gives a fragmented perspective and delracts from the need for a universal message of emancipation (Hobsbawm, 1996). Critics of queer politics have argued that the idea that we can perform identity downplays the powerful social torces that make us who we are and over which we have little control. While the performative elernent in sexuality makes it particularly appropriate to this approach, it is less apt for identities construcled by class, 'race' or disability.

Dejining concejJI

'

6.1
ldentity

ldentity is about how we define who we are. Literally, both identity and the self mean 'the sarne as'. In cultural theory identity is used to describe the consciousness of self found in the rnodern individual. The rnodern self is understood to be autonornous and self-critical. The German philosopher G.W.F. Hegel saw individualisrn, the right to criticisrn and autonorny of action as the three main characteristics of modern subjectivity. This selfreflexive aspect of identity means that, in the rnodern age, identity is understood to be a project. ll is not fixed. The autobiographicalthinking that characterises modern identity creates a coherent sense of a past identity, but lhat identity has to be sustained in the present and rema de in the future. The constan! remaking of identity reveals that the sense of self is to sorne extent an illusion, because the making of the self requires a constant interaction with the not-self or non-identity: the externa! world. In modern Western societies, certain identities have been privileged over others. Men have been privileged over women. White Europeans have been privileged over nonwhites. Certain modes of sexual behaviour have defned normal agalnst deviant sexual identities. 'ldentity politics' is the term used Lo describe the ernergence into the political arena of idenlities other than those of white, European, heterosexual men. The assertion of alternative identities has fol lowed a number of different strategies which jonathan Dollimore (1991) divides into four types of 'reverse discourses': (l) the assertion of a positive identity as normal and natural as the dominant 'norm'; (2) the assertion of a n e~~ tive .identity, which is abnormal, but can be explained and assimilated by recourse to leg1llmatmg (for example, medica! or scientific) discourses; (3) the assertion of a differenl identity as more natural and normal than the dominant norm; (4) the strategy of transgression, where L he very categories thal define what is normal and abnormal are
-+

Further reading
Hall, S. and du Gay, P. (eds) (1996) Queslions of Culturolldenlily, London: Sage. Dollimore, J. (1991) Sexual Oissdence: Augusline lo Wilde, Freud lo Foucoult, Oxford: Oxford University Press.

lt is important to stn:ss tlwrdhn: th<H, alongside a broadc ning of many politind agendas (academ ic and non-academic) towards what ,,e might cal) cultura 1 pnli1ics', therc has also bcen a series of transformations in form al politics. In >art thcsc are a matter ofwhat is happcning 'on the ground '. Jt is also a malter ofhm, tlll'SCchangcs are being intcrprcl<:d bv rC'searchers. In considcring changcs 'on thc ~TO llnd ' wc neecl to takc seriously a whok series of fu ndamental political rcorganisa1iuns at a C<lllllCCtccl series of ,cales. For 1hc hi~torian Eric 1lobsbawm. for examplc. TIH' hi~to1 )' or thc tiH"lll~ ,car~ aftcr 197:\ is that of a world which has lost i t~ bcarings and slicl into

226

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Politics and culture

227

itht.thilit\ and n j,i, ( l loh,b:ll,lll. 199-J: -JO:H. Ont kn .trnta of formal politil' that h;h been thrmnt intu con f'll,ion i, the nation-~t.llt: _ \, dtt' u an,Jtation.t l crnnnll1\ (''t.tbJi,hcd it- g 1ip 1111 the 11111ltl. itundennintd :1 m:tjou , an d ~i 1 1 cc l ~143.1i ltllalh 1111inrsal. instinui o n : tl w 1\'nitnria l na tifllhtal l'. ' illlt' 'IIth a ,tate Cl ttlrll tn lnll!-(l'l' l" OIIlro lmnre th:m <l rlimin i,hing- pan ni j, allai1 ~- O r~a i i~ali t Hb ll' h o~t lid d ,,, at L tll l \1,1, e fi'ectile l1 bouiHitd l11 tht' ll't>11 1l'r' o l' th l' I' lt'l rilll l'l . li ke 1rad e 11 1 1it>n,, p:uli.tntt'll l' :111d 1 1atio nal 1 m1J Iit' h rn. td ra., L i11):( Sl''l\'111' . 1lwrtli rt IP..,l. :h o rganit.ation' 1 101 \IJ bt!l111dl'd. Jike ll'< lll' ll< lltlll:tl II'III,, lhl' illtt' rii < II OII;I] t llll l'lll l 111a1 ket ;111cl 1ht g lnha lill'<i lllt'cli.l .uHl co nlllllii iCt tio th ol tltl' 'atelli tc tr.t. ga in td . (llob<.ha111 n. l!I!J 1: 1 ~ 1) Othn ('onl nu: tllatot' haH' al-;o noted the~e c hangt'' :tr_{uing that 'Politicalh ... tlting, are falling apan ( ruathail ami Lukl'. l ml-J: :\~-1l. Tltt' p o in t 10: t h t colhtp'e of the Smie t L' nion; tltt tlllpred ictable outcome<. nJ' (;trman reunilicntion: tlte diffitu lt ic~ C'x p c ri cnrecl bl' th t IH'\1' F.uropl'an L' nion: th l' t' tHI of' natitli H t:llt 'S likt' ( Jl'c hc " lo\':tl..ia :md thl' c-rt:ll ill tl o f' ll t'\1' OIH'S like .\ latl'dnnia: tlt t ut d ni tlu: \\'ar~a11 l'an. bn t 1hc l'X pan,iun of it ~ ad\'trsa r\' , :'\.-\TO: th c cu t-rupttHl hrong l11 L C! lig h t in tllt' gol't'l'lllllt'lliS d (' IIIIICracies likt _l apall. l tah .u1d Franct: tll l' t'tn111.1cl icti < n bc twee n tht l 1nil l'cl S t:nts' .lttempts to m :tint :titt '<'n trit ~ nr ro" illl' g lo ht :11t d tht a narclt1 in it' intl<' l t ii l''- ( Tuat h a il an cl Luke. 1\J!II : :1~ 1 - -ll. The rlt.tnging ll:ttll t't' a n d clcclining p o ll't'l o l tlw nation-staH ha' inang m atecl a pcriocl in 1\'hirh altcntio n Ita-; shiftcd both w thc global and 10 th c local 't a k . C:lohal concern<> ~uch a' ('11\ iron nH'ntal i ~suc' a re now ro mmnnh p o litic i"'d along,idt. all(l oftcn in rela tio n 10, mnrt' local co n cnm (likt n10tol'\1'ay building). :--\tl,. p nl itical alliancc~ h a1t dt,l'lopt'cl .. , arglllllt~ nt' owr ~OH'rt i gn ll in tht 11('11 Eurnpt art ll'orktcl o ut. ~t~11 politic:tl lo rc<:~ han l'llll'rgecl as local grin:lltCt'' owr rcsoul-ct~ boil o \'tT in to racial tl'llsion . 1\' t'll' ''"' t' ((J rm s a re iJl'i n g 1 11:tdt' :ts hea lt h :111cl \ITI fa re St' t ,-in,, are pri1at isn l ancl ll'l' ka 1'11 to 1i1e wi th t h e e h aot ic fra g iH t'll t :niott of 'cnmnwn ity can. A lll'll' p u li t ics o l' icl t' tll i11' has b etn c rucial LO 1h t''t' d<,dopmc lll.s. I n thl' l:llt' ll\'t' lit ic t h ce ttllll 1'. a, ll o bsb.lll'lll p o ints out. thl' clisconr:.l' o( natiortalisnl has 11101'\.'d lront th c 'l:tll' tu 'icll'nlill gro n ps': hum an t' ll't'lllhln to 11hich .1 pl'r,on coulcl 'ht'itHt(. llllt'C(IIiot.tlh and htlond unctrtaintl .... .\ lu'l oltht''t' fo1 ob1iom tt'a"ll'' .lppt.tlccl tn .1 COIIIIIHIIl 'tthnitill . ah h ough otht'l gro11p' of pl'npk ~ceki 11g colltrLi\t' 'l'l>.trati<m u<ccltlw ,,llllt' n.uiwt.tl ist l;mgu.1ge (,t, 11hc11 ht1111<l,L'XIIal acti1iq~ 'pol-. t ol ' tl ll' quet' l natinn ') . ( Hub,iJallm . 1\l\11 : 1:./K) Thcst rl'lated prot't'"~"' tlf olitical fra ~ntc l tlaticHI :tnd tlni,cr::;a lbation thatl onn illt' co m bi nati o n o l 1he loca l and 1h e g-lub:tl lt :t\'t bt'l' 11 incrcas i n gl ~ co nd nntd 1h mng lt 1he t.:xpanding rtaltn ul'th l' l11 l' lll:tlionalnHcli:L l'o l iti c.~ i.-. no11' a.; mu ch a nt a ttc r ul'opi11iun polls. souncl bitts ami ~pin cluc tors a' pa1t1 o1 ga 1 1i,;Hion. acti,ists ancl milit a tll~. Tht alliOlllll oJ' infon11atio11 1h:ll people hm t' i' llla"il d1 lll rl'a'l'd and prt'\ iou,J~ \l'J>.I I.II C'd places are b t ou.{ht tl.l'hing tngcther by lll'll'l'OIIIIllllltiratiotl' tcchnologit, ( 'l'(' 'l'ttion
ofcstahl i~ l wd i ll clt l ~ trial i sl'd

th t' tllll't g ttwr;tl 'tn~c thl'rt i, a bro.ackning ol pnlitical anah'i' 11hid1 i' t'liclt-nt in tlll' cleH' IO(>IIH' IIl .111d lhl' of lC'IIlh 'IIth , 'go\t'lll<liiCt'. \l'hich 'lTk lO t''f';ltlcl \\ hat might be indtuled in t h l.' rcmit of lo1n1al politic' to inrludt ,tl( l'olllh of regnlat ion. control ami g uiclan n .. \ 1111 11'1' sp ecifi t n .. unp it' 1\'ot tl d hl' 11lw t i' happ e nin g in tl ll' clebatt.; m t..clt-\'l'loping a ' ntll criti ca! gto pe~ l i tir.;' , lt'> p1anitionl'r~ a ncl pron1 o 1t r.< lt ;l\'l' tr itd t> sltal..t ol 1' tl1 t old :t"-OCia ti u n n( g'l' upo li 1ies ll'i 1h :1 11 ;1\-,t.; o J r e1111 pa r:IL i1'l' ' L <tll' polltr whi c lt ,, ong lt l lo h dp 'tatl':. 11'i11 lrad t ll':t l'' and rt'a l ,,ar~ ,,itlt l':tdl otht l. Jn, L l'ad l h t~ st'd ; a 'cttltnra l 111111 . tm,ard' a \'t-ri bmad 11 ot ion of gcopolitical pol\'t'l' :11td .tl ong wi th it. a u-it ic.tl ' t:ul. T lt i' ha-., inwht cl t.1 ki ng ju.-,t that txp.tntlt-d 11 ot ion of pmw' l ckl't'lnptcl 11 it hin ntl tura l 'lltdit', - "' tt'"u.tl. ,-., g<'nc krl'cl. a'' i,u.tl- .tncl a pph-ing it 10 an ann.t uf traclitional politit.tl dt'l>atl': Crilit.ll ).:l'O(lnlii< ' opt'll' IIJl 'Jl.lt 1' ' lot lon gol'lrdtw dialog-ut, ht'tl\l'l' ll geograpl11 or illlt'lltalicuwl nl.n ion' and ori.tl tlttol 1. II.Htin i,ll1, Jl'l t ho.nt.th ,,_ cfl'Ccllhli'IICI ion ,11111 'iwi:tll tlll\t'lllt'ltt tht'ill~ .. \1111111g tltt llll' IIIL'' l'l11t'rging f'tcll llthi' r nmtr,;Hicll l art' th t lnport.tll n o f' rnn,tl'lll ' LII ~ tl tt'tllt' II :Ilh lll rnwd Clitiqtt t'' ni lh t ... p:llia li 1i11 g 1 11:1t't ii'L'S ol JlOII'tr: urHiil lal-.ing rri 1ir .tl lll l'~ t i g-:llion s ul lht pcll\'l' r ol' nrt llodo;o; .:t'iJpr ,1i1l'< ll 11 ri 1ing: imt, ti g<~t i 1 1~ lum !-(t'O,l.{ I':IPh ical I'L'<I" 111 ing in l'mt ig-1 1 polin in~ i g l ll' lnill.ll lll'' ll .l gl'flg' l.tjlll\ '" illl <l,l.{l''l. in-cll'-' (l' llllll''llt'. < ll ; geog r.tplt1' or tl':>.l, ) .. uHl. lltl'l ef'ott'. in-,i L<'' (,t. lhi lilt'' Jl"'i litHb, loc:tlL''I platn in g lobal poli1ics. :lllcl t \ :llllilling ho11 tlti' rl':t'llii llg 1.111 IH rh:tlh- rlgTd. '>llhlt'lll'il. :tlld ll''i'tttl. ( () Tuathail a11d (),Jh,. 1!1!11: ."11:~) Tltu'. iu tltt lit''' t ritical geopoli tit'. qut,tio n' ol formal :111d informal poli ti c' nre being brought togttht-r in lruithtl '""''' ll'hit h t n.tblt. among other thing,, an tmd er,tanding of th t tomp ltx ntht11~1J. politic; tl :nHI t-cntwm ic phcnonH.'Ila o l g loha l i~; tti on. In th ese anah ~t, ttlt'.;tio ll' ol' ''-riting. 1i.;na l l'tprt,cnt:nioll a n d iclt'tllit~ .tn a~ nlll ch a pan o J tit e anah-~ i' o( g loba l political arra ll g't' l11 t' lll ~ ,,.., ll'a rfart . intl'l'll:t lional n l.ttions ancl llrtt'\'l' ll t'l'Oilt!lll ic df'nlnpnH.- nt . :uHI. 11H il't' im polt :ntth, tlt t'l' a llt' t tllt 11a ~s i11 ll'hich l\'t undt l''t;tnd tllt''t' i"\ll' ' In m :ut ,. ,,;,, i1 , 1h i' agc nda tltat ll'l' 11 <1111 1o addrc-~s here. Our t'O II t'l' lll '' itlt ct tltttn aiiCl polit ic, (o r tu lutra l politics) b. thl'rc fore. not just th e und tr,tandi ng of u tl tun "' politic tl. Tlto't' th tme a r e addn,...d l'l\l' ldlerl' in th c book a-., tlt n .He the u n ,lltfl ol tu lt tn.ll 'tuclil'' (for an anah:-i' ol an and literatult' that plt''l'llh them a~ p :ut ol tlw political contest:nions betll't't'll (HIII'trlu l and lt:~' pm' t'll tt l gnH IJl' ~Cl' J ordan ;u11l \ \\'t'dnn. 19\l ~). \ \'t' lll:t n h want lo adcln,-; ho11 formal politic, - lllt' 1\'orld of p nl iti cal paltit'' pat l i. ln te nt ~. l)llrt'allnacit' '-late l(mnatio n . prn t c~ l llli!H' lllt'lllS and th l' re~t (altltough \\'t' lea \'t \'o n 111 li nd yo111 ''."" tltroug- h th e II L'\\' gtupolitil'' litnatur( on yo u 1 tllln: ~t't' ( ) Tuath.til, Hl~ll)) - arl' u tiLL II'a l: IH\1' th ey a re :1 rtua' o t' co nt t'stl' rl m ean i ng ratltt 1 ' 1lt .1 1 1 p la ces ol' pri1ilt:g l'cl '<III CIi 1 1' a nd power. To dn a ll 1 1ti ~ \\'l' lir~ t n ced to introdu ct SO IIH' of' 1hc con cl' pts th:ll :ut lllll' L u,cful in t h l' cli~C ll"ioll o J' Cttitur( politin.

6.1 .2

.Legil imation, representalion and performance

6.:t2).
In respo n se tt> t h t,t issl lt' '-, p copk 1d1o 'lltch poli 1ic' a lt' h:l\ing to c h.tn gt too. In

Tite rnt of thi, rhaptcr ll'illlook at tx.tnlplc' ultttltural politit' th.tt a tt' ('O itn-rned ,,ith leg-itimatinn . r e presc nta ti on ( p. ti l ) a nd pttlormanct. B1 kg-it in t.llion 1\'t' n wan th c w.11

~~,
228 lntrod ucing Cultural Studies Po litics a ncl culture 229 in ,,hich indiddual~ ancl group preseu t tht'l llsth-c~ as thc au t hemic ancllm,-ful holdcrs of po"er. ,\ 11 h111 d l(' moq brutal f orm~ o f g mtmnH' lll ru le 1hmugh a mix1urc of coercion (rule h~ forn ancl ,iolen ce) and con't'l11 (rule by volunlatY agrtenH:n t - scc hegemony, p. IOG). ln o rder 1 0 rule ,,i th ~olll t' n wa~u rc o f consen1.1h c: govcrn llll'IHofa cons1itu1iona l '-la te nn1 ~ 1 cs1ablish ils legi1imacy in !h( c~-cs ofthe rukcl. C ulture i ~ a kcy fac tor in sccuring 1hc lt.:g i1imacy o f go ve rnnH:' llh. ll i s tori ca ll ~-. 1he lll 'i ~inal legilimating claim 10 th e right 1 0 rule in man~ socie ti e1> is lht claim 10 cli1ine rig ht. Acco rdi 1 1 g1 0 lhis claim, 1hc rule r i ~ a p pointe d by cli1ine pm,er (Cocl o r thc gods) lo rq>rcstnt lhe in teresls o f 1hc pcoplc. Rc lig io n fu rnislws 1hc a u1h o ri1~ by ,,hich r ule rs -,ecu1 l' thc cousenl of t hc rulcd. Con' fllnl elll is lcgitimatecl hv u~i 11g 1he rel igio u~ culture of lhe soci e::t~- La1cr in this chap1cr "e shall scc how c ullllrc i~ useclto legi1imate 1 ariom f(Hms of ru le thro ug h litcrnturc, dress ancl a rchi tecturt. Represe nlalion (p. 6 1) can mean two di iTercnt th i11gs in rela tion 10 poli 1ics a nd culture re::sptcti rc: ly. Po li1ical re prese::Htation n: fl'r~ ro rhc ,,ay in ,,hich m lc:r~ c lailn 10 re presen! lht pcoplc O\'Cr ,,ho m t hc y rule. Po li1ical rcp re~e nta ti on may be dc monaric, whe re poli 1ical re pn:scn tatiles ~ee k ~~ ma nda le fro m 1he:: ir e lcctorate tu re prcsc.:n 1 them in a n asse mbl ~ ( likc the British Parliame nt ur 1he An1e ri <.: a n Cong1-cs1>). or undc nto c ratic. Ho"e,c r. rcprcscnt<1lion has a dirrere nt blll conncCied mea ning in rla: COIHt:x t o f cultun:.wli c re itm ca n ~ a symbo l o r imagc. or 1h c procc~~ ufpre, e nti ng lo !he e~ e or m ind' (\\'illia n1s, 19$8: 269). T hesc two mca n ing:-. comt togethtr in the contcxt of cultural poli tic-lo. r\ polilical represenratin (,,hc!hcr clt:mocratic o r a u thoritariau ) must represen t th em!>l'h'('~ and their pri ncipks. co1wict iom and opin ions a ~ t he imagc of those whom dt t'} d aim to re prese nt. Thus, to comi n ue 1he e xan1pk of dil'i llt' right g i1cn abo1e. thb ki nd ofgonrn ment im o hed !he ap pro pria tion ofreligio u3 imagery in orde r lO represe m tlw niler as ~y mboli sin g d i1 in e a ut ho rity. T he Queen u f' Eng la nd, fo r e xa mple. is also hc ad o r !he Clturc h or Eng l:llld a nd has !he tille Firll'i /Ji:fi'I/SOr (De fe nde r o f th c Faitlt ) . ' F. D.' is inl(ni ntccl on a ll 13rirish coins. The gowntntt'lll of a s tate which dain1s to rule by dil'ine rig h1 b rc prc.scntcd 11iroug h symbo lisn1 :111d imagel)' as the pro pe r a nd lawful scrva nts o r dhin c pnwc r. O fte n politic~ is com luctcd th ro ug h a n d agaiml srmholiSIII a ncl imagen. 1a!ltcr !han th rough rational clcbatt' or p hysical connict. T h i~ i~ a~ true for lito <' who r<si'>l a\ for those who u phold powcr. In a s tate ,,hen rule ,,as lcgi limatt'd by di' ilw powcr, s a m hori t1 from rcligion. In in tenTn tion by 0 1 agninst the rukrs normal(\' a lso took i1 th is kind of a conflic1. carh side n ecd ed to lq{itimatc itsclf as th<' p ropcr. lall'ful clefe nde:: r of rel igio n a ncl 1he ro nnict was u ftcn Cldlural a ~ ,,e JI as o pe nly l'io ltn t. During 0 re prcsentlh t' s:tlllt' rc-lig io n. the Cil'il \\'ar in Engla nd ( 16-l:./-7) bo th s icle~ clainl('cl 1 Radical Proresranls acc uscd Catholirs of iclolcury- lh <' worship of falsc ido ls. :-olc mbc rs of 1he Pa rliame n1a1 y forccs dest roye d 1-ig un:~ a nd pain lings in church es hcra11St' rhe)' ha el associa tio ns wi 1h lile Ro ma n Ca tlw l ic Ch u re h . r\11 01 he r cxam pie is 1h<: na rirc .-\mcrindia ns who werc fo rc ibly CO III'Crted LO C h ris tia ni ty b~ 1h e Span ish concuc1ors of o ut h Am e rica. ll o\\c,cr, " he n 1hey were pt-nn itt<d 10 decora te t he i nsi de~ of ch urcht'S the}' combincd Chri'>lian a n d nati\T imagen in 1hcir paintings. in a w:w 1hat u-amfo nnecl bo1h th t'ir c)\\'11 c uh ure a nd th e natu 1e of Roman Catholicisn1 in 1 a tin .-\mcrica. :-ota ny re ligio us f('SII<lls in 1he con 1in en t wh ich clai111 C hristian legitima ry can be ll~tccd back 10 ea1licr pre-C:on quest religiom ritcs (:'l lani n . 19R9). Po li1iral i111enentions are thus mack th rough culture ancl b1 cuhurc. \\'e "o ulcl a rgu e that. in a ll thc~e ca~e,. clai ms to legitiman ami b:n tle!> on.'r represe n1:11io n are a maue r u f perlo r ma ncc. Po litics is a l" a~ s a pc1f01 mauce beca use howe1 cr much cach sidc cla ims 1 0 n.:p rc~c nt thc tnuh. in the de ba te cach panicipant mus! pc rfo rm a role thmug h whicll th c~ c nact 1hcir position . Thc concept uf pe rfo rma nce o r pc rl~ nmlli,ity is a _ u,cful o ti C _ in the s~t-ldy of c ultural p o l_it~ cs, bc:ause it cmphasiscs 1h e ways 111 wlnch pa ruc ula r pol1Ucal posll!o ns, whe the r posn1o ns o l po we r or resi~tall ce. han: to bt co ll tin u;~ll r ma<k a11 d rc ma de. T he icka tha t politics nmst be perfonncd incviwbly quest i on~ a n\' da im to pcnnancn t lcgitimaC\. L<.g-ilimacv has to be 111adc thro11g h a perfonn a n ct 1hat accru c~ to itself th c t rappi ngs of power. T hat performance will often disguise 1hc fa ct !lwt thc positions hcld a re as m uch t hc prochtc ts o f clcha1 e a nd conni n as 1hos1' 1ha1 oppose them . Broa clly sptaking. legitimacr is sccure cl by d isguising the performa ti w l'l('nH.. ' III o r po li1ics. O ppositio nal po litical mo\'e nw nts m a~ seek ro establish a n altc rnatin: fonn o fl e::gitin1a c~ ; hur . cvc n if this is the ultimal t' goal, the \' must first reve al 1h c cx!Clll 10 ll'hich pnwtr is a ptrfonnance. 1\<JI surprisingl)'. o nc o r rhc bes! theorists t 1f puli1i c~ as pe rformarivir y (al!lwug h he did no! 1)'S he used use 1hc II'Orcl himsell) ,,as a dram misl. 13c lloll 13rechl ( l R9R -l ~l 5 ti ). In hi ~ ph wha t he callcd a d ista nc ing or a lie na tion dTcc t. Br m eans or thc ~ l agi n g. lig hting a ncl the belta\our o(' t hc ac tor . he IIC\l'f lct !he audicnce forget that t hCI \\'CrC in a theaue. B)' 1his mcan s he hop eclto promotc a cri tica( auitucle. ,,-hich \\O uld in 1urn insti l a scnse of political po"cr. The a lienation cn<.ct crcatccl the concli tions in "h ich thc lcgitimacy of 1he social ordcr could be q uestioncd: Thc nc" alic na tions are onl~ dcsigncclto free socia lly-ccm ditiont'Cl p hc no me na from tha l s1 a m p o f familiarity which protccts the m against 0 11r grasp 10dm (\\'ille t, IH7A: 192). In !he res! nr rile c hapte r \\'(' di SCII.S~ bo!ll comen!ional ami tii1 COI1\'('11liona l fonn s or poli! ir al :tl'l ili1}' a~ pe rformallCt'!>. Fi rSI, hOII't' \'Cr, \\'(' {'Xtllll i11(.' SOII I(' l he po li! ic<tl theorics 1ha1 liwm a bac kg round lo this a pproac h . \\'e be::gin '''ilh the wo rk of ~i cco l o :'llac hial'c lli ( 1<-1 69-1 5 27) . wh o wa~ CH IC of 1he firs t people to cuestio n the idea tha t political lcgiti macy is pe rformed ancl 1101 gran tc cl by di1 ine sanction . ll c suggeste d tha t po litics can be dctach ecl from rel igion ami shou ld be th ought of as an au tonomous scic ncc' (Cramsci. 1971: 136). In Thl' l'ri ll fl' ( 15 13) h e a rgut:clthal rcl igio n migh t be used by a ru in for political tnc"- 1k 'uggesl<'d t hat it could be a "ay of gai ni ng legitimary :tll(l of ma kin g rulers reprt''-t'llla tiw. ~l ac hi me::lli '.~ i cl ca~ we rc b01 h nseful a1 k gi1imalt'cl 1h e msclle, 1h ro ng h re ligio n. a nd 1h rl'llt' ll ing w form s of gon~ rn mt n 1 !1 1 T he idea tha l rf'ligion could be li.Sed politi ca ll ~ unde rmines ill> clnim' 1o absolu1.e au tho riL)' and opcns up a muc h ,,iclc r _., pace ror a po litics of' c ullllfC. l t i, 1h roug h 1\la chi m't'i li 1ha1 po li ti c~ stans to gc t a bacl namc as tric ke r~ o r h ypoc-ri ~y. Thi1> broaclc ning o f p o liti c~> \\';1 ~ w kc n funh c r bl' Antonio Gra ms ci (p. 38) - an impo rta n t lig ure in thc d enlopmc n t of cultu ral s wdies. 1k wa~ a grt;n adm irer of 1\ lachial'd li'~ illlcrventionist ~tanet' bnt arguc d for an u ncit'r~tan d i11g of po litics that would take into accou nl tht' whok c11llu1 T and ph i losoph~ of a ptriO<I ( Cramsci, 197 1: !..JO). Thi~ mea n t modng awa~ fromjll'>l t hinf...i ng ab0111 lht' rll l l'r~ :md !h e l tlled (\\'h ich a n a u emp1 10 defend the Gramsci described as a -,,a r of mano<.'lll're' ch arac 1 e ri~ecl b1

or

230

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Politics and culture 23 1

state or ow-rth ru11' i tl. 1n.stt'< H1 he uncle rstood poli1 ics as a war uf posi1ion . a m u eh more gcJHr;d conllirl in ll'hich pnli tic!' is fought o u t in all 1hc in~ titution s of ci,il socicty _ religiun. 1lw media. Cllll'l'tai n ll l l'lll. llc a rg ued tha l culwre can act to fo n if~ 1he state, and late!' on ll'l' II'II look al SOll le of thc Cllltural fo l'l l'l<llions that pe rl'orm this fun ctOn; the ct dtttrc of tiH l:ki1ish Parliam t nt. ot burea urn tc~ ancl of impe ria l ;mcl mi lita . 11 nwnumcnts. T host intlut'nced b1 Gramsci han a l ~o ~ trc -,sc cl ho11 political oppmi tiou, or resi~ tan ce. is alsn :1 maller of cultural politics. For ex;Hn plc. E.P. Thompson (p. 96) h a~ stressecl1hc ro le o r culture in making clas~es. As lw sms. ' class-co nsciousn e~s is thc: 11ay in 11hich , .. l'Xpcricnces are ltanc.llcd in cultura l t< rms: lmbndied in tradilions, 1a l u e-s~stcms. idt'as <J nd institulional form< (Tho mpson. 1980: ~l). l lc has ~ h m,n how 11hat liT re of'tcn cntck and brutal utqom~. likc thc sale of 11in s and the lracl ition of rough music' (the use of loud rattcous music tu p unish tho.se 11'11o 11e re l'e lt LO hal'e transgrcssccl tll(' n tlt-s ofa comm tlllil~'} . n m be unclcrstotld a~ exampks o fl,a~s inll'hich l' ordinary peuplc COtlld Wkc back thl'C)llg'll 1111.' performance Of rituals SO ill l:' of 1he JIOII'C dcnicclto them b1 solt~. T hus. IIH II'f(: ~ale cou ld bc a l'orn1 of di,m-cc. as wdl as an at:l of misogynist malt pm1T'l'. ,,hile roug h music coulcl be a propcrty of a socicty in ll'hich justict" is nol ,,Jmlh dclcgated or hu rcau-cridcised. but is lnactcd by and ll'ithin thc community' (Th01n pson. Hl~ll : :':-10). B~ picking up on thc."c is~uc ~ ot' poll'e r. identiLI' and 1 wrfonnance 11c might broaden the ana lysis still l'unher. l'vlichel Foucault (p. ~RO) h c l p~ us a rg uc that politics is : 1 maue r of poll'er (p. 9-1 ) re lations and that ' po1,c r is C l'l'l'~'ll'hnt.! .. . becausc: it comts from t'l'enll'h(rc' (Foucau lt , 19~-l-h : \13). Such insigh1s, take n up b~ gcndcr po l iti c~ . lcsbian and gn~ politics, queer politir:, all{l thc pol itics of cu ltural. ct.hnic or religious idt: nlit~. ha1e produccd CTC<ltil't' fOJ'IllS of poJiticaJ prlt'SI (S0111 C Of' lhCSC tacti c~ ll'ill he d tscribcd laler in 1he chaptcr) 1\'hich p l a ~ u pon the idea or performance to throll' both thc l q~it i mac~ ol gmt rnm cms and thc legi t imar~ o( idc n t i t~ into doubt. For cxamplc. q uct'l politics has d el'cloped from 11ithin th t.: k~bian and gav mme ment. It rcfu scs csscutialist (p. 1:~::>) hell:'ro- or same-$C.X ide ntitics. ll'hi ch exclude. for cxamplc. bisexual mcn :mcl 1\'0mcn. T ht mmcmcn l Qucer \!ation had no patie nce ll'ith exdu~ions o l' this kind . Embrac in ~ t nan~ communities or sexual clissidcnts. it promo1 cd a discursi1'c slr:Hcr tu create an in tH>I'ati,e parad ig m f'or thinking about sexua lit1 (Bristo11. 1997: ~17 ). Tlll' quecr theorbt' Judith Butler (p. 23J) has argucd that CJllt' ~ Li on s or identitl' ;m g'OH'rll Cd b\' legi tini :Hing ancl :iuridie<l l' d iscnurscs. Here j uriclical llll' :t iiS nntjust rela1ing tu th c law. bu1 lo proccsscs of ' limi 1 a1ion. prohibition, re~u l at i o n. rontro l ancl el'en " p rotcction" o f indil'idua ls' (Bulll'r. 1990: ~J. 1 -ler critique arg uc..:s 1ha1 thcrc is no such 1h ing a~ a lcgitimat(' genclcr icle ntil v. tha t ,,hat 11c u ndcrstand to be m asc ulinit~ and kmin i nit~ are. in ract, performance,., conclitionccl by societv: 'thcrl' is no gcnd cr ide ntit~ lwh incl thc cx pression~ uf gender: that iclentil'l' is pctforma tiw ly cunslitn ted b1 th e 1cry " ('xprcssion.s" tllat ar(' said lo be i t ~ results' (Butle r. 1990: ~3) . j ust as BtTch t pro mptt' d his audicnce to think abo utthc possibi lity or cl tanging lh cir ~oc i e t y th n.J ugh his pcrlrnwn ccs. '() quccr politics. b~ pcrforming transgressil< sexual ickntit i <~s (ldtich can rangc from drag q uee ns to t11o lcsbian mo the rs bringing up thc ir childrcn tugethcr). ('a u challcnge thc naturalncss of hetcrosexuality. So. performance is thc thing - it ntak('s new transgressiiT poli1ical

Key influence 6.2

1

Judith Butler

In the 1990s ]udith Butler has become one of the most influential writers in feminism and Jesbian and gay studies. Her work combines cultural cri ticism, philosophy and political ideas. She is one of the leading proponents of queer theory. judith Butler is Professor of Rhetoric and Comparative Literature at the University of California at Berkeley. Her book Gender Trouble: Feminism ond the Subversion of ldentity (1990) proposed a radical critique of many of the assumptions of second-wave feminism (p. 120). Butler challenged the distnction between sex and gender that formed the basts for many earlier analyses of women's subordination. She argued that the idea of sex is culturally constructed. There are no pre-existing biological characteristics which we :lo not already come to with a set or cultural expectations: 'sex will be shown to have been gender all along' (1990: 8). lnstead, Butler develops what she ca lis a performative theory of identity. Against the normative stigmatisation of gay and lesbian identities as unnatural, she argues that heterosexualty is as much a performance of cultural conventions as homosexuality. In her influental essay '.lmitation and gender insubordination' (1992) she uses the example of the male drag artist. His (or he~) performance is enabled by the conventlonal nature of heterosexual femininity, which is itself a performance of certain expectations of what is natural. The theory of perforrnativity argues that there is no original sexual identity, ~n ly a constantly repeated imitation of an idea of an original. Butler develops these Ideas further and resporids to some of her critics In Bodies tl1ot Motter: On tl1e Discursive Umits of 'Sex' (1993). Her most recent book, Excitable Speech: A Pofitlcs of the Performotive, she tackles the question of cenS"orship and 'hate-speech'. Her recent work has led her to apply some of her ideas to politic~kq~esti&ns like the status of gays in the American military and racism. Butler's work is an example of the growing importance of fem inist and lesbian and gay perspectives in cultural studies over the last two decades.

Furf.her reading
Abelove, H., Barale, M.A. and Halperin, D.M. (eds) (1993) The Lesbian and (;ay Studies Reader, L ondon: Roulledge (contains judith Butler, 'lmitation and gender insubordination', as well as many other useful essays). Diamond, E. (ed.) (1996) Performance ond Cultural Politics, L ondon: Routledge.

iden tities ami in clning so it u nmak('s and LIJHnasks iclentitics that II'CIT pretcndinK 11 0 1 to be pcrf'onnances. . . Thc conccpt of tr<m ~g rl~~ion is an importan! Olll' llcrc. h iJJI'OII'ts <111 t)l'l'rlttrnt ng- ol thc 'p roX'r' onln nf things. Th is is clescribL'cl bl' i\likhail Bakhtin (p. 202) as the 'carni,a ltsqne. n~ ft' rri ng 1 .o thc bricf pcriocl of anarchy that orcurs during carni1a ts: a II'Orlcl of C XCt'I>S 1\'he re all is mixed , hybricl. ri LUa iJ ~ d t~g rad('d ancl clcfilccl' (StaJiybrass ;tnd \\'hi te: , l9RG: 8). lt turns thc 11orlcl upsidt dn\l'n . .\t carnilal. kings bccome fon ls ancl

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lntrodudng Cultural Studies

Politics and culture 233 ruling la,,., 'uggl''>ting that anothcr ~l t of \,llm:- i~ po<:,ible. \\'e \\illlook lunhc.. a t thc conccpt of tran-,gre~~ion (.111cl ~otne of it:-. lintit') in 'ection;; G.~-~ .md li.:t l . \\'l' haH no\\' identificd sonH' Ilf lltl' ,,.:\\ :-. in \dtirh hoth the cultur<: of po litics anclthc poli ti es of culturl' mig ht be anal\'~cd. Tht ll l'l..t ~ection willtakc up sontt l,r tlt e~e themc' LO )no k at , o me ul' tite ways in \\'ht' h politic:tl ~> 1 ructures can be undcrstoocl a!> cultural throug h no tio ns of' re presenta l io n. pcrfol'ma nce ancl idcnti ~ ~. T ite cx:1111 pies incluck: 1Je u ~e ol cultural rcprc..sctll:t tions 10 makc po li ti cal intcne n tions ( di sr n ~s i ng Bcnjam in L)israd i., ncwc..'l, \lhi/): th e perl(mttancc ni Parl i amemar~ idc..nt i1k~ in late t\\'entietltccntttt'\ Britain: thl' culwral politic' ofhut l'aucratic pcrformann-., idcntitic ~ ancl ttltics: an<l mol\lltlll'tllS as poltica] stateltll'llh that ll'<lnstonn span and llll'aning. The final section uf tltb clmpter willlook in more.. clt'lail al cultures ol a ,i-.t;tJICt .111d thc.. limit~ of thc contc>t ol tran,gre 'ion.

foob becon~l' king,. \\'hat lies behind rarni'~'l i~ not jnst disorder. btu a conn:ptiun of an ;:ltematt\t' orch.:r. The Frcnch fetninist J ulia 1\t i'tc..,a \\Tite~ that tmnsgrcssi (p. 258) of 'lingui,tic. lugical all(l social C()dc~ within the rarn i,-.tlesC]Ul' onh c..xi't\ a~:; succ~c d s . ... bcca n ~c il accepts a nr,lhl'l lfi H' ( 1\ri-,tl'\'<1, 1986: -l l }. l n th is <;C ttst:, lransgresst\'C pcrlurmatt l'c..'s oppose or challe nge tiH: kgitintan allCI repre>e ttt atin:ncss of thc

Key injluence 6.3

Ju1ia

Kristeva

(1941 - )

f
1

Julia Kristeva is a Bulgarian critic and philosopher who has lived in France since 1966. Her work explores the relationship between language, literature and psychoanalysis. In England and the United States, Kristeva is usually identified with French femnism, which includes theorists such as Hlime Cixous, Luce lrigaray and Menique Wittig. Educated in Marxist and formalist theory in Bulgaria, Kristeva was instrumental in introducing the work of Mikhail Bakhtln {p. 202) to the West. Her writngs on transgresson (see the collection D~sire in Longuoge, 1980) are strongly nfl uenced by his work. In Pars she worked closely wtth the French structuralist (p. 24) critic Roland Barthes (p. 52). Like Barthes, she became critica! of structuralism. In 1970 she joined the editorial board of the influential poststructuralist (p.24) journal Te/ Que/. With other French intellectuals of the time, she was much effected by the uprising of May 1968, the fall-out from which led to a dlsillusionment with orthodox Marxism and a search for new forms of political organisation. In 1974 she published Revolution in Poetic Language (1984), a book that combined linguistic and psychoanalytic theory with an anaiY.sis of literary texts. In it Kristeva argues for a micropolitics of identity, to be effected through a psychoanalytic understandng of the subject rather than cpn.ventloJ1al poltica! struggle. In the same year she also published About Chinese Women' (197,7), a book that reflects the (lfluence of Maoism on the Left in the1970s antl the search for an alternative model to the Soviet Union. Her exploration of the cohstructi6r1s of femininity continued in her study of the Virgin Mary, 'Stabat mater' (1986) and In her influeptial essay 'Women's time' (1981 ).lier research into the construction of subjectivity has continued in books like Powers of Horror: An Es soy on Abjection (1982). She has also written about the representation of time in the works of Maree! Proost. Kristeva's work has had most impact in feminisl and literary theory, but her work on transgression has , al so been fnfluential in cultural politics. In particular, her interest in psychoanalysis has been important in relation to identity politics. Her work in the area of linguistics and on the construc.tion of the subject has importan! impficatons for cultural history.

6.21 Cu ltures of political power

6.2.1 1The cu ltural politics of democracy in nineteenth-century Britain
An)' pc..:riocl of political changc ,,ill im,itabl\' abo be a time ol cultural changc. Culwral stud ic j, intere~ted in such pcrio<h ancl :m interest in cultural poli tic\ mcans a n intercst in thc \\':t\S that cultural change i~ characterbed b~ conllict ami qrugglt. The politics uf ninctccnth-centtH; Britain ,,ctT charaete iscd b~ thc demand fo1 ~u lfragc b~- the m<Uorit) ol' tite population wlto dicl not hmc thc \'Ole. Two m ;~jo Acts of l'arliament extctJdecl tite: \'Ole. The Rcfonn Bill t lf' H:l:\2 incrcascd thc c lectorate from 220,000 to 670,000 mc n in a population of 1-1 mi llio n. Thc Rclornt Bill of' ltl()7 cxtcnded thc franchisC' to ;di nwle ho useholders in tlw boroughs. lt;wing \'O tc lcs~ lodgers a nd workcrs Olllside the: Parliame n tary boroug-hs. \\'o me n "ere denied 1he \ 'O i t' unt il 1920. The \ truggle for democratisation procluced m ;~or shifts in cultural politics. Thc debate ,,as characterised b~ t\\'O con trasting- form s of legitiman: o n tlw one hand. the old :.,tnhols or authoritr - thc monarchv. the Church and thc ari~toc r:IC\': on the o thcr. thc dcnwcratic principie that unh thc \ O tes of the pcoplc can legi tima te a go,crnmenL Accord ing to the critic Catherinc Callaghcr. thc struggle 0\'CI legit iman was not just abou ttlt e politics of rcpresentation': wlto reprcsentecl who m. lt also includccl a culwral conflict about ' thc representa!ion of po li ti c~ (G;tllagher. 1983: 188). Ont of the arenas of con fli ct \\'<tS tite nonl- in panicular. thc.. ' industrial' or condition ol' Eng lancl' novcls of Charlcs Oick<m. El iLabeth Gaskell. lknj:unin Disrneli ancl Georg<. Elio t. Ont of' tltc..se nmelists, Be njamn f)i;r;ttli, '''as himself a mcmber nf Parliamcnl who late r, a~ prime ministe r (and in response to extreme prcssurc from ex tra-Parliamcnunv agitation ). introduced thc sccond Rc f'Mm Bill in 1867. Onc of tht rta ~ons that Disraeli chosc LO \\Ite political nonls when. as a politician, he had accc:.s to fa r more comcntional outlet for hi~ o pinion~. clcmonstratcs an understancling of politics in modern M)Ccties tha t come~ clo~er to Gramsci's war of position titan to simplistic no Lions of ruiLrs and ruled. Disrac li's nn,ds can be scen as a IQrlll of complcx

Fu:(lher reading
The best introduclion to Kristeva's workup until1982 is Toril Moi (ed.) (1986) The Kristeva Reader, Oxlocd: Blackwell. Kristeva, J. (1982) Powers of Horror: An Essay on Abjection, New York: Columbia UP.

'

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lnlroducing Cultural Studies

Politics a nd c ulture

235

1lll'1\'l'1Hio11 . rk,ig ncd 1101 ju't to mah.t: a panicul.u poli1iral poi1 11 . hnt tPilt'gClti.Ht. thc p1ott'" o( cultn ra l cha n ~t in 'uch '' 11a, 1ha1 c lt'llll'lll' o l hi, ill lid' ; 111d p1 inciples (\d1 ic h IH'H' lundamt 1 Hall, a n li-dcmocratit ) con id lw main1.1 inccl. .\ , lll:111\' e ri1ic' h<ll'l' puintl'cl 0111. muth ollht pk.l,tiH' ol l)i,ral'li', nmd \hit. lrh;tt ,-a1 Raym o nd Williams ( p ..->) call, hi' Jih.cable p.nJarht ( \\'illi.nn'. 1911:\: 101'{) i, in lht 1 in 1dtich Di,r;\'li appe;n ' w nnclnmine Jlj, 011 11 t.l'l'. e:-.po,ing llw illl'!(ilimau ol th~ ;ui,lotrah lit acln>cllt'' '" poli1ical repre,enlali~t, ( 'l'l' Bo:-. 1 1.1 ). l.ngJi,h lord, are rt'\l',lkcl 10 lw lrom lamilie-. 1ha1 hall' bought lhtir 1iglll to Iik' and in numerc 111s p<~~~a~l'' a1e 'ho1111 111 be no nwrt di,crimin;uing ol cultu1 al ~;lluc 1h.111 llw ''orl..ing. cla~~ j)j,raeli 1hinh., 1ht1 ,Jtolilcl repn,tnt. Tite a11 i1 ud c ol ho1 h cla"e' 10 drinl..ing is ' ho1111 lo bl' lt'11l:t rkabk ' imibr. Fir~t. in high ~ocit' ll : " 1 ra th tr lil..t h:tcl11ine." ' a id ~lrs :'lle~IJII! C ht,m,: " on(' l{l'lS so bnrtd with guocl ,,.,l ... ( l)j ,l,1 l'li. 1~ l.-1: :l): .111cl la ter durin g- a rio1. ,,(wn lhl' ironically 1i1kcl gi,hop' and hi' l'nll1>111'l'S lll't;l.. in 1111' cl'l l ar~ of
~ l oll'i)I';J\ ca~lle :

(T]ht' Bi,fwp him ~~ ll . w:uecl on the ~ro uncl and leaning .1~a in~ t an .uch. thc Ion.~ (11 1lw n l l :1 1 ~ lull ol r.q,aci<ll1 ' ligu1~., branclbhing bouk' .utd twcl~~' a hernateh- C[ll.il kd 'lllllt' ole! 1'1111 .m el 'nnw ~ laclt1ra ol man1 1111 .1gc..' :111(1 ' ' " 1 11:1 1..111)!; up hi, mind w theil rel:ni~t mc.rih. ( Di~1.1di. 1~ J:,: 1111
pt'rsp~-clin

nox 6.1

Sybl, or The Two Natons by Benjamin Disraeli

\Yhi/ is lhl' ~tron cl buol.. of' a tri log1 ol thrt>t 1111\t'l': C'1111i11!.1h,Y. '\y/Ji/ and '/'mnutd. C:ha1ll'" Egrt'11I011l. an a1i'aocrat allCI ~lenllwr ol l'.u li.HIII' Ill . llll'Vh ancl lall' in (ol'( with ~~hit C:l'l'ard in thc ruin' o l ;\I ;UIIl'~ .\ hbn. ~~bit i-, 1111 d.111glllt'1 ltftlw <.hani<l k:Hier \\'ahc. (.l'l'arcl am l1 hrnu~h he.. Egnn1ont cli,c.o\1'1', thl' d iflt~tnce 1>t'lll'tcn Eng-l.uHI'' 111'1> nation,. tlw 1kh ;u1d tlll' pe u 11. lt i-, ll'l eall'd 1h.ll 1he t''lilll' hdonging to E{rcmonl., elckr brotlwr. Lc11cl ~1.11111'' ''' l.tktn lrom ~~hil'~ l~11nih cl111 ing thl' rti~n of H~:nn 1111. T hu'. the nowl nprl''l'llt;. dw cu nH dcntanc h f01 politic.1l rdorm in ternh of tlw G\l l,l' ol .1 di,e nh .IIH hi,c.cl :u i" wn .1c' . 11 d ~~cri lw~ C:han ist poli t ical agi 1a 1ion a1HI Ew tmon l' :lllt'lll P" 1o 'en nt rdorm thron~h l'arliame nt. The pnlitical at ti,itic., ol th1 Cha 11'h tnd in 1iots ll'hich ila\'t' s ,hil',; fath cr. Lord ~l a rlll'\', .11111 l.gnntolll , ,., ,( fH s, hil\ hand. ~l(')>hl' ll .\lo rle1, clc.acl. T he 11':1\ is thl'n npen for Sl'bil. lht rig-IHJ'ul hli 111 i lll' ~ I <II'IH'\' l''lal e, Lo maJT\' il' nc11 olflll'r. Egnmo1 11 . a nd in 1ha1 marriagL' In make Cllll' na lion 01 11 ol' 111'11, Tlw lt'l'lll 'one-n:ll ion TI!I'Is i' , jJI u'cd lo d escribe dw le l'l ll'ing o l' th c. Bri1i'h Const'IY<HH' Pam. .\ ccol'<liiJg 1 11 Ramwnd \\'illiam'. otlwr 'Condi1i o n o!' l:n.L\ I:uHI' (or ' Jn d lt~1 ra!') nonb :11T:
,\/ru) Umt1111 ( IK..JK) and .\'orth mul So111h ( IKr>:'i) 1>1 J-: li tab1: lh C:a. , J..c ll

B1 crilici,ill{ ho1lt ,idn ~cu.tlk. J)i~radi ' uccl''"fulk rcpn.:'~cnh a <.ocic.t' in 11hich all cuhu ral ,a lut, ha~t he.< onw illegitim.ue. L' nckr tht'e circum~tan n' hi' ,oJution i' no1 ' clenwcratic ont. hut ,, '' mbolic one in 1l'ltic h he llllitt, both upptT .m el ln>rl..in).{ cl.1"t'' in the figure or 1ht:' 1101 el', h 1TOi ll t'. e;, hi l. s, hil i' al OIHT a workin).{cl.t" a u i1 i-.t and. i1 1111 lh out. frnm a f:unih clt'rt'ncltcl from lht original .-\n~lo- axon ari,ton~IC'. In addilion. "' .1 Ro111a n C:athol ic ~he rc.pn''l'lll' tlw olcler lonn ofChrbtianit ~ in En~la n d a nd a' a ll'olll:t ll can be 1a l..e n 10 o,tand lor thl' 1110narrh1 in tlw ~h:IJ1t' o l il1 e ,.tlllll ~ Q11l'l'll \ 'it'lol ia . ll: 11 ing re prco;eJHcd \ 'icwrian Eng-lancl :1' ll'ilh<HII \'<l luc'. the c haraner of Sl'bii iH ing-' togt'th_ t'l 1 Cailtohr' thost' marg inali ~ed h~ 1ha1 ~oc it l~ ( tite inclustrialiseclll'orking das~. Ro n1 :11 nnd, 11lll'll l'l'(JI'l''l' lllt'cl H'i :1 klmll' ~I ;Ji ckn' bY hcr associ;Hion wi 1h tht \ 'irgil t ~lar~. j cll's (Callag hl'r. I~)K.-> : 2 1:1)) ,,.,(a ll'g'ili tnatc rul in).{ c ta.~~. <:hurr h and Sl<lll' . .'ilw 11>11' pe rform~ thl' '~' llll )() li c ll'llrk ni' ttni li ng- a J'ragnll' ll lt'rl p11litical n d1u n ll'lurh lta. 'i lihl ll ' JegiLimacl'. Catlttrin c. Ca llag lwr arg tt t'!> 1ha1 thi' rcsldts in iht 'exd 11Sio11ol politi r~ l'I'Otll thc 110\T l. l'I'L'Il i11 tlt t 1\'orl.. ol' a 11'1' 1er ll'h o 1\'<lS a bol't' all a poii Lirai Jil :111 : 111cl ll' h 11 hd iL'l e el thal politic' . likc litcr:li11 1 'L'. pro,iclt:d tlll' bc'l ho pc l'or rcconci ling l'a ch and 1:1 l11c., (Gallag hc r, J ~)K."i: ~ 1 7 - I H). ll rmc,cr. thio; can n nh llc a ccountcd an cxcltl'ion ol po li tic< if poli tiC' llllf~ illi'OIH'S iltl' n:Jl'I'C)\1' cll'finil O ll of' thl' poJiti c~ of' polit it'af IISiiiiiiIIII'. l1 1 te r111sol tiHIIickrdt'liui liou o ( nll lllra l pDiilic-,. -\\lli/rounta<.an importanl in ll'l'l'('lllion beCiliM'. in IIH' <Oll ll'Xl 11! a< onflin mTr puli1iral ri~Jllo;. tlw non! illliTYl'1ll'd i11 tl11 11,11 thal poli tic-, 11';h npn'I' Jllnl. n c.alill!( IH'II ~~ 1nbol' of >olilical kgi 1inmn tHil ul lliat conllicL In tht' niiWit't'lllli Ct'llllln 'tht' politic.' of cuhurt' lll'l't': onf' ,.<n ,~nilic .1111 e ompo111'1ll 11 i1 hin .1 l.u~<r ickologic<Jl h.111k hetl,t<n llu gcn11 1. 11ih ih aiil'' iu 1hc. intdligc.nt,i.l. aucl llw incfu,tri.tl micldkcla'' .1 h.ntlt- th.n 1,,,, handih- 11011 h1 llw J.\1'1111'\. 1 hdr idcologi<.tl l'icton. il '~"1'111'. 111111rihllll'd 111 lht declint ol tht l ngl.uld " an iuchhlri.tl po111'r. ( (.all .l~htl. 1!1:-;:,: :!ti'i) In rae!, it i-. \l' l\' di llindt JI) jtldgc. IIH' ~ IICCl''' ()' f'a illlrl' oran llllT\'l'llli<Hl in r ultnr:tl poli tic,. hccall'l' tlH nlalin,Jip' lJc.lll'l'l'll a pa11icular deb.tie a nd ,,e h malt'l ial l.tt lnr' asernnomic g1u11tll 0 1 <kdinl' .tl't l'l' t ~ dilliullttum ea~u lc . \\'llat can be -,aid i' lh.nihc con llic h and cJi,(Jlllt'' th :n r halal'l t'ri,t cu ll m ;d poli1i co; are,, nuri.d pan ol' c uhund stuclies. ,,hile lill'i l Dut contc..~ lwco n1l' dl'h:llt'' in colli (K ting accounl' ol' t ullll ra l ll i ~lo n (see C:haptcr ;'1). \\'Ita! C:lll ;J,n lw ~a id i~ 1hat sur h cultu r;J intcrnn1ions ar1 a tll:IIIV!' ul thc rtprtstntation and pnl'orm:lnct ni politicll ickn titio.

6.2.2 1 P erforming identilies in conventional poli tics

COII\l'lllional polilir--. 1hal i~ iht polilio o r gul'e lll111t>lll' ami poli! C<I I (l< lllit' .tppt.tr., al first w lw ll'<t~ l optn lo a cli-,c "'' ion ol r ultlll a l poli ti c~. C.lostr cxam inatio n . hullt'\ tr. I'CI't';d ~ that colll'l'llli mal politit' are comt ruc tc d b1 and thn ugh c ulture. For tx.nupk. one imp011an t "'~ th.n Clllln'lllional poli tic' e'!abl i ~hc' it~ c ultural kgitinlat' i,

/lord

'l'i1111'\ (

IHt 1) 1 11' C harle -, Ditl..en'

King-,((~

. \llo11 l .or/: ( 1i-tO) In Chal les

Fdi.\ /lo// ( 1H(iti) 1>1 C:eorgc Eliot

236

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Politics and culture

237

lhro ug h 1he impre~~ i o n of ro ntinnit y. T h c ritua ls and lraditiom of th e British Parlianwn1 gilc a n inq>tes;ion of s ta bility and longC\itr that con tribut es Lo thc sensc 1ha1 it i~ a lcg i1imate lhlitution. T lw ofte n -made cla im th a t this Parliame n1 is thc morhcr of all Parliament,' i:. a n t:xample: of hm1 legitimacy is es tablished through lhe representar ion of the British Parliamtn r as tite o rigi n of Pa1liamentary dcmocraq. Such common lr knoll'n fac ts about 1hc tkb< tl ing clwmbu as th a t th t: di si:III CC hc t11ec11 rh c 111'0 sides .~ th c lc ng th of l\1'0 SII'Ol'ds- SO 1h a t llO Olll' 111<1~' be h a rrn cd /'or ~peaking thcir opiniom - sign[ f~ a traclit OII of free <k bale th:ll trt:t Cht:S hack in lO cli~tallt h iSlOI)',
lll anail'<.i~ of th e ntltu1 al politic'> nf thc Briti~h Parlia n!CIIl. howeHr. i, interested i 11 ho11' 1he rcprest: n tation e~f 1r< tdi 1io n , !-11,1ai tH d and perfonned - in o1 h er 1m rds. how

1radition Ita ~ to ht marh- and r e madc. Onc exampk 1ha 1 c\e n1on ~ t ra 1 c' tite cu ltural poliric' o l' ll'htll 1\'C han' hl'L' tl ca l! in~ l'nnnal poli tic~ wou ld be lllt' 11'a1 1h a1 poli1icians d1Tss. Poli til i,ms drcs~ cuele, can be ~l'l'll a, e 1icle un rh,ll the rolt' ol Parliamen ra 1 )' poli1ici.u1 , 1101 'omcthin~ 10 ,,hiclt incliriduaJ, are horn. btn soml'th ing the1 han 10 jll'l{oun. Th~: ach~1ntages or 1he tht'lll'\ ol perform;U\L\' here are tha1 i1 a llo11~ an ll ll cler~\allciing- or COil\'l'llti rma ] anclnoiH'Oil\'Cillion;t l poli li ca) <lC LL\' L t~ lhat rela tes 1hc qt rcstioll oJ'idcnliLy (p. ~21 ) to politica l praclice. In th t case of com l' l11ional idcntitics it a llows wh at appcars lO bt normal a n d na1ural lo be Sl't'n as cultura lh con~tructed. \tale 111Cll1hers thl' Comen;Hil'l' Pat'l\'. fOI' exampl e. COI111l10ilh \I'Car pin-stripe suits ,,htn llH'y are in Lonclon. bu1 are oflcn filmcd wcaring tweed jackets wheu ther g in : intei'I'CI''' in 1h ei r cons1i lttc n c ie.o; al 11 H' 1\'et kends. Thcse ,,o ' u n ilim n s a llow the poli lic ia u to pcrfom1 a p <trtiCi dar rok which s ig nifi ~:s so nH:thing abo u1 thc kind of poli tic~ Lh l'r represe n l. The pin-s triwd 'llil is commo nh' 11'01'11 b1 me u wlto work in the Cit~ Londou ancl migl u be ~t:en 10 ,~ni(' a knoll'ledge and coutrol of finan cia! mauerlt. Tlw lll't'l'djarJ..tt. on the othcr hancl. has aJ.socia rions ofa mon: lci~ured , nu~tl, upper-cla~s lile. Tlll' 111'11 clress codes in diC:lll' the difl<.nnr aspeCI.' ol' lill' \JP 's life. Du ring lil t' wnk lte is .11 1 c l'li cit11L 11orkcr in l.onclo tl ; ;11 lh l' ll't:tke nd h e k ad' a more ll'i,ured l'\ i\ ll'llet' in hi' ntr:tl Colb tituenn ( lhoug-h 1101 <lllt' lh at J>lt'(iudt' teleYl~ion IHtnitl,., il lia malll'l i' importan! t'IHll l!{h - ~ce Figutl' 6.1 ) ..-\1 tlw ':tille lilltl' thc

or

or

Figure 6.1

The cultural politics of tweed. (Source: PA News Lld.)

11)' co ntras!, :..liril.ll'l Foot i' r lai tncd l ll lhl' l:.\filt' \ ' 1n . ll:~ 1~ ang-en ~ l m~ l l ic: t :' ~~ r w~t- 1 ision 1 1iw ,n[l' mn Cl' LH>I.I]>II l ~tntttllhl .111 1 e D.t~ jc 1,.,. ,., \t '' lt' t'clar. 1 k lltlncclup

-.,,

cocle~ b1 ing 1oge liwr 1\\0 pe1 hap' ron tr:tcliuon l'it'llll.'llh ol' Con,en;HII' poli1ical
philmopl11 : .t helier in lin <IIH't' l'apil:lli~m .111rl in 1lw 1racli1 ion.; ol rural En~la n d. 11 i' l'a~~ l'o t ~ u r h c orte~ lo lw c ' onw tl:t llt r; tJi,cd a' th t norttl ;tl cl rt' '~ fi11 polirici;m,. so 1h :u tlll'y ,IJ;il ll tl que, lO II l'rl. Tht r;ttl th :ll 1he perft)llnanc(' or lwing a poli ti( ian is l'llactt:d tl11 ough drc" cocl t, onl~ becomt, appal'l'lll 11hcn th<.~ art lran~grc:.~ed in a public wa,. One examplt- of rransgTe~~ i on in the ~pherc o f comentional Parliamental)' poli tiC.\ OCCIIITed in ~()l'l'tllbn 19R 1 \\'h t' n thl leader nr t ite Labour Part). i\licha el Fool. a 11cndtd th c cc rl' m o n y ;11 IIH Ccnotaph in Lo nclo n lO collllllenwratc !h ose 11ho di ed in Lill' ,,.o II'Otl clwars (~ce Figure (1.2). T h e formal d ress t'XJ)t'Ctcd on such an occasion was desc1ibed b\' the Dai~1 t:xnrs1 as that 1\'0111 by 1hc Prim<. i\linister. ~ largare! Thatcher, the lcader of 1he Liberal Pan y, D;nid . tcd. and Princ<.,s Diana: :..trs Tha lther worc a ~111a11 ~<ti lorcd blark 1opcoa1 wi1h ma rrhing hat. ha nd bag aud shues. D. ti id Stecl 11as in hb ck mo rning suI . T h e Pri11ct''-S nfWale> 1\'Cit'c ; ~man b lack roa1 ll'ith a ,,hite lace collar .tnd a b lack ll ar 1\'lh a p lumc ft;Hher.
(lJtu~r 1-:xfm'll.

cc:remom in ,1 donJ..t\ jarJ..lt. plaicl tie aiHI di1l\ 'hm< . I'IH' 11111i11pk: n.lllllt' \ .11 Foo 1 , u~ 111 ,gn"ion , indi<.tll'd 1)1 1hc tl.tcit-1, 11 ho. lht: IJfllh 1 \j111 ' ' t l:nnt-. phonl'Citn
10 t

or

ompbin:

Rc:Hkt \ 1" \l arg. tnl l'tdh " 1 11<- ll l'\l'nn l. '\cH Iit gh.u l t ,li i t~ ,;tid: 'Fool 1on k1d likc 1 11' had co ttH' llltl n i S!t'JHcll', 1,11cl'. R \F ll'lc't.lll l{o hl'll B11 uok1, o l 1\tnrJ.. h.lll l. ~lllll'l -:tid: ' l ool c.111~l' .1' tho11gl.t hl' h.HI 11 , 1 11.111 d 1 , 1 ~~ttllhtoll~h .tlll'<i~l'. 111, che" 111.\lllll'l .IIH11whaiiOIII "'' .1 dneu ll\llhto 0111 \\;tr <lc.td ' . . . ,. . :\Ir~ l.ind:t ( .tilll', ni CliHII. :\<Jll'. ~a id: ' 1 1-:ptncd h111L l<J lw r: ti'J'\I II g :t l, t ~ hl lo \\'e u J.. p l,tr:11'<1. 1 h la tll t' lti' ,,k, \o ,ellll''Pl't'I IIg 1\k ""u1clltl ht' l hn~ l 1.t11d go o111 1ikc lhat. 1 jll\((.111.1 gc'l 11\('1 il . r\c'll hi' ,]10('\ 1\l'll' tlllll kl . Thc objcciOll\ l hmen for lllt' ;\llitll' indic.llt' Ct'llain e:-.ptct.l!illl'\ or lht kackr of Htr :..t aj 1 ~~~~ - , Oppo,ition. \11, Tttlil, rdre ll tL' lo 'Sil'Pifll''s I,II'CI' <lllt 1 d~~ 1<.1 " l)(llmht l l c: l~ , isi nn situ ;u io n cn m cch ,1iw ul :t sna p dt'.tk t and his .;con . l lt-r cnn tnhllllntl \L tg'gt~:\ h th:n. al ]c;1, cJ 111 ing lonn;1i. ri1 11:di.-tcl puhli< .tppv.tr:lltl'l'' Fool shot tl ~l dn~~ a~corcl~ng 10 the clH,, rndn olrhe uppc:r. IHH 1he \\<>rking da". Rnht' tl 1-kookt~ romplatn l reler<,

9 Nonmbcr 19R 1)

238

lntroducing Cultura l Studies

Politics and culture

239

to th t" 1 :rct that Fnot did not appear 1 0 boll' ll'h en he placcd his \\H'<~t h or join in lh hrmn.~. -~hi~ aniculatts an. cxpeclalion lltat IH ,,ill pa, tribute to tite n ligiou t'lc.:tncn~ and p:nno uc elcm en l.' o f Rcmembrancc Sund:l\. :-.J r, Cainc ask' tltal hi' a))e1 -. 1..ncc sh ould reflcc1 a fami ly bacl..grou nd wltcrc lhe traditional gender rofe, of husband ancJ \~i~e are su,lain ed. If:-. lr Fool ancl h i ~ wile did occup~ these ro le,, it i' Htgge~lcd by ~I I'S C:1111c. tl w lransgre,,ton \\'o trld n en..- h:liT occtuTcd. The 011i~y 1:.\'fn!SI is notu~ uall~ s~mp:n h e t ic 1 0 the l .abour Pan y. ancl ils criticisms are in turn cri 1ic i ~ed as pelt,' 1 )\' lcft-lean i ng papers 1ike 1h1. D11i~\' .\linor and the Gurmlian. 1lowc:nr, l'\'Cn the mon wmpathetic papn~ empha'i'l' lhe imponancc ol appearancc fo r a politician. T hc rc: is a recognitinn o n all sicles 1h:11 perfonn a t i,i t~ is an impon a111 pan of tl w ,,ay in which po lil ics i.-, conci11Ci ed . On 1O i':me mlwr. tht /J(Ii~r r.xfm's1 askcd the COil!'UII<1ntll'hn 'groomed Ro nald Rlag:nt ' ( thtn Pre;ident or liH' Unittcl Stalt'S and l formtr ll o ll ~woud fi l111 sta r) how he: 1\'ould ach'ist' 1\lr Fom all(l procluced a m od.cd-up p hotograph of the t'C\llll. ~or shoulcl Fo01 be sec:n 10 be an innortnt pla1er in thc politir' perform.;snce .. 1le i ~ critiri't'd in the Tiun, for lookin.{ :1~ if he had j us re turn n l lrntu ,,alk111g h" do.:- o n J I ~nii)J'lt'ad lle;nh : b111 ll amp~ tcad. ll'here Foot lircs, is a pan of' Lo ndo n 11ith il rcptt tati un f'or i>o hemian islll and midclle-c la,~ radicalbm. l lis drcs ancl act io ns. 1dtiil dc~c ribed by thl' f)ai(Y Tl'ltgwjJII a~ hming 'all thc n1ercn 1 di~nil~ ~, r a ll:unp ~)t.n.cling ~lmm LO in,ptct , cigarc:ut t'IHI'. cou ld be ~een a~ ~igni~i ng .Juha k~le\a ~ dehnnon ol tlw carni,~dt,cut as thc acccptanct' ol 'a not her law' (sec senio n IJ. I. 2 ahme). \\'hi r h creatc:s tlw di:1 logul' o debatt ol'cullural po l i 1i c~. ll erl.'. 1hc o ther la\\' is 11 t<.:' racl in ti poi i1ica l tradi 1io n i 11 ll'hich Foo1 us n:tll r ,,ishl's 1 o pla<.:t' h i 111 sdf 'ign ifil'd h~ a lltOI'f' in(col lltal mocle o[' drt'S'> that rl'Cti(~ prnt~~l <knlOII,Iratiom ( Foo; ,,:h rl'llOII11l'cl fi>r hi:- iurohtmenl in tlw Campaign lor :\ncle.tr Ois:umament). "1hi conws into conflin 11i1h tht ritual' ol RcmtmbraiHt' Sull(\;1\'. 11hich of'u:n recalls nationa l p t idl' in ntili tal 1 ,ic tori c~ <1' wt'll as comntc:ntor;nion t>f tlw ckad . llt' WIH't'l ur Foot's lr:m sgrl'"ion tha l i., ll l(.'ft')oling t'o r lhe ~ tlld t' lll o !' Ct rl turt i~ lhc 1,.,1\. in ,,hich it does nol lll:tttcr cxact11 11 1ta 1 :-. Ir Foo1 11a, 11ca ri11~. Tht H'ro;ions of his clrn.~ chaltg'L ' lro m paptt to pap(r. T IH 'donl..~., jarktl bt-romc~ a gntu clouke~ jacJ..ct' iu 111<' lJ11 i~\' 1i!tgmjJ!t. a 'duncl coat in llw .\linut. and in 1he Timt'\ thl ,(we' berome '<.makers', 1dti lt the 'plaid' ( b/Jn'.\11 u1 cht'ck (.\lino/') lit beromt'' ' l'.ds(e,. \\'h :ll is intpnrtall l are ltottlt e d t' l:l il ~ lhl' ntstil't:, , btll 1ha1 hi .~ dnss places l1int o u t~iclt : lht cocks that S t abi l i~l' lile $ ~Ilifi rli1 Cl' of Iris pusi lion a<; l't'JJI't'Sl'lllali\'t' uf' aulhoritl (lil e che~~ cocks of t la"). 1 0\a ll\' (rdigion ancl pall ioti~m) ancl tii.N'llliu it\' (l ht gtllcll:rcd rol e~ of husbaud .mcl 1\'ife). \\'( ca11 'Ce lrom lltc~e exampJto, that coiiH'Illional polilical iclcntilie' a1e pe1forml'cl II'ih in 'harp h rklitwcl cu llur:rl houncbril's .111d thal lht'Sl' hounclarilt. are shapnl lw lhc broackr C<Hlll'Xt o!' poli1ic:d cll'batl'. Cul1 m al CXJlt't'l<l 1ion~ < tn a kt~ de lt'I'I11II< llll ol poli lir al idcn tiLi es :urd thu' ndtt ue ilsdJ' is an e nonnottslr poll'crl'ul J'actot in limiting tite tcnai n on ll'hich lraclition,tl politin i~ conductld.

of:

Figure 6.2 Michael Fool al the Cenotaph. (Source: PA News lld.)

tracli lio n ancl 1lr;r t ol' the ne11 r<'prescn tati\'es. i\ lany papers commcntecl on lite ll1 ct tha t thc Ji rs t black womau i\11 '. Diam ,-\bbo t (st'l' Figure 6.3). !'at in thc scat l'o nncrly occupied by Enoch Po"dl , " lto had madc: inll:unmator~ ~pccchl.'s adn>c:ning tlw rcpatriation ol nu11-wh ite': \\'hcre he snt. rad:t\Tro u~ ancl griml\' nwrl..ing-. sits 110 \1' dt'"' Oiane Abbot (l.ab. l lacknt'l' N.). ,\ ~ il' tn e mplt a~i't' 1ha1 tillH'' hal'l' changcd . ~h t 10ok 0111 a mal..~' 11p CilSC' ancl ~en~ u o u~l y pain tcd her lip~. Fur Lite re'L~h t ancl her colnurt'd colleagu$ li ~l t' n cd clccorou~ll. 110 duubt am:11ed b1 thc nrcmonim1~ nt~,tcrl'~ and ance~lral nnunbojumho of wh<ll 1hc1 h<t\'C' im arkd :md ch,1lkngcd. (/)alt .\lail. 26 J1111c 1987) Thc ~a ti rica 1 wm 1hat i comniOIIly u sed in l'arliame n tary <.kt' l ches he rt cm ploys tlw hrngllage orracial' <;[('['CO I ~')Jl'~ (' nwsterics'. ' 1 11 lll11 boj um bo') l ll d escribe IIH' traditions of Parliamen t. This up'>l't o r illl't' r., ion . hol,'t'\'L'I', maintains tl w idea o f cultural conllict in thc word~ itwackd ancl cha llen~cd . ,,hich rcproclun so me of thc cliscoursc or Enoch Powt'll')'. a n ti-iuunigl~ltio n S)>t'l.'c hts. Th t limits or th t concept o r ptrl'orm:uid ly to undc rsta ncl polil ical id en ti1ic ~ are al so g-li III JH<'d he re. \\'!ti le 1he conrtp t "ork ~ wcll tO dcconqrtiCI Codts tlta t it'g' I 1 11:11e poll't'l . in lill' C<lSL' of social groups li1:11 h;l\.l' hisl!lricall\' becn labellcd :t' illl'gi limatt il is not t'IHHtgh 10 ;u gtll' 1hat th t~ l'< lll wrl'orm an oppusi;ional iden tit~. Fot tho:-.e ll'ho haw LO compete 1\'ith tht \\'ay the1 an idcntifiecl

Thc'e l imit<ui n11~ btronH more ub1ious 11hen 'orial group.., ('llttr P;l rliamt'nl thal. ({r reiS< J II~ o(' culture :111cl hackgro nnd . c:tnnol Ja, r l:tim to th( 1r.tcli1ion s o!' lu rrn:tl >olitic:-. \\'hl'n 1he 1 1rM lcH ir black :-.IPs l'llll'l'l'cl Parl i:ttlll'lll in 19K7. ll..' ll~paper cm cragc paid gna t atlc ntio n tu IHil.u iw clil l<'l t'IIC't'' b('liH'l'll the cu lture ol' Parliamt'lll<IIY

240

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Politics and wlture

24 1

b1 n ,IJtCIII t' ck l i nilie~ n' ni 1 .tn .nHI 'gt'tHitt . lht tnolll '" 'pt'lloillll. can bl' 't'l't'l'tly C ITIIIII\l l iht'cl. lt i-. 111 thi ' (tJ tllv:-.. 1 li t.ll it i' it llc t't,li ng 1ila1 thrtt IH'\\~I,IJH' I '' 'IH>M' '" t' lltpha ~isc ,\ill w t', ntakc-up. 11h1t h '' '' lll t'll ttO II I'd ll\ tlw ( ,uutfill!l .tnd li1 v 1. \jJit'" a' 1qll a~ thc .\/1111 in iiHt r ll'IHIII II. g ni lilt (,~Ul'l ' ll ' , \IH'l'l h. J ilt limittd 11>0111 .tJ IOIIt'cl .\IJbot h -.hcll\11 IJ1 dtt' \\,\1 th.ll llllt't' jPUIIt,di't- lllll!t'llll,lll' Clll notjll\l ht'l .tppt'.ll.tllU' hlltthc '''' lll llhidt 'ht ht'l'l'lf lll.ll,t'' up th.ll .tppc:ll.lllll'. In lht ((>CIIt'Xl or lwr "lllholic po,ition ;.-.llw li1-.L hl.11 1.. ll <~lllan .\11'. tlttl\ ,tl th.t l -.hl' con-.u tl t 1-. IHT -.tll. ht'l ick lllitl' 111 '1h .t l l l'~ or .-\hhot \ (>l'l rnrman t't' ll lt'l'l ll'o o( hl'r gc ndn <l;lcl in othtl 1\'(lrch. lll t' 1 ' ran' - )){'t'OIIll''> tl tt' fcH li S o i' d i.,l'tt"-iOII . ( hl' r:IC'ol ll\'L'I'IPilt'.'o >J thi.-. foct l ~ a rl' IIIOSl t kal intho f(ll<~l .tl i nllltllll t l a .11(/i/.thol'l. i>tll th t' imp lic ui u n tlltc lcrli c;;all IIH" l'l'Jlnrt, 1ltat . l>n .tll'l' -.lit i' bl;a 1.. and a "oma11. ,1 a "i 11 11111 he ah le w w t 1clllll 1ht 1ok "' .\ 1p 1\ u .tllll .llh ''a ldtile 1\0III:t ll or 111<111 1ht t ' ;IIIIJ>It' ol .\lit h.tl'l Foot .111d Di:tlll' .\hhot dtmou,lr:ne hm, ll.ln,~l t'"-l"n c.tn hoth lw t'lltpowcring in it' t h.11k11gc Lo kgitimacr and lH l\\ .uwt ht'l l.n, t :111 lw quic l..h 111.11 gi n:tli-;tcl ,,, fril'<>lou' or cli-.tt'")Jt't tful. \ \' h:lll' ,J,,,,II, 1hvrdon. th.u pol itic:d icl<'lllilic , 11111'1 ht IH'I l'onn ed , and tlt ru cl ill<' l't'll l -.nn-. of pt ri'cii ii iHII!'<'' \.liT\' d ilkiC 'Il l lllt'!II1 il g'.' . \'e l. ~~~ i';li' tl1 i' ha' all bccn ro ndtcc (tcl itt lt'l'lll ' or lht llill'II',i hk politiral ' lcm." - J>:trlia llll' ll laiY puliliciam. Thc

neXI ~l' C I ion looks :tl ; di f l tl'l'111 site of' pe 1l i lit ;1 1 J'OII l'l'. O IH' 1itat i~. ; \I'C' ~.1)' ' lw hi nd 1IW scem'".. Thi" i" tlll' \\'o riel of' llll' hureaucr< ll'. 1hl' .ti m hc rv \ lo , ho11 1hat th(' app.tl'l'llth ci<.'htllll<tlli.' ing. ron tit H' :l tl cl snppo,ecl ly imi~ i hk lonn~ oJ' ~ori:tl or~a ni satiu11 whir h chat ;ccteri.w burl'aucr:cr l :11-.o inYolw t ullural mea nin.l( :~ t HI wrllmnaml i11 tht strUCilll'illl. .1nd it'gi lillla liiiK o l )>01\'C'I' ll'i,\lio tl'.

6.2.3

Bureaucracy as culture

fntroducing bureaucracy
i'o lO'I el i..;c u ~'i o n s of bunautT:tn begi11 11 i tlt tlu: ,,ork o f tllt' 'm iolog ist l\'lax Weber ( 1>. 21:1) (,ee \ \'eber. 1!1(\7). l it' argut"cl 1h.ll "1 1:11 he ca lkd tlll' dt.tractt' t i, i<' ol bunaucran . or modttn olllri,ldom. undel ht ' < '1 .tpart ft ntn 1ht "''' in ll'h ich ni htc form' ol' ruk opt:rattcl. For exampk. tht' .tl'l' d iflerent fron1 olckr monar-chi< al ''.el <'' 1\')l('l't' tlll' aclmini,tration '''' an exttn,ioll ol tite !..in.('> hnll'><holcl nm b~ patronagt ;cnd 1raclition . In th is Sl'lhl' \\'eber is otlt' uf lhn~t thi n kt t'!> disntss<d abon in s1nio n G. l.~. \\'hu are inlc rcstcd in a n:~ ly!> in g 1lte e<Hnplexitics of dll' rl'laliunship hctll'l't'll rulerl' ami rulcd. tly ~epar:uin g out thc!>C darnctc r-i,lics \\'dwr hopcd Lu liiHler,tancl burcaucrac~ (se(' Box G.~).

Box 6.2

Max Weber' s bureaucratic ideal type

l. 'There is a principie or lixed and olficial jurisdinional arca . "'hich are gcnerall~ ord cred b1 rule . that is. br hi\\'S or achnin i~tratire regula1ions ... Pcnnanent ami public office autho t iL~. \\th fixecl j uri ~diction , is not thc historical rule b ut ra thc r the excep1iun. 2. 'Tiw principie~ of' oflkc hierarc hy and lc,c ls uf graclec\ au thoril)' m ea n a firrnl y ord c red srtitt nt of su per- ancl subnrcl inatio n in ,,hich thcrc is a supervisitll l or lite lm,er orfict~ h1 tite higher o nts. 3. 'The management or the mode rn ofrire is basccl upon ''Tillen documen ts (' '1h e files"). \\hich are pre ened in th cir original or draugh t form . . . In princip ie. the m odcrn organisation o l thc cilil senin St'paratcs thc burcau from thc pri1;nc domicilc of the ol licial, all(l, in general bnnauc racy scgrc~a t es official actiYi l)' a~ SOI11C'thi ng cJi,IIICI ('rum the spherl' of' p nblic Jift'.' 1. 'OITin ma tt:tgt'llll' lll . . . usuall) prcsuppnscs thorough ami r xpcrt trai ning. 5. '(Ojl'ficial ;l(lilit)' dentand~ the J'ull 1\'orking capac it~ o i' lht' oflicial . . .' fi. 'The managt'lllt'llt of tht' offin fol low.-. ~( ncra l rules. ll'hir h are m ore 0 1 lt':.' ~ta hl e. more 01 Jt>-.- txhan~lil't. and ,,)i( h can be karntcl . 1'1\!)\dedge of the\e rule-; repre'>ent' a ']WCial techn ir al lt:nn in14 ,,hich 1ht offi ci;tl;; pos,cs,. Diane Abbott and Bernie Grant, wl1o also transgressed convenlion l)y not wearing the Figure 6.3 ie. (Source: PA News Lld .) tradllional jacket and L
\l'c iiL'I ( 1\lli/;

1\l!i- S 1

242

lntroducing Cultural Sludies

[urkitl~

Polilics and culture

243

\\l1a1 \\\htt ptt''ll'llh lh with i:> a hun.n1n.uic '1~1em in ,,hich lull-timt. <.alaricd trained. qualiliecl. .tppoitutd and lint"h ~t.ult-d 'tafl . "'ith job secmil\. can:er p1mpccL~ and wn,ion ri).{hh. O(>tT:IIt' .Kcordin~ lo ~~ ~ ~ ol ''Tillen and rational ru l e~ lo make admini,tr:Hi~t dl't i,ion' 1\ihin .;pcrilic area' col olfit i.d competenrt " 'hiela .1re c.ud ullr dc111arc:11<'d 10 'l')mr.lle tlw111 fmm l',ILh o llH'I, f'rom thl'i r home liH, ancl 1'1om lh ~ public. I1 is a r:ll io 1 1a 1h org<ll lscd and ' ' l~j er l in' " ~ 1 (' 11 1 1\'ho'e calculaiJlt' ru in optrate 'ldtholll rtgard J'o r Pl' I''IOil, ralh cr than ()11 tlll' ],;,bol dol ing- Olll[)l'r.'IOll .l l r:II'OIII'S or on tlw ha,~ o l' tracl ilion. \\'d)('r 'uggc'" th at the l't',I'-Oil'- fo r its succe.-., (a-. llll'il\urcd by il'l dr<llllatir hi-.m it.l l dtldopllll'll l .111d gtogt.lphica l 'prcad .tlongsick r.1pilali~t l'C OilOIIIC rd:IIOII\; 'll'l' l.efort. 19:-11)) C;tll bl' IIIHitT\IOOd :1'1 lhl' ' anll' ~" t!Jt l'l'.I\Om for the ~ucce:-.' ol lll.lt hinL'' in arena~ 1rhcrl' thin~' had prc,iouo;h bccn prodllcld "ithou them . . \'he , ;lid: Thc lll'l i~i~t tt.t,OII ltu lht .1chancl' of lmlt',IIH 1a1it o 1 g.ut i ~.11ion h.h .th'.t" ht't'll j, purch lt'Chnic:tl 'llj)l' l iori 1 ' 0\\'1 am nthtt l11111 of org<llli,ation .. . . Pnri~ion. 'lll'td. tlll< llnbigtll\ . knc lldedgt ollht l i lt- ~. continuit,, di ~rn ti11 n. J IIII~. 'triLI ~ tlh.,Hiin a l inn . rl'dirt'Ciion ni' l'l'irti"11 a11CI ol 111<11 l'rial < II HI pn~o l lill cu'l.\ - thl''l' are tabtd to the (\l'cbcr. I!Hii: ~ 1 -l) nptitlllllll poitll ll lllt 'llk th- hunaur r;tlit achnini,I I;Hin n. 1\ltat allth i' ~uggr, t s is thal bun:aut rat~ i~ 'olnd 1m' nu t,icll- thc sp lwn ol' u dtu rc. h operate~ in a \\'orle! ol co ld. hard t't'Ollotnit .n1cl political rtalit ic> 1\'lt i(' ll do 1101 admit thc claitm ol maninK. keli ng ami inter~uhjtc tiH intcrprctation that rotm \\'i thin thc n:ach of11h.1t \\'l' c.lll1he cultural. \\'eber\ .tn.th'i' :-ugge~h that olclt:r lonn' ol tulcope rating <H'cording to ancien 1 n:li~iou' tmdition' or the 11h im ~ ol despotic cmpcror-;,,ere cuhtu.tl' ('t't' lht cli,cu~sion ol' di1 ine 1ight ahm-e ) . 1Jc no t e~ that th e\' \\'Crc c:oupkd 1\i h cdwa1ional ,~s tt ms clt,ignccl to procluet [!(' ru iLil'ated man ' ,,hose C TLcria l'o r accepl:1 IJj 1l ~- for g0\'Cl'l1 i ng 1\':1~ ' he ()O''I(~o;ion of "more .. Cllllll ra( fJ ll:tlily' (\\'cher. l ~Hi7: ~-1 :1) . R:nio11 :tliscd bmc au crac~ i ~ n r~ dif'l'l't' lll :
lt' ~ pccili c ll<lllll'l' ... d l'l'l'l op~ thc lllOI'l' ptrl'cnll tite nHirl' tht hll rt'atJCI':t l'~' i ~ ' ckhutnatl ,,.d . 1hc 11101'1' corn pktd~- it '"n crJ, i11 di 111 i11a1ing from oll ici.tl hu, nc'' Ion:. h;lll'l'd. and all punl, per,onal. it ration;tl. and t'ltwtional dcmctlb 1\'ltirlt l'\1 apt calcula1ion. l'lti' , tite ~pecific nalltre ul bun;nu r.lt 1 aJHI it , app~i,l'd a' il'l 'Pnial l'inut. (\\'dwa. 1!lli7: ~ 1:\

in \\'t'lwl , tll\11 IL':-.1\. l ht lt1'1 l' th:ll lor buna11rra<' to ht 'llt tl'"ful i-. not likc Parlialllt'lii.IJ'\ icltntitil'' it llltl'l hl' t<c httit.ll .tclmini,tratill nl.lll<'l 11,111n""' T~l t' 1,uiou' :elimin.ltio.n_, .1111~ ,q >.tt.tl~tHt'~ th.1~ \\'d> t_'l lt:ltt, 10 11111'11 be xrli H n1t'd lm tllt' p11bhc' th.tt lqi,l1111 1.tll' 11, an tlt on tl'. lhalt"lll' ,,JI] I)l' l:tktnnp hl'lm, J)' cn 11 , ide ri 11g ho11 bllrtaucl alit ol'liu h11i lding~ .pc t form IJIIreaucr:u ,. in cliffl'tTIII .m.<. T lt i' 1 w rlnrm:HH l' i ~. ho\\'tn1. aho :1 an:1 11 tr 1en 1hl' htt rl':nwrah 1h cmsthl', :tnd 11 d ll be imnli).\attcl b~ cons i ckrin ~ hc;e it ro lllll'( t~ 10 ,sucs n l' id<tll it' :111<1 (>0\\'('1 11h ich 1 101, t l ~t blll'l':llll ratit IK'hOna , gl' nckrtd. \\'chl'r l\'a' ;n,are o l' tll t 'prod uclioaa oi din'l'tL'lll '011, o l 1uling llll' l1 hu i lll' did 1 101 lo llo1' up tht implitation' o l that. Finalk. wc 1> 1il'l (1 nu1,ickr lto\\ thL blllt'.lltt 1.11 i< 'llltt tttl't'' and thl' bun:uu 1.11it p<r,ona~ con,ll'ltt lt'cl l\'ithin thtm an l'tltic ,1111 pt tthltm.uic. .\g.tin thi' , 'otlll'thing that \\'dwr \\';t~ ,11,arl' ol in hi, di,<~~~,ion ol tllt' clillic u hit'' of cli,lll.lllll ing a bttrL'<lll! 1.1c 1 hnt 1d1ich he el id nol takl' f111 tlwr. So. ht ing 1111 th1 ptt l'ottning hureaucrah. -l.1 1 Jlll, 1
o

Key h~flumce 6. 4

Max Weber (1864- 1920)

hhtcad ol 'LTking tho~c 1\'ith cultural cualitl'. (1,hate1er that ma' mean ). huHaucracy i.;; litd to tducalional -.~stcm~ that proclll<l' 1cch nical l':>:pen s or 't hl' " ~wcia list type of man " (\\'d>Lr. l ~ lli7: ?-l~). TI Ht'~. "' hurcaucra tic lo rm s dt,clop. thl're also clcnJop' a Strit'S d ('1111 f 1ict' ht'liiTt'll t llt'Sl' .'> (lt'C a Ji 'lS ancl thusc who had j)I'C I'OUSI)' ru kcl un a clil'fvnnt - cultura l' - b;t~ i s: 'This ligh1 is dc tcrminccl by tite irre~ i s 1ibl )' txpancling burca unatis:uiun ul'all1H1hl ic a nd pril< lll' rt'lations o f amhori1 ~ :ntcll)y 1he ellr-increa,ing in1p01 tal1 t'C o l' L'Xpett aiHl ~peri: tlistd knmdcdgc. T hi:; fi g lt1 in tr udcs into all in timatc utltmal que,tiom (\\'ehtr. 19ti7: ~ 1 :1. \\'(' can Sl'l' th.ll btlll'allcracy. lr \ \'l'iwr. ha' u11Cial implication' li>r 'nlhtmll f)lll'qion~ . htll , not ptt''~t'lllt'd a~ hcing '< nltlllal ' l'l'll . 11 i' thi' la't a"umption th.ll ,,e 1\'<1111 lO f(lH'\Iioll htt l ' ;tllC( tlw IT;I..,On II \l'llilll{ Olll \\'ehl't , thinking 011 hlllt',lltCI'af)' in 'o lllltdt dtl.lil , 111 ,[HII\ 1h a1 mam ol tlw ~,11t'' IH' 1\<llll to tknlop can be lound

Born in Erfurt, Central Germany, lhe son of a lawyer and National Liberal polilician, Weber was schooled in Berlin before studying law and history at the universities of Heidelberg, Berln and Gollingen. Following spells of military training and work in criminal law courls, he relurned lo universily to specialise in economic history. He obtained a doclorate in 1888 and completecl his posldoctoral habililalion lhesis in 1891 which allowed him to pursue an academic career. He married Marianne Schnitger in 1893. Marianne became an infl uential figure in lhe German feminisl movement. In 1896 Weber was appointed Professor of E conomics at Heidelberg Universily, where he seltled for the resl of his life, However, his falher's dealh in 1897 provoked the onsel of a clepressive illness which led to lengthy sickleaves from his post. In 1902 Weber resumed academic work and his 1904 visit to the United Stales influenced his lamed Tlle Protestan/ Ethic and tlle Spirit of Capitolism (1904- 5). Around this time he began to reorienl his intellectual interests in the direction of sociology and the 'cultural sciences'. He emphasised the cenlralily of the meanings thal people allach to objecls and activilies, defining culture (p. 355) as the 'finite segmenl of the infi nity of lhe world process, a segment on which llumon beings confer meaning and signiflcance'. Accorcling to Weber, rationalisalion was lhe masler lrend accounting for lhe l?road development of Western societies. More ancl more spheres of life were being wrested from the influence of the incalculable, the whimsical, the magical and the non-standardised, and brought under rational conlrol. The application of inslrumental rationality was facililated by lhe emergence of modern science, systematic forrns of accountancy and law, bul above all by bureaucracy as the dominant form of social organisation. Weber viewed rationalisation as a relenlless process. He saw lhe fulure in bleak t~rms as an 'iron cage' in which human individualily would be increasingly circumscribed:

244

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Polilics and cullure 245

. . nh _ ,tm rali tt" t'c! 11c:nion .uHI t'lllplo\IIH'Il l. homt ancl lorcig- n. a~ricu ltu rc dep.11 1111L " . . .. , . . . < IU'll" _ il , :d ~o ill 'tTibt d tll liO b111 t':tUc ra lll ~paCL'. Tht ~c , g npn-t~ t '\ l' t 111 l1lt: ;tn<1 tn . . . r . of' tlw oflin~ thal tltt huH'llltT.ICI ulltahll,. lotlll . 1 '1 1' . 1. Then .liT ~t ~t ra l poinh 1h;11 can lll' madt :tbolll th l' ~o1 h ul Jlll e mg~ .t l.tl . .. , . r>t'' 'lll>' 11 tt 1m, u f' I Hll\' thL'I are IJ:tll or .1 u dlli re n i bureau(l'an. hr:-.1. btll'('Hll l 1'> ' .. .. 1 e>11 -- 11 .. l>uilcti 11tr.., 1htl m.tke ,t:uemen h .tbmll 1he natuH nf btllt ,tu u,('. 1 1 stlllP ~ "' ' ,., . . . . . The ir scparmion from e :~ c h o ther. lrom tite ho.m es ol t ~lc . bt t reaucn.th. f1nm 1 .lll.l,ll.llt nl or o ll wr n nirl'~ o f poll't'l , no1 lll l're h a q ttc~uol1 of cll tnc n cY btnl: a cltnHll1'tt .tttun ,e fon 11ann- of thl' atnonom~ ofthc burcaucral' :md httrcaucr<lliC pn>et'"<'S lmusld 1 1 tlte m lrom >olitira l' i 11 11ucnce~ ,,hich might qucqion wlle th tr tite~ rt' a lly a._ 11' 11 1 1111 ~ . . 1. fun c tion "with o 11 t rcganl for 1 Jl'l',tl11' Seco11cl . thL arc hit t'ctU IT ~~ un ponan t 111 l ~~~ .r(l - ance wo. T lw w:ll tlw huildin~-t:-. loo J... maJ...c~ ~tatcmcnt' abo111 "hal got'' on pet' 1111 . . . . . . inside. So me or 1his ~ abou l \'ariull' re prt'.\ l' lll:ll OIIS of tlll' r llll Cll UIIS ol l1ll' l ll l lll ~ lll t'Se . . bulls' head~ 011 tht :O,Iinisll'l t~f .\ grindture Food a ncl Fisheric'- a nd the.se _:-.ma ll igns lll'lp 10 maJ...c thel>c more thanjust ;uwn~mou~ ollice blocks. ll mn'H' r, tht ~>nnnu\ r~e is 10 pe rf'u r m ' thc k g itimalc au th orit>' u[burcaucracy. a nd th b is not su_ta~lly dn.n l' .ilh ~u ch spccili c snnbol ~. T h t ..-olid. ge<Hllt' tri cal. II'CII-built.' largc. e lean btuldu1?s ll'llh 11 their impo~ing en trann~ ami unifom1. t q.~ula rlv '.pace~lwtndo11~ ;peak of t h~ nnpm ta n e('. w lidi 11, r;n io nal1~ ami d lic itn 1 i 111 I>L'rso na 111 ~ o f bul'taucra cy. Th(~t a t t a ll 1he cha raClcristi~~ that g iw it k gi tintacy a:-. a 11ay of rulin g. T hc . buil d~ngs tltcn~~ e l~c~ clcmonstratc thL peci'>ion. sp(td, un ambigu it~. J...nOidtclgc ol dw hlcs. con um.lll~ , discrclinn , u n ity, strirt ~ubo rdin : ll i on [ancl] e rti c ic ncy' thal \\'eber sall' a~ ~ l .t : tractc n~ ll.(' of buH:ntcrac1 \\'ha t 11t wan 1 10 add is 1 h:H t h i~ i~ a ma u cr of cu ltural po ltucs m th:u H is pe1 Jonmd: nol o n l~ musl it be clune. i1 mus t be ~ecn t~ bt done. . . . Jt 111 ig lu . 11 -cr. he arg uccl that. jmt as st:Hc lurm ~ a re chang1 .11g 1 11 . th c l c~ t.t: 01111 11,'l'lllitlh ccnllliY, tlttn ~o are fonns of' burcaucracv a nd tht w;11s 111 11'11lcll ll~t'll. pn:sen re is pe tlormecl. ~omc ol thesc i"lll~' art raio;cd in nlat.i on 10 .\1~6 (' l'C Box .~~.. :~: anda lt' lll <Hil'l' a tiSII'l' l' to thesc q ucstion' nng ht not t tlw r ha ng111g na1u 1e ul gl'o pol tllts. <Judimd in llll' imroduc liun abO\'C'. f'rt,ioush-. thl' Rrili'h 't.'tlll ity 'cnicc' ''ere _P' Il.' ol a nalional b u J'l'aUcrac\' :11 1hc Ct'IIIIT ol a ,,orld-11 ide t' lllj)l e. A., a sccret 0 1ga111~auo_n . .\llti ~a 1,. itscl f' a' p lal'ing a clisrrt't'l rok - no Olll' 11 as ~ upptht'd tn kntn, "''.' t'l.'l' Hs hcadquancr" ll't'l'l'- and ,,a~ hapJI' fo1 ih p u blit image 11: be n.prt,t.nttd b1 h~_n_o.n:_l~ ;wcnt,. likc Ja mt, Bond . 11hu ''" a lwroic but huma n ftg ure. carrym g <Hll Bt n.tnl' p7tr post 11 ,: ho~lil< world. Th c n <.:ll' building li t~ in II'lh 1lw n t:\\' postmo.clcnt. (p . 1 00) a rcltilenun ol the Ci 11 of London (whk h. a~ a rc11t1'l' o l f111a11 Cl' captlal. 1 s one ol Brilain '~ lasl daims 10 itllcrn.uional kackr~hip). a nnouncing itsl'll as pan of thc l.ll'"' 1ramn :ll io n a l 11orld. 11 l'tpt'Cscnts 1ht llt'l\' b usiness o l iml'l lige nce. "h ic h ilii'O h'c~ lt tg- h tcch , 11 rl'eill.mcc techniqucs liJ...t ~atl'llile' Uamt'' Boml o,peciali~ed in ~mal l. _ J}l)Cket~izcd gaclgeh) ami B1itain, m " rolt' "'ithin internationalorganisations liJ...~ ~A fO :'ncl th t: L;nite d :\alion!'. ;ntd IIH' lllOIT t'DI IIJ)Iex intt raction o l' dip lomacy, m linar\' 111_ 1 g ht allCi tconomic .lid thal ~lnlClllrt'~ inle n c ntioth in lltl' nt'll' muhipol:1r worlcl cl~sr nhtd abon. 1 h us, louking al this huilcling in re la1inn 10 tht gcopoli tical ~ituation ll'ilhin ) 9~H) whith 1 o w ralc~ ~ lwws ho11 quc~ti u n :- o l rcprl'.'CIIlallOII :1 11 <1 sym 1 >Ortsm <1 - ' . \1'(: 1 instpal<thll' from tho'l' of politira l powt'l' all(l tht " a,s in which it i~ al\\';11'' changmg.

No one knows who will live in this cage in the future, or whether at the end of this tremendous development entirely new prophets will arise, or there will be a great rebirth of old ideas and ideals, or, if neither, mechanized petrification, embellished :Vit~ a sort of convulsive self-importance. For of this last stage of cultural development, 1t m1ght truly be said: 'Specialists without spirit, sensualists without heart; this nullity imagines it has attained a level of civilization never before achieved.' (Weber, 1930:182) Weber held that facts and values occupied radcally different domains, and that science and politics were distinct spheres of activity. But he was not afraid lo becorne involved in practica! action and p~lltical activity (for e~ampl e,_ at the outbreak of the First World War he took up the.p_ ost of Director of Army Hosp1tals, Heidelberg; la ter, he became a critic of Germany's war pohoes and was a delegate to the Versailles peace conference). Weber's analysis of the impact of rationality on the cultural features of modern socielies has been enormously influential on subsequent theorists. His methodological writings, which deal with questions about how cultures and societies can be invesligated in a principled m~nn er, have a contemporary relevance in lighl of their stress on the unavoidably partial and fragmentary character of cultural and scientific knowledge.

Furth(l'reading
Parkin, F. (1982) Mox Weber, Chiche$ter: E llis Horwood. Runciman, W.G. (ed.) (1978) Weber; Seleclions in Translalion, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press:

Bureaucracy and the performance of power

Thc French ,ncial thco ri.'>l J knri l.ell'IJ\ re u nde rstood mo clern ~oc ie li t:~ a~ shaped br a proccss o f 'b urea ttc r:~tisa li o n thro ug h space' ,,hic h ~ubjt'ctecl social li le 10 in crea~ing regula uon a nd s u rntlla nct' ( Cregory, 199-1: ..JO 1; StT al so Foucauh, 1977; Dandcke r, l 990; .md G idcle n~. 1!18:)). T h is is cou pie el II'I h a h l'igh 1 e ned 'bu rt>aucratisu l ion of sparc' whe reby cach acl minislrati\'e ~IS i t' lll maps o u t ils mm territor\'. stakes it o lll ancl signpo~ts it' ( Lc l'e b,n. 199 1: :~S/). \\'hile tht~t: idea$ a lt' usefu l for unckrs ra ndi ng how :tatt.s :Hl mini ~ter socictie;,, 1hc1 can a l,.,o be 1urn ed IOI\'ard.s undcrstandi ttg bure:!llc ra cy ~ lsell. O n c o l. thc i111plica1ions of \\'c hc r's wurk i\ th:n burtauc racies imoln tig ht u ncrnal ~tu H'tllance. and th:u rile puuing into plan of tht'~t' form' of ~ u rl'eillm1ce mean\ a r: trtful allt'lllion to orga nising spact ll'ithin hurcancnuic olli ces (( ;id rkns, _ 19XJ). '!' his. 1hc n, _ is a mattcr o f' how best lo rq~u l ate the fl 01,s of peopk. pape r~ ancl tdea\ ll'llllln a n o ffin lo g t'l th c job d ont: 'burtaucra tisation throu~h ,pact in thc burca ucralk officl'. \\'hcrl' , f10uld ch-parlmc nts 1><.: loca 1 cd? \\'hich o f'fi ces sho uld be open plan. ll'hic h prI':tlc? \\'ha l art tht "corrtn cltanneJ, I(H ptc,ple .md lilt~ 10 go tluongh~ .\ lorc intl'l'l''liug Jlt'l h.tb i, thl' 'bu~t;HICral i,.uio n of ~pace' 11i1hin burtaucrac~. \\'hile 1he mappi ng .1nd ~ 1:1kin g o u t of' L l'l i'ion :1n<l th c t'l't't li un oJ' signp< 1 s l ~ is a usdttlmtwpho r I<H ilu cli1i,ion ol ;uhu i ni~tr:llilt' c~pon~ibilitit, bci\\Tl'll mini,ll it~ or

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24 7

Box

6.3
Ml6 and the architectural performance of power

eureaucrocy ond identity

In parL- quc~ti on " (Ir idc 11tity l p. ~~ 1) II'thin btmaucrat 1 ca n lw un ckr 'toud in 11ll' tcrnlS used ;tbol'c . Tht mappin g a n cl .;i~ npo~ti ng o f' tl' t ri tork' g oes nn as mu c h 11ithin oOICCS aS it clOt'' bt:lll'~'l' ll thclll. ('(l e ~ig naJ 1 ill g' u( hitT:tl'( hin ll'iLh lllOI't' :111(( IIIOI'l' etaboratt' and grackd oflin -.patt''- offict fliiiiIIIt e. ami t1w riwat ... and nrtmouit' of super- and ,ubordin ;uion are l'en lllliCh patl of o 11r cnmnlllll Ctt rrent' o l juke.; abo11 1 what bur~au rr:ns arl' li l-.t. \'e t t h l'~l' i ~S ill'-'; nf ide tllit\ run ll lll<' h d et- pcr than ll'hi(']t '-Orl of wastepap<r bin a Ct adl' :J ci\il 'L'n:mt ha'-.. \'- <... laurlt 1.l'f(nl ( l ~~~()) Jta, a rgucd. Bureaun:H 1 lol'l'' lmn.n1crat' Jl''l '' much '' h url'attcral' lO\ e bunatHT:ttl ( 19~6: 08) ancl om rea,on lnr thi" <.itll:uion is th a t burcaucral ir ~oci e t\ fnrm' a concr~ lt'

nilie ll fro lll\1 h ic h l':ldl lldI'clttal dL'I \t'\ h i ~ Cl\111 i ck-nt I ~, ( l!l~(); 1[ ~\). 111cleed, <1S in all 1 -orkplaet'' lh t rt ,a rc1111pll'x pronss b~ 11lt il: lt the org: nt bati o nal n tltttrt <. hapc~ tlH' 11 idenlitit~ th.n ar<' :11.til.1bk to 1101 1-.tt,, .\~ Pa111 clu C.11 ( l!l~lti) ha' ,(ll)ll'll for tlll' rc lai1 in ~ ,trtor. t h :utgt'' in orga11i,atinnal !01111' (oftt'll a11;11 f'ro111 'btneaucratit or 'rurth o ril:trian ' 111\ldes lt~ll':trds < lll<'~ ; "~ociatcd ll'it lt ' fl e xihil ill'. ami ' trll e rpri,c') ll lt'HII (l;tl llCII' iCil- II II !'~ aJ'iH' 11h ic lt :li'l' adopt~d. l'l'~i,ttcl <111<\ ll t'g'O ti:t tl'd h1 II'Ol'kt'l''- :tlld anagcr ' \ \'t 11l't'cl tt1 \lllclcrsta u d ot gan isatiolh ,111d idt tll i1 it' al t h e 'ame 1intt. Th.ll 111 Ldon dot''\ 'o i11 1 e11n~ of' cla" nwan' that he It as 110 1 illlt''li~ated lht arena in 11hirh

i'\otw u f thl''C' il1 tcrpntations of burlaucratic bui lcl. .. 11 , . . 111 v tltat 1he1 lak< are ahn1 , e ha . l l . _ .-,' " ' '.>e '>laltc. 1 he fonm ' 'nglllg. H' CJllt''-IICIJl 1' 1 1 1 1 1 ~tgn tficant Ol1c~ al1d hOII' lll' mia l1t , 11 . . . 1 ~ 1 ll tl t 1 lcse change~ are ,.., t L1 pt e l 1 IL' IIl F'or exu 11 1 1 1111 tl w so utlt bank o l tltt Ril'<~r T I . ,. . .. _ Jl L'. t tts llt'\1' bt 1ildug Bt itish g'0\'(' 1 lllllt'llt' S 'l'(J'" l ... 'ldll)l( ~ .1( \ o lll ).. lt;lll . 1111 0 ll' hirh .\ll ti (p;ln th c ~ ' ' ~( 1\l(L' rl'(l' lllh lllOI' 1 1.. 11 ' CJILC'-lOI1~ ( (' 'L'' ~0111(' llllt'l't' 'l illg

or

I-IOII' dol'' it d ifTcr fro n t thc tracli ti ona l arch il t'ct lln o . o l a shifl from modcrni,lt1 ' t . 1 . .. bu l t'Htlcran~ 1' 1111~ p a rt , O JlO' l lllO( t' l'lliSIII : \\!t a l do v~ il .-.a~ <~bout a g-m cntllll'll l de )'tl'lllt . 111 11 1 .11 . , . 11 1 ' l'lll itliTt'll l of a llOslllwd , . . . . f 1' ~ ' -' hou~cd 111 ~Ollll'th ina < 111 lu;.ron o a Babdottiu 1 1. 1 .~ \\1 . "' .nllhunll' an being pct fonncd lwn:' l mp < 1a1 rdatton~ of

this has bt'<' ll lllo~ t dra111 a ti c all~ dl ' I IIOit.~lr:llt'cl : ~~ nd c r. r\nne \\'itl and .\ lil-.l' Sal'age l l \l\l~) h:t\'l' c ha lle n gtd t l ~t id ea th:n 11ha1 \\'t IJc l presen t~ i' 1lll' gener:tl lonu of hllll'aut ratir organi.;;uion. ltt,teacl. tht'l argue that it i<. just om 'hi,lwical h .111d 'Pali.tl\1' '-peci fic lor111 of organi,ing' ( 1 99~: :\ ;unong 111,111\' , ~ l oreon~ r . thci rargutll l'll l , tlt al eat h ofl l l<'~to l ga n i ~:ll i n n ; tl form scan bt ste nto 'i'L''l up o n partil'l tl ar gc n ckrcd lounclalioll, ( l!l!l~ : :\} ancl. a' a l'l''ult. th t gt ncle r rcl.lli n n s 11p011 11hich \\'cbcr, 1110cl!'l depttHl~ can lw llll tO\l'l't'cl. lthl t'acl of' hting a malll'l' of tec hni cal dlicienc~. hun.HtcraCI , sctn to bl' .1 mautr ol ,oci.1l rt'lalion' ancl po11er rclation,, l hcy ~h o11 lto11 h it rarch it"' wi thin h tl n'; IIHTarie-' h a\c bt't'll ~t nclt'I Td : h o11 lh t' e mplonmnt ol' II'Oill t'll 11'i1hi11 sttbordi11:tiL', Pl'lln ckrica l. orricl';. was cs<.c nthtl to l{ll:ll'alllt't'llg' lllt-ritonalic ca rt't'l 'Ltttcture'- lor mate bureaurrats. .\lorl'OI'cr. th e, :.lt m' ho11' lht''t' t<llt'L'i'' IH't'l' .ll'<> clepcndent on h.l\ ing .1 11ili. at home lO do all 1he 11ork nccc~sa11 10 'L'IH1tht burc:u 1cr.H ha cl-. to tllt' o lli tt'. dal' a fh-1 dal'. ckan. f'ed . l'l''>tl'll an d read~ fo r ll'ork. Th b ;d 1 nwan::. 1hat \ \'t he r s not iom o t ti Jt ht ll't'<tllc r;u ir c:areer ll t'l' d tn he tlltdt rstood a~gt'tHkttcl. l t :tl'o llll'<lll~ th:tt lll' h:tl'l' lo tlti nl-.carefulh abmn wh.ll thi' gcndering ol burcaunan mean~ for \\ebcr, 'l'll't' of 1\w objtcti' i1' .111<1 rationali11 of

J
Hu naucracic,, IHliH' It'l'. are not ~ lll >h a lll' tl . . . hu na u c ra ts. T h t,e issu c' CJ!' J>C t r. . 1 , llt of offtn~: lhC'I' .tl't' a l"n :tboul o tn t<liiCl c: ut b1 ll'id vnccl 11 1 Cll llll'l' o f hUI'l'<l li CT ICI' . '1 , ore t'l' Lo lll tck-rs t:lllcl lh t . 1 . ' 11 1 ' lillt .u lt' rtth Lo lho'l' 11'' l1 1. . . l . . a t ll~tc for Parlt:un e 11 1 lclt'lllllies. adclre~~i l1,!!. th t' lll . t ;11y 111 lt'l'lll' of '"lit'~ ul icle nt'11 t " ICklliII. ~ .utc p:utt cularh. ~cndt'tTd

such organknional rornt~. Lc t u~ go bar k lo 11hat \\\ lw r call" burta tHTan.-.., ~ pl'ci l i c natll l'l'. a ncl 'sH'rial i tni nation f ro m olflri.tl bu<.i lll' " 1uf ] ltwc. h atrl'd. ancl ti l purc h pt'I'M Htal. 1 in11e . tht l' 1 i1 ration.tl. .111<1 tmotional dt'lllt'llh 11 hich t~ctpt calcul.tt ion ( \\'cbl'r. 1~Hi7: 2-n). \\' ha1 \\\ bn rtkr' 10 "' a pro n''--' wlll'tl'bl burt':tliCI<lC\' lxccIIH '' ' d eh um;ll1 istd' ha' bt'l'll seen b~ tito~<' intl'l't''ll'C I in g-e nder as lltt Ccll1'-lru nio ll of a parlin tl ar !on11 ol' m asr u lini11 ll'hich i' b11i l1 upo 11 iti' l'XClu,iot1 o l t1w p e r ~o nal. tltt ~tx ua l a ncl 1ltt IC miuiiH' . Ra1ional aclmini,lration t.tn onh t:-..i~t if 1ho't' t ltar.ICtt-ri,lir' ton~llllllt'd a' ' masc ulin t .md mtnt:t1 - dista n ct. ohjectil i11 a nd rta,ott - .tre giH' Il ptl'recknn o\'l'r

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249

1 \

thnst r h arac tcri,t ic~ con,tru c tt'd a~ km inine and bodil~ - rJo,tnt'S', com pa~' i o n and tnwtion . T h e imagi n ed b urcaucrat , tht dark-,u ited m.tn 11ith thc tighth rn llcd um hrc lla and th t hridc a..;e. H oll'('\'t' l', this c:tnn o t b e a simpll s(pa ra ti nn o l 1hc ' ln a,c uline' a nd th t ' ft ntininc. F'irst, t lu: ma Je' .-phcre of t.ll it lnal. ol~jeclH' r ea,on a ncl action can on h exbt if a '-pace is maclt for it h, a \d10 le load o l ot lt n ,,ork bcing dnnt. -1 hi' ,,ork b genden' d fl'minine ..-\s Sa\,lg't' .md \\'itz a rguc. \\Oilll'll :ut 'hou~ckc(ping' in the ortice as \\'t'll a, :11 home. 'Tile\ a re far iliwting. clcanin~. tit h ing. bol'lt'l ing, soo thin ~. ~moo t hing o\'l'r. 'llstaining ... rdit,ing m e n of ha,ing to b01her 11 ith thl' lll l'-'~y. un t id y. un prt'dCI ablc budi 1 ~ mude of' l'Xstencc (Sa\'a~e ;ntd \\'i v . 19H2: :2~~). C c nclc r is the re ri KIII al 1h t roo t of b ll rea11c ra cy. Sccond, lll l'll c:n1n o t so ea ,ih e,o,capc th t bod\' ancl sexuality. . \ s \\'C han' alreach ~tt n i11 relation to l';nlianiC'IWin ickntiti cs, tht '"ppmcdh' a\exu.ll a nd unboclih idcntil\ , Olll' that ha, lo be Jll'l 1'01 med conMantl\' "'ing s uit~. ties. pthlltn'' and briefca\t''. llere is ~lalcolm \'o11ng talking about polin: mcn 's bodies: To ll'a lk in10 a pub f'tm ction ruom as 1 ll aH~ oi'te 11 d o ne rlnring 1he ten yea rs 1 11':1~ cnlkn ing flc:ldnote' and to ~ct ,,,o or thn:c humlrcd de t ec til't~ in th c it uni for m ' ul llHldcrn ~ llit and tit. ll t':tl llaircut. a nd th t l:t~lliollab le m uu~ t arla o l the times. i~ tn bv ,.,j))ly rvminckd th.ll thert i~ a narrm1 '' 111bu lit r.lng-e of bndih rm rcctne ' 11'lhin 11h it h all policcnwn r.tn pmperly opnatt. (Yonng. 199 1: :t~) .\, ,,ith l':uliament , en tn into organi<.:ltion:-. lih thc p ol ict i ~ re . . tricted h, cu ltural fanors ll'hich are huil1 in10 burcaucratic l( mns Df o rga nis:11ion. lndced, e\e n whcn Jll'rft'(' tl y p crfo rm e d it , 1\lll ac ll!all~ :tn asex11al ide 111ity but a panic ular lllCJtk of sexn;t lity th aL is constan tly used to gain :ut cl m a imain power II'th in tl lC' o rg-an isati o nal stu ing. l\lic ltae l Roptr ( 1H9 Jl. clisc u,,in g hll-.i1H',~Illl'l1. ha' a1gued that th e IJnl't';tll cratic lif'e i~ a ,.i,iclh' tmotional onc \l'lwn hond-. and di\'bion.- lwt\\'('<.'n men - mung ancl olcl - anmate '''OI king lins \la a '1ruggle to maintai11 a ,ufficien tly ma . . culinc icltntit': an identity th a t, it lllli'L be notecl. i' ;!'scnin~ l" h elL'I'OH'Xwtl ( mcn ,,h o c\e,irc ll'lllllt' ll) ll'h ile operat i ng t h rough IHmH NH' ial ( llll' ll 11h o ,,ork 11 i l h m en and cxdudc Wlllll t' ll fro m th t" 11orlcl ot' ,,ork) rc la t \lll'- h ips. In th inking abou l \\' )1\ :t ll this i~ th c c:t,l:. ll'l' c ltarh- nnd 10 o;ituate it witilill th c cultural strug~ks ror pOII' t.r 11hic h are thc 'tlll'f' ul n d1ma l politics. J' hcrc are g~' lldtr('cl pOI\l'l ~,uuggles in the of'lice 11ithin 11hich idcmitico; are a ,,tapon ..-\<. much "' i11 thl' 'Pht ~t of fonnal poli tic~. this nl'oh'c' bid' (or legitiman w ri\ il '-OCict~ (or the puhlic) wthin ,,h c h tlw cnnnt.ctcd perronnanCt.''- ni ma,cul i nit~ and ol~jert i,it\' are crucial. ( l011't'\'Cl'. lcg itimatioll , 1101 -.imph a OIW-\,ay -.trtl'l. Thorn<~s (),bollrne ( 1 9~1 "1 ) l'll'l''-SCS thatt ll ose in,o ll'ed in bttiTa u c rac~ a l-.o ll mv to r omince tiH:' IlHt.' h't' tll :n th c\' :t l'l' lit to nllc. llc suggesh tlla t tllt' quc$1io n th<tt '''t mtd toas k,: ' \\'h a t do 1h o '-t' \dlO ruk lt;li'C todo to iltl'l/1.\l'h'l'.\ in oHk-1 to be able L\1 rule?' In :tt1'ii\Tring thi-. cuc,tion in ltTill~ of thc dt\'l'lopme nl ora C\'il 'l'nC<.' in Britain tlunugh the 1\'onh co te-Tre\Ch~lll Rq>o l l of IR.11. IHl>hcm, hm' compt.ti lin t'Xamination-. 1\'l'rt' 11sed lillt h t.linu time 10 legitimatc 1he aut h o rit ,. of th e bu rea n cran b, clewloping a senw of ,ocat ional 1111 i l\. an attacl lmtnt to awidn puhlic (who ro ul d takt tlw cxam' il tll (~ w;tntcd. and mi g lll t'\'CII p<~'~ il' th e1 had a cl;1''ic'" l c clucati on} a nd a pa n ic ular nwck o t' m asc u l ini t ~ (11'11iclt

o~bomne calls ' 11111'-C'lli:lr libc ra lism ') ll'hic ll maclc th em ft'el 1 1t lO goH'rll. .-\s Lnrcl Ashl e~ p m it in IHl..J: '11c llllht h ;wc noblcr. dcqH'r, stcrncr ~ tul T: ks~ orrefi n c m t' lll :tncl

o f tr uth: m or\' oJ' th t ln,ard. and Jc..;~ uf' th e lllll\l'ard g'L' Iltl( m a n : a ri g id ~t n ~c o l' ami nota d e licatt ~tn~t of honour' (c uot e d in Osbnunll'. l !I~H: :'06) . That tllt rootin g of this in th e cla.;~ics bound l W a J)ili'IClllar c);~, .111d tha t thc examinalOII ~1 lt'lll had been fi 1'' dc,cJoptd in lkiti~h India a' pan of a raciali td bureaucr< ui c ~tl'lll ~~~'l'~~c~ that cla". ran aiHI gcncler are again bound to.(ethcr in the,e i,..ue~ of 51 burt.tnc rati c identit~. \\'h.11 arl' th e cw,t-. ol t lt i~ ma. c ulini ~ati<> n oJ' hme;lllcrati c idc1ni n i- C<Ttainh lor \1 oll1('11 it prcse nt~ a rrnc ia l problcm in lc' l'lll' o { th e ,,.a,s 11 ~<11 tl tt' \' can npera tc ll'itltin suc h organi~atiun~. . \' S:l\agc ;111d \\'iv ':11. thc~ han tt pcrlomt a partinll;n h prohlcmatic idcmit\. ont tll:n i' ~enckrcd but IHll ~exu.tli-.td: tl1t'\ mu~t bch.1w Jike n1c11 but 1101 be 111l'll .111<1 hdtaw unli kt 1\Ulllt'll and \el lw '' >llll'l1. ( S;l\'<l~t' and \\' itl. 1 !19~: ;):l). Therc a r e .d-;o ,,h.ll '''~' mightthink nl ,,, co~h lo llll'll (.dthough '''C 111\l'-l .d-.o bc:tr in 111incl tlw hctwlit~ tli t'\ s1a nd to gai n "' lllt'll l'ron1 tlll' p1onss ) throug h th l Ji k tllat a re: Clll11 1('l'll'd ( 1) b u reaucra tit \ llt'('S. Finallr. \l't' lll' ( d cirru llh Crihcd rnrm~ to think about th e ctll ir al costs o !' n1a ~c:u lini scd bu rea u crati c ~~sttm s whic h emp ha, ist ol~jccti\i t r. rati o nalit\' anclclfic ic:ncl abol'l' a ll c lsc.
1110 rc
dut~

or

Bureaucracy and ethics

In hi~ inn. stigatio n s th e ll ulocau<,t tlll' sociologi.;t ZygnHIIll B:ttllll:lll ( l 9HV) h as bcgnn [ 1) ()lll''-lOil thc t lhic, of' burea uaary < IIHI lO ~ tres~ tJ w \\',1>'~ i11 11'hicl1 it is ah k 10 sikn rc mora li 11.. \ gain . ]j, ;ug unwnL 1'1111' agai"'' \\'cbn'' ~ in cc i'o 1 lbuman lm rtallcr.ln , no1 llt'lllral. it , po.;itilt>)\' clangt'lllll'-. 1k ;ngUL'' tllat tllt nwtiudom h11H tion a l dhi,ion ni l.d>olll' ,111cl thc rcplacemcnl oln1oral rL~pon,ibiliL\' h1 a pure h tetlllliral lc,pothibilitl (~t'li II !{ tlll' job done cflicienth) cli.;tann, hlln':lll(l';ll' lmm thl' lin ,1l prodnc t-. oJ th e hlllt':tll< r:nic proce"e' ol 11 hit h thtl :t lt' a p:trt. l lw' hl't o na COil(l'l'll ed 011 )\ H t C ll'l'\ 01 11 tiH' order~ tlt <tl COilll' f'ro111 aht lit'. hdin ing t lt .ll tll i' al>~o i Hs lh tm uf llH ll':11 r~, p on~i hi l it \' lo r tll l'ir :H ti n n ~. TJtj, nw:111' t h :t t tlll'\ n nh p ;11 a tt t'IH!lll ltt )l\1\1 'lllllnth h thtil pa1tnlll 11 prnn" "Jlt'l:t ll'' 1at ll t1 i11;111 nln,ickriii,L!; tltt li11a l llllllllllH'~ .md tlwir rc,pnn,ihilit~ 101 thtm. The1 i>t'lllllll' imtdatt'd lnlln tllt l'l'~ul h of 1l1eir art ion' I'.I 1he 'll'llCllll e oiiHIIt'all('l~l{ ,-.m d. ,,, .1 1t''-1 d t. 1ht'\ < <111 operalt' in ,, J.mgu.l).{l' of rational and techniral dlit itnn 11h ich nnh Lonrenb itwll 11ith setm ing h neutral llll':l'\ll'l'' of erticit' llt'\ .tnd \\th rational inp11 t-outp1n equations. \\'ltat , bei11g d ea lt II'th - a nd in thc case that B:HIIll:lll is con rtnwd lo imcsli~aLL' it i ~ pcoplt b c ing tra n sporttd lO dc a d1 camps ;md th c n kille d on a ltu K(' sc;tl c - lx com cs less imponant th a n tlta t th <' process opnatc~ cf'licienth a nd n>,t-trt<:cl ively. Batlnl a n ~ argumcnt is. therefore. th a t th e~e proct'SSl'S bring ,,ith tht'nt a 'dl'lnlln <lllisation o! tit e ol{jccts of bureaucratic act ion' ( Ba um an , 19H9: 1O~ ). In the hurc:Hit'r<ll' forms. leclgtr<;. graph<; ancl accounh, peoplc heconw unit' to be proce~scd. no dill'erent rrom pig iron or potalocs, ami no1 pnt e n tial sul~jc:cts of m oral ckm a nds' (13auman. 1989: 10:1). For il< HII nnn. bttrca u cracy. in i1s pursu it rationa lit\' :tlHI cfficic n c\, sikn rcs m oralit y. ,\ s a rcsu lt h e can po inlto th L hurcau crats ll'l1os<' <1( ti o n s 1110\'e cl 111illions of.Jc\\s thro 11 ~h tit e

or

or

250

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Politics and culture

251

. th.tt 'l>tt lta c , cy nllwar ') ~ c m lo tll eir dt.uh' in ( .erman' :md l'ol.tnd .uul .trgne . 11 1 1 1; 1adc rlw 1 . \ncl it 111:uk l in ih il\1'11 illt: lge' ( H.t ltlll: ltt. l !lHH: IlFt). /le::

lloloca 1~1.

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0 I IH ll'or ld or Cll llllla l po li ti <' ,, lllnl\-c:-, <lll''linn, ol P<'JICIIIII:\11( l', idt'lllII 111<) C::lhics

\\'lticlt cu111ot :.imph ht nncltt '>loocl .h m.u1e1' o l lt't llllicd t.tllon.tlitl . 1 ha 1 tlj, t l lll' of <r tltc r are n a., crl ' i<ttt dCI I' II. p.tninl l.trh ll" < trl :ll l'. 11<11 11 cvd' t<1 IJt' t'\ ]!lfll't cl.

i~ <~lso

6.2.4

Performing state power

lf.tl ing l',\ fl lo r('d tll l' flll l'\ l )JI or 111<' JH'I fnn .tiiCl' ol po\\tT ll 1d.tll()Jl '" P.uli.llllt'lll;ll) poli1ic.., .md blltt':ttttr:H ic .tcln1ini,tt.ttiot1, IH' 1\.tlll ro .t lt(lll' t lt.u ir , .,l'fl in undcr-

ad111ni.~tr:uion
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to llltclt l ,l:t nding lt<JII'

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~t;ll t'~ 111:\lt:tgv 111 ll'gi ti ut,Jit iltl'il <'-'lt'll'ilusc ~lllri111g- """ pani.tl lllt'w JH'tloJm.tnu, .11c . p.trtic'".~g~~r al~o

ul:n h-in lt'lllh ol gtllcltr. md hcl\1' 1e''' 1iu i1 t' 1ltt'l ;1rl' i 11 11'1'111\ "' 11lt' id t'll l i 1i< .., 1lt: 11 1he, ol/ir .tlld t lt t' nwr: dilic, t l1 :11 iltl'l ('l't' W< 1n11 1. 11. h11:tlll. it 11ill lltcau thiltking .lblllll he m lltt''C' ( ultural ( I.JII" lo )>111\('1 o lll' ( h:tlltIJgtcl 011 e txrdlent ting mint lo1 .t o l ' ' l1 .1 1 11 1' mi,t.: lll c tll 1111' e bt'lll't'l'll lilrtll itli"n (lf lt' 11 1.t h.i11g "' \l<t lt' pcmct) .lll(l 'n d uJ t :il polilit, , tltt 1rork ol' Pe l<'r Corrig;11 1 .111cl D e~ck ...,:1\tr:

. . -\ ' tht' a nth ro l ll illl' Jll' l llllll1.111ll. , \1~ C , l rd ' J' llll'I :tCl OII '> 111 ' 1\ thtJ' t'Xl~ll' I H'l' ,111 ( O t ti . l' hln Jll' ll_ . . . 1 Jnnlitit' ami appuntnamc' 10!-:1~1 ' 'TlllOIIIt'~ lll'lg llt,J. 0 ' l' ( . po ' 1 . colltt tion ni ''"''t'' u:l . 1 . . iuruion ,. lllelll<'< ( l' t' ll/. 1~ o .1 . lll' l'l' \ () 1" )1111,\ 1\ ' rern . 1rll e l' I h e t i 11 h e ri ttd nr. 111 IIH ' h . l't 1hc, l' di IL' ' arl' as ilt l' Cl' llli'C'. 1 .,, dw' ' 1 rult st l'n ' 0 lll.ll " 11 1 1 1he ''' , 1. J'l-l ' \lltll t,t . 1' 1 ltt11>oJi,ill" l q~,) - ,.. 1 , . ... ll', ;lll(' "' tltt J'l'OJ>k 11l'll' 1"' 1 . .1 ) , .... -, .,, llw 1>1a<t wht'll' 1 tl' po1l l r . 1 c lt' ltl1 <lil J te a u thol 1.1C lu ,,.n~ , t lt ll~l' \\ H) S\'111 JI 11 ::: J )11 t t 111!\Jl,ll'Ch ' . IIH \H lll g' , 1 1 1'01"11 ' . , 1, ht' ll e l''l l rJ ~l'\'eral t'X,IIII[I l'' 11 ' u l. . th ritl . C ttJ tt ,,orks t liiHLh . 1 . l - Quttn F.1itahtth , forlll t l.ll .tu u 1 1 . riw t' ' !ltat tht'' t .11111 1 p_t' 1H . ' llll rlt'l' llth-<'ell tll l'l' J:ll a illld '' (1 0\lllll.,, m.uh h' mcll1:tldh.lrtlllll< 1 1 1 h\"1111 \\111 \1 " 111 \ . 1 tll' d 1 , . th c t'll i\I IY l n g a11 c in , . x ttt lt . _ :O. I .' . ..-o _ 10 ~hu 11 110 11. t ltt.,.111 tn hl pttlonn . po 1 . h . l\IIt' lt'l'l1hU' Ill llll ' 0 1<H . .. , rJtj, , ,tJ,o tlll' ,,.;11 111 11 1lll H a'>.lll tll 1 ., 1' "mbohcalll t.tnu., . , 1 1\)J I ' L ' ., , lll [>l'l''l' ll\ilg llH'Ill'l' \l ' ' , . , (tclbt'lll't'l'll J \)1)/'i ;IILC plll.' 111011\lllll' lil ' ll" l!l'k, T he .l':il.ll'l' . a l th (' l' ll d o r tltl . lt r 11 11' Qut'l'll- 'l<llt< h 111 11'0 111 o l h. t1 1"1.. . 1 ' ) \ltlll" IIlh dw Pal.ltC:: 11 Jl\( 11 1.1 1 . 1 . ' l ht'l' J<T(Jil l. t ;-, 111( 1 1>0 I11 llltl'rt' 'l'll'l':1)1ll<1Jtll' l():l( 'llllC. :"' tlli'U\Jtfh (:11 ka '\1 anc :11 ' 1' . . r ni tllt 11.1liOII ,.. 1 11 1 nrt o l tiH' lll:t rki n g ol't lt l' 111 lll te_ n i . \ <r ll lckur an d m ,,.,., o l "lltl>o li c li gttrt'' 1 ll' t he II ll t'IL'l'tllh ll' lll ttt'\' ), 1111 ilft.'' 1\tll '"nholic lt ta<l. Tlw ll:t\., . lll<llllot.tl III\ll'' Jt,Hlltl' 'l:lll' J [' , . 011 tllt o l 11101\lllllt' lll llll[><lll.lllll , . . , [ d , Crtl c 1l, J l l' lt.: tll t . \\., ,< . 111 .) lll b . ' ' mbolt ~Jn IS g t 1H t 1<:
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"it.tlt~. il ll lt' p1 111 ))(' lorg ilc 'll . la/,; tll t' d iTa ll c 1i11 1af, tt l .1co u1 1ol l:111 . i111 fe JI lllltl:w 111 1eH; ti a~~l'll l lo :11 1 \n rt{ l'.ll li:tlllt'lll. 1 j,ih o{ '1 hoolui'Jin ,.,,.,, .lit' .111 ' '"<'1111'11". 1ht'l ddi111'. i11 grl'.ll dtlail. .tttl'Jli.lhk lotnh :tllcl ,, "'<i.tl .u 111111 .1 1111 incl i,id11:d .111cl cnlln ti lt idt'IIII\ ; lli tl ' "i.: lll.tt ... lllll t lt - 1<'1"1 111 11c lt . ln iltt lllt'II I ctlt !"l'llll ll l o f ~oci: d lil \. l nd l'cc l. in llii' 't'lht '! li t .'-tl:llt llt"lt'l ''llJI' l.dh.iu.t.: .

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In o 1lwr ll ol'cJ,, 't:tl t'' IJ :II'l' lo " "t'l' l tlt l' il' lt-git illl.tCI. aucl Oll\' pl.llt' llhl'rt tllt' ''lit' k e t')l' un .tltd on :llt l' aho111 t[j, ,in tlw 'ilt't'h. l h thi,tcnt loict t.lll lw ' ht .11cl '. m

cit~

rath<T h ''lll'lllt'llh l:ll1 he '<'1'11 . i11 iltl' llllllllll1ltn., 1h :11 i1 :t ll cl lll,I II I,III' ( I)( )ti(Iil_li llt t' IJ UI'l'itll<'l <l( i(' h n iJflin g .' tJ i, < ll"t'd ,ti JO\('), ' ) ht''l' lli OI\ lllllt'llh gil' lllt,IJJ ing lo Ctnaill. :lllcl cul'i"ulh ,dcnnl. gtoup'. ithtiutitrn'. peopl<. plaq , .111<1 t' lt' lll'. l11 tlw tht'\ al,o mol:t group., , J!< 'II[J ic- ancl '" 1111 h. ' tltc m

t'l'l'C l~

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in~tittllion,, ~~-~"' So.

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Monuments and the markng of centres

Politic:tl pollt'l, '" " t ktTp in rJtj, l'ltaptl'r. lllll '> t lw Jlt' l littln n l. l 11 on lvt !1 11' it LO ht lw :1 r ndil)lt pt'l fiiiii J:tll u ( Jj, , p.ttth-

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(~toll. l!l~IOJ.

Figure 6.4 London.

The Victoria Monumenl,

252

lntroducing Cultu ral Studies

Politics and culture

253

rac ing Bucki ng h a m Palace (balan cing t llC' Sta llle o l' \'iCioria 0 11 th e o lh cr side) ~ a \\'Olllan Sllc kfin g <111 in fanl. \ 'ino r ia is L il t ' 11Joth n' of til t ll illOil. Jt also marks th is p lace a~ the centre of Empire. Each of th e gatt'' thmugh ll'hic h \\'e tnlll't pa'' to approac h th c monumetll ha~ it gatepo~t, i11scri becl ,,ith th e n ame of an imperia l domi11ion: South .\fri ca. \ \ 't-.t :\fri ca. AtiStralia, Cfmada. th t .\ l aJa\ S tate~ a nd ~o o n. Thm. tht 11atio n a nd tiH: empin: :~re .seen to han th (' sa m e ce ntre. T his is 110 1 Pa rli a nwnt, t h e ll'ar o rfi ce or thc colon ia l ollice. b n t th e mo n arc h ~ :111d . more ~peci fi('a ll ~. Q ltt'l'll (and Emprt '>~) \ 'ic to ria. Th , wm bolic 111al'l.. ing i' a 'lattmcnt a h o ut powcr (p. 9-1). monarcll\'. nation ancl t:mpitt' ''hit h pre'>l'llh a paniculat \Tr~ion of ho'' tht' are t el.tttd .

Monuments as portia/ performances

In i11t <:t ptTting tn ontllllc'tll'-. a' with a ll n tltur:tl ani fach , need to bl' aware ol tht panialit' of tltt' 'tatetncnh th at thl'\' ntakc ('ee abo tiH' di'\C u!>~ion o l building' in stct ion U.X) . Tht'\' arl' ro tl '' t'li Ctl'd b~ rert a in gro ups. p eo ple or i 11~1 i tul ion~ lor cet t.ti 11 pttt pose ~ ancl, li ke a ll .m 11 bol - or mean in g--lacle n ol~j cc h . 1h cy prese n l p:1 11ic ul:11 Y il'\\',\ holl' Lhi ngs <1 1'(.', T h th , L h l' Victoria 1110 1 1llll1Clll tri c e! [() kgitima tl:' l} l 'i ta in '~ imperial po\\'er. lndt:cd. if ,,e ca n revea l rile pa tti a lil\ of tltese 'latCIIIl'11t \\'C ca n cliffust some o l the po\\'er that rtsts in lllaking a pania l ,,orlckiew ~ecm likt thc ,,a\' tha t the world real{) i,. flwn: are plcmy of txample~ of rl'ad ing\ of monumenh th:n ' l't.'k tu n,cal th e i;. pania l i 1 ~ b~ tm con :ri n g tlt t' '""Y~ in \\'lt ic h tlw ir symbo lb m is sh aped b~ class, racc , ge ncle r a n d 'cx tta li t\ : for l'X<u n ple. Da\' id ll arvey's rcacling of' th c Sacr Cocur in Pars as a n a nti-rt,ohttioll:try '1\lllhol ol' con,CT\':IIi\'t' Ca th o lic ~ l o narc his m ( l lar\'l'l, 1 9~5a). or ~ lari11a \\',ittlcr'' undt:r,tancling of :-\t''' \'ork'!> S tat u c ol Liben~ al! thl' .taming u f a po\\-erl'ul ftJn.tle ,,n1hol ni l l'\ohlliol1.11\' clta ngc i11 to a ~t a id and matrottl~ llgurt (\\'il rt ll'l. l !li4.1). T \> bril'l' cxamp les " ill ~ t tl licc hen. l lw1 lm th co ll rtTll il lt' ''';l\~ in ,,h ir h gt'll rll'l' \\':ts use rl b, t lw t;11J, 1 1\'t' tt tit th-ccn ttl ry Hri 1 i ~l1 \ late tu cli't' ll'' ,,arf;lrl'. .\dm iralt' .\rc h. b u ilt in 1\ll ll. 'lands .11 th c o th l'l l'IHI o ( th l ~la ll fro ttl thc \ 'ic turia lllcllttlllll'lll .11td io; thc t' llltann lo itlront lt a lalgar Squat t'. T lw conc;l\t' ( ~l.tll l ,de 11.1, 1\\u alle~ot ira! 'l:tllll'' on l'ithn t'IHI. Onl' teprt'~l'llh 'gt ll liH' t~ . tht otiH'r ' na\i~.ll ion'. 1 he 'tatm ,,m,n itl Fig ll rt 11 ..) i, g tt lll lt' t'\ ..-\;, \O II ca n .\ l'l' . 1hc prac ti r l' of lit ittg t ll i'~ i l es l'ro111 o r a t ~ hi ps a l o;c a i' rt' l)l't''t' n tcd b~ a 1\'tJ II Hirt . .\l o r e i111 po n a n th . tite <lco;uucl \'t ptnl'l' r e> 1 ti te: Bt i 1i'h :-\a\T i~ rq>rc~L' tllcd IJ, a maternal fig ltt l': a nH 11 1ter 1\'1 10 l r.tdk~ .t ranno11 in htt atlll' ,,, il it wcrl' a ha lJ\'. 13, prt''t.'llli ng guntwn a' a lll!llht:t. tht ,,Jluc m.tkt~ .t ''at<mc11 1 about 11arfare ,,, a 11<11ttr.tl ac tio n . a nd o l thc naw ,,., a p 1c>tectin ~ force r;llhLT titan an ag-gnssi1 l' institlltiun b11ilt 11pnn ,iu le ll<.'l'. h a lso ;11ake~ st a tt rn c n ts ahn11 1 \\'Otn c n s ro les \\' th in t lw n a ti o n-s ta tt wh ic h re in force 1h e pa ni a l role g i\'e n lo th c 111 as carers for a n d mo tlt er' o f' the nalio n n 11h e r th a n th c o thcr poli ti cal roles tl1 c' might adop t. \\'omcn. ,,hu an: :.u pposcdh 1111luck, aboard s hip. a re e xcdknt mate ria l 101 pattial statemtn t ~ .tbom ,,h at t h o<;e ,,arships do. A 1110 IIlll11 t' ll l et-cctcd lo Edith Can JI ( 1t!li.?- 1915) ~1and~ n ear Trafa lga r Se u are in Lo11du11. l t , o11c of th e ft' ll' sta ttll'S LO a '''c> m a n in th c c it\', Edith Cmc ll \\'as a n urse wh o traincd i11 Englancl anclmmld to Bclg iu n t i1 1 190() 10 hci> c'tablish a train i11g sc h o o l f r nmses. \\'h (n 1' a ' bmkc 0111 in 19 1-1 hcr , ,hool becanlt.' a Red Cro~' hospital treati ng

,,e

nr

Figure 6.5 S tatue of Gunnery on Admirally Arel\ London.

b oth .-\llkd a nd C:ttntan p t i'otut ' .' ' thc 1\1 iti'h and Ftt'tll'h lotTl'' IH'tt' P'"ltl'(l h. u k late th:tt \l':tl'. it hnantt' a pl:trl' 1dtet'l' .\ll itd "1ldier' ti\ttg te> l''ntpt 'onght relngt. l~di th Cmt. ll ht l )l'clt lu nJ. Fc H thi' slte ,,;~ arrcstt'd. lw ld in 'nlit. arY rt Hili llt' tllt' lll. trild b\' n C e m 1a11 cn11t'l nt al'li < tl o n tl tt.' basi' of' h tr ''Tittc n l'<>l1 f(:~s i n t l , a n d 'l'll ll'llted lu d~a tlt. Sltt. " 'a' ~lto1 al~ :1.111. 0 11 1~ O c tubl'l' 1~~ 1:) . S h t rapi clh hl'ranw a tll<lll\ t . Slw a J,o hC'came a '"nbol ol thc inhtun.IIIt\ ol tiH' t'lll' tm. Tht' llt'tt )lH''ented ,,, 1wople \\hu \\'o 11lcl nnt onh t'Xl'tllle a 11'0111;111 btll a ll'< llll:tll fnr " hom. '' the D it/1111/fll\' of .\ alirmal /JioKmfii!Y puh it . 'Chat ll' :t n d tlil' !k,in lo :1icl tlw di stn~~~ cl \\'e re tht tn ai n,prin ~s o l h l'r lik .' T ltt' mon u mtn t (sn h g m t (i.l'i) prt''t' tll' ltl't' i11 a parlic u lar 11 : 1~ . 11lt i<1t :tgai ll con nect'- ll,trlal'l', J.!.'l' llCkr ancl 1hl' n at ion:-l:tll'. Eclith C:anll i~ p rt,tntl'cl '' ,, p:uticuh\1 .. wt o f \,oman ..1 fig11re th.u 1.;1.11t' rltt'\\'dl't (w l ki n ~ ahnul Llll' rnh u r;tl pe~litit ' uf ( ;ttman ma'c u lim militari'm in tht.' e;u 1\ l\\'l'llti(' t h Cl'll l llr\ ) has c;)fl'd tlil' .,,hill' 111lt'~l . rhi~ , :1 m ;tlt itlt<l.(l' e~( IIW perft'CI 1\'0 ttla ll: so pct f'tt'l tha t n u ll'o m a n ca n l'l l'l' liH up te > it. T h l.'st' :t l't ,ist l' rs' am l ' di~ i nren ed '"l'ttlwans \\'110 are. lo r th l''t' ,ofclicrs . 'iltt l'"t' tl tia l cmbod inlt' lll ofthti r r ecoiling 1t o111 .tll ttoti<. thrt;Hcn ing 't'xu;tlit' (T htlldcil. 1~IX/: 1~.- 11) .11tcl whnsc purit~ i~~~mboJi,l'cl b\ tiH' ,,hi ttunilonn. 1 ht'\ ~hart 1\'ith mothcr' alcning. r;tring ,idt l th a t] i' pml'cl in oppmition 10 a r o lrl . di o; l;ttll l\' lieroic ,j<Jto' (1 h t' l\'t'lt-I. 1 \1~7: 101) . T ltis im:tgl.' 1\':t' u 'cd by ho tlt tlw Bri 1i' h an cl th e (;t' l'l11 :111 ' in tit e Fir~ 1 \\ 'orld \\'a r (a nd !)(' rore ai1Cl ~ i lt't') tu ~pn 1 'olclitr' o tl a n cl 1o ju,til\ t lll' pnni .. lt in g (a11d killing) o l '''OttlCII ,,ho,t p olitical atul tlli litatY artinn' made tltt'lll ' intpure . 11 i~ \\thin thi'

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lntroducing Cultural Studies

Polilics and culture

255

1he n . is a m o nume nt n u t u mu c h 1ll a real woman as lO ;111 imagt" o f' thc '11h itl' also a lll OII Uille nl that s uT~Sl'~ ho11' Edith Ca1ell i" ltss impunant than tlll' va lucs ancl nw r a li tits th a1 ~ h e mi g h t ill,pi 1 c in the n:uio11. lnst eacl o J' I II J ) (Jil.~ :1 p cciCl'l<ll . ~ h t is bac kt.cl a nd c)\'e r,h ad o wccl b~ a grc \' q~ n ~ b lc ~t. k IJearin g tl11 " nrch Fo1 Ki nK and Cmntn anc\ t h e pron ollnt.cment Patnt.HI'lll '' IHH l" IHHigh 1 llllht h:I\C 110 ha1red o r bill t.'l'lll''' for an\Oill' ..1 '''1lt'I11L'Ill th.n cl.tim'i th e moral hi!.(h grouncl for a moralist.d Briti'h pa t rin t i~m b\ oppo-;ing it 10 t h c '-llppo~ed l ~ 'hlincl' p al r io ti'm o f th e Gt. lma n s. Fi n a ll~. th t m o lllllllt' lll i1' ca pwd ,, a n allegorical ll'oman <illcl babl'. T h e bab)' i' protcCtl'cl by t h l' m:H c rnal ri g urt. \\'hile ~ h e alsn gaLeS illl () th e
nur~c. lt is
di ~l all r'l'.

'flti ~.

\\'e 11ant 10 rc ad thi" lllOIItlln t' nt as a p ubli c sta te nH' Ill a b cnll 1h e co nnec ti n n of 1h t. 'll'hitt.' n mse' allC I mot h er 10 th e n atinn . ' l lw II H'I110r ial tn Eclith C.I\Tll ope ~lll'' a' a con mned set of '"m hoh wh irh work 10 j11,1ih patrioti-;m .111d th t ,,ar~ fou ){ht in h n:lllll' thru u gh tlw .p nwn la ti on o f cen .li n 'orb nf femak llg ll rt'' ( n u r sl"' amln wtht.r,, both I'L'al a nd a lleg-o ri cal } and tlll' ,inul'' 1h :1 1 lhl'l'. a ll(\tht" rl'fllll' th e n:nion, a n" sairll o stand l'or. 11 prese n ls .1 l't' l') pan inii'l'll' of'll'ha l ll':trf'art' 111i ~ htnH: 111 :md . like tht Sl:ll lll' of' g llnlll'l). thissta lc llll'lll h~ the ~ l a l l' ~l'l'l' l 'l' l ~ c i i TUillSUihes t h c p o li1ita l po!'ilio ll!' lh a t II'OIII t' n can a d o p t in re la lio n lo lh(' n:tl io n . ila s ial (' and 11 ; 11 !'a re.

Chol/engng monuments
Figure 6.6 Monument to Edith Cavell.

gL'IHkrtd c u ltu ral polit in. o l wa rfart that Eclit h C:anll ha~ w he 111 1der tonel. lor thc C:tnn.lll' -.he ,,a~ a 'P'. an L'\ il \loman 1d10'-t' po,ition as <1 11111 '<' m.ICk he r c1 inw :tllthc ''or't'. Slw h ad to lw 'h ot. For th e Hri1 i' h ht'l ck:11 h lll('a n t th.u ~ h t rou ld be prewn ted :1\ :1 lll:ll'l\TCd .,,hilt> nlll'\l'. a mi IH'l imagL' ll ~l'cl ID rlt'lllnll iSt' th l' C tTill,\11 t' ll l' lll ~ ror dwil inhumanit\. Propag :mcla pit:t u re ' ~lloll'l 'cl :1 lllll'~t in ll' h itt u niform ld ng clt:u l lac k-cluakc d 'ktlt' lllll p l.tl'td lh t piano h e hind h e r. Th t k g tncl re acl : 'Thc ll'hik a l> 1n111 dt 1 o f \ 1iss Canll in ~ pit'' CL'r ma n .. 1\'ul/u". l'ht lllotlllllll'lll . d t,igncd 1 1\ . ir C tolgt Frampton. panicipatc:. in th is lorm ol rq>IL''t.'I\ U tioll. 1 k r pmt. cap t un~ tlw 1110 ,j<(c~ t h at Tht'lltkit t.t lk~ aho u t: ,ll' , p 1t''t'll tec\ ,, both cari n g a n d d istan t h IH' I oir. 1 h (' JllO IHIIIH'Ill rarri cs tlw '"" d ~ ' ll n111 :1nill'. ' Denll io n '. 'Sac1ifl n :n1d ' FoiiIIHk' and th e in,tri pt ion 'Fa i1hflll 111110 lk :nh ' ll' h ir h re pl':ll tllis d u a (i,lic m tssag l' . ;\ lo st im port:~n lly, lht 1 1 hitl' ll ess of lhl' Slii iH' r hose n f r hl'l' ~la lll t' IIOI'KS lo 111:1kt ht' l ill lll a 'whilt' IIIII'St''. l1 pe r(I ' In .~ thb gencltln l id tnt i l~. T ht :-.lalm, ldii t'llt'" i' '>t' l o ff \)\ th t grt' g ~on l itt bar k~ro u 1HI mud1 lll OIT clramatic;lll\' 1ha11 it ,,ould ht b' t lw '"~ . li t i, lllt.'lllOI ia li,ed hen "'a whi tt' lllii~L . lt i' . IHIIH'Il'l'. ,,onh poiu1in~ n 111 t h a l. ,,, '' ith tht. exa m p le ol \ lidla<l lnot \ d ollw, a bol'l. 1 1 'h a1 i' im ponant i' 11 111 ~o m uc h ,,h a l slll' anu a lh 11ore. b ut h n 11 ~~~ l' "" rt" prt'Sl'lllt'<l. In ; ICl. m ns t phut o~raph ~ uf' hl'r show h e r in llw dark ~ uit 1ha1 ~ h e 1\'ill't' as rlirt.ctor Df t lll' trainin g- ~1'1111o l rat h c r 11ta11 iu a nur~e s 1111if'orm.

\\'e h:11e .1rg u c d tha1 , t,Ht'' a re co n1liii : IIJ ~ ><' I'Iillling- thci1 p o11 e 1 in a tt L' Ill(>h 10 t' lai 111 au thori11 illlrl l q~itin l aC\' . \'l'L th i' dot'' not go un c halle n gld . \ lo iiiii1H'lll\ :11c also lh t sitcs o f' ,:esistanc~ ( p . 2:"1H) 10 th e m eaning~ 1h.11 1 hc~ ll'l ' tu fi :-.. :111d 1hi~ 1Tsi,tan n ma' COlll t' fro m ,a ri o m cu.lrl t'l'' . comer\'al\l' a n d r a d ica l. lndt1d. it i.-. llll' ]JOII'l'l 11! m otll n n c:u h a~ s\lnbul' rh a t ~cts thcm up ;h ~i t e~ ,,hcrc r h a lkngc' 10 authorit' cm stril.e at wh a1 llw pmnrfu l h old m ost dcar. .\ brief e~ampk 1dll ,uffln b<'fmT "'~' 1nme onw m ore ge n e ral q ut~t i nn s o l 1he ru h uml politics of resi ,~; mn. In 1 ~7 1 th c colun111 t' l'('('l<'d in tlw Plan \ 'l'lldl.)llll' a ~ a lllOilllllWlll 10 tiH' Eni'II(H'illl a nd impe ria l \'CIOI'il's of \!apo l(on's C:ra nd . \1111 ~ \\'as p ulkd lll lh t' g'I'IIIIIICI :llld h d tstro ~'t'l'." d a nn.:cl a111 o ng th<" ruhh ll' (st'l' Fig lll'<' fi. 7). Th t r onLe XL 11'a ~ th e l\ 11 i ~ Conlm ll ll l' a n d ih rt1o lt .1ga i n~ t hierard11. In tl w al'te1mat h o f 1he disa~trou' Frtn ch dd(:u i 11 tht Franco-P1 11'~ian ,,ar. m a m l'.trbiath r en>lted ,ni(( too k O\'lT the l'I\. In pa 11 th i" ''" ... a ,,orl.t r~ n:,o lt. mam ol tht.m 1\omcn: in JM I'I it 1\<1~ a ma"H' 'tTIII strike': in p a n it wa' a rno h of thc cit~ ag a in ' ' 1lw pro ,in rl' ' : in p a n it ,,as a batll l' Oll'l' wh u l1ad ilw rig l11 lo dt'fin c 11h:n so n ni c iLI' l'aris shnuld he . Si11 n 1t-l?iO P:11 is had bcl'll li'illl,f'UI'llll'cl (}~ lh (' ~ 1 :1 1 1' :111 cl Ca pi la( into :1 p i:!Cl' f'or th l' disp ia ) of Sl:tl l' ]JU\I'l'l' Hllrl i1110 a pl a~ g r o u nd f'or li n a nd:1l sp tn ll:llo r-; ( 11 a rn~. 19H:1 b J. 11 II'Ou ld nu11 b e l ra n ,flll'lltecl Wllll' more. T h c largl' h it'aclt- rltss p rott''lt'r' cltdared Par o; an .lll twHHllOl~'> CCHlllll lllll'. 1 h i, political tran,f0111la tion o u h- l a~ttcl '~'\l'I H~-t hree da" ami e u ded in m uch b lood ~ h cd. but a<. an op pchin~ anm ma"t'cl .11 \ 'er,..ai lle' L h t. C<l11111111 n arch. 'l'l .d>olll tra usf'o rm in!{ th e ~mi .ll orga n i ~a ti o n o l tlll' l' II'. Pa rt of' th is 11 ;1\ a n a tt ac k o n llw symbo lis m (p. ~HX) ol th c prior rq~im t. Hl i1 ~ nHlllllllH'Iltal st:liCilll "IIIS. ' ' <IIH' Com n lllllt' dcc n:t '\tatl'cl :

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lnlroducing Cultural Studies

Politics and culture

257

~ l inisll'l' oetll ll it, :-\ llllliH' r 1O. or 1ht'l' ma1 1rY tu r lim b nn to th e mol ol ur t'\'< '11 i ll\,Jd< thC llotl'il'S ol P.JrliallH'JJI (~l't' lwlo11). In coJJJJ trico; ol tl w l'omHr Smi11 b loc. p1 OII',IOI'' 11ere quick 10 jlllll clo11 11 ,1;\lue, of \l:u :-. and Ll'nin aftc'J' illl' ITI'olution~ ol IIJX\l. In cithcr plan >topk are rhalkng ing the pa1 tial ~tr~iOtlllthal ~urh -;pan, 01 nmlllllllt'lll' presenl. and tht.'l a~t 't'l'king lo 11'<' '-0111<' ol the '"nbolic po11l'l' ol illl''l' Jllollllll1t'llh the \\':11 that thc1 111.11'1.. a tt'llll'l'- 10 p1 olllOit' theI e auc;e. lt ,lo .llnii<'J ton,iclel.llioll ol th c~t ruhurc., oll t'''Iillltt' 1h.11 l\'l' no\' ttu n.

6.3
6.3.1

Cultures of resistance
Performing identities in unconventional poli tics

T he idea r u lllli'l'' o l rcsis tnnce (p. ~;~H) brin~~ u' bar J.. LO the concepc o / 1ransgrcsc;io n. S ll;'\11Sg'J'CSSOII\ iiCIIJ;J I)\ l'(jllii i ~t juJj ,;ri ~ l l'la '.'- \'l'\1' tl/'1 11 ~' ('ii i'II\'il ll'..;Cjll ~' ~uggl'\(S thal L du: poll'cr (p. \)-1) l'vla t OJ b IWIII'I'< ;Il lhl' oflic i;Ji i:lll' ;111cl tha l 11hic h cliitlll'n ge~ il:

or

Figure 67 lhe Topplng of the Vendme C olumn (1871) b . by permission of the Muse Carnaval t P . ) y unknown Mllsl. (So urce: reproduced e, MIS.

C: rni1a l c~quc di,rnLII ~~ bnaJ..~ tl11 cJII ~ h tlll:' la"s of .1 lang- uage l'l' ll ~u rcd b1 gralll lll<ll :md 'l'lll<l llli< ' all(l :1 1 thl' ,,l llll' lI Jll'. , .1 ~oc i . l :u1d p11I1cal j)J 'Otl''l. 1il l'IL' ., no cquin ti <.'IIC't', h111 1.1111~1 id<n t i1 ~ ht'll\'ttn ella lknging ofll cinl 1ing11 i ~ 1 ic codc, .11HI challtn14ing o llic i.tl 1:11,.. (quo1 ed in S 1 a llybra~~ and \\11l(, 1!lSii: ~O 1)

( 'olll illllllt' ni p, 11 ,: ( 'on,iclel ill,l{ lhat th<' inl>l'li.rl ro lumn ' ti tht 1'11< . \ ' . . h.ll h.u hlll . 1 '1m bol ol brJJit' 1 '<11'< '1. l 1 1 ' ' < l'IHIOIIH '' ,J llllllllllllt'lll lO . . IH "nn. an .11111 11 r ol llllt'lll.lltun,ll law.1 J><'rtWIIl<'lll in " 1 ~.1111111., 1111 Jl.llt\111 , .t llq~.llion "' 1 tu 1 ll' lilllCjllhlll'd 1 11 1h1' 11(101 :1",111 1 1 1111 Ollt' of 111<:' lhnt "1'( 1 111 . . 1 ' a Jl<'I'Jlt'IU,II "' a P H 1P ,., u( lhl' hctJch 1' 11 ll'J d11 dt( 1nd: " 'Jlll 1 l 1 (. 1 ' J,Jit' tllill. l i\ \lli t k Ont: 1ht <Ohllnn al lhc l'l.ltl' \ 'nHiimw hill he

1 hl'

aboli,l~t<l.

(lllloJ<d in !{.,,, . 19"~' 11 . . "" 1 "' '1 d '"" u(' 1ht' dollli ll<lll 1 org.u1 , .,,ion ol ' I)(''d ~ )'1 . . of lllllllllllll' l1h. ( Ro" JI)NN ~IJ) '.. l ' 1 <t .lllCith t '"J>Po~ed lll' lllra lity ' . ' ' . ' ' 1\,h 1111 ( l'J''IIIOd h1 boll1 11 1(' [ ('IHII IIIIJJI;IId' :J.'; bloll lo lh , f ,. . ( 1 tllllllllllll;IJ ',J JHII!J t illlli ( lt.JJ I O ll<'j)III\('J [J 11 . 11 , ( ' . ohw11 '<'1' :~ 11 <1 fl iJj>Oil<' Jll o!' 111 . ( ' H P < 1 .. u u lit- .\ lt'IH I1' ., 11 l .()Jllllllllll'. 1\'J'O il': ,. 1 ,.1 .. 111 lht \ l'lldr'll1t' colwnn i\ :1 .:IIIC l'l'' 11 1 II'I I'" 1 f' ,JJ'C', ,tf,J\! 11 \ i't"Jill JI ' , . 'f ll' <1 1 \l'S , ( .1 1, 1 ]( '1':111( (' 11 1<11 1\'1 ' 110 . llllll ,, ;1 )1) l'llll , JII lhj, il \ . 1 . l.llhl't' 111 <1\'II.;' a!'l'll\~ IIJ t' ll'l j[ l . l . ' ' , li >LJ I <llll 11 ( 11>111'' ' liJll'JiJ 11 e. p .IJII IIW t ll' li le <~ l c Jrc d JI 1 .. 1 1 h1.1 11c 1t o f 1h1 lrc1 n!'lihcrll. ,... : .; ,,. 11~1' ' 1 :111 " II I.Jde n i (qllcltd 11 1 Rm ~ , I!J.~~: :1-1\) 11 ilJ:11 h:llc hnn " 'l'lllbulic gesturc o / i'l'~.,I:lllCl' 1 . fJJJ t'. l LH ' " largcl ll':t~ t'\'clcJllil' a good
1111 1)-;L'I

But 1his o ptimi"n i~ mnrlilil'd b\' Peter Stnll\'brass a ml .-\llon \\'h ite: Onh' a c halkng( to thc hierarcl11 o l li/1'1 o l' di'>COtJJ" t'. 11h ich usually coml's from group' ami la~st''> "sillla tccl" b1 thc dominan ! in low or marginal position'>. carric~ lht promi~e of politicalh' tramfonnatil<. poll'tr' ( 1986: 201 ). This scction gi\T ~onw cxamplt., of poltica! protcst. 11hich are al o pcdormanccs. that challenge political po,,tr in an aucmpt to t1~111~form it. Otll'ing period' or militan clina lo rs hip. 1\'0nlell a('(ili~ts in Al gen tina ancl Chilt..' li~Ccl ,arious type~ ol' 'Y111boli'1n as pan ol the::ir protests in an attcm pt ' notjmt to gc t 1\'0mcn tu panic ipat<. n1ort in traclitional politi c~ but to llnd ne11 wa~s uf cngaging in pnlitic-.' ( \\'a~ len, 1992: :) JI ). :\ CC OJ ding W C.eorgina \\'ay len. this lli'Okcs a panic ular llll lll o /' the C:IJ'llil.ll{''{jll(': 'C:lJ'J'\ ing photographs of the ir c hild rcn ancl CltiO lll l11 <1g'CS C1 l missing- peop l<', cmcring the i1 hair ll'ith k<.rc hic[s cmbro idcrcd ,,ith 1hcir n a lll l'~ ancl using sill'nce' inmil'cs th c: conccpt o/' th t sptctacle ... cxpressi ng 1he oppoo;i1ion :1 1 c ulture th c..: upprc,~ccl' . Thi, o ppositional cullure:: inYok<.s Krisl t:I'<J's 'a n o lh c r law', so thal two poli1ica l pu~ iti om lh l'JJ C 'lll lT in lo dialog"uc with one a n o1 h e r. Krist< '\:t d e~< l'ihes this 'dialogism ' a~ 11111 ' tlil' frccdom to say a nytlling'. b11 L as a kind ol' 'clrama1ic ban tc r' (KriSit'\'<1, l ~l~t i: 11 ). Om l'X:tJ'Jlple or di'IIJ/1(1/ir bantcr 1\''\S SC{'Il in prol l'Sis <lg'illSI the ncw con'-tlllllTslll i11 C hile. l'rom ,,IJich ma ny \mmcn ,,ere exchlclc cl :

or

lll d<Td. l , ll exanll lhi, 11';11 (ifr;uh tT iess dnll . . ChiHI'l' lo Jli'II IL'\ 1 bl IICrliiJI ' 1111 1 j ' . . . l.IIIC) lh,JI lllllll'll l!JO I :III Jli'Oll'~ltr' ng ' lo 11 sp:tCL'' 111 lhc ri11 In B 1 11llough llw Jlol ict' cordc 11 1. . Jli :IIJI 1 H'l lll.tl 11\ 10 <'t'l ) ,IJl( 11'011 1 ';\1(' \ 111111 J) . S ,... "' 1\\'Jllng ll<'t'l. '''ht'l't' llw P1 ime

On Sa 11r rda~ af'lt' I JHHill~ (llil' hu ~t' 'l 1inw ), \\'OII1l'll mnilcl .Jbando11 11111 1roll e1~. blucking illl' 'lljWII11:Jl'J..l'l dH'( l..nlll'. 1\th . 1 IIUit' Oll l':tch <)Jil' ~:11 in ~: 11 \ :1 pII ll'l' c;~n' .1flord Jo htll' hccau,c 11'<' do11'1 han a111 IJJOilL'I.' 1 hese proleo;o; 1\t.'lt' t:III'IJJIII oq~.lllit1'cl 10 nnhe Jlw maximtun :nnou111 uf connt~e frn111 llll' npp"iliun n!l'clia

258 lntroduclng Cultural $ludies

~

Politics and culture 259 ' inst the rain') readings could emerge. Hall's th~ory wa_s. empirically tested by ( ag~ , ( ~) study 0 the audience for the Nationwtde televson news programme. Mor ey s u s made a dominant decoding of the programme Morley found that . sorne ~~~rt resented a negoliated decoding, infl ecling the pro(managers, app~entces). O~th el:ments drawn from their own social position (university gramme makers message w wards black further education students, trade union officials). Two groups (shop ste. ' d of the students) offered an oppositional decoding whch drectl~ conteste :a:~ce t the

Dejining conrejJI

6.2

R esistance and transgression

198

One of Foucault's (p. 28) fundamental messages was lhat power always brings forth opposition and resistance to its effects. Power (p. 94) will seek to contain and control such resistances, oflen by incorpora tion through the working of hegemony (p. 106). R esistance is a kind of 'counter-power' always likely lo surface in response lo power's expression. Resistance takes many forms ranging from micropolilical gestures of contempl and alienation in the classroom lo full-scale social and political revolutions. Transgression involves exceeding lhe 'acceptable' boundaries set by established customs, hierarchies and rules. Cultural studies first approprialed the notion frorn Bakhtin's (p. 202) (1984) wrilings on carnival- predominantly pre-industrial events such as fairs, popular feasts and wakes, processions and lhe like. The 'world upside down' (WUD) (Slallybrass and White, 1986) created in carnival links the inversion of hierarchy (kings become paupers, criminals make laws, men dress as women) with a 'grotesque realism' towards the human body which is depicted as bulky, pro l~l beran l, ils orfices open lnd its lmver regions (belly, bultocks, genitals, feet) ruling its upper parls (head, reason). The significance of carnival, according to Bakhtin, is thlt il is a ritual (p. 288) occasion where transgressive desires can be lemporarily voiced and vented, established hierarchies momentarily inverled and forbidden pleasures briefly indulged. For Bakhtin the notion of carnival refers not only to a ritual occasion but also to a 'mode of unclerstanding ... a cultural analytic' which draws attention to the cultural significance of symbolic inversions and lransgressions (Stallybrass and White, 1986: 6, 183ft). Cultural studies has used the pioneering ideas of Bakhtin and Foucault lo explore lhe organised ways lhat subordinale and marginalised groups resist the imposition of dominant meanings (expressed via the dorninant ideology - p. 84). Oppositional tendencies can make for cultural creativity. Youth subcultures are sornetimes seen as structured environments for the expression of beliefs and altitudes that run counter to the adult world's. Often the opposition runs no deeper than the adoption of particular clothing styles and musical lastes and thus the resolutions they represen! lo the 'contradictions' that young people encounter are only 'magical' or 'imaginary' resolulions- giving rise to the nolion of 'resistance through rituals' (Hall and jefferson, 1976). But within the space opened by youth subcultures such symbolic resislances also alford real opportunilies for personal expression that close clown again once young people make the transition to the demands of work, marriage and farnily. Cultures are not just creative; they are also 'conlested terrains', sites of struggle. The dorninant ideology does not simply ancl inevitably reproduce itself. Stuart Hall's (p. 88) (1980) important essay 'Encoding/decoding' suggested that the encodings of lV prograrnme makers mighl not go on lo be slraightfoiWardly decoded by the television audience. The variable social situations of the audience need to be taken into account. The encoded text may bear the dominant ideology and this would be the 'preferred reading' of it, but viewing lhat text is a 'negotiation' between it ancl the viewer, and other

~~o~~~~~~i~;o~:~~da:~tc~~~~e~,t~;:~~~~~~o~~~~~~~~~~~~;;;~~~~ ~fe~~:: s~~w ~~~~~;

more active and differentiated conceptiOn o t e au en

~;~:s~~~~~i;~:t : ultural experience when viewing lelevision, to understand fu lly the

dynamics of reception. . ) nd resistance serve to h t' d In Cultu ral studies the notions of transgressiOn (p. 258 a . or persons and t e crea 1ve an underline the embodied and agentic charactenstcs contested dimensions of culture.

Fu rt !Jrr rNtdi ng
1968).

. .

B akhtin, M. (1984) Robelois ond His World, Bloomington, IN: Indiana U111vemly Press (ong.

~~~~::;as, P. a nd White, A. (1986) The Politics ond Poetics of Tronsgression, London: Methuen.
l J' 'l a Wlll lo .lt' at
1111<11-(C'
' \1\Cl ~ ((ll gin g COII'>\IIII)JliOil , , . .,: ochel '0' trnnum

D ( 1980) The 'Notionwide' Audience, London: BFI.

and

~ub~tniug ... ' dumin.tnl

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' ecn

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'C J 11'0SJ 11011 11 pronwling 11talt 1 1< lllt1 t't0 K'I'II\' .

ol ~~~~

1 111

.. . l' '\tiCll'~' 111 ( \\'t~'kn. 1992: :112)

dtaliCIWHg "'

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. f . lhure 10 makc a poltica} ~I<IICillCllt \\';\\ lhC\l'l' An C\'l'll ~larker examplC' o f thc use o ( ' <1 1 ( 'll'lc"lll 11'01 11< '11 ll'ho~t rclatin:s had . , . . 1011 .11 chncc lh t .tttca, >1 1 of thc <.I n 1 tan '' " . . 11 . . . 1 1 l\(llllal1 \\'hcs o f Hlhucal . tftu mcd b1 a man ,111< di ~appeand . Thc Cttcca 1' mu.l ' pt . . . . . 1 . ( 1ll73-~t)) danccd lh C' CI 1101 ~ 11 P '. . . r luring 1he Pmuclll'l d 1 pri . . oiH'I'~ \dw el,appeal cC < . . k. 1 lloLll tbout ltoll' Lhc rcgimc , . s 1-t) > ubllt, w 111.1 t L lt ' , ( 111 11 ( 1 Cuera a Iom. t lt' .ut c.t ' . . - 1 nitw 10 preser\l'. . . . 1 1 : 'lie ... and lite nanonal cu 1lll le ll """e ' 111 "' rept ('<,!>IOll Jud clC\11 ()\('( 1 lt ,\1111 . 1 t 'lf . 'ltChtcl pie\\ liT~ of th t dann Tlw protl''l ,,a~ puhliciw< l ,,orlcl-1\'lde 1~11_' tlllg ,_fll ~~ 1 ';'~~~~11 'T hc, chul ced alunc. (scc Figu re 6.8) aJICI b, thl' popular lllli'ICial~ Sung 1111 h ~t ~>,. .,.." . m en in Chile, " hn 11 ..11 cd .,, ., 1orm o ptoto ,..,. l'hc Cuera ll':t~ a 1 so "PP 10 P ' ' ' . . 1 . 1- 11. Jolir, ll'hich cknied 1hc . ~ , 'l"'linq ltc reg1111e s .1 11 1 . . 1 dance el togt'l1} ('\' \el P1 IIIC~ :,' . . 1 o 1\l"tg(' h" oraanisccl similar rorlll' 11 hil><; T he pohuca crroup l n . 110 legi timan o 1 ga~' lt' 1 a ' " . . .. r . ce n mOJl C' betll'<:'<' ll le bwn' L 1 n Kiss ins lJld P" 11 ) l C 11 " 11111).!;' or l)ublir proll''' 111 Ul)( () \. l . () .- . . l I)I'"~S allt'nlion w laws lhat "W lO 'lltraC lllW'\11111111 , ,,, ' and ga~ llH'Ll han bcen ll'l'< )\' ~~ ~~ ,.,L -1 .. - . lk-Scfllt' ha" b(tn uscd to grcat , '\C X rl'llltOn'h tp~ H' (,\l nt\ , ' 1 . . . . . . 11 San Fran~co in tht l'n llc< di,criminaiL' .tgatn'l satm 11 ef'li:ct b~ k sbian ;uHI g;tl' lllt)\'L'LIIL'I1t~ 111\C IIn.lltul, l~~ ' . . ~. ,;,:.,... hme appropriatccl thl' s 1 \ uq nlh 1-(' 1\ ' ' llH t'' )1, \ll c.lll StatC'~ ami 111 'e IH'\, ' ' .. . 1 .1rncl ic , 11 les a' ;1 " '"" ora~serung 1 ll~ tditional rorm' ol cros,dressing. ~aun cal 1 oah .uH P .

Polilics and cul ture 260 lntroducing Cultural Studies

26 1

sccon tl YCII. hnlll'\l'J. 11 h irh t.ll..l '' in ro acn>tl111 no1iun' 11! IH"IIIIl lll.III i11. ''l){)'ll''>t 1hat tht' \\'llllll'll, ll'l' nl tnot ill'l hood 11,1, 1/l'll/l'!iL T ile1 u.;ed 1!11: l.1tl th.ll th c Jn ili t.\1'\' rQI'(;'llllll t' ll l he i l'l l'cl tha l 1\ llllll'll ~ pl;tt'l' 11:1' in thl' IHllll<' IP p 1'11ll''l in :1 \1'<1\' thar tht'

~~ilit"'
1

lound c\illicult to '"PP'l''': ;h mothlr~ 11'110 t.l l'l'cl ahm11 thli familil'\. T IJi, srrat cg' " '"' 'UCLl'~~l ul tlcll .lltl' J thc e11rl ol J1 w di uator,h ip. i>cc:lu"t' it ;il1o i,L'd t1wmtn ':tCI ; \ .1 poliricaltnn't l'llll'. ll.,,ing lhl ttJHil'lll te' to H' rono,lrull plIucl' ol militan ulc "' till1 l'S oi' , tabi 1itl 0 1 run n ln ic g'OII th ' Uaq uc ttt'. l ~IO 1: '2'2 1) . 1 1r \\l' nllllll lll 1IH' (\t-hall' aho\11 tnmsgr essio n l p. ~--1~) 1\ hidt inll out L'<ll iJi, ~l'ction.

-c c: u t und c i''l:lltd t1a .\l othc r~ liwl kng l' 10 th : 111ilirary rvginlL' a ' in t roclt tc in g- th c 11 1-.inc\ ni clialogm <k'u j(, <l h K1 ,ll''' llo11c1 el. "" S1.1lh h1 a'' ,JlHI \\'hite 'uggc.,l. thl' ~ides o l th c dialo~lll' < ll l' 11<ll tq ua 1: lll t' 1\ 0 llH' ll , r<J it, a' llH>th t r' 1\'l'l'C' i111 postd h~ 111 0 th e ollicial cultu n . . 11111 thi, 1imitcd 1he 1J.Irt that llh'l lll'll' ahle tu p1:1\ in puhlit politil'-

11 po1ititi"e l : '1 ltl' poli! it t<ll ion of

~um t h L ' k '' antl de,pt lil t' lar t 1h a t lllt' II'Ollll'i1 cl id ll <H t' lllirl'h J't:jen a ~tdi r iona1 1 ie11 ul Jll< Jt hct1wocl. thl'~ lll'll' .1hk tn ll'<' 1h.1t con,cn tional rok .111<1 10

:111cl j)l iYau UHjll l'lll' ,

political pt111l'1. it utilit;n > gml' rJJ111l' i1l ,,a tlll'<l !O ~uppl t'" cu u1rl ra ke pl.tll'. ~t :tllyhJ as' a nd \\'h ite suggl'~t that ir mai..L'' liuk ~~thl' w ar~lll' abou t tht 'intrin~ic raclicali,J n <)r cun,cr\'atbm ol tht carni1ak~qw: 'Thc 111m t that can l)l' ~a id ... S rhat . .. ~I't ll th t' pn.:St'll!'l..' o r sh arp c m :d political :u11a;oni~m. it may ohtn act as l'ala~nl ancl 1it' of w/ual aiUI 1)111/)(J/ic 5/lltgglt'
(S tall > b ra ~' and \\'hi t<.: . 19H6: 11). Culwn~ o l r csistance (p. '2:'>~) ;11'(:. thu~. most dT<'rtile 11htn they itwoll'e tht s)m bo lic p c rfo rm a tJ t:e o l ~tllllt' kind ul c ultural confl ic t. An t x: un p le that bro u g hr togct hl'r (.11HI JHO co111l ir t ) co11' e11 tional and uncom t'll l ional idlnt ities in polir rs wa~

1~1!11 : '2'21 ). \\'11ilc- lhl' J'l'llll'~ltalllltlt he saicl to h an.: tra m (<H med cr,atecl a "j><1ll' in "hid1 ,, dia lug11c ,,bmnju~tit'c and tnnt~ tha r 1hl

11101 lt ,

h ood brl' .lk" du11'J1 1h e l'igicl b u u nd:uv o l public

Figure 6.8 An arpillera made to publicise the fate of the 'disappeared' in Chile. !he d hcr~i r1 . . oiT ' I. l.'ll1 c.~ lhat lx isl in Llw:-c citi c~ TI . . . cn_ ltur;JI bot h in t h(i t sub~tT,iun ol lhc ex l .'. ~~'e plTfo rma n rls a r e polilicnl alld sl..ll.ful use of' th c m c di:l to :ulnotiii Cl' ; ,~ ;clt<l'~"' 111-' ~~~ p 11blic bc!Jn,io nr a n cl in th c ir pol11tcal 'C't'lll' ' P' <'~( Jt cc o l lcsiJian ' 1nd g . ' 11. lllCll 011 11 JC

the prott~t o rg:m istd in th l' H o u se o! Lonh h > ' a g rou p o f' II'Oill('ll o n ~ Fe bJ'llary l 9HH aga inst Clam e '2H of' tlw Local t;u\TJ Jllllt:ll l .\ ct 19RH. Clau~L' '28 11a;o, a 11idc-rangi11g ancl ill-d tfin cd claml' tll rodU<.:L' d lO pl'l.' l'l' ll l 1h e '>rOill tJ lOil of h o t ll OSl'X U<l i l\'. by loca l

co u nci1s. \\'h cn th<' 10 1e lor th c clau~l' ,,as a nn oi111Ct'cl, tl ll'l'l' II'Ollll' ll ah~ckd dull'll inw the c hambcr . 'uppo ted b1 sh o111~ lrom th c p u b lic galk rv. T his tr~utsgJtssioJt in trodu('(:c\ ;u 10th c:r 1~n~ b~ Sil h1T rt i11g a pasSI'l' \'Cr~OII u f' fe m i 11 in it \', 111 pre.~~ COI'eragc. 1h l'

Sonw of liH lituirations olt lsing icle ntit ' >'> . m th t che of' f.tt ,\fadn, ( lhe ~ lolhl'r- 1 ) l(p. l~ l--1) a~ a lo r m o l pro te 1 ate CXl'llliJiificd n r ;\ 11 1 e ar.' 1c1 L \1l~o . ,. 111 ru 'g'l' lllina. Th,v ll't' J't ~ g Hlp o mmiC' II ll'host relaliH~ IJtcl . .. ( 'j' ' ( 1'1j>jJl.. II'Cd 1 ' ' " 1 llll li.JIY rq~inw gaithl tiH>,, ldiO ~ lln llg rlw 'dinl ,,a rnnduCicd IJI 111:1111 SfJli,J J\'. rl w Pl:ll:t d v .\h\'!1 ' 1' . 11 . ~el ~~~ 1 h e 1\ollWII pro ll'.s tc d ' ilc llth in lile r . . 1 Jlltllo' .-\lrl'' n . . . ""' '11'1. '''llllg ''ithin rlw Jn il ii ' IJ~ . . . . J .t plcJtc't can lw intet prettd in 11\'o ' ' l<'g lllH'' \'l' l " f pi Olt'.' i lllg a~ lliOlfll'I'S. iJl'('all'l' 1110( (l'l' .. . ' 1() 11 O gT IHitT rd :ltio JJ.,, tl il'l' 1\'l' J'(' olll IJ,IIlll.dil t'IIIIC<'I lll'cl ti) 0111 1 j ll' f:l llllh .. \ .

c.

n' >o'.' ..

act "'~ cl,,crilwd a~ s.-\ S.,tylc:' (Dai~\ .\ lail. :~ Flbru a 11 HIHH). conm wndo-,tlk' (Daif.v 'l dl'gm,fl, :~ Fl'lll uarl' \ 9HK) and a 'Tarz.111 ra id ' ~J)ruly .\/m or, :1 Fehr11ar~ 1988). T hL' womln ~ tutcol\\e n tional bcha1 iour " '"" l'l>IHra~tcd 11ith thc ' lcgi timatc' cot1\'e n tion1> ol' rll l' ll m1se of' Lo rcl s. Pn, ll'l' l't' d csc ri1xd as sr:trtll'd ' ( "l i ,ft>gmfih) ancl a~ wa tc hing in dbhder (.\lnifl . 1 h l' 11olllcn ttmpol<lri h ctT:llcd a carni,ak ...que aum1sphe n :, up~t'l ting th c autho J'll' of' th e c1wmbc r . l ' nruh o,((' tl l'-" f'olloll'c cl: ' T lt ey <k~n'nded into th l chambcr. ami 1\'t'l'l' met b1 thrcc l lou~e of Lord~ u,h cr' - all rctired na1<1l ,,arranl o f'fi t:l' l':'' ((:wmfirlll ) . . Par! ia 111t' l 11 ' S JJI ()$1 d istiu~uisltccl on i r ial. 1\htcl.. Rod. !;rabli ld O lit' ol thc IIOtlll' ll. (.\/iuu1 ). r hl rarni1.1lcsqtt unll'a~hc., laughtlr. so that 1h e co nOit 1~ ap)l'ar tu hurclcr 11 11 t1 1l' larcica l. Otll' Ton :'1 11 '. O:Hn c l~lainl' 1\.l ll t t-P.o ll'ma n . commtnwd: ()ne 1 h :tp :11liHI'I Jo,r fj., rrou,cr' in thc mch-, (.\ /iiJol). T 1w .lct\1.11 conllin. 11'hi ch tl ll' 'f'dr!,'111f'" rqlllrtl'cl
;t'

q 11ill' lioltJH. is rt' p n,c ntccl in ril e

>J'I'~S

;,, a

~> tn bolir h a ttk bl'(\\l'l'll tlll' rorce' o l ordvr a11ll di,orde l .

262

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Politics and culture

263

T hc debate or dialogue tllat 1.: m e rgcs ont of the >rotest n,o h'nl around lh" . . . .. . ' c nse of exclmton ft om thc formal polt.ucal p1:oc<:'s leh b1 thc "onwtJ. This \\'as 11 ticulatcd b , onc of the IIOmcn , telb Bl.ltr, as follo,, : 1 thin k tiH?I' l>robabh h mt ncr. . } ' < Cl secn .111_) thm~ ltkc .11 befo re. \\ t' p lanned rt 111 thc morning. \\'e fciL itll'a' time ,,e ll ad r1ur say 1t ~sal~ ng.ht f u~ thcm to ll;ll' a say abuut m btt t wc ~hould h aH' a rig ht tu ans11 cr thes~ th111g~ ( C.urmlu111). Tite proH~t 11as ~uccc,~ful in o far as it renab the com<ntions of th c 1louse of Lord lo be as lar n :mol'td from :tm 1cr~ion of ,,h ll is 11 omr1 J "S . n. t 1 le hl<:stylcs of t h e ll'omen. H O\\'e1er, thc t ra n~gre!>,H' or carn ,aJtsr 11e sitllatO II 1hat the pn~ tcM. brouglt1 a t~ot tl o.n ty ac hie ,cd 1h e ..,tated ai 111 o l ans,,Trin:( t he comc 1Hio nal leg.l~l:'l tii'C procc'~ 111 so lar a\ the wo1mns point' o f l'icw as ll'dl a~ thei r anions were artiCIIl:u.ed. Thc prO!est, likt tite ~upctmarkct protc\lS o r Chilean femini ... ts, \\';1~ till('d for maxnm111~ pnss co1eragc; bm this m ca nt that it \\':ts depend e n! on h ow 1he press re prcsclllcd 11. \\'hile thc ( ;1/rm/iun pri n tc<l th e l'ulk~t Jllsti 1ira t ion of tht 1,0 111 .. . en s po~l liOn. lcss srmpathe ti c papcr<. gan: more aucn lion to the protntor~ shout<'d abuse' rcpH sc~lling th c m a~ rude and ina rti culatc .. \~ 11e ~hall ,ce in tlw final section, thcre ar~ a lway!> lllnlls lo transgression.

. :Uid 011 [ . ) fcbl'll(ll'l'. tite head oJ' <,t\lL' o l Jra11 . .-\Yato Jlalt 1\.ltomeilli . proclaimed a . . . . . .. o n Ru hdie. Sho1tl) afterwarck a pnn ol fl .:> nu llton ''a~ put on lu.s ltfc {~ppignam~i ami \!aitlancl. 1989). he Pro pi 1<'1 . s ltai r: c.lcmonstra.te.'> 1hat the t~stu:s . -a uscd tltis ~LO nn ol pt'lltest wcrt tHit ne11' w Rushdte s work. \\ h nt , th e n . was th e 1 ll e ltc . 1 . . relationship bet,,een thc transgt-c,.,il'c cultur;tl ;uu fact. th c nol'e l. ami t 1c po ILI C'> 1n

1nc1 1.1.
nltt'tl

6.3.2 1The limits of transgression: The Sotanic Verses

In 1981. as wl'll as his p rite-11inning nmcl. ,\/irl111;ht's (.'fj/tfrl'll, Salman R11 shdic UroiPw of 1Jooll1, 'Th e Prup h ct's h a ir . Thc .StOI) ' cll.:scnb cs an Cl'(n t ll'htch abo occurs in th<; nm-cl. tite thcft nfa holl' rdic. a hair ofthe Proph~t \lohan1mc<.l. from thc s h ri nt at ll:lZI.-ttbal in Ka~hmir. Thc clisappc:.mmce of th e h;ur sets olfa ~enes of en:tns which, ~C\'l' ll )t'ars latcr, ,,as to tnOI'l' from 1h<: wol'ld of lk t inn into l'l'alli.fc: processions throug-h !he strctts of' 'cncl less. u lttla ting crocmliles of lamcma.uo~l . .. nots. : !Jolitical ratnil~c:llions and ... m en whos(' e mire c;11 ecrs hung u pon th1' smgk IoM ha u. Thc cfTect o f th< ha ir on tlw rich mont' l tender wlw fi nds it is equall~ fami liar. 11<' abandons hi~ libcr;tl \\'e.'>lcrn 1a lncs a n cl im 1 ;ost~ a IH'II' lrra nni cal rcgint<: o n his lami ly. All books in tlt l' ltouse are hun11 cxcept th t !\oran . Pr:ncrs fi 1 c times a day benu n c mandator) all(l his daughr er and wifc an forccd into pm,iah. In a man1wr that i~ rharaneristic of all Ru ... hdils prose. thc tale t"ombine~ elemcnt~ of the COillClllporar) ~hon ~ton with L'lement~ th e fait~ talv or parab le. Ir COillain' a thief ,,ho conl d ltaw ro nw rrom lhL' .-l.m/;i(f/1 SigM 1. IL'I \\'hose sons a re m ockm Jslamic fn da nwntali ~t~. d c niecl a pi lg rimagc to ;\kcca htcau,c th c ir lathcr has ~ma~hld their lcg:-. ;n birth lOgin thcm a 11 incomt a' bcg!{ars. To thc a tcrm introclund earlin. it i~ camila lesqnc. lndeed, Bakhtin (p . 202) o rigi nalh imrocluctd his conn p 1 of th e nu: n,ilalc~crue in 1vlatio n lo litcratme ( Bakh ti n , IDtl l ). Thc 11arratil'l' of Tite Pm ph ct'!> h atr dL'I Ibcratl' h transgre..-~t'S Cllltura l ro lll'l' tHion;.: Llw magic and th e modcrn. the secu la r and th t 'ancd. tlw poltica! ancl the tradi ri onal cla~h and reintc rprct onc anot lwr.

publ i~h cd a sh on .<torv in t lw t onrlrm

,hich it becanu emhroilect: . . . 1 Rushdit's 11\'0 most succes~ful llOITl '\ hefore The S(lllllllf 1 rrses 1\'t'r<' deltbcralell' }( post-in ckpc nde n cc gmc mnt('IIIS o f India and tra nscrrcssiw in the ir cri tici~ m Pakis7an . H e has also bctn comi~tt:'nth cri tica! o l racism in En;la n d. '.'l.tc re hc. l~as 1t1c~l sincc he 1,a~ 1-1. His u..,e of thc no\cl form 10 paroch claim' w poltural leg111macl' 1' continued in Tht Satanir 1'I'H'S. b111 d~t 1Hwcl goc' funhcr in an auempt to rcpiTSt'llt intcrnati o n a l cu lt ural co nflic t. lts ~~~~ ~jcc t ma ttcr is thc c!Tccts of g lobalis at ion (!J. 1~~1). hcrc dil'f'trL' IIL c ulture ~ are brougl11 into conlact ,,ith o nL ;tnmher tltruug h tlllgr;tt ~o " 11 . el the incrcasingh jJOII'l'rfid inttnmtional culture indu.,ui<~ ('ce section 6.1 .1 ) 1 ht clll . central idea ol the no1TI i' tite 1\:t) in 11hich thinRS that :m: ron sidered :.acrcd tn om cultu re art tremed itH'I'l'rt'tlll ) wht'n tlt ey coml' into cm 1t ar r wit h ano th cr c ulture. In Rushclie s 1,0 rcls, it i-, abou t m igr;ll ion. m tt;llnorpho,is. d i1ide cl scln:s. Ion, ckat h , Lo ndon and ~omba" (. \ppignane~i ami ~laitland. 19::19: 11 ). lt '>llgg<''l~ thatJ ran.,glt'' ~ion, sacrilcge and bla~phem) are pan ami p:nul ol 1he p ostm o d e rn (>. -!00) \\'Orld. O n c exampk of th is is th c nOIT l'' use of [;n g 11:1 ~e. Th c narrator makts a case for tlll' rc 11 ~e o l i n~ttlts b1 tltose 1dw han bl'l'll in sttll l'Cl. !le cite' tit e ter111 ' black . \\'hich 1\'ib rcappropriatcd 1;) the C:ilil Righh \lnwllll'lll in thc L' nitLcl .Statt'' a~ ~ pr~ud ~clf clcfinirion (another example 1\0IIId ht tlw use of the term~ ga) or '(tt<tt . 1d11ch h:11T becn rt"appropriatecl br t h e lesbi< llt < lllcl K"' nwi'CI11Cllts). 111 '/'/ Salrfllit 1ir.II'S, th c nana 'tlla houncl ', an i tbttltin~ rcfcr cnn 10 tite Prophct \lo ltnnlltcd, is gil'cll to onc of tit e cltaracter:.. T h c 11arrator'' argunll'lll il> th at it is possiblt- to reappropriatc this nanw. as pan of a reimerpretation of m11h in th e contell.t ol thc nHHitn.' .''orlcl. T~ 1c n.mTl. tlwn. shou ld act as a free span \\'Itere cli t le rl'lll aiHl con llicting pos111011:~ an. tn d!il logne .. In an intcnic 11, Ru~hdi e I\To tc in 1\'l'iti ng T/r Salrfllir \ 'ns1s, 1 \\'ro te lro111 tite assumptton

or

or

that 1 "'"' aiHI ama lrel man (llllil{nlldl'lllml Su111lay. -l FebntatY 1990) . .-\. is tHll\ wdl knmnl, the 1 :w: ol thl nml'l a11d it~ author han 1101 cxcmplificd frcedom. Thl' . \latollah 's J111Wfl h;l' r(ll'((cl Rll ... hdk in lO h idi ng. Tlw .'-)olr/1/( 1.1'1'~1'\, 1 ar fro111 beittg' ; fr~e ..-p al'l'. ha~ bL'COilll' a poJit C;tl fo ntba ll, l'l'J}rt'S('Il ling iol: '011lt' tite l'J>llllllt' or liberal \'aluc~ and tltt ri_:ht:. of' tht' indilidual W f'n'l' speech. and for oth l'rS a gross im11lt lO the blamic faith. ])e,pit C tht' ll'Xl.\ <lll{'lllJ>1 lO.rt' fl~Cl ~11 tlll' hOI\' C".itllres represent th emsell'cs. Rush die ha' l'l'l'll been acc u,cd ran~m 111 hts rq>rese ntauon of

or

On 2() Sepltmhl'r 19XH. R us hdit~ s carn il;ti l'SCJII t' n m e l T/11 Sata 11 ir \ '1,1ws 11a ~ pu hli ~ ll('d . lrs lr;lmg ressil'l' qua li1 ics h acl rapid con., cqn cnces. On ~~ October il 1\a, bannccl in India. 011 1-1ja11 ua tY 19~9 lht book wa\ bUIIlL,d during demo 1 .., 1 ration~ in 13racllw d. England. In fcl)l'uarl' ~CITll p1nplt \\'tTL' killed in rioting in Paki<,ta n a11d

AJrican charactcrs ( ~la71'11 . 10/'l!l). The ca'l' of Thr .)a/rwil' 1,,:51'5 d(monstrarts :111 aspccl u f' cullll ra l polirics th <ll h a'> alrcad1 bt't'll touched on in thio; ch a pler: tht imponance of notjust n: pte,entatioll and perr01-'m ann. h u1 al so of reccption. \\'hile thl' nol'el i~ tran~gre ,shT . ~n d is abo~ll rransg 1 T::;~ion , tltat tran ~g 1cssi on i' li tnit l'cl by ltow it h a\ 1W l'l1 n ..cel\'l'd . llH' 110\'l'i 1 ~ 1 s 0 1igi n alll' banncd in India as a re:-.ult prott'''~ .b~- a \(u,]nll \ IP. ~ytcl Sl1ahabl~dd 11 ~ T ite Congrl'" Pttrt) , thcn in po1\'l'l'. hccanw " orncd about tlw \ l u~ltn1 101e atth~ nc~t l..'lection . Dt>pite the litcr that Shaha hucldin procl.lintc:d th a t he harlnol rcad rhe book,

or

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lntroducing Cultural Studies

Politics and cu lture

265

th e n on :l stanecl tn ,jgnih a cri'ii~ betl,een ,,,lit aiiCI rd igion (Spi,;~k. 1990: .10). \\'he u 1he .-\yatollah Kho111ei ni pronounccd thc fntur in llw comcx1 of Llw la~m ian n ..1olt 11 ion 1hc nH.>a ninK o l thnl crisis 11idcned to inchtdt tiH' rel: nion ,hip belll'l't'll Ll w ' \\'tst' ;"tnci 1he Jslamic wo rlcl. Thi~ d oe' no t mean 1hat1lw lntn,g rc"ions tha1 thc lt'XI is inte a c~led in are irrekmn 1. Dt!'pi lc no t hming read it. Shahabucldin shu11, a goocl un dt'l''\l;mding n f 1he su bject 111:111 cr: 'your book on ] ~ SC'I'I'l'~ L o d\'li tt t' ll'h at ha gom ll'ro ng II'11t Lhe \\'estern cilili1.a 1ion - it has los1 all semc ol d i ~li tH' I ion bet11ee n lite: ~arrl'd ancl the profane (Appi g na n e~i all(l .\ 1aitland. 1 9~~1: l i). lb thl'r, i L i~ an exa m pk o( how the rela tionship hl'tll't'l'tt a lt'XI and its auditnn. llhl'thn thtl hacl rcacl i1 o r 'intph ht;"trd about i1 within a tl'ii~iHt..,, n;uional or othtt poli1iral cli,conr,e. i..,. a' (.a, :llti ~pi 1ak dt,cTibt, il. ramau ion,t 1' (Spi1-al... 19HO: ,)()). In 1hi' con tt'" l ht in1en1ions of the .tuthot htconw irrde1.11H 1o hcl\\' Llw 1na i~ tuHiel-sLOod. b11t in 'o li11 ;, 1he attlhor i~ 'tTn tn hl' ' L''jllllhible for tlw tt'X I, Ru~hclie ];~ berolllt' implicatccl in litL' cri,is. Tlw con~t'f(lll'I1 Cl' ~ h .ll'(' heen as imnir ;" .am nmel. R t.l sh~li e is IHtl\' pro.lt't' lerl 1~1 1he St't uri11 l'mct'' n i dw B riti~ h ~tate, 1\'lt it 11 lt t' It a, ln 11 g Cl'l ll CJSecl. 1k cnl1 11111 tts l11s sup pon lor lllt rdn t nt and nwdc rnisa lioll ol' B r i 1a i n'~ po litica l s t ru c turt~ ancl lraclitio ns. lllll ht is lot'ctd 1 0 ~pea l.. o nh i111oug l1 1hc esta blish mt'lll media, 111 1' HBC: atHI utajor lll'll'spawas. Wl1 ('1't' IH : o t1 Ct' ;,poke i11 ~olidarity ,,il1 lit e lki1i~lt ,\ -;ian comm tll lit, , lu: is 11011 St't'll ()1' mam ( hui h1 11t1 aneans all) LO '>peal.. again~l i1. . . . In the tragi-romic fin ak of 'Tiw Prophtl, hair'. all but one nlt'lllht'l' o[ 1hc mon c~lende1 , fit111ih are d<ad. ancl shL ha' gon(' mad. while thc lhi 1 Y-1:tle 1hier~ religiou' '>OU... h:ll't been rlli1acu loush cured ol tlwir di,abili1ie.s. 1t appeotr~ 10 lw 1hc perfc:n ending of an lslamic ll to1 -;1lit1' tale, 1dwn lhl' 1inuou~ arl' t'l'l\ardLd :tnd lite 1\'kked gct thci t j11s1 dr~tl'l ~. l t i~ c:omparahlt wi 1h :1 thri ller fi lnwcl in l'al..i,l:llt which e nckd 11ith a Jicti o11a l R tt.~ h d i e being ' Lruck doll'n l>1 .\ll ah. 13ut lh e lalt ca11 al'o lt< re<~cl in anollwr 11a~. T ltt I'o len l tncling ~t' l' II1 S L'Xll'l'tllt' :11Hl ll nlleces,arv ~111 d i1 i ~ llol:tble thal th t: ~o n s. r:Hht t' 1lta11 l\'tlcnm in ~ 111 <' nsor;Hion of' thl' ir l i mh~ a n d tltt nppctl lllll it}' OJ' lllaking a pi lgrilllag'l' IC) .\ft'rca. Ullll(ll:till ll~lt' .ld 1lt :11 th eir eai'IIIIg'' h:tll' IH't'll reduced b~ 7:-l pt'l Ct' t1 1. T ltt 1 ale ancl lllt' c "t' ol /'/ ~atanic 1'1'11'1 illll,tr<H~ 1hm a lthou~h l rall,~n.....,ioll t re.lle' .tnolht:r h11,. it r.tnh 1 epfan-; 1hc ruli ng- la" f" 'ttacl il crcatl~dialogllt'. cltb,llt' aiHI .111 arena in 11hit h ronfliu can hl' rtprt,cnled.llllti, .llt'll;'t i~ descri bed a-, d11 tarnila le~qllt' . thcn . a~ 1\l' ha~t alt ead1 ,een, dw tran,g1 , ......,iOih 1h:n 1al..c: place ac not < 1111': 1\s rclo huionan nr ,UIJI't'l'~i' l'. 11' 1he C ll ni,alesqtte i~
Rt'ln.:~h ingl) irnnodi\IC. this 1 1l'\'l'rl l wk<~ l'l"PII't'\ 1101 1(' or lh l' prnblt-nb r;lM :d \1) 1. 11 cuncenai tg- lltl' polilirs of carn i1<1l: i t~ n o~l algia : i1s lllt tTi tic.d po pu l i~ tn (cant il al ol lt'll ,-iolt-n th abn~t~ and de ntonizf's H'Ntl;rJ, nt>t ~ l rnngt'l, 'oci:a l group'- ll'llll1l'l1, ~l l tll it <111() reJigIll' lllilloi' Ii c~. lit<lSC 1d10 'don 't IJc Jon(- l1 a (l1 1JCC>S nf r/i. \fi/(111'(/ 11/ijt /illll): it~ fai lllrt lo du .tll':l\ 1\'dt Lltl' official donlitt< llllUil llllt'. ib licenscd f'omp licitl . ( S!alhh r;<~ and \\l1i te. IU.;t;: 1\l)

6.41 Conclusion
r\n exp:tndcd 1101 ion o f poli ti es h ;1s kd 10 an in crea'i ng int t'ITSI in 1lw 1ole ol n tlture in a world 1\'hl're COll\Tll tional poli1 iral houndaril'< are brc:,1king d !)\\'11 , T h i' cltap1 er ha~ sholl'll thl' im ponancc nf CUllltl't' ll lh l' poli 1ics of i de lll I ~, ~ot'al orgnn is<ll ion. ;rchitt'CI.urc ancll itcrary tcxts as \\'tll as in formal pnlitils. Tll c po litit ' .. rn:uions. ~ talt'., and go,crnmcnt.s ;tre co nd untd o n a lt'l rai11 lit al i ~ crealed and ri t'Clllli,Cl'ibl'd l h1uugh culturt .. \ppartn tl~ sn1;dl 1lting' li kt drt:-~. l:u1g uagc anc\ 1hC' nrgani,,nio n n i :111 onice can btliw 'itc ofnltan ingwhtn i111po1 t:tlll 1>.1111<, .1rc fought oul. Ont in..,l.tncc that ,,e han~ cmpha~i,l'd ,,, an txantpk of liw poli1ic' nf id t' lllil ~ i' th.ll ol gt'tHkr. In conlt'lltion.tl polilic, , hun'.IIH t<H 1 . ''"'gglt' oH'I i"ll~'' o l coll,ll111(>1intt (in 1he e,,,,. of women\ proiL'''' in ;,uptnnarl..eh in C:ltill') .111<1 ha u le-, o1e1 lhl' t igh1 ollill' ..,ill'nccclto be lward (in ilH' CI\L' of / .111 .\Ja{,,, i11 .\rgt'llli na}, ~e nrlet ph''' a II.tl rok. 1 he rbn~l't wi1h ~uclt an :1pprnar h is l h<tl it is u,tclln argut litat l'l'el'l lhin).!: is poli1ir,. nr. follo11ing tite introdn n io t1, 1h :11 enn tlting i' abo u1 1 )0\\'l'r. hu iJL' th at tht t:-:;tmplt,. in th i.< clw plt'l' ~ lt o11' tha l culu tra l po l i lic ~ b Jlt Hju~ t abot ll c:-:pandi n.; tite tlt ti on o ( pol itirs to inclucle n tl llll'l', bu l a bout maki ng th:u tltl l ion more suph ist ic:mcl. :111 el ..-ho11'ng 1ha1 forma l po lilirs al\11 has an important cu ltural dimcn, ion . \\'hik thi ~ i' sonati llll'S a ca.<t' of dtmon,lnlling 1hat areas \ikt llll' wr~onal are in<k{'(l political. i1 is al'o ah0111 showin.{ 1hat dialogues. debate,. di'>pllll'' aliCI outrigh t cnnflin (';liiiiOI l>t' ea~il~ catcgorbccl in te m~ of tii'O ra tiunal po..,ilion..;. Thl' ca~e of Tlu SntnuI 1t11 1~how.. 1h:t1 onc political me..,'<lge' can be tran~ronmd all{l maclc ilkgi1iu1;llt' '' h('ll i1 i.; wl..tnnut of its culturnl con1cxl. Re prcscntatio n :lllcl lll'rformancc art l'lTI' nt11 rh ol lht nwment. \\'hat in nnt' 1i111e and place is a 'ttlwersilt (t'\'t n t-clo lutionary) poli tics can, wltln u~ecl ll a lll'\1 t'011l l'l\ l, bC'C0111l' p rt c i s~ l ) 111 t ll(lJlO'i lt' . . \11 efTicittJI ancl prnciiiCII'C' fi. 1J'lll of wcial oq.('a nisa lion in om ~p h t' IT can l>l'tOtllt' a nw ans o[ mas~ rle>ll'lll'Io n in anol lll'r. Buildi t1 ).\'' 1ha1 l\'l'l'l' de;igned to 1111'1 1 slt111b in to an 111 ban ulopi.t can rn llll' 111 ,jgni(~ tlw II'OI''l a'IH't '' o! " Kial cltcll atHl clqH i1;uion . ~~ mboh that an tWlliH t' pt'<lt e in tlllt' sori~ t1 r:an llll':tll lta1red .m el l\'<ll in ,lllntlll'l . Tit' i ~ 11 l11 tHHion.., o l ll''i'""" t' .m el IJ':tll,g'l't'"illll . wh iil: l''>>t>l1lial 10 11111 IIIICkl ,I,IJI!Iill~ of iltt rd.Hilllhhip h!'lllt't'll llllllll'l' a11cl pollt't. < lit' 'li>>L'I'I' at he'l. During li1l' t .mti1al 1011 do 1101 l..no11 1d10 , 11e.11 ing what ma,l.,.

"'l'

R e-cap
Both formal and informal polilics are conducted lo some extent through culture. An importa nt site of contestation in cultural poltics is around questio ns of identity. Cultural politics describes a shifting, transient arena in which meanings are constantly in dispute.

Tite Satt111ir \ nt\ aflair illmtraL<s mam of lh<''l' prohlcm<;, not lca~t 1he diffirull\' of defining what i th l' offkial or ruling la11' ancl 1,h.n can be co11ntC'd a< oppo,ilional culture. Thest problt'lll\ are, ho11e,er. the wn mtal and drink of ntlttll~tl pnli1ir'.

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lnlroducing Cu ltural Studles

chapter
further~::~

Further reading
For a general discussion of the field of cultural politics which deals with class race and gender se Gl d de . ' ' e enn an an hns Weedon, lltural Politics: Class, Gender, Roce and lile Postmodem World (1994). The s .. themes of and identity politics in relation to race, gender and sexuality are taken hooks, Yeammg: Roce, Gender and Cu~tural Politics (1991) and Alan Sinfield, Cultural Politics, Qr1eer Reodin ( 1994). For the culture of bureaucrac1 e.s .a good starting point is Mike Savage and Anne Witz, Gender ~ Bureat~crocy (199 2) .and the cultural politiCs of monuments are introduced in terms of gender, and with lots of good examples, 1 n ~arina Warner, Monuments ond M01dens: The Allegory of the Femole Form (1985). The dedbaptes ~ver transgress1on and resistance are well covered by Peter Stallybrass and Allon White, The Politics
Jor

pe~formance

011

C ultured bodies

on

oeucs of Transgression (1986).

7.0

lntroduction

Cultural studies takes seriously the notion that the human body is a cultural object. lnitially, this may strike usas absurd. After all, our bodies are most decidedly a parl of nature, subject to natural processes such as growth ancl decay, hunger and illness and so forth, all of which daily remind us of our connection toa realm outside culture and society. This chapter will examine lhe idea that while the human body consisls of an indisputable natural substratum, its appearance, condition and activity are culturally shapecl. We do not have to look lar for illustration of this fundamental theme. In the film Big (dir. Penny tvlarshall, 1988) Tom Hanks plays the part of a 13-yearold boy who is gran ted his wish to become - overnight - an adult. tvluch of the humour of the film lurns around the amusing consequences of a 'grown man' behaving like an 'adolescent'. Although he has the body ol an adull, he still has many childish expressions, interests and altitudes. When he brings a girlfriend back to his apartment, instead of the expected seduction scene he coaxes her into joining him in treating beds as trampolines. His tastes and desires, his ways of moving and talking, his concerns and skills, his thoughts ancl feelings are all incongruous with the grown man's body he now inhabits. (And ironically il is because this grovm-up has such a childish imagination that he is able to lind well-paid work as an adviser toa toy manufacturing company.) The film clearly shows the close tie of our nolions of personhood with our bodies. Who and whal we are taken to be is very mueh bouncl up with the appearance and movements of our body. In possessing a body of a given age and gender we are culturally expected to be a certain kind of person, and it can be a source ol considerable surprise, annoyance or amusement when these expectations are breached. just as the human body has become a compelling focus of popular concern in contemporary Western societies- as is witnessed by the mass media's preoccupations with sex, sport, stars and diet - so too have cultural studies come to take increasing interest in the body as a key site for the playing out of social and cultural difference. As nicely summed up by Arthur Frank, 'bodies are in, in academia as well as popular culture' (1990: 131 ). Among the reasons for this upsurge of academic interest in the body have been the influence of the work of tvlichel Foucaull, the enormous impact

267

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lntro ducing Cultural Studi es

Cultured bodies

269

of feminism on a range of academic disciplines, and the growth of consumer culture especial! since the end of the Second World War. Foucault drew atlention to lhe praclices, discourses an~ technologies through which power is imprinted or 'inscribed' on the human body. Avariety or feminisms have suggested that the starting point for analysis and test of theoretical adequacy to be located in the specificity of women's embodied experiences. Finally consumer culture 5 has accelerated the commodification of the human body, creating ever more finely graded status hierarchies based around the costuming and display of embodied difference (p. 138). Six broad aspects of the cultural shaping of human bodies are charted in this chapter. lt begins with a consideralion of the social construction of human corporeality which is followed by a review of a notion fu ndamental to a fully cultural understanding of the body, Mauss's concept of body techniques. Next, the chapter examines the cultural regufation of the human body, with particular reference to the works of E lias and Foucault to show how cultural values are 'inscribed' onto the body. The chapter then reviews sorne issues of representotion, considering how embodied states are depicted with particular reference lo fashion, femininity and masculinity. The following seclion considers some aspects of the body as o medium of expression and transgression - a vehicle for the realisation of personal preferences, sorne of which may run against widely held cultural standards. The last seclion of lhe chapter examines developments in technoculture around the figure of the cyborg which ls widely believed to presage the end of the human body as we know it.

. oltl' ll ,,o . 1l1 . w t he rd.nt'd 1 lt t . 1 <1111\11 '11 'tlldlt"' . J)isCli"nll' ni tiH'_Iunn.tn. .';li lkrl' ll :<''<illd IH'111T<' 11lht'c ..\ '1\IId' ancl ,di . \\ hat .ut l lt 1 1 ' 111'11'\ hinln"' mi!.{ht ('CJII'lckr lt. lt , enu~ . 11 '111 h(lc 1 :t' < ''o 1 "" , TI t I:!CC.: I< l 1> tcrin \11111. 1 11tllll.1 . 1<,., u >ron~~ n i l'\'ohlliClll . I V "" , 1111' 111.11<'11:t 1111 .1 1.rgt< 1111 11 111 P' 1 . 1 h au'<'Jllt'd llt.ll "" ' 1"' , 11 malll'l ol di,putt 011' ' ICl 1 ' lll lnllll.lll' .1pp< 11 ' <1 ' 1 Jl 's' 1 1nint \1 lwn lt'< og111,.1 >' mor< 1 l . ll.<'l't' >rt''l' lll ll b y :tJ.OIHl >rec1. ~ ., 't'nl 1 1 :ll 1 1t' l . . 1 1 'IJl'Ciali~ls . .dllh lllg' 1.l .11 e nl 'l 1 . 1 lnHll< lll' can be irknulll'<lt1:11 1 muong ll' 0 1 1 1 rl'' nf tht >o< 1 < CT(), .\t k:hl filt' 'Pl.'l1 1C l'ol 11 1 k' 1, 1 '1ClI'ill' in ll' h ic h llllllla ll ~ C:l ll )e:-us ;n . . 1 l'n111t' th c 1' < 1 1Wt' .1 n c 1 11< ' o , . . 11 1 ~ 11 th l' ' l)l'l'lt'' ,\1 1( ' . .. chsnng

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Learning objectives
To apprecia te the respects in which the human body is socially constructed. To understand the cultural shaping of body techniques. To learn how form s of power are 'inscribed' on the human body and how the body is 'civilised' by cultural codes. To understand the place of the body in the construction of femininity and masculinity. To grasp the varying ways in which the body is a medium of cultural expression anda key si te for lransgressing cultural beliefs. To perceive the potenlial of new technologies to challenge conventional beliefs about the coherence of the human body.

7.1 j The social construction of corporeali ty

Thl' lllOSl g'(:llt'l'al rt-a lllrl o f the ~llldit"~ l':-.amined ill thi' ch apter ~ th:ll lht'\ adopt a mnstmrtioni1t approach to th ( human hod~-, th a1 i1> thc~ icltntif, a rang-c o f ~ocia l and c ultural inlltH: n ct., th a l shapt it~ appcarancc a nd actil i11 . -\ cun~tnnioniq appmac h , as wc ~hall ~ec. can take mam fOinh bn tll'hat cach ofth tse ,aric lic.~ ha\'e in con1mon i~ a n o pposilion 10 sin1plifi e d esscnt ialist ( p. I :~H) txp la n atiom. i.t. tx p lanatiom of bodil~ appearance and acti\j~ that :IS\g'll \O/(' 01' 111ajo 1 'g'11fin1Jlrt' lu biolog ica / fICIUJ'.S (~liCh as th c ge u clt-r ur t thnic catcgorisa tion of' thc l><:rson ).

1, tlw hrai 11 '111 (1 l"' lJ,; 111 rJ 1 ' ll IIHl\1 ' '' Ir<' (OOI'cllll:llt'( \\'1 '{he (l llliio-T'IImfir .1 .\'1/t'l/1 . ,,. 1 l1 o. , 11 1>. 11- -1llt 11'<' tll languagt 1' olll 2. J l h e Ct'llll':ll lll'IYOII\ ~~' ' tl '111 lll l'll<l) l' ll" \() ' l . ' .11H r . 1 'L C II' ('l'l' Ch ap ltT ~). runc!. unen1,1 l ,~ni1}C) 1C < P . . lhill'-ctnminalccl e ultun . . 1 r n ll tlw \\ t-," :1111011 1( . 1 BiJII'fla/1\m. \\'e ll.llk t1png 11. .u . . . . 1cl ill n 11r IWI1d . 13ilwd<t hsm a so 3. . . .. . n l 11101111 g .uo111 l\'(t lkin g IT illains 111l' 1 ><lSIC .'1.'1~ , . 1 . 1 1111r 11-,1on 11111k'. cnhanre" thl 11,1\ 1 1.1 - 1 1 . 1n nd l>l'11l1il IIH' ll1 < llll[J1 L a1 . 1111 1) ol 1 lt' ltllll.tll . 1. /lrnu/,1 . TIH' l'lllf,.:l' l'\ ,11lcl oppchlllg 1 ll . 1 r0 ol 11\l' ll\Oh t'" compk-: hoch 1 \ uHI t.ll'l'lll 11 11 1 . l .l (ll1 ol obeCI\ 111 a J>I~ (N ' . 1 r 11 1 1l'111 tb Tite 1 )11\'\JC d l'I1\'11 011 111UI L 1 1 1'111 e li'-<C o coordi11aticll1 l'n n l..;ed :mmnc 1 le'" L . 1-u in<' nl'all11l'' hi' caparm 1' . . 1 ' ,' r ll' 1 \ ill o( human,, ,,, too ' ,., 1 S 11101'(' J11,)Jeab l' lCI l H' 1 l ' f cH;'IIl \' b\' Jll'tl\'l(hllg (l )olS1\ ( ' IHLil'd lO lil l' dt\'l' op111l lll ll ~ , .. . . thou~IH to h an r 0 11 111 . 1 rli11' llt' wol-usi11~ acll\llll'' . . ' 1 rr1111\ th l' 11('1'( 10 ('()( 1 . 1 cooperatwn ;u-1"11 ~ . . . .. co ,k:-:i11 th a11 n i IL'I' . 1 . , . . .. Jaritl lo r g rc:ll t'l ge<ll111 1 1111 . :J . h m llitt tfl//(/1'1/\'. 1-111111:111 ~ 1.11 e .1 t.l 1 . ''llfL'~" .1 wick r.m~c nf t'I111HH>11' . 1 1 r ex 1111Jl <'. <.111 l . ' prilll,\ll'\. 1 ht I.Ht'' ol 111111,\ll'i. O 11 '1 o l l ' l' :t) j)l'<LI' lo be tlll(jll l' lO 1HLII I:IIIS. 1 1' . 1 'l'~ltl l '('<. 110[:1 ) 1 .111)., l l ancl 'nmt l' lll H>< IU ~ .. . llt'alllw ;c\ull human~. . . n n be mohll h~"< 1 1ll ,1 11 . 1 1 T h csl' 'Pl'Cl'~-spccilic r:1 p:tC1IIl'\ ' . k' r ndllll"ll \lllcli<.~ , In ap p roac 1 l ll' . . 1 . . T lw di,ttncuw ta t u ' Thu' 1TC'il)l'CII'<' n i llllll' o r P ,1! l'. . . . . 'lthttll'~ a11cl thrnugh 1nstol'\ . .. \ .. 1 , llnt ,an<.'' .H 1o." < 1. 1 <n i boch a~ al1 <lCCi th ura tt'< ~t .\ L , ,, . 11' ' l ma ttria l cullll. )LO ug t 1 1 , t i1' ll tl w bodl 1< J\01 lll t: 1t: ' . , . . , .1111 'L'll't'. a \liCia! co11qru c!HHI. cullllral qudil's t'liiJl l<1' 'l'< ' . 1 11 1 1 1 1 ' 111 '1 H"1 '111< '1).\1 " 1 d<ll\1111 or plll~iolo).\ical !:lu l\11 1'. , .1 . . 1 . 11 r li un. r;uTi<.d <HLI 111 tlw hralll .H1l . ['111 . " 1 CIIH'd ilHHLg 11,UH 1l l J . 11 '\ ,/ . 1 /is 1hc ra>arlll' l<. ' 1/1 . . 11 , . . r-1mou' e1. u 1um 1 1hink llll'11'1nn 11 ' 11'1 '11< 1' 1''111 l' ' 11 . \l 1 ' 1. . Jt' to 11. m nclt 1CJh el .1 , . 11.1 .t'lllt'd . T h t m11H ,, ' '"<''11'c\l'd '""' 1lt't'l1 ''' <. 1 . ll n' 1 radical 'Pli t hl'l\\t' t' ll hclC h a11c 111 11H . 1 di,III<'l l!onn il. Di rl'< 1 <!<'<'<'"lO 1 ll 1111 ll 111\1 1 h h111 1t m.un' ' h,dling in .1 hum:lll 10< . . 1. . llll'll']>t'< ti o n . \ 11lllll 1)l'l' o fl'url l1t'r < . .' 1 el it'\ L'cl lo hl' o n h Jlll"lhk llnm 11 11 1111 . '1.1 . . mmd 1 ' 1 1 . lunchmen!.ll cluall\111. contra~ "' a iT prerlic:n<'rl aHH 1 1l( 1 11 ' '

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1
270 lntroducing Cultural Studies Cultured bodies 27 1

mind prh a1t inne r culwn

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f" e: . 1101 'l' J)<ll'atl'., 1 l ' ( .ou llt'l' ( 197\l) has 1 10ll'd that 'transp;11'l' IIC\' nf' mine!' (i.t. Olll' ore( ' . . 1 T 1. . ., , . . . . . 1a1 ) .1 >1 ll ~o h gutt ou1 llll:nt.tl ,,ue'. '11th as Su-.111 !' hondom ) 1' <lnsd1 dcpendtnt 11 >on lllllllciant \OCiaJ COillpt'll'll('t' in m:tking St' il'l' of' 1:1lk :111d human t'XJ>I't'\\ :.IIlS, l ll l'~t' :1re tmbod l<'<i and clteplr cu l1ural rapa<i t i(,,

' J hissch~mn.g-i,e:-.pl omiJwn ce 10 rnincl in ddining-tht per-;on. l'he hoth i-,scen. 011 bes a' 1he lllltld ~ wh1cle ancl. ;u 11or'1. :h dri\'('11 hl' clt-;ircs aiH I .1JlJ)< ti t1, \\'hich 11 . 1 ' 1 . 1' . . . tt:f L1e 1 :1 .111c ..s l~t'S I ~a m1n ~ mrl~ t ~ n ~c . g uida nce ;~nc l comn1a nd. J-l o\\'t'\'L'r. clu;ili~m oJ' llli \ kind gtn~ l ,\lt:' dtiTicuhlt'' C.htt'f. among 1he'e h lht cl,t,,ic phii<NlJ>h ical p1 ohlen 1 ol holl' it is ~>~l"tblt 10 kno\\ o1her lllltHl~ (e.g. IW\\' c< tll \l't' dt'lt'lhibh kno\\ th:tt . fur c:-;, 1111 k "iusan 'l'l'llle d bnrt' cl by t lw ll'ho k occasion '?) . Pla inly. ,,e n:acl ih' do hal't J..nm lt'du-~ of ot h er peopil'~.:.talt~ of mind in t~tnda, lik. ,o 1he11' nHI'I he \Oillt'lhin!{ 111 i,Jl';;ling .d>nul t h e cluahst nccou n t. Bod~ atHlmind arl' be 11e r concei11d a~ iltlt' l'dcJWnd t n t

1\'l: h:~1e done. co.n tt mpl:tl t' alterna ti l'l StTnarim aJI(I d1no~t b<lll't't'll nli t'l'lla l i1t li nt'8 o l ac uor 1 . .-\ccorcllng to t'\kad:
\\'e can cJi,lin~ui'h H'l'~ ddinild~ lH' l\\'(tn 1he 'tll .utcl 11 11' IHod1. "l ltt' ,t'lf J ; 1, th t r ha raritri$ ti c 1ha t il can ht :111 o bj trt lo il,tlf'. < llld tlia l cl lar:tt'll'ri.,tir di~tilwui,ht, it J'ron~ nlher o l*tts and f'totn thl' hoch . 11 , pt'l knh 11ue that 1lw t.'ll' t.lll 't'~..,ilu loot. h111 11 dot, 1101 'l'l' the boch a~ .1 1d101l'. \\'t c. utnot 't't' tl\ 11 bark': 1\'t. r. 111 lcd n t t. lin portio u ~ or 1h t ll l . if \\'(' :tl'l' ag iIr' bul \\'(' Cl llllt 11 gtl .11 1 l'XJWI' t' llCl' o r tllll' ll' holl' hod\'.
t:\ lt-.1cl. 1H:ll: 1:lti)

l ~' mind i' th t t.tlional f'arult~. tht capa<i11 lor 1hot1~ht ;ntd 1cllenion. thtn llf/(or scl~-iclen ttll') refe1 s to \\'ho ;tnd ll'h ;n tlw wrson is in _ , 0 ci:tl t e rm ~ . .\ ccord ing 10 ilw pl11 l o. ~ op h cr ami . ~ ocia) Jwclwlouj, Ceor"t' 1 krbe 1 \l t" l(l ( Jt) ~ l ) 11 . 1 . . . . ,., ,., . . . 1' el'~~ 1 li1Cll1e quallll' ol thc sell 1' th at ti can lw an objen to it~ell: a' ,t.ln,, \H' can rt'flec t u pon 11-hat
D

social conslntctions '" .1 ' linlt bo1 or ' liul~ girl' .. \ ge i': in m:1m socit ti e~. n o ll-ss siuni lic:lll l. :\t t'l't' l'l come minn nlh relogn1secl 'tage o l the hfl' cnur~t there are e~pcnecl lonn' of l)lh:n iour :tllCI culrurall~: cld.inecl .t nd _<~ppl:med txpcri~nn'': Sh akn xare g;11e cnnon ical form 10 thi' idea ll'llh h1 ~ n o ll tn 111 thL' ~e ,en ag~s u l m a n uacq n cs' SJll'l'Ch in . \1 l'ou J.i/i 1 1. 11 . lii. r :~51T.). Gcnck r. IIS.Ual h in tandtm 1\'ith agc. >ro1ick tii'O o fthe deq>C''l dctcrmi n anl' ol thc cultural.,hapmg ol 1hc human b<Hh. 1 Thl' cxamplc or the lilm l~igil l ~o hel p~ (() illu~l ratc a t undamL n t<JI du;tlil y abOltl th < human boch-: ll'l' lunt bl1clics and liT also 1111' buclit'' (cf'. lkrge r a n d l. u t km ann. 19lHi) . \\'e 'haH boclie~ 1d1o't' materi.tl 'nt.'eck (lor foocl ami clrink. re~l ami sltl'ltcr) mu't be et. T h e h ealth o f'our bodil's is :1 t'rccutlll so ut'Ct' ofcon Ct'l'll to u ~ as. wo. i,, th e ir sh.1pe 111 ancl appcara n n. lhllwt a ho art' bodit"' in thc ~l'il'c Lh;ll o n r b odit'' :trt' n h iclt:s o l our exislt'IICl' a~ indi,idual,. Our blin~ in tlw wnrlcl. our agt m' :t'> humans i~ gro uncl l'd in our e lnboditd st:lll' a n d '''<.' knuw thal Dl ll' Cl'l.'lllll< ll fat<.: i' 10 age ancl die. .-\ parallel di,tinctiun is betll'l'l'll tl w boch a' an nbj tct ami as a , u bject. Depending upon the )()int ol I'<'II' lront ll'hich i1 is approaducl. 1111 boch isan object thal o thcs can n ilt'f.(PI'ise an d 1\'ilich 1 ra n own nr p os~es~ (acc11rcling- to Simmel ( 19!'0: :32?), th e b.och i~. nw nr.~l "propcrtl'" '). o1 it ca11 bl' St:l'll a' a sul ~jl'C I. tlll' p lll'sical l' mbodutiL'Ilt u l .t ~c ll : sea1 of ~~~~~jl'l'tilit~ ( lh t '1' 111itin~ th t''\t' ~~ord~ is the l'mboclicd hum.m ,,ith ll'l'\ 01 moclts t ke d )oan l skills in his h ands and nn ac hing n el'k ~itti ng- in f'ront of a I'C) . In cultural ~t;1clic' tlti' cwlll'.l~t Ita' ll'cl ~ullll' theori!.h to argu e lora clistinnio tl bl'tlll'{'ll ' the boch ancl emboclimelll' - bet\\l't:ll thl' objccti lied bocliL'' we h aw ancl 1hc em bocl i c~l bei ng., 1\'t' are ( 1-1 ad t' 1992: Tlll'ncr. Hl~l2). ln 1h , c ha p 1n som L' stncl i l'.~ ( l' .g. f oucHIIL Elia~) tl'nd w cmpha,i~L cxttrnal comtraims 011 thc bllch. whi lt: ot h lr~ (t.g. The,,Llcit. \\'acquant ) tcnd 10 strcso; thc cxpericnti;ll climen,icms of <nhodillll' lll (althoug h . as 1\'l' shall st'l'. thcn are ol'ttn in l ri c:ll t' rda1i o n ~ bt'l\l'l't' n iiH' 1 11'0) .

7.2

Techniques of the body: embodied instrumentalities

Sociologi''' like Coffman h:ll<' propn~t.d 1h :n an> pt' l'\lltl h; 1s a 111 ull ipli cit 1 0 [' 'l'h-cs', .~ol~ll' rei:HI't' l> e nduring. likl' thosl' pnuJi,tcl on occupational rollo, (l:.g. a ,hop :h'l'tanl wlf) , ,,hik 01hcr' lll:l\ be flt( tin~.. h 1dwn 1\'t' t<'a't' a h l'IHI about hcr clress ~t' ll '<' (e.g. a ll'asing sclf). For COIISII'IICiioni,m. il i~ importan! tu u n ckr,ta n d thatt h t human boch , 1raddk the re.tlnh of n;nure ancl cultu J<. T ht funnioning uf the mawrial boch i' ~on n ccl bl' n;Hural proct,se., b11 1 its an il'ity in th t 1\'o rl<l is inescapubll- fr;tmtd b1 .-cc ia l a mi c 1tl wr;{J b c tors. <.onsider tlw pena, in !'ig-nili cann of ag .utc genclt:r in the trcatnlt'nl of human hodito; (aln:Hh touched upon abon in the lihnir examplc ol !JiK). Excep1 for lra n ~scx ual ~. llit' as.~ 1 g nm t' Jll o f' ' m a J' or fc 111 :lle' i ~ :1 r :t tl'g 01 is: ui o 11 th a t i .~ tx h:II JSII't: of t ht popu la rion ancllilclong in dttration. T ht cngtncltring ol' boclics- tht attrilmtion of c nlruralh tonwntional COII L'latt'' ot ~tx In produce thl' qua li tie:- rLcogni,ecl ,1s ' tna,utlinitl'' :ntcl ' ltlnininiL>,.- bcg im a llllll'l inllnecli: ne h a~ ll' h a t arri 11, in .tht 11orld a" a dinwrphica l11 cla,~itiablt organi'm i' 1apid h lr:lll'io nmcl into ,uch l'I11ill'illh

Ve n 0 b,i0 u,..h . llt t' bnd1 is tll t' Jntan ~ o r in~ tnllllt' llt l'or carrying out a ll 1he prac 1i ca l action' t hmugh which per:-.ulh engagl' rh e ln>rlcL :-\ccordinglv. thc notion of boch tec h niqliC'~ (or ' tcchniCJlll'S of th e boch-') is a pimtal C011Cl' pt.

7.2.1 \ Mauss on body techniques

In a 1\l~~ 1 lcc ttll'C lh t Frc n c h a nthropologisl .\ l:trcel :'l h111~s ( 1 ~7~- 1 ~1[{)) ded sl'CI li te conn:pt of 'boch tcchllCJllt' s w descriht. 'the '''"''in \\hic h from ~ocien w sncietl m cn [sic] kilO\\' hll\1' lO USt' th e ir hndics' ( ;\lau s~. 1 ~)7q: 97). T h erl' is 110 ' n atural' rorm 10 bo clill' actio n s. n o pan-human. precu lturaL un i~trsa l or inherc nt ,.. h:pe lCJ actio n s ~uc h as ,,a lking ....winming. ,piHing. cligging. marching. c1c n :.tarin g o1 g i,ing binh (se.e Box 7.1) . Rather. bodih a ction' a re histori c;11l~ a ncl c ultur;ll~ ,ariab lc. acqui red aunb11t~s th a t spcak to culturally ,pccil ic mcmbtrships . . \ rcorcling 10 :'llauss. 1h c human bocl: IS 0111 ' lir~l ami mosl natural in-trumt'lll ... lour] lir~t .tnd mo'l nawral tcchnlcal

272

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Cultured bodies

273

Box

7.J

Checklist: M auss's budget of body techniques

probkm~ in a remo le pan o r France ho11 w spi t. .\t to ur sous pcr spil, she pr01ed 10 be an aclc p t karner:

l. 'Jrdllli'flll 1 rif /Jiltlt ttllt/11(11/tltin (, t) pmitiolh for gi1i11~ birth ( h ) earc of tlw 1 11ol11l'r :tncl in fa nt ~. '( / l111iqur s of lljl/111 ) (a) rea ring a nd t't' v d i n ~ tlt t' rh il<i ( b l wtaninR (el t ite ,,cancel t hilcl :l. litllllirw 1 rif ((1/olt \fl 'llll' (al in itiation titu.IJ, l. l it!lllitllt'.\ of rlli!dllif' (:t) l L'C illl if]Ul'~ of' '-k tp ( b ) ll':tkinK: tccl nticu t~ o f I'<'S I (e) techniquc' uf ani11. uf tllOH' tlll'lll : (i ) walking (ii ) runnin14 (i ii ) dan c ing (il' ) jum pi ng ( \ ') el i 111 h in g ( d ) cit'\( l'lll (1 ii ) ,,lirn tning (liii) pu~hi11g. pu lling. lilrin~ (dl teclmiqun of e are olllw boch: (i\ mhbing. wa,Iting. 'o:tping (ii ) can o l t lt t tnntult ( iii ) h ~g i v nt itt t it e ll l'l'cls n i na lll rt (l') ('Oihlll11)11ion lt't ) n ic p tt'': ( i) eatin g (ii ) drinl..i n g .;ex u a 1 ll'l' h 11 iCJlll''

Ha,ing- establ ish ed th t c ult ura l sha ping o l' bo dy 1 echniques. 1\ la uss thc n goes o n to identif}' topics wonh l'urthe r inl'estigation . Among these a re gc ndc r ancl agc d iflc rencr~. tl w c l'fects o f training. a ncl 1he transmi-,~ i o n ancl acqui,ition of thcsc tcc hniqut''>. Bo d}' tceh niques 1 an quite conspicuou )~ nccordi ng 10 gcnch..'r ancl agr. For c xa mp k. omrn detiler 11eak p un c hes {al lcas tthc1 tcndccl to in th t Francc of ,\lauss's cb1 :) in 11 p;~rt Jxra usc t hcy u su a iJ ~ clasp th c ir th umbs insiclc their llng crs: wo m en tltn> ,,. cJiiTtrc n ti )' from m en (stc \'o un g. 19::l0, bl'lcm): e h ilclren can sq u :ll ll'i lit c:Pe 11) i k III OSL ad ult Wc~ tcrnc r~ canno t. 13od)' 1cch n iqucs c:11 t n l ~o be morl' d fi c ic nt 1> execu ttd as a result ol' t rain ing nr c ultil'ation: d e x te rity as a 1rain cd acco rnplishnt tnt is a kc y notio n Itere. fin a ll) :'-J au~~ arguc-, l'or close obsctY:uio n of ~oc iaJ i,ation pra ct i cc~ in ordcr tu Jc;~rn more abou t h{m thc~e tech niqul''> are acquired . For txam ple, 1\'t' eannot un <krstand 11h~ tlt l piom :'- luslim 11ill onll' c:ll food 11 ing t hc righ t hand b1 r<fe n ing to ph y~io log" or the psycholog: of m otor a;.ymt n t tt:. C lo e tUd) n( holl' ~uc h tec hnicm, art' u a nsmittccl to child rcn is n :qu irtd ( in m:t ll)' if no1m o~ t cases. ,\lau~s su n nists. n nd instrun ion will he inm lwd ).

7.2.2 1 Feminine motility: 'Throwing like a girl'

The notion o f body tech niqucs is desig m d w hri ng somc ord n toa large collection of 1\ la uss's mi-.cella neous obset'\'atio n about human ac tiom and h a~ thus hcl pccl w Jegitimatt a n a rc a uf inq 11it)'. ll o\\'CI'l'l', ,\hui'~ ltimst' lf ne n :r ll'l' lll berond his ptrson<ll observatiuns as anth ropo logist. sponsman :t ttd sn ldie r. \\'lta t, 1n o rc r ont:rete l}'. rnig ltl :t mo re systc matic an a ll'~is u f tcc lmiques of tltt bod~ includ e:: r\ s a n illus tration of 11ha t is in,oh'cd , 11-c can comid er Iris ~f a.-ion \'ou ng's 19RO pa per 'Th1o wi n g li ke a g irl ' {sce also Cros~ley. 199:l). T h ough not explici t l~ mc n tioncd (t h e lheorctical basis o f Young'o; stucly i ~ thc pheno m t'nu logy of :'-l e rl eau-Pon t ~ a nd th c fem in ism ol de Beaumir ), h tr analysis ll ~e fully ill11ntin a tcs ~ l a usss 1hinl..ing abo ut body tc t hniques. Yo ung i ~ inte rcsted in those ge ncll' r diffc rc nces in b uclily C)( i.stc n cc a ncl m t ii'Ciltt'tll clcscribed in th c l'e rn a cular as thrm1ing lil..c a g irl (the sck c tinn of lite tc rm '1-\'irJ' is intcnde dly iro n i('), ru n n ing like a g irl, climbing like a gi rl , hi tting likc a g irl ancl so fort lt . She form~~ on ordina1 : purpo in~ a etio n a n cl d clibcnuelr exd llclc~ e xpre">ly sexual uses of t he bocll' ancl also no n-taskoricntecl a ni,ity. such a ~ dance. You ng pick~ 0 111 fcatures o f femininc existen ce tha t shc sccs as produced h~ the sttttc turcs a nd conditions that wo mc n lact in a pa rtic ular socic t> tH>L sonlt' mystc rious q ua li1y assigncd tn a ll bio logical fc ma lcs ei'CI'}'I\'h cl-e. ConscqtLe ntl r . tltc rc 1.-ill be exccptio ns to th c pattc r ns 1ha t shc ide ntifit:s. Thb dnl's not ima li<la tl' hc r a na lysis; ratlt er. i1 is to be cxpcctcd that sonH.' II'Otlll'll will tna nage 10 esca)l' or transcend th c typ ical conditio ns that II'Oillc n l'act in a ll}' socicty. Yo un g ide mifles difl'crcnce in \\'cstl'nl industrial socie tits in IHI\1' II'Omen ' holcl' th e m sc ll'e~ (componmc nt ), t hei r m:mnc r mol'ing (moti lity) a ncl the ir re la tion to spacc (spatiality) whic h arl' murt limi tcd a nd circumscribed than the corrcs po ndin ~ be hal'io urs o f mc n. lkgi1111i n ~ wi th ltow g irls rhrow d ilfere ntly f'rum bO)'S. shc writcs:

{ n

mt.an , . \\'lwn 1\'l' cng.tgt thc lll<ll<'rial ,,otlcl. lot exampk' 11 h tn \H' drinl... 111 l'tnplo' a \t>l'll'\ o l <l'~l'lllbkd ac tiOII\, ll'h ich arl'j .l"('lllbkcJ for tltt incJi1 icJual llot b1 Jti111,rJf alo n t ~mt_b' .a~ l itis cd u ullit~ll , b~ thl' 11lwk .;m it'l\ lll 11'hic lt lw bl'long,, in tlw plarl' hr occupH's 111 ll ( ,\ lams. l!l t!l: 10-l. ] (!.1 ). St~ nH I ittll'' tltt' indilicl 11:t l\ so c ie l\' 111<1\ no t Jrmick lite rc le1attl lt'Cltniqttl'. ,\ Jau" td l.; 1 11111' ltl' taug lt l ,, liltil' g irl ,,ilh b to ,;clti<tl

or

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lntroducing Cultural SlLrdies

Cultured bodies 275

... girJ, dtJ IHtl bring their 11h uk loodie, irain 11 11' llliiittll < 1' mnc h "' the boh. T h<'l do II!Jl nat la bad... llli't. 111ul'\' hark,,;~u l. 'lt'fl .111<1 k-.111 fc m,,arcl. Rallll't the gitJ, ltud t() 1'\'lll.tiu t l'l.uheh imuwhil\ t'l\cept lor 1h l'ir .11111'. ancl Cl'tn 1ht a1m , 1101 \'XIPnded ;~ la r a., it rna tld lte. (\'ou ng. I!ISO: JI ~) Fc m inin< componmtnt and 11\0\t'IIH'Ill i~ <h.ll'a< tt'l i'ticalh mad,e d b1 :1 1 :1ilurt to use tlw hod\'\ rn ll pot l'lltial ra ngc uf lll Oi ion. So mc ex;unpll'': \\'onwn ;uT .renta,tlh 1101 " optu 11ith thtlr budit, :t- nlt'll in tlwi a g.tit .md 'll idc. T1 pica JI~ . 1ht m.l,tttlint ' 11 ide , lnngt'l l}l'np< 11tJila l to a m : u1 ~ hnd1 i11:111 , thr k 1ninin e 'll'itiL toa II'Oitlaal,, f ht 111;111 11picall\ '"ings hi' .1nn' in a m;llt' optu .md lo<N' la,Jaion 1h.1n doc, :1 II'Oillan ;uult~pi<.llh h,,, mote up .md dm,n rh11hm iu his <tq). rhnn g h ll't 11011" 1\'t'.tl' p. 1 1ll~ 11 Htl'\' th:trt 1\t' 11\t'cltu, :ttld \' 011't'qrtt'l1lk do llOl fHI\'(' te re,lrin cJitl 'illi rl).( pmtun' bt:r: lu,c o l dl't''' woutcn ,jlt tencl 111 ,it ,,ith th Pir lq~~ rel.nheh tlmt' tog\ther .111<l tlwi r .11111' au o" tht'l bodil'' \\l1e11 ,jmph ,t<tnding or lc.ln ing. rn t n l(' rltl ltJ kttptltc ir ktt lunlr t r ;1par1 1han do '''OIIll'rt . a nd ll'l' al'io tt'lld rHct rt tu kt t p o ur h.111clo; a11d arm' ltH1chi11g o1 ,ftiddiug oua hodit' \ liu.tl inditli\e dilll'l t'llCt' , tlw ""' cach <.11 rit' hooJ.., .,, partd': girls ;111rl ll'fll11l'll mo, nft e n c ury honJ.., t'lllhtilnd In thl'i r c l w ~ l\. 1dtik bo1' :lllrlll tt'll '.1\' rlg lhcm .do11g tl1 1ir ,ideo,. 2) (\'outl ){. l!lXO: 1 1
:\l a11~ uf' rla diff l'l'tn cc' httl\'l't' JI 11 1e n < llld ,,u nwtl in rhe pnloma nn of' tasJ... ~uc h a' lil't ing- a ll(l c;u..-~ing hean 1hin g~ arl.' IHil duc w ,jmplt '''l'll){lh ~<tri.llion~. \\'omcn c k rtad1 1erlt 11 Cf11l' :m el e,l,l'f 111 l'ng-age nwnt 11i1h 'llch ph~ si c; il ta.sks ll'hich of ten l.1 cotnt'' quitl' rtad il)' 10 lllit m ncn. \\'omtn ll'ill ollt'll lifl thi ng:. uo,in~ tlwir anno; a nd '\houldt't' ra rhtr than af,o hringi n~ tite pmH' I ol tltl'ir lq{' to the task. Young po1trays 1liona litl'' ( 1\l:q(): llt1J aiHI clrall's th t 'l' limih o n fe minilll' moti lity "' :111 'i nhihi1 ed ill ll' 1 on th t icll'<t' of tht phtnonw nolog-i'l :\la urin .\lt-1 kau-Pont1. who maint.tin'\ th.ll tite primal'\ lclC\1\ of httnl.tn bdng in1ht 1\tllld , 1101 minrl or conscitJLI\IIC'Ss h11 1 rathn the l>ocll' tJI'ie rning it,c lf lo it~ ' lllround ing;.. 1 l11o ug h a p proad1ing. g ra,pi 1 1g anrl .lppropriating tiH'Sl' 'niTonnding, tht hoch rt"ali'e' iL~ intcntion~. Bnt CIIIH'IIt h clominant lorm' ol' f(rninim mntilitl' 'it'IYt' lo rt,tri ct a11CI in hibit t ht l'l'<t li,at icll t of' ,,o 111<'11's illlCJHionalit' .

tl 1 , 11othi nu.' 1 111 cnllu r:d tr:tt t,loll11alltlll: ..... ill." ,.., l ai rll'd in lla na ll11T o l ,,onlt'll lhat d('Ct'l't'' 1h.11 thl'\ llllhl "''" thnm likt ~~~ "-

7.2.3

Body idiom and body gloss

.111 ph a'i'i ng tlll' t ltltlll ,tll >:t'i' o l trnhoclil'd anin1 In 1 1. .\lau", notion ol ~HHII'I cc l n~iqllt'' ten<h 10 Ion k to tl1l' bio~t .tphi< .ti and hi,wrical ot i~in' ol th t''l' teclu.nque,. l.nclirrcth \'nllllf.\ e:-:lt'lld' ~l : llh~~ t't ll1 1'\'()l (' 1 11' clot''i nol l'X J ll 'l'''' ~ l'l'l'l'l itt ti 1 111 ~ holl'lll g' 'om t oll.llll "l' 1Hk1 dilll'lt'llll'' in tlit' lind l'X ptl itnct ul ho11 l11l'll a nd \\'011\t'll r<IIT\ 1111f> ,.., . 1 . . 1 tht'll1'l'll'l'' .1 nd mrllt'. B111 l11m .trt hnch ttrhniqnt'' e nar tecl 1n lht ann:t 'llll:l lt on~ t 1 CI'('J' cl:l\ lill': ( ltr 1 tlt t qrttltlg'l o [ Eni ng ( ;clllntan ( 19~:! -/'I:!J t'<i 1 1 htl: ti'- Lo apprc c.: la tt ho11 hoch ttc hniqltt'' il'<HIIIt' in otclinal'\ intcrattion (:o-l't' Cro,,ftl. l ~l~b) .. Cofln1:111 propo't'' tltat . t ' Jltc ia l St'l n i c ulutral ll rHkr,tzl11dings nh1:11ns 11'h tnl'\.cr peoplc an in th l' pf11,il:tl prts< nc l' ol t~uh ot.ht r. In ,jtllati~n' ol'.nrJ~I'l''~~1(l' ~~~~~~~~ c nrotii1H'I'l. ,nrh '' 1dH'n 1\'t' ;ut <'ng.t~ed 111 a comtr~;H ton \1llh ~ h~uHI 0 ' :H tr:11d ling 0 11 pt tbl ic 11':111'1Jilll. ll't' lt :tH' .1 1 m"' i "~ prac tir:tln cnl lo acqtlll'l' lnlolt1H11HIIt ahmll olht'l ' ahont thci1 ,t,Hll' and icltrHII. llloocl and oritnt;IICIII IOII'<trd' "' ancl ' 0 rnalh . Sol\11' n i ih b in li ll'l1l.IIOII , ginn lt' l'h:l l l ~ h~ wl r:ll peopk ,.,, lo \I S. h~ll o tll t'l' 11 ('onnaticll1 i, ')l;iH'II o lt' u1 t''\Utkcl b1 noiHt'rh;\1 <o 1Hitrn : 1ht'I E1cia l t'Xpn~,Hll i'. th l' staf1(t' thtl aclcapt. lht di,pt"ititm oi' IIH'il limlh tl1l' lclllt' olt htia -.pett ll. Tht lliltut.ll l11 l'< tll ing' :t'~"ciatld 11ih l la st' ge.;ttt l'l'' i ~ 11 o11 ' o 1 11 11rh a lang nage (tlw pnm .lar p hr:t'l' noll-\L'I ba11.mg 11agt,. i-. ,11 lw,tanll't.tplwr ic:1fu,, 1~l') '" ,111 icliorn: a s tancl.trcll'-t'cl m :Jck of cx prc.,..ion. ll t'IH'C ' ti w r o n Cl'fH hod~ iclin1n. "h id 1 ck,c ribc~ 'clress.. bear11~g. llH>H'Illl'llt' a ncl pn,itiun . , 1111 HII 1, 11. pl11'ica l gt,tttl't'' '11th :l'i 11.11ing 111 ~alutll1~. 1aetal '' '''\) 1 hn ~~no 11111L' ou 1 ( c. ge,tun, .md hru.td t'llHJII\111.'1 1 exprt'"lilll\ ,n ti 111<111 . (IJ(' : J.>a. ': ..' . ' .. , . . cr

ht origin' o l thl'M' cha1 ane ri,tic lcatn n, oflltuinine cotnport llll'n t and mo,1nwnt an 1101 in n:t ll' : tfle, l loll' l'ro111 11orne n 's ~ itn a1io n in a ~lxi "t. patri:1rc hal ,miet,. In ~uch a "ocit'll' womtn a rt 'ph,sica lh' handi rapwcl'. acnu din g to \'o un g: a, lilt:d iJo di t., we a r L' nn1 optn :111d tl l1 ill11bi,gw 11 1\ lr:t11M 't' tH1tr1 CL'' \\hit 11 mol't' o 11t to mastl.'r a m rld 1hat l w long~ lo u'. a 1\'o rld Ct>l1.!'1illlll'd b1 our 0\l'll intentio ns and projenion<' ( 1~l:-;0: 1:'12). -1 hi " tmbodied dinwn<.ion ol '''0111('11, o;uhordination io; rootc d in tht ,,a, in 1d1ich ll'oi1H'II 1 iq a nd e:-: pl'rie ntT tlt c ir hod its :1 s not , 111 pk su l~j t ct ~. \'L' 11 ic les o l: 1hci r 011'11 intcntionalit,. bu1 a l~o :1\ a11 ohject to be ~at t'cl on ~impl~ ,1, a nwn hmh. tht objttt of l ll ol~jtrtili il1 ~ rq~<ll d thal i' .tpprai~td 01111 in tl'l'lllS or il 'i .1ppear:rt1 Cl'. \\'h;n Yoli11!,(S 'i lllcf~ IJri 11 gs 10 Ji,l,( h l .\ l<lkt' ll-flll', l(l':ll1 ln ( :lloiJt'l l'i o(' 1he l'II,L(t' 1Hieri llg o(' bu el\' lCCiill if(llCS in uw<ktn ,odtlies. Dm, it mallt'l' 1h:n ll'omcn t',lll t1ot 1hnlll~ You11~ s;11s ' 't''i . \lar k of cunlid t ncc hon1 bocli l) cap:tci tics tn:l\ inl't rse o 1hn are a .., of' 11o mt n , lin:~. hccorning manift, t. fot t:-:ampk. "' dc111bh a bmll intd ll'nu.tl or ma nagc ria l capability. U111 if' lcmi11itll' r on1ponnwnt a iHinwn: ne nl arl' nthura1h o;hawd . thtn lhl'~ :ll'l' :tlso opcn w

~t np 1.1lk rn,.,. ht 1 , 111110 ; ,top ro1111111;11it ;Hing tl11 o ug li hod1 icliom: lit lllll't ' " c itlH'I 1he right thi11g ~ (( t) 11 111:111 . . Jtlt'1. '\,1. ., -) <;; JIIH' 01 11il' ll'rong thing. 1k t .l l111o t ''' r1n1 11111 ,) t . l'k111t'l1ts . . ni bod1 idi onl e <111 lw t'mplm 'td b1 tli e pt r,nl1 tn p rn1icll' a g ln:>.' n r txp lan;u rnn or ITIII ra l . . 1 snu.H tnn. \\'"'tin"' cotnl11t'tll o11 a11 tllllllll';\ld ka tut t' ol tlw llll111t' < t.llt' 'oc1.1 .... cm 1 :--tn'l'l tn ll1t't'l \(II11L'C II1 l' . thl.' (Jt' l \011 111:11 ,.;c;l lt tfH' ' 1 11 '1'01 111 \fs o r g hiiH'C ' O~ l l' 11l:HOII~f \' a.l ;r o rcl< 11 ' r1 'I'P 1 .;er-;-bl': \ wdtstniltl ll'ri,tllatc h 111 r 10 g r.1p1uc;1 al' a n 11111nt t'l1l llll\11 t t< 1 f)'l "
f'ro 1 n hod1 idiom i11 :1111 \()( 1 .tltr11 o nnl t r. 1t 11 al li wugli :111 IIH II \Idu,tl t .tn

011 a e rn"'i11g 111.11 ,ftaJ..t a lwad n1 \\,tg a lingcr al .1 mo tot i~t 1\'lto ha;; ouh .111'1 managecl lo st Jp. J'lt t''l' :l<:L , o l' bot h g lo,, ( {;ofln~<ll1. l!l l : 1:!.->1 :ll't' iclt' 1 11ifil'd as gc,lltl'l'S that 1 11 t ntl 1 bro.1dca~1 111 .111\'Citl\' wlw e ,tl'l'' to witllt'" thttn out ,1111111< t' ll>llate1 ' ' 1> or polt'I11;t1h th rl.'a tcn ing .lt l. l11 ot 11ot 111't inlln t nti .l l '111d~ Coflnl .t r1 ( 1 ~1(\:1~>) ll\'l''t iga~ td th t l'iri"IItdc:' fat in~ lli<>'l' 1dto haH' \tllll t' pJn ..,iral ;tlll ibutt o r hand 1 cap. (am.tln1 1 g from tl1t'I\OII' tic to pat .tpl q~i.tto. t ,i,ihk l'lh11ic ick11tit1 1 ll'hich .tct,,l, .t ~ug t na .tl.t at . ' f1 11 'I'Cfll<l f'l '111Ct' 1 ' 11 tft' ir t' li ('Pllll ll'I'S ll'llli l~ . 1\ 1 IIC 1 'll'S )Jl' IMIII\ (lcllll ('11 ff \{)(.. 1 .1 f 1 l '('l'fJ1 l.u t'lol.u l' co1H1uct. ( 'O 11 r11.111 ( l lllJ) othtr'. Ont orttHil'l '' af,o marktd 111 IInh,l'd fe atures o f ':'g l'ndt'l' d i,pl:no;'. th e culturalh t t nnn ti 111al t'll.)ltrs,ior ~' uf ' 1 ':-:da~' that :lit' 011 ('111an' ' 1 a1 .11'1 l l1\''t,. llll'lnberslnp 11 1 t' 10 11' 11 . 1 g. , . ( L' t1ckr tft,Jia' . s. are . .th t 1 1( ni t>llH'r..; ,1!1111" 111 a 1 takt' lllo-gr:uned '''"" ol reme1uc 11111{ our,t \t' ' 111 t 1t ptt 't' t t-~ ' 1 1 k 11 '1 n llinit\'' TIH'~l' ({'11)ttitw 1\':1\ or ' t :t k l ll ~ r ha rgt 111 :t 1 1lill111 l'l' 1 1:11 )l''fJ L'ol ~ tt 1 ~

276

lntroducing Cultural Studies

CuiLured bodies

277

g<' ndc r di,pla~!> ;:m: social constnlc t ion ~, i.e. no l innatl' hu t rat hc r t)l{' procluct of th acq uisition or c ultura l kn o11kdgt a nd !>kili ~. In Goffman 's perspccti\'1:. thcn. tite hurna~ body is th <' prime instrum(nt of fau:--to-racc in t(raction. an exprl'~S\'e L'n tity capab)e of comple x ancl nuan ccd comnnm ica ti1e au ilit~ . . \l though the IJ o d~ 11ns m,cr t\ tn'\jor analytic l'o cus of Coffman \ inqui1 ies. hi~ ~lllclics han: prowcl a rich rcsourcc for const ruc1ionist a na ly~es of e m bodi ment. As nn ill u~ 1 ra t io1 1 ol' 111 , poll't1 1ia l. con ,jcJe r ho11 Gol f'1nan ' f ocus 011 the '>PtTifics of intlranion can wn e LO dl,elop ~ falh' \ 1101 ion of hoch l cclllliquc~ ( C:ros.\ lcl. 1995). Take the txa nlpk o fl,a lking . .\l a t1ss ( Hl7H: 101), 1(): ) ll'COgnis('s Jil at d ifTert'lll groups accullllratc a charaucristic gait aud po,turc in thli llll'lllber). 1le lllt'lllion~ thc looscjointecl, hip-rolli n~ o/ltoni ~ait of ~lao1 i 11o mcn. notl'S hm1 a' a ~m:dl bm he ll'as sclwoltd to 1ralk ,,ith hi~ il a nd~ c lo~cd tt ot open . ;1nd of'l't'l's ~onw pl.tu,iblc spcrul:uions abou t the impact of . \ nwric.tn ci mma on French wo mtu ' ,,le of 11alki ng in t hC' earlr f u:~o .... Gol fma n takes l h i~ C:cll1!-l J'llt'l ion ist stancc .. ~ h is ~ ~;mi ll g' poill l for i11\'l'Sti,:ating ho11' ll'a lking fig urt' in facctofacc ~i tua J inn~. ,ucJt a~ ntaking onc's w;11 clown .1 hu~~ city str<'l't (~ce Bux 7.:2) or shopping m.tl l. Ht 'ho11, ho11 walki ltg' innhes a r:tngc of n tltu ral liiHit'rsta ndings <lilOlll Lypt;; of per~Oi l.\ 11flo 111!11' hal'l' lo be m:tnagtd or .1\oided (bcgga r~. markct l'l'St'archer~. pamphkttns). tltme te> whom ~pe<:ial care 11111st be excrdscd (lit e frai l. pl'rwns 11itlt ll'hite l'<l lll'.' ur g niclc d og.s, totldk1 , ), tliosc ,,ll o can be tmn ccl 1o fr n :li< tbk direniun, (tra ille warclcn~. polic<'). Jlio~twlto l1'a11 1 m to 'WP and li!'ten a nd ll';uch (buske rs, minw a tti'>LS). t lto~e who loo k l i kel~ tO thrra tl'll o tt r persons a ncl propc rt y. In ll':t lking dm\'11 <l strcctwe IJHISt co11stan th mon itor o ur llll'll boclics aud tho~e of o tlwrs in order to moid collisiom - lcss complicated 11'l11: n we are a single' (i.e. a solita ry walkcr) than if liT are a ,~ith (accompa uied b1 nthl'r' with ll'lto tn 1 1'c must coorclimue o ur progrcss). T his ini'Uh'es sca nning u pcomi ng pcck~uiam lmt doing so in an unoburt~i\'t' ami no n-t lt reatcni ng ll'a~ (Coliman ralb thi' the norm of 'chil ina ttcntion (set: ' l'C iio n 9.7 . ~) . th c cardinal rule maki ng for orclcrl ine!>s in pnblic plaCl'S) . Tht:sc s k illtd. cm boclicd ac1 ion~ (ami m a m o t hcr~ cletailcd in Co!Tman . 1963a and 1971 ) an: bnd~ techn iq111:s at ilH' mic ro knl of Cl'l'ryclay sodal inte rac tion. Go n'man 's ( Oil Ct'p tual appara t u~ Jil w, prmides tlle ba~i~ f'or an a naiiS' o r tlll' l'.w rriSi or firtfimuanrrofbocl~ tcchniqucs. In additio n. it ~hmrs lto11 a rigoiclmind- hocly clualism cannot be s u ~ J ai ncd ~ in ct lllind (l'..{. th c nttllldant prac tic'al intl' llig-t'llC< ' requircclto gct clown 1h e Ml'lTL ll'itlwut mi~hap) is implicatcd in interactional cun dun that i;. u namidably nwdiaJtd thnn1~h tltt human bndy. In txam i nin~ th t excrr i.~c ofbocly tcdllliques 11e C<tn ro nw to see tltatmi nd and sell' arl' 11 \ll ghosts in 1h e madtiiH' of't iH boch. rc'>iclent in tht u ppcr ponion oftht :.ku ll. 11hich ~omcholl' lie 'hchind' ac1ion. Ra tlwr, mind allCI sel f a rl' hc ttcr undcr11t cl0d as c ncoclecl in th t ord iuary CttaC1111e ll t ofbod~ tlc hniquC's.

Box

7.2

Marshall Berman: the modern city and the embodied experience of the pedestrian

',;uo n ll it li ~~JII :t ll ll ~ l'l'Cnnstl'liCIOn 1 111 l . tll' Lit' tlinctn' Jtth Cl'lllll l'l' .(( 1 l1 ' . . 1 1 1 big 'l l' 111 1 11 . r Pll'i crt"llt'd Jlt'\1' 11 icle bouk,ard' 1\'lttc l atti'<ICH:< of tht ctnu t' o ' . .. . tht' ob~trYal ion., 1 . . 'l e in IX'cil''trian an<l \l: hirula r trafhc. lkrm.an < 1,,,1, on 111Ct e.' . in lhc JaCt' of li k thal t,f' Llw poC'L Chark.s Baud<:lain lo d t'.~cnhe t1 IC e1ta ttgt
('llSIICcl:

1 . -citill" tlnn li t [)m li l'e hacl 1 l'f', > 1 illt' houlel':tnk 1\l!ll'l' 1'<1(l. tallt . ,\I IC t X 1> 1 . L'\'l'l' l tt 1 t 1 1 . . ',. :tnd lriahttning for rhc mullilude~ uf mcn .111< \IOII1U1 heen. " a< a 'o 11101 e '''" ~> 011 ll'ho mon:d l'oot. 11 moclern 'tl'llt': t "'1' -1hi;; thtn. ll'<t> lhl 'ttting fr Baudelaue' p~n 11 . . . . ' ll"ll hllln in Jhe nucl, o f a llHl\lllg t 1 l:to,, "' 11 1 cro.,,in)!. tht hcnrki.IJ eL 111 .1 ~. .' . :..h . arr httl J:tl nt ntkl'll 111~111. a~ ,,.t ;;ce dt':tth gaJI Uj)lllg' <1 1 Jlll' .11'0111 l IL I\ ~Jdt, 1 t . \<;lr:l:ll ot' llltllk-1'11 tII' tralii t'. a hillt IHrt. , .1 pl'dt,tnan tlllo"n 11110 ti H J11,\tt. IO . It cll 111'\~" tJHI cmrgry lhat is r . 1 ll1 ' 1)4(1 1)111('1'<1 ' ' . rn.tct aln nc conlt'n< 111 ~ agalll' . . . ~> . . . 1 lltltllcnrd tra l'f'tt k l tul\ .~ no 1 T I . bt lrgcnnrng stt ect ,tllt , 1 1 1 ht al'\ . fa~t anc el ta . ll , . b 111 'tnn impo,t'' ib ll'111pn . 1 .. 1 bouncJ, 'Piil<> owr 11110 e\'l'l'\ tu . . , , r' , 1 1\'110\t' lltOCiel'll t'li\'I'Ollll1l' lll intct ; mm l llg spall:t or lt.'lli!>O~ , o n t'l'l' tYboth ., 111111:' , IJ a~h ot 111~ 1 tl t . , ., Jh tnN'il't'S- tite indil'idll:tlll'al ker~ 1. J. T ht ch.m' htc 'l he' JHH rn Ltt 1 110\t t .. . f t. lfe 1.tc ' . . h . mo 1 dhcu:nt ICJ\Ilc? or lllll'l or dr l't'r~ .. ~:~t h of ~~~wm. 111.11 ~lt' ~~~:~ ;"::~~ l~v~ r nH~'l'llll'lll~ i 11 ; conl mon 'pare. hut in IIHu lntcractwn. lit tll t l~lt.l' ~ 1 1 . 'nli~m~ in tlcr coutradi nion': k 1 1 knrd perf tc t '' m >o o C.I)JI ' Thb ma 't.'' 1 11..' JU\1 ' ' r . 1 ' d' 1~ 10 :lll'II'Chic in.lliollalill in rationalitY in l'.ll"h inclilidual capn.t '" u.lllt. e.~ ~~. . ' ' 1 . .. JI th t',t' u11 11' logt thtt 1 the ,ucial ,~srtrn t tal JI ml-\s . . utebtl 0111 is clriwn bac:k Lo rlte mmt in tlll' lltnclem >lt ce t. thrt >I\Jl tnto .~.11 1~ ' : h . ln~l - :md fortl'd In r 1 lll l't>SOIII CC~ Jw Jlt'l t' 1 "lit\\ l hi' Cl\\Jl rt~mlrn,- o lc:r t . l . lt t tono'' lhc ntOiing chaos. "lleh in orckr to q uyr n. 11 tHt 1 1 stnlr h l ttnt < l'~ptt . . . , 11\1 tlcun to 1101 nlc rcll' kc('P t~p el 'lChl>l itim~dl lO ll' 1110\l'' 1 ' ' he 11111\l attune an ' , , 1 11, 111 1 , 1 hccoml' adept al IUUIJII' \(IIIfs I C.lC. witlt il but 10 '1:.1~ :ti lta,l om ' 1c:p ' 11 ~ t l ucldcn nt tll'e~ ]. at sud tkn, Uulting c nolc mc nt "l <tJI(I . llllillt'l'lll;'llf.l bllll''fll~:h ~, leg' ' Hiel hi'i hmh. btll llilh ' abupt.j:t).{).{t'd 1wi-;t' ami l11ft,- a m not 011 1 11 hi, tnind al1(1 his sen~ibilill '",,~JI. . . lr . !orces ilt l''t' m.,,. mmc, on ewryo ne; B lltdel<tirl' -.ltoll'> IWII' nwde tn ' 11 1 1 t . . ck~ of . . . 1 nmdo. 1ctlh enlo1 ce~ lll 11 m o 1 bul he ,ltull,, too. holl' rn donlg 1m 11 ' .~l~ l. ' 1 . ;nl and thro ug-h thc trame l'rtttloln. ,\ 1 11<tll ldto knnll'> holl' tu lllO llll m ',nr .uot ridot' ll'hl'l't: lr.tl'fic it>l'il' is 1 , of' thl' l'll( ('SS lit' 1<111 (01 . can t;o .111111' 1ICI'C' e tll' 11 ' 1111 . 1 1 f e~pl'l ienCt'' .mcl fnt lO go. rhis mohilill open' up a grc.ll wea 1 1 o 11 ' 1 ' . <1l tiitiC's f'or 1he urhan m.l"l'>. .
Henu.ul 111 /\:\: l :U-IJU)

7.J J Culture as control: the regulation and restraint of human bodies

O ne or tite s i 111ple~t ll'ms to conccil't' of c ulture\ i111pact on thc lmch is to considcr the carl~ ~ociali~;uion o f infants ami small c hildrcn. In the " 'e.'! a primary ronce rn of ad ult

278

lntro ducl ng Cultura l Slud ies

Cullu red bodies

279

cart'l si~ in st i l l i n~ '-HCh ha~ir ~kil i ~ a~ dw bnd ih m.mag tnH' nl o l t';l!i ng. t limin;uio11 ancJ IIH' (') !) rtssio n lhl' l' llhllicm ' Bul bC\'(JI)c\ e h ild lwod ,0( ia l i~. ll ion 1ht'll' com 11\l t lo be a lll tk r.tn gl' ni regub1ion:- a ncl n,trainl'- on lht bo d it, o l p t' I'>OilS. , onw St'l in lmr o iiH' I ~ in ctl'ito lll a nd tonn. ntion. Two of dw 1110,1 illlportant .1nah,.., ol n tltu re'' S M IJ)t'l'\'l~on 1111pau on tlw h11111an boch are l\lichc l Fo u cnult ( 1H~ti-H 1) (p. ~~) and :\mbt' ll Flia~ ( 1R97 - 1990). Foucaul t 'ho1" holl' bocJit-, .trt cJi,dp limd h1 pc 11rer opt'l-.llill.{ through di..,coursc:. which are in,litutionali, l'cl (i n 111ocll'ttl ,ocit'l\' b1 buttauCI':H ic orf.{alli-.lliolls - hu~pitals. prisons. a;;l'lu nb - bu t al,o h1 tnott d i lfu,tl~ locatcd l c~tlll': t'.J.{. cl bcotllllt'.: abo11t. 't:xualil~ ). Eli;t, icknti!ic, a '< il iJi,illg pro n~,. a long lu~to t l c tl tra mfunuauon ll'lud t i-; mad,ed by '-g uill c tnt ch a n gt, i11 m:ll llll'l''. in huw p c oplt rq.~ard llwi 1 mm and other, cm hocl iecl an ion' r h , ~trt ion ll'i 11 re1ic11 their (On(l iiJU Iiot IS 10 tllt' ll ll der,l;ll td ing of' 1ht bocl\ <tllcl, II'l h rd t' l ('lll'l' 1U 111\' lopit e1 ' di e c:on., idtr lh tir u ti lill'. '

or

bread. lww 11 tt'l 11'i ll a''l'lll bi t bl'lore ])('j ng a ll mnd to ('.ll el inner a11Cl '-O fort h. \\'Ita! 1heSl' illustration' ponral' .trt 1110 \ t' l 1 dille1 en 1 penal 'll In . 1he buch o!' lht ll' l'ongdcler rcmain .... n nu a l. onh th at boch i~ nc111 in r<liTtra tt'd ratlll'r than nHHil.nl'cl .tn d tlw o ni- ' of ' d()( ik boc(it._' bt'COillt' lh t' focU~ of rcfonn. f ht ubjtctiH o J Jllllli..,hnlC'Ill changl'' frwn el i,pla1 in ){ l hl eh ca di u ltonsequeu rt'' o! conlr<IITning th c ,o,en. i~n, 11i ll (() in'-tilling cJi,riplillt' i11 thl ollendcr. en-uring that bodit' ancl -ouJ, funuion in a

Box

7.3

Fouca ult: the body of the condemned

7.3.1

Power, discourse and the body: Foucault

~li c h t l Fottca ult \ si11g 111a r i n~t ll cctu a l projl-n ex p l o n~ t lw s h il1 ing a nd c o nl c~lecl n l:ui o n s h l'III'C 't'll pcmtr. kn cnd cd gc a nd ti H' hll c ll;nt hoch . ~~~~~ ~ gt' ll t'r:t lll' Fnucault < tll l' III J) t ~ to prnd u cc lJi, tu t ic<t lh- gru un ck d . m a l~,c ., ('gt n c: dogics') ol th t di scour~es t h :11 org-a 11 isc ~ocia l arr.111genw n1s a ncl prat'l ices. B1 el i' COII I'' t' Foncau ll inte n clnl not sintp l1 a SJll'Cia lisl la n guage t h:n dc:-cribed !he 11orld . 1k ~ l resseclt h :n discourse (p. 30) 11;, i l ~t'ff' p an of l iH' broadcr p JWnOilll'llOil of powe r ( J> \) 1) ancJ 1lt liS dnpl~ j 111 pli ra led in llm1 socia l .11 rang-e nwnls 11 e rc formed a' su c h . ll i~ ntoq inflllt' lll ia l studit' IH'f'l' of liw discotll Sl'S of punishmcnl. maclness, m cdic in t a nd ' l'Xll:tlill ( Fo u ca ult J\17:1. 1975, 1!177. 191'{ lb).
Foucault ( 1!177) clt-aws a contra~! l}('t\\'cen tht '''t't'lc't.ru jlmc'll thal ntkr' e ' t' rcbcd Ol'c r 1hl'i r ~ubjcct~ in mdicl'al tim e-; a nd ilo; g ra d11al repl.tCt'IIICtlt in tlw mode111 periocl b1 disrifJiillttn fmu'''' In a 'lll<h- of lhe dt,clnpnwnt ol tht n tockm pri,on ~~'tcm. Foucault '-hm1, hm1 tl to' l' 11 lw cc>IHI':ll'e thcl lhe mcm;trch , l:n1 :md ll'i,ftt:o. ll't'l'l' o fttn p11blicl~ p11ni ~h Lcl by lllt'lhod' that direnh a"aulted thc hod1 ol th t "'' ongclocr ( ll'h ippi ng. braudi ng. t lw p illun. tonure. di,m c mlwnne nt :tiHl < 'Xt'Clll io11 ). Fo u ca u ll ' s /)i lriJililll' al//1 /'unilh open~ ll'ilh a gruc ume account ol' lhl 17.-)7 C 'XlTliitn in l'ari~ Damitn s lht tcg icick. \1'hi c lt gra phicall y dct:~ ib tit e cl il'fic ult il, !h e t'Xl'l' ll lrl n tr faces in (;~.trc isi n g hi ' c r;~ f't. l:kfon his lifc is cx 1 i n g u i~ h ed. Da nt ie ns i' b lltn l. d isnl t' tn bct-cd , 1 n < ll td qu~ nt t 't cl . 1 he ' JWC taclc o f public p11nisht m ' tH , Fo~t cuill a rg uc'. o lll'c .... o m t' l)' d ra1 dmmat isc,.., a11 d rc inrorce~ llll' ,mere ig-n 's a utlt o t it ~ a n d 'ig l11 lo ru k. Sincc: tlt(' l' g"hlc(n lh ccntur\' 1hi ~ ' glon t n ~ l'eslil:t l of' pttni, hnl l' n l' (Fo uca u ll . 1!1 77: 8) has gil'tn "'"~ to limns o l' imprisonme n1 :ts th l' m< ~jor nt t th ()(l of' p unis hi11 g o lfl' ndcrs. Fottca u ll l'o llow.; ll H' d escri pl C) Il or lh t' e:-..cnll io n ()r Da m l'llS II'1" a n l'XIJ':tCI l'rnm 1he l'lll t.;gonrn ing inJna tt condun in a l'ari~ prison fono ttll~ o lk t ldtr,. J h t rul es tcl l h n11 pri\otll'r' .tre exptncd to r i'l' at a .~pcci li cd h o u r earl ~ in tl w lliOI'Il in g a n cl 11ork n ine ho11rs tadt d;w. rltt' nt ll's spL'c if~ th:tt priso ntr, 111 11..,1 ri,t, cln" and rn;ll...< thl'ir h eds bttll'tt n 1ht first and ~ccund drum-roll t'l'cry nwrning. TIH'\' '''m' ho11 long re ligions i ll\l' 11r 1ion ,, ll tal.. e. whcn a nd 11h ere 1h c1 mm 11a,h a nd nn ht tlwi r li 1:-.l ra1 ion of

or

T h e cli:-;tppea r;n trt o l' publit l':O..cc:t ct io n ntarks th c rdore t he d cc lint' ol' lhl . i1 a lso nw r k' a , [,tLkc ni ng uf' tl w h o ld o n tlw bo d ~. In 17147. in : 111 spe c: tac lt-: b 11 1 add ress 1n 1h e Soric 1 ~ lor l'rornu ling Po lilical En q ui r ic1>. Be nj a m n R11 ' h re ma rkcd : c ut c m l ~ lco w t l1:11 1h c tim e is n o ! f:n ~~~~; " 1\'lt l'll g.tll cm, , pill" r~. o;ca l 'l'u ld. ll o~g ing a nd 1\'ltt't'l ll'ill , in th t h i s t o r~ o fpuni shme 111. lw re~ardc d "' !h e 'Ollllli'L '' allCJ ;t'\ p roof. . o f ll ll' (('l' l)i{lll <11'K'\ Of lill' b :tt h ;u i1 ~ o l l't' ll(li i't'\ oii H l o l C ill li lll' llCl' ol' rea,on ;ln d rd igion O\'t' l' th l' In un an mine!' . ln ck e cl . ,XII' w: u, l;ll er. \ ':111 _ \ k t' IH' Il, II JX' II ing 11 ll' 'ecund p e n i1t' lll iar~ co ngrl'" in Bru ~~c l '-. recalltd 1hl Iilll' o l hi' c hi ldhood "'ni a pa~ t age: ' 1 lt:t~t 'lTII lht g-rcnlllcl ~ll'l'I\' 111\' t h ll'h eeJ,, g ihblh. ga llo11,, pi lllll <:~: 1 ha1 t' Sl'l'll h idtcntsll' st rl'tch ed '\k e le tnns nn 11'h cl'l' (.\ uualr1 ,, la (.horif,:. :l~H. :10). Brancling h ad been abo li,lwd i11 J n g la nd ( 1X:ll) ancl in f't<UH't ( I X:l~): in IX~O. Engl.md no longer cland 10 apph tlw lul l puni:-hnwnl lt"\('1'\l'cl l'or ll.titcu, hi,l kii'UO clll'a" llOl quatlt"rl'cl) . Onl~ llclgg'i llg ~till remai~ttd in . 1 lllltllhLt o l xnal "'lem-; ( Ru,~ia. England, Ptll\\ia). Htn . gen eralh 'lwaJ...ing. putlitii'L' pr:tllCL'' liad becnnw motl' reticetll. Ollt' no lolll-{l'l toucht:d tlll' ))C)(h. 01 a l k,,,, "' li11 k '' po.,.,ibk. and then un h w re a eh Wllll'llii11g othet thall llll' hod~ it,l'll. l t ntigh t h t' ol~jl'cttd thal imprisonllll'IH. conlilll'llll'll l. fnrccd labout . p e na l wtYitudt. prohihition fro m cntcring cenain are;h. d e ponation - ll'hich hall' o cntpi L' d ~o lllj)OII:ttl l a p l:tc<' in m odcrn penal w stcm" - are ' ph l'~ i ca l ' p e na lti c ': un like line. ' . lilr e:-.ample. th e1 d ircct ly alkcl tite bocl~ . Ht ll the p11n i, h nll' l1l- bocl1 l'l lat ion , 1101 tit e .-.ame as it ll':t' in th c lnrtnrt duringpublic t'XlT ll tion'. Th l hody tHm' 'lTI'l'S a' an instntmem or illtl' tlll t'dian : if o tl t' lll l' l\'l' tH~ IIJlO il it lo p r i. .;o n it. or lo lll:t kt it II'O rk. it is in urcler lo ckp rin 1he in d il'ic\ u ;d, of :1 l i l>t t ' l ~ 1h :ll b rq(a rc k cl botll '" a ri ~IH a ncl a~ p m pe n ~. Tht llod l'. acco rclin ~ IP 1h is w n :t l l ~ . is callg lll ttp in a S\'Sl<' tll of co n s1raints anc\ pri1'atio11,, oblig ali o m .111d p ro ltihi t i c ) I L~. Pl11 sical p ain . th t p a in o f lil e bod ~ il:\l'lf'. is no lo n ger tl w co tL, IilltL' IIl tlttn t nl o l lhl' penal! y. Fr m n b c ing '"' :trt ol' u n bl'arabk SCilS:llio tb p un is hnll'lll has bcco m c < lll l'CO ll o m ~ of sn spl'ncll'cl rig hl '\. (f il is ' till tH='etssarl' lnr 1h e la11 1o rcac ll aiHl manip ul a tc th e bocly ol' lht comicl. it ll'ill b e < ll a cJi,t:mcc . in 1h e P' "J'l'll\' 11';1\', ac:rording lll 'trict n ilc'. and wi11l a 11111r h

280

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Cultured bodies

28 1

' highcr' :1 im .. \ s <1 reSlll l f thi, 1 1(.'11' restr:li lll. a ll'lioJe < 11'1111 ' or l~c hni cians lOOk Ol'e r lrom the c)o:ccutio ncr. llw immediatc a nalomi ... t of pai n: ll'arcler. doctors chaplain,, psych iaui r..,, pwcho l ogi~t ~. educarionali,rs: b~ thtir I'CI'I' prcsenn nea,: 1 h ~: pri,oner: thcy ~> i ng- LIH' pr;l~(s tha t t he law ncccb: IIH'I' rt'assm c it 1h a 1 the bod~ a 1tcl pa111 are not tl w ultimalt' o bjtc t' of it' punir in acrion. Toda~ a doctor ~lHtst 11a~ch 01_er rhose condemncd to d ea1h. rig-hl ttp to rhc last 1110 111 e n 1 - thus . f t t x t~~po, l ng- lllln., elf as th t ag<:nt lo ll'dEtrc. as t he :tllc1 iaror ol' pa in , 11itlt the olfiCta l II'IWst:: ta~J... it i' ro e nd life. Thi ... i... II'Ott h rhinJ...ing about. \\'lw n the mo n~ent -~re~ e_< utiot~ a pproaclt t~. the palitms art i1ljencd wi rh La anq ui lli1e r~. :\ 111 0p1 a ni .J tiC iJCI;d reiJCt'll Cl': tal..t ;n,ay 1 i fe. bu1 prCI'CIH 1ht parie 111 f'rom fcC'Iin it : deprhc_ 1he prisonc t of a ll ri.{hh. but do no t in fli rt pain: impo~e pcnaltit.., fte~ o f. al! pam. R<course to p I'C hophannacolog-y ami 10 1arious pll\siological 'diSCOil ll t'Cio r.s', l'l't' ll if it is telll pOrary, i~ ;1 Jog-ical t'OilSt'(jllt'llCC of this ' no n-corporal' pt'tlalitl. The modtJn ri tu a l ~ of' I.'Xl'Clllion auv't to rJri, do uble prun,.;: thl' disa >peara ii Ce of thc spcc tarlc and llll' elim in:uionol pa in. Tir e .;amt 1 nme 111 ~:: 111 has alfec tcd lhe ntrious F.uropca n it'gal ,,s tem, . l'ach ll it~ own r~ne: t ht ~ame dead 1 for all - lhe exccntion no longer bcars tlll' 11pccifi r lllMk ol tht crim e or 1hc rrime or th t social staltiS of tlw c rimina l: a dcat h li tar la'h cm ll' a ntonH:'nt - no torture nr.ust b~ added lo _ it in ~<!l';lllce. 110 lnnher action' pcrfonll(_ clupon thc coq>w: an ('XCC\tlHlll lhat allecrs h!e r:ll hcr tha n lht bodr. T lr< n are IHl fong-er :t ll\ ' or Llrose lo ng .p r~H'tsses in 1 1'1_1ic h c~eru h 11as both l'l'lnrcled !), ca lculalcd inrnr up.ti011 , and llllllllphlcl by a \l'rtes o l SIICC('<><.i\'( <lltad.... Therc ;)J'(' no lnnger :tll\' or t ho~e c~mbit Hlliom of' 1onuns th:ll ,,.t'l'l' orga ni 1ed lor thl' killing ol' rcgicidt!~. or of lhe kn1 d ad vocatecl . a l 1h e bcginn ing or t hc ei{hteen lh cen lll l'l', !),- th t anom-mous aut ho t ol' l-lm1King 1101 Pun ill/1111'111 F.nouf{lt ( 1/01 ). b' ,,hich 1h c .condcmned man II'Ol~ld he broke n on th t:: 11'hecl, 1lw u lloggcclun til fw lai n tccl, th C'n h tmg up 11ith ft lO cl it' "lm,fy or hung-t'l'. Tht'l'(' a n : 110 lo nger a m of those c halnS. lite n fina lh lt> txccntioll' in 11 hic h the condemnecl man was d r<tggecl a long 011 ;r h nrdk ( lo pre,ent hi ~ htad sma., hitll{ <~gai n 'L the cohble-).tc Hll'.S) . in 1\'h ir h hi.; bd lv 11as opcnt'd up. h is c'll lrails qui c kl~ ripped o ut. ~o that he had rin1c ro ' L't' tlwm : wi th hi~ 0\\ tl en-.. lwing thrm\'11 on the rirc: in \\'hich he 11'as li11alh clecapila tecl and hi~ bod~ q ua n e red.' The red ttc tion or tht::11t' ' li1or r.~;t 11 d clca 1hs to .~ 1 ricr ca p il:tl p un tshlliClll ddrnes a ll'ltolt 11C\\' rnn ralitl' co11cerni ng rhc ac t of pu 11 i..,hing.
Fom.ullr ( 1!177: \1 - 11 )

. l<;[(:';lcll]lC (\j ~('Clll lilllii y, t'Dlllj)it-: ll' <t lltlf r;rgi lil~ pf 11101111' hi_ , lof'it:tl ( h:-tllgl'' rhu' 11<' 11 . el 11.11 1hc'e dcl't' Ju)lll ('lll-; in 1he 1rca1rne11 L o l o( 1e nd t t" o ( len proCl't'tkd rccogrrt 't . . unennh in ac tn,\1 ~<lCitlie' a' 'llll){){k' ocn nTecl .uound rhe <lllcli.IIH lo 'LlJ~I~I.I~.'~ '.'tH ul el u mi 11.11 ion \\'i1h an o liw r. foa t'X:tlll pk. 1he l t'lllO\'al ltc m pu hht lll" ni 111 ~~~eculion a 11d ()( h er fo J'IIIS o r j)llll i.;)11111' ll l he t1\'t::e t1 1tiO ~11 rcl 1H-1() 11 '' nnt ;r , llglc ~'l'l'lll . _ c nl Eurnl>tan ... ocittie' but i' bellt'J undet-,wod. lo uca ult 'll)o{gl~L'. "'a o;ent, of rn ~e' .. r ,. 1ctrt c-1L' 1 , no\T rtl tllt'lll' rei nlroclllcld mnre 1 1lli1111H' uwa~un.' rn u rn e~ o .1cfl':111 (tS 11 ~ - ,... . ' . 1 -s \ lc >I'COI-t'r t he lrt':r lrne n l o J' oll'endcr' 11a~ :rho nllhrt ncccl h1 r: han).\'l'.' SOCII lll 11 l' . . .1itw o u r-iclc tlw 1 ' uridical ..,,~tem. Foucault cmpha,ists dtt' pan plaHcl 111 thr ... oCClll n . l' 1 >roe<'~' bl' the tme rgencc of ti H' IWI\' sciences o( c r i minolo~:- nrndcrn mt< 1 ~ 111c. anc 1 .clli<llry hich soug h l 10 undtr,t<tnd a nd control the llllntan body by tna ktn g ll 11 51 ~b'ect of knml'leclgc. /)ilfijJiimlly /11111'1'1 hacl it~ ha~i ... in th t' kno11 ~ed.gt:~ ami tl'Chnoktgt.e<. pr~dun:d by thC'l' ne11' scie nn'S. The moclcr.n prison ami tire Jlll'l<.lrcal sy.~tt l~~ l l St'''.~'' use:; di,ciplinan powe r exc rci~t::d thro ugh pn son :.(0\Trno r,, pro ha11on olfi CCis. ps~ ch r.l-

:m

. T hus uniform :rnd rc~ nl ;u ,,ay in lht intc r<'SI). of lhe :-mootlr l'n nc tio ning o l'tlw p riso 11 tite. modcn r pn:on ng u latc' its inmate~ by a regi mtn that prtciseh- ~o r ipulate' when eaung ancl ,Jcepulg. 11ork <tnd ino;tr urt ion mal' wke pbcc. In 1his "a, ~tandard i S<d ancl uni l01m in mal<' cond tiCl ca n he St'curtcl. ' Foucau l1 Sl ron glv o pposld any ' im p lt 1hcor ies ol' his1 o rical pmgress ancl cn r p ha'i~ed

trists ;ulclthc like. . . Th c work ur 1he se of!irials ir)l'ol\'cs t'Xa m in ing ami a ~~t' S~in g pcoplc. T h c~ lll l('l'\ (('\\' and o bscn-e. anah,e ancl classil~. write a mi file rq w ns. all in the n:-rm e of ele ignin~ d re <ll>l>l'O)Jl'ialc reginwn o l pu ni~hmtnt a nd rd'onn ol the ollcndcL At the h:~rJ... o~ 111 0 51 T IH' a .un ~ 1 tWI/011. suc h cxc rcisl'S of d isciplinary pn11T r i~ th e proccss o!' IIOI'///(1 cxamina tion a ntl asses~m c m is 10 dctcrmint tl w nanrre a nd exttnt of tlll o~fe ncl cr. s dei'a tion frOlll 1he JlOilll :-tncf lO c\C\'i't' lht' 1110\l l'niCaciOllS mean<; of H'lllt'cl~ tng thClf cri minal he ltal'io 11r a nd restoring tlll'lll 10 nor mal, con fo nn ing- ro nd 11c1. :\ fu n hcr exte nsion of di~riplinan power i~ found in tire ne11 melhods o f 5111l'l'i/la."t" incorpora red in tlw tl<sign of prison buildin g~. The panopticon '. a hu ~ ldi n~ ck~r~necl by J ercr : 1' Bentil;un . thc ni ncleen th-ccntury uti litarian philosoph er. e ptl0111 1 St'd 1h 1 ~ lll' \\' tre nd lor Fo ucaull (se e Figu re 7.2). Tht: panopticon ,,as a circular bu ilding construc tcd ar0l.ll1~1 a central axis lh<ll al\ 01,ld tlw gnanls 10 ob~e t'\T prisonl'l'' \\'hile 1hemscii'C~ ' re man1111g u1 10b,cncd. T hl' point of tlti ~ c k~ ig' l l w;1 ~ 10 induce in in 1n:llt'S !he bclief tltat lh C'~' II'('I'C 1\llCkr COIISL.IIl l ~lll'I'Cilla nce. irre).j)CCl\'e OCIIhe ihC'I' this ,,~ al\\'ay~ :lClUaJI~ .llll' Ca~t.(~~(' also sccilll ~l. t }. Tht panopticon dc'i~n inllmtJt't'd tlw <on..,lruc tio n ofpn,ottS brnllrn Britai ll f"mm tl tl' carh 1 0 Sll,l.{g<''l 1ha 1 rlt<.' l' 1irte lt'l'll l il ccnlll l'\' bu1 Fm rcattll goes n n 1 proe<:"e' can he ~tmt.ll ..,ec\ lx' ond liH' prt'CIH h of 1h l' pri,on . . . . _ Thu,. thc p:ntoplirnn come~ 1n ~w nd ;r~ a nHtapho r fnr. m:rm ll'adrn g l ea.lllll:~ c .'' niOdt'l'll soc:it ll . Ot het hu reaurnu ir o rg;nlisa tions are J,n 111 thc hn~l llt'~S o l sur.llillatH'l'. T ht police and ,tcurit' rompanic~ pa1rol publk plan.., ancl ~~t t:~ce pn,a rc pro wrll. Srlwol~ :tiHI colkg-c~ 111nniwr the tclucation and accrcdttall~n o l the 1 >o p u hnio n . p 11hl ir h ea 1t h aa nlto 1 i tic' and ..;oci;11 ~tni ct age ncies keep ex tt' ll 'l''(' nco r~l ' citiJ.tn~ upt.lke ol :>tnin' (;oHrnmerH ITH'tllt<' nllin, check " .het hl t ll't' ha1e p.a~d 0 11 onr 1 ;r,e .....\11 thc ~l' 0 11 ns of \ll l'l'eillan < t han ht'l'll po11 e r fui\~ :uckd hy ach-:-rnn~ rn cum pn ti ng a n d l'id eo 1~eh no lo.!,'~ . Th t'Sl'. Lt'Ch nologica 1 <td~:tnr~~ h< .t\'l' . l' ll la~-~t~l Ll:l opponunitie' lor onr,t't'ing .uiCI controlhng thl' umchrrt ol tndt\ldual~ .lllclt:xtc:ndcd tlw r:rnge. scopt and l'<tSl' ,,ith which personal inli>nnation can lw .1cqurrTcl. FotlC:t llll \ (ark 1\'0I'k cono;idcrs lirt' rclatioll or boch (O pmwr :m el kli O\\'kd.{~' :rncl font~l'~ 011 l l '( h niqlll'' ol domination. Th u~ in hi~ swch- of the d c,clopmcnt uf tnodnn

....___________________

282

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Cultured bodies
. 1 1~ u

28 3

PAN OP TI CON;
OR,

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TIIE I NSPECTION-IIOUSE :
tX~l~NA 11 0N.

COST.\ISISG THf.

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CO~STRu C T10 1':
_ ,.,

IDEA OF A NE\V PIUl\CIPLE OF

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-., . No.,~~
~..

:1' 1 1 ''1

ANY SO RT OF ESTABLISIDI E :-;T, 1 ~ \\' lllCH P ERSO:-;S OF A:\Y DES CR IPTI O ~ AR E T O DF: K EPT U:\OER 1:\ SPECTIO N:
ASO I S PAI\TICU I.A I\ T

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.~ . Jo~-1 1

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PE~ l TENTIAR Y - II OUSES,

. .,
LAZARETTO~ .

PR IS ONS, HOUS E S OF INDUSTRY, WORK-HOUSES,

POOR- HOUSES, !IIA NUF ACTORIES. M,\ 0- ll OUSES,

IIITH

HOSPIT.U S, AI\D SC HOOLS:

PLA~

OF 1\IAKAGE:'!lENT
Figure 7.2 Plan or th e Panoplicon. (Source: The W orks of jeremy Bentham, ed. Bowring, Vol. IV,

,, D. H r ED 1'() Tllt PP. I :<C I PL E:

1843: 172- 3.)

1N A SEH IES OF L ET T ERS,

\\'IUl'T~S IS rH E \'1:.1R Jj~j, t"ROll CREC IH. FI' IS W HI TE 111: >>1.1 ,
TD A t'I\I ESD DI ESCLASLJ .

BY JERE:.\IY BENTHAl\1,
OF LJ:-< COLN's I NN, ESQU!RE.

OI:BLIN, Pn i STEO; LOSLJ0:-1 , 1\Er i\IST ELJ; ASO SO I. O BY T. I' AY :-IE , AT

l lll:

l i EI\' S G.HE.

li 0 J.

medicine Foucaull ( l\l7:~) :-.ho\\'ed how ch.lllg't'' in tmdira l lcch n n log't'' ( lhc -;ctho!\Copc. 1hL' micro scopc . labo t a ltH'' le~lill g') al)([ in llll'di ra l pranin ' ( lhc ph y~ica l \'Xami n aLtl ll , tite po,l-morle111 ). LO~e llwr II' th tl w (kw loplllt' lll o l' disr ipli11c~ 'lld l ;,, anatol111'. J',l([to logY and 'lllg'l' l~ .tncl Lhl' 11,lllllOI1 <1[i,a tioll or tht h o, p ilal <t ii lill' con,ullin~ room. 'l'IYed tu -.ubjertlhe pa1ien1, boch 10 unpecedenltd mdical poll'l'l. In 1hi' prun:-, 1lw con,ultalion ,,ilh a p h1 ,;i< i.111 C<llllt' 10 lt''t'lllble not ~o mmh a pullksohin g t'II<'O llltl l'l' a:- a collll'ssio nal in ''hic h th e ~l'l i 'L' I' o! th e bod1 are rcH aln l (r\ nn,trong. l !JH:~). In his l;un ,,ork 0 11 ,-.cxllalit> ( Four au lt. 19:-1-l b) thtrt is a :-.h ilt to11ard-. !tthllirllt'\ uf lh1 ,,. a' Fo u cau lt becamc inttrc, ln l in hm, suhj c nility is umstitutl'd tluou~h disnHli Sl'. T('chniqlll':> ol 1h (' sdl < liT tlw 1\'a\s that iudiliduals can fonn all([ u.Jihform tlll'nhdll, ))1' nwni1o1 ing- tlwir bodit~. 'oul,, tlwughts allCI condun. Th i' , )Hlllld not hl' 'l'L'II a~ a pitn o l ~o uth (' nt C:alifornian life'l' k exponc:clto 11t c- re-;t e( tltt ,,nr ld! Ft uca ult 'lto11'~ th:ll a 'eJil ll ll't' of self" . an inll'llSl' prn Hn pa t io n o l wl l' 1\'lll ,l'l(. \l'a'i a J'eaLUrL CJI a numbe t o l' ~oCL'l l'~ beg inning 11ith tlt l l'arh Crnk
'l<lll''

Figure 7.1

Tille page of jeremy Bentharn's Ponopticon (1791 ).

284

lntroducing Cu ltural Studies

Cultured bodies

285

ro etnphasi'L' lww each t'O I J<hu on~ ancltran ~lrms t he othcr) i ~ not w

po IUcal 'tn~t~ a: 'OIIlt'thing to ht Jwlcl' b\ ~pccial gro11p..,, ,wm' or t'Xt' ITI\l'c) 0\'('J' 01 her\- J'OIIlT 1~ 110( 'i lll)>h ab0111 \l'CIII IW ,., one ' 011 11 \\IJ O\ l'l' )1::11 of othet s. Rather, power i' di~per~ed in .1 'orict\' ancl 11orb in ctJilht' f-t,]11 ' 1111 ti . . . . . ' ' l i Ottg) cltscnu.rst' \\ h erc~c r th ~ 1:c 1, ~o11er 1h tTL' wil l b e tesista n cc (p. 2:18) to 1ha 1 powe r, ol'tcn ba~~ d 111 loca l or dJsrua'.'fJtd ch,cour~~:.-,. Fnnhe r. Fuucatilt argttes th;n poll'er sh o ulclnot be snnph ~l'l'll as e'~l' llllalh' tcpressi''l' in charactt:r. 1t can al so be produni,e. . .-\ good tx.unpit' ol tht. pmiti,e ancl produc1in conctption of pmn:r is Foucault' ~~~s~u:'~ion of ~Jiopower. l'his refers In discipli nan pmrn o\'er lile a~ i1 alfcct~ hotl~ mdl\'ldii< Ji ~ >nch es a11d snc~a l bodies (e n tire p o pulations). Sexual discourses a re prime concerns lor unders1and1ng the optralio n of bio-powcr fur the\' ron n tct bOih 1 ronception' of i~ldi,idua.l il~' a ll() plea:.urc :md to 1he ma n agemcnt of populations (i~ thc h_ a pt ol b1nh sta ll ~llc~. con1racep1i\'e praniccs. scxuall~ ll<lll~miLtl'd dbea~c. longe\'lly. aJHI 1he cnmlll llllit\'s general le\11 of lwa lt h). l ' nlikc the \ 'iclri an~. in thc late lll't'11 li<' lh CCIHIII)'II't' are 'free' to tal k abo ut sex - more, compclled 10 1nlk abo llt sex ;~ lm os t ll cessa nt ly. Discn ur~c.-, abou1 ~<xu;l lit~ a re prodnced by new~papcrs. magaLincs, 111m . h ealth 1\'orkers ancl M> fonh. In this \\'ay sexual cli~COlll"es extcnd thc ho ld or thcir pnwer O\(.'r our seh-es ancl boclie . exual cli~cou rse~. in le1 n alised b1 tlw sclf, are no )es eiTectiH 1hnn th c more rcpressi,e orden. ami regimc~ th at form e rly impo ed th e ir d ~ mand s ~n 1he self. \\'hcn po,,er is SL'Cn as dispcrs('() throug h a mtdtiplicit)' of chscourst'-" 11 b eco m es di ffiru lt lo naiTOI,Iy i cl l' ntil~ tite opcra t io n o f pomr wi 111 sec1 io 1 101 intcrest.s. So sexual frtedom cannot b e identiAcd with ~Cx11al indu lgcnrc- 1hat ,,ould be In fall undcr 1hc !>1\'<1\' of a sexual discou1s e th at recommt:nd~ rtpre~sion. for Foucaultlht selfmmt comt to ~ee such di~co1 t rscs for ,,h a1 1hc~ a rt' (often de,ices th:1t extract gui lt , confession. l't'llllllCiati on fro m th e sdf a n d rcsu lt in a loss uf s<ll) and a tte mpt 1o rcac h an i11 li H'Jll<d dec i~iun t h at stri ke~ a balance bctll'l'<'ll comi ncncc (encratir~) ;tll{) p le asure.

~omel.'llOI.l.l

r\cctll'd i.n ~ 10 Foucau l1. pow~r ( p. ~1 1 ) ( or pn11er/ k1 11 n,kdgt. a.-, he .~o mc1 i m e~ lt' nns il ht undtrsr ' . .1 1 '. o< In

7.3.2

Civilising the body: Elias

In 'lhe r:iPili:ing Pmrn., (l ~ l ias. 1~171'!) lh t Ccnna n ~oc iol og i s t ~orbe J ' I Eli:ls : 1 nah~l~ <1 long h i ~ lori ca l proces~ thrm Jg- h which pcoplc acquirecl t hc ctpacil\' to control thc exprt."ion ol lllt'ir emo1ion~ ancl other <mboditd ac1' a long increa~ingh cil cumsct ilwd line~. \\ll.tt i~ nm, 1aken ;h 'propet and 'cidlistd bcha\'iOltl , 1he outrome of a \\'ide range of socia l pr~ce~st~ ,,hich rc~u h cd in 11 1<' rccldin ilion of standard .' of proprie ty :tll{) repug11:111Cc (tn tlw dirtction of g rl':t lt' J' rcAn e lllt'l11 ;u td pulish ) . . \ cco mpan ~i ng 1h e se c h ang('~ ll'as a JTCOII('('p tual isation of t he na 111re ol' 11lllllalt nautrt. e1 1' ,,hal lt uman bl.'ings IITrt. <xpccled to bt- <'~pecia l h a' thi ~ was manil<s1 in 1hc ir <mbodil'd aniom. Dra\\ing p1 incipalh on book~ ol m;ullll'" suclt a~ tlw 1.1~0 ,ohlmt b' Erasmm of Rntterdam. 011 Cilility i11 Uti!rlrl'll. bttl :tl-;o rakin g in1o accoun l lh( l'\id t: nre of litc: ratll rl', paintings < 1ncl dr;l\l'ing-s. E lia ~ co n struch n ltislnn of thc lll:111t1l'I'S tllt' mcd i t,;l lu pp~:r r la ~e~ in E11ropc. In a cJi,Ctl~'ion rich in \'i\'icl Jislorical illu<.trmion Elia' c han~ the rharacteri ~tic~ acceptable condltt' t. Tahk- manners imnhcd ea 1ing \l'ith

or

or

one's fin gtrs or pcrhaps a ,pocon : lnrk~ did tJOI appL'ar in d:1 ih li'l' unti l 1lw six r cc 1~lh ~ l'p<lJ)k ,L'IYI.'cll h l'lll~l'IH ~ [roma ron1mnn ))Ol a nd ll'<'d tit e lahll'cloth 10 II'IPC ct ntu t , . ~ . . . <Trc -., fitwer' ( thouvh IHll 1hdr tlo,<,: ). 1 he n.uur.ll hmctHlll' \H'I'l' o lten . 11 ('JI ,.. '1 ,... ,.. . . . d out in 1IH' >uhlir comJall\ of olhl't' ;mcl '))()kl'n ol ,,nJtoul ,h,lmt nt . . . cantt . u"'s<t. cnl1 J. " l' ' lll' l: n'lnm ' llhi,t~ tl wl ' lt i' i111 1>ol ile tn "l'l'l'l 'on1eone 11 hu 1' tll lll:tllllf.!. or d c l'ecatin g-' (1-:l ia-;. 1~1 /H: l :~n ). lt i' on h in la t(' r cc nturit ~ lh:ttlhcst lwronw pttl'alt' ; ttcrs ~l'C)lll''ll'rtd f'rnm puhlic ,it'" atld ill ClltTin){ ~h a111e and n~ ll~nance. In 11 1 Jllcclie,al timt'-")H'ople u~cd their fin~er' to blc11, tlwir no't''~ 1 lancll,t.lrhHI' ~'t: rc onh aclop1ccl in tfH' ;,(' \'CntCl'llth ('(' tlllll\' b\ lhc ll)>j)l.'l' cJa"l''. fl~e hab1.1 ol 'Jlllllll~ Wa' c()llll110llj)ia<'<' a11d lil(' <.'011\Til linn w;l, ICI IJ'l'ad C)ll 1he ' JH IIJI I)l, ) hc ~ptt lo\ln l':Jlllt' lalt'r (and perl'isttd in 111 an\' publi< p i are~ in Euro1w unliltht L\\'t' lltic lh Ct' lt l lll ' ). Sharin ~ htd~ in inn~ ll'ith pn~olt' ol tht ,me ~e""'"' coll111Hll1)1lare. Peo plc ll'cTe ad\'i~ecl 10 lw lllnclc, 1d11: n undtl"ing. w bo11 10 lhtir "'< i.tl 'upcrior' in tlw l hoin ol )le sicle of 1lw lwcl to bl' ,Jq>l in .JtHI \dll'n 10 go lO becl. ancl lo lit 'll~li).{lll .lllcl qiJI. lt II'OIS cOI111110il f'or people tn skl'p naked . btll llll' bvdroum did nc 11 d tt'll h:\\t' th e nwdt-rll co nn o tation uf 1 )1i1ac~ allCI intin1;t c~. T h t ,j~ht nakecl htnn:~n s. in btd oral pttblil bat h-IH llt't'' 11".1' an C\'l'l\ll;n otTIIITCncc. CoiTL''Ponding l\'. Elia' ( 1~) 7:--\: 177- 8 . ~ 1"1l sug!{e~t~ 1hat ~~.~ualit,. 11~1' m.u kcd by a tt ab,(nce uf' mockrn nolion:-. o l. ~h<lll1l' .11HI obscenil\ in lhl' :"l liclclk \g-e'. One ilht,tt~ttion ol this i' tht 1 uswm (\al\ mg bet,,een classe' a;tclunlllll ie.;) ol \ltddin).( gmst~ lliJCht,~ing tht hrick :mcl ~rncm t 'D 1h:tt lht' co ulcl b<' ' l.ticl togc th n ' on tlt t marital lw d (Eiias a l ~co ac lmci\IIL'dgt~ tltal 1hvn. "a~ a goud dt'al D l' ~cx u ;JI \'io l<'11ll' \\thin Jn<liTi:Jgl'). Funhntno tT. JJl tdi e\a l 'oti t t ~ \la' itse ll' 1narke d b\ murh a~~n~,innl' " ;~mi rruelt\ 10 both h11111<ttb and anintak ' Rapin r. baule. huntin~ ol lllt'll and anima), . .. !DI tlw might\ ancl 'lrong 1hl''l' lm 11\l'd pan Jlw p leasurl'~ lile' ( Eli.l'. 1~)/~: 19:\). :"lkdin:r l people \\l' l'l' lllCirl' \Oialik ami lierCl't 1\'IJL'Il l'OliSl'c) th:tll , founcJ (() 1 )(' :t(TI' )>l:tblt.- in l)ll' l\1 'l'11lil' tiJ CL'll llll'\'. From tht lil't tt nlh n nllJJ"\ Dll, c hanges tnok plan th al broug ltt lll:t11llt' l'' i n crt.a~ ingly in Ji11t' 1\it h modern 'tandarcl~. Elia' l'111ph:r<.ise:> that he i~ not in tlll' _bu,im~-" ol' e nclor,itw nllldl'lll '-land.1rd' .1g:ri1ht lh< 'in:rckquate' lll'llllll'- ol 1he pa~t : mrkecl. tlw chilising ~>ron~~ i' .1 pron" ,,jh no bq,:inning. 1lo\\ dicl dtt lran,fnlmauon cuml' :tbotll;. :\ol li 11 lll<ltl.'rial rt:tsoll': fnr e:o;:r utpk. tl w 1ich h ad sp trial cu tl l' r~ lo1 l.ttH that was simph con ,idcrcd 1.11\IH't'l'~~a r\' a l o lh tt 1i111e' lh l' \'(';tr. :\u1 dicl it rn nH a bn ttl becansc ul grcatn cn11 Cl'l'l l lor hcaldt ancl h' giem or ll''Jll'ct lr om, kllo11~ a~H I social ~upcrinr' - 1hc~c rta,oll'-. Elia' detnolhlr:tlt.'-" \l't'll' \'tn murh lt'li'O'perll\'t' jmli!ication' lill' chan~ts alttr JIH'\ hacl occurrcd (see :"lkntwll. 19~~1 : - 7) . Tl~e J..~, facwr. lor l li:t~ . arisc, lro nt r hattg<'~ in tlw composi ti o n u! 1 h e upJl'r rb" orntrn ng 111 1lw late :"l lidtlk .\ gc'. A 1\nul:llnl'llla lh ll':trrior clas' b ec;utl l' lr:tJtsl'o rnwcl i1110 a coun soril' l\', Tht lll'll' ari,tOlTat \ ra tnl' rrom diH'I Sl' 'ocia! barkgrounds and 1\'l' tl' pol ilical h org:111i~<'d :11 01111<1 thc cotJtl. flllt' tht. 111:1\ upptr-da.;.; cou11 itr, lound Illl'lll'ch'es in tht clml' romp.1m ol nlhtr' in llll' court. o1hc1~ upon " holll 1he' 1\TI'l' dqwndclll for p;uronagc. f'a\ollr. ach';ttH cmcnt. t'LC. 1.i1 ing dosel\ ,,.lt 'u eh -.i~n ilicanl <~lh.crs lll~l~le f'or ' stri Ctl'l' t'<lllll'PI o f' illl))llbt'' ,ttHI t'11HlliOll ' ... firsl lll)J()'l'cll)\' L)lll~l' ol lug h SOCia l rankon thc ir sorial iltlerior,tlr.;ttmusl.lllt'ir" K ial eq uah' (Eii:h. 1 ~17~: J:\7). Hut cotll'l SUCCI\' \\';t' hi.(hh compctilin. \() 1\'hal ,,.;. nr,t impo,td (c.~. 1\rtlll\1\Ck Coun
1 " ._ :-. ,

or

or

or

or

286

ln trod ucing Cultural Studies

C u ltured bodies

287

. of 1. ')1{11 1 . tate cl ' 1-e t tii Ht lll'. . " h ol'H T he rn a' . be ... fo nl . tl w 'lairGt\t'\, ,' egu 1a 11011:. corridu t , , or cJ osLts " 'ilh ' " iltl' u t o rh tr f1lt lr , bu t go lo ' u rta ble . prc ' t lbecl plan~ for suc h rl'lic.:r ( Eiia,, lfliR: 1 :~ 1 } ) soo n l)(ca nH a tn :tt lc r of,c ll-res trai tll. <J,t r tinl t' tit en: "'a~ an in 1c rn a l d) n a n1ic IJttilt :1round th c ll il'rtl,'fwndmti, 1 o l co u rt ' ot k, tha t mad c 1 01 in crea ,i ng h rd i1wd 'la lldarck T he\t' ' ta n darcl ' in 111rn ' preacl do\\ 11\\',trcl' th 1ough 1h ~ ~uc iit l ' ll ll<'lli iT as tltt sociall \ , , .., ing- b o nrgcoisic 'oug lll 1< ('11Htl a tt' 1h e ir su pttio rs.

cui,inc stimul.llcd th c appttites ul the uppl'r <la,~c;; i11 ' ' a" ldtith IH ' r e rcmll.ll'\ 10 ll <l ltlll' ami whi r h itHnkrtd with LIH. il:tlllr:tl pmress or clig'I'Siion . .. . (.h(') lll' r 1 7:t~ l hil tll' llll'd that ' \\'ht'll .\1:1nl..in cl 11':" .;int p k . p la ill . hn lll''l < II HI rru ga l. lh t'l'l' ll'l' l't' ll'h' < ll 11 0 d i ,c: .t~b. l tn tper:uH t'. 1-:xt: rciw. l lu n liltg'. 1,.tlw m .111d lll clll,lt ' kq>L tlw .Juices 511'l'l'l .1nd tlw Sol ids h l:tt'cl.' ( lllrnt' l 19\11 : Hi2 l T h is di sco 11 rsc: \\':t ' ll<ll r d c,:ull lo t h c \l'llrki ng classts 'dw i 11 !lw ('ig lil t'l'lllh ct' ll llll'\' ~ t i ll CltCOlllliCn :d ~1 a n :ui o 11 JH'riodica1h. Onl\' witl1 th c estab li,hmc lll of capita li,ln in tlt t ni ne tecn lh ccnw n did a cli"inn d kt:tr\' d i ~tou l-.;c ta l g tttd a l t h l b hm11in ~ cht'"l' e m e rg e . r lt is \l':t~ :t cliSCOII I'Sl' li lllll Cftocl 0 11 <.Cit' lll il ic p ri n r iplcs ~ (' II Ht tf Cnt d ittc ti c' .. 11. smw h t 10 e nabli'h th e nt ill illlll lll :11110llll l o ( p ro te in a n cl ca lo n c' l t<'Cn~an tn ~ lt,..t <ll ll
1 working- h ocl\. ,,h ich '''" ' t' " l'll1a 1 fu1 the p rodu u i,j, ni ca p i 1a 1i, 1 cn te rpri ~c:>. T h u , , 1h emH 1dmamic imagc: '- of 1h e h ttman h(.lCh' rl'pl:t cl , t1ll'. ea rl ic r lt \cl ra u lic po rtra il ' . l ' n li ke tit e (ig llll' l' lllhcl'llllll'' d ist'ou tse ll '''" ' hndt u l rcliuio 11 , 111 ~ 1 i l i ca t ions. Ho\\t' \ l'L nw ra l conn uta tion s ~lilllig 1u ecl in th e tll'\\ di,courw . b RO\n llrtc 11 h b limwus ' "1 ,.e, o l Yo r k in 1HD9 fo un d th at th t wo r k' 1ng e1 a ' s " " tm d c r k d <1 nd th al th c a ni,a n cl a'~ co11 ld o11 ly man agc 10 m tc t lt is 1n inim u m ll tllrition:d

Elia ' ( l ~lt):? ) 1\'t' lll on lo J'n nh cr ~ i tu a l c th tst t ltang t'' in a long proct" u f st:u e lonn a ti on l'l' 11ll ing 0 11 a 111011opuh' mcc ltani'm in \\ hi c h lt' ITilul i:tl ex p a n,iun ,,.<1\ lin kn l lO th t CCJIHt'll lra ti o n in sing lt- h.t11do;; uf tl w m ea n ~ o f adnri n i'itr:llio n. ta =-::ui 0 11 :tn cl \'io ieii Cl'. Elia,, o ff c re cl a c~> ntpl tx arcot tlll of' ' th t ft i,turica l d c \c lopnwntuf' h11 ma 11 buclie , ('ih illi11g . 1\l93 : ~ce n p. c h . ti) th a t fo1 ' tlllle co mtmnt:uor' (l-.g. ~ft: IIIH'II . 1989) i, 11101 e h b tori calh' nuanncl 1h a11 Fo u ca n lt'., ' it'\\. S"mt of t h t' ' l' d i lf ert n n, ca n be f'll rt lr l' t illtlln in a ttd t h roug lt tl w conlp:t ri so n ol' ''' o in flue nri a l \ l ll cl i e~ o f' t'<tl in g r u rn er'.-; ( 1U9 1) Fo tt Ca tdd i:tll l' '\:tll lill:tl inll Llh' d i ~COtll'~l'S tlta t lta\l' a ri '>t'll a i'Oll lld ,,;~ no tioll of a h t;d tll\ d iet .llld ~l tnnefl ' , ( 1!)!11) El ia~ia n ill\ ('.;tiga tio n o f tlw ci \ ili,i ng th c "PI>l'li tt f(ll' lu o d a 11d drink.

;he ~Jh,,ical ellicicnc~ o f th

or

or

7.3.3

Eating: a disciplined or a civilised cultural practice?

r :uing itt tcl clrin king a re p lai nh l...':ttll l. t' ll lt tt r:dh sh apc:cl :tCli\'iti c:s, " ' o b't'l'\':llinn 'lllall l'l lilclt en :11 llt ta iLillt t'' rvad il ~ <lt l t''t~. T ite co nsuntpli o n uf' food .111d cl1in k i' a h o a g< ' lll'l ir u 1ltu ra l p ran icl': 0 1 t-H.'nt lti ng wh ich p copk h a\'e in etJll llll Oil, llll' m o~t tO illlllOII i' that lhl'\ lllll'l l':tl :111d d t ink' (Si lll lllt'f. ] !J!II ). \ r ft a t ll'l' l':tl. ftoll' ;H iel hol\' u f't l' ll :l f'l' in ll uc tll'td m ort 1), cu ltllr:d rltan hi n log ica l J'a nor, . Th l' cc11 ttrib u tio ns o(' a Fo11ca uld i.m an d a n Elia , iall <~ pp r uad t to tit' u tlt11 ra l p rac tirc: can he a p p 1n ia tc d (), wn1p;u ing tltt l u d ie' ofT1111llT ( ID!II) .tnd \kn rwll ( 1!19 1) l'l'SfX' Cii\'(1 \'. T h c: iii \C t ip rittll o l JlOIItr 0 1 1 th c l>och' c;m lw .~ n n in rlt t d ic: tal\' a d\'in : di Heted a t p.trti <ul:u p<JHd:lliolt- or a \ OCil'ly. Fo ura u1l ( 197:t 19 7 7) f'l'togll i.;ed th t cJ j,lip lin ing h 111ct ion o f i n ~titu t ional dil' l' in p 1i,Oih. ,,orkho u't' ' , a n n ico; a ll(l :h\'lu m , , Pop ula r Ji te r:tllll l' on d it'lill'\ adl'i r l' h .1, a 1cong h i' I.O I'\ . . \ ro11 11 d tlt l' ca rl ~ c: ig h te c n tlr n n ll ll)'. II lll' ra, Jt io n a h le :t ll iCI II { tlt t p ro ft";.' iona l :urd ad \' ice <lll ' cliac: ttt ic k lllall:t,l.{l' lll l' lll . IW('< up pc:1 <la''~'' in B1 ita in ~n k i n g lo ""1.1in guod h c.tl t h . ..\ l..t'\ ligur< in th c p romoti cm o l th is cl hcollrse ,,;, Cto rg-c Che\ ne. :t Sco 11 i ~h >ft,,kian 1d 10 ' 'Tole St:\'('1':1 1 hooks rc com n lt' ttcl in g- rlt t ps~rf w l og i c a l ;111 d p lt)'Sic tl he ne ri r' 111' reg-u la r s k c p . lltodn ale t'Xt:rc ise. lt' III Jl CI':t ll et' a ll(1 a cl itt hig' h i11 m ilk a ncl \ cgt ta b le ~. C h t'\lll' coJH't i,c:d th l' h11111an boch in m ttha ni ~t ic ttn m a',, fl ~t i d-filkd h \'(1ra u lic " Sll'lll :t n d co mhin c d hi~ tlll'd ic 1lh b:hecl ;Hh ice \I'th Ch t i.o;tian IH illl' iple:-. in ,u JTic ie nt h fo n hri g l11 a lll < llttt tr a s 1n ;t lll'<tCI th t l' IHiur'l' llll' ll l .,,. lh l inlllll' lltial rou n rl l' r ol ;\ lt-t h o di -. m . .l o hll \ h ' lt\ , Fo r CIIC\'1\l'. a nordi11~ tu r u rnc1: f.ar l.. n f l'Xt' f'(' St. :t \ III ]JIII' n ( food , iii iOXC:tlillg' dri n f.;, :111<l 1111Jat1 J ifeS t l! e~ 1\'t'l't' p:ll'l it 11l:t rh 1h re :Hv ll ing tn 1lt l' lt ta 1tlr ,l ,urdarc J, nf 1he 11ppcr d:t\'l'' l'' fltT ia ll' :11111111g ' llw Ridl, tlw Ltl\ , lh c: 1.11\ll tOII' .. tlld tlll' l ' n.llli\c:' rc:h t\11(' li:tll . f he :1\aila hilill ami .th uudance of " f'O II ).(' d 1i11k' amo11g thl' <"l il t' < 'lll.l!(l'd 1lwit passin11' 1n QII:trreb , .\ lurd t r. ami Bl:t'>h tm, ' 1t. ht,n e J 7:.111. C. k it tg'l'' in l':tl i11g h ;~bi l ' ;~u el flt~ lti n n,, in

or

, 1anda rcl' pro \'id ecl t h c rt ,,a ;; n n wa~td u l l''\ p c n d i tlll't' on d ri n k. S(o s~ ()ri c l\' "''' usti lltd 1101 in d hin e term' h u1 h~ tlt t d t' lll:tlld, nf tl w p 111cleiH ho t ~'ckcep 1 n g nce tlld ' 10 su stai n p h y,i ca 1 l'fli r ie n cy. In tll t' 1a tt l\\'l' lrlie th n ntu ry d l l' l l' ~ I C C~ I >Co ll r,ts ltaw b<.' t'OIIH' ~tc ulcn i., t cl. l)ut 11 101'<11 e ll' llll' II IS h a\'1' 11111 di ,<tpfll'< 1n..'cl. :t. ' "l'\'ldc: n n <f bl' lfll cnclor, 1 11 w 111 o l \ T I'\ p a rtiu 1br ron Cl'Jllioll' ol tlw lmc h' ' 'ih a p l' a 11rl a p peara n ce in disco 11 r, 1 , , 111 r 011 ndin )'{ cnnttmpo r a n li 1n c: ~' c n th u ,ia'm' (step cta,~e~. fi t nts~ \'Ideo'. run ni ng . b()(h'sc ul pturc all(l th c likt ( Sl'C sectio 11 i.:).l lwlo\\' ) ) \lt:clica1 and scic ll tili r discourseo; o n di t' l. h o wt'll'l'. r<'pl't''l' ll l but o rt e ~<t o l co n sw.tin u; o n tl w app e tilt' . .\ cco rd ing to ;\lt'll lll'll nw dita1 d i ~cot ll S<'' a n on l~ ~ma ll p a n s o l 1he r om plt-x hiswry ol' appt tite anr1 its co nt ro l in Ell t'O]>t'a." ~ot'i ~ r y' ( 1\I(JI : 12) . Too h egin ,,itlt . appl' til l' is IHH qu ite th l' ' :lllll' a ' llllll g'l'r. H tlll g'< 'l ts p l l\ :-lll l o~t r a l. a bodih gro u n d l'd eh i\'l'. \\ h ik app t titt i' p~~rh ologi cal. an ill d i n .u iol~ a nd <ll, in 10 t':r l th a t i ~ i 1 ~cl l' cu lu n. tl 1 y ~h a 1wc l. .\ rn'])tt'cl prtsen l-cl:t\ ' tandarcb o l ca11 ng - \dt,H "'~ < '" ltO\\' qui c kh foocl is coliStll ll t' d , whtn \\'L' l':t l - ll\'OI\'l' a n: n ~id t r: tl.ll e cl':_g'l'lc o l ~l' ll cont ro l. In m e d it\al Eu ropt ra th lr di lf <rtnl pa ttl'l'll'> ul eatt n g u ht:llned. 1 h t pu ~u la 1 CO II Cl' pt io n a l the banq u c t \\a~ a p rt'clo m in a nth upp('r-rhl~' p h e n o m c n o n btll ,anan t'> \\'e r(' 10 he fo uncl thro ug ho ut socil ty. E\'l' n :nno11g tite ariston a cy. h o\\'t' \'tr, .su e h i n clulgtn t l'\'l'lll, 1\'l'l'<.' n tc r~pc rscd fl, ,ig 11 i(i colll l ' IX' II' o l' frug a l lid .ng. l11 1h l' ~ lt dd k .\gc~ an m cilla ti ng pa tt t'l'll o t f'asti n g a ncl lea,ti ng "a~'' id('~prea d. 1111' p atH' I Il p a ralkh Elia, \ d esc r ip ri on o r llll'clt'\ ,tl pe n pl<: as C lll llti o n all ~ lll0f'(' \'C>I:tti lt th <t ll tll llde rn s. :1 '> nwre 1ik e h 10 Jl uCI II <l lt' b t l\\'l't' n t'X II'l' lll <.'S in 1he ex p rt'~~ i o n o f th c i r fc:el ing~ . Cha ng ts in cating ,;atte l ll' thu' r e lkn rh e ('i,ilising process \\Ti t 'ma l!. . T he f:Nin g k a\li n g p a ll t' l'll aro~t frnm p t l'\a,in t nt cenaintil'~ a bo u t lood

Fa mi lll'' wcr~ reg ul a r orc urre n ces in 1h c ~ 1id el le r\gc'. " ' wc rc Ji rt'' epiclc1~1 ic~. wars :tl.lCI ,ag- 1 ~ 111 n. a nd tlt l' intcrac ti ng dfec ts of ti H'Sl' kcl 1o ITCll tTe n t 's tl'ep les o f m u~m lt t\' wh ir h olte n cu t a croo;s .;oci.t1 clas' d ilf'ercnce'. Food sean , , \\'<1' a real lhrtn n nttl wd l int n th l' c ig ht l'l'll lh cc nltll; . T hc p e rcc: p lion of' th c Lh re :ll of looc1 sca rci ty. l' :pc~ially by 'l' lll Jr ('(' lllll l'~ ht~llllg \\'<1~ tft c lo \l'l'r ft' \'tfs o f ~OC l' l)' p e r~ i ,tt cf 1h ro ug Jr l ll th e lli lll' lC

'"PPh

288

lntroducing

Cu ltura l

Studies

Cullured bodies 289 social solidarity- a sense of belonging toa group, and confirms social identity- a sense of who and what you are (a Blackburn R overs supporter). Symbollsm (p. 288) has been examined In cultural sludies in a variety of ways, perhaps most memorably with respect to youth subcultures. Since the 19SOs a succession of youth subcultures have used diverse symbols - long hair, cropped hair, quiffed hair, spiky hair, beads, safety pins, all kinds of thoroughly distinctive clolhing styles- to convey their distance from conventional society and thereby to challenge its hegemony (p. 106) (Hebdige, 1979). Often the symbolism involves bricoleur logic: something intelligible in one context is recontextualised in another, as in the Ted's appropriation of Lhe Edwardian gentleman's jacket ('drapes'). Sometimes homological relation can be discerned between different elements of a subculture's chosen symbols. Willis (1978) suggests a homology belween motorbike boys' fascination for the speed and hardness of the motorcycle and their liking for late 19SOs rock 'n' roll. R ituals involve a standardised sequence of acts and ullerances 'of a symbolic characler which draws the attenlion of participants to objects of thoughl and feeling which lhey hold to be of special significance' (Lukes, 1975). The form of the sequence is more or less invarianl and the acts musl be enacted - the fundamental rule being no performance, no ritual. Religious ritual involves acts and altitudes of respect and reverence toward sorne sacred object (something that is placed beyond the everyday profane world and regarded with awe) but all rituals direct people towards things symbolically significant to them. Political rituals, such as Cenolaph ceremonies, May Day parad es or street demonstrations, are believed lo build social solidarily among participants and reaffirm shared values. To the extentthat the contemporary world is witnessing a decline in organised religion and a corresponding rise in the importance of individualistic ideologies, the individual person is coming lo be regarded as a minor deity (Goffman, 1967), normally to be accorded obeisances in the shape of polite acts and other interaction rituals.

rc:rui l cd ~~ ll_tt IIIL'< .)i(\;d good Cathc.lliC hl ti~ Church 011 ,1( le.t'l liii'('L el;\\, a \\'t'('k anu, ll d 1 d nOl lll\ ohc ICH,ll ab,lllll'lltT. 11 \1';.; t':\ fWC ll'd lh cll ptnpft II'OII Icl L'< ll onJ smal l Sllllplc ll lta l. nsua l l~ in 1lw t'l't' l1illg. Sulllfllllary I.III'S. ,,hidt ' ()l'ci fi c:d 1 1 'h:n co,;J ~ be c. tl tn 1 )1' p:11tinllar Cale~ot i<s of j)I:'J'~OII ;, \\T II ;" '' ha1 the1 coulcl ,, ...11. . e . . . . ' ''ere plonndgatecl 111 1lw lalt' ~ 1 1cldlc .\g<'' p:u1 h nl ordtl lo rt.,lricl co11,picunu~ nms 1 . '1 ,. 1 . . . l111pIIOI1. ,, ce IC:t opmron. '"'".rh tt'll<il'd 1 11 rctolnnh:nd mod eratio11 in t':t ling. 11':~ ~ ;11101 her ~lll~ l~('(' o f e: ll'lll<ll (~ Jl slr:lllll 1111 pc opi<'~ dnilt'' 111 indn lgc their olJlfll'lilt'' ka~ 11ng pallt't ll t'H'Illu.Jih ga~t \\al lo a umdern wlf<ontrolkd j)att . c1n . 1hl' l.t'llllg fl_om_ 1lw e1 gl~le<n.th nn ~tll'l' n11. ~rhe cil'iliting nf apptli lc .~;"' ,\ lcnuell ( I!JHI: l-J I) \l,b lin kecl 1 o l.ht lll C re:t,ll11{ '<Xlll'lll . n:gu l: tl'it~ . rl'fiaiJil ill' and 1.tric1 1 o f' l( aJ< I 'LIJ)plies' tha t ac.u Hn pan lt'd t ht counnt'l ciaJi,at ion ancl inclll.,ll'i;tli,;n ion of J .u ropean ., 0 citt1 . The <.xten.,._o n oJ traclt. _111e g-nmth of tlw t'Cono1m. cli1 i'i"n' of'l.1bnu 1 a nd pror 1-.,.,1.~ fslatc :orm :t.uon a l! ron u tl: uted 10 1lw aiJCJiilio n ol t' IHkmic f'o od srarci 1 1 in Euro pe. Fcasting rmoh rng liw coii~J~I et.to u' consun1p1iun o f' largv qn:1111i 1ics of foocl becanw lt''!> of a ~latu' '"nbol . and 111 lh place 1he cualitatilt' pc"'ibililit, ow1wcl lw 1lw cltll'lo)lng ga~lltlllllll\ IC :u t" lwlped lo i n ~t il ; ntw 'f>iril uf rnocln<Hinn . Tia o ld distinctiuns h~tll't't' ll fCJoclsud fs co tl.\ll lllt"cl at b:t nc ucl~ a nd tho,t , tdtablt- f'm en~nclal catin , <ihappeartd: ancl llil' fn of tite IH':titln intrta,ingh lt',emblt-d lht food ea1en bg ord.in._"' memht' of ' ol"ie11. f he gro11 in~ illlt'rdqwndl'IICt' ch:u.tt lni~lic of mnden~ "OCIL' llt'S ha.' C'O IIIribll tt:d lit ,\ lenJfing- lllll lof' 11 11' J..i nd ~ of fi JCH J S l': llcll b1 lhl' cJifh:rent cl a.sse~ :111d li lth lll :t ll cX It'lhiun ol' lltl' ,elf~ro llllol-. Oll'l' .tppetill'. 111 add i1ion. ~lennell argul', 1h.n oht,ill and anol'<.xia mno'a a1 t' hl';,t undn,.loud "' dis1nrb.11 Jets in lhc nnnn.d !Ja t.le l n' o.l 'tllco ntrol Ol'tT ,, ppe1 ile t'X ptned in prm wrnt ls \ \'l'~lt' l ' ll ~oc icli es (a11ortx 1 a 111 p: 1 1'11Clllar Sl't'lll~ lo ht l:1rgtil ronfinn l 1 0 lll<Jcler11 ~o cit li t, 1 dwre thc '11pph o l food,lulf, i~ not al i"tt<.'). 1 ht hi,toric.tl ~haping ancl con'u ain1 of lht appetile
althOII~h

Defining rnncr'jJI

7.1
Ritual and symbolism

Furllwr reading
Hebdige, D. (1979) Subwllure: T!Je Meaning of Style, L ondon: Methuen. L each, E . (1976) Cultvre and Comnwnication, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lukes, S. (1975) 'Political ritual and SO<ial integration', SO<iology 9(2), May, 289-308.

We live, in Victor Turner's (1967) celebrated phrase, in 'a foresl of symbols'. Objecl5 in our environment - things, people, activities - make sen se lo us in terms of their meanings. We act loward objecls on the basis of lhe meanings that these objects have for us. These meanings are conventional, learned as part of socialisalion (the process of acquiring cultural knowledge and competence) and, importantly, these meanings are shared. In so me. ve rsi~n s of semiotics, the favoured method in cultural studies for interpreting meanmgs, tt 1 s suggested that a dislinction can be rnade between signs and symbols. The relationship of a sign lo what it signifies is that of a part to a whole (i.e. is metonymic) as the word 'apple' is lo a certain kind of fruit. The rela lionship of a symbol to what ilstands for is an arbitrary sirnilarity (i.e. is metopiloric), as the apple proffered by Eve in the Carden of Eden symbolises 'worldly knowledge'. The sharing of syrnbols (wearing your team's colours on the way to a match) breeds

is d1t1s a t'Ompkx affair he'l uncl<:r~tood, :\knnel l ~ug~l-~1,, as 'onl' more example ol' <t long-lt'llll ci,ilit ing procl'~s ( 199 1: 1:i~). . Tlw cl i t~li c discom ses skl'll'hed hv T urncr hal'e cen.1inil been in ll ucn tial in shaptngpattel 11' of ea1i ng. A Foucauldian ptr~ptt' tin highligh1s ho" human bodies are constinncd b1 pown ml'cliated th1 ou~h panicular J..i ncb of cliscourse. 71l en ncll' Eli :~sin perspeniH. hmnl'l'l', prol'icks a mtlhod for cxploring it1 more d c tnil th ~ lin ks_ betwtt n discourst and cultu ral prac1ic<.:. dc uw nstrating- ho" thc cu ltu ral pall tTIIIIlg' of the appcti tc is 'hapecl l11 a rangc ol ~ocia! inHTcltt)(.'lldtncic:-. .\11 E l i:t~ian pcrspecti1c thus shm,s us how panintlar di~cnursc~ are t'-'tablishtd in re lalion 10 shif1ing scts of social ilt lerdcpt'ltclcncies.

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291

7. 4
Thi~ _
t

Representations of embodiment: culture's depictions

'l'CtioJl addre.,.,~.~ IW\\' tite hun1u hoch i' 1. . t Pll''l'lllt'l 111 l'\l'l Hla' lil 1. popular ultllll' t lll' 111<1'~ media . Bq?,inninrr .. . . . ,... "ith .111 t . x.umn.I!Jon ol 1 ht phtnonH . and . 11011. 11 1 11{'11 ('('\it\\-~ 'ii!Hiit~ o!' lht I'L'IJIT~e l ll ''\11. <111 (1 f'l'l11.llllll . . of ras1 1 J ll\' ;J i l< J lll ' l S( 1' non <:oiH 11 ( t'\ ll'llh a consiclc ra li"n o l ~olliC' o l the t i" IJ tt" . ' 1 1 . . 1 lll ll)' <tnd . ,, ~ ~~. 1 ()1 11\ ( J>lll'lltJtl l.. lllll\' 1 1. ll\tl'.llt' thc: ,,u~. ol lhl' dlet h ol hodil ' llJ)Il . . . .'t:nt,tlloll' . . . . ,.., 1 .' 111 nJc e r lo . aud tlw hm ., 11 ll'lll. t cnta11 1111

7.4.1

Fashion

rn' on thc hitrarc hical p1 incipk whilc ,,o m e n.,, ba~~.d on the :o.1.'dunion p rincipie) 111 t.;s ~o m c"ha 1 absurd nm,acb~s and probabl~ "as llt'H' r m ean! I<J bl.' tal:e n 100 00 litcr;ilh'. But it i.~ c:t'l' 10 ~l'l' how clo~e thesc prin cipies st< IIHli.O the muc h morl' serioush ach<liiC'l'cl contt'lll ion.; or fun c tionali'>t -,ociulog iw.. ( Rarbt'l and Lo be l. 19:'>~) 1\ ho arguc hat clotht."' haw a utilitwian /IIIIIIIIII (al\ clotht' ma\' lw more or \t-,~ "'dul ). a symbohr ctioll (a l\ c lo th t'' ma~ bt lllllrC o r Jc.;, indic lli \'l' of lhl' 1\'c arer, ~oc ia! ~ latlt ~) andan 111 (ltsllil'lic jun ctio11 (all dothl.':- lll:l' he more or k" ,\lmtc ti\'L'). .\ 1-:t'\ feat11re o l fa-,hion i.; a 'mpicl.tnd con tinua\ changing ot ,de., (\\"i hon. \98:J) . F<lsh io n is i 111 i 1 11<11cl~ con m c tcd lo modemity ( p. -1 ()()). In particular. it re ll ec1~ and i' nmclc pn~~ible b~ ,,o c h ~mtr t tTist ic aspecb ol' modem i ~: (a) th e stnse o l' perpetua 1 change g cneratecl. t~pccial h b' achetti~ing anclthe 111aSl> media: (h l the "ick rangc o l choin of con,III11L'I' goods 11 hich gil'e~ pco pk ahernatill'~ ami co11 trol O\TI' the ir sc ll~ presenta! ion. T he pni 111 r: 111 he m a de con\'cr~d y. Fa~hit111 i~ cxclusi\'C ly ~~ si ~n ific1 1 11 fc;lllll'l' of' :.ocie tic, ,,ith a nulrl' or ll'.,, npcn cla~' s\~tt'lll '' hcn.' tht' elite can 111at l.. itst'll' off from neighbouring cl.hSt'' 1, '''t'at in~ coslttllll' and in.,ignia that are not in,tiuniona lisccl sig nilicr:- ol' rant.: hnt whic h aH' snn as st~ lish ancl cli , linni,t. Tlw f:t,hions uf tlll elite. !'O 1he thnJr~ gms (~innncl. l9!Y/: \ 'thltn . 193 l). wi ll 1riel.. k c\0\m 10 1he othcr clas'l'' \\'hc n other dasst:. cop\ thl''l' fa~hio11,. the elite will adopt a m11 one. Thi' theory explain~ 11h~ la,h iull i~ a rccurrin g p1 o Ct''S ancl a l'n cxplaim why i1 i' abselll in caste a nd o thL' I' tr;tclitional -,ocictic~ hecause ~ocial posil ion is rigiclJ~ e nfun:ed (so in cla ~iral China tht mandarn' \H'I'l' required 10 wtar a nkle-lcngth gclll n': in prtre,olntionary Fnutre only th t ario;torracy 11ere a llo\\t'cl 111 ll'l'ar o;j\1-:). T ri cl:k-clmnt tlttor~ ma\' haw ,alicll~ e xplainc d fashion in nin tttl' ltlh-century urba11 indtl~trial ~ocil.'It'' but i-, 11ot a<kqunl<.' LO ~.xplain th c compkxitiL'' uf' tlH' fas hio n procc!><; in tht t\ll'lltieth cc.ntttiT. F.t-,hio n incrtasingh scems tu \\(11'1.. a-. a bo11om-11p r:uher than a to p-do11n proce~s. Lmnr gro up~ ar1in l ~ construct thcir U\1'11 ''Yic!> ((.g. )'Ollth -, ubc uhurcs) o r Sl'l'K 11111 the S I~ les of hi ~hn cl<tSSl'S r;lthtr titan pa~'i\'d~ absorb ,,hat cnmt''< c\o,,n from aboH. _\ltcrnatiiTh'. thi-. can be rcgardecl a~ a 'trickk-acro.,, proct'l>S th:ll ,,ork'> rrom minorit~ group (() mains tream COil~lllllJ>IOil. Somc \ITitel'l> han. argmd that it i ~ more proti1abk 111 rtg ard (a,hion as a sig n syqc m likt lang uagc (B;trthl'' 1 9~:-i) u1 thal it ;, a langu.tgt ( l.lll'il. l\1\l~) 11ith its 01111 gra mmar ami syntax. Anc. ntph 10 'Ptci l~ in th-t.til tlw l.tnguage ol clo thing hme nol bcen con-;picuously sHCt'l'~,('J and tlll' icka st'l'lll~ a l IJl':-1 me 1aphn rical: alkr all , clothing cannot commu nicalt' ;ul\'thing lit.:c 1lte cnmpkxitv o f idea~ 1h:11 'pol..tn or \\Tllt'll l a n gua~c can, n ur doe~ it pcnnit thl' romplcx combinatiolh of idea' that can be com<~e d b' ' e lllt' nces. Ano tlter ,;c." i' that nn 1,iu~1 fasltion~ but jfl.l/rio11 j,e)f ., c hanging in late. nwdern or pos tmodern (p. 100) ~ocic.ty. Comllll' IHators ~11ch as Frl'd Dmis ( 1992) :trg ttl' tha l th c W l.'akcning ol t ltl' lonncrly tighl ll' of ~taltl' a11d occupation 10 clothing ~11ggcsts t hat thc ~ignifitT-~igllilied link in contempnrar~ do1hing , htroming incnasingly loosc or IIIHitr-co<kd. \\'ith th c. g rowin g cli\'l'I'~l\' ol' suhcu ltural a ncl retro !'t)'les, la~hions can no" ttot me rLh be foJlo,,~.cl but .Kti,Tlv pl.l\'l'd wi1h b~ the wc~rer. Kn owlc clgt of th c icll'lliI\ and mood of tht 1\'l':-trcr a11d the cnmcxt iu "hich clothc~ are ,,om bccomc pinllal LOan ackquate unclerstandin g or their meming-. Th e p lasticity ami pro diiCU\'il)' or tl ll'~C mean ill g'S cannot bl' und t'I'L'' timated:

292

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293

T he W\tem~ ol' me:ming 1dthin 1dti( h ... >ractin~ ] . Jll\1 ng . of Jool..incr , [at e 1 ot1cs 1 CH' n 111~1 < a~dre.tllllll~ 1al..e place are con,t:uuh regt'IH.'l.Hing thtm~chcs \\'l . anc1 bll\' a ncl C01l'l' <Jli L'11Ih' 1\'l':l l 01' c[j ,Jlhl~' ll .~ clllll' pttbJit Ja~IJi~11 ll 1111'11 t' l:" 1 ~llWc 11 <' 11' ' n riiL'timc' 1111 i rlte rHkd con~tellal io r" o r nrean 1 rmn~es, _ g. 11 a '''me .:'\ >~~ ncw 1 ~utdra for:m~ oursdw'. tlll' ph~'it.tl hoch ., ll amfotnttcl into a collll>a come 1\'all..man . e JlOI Iable . ( :'1 lcRnbbie. 1989: )(j)

11

U <JI "'h 10 11 are tlm,acl:-ns ~e . 1 h 111g and 1 bet iL'f' r cv:1 "' rclccl as '' ll'Sih" ~ lt'c tll ''ttl .. s 0 111111\li)IC'I coc L'' t.c. coclt, dtat t:-..prn~ idta' and leding' that are ofttn cliflicuh t r11_' lii'C cx pl'l'''> 1 hc1 1h.111 raigh1 fnrll'ard inclicatur' uf ,ocial slan ding and m u ra l J)ai'IS ( lO propose th:ll 1 110C krn < He J'u c llc d bl' irll'lrlif\' o 111 1. , hts Out idcnt' ' . . nvarence IL ~ ,u e 11 0 1 nll ami dnLcl hut subjtn LO all l..inds of cli lc1c 1 . . 1 ..1 r . . . ' a 1011\, J>l.cssur me con tl 1c ICUon;., ,,lnc h IH' L ' Xpn" throtwh rhe clothes 1\'c ,,....11 \1 t .es 1 1 ( 'J<J-1) 1 .. 1 , '"' '' os g t lC 1dentst P -- .1 111 )11,1 t' IHL'S cxpnssed tllroll g'll clutlling are tlw J'olloll'ing: y

lead~

'~'

1 9U~)

~~

f:t.~ ltions

11.;:r~l ~e~)'

youth ma't ulini11 IHliJ.. rercl;ll ion iCL'IICl' ronlo1 miLI'

' '
\'~

"

\'\

age fcmilliltII' plm ron ctalmt'lll

CUil~II,Iill

transition rrom oliL' s tatc to a nothtr. In many traditional :\lrican ~oc ictie . fo1 cxamp ll. scarifi calio n the check~ or foreiH'acl ~~ mbo li es th c passagl' tu :Jdull malchoocl . CirCtflll ( ~ i o n i:- a rl'lig inu,JI jthLfit' d l'orm or IJody modilka iOII lo ng pran iscd by jcii'S ;~nd othcr group ~. ~len in mili1a1Y ocnlpatiom oftcn bt.tr 1<\l tom ll'hich proclaim th l'ir embLr,hip o! a regimc nt. .;h ip. etc. Pie1 ccd l',ll'' ha1e b t"come a mainstream frm 11011 111 ,dele!~ accc)led lo r both Sl'X ('S in Europc ami r\merica :tnrl othe r :>td cs. suc h :h pie rced nostrik are cea,in g w h:tl'l' rh e sh ock 1aluc th:tl punk' co uld o n ce count upon. Other fornt~ o! nol1ma1htream bod~ mudification ~uch a' branding. nllting and scarring th e ~ki n and gL' II i1a l pierd ng ( ~ 1~ l'l"'i. 1992 ) are becnmi ng morl' co111 mun place. T h c w ri1't"' l(r c ngagin.{ in r1 on-maimtrea 111 bod~ 111Ud ifi c Hio11 a re \'aril'd . including :\exual 11 enhamTmcnt. di~phtling llli~L ancl lo1'alt1 LOII'.trds a 'ignilicant othcr. ac,th ctic l'ah w . gro u p alli liation and siWL'I shock 1ahtL'. l'nckrhin g rhnl' clinrSl' mmi\l' ' ,a lllOil' gc nend l'unc tion of' bocl~ mod ir ica tion ami on 101m e n r:11 iur1. T h L'Sl' pract i ce~ 't'lYe Lo socialisc thc bod1. bringi ng cena in biological a~>t'Cl1> tlf th e pt' l so n in to t he SOl i;d realm, com t'f'ting a raw and mutt' bodl' iu to an ac li\(: comm unicttor uf Sl'lnb olic significann. This t'unction ,preTil! t'ITn in th ese minori~ pursuir-:

or

"

1~

rcbdlion

ltems of' doth_ in g- can encocle l ll c~e IL'mions. 11 ig h 1ig J11 ing 011 e o r o ther ) o le p . mocltn tht'on\t~ ,go 0 m :. '1 cp ;1111 .1 . ancl \ugges t th a t the rd ax.nio O~l . . u: 1 l 1 tan D,tl'ls 11 r nonns. the ol '"les and tlw o n indil idt ral clh'e r,ir1 11 11 lhat pcoplc no\\' ll'l' <Jr nothing (suci; rll l'). \\'lwlhCI: s 1 1t' d ram atll' c ultura l in f'a'i hion aCLualll lwcn accorn l>lished lt 0 11.e1.1.:.1. .111 uc 1 a el o pen q ucslloll an .~mm com mtntator' (l-.g. Tse~lon. 199!l) are ~cep ti cal.

.-\s ~~~~eh a~ tll l Stl\-:1 highlig ht th e i111po nann ol lwa1 ing b1 IH'oll ing lar.(L' I\'Oucll'n dhc~ in theil ,arlotw-. ,o 1he ~t'n it.ll piern r~ in co nle lll>Ot;ll 1 \mcri t.ul ,odct' celebrare th ~ir ,,xual pntL'IIC:Y b~ 'j)lll ting a l'rince .\IIK' II i11 tht lwad o f' the JlL'IIS or <1 ~ilrtr h ('a rt 011 a la bia pil-rring. ( ~t ~er<. 1D\12: 2ll9) Thew lorms or .tdornlliL'Ill. a long \1 ith clo thin~ lllOI'e gcnerall~. 'l'l'\'l' 10 link biological body 1u ~oc ia! bl'i n ~ a ncllllld t' rscon thl' poin1 rhatthe b od~ is con sickrabl) m ure than a bio logicalcntitl. Thty al \o rai'e quc~ tiom ahmll 1\'herc th c b odl' t' IHI,, \\'ith our skin or 1\ith our clotht.' jcwellv. makeup~ \\'h a t i~ rhe statll' ol <>111 bodily p roducts ancl cmission< \\'l c:111 ctonatt our b lood. eggs and ~perm '' hich merlical techno1og ra n preSl'IYl' f'or long pcriucls uf time. T h e b\lltlldaric~ th e human bocl~ are nol unambig uous. T llcsc que,tiom bcro1nc a ll th e more prc"ing in lig h t of ckl'elopme n ts in bioengime1ing ancl comp11ting technologiL~ 11h ich J>' ombe lO ta kc the ligure or th c cyborg Ot ll <JI' scie n ce ficthlll ami inl<J liled c ulurres ( ~t t scction 7.1 ) belo11).

~esunwnrar~ c loth rn~

,ariabi lir~ sue~s ultinlat el~ ~ignil\ ~llift Ita~

a~~oc~all'cl

. B.ut :tl:)ngsldt sucl 1 . del'tloprnenb has been tlu rc,il'al of'~>om e of 1he carlies t f'orms of ,tdll.lll\ ~ nl : budy p:unlmg. Ol'llatnelll.", scarring. talloo ing. a ncl thc like ll'hicl " ih l'l'IY cliMincl personal and socia l Among some mark111g of the hodl' h ao, lo n g lwld l'Siabli~h ed 1iwal signilicance. ofte n m; 1 rkin~ the

or

mcaning'~.

~uhure: ~~~

7.4.2

Gender difference and representations of femininity

Figure 7.3 Body piercing and Celtic tattoos (the subject is lrish, hence the talloos show membership of a Celtic group).

Ge nd c r is o ftl'Jl re~ardl'll "'a c ultur:tl m erlm lO th c a n a torni calh' foundccl dil'fc ren ccs bcti\ Cl'n th c 'l"\L'' Se.x rdcr~ lO biological dilk r ences bl'l\\'('(.'11 lll.tlcs and rcma les 1\'hill' gcnd,r rcfer" lo tlw cu lttll~llly ~ptcil1c "'"' ~>o[ th in king. ac tin14 and fceling. Feminini1~ and ma,ettl inill' are thu < ~lnckr l t rln~. re fc n ing to th l' 11ays ol thinking. a c ting ancl feeling consiclt l l'cl appropriatt in a 'ocicll lor l'cmaks m males. Sometimes th c rel atiun be,,ttn biolog~ ;~ncl c ulture i' thotlght of in additin lt'l lllS (Conncll , 191:$7) - c u ltmc round~ ot tl and :mtplilics thl' dimurphism th:tt natlll't' prol'idc~ ~o th at, for cxample, a pro p Lmity LOII'ard~ G ll l' o[ inlants is linkcd w t11<: biological capa ci11 to hrt:ts tl'ccd. Such an c~'L'Iltiali~t ' 'L''' is difli c uh lO smtain . Tu bcgin ,,ith. th ere secms LO be no rdiabk \\'ay o l apporrioning accunu~: ,alue~ 10 th c biological ami rh e culttu a l. Secon cl, thl')' slcm to lw predicatcd o n ass111111Hions illlplicit ll th c IWllJI'al attiruck of West('rn

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295

socicties ~o~~a rcl.~ sexu al dil'l'cJ T n c~ n amdy lil.at th~re :rl' ~~~o and on h two M'xes, that m<tlc o~ lemalc- <t re thc ~nh po~'1ble c:lleg~ncs to 1d11ch mdi1 icluals can he ass ig- ned agina, lha' th ~~t tl11s cktcru.lJJWllfJil 1 s Jll<~de o n tli e ba~~~ of pnsscssion of' a p e ui' or 1 ass1gnmt.n1 to cilher male or lema le c;uegorit~ b liftlon~ and can nol bC' re trosp eclil'el ~ a lte n:d :_tft e r llii p_t~~on~ clerll_ IJ ((;;1rfi nkd . !Yii7: 122-6) .. \ rurth t 1 rca~on fo~ qm~uonmg th t ~ddllilc con~ep_u_<m.llf 1lw rcla ti u n of biolog~ and c ulture ,, 11Jat th cre seem s to be COJJ!>Jcl:rable 1'anabd11~ 111 a cct'plab k ]()nn~ or femininit 1 ami 111 a,c ulinity For txamplc. thc .\:o rth .-\m~rkan lndian pranice ol bl'ldarllf'. ,,hich a llo 11-~ an;llomic~j m ;~k-'> l.o e ngagc 11 ~ '1\'0 lll{' il ~ ll'ork . drcss li kc wnn1cn and mme in II'Onwn, circles gaut~ays anv ~~~ICintH of a natural di u101-plii,m of th e \CXC!\. Ratllt'r. it ,ee 1 m tha~ c ultura l ddi 1111 1on a c1ua lh- p la\'s a 1naior ]Jart in tlie com1 itttt ion or ae ndcrel fJCltl' " 1' . . " o ~ tes, as 11 ~e < ISCU\SJ.on of 'tht 01\'ing likt a gi1 1' (sel' 'eetion 7.2.2) abme ,uggtst.,. Cender ~lJflcre n_cc JS so c~osch buund up ll'i l h lile 1\'orkings of cultural clefinitions an d mt~racllonal pr:lCIJc::-. (Connell. 1987: Gorfman. 1977. 1979) 1hat csse ntiali ~t rielrs po~ 11111 g ~O llH' hHJlog J<'al fc :;llurc 1lla1 is sh a red b1 all m e n or a ll \l'o1n e 11 :111(( 1\'hich can accOII Ill lor ho11 p eo ple tlunk. actor lwlitn~ ~ccms ahsurd. In l ~ r~t.:-.-,ca lc socic1ies it is in n itabll' that tli cre ll'illbe a r;Ul!{e of' kmininiLit~ and n~a~t uhn J lll's 10 be lound. llm,e\t'J._ so1JJ e will be pnfe1 nd m e r ut h t rs- 0111 idea that Conndl ( 1!l87: 1H3- H) ca pt ures 1\'th his tu n cepts of ' li egcmonic lll<t.Sculinit 1 ' an 1 'enlplla'i~td fclllini_u~ll . T hc;,e notion' anicul.lle tllt cuhurally dom ina m gtJHkJ. ende~ ~hat 111 01'1(.'~. acll't' I'IJSIIIg and so on botll dra11 upon allCI h e lp 10 cons truct. .\lso. 1 is ~ mpona!H 10 cl i ~ti ngui:-.h bt tll'een 1he n-r~iom of fe min in i ~ all(l mascu Ji 11 i1 ~ pnsented 1~1 c~ <~ mtnant dtscou rs<'~ a n d peo ph.:'~ ac llla l Ji,cd c x per i e n ce~. 1dlic h llli\1' II'C'Il be ~gn il JCanl 11' at ,-ariance 1\'lll 1h ese. In COJllClllpol-;u: \\'cstern culwre. ft nin in it1- c Jr at lea'>l cm phasis~::d fe mini ni 1)' - seelll-' to lw \'el'\ muL 11 nl<>rl' a r epn:senta 1io n a l ~ncl se](: prestn l ati o~al m a tter than i~ masculinill. ft i'> ~a id that llll' JI a et. 11hik II'OIIlt'll appear ( ~e 1 ger, I!Jt2) - 1\:om~ ntradc u n th eir ' l oo k ~. m t n cln lh ti ' prt-'>t' JJ Cc' . Contempora 1 y c!Jscourses of ltJil JJI IIlll\ a r e not ~t'a mk.~ ideological 11'<:b!. bu1 rather conwin am biguitics :111(1 con trad iction s ll'ilhin tlwm. r!\cdon ., ( 1995) examin a 1io n of IHlll' h tte ros~ x.u a l II'C)Jllt'll Jli'C~l'l~l lhtlll~~~~(\ in ('\'('J:da\' )ift t'X pJorC'S ri1e paracJOXt'~ thrOil{h 1"11ch cult u ra ll~ domtnant lw h ef~ a u cl < xpec tulion., 01bnut II'Oilltn\ pe rsona l appcarance ca n i>t' unclerstood:
'J'hr mod''''Y /)1/l'flrlo.\- II'Oilll'll a rv cuJht J'l Jctvd as ' tdu ctiou. t'IT J' tu be pun i ~hed for it.

exalllplt from thi!> lil'>l. tlw heallt\ paradox. 1 he loo~~ ol the human bod~- ;u e: H'l'\' much . . I'I)OI'I'lllt fo r II'OIHC'll lha n ror Jll C;' Jl : a tLraC !JI'C' II l''~ matte rs JllliCh JllOJ'(' l O h oll' JlO IC 11 ~ -e crr~ cld ami rc<r-trcl 1htm~eln' \\' hile llll'll al~o expt _-,s roncern' abolll \loJllE'll .. 1 1 r." 1 ~ n' . . . the ir appcara n ce. i1 i ~ nHtch l t~, co n ~c::<tlnllml fu r th t m (J ncle~cl. mcJI 11h o pa1 .lO~, 10 thei 1 lnt>k"> .II'C lkeh' 10 lw clubhcd 'l.flcmmate ). Female bea1111, 11 1~ 1 'll!l'lltion ' . . . . 11tt1C1 fch. is ;1n ide:ll ~talt' th at can bl' a u a ine d b1 o n l ~ :1 kll' ;tn cl lh ln [n.r o1~h a shn1 1 p e nod of the lifcsp a n . So man~ 11 onw11 ''urk harcl to ~la\l' off tht t hrc.tt o l uglm~"' by mean'> of . > c~ di " t re<'imes J) h~ t iL .. uro er1. imllla nt-. liJu su ction amlthc hkc. BtJI attracco~ J 11 e 1 1 . . n . n . . til'cne~~ itsell can become a kind of :.tigma. a cliMTi' dilillK anributt'. ~mcc l: malc be aut~ is a 1e niiHl r :J l) ' statl' tn be tran:.g1e~~ed hr l'l't n tlw mo~ t beauufulwoman. ~ unheJ n~<~r('. it im p lics that her hare aml un controlle cl hod~ , llll:tl'Ct'pta~>le. \Oillt'lhmg aqulnng intc rn 11 ti o n ;tncl di .;gu i.~t. T ht c ultu ral 1alorisa tion of I'Outhfu l lw; IIJty Jll t'< tn.s. lhat _ lhc a~in J)I'OCl'' ' uru tntll' britw' II'Onll'll up again't 11ha1 111;11 bt :.l'l'll "' ug lme'S. lf ,, ,'-:"') ,.., b . II'Oillt' ll <JllC'lllpl l1l COJJi t'SI ;l..(t' I1g lOO \'~OI'O li'fl lf H:~ l'II( CllJr;lg\' llllkillfl ( 'OllllllC' JII l'> about th eir r!'fu~al to '1-\ranf'JI!I' ,-j(')d to the l'car,. Snch r!'a\oning i' \'e~..- much a cultu ra l. n ot natural logir < JI HI th t standarcb th ereb~ inl'okc::d <JJ't' no1 llllJ\'trsa l htll wlturalh swdfic.
\ 'nY

<liffertnt logic!' a n d 'tandards '~'l'lll

LO

applv w Jlll'IL

7.4.3 ' Representations of masculinity

One l'ltmen! of h tgemonic lllOI\(ll linil~ iiii'OII'l'' hodill' cli~pi:II'S or aggrt"\Sion ancl liolcnce. Thi ~ i., ot'ten re~arclcd a~ f:tcilitate<l, if JJ Dl anuall~ caused. bl' m ale- llll l' cu lat tl n' and chnm1o~nmal he,rita~e. Studie' of tia cu hmal a ncl 'ncial climen~ions o!~ ,iolem behal'iour ., 11 K~esl 1hat 1hese b io logical encloii'Jllt' Jlll-. <liT. at best. t' lHlbling de11ces ancl thattherc ,a cnmplcx cultural conlt'X ! mediating aggrcssin act~ from tht. mtcrperso nal (l'.g. a"sa uh ) 10 thc instiiiHioml lised (c.g.ll'ars). 13ut sin C't' aCiiJOJI disp.laYs ofin.ttr~~rsonal l'iole u re a r <" ofte n (rmm td u pon. it i~ he poten! ia 1for aggre,,I'C acuon t hal ~ ~ <Tlllcal - a pOLentialthat i~ olttn lraJl'latt'd into lhl" "tan ce. pos tu r e and n~usc k tcn~ions o!. tl,'t'lll:tle bodl'. ,\ mung lCl'llagtII'Orking-d aso; ))o~s. lor c:x;unplc. a certalll anHHillt of pu!'lung a n d punch ing. pl:l\rull~ rramtcl. (;))) run ction as a "ignifier ol'f'ri cnd~hi ?. . . . Sometimes 1hi ~ aggressi,e lw h al'iotJr ra11 ht in~t it u ti ona l i!'e d. for exampk 1 .11 lasC J\t i(kologies. Klall' T h ell'deit' ~ ( 19!-\~l) ex1raordiu.u: ~tudy o~ t he illl~cr l'XJ~cnenc~. o f Cenn a n fasc i~m txplort' th e clcJCll'Jl e's appeal to mam dilfne 111 km ch ni Jlll' n . 1 h e s1ucl~ is prtmisecl on the assumption that l asci~m il!>elf 11a~ a distinn cuhme C1Ta~ec_l l~y ancl l'o r its ad h e n :nts a nd whic h c;'lnnut be pruperll' und ers1ood as a nilturl' 1f ll IS reduClcl to otlwr factor' (t.g. class intt'I'C'!. ch ar<lCICr o,tntctllll.'). The11:~l~iL dJ-.~II'S 111 ainh' o n th e 11 onl.~; all(l Jlll'llloir~ ol' th e Fre ikorps. a rig h l-ll'ing nulit1a wlu r h llo uri,hed in 1f12!h Cl'l nm111. Tlw Freikorps ,,a~ a proto-fa~ci'l organ isation ll'hnse ickologv ami ac ti l'i 1ics l'oJt~l ;acloll'l'd 1h t la lt'l' asn:n cla n c1 nf tlw :'-J;rt is. t\J thc)~tgh h i~ uhimat~ a in" are p~~choanah tic. The11eh-i1 pm1n11, somc :-.ignifican~ ulhura_l ~eaturc~ u f 1~~~ fre korp' ancl li n ks th t m w th e <11 Ka n i'al ion ' r onnp ti u J1:-. o f m:1~r ulnuty. T lie militar..- culllln.' of' thc Freiko1 P" t.:-..llted 11ll' ancl maimained that onh t~u~mgh baule co u ld 111ell's 1dmknc$~ be f'u ll\' allaincd. ThL'.' c bd icCs ;li>o tJI 111asculinll~' are 11cll rapturc::d in thc 11ords o l a popular Freikurps writcr:

Thr dufJ!itity fwmdo.\ - womcn are ton~lruned "' artilicc. tli cn 111arginalised for lacking tssence and authcn t icit~. Tlw visibi/il_\' jt(lmdox - II'OIIleJJ a r e {'o n~ tru necl ,1, a :.pl'etacle, ye t
im i-,ibk.
aH'

cu ltural!~

Th r bl'rluty pamdox- II'Olllt'll cmbocly ugli ue ~~ ll'hill' ,ignif,iug b('autl'.

T!w deoth prmui/Jx- 1\'0ill<:n sig uil:l' dcath as ll'd l as lil e cld( n ct' aga i..1st it.
Contemporan fcmiu in it~ is com1 rtlct<:d; i 1 is in T~ti:lo n \ 1crn 1 a k nd of ' ma~quc . in ll'h1ch II'Omcn retch a mor/u.\ 11it rndi in l't' latio n lo thcse paradoxts. Consiclc:r ju~l o ne

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T ill'St' art llll' J igwt.~ or 'l l'l'l ldHJ,t c. tg'k ('\"l'' cl:u l llt'll\'l't'll lrhil'lillg prnw l l cr.~ le) pi ~rtT lile d o ud: wlw da re the lt t ll i' h t ros,i11g thrnug h fie[d, o l 1oarint: cratn~ grippecl in th~ rhao' ol 1ank cn~im': who 'quat li r da" bl'hind bl.vin~ mat hine-:: 1111 ~: 11 ho e 1o u< ll<'d .l)!.titl\l h.111k' t~lllg-ed lugh 11 ith ror P'<'' '111 1ounded . h.lllp.lrchecl. cmh orll' 'H' J> .rhc:;1d e;f l't' llotin cleath. l'h t''l' are 1hc bnt ol 1he modtl'll hallldidcl. lllc n relen ilc~,J~ ~a lli Ltled 1-i 1h tht .~ pi d i ni b.tllle. mn1 whme urgnlt ll<t lll ing di,ch.u gts itseiJ in <1 , ing Jt COI IC <:ll lfa ll'd :tllCJ cl t' ll' l'111i lled re k:l\t' ni l'1 1t:rgT. , , , '[ Oll lll1TOII . th(' p ht tl Omtnon IHJII 111 :1 11i lc~ling ihdi i11 ha ttle will lw tht :n:is around ll'h ic h li k whill\ t'H'I' i,t,ICI'. .\ tho11<;111d >;li'('(' )>IIg cJnd, IIll.IITh .t(' IO'\ lhl'r grea1 citil'\ :h thc1 ~~~ idc drmn "'phah ' treets. 'ttpplc preda1or' 'tmining wi th tmr~ . Tht.'l 1dll bt 1he archilects building on 1he 1ui1wd founclation s olth tworlcl. Cquo ted in The11cki1. 1\1~9 : 1li0-2) Tlt i.-; ll'arrior m e ntalit~ sharp l~ polarists bodih- cltotrac teristi ts a long- ge nd e r littcs. \\'ntll t'n are rcgarckcl a' w ft. lluid . a s ubl'tr~in' !'otii'Cl' o l plea'\urc or pain who llllt ~t be co nta in cd . a nega tiiT 'ot he r to be h i~t.cl o fT rrom a uthttlli r ma~culint ex isten rc:. ~len there forc nced lO poli ce the bound;u it, of their bo dit, carefulh. nn d throug h eh ills a nd cxcrc ises de1e lop a tn:t c hine-like. organised all(l harrl bod~ that can rcsiq mcrgcr or ftl;iion \\' Ih nLh c r.s, thaJ i~ re li ab ly :H11011011l<His and ~ubsctYi ent o ni) to the rotrcct politit-al lcad c r . In thi.~ bl'liel' sys tem th t rap ture o f co mh:11 i~ ex tolkd a nd killing romc 10 be st cn a~ a mean~ o f .tfflnning aman':. 1\'holc>n t"~ a ll';t\' of as:,tn in{ thc co h er cn cc of hi-; bod) a 11CI self b~ itll'ad ing th c bodih- bo tt ndarie' of the ot h cr. \\l1 i l ~t The\\'elcit presetHS < lll extreme ca.'>c. man y lwcntiltltccnlltt: militatT culture' h:tl't in co rporat ccl c le nwnts of' this worlcl\'ic ll'. The m ovic inclusttT, no11 just a cc ltt tll'l' old . h as pro1cd w lw .t potem so nrc<' o f rcpresentations of m a~ntlin i t) .-\.rgttabh. th crc i~ a grtater rang-t of ma~cu tinitic.., o n ofTcr in po pular fi lm lhan lc mininitits - that th c modeJ, o f m asc ulin itl' rcp rc en 1cd by 1lw role~ playe d b)' J a m(s n ean, Sean C:onn e : ancl,lame' Stcwan. li1r e xampk. are mort dil'c rse t han th osc acted b~ co n1parable ci ncntat ic icons of lbn i1 1i 11 iti' ~ttr h as ~ l aril )'ll ~ I o n roe and l\Jaclonna (lnnn o lc Burchi ll 's (l!IHil) sutYt'l). lll.' I'CIY i;1 lluential role m o d e l anclm ytlt ic r c'>ou rre for dominant conceptiom of u;a,culillI\" i~ film nmr. A gc nre o l llol hwood film 1d10 e cl a ~~ics ori){inall) apxa rcd b e tll't'l'll l!HO a nd JlJ55.film noir \1'<1S p opttl a risecl b~ 1-lnmph re~ Bogan, cktt.'Ciilt' mies takcn fro m Raymo nd C llancl ler' s and Dashie ll ll amme u s 110\'C is. lls conl't'll lio lls inclucl c ; compro misccl protagonis t ancl a fr' l/11111' fa/(lft II'th 1d1Cllll he becolllt'!. in m hcd. Thc ac 1io n wke~ p lace in prcclo min antl~ u r ba n locati om ll'ith 11H11H nig ht-tilllt.' ,eu in g . Film 1/0Jroft en ustd thc tec hn iquc!' oft h e 1 oice-mcr ancl the fl a., hbark a ncl can be identified b1 it~ d istin ct l'bual style whi c h in cl ucl e~ th t 11 ~e of chiasc u ro dfects. l o11 -kt~ lig htin g. high o r low ra m era angks. ~kewcd framing and slrong ly containccl. c laustrophobi c clo~e ups. Tlw 'tottglt he ro of' film 11oir is UMialh' :1 llaw('d c har:tctcr. oftc n mumtic, alienall.'cl ancl 'h<~bb\'. hut wit lt .t lntt nher o frld ctmin g qualitit-' 11h ich bernml'l'l'idcru a:.the p lot unfo lcb. ~l am cornmtn tato t s sugge~t t h.n h e i~ an .nu .trtin. b u1 C 'l'ltainh nota ~tcrling m o d el of llla,ntlinit~. rh c St<tndard 1 'l'p1t-;entatO il o l t) H: tough h lTO 11':1~ descrilwcl b1 one COillllll'lltalor in 1!) 17 ns fo llo11 S: 1le is un anar h cd. un c: u cd -for ancl in l'l(ltl:u h shmctL [,el re~' i ~ ' lnw1t lv. JJj, honw , a hall h<clroom. and hi' place uf bu,ill(.''" i, a hok in rhr 11all in a n;nciOI\"11 oflin

hui ldill g. 1 k llt.tkc.o; a tH l':lg'tl ' Jh itl ~ d oittg' pe ; iltHh :u ttl tl lljlka~a l ll 11'<11 k ll'illch co uclenlll' lti111 u a ,u[it:ll\' lik. Tltl' ln1c ni 11ntncn :111<! tia <n nlp:ut io tt,lti p 111 llll'tl tre denied hitn. l lc- h.l, no c(i,ntnihlt- idt.tl 111 '11"1.1in lt11n - udilter ;uubition. nor ;01 aft,. nu 1 l ' ll' ll a hht for 1\l',thh . J lj, aim in lik. 1he ~n.tltn 11ltit h he 1110\l' ' atHI the h p t ,,hi ch ~~ hl.Iil'> him. i~ 1ht un t a~,ll in~ 11!. ob,_r u.l'<' u iIIH'' lhl fi n.tl .'nltt~ ic >11 ni_ hir h ;tiTnrfi, hin1 littl 111' tt o ,;~i,t'ac lro rl. , .. li t' tt ll,,l., tl ~ t:ttl ~ li tt ll tlllll ~ t lll :t ttoth ni 11 extreme dau gt r . 1 k i~ '11 l ~j n 1 to ll't t ibk ph1,it':tl u1r:1g' 11'ltitlt lw ' ll ll t r' 11i1h a clrearv fonitude . 1 k hold' lttttna n li le t hl':tp. indudiu g Jti, 01111. ... ltt :111 Jti,tc)l ~ 1 doub; then h,t, heen a he lO 1d1mC lift' ll':t' '0 untm iablc ancl who"c :bpiration ~ had ~<> 011 a ccili n~. (Jo hn l lo nseman. d 1erl in Krutn ik. 1\1!1 1: HH)
How i ~ stt ch a dilfi c uh anct discorclant con ce p 1io n of masc ulinity tu bl intcrprc tcd~

From a p s)chnanalytic point ul vi c11 thi' can be ~cc n a~ a Jonn of turning in o n o n e~cll. 1111 iniT rsion or na t ci~~ism . Tha t su ch c h a r'< tCtl.'rbtics rou ld be glam orised atiCI acl u c::H' wick po p ulatit) fi r,L in th e 1910'1 an d 11011' in the 19HO'\ a mi 1 9~l0' l\ith th e uoh rcm1issa n ce a ncl t Jw gro1,ing i ntencxtual ~ign i lica nce uf tl w gt'IIIT. could sugges t sonw ki nd of crisis o f co nfid e n cc wi th in t h e co nll'111 por: u: regi nl tll l:t 1io11 of mak-domi naled culture ( Krutnik, 199 1:9 1). l\liliwrv combat ancl t ht II'Ork of th e pri1 ~1 tl' ck'leo iw ( o1 at le:ht ib llc tionalised l'ersion) ~1a1 sccm to b e 1wo 1:1irh t.'XIlTillt' :.ites of the exerri'e ol rnale boclil\' p o1,e r. Two ca1 eat; nHI ~l be c ntt' ITCI. First , th es< ' nptT),t' ll la tion s pe rso nil\ Cl'rtai n cultura l idcal isatiom o f cxcmplary mascu lini ty thaL fc11 can hopt. tn el'e n appmximatc in evc rvd a1 lifc. :--Jt1e nhelt-ss. th l''l' iclt:alisati o ll:' l)rol'idc exc mp l:tl'\' lorm s tc )W:trds 11hich orcli;1ar~ condu ct gc'lures. St:con cl. it need~ to be cmph a ,ised th a t malc boclil \' powtT i' cvident.in m a n1 . \'l'IY much nwre mu n danc 'etlings. such a' .tngling on a r iwr or ca n a l b<l n k . .-\ngler~ an o~erwh<: lmi ng l) maJe, ,,h ich i~ testimony 10 thc uneq11al ri~ht~ 1ha 1 mc n ancl \I'Oillt' ll ha1e 10 m' cupy public ~pace: it imo h-cs l' lllhoclied skilb (l'Oillrol, p<Hicnce, stnsi 1il'i ty 10 the e lemc nts): ancl i 1 i nvo ll'cs momt' l1 1s of cxcite uwn l ~ ac ti ~n ' whi clt are 1lt e m~e h cs strong il' ~c nd c rcd ( ~l orga n . 1993). Sin ct tnal e powe r 1~ ~o htghlv pcnasile a cultu ra l featttiT it is caw 10 Ol'l'rlook more 1111111da ne feature:. o f its re prese ntalion.

7.4.4

1Effects of bodily representations and the limits of representation

Thc re p resentat ion of th c h11man hC>dv. in p ;u ti cular b) thc modcrn rqJr'l'~en l a tional tech n o logics of p h otogr-; tp h ) :t1HI film. ha~t <;tirnulated a ra nl:{c o f debate~ abo u t tlw limits of a ccc ptabli: imag-c:s of tlw human bod1. \\'hik it s pnssiblt lo tt ~e lhcst tcchn o logics to pit'tme a ll llt<tntwr of pkasttrts cxpcrie n n d a nd p :tin_s " '~ '.' dcg-radati o n s c ndure d ill' h ttman bodic:.. comcntion circum scribe.-. lht free mallabdll\' o f such images. ~lurh debate ha~ cen tred on 1ioknt ami sexual im.tgl.'t'l'. l lerl' 11'1..' fo_c us ~11 som c of th e b~u c' raised b1 sex u a l rqm,< utatio n s. and in panic11lar p1Ctorral rtprese ntation ' Of hum a n 't'XII alit~ . , . .-\t th e 0 11 t ' t' t i 1 is impon :m t t o ofrt r so nlt' dd in i1 inns :111 el draw so tnl' d lsttn.cuon s. h o\I'('I'Cr prtllisio nal thty ntm ~t't' lll . First. th c rc is tit e cfi,tinction bc l\\'l'l.'ll n nll m and jJOmngmjJh_). Ernti ca h as its rooh in the Cll't' k 1mrd for low :md gc n e ra lll' ronnotcs a

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Cultured bodies

299

cli 1fu se ... o urce: ol sexual '' i 1111 dat io n . Rodi n' ''a111e 'The ki~s 1\0tdd bt cun~ickrt d 10 be c r01i c by man ~ l><'oplc. Pornogra ph~ . IHIII'l'l'cr. p11~ht'' ~txtml expli c i111e'~ lo lhe t'X Irc m c. Ir i." a fnnn nf' rc prc~c nt;ll ion 1h :H gra p ll ica ll \' <kpi ns 'cxua l i 1 ~ for Llll' l'X prcss aim of .!'timu la tin g- it.' ron,umel'. Pornograp hic maga1illt'-" a nd l'icllo' han l o 11 ~ t'XCitcd <on 1rovcrw becall't' 1hc1 are secn. ,arinll ~~~. ,1\ offc1hiH or harm fui. Thu~ it i\ also tHn,~an tu di'Lllllo{lli'h bctl\'t'en offuur .lllcl /uum. \\'hal plr,oth allCI grouh find oiTt'll'-iH' 1 ariC\ ;tll(l i~ a lllolllt'l' of l;t\lt' .llld moral Cll\ iction: \ 'Clll tll<1\ llt'll find Of!l'thii'C IIH' C<trtoons tha l rhi ld1 l'l1 ,,atch onlY. l~u1 it i~ a dillen nl llt:ttl er cn lirl'h-to holrl lha t lht~t ctrtoon ~ are hannful. \\'hen ,,e chi IH thm somc o l~j t'C I 01 arra ngc uw nt b ha nnful 1 p co p l c' ~ <lltil ll d l'~ and liT Hl'l' ma imainin g- 1h :11 ir h<ts m cas urab ll tkkt eriou' dl'l'lls 0 1 bl' ha1iour. :'lla nife,th. 1hnc are lllall\' ~exua lised imagcs 1ha1 g iw o iTcnce to indil'iduals or g oup~. Rut LD claint lhat ponwgraph1 i' harmll i' Lo propmc that n('gatil't~. ;uni'-OCial con~cquencc' (t.g. incrcase' in \l'l.ttal o lfcnces towat el' women ;:md childrcn) can be pron:n 10 follow hum it~ txistcJKe ,\llcl con,1nnp1ion. Thrt.t ki n ds ni l'l'iclt'IH't.' h ;IIT b ccn clra11 n u pon 10 in lc,tigate the harml'nl l'llcn~ uf potnngr:tphy o n it- prtdominanth nl:l l<' ro n Mil11l'I'S. . l lll'uftdol 1'\iclc n cl' draws 0 11 l'o11 1ll'Cl ion.$ d cl'nll'd lo cx isl b e L\\'te 11 a 11 i IH1 i1 id n ;d ' ~ con .~ u 111 p1 eJII o l' pornogr;t ph)' ancl th e cornmission uf' a \L'X IIal o [Tcncc . . \n offt.rHler chargccl b1 a court ma~ ~t< l.. to mitigat(' lltt' olk nce b~ hlaming hi' prtdilt.-ction l'or pot nography. l lo\l't.nr. 1his t'l iclcnce pn>H'' nothing bt.~ond the indi1 id u al ca~t.: it c mtHll he li"Cd 10 'llflflOil genera l i.~a1inn~ ola ~tablt rda1ion bcl\\'l't'n pomograph1 and '-l':l.ual 1iolence. In ordcr w do 1his ir i~ mn~sary 111 l'lllploy much l:ll'gtr '"m pie' 1han :-\ = l . One suc h 'ourrc of lnrge-<;cale da l;t i., l'nlltHl in r ri111i11ol .l lllli .,lirs. Crirn inologis1' lta1e alle mptccl 10 rind p<tlll'l'll' in 1hc a\:tila bilil\' o f' pornograplt 1 in a sociel,. a n rl cl ~;1n gcs in lll t.' cnmmi~sion ofst.xt la l oiTencc~ b~ l'Xamin ing cro" -cnlll1ral tlidc n<.:e. Th ns lar th e el'idtnct. ha~ hccn amhiguous or con traclinotY ami no ck;u pallern<; han' cnHrgtd. \n appart'tllh more pt omising linc of re't'at eh has imoiHd ll''ting peoplc in P" <hological lahor;llnt ic:. to mca~un rhangL"' in 1hcir 1wr,onalit~ a' a ron~tqucncc oltxpo~nrc to large :nno un1~ of pnrno~raphic im a~t' t\ ('l'l' l.int and ~l:tl:lllllllh. I ~J9J. f(r a 'lll1111l <11'~ ll'l'itl,). A 1111111bcr ol't'X ]K't'illL'lllal ~1udil ~ lta\'l' l ~n n1 d il ~<H sig n ifican! ~ h i fl s in m c n 's pt rso nalilics in 1lw dirt c ti o n ol' grear l'r lo lenliHT o l' 1 iokn r l' 1mra rrb \\'eHlll' ll h:J H' be e n d t' ll'Clcd. 11 OII'CH'r. th c rc nn tai n do u b1s :1bou1 l'\ll'tHli ng 1h t ndi ng' o l 1lt is re sea re h bl'l o nd 1hc p~1Thological lahora1on lo tht nencla1 'ex11al culwn, in which pnrno~raphy figlll'l'S. .\ tangc of f'cminist positions halt' h<Tn dra\1'11 11pon all 1hrce 1-.ind~ ol t' lidence abo n1 pnrn ograph~ 's ltannf'ul cflcn.'>. ,\tlli purn {( mini~l s ltan mccl lh <' t'Xptrillll'IHal I'C~earc lt in partic u lar tu prmidc ~c i e n1ili c l c~i l ima t ioll f'm :J II cmpt.~ to c han ~l' 1h c law (t.g-. th e :'l l inmapo li' ord ina n cc p ro nw tt cl 1>1 C:a tl wri n t :'ll.td\.innon ;u1cl ,-\ll(lrca D\\'orkin ) 111 l'li 1ni natl' 'onH' of th c prtl.tl cnl lo n ns of' pw nograph~. D11o1 kin ( 1983) Ita<; takcn th e ckhalt' abnut am i-socia l dl'l'th otll' stcp furlhl't h1 propo:.ing llm1. hr its lt't~ nawre. pomograplll' i. 1 doknn m,;lld' II'OillL' ll in an in,iclioll' fonn. In conll'ilSl, ;t ll l iCl'mOr~h ip felllill \IS ((' .g. , \<;~l('t' ;tlld (:a ro l. Jn\l:~) ha\l' l'l11 pha ... iSI'd th C ;1 111 bi~Ui l)' of' 1hl rcsearc h and poi ntcd tn tlw h bwri ca l con n e rt io11 of' 1h e reprL,~io1 t ol pvrno gra ) lt1 ancl tite el iwal11i ng uf \ I'OilH' n s righ '' They S llg'~l'\ t 1ha1 .~ ocie ties 1h:tl :tilo\\'

porno~rap h\' 1t 1 lle 11 1 1'i'h '-l'l'lll l< 1 ni fcr IIH.' re 111di 1i1 ms in ,,] ich tltl' e11lkcthe in 1e e~l ~ ol wonwn are bc~ 1 prt''l'l'l'l'cl in l;l\1 :111cl n 1 SI!Jll1 . Cr11 ~<;C 1 111 il ~ ho1 h ll wst posi1io11s :1 1'1 ' 1'1 ' 111 in ist c rili q u t~ of' porn ng rap lt1 "' a repre't'll uuio n a l gt 11 n. Fl'll1i n i ~ " han propn~td 1hnt 1ht 1e11111 aiHI ceHllt'lll ni lllltt lt Clll rl'lll pornographi< i111.tgt'IY i~ fo111Hkd upCJ11 mlrllltdmi11g h ph.tll<t:trllrl pt l'lll c~.lnnutch potnogr.tplll dtt mal~ga,, ('l'\' 'cuion9.:t l l ruk': 1,onwn are pmll';t\l'd as Sl':l. ol~jecl.'> dnigtwcl onl~ 10 'a1bh tn.tle ~txual dt~in. <.Lut,ion' about gtnlier rch1 1i011' in e\ itabh ;u i'l' 'inct pllt n og1aplt\ C:ll t he rq~:trrkd :h .t mirror of lfickr pemt: r rrl:tlion~ in \ocit t~ . .1 lti' Ita ~ IL'cl L O a cle b;ll l' abo111 tite )o~~i bilil' o{ a t( m ini, l't'ol ita' (~ l y<rs. 19:-l:l) oran L' l'<~li ca l(n ,,emc ll (~l' ll 1Jllc . 198H). ~lo1~ i' i11q ln d th an ~ i111pl ~ rcpl.lcing nakccl fcma ll' nwdcb 11itll lltak' (:llll'lllpls lo do 1hi' h an nol IH't.'ll ll'tY sucre"lu l commcrcialh ancl 'ce m w aur.tt 1 a hu gt uninH' IHkcl auclience ul g.11 lltait',. Erotira lor ,,cmttt lt' tHI' 10 .tclopt a difktl'lll lonu and t tlllll'lll !han pmnogt.tpll\ ;timt:d al hetenl,t'\ll.tl llll'll .. \mung t lll' l :111didate' lor indll,ioll arl' popul;ll ro111a11 1it fi el ion ( Radll'a~. 1HH/ ) and 1he procl url io11 n i Jto,hian pe H 1 111grap lt \ b~ Je ,bi.tn' llll'lll ~clw~. Ont of lh t ll1l'llll'' 11 1011 lt.t, enHrgtd lhmt dt l'' e d eiJ.lll'' b ll ll' , ,ue or pJto :~, ll rt . ;~ ml ,,omt.n s 'l'Xll:d p k ilsll 1 T in paniudar ( Ka p la n . 1~ltt~) . l'ornogra pl11 i' a 11 :1\'0II'l' t lll' tran~grtssiH ge 11 n: ,,ltit'lt i' a potent '-Oll l'\t' 111 l;mta~l. hi~ di1lll'll, , ion of tht ckb.lll' , adl'anced b1 ~nlltt' kmi11i~1 ;111cl ga1 thtoric, ,,hich tmkaHHil 10 reclaim at ka, a p:111 o f ~exualil\ lor rlw pri1.tlt' 'Ph<'rt'. In thi' It.'\\' Jhe plea~urt'' ol tht h(l{l\ ;trt roll,ickrl'd 10 rc,ick in a non-puhlil nalm. F11nhl' l. i1 i' '"ggt'stecl titar lhl' t'll linlllt'lll~ ol 1he furb idcll'n. L lw dan~ N :n rd l'XC 1t'n tt' lll :J~~o< i:llt'd ll'ith nrt;~ in l..i 11ds ni St'XIl:1 1 pr:tt 1ir e. are cili l l ibt t' ti e~ 1101 10 lw g iH' n up lig l11 h . Fro111 1l lis p oi 111 n i 1i111'. ll-g al ;ltl t> ll 11ll ' 111 citTIIIllSCt ilw tra n sgrl'S,il'e ~ex11a l pt an in' ' "~' " a' thl Sp:uliH' I' 11 i< ll uf \9~Hl - l ll'h l' l't gm 111CI1 1\'l' re pro'-l't' tlll'd uncler th l' 1.111 ol ""tu l1 f'or engaging in IIHHu.tlh coll\l'tlling saclo-ma~ochi,tic .tllil iil'' , t.md a' .m illlpott.tlll inrur,inn i111o ptt 'on.tl frttclon1 a nd

tht ri~lll' of the C I/l'll. '1 his laq po,ition i~ ofan linkcd Lo argunH' Ill' abou1 tlll' l.tg.tril'' of intcrp1t ring sc:xwdh- tx plicit 111;ll t.' t i:ll. 1 Itere 111 ; 11 ht a pt-r.,on;~ l aspcct 10 llt t''-l' intcrpretiH ntallt r~ (wltall'l'l' l' 11m1' \ '1111 llll ). H11 1 i11crt , al..;o a pt' tY;l\\'t' ~u ci al din1 L'I 1sion: Clark <:a hk '.; cine 111a lic kists a rl' 'l't'll "' () 11 1 ~ 'slag-cd ' k i s~es. 1dttTt':t' i1 is d illic u l1 1e1 t'Xlt'llcl tite licliun al l'ranw [111h lo hat dn 11e pu111< lgt apl11 - 1hl 'l' X i 1sd 1 'l'l'll l\ a lll'a\, lo be ' Jlal' sex. not an imagin.u 1. llwau iral wr,ion. 11 appl'ars 1ha1 h.u el-u m 1rade, on n11ain cloCIIIlH' nlan coll\t'll lioth ,,hich toulclllL'\l'l enrer lhl' mincl' ni lhl' .ntdience lot (;11111' 1\'i flt {, ll 'in~l. \\'hal thi' unclcrlilll'\ i... lh.ll llll' cli,lingubhing ll'.Jilii'L'' I>OI IlOgr;q>lll do 1101 tnerl'l~ cunnr11 gTaph i cnt~s ol' ckpic1io11 e1! sexual orgam and ac til'iti t'' (il' llta l '''l' l't 1n1c. g;nnecelog\' aJH i urinarv- gl'ni la l medic ine lt':'\ lbuok' cnuld he ra legori,ld as po rn ogra plt ic). Rat h t.r. pornograph1 h a!> 1o 1w un ckrs1ood :JS a ,tgi 11 H' o l' repre;,en la tio11'. a goc tH'l' a"l'lllhkd e1111 of Ct'rtaill t'O ll11Jill;uion~ ol (';IJIH't .t ang le-; ancl ligltting. boclih p ll\lliH'~. app;ud. ftHII\H'ar anc l thtlikt ('t'l' !Zaite. 1\l!l."l. lora 'cmiotic anal\,iq. ~lain~ucam pmnograph1 i' a gen1t' that lllllh 'ex inw .t 'IWt 1atll' in 1d1ith tlw mak gat.t' prcclominate~. 11 i' a di,uHII'Se \dtl' l l' 111.tle dL,irt l1<t' 11 iumphcd onr repn~cnla 1ion a 1 l'nrm (\ \ 'i11 ia111s. 1\1!)()). l'ornograpl1ic imagl'' in lhtn1't' l\'ts do 11 o l C:III W 'l'X u al vio lt' IH't' b 11 t thcl' do poll'l' ri'tdh sh ;qK lh t 'l'Xll:ll ba'b n i gt.lldl' t rl'l atlHI\.

or

300

lnlroducing Cultural Studies tnto ti<lll' in 1his lllilllllt'l' of'te n pal't'' tite 11a1 10 the fed ingl' of uthe rs.
"u n,~lnl

Cullured bodi~s

301

7.5

The body as a medium of expression and transgression: 1 culture's idioms

m;lllag-enlt'nl ni thc

Jn 1he lngoccmric 1\'0ilcl. Jangua~< on u pi<' a p1 id l q,~~d plan ,1, 0 111 moq di,ti IH 1i1 th human capacitl. TlH' 1tmaining expn"iH .m el Ulllllllllllicali\l' ra paci1ils ol 1lw bo<h ofttn a,sume ~econcl.u, '1a111~. Thi~ ~tTtion picJ.., up ,omt ol 1ltt' 1lwmes ol 1he earlicr clisn 1"ion in ~ect i on 7.2 10 COihidtr 'niiH' n i 1lw ke1 l'l' 'Pt'CI' in 1,h ich 1he bucll' i~ a mtcli lllll ol cx pressiun . its l('ChnicJIU>,, M'IYing ;1, < 1 1eh icl(' lor o nr being-in-th c-world . J\ clo~t' h' rel;l[_d Lhelllt' i' how L he bncll' t an al-;o 'l' IYl' as ;r rn!'dium n( !ransgrcssio n (p. 2M~). T h i' sen ion t:-.pln rt.' the tht rHt'' of hodih ~'xpn~-i nn a ncl tra n "gn~'io n und C'r lill' htadin~~: 1hc t'llllll ional bn<h. tiH' 'f>OIIin~ bndl'. bnch ,11 h. lhl' fil bll(h ;u1d 1he '' mholi-m of h()(h building.

7.5.2

The sporting body

7.5.1

The emoliona l body

l'ht tid ltll al ~ l r;r pi n ~ ni t ht locll , t'lliCIIitl ll ' '' bn il1 i11 1n tlwir t'X]ll't'''inn .. \tlie ll o<h,ch ild ( 1 ~1~:11 'jll'aJ.., 111 lht ' ln ling lllk, 'fH'<Il lo tt dttlll'' .md 'llhtulttue, 11hidl 'Pl'dh lht l..incl.uHIIt\tl of t'lltnlion,tl t''P~'~'"ioll .tpptopri.tlt: lo .ull ,lllalion. \\t kd happ' .11 JMIIlt'' .md -.td .11 luntl.tl' in p.ul hn.111't IH' .tn nw.tnt 111 - 1\i.' .1re tonfo1min~ to lhl' lm.1lh 1dl1,1111 kding llllt. F1om thi-., it lollo\'' lh;u ptJ,oll' are C.1 p.dlic of ' lllilll<lJ.ii llg ' illt'I l'I1HIIOI". illld tit' t'lllOIU11 ll l<LII.tgt' lll l'lll, 11Ji~ CI H\II'nllll t'l' tht t 'X JWt,~i nn o l l'lllho<iil'cl fcel illL!'- i' .1 l..t'\ p: rn uJ l,fl ll it i ~ li t lw rl'gard('d :1' a tOIIlJ>t' ll'll l aclult. .\ill!lllg tlll' ln u it o i II 011 illlrl <.111ad.1. for t'" l11lJiil'. ; 1111' ~ho11 o l , llongtll1oticH1 b1 aduh' , lloii'IH'd upon: o11h ll'll 'nl.lllthi ld ~tll .lit' .liltiiH'd to i>l'll.ll't in 111.11 '''". So 1d11'n a11 :1111 lu opolut:i< .11 llt'ld11o1 l..e1 'i!.!;OIII11'h l<'lliOit-lr;Ht'd \i,iting \\'t''lt'lll fi,fll'lllll'l1 1d111 lll'lt' 1.1J..ing .uh.mt.tgl' ol tlll' I1111I , ge1H'10,II. \flC.' fOIIIH f ht'l -elf ,lllll11t'd h1 tlll' 'tn ptopll' 'hl' 11 "' .tlttmpting to dl'fl'ncl ( B1 il!g,, 1!l/0). ll a lr111i1 run ld 1a-illwt t'tH11 Jl1l'htIHl IItH ;IIH'Jll 1,11:11 thn ,,t,, ;1' hcr 'th ild ish' on th1 1 1,~, 1-:iwJLioll lllilll<lg'i.'lll l'll l , p.11'l oi' <111 1 ' d<~ih II'l'' SonlL' t' lllo li ons 'uch "' ' h;1r m nr <nli>;~rra,-.,ml'IIL are t mimrllh ~oria l in th;u.H ic r: rh c1 .trt tlicitcd lll tlw rtal nr ima~imd rc~p011\t'' ol olht1s. Emharr.1"nlt'lll minimalh 'l'\'111' to imnhe lht pr<!jertion ol one's self' "' :1 gil'ln kincl ol fJl'l',on (a comwlt'lll <h H'1 . .1 rl'liahlc collt.tgttt', a 1111,111onh1 lricnd ) 11hic h thc l.tch o f a ~l tl :ltion thtn romt lo contrarlict (11'1' dt'lll the rar's b11mper whi le parl..i11g. ll't' make ; t'oo Ji,h mi" ;tl..t> in cHrr 1101k, wt disdow pe r,nnal i111( ,rntation lo Lllt' ' 111'011 ~( persutl ). So lll L' C ll tgo rit ~ ol Jl'I'So11 a re rcquircd 10 be pa1tic ularh -,kilf'lll i11 1ht 111anage mc nt o ( t'IIHHin n,. Hodht' ilil d ( 19H:1) txami nes Lhc t1'.1ining anc\ 1\'lll king t~dtniqut'' of lli;ht atte nd anL~ lor .1 hig L'S ai l'l in<'. l'an of lh<'ir 11orl..ing ptr,llnalitl lllniH, hcing rolllilltlalh-u>urtcou' a11d ,miling in lh tir clt-.dings 1dth pa"tn~t' '' 110 ntattt'l htm 1hc1 .u< :u tu:dh- lnling. lli~ ht attend;u1h nrdw 'rhooling in lhl''l' In hniq llt'' ln IIH' comp.1111. t<'dmiq tl t'' 1h;11 :lit' thl'n rl'linnl 011 thc joh. l'.g. in co pin~ 11i1h cl illl etill 0 1 dtJil.l lld ii Jg J l.l"l' ll g'<'l~- ;1l lt' 1l< L t11 1 ~ callthtnt 'ir.111' ~ (';1 lllll lll horn oJ' t'XJ>l' I't'I1Cl' . :1.< Jl ()t il 'l hild llbSt'l'l't'') . 'J lit' ('tH11 l'OI 0 1' Olll', tl\\'11

In incna~ingl~ \edtnl.ll'\ conlemp<H .u' 'o< itlic,. '-POlling .tt llllllt'' 11 htilwl lllldtTtal..en prolt~,ion.tlll' or recre:uionall~- .u 1' a major fonn oJ ph"it.tl engagemt'lll in 1hc 1,od cl , t',Jecialh- l'nr 111l'11. The di~ci p ii 11 i11g' 1hal prallilt an d 1mini ng in :1 'JlOI'I in,oln' can be rcgard t d in Fottc ulldi.tl1 ltTillS as prndu c in~ 'ducilt hoclics ( J largrl' :ll't'~ . 1 9Hli) bul Lh t clt-mc nL uf r hoict t'lt11 in pmk"ion:tl ~porh lllak t~ tl11 comp;ui'o" less tlwn ptri{:CL a ncl 'll).(gt''l' 1hato1her ,lnahLit fl.ultt'l\'t)t'J.., 111;11 ,J,ecl ~<>IIH' ll'lful 1ight. 111 1h i' 'L'CI ion 11t: ron-.ickr .1 \lUcl~ o( 1ht <.: ult111c ol pt <tk"ion.tl bo,illg ba'\ed 011 ih .1111h01 '' lur ~ear' ol pa11iripam oiN.' l\.llion in .1 g~lll in Chicago (\\'arqu.tnt. 199;}). hi' 'tttcll' 1a l.. e~ up a l..t~ Bo urdie u conrtpt. cultural capital (p.:\.},;:,} (Sl'l' (:h ap te r.' 1 and :~) bu 1 din~t- il of" it' l<llit lll;tli-,tic. logntt' llll'iC C011 1lnt.t1<llh ll dl:'l'i,ing th t noLillll n i 'hndily capital '. Bo:-.<.'IS. likt> d:ul t'i.'J'.'. ~ lron g-h idt'lltil\ 11ith th t'i r hodil'': t htl 11/1' l hci t hocli l'~. :11 1<l illt'l d t.u h ~tt 1h~ir ,J..i ll at ,.,ing- Lhtir hudit, l'or Jlllgili' ' ic purpmt'' .1, an ;.;,l'l 1ha1 c:ut bt ti.Hhlated into \\OIIdh \ttc ces'. Boxt' 1hu' o11n .1 rt'1t.tin 'horlih c1pital' tll.u thl'~ 'tTk through 1raining- pt.lltiCL':. to t 011\l'IL into pugili-ti< t.lpit.tl. 1h.tt i' ...1 ,,., ol ahilitie' ami l en d tm it~ liahle to prodttn li1l11e 1i.t. lt'rognilion. lillt-,. linant ial rt'\\.ll'ds] in th <' fie lcl 11f prof't~~iun ;1 1 hoxing' (\\'acquant. l !Hii', : !ili-7). Rod ih r.tpital , thtl' r lnsc l ~ inlcrrelatl'd 1\'tlr tlll' hodil ~ l :thour~ L11Hltl t.ll..t11 i11 IIH ~1111 and th l' rq,:illl l'll' t lt a l l':-. lt'IHIIJt'I'OIHl t hl' g~ 111 ltlt il l' [)o'\tT.'- l' I11 it' 11:11 o f iifto. Bocl ih lahour i-., unrltllakcll 1 )1' a lig-lltt 1 11 ho. a' a11 111111 ,litwcl 1 101 in. ha' ;1 u1tai 11 htight ;111d 1\t'il-{ht. <kpo1111H'IIl amlmo1ilit'. I.Ki.tl 'hape .111<1 ,J..in IOIIt'. all ol wl11< h .trt' 1101 ind l>1 lht 1rai llt'l in a"l'''i n~ 1lw 1101 i< t' ' po~tnt i,tl " .t ho,t'r. Tht''l' 1 11.11.1< lt'l'i ,t ir~ cll'fillt' hu t do IItH dt'll't'1111H' lht lil..th lttllllt' of th t nmi<t'. 1 he ).."lll '' .1 k111d of factor\' t'nr rl'toolillg. rvl'u1hishi ng ancl ll',ll<tt ll lling IIH ll<llit't, horh i111o .1 lrg hti 11g lll;tLhin t . . \ tr;I III'I i ~ cllll ltd ;1 s ~a~ in g ' 1 lil..t l'l't'<Hill ' a llHH ISlt'l, ju-. to .' t'l' 11ha1 I'OIIr;111 Cl't'a iL' . .. lil..e lllt' '" "'"'~' Fra nktn:<lt' II : 1 rrt;ll t'cl ,1 lllll1hll'l , 1 go l; ligh ter. l tl't'ollt'd :1 goocl right<'r. ~a111e clif lt rt'llt'L'. (qtttJitd in \\'atquant. 19\J:-,: 70). Tht 'IXTifh l\1111.. ol hodih- labour i' mtll'h tht 'ame 1he 11orld ,,,n: running. ,J..ipping. punrh-b.1g 1,nrl... ralli,lhenics. ~p.ming and 'hado1,. bo:-.ing. Thl' re,ult ol -.,uth tt'pl'atecl :uHI intCihL' 1raining i' w changt the bo:>;tT~ plli'CJIIt' hu1 aJ,o lo change hio., ' bod~ ~tnst. Id ~ all'art'llt'-'' of hi' "" n bo<h aiHI hu\\ i1 st;1 1 H!s lo 1he worlcl. 1he de,elnpmc nl o l t his ph ~ siq 1 lt' a 11d ht 1ch- scnst ro ntcs a bout al ~c 1 h~ " llaLIIH ho xer drI L'~ II!J f do. 1he pkasll re~ dl'iibc rat<'ly forgnnv . \\'arq ttant ~peak' u l' lilt ' trinit~ o l png ilio; tir 'acrif irc': l'ood, sociabili1y and '''" (in that orckr). Bnxt r' mecl 10 par< los< allt' tllion to 1heir dil-t in ordcr 1hat lht~ can mal..<' 1ht "eigh 1 of 1ht cl.t" in "hich 1ht'l plan to comwtt. The 1raining i-, ph,,icall~ ckmand ing. o fttn nqniring an e:-..tlting 1outine olt;u l~ 11101n ing runs ami 'lre mtoW workollt\ 11l1ich tnakt .1 " l l i.tl lifc dillirult. i'\l'.ll' a f1ght. tn1i tll'l'' will in,ist tllalthe ir c h ar~~~ ab, tain f'rom 'l' X l~<1l.u 1ilit1' in lht h,lid thal irrhc~ do 1101 , thl')' will lose their eclg-<.. 11l eir sharpnts-.. Out fi ghtn sm, of il ll'St' ,;IC'rifices: ' \'ou ' re i11 j;~il

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1dll'll ,ott ' re trainin . it, likl doin' time. 1ou kno11' (quotcd in \\'ncq u a nt. 199~: H2).

1\o<h' .llld ~d i herome so llllllcrsecl in the ~pon of hoxing th.u thc ri'k~- td1ich most ro111111onh im oln not hrai n damagt' or brokcn no'l''i b 111 r h ron ic- pni n ftol11 deforma. tioll' or th e lt ;1 ncJs- <11't' lllii1111 sc<l h~ lh l' boxcr , the d t'SI\' lO flg h t g'I'0\1''

7.5.3

ody arls B

11 , 110 1 (C) 1ht' plt~sical nl~j l'Cl th<tl II H lmdl' 111;1\' he C0 11 1p:tr\.d . htll rati H' I th t \\'l> rk al'l. (.\ lauri tT .\lelleau-l'on tt. CJIIOll'd in Be11thall. 1 ~175: 5)

or

Emboclitcl cap.IC itie,. panicularh tho,t locncd int h e hand,nnclcle~. a iT r<.'lltralto th e proclt 1 rtion ol' aniqic ol~tc t s 'u eh :l'i paint inj' allfl lllllsi r. Tlwse ~kj1J , ar1 often the produc t of lollg p l'riods n i pa ti c n t nd l l':lliOil. In lhis scc tion 1\'l' 1Jriefh l't'l'it'll' S lll(' tht' r uiLUr;ll .-;ig nilicnnr('s ol dance. an :tttii'II 11 h t'l'l' tit e artbtit pmduct ,quite litcrall l' in,t-ribecl on tlu bod~. 1dlt'll' tht 111oHment' uf the hoch '''IYC a-. < : xpre'isI't anl ac~t heti c ,.l, hicl t''.

enti tk'llll'lll. :\o,, in t'all' it be(o tm <> thc III<IL\'ating !un t' lor tlt ( tntirt 'ubcuhurt. Thi' gin- girls a lit'\\' round conlidtnc{' :111(1 .l ptOIIlilll'lltl', Bra IOJ>' lt-gging-; .lncl trai 1wr' prmick a b:1'ir (alrnhit l 11arcltobl. In 1.11e (;uld in the club culture 1\th ' ) girl ~ :m hi~ hl~ 'l',tl<l l in th dr cll t~~ a mi ap lw;tra ncl'. 11i1h 11-hi clt it n licn onrl:l J> ~i x ti t'' T\' , lar, likt 1-:nnna l'cd ;b tlw ir ~ 1 1k nwdd,, T l11 tl'll<it>ll i11 1all' l'or gi l, come'. it wt'lll'. lron1 rcn1aining in umtrol. ancl .u tlw ,,lllll' tim e lo,ing tlttnheht' ' in ctann ' ancllllll'ic.. \h.nHion in d.llllt'nlll'l nm,. po,l-.-\ll)'i. he ha\anucl b1 raution .111cl th t exctTi'e <f cnnttnl in sex. lll' ~o luti<>ll 111ig h1 le in etl h hating a l11 JlC'I''-l''>tiill : 1ppcar: 1nrl \\hi ch i~. hn\\'C'I'C' I'. ' ' 'lllhnlicalh -~ ,t kd or cJ l~'t'd. nW thrtH ig h t ~l l' dnm1111 . ll'l' nowd '' balanr<cl 1h c " Jj, lfl- . nr tiH C"t' lo JI, .... "l lll' cnlllntun:di tl ol tht nl:t"ll't' r< b1 the ,in~ularit1 ol thc wr"Hl. ~uhcultlll.ll ,tde i' in thi' in,t.lltct' a IIH'taphor IOl ;ex u al prolt'ction. ( .\ lrRohhic. 1~~~l:\: 11 ~l-20) But d:t ll tT ,tdc.~ th t lm c ll'csart 11nt irrt,ora hh lil'cl togil\:n );ubc ultt i i'L'~. Frith ( 1\IK:'\)

or

sh ow~ IHll\ di'r;> l' tantd in blacl.. dub~ in De rro it ancl :\e,, \'ork. and 11a, thtn tal..l'll up
b1 Hlll ll~ plople mon wickh in Furo pe ,me\ :\onh . \nwri ca bel'ore finallt bl'in~ a j)propriat td h~ u rha tl g:tl' pnpul:n ions. l),liH'~. t h e n. , a hybrid _<p. 1i'19) .tr i il'it ~

T lt crc i ~ an in itial rfi, lin rtion lo be dr;llnl bt' l\\Tc n jll'l jfJI'IIIf/1/0' d rll /11' (a balle t pl'rlorm:IIH't'. C inger Rogtr, and F~td . \~w irl mu,ic: tls. tllt' 'Conlt' Oa 1H'i11.( tl'l el'i,ion pmgramnw) and .1orial da un ( in clulh. cbnet-haiJ, :tll(l. ~intt' 1an. t'H' II o pen flel<b). I'IH' di,til1rtion tchoe:. htll do1:s nu t txactl~ nlltct tht l'<III l' t di sn1~'ion of Lulturt in lh t 'tnse of l' ltl. ll cd <tl'li~ 1 i c sra n dar< J, and r ultlll't' a~ a '''lt ok- ll'a~ oJ lil'c. tlt t m eans thro11g h ,,Jidl .1 scnse ol' IIT Il t'-"'. , a~stmblt:d . l'erf( rntance clann b usuallr approarhcd a' a ~0\IITl' of arti,ti< conHmplation ancl cnjollll<.'lll 11hik ~ori:d dance '~ rq.(arckd a~ part uf th c li1ccl ex p tTl'tH' e of nHmbtr' of a gru u p. P1 rl'ormance dance i t.-.d r has . hig lt . a nd . poplll:lr' ron 11 ~ ( co nsidl'r (he l't'l')' di r (( re n l a Jpca 1 ~ or Balkt Ra111 hen nnd Ril'crdnll ct). Ballet. l'or txam p k-. attrans a precio mi 11a111 lt femall' audienre from profl'~"ollal ami ~emi-profcssio11.1l hackgrotHHf, ( :\m arl... 199:l: Shcrlml... tm>:~ ) . Ft minist~ lt :t\ t' arguccl tha t rb~,jcal lonn' o( ballet e mplm cmtlllll l'. 1110\'l' llll'llts a11d narratin -.t l u c turt~ th a t n prodt l< 'l' l lil t' l l'L' 11t h -ce n l t l r~ dimorphi c glndl'r sttnoti'IH' ' of li:malc passi1it1' a nd mak dolllill:tllCl'. C:11ltural ,uclit:. has ltndcd tu focu' tlll <.ocial d.IIHT ancl to (O il~ider it' ,ubrultur.tl ftll :ttion :tll(\ lt11H tiOIIS. rJtn. cJann in bfacl.. J>OJ>III,II' Cllltllrt' i-. St'l'n l' a Jorm of rt., ist.llKC lo n d 111ra l hcge111o n~; for man~ non-ll'h i lt' a nd 11h i lt' ~011 ng p cupk . dann i~ a fonn o l escapis111. in ~ trtllllt' lll :t l i11 tlll' ro n strw 1ion ol' bntl.w (\\'arel. l 9D:~}. \\'i ll b ( 1!!71-{) .trgul'' 1h.tl bikt1< dann i~ ltonwlogical'. cli rect h cxttncli ng othtr t hem e:. ancl attitucfe, in tht 'nhcuhlll'l'. \1 hik Hl'bdige ( 1~)7\ll 'l'l'~ pogoing as anothl'r dement of pu nk 'hricol:tgt. lhnct i ~ nr l<tinl ~ linkcd to sex t1al pu r~uit in lll:ttll ~ot 1 th ~ u bntlll l l'l'S btll t haL is onl1 part n f ih sig n ifi ca n n l'or m~ mb l'l~. m a t e~ 11 0 lt" th a n l(.'lllilc'. td1 o ol'ttn ron ,icll-r cnmpt'lt'tH't in a particular clanct' ,11 lt- :t' .t kn 'uhculwrallmhlt'm (t.g. Tl<l, .md ji1ingl .. \ccordi11g to An gcla ~ l cRobb i e (p. :~ 1:~. dallce, 1-llhru lttllal sig llilicanre ha' lo hl' -.ce tt in rd:nion to nllltT 'illbrultur:tl l'kllWill s 'liCh a~ lllll,ic. Jashion , gn1p h ic 1ksign 01 11 d drug~. \\'1iting o l ral'l', sh c ohst'l l'e ' : \\ h.ll im.tgt ol leminini11 . fot exampll. i~ being ptll,netl a' km.tlt l'alt'r' 'ttip dnwn .1nd '"Tal out: Dancl' h 1\'IH're g:i1h lll'l'l' :th,al, lntt tHI in subt llhltl'l'' 1t "'"' 1l1eir onh

rnrrying a \'ill' ict\' ol

~t t hru lt ur:ll

signiliranns '''h ll'll

m ;y c h a l l ,~t OH'I' llllll'.

7.5.4 1 Discoursing the fit body

\\'hi le lh t h och- lt:l' prob;1bJI' :ti\1',1\S hl'l'll ; p; a lll:ljor focu~ of C ll'l' :llld CllllCt'l'll . that attcn ti on ha' inten:.ililcl :.incl' th t 19/0s in 1 u ropt and :'\onh .\ mcri ca mainh due w the hig 11 p~11PTI' of inttnst in pl11~ical lillll'~' 1 he marathon boom ha~ pc:tkecl ancl dcclinccl but r7mnt rs :trt no11 an l''w hl ish('c\ l't:Hurc ol' tlw 11rban land,cape. Tlwrt h a~ bte n a rap id l'xpan,ioll in th <: ttu lnht'l's o f g'l' lll,, ol'tl'll l a1 i ~ ltl~ n:cottfigurtcl :.- hl'<~lth clubs 1d1ich tpitolli'l' no t ~o nHtcll a h ohh~ or pa~titlll' a' :t lil(:stl'll' dtoin. '\\'otl..t ng ntlHI,ia,h hnt t'lllhratT'- <1 01 n i~ no longer tht p1minn of a mino1 i11 ol sporh <
si~n i lkanl propon in11 ol' t he pupnl:ni on . ;\lm it ~ tar~ marl..l't t llt'i r. 011 1 .1 fi t n_t:'~ l'id~os ami (')((T(' iSt' progranlll\C'>. Tht 1\'t': tlt hl' hire pcr,o nal traIIl'l'~ \\' h u 1\'111 : r_ o l' a [ce . d t'.l).\'11 a custombcd cxcrci~l' .tnd dil'l programml' and ..,upen i~e th e anunpatl'd ph"1c:tl m<.tamorpho,is of thtir c hargel>. \t th c bac l.. ol this i' n 'cientific rlwtoric ba,ecl o11 resl'a rch ~ludies th a t munpct lltt nwrits of 1 Tg11lar cxercis< in rcd u ci ng c;1 rclimascul:lr elseas<". r:llll'LT anda ho~l of ol h t' l :1 il nwnt.~ 1n 11 h ic h l k~ ll is ht ir. Onh' exercist. gocs lh <' con'-la n t rl'frain . :111d \llll 1,ill lin lo lll{l'l and liiT IH tll'l . l t i~ :t' if th l' hod1 h as

beCOIHt' .1 1\'l)I'J... or ,111. :111 of~jt'Cl of 'fWC<lf CIIJtil.ll Oll .1 J)I'(<'(l ill it' \l\1'11 ri~Jll.' Qf' cou rse it is on h in ;tfllutnt \\.eSlt'l 11 ~ocie t it~. 11hich h ;l\'t 'iignifira111 ~ec ti ons n i tlw populatio n wiH; enjo1 hi g h l e1d ~ nJ' hca lth anclln ngel'itl' and antplc di,t'l'e tio nary 1i nw. th a t su c h boch prujtcts ca n fl omish . f'iliH'" connrn' rhime in 11'ith \.;bch\ ( 19:--\0) tlw~i' abottl tht tm tr~enn ol th e narrissi~t ptrsunality 11 pe which , highl~- 't lf -comcio u ~. const:mtly tnonitl~ring tlw body f'o r sig 11 s 0 (' deca 1. IJI' I'JWI II <t ll y afr:1id of lhl' :Hh:u te in g nrs :nu l rlll' Cl'l l<H ll prmptct of c\cath. 1\'IW 1,a nt.s to he lil..cd btll "ho i' 1111ab lt 10 ~~~~ tai n fritndship' ~lllclll'ho lrt':lls thc sdf as ,1 m.ul..etable comnwclitl. Thb h1oad fine uf theori.;ing i~ tal..en lunher 1 )1' f'tathel swn 1 ( 1\191 J in his IITi ting o n con,nnwr cultun. Con,unwl cu hun f 111ly

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Cullured bodies

305

cnwrgt'' in liw t.tr h l\\l' ltt itlh Cl'llllll'~ ;, prod uuio11 i' dr;un.tti<.tlh i i Htl'a~ed in \ \'t'tl'ltlt'ConomiL, anda' .ukctti~i tl~ romt', to ,t"nnw .1 promi n tnt place in ~ccuring ~ Jll a rkt l [pr tht j)l'<l lif(:ralioll or ('\lll ~ l l llle l g oocls. Tr.tclitio n :d \':t hH'S a rt' I' I'Od<:d as adn: t t i ~i tt g in p .ltt icu l;u a<h a n ce' 'w h u tn tr t ultml' 1;d ucs: Ctll.tintht'lllt'' infiniteh ll'I,abh-.utlinitt'll tomhinabh-, ttnt t 1\ithin adH'n i,ing and l'Oihll lllt' r t'lil ll ll't' in a .tgt'l'\': n m th . bc:tllll , l' ll t' l g-~. lill l t' ~' 111() \'l'llll' lll. l'tt'l'd um , I'O ill:ll ltT. l' XO tir. t. lux1111 . tn jol'lt lt' lll. lu n . Yl' t ll'h::Jll' H' l 1he prw n iw in llll i111.1 gen. Ctllhllllll'l Udtlllt' clt'lll,llld\ f10111 j, ll'l)ll' llh a \\iCk:t\\olkl'. t'IH'I~t'IC. t.lltlll.llillg-, th 111 li k - il h,h no pl.ll't' lot tlll' '"'lllnl. tl lt' li:tbitual or th e Hl.t'\illli,i n g app1o,1 Hin 1m . ( Fealill' l', lUIH', 1UU1: 17-1) 11111 1 Tht p t q)Oncltr;lnn olli,nal illl:tl{t'' in ton'llllll't tullutt lwi~hlt' lh the 'il{nilicaHcc of tlll' boch , :tppea r:II ICt'. The ' look' uf lh t boch. ih cle nll'a n t Hir. cl o 1 hin ~ ancl adul'l ll lll'll( l <II IH' lO <lS~tl ll l l' :111 lll j)OI'I<t ll('t' l h a l l cl id ll OL h a l'l' in lh l' ll ill L' I<'C illh ct' tll lll 1 w h c n ti H iclol<. o( p 1oclurt ion ( Lo\\'t'll l ha l. HHi 1) h cld ,\1',\1. nr in earlil'l time~ tl'lll' n ( h 1i'ti;lllill lili liecltht lnnn.111 hcd1 h1 ''1hjcrti ng it tn a' crtit t q~ime' in orc k r lo CL tlti l: ll l' il lt' ~tl ll l. I'IH' l l l ;l,~ i l't' imp; 1 \' l o f l ln lh ll'oOcJ C ill'll l:t t ll i'CIIIg' ll<l ll l III OSI 11f thC l\,e n til't h n n tlll\ n inl r nd tll e im po rtan n n J ' looki tlg good' . Filll t'" an cl , ( im nes~ bnantt' linktd to .ttll~ltti~t ne,, and 1\orthitw" ;h '' pl'l '011. '\ \ la lliSL'ci h~ h;t lh t'I'\ IOil t' ( I!IHI ) ill lile no lio n or ' thc T lll"l' ch .111gt' olll' ( 1 pe 1fcnm ing .~ d J' 11 h ic lt <' 1 1 1 p lt as i ~t ' tll l' u unnt in 1port.u1 rt o f' di,p la~ ami i ltt pres~i ou lll.ltt.tgt'llll'lll. '\iiH'lt'<' t llh-n ntur~ ontl'ption' of' 'th:u.u ter imohed idc.1' of dut~. 1mrk. honunr, t cptltatio ll .111<1 inttgti tl. 10 ht ac hit'l'l'd thru u g h i n dttS i r~ . tltrilt a nd , ubric ll'. f h esl' lw lids l'OII ll' 10 loo k < HII III Od l'd b1 lh t micld le nl' th t tii'<' IH itth cc mury will 1 tlt t a' ce nd a n cc o ( th l' n o li o n o f ll11.: ' P<'I''o n a litl t ha t i~ ju clgL'd b1 i1' dta nn, Ja'\cin.lti<Hl and ih .thilitl' to he fouud .utrartiH and like.1bk h~ otht.'l''-. T h i, in turn ru ttlcl he ;lc h iL'It'cl b~ a p ro pt'l' bal:tn n ol guod com'l rsat ion ;uHI f la11 k ~~ man ne rs. :lp pro p ri a tt clt~ t lt i n g. L' ll t' l ',l-\~ a m i poise. Tlw tH'l'c l to p rocl uct' a n n'i' L l' lll p l' rf 'onn a nc:c t'll'l 1 time call' lot a di,t iplini n g allCI r.uionali,ing of' tht 'piri t of th t kind tpitom ised b~ th t ll ig h t amncl.lll t:> ~t n dil'cl b 1 llor h,r h ild ( 1!l~:1) (set , tct io n / ..i. l a bm t). C.:one is th t o ld l' r l't'Ct~gl ti t i o ll o l'tlw po"ib ili1 1 111' .1 d i ,r re p:u t c~ l >t' 1 11't t n innc 1 ' sc iCa ncl o u lll';lld < IJ1pl'<ll anrt all(l co nd ur t. a nd bl'tlll'\'11 ~e H .m el boch . Fo1 tl ll' pni0111111g 'rlf, i1npre,.,ion man agem tnt i' .di a n d the hoch t CllliL'~ lo bt' t:t kc n ;h tmbltma til 1Jf' 1he

c;>;t'lll'l' ' ll'\{111.11 h .utd 11111'11" '". l1 ,ju\\ t'l \ <IIOl h.ll hl'' 1 lt t'ljlll'l1l h . l t l 11g.tgt'' unh i 11 s<tlt ,l:-.. 11 -kt'j>' t n~ul.u hu11r~. 11 h." tlll' tOtlt'll :tltllltllll. ni hu<h .l.at. ....11 ha' fi<'~i hi l i t l .,,, 11 lt. t' IJI'<Ijll' l' 11lll,lit ' ll'l' ll).; lh .... 11 h :t' " l' l'" 'lll'l:i l\' oll'IO im C:lj):tt'lll , 1Il ,l lill l lh t lll'l f'I'Cl IJti(l\ i' tiiiL' lh,ll j, h indll' llll< .dh. plll,ioln)! I :tJII :tl1d .tllltl11UII1.. , it,llh l,tl,lllt l'd. \ lotl' ll\t 1, it 1' OIH' th,tt dclt'' 1111( ,lllll\\ IO'\I ,lllht,tllll'' ,111<1 .tlll\ llll'' 10 t\ i-ttt l h il' llll l' l h ,ll l11i ll l\ , 11 j,\\I<IJ IJll'ti ll :t Jll ll lt'I I\t'l ll l' lll h l<lllt' .11'111111< 1 j,tlf . lt j , , 11 a 1\'0I'd . ' lte:rltlll . ( Edg ll'l ;IIHilki"t' ll. 1 ~1\J( ) : ~~~~ -~) Ofttn. hm,tltr. the qut.''' for tht' pt.l k< 1 boch i;; a<companit-cl ll\' an intolera n te nwa rd s 1hn' l' wl111 :11t. .' t'cl t nt :11 ~ . '' h o 1';11 1lt r ,, I'Oil g J'o ocl, a nd d ri n k . lo e '\Cl'" w h o snwk t a nd 111 w l' ll,l(ag-c in o tl1 cr 111tl 1t':tltln lta b il'. T hi s tta lo u' t ii H i c r~ t <lC' lt l a:-tltlu ~l i<k ologil, h ao.; btTII termt.cl a pcr~pt< til'l' o l ' ht.llth f;t-ri,m' .tnd ih l'XjJOIH'IIt' ' lwa ll h mui,. l lt-a lth 11 o~ 1 i, .tn l l itit.tl ol tht lift',llk ol 1,h;11 t hl'~ de li'-il'ch l.tlwl '<otu: h )Ol<l l(>l', 11 11o111 t1 1n ngard a' an i11 li1i <> rrl;t ~s t> l pt.' < > p k. l'l' rt :tinl ~ ll ll f i t . u nc~ e pt t Hbb lc . :n e ffi rit' llt .111cl p 1o l>ahh ll ll t ll'an i11 111 in d a' 1\l' ll ;:, b >eh ( Edgk-1 a n d g rt,\1'11. 1 .\1\JO: '>"3) TIH,c attilllclt' no lnn"CI obt.tin onh in tht pril.lll' 'phert' ' ol homc .IIHI ll'ISIII'l' _n . ,.., . . blll II CI t':t si 11 g h ('t ll llt' lO fl,l-\ 11 1'{' 111 tht J? tt h lit d tl lll:t n'i. ( :c11 1'i cJvr llt t.' gr< >II,il g ~l'' li i C I I Oll' 011 .;mn ki ng in p uhl it- :11 1cl ll l>l'k p l :tl't~. Jn solllt' ro r po r:u v < ltlt u rt' t h t t~t ' ' l'\ lcll'.lll't: t h .ll ,111 oki n ~ i' ~L'l'll ;, ;1 11al hanclit ap tu call't'l .1<h atH l'tll<' lll. ' 1'.1"1\t.' 'n~okutg ha' enw rgt'd ;"a h l'a hlt p ro bh-111 tll1111 pt'lt'cl nn cig:tl'<'ll t' parkt.t la iH'I' ht ll :tlso 11g 11 11 11g ,..., .1 bas is 01 lit ig at iun . Tl ll' l'l' i' a .sin 1iht ri 1 1 bc tll'l'l'll 1lt c ll l'll lt va lt h fa,r lsrtt ;u 1d ~'lll'l l:\ 1 1 e thi cl<: jtt~L ,1, ~ ufl't'l i11g . sl' ll~'a < 1ifirl' a n d de n ial pa1cd th t " ''' toa p mpt r rdaw~n,h t p wi th G od in 1hL' p 1u tes1a111 <'l h it. ~o too thtn i' a lll\ ic t im1 amu n g hL'a lt h n a11:- that

ph ysic; tl ck pril'a ti on a m i J'or"tkin g 1h l' .tas1 p k:t'- lllT S ~~'_i ll c nn obk ti ~ < .s pi 1~1. T h e, ge n c r<tti o n ' o l' t h c 10Li0s a n d 197(),.. ll'ln r h o.;m 1 g l11 .sah';ll iOil th ro ug h 1elo 1111111g th e 1it. lf (con sdousn cs~-rai,ing. t h erap~) ha~ ~i11:11 wa1 i11 the 19HO.; a n c~ 1:)~JI), LO a n~> g_cn tra10 11 ubse ssccl 1\ ith itnpro \ in g' tht bo d~. Q f' ('111 1 1"~{'. th t''l' IJL' IIt'f, ;ti'L' IHH d t ~tn l ~ ll t t'cl cq u a ll y t ll ro ng lt snciclils: i1 1 tite \\'t'' ' lh l'~ an li 1 , lh t prmi11 n 11f thc p ro lc." to n a l m icld k da~~e~ ( 1lloutrh h, l11> mc.lll'- t''\Cit t,il'l' LO 1h t'lll). Thc ri o.; c of 1h t''<' tck olog tt'S and th e l'\ iclcllCl' oft iH j :~nTa,ng f:hh ion.lhilill' of' 1\ll l ll ll g'. ;\t' l ohic~ a 11cl 1\'0I'ki n g' Oll l in liH:'

n:e .

~l' e l ll ' 10 1 )(' li11 kcd w 1111 t' l11 t'l'g't' I1Cc of pos t ~no clcrn ( p . 1?0) Cl lllnrc. .. ArcordinY to Ha 1n Cbt"llt'l' ( 1 ~)90). ClllTl' lll llln t~, e n t hu~ta:<nt:- an b es tund e t stuod ;15 (1 f)llt'~l pO,lllH.lcll'l'll ,tlfhoml. .\lodcrn i'l cli~CUUI'~t fi'Olll th t llit H'l<'l'lll h ('(' tll\,11'\

g)111

,()111.
T h t' l' ll ormotl'- tx plo., ion o f inte l\'' 1 in dil-1 a n d CXL'I'Cise prog ra lll llll'.S. t' pi to mi~ed br dtl l'lop111L'II b ' ll( h a~ th l incl L'il'l' in IH'.tlth ( lub' a n cl g\ mna,ia. tlw ubiqn itl' I'U llll t'l''\ 0 11 l' ll ' ll'<'t'l '- 0111 (\ 1110 1111\ai n b ike rs in lh l' C0 \1 1 111 '\,iC Jt-, 1111 KI'OI\'111 u f h eallh lnocl ~ ltnps :u 1cl t l11 C' OIIIIIH' t c ia l 'll<t'l'.' ' o [ l'ol ll p:t n l'' su c h ;, \'i kt.:. poi 111 L o thc t' IIH:'I'g'<'ll l'l' of a l tiii Ct' l' ll lor lwalth "' a goocl 10 be ohtained t h rough i11di1idual arhit'lt'l1ll'I1L ralht'l titan arquie'n'lllT to nwclir.tl l l'!{illlt'S. -1 h i:. a m o u 111s 10 .1 <o nt e anpnran ' n 1lt o f 1lw pl' rf c r 1 ho<h'' ( Ecl gk~ .tn cl B1isscll , I ~JHO) . a f)I I< 'S t l'o r an ick:1l th:tl is 11 o w lin n l1 c nt n u Litl'd in po pular Ct ll ll ll l'. Tlt t' JH'I len bod~

t hrou ~h 10 thc 1\).) Os Pt'O I>OM'cl 1lta 1 < ' X< ' a T io;c ;111cl sn u n d di e L co u lcl '.' ~' lp C~llnh; ~t 1h e ~ ~ ~ ~
o r a n l n ~ n cc all(lth e re bl' hu ild a b l' L tl'l' 'oc it(\', Fi llt l'!'(o.; 1\';tS th us Jil\ lll\ l' l\' 1111Jllt C< It t: d lll progn "i\'ist conlict ion~ conre rning na tional rq~t'lll'l'a t inn a ll(l 'oti.ll impt mcmcn t. Con tc mpnra n ll ttH''' coli CL'1'11'- h. IH' .1 di fft' l t'll t ch .tr:tc tt' r . T hl'l bt 'cen a' rcs p o n .-,es o r ~l'r,o;o 11 s 1\'lw Sl'l'k rl'gc n c ra tio n in tlt l' fan o l IIH ass:tll~l ~ o f<ll.l l ll ('l't'itS i n ~l )' tech n o logical. ;tf ll llt' lll ' ocit'll'. Risks w healtlt a n cl p e r:on a l 1\'c ll bnng. 11 ~~ co n lt.' IHie d.

f;.

or

c:m

, 'll'lldl'r. lit .111cl glo\\'i11g. lt dnt'' not 'mnkt. 11 i1 drin l,.,, i1 dnt., 'o i11 mudt'l :t1t ll1. 11 C:l t d 1ilh 1l'){lil < tl l'' ih fi il' l in te rn t' o l n 1lo t it'' r. u ho li y<l 1.lln. l':tl'. ,;t li ' o1 1 HI \ ll g':lr,, 11

can bt'\l lw managtclll\ t'Xl'ITi't' and dit- t 1,hi d 1 '' ill p roduce Stl'<l ll!{l'l . hea lt h ier peopk b e lltT abiL' LO copt ll'i th tl 1 1 rlai ly ~ I I'L' "l' ~ o f lil t. l'hus ' liti iL' 's n o11 l'<> llll u te~ no ~ 111l' l'l'1y an ('Xt' t'Cisc regitu l' b ut a " h uk l~ll l g'l' 111' li 1 (:stl'lt' c h ui n~ bt'aring o n th c pl ll'~ l <:a l a nd m ental well bcing o l th e inclilidnal. .\ 1 th t' lwan of Clll'l't'lll liuu': ~m uT t ll'- lt.es lhe 1 h an d 1' ' 111 dk d inclili<l lt:tl - no ti<lll' o ll hl' con~L'fJlll'll t ial illllll <ll t'llll'tl l ,, tiH' t ,,Ji n 11\ 11 in tn i 1 1 ~ ig tt ifica 11 n .

306

lnlroducing Cultural Studies

Cultured bodies

307

litne". thi' health-con,tiotl' contpkx ol excrtisc. ancl dier, i~ 111051 1. Ir com pri'~'' il 'past chc. a horrowin , ;1ppropiat e 1 ~ reg-:1rded as a po't nw<lnn an il i L l'rom cti,c:rsc: imagnv. m l e~. and lr;clilion'. inr l ucl in~ bo th r.i~h .. ancl .. low'? nnmclanc: ancl spetial. and P"''- prt''t'll l ancl future . 1dwrenr llll'se 't't'lll u~ablt: ,1 forn~ of COillt'lllk" (j uot:tl ion ' ( ( ;J.t"lll'l . 1900: ~ 17). ~ l t' j) C )as!>(' S \1 i 11 be anat ih'ma to thosc 11 ho cli,Ji ~l' conlt'lllJHr<ll'l . pop llllhit, t'I C:Il 1hu ug h 11'0 1k<Hil' 111.1~ be: orchionall) .1uompamd b1 th c. no,t.tlgrt rc:krcnu, t>f 1~1.)0.; ro1 J.. n mil r1tnnbt'r' liJ..c: Blm: ~uede ,Jltl('S.. T l1 t'l't' an 1ie-i ns IWtll't't'll l':-..l'rcisc pmgr<lllllllC' :111 el el il'h (Sh rl'cldcd \ \'heal gili r .tg ih ('llll,llnlt'l' .1 ~pl'r ia l of'ft'r on a ( ill'r worJ..out 1i<kol. FitiH'" imagty and t'CJ 111pmc:nt han thc.: propt ll ic~ ol '""ulmlfl. tcprnt n t a ri nn~ that an mon copies of othcr imagt'' than r l w~ alt' l'tpodliCtions o( rcal-ll'orlcl orig inals. he modc J, \\'ho appc.ar in fitness 'ideo' art lhelll'l'ht, simul.tna. unobtain.1ble idcaJ, cardu lh con~ III H ttd through m.tJ..e-up. pu~e and lig hting. T he ,hilting ideal ol tia li t buril- is 11 kcep ing- ll'ith posttiH>dt-rni,,n , borrcll\'ings and aci<tp l <~tion ~. J'il e a nclrogtnou' fi gures of tiH' J ~) /( 1-, hall' llt'L'Il rcpi.IC'l'cl IJ1 thl' lllOI'l' s nf>,tantiaJ a11d ll';lll'Jll1'<'11ll\ gencJcrcd figure.;, ol tlw 19:-{(h .ll1d 1\l!l(h. \ 'olnpuo u' ft ualt- boch' 'll:t)l'' onn ag-ain bl'camc ;,,hion;1bit' , a... clicllnll ~< k ~ J{n mL'II (a nd llll'l':t\ing ll l'or 1\'0 tll t'll ). ( JI\ thi, pro c <~s thc: ro le of nlt'd ia im.tgtn '"eh a' prm iclnl b1 Nn_) ll'fllth or 1he 'l innillat,rnlm its ~lwuld 1101 ht nndcrc:o,t im;ued l. . \ ~i 111 il.tr proccs' is al 1\'0rJ.. in t he clt' e lopmtnt ol t'Xt'l'cisc tqnipnttnt: l'Xt:I'Ci't' bicl'clts 11crl' OIICl' IIHH il'ilcd alte r tlwir ruad cotllll crparh (for

F~t nlw nort

11-)lit'h thtl 1\l' ll' lllt' l t' ;,uiJ.;tilllll''); 1111\\ tlttil ,IJIJW.II'inll l' l)\\l'' lliiiCh lt> lllUIOI'C\'t k cJesigll ,lllcillla lW o[ till'I ridtl'' \\'Olild lll'\'tT drt':llll of' JWd :tiJing 1111 01 ro;td . \\ h.tl ma!..t'' con tt'111por;u' littll'" cJi,uour't'' clerickdh pmtnwclern .1 ccording 10 Gla'-'lll'l . i~ th.n th l'l pr.,pn't' Lo nnrlo 'ollll' long,ta ncl ing du;dilit-,:
,\lrdt a!llf /l'lllltfl'. Fillll''-' .., an ,1\ l'lllll' nr ic.'lll.lk l' lllJle>IH'I'nlt'lll ' "'' hnn - (()11 lt'IIItHhll - .lchti('OIH'd h~ .lllll' Fnllda ,11\tl otht'l ' Tltt lll'\1 fitlll'" 11Hl\t'111t'llh ditrn front til eir p1 t'dt'l'l'~so , in 11~<11 1hcit 1\'Colllllll' L Hbti<>ll , 01pph' tcnalh tn ,,o mtn a' ro llll'll: \\'4JIIIt'll ,\J't' lll'gtd lO llltcll'l"l<lht' tlll' 'OIIIll' lt>il\l' and intt'll'itl uf t'Xl'I'I.'..,t' ;, 1111.'11 and 1n lollo11 the ,,1111!' dit-t<u 1 ncomtnendatOih.

111 jr(, 1111d llltf, idl. 'lll t' (1Hilt'l') apw.l l'.lllt'e c>l il l'a hh il ; ~ CllK tu bL ' l't'l\ as no less impmtant than tlh (inntr) .lltllalitl -'o 11111( h so that tht ckti~ion to haH pla-,tic ~~~~ gl'n lilll be jn ~til1 c d in u nn;; ol ;1 u>nut ll l(>r ht:lllh and li tnt'"- Onct rkad y cli ~ tin gui~hablc nutinlt' ol ' ltl'a ltlt ' a11cl ' \'allill' i>t'LOilll' int trr lt :lltgtahlt-.

11 in/: a JI({ ltt 1 rm. .\ 1 od('rn io,nl brou~h 1 " ' l.thollr-' a' i "A' m a eh i nc~. JI tl' pmtnwdtn lll'alth clu b l:thlllll'ltllli:m,;dclins. l c.i,nrt heroll ll'' '-Ollll'thII!!, to he wnrktd at. ld ti k111:1111 \\'IJI J.. organi,:nion' n lh-1 litlll'" progr:lllllllt'' :1nd o n -~l< g'YIIllt.t,i:l lO tlttir l'111pl o~te'. 1-\l't')>ill ~ thc. tmplo\t'l' in 'hapc. i' no t 'o !:11 H'lllOit'd fnllll !..tcpill~ the lHI, illL'S' in ,haw. Tlw ntockmi.; divide hl'll\'t't'll \\'Oi'J.. and ll'i''"'' ' lt ;t~ cil-.11'11 narroiiT<I. .\lmtality 11111f null!mfa{ity. l't"tmodt'lll litne" di-ccntr't'' oh1i011'h UllliiOI prombe imllttH't.;tlill . h111 lh l'\' ;lo Jl"int :1 ''" 1u a po,Lpo1h'IIWI1 1 ni' IIIOI'Ialitl . Thmn~h l'St'I'C'i,t a 11cl the right ditt. i1 , rl.linHd . a J., ngLr lile and a IIH>re anin lik can be nhtainl'cl.
\\' h<~t l'l't' l o tlwr nll t 't'l' l <tiltli t~ ami co nll ".tclillion ~ i1 ln,. tl w pchlmockrn w ll lind, compelling 'l'll'l' of 't'< urit1 in ih 1\dl-tonclitiontd bod1 .
.1

7.S.S

Bodybuilding: comic-book masculinity and transgressive femininity?

Figure 7.4

Training videos for the postmodern seff?

Cun lt'111por<tt\ litnl'~' d isconr'L '' han abn St'IYLtltt> reddilll' cunnp1ions o lna,r lll ill itl ami km inini t'. ami in panicul:11 ti\!' dc,irahle lonks o ( till' human hoch . One Clll rt'nlhpopnl.tr ~et ol image~ ol ma,culinil'' and kmininitl' i~ pnll'idecl h~ thc yout hful. s h apl'i~ bodies of tl~t pmkssion:d ac1u1 sin th LlY s,. , ., .~ /J(f.YJI'ftll'h . Tht''t' imagt' are. uf ('t>l lr1>e. subjn 1 10 ntudi lin HCIIl and r hangc. (Jl' l hap' IIIOt'c.' ~O i11 l'l''(K'tl of cll,ira bk kmak than mall' ho(l\ ..;hapl'' In rt'(l'lll lt':ll' there hall' hc.tn '<mlt' ro ntradiuor~ shilh. On tite collt' ha n d . 111> ta,Jtion nlag':llillt'' lil-t 1'ogu han in l'I'L'OI'ingil l't-atnrl'rl anorex ir-likt ft' mall' ligun' On lhl' ol htt hancl . a mon , oJid .u1d lllll'( u lar i>uild ha' hccn po pulari,ec\ b1 lht liJ..t, of .\l.iClcmn a and !.inda llamilto ll (in 'l irminator 2). lnthi ~ la11.:r tn: nd tlll' spt>rt ot' bcoch'huilcling h ; t~ bl'gun to impaet on circles oubidc its tl\\'11 suhrlllt urt. lt i~ thtidurt \\tHlh tx.uuining lht conccptio ns o f nla ~r uli n it, ;md fcm ininit,. lou nrl in hnchbuildin~ si me thi ~ , :m ani1 i11 thaJ t'Xtmplifit'' an l'Xtrt'mt >rcm cup:tlion witlt ,i.!,'t' lldt'l' i"lll'' allCit he apw:ll':llll'l' ()[ litt l>och. riH ' lalll.ll'\ or .tlltiLnt (;ll'l'll' .lllcl Romc. p~t nidt l'\clt'IIC'l' u r 'lllllC loll.{lt'l'lll

308

lnlroducing CultlJ rll Sludies

Cultured bodies

309

,,hilitie' in \\,.,H:'J ll ~ta nd.t rd ' of ti lt , elL' .>... . . 1 ll" 11 J l' 'J>J! t':t l,l ll rt> ul liw nnk 1 l1 l l:llnlt'll han lonu cJe,irL'cltHll'itlt' .11 . ,. 1t~aJ e1 .,ihl 1 1 .. 1 ' ltH lt ~CCt" '"' ' 1<ll 1,11 ed .1 , 1 .. s 1 ;, l'lllhlc nl :llt of 111:1'1 1tlinI I :\ IIII I\Utl >l ' . . e . '<: .(lpecJ llli i.\C ll laturc 1 1 11 " 1 '''ICJllt n "la"' '\ou . . r . \I,IJIJOJ C'OlliJH'IL'Jl(l' OJ l'lllpltl\llH'lll in p ll\,j J . t' l\ lll{ lC.Iti\C of C:IITI tht ' lig nl:t ol' lo'' ' la" lm,ition l. .:lthuuo lt. 111 L\ll~J:I II ~J I~ (a lid "':''' thnl'IIJJ e also 1 ' "' llOI\,H "' 11 h more hk 1 llllo \L'lllt'lll 111 lli JH''-S m r., ui h . .\lu~tlts t'C 11 1 l 1 t ~ lo t'IJde ncc . ' l' () )(' ~('(' JI '" l " 1 ' 1 11.\llll ,ll tJlc\01\llll'llh bnl Cllltuncl lll Cl(ltl 1 11 . . ' JI ,ltlOIIlp" llllt'lll, IIO[ . . ( ' ll'\ :lit' dt'h ll'l't' Jil '1 1 1 ' lllnc ancl dfort pul in w tlwir cu h il~u itm lh'er lll~t) 'JI)" - t 1 ' 1 IC "lilcome of emtJged in F:urolw and :'\<lllh .\nJtri u ill th ,~;~) ~ .> )l. Jlt)hJ <( "JlOrl o( ,,,el~ building .. . 1 . . ' d 11 ( , . '~ 111 (' n 11 l . 11 c 1e.l~t ''c < tttaJY ttchnt.<tlt' ~ , 1 1 . ' wc ll'eJght l 1'11111 ng 1 t1 1l' 'lt.<.' u el 1 fi ' arl liel't' ck~i rablc pft,~ic:ll JroJortio 1' 1 . . .1 <e 111111011 ol lhc il lll llsclcs and . 1 ' ll .1ppear:u1n' nnle 1 1 1 1 1 ponra~ a magnilied llT,ion ol the icllol .. ..1 .1 1 ' l'l'~ 'l'<'m lo hl( lll o ll' HHII \ kcl d ' > >t. ~ >111r < 1 tnp borhbuilclt-1 , ha'> bt'l'll de~n ihed .1 . . 1 ' ~ nlull o 1 ll' c ulture ()f . . ' ' lllllllt- )00" lllol'oCIIfllllll. ( 1'1 . jt ., l.ln lw St'l'll 111 tiH' c hronic:tl h . , ol . 1 . ll\j)t' I'IJtlll.t' el l'lCill l'l'' lOcllb . '1 1 ' ' l m. .l\11). 1his lnccltani,tic lt'llll' lo dl'~crihl' ti H . 11 .e 1 . 1111-{ 111HIIIe' ol horll ,e 1. 111 e 1'1 "' uch l'lllplov hocf~bllildillg rn lttJI't' >l ll, 1\ 'ltil r 1 . 111 . . . . . 11 p Jllg. ' l'lll suggt~t-. lfta t ' ' '"' llll;t!{l'l'\ t'XIllbll' 1 1 1 lt'IHkllrit, :lll d tmhran~ ., 'i .. 1 . . . . . lOillllJllO lit .md llli'O).,'IIIi~t 1" 0 ' lllol'c u 1 11 111 clo,tll l'l'~t 1 1' 1 1 'llflt'llltron. and inn>tnplelt '"Prhcro. . 1. . 11 J 111~ 1 l,ll o rtHnk-book Cl:lrk ''''111 :-idc. Fn Kki fl tlw ' ''Jl''l'lll 1 e el~~' 1 ll.tll - SIIJlt'llll<Hl 1\'llholll fl i, feJn in inr . ' ~ 'i 11 llllll o )ochbt 'Id' 1 1 ' Utumph ol lorm mt-r lllnct 'tl 11 . . . . 11 mg~u JCII ltlre Hprncnl\a 1 ' In('( 11 l~ <111 fl tJ)( 'lfll ('' .. 0 ( Mlllg'fll. 1101 its l'll,\tllllCIII -\nd ) . ' J ,\l ,lfl ((' lll;"cttfllllll' tita j~ 11 ' .tppea1;u1ce can ll ~llr h , 1 1 . 1 a costh bod\' >roicn Bl)(ll'i>ttl'l . L cnuous acco mphsllmc ll . . J e1('l ~ g'l'l :.on back,id ., 1 r. ' lll.JC'CIIOIIS. drug~ aiHI die t tllCI' 1. > JJ t: , 11( ciCiiC 10111 the 'teroid . ' . ldl (' C.l OIISed hanck lh C\' 1 . JI l . 111 lnlll1111g: .mcl the1 dr-"tinll . . . . . . : . . < " ' t. 1c una fro . ' 1 1 C SIIICI l 1lt'll' (llct JliiOI l . bocl~blll lclcr pur ir (q no lt'd in Fu,o;v JI qq . ~) ' 1 , . o , cc~lllf>L'IIIIOII . .\ -, o nc guocl'. . . . . :>. . 1 11, ~~ ahout /r",/ongv;o nd. llot !Cding

11

11

Cllllllli11g or i11 a111 othtr 11:1~

111'-l'

lot ll', 1 ri~k clroppi ng

01

uthl'lll'i'c

ntbhandlin~ a lltight a11d ... o clamaging 1111 hocll. In this wu rld ol 111<' c ct~ llin nal rc pttitilllt ol' a 1ninima l 111111lbe1 or ekllll'IH~. i11 thi~ aura! bbHil1 th. it , t'a'~ In lost onc~ "" . \\'htn all is rl'Jll'litiol1 ratl~t r th.1n tht produc.:tiull o l 11Wa11ing. l'l'tT\ path n.'"l'lllhk.., t'l't'l'' othtt path. El't'l)' d :1~. in tl11 g) 111. 1 l'l']ll':tl tll t ~;un e l'll l1tn llkd gt'\ll1rt-; ll'itlt tll t ~a ltl t' 11dghh. lhl' ,,une l t'Jl~ ... Tlll' ,ame h 1t'adt p.lllt'l'lh. But 11011 a11d lhtn. 1\'anckring ll'ithill tite lah1 rinllt' llf 1111 boch. l n11ne 11po11 mmtthing. Somtthing 1 c;111 kllll\1 herali'L' k111111 kd..:t rk pe 11ds 1111 dilkre iH't' .. \11 untxptnecl t'H'Ill. For though 1 .un onh ll'j>l'ating tt-rtain ~l':-llnt'\ du1 ing ct't t.1in tinte ,pans, 111\ horh, IJeing matnial. i~ ne\t r lht s~uue: 1111 boch i' t on 1ru lkcl 1)1' ch~utgt a nd lw
c h ~n1n .

F01 in,t.tnn. IT'oll'l d.l\. 1 ,,m-ktclt ht''-l. L... u.llh l ta~il~ bttH h pre,;... the h.tr plu~ 'iiXII' potlllds for 'i' l'l'j)' i'l'~len l:ll . lllll''IWl'll'<ll~. 1 h,ll'tl~ lll<tll<tged W lift tl1is ll'tight a t 1lw .;ixth rcp. l louktcl lnr a rca;,on . ~ll'ep: Dil'l;. !3oth 11t:rt ll;,lt.ll . E111otional 01 work ,n"': :'\o llttll e th.111 u ... ual. Tht ll'l'<ttht'l: :'\ot good tnotlgh. .\ 1~ 111l t:X )lt'Cit'd failllrt' a l th e ,j;-: lh t't'() 11,1, ;tllolling lllt' lll ' l'l'. a' il thro ug h a '' inclo11'. 11111 lo <tll\ otlbi<k. but in ... idc 111~ m1 n bo<h. to it' 11orkings. 1 11'~1' being pcnuitted to g limp.,t thc la11.., that cnn11ul 111\' hmh'. tlw~c ni c hange or c hancc. Jm,s that arl' lnnh , il al < rll , kn nll'abil. g, u: ing 10 co11 1ml. Lo ,h,tpe. 1111 boch thmugh tht caltul.ued toob and

mctlwrJ, ol'btHI~lnlildillg. ;n1d tilltl' aiHI ag.tin . in lollol''illg th est mcth()(ls. ltiling todo so. 1 a m .1bll- llllllt't'l th:ll ,,h ic h c tntlol lw fi 11 :tlh ro ntrolkd a ncl kiHll,n: the bodl'. 111 1h i' llll'l'Li llg' 1ie~ th t f:JSC llalII 11. J' 11111 thl' purpme. o f IJochbui lcl ing. rm nt facT w lace 11ith thau~. 11i1h 1111 111111 failt 1rc ora l<~rmofdc. uh . Camtti dt,criht, tite .trrhitl'ClliiT ol a L\ piral lwusc in tlt<' gcog1 aphical labninth uf .\l:t rr;lkc,la. ll' hul l ~l's insidt.; ;uT cool. clark. Fe11, ir an~ ,,indoll's loo k o111 in1o 1hc 'llTCI. Fm thc t'lllI t' conslllltlitn t ol thi-. housc, "inclm'' etc .. is d irn tcd im,ard . 111 thc l't'lltral toUrtl'otrd 11'11tn o 11h openm:-..; to lht 'un cxisl\. ~u c h ~111 ardtilt' t lllll' is a lllII'< II' ul tht bod) : \\ 111'11 1 rcd11 rt nrb:d la ng u:tgl' tu minimal nwaning. 10 rqwtitiotl. 1 clo ...l' thl' hoch-, ouHT 11imhn''' \kaning approar ltts hrta th a~ 1 IJoc hIJu i Id . a~ 1 lwgi n 10 1111 Jl'l' th roug ll thl boch' l.tbiTinth,, ll nWt'l, il onl~ f'm .1 St'< ond, 1ha1 \,h ich 1111 rw 1 sciot1sllt''s onlinaril~ rannot 'l'l'. llt-ickg~et: 'TIH' hl'ingtlwrt nf hi,tot icalman meath: 10 he po~itcd ~b tllt' btl'ach i11 1 0 ll'hich tl w p repo1Hkr:nlll)li"T r o l'bc ing btu,ts in ib :q>pcarin~. in orclt'l' lh:llthi, bn-.1ch it,ell 'lwnld sh:nwr ag:tin.;t hcin( . In our ndturt. liT ,jmult~lllt'IHI<;I\ l cti,hi~t ,tncl cli,dain tiH: athlett'. a 1,orkt'r in th l' buch . FOI \\'(' ~ill Jilc UllCkr 1111' ,ign ol Dvsc:lrlt'' l hi' sign ~ ;tl ~o tht sig n pau i.1rdt~ . . \'Ion){ a' \H' tonlilllll' w rl'g:lld lht bocl~. th.ll 1dtirh i' ~tthjen 10 r hangt. ci!<Hill'. :md cka tll . a~ cJi,g tl'ting and 1 1i 1niral. -;o long ,hall 11'<.' con tiltlll'

ro

Box

7. 4
.

1
l<athy Acker: building a body

."t.rll c ith('r ':1" tht na 111 e "benclt prt,~ . " Olt'l'to 11 1e 11 l mi" lll ) 1 111y fi r~l ll'<'iglll: 1 >rohibJ . . . , l . . '. ,.., IC lll'l' 1 H..' llllltliJt>r of 1 ' 11 H t ' u 'ual k ht'"lll 1111 h tf ,inst place 1he a ppropl iatt: ,,eigh t~ OJI th c ha ~ l ifl. r ;e .':,lme " :a l:m-np ll'eight. 1 : lng 1 11~ >al ull 11!. l't''tl~. then dol\11 lO m, IOIITr c ht''l 1 e ount am 'I'>Uali;ill " thi 1 . . k' . . tour hes 111 1 ch c~t . th . . .... s >.11 . 111,1 1ng ~u rt n ' 11 t llg' 111 ~pnt. pbcuw 11 back 011 i . r 1 . ~ame cxact ntolions .. ~ ....., 1 ls I(Sl'. - l<'pt:at 1hc >. . .. " . . 1<l l\\ l' 1I C' Il'JX' ttll n ns 1 . 0 1r , . innca~inu llll' 11ciglll... r . . CUIInt L111'11' ~ecollch while . . "' tt' 1<1 l'I1 11Utl l>l'llC{'S;, bcori ll . . l. . 1 tll~ fm1~h < H ro -\JI " ~ .tg.'"' nn' 11 n1e 1 . O . ... ... : t1 1l ~t.: l t'(K'IIliO liS t'lld onll wlwn 1 lilli'h 1111' l,ork-mn. 11 e Ollllll11g. L. ~eh llltmbcr tq u:tJ, IIIW in h:da tion ami ('JIIl' .x ha la tion . 11 1 'lop

:,~:: :~:~~~~~l~~~~~':;l \ 1" 1 ~ 1 1 :~~: 1~;~i~ 1 ~ 1 : 0 ll'ork

1'

or

1u n:~anl o11r

01111

,,hts :1, clang<'rmh o tl wr~.

........_____________

31 O lntroducing Cultural Sludies

Ot ht'l inter>tttll 11 ton, <' r 1>oc~ lllte1' 111g :n t Je,s 1 u d gcm .,1 111 11 r 11 . fkp1rt fro111 ~ t ' tt cuhun TI ' tllll( Cm cc nl ~ 111111 tllt' cx peritn cc of tli l' lil' 1 1 . . ley -\ldn'.< 'ttir' cJi,tot ll ' torit' lll<'d fucu' 11: e mbodilllent r.l llll'r lh a n ll'ith 1 .lgh.tn 1 1!l~l7 !Ja, .lrg-ued th:n hod\I)IJildcl ' tl lt'll1,t' l' . 1 ti o )j('CIIW bocly. Mon. l ' e l'H' o> 1 n 111 1 1 . iol;tnc l 1ng ,,,. th e ~1 ' t'",, tllt'll c" . . lllliS 1 . . B ' 1' P . 1111Joli~m a nd ', ' (1 l'XCt<<l\'l' . <'\ tllldep ,. -"l<LI Iclan l' of appn<iation imoln '"' in,c r,iol l o f ti . 'I . CI I ,II~l~. , IH lbtnlcll'r~ Olvn 0 ' ltt' t 1 1 ll \\IC l'l \IICil'll ~ l'IH: rtll 1 ' ' 11< C'' an < app1.11,al,. In \loll:wlnn~ '<tliii<>J>lll . 1 1 . . 1 ,., , 1 IOStile (' f " ' ' lo og1 t ll''IS 1 1 1 '1 1 t 11 cre nt ~~ a, of' txnssilt' mmc ulll ll' c'lCii o f' 1 . 1 . 1 . u< ' H ll <e r, ldenify c:tlh plca..iltg in j, 0\11 1 tl' llll" Bocl.li>lt,, , . 1 " lllt' 1 ca n H ' under>~ltlod a' :u:stheli. l'l' 1 ll'llht' 1l'' d o nol )OCh- '1 mboli,m in Kl d n , 11'1'111'- :uld itble:u l ltl o k . 1 .. . . 'l'l'lll ~~~ COtH'l'ilc their 1 lh t' lllll,t' lll:lr hndl . ( 1 H 11 0\\Jl 11<111sgrts,llt' .ICSIIJ (Iics Of h)'Per-f't mi 11 im.

Cullured bodies

311

o~t< ~e\~ 1\l~h

snks th:u an: linked 111 th e g ranru l IIHII't' llll'll lS oJ' cla tt l'l' an d su J'nrth . In thi~ 11'<11'

b~ p l:1'1t' <;m g tn ttch 11 iq ttes 'ur h :~;, b~ta't impla 11L '

aiHI 1w po'i ng

r~ ;~te bocl~ building i' maclt ,,,rt: ror p.mi<:ip.tnt' ancl tllliool..tr, (.\I:HI,Ii<'ld au cl 111 ~!cGin n . 1 99~~). Ftlnale bodyb uildtr' are pl.1~in~ tll t' beatlt~ g:1me h~ different rules b1tt

it :aill a bcmlll' K:t111 l'. L' lllil tl u: subc td tu n.: clt-1\'lops an :tllt'111alill' cartof'tlll''L'II 5 cthic' - ancl lhln are ~omc rtal po~sibil iti t'' hen - it , arguccl th;u it will rcmai11 an i sutTL'Ciionary ra1her tllan lrtlh translo nn;Hio n:tl pr:1cti n (Culhrit .1ncl C:.l,tt'lniiOIIl. 1 1 !99'2).

Boch building ce nlpet itiOII' lor wo nHn 11'1\l' '111 c,t1 . nnnt ' 111 olt' 1 - 1 lhtol'\'. dall11g lmm tlw lalt' q - o 11 .. 1 . .uH cotHI'OI'<:rsial k ' ' ' 1l '1g 11 ol c htt knnk horhbu 'll wo p 1 e a' t'l't' ll mn n shnC'k IIg' t h:t ll rlw ir ,;l:lk C'ol l .. .,. ..: TI . . . 1 r l' ':' stn '('' lllan}' ul p h otograpll' of' thl''l' wolmn ''Till'': t.t,.,llt . . H ,\llilwr nf an ;uuh ology

7.6

Cyborgism, fragmentation and the end of the body?

~ ht im.lgt, on IIH''l' p:lgt'' . ll't' "'pe 1\\'l' l ltll "' lht 11' 0 flllfl bul h lO lw thl t"lli'lll . ll>' , . . 1 JI 1 11ll l lht' l dtp1Cl. ; II H I 111<11 11 ll'ilJ ' g. " 1 111111( l'l' ll' 1'-' ., . 1 . dtldowd hJ tiJi, dn.(rt't' i' nl1>rtt . 1. . 1. 1 . . IH ~.l l l!>n o \\Uilll'll and 11111'1'k~ . l ( ll1({( 111 11'1011 1ht, 11111 '. 1 . 1 1 l'\l'l'\ 11011o11 ol 1<-nlininill 1 '11 111 1 . . .. ' gt, P <'" l:trc .tg.lino; 11 11! 1 1\\I' ;IJ f;nnil ltl' lll'll' t i r 1 r :tnd rn on., iderl'cl. ' ' 1! ' ol' II1<J e~ nrm I'I' III.Jdc
1 ht idea o l 111l'l1 wilh IIIU,cft, i' t.hih :Htc > 1 . C:tlegon 111 do , ll , ,. l 1 lt'C . ll 1C<lllll'' 110 l1l'll COllU'Jll or 11 ' lt 11lll>t 11 ;u lennlt 1 , ,11 II'1h lll"'lfWople\ idta o l lh . . \[ : 1 'lqiH' "'OIIH' Ihlllg d't': l du e,n '1 fit 1 1101 1 11 .. ll ~l'll ;1\'llllll'll ' 11 .. , . ' :tll.lck ()JI , 11111' 'l'll'l' o r l e.di tl . ' t .t tOi lll.l( 1( llilll 111. 1'\'l'll <1 11 . . . . ( Dobhilh. 1!l!l l) Jn, .1s the CIIIIIIC book ma,n tli11 itl' ol nnk bocllbn 'll' . g ('l':t[tcl ~lt'l't'll(l'l)t' of COill'l' IIIIIII'l.l ( .' . 1 l lllg Clillll l'l' l't')JI'l'' t' nls :111 l'Xag ' OIH ep 1101h ~o too {e . 1 1 1 1 . orrup1 a < k.lrh tr:uhon,,iH >o , , , 1 11 . . 111.1 t' >nc ~ >tll cllllg 'l'l'lliS lo .111 ,., ' Clll . e 1.1 <'11"111' ron 1 1 1. k111:1le bod1 in an OHTt " 'al. " ,., t lona < ''tonr-;e, of' the

\~ tlll' 'tuclil'S con sickrccl in 'L'llon.' 7. 1 .111<1 7.':'1 indicalc. tht )unan buch is i11 crca,ingl~ comin~ w bt trl'aled 1101 a' a unitall 1dwh but "' ,1 diiTerentiatcd t'lltill requi1 ing ~perialiscd ll'l':t lmc nt. Cm lsll lllt'l cuhtt l'l' l'rag H1 l'IH' tht~ hoth' into a ~erit' of' body p a11s to be maintailll:d tltrnug h die t. to ,III<' IC'. l'Xcrci~t. 1 itamin~. Fa~>hillll . adl'erti,ing a ncl pnrnogr:tph1 all gin ll''timo111 10 th e cwr m on lmgnll'ntcd 1r;n~ in whic h th e bod1 is ron <TJ)Illal i~tcl :lllcllll'alcd . T lu l'l' are a 11ide ran gc nfcosntci I's to he applic d to dtt m;1111 difkre lll pa11' o f' tllt boch: lllOIIlh. ltai1 . 'kin. t'\'t''. lip'. tettlt. kg~. l'cet - ;11(\ proclurl:> a ncl app lir.ltion<. cn11IIIIH~ to cli1cr,il\ . lle altlt carc i' p rm ick d by
medi!':l l spcciali,ms 1dtirh dil'idc tite bodl' np lllll rcgions < HHI l'ttnc1io11S. For 111<1 1 11' heal thC.IIT purposts tht p er.;on j, ll(lt ;tll ailing h och htll a Wl 0 1' ~~'lll>ltlllb ltl bc <ISSCS~Cd ll lt'l'll h Of 1d1;H i.; !>igllilied b~ illl' t:l'iCkiiCt' ol ~-ra~ ' binoel jJI'l'"lll't'::>. bJoocl test~. sea n ' and l ll':t'I'l' tcchn iqttcs. T lw l'ra.;mc ntati<HI o l' tlll' IH1n1:111 bocl~ in ltl fl co\lec tion of' h och pa11' Ulll be rq~arckcl :1'- implil'alt'cl in th l' lat'g'l:'l' >I'OCl'" of fra~llll'11latiou in tht coull~mporan \\tHicl " h iclt po,lmoderl1 JIHon in p::tnicular
adclrc~'l''-

For sunlt C0111 1 1ll' lll.llor~ (t.g. B;ulkl . 19/'lX) lh c \1 ' lj>j)l" ll' 11 1 . ll.l/llll ft'III IIillill l' ll('I)Citcl 1 ' 11 tite <tlll'l' o ema l' boddmilcll' l'' < ll''ltl, 1. ' t11 > 1'1 lt'' llw hoch 1 1 l'l''I ~I :IIKt'. 011wr~ :lit' k~~ , .111,., LllllL . . ' a '11<' o t ul1ura l , .t1 Jn nt 11w spon ~ llo te nti 1 lh . .t o r n :>il., wncc. 13ordo ( 1\.)KXl COill'l'llll"lll'' 1111 ' t' e:o.pen t' ll<'<, ratiHr tl n11 t ia . . . . . burlcll'r' ami ar<rut, tlnt ' ' ti 1 . . 1 ' .lpp l.u ann ol lelll:tl l' boch,., ' ' 11 1 lll ll l'III J> l'l'l' 011 cfitL 1 1 ' :whil'l't' hoclih- perl{nion lh . . ' IIC eXt' l nse ,1, 1ech niqn cs 10 . . ' l \ C.111 1) 1' O'J'OIIJ h'd II't!J '11)( l ' ' . . 11 . . . alllll't'X In IIH'\ )Jt'I'Cl'I't' th eir 1 () 1' . . ,e: .. ' J l XICS olll ( >tlllllliC~. Ltke > e 1 l' ,111 .1 ll'll ol>lt'Cl ce lll'l'lll !l 1 . - ~ . . cotllrol ancl th t'l'dolt' IH:e d ill . ' .11 ll~" ol tlllllllng 0111 of . " 11 ) 1 )(' (11\('IP1IIH'cl L tkt ' IIIOI'('X(' ti k' ' Jt' lllg eompktch in c h;1J'O't ol . . ' ' IC~ gel a 1ck 0111 of . . , : 1 11 H ,., .: ll 1 Jo< 1 ll'' 1 ~t l l fe n nlv bocll'l> 11 il 1 1 ' . 't'I'S ro ll l St'l'lll to :t1t' t'SC: Iptcl p:nri<~rchd , 1. 11 1<1-trcl 11 walltl. 111 < 'Oillll' ll i'on l . . . 1 ~u 1 1 )1 \\ hich thtl j11clrrc lhl'tll,l'ilt' . , l' lf . ' O ollllll l'XI('' 1 IC 'l;tiiCbrds 1 b ' '11 l ( 1 (' I L ' IIl (\\'<llltlllg tll he 111!1 '. J . . J . llll th e lllt':IIIS (dicl exerci ) . ~ '< 11 .u t.tt1l'l'lhan lhtn ) 1 1 l',;1111C <t ~' li'C' I IJ.' 'l .ll t ll COIICt'JHiOIIS of' 11Jnt il i' l l l k . . ' l ll lll!l\li' ~ IIIOIIS (;ga in. \':l l'iable , L oo gonc p <t rtl t' llht 11 ' 1 f' l1 1 ~en ion 9.:t 1) TI . . . . . . .. ' ' ' ' l.tlnec 1' ' t H' lll:tlc ~att - ~ce 1u c.: .IIL <lc.:.uh ' 1111111herol i 1on ic~ 111 1 , 1 . . P 1:>1'1 le ol hoch b u ilding 1 . . ' c con r:tciHunn' 111 tlw nunnt . . )\ 1\0Jlll'll. 111<' r k:lr h t'llclerl 111 1.,, . n . . . .. cnnnl<d In n 1u scnhritl' , . .. .lol~ ol nws r uhlll ll' . ' ' 11 l' llll> 11 1 h l 11 'l' 11f' 11 " ' 1H'C 1 1)1 1 ~'' 11 . 1 L l'' and maktup t hat are

T ht COI1Cl:'pt of th t n btnHtir wg.111i~n1 or e~ bo1 .( , :lllllther t halkugt 10 conn111ion:tl l''-scnti:lli, ltndtr,;nHiing ' n i th e hnm.111 bod~ Tht 1erm 11a, coi iHd in 191 10 h1 ll> Amnican a;, trop ltl,ici,ts. :"lla1d.rcd C1mo .IIH1 1'\ath;\n Klirlt' . 111 de~rt il>c tht 'mtilact organis111' th:u coulcl mee! thl l't'n difTerl'lll t' llliroll111t'nl' dt.ll 1\'o ttld he encolllllerecl in 'pact li'<HTI. fhe Cl'borg 11." conce\td a~ a lll'llroph, , iologic:tlly m o cli leel ln 11n;111 hod~ 1h a t coulcl 11i 1hs1<H iel th c cltmand" o l ~pace jol ll'll t'l':>. Scit'lln lic1ion mmir' ' 11ch "' U/fl(/t Hut/1/f'l (clir. Ridk1 Srott. 19R~l. Robomj1 (dir. Pa11l \ 'erhoen:n. 1m~.-, ) ancl '/'/11' Tl'lltllllrlfor (di r . .1 amt'' C:ameron. 1~IH."> \ h a1 e populari;,t~cl 1h e cyb o rg conccpt but its rca lity , 11 o l a~ l't'111Pll' <1' 111ig ht 't't'lll . T h l' cyborg co 1nhin:t tion Of th t 111t'Ch:111iCal 1\'lh lhC hlllllolll i' a ll'l';t(h 11i1h U:-. l'l'i( kll l in lhl' l'Xll'll'il't' ll'L' of' simpk p rostlw lic d e1in' ... u r h ,,, 'Jlellarle' h111 abo ,pp:trtnt in tht 11idc aCleptanre ol Cmlll('IC Slll'.{l' J'\', biolt't' hllo (og it'al dtI't'l'S lil..t J'<lCl'l11<il..l'l'~. th l' ll.'W of l':tCCill:IIllll 10 p rogramme he in1nHilll' .,,~tt'lll 10 dc:-.tro1 1illl'l'' ami adl:niCl:'' in ~t'l1t'1l' cngin ttri n g ( Fe:IIIH: rstunt' and Bu iTO\\s. lq!\;1\ . Tht.; cll:'lt' lopmtnh g IT 1 ,t. 10 Cjlll':-lions aho ut ll'lll'l'l' tlll' 1111111:111 l'llcl~ ~IIHitht lll:tCh iiH' h cgin' ~llld Sl'l'\l' lO rdalil ist 11111' ro lll'l'lllillll<ll unckr,tanding' ,\bout tht t'rllhoditd ha,, of hun1a 11 idtniitl.

312

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Cultured bodies

313

Srrch ron.jeciUrl' s't . 1 1 . ' . 1 l.l\1 ' "11 1 \OIIlt' postmoclern ll w~cs ptl''l' rlu 1 :tppca ranct of rlr c natur:r l IJO<h (1 \roker and Krokel c.J-') 1 > . ' mg 11e dis. . l 1 '"" . c,tJnodcTn 1 111\'a< e' 1w boch . Tlri, pa llic boch' i' 'o fu lh ilt'c 11 .>e<1 1 llture . ''. n1 1lllral rh 1 C . po,lmodl'rnlll', ' el )), ' t . l . . . no 11 an1 ~ Ocs .. i111 erlw lht ~:: s H t 01og 1 t'' 1ltru ral' . . . of . . . . '0 ,rnm pkle h c.111 1 >e d~<l'llled . hr .-\llilur :md ~ l ri Loui.~t' Krokl'r: lt SJdue
.\tH iiotuo/11 l 1 11 0.1 . 1111" , IIH hoch , l'lllmJt< ''1{11 prort'"nl 1 1 1 imper.ll , es ol lill' cuh" t., 1 > ol . ' . ,.., . . 11 "''J.I 1 t re double . . ' 1 tt c ol .1chan rt<l ca iJtla lt ~ m : tlw 1'\ lt' l iori a tinll ( .111 1 1 )()(1 1 w ga ns "' tli t kt'\' ftl '11 ' l . . r 1 oftlr. () 1 11(' . . . . t H 1\ o ' "'.~ tn ll 1 l<ll dqwnd< ' "' tiH ou/t ri,., l . 1 . 1' "' )Cl( 1' S fIIIIC'IIIl\1\ (C0111j)IIIC'I'' , 1ht . t'. :1:11 . 1 11.1 ll:lllon ol lllt'lllOIY' i 11 11 , 1 1T

Key injluence 7.1

Oonna J. Haraway

:rbl.uioll oflh e h'omb: Son' 11 . 1 . 1 1 t' 1 llallon a' he . . \\'tlkm ' tt1 '.1, . ol) ,lflf (';IJ , ; I'Oill iJIII t'l'"l'lll'l 'tll'd j .. . . 1 '. l' lllagtTI' 1' 11111 r{ m:~ur(j nf lh C' l t~wrmudt'l l 1 ki11d hc 1rl 1 . \<.C ,IIllltl\,1\(1\' ~ llllt'll'llt' ' ' , as 1 H ' t'XI\'11111'1/,Hnll of tltt CCI11t al llt'IYOih ,,.,lt'lll )' lllcl lit 1 . ,ll ( 111111 Of , 1Jj , . . ' 111 , .,,,l:tl/11111 0 l'l .., . 11 11.. l~ 1111 11 " ' jlll'~J.I('k.t)!t'd 1dc:nlog~cal n<.tpln1 fo 1 1hc: plll~:uinm nf th . 1. . l m.IChiiH' o ( tht J;,11011 . Kl'lll'. . t el ~lllng. ( h.1o kt'r ami Kroker. 1u:-:~)

.. k,1Jeido,C OIH' oJ' l hrtnging- ' ig'llS. t hoch IS )ome ol IIH.:St' i ll t:~iion .' ltme lwcn explorecl in ' t itnce liclion. hll' t'X'Illll>l. B/ 1 lhtmal~e, !lw 1ok 0 1 mmon . t. ace R1111111'1 ,. . 111 gna r;rnlt'l'ing Llw indiliclttal'' bio"l'tl> hic 1 1 dlllllllttll\' ,,. ).ii\ '11 \C' 1 a,., rel>lit" ' tnls .1 111t'I110n 1111p <1111 (( .:mcl,lwrg 1<JW1 ) TI ." H gtllre of t'l'bcrpunk (se1 tl so ~e 1 r ~ '>) 1 1 1 . . ' . t IOil .> .. - l<h posecl q~t es tion' :tl)()lll tht integritl' oftht 111 >oc 1 111 an c~penalh' poinled for lll. ( dJl'l'jJI Illk 'll"'"l''il' lh 11 111" ,111 . . rman n bf - 1 1 ,.,.., ' " '"~' 11.11nre of ('; Jil:.~7:~iltll ~ ;J ill Jllll'( ~~ llh lh_ L' txpansill a~pt 'C lS of l l'i>tr, ,p:tt't illClrottg hh rt'hlt ilisc 111.1 C OilU'j>IIOII\ o J thl' bock . ('a~l' tlll' )I'O l ' l"'O il\ J' \ "1 . .. .\'t'lllllllla/11'1'1' ( 19Rfi) . . 1 . 1 1. . . . J .-. 1 o \ 1 11<1111 ( ,Jil\on's

dlsn.ppeart1~g 11110

F~J.r Jire ,~uk~'l',, l i<. con'i'lt'IH \\'illt the tondilion' uf J1fhl111ndel nil\ lhat lh .
;

'Once upon a time,' writes Donna Haraway in the introduction to Simians, Cyborgs and Women '(1991 ), 'the author was a proper, US socialist-feminist, white, fem ale hominid biologist, who became a historian of science to write about modern Western accounts of monkeys, apes, and women.' In Lhe following decade her work broadened to explore the potential opened by 'cyborg feminism', a notion first introduced in her celebrated 1985 essay, 'A Manifesto for Cyborgs'. Haraway's essay established her place as a leading theorisl of 'technoculture', of the complex interdependencles between hu.mans and technologies. Her career has crossed severa! disciplinary boundaries. She studied English, biology and philosophy as an undergraduate at Colorado College and went on to complete a Yale doctorate that spanned philosophy, history of science and biology. Now a professor in the History of Consciousness Board at the University of California, Santa Cruz, she is internationally renowned for her dislinctive and critica! analyses of the relations between culture, na tu re

and techr1oscience.

'. jac :k 'i ' i1: 1 .. . < 1 nwrpull,_lller 1 ~ .' e: ''. U)).lSJt l'rauon ol tlw tl:t lllrt oJ' inmonalitl (\\'illlt'rtllll 1 . . "' ' mmrmot ) . tlw mpllclllon<. ol larion, pro,lhtlic and hiunir tid' ( ., ( . t ltl CJI\;ans ll'll't' been . . , 11 1' t 't>' t\t s 1111 <' 1 nal .' . . ' . sll1 g'lt:t y :tC.J liSicd ICI modih his dn lg-taki ng lr:111il ~) ;wcl tll . 11 . . ol eatt'~CI!W.' pmdtt('cd b' hybricl (p. 1:)~l) ~ptcit'' 'llrlt a<. .1 . 1 O t ) ~~~ llng 11o1in11 J 1 1 l 1 ' C O){pt o p t. lit' 01 riman .1C me~ am t~llboclimt'll l are lhoroughh problt-ma lici,tcl in nhl'rpH:lk TI .. ~.~. 1 lt '" (l '< ( ' ' sonrt rlntw ro bt' w111snndccl. . 111< .n eom pomn1 (or \\'t'lll'<rrc') is ofttn r<g.uc 11llOllfl' l C1 1 ltg~ ~lll'"l' ' 1 ' " Y . ro 1 ,.., IY gt'l1 "1. ' ICtllalll>ll a lloll;tllrl cnti,jn..,n ht r,ptrC' el ll ' 1 or perhap\ po<.~human- both is tlll"l\~ 11 . . . " . . 1<' lltlll.lll idcntit)' (p. ~2-1 ) (BHkatnt<lll . l lltl:~). . H 11' 111 'om e shapl' lo lix srrl~jeri iilr ancl ' 1 1 t.lll . . . . . ll'ritn~ 1. ' 1 '1 ' 0 > . Tll t prod . lt('lil'il\ or the ( \ bor.{ lllliOll 1 .1pp1.op . J:HL'cl b1 fctn lllt'l 1 \1 1t' 1 m loll'ard~ ll l'\1 po"ihililit, nf 1 10 .'t't'1 H . :h a rottlt' . 011 1 n( climc11 >h ir gtIH 1 t' .tlll a',~~.'~~~::~~, ~~.~lg, ( ~lc~ .~;r ck< n_. . l !l!l7) . Tl rl' gtnnina l tt'Xl f(,r c~IH'rli.mini~ nl i' Don l1:t l-lar l~.'" . manlle'IO for c1borg, (rl'>r111 l 1 ' 11 1 . 1h t"l\ " ,- l<)t)j ) 1 '1 te 1 ' H' n >o1g m;ulili.,w in . 1 '1 . . . . lt' 1 l\ 1 >rt(1 \1'1111 ' f 1 1 1 prt,cnls an d'fertil'l' lllC;a >lwr ;r :.x' Jlm,i~l ~' >t~r~.. 1.>:~1.1 .~:~~~t~hinl' .:tnd p:rn org<l ll i~m. ncltc 1 1 . 1 1 1 g lll t dt\1 l't l t i .U IO ilsln p~ ht'lll" tcn ll unnns o; ' fru ' ll C 1 1110 . 01-{ICS: 1' . ' lt' Sl'C\ till' n bot'll ,.., . an llll.tg'lll:JI I\'t lt''Olll'rt ~>Uggt,lintr 'onrt \'t'n' 1 u toup mg'> (llarall'< ll llllJl 1 1 0) TI . " 1. 1 1 k' , . . . . . . H llllJWIIallCt' ol tltl' n bog fi gml' l' IIH'rges ,'c"'.IIWi l';l ~ n cs_' a nd J~Oit'llli:tl imii1 IH't1 l hrcakdnll'll of III'O once rolu,t dislilH II;ns: lllll t e 11 lltlll.Jn .rnd a l1 'm a 1~ ( lang l ragl'. L ool 11 'l'. '1)( i.tl behal ioll r ra n .tll he po"c,o;ed

flt~h 1h ~~~ ,

11 gh.

:~~~ ~' :~tc~. ;~~r:~:~~~ a;~~.~ ~~::\~:.:.:~ ~;:r~~~:: ::~ 1 1 ~~~;,~>cl;is;;::. 11l1. 11 1t i1 ~~>'',n1 .

:lll

Haraway's cyborg manifesto is an intricately woven text which is premised on the belief that the cyborg, 'a hybrid of machine and organism', is now 'a creature of social reality as well as a creature of fiction'. Scienlific and technological developments are making the old distinctions between humans and machines and humans and animals increasingly untenable. Haraway therefore has so me sympathy for postmodern theorists who likewise suggest that established dualisms are breaking down. But she is also enough of a materialsl to stress the importance of the ways in which technologies are used. lt is imperative, therefore, for feminism and cultural studies lo reject anti-science metaphysics. New technologies offer the potential to transcend the old determinlnalions of class and gender. Haraway endorses the advocacy by feminists of partial, situated knowledges as againsl the usual canons of scientific objectivity. Such situated knowledges can enable the enquirer to escape the 'god-trcks' of totalising objectivity on the one hand and thoroughgoing relativism on the other. In acknowledging the socially constructed character of scientific knowledge she shows how science studies needs cultural studies. But she insists also on recognising the obduracy of nature, which she somelimes depicts with a coyote metaphor: na tu re as a trickster with a constant capacity to surprise humankind. Haraway's writing is intendedly lively, ironic and playful. In form and content it seeks to disrupt the reader's deeply taken-for-granted assumptions about the boundaries marking off such fundamental categories as 'nature', 'culture' and 'humans'. The stylistics of Haraway's texts thus match her characterisation of her work as 'an argument for pleasure in the confusion of boundaries and for responsibility in their construction'.

Fi1.rtfnr reading
Haraway, D. (1991 ) 5imions, Cyborgs ond Women: The Reinvention of Noture, london: Free

Association Books.

314

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Cultured bodies

315

~~~ so~11c: llJ e:t .,l~ l't' b~ olhtr pri lll~llts) and bl' lll't't'll Jll :tcll inv' :tnd h11111 an~ ( bioe ll ~ine .

mg: COill)Jlll t'll'i('d

dlu . ' in 11 Cl \1T''e(I/ pnm1t11c. arti,t pa~~ i H . l'lc.} nase to lto ld tltt rl'll'l.tll 't'e IIH :I lll lf dld. 1fuman' are immcrstcl in tlw llorld. produrin~ thc:ir hunwlltlt''' in rdalion:~~~cc ll'lllt t':tch u tlt('r aml11 ith objen ' . \\'l' c.:=-.t-rci~t in thl' g-~ m. p l:11 ~pon' i 11 ' IH'Cia li, 1 si p~ <111(( < 'on tacl p<.oplc by lt' lc:pltont. Tltc,e n lll l in e in ttraclion"l'it h III.ICh illl'l> :m el t1. -, loes cw1 c.: dra 11 1 e lnol" ' ' ll' 111 10 1n crea~n ~1 111lt' l'll:llional tcchn ottillll l.ll llt' lll'orl..' 111J"I\I"L \' . . 1 1 ' .ugues t wt 111111<11 '1 ~ 1 11JglH be bc ll <'l' tlt oug ht o f a~ IIOclt' :1~ ini <T~c:etiow. o!' a nlll lti; lic' . lll'l\1'111 k~ ra~htT tita n indt p endcl11 nona<"- T IHre i' an impOJtant 'l'll'e in 1 ~~~ ~r 1l.ar.ma~ cl: ums._ ll'c :1 1t' all cyhorg.' nm~ (l:ilc r arknollltdgil1~ lh:n tltt precise~ l~C , ~l l ll~l' n cy ni '\\'e' 111 a ll'orld ri,cn ll'il h incqualitie, i' :lll opl'll qm,ion ). COillo 1 lar:m,\\ the n borg nOlion rtfer~ not lo Fra l1kl'Jhlei n Iig tJI'l'' or , 11 inun .. . l'llllll lTS .. b . lllli an ll l'lii'OI'K~ lh'J( '11'.1 't , f' liS J OJ . . . . 011r Sll'I'Oicl!> 1 d hOI'IliO il l'~ btll lO tiJl' Jl\'bricJ . 1 ( 1111 1 1 e 0 l~H ~ po 1~l~ O il o Hltlla n ~ J Jll c~ tn hnolog it'' clcsig11cd to f.lt ilitatt hum:ut projl't 1,_ Thc t no,'m ou~ 11npac1 o lll'clllH"-<ll'Jll'l' (' tlw infomati<'~ <) ( dnlllinalion' ) 0 11 1he ll cn 1 H. ti . lll< ll kt:l. tht: 1\'u.rkp lan. lht ~rhool ;m el tlw ho;;pital olf(..-, thc pott'Jllial 1, 1 occluclt: ~~ olcl ck ICllliiJl.IIJOn' o! cla...,. J.tct' and ~l'n dt'l .llld t''tabl i~IJ lll'\\' mocfe, ol human b . ' 0 In . \l'orld. .1 nd ca 1egmies are 11 p liJr T l.'lll.'~ O l.. :t~llJOII and rtcon!ll 11ction inn<.a,i 11gl~ rt' JiliT 0 11 1h~, cnwrgent '<Kial 1d.uion~ 'CI(Il~t :11d te c-h .nnlo;,~-- 1~ a raw;~ s uggt,t ~ thal 1hc f111icli1~- ancl opt 11111 ss prt'.~tllled )~ C~. f>0 1 g llll:lj{l'.l'\' IS H lll'fj)fll l g uidl' fo r 1111 C ici''l:lllding lh l' il11111t'I1S(' illljJlic:JliOilS of .h~!>< .t hangl''~ ~lw 'et~ ll~t r~bo g a' a , ignilicant oppo,itiona l figlll'l' ~~hith lransg t,,u , bo und.11te., and 1 "'l' llclt el 1 ) ' . .r . . . . 1'lnt h ~ C1flilble of' sugg,tintr . . ., JI(' \\' mocf 1., 0 ,., l' elllg 111 C ll t 11 Ol lll' of poli Lit '. ll arawa1 tll'f;t'' 11' ro l' Jnhra n the 111'11 tl'chnolocric, rat her than 11111~ ;:1\\a~ from tlwm in tll<' man 1HT of' , 0 111 0:t 11 .\ u-e ideolo< it~ _ 1. , 1 . det lamalon ' 1 ll'otild r:nll tl' he a l'\'bor tiJ:ln a crodclt-,s' ( l')~ l 11-11 ) a l tt lCJ 0 llaraw"'' IIOJ1.. Utlll111llll . 1110!>1 Jt<cnth . ~ . . " ' ' 111 tlu: engartJngh en1iiled \lod11 1\'itt 'f!:.'WI'IJlltf_.\flffl'llilllll .fi lllf/ft,\1(/ ,1[ (\ (}/I IIJ /110 1/11' 1\I ( f hn~t\ J<)l)-) . ~ 1 fSS . r . . . ~ 11 1ge 1,. ,.o ,llro1 or t');;:tlllpk. there , -"OilH' ' Cl'ptiti. ll' ' '-l:t. , m that ).{l' ll<ll'J' t'a n lw reaclih .cli\~o hnl or ron,uucted a Jit'\1' ()1' ll'ch nolog ical cl1'1elopnwnt!> 11 hen m a 111 hiotcch 11 olew ie.s conl inue 10 lt'l'lll!> - 11 11 11. lll<lllTnal " , l'IC.). 1 constrtJCl . ( , \\'om cn . in t'-''l'lllialisl . ' (' t, 'rc 1lrod 11 nil l . 111 l H'l l )\ . pe (Jt' lll:tllng C~JJJ\'l' JilJ onal ~endtr a"ociat io1h ( B.d,amo. 199!l: 1f.n l e~ . 1992). Cd>c~ t~ nna~tn m a~ dfc~1 a IIH.)rough dislm:Hion o/ o nr eas\' 1 101ions th<~l closcll' tk the hod~ .tJH I tltl' n aw r:ll: c!J,I odg ng- tllc buc h l'mm c-;tabl i ~ h c c l c 'tllltll",\1 di,cour't'' 111a1 . pron more difficuli .

IIH' buund.ll i<, or tite difl<:rc:JH p:u (~ of 111. 11'0 ~I ~)C'COillC mott' pt-rmcabk. 1hc C''tabfi,lttcl d u. tli'm' ( mind boch-. Cl dttJJT 11 -11ur1. 11. ,Id
l''\ )J t' rl ,, 'ICillS) . \ '

clot'!> 1101 dl' ll ~ IIH biolog ica l dim l' n ~ion' ol lil e material hmh ln tt d oc;-. ~C lYt' lo unde rline th e linlit.Hio n' of such cxplan. Jtion' in accotulling lor the tnmmou~ ,-arit'l\' of corporv:tl bclich and pr:lCdCt'' [~sc nti a fisin g cxpJa n:Hion' C<lll ll OI d o jtiSiin lO tht crO''C ulwral l'arit'l\' ol b och ll't hnirut'' or lllt' I' hiHorica l l'l'o lution thruu.:;h lr;ut'- follllati nn' in Io1 ms o f flO\\'l' l' or dt'l'l'lo pmt'll l' in lht ci1ifi,ing procc'' 1 ik e11i~t. consiclcration o f' i-~ ~~e ~ o l h e bmh' lT)llT:'cn !:Ilion. i ts (');;jJl't'"il't' 111nd:t1 i til'' .m el 1he illlPtct ni tlch notultu t' tan not lw t:"a,ih' accommnd.llt'd 11'iillin txplan.ui m l' r nuched on l\' in bicllogical term ~. Culiural s1udie' of lht hnch i;; a l:trgt fi vld 10 11orJ... Boclit ~ a1 e li l..dl' 10 lw ' in' in cultmal slllclit'' l'or ~o1m' 1inw to co lllt'.

Re-cap
This chapter has: introduced the fundamental concepts and theories in constructionist accounts of the body - techniques of the body1 forms of power/knowledge1 the civilising process; considered aspects of the debates around the represenlalion of lhe human body and its use as an instrument of expression and transgression; examined the impact of modernity, postmodernity and technoculture on conceptions of human embodiment.

11

tht~ P ~11~tocl<rn

irlenlitie~. rel;11i()n.~ h ip~

g~-~~~

;>I

le

Further reading
The principal works of tvlichel Foucaull on the body - The Birlh of rhe Clinic (1975), Discipline ond Ponish (1977) and the three-volume series on The History of Sexuolity, The Use of Pleosure (1986) and The Core of the Sell (1990), are challenging reading. In sociology lhe seminal text, Bryan S. Turner's fl?e Body ond Society ( 1984)} blends the analytic concerns of Parsom and Weber with those of Foucault. Anthropological interest is much older; see the very useful collection edited by Ted Polhemus, Socio/ Aspects of t!Je Human Body (1978). In addilion, Horace Miner's satirical analysis of the body ritual ol one very well known tribe, 'Body ritual among the Nacirema' ( 1956 and widely reprinted) 1s still an illuminating read. Michel Feher el ol.'s 1,600-page, lhree-volume Fragments for a History of the lumon Body (1989) is an importan! resource. Postmodern inlerests in the body are well represented by conlributions lo Arthur and tvlarilouise Kroker's ed1 ted colle<tion, Body /nvoders: Sexuo/11)' and the Pastmodem Condllion (1988). A historically w1de-ranging photogra phic compendi um of images of the human body is William A. Ewing's The Body: P/1otoworks of lile Human F orm (1994). There is much lo debate concerning bolh the material accomplishment and represenlalion of the lemale body in Bill Dobbins' Tf?e Women: Photograplls of Ole Top Femole Bodybuilders (1994). Chris Hables Gray (wilh the assistance of Heidi J. Figueroa-Sarriera and Steven Mentor) has edited a useful collection on many aspects of cyborgism: Tfle Cyborg Hondboo~ (1995). This might be read alongside ludith Halberstam and Ira Livings ton's ediled colleclion Pos!lwmon Bodies (1995).

7. 71Conclusion
Th i.\ t h.lplcJ' h:lS l't'\ il'l\'~d m nw ('llllll'i blll inns lo culi lll':tl Mtld i e~ or 11 )(' bncl\' The clt apltr ha~ ~oug_ltt lo t'X<u nilll' '>OIIll' ol thl diH'I''-l' 11'<11''- in 11 hich ltuman corpore:;litY is bt'\lllncfer~tO O cflll lHIIH.''> ~ l' ll ( 1,1 ('1~1. ( 11 fltll<l ) l C IIll ~ . f"Jll' COJhlrtiCilOili't <;\<lll l'l ' m p l o~crJ

Subcullures: read ing. resistance and social divisions 31 7

chapter

off' from th <. domi n an! nllwrc: ,,hik ,Jmnll.lll eou~h ,,),o accolnlllOd ;nin ~ 1 <crwin aspt' Ch ol' it. Scconcl. as lllt' ('01 1\l'jl l or ~ llhru llure c]j,ick ..; \\'icl tr l'o rms o l c ullurt illtO 'ill<llll'r units. " hlch 111<1\ n:i~t in rd:uion,hip' of oppo;;ition 10 " ide1 culture' llw nmnpt pote nt i.t lh a llo"' rom ich-r;ninn ol llw did~ion of culturt. One ol lht nw.q importa n! cri t i c i, l ll~ llladc n i' tht icl t':l of' Cll lllll'l' b t h<ll il IL' llcl' LO ll'atlto th l' bringing lO~C' l hcr ol d isp;u a te <0111p<Hll'nts 10 produce an m er-\illlp lilied de~cription n i a phenollll'IWil tltat is a clllal h ,en cnmplcx. For L'X<lmplt, f;~ milia1 lonnulation' 1ikt th c ';\meritan"''"' ol life ' o1 ' E11rolwan n ll tu rc ' stTill lo nb li tc ra lt' "1111t' im poi'lallt distin c 1io n s. 1n C h aptcr 1 ,,e exa n1in ed th c ""'' in \\' lti ch c 111 111n, art auua lh lwilt up o ul o l' f'o rm' ol r ultur:d strugg lt and arguC'd tltat tht'\ ,Jtoll1cl lll'\t>r be taJ..en a t fare \,IIIIC'. a~ rull u r<'s 11 '~' ('(ualh di,idcd . \Jan, dilt'er~nt ''Tit e rs l1an 11 1ilised th c conrq>t ol' '"bc llltllrt' in aue111pt~ to m en onw ~ uc li probl t- 111 ~. Tltu'-. 1\t' C:lll exa mine hm, .\ ml'ricall c u llllrt' ra ll rontaill \llhru1tlll'l'' ha,ecl 011 hot-rocl t ar tnthll,a,m (\ l oorhou~e. 199 1). Stm T~tk l.llh ( 13arnn -Smi th. 1 99~: .JtnJ..ill~. I ~HI~: T11lloch <tiHI .Ienkin ,, 199:, : Ptnlt~. 1 ~19~) 111 ~1 ' 0 '1 1 o p era !: 111~ ( 11 arrin.{lo n ancl Bi tlb~ . l !l~l.). in ad d ition tn t h e ll!OI'L' o Cie n COI1 ' 1d t- ltcl ,ou th <;ub cultll r; ll g roup,. ,\ lort'OH'I'. a' wt'il ;, [:u i1itatillg cxaminatinn o l :ulllual di'i'io1h, 1he co11ce p t ol ~uhc ult llrt' a l,o a id~ anah ,i:; ol he"" cult lll'l' i.; fragnwntln g. -\lt' th t. n more allC1 mnrC' .'-11h c 11 11un ' :ti[() <loes t h.b lllt'<lll 1h at it i ~ lllll'' impo~'ibk to se paratt ~ n b c uhll l 't~ f'ron1 1h e ' 11t:ti 1 1.~1 rtam ;. T1w third thtnH rllnllillg 1hrough th e l h.1pte1 conn1n~ i11t t'l'j>l ttatioll. Chapttr 1 exalllilll'cl ~0 111(.' o f l he g'l' ll l'l'a ) i~~lll'' hut a d i'l IISSOII "( Sil b cult 11 l'l''- COIICI'l'l j,l'' 'OIIlt' nl' th e cli le nuna' in,o1wcl. For instan r 1. inf 1n 1n tia l accolln ts of:;ubcn ltures. ~uch "' lh :ll produrcd h~ 1 kbcl igc ( 197!1). rea d 0 1 ckcodt subculttll l'' m in~ tiH' tooh of s cm io ti cs (p. :~.J) . .-\~ '''t' 'hall 't'C. 1 Jtohcl i~c~ in t<'rpretation ol punJ.. i' com ro, < rsial. Ho\\l'H'I . tht gencr;t 1 poi n 1 is t ha t cli lfe l't' lll interprt lat ions ('all bt o l'lt:rtcl t11' thc m <.:a n illl{ 1 ~1 :u n . sub cultlll't'. ~ l o rcuHr. su e h rtading' 01 int t'l'j)l ttatio n' tc nclw n q\' k c t t ll t' meanmg o l the 'uhc11hure for its pani<ipanh ( \\"iddiromlw a 11d \\'ooflltt. l !l!l.): ;\lugglcto n. 19!~71. This dillirult~ i' compounclccl ))\' llw litrt 11 1:11 \'OII t h a11d ot1wr sllbr ll 1turts ar~ o lten h ig hh ,i~ i bl c in ilt l ma'~ lllt'clia. ,,lt tre tht, :ut ol'le 1 1 ' l('l't'OI\'j)L'rl, as f'o lk dt'l'lb 11 11 11 pron;kt llloral p.lllC ( Colwn . 19/:1). 1101\t'\'t'r. lhl'l'l' :lll' n t hcr rol'llh O( repn,C'ntal.iol~ th a t requirl' ll(l' I'I'Og:nion . For t'X:IIllpk. \ \ t' :d i ' J..n o\\'' th :ll Stor Tnl: ran<; an ' t~ l'nh~h men ll'iw a r<' ' pt , ~o n a l 1 ~ in a d e q ll:ll('. lt is 1h nclore ~urpr i s i n ~ to read s lll cl.' es ( l.or exampk. Baco n-Smith. 1 ! l !l~: .l cnkin,. I D~l~l t ltat poi nt 10 thl' imp<utann o l 11 11 ' ~Cnt'\ in thc lin, o f 'n01111al' IHlllH'Il. At thi~ point it 1 11: 1 ~ be i1hl lllina ling 1o p :11 1 ~( a n d rdk'ct cm ~o 11 r 0\\' 11 l'llthu~ia., lll ~ an d <H: Ii\'!ics: do \'0 11 be le>ll)-: lO a g' I'Ollj) t h ;H 1'011 tlli nk nf' ;IS ;1 Sll h CIIhlll'('? \\'nu1cJ \ 'll ll cla'' \OII1~c1 r "' a l'an of ;un lon11 of t uhu n (m u,ic. tdc'i'ion. 'l>nrt ancl "' on). nncl h o11 i111ponant a n th e~t .KI\ ities in \'Oll l l' \'l'I'H1a \ lilt? l)o ~o u cn1 k c t thing~? Do .'.0 11 discms m ur int tn sts ll'illl o t lwrs:- Do I'OII gt>l dq)l'essed 1\'lt l'll ,o u r lt'<l lll loslst lt 1111g ltt be usdu 1 to II'L' tht material cli~cu~~~cl in thi~ t h aptcr tu anah:;t th e't: el'pcril'nn<; but a(<;(), p('l'haps 111111(' lllj>lll (:111()\. (O l'\'<11Ualt' t ha t 111(\ t('l'ia( in tltC Jight of \()lll' O\\ll CXfWI'it' IICC'. Tht influtntia l litcratun 0 11 suhc 11lturc d t\'t lowd ;11 1h e Bin11in~han1 Ct'ntre lilr

S ubcultures: reading, resis tance and s ocial divis ions

8.0
lntroduction
In this chapler we are concerned with subcultures. which in broad terms are often defined as subgroups of a wider culture. Asignifican! proportion of the chapter is devoted lo the exegesis ol the way in which the idea of subculture was developed and uscd in research at the Birmngham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies during the 1970s which, despile the numerous criticisms that have been made of this body of work, remains very influential. This literature concentrates overwhelmingly on young people so that what is normally being examined is youth subcultures. While this particular emphasis is followed in much of lhe chapter (especially in sections 8 4 to 8.8), we also explore the relevance of the idea to subcultures less tied to age. This 1 s clone in a li'lter parl olthe chilpter througl1discussions ollans (section 8.1 1). which also points to the signilicance ol identity and performance in everyday lite. The learning objectives of this chapter are to: fam i1 1ar1se readers with the main contours ol the approach to the study of youth subcultures devcloped a l the Birmingham Centre for Con ternporary Cultural Studies; examine the critique of the Birrningham approach; point to developing alternative studies of youth and tan cultures.

8.1

Subcultures: power, divisions and interpretation

In tht 1 Olll''l' ol thi, t haptt'r 1\t' ,hall ton,idt l thnt im pm t:lllt th<' IIH''. Fir~t. '-llb<tl llillt'' \\t' '11: !1 ) ' 11).\'g!'.'-l. :lit' ill lil llaiC'h C 'e>ll lll'cttd l!J i.-t l ('~ or (> OWCI' (p . \) 1) ancl 'lnlgglt. fl111' . !Jill' n J tlll' IIIC "I illljHII 1.1111 .l jljliC>al 1lt'' lO 'll hC' lllllll\'' cll'lc lopl'cl al tht Ccntn: for Cont<'111pora1 -y Cultural Swclics (>. :~~71 at tht L n\l' l ,t, ol Biaan ing h;~ut d11nn g 111l 1 ~l 71k e cll lt'l' jllll:lli'n .111d .111 :1 h't'' \e> ll lh 'ubr ullll rD in ll' llll ~ ol o ppositinn tn. and ill t'O l po1.11 O I1 in. d c t~ni nant t'llh llrL'. Ear ll \lltl ll ,, li l! u lturc 't'!'k:; 10 tll < ll' k i1sc:ll'

316

318

lntrodu cing Cultural Studies

Subcu ltures: read in g, resista nce a nd social divisions

319

Conte m pora tY C ultura l Sludi t:' had SO ill l' o r it <; roo ts in -\lll " l iC'IIl \\'()1'k lil' ll . . .. . ~ .nte mptcd 10 expl.1111 lh c beh an our o f IOU n g. m aJ e '<k-lian l (t:,pecialh' cr imitnl) trrou , ' 1"1 p~. 1l IS nnpo t tan t lO c.:xamnw l h t~ lncratu rc bncl h . a~ 1h e a''>11111ption th a l stt bcult . i_ n .-.onw l'ron1 th e r u llurt:. or clii'J'e r e 111 lhc 1e'>t of u:. . has n 1n 1itougit a grt'al ch:al or ' :lb~enw,nt work 11 ,,l cr 1 1 . . ., . 0 1 ' a~ ll'tll )Ccom e C ear, lhL' rc:: 1 S som e citstance 10 lraiT I f'rom tite ,io kn t' gan rr~ of' inn c rc , 1 ,\ 1 1 ' o ") .ll \ ,os . nge e~ to t H . a 11 a. h-s1 ~ o l tln11' h pun !.. ' ubr u ii111T' -\ con nt:c tin cr thn" tcl c1 1 l>e round . . . ~- o 1 111 tht' nouon th a l 111 dtlkrent wa~s surh group-. are a probl<:m for ~nc ie 11 - (se. He! 1 JqHS) TI t Jc gc w e1 1a ptC'I' t lll' rtfun bq{ins ll'i th a brid' disn tssio n of 1he literallt rc 0 11 ' . 1. l . . .1 . ga ngs .111< ( l'l'ta ll t to pronc e 'Ollll' of thi, romext.

111o hing th t f'rustratt:d pur~ui t o fdom ina nl !-(Oab (or o ppnsitio n to lhe m ). a suhntltlll't' reprt,enh lh l' dcn lopmcnt of ,-al m' assorial l'd ll'ith grolllh at thc bouom of tlw -,ocial
51

aclh~:ent ~ : ~_re

~t'll $t' 'clt,ianl~

main~tt tam

r1~~~

n 1c tlltT. Tht foca l cnnccms ol' su d 1 group~ ::~re <kt a ile d be lo ,,:
trouble lOl lg ll iH:'\S Sllllrt llt'" cxri tc m t' lll fa te
;n11o11 o m~ (d c ri,cd J'ro m .\1 ille r. i!l:1R).

8.2 1 Deviants and gangs

T h ere i.-. a 11ide l::mgt of theon a n cl t'n lpirit a l 11 ork in a ,: uie t~ o f disciplines 1 ,1Jich H ll ~: mpl~ tu expla111 :1 11 ~1 c l~;tri_t c l c ri ~l' th t- n a tnrc of'cl nian t' b c h miu u r. 0 1w clisli iHtirc M>uologKal a n d cnn unolog1ra l !>ll-atHl t:xpl.ti n ~ d c:liancc t h rough th e conce Jt of Mlbcullure. 1

\\' h ik .\ !ilk-r'' appro.Kh i' 1101 abk w e~plain 11'111 ~ome membe1:. or tht wor\..ing cla" beco me d e1ia nt ,,h i 1t- nthl'l'' do 1H1l. it do e~ Sl'l' 1n w cetptun: ~o m e c hara t' ttrb t ic' of 'de1ialll subrulture~. t'SJK'cialh anmng nung II'Orkingcfa,, men . ,,hert th Lre Jll,l~ be a pa rticular c mph a~ i ~ o n mure a~gressin a' p ect- o l m a,n tli11 i11 . Som t ro ntempu1 '<1rl a ttc m p ls to C' Xpluin th c c rin1in :, J lw h al'io 111 ol yo un g m c n o n coun c il estalcs in conllmpotary Hritain han ll't'd a ).imilar approach. llcrc. ac1ion' :u'l' in tt'l pre1cd as tlw as~e n ion of a panicular k i nd of' \l'o rki u g-class masculin il)', 1dwrc une rn ployccl ~-o u ll l-{ mcu do nol tx i ~t in -,~abk rda tionsh ip.;;' but drif 1 l'rum h omc to homc 11hcre LJc, ;ul loo!..td aftt'1 by ll o nwn (C nn phell. 19!1:~). S uc h fo rtl l > or 111:1~Cu linil1 h a l'l' o l'tt' ll bce n ~(.'( n ~ t'X ]Jl'l'"l'cl in tll c l'<tilll'~ an<l actil il iC!> t'l iminal W"'.l!:' 1\ ,lich a re p.ulicularh clc;n h boun<ll'd an<l cohcn.:lll fonll of d c l'iant ).uhc ulurn . ;\lusl o r th c reseurc h o n this topi r has hL e n concluctc:d in IIH' Cnitcd Statt'" and il i' nul clcar 1hat it is app licabk- ~traig lt tlon,ardh lo o ther countri t':-.. Th u ~. ,,h ile there h a~ been rcscarch con d u c1cd in B1i1 a in thal suggcst~ that thel l' "ert suc h ga ngs (f'o r cxamp le . l'a tri c k, J n7~~: Parktr. J\1 7-l ). tite clo minanttrc nd a rg ut:s th a t ocia! bond ~ are rathcr lomer th:111 II'Oitld he ao;~ociatcd ll'ilh a ){:lllg. ancl that conscqut'ntl~ o;ubc ulll11Ts c;n1no1 lw cq11 a lcd ,,ith g a11 gs ( Do wn es, 19Gt1). Despi1c th is. rtn nt ll'ork 111 II'I' ic r:-. , u clt as ). li ke Oa1 is ( 1990), con tinuc~ tu e mpha ... i~< tlll' prel.tlen n of gang grou>' in somc cilie' in thc L ni tcd Sll tt's. 1t is II'Ort h considning

8.2.1 1 Deviance and subculture

-~ h~ American'" iter :\lhen C:ohcn ( 19~>.1) argttcd thal dc,iarHT ari~t'' at th o't' poinh 11 'ocle_t )' ll'!lt' re Mrt1CII1re a nd c ttlt ttre conll' into con ll in. For ex a m pie, ll'orking-c b ss bovs, d t~pl'll'<.'d thro u g-lt th t 'II'IIClll ra J force' of' sodct\', 1\'IIU id COJI) tllit 'cltl ia n t' act., ll'hi ~h 1t: Jt'_ctec~ 1lw ,-a ltt<:~ ol midd k-cl:h~ culture. 'P t-e~stt t t dl'l l'io ps <11 -.u ch poi nt~ :tll(l dlstmCI11'(' s ttl~c u lt me., :11 i.~c. ll'iti ch tx hibit ,;t lttt'!' a nd ac ti l'ities th a l o pposc th o~t of do11u nan 1 01~ rc-,pcctable cult ttre. Thi-, approath. ,,Jtich fo c u~t d 011 the ;H 1i1itie' of g<u~gs 01. den a n t "" bcu ltu res. tl wi r co rt idea . ., a n<l 1~ tlms and , n 011 , 11as clt 1t'lqp cd ancl rd t~l ed 111 su hstq mnt Amc ri ca 11 re ea rch (e.g-. Ch n,arcl a lHI O hlin. J!H)U). Such account.,, ll'hich make ' cau,al con mnio n btt,,ec: n ~u bc u ltura l 1 a J 11 c~ :111 <1 i>c lte 'l' c ri tic is<>clfJI' )-11'1 \ J \1 a tza a rg t~c o; t 1 . fs Clll(l d e l'i:tnt bc h al'io ur ll't' 1 , ' rl 1tz - 1 ( ft)(" 1- f) . l:tl d ~ ~1 a n n ~ n nlc.h m o re inte r mi tiL'ntth a n t ltt.,c: th eoril' \~tggc ... t ancl th.ll it i:, , 1 .,~ociatcd "1 1h a 1 1l'rtocl of 'd r if'l'. lklinqll t' n n 0 1 cle\'ian ce i ~ u nh n nt p o , , ibh ,c.-.ult. S uhc u ltural ' ._:du cs ~na~ -c ~ plai11 su r1 1c a~ p ec l ~ :111d fn '.'"l ' o f d d inqutncl'. For t"-.:a m p ll'. th c: -"lcaJi 11 g- of f,-, cm~ b1 IOung men 1111ght hl' expl:uncd lll particular .'iu hculturll be l ief~ t h a t \'alue ' Pl't'd asa !Cl 1:mt:r ma ~ctliinitl'. hut th t~ do not tx plain a ll aspec t ~ ol'dc ,ia 1 1cc i 11 a tig h 1 a nd ge n e ra l lash1 t>11 . .\l :lt; a \ i cka~ rc , onatt II'th lat l'L 111or e t{t'llt'ral. con~icltratiom of ~<~~ll h. \Ubcultu ~c,, 11h~t h a~t 1101 crimi n al lO tllt' l'~ ll'lll or dcg 1t'<' o f 1he g:t ngs l' Xollllllll'cl b~ 1111'>r\rn e rt t'<l ll ill l' ntllii'C. For ins taliCC. it lltig ht b e a rulle d lha t -,u bc ultu re~ 1'ill're 'ocia! r ontrob are rc:l:1ti1eh ll'cakct. or ~-ht1 e indiriduaJ, are dt'l'l'iop a_t yoinh 1 hL' I\1'('('11 ilfc !ltagl'.\ . Fo r e~a mp k , lhcy nmy ll (C\11' in tite St:tg l' or ' adoJt-,cence '. . O ther .\n.' c r ic: 111 ll'ork ( 14 11 t'""n p h-. .\l ill t l . 1 95~) emp h a~i ,cd tlt t 11':1\ 11 11hich lwm~ of clcl'tancc may bt stcn a~ e~ pre"ion., nl ' l mre r -da~s cu ltu r e. 1 h us. ra t h e r 1ha n

or

thi' in son a d e wil :1 ~ it r:ti ~t:-. sume impuna nl g tnn:tl tl w m cs.

8. 2.2 1 Mike Davis: gangs in Los Angeles

Oa,i<. ( 1990) ::~rgucs t h a t black gang in L<h Angl'lc!. emerged in thc 19-Uh in rcs p omt. to ll'h ite ,-iolc n cc agai n"l th e bl;tc k counn 1111 i 1~ . T h c m us t i 111 portan t d ivide b c 111TCil th t''t' black gang~ wa~ tht gcographical o n e bet\l'cen th C' ca~l :n1d ll'l'St in t hc b lac!.. conllllUnity. T h c ga n gs IH'IT oft t n centrcd in ~ch oo l-rdale cl 1('1 Tlo rics. During th t 1~l!'()\ tite po~ition o f th l' ga n gs 11':1' !'trt: ng tlH' n l'Cl by a numbt r of l'actors. Tit e p o l n adopte<l tlw l'it'll' 1h at thc ghe tto ronlainc<l a l.tl'!{l' 11\llllbe1 of h arckorc cri 1n i nal~ (a 1i ell' 1 .h at ton k o ll tlw s1a1us o l' a e lf~ f'ulfillin g proph ecy) . T h c p e riod a !so ~al\' a

wor~lni n~ of ecou omic and job prospcct~ for blarks in Lo~ . \ngclc~ .

In D<lli :~ ,ie,,. du r ing th e mid- ancl la te 1 !160~. 1lw b lack gang~ ll't re politici~td

320

lnlroducing Cul tural Studes

Subcultures: rcading, resistance and so cial divisions

321

g;ug'. 1lol\'l'\l'l'. during the latt I~Hi(h and e;u k IIJ70 th. 131 ' Cpll.lllltll.l .IClllllY by thc '111 1 1 1 . . . ~ l ,Jl" ,IJ11 ll'l ~ C'lllH.: .tt' 1om l lt' poliu 1\'1]() dt'Cill 'lll'd t l1L. 1t.H .. 1et' .1 . oJ t1 . ' racllc-11 . 11Jl ll . ,. . .lllltlt.:r \';uacn' p.u'h of tlw L' nittd St.ltt~ The n ., . . . . 1 ' og.uu,auon in L' ~11 Lt t g.tng-., t lat <kl'elopccllr 1111 tl . 1 lllln tlw p lace o / tlw l'anthc rs lmt did nc;t ~Jtr t l1 . '> ll')J]li'C 1' . 1 ' us poitH JI J,. l ' ' t'll po IIIG\ j>JOgJ l J .1~ pnwcr anc comm unit~ wlf~lw1p. mrne of lltt crip,. a~ thel . l <1Cl.t' Jo pe< 1 . . ' lrc nll t.:t 111 tia g h tuo httiiTtn 1q-o _ 1 gangs 1\'C I'l' partCIIIarh Ctntnd in arca' bl t ia l> u ilcJ ' 1 f ,IJld 1912. < IIH I rn ltldollllttnt. TIJi, ~ a llrocc-;-; thlt ll 11"111 1 ti 1' . lllg n ne ,, roads L ' 1L' t onc IIJOil' pn <.'nHrgt'1H l' of ~ont h ~ubcu ltllll"> in pthtll;u Lo ndon ('ce St'CLOJ1 K~) T I 1 Hl1ollng thc O) tite ( . 1 1 . . < " 1l' ( CI'C'JOI)Il\ .IIJ>~. 1 Wllg lt lO bt '10 Jl,IJlll'd '(1'0111 tiJC' J ()- 11 . . 1' . Cll t 1 f 1. 00\l'l'- < hi11Htlldl .. c . J , 't~ l o 11<~1.-Jng (Dans ' tltl IOll"1 . i11~O 'i' ll'' J . f ''J>P ecl ' ' ' IIJll() ' '>Cit)) - 1 J) a\'IS ht'l'tl clt'l'illd 1ru tn ll le ~logan 'n>n t inuoll~ ;c,olut ion ; 11 ,;, ::~t ll:~c'11t1a 11!1e . mar hal'c 1 1 reo TI o tutht cr 1 ' 111 ~.ttJon . ll' < lagnun (Fig ure ~. 1 \ f'rn111 Dmi~ ( 1 ~1(10) ,.,. g

~~-;,, p;u l l etllarl~ iltllll<.' ntial. lc;J<ling to a d ccli m: in com'c ii~OI;.tl . ~. l ~at ~ .' .n.ll~llr pany

uncler t1~L' infllltiiCL' of l \I riglns a lid blaek polnr (',llll Jai "' Th. ~

>.

th l' Bloncl' h:11 ,. lwtn pt im.trih ;t cll'll'll'll'' t c .tt tion-lc JI1t.tlinn 111 tl1v aggi L'''iH t D.II i,_ 19~111 ; ~~1\1 1 cnH't gtnn ol tite ( .IP'
1); h arg lll'S litattht C rip' 'PI't'<HI thnntg ilthl' g iH. 'll!J dutin g t ll l' 1\l/ 11, ,,, a ' l11hrid 11 of tcc n cult .tml proto-\lafi a' ( 1~1\10: :\011\. 1 hi~ '''' lari1it,ltcd h' a numbet nf ~o< ial l.td, cltallgt' T ilttT w:1..; ;1 'oria l poi<ni.;;ttiol1 takin g p lace i11 ;.mplm nH:Il t 11 ithi n tite l> co mmunit~. with the dtldc pmtnt ni 111m.1rd nwbilit1 l'o1 'o me black ll'll1 ktr,. t'')lt' cially in ,tatt' :tll(l kdvntl illll'l'allt ra<l'' but othtt 11i,c l'L<llolllic dcprl'"icnt and l.tt J.. u( j obs ror o thtro; (\l'l' ;11 \0 >;tetioll ~.:~). Furt1Wll11Cll'l'. m ;lll\ ol'thtemp1ct~\.'l\ th:tl Jll'Oiidl'd job- tr t:at lier ).(t'llt'J',IIiDll' ol hlark~ 1\'l'l'l' rdocalL'<I LO tht '-IIIHilih. Job <)ppcll tllllitit' 1\'l'rt' (alld l'IJlli llllt' 10 he) ft'\\' :tllrl f;r bl't ll't'l'll ror IOIIllg' hl.tt).., in lfl t tt~ Surh llllt'lltplo\lllt'llt i-; co1 rtlatl'd "i1 h tlw 'juH'Il<ll ion ol pol't'J 11 ( D .11 i'. 1~~~ll l: '\!H) 1 ll'he rt 1he poor art i11t rea~i ngJ~ t h c I'!Htng. Th c l.n~ .-\ 11 )-(t k )> 'dwo1 " ' '' IL'l11 , aJ,o in a ~t;IIC ol Cl i'i~. hlnt ki 11g oll edut .llion.tl oppon \11111 in flw Olllt olllt' of t IJ, 't '' JC:JI

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facllll'' i.~ that Soll ilt<t' tllr. tl !... \. 11." 1 Jl't'l1 lll'tra~td h1 1ir11t.tlh ' '" ''' lnd u l .!,'Oit ' rnll H' Ilt. In partintlat. tht tlt.tklling publit ,jftontt' .tboul \Ctllllt lllll'tllplo\IIH'lll .uul tltt' j11H n.HiCill o ( J!CII'l'l ll Jt;, kft 111.111~ lft O II~:l lld' nJ l<l\111).! 'lll'l' l Jll'H jlk ll it ft lillk aitt'l ll.lll\t' 1>111 111 tttli't i11 tltt' ll'Plo-1\.t\lll''i.ul \UUih t'lltJ>h"tlll'tll plllgt.tllt uptt.lll'<l lll tht cm .ti1w t:11 ttl,. ( lh1.,_ Hl!lll: :\11'1) Da', argllt's that, l,hilt ga11g' :1rt n-ry import.lllt in th c nack bu~i11l'~S. the~ :lll' nnt crillll' rnrpor:11ion~. a~ tht'l' opl'rall' a l lo\\' knl~ oJ' the rh 11g- h it'l'arclll'. Latine\ g:tng' art :tho imolwcl in thl t' t ar k husillt'" 011 th t 'treet kn-1 ancl ll'1Ti ton tl'ncJ, 10 bl. ,Jtand out in anmd ll'ith potential and an11al eh ug salt' Ca11g '"hnd ture , ht< o111i1114 incna,ing11' prtlalcnt i11 t1w d t: pre"td a nd di.;Joc:H<d :111'a~ of Lo~ .\n geJe,. rhu,. acconlinp. to
D;11 i' (J!l~HJ:

'hm"ll a qttiltii'Ot k ol hlue-t :tgged ( lip'. b.,llt J:.a,tsidl' and \\'n" i<le '1. . 11 ~11 1\~t iltll ~ ~~ otllcJ' ga~tgs. 'lllllC ciL,nlfdtd f'lttlll th e ptc- \\ ,llh gl'J.Il'J.t;ic,;~ ~~~ncl~~ IIHc:",llll ( ,Jffl Jll'l''SIII'l'. till''>t' illdl'j)t'lldtnt '1 11 ''> . . 1)11 Dc1 11 t' t f ,IIIC'' \tll t' lt' p trh. C , , g. g ' IJrllm. Bnu 111~ f l ullter~. 1 1 0 1 f nle1.1h' r "' 1 ncl-h<lll;lkerc:;: . t he pm,t'1 lul Piltl\ _ fH'I ipllt ral tn th t :-.outhnntl' JI l'<ll'l' I'J., , (' . . 1,'' ~ ~~~ cmg 1 11 Bl.tck Utlllllllltli lie<. 1 t .ompton. .tcoun.l. f'.l... tdcn.l ;mcl Pomon 1

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,\,i dt l'tcJtll tl1t' 2:~ 0 HlarJ.. a11d L.ttinn ~.111).!'' ldt ic lt Jite l. \l'l> lta1l' identilkd i11 lltl' Lo~ , \ ngl'k' .11 t.t. t ht'1l' .11e al'o ~ 1 ,\,ian g.111g ' a11d t hl'it 1111111htt., ""' 1apidh gt "'' ing. In l.o11g lkach g.11 1g~ ol 11 ild. J>:tll'tll k" C:un l>odi:111 bn:lll h i J il'e11 lt' 11 ol'itt' tilt' 1 1' 1dt 1' ant1 ,, ... 11 tlll'l ho;u dcd golrl. \\'hill' th.- Filipiuo 'iant.lll.b (,\\111 Chica no g.tng '1' Jt-,. tlt l' m ({' lliOdt'l of' 1llc \ 'it' l Crip' r ~uppost clfl roi>hcn 'lwriali~l~) i' oh\ CHI'. Dal'is's ;~CUHIIl t of ga ng~ in Los Ang'l'ks is .,igni licotn l l'or a n u ru ht1 of rca, o ns. Fir'l. it idcntific' thc IJi,torically changing na111re ol thc gang~. thcir rcbtinn" 11 ith nthcr ,ncial gm u )J~ ~u e h as wh i te pcop le a nd t h e poi ice :utcl 1h e ir local ion i11 paniud;u lt'ITi toric~. Second. thc ,,.," in 1d1ich tht ~ang i:-. a rl',pnnse \11 tht proh1tm' cauwd b' 'oci.1l position or it' 111l'l1lht'l''> i' dt':11'iy .;(atcd in 1IH 1\';t\' in \\'hiclt Dal'iS c\j>;('lf~~l'\ black 111Wlll plm llll'll t. tlw rdoca t io11 of joh~ t o t he s11btlrb' 1\'h Lre wh itts fo t lll t hL' m;~jc n it~. th e it1Cl't'il'-t'cl pon111 o f 101111).{ hhtck' a n cl th t prohkm' o l thl' 'chool Sl''-ttm del'tlopnwn ts t hat 1.1 k e place 11 it hi 11 a ci t~ t hat , t>:>. t tn .;ill'lv omd ' a1on)!; cl.1'~ ancl ethn ic li ncs. T hird. tite opt ion or "Mtl nti un' o f' aning illeg.tlh ltt ,oh-t tl1<. 'problun' o l making a 1il'ill~ throug h tlw crack tr.1de i:- cltMh c:x plicattd. T ll t''l' tll t'111L'' of cll:tllf{t', nntil ,nbntltnrn ( '~''' 't'l tio11 :-:.:n . r csptHl!'C' and <.olution are pronl il<'lll i11 11Titi11g on 1 Onc ul 111<' ll'l'akm'-'t'' ul J)mis's ;mah sio; i' tllat ill' p.t~ s litllt al1tntinn In t~t1H'I

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Figure 8.1 Gang lerritories in Los Angeles 11 1972. (Source: Davis, 1990: 301.)

322

ln troducing Cultural Studies

Subcultures: reading, resistance and social divisions

323

dimcn,ions or wlla l ha ... bttn happening- in thc cu lllll':li lik ol blat ~ \nwrican ghc l to~. Fo txampll-. ht ncglen... pol itical c~prt~..,ion in toi1lt'11t por;tn "'P mu~l and hip-hop Clllllll'l' ( C:IO,..,, 1 9~1:~). \\'hik then: j.., , gre.tl (((-a) of' debatl aboul lht pn)I<' ofrap tfor t~.unple. (m~'- l!l~U: Ro-e. 19~1 1). b negkn n :ndc1' imi,ibk llw <ltldoplllt'lll of a cliflt:l'l'll l ~incl ol <ttlltlral poli1ic.s in the J!Jl-!Os and HI~Jo.., from 1hat 1d1it h clominalecl in llw l~Hio.., ancl e:u h 1970.., h ee C.hapter Lj_ T ht''>l' t.ulier IIIIl'' optL,IIt' a~,, kind of golden age in Dmi..'s othcnl'i'c ~treme!~ pt"imi..,lit diagno..,, .mcl progno'i~. \lclle o pi imi..,I< .dh- pcrhap .... a' ... o me rommcnlatur.., h:tH' '"~~nlecl. 1he inn e,,,ccJ popul:u 11 ol rap can huilcl illlt'l't.tl ial communir:niun (Stt'phtn'. 1!l!l~) ,,.., p.111 of ,, proc e'' of thc ).(t'IH'I :Ilion of lll'\\' .dli.utn.; aJl((nhuion'ihip'- hl'IIH't'll g-1otiP' D.11 , (1 \l~l:b. 1!1!1:\h) d ,tbot .tltd u pon hi.., acrcntnt "' gang'.. dlhtlllg'h tite .thme ('1 itiri\111 ,iJI ' l>pli e,, In panicular, in LIH: CCIIlll':\1 oran an.th ... is lhat dtntoll"lralt'' tite tO II Iillt lt'cl. and incleed wor,tning. t:--:ploil:llitm ol hlad.IIHI l.;n ino g111t1p' in l.m .\ngdt.., in ho1h poli1ica l all(lccunolll ic tcrms. 1\'IH'Il' pm 1 11i~t~ of aici .IIHI IH'II'job' alkr 1lw riuls np ri, ing- uf' 1 !1\J~ ha1c bcen bmkcn, D : l\i ~ a rg tl\'' lil ;H tl ll' g;111_t;.., ha1 c in u ta~ i ng h- 1H' CI1 clcmo1t ised a~ t h1 l:llt'Sl tlii't':ll 1 11 11'1 1i1L' "11 bn rb:111 . \ nH-ricns. l'l' Jl ll CIIg' lh t' 111111' l'XI il CI CO IIllllllll\l llll'II((Cl'. In ' llr h dt'ltloni,ing discourse (p. :'>O) . tlll' ga 11g' :trc prt'Sl'lll<'ci a' 11l e t:tlht' of' rhc 1inh o i' 1\1\1:1 . ll'hit'lt f llo\\'nl 1hc firs1 Rorln c~ Ki ng Lri;ll 11'11tl't' llH'Illhcr., of' 1h c Lus . \ngl' k-. Poli ce D{'p,t rii11 L' I11 I\'L' IT acq uiLLed. lt It a.., bce 11 'lig'g'l'-'il'd 1h;ll 1hl' 1\':ll forllanl , iiiLI't.twcl poliu action agai rht 1hese group~. Thu~ 111 1 1' u f til l' nrd1i lt't'h uf tltt' ll'liCC' ht'IIH't'll L ht g.111g''-. ,,hich l1'a-, agrecd lxlon 1he 1 crdin in tht Rocllll'l King 1rial. wa~ ,u]). , l'CJlll'lllh <lllt:,ttcl and in1prisoncd on a rel.ninh ..,lllall--.t.tl<. olknct. D,11 ,-.., argu ntt'lll i:- 1ha1. in effcr1. this allo1,s the appc;1rance 1h.11 -.onwlhing , bein.{ clone' ll'llt'rl in Jan ... uch polict acton will nnl~ makt tht prubknt-. of J.u.., .\ngeJt-.., 1\'0"t'. In 1hi' \Otl of ana)l..,, tlw gang~ h:tl't bccome tite tonttmpol.ll\ fol~ cltlil-. ol 1lw L'nited ~l:tll'': .1 moral panic ha<> bten gennatcrl aruunclllwm 11hit h ), kclw tht txpa thion o! lht culllut or ~ocial co11 1rol. T he;,t' are concl'f>h. 1,hilt- 1101 thtcl clilt'c 111- in Dmi'' cli"C'II"ion . lit al ll't'I'C fir<.L dt'wlopcd h1 t:111lc' Cohtn in 1he ;n h 1!l(O, (~ce ~cc1ion
1-U).

83

Folk devils, moral panics and subcultures

wnk1 Cohen, :o/11 /Jt'l'ill allfl .\Iom/ Panit.\ ( l97:~) ac ted a~ one impon.tnt bridge betiiTt'll the empha,.., on del'i:mct in 1he .\ merican literawre on ~ubcult11rt.::. ancl llw emcrging Briti<.h approach. Tlti.., 'enion e~amines this work in some detail. bc:fn: con..,iclet ing 'ome mor( nntH cl i'c " ~'ions or the natuiT of moral pan ir.

8.3.1
Sta n fe~

Stanley Cohen: Folk Devi/s and Moral Panics

Thi' \('( IOil cJi,Cll"illg de\'iancc. subcuhurcs aiHl go~n~' ha~ poillll'd up a lllllllhl'l or i"'llt'' 1lta1 I'L'SOil<lle 1hrnugh more general \,ork on ~oul h '11 hntl111 n~- 1 hu~. i1 ),,, been .1 1')~llt'cl 1ha1 ~ou1h '"bntlturcs arist at spe?cilir poi ni' of 'tn..,.., bl'lll'tTn -.orial ,l t tlrlllrt ancl cttltn n allCI that tl w~ m a~ oppn~c or re~i~t dominan! or lll<t ihlream 1al li t'' :ntd t uliurc. ~ I on ' l>tci lica lh . ~ubc ultu res can arisc < ll poin l'- of'ttonomic d i, Jncalio rl or in IIH' contc:\t of ~oc i a ) dislocnion caused by reckn:lop111e111 :tnd so ntt. .-\ clilfe rclll c r11pltasi' ca 1 1 he ft ll111d in th l' idea lhat 1lwse actil'ilil'' rt.s ult i'l 't!lll 'drif 1' ;u panicular >oi 11 1 ~ in IIH' lile-course. and yet an o ther in the idea lh;n 1he Cltltu n ttl tlt t' ~nl>c uhtii 'C' rl'lill ('~ totltt cla<.<, COJ 1ll'X I in 1\'hich it is ro und . Fina ll ~. llte'l'l' ~tite illi ('III OI1 p;lid 1 0 tl1 t' rok nf lll:h n tlinil l' 11ithin the subcu ltu re. Th c~c are al l thl'tlll's 1lta1 ap1 war in 1h c 1mrk i11 Hritain of th l' Binningham C<'ntrt f'or Conttmporan Cull tn a l '-it tuli ts, lltl\\C\1'1'. ])l'f'o rc t lti ~ l':tll bl' disnt,-;ccJ it i~ lll' Cl',,~al)' lO t'Omi<kr a latht'l di Jft-rt' lll f01111 or :ll ll'IIItlll (() .\ lthc uJLu rc. a' lhS pOilh lO the roflo of lht media in gl'lll'l'illillg image:. of I'Ollllt.

Cohtn dt'\Tiolxd aml L':\(>:1 11rkd upon the 11ork of .-\mcrica n " riHrs 'uch a<. Ho11'ard lkcktr ( 19!i:l). wlw t'lll pha,iscd tlw 1\'a~ in ll'h ich de1iant' :tnd cle1 iann <ll'l' crcatcd bv thl' " 'a\ in which 11 1<'1' :tl'l' labl'l led a~ ~uch by powc:rful agtnri ts of ~orial con 1rol. C:oht n n10\'l'cl awa~ rrom a focus o n th e na ti liT a m i \'al ue' ul cklia 111 subn tltu rc.s ;111 d lhl c;.;planalion nr tl w ir del'iancc. ll l.o;[('ad, h e l' lllph a~i~e d the l't'fl rfilll/ of \';trOliS of'li cial ()ocJio allcJ tlll' llledi:t (C'S(>C'Cia)l\ tl1l' J)l'l'SS) lO nJatil't'h' .Sil1iiiJSCa ({o disturban rts thai tou k ph11t al 1-:n g l i ~ h stasidc loll'lls be111'eci Hllil ancl Hl!i6. which crcatcrl a lno r;t l pan ir i11 ~oc i c 1 ~ around 1hc rol k dcvils of nwcb and rod.er~. Thi' nwra l pan ir i~ a C'L'tll ral a..,wu in ti H' d e,C'Iopntttt of :1 co ntrol cult11re. Th c :>pccifil moral panirs < :xarnin n l bl' Colttn ancl tlw lo lk dn l ~ aro11ncl whch thc1 ccmrcd iii'L' 1 1011' pan ol'historY. ll oll't'H't. hi~ idl'<b and appmar h han con tinued to be hig lt l~ in flu L' Ill ial and u sed i11 ana l ~ si-. o! pt l''l'll 1 -da\' "-lll'.., (stt. for example. Ta~lor. 1991). Colttn 'Jlt'tHh Jiu k time d<:scribing what anualh nccurred in thc L0\1'11~. l ndnd mo~l of 1lte cle-.cription 1ha1 h e dm' prmidt come~ IO\\,trcls the cncl of his boo~ ra1 h n !han at llw be?ginning. R:HhLr. he bq~in' 11ith 11hat he calls 'Tht lm'L'IIIOn. 1dlich t"lll(>ha~i~e~ the media r<:porting or lite clash es or mod ami rocktr~ (Mt l~o:o. X.~ li>r photograph~ of tht.''l' tarh 1!H)().., ..,nhc11hures). Cohcn argue' that tlw media tL'J)Ot ti11g sy'>tcmaticath l''\aggLT.IIt'cl ancl clistoncd thc c1cnts. lll:tinlain<'cl 1hat the1 IIOulcl itle\ itabJy h:tppl'll :tgain lhcrefore precJictillg ftllllrl' OC('In'l'C'llCt'S Of lhC 'ame 1~ pe. and uscd mocl' a11cl roc~tr.., in .1 ..,~ mbnlic ,,ay. Acconling to Cohen. lhCil' are 'IIHL't' prort'.'-'-L'S in surlt '>yll1bolitalion: a ll'ord ( ~lod ) bccumes '> mbolic u! a CL'rt:tin <;l:tlll' ( clt:li ncp tt'lll or cltl'i.tnl): nl~jeCI~ ( h:1 i rsl\'lt. r lt11 hing) :-.~m bol ite th t "orcl: 1lw o l ~jL'('I' th l:'ll1Sthe.., IH'C'llllll' '\lllbOIC of lltl' Sl<\111.., (ancJ !he (:'lllOiiOilS allar htd lO tlll' 'lilll!S) (Colttll . l ~ l 7:'>: -10), Cohen dc1do1 )S his anah'.~is 1hrnu ~lt a de1ai lecl c;.;amin;nion of lltl' rl'artion lo thl' seasick l'\'l' lll~ . 1k first di st n ~'t'.' ll'hal 11as thought ;~bout the nwcb and mcJ..ers and l'o llull'~ 1h is 11ith a (011 ~i d cra 1ion of' 1,hat 11a-; pro posed slto11ld hl' done a boul. t he m . l k arguc-; th at lltt'i'l' \l'l' l'l' Llll t'l' lhcmes l'l11111ng through 1he fi rs1 clirnl'llSOll of l'l'<t('I Oil ( C:ohen. Hl7 :~: :'1 1): 'Orienla tion': ' th c l'lllOiiOII:t l and intcllectual Stan cJpoinL from ll'hich tht Cfel'iancl' is c1a luatcd'. ' !magcs': 'opinOil\ abo1 1 1 that
ll:tliii'C

uf thc ciCI'alliS am1111L'I' bdtii\'Olll'.

cau~alion': upi nion' abou1 tite caii,L'S o! thc bchaliour.

324

lnlroducing Cullural Studies

Tite r ll'l'l'l' 111o 111a i 11 lhe m c;. runn in g t hro ug lt oril' 1 1tat io n . Fir' t. tl ll'l'l' IIL'l t' 1h os('
1d10-;l' ,pokc a~ if wlta t had occulTt'd ,,.,,~ a l..i n toa nat ur.d cli'a'ttr. Fc11 exam p lc. th ere ,,s tal l.. ni 1011'11' lwi ng 'IITcckccl'. Secon d. man1 statenlt'lll' sm, ,,hat haclonllrnd as p re,.1 ging ,,or't' del'elop mcms. T he1 IH'rc prophccic, o l doum. l.ikcwi,c. twu rerun ing thtme~ ran t h1ough t he imagc~: thal 'oung ptoplc ,,ert al'llutn t a u cl ho1ed. l ntc-rm~of cau,ation. mocb and rockcr' were ~een a~ indiratm" o f ~ocial ckcline. 'The a~pt'Cl~ of tlw \OCi.llma laise moq commnnh me n tiont'd ,,e rt': tht ck cl inc i11 1 eli~iou~ bclitf~. the abS<.'Il({' of ,\ \l' lh(' of pu rpo~e. th e inlllll'lll't' of thl' do-goode1 ~ ap p roath and th c coclclling 1)\ t h e 11elfarc sla le (Cohen. 1973: 62). T lw bl'11.11iour o l the l'ottng peo ple ,,~ often sccn a' a kin cl uf disea'>t'. T h ro u g h thest: proet''-'t'~ from. in CoiHn~ 1icw, rl' b til'e h oilia l occu1Tcn ces, a m o ra l p a n ir 1\',h ge n l'rall'cl. l"h t 1-{t'I\C.:ra ti o n o f a m o ra l p a ni c in tnrn prod u ct'' npi ni o n s a nd a ction s 10 do 'som t thin g abo ut it ' . Co htn (1073: 77 ) di sc n!'se~ thtst I'L'~po 1 1\t''- 1h ro ug h 1h ree lun her Clll'gorks: '( i) Se n ~ i li sat io n : (ii) th e Socit la l Con tro l C u lnm: (iii ) 1-.xplo itmin n . He i1 q.( ll l'S 1lla l th l' prnces~ o r ~l' ll S L ~a l Oil 11\'0 l\'l'S l'ar lllOI'l' <l lll'l\lOil 1)(' n g 1 <IK l'll of :l ClS of hool i ~a n isn1 ', lh t cll'scri pt io n ur ~ u r h < tr ts in te n n ~ u!' 11ltlcl~ a ncl rockns ll'hen (ll't' l'i o u ~ l y t h t ~ m a1 h a1e b ecn d escrib e d a s ac t.'> ol' o llHr yo ung 1 wop ll', ancl th c tx pa nsio n ol' lh t ~ym b o l i sat i on p rocc~~ d cscri be d abow. T h c r('a Ctio n o l' 1hc 'Sm:ie 1a l Con tro l C uh url' is ,, pa rtiudarl ~ importa n t pan of C:o h t n ':; anal y~ i ~. lle cxam in es tlu ce m a in age n ls u l '-Oci;d cont ro l - th c po lirc, thc ccHirh a ncl local anion gro up - ~ uggts ting th at th n t commu n c klll l'llts wc rc of p a rti u 1l.t r importa n n in 1he ac tiom o f lh l'~l' institltlio ns: d illtt,in n . cscalmio n and innOI'iiiOII. Rtact io n d if'l u scd awa 1 frolll t h c o r igina l point of ocn1rrcnre 10 o thcr in,titt lli om. T h tl'. lor exampk: in I C~(>Oiht to the .\ lucl~ .md Rocl..n:-. in,oht'llll'lll di ff u,td (1101. of rourw. in a ,u,li){lll lind from tite local poln forc-e. lO rollahor.11i011 wilh lll'ghhouring force~, 10 1q.\iona l rollaboration. to co-ordination act\ i11 a1 Srntlancl \';u el ancl1hc l lnmc Officc .111Cito tlw ll\'ohement ol Parliament .111<1 1he legi,lattut. ( 19:~: Hll) Ftut h trmon. 1hi' proccs~ inn1h-ed e~tala ti on o l the pc1cciwd ~triou~nc.;~ of thc p1oblcm. lnnol'< ll io n in1ohed th e in 1roduc1inn. 01 icka' for in trodn ction. of n ew mclhod-; of ~oci al contro l w d eal ,,ith th e pt' rnin.'cl p robkm. Coh e n cl i ~cusscs the aC1OI11> o (' th C' cJ ji( C' I't' 11l compo n e nb u f th t ( OlltrcJl Cttltlll't' 11 'Oi lll' clc ta iJ. before n m sid e ring th e ex p lo ita 1io n ol' th e p h e n c11ne no n mu c h m on hrid l ~ For example, COllSll ll\ t: r goocl ~ w c h a~ ~u n glas~e ~ ,,en achcrtisecl u ~i n g 1 1 1o d imagc ry. Coh e n sees a ' lloll'' 1aki ng pla ce of th e kind shmm h t rt: (i}
(ii )

,. . . ,. T .,
~.

Subwllures: reading, resistance and social divisions

-tcmmin~ imm '11'\lftura l cllld u. lillloll

325

po" 11o11 P '

1\clr~ ing-c l~,, ,1du l t--t~n1 1

ln,11,11'olu111!11
~Olll! 1 oll

rt:M IICHl

Op~r ,ltu>n 01

!
t t

11m oh tng tlem~nl, ot mi,ptrcC'plion. e.g. in 1m enton ancl ;;uh< equent dhtorl ion 111 term' 01 long-lt:-ml \ ,1lups .mrl interesb t
" t'rl'II>Jtio n. drama1~a11on , <.''Cc llation

m n1rol

t ullllll'. l'\ploi l,1tinn

Jlld

ll l!o 11 ion 01

' ll'l'l' !ll) fJ!:'

lnt l'~l'l-C 1d(\ lollll ( . pol,11 ,,11lon

Con1 irm,1 1inn of

~ll'r~otypc'

F igure 8.2

Deviance amplirica tion. (Source: Cohen, 197 3: 199 .)

a lot lo t lle tarli t r wo rl.. o l' Dm1 n c~ ( 1966) \dlO . cii.I\I' il~ on tlw .\ m<: ri ra n idea~ cliscm <.ed in section R.:?, liad argued th a l 'The Engli'h "torlltl h01 .. ' lltC<'"f11 lh tral't'l'l>C ~ 1he h um ilia tiom ol school a u d joh a llocalion bl' h i, n~anirmation of tracli1ional 1\'0rl..i ng--dass 1a lues' { HHili: 2;,:;) . _ \, Coh t:n ~a~~- ' lt , qttih lrtll' that 1he book wa~ more a Stll(h o{ moral panirs 1h a n of fo il.. deri ll>. 1nflutnced h1 labd li ng- t h eon. 1 ,,:nncd to stuch rca nion: 1h t auor-; 1htm~eh L'' j ust 11 ittcd a ero~' 1he sntTn ( 19H7: i ii). T h t d i~cusion. o l 1h t gtncralion .lllcl m1111 re ol subculluns wa' taktn fon,arcl in t h c ,,o 1l.. carried oul a 1 ll lt' Bi n ningh. tm Ctn trt f()l Co n tc m po r< ll)' C ultu ra l Slud it, (Sl'Ciions H. -1 -~.~). The son o r a pproa c h lllill ht' l' b bora tc d . wh it- h is re p rese m e cl in 1h e cl iag r:11n from Cohe n in Fignrt H.:? h as bttn ln 1gc l ~ influc n tia l.

a na l~~~ h cn w;1' 1 101 p;u l iuda tl l' inn ma til'e. O\\' n ~

8.3.2 1 Moral panic today

10

l nitiul rit'l'ia ll l'l' lcading

l>md u cc:

10:

111 t' i n tnlm)' ai1Cl (iii ) sen~iti:alion wh k h l'el'cl bac k cm tac h o 1h e r so as

<1 11

( I') (1)

111'1'1'1 '.\lilll a l iOII of L h e cle\'iance \\h id 1 kacls to:

a n nmlotitlll ol' tlH' n m tro l c u lture. (Co h t n . l ~~T~: 11 :1}

In thc li na l r h ap te r of h i' boo k. Cohtn t:omid tr' llll' clt-l'l'lup m t n t ol'th c ~ubcultur~s ol thc nwcb ancl 10cl..er' a ltlwugh . "' hl' ,ubwquctttll l'l'tO{ll i'-l'<l ( 1 !1~7: ii- iii). lus

Th e id e a o l' llllll'a l p:lll ic ha' pa , ;;c d i rli O C'l'lTyday sp l'CCh a nd e xa m p les 1h t ' (li'O('('SS describc d b1 Coh L 'Il 't't' lll 1o o cc u r a Lregular in 1nvals. All so rls ol' g ro ups l'ro m l'o o1ba ll hooliga n s a nd stri ki 1 1g 1\'urkt'l'' 10 sing le nHH h cc rs secm tu be b1be lkd as fcl ll.. clll'i b ancl lO ge n e rate lliOJ'a l pa n l', , \'ou 111ay 1\'Sh lO 1hin k o f sum e l'X<llli Jk;. n f \'Oll l' 0\1'11 L O considc r. In arror<l " 'i lit th c r<11h er p es'>i 111 ist ic 1om o f Cuh l' n ;. \\'o 1l... 1h tst pan ks are s~e n br .~ onH' collllll L' nt :ll t H '' ,,, ' 1ra ttgil'' o n 1lw p an o f 1hose in (>OI\'t r lo r rc:llc dt~ers i on' frwn ' 1c.d i"ul<. Tll m. tll t ick a u ( b l.u11ing ' inglt- nHH h l'r' l(n d di nq uc 11n ancl for l. tl..ing ttp t, 11111ri l IHIIl'ing , 11'-t'cl to clil't' l t a 11t'n tion lrom mort impona 111

or

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of ruk-brcaking -;uch as utH:mplmmt'lll or tht undcr-ln1lcling of pub! k ~e l\i ces. II OII'(.'I't'l. om prnblcm 11ith thi- pn im ol I't'll. , that it i~ IHil dl'ar that thc ll'ider public anualh agrn-; 11ith thc ddiniLions uf thl'ill' grcnrp' L hat art' con wi ned in tlll' Labloid prc~~. llHkcd. C:ohen himself fou nd that ~i~n i li c;nll proponion~ ni tlw puhlic were much l t,~ r onnnwcl about mods ami rocklr~ than tl11 prt:.~ hl''-ttria woulcl ha1e led Lhe commtni<Hot to hdit~t. Thu~ tht''t' rt>prt,tntatio1h 111a1 bt mort importan 10 nwmht'1, of tlw control cult urt' 1han to tlw "ickr puhlic 11 hit h dm, tHH uw;n 1hm they an an~ k,, cnertH' or r onSI:CIIll'Htial. Futtht1more. it can be ~ugge~ted that 1arioth grOIIJl' ha~t btrotm mon.: <;ophisliC '.lltcl in their u nde.-standing and use of tlw i cl~:a ol ;1 tnw.ll panic ,jure C:ohen s l)riginal anak~i~ . Fw cxample. in cti~c u ~~io n uf the clewlopnw rll and rt'art ion 10 ran culture 11 Britai n. Sarah Thornto n ( 1!19-l. 1995\ argucs that. in pan due 10 the " ''1\' that he locused hi all en 1ion o n na\onal and local ne"'papcrs. Cohtn 111 i~'t' ' tltt' 11'<11 in \1'hk h moral panic i ~ both a marketing strateg1 antl somcthing suug lu b~ pot t'ntial rolk cle\ils' (sec a l ~o :\ ngc la . \ lcRobbil-. 1!:J!i-l). T h u ~ many ' ueh g mu p~ II'Uldel ar llla 111' mlcon1e negatil'e O\'tmgc a~ it ca n prornott th c group .t ncl lll ll ~ i t mo re ll'i< h-h. As T ltornton tablo id C arg'llt'S: .\ lii HH ig'IIIH'g:uin ' rcponing i ~ d i., parag<d . i1 i~ ' '1hjl'rl 1 11 .u1tirip<~ li n , < '\'l'I1<1' )>ration . liI'l' 1 abloid Co\'1.' 1':1~1. nn tltl' oilwr lt:mrl. i~ 1hv ~z,, ot' dl'atlt . Cultural 'ludies .\ lllrnl< and 'ociologit, uf uwral panic han lt' llrll'd to llo,ition ~o111h cultun, ;" innuccnt 1ictilll' of n q~a til't' ,igmatiLation. But 111.1" 11ll'clia undta ,,anding i' oftcn .1 goal. 1101 j u't anl'lf't.tt ol l <lllth', t ultural pur~ uit, . ~ l o ra ! pa11it b tllt'l'l'i'tll't' .ti<Hnl ol'routinized lllpt mchc~trated b1 tiH' t ultu1 t' indli,II t'' tl1.11 talgt'l tltt 111<11kl't. ~l orali7i ng cii.'1 11111Ciation~ are. to quotc orw mu,ir 1110111 h h . .1 pit di''' I'R c1mpaign'. T hcr acudcr a .. uhcuhure al11~tc ti1ch sub1er~i1c "no orht'1 prouwtion:~l plm c m . ( 1hornwn. 199.J: IR 1) are a, lll llch gent>rat('(l J, 11111'C' ma~atill''- ami thc musir prcss (11hich are them<;e)lc, pan '> of multin:uion.tl roan p:mil'' ) ,,, tht'l .tn: l>1 -.ubcuhural .ldhtrt'llh thl'lmehes (T hornwn. 1!19-l. 19!1:1 ). T he1 clo 11 01 ~~j, in -.ome purc slate rt' <lCh 10 be cxploi tecl aJHI cl e moni~cd. Fu r llwrnwre. mmt t:llltints tended LO appear at'!cr 1he tabloid moral panic r;thcr th;n bcf o rt i1 ( 1!l!l 1: 1~;, ). T h c1 \IT1 e 1hus hea1il)' n o~w lg i r lor the ~uppmcd pure ra\'C' SCT ill' which h.1cl exi,tcd prior to mbloid l'X ploi tal ion! Tia points made by T hnmton , lwu ld akn thv ~tucknt ot moral 1 >anics to the colnplexi ty of il1l' relatio n betll't't'11 ~ubnrlt ii H'S, tht ll ll'di:t ami 'nck tal or comrol cultlll t' rtaction. \\'h ile thl idl'a of 111oral p: n1ir t't'lll:1ins a arse1'11l 1o o l. i1 shou Id perhaps be ll~ lcl ran f'~tlll' in the COIHl'XI or IIWI'Ollgli a ll : t l l'~i s . ll aving con, idcred somt o t' tlw earh lll <llt' l'ia l ll'li ir h looktd at thc 1\'a)' in ll'hich ,ubn iltures are dcl'cloped ancltlw 1 alues th:u thc1 c x prt~,. "' 1\'ell a ~ the importance of media rcaction 10 thcm. it is now po1>~ iblc tu cumiclt-r tht 11:1~ in ll'hich the inlluential discus~ion of subcu lturc at thc Birmingham Centre l'or Contcmporary Cultural Studies i111 ltctld 1hes< iclta, in panicular. disti nctin nll(l in f llll'tHial ll'a~ :-..
Suhr111tu 1 t' ~

cau~cs

8. 4

1 Youth

subcultu res in British cultural studies

Mur h H' Se.trch on suhr ultun. which ha' locthed (H1 'outh \ubrulttHT'. dnt"'' on the [II'O mo~t impmtant tlll'.lllings ol culture outlined in C:haptl' r 1: fi r'L. th<~ t 11hich u~e~ culture 10 ref'er LO tht 1101 k' .me! practi cc~ or anbtic an d in ttllt'nual actiitl'. In thi~ sen e. mtt:.ic or ; painting i ~ a form o fnrlt ure . 1'here schoohw rl... fm t'->amplc. i~ rwt. At tin1es, thi~ d clin itio n of culture in1oh'cs a judge mem or 1 alue. T hu-., cena in fonm of iting. -,uch a~ b1 Dicl..e n ... or Shal..c,pearc. are helclto he pmper cuhure ami \I'Ork~ b1 11 1 ll'ritcrs ~uch a'> Jackie Collins or ll arnld Robbim 10 be tra ~h . .\~ ll'l' hal'e ~holl'll, th( sccond ~e n se or cuhu it' , rathtT difieren t. referring to the idea of cuhttre "'a 11a1 of Jife' . This mort' inclu,il't' ddinition ca n be fo und in pr~Jbl e m a ti c ex pre!'~in n' surh a~ 'the AH H.'rican "'"Y uf' Jilt or Bri 1i~h cu lture . Both of Lhese d e !In itions f'td in lo l hl' l as Bri tish Cultural Studit' derelopmtnt of' 1 1 hat h;" l l rna~inKh bccome kno11'1 (Turncr. 19!10) in tht Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) at tht' U ninr~it~ of Hinn ing-ham ancl it is f'ro111 11ithin t hi ~ approach that man~ o f' the must arriccJ O ll l. jrnport:lll l S lll<i l'~ of ~out h suhcullll rcs hal'l' bl't'll C

The Centre for Contemporary Cultural Stud ies (CCCS)

Also known as the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies or the 'Birmingham School', the Centre was the key site for the developmenl of cultural studies.

Birmingham is now less influential as cultural studies has expanded to become an international aclivity. The Centre was founded by Richard Hoggart in 1964 initially within the English Department. Hoggarl was the first director, with Stuart Hall as his deputy. Hall became director in 1968 when Hoggart left to work at UNESCO. Hall led the Centre through its most productive period before leaving in 1979. He was succeeded by his own deputy, Richard !ohnson. In the wake of upheavals in lhe Social Sciences and Arts at the University of B irmingham, the Centre became the Department of Cultural Studies. Founded in many ways to develop the approach formulated by Hoggart In The Uses of Lileracy (195 7), the Centre rapidly made its mark through its Stencilled Occasional Papers Series whlch lncluded papers on topics as diverse as women do mestlc serl/ants, the Kray twins and the theory of K arl Marx. lt also produced its own journal, W orking P apers in Cultural tudies. These were the sites for lhe first publication of many of the Centre's best-known S writers whose ideas later appeared in book form. B y the 1970s, the Centre's activities"were contextualised by a Gramsclan (p. 38) Marxist emphasis on the role of culture in resistance (p. 258) and hegemonic (p. 106) domnation. This informed the analyses in collective lexts such as Resistance through Rituals (1976), Policing the Crisis (1978), On ldeology (1977) and
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Subcultures: reading, resistance and social divisions

329

Working-Ciass Culture (1979). The Marxist emphasis on class was contested by feminists at the Centre in Women take lssue (1978) and its relative inattenlion to 'race' in The Empire Strikes Back (1982). The work of Richard johnson led toa more historical approach in Moking Histories (1982). Writers associated with lhe Centre through this period include Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, Dick Hebdige, Angela McRobbie, lain Chambers and Paul Gilroy. There are many others. The upheavals of the 1980s and the expansion of cultural studies made Birmingham less importanl, although it continues Lo publish a journal, Cultural Studies from Birminglwm, and books. The Centre's attention to youth culture, news, ideology, race, cultural politics and gender in ways that took popular culture seriously from withln an academic Marxist approach was the key moment in the formation of the cultural studies approach. Authors once associated with the Centre continue to fill sorne of the most senior and influential positons in academic cultural studies. However, the points of view developed at Birmingham (the over-unified idea of a 'school' is very misleading) are now only a parl of the much wider activity of cultural studies.

Box

8.1

Some defi nitions

Fu.rlher readiug
Hall, S. and jefferson, T. (eds) (1976) Resistonce throvgh Rituals: Youth Subcultures In Post-wor Britoin, London: Hutchinson. Hall, S., Critcher, C., Jefferson, T., Clarke, J. and Roberts, B. (1978) Policlng the Crisis: Mugging1 the State ond Low ond Order, L ondon: Macmillan Hall, S., Hobson, D., Lowe, A. and Willis, P. (eds) ( 1980) Culture, Medio, Longuage, London: Hutchinson.

8.4.1

Resistonce through Rituols: the general approach

1 hl' CO III L'I'~ton e papl'r whirh o t1tli ne~ m a m of tlll ro nnpt' .lnd 1htntts pnr~ucd in the work f'r om Birmin ~ham is 'Snhcultu1 e~. culturt'' .tnd da-., ( C: I ark~ ,,, o!.. 197()) in the rolle-el io n Hr,sslrt nr,. thm11gh /Wuals ( llall aml.l t'l rt' NJI\. 1\171i). Snnw key defi ni tions are ~e l 0 111 in this papn.. \ pani c ul ar!~ importan! p: "~agc i ~ reprocl ttccd in 1 3m; 8. 1. T herc are srrn concepts introclucccl in t h i ~ pa ~~agc \\'h ich tt tTd to be considcred in mmt d c lail : culture. hcgcmony (p. 1011) , clominant culture. dom inant iclcology, class cultu re, ~ ub c ultl l t'l' ancl parelll cultmc. .\11 uf' Lh c~l: :tl't' ll ~t d t'X ltmi\ciy in CCf.S work ancl in ntur lt o l' the stt bsequcnt lite rattll't on subru ltU I'l'' T it e ddini tio n nr cultun: prodtctd ll'ithin this 1 radition (Ciarkl' rt o!., 1976: 10) txplains that: '''l' un ckr~1:1 11d tite word cultur(' lo rcl'cr to that k1d at 1dtich social group> dt,clop cli~tinct paucn1' of li fe. anrl gin 1'.\'jm~~it forlll tn thtit "H.:ial ancl llla t cri a ~ lifc t'XJll'rienn. Culturl' b thc ,,.;,, the f'onn~. in 1d1it h {l'OIIJl' ' hauclit'' tht r.t\\ nt.ttetlal of tht'I ~<'( ial and matnialtxi,ttnn.

\\'e begin ,,ith 'Oillt' min imal definition>. T he te nH. '\'out h CultuiT . clirect' u<. lO the cultural' a<.IH'C'I~ ol \'ottth . \\'e undcrstand the 1\'0rd culturt w rdcr to that Jen'l al ,,h ich -.ocial group<. dcwlop di'itillCt p:mern~ o flif'e . and g-i,e;- 1',\jlll' llll'f' }mm to th eir 'ocial anclmatcrial lilc-L'XJ>L'rience. Culture i~ tlll' "~1,.. thc: fo nw. in 1d1ich group~ 'handle' tht 1~111 tnatcl ial ul thcir social and materiall'xi,te;-ncc:. '\\'t lllll\t suppose thc: l'<LI\' tll:tttrial oflife e-:perience to be at o ne polt', and allt lw infinitth cotnpkx hum.m d isciplines and ~~s tem s. art icubte and inanicu late;-. fonn.tJi,td in institutiom 01' disperstcl in tite Jea~ l rormal ,,a~s. \\'hich '' handle". ll': lll~lll i t ur distort this ra\1' lll:ttl'rial. 10 bl' at thc other ( Th o mp~o n. EHiO\. 'C1tltur<'' is the mi(/r f' wh ich re:tli.-.cs or o/Jj('( /h rtlrs g rnup-li f'e in meaningl'ul shape and lo111 1. . \~ in dil'iclua ls ex pres~ tlair lik . so IIH\' are. \\'hat they are. there fore. coi ncides wi tlt tl wi pmtl ttctiotl. bot lt in rohol tite '\' produce allCI ,,ith /um tit e~ prod tt n (;\lar-: , 1970: 1 ~). Ti a cultttrc ol' a g roup or c l a,.,~ i ~ tlw peculiar and di ~ titt c til't ,,ay ol lif'e ' ol' Lltt grottp o1 t l.t", tiH' llll':llliltg'S. n liuc' :1 ncl id ea' tmhodil'd it l itt , li tll Lillm. in ~oc ia l rl'i.lliPII,, ll ''"ll'llb of ))e li d~. ll 11/fl'f'.\ :tnd C ll ~ llllli'. itt tltt ll'l'' u( ohjl'rt' .111 d tnall'rial lik. <.ultut t' i... IIH rli.'> tinctil't' .<.lt apc ... in 11 hiclt tlti ' lllatt'li.tl ancl '>oci:tl oq~ani,a ti on 11! lik txp rcs,es itsell'. .-\ cultllre includt, Lhe map' ol mean in.( \\'hidt make thing' in lt lligi hl<' to its tntntlx-rs. ThC'sc m;lJ1'; ollllt'<llling' are nol ,., it tph r.trrkd arnund in tite head: tltc1 art' objtct il~\lt'cl in t lw IMlll'ttb ol social 111 g.llti,at ion and 1d.ltion,lup t h ro11glt "'h iclt 1ht i nd i1id ua l ht( tlllll'' ,1 ~o(i.ll i1tcli1 idual'. ( .ultult' i' tht \\'<11' tllt' 'ocia! rdation' o( a group .tn 'll'll( tuncl mlcl ,lt,qwcl: hut it i' ,tJ,o the \\',\\ tho't' 'll:lpt~ .u e cxptTi<'IH ~<1. lllt<ltr,tood ancl illlt'l J>ll'll'd . .-\ 'oti.tl indi1idu.tl. bo111 into .1 pat ticul,lr 'ct of ithtitution' .tnclnlation,. i~ .11 thc l'l llll' mwllt'l\1 hotn into a IH'rnli:r conl1~uration ol meani11l-:' '' hidt gill' htt arel'" to ami loctlt' htt ''ithin 'a llthure'. T he ' l:n' o l >uciell ancl tht 'l:111 ol cultllrt (thc ~~ mbolic 01 (ic-ri n ~ of' 'orial lif'e) arC' OII C' a nd thc ~ame. The~t strnrtutT~ - o l social rl'lation,hip and ol ntt':tning- o;lwpe th c on-going lolkctil t' cxi,tence ol' f{roup~. Bttl tht> al'o lim it. mod il ~ ami mn 1tmin ho\\' grntt p!> lil l' and reprodtl('(' thl'ir socia l tx i,t e ll ce. J\ll'n and \l'o nwtt are, thus. lo mlt'cl . illld l'otm th c mseln~ tltrnugh socil' ll', cult ure and hb1ory. Sn tlt(' existi11g cultu ntl pattttns fonn a ~01'1 of Jt i.qoica l l'CSCIYOil' - a pre-Cntl~ tilllt td ' rieJd o(' tltt pos.~ ii)J<:s' which g ro u P' t:1kl' 11 p. ll'illh l(wm. dCIl'lop. t::ach gro u p m a kt~ M 11\ll' t lt i ttg ol' i1s Slarting co ndi tio ns - and th mugh this making. throu ~h this prarti ('(. n tl turc i, reprocluced all{l tnlltstnitt ed. Htll this practice on ly takes place ,,ithin Lhl' gi,cn fi eld or pos... ibilitit'S and ('OtlSiraittts (sce. Sartre', 1 96~1). ';\len makc th ci r 01,11 hhtory. hut th e~ cln ltt ll makt' it juq .., th c~ plca~e : tltl'' ' do 11 ot makt it undcr cirn 11t .-tatt t'l'S clto,.,en h~ tlt~ tll 'l' ll(s. but Ullcit'r ci I'C'tllll'lall(l'' di recth
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(ncou ntl' tTcl. gi\'en a nd tra nsmiltc d from the pa't. (:-.l;u x. 195 1: 225). C:ultme, thcn, cmbodic~ thc tl~1jectotT of ~roup lifl" th rough hi~ttll"\: ah1m, undcr ronditions and wil h ra11 matcrials' 11hich rannm wholh bl' o t it' m1 n making. Group~ 11hich txist 11ith in th e o;ame ,ociell and 'harl' sotlll' ol thc same material and hi,torical condition no doubt aho u mkr,taml. ancl LO a C<'nain cxtent o;hare each other culture. But jmt a' ditllretlt grouh ancl cla"-~e - are uncqualh 1~nk cd in relation to one anot h n. in tt' lllh o t th cir produnile rcbtions. wc01hh a nd po11er. so r u/lun1 .1re ditr,renth rant..ccl. ancl ,tand in oppo~ i tion 10 ont' anothe. in relation:: of domination and ~ubordina ti on. along thc o;clc o f c ultural po ,,er . The clcfi n itiom ot tlw 1mrld. ' tlu: map' ofmeani ng', which ex prl''' th e lifr 'itua ti on of tho"' gro ttps 11'hich hold tlw mo nopoly of pm,cr in sncict y, rommand th e grea ttst IITig ht ancl inllmnn, Sl'Ct"Ctc th e ~reates kgitimac\'. Thl worlcl tends LO be dt~siticd out ancl ordl'l'l'cl in tL'rms :nulthrough ~ 11'1 tCtll t'l'S wh ic h lllOSt el irec t.ly e Xp1To;~ t hl' po11TI . ti H.' posi t ion, t ht /'{!?'1//flll)', O f thc powc rt'ul intncst in th a t societl'. T hus. Tlw da~~ ll'hiclt Ita~ the mC'am. nf matnia i1Jro<l 11r1 io11 .l! its clisposa l. ha~ co ntml, )\'er th e uteans of tll l'lltal pncluctiun , ~n th:tt. th e rcby, m th e ~aml' time. < ).(l'lll'l a ll~ ~ IW:tki n g. thl' id ea~ or tho~t \\'ho lad. tl1t' 111 (':111~ ni' lll l' lll~l l produr1Oil .ll'l' ~ul~jtrt lo i1 ... Jno;ofar as tlt i.'l' 1ttle a~ a cla~' and ci<'lt'l'llli tl l' th e ex 1en1 allCI rom pa" oran epnc h ... tltev do thi~ in l~ 1dwle rangc. lt t nu. ,1111011).( other tlting~ rule aJ,o a' 1hinkers, as producer' of ide.t-. :llld l'l"g"lllate th e produuion :llld cli,tribwion of tite ideas of tlteir agc tllll' 1hti1 irlt-.1, art tlll' ntling idea'> uf 1he L'poch. :-.1.1r' ( 1~lill: ll 1) r h is cloes 1101 mean thatthere is onh o11net of idl''' or cultur;tl form' in a ~ociety. 1 hc re 11ill bt' more th a n one tcndanC\ at 11ork 11ithin tlH' clomin.l11l i(ka~ of a .;oc ict~. Group~ or cla,~t'' ,,hich do not stand :11 tlw aptx of pcmer. 11l'ICttheless fincl ,,ay' of expressing and realising in thtir ntlturt tlwir 'ubordinatt position a ncltxpt'1itnces. In -.e) far as th ere i~ more th:t n nnt fundanwntal el:"' in a ~ocie t y (a ncl rapi t ali~m is l'~Selllialh" 1he htinging lngcthl'l', arouncl prod11t1ion. of tii'O fundanwntalll' di{fnl'lll clao;o;es- capital ami l.d)(lur ) lhtrt ,,ill lw m ore thau o nc major c ultural contiguraticm in play < ll a partir ul.tr lti,tnrical 11Hli11CI1 1. Btll the stl'liC'turcs and nH.:aning~ ,,hich most adequat c h rdkct thl' po~ition and intcrl'Sts ot' th c lllOSt powerrut cl:tSS - ho\\'CI't'l" Clllll[Jil'X it i' illlt' rtlalll' - ll'ill stand, in rtla ti on 10 al l th c n tltt>rs, as a do111ina111 ~oc ial -c ul111ra l ordt'l. TIH dom inan! culture reprt'Sl'nts it ~l'lr a " tlu c 1tl tmc. l t tri~~ tn ddim a ncl cnntain al l othcr u tllurc~ within its itlt:lliSill' ran ~<'. li s dcws ol th L' ,,orld. lltlkss c h nllcllg"l'cl, 11ill stal1CI "' th e mo~l natura l, all-l'tnbraciug-. uni,c rs;tl ntlttlre. O tlwr cultun1l conriguratiom wi\1 not onl~ be subordinatt' 10 tltio; dolltinanl nrcll'r: ti1L'I' 11ill emer into ~t tuggk ,,itlt it , Sl'ek to moc\il~. ncgo tiall'. l'l''ist 01 L' I'L ' II <ll'l'rthrnw its reignit:; "''1!:1'111011\. Tite !'otnwgk bc1ween classts ol'er m:unial ancl 'ocia! lili: thuo; always

"'

tlt t fonn' of' .1 COII!i1Hto 11!'o ~ trug-g- k u1er tite di~tribution ot ' tul llu a l poll'l'r. \\'t ntight ,,,1111. hL" rl", to 111ake ;1 di<.tinct ion bet11'et"ll ru ltun al1CI 'ideolog1. l>omi n.tnt ancl ~ubot clinatc ch'''l'S will each haw di,tinn cuhlll'l' \. lh11 when ont culturl" gai1h a'cl'nclann onT tite othcr. ami 1dwn tlw 'uhordillatl' cultutl' r.\fmnuo 1 it-dl in term' p n ' , crihtd b1 tite dominatll culttlll'. thl' ll tltt clomi nant utltlll'l' ha' al,o btcomt tlw ba;i, of a clnminant idetJlogy. Tite domin:1111 c11hlll l' o f a complt''\ '<>t'\1 i~ ne1cr a homo~eneou' ~llllt llllt'. lt i~ l.l~tnd . tl'lkttillg diffttt't\1 intt'ITSl' II'thin tht dominant cl ;h-; ( e.~. a tl ,1ri~tonatic ll' r'"' .t ho11rg'l'Oi' outloot.. ) . con taining- clin<:rcnt trarl'~ from lite P''' (e.g. religiou' idta-; ll'ithin a lo~t').\ t'h stn dar c uhurt'). as 11l'l l a' emergl'nttlemt'llh in th e prl''l"lll. Suhordinalt' nd tn rl'~ 11ill not ah,ms bl' in upcn conlliu II'th it. The1 m a~. l'or long pcriucls. lmxist wi i11 it. negntiate the ~ paces ami gap~ in it. make inroad~ in lo it. 'll':liTCnning i1 lrum ,,itltin' (Tiwmpson. l ~ll):l). 1lowvnr. tlwugh tit e nat111l' oJ' thi:-; struggle u1cr c ultt1re c:n1 tlt'l'lT lx rc:duccclto a :-itnpll' t1pposition , it i.~ t tu ria l to np la cc tite notion of c:ultnrl wi th 1he lliOI'l' con crttt. historica l CO it np t ot' 'n tltllrcs': a reddinition whiclt hrings ou t motT c lt-arh th l' fac t lltat C lllltlll'~ ; tlll'a~, St:l lld in rl'lalions of'dominatOII -alld ~11 1 Jo rclin :HiOI1 - lll Olll' ;I II Ot h l'l , art al\1'01\'\ , ill \O IIll' St'n\l'. ill Sll'llgg'le \1'ilh otll" iliiOlh t"r. l'lll' ~i 1 1 g' 1tl :1 1' tl'nn, 'culturl . ca n onh indir:nl'. in thc most g-eneral ancl ah~tnll'l 11'al'. tite l:uxc c ultural r onti g~trati ons al pla1 in a ~ocil'll' aL am hi~wrictl lllOIIH'IIt. \\'t lllll ~ l 111 0\'l" :11 nncl' 10 thl dtHIni tlitlg rclatinn,ltips nt dominatinn and '"borclina1io1t in 11lticl1 thl''-l' conlig u ra1ion' ,ami: Lo thc proce~~l"~ nt incorpo1 ;11ion a nd re'i"- ta nn "h itl dl'fim th l' tu ltur:tl diaknic hetwecn them: ami to tlll' i lt~tillt tion' ,,hiclt trau~mit and re p rocltiCl' ' tlw culture (i.e . the dominan\ cult ut t') in i1' dominan! or 'htgtnwnic' lum. In modttn -.oritlil'' tlw mo'1 funcl.unLtH.Il gtotiP' :liT tlw -.oc ia! d.t"l''. md the major cultural conligu1'<11iOth 11ll he, in a fun clantt'1ll.tl though ofttn mcdiatl'd ,,m. rta" ntl tu n< . RdatiH 10 thcst' cnltura l-da~' con fi g u ratiun,. 1/1/,. culturc~ are ~ubSt'IS - 'malkr. morc: l ocal i ~cd atHI clilleren liattcl ''~'~~Clttl'l'', 11ithin o nc ur uthL'r of tia l:tq.{t' r r nltur~ tl n cllmrk;;. \\'e mu<.t. tirst. 'l't' ,uh-ru ltun ~ in ' lo1111 a ll>nns ni thcir rda ti<11l w tl1t' ,,ider cla,scultural ne,,orks o( 11hiclt lht> distinniH pan. \\'hen II'L' l'X:t 1nitlt' thi ~ relalion,hip be tll'l'l'n a sub-cultun and tlH ll'l.ll't' calltlw l:tlln th e pare11l ctilll 1rt. Thi' 11111 ~ 1 1101 'c1tlt111't'' ofwhit lt it is a p < be conf'ustcl ll'ilh th t partit ul:tr f'< lation~ l tip bt"l.lnTn 'youth' aml th e ir ' pilll'llh. or ldtidt lllll(' h ,,il l be said bl ltl\1', \\'ltat \l' l' lll('illl io., that il sub-cu ltllf'l' , tltoug lt dilfcrillg' i11 int pon.nn 11':1\s - in i1 ~ roca! co t1 tl' ITIS. its pt'ctlktr 'ltapts and attil"i1ies - fm111 tlll' C 'llhll l'l' f l'l)lll \1'h ich i 1 dC'I'il't~. 11ill a !so sharc S0111l' 1h i ll,L{' 11 common 11itlt tlt:tl ' p:uTnl' culturl'. he bohl"m ian su h -cul1 1nT ol' Lhe m oul-grmlt ll'hich has ari~l"l1 trou1 tilll(' lo time in tit e modern citl', is hotlt dbtint'l t'ron1 it' ' p:uen( c ulturl' ( tltt' lll ban tllh111T nf'the midclle cta~~ imet lig,nt-ia) :md l'l'l al'o a pan of it h ltat in; ll'itlt i1 a ntoclemisi ng outlook. o;tandanh of' ldur:uion. a

"''llllll''

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pri1ik!!_td p o .,itinn \i,.,.,-., proclltcti,e laho u r. a ncl 'o on). la t dw ~ame wa1. the ,\. trth for plt'ao,ure ancl e -:ci temcn t ' \\'hich ml1ll' a nal"'' han nclll'cl :t\ a marked f'ca turc.. o l thc 'dd in cuent -;uh-culwn olthc gan( in the "orkinf.,\ cla'' a h o shares somcth in g ba~ic ;mcllu nclamental "ith it. Snh-cu l llnT~. thl tt. 11111'-tlir:;t lw related 10 tht paren t cultures' of11 h ich th e1 are,, ... u l>-'-l'l. But. '''h-rultu n<. mu<.t af1abe a nah'~ld in ten tt'- of their relat ion to the dominant t u ltllrl' - Lht m t-rall cti.. po!'ition ol' cultu ral pm,er in the ...ocl'l\ ~'a 1dl0k. Thn' 1n: n ta~ cli,tinguish rcspccta hlc. rough' . delinque nt ancl t hc crimin.d :o.uhntllltt'c..''- 71'1/htn ,,orl..ingrla'' cultu re: but \\'(' 111 < 11 a lso '"'' that, t hough t h l'' di ffl't .unong:-.1 1h e m~e hcs. th l'l' "" clcri\"l' in th c fir; l in<.tall (:(' rrnm a '1\"0rki n g--clas:-. part' lll r ulture ' : h e nce, th c1 are a ll <.uhorcli n ;n(' \ttb-c ulutrcs. i1 1 relation tn th l' do111inan1 middle-(lass or h m ;rglnis c ulture. (\\'e b e licn: this ~ocs ' o tt H' 11a~ tol,ardo; ttl eC'ling Craham t>lurdock \ call for a m o re 's\'mtne tri cal' ana ly,;i:o. ol' suh-n tltll l'l'' ... Stth-cu ltu n 's must cx hibi.t ;a distin c tin: CIHiltg h sh:qw :mcl stnt c tut'C tn makc th l'lll ickntili:ahh di i'J'Ne n t f'rom th c ir 'parc nt n altu n. T h c y 11111'1 he.. l'ocusscd a ltws. ccn:t in u sc:o. of nm tnial an d :tn s. IL' I t'itorial a ronucl Cl' rta in ac tiYilies. Y sp;I('L'' e tc. \\'h icl1 ~ig n i fi canth clilfcre nl i:lll' tiH'rn !roan 1h e ,,ick r e u ltu re. But, 'lin c:t thc..v are subs<.ts, th e re must abo be o;i~lt i li ca nl tltin g~ ,,hic h bind and a ni r ulau: th t nJ 11ith llw 'pare nt ' culture. The larnntts Kra ' twin~ . l'or l'X:tmple, belongecl bolh to a hi ~ hll' cliffercnti:llt'd c riminal suh-cttltur\'' in East Lo nclo n aiHI lo ll1l' nnnn:1l' life ;md culllliT of the l.. t\1 End 11orking cJ;p,o; (of which indced . th e 'criminal sub-cultu re' h ;;.. ah,m, hcen a ckarl\' ick ntiliablt: pan). Thc ht hal'io u r ol' the Kral'~ in tt:n11\ of t lw Cl im in al ft aterni11 mar!..~ tit e difkrenl iat ing axis ol 1hat ~ub-ntlturc: d1 e rdation ol' tht Kra1~ to tht ir nwthcr. famil~. home ancl lo(':ll pub i" th c hi ncling. th e aniculatinK a~i' ( PtaN)II. 197~: llebdige, 197 1). Suh-cuhures. th erefore. takt :-;ltapc arouncl tllt' cli,tinniH aCI I'itie' .md 'focal co n < tm-;' ol grou p,. The~ can lw loosd\' or tiglt tly bou n dccl. Sonu.' 'llb-cul tures art llll'l't'h' lno,e h-dt'fin ed <.trand~ nr milieux' ll'ithi u tht pann t cul tu re: thcr possn.:, no distin c ti,e ,,orld' or tlll'ir nwn . Othcr' d t,e lt ip a clcar . ro h erent ickn till' a nd stntcture. Gc n tra ll\'. ll't cleal in tlti, \'o ltllllt' mt~\' with 'o;uh-cu ltures' (wh c d 1tr clrawu from a middll'- or \\'o rl..i n g-da:o.s part nt n tl tu a t') ,,h ic h hme l'l':t,o nah ly tig ht h o unclaries. cli,tin ctI'L' o;ltapl'' l\'l1id1 hal'l' co h tred :n..o und panicu lar act ilitie". fo cal con cc m s and ll' rt 'iorial spacc..:o.. \\'ltl' tl th esl' llghtlrd c l 11 ~d gro ups are a lso d i~t i n g t1ish r d h1 :1~e :m el g-ea w tu in11 , II'L' ca l! tltl'll1 ')'out h
~ub-c ulturcs'.

comm.mcl1he 'ia)..\'l' of publir a n tn tion fiw a tinlt': t it en thn 1 \Hie. cli,appl'at oran so 1\'idl' h d i lfu ~ut th:u 1he1 lme t lwir cliqinclileiH' 'S. lt , tlw fatfl'l kincl ol , 11 bcu lt ure f(Hmation wlt ic h p rimarih ronce11h 11' here. T he peculi.tr drt'" ,,k. local connrn<.. militux. ttr. ol the Tcclch Bm . the \locl. th e Rocl..cr o t t h l kinhcad '-t'l 1lwm ofl. a' cli~t incti\C' g-rou p ing ... JOth fron1 thc bt oad pallt't n .. ol worki ng-cla" c ultttt l' " a 11 hole. ancl al~o from the more di lfus('d paltl'tth cxhibitc d h1 'orclinat'\'' 11'01 1-.ing-cla,, hcw~ (atHI. toa mon' limited ex tt' JII . git h). \'ct. dl'<.pitt' t h t~c clifferlnn' it i~ impnrtalll to stiTss that. a~ .,uh-culturc ... th' contimte w ex i't ll'ithi n. a ncl coc..xi, wit h , the mo1T inclu ... in r u ltllll.' o l thl' d .t.,., from 1\'h ir h lh l'\ 'Pring-. ;\kmbe r.' of a ~ub-cultt l tT lllal' 1,:!1 k. tal"-. aC'I. loo!.. 'difTercn t' l'ron1 th l'ir p:lrt nt' a mi f'ro n1 ~o m c of' th ei r p ccr,: htll th c1 lw long' tnth e ,i\\'ll tht sam e lmi li es. gn to l ht ':1111(' sr hc 10 l~. ,,o r k at much th e ~alll!' job.... li \'l' clc sanH' ' m ea n , rt-c t' ns 1h t ir j>l'l'l'.' a ncl p arC"n t:o.. In cenai n e n 1cial l'l''P('CIS. 1h t' \ sh a re th e ~a nw positio tl (,i.,-;,_ ,.is tiH' dn aninan t cnlturrl. th c sam e h and:lln t ntal it n cts, a' lh e ' pare nt' n d tu r r f'rom wh iclt th l'l' d crin . aiH I dcterm iui n ~ lil(:-ex pt a T_l ~ro 11 g- h dres~. a cti litit' lti.'-lfl't p ttrsllits a nd lif'e-stl'lc. lhC'I' ma~ m ~ jl'n a dt lfn< tll c ultlll':tl rtspon'l' or .,oluti un ' to thc p roh le m s p n.<.ed l'or th t m IJ\ thtir m a IC' ria 1 a 11 el ~nc ia l dass pnsi1ion and cx p e ricn ce. Bnl 1h e llll' lll h('r~ h ip o l a .,11 bcuhn rc c;mnot prot cCI tiHm f'rum th e d C' t t rminin~ m a1r ix o f < 'Xpl'rit n c 1 ~ ;tll(( condi1ions ll'h ic h sh apt' tiH' li k ol tlwir c l<w; a~ a 1d101l'. T h e1 c x p erie n cc a nd l'l'Sj}OII d l O th(' lf/1//1' (1(1\f' fno/Jitlllfllif' ,1\ Oth e r ll1t'lllb('t'\ Of tiJCil' cJass whn :tl'l' lllll \ () dilfe rcntia te cl :tll(l d i ~1inr1in- in,, ,uiJ-ntlwral' seme. E'pecialh in rdation to th c dominan/ ntl111rl, tht ir ~ lth-n tlwrc nmain., likt othe1 demenh in tltcir das~ cultu re- 'Uborclinate and .. uhonlin:ued. (1 .11 l..l' / lll t 1!lili: 1fJ- 1:11

!httT are tllt't'<' a 'pt'C' I:o. ol o,oc ia l lik iden tifi ed in th is ckfiniti o n: 'ocia ! < '\Pl't it' tl<'<'. son_al g-rnup~ a nd pa 11c 111-' o l lile. In lhtir 1 iew. ' ocia] g-roup:o. clenlop cl i,tillrt pa lll' t'll-' of ltl'e , hascd on l htir 011'11 social txperic n ce:o.. in re la ti o n to otlw r ,oc ia l g roups nncl forms of ex p e ritn n. C ulturt i.., botlt a lc..-1e J o r :1rea of socitt' ( d ist i n c t frn 1n 1h e economic or polit ical) ancl the fo nm in whic h th e ra\\ ma t(' ri a l ol ~OC' ial cxptt i!'IICt' is hand lcd. . \\'~ sh a ll 1 :xp lorl' th t panic: u la r 1\'ay i11 '"hic h h cgem o ny (p. lll!i) is sllh~t' (ji1 C tltl ~ 11 secl tn lhts essal' hc lm,. (brkl' 1 '1111. l'11 rtlll'r ar~ll l' tha t llt t'I'C' , n domin a nt Cllltu rt 11lti(' ll connerts 10 1hc domi11:111L c l a,~ . ll o\1'(.'\'C'I'. th l'l' d o tHII aC'Iua lh irkntil\ tl lt' ron tl' t11 of this d o m ina nt c uhttrc. n or like11ist d11 tlw~: txplie<He th e s1 lC'ciric contt' lll o f th e dominan id cology ( p. K.J), tiOI' prmidl' mu c h cktai l o n th e con(l'j)ltlali ~:uioll of' thi' concept. whirh ., f'unh c r d i, cuN:cl in Chapte r :1. The a rg-um e nt of' C l;u 1-.t ,,ni. l'l'\h on ;\larxist premi~l'S. ll'hich is rt'f ll'ned in thl'it assertion 1ha1 Ll:l\\l'' il l'(' ' lhl 1110~1 funcl a lll t'll la l ~ociaJ gro n ps' . r hi' ~C IH'r:tll'' lhl' funhcr assn mption tha l tu lt urt, a re l'undamc ntalh cla<.~ cuhttns. Subcuhnre~ an ~ub-

' Youth suh-ru l turt~ orm up un tlt l ll' t rai 1 1 o l' so cial ancl c uhmal lik. Some o uth ~ub-cu lt ures a rt regu l ;~r and pcrs i ~1 c n 1 k:llt ii'Cs ol tl w ' p<~r<' lll . class-c u hure: 1 tlw ill-fam ccl ' c ultlll'l' ur ddincucnc,' o l' llH' 1101 kin g-r lao;~ adu lesn n t male, ror ex a m pie. Htn ~o m e sub-cuh u re~ a j>JX'< II' o n i\' :11 pan ir ular ltiq oriral m o nwnts: they lwcnnw ,j~ible. are idcntified ancl labelkd (lither b\' th e tll'\l' h'l'' or o the rs}: ti~

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Subcultures: reading, resistance and social divisions

335

scts- ~m :~ ll cr. mnrt localiscd and diiTerenLi:ued structures. 1\'itllin une or cllll er uf the largtr cultural ne L1wrks' \ P- 1:1 ). Suhc u lnnT~ in thi., .tpproach hal't' Lo be seen in a class conteXL. Finall ~. th t paper c luciclatl'd thc conccpt of partnt cultu rt . Thus. th erc ,,a~ a 11orking-c ht ~s patT ill cu1Lu1T ,,hich gc..: 11 cratecl o tlttr clistingui.-;hahk ~ ubc ullurt'S . a~ the cliscm sion uf Lhe Ea~ t l::nd ll'tll'kin ~ e l a~' in Box 8.1 shm,~Thc anah sis in th t' papt'l' :tl1d . dc~pite \1)111 (' dillerC I\Ct'$ or t'lllphasis. in th t.:' cccs Lradition , is bascd a ro u ncl tlw s Lucl ~ ol thc d o u bk ani r u la ti un o!' yo uth s11 he u h.11res' (p. l.'1i. Yo uth s ubnd tures are con nt>CL ed . 1-it-sl. to thcir parent cultu re: in the case of 1mrki 11g-dass 1outh subn dtures, this is to ,,nrkin~-cht's r uiLurc: ancl scconcl. lo thc domi11;111t r ultun:. .-\Cter tHLLlining their gtneral approach ancl some o!' their ke~ cnn cepts. Clarkt 1'1 ol. t.:' Xamint ~O I1 1C of thc diff'crt nt d imen,ions n i' the de bate 01 1 ~outh a nd I'Ollth culture that had e mnged sittce tlH : Serond \\'orlcl \\'ar. Jn 11hat \\'as a common mode of cxposiLiu n in ,,o rk f'rntn CCCS. tlt t' cli sc 11~~i o n ~ec k~ lO outlin e and Lhtn recon tex111alisc erych11 d c baLt~ ancl common se n ~e . T lw1 bq n h~- icl cllli l~ ing the lctors thal had c1 bt:C ll tlWLLg lll in carlit'l' Jiteratlll't' LO be re~ pull~ bk l( ll thc gt'llt'rati ll Of the ll C\\' I'Ollth eu hu re. Tlll'St' included: li rsl. ('(] ucnce i 11 thal suciel\ in ~e 11 e ra l. all(l l'uung peuple in panintlar liad mo re mo ncy 1 o spend : sccond. tlw spn:ad or ma~~ communicat ion, c~ pcc i a l ll tclt-l'isiu11 : tltird. i'Ot:ial dislocation bro ug ltt u n h1' th t Scco ncl \\'orld \\'ar; fn mt h . educat ional changeo; 11h ich producccl nwrt tx ten s\ e part ici pation; .tnd 1 111allr, th c e nH.: r~en n o !' n e1, sL1ks and fashi ons. Thest fauors in tltemsc (n 'S 1\'Crl' lo he unclc r~toocl in lhc ,,iclt;r t'Oil lt'Xl or de bate ahouL social t: hang-e sincc tit e ,,ar. T hcre 11ert thrt'l' kcy tt n'l1S in 1his clebatt: al'lluencc, consensus ;uld e m bou r~eobe nwn t. T hc lll'll' anh ten ce . appare n L;1p;rcen H'i'l t on poliLics ancl thc decline ofpuliLical disptnt 11'e rc. in thc c 1c~ uf' m< tl11' con1me nt<u.ors.leading the wo rki lli, c h1s~ tu aclopt m idd l t>-r las~ ,-;, lt te ;md prat'l ice . Uass ,,as t hough t L O be hc.:cnnting less im purtalll in :ocit' ty. Clarke 1'/ uf. ccog-nist tltat the rc 11a~ Cl'iclc nce for thl' l'X SL t'IKt' or .~0 111(' aspecls or this icl('a. T here had bee n ; rise in lil'ing standards, a ltho11glt th t' cstablishecl patl ern uf .<;ocial II<'C]Il<llitY rcmained , al1CI p:trt)' politics did St:l'lll LO be bascd cHI sub:;tan tial < tgrcemc nl. ll'ith lite two main panies bcLwten them ~lt h e ring- ; \'C r~ higlt proportio n or 111<' tut; tl \'Oll'S cast in c lt>uions. T he actual eYiclence for embourgeoiscntenL 11~ much k s~ cominci ng, altlto ugh th erc did a ppcar 1.0 be some ~ltil'ts in 1hc ,-alms or m ore a!Tiut nt 1mrkcrs. Dtspitt' tlti~ . class and social incqualilies h:1d not disapp<'arccl. ( :1; rkc 1'1 o/. are crit ical o( t he.: .-\ mt rica 11 clc1iance lit craLLIIT ~u m 111:1riscd in scction t{.2 (or it~ rc..: latii'C LH:glcct or rlass. T ltcy ;tl:;o sugge\ 1 that tite bt'g innings ora more ~atisfac tory <!pproach 10 tll t' .<;tudy nf I'OULh subcultuns ] ;c] bt'g' \111 lO be dtlelopccl in l~ri t:lill b~- \ likc Brake ami Grahatn \ lurclnck, 1\'ho liad Lakcn das~ Sl'I'Ollsll. T he rault of t hcse approacltts was that. in atl e lll pLing to se e sn bcu ltu re.:~ as c ngagccl i 11 collectile prob le m-soll ing' . tltest aullwr~ had acctpL cd the idc<1 of a problcm ' too llnproblematirall( (p. ~~1 ). Tlil'\ did lHH acrn rd sul'ficie nLweig ht to aspt'ct- of class culture and ela~~ socia 1b at ion, T he most o;nph ist icatcd prcn tr~or Lo t he Ne1ista 11(1' thro11gh /Vtuo/1 approach. ,,hiclt grtatl\' inlluc nct'd Clarke 1 '/ o {. , wa~ a papcr h~- Phi l Cohen ( 19~0. Jirst published in 1 9~ in Lhl' CCCS journal \l'udrill,l!, l 'n{JI'I'I i11 Cu ltuml Studirs)

whic l1 l'X:\Ill IICcl t]W 11<1LIII'C' o J' \'OIIt ]1 \L tbculLIII't'S in tht.:' East Encl or London in Lhe 1960s.

8.4.2

1Phil Cohen: working-class youth subcultures in East London

Phil :~o lt c;~ n (l9R0 ) argucclt hat. <tl'ter the Second \\'orld \\'a r l'ro m the 10-() .. 1 lht hlSt h1d 110 ].;' J , e l ~ Oll l\ ,tll s r mg--c as!> comnHtntl' ,,as disrll])tcd b1 tltree h ' tc>t" ' fi " l . .. - . 11 . . .. . ' ' ~- 1!'. nu u;u ton l o l - 1e .11t.t to 1 o u 1e11 t o11n~ su eh ,~ llar] S 1 r-. 1 . . . . e' tt1enage anc Bastld o n: SL'COtHl. tlw tedclc lopmeJH of houslllg llii'Oll'in; tite bu ilding of ncll tol,er b locks llhich . , . pancrn ed on a midclle-class llllclcar fall1ih modc ltltat d e.slrm-cclllt. co 11. 1 . IItH' md th ' y l . . r r 1 ' l J 1111111;) spacc.s . c.: ' ll ClllS o L' lll ;t e \l tppo n cltaraclcristic or thc Eas( Encl third '1 . '.. . r eCOI10111LC c h angc~ 1\'h 1 ' ]1 J . [ . . ] - . ' ' ~C IIl ~ U , . . . . . . : . _ t ce t~J ,L poanza lto n ol lhelabonr l'o rce (Cuhen , l9RO:KO) bt lll ee n spt:CL.llls( el. htg lt tech 1\'l'll-paicl_johs ancl clcad-end , unskilkd lahour O ne lllli ' ' .. O r ( 1' 1 . . clell'lopult'llt of I'Ollth . . COJll(' of this ()1'0 Ll~S lS O C<1ll011 \1''\S thc ]. 11 ccb. mods a nd skin lwad~. 1 d 1ich opposcd tite ll'orkin~-ch, Y ~ , ) cultures. hkt L culture. In Cohe n s ( 19HO: ::-\2) l'icw. ' tlw int erna] co nflicts or Lltt Ylre n ' 1 . .' 1 .u " llL be workecl out 11 1rrn s r 0 . , , " , . 1' t e u t111 e canw lo Lo bcnct,tllOll.tl to nll n. Furthenno re Cohcn argucd tlnt ,.) 11 ti1 subcultu rcs 'cxpress all(l rcsoh'c. albe it "m;wic-1111" 111 ,. e 11 .. 1. . '. 1 . 11' l . ] 11 . .. . ,-, ' , '- 01 l <IC 1 CILOIIS \\' l iC rel11:t ll1 Hcc en o t unt csolltcltn tit e part' nt cul tttrt ( l t)flO R9) Su 1 .es .11 . .. ' L x u1 111 1 t wa~s ol d ea hng Delermin .1te
conditions E 1 1 1 bourgeoisemenl
1

v\'orking-class responses

ldeolugical

rontwlir tiol1
1963

1968

Contr.1clic1ions in respellable working class oi East Encl c.1used by:

(il redevelopment

,\\ods Splil in Crombies J\especlable working cl,1 ss

lii) changing occupalional

struclure

Skinheacb

E conornic conlradiction

1 Ghcttoisation

Figure 8.3

Class and subcultures: a version of Cohen's model. (Source: Clarke et al., 1976: 34.)

336

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Subcullures: reading, resistance and social divisions

337

" 'ith thc diflicultin that :.tructural tran,Jol mation' in "oci ct~ hmc producc:d in the paiTI1l culture: 10 1dtkh thc..1 belong. Follm,ill~ thc.. patttrn of thc p ohn ,,Ilion ol thc wo 1klotTl' b c.. t,,c..c.. n a n u p,,arcl or clu\\ 11\1':11el option . C:ohcn arg ue' that ,outlt sub. cultures can c..xprc.:~~ ~ tt ch ron t e~ in a ,aril'll ol di llt'l'l' llt " 'a'' 1-l e n cc..:
[ ~!"lncb . p<trk<t~. ~ ki t tll each. <TOitthk ~ < ltt' a ~ucns~ion ol subcuhu n, ,,ltich <~ 11 conc,pc,ttd tn tll c.. ~a nt e parcnt u dturc.. :mrl ll'il iclt anu npt Lo ,,o rk ou t, till'Clllj.(h a ,,., tt'lll o l tt.tll "I'W111< llinll ~. the ba~ i prn bk111.1tt or r on tradi cti n n 1\'hi r h i-; imt t ted in t tt' ' ubru lt un 1, tlw pa rf' nt culture. (Loh c.. n 1\lt{O: \3) Thi~ "<H t ol' approadt "as rc:prc.:~cnt l'CI diagra tnma ti c..alh b1 l.IMkc.: 11 fll. ( l ~li6), as sho\\'11 in Figun K :\. Colwn arguc.:cl that tltc..tc.. 11c..rc.. 11 1 )\\',tr<l (for cxan1pk. mocl) and downwarcl (for l'Xamplc... ~kin hc:ad ) H''pon't'' 10 lhl'\t' condition 1dtid1 a ll('nt ptcd to

8.4.3

ldeology and hegernony

Cl:trke 1'1 al. ( 19/li) idcntified a tnn11bcr ol pruhkms with C:olten', .tnirlc... indudinu- th e of th e ana(y,i~. tll t' pn:ciw 11a~ in ''hicl t tite ~tt'ltClllt.tl condi~i 011 , a!Tcc tc d th t ~ ubc ulttt ra l ;-~d h ercnh , th c cau'c' uf tlt c.: ttpll'ard :nt cl cl <nl'llll'ard so luti o n ~ and so un . ll oll'cl'c.: t". tltt~ 1\'C t'l' co n n m cd tu build upon Cola11, approaclt ll'hic h 1q1s th c rd nrv a c ru c ial i ttflll l'll ce.. e11 1 t ll vi r arptm e n ts. In patt in tl:tr tlt L' I \l'<tll tccl w c ntph : l ~ i'< ' 1h e idea tltat sub cnlttll'l'' l'l'prc~en t ed ~111 idl'o lu g ical or. in ;1 phra t ' infliiCII l'l'cl IJI tl w ,,ork o n iclcolog)' (>. ~ 1) o ( th e Frc.:nr h ~l:11 xi' t Loui' . \lth u ,~C'r ( 197 1). :111 ' illl:t).{inar~ re i:Hion' 10 tlt l'i t rtal co nditions of'lil'e.

hi~tot ical 'pecilici t~

resolw ~uuctural prohlcmo; in an ickolog icall.t,hion.

Cl:u ke 11 al. t,plort i11 ~nnw de1ail '' ' unura l .utd da~' cha ngc' a n d thc , clatio n~ be111TCil clotuiuant afl(l paJTIIl cultutc.., " 'ltid1 p rodun "llbc..ulturt' rtw 1\0rking cl.t" hacllwen :tlh<'ll'd 1 11' chan gc" in tmplmtntnt patH' II" :mcl hothing 1d1idt a fli:ctc:d lit('

Box

8.2

Some readings and pictures of subcultures

rhu' the edd, Bu1 expropriati on of' an upper cht" ''~k ol el re.." con-n\ tite.. gap bc.:t\\ec..n largelr mantt.tl. un,kilkcl. mar-lumpen re.tl cal l't't:> ami lifc-cha n n' .111cl tlw all-d re~~cd-up-and-noll h e reto-go' cxpnkn rc.: of' S:uunla~ t,c ning. hus, in lite: c..xproprial ion :u1d f'etbh isa 1ion u( t'OII~ttmp ti un ancl ~ 1d c.. it~l'lr. tit e ~toe\~ COI'tr lor tit e gap bctii'<Til 1h e tt c.:n r-c..~ ndin J!;II'eekend :111d ~l onday's tT~ ttnt p ti<HI o i' l)l)ri n g-. d eackncl 1\'ork. T lws, iu th t rc,u tTc..'c tio n ol' a n arch c tl'pa l :md ,ymbolic' (hut. in {,\Cl. anacltro nistic) f'ornt of 1\0J'king-class drc ". in tlw di~pl acTcl locu~~ing c111 th c. . fuotball m.uch and tlll' 'uccup:uion' ol'th e li>O tballcnds', Ski nhtad~ rc..a"nt. but imaginarih .tite 1':11ues of a c l a~' tite.. t,~c: tt Cl' ofil ~11 lt . .1 kind ottan-ship ' lO ll'hic lt l'c..11 11w ki ng-class adu lt' a n y lo n gcr ~ ub scrilw: thc ~ ' rt-presellt' a se n st o l tl' rritot)' aud loralitl' ll'ltic h th e pl ~1nn e rs ancl sp cc u lawrs are ntpidl; dt,rn,in ~: tite..~ ' d ecla rl'' as :tli\'t' a11d well a ga n H "hiclt i~ b e ing commcrrialiscd. profes'ionalisecl :uHI ~pcc t acula ri sed. 'Skin s Rule. OK'. ( l.u J..c.. 11 ni. ( 1!li6: 48)

top left: A 'ton-tip' woman on her bike, c. 1960. (Source: Getly lmages.) top right: A Skinhead, 1980.

(Source: Getty lmages.)

bottom: A Mod on his scooter, 1964. (Source: Gelly lmages.)

A young Teddy Soy, 19SS. (Source: Gelty lmages.)

338

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Subcultures: reading, resistance and social divlsions 339

n;nn rc ol th t 11'01 l.,ing-cl.l~' bmily :mcl th t 1\'a~ in "hicll it could an tn protcct thc
II'I)J'kill~ rJa" Jl'Olll th t poll'l'l' or thl' dominan! cJa.,-,. 1 ht ~('l1('J'; II OI1
Oi

~llbC UltiiJ'{'S ll'aS

Box

8.3
'

aho loratld in lhe changi ng palll'l'll\ or hegemony (p. )()(i). \\\ h.1w cJi-,uhscd 1hi:. concept in uther place-, (Ch aplt'l' :\); ho11'l'l't'l'. il i-, imponam 10 P'' allt' ntion w tlw -,pccilir 11'a1 in 11 hich thi' conccp1 i-, lht'cl in th i" appro:ICh. Clarke 11111. ( 19ti: :\~) a rgm that: (,l.llll'ci u,ecltlw tellll 'hq{l'IIIOIII'. 10 nl'l'r 10 th t IIHHIH.'nl 11'ht'll a rulin~ d.h~ is able, IH>l onh 10 tOt"ICe .1 ,ubordinate d.1,, tu cnnlunu 10 ih intl' l l'~l'. lmt to t"Xl'll a 'hq{t'I1IOI1\ n1 'total ,,Kial authorill' mcr -.uhnnlinatt da''''' 1hi, imohe, the l''l'IC'l' t~ l .1 'Pl'(al l.,incl ol powcr- thc pol~t'r to fr.lllll' :~ lt ltn.Hil'' and to ntain !IJ)JlOilliiiIl'' to WII ancl :-hapc COII,l'lll , ,o dt.ll tiH ~ I.IIIIil){ ni lq{IIII,ll 1 lO the d1111111ant r l a,~ts appl'ar' not nnh '-,pontaucnll; hut na1111 :~ 1 and IHJrlllal. rul'l hl'l'lllOn', ~UC h h t:f~l' l11 0l11' ' work~ thl'OIIg"h i cJco 1o_;~ . but l clot'' 1101 Cllll~ist of l:llsl' icka:<. ptrCl'ptiu H,, nr ddinition'. lt work.; primari ly b~ j-,crling thl ~ubordinate t'1:1ss intu tht kc~ in s l itution~ alHI stru r turcs which Sltppo n thc po11Tr ancl social Htt lwrity ol'thc dom innt orcler' (CI<trke 1 '1111.. 1 ~)7(): :\9).1 k .:l mon y i~ 1101 C<msistent in < that :11 SOillt' points thl' do minan! d as~ is domill<llll witltPill thl' aid or htge mony. 1ktll'l', al tinws cconomic crisis' and un e nlphl~llH'Ilt' do thc job jns1 as \1'cll. Fnnhl'l'lllOl'l', al o thcr poi nts thc dominant cla~~ 11it1 be O\'l'l'lhro\\'11 and hy ddinition hcgtnwn, does not c xist. In ~11111 . ' he iclL"a ol' "pennanen l c Ja,~ hq~e mon y" or of "pe111l<tlll'lll incorporation" must be ditr hcd' ( 1976: 11 ). \\'ithin t1H' COlllCXl of sur h pauern~ of ciolllll:tliOll thl' 1\'tll'king cJas~ had 11'011 space for thetmth es. whc re th t:' o ft en d cn.:lopccl 1heir 011'11 form" ami 11a~ s of life. Subr uhurc~ do the sam e son of th ing, 11inning -,pare lor 1oung l,orkin gdas~ peop1 c. 'They "~o h e". bu1 in an imaginan wa1, problem" 11hi r h a t tlw conn ete tllateriallc,el remain
unll~oln-d ' (Ciarkc ttnl.. l96: 1'/~S). Clarkt 11 al. appl~ this idea LO tlnee subculturc~ in 1hc P""''gc rqnocluccd in Box 8.2,

Structures, cultures and biographies

111\lllllllotl\ uf n o 11 H'."''IOI' ami ~lrunurc~. Tht~l po,ilion., gtne1,lit' " ~l'l cotlltnon r~blltlll' .111cl e~ptt itnu' from 1dtich lllt',mingful .H timh _ inclilidn.ll ancl e olln 111 l' - a~t to 1 htt ue ll'd.
1 1

rll11 0 1

-~11111!111 1 :lll' 1hl' 'l'l of 'oria lh--or~.m i,td po~itiOih all(l cx 1 w ri ence~ o l lltl' eh"

Cul11.1~~.' al l' llll' t~;.ut ~t ol ~~~~ia lh-~H){a ni,ecl and pau etnl'd n..,p 011 ,e, 10 lht''l' J>a,ir 111<1llll.11 ' 0( tal l'!ll ld lll011'. lltough culture' rorm . for ("\Clt gt''lllJ> r ,111(1 1' . ,, :.tt u f ll'a( IIIOll\ - IIH' ' ol ar tion ll htri tecJ from the pa\1 - l)lt'l' lllllSI al\1';1\'\ IJ cnlk'Ci l\'l'll' t'Oil~IIIIC il'cl :ll1 t'll' ll l'<ICh g'l' lll'l'<liOll. l
!JiiWI((jJiiin are 1l1e ' (' ll'l'l'l ' o f p.ttllut 1 H1 'll'l( 1 " a1 II uab 1hrough thl''t' ,lrtlCIII I'l'.' < lltd

r ultutts - tltt tnl'att' 1ll 11hi r lt iulil'idnal idl'llli t i e.~ :llld lif(-historit' arv conMl'liCtl'd n. tll of coll et'II t l'X )WIIl'l1t'l'S. (>' . . . . >tngrap lt te.<. rccngnbL lht d c men t ol tnd t \' ldnalle~ll 111 llw pa tlt~ ll'hit-h indi1 idual li1 c.' take 1hrcnwh rollct'lii'L , 1n 1 c 111 1 -c . and ttd tu n~. hu t 111<'1 ' 11111'1 11111 ht con cci1 tcl as l' t !ter \'1~) 1 )1- ndi\'id n;d 0 1 . fl'l't:: rtoating.

( la r kv ''ni. ( I!J71i: :>i)

'>O me sign ilictnt <TitiCISlll~ o f the appro.tt h . 1' h~ f Oil' lht'\l' dlflt c ulllt' ~ art' di,c u ~sed il is imponant w con ..idl'l Hlllll' or llll' other nw, unponanl 11011., lll'lt 'llt'd (rom cccs penoc 1. t'lll lll , . , 111 11 11~

con~~p~~ ~~~~~ ."' '' 1h. ~ 1 abn. induclt'>

H OIH H

1' hlrc n lu 11ill abo lind 'isual rept-c'>elllations of th t~c th ret 'u be u ltures. anwng others. Futhtnnort. 'In organising thcir re~pomc LO tht'Sl' cxpt'l i cnct~. II'Orking-clas youtlt '"1>-cullltre~ take 'iOlllt' thing' p rincipally f'rom tht loca ted "parcn t" cuhme: but thcy appl~ and tramf'ornt thcnt to t1H' siwatinm a nd l'Xptril-n n-, c h arancri~tir uf their dis1i nni1t group-lill. and gl~ n e rati onalexpcri e nt e' ( 1\176: ~~:\ ).

8.5

Three studies from the Birm ingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies

8.4 .4

1Structures, cultures and biographies

T hrte ke~ tcrms an: mecl h )' thl' <Hltlt ors of' this aniclt to ummarisc thcir <lpproach: 11/'lltiiii'I'S, ntlllll t'\ a 11d biogmjdlics. Thc ddinilitlll~ ginn by Cl:ukc "'al. ( 1970: 57) of lllt'St' are detaikd in IJox l\.3. T hest can be usl'cl a-; keni'Ords to reme m btr llw 11 H'Ol)' a nd a pproac h dtlcloped in Nl'.li.lll/1/rl' tltmuglt l?i/u1111. Thc e~say by C:larkl' r111l. conc1ucll'' \l'ith a l'< lthtl datccl section on t1 w r ountt r-culttHT ancl a di cussion of' tite rcac1ion 10 ,o uth 1dtich comiders the icka or moral p:111ir iut roductcl abnn:. Thc huok abo conwin~ a tnunher of cliscussions of' 'Pl'l'iic ~uhcul wrt~s: ted.,, mods and ;;J.;inhcacb .md tl:thoration~ o l ~onll' o f the ke)'

8.5.1 1 Paul Willis: Learning to Labour

I J rflfJIII' h:ts at hil'l'ld lhc Sla tu-, of :1 classic ICXI. lt~ titll' and ~ ubtit l e - /1 , \\ orl111 r (/r / ( ,,., ' \\'fll'ilug Urr 1 1./ob.l - Stt l nm ari~e its ro n1 e111 clearh'. \\'orl.,i1 'Jll ' g 111 }.." . 111 1g in tlw contex . 1 " . . 1011 0 r 1 t of ' dt ~u toll' 't 1 tool prep:ut~ ' ~oung ptuplc f(Jr d il'fcrcn t -, J o '~ in IIH' 1 1 .a )O ti r 11 ta 1 hl'l a n<l tltl: rl'l:lll't l'll 'll rl ., 1hl' C1111 i nucd rep rod uct ion ora cli1 ,io n ol' la 1mu 1

f~an~ing ~1 '

111

con lcm pnran capualt-,t 'ocit'l\ . \\'illi ~ dl' n lo n ~tra tes lht cnnlinttitil'' bt'lll'l't'n th l ~~~1ture o l a g t oup o l' ' cnmdan srltoo1 1mrl.,i ng-rl a~' relxls and tl w cullu re of lhlir

subscq llt'n l empiO\ mcn t.

340

lntroduc ing C ullural Studies

Subcultures: reading, resistanc e and social divisions

341

\\'ill i,~ ,twh mainh fcu~cs on a g1oup ol t,,-d,t hmo; in ;1 ~choul th.u he calls HamnH.'rl0\\11 g(l\,, 1 k identifil'' tht cliflt'rC llllOlllpOill'llt~ or thc cuhun ol the boys 11'l10lll he tt't'llh J.td s'. he Jads opposl' thl aut h oritl of tiH' sch ool aiHI tht'\ n~ktt the

b tht IIHhl ,uitldto 'inl{ll'~ ami ih mtHkrn tcth11ulo~ (l.tclinv;. l'tl'.). llo1h tlw music aud i" ,i n~ko;' fonn a1 t' 'uptcnteh 1dt'l':\111 10 tite s11 le ol tlw hil..t utltllll'. (\\ illi,. 1!17~: 77)
\\' il l i~ l1101111h a ~imil:tr '01'1 or .trgtnll t' llt abo ut tite ho Jl\ll> l ogou~ re l:ttion h i p~ betll'l't' ll cl irft t'l' tll aspcct' u f a ~o 11 1 11 Sll bcu lture li r t ht ltippit'' (' l'L' c'wc ia lh \\'illis. 197(-(: ltil-\-9). In 1k bcl iges 1mrch ( 1 ~17\1: 11:{) t hi ~ exprc~St'~: ' th t symb o lic ri t bctii'Cl' ll t ht l':lllll'" and 1i !'<.-,~ k;, ol ;t g-n ntp. i L s 'll h jtctI't' t':'l.x ri c n cc and 1lll' m mica! fon n s i t use~ to txprc~~ or re in fot'Cl' it' l'ucal ('o n ccrn~. T his IIH' a tts th :ll subcu lliii'C-" are structltl'l'd in that clill(:rl' llt a~pl'Cl' ol L ite lilc~tl'lc of thc sub cultun fit togethcr Lo fonn n 1dwk. Su tht'IL' i~ a ltomolo~ bl'liH't'll a n 'altl-rnatil'c \'a htl' '~:.tcm. ' h alluci n ogenir dntg, :md progrc~<.i~~: rork for thl hippit 'uhculturc. ~uhcultttlt'' tx p rc'' a re~pon:>e to a ~~t ol conditions and tht dille~tnt a'pect~ ol' the \ttbcultun an titd togcther itlto SIIIH' Iltred. rchHI'eh colwrt'lll 11 holl' ' Thl introduc tion or thi, ro tt npt, which ,,a~ a l'>o usld h~ Cl. trke r/ al., ll'ib a HT\ ,~nifi ra nt innm-:-11ion on \\'i1Ji,, pan .

cu nfonnist a ltitudes of' tho'e bm ~ 11h o fnllo11 ti H' arcep1td c thi c uf tht sd tool '' ho th e)' call ear 'ok, or ' lubc,, rkfining Lh e m ,ch't'' :1:> ' gro np ,,ith a n oppmiL iona l ~1:1nce. Onc of tl tt' g-n::tt l'-" L ~in s th at n n e of tht ' l<td'' <an ro mmiL , to 'g ras~ 1o t he sciHJo l a u th orities. The ' JacJ,' :Htc n tpt lu ge l O\\L ol ' " lllll t h ll'o r k as p ossiblc a n d 1o mi'' sc huo l if thl''' ca n . .\L , c h oo l th c, are cu n ce1necl w ' ltalt' ' J:dr. e nj ol'ing Lh tir 011'11 t nllu n in the t;Hll l'XL 0 ( th t ,dtool. Thi' can itwu ln goading teal11er~. bcncling tlt t tules to '<'e ho 11 fa 1 Jt 1~ c.ul ).{O .tnd 'o 011. Th c~ u, lOJ hring tMitL'llll'lll imo what in otht'l ,,-a,, lllay be ho1ing ,1, .mcl thi' u1n occu1 thmugh t' 'J>It'''ion' ol han!' ma\Culinitl ami in fighti 1tg. O n OIH' h.md. 1\otllt'll are IIT.Ilt'd '''e' ohjcct,. ami the Jad, "ill.lltempt lO <.re 1011 lar tlw1 t.lll go': on tht 01he1. a 'll'a(h' gi 1lh iencl 11 ill be loo\...td upun a' a hnure 1,-j((;- 10 ~en ice dom 1,ti t twetk Intlll' oftt n l'tpo t ttcl :utcl con tinlting clonbll ' ':tmlatd of st' XIlal behal'inur. ll'ntnvn 11h o are stxu:t lh ar ii l' 11 ill be ckridl'd. Tht 'Jad, ll'(' t't' a l~o racis L in h c h :ti'o u r a n d i>l' licb. cxprl- ~'ing- h:ttrvd ul' l':tki.~t ;Hi i ' a ll(l ,) :un ait :111S, and nponi tt g bling inmlwd in paki ha;; h ittg'. \\'iJ Jj, ;1rg ll('S th:ll th~ main con Ltllll's .,t it' c ulture. dc- , pitt i>ring in l-\ t lw ' lad, itHo n mlli c Lll'ith th t ~~ ltool .tlll ll uriLie~. acnta lh prep:trl'd tltetn lor incot poration in f'om1s

8.5. 3 1 Diek Hebdige: Subculture: The Meanng of S tyle

1 kbcligc ( 19\1) clc ,e loped tltt' n :acling ni' th e s t ~l t~ ol' ~ uiJ cu ltmal gmups ll'ing Lhe toob olt ll<' s tn1ctu ralist (p. 'l-1) :utd scmi o ti c (p. :~-1 ) approa< hl'' di,ut"cd in Cltapter ~. In pattiutlat . h t locu,ed on tite difl<'l'l'\11 dimcmion ~ o[ dtt' 'ti ll' ol' 'uhcu ltural !(roup~. L\i n g thl' g-tmt~tl delin ition or ntlturc pruposccl h~ Cl.lrkt ti ni. ( l !l7!i). H ebdigc argutd tltat thl ~tyle~ txpre,"d h1 dillerem subculturcs art .1 rc<.pon'>l' to social conclition' ;uHI l'Xpcricnces. Fut thcnn<> IT. accord ing tn 1 khdi gc. :.uch m lcs often enco<k :tn o p pmi tion to t h l' dominan t or h egem o ni c (p. 1(){) ) lorms uf' C11ltnn associ;tt c d ll'i L it dominan t ~ro u ps. Su e h clnt l lcn ~l'S ar e ulten i nd inn ; n el ca n i lli'OI\'c tht tt L i l i~:uiun and transl'onnati o n o l' !01 tn s ol' cu lture that ,,crt pn , iou,J ~ th e pro pcrty ol'do m inan t g rou ps. !11 t' 11ggi 11g i11 su c h prar tins. ' ll bc u iLUral mttubcrs ac t ;, britolmn e u g-agi ng i1 1 a pro ces~ of hrimlng1', rt~po nding- 10 1h e ll'nrld a r{lll ttd tltttu h~ itnprm ising in a 'ttunurcd fas hi on, cr<a ting mt'.llli ng~ tlt at :trt cliiTl'l'l' llt l'rom tho'e ol' th e d omi nant ru lturc or dominant ~rou p,, .\ , l lebd i~c ( 1 ~179: 10 1) 'a" ahou t tite tl'dch

or repeti tin-. IH',I\\

ind ll,ll ial 1\0rl-.. ll\1 tll l ' ltoplloot. rhi< ""' ;J,o ba~ccl :tt'tiUllcl rorms of 111a,culinitl. pt.trti< .11 jo\...in{. geuin~ .111.11 11 ith 1d1at \OII 0111 . ~t.':'l.llal hr.g).\ing .utcl so on. So in .1dopting what in ""nt \,-a,-, r: ut hl 'l'l'll ,, .111 oppo,itinnal culture ( tu the schooll. or in 11.1~' oppo~ing tht dotninant Cltlturl' ol tlwir expericnn. lll dr< II\'ng cm th c n soiHTes ol tl wir ,,orking-clas~ (mak) pann L c nlture thc ' lad, 1\'t'n: aouallr prcparing theli1Sl'h'l'S for th e 1\'0rlcl o ( manual l.tbOll l . In lo t' \\':11:. thi ' aicls th e rc procluc tinn oJ' I.'S t:t b lislwd pa u c rn s o( e x p loi 1:11 it H 1. Tlw culture uf nppo:;i tion :tt'lllallr

or

sui L cclthc clo n1 ina n1 c u lt ne.

8.5.2 1 Paul Willis: Profane Culture

In Prt1rllll' ( .11 /tull'. llhirh rl'pon' nn ,,ork rat 1il'cl out bclnrc that cli~n~~~td in l.tmningto f.abow. \\'iiJi, ( 19/H) t':'l.aminccl \-arinu-; dimtn,ion' ol thc li1c, of tii'O \OIIth 'ubcuh1ual
group~ 11 tlw l.ttt 1\ltitJs: thc motorhikt 1 H>~' ancl h ippies. \\l1ile the'c l''amplc~ are rather da 11cl. it , tht nattll't' uf thc !in\... th:u \\'iJii, m.tl-..t, l>et11een di lflTl'l lt a~pcc t s o r Lhe Jir1~,1\J e ni th c,c g rn ul" that rcson:Hcd th m tt ~lt 1\'or\... un ,uhc ulturl'~. Thu ~. for e xampk. \\' iiJi, ;ng u cd tlt :tL Lltt n tll,ir: tl prdtrcllet'S of L ht' ' t' g roups ll'l'\'t' intim:IL Cl)' co lnl ccted 10 t lw n :HlltT o l' t h eir li\o, T lw IIIOtorhikc boys' prd~ rt'IH't' f'nr ea rl)' rock ' n 'rnJI in 15 rp tll si tt g Je fo rmaL ancl t it e Jtippi c~ li\...c ol' a Jbum-IJ:t,t'cl J'l'll.{l'l''~ii'C rock ,,a~ no accidl' tl l. Rock'n' rnl lmusic tn:lldt tcl tlll' t es tlcssms~ a11d mnhilitl' uf' th c

boy\ :. t~l ~:
111 thi' ,,;, th~. ltdch- bo,~ tht'ft and ll ~llhlilnn:uion ofthe Ed11.11tlian ~t1k t'Ciilt'd in tht' t':ll JI 1\l.-10~ b\ <1\'IJt' Ro,, li ti' 11 l':tlt h1 1o un~ lllt:'ll abntll 1011 11 l'<lll be COIHII'I\Cd as an at.:t or hricol;-Ke. 1l e bdige :trg 11cs t lt at suhc ul tllrts ol'tt.n rcsis t (p. 2:1~) th t cl um inanl social o rcler, th oug lt indircnl~ and in sy mh ol ic ''':IY' ll ml'l'l'e r , lw abo argut'' th a L lonn s o r suhn tl tllra l txpression are ui'Lt.'ll in ro rpora ted into tlw d omi n.1111 'oc i:t l orckr throug h lll' () \1\ail I'OIIIl'' F'i rsl, there b tltt ('IJII llliOCiity fo r lll ll'hich II\'OII'l'' ' tlt t COil\'l'I'.S iOil of subc u llllral ~ign., (drc". music. l'tl'.) into massproduncl o1 ~jlct~. Second is ' th e ''labtllin.(' .m el re-d~:Finition ol dt' iant hth.n inur b~- dumin;111t grotth- the police. thl' nwdi.t, tht j11diciarl' ( H ebdigl'. 1979: \1 -l) in a proress ol idcnlogic:tl inc01-poration. TJtj, 'on o l accmnll of tlw \\',\\' in 11hich ~ubcultura l grou p~ product: new and re~i,tan t tne:llling~ " hich :11t' thtn houg h t nll or incorporattd hl' tlw r:tp itali<.t ' YSt<: m is

motorbikl hm< liH~: t1H' ,upprt"ion ol 'IIIH llttTcl time in tht lllll,k. i" .thilill to <top. ,t,lll .mcl bt: f~cll'tl. matclte~ tltt moto1-hi\...t ho,< re,tk" ton< lt' lt' lik ,l,le .. \',,e ha\!' >~'t'tt. 11 ' ' no accitlcnttlt.u thl' ho" prelcrrt'd ~inglc~. nor i-; it :lll.lccidt'llttlt:u tht rork n tolllonn

342 lnlroducing Cultural Studies

H 111 re ta 1 i\(h 1am iliar. 11 <'lllaib th~ 1101ion 1lta1 tl wn i' '011\l' kincl ol 'PhCit' 11hcre 1 ,\llllHn 1ic 1nean in~' are proclund " h ich an 1htn con upltcl. IIOII't'I'LT. Thorn1on ( 19\ll. 1!1 \1 .-l). '' cli~(' ll"t'd in ' C'ctio n ~.~. pmhlt'mati't'' 1hi' :l')ll'll o l 1 kbdige\ work, ~ho 11 ing IW\\ llll'dia imagc' .liT in1oll'l'd in ~uhruhtliT'- lron1 1lwi r intq>tion.

SLJbcullures: reading, resistance and social d ivisions 343

Key injluence

8.2

Angela McRobbie (195 1- )

8.6

Youth subcultures and gender

Ont ol lhl' nw~l impona n1 prohkm~ with 1he liH:ra1u1 t' di..,ttl"t'd in 1hi.., chapltT ~<J far j, il' a l 111 0~1 t''tJt t,\'t focu~ 0 11 bo1 ;; or liH: Il . (' lti ~ 111\ 0j)i,t 11,1, (ir,l c h;~ll~ngtd from \\'ilhin lh l' cc :cs appro;~eh h~ Angela ~lc Robbic ( p .:~ 1:~ ) a nd.J t nn~ (.arhl'r ( Hliti: 2 11) 1dto a,kld lin n mai n f]U l''lion':
{ f l .\ rl' gills rl';tlh- absl'n l f'rum 1he m.dn po~HI'<I J ,u l H ul lun ~~ Or ;nl llt'l' JliTwlll. lml 1\'bihk ;- {21 \\'hl're prl',t'll t an d 1 i1 i,ible. ,,.l'l'l' thtir roit'' tht ':t111t'. bu1 1 111 ll't' 11 l:t1 ')-(lll:t1 , iJ;111 lm~: nr 1\'t'l't' tht'l clilftrtHt:- (:1) \\'hcllwr margi 11al 01 di l'i't'1 't'lll , , il lt' pnsi1inn uf g-i rl' , 1wr ili r lo lilt ~; 1 h-n tl u 1r;d option: nr rlo li ll'ir rolt' .rd ltn ila lltot c 1-(t'll<'l'al J.,uiJllrrlitt< ~o( 1 llinn 11 1 ' 1\'omctt in lht <t'tllral :t r!'a~ ol 1 11:t ttl ~ l l'l':t 111 <:ullil t't'- homc. wo1k. M honl, l e i~llt'l' ; ( 1) IJ ~ub-c u l ll! ral oJtion. , <ll 't' ttc>tl'l'< ldih ;ll.lilabk 10 girk ll'hat arl' lht clillttt'IH but rOJuplt'1 1ll'11la1Y 11a" i1 1 1 d tirl1 g>i t l ~ o r,l{.lll~t lht' l n ll ttlr;ll lifc? .\JHI al'l' 11ie~e. in lhtir uwu tcrm~. ~ubc ultur;t l i11 lo1111 ~

11 re:-.pon'L' 1 o ( 1) the1 argucd that. at ka~t ><11th bl'c all~L' ol the 111ale bias of prt 1imh inH''-tig-.ttion.' . i1 wa~ clifl1rult lo a11"1'tT tht qut,ti.oll thl~ ~1 ~d ~~ t. . \, th ~ m~n 1'[ 10 had ,tuclied ,ub n d tu n:~ had 1101 loo\..td at tht pm~1hk pa1llClpauon of guI~ tn 1 thc m. J{it 1, imi,ibilitl tl'lldl'd to bt: .1 , e JFlulfilling propht('\. !11 pur...t1i11g C(tl(.'~t.i un s (2) and (~) thc1 Jooktd in more cletail al thl' pa11' that llllllll'll haw pht~l'cl 111 three , 111Jntlll tl't'' Fir't. in thc rock<' L g-rea~cr or nmtol bi\..t '"ht uhll lt' a' de'u ihed by \\'illis,

11onlt'll ll l'l't' , 11])ordina t('. The1 1,erc passtngtr, on tht 1\lotorbi!..t.., - thc1 did not n 111110 thl'11l. ~t'Ull HI. thl'l con,idcrl'd tht mod girJ, ol thl' t',ll'h 1\)()(J.;, 1dwm th ey see "' promimnt 1-ithin tlll' nwd ~ubr u l tn re. Third. lhtl l'XanlIH'cl hippil' culture, id t'lllih ing- 1 11() particular conlining rolt, lor "onnn: tlll' l'<lllh ltlllthe r and 1he pre Raph.tditt ft agik lach . ;o, lcRohhie and Carher argul'rl t h.11 1 he plan~ for wo1mn i11 t hl' 'u bcult u res so far d C$CTi 1)l'd wtrt relat td to 1h:ir 11 irll'r o;ocial r"k'. T h t'\' abo 'uggt'~t t'cl lhat gi1ls tended to 11 rgan i't' 1heir cJdUlral lil'c d ill'erentl\' lo ho1 ~. l'01 t1111g a n1 on hnm~ba scd, ro 1na nl ic or ' lt'tmbop' cult11n. Th i~ poinL and o lh t~ nl.t<k hl' ;\ld{ohble wcre ](onlopl'cl i11 ; , JI.bSt'CJ lll'lll Cl'i lCJilC oJ' lht lll<dl'dOlll 11 :tted ll;tllln' of' l't'Sl';tJ'Ch O ll ~~ 1 h c nltut 'l'l' (:-. lcR()bbie. HIRO) ll'hich argnl'd thal thcn :trt tll'o m<1 i11 approachcs thilt ca 11 tw t:tl.. tn w pre1ion' n1 a iL"-dominat ed 1,ri ti ng o11 subcult urt'' Fir~t. suc h arcounts can lw di~111i~o~e cl . or arct'ptccl a~ applirablt qnh 10 bol'' ,11\cl attcntion pbced on ,.th.e cli J f'tf't' ll l ll:J i lll't' of g i1 l,' Cllltlll'l' , S~rond. [>l'l'\ iotl..; :ltllllllll~. ' ll dl :\~ iJ JOSl' by \\lllis ( 1\lii) and 1kbdigt ( 19/~l ). ca11 ht' rcad ,tgain'l lht g rain' 10 ' l'l' 1,hal lht'l' c~u~ offer lor th e anah,i~ ol nt a~n di n itl. ho1h in th~ naturt o l' tht 'ttht tdltllt'~ and tht 1\Tttlllg 011 them .

Angela McRobbie is a British cultural analyst. She combines the study of different dimensions of youth culture with commentary on developments in cultural theory and polilics. McRobbie sludied as a postgraduate al the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) (p. 327) allhe University of Birmingham. She lectured in london before moving lo loughborough Universily. She is currenlly Professor of Communications al Goldsmith's College, Universily of london. McRobbie's mosl well-known work centres onlhe analysis of gender in youth culture. She was crllical of the 'maleslream' nature of work carried out at CCCS on youth subcullures, emphasising the need to critique work by such as Paul Willis and Dick Hebdige for its lack of attentlon to gender, and the partial nature of its consideration of women. Moreover, she argued for the need to analyse the nature of L he cultural lile of young women, to see if thls is strllctured in different ways to that of boys. This approach resulted in papers on the culture of femininity, romance, pop music and teenybop culture, the teenage magazine jackie and so on. These earlier researches can be found collected in F eminsm and Y outh Culture (1991). McRobbie developed this approach and the entailed research and argument through the 1980s. She wrote infl uentially on the importance of dance in female youth culture and pointed to the developing informal economy of second-hand markets in a paper in her own edited collection Zoot Suits and Second-lwnd Dresses (1989). Cultural change in gender roles (as well as her own position as a parent) led to reconsideration of sorne of her earlier arguments. She has analysed rave cullure and the opportunity that it provides for new roles for young women as well as discussing the shift to the centrality of pop in magazines for young girls such as jusi Seventeen. These concerns were connected to the influence and evaluation of debates about postmodernism (p. 400) in theory and culture which are to be foun d in Postmodernism and Popular Culture (1994). She has also commented on debates in left cultural politics, especially around the concept of 'New Times'. McRobbie's essays have hada large impact of the consideration of youth culture. She has been at the forefront of arguments emphasising the importance of taking gender into account and for the need lo examine the works of male writers for the versions of masculinity they contain.

Furlher reading
McR obbie's work has appeared in essay forn1. Excellent collections now exlst: McR.obbie, A. (1991) Feminism and Youth Culture, Basingstoke: Macmlllan. M c;R obbie, A. (1994) Postmodernism and Popular Culture, london; Routledge. McR obbie, A. (ed.) (1989) Zoot Svits ond Second-hand Dresses, Basingstoke: Macmillan.

Jn dl'\'t' l(tpi11.{ ht t poin h ahon t th e di llcrcnl nattllT or gir l' . rultun :-.k Rob bit arguc:. that 1l w 'tl'l'l'l i' .t potc ntialh dangerou' place for girb:
o

344

lntroducng Cultural Studies

Subcultures: reading, resistance and social divisions

345

1n 111 g-er g-irls 1 encl w ~t:n- indoor~ or w con:-: rq~me i11 1011111 dub~: rli u,~ ll'ith litera ll ~ 1 nmdtl'lt' d'l' to ~o bl!l the '''"~et frtqutnth bttwllt' p1q.~nant 111llun a. l'l'<ll ancl <Ji,appe;u had.. into the lwnw 10 b{' .lb'iol bl'CI h1 cltildr:u'l ,utcl clomcsuc labour. OlcRobhie. 19~0: -17) :'-lcRobhit argucd that thc me of clrink alHI clrtl!{~ can indun the 'allH' \Otl of perils: 1 ~ clear from m1 IT<'enL rc::.earch. for t:xampk. th;tL Kirh ;ut n:ltt< 1.1111 Lo dtink pnci~<:ly ht'C<Ht~e ol l he 'ex u al dangers of drun kt'llllt'". ( 19HO: -17)

11hik it ma~ o ppose o lli<i.ll cultu<e in 1-01\ll' 1\';tl~. reinfoi'Cl'' th c u dtttn o f' romane<: and Lht icka ol fl' nlin ini tl 11hich i' .1 pa11 of thi~. Thb pa ralleb thl' al'to\11111('111 acl\'a nnd b1 \ \'i IJi~ ( 197/) (01\Cl'l n ing t ht ll'a\' ill 11 hich tlll' l'X;tg(\l'l'atiOil of llla\Cldi nitl' anwng \I'CU J...ing-d ;h, bm:-.. in oppo~itiott tu school n on n ~. 'llited thcm lor ma t1 11.tl
lahour.

8.6 .1

The teenybop cu lture of romance

:'\kRobbie sttg-gt:,tcd rhat the II'Orking-cl;"' g irl ~ ~h t ~ tuditd lt'IHied l<l form a lcenybop n1 h 11 rt ba ~ed around romance. Thesc g irl ~ ~pl'n1 m ore ti lll' in1hl' hume, :u leaq xmly lJ<'C:1U\(' or llw dan~erotts naiUft' of puhlic platTS, li kl II W Sll't'l'l. Frill. ( 1mn added 11tnc o1l wr nspeets to this ,,hcn he a r~u e d : 1h:11 girl' an 111 0rt 'uhlt'ct lo parental r nn1 rnl and di ~c iplitll' than hnys are: thal g irl' :nt~ ol'tt-n t'XJ)l'Cll'd 10 carry 0111 1mrk in 1 Lhal bms a1 rhc homc in a 11;1 :c noL. :1 pnin t thal ll':t' illuslra ttd g raph ic:tll)' by :'\lcRobbic ( 197Hl ll'hnc ~h e poin~td outt ha t girls wc1 T I'XJK'Cll'd to J)l'l'fontl lar~e amoun ts of 1\'ork in ril e Jwnw for w:ry liLLie finan cia! recomptnsl': and, lina ll ~ thal girJ, spenclmore time :11 hon1e geltinK reacly tn gu out than boys do. Thi ~ lill'ln of girl ~ , ubculturt: idt nrificd in rl w 1\l/(h cumi ~ tcd of thc rollowing
i'l'atu iT~:

\ ';:u-iou-, ll till'l'' h.tn identilil'd ~ome proble m:-. "i rh thb idea ol the tL't'lllbop culture of r<Hilattn. Fir~t. :'-lcRobbie ma1 ha1e undetT~timatl'd tht: panicipat ion and seriou,IH'" of lhl commi 11nettt of sonH: gi rls to 'del'i:mt' ~ubcultural .{roup' (lor examplt-. Smit h . 1!171{). Sccond. <:cm ie ;m el Lees ( 1!'181) found L hat girl~ Ita el ,, mort rtalistic app ai,a l o l t ht pmtnti:ll problems in marriagt 1han :\lcRobbic fot 11tcl in lwr group. Cm,it ancl Ll' l ' ' J'ouncl far more e mpha~i'\ on hal'ing a goocl titm bd(ll l' marriage. Th ird . C:cl\1 ic and Lee~ ( 19K 1) suggestecl 1hat \ lt Robbie \ 11orJ... t t'IHied w i ~o l att a clisCtl' lt' f(:male ~o11 ilt ~ubcu ltme. o\'er-inregra ting- ami separ:11ing- i1 o fl' f'ro m tiH' rt lalOIIS ht'tll'('l'll llll'll i llld 1\'0illl'll l\'hich ~:O. i \ t td in SOCit'll llHJrt l\' icld ~. Relattd ly. th cy arg tlt d lhat Ion 111uch tanpha~is is placcd o n th c rcsistancc (p. 2:"1R) enwikd in tlll' u dt11 rc o( l'l 'min in it l'. Fomth . ~lcRobbil''s " ork tolteT nt rated 1 nai nl ~ on whitt II'Orking-dass girb. and more t:\icltncc is nccclccl abo ut hl:tck ancl llliddlt'-rl:t" girls fo r comparison. Fmlltt' l'ntore . it mig ht he that some o l this " 'o rk i ~ 1 1ow r;tthcr clated . T his po int can lw Ctllt.,iclered thro11g h an cxami natio n of i\lc Ro bbit ~ mort' recen t \,ork.

1, Tlw nnualit\' of' !1 1< home ancl oftcn of thl' bldroom. ( :i rb tl'ltckd

lll get together with ot h cr girJ, an cl li'lcn 1 0 record-; b1 the ir la1ouritt' ;u ti''" in t.tdt oth cr's bed-

8.6.2 1 Pop music, rave culture and gender

In her tarlit r 11'01'1.... :\l cRohhit ltad dr<lll'n :lllcntiotl LO tht roll' or mag;llillt'S likt .Jnt kit in the culntn ol rom:lllCl'. In rLnn,idning this argtullent. :'-l.cRobbic ( 19!11 ) ckmonstratecl tht cliffnenct btt ll'l'l'tl ronttmporatY mag:uim, like jmt .\i't't'll/11'11 :mcl.JIIdlit . Romance ha' dra~ti ca lh clcclincd in imponance ancl pop and fas hion at t' nntr<t l, leading LO a gnaHr tmphas i ~ on im.tgl' all{l the pop star. :'-kRobbit- ;11gul'S titar 'lt , pop rathc1 th.m rom;un which 1101, opcrate' as a J...incl of cc)llc<'plual umbrl'l l:t gil'ing a o tlt nt prodnn ion' ( 1991: l fiR). In 'u eh gitls' mag-ati n e~: senst of ickn ti 11 1

roolll'. 2. Girl' formed a t1111yfi(JjJ culture. ll'hcre there was a 1omantir auachmtnt to eme star or group. T he re i., ,, h iston of diiTertnt <.Lar~ ancl group' that haH filkd 'nch a role.
~. \\'lwll girl~ clid go out. it 1\<lS most likeh to he a 1outh club.

-1. Dance 11 ,1, im ponam to girl' in 11ays that iL""~ 1 \0l lor ho\~. :'-lcRobbie ( 1981 , 1993) ha' ('Oillinned lO \lft'SS Lhl' itnportantT of dann lo girb.

;,, For th t gi rl' in :'-l cRubbie'" ~ tu ch'. th e re latio n,hip 11ith a flt .\ tflitnd 11a~ l'try impor tan l ancl t hl'\' l'alucd th is 1110fc t han !luir re la1 i on~h iP' 1,i lit bo\'~ . (}. Thc idea of ;.()lll:tl\Ce \I'<IS W'IY importan l. :'\lam or lht girl". dl'~pitl' al time~ ~holl'ing a l'(;tli..-tic a ppreciat, 111 of s~mc a'pcn, ol' 111an i:tgc. p lan grl'al SIress on t he idea of mman CL' ami rhe ro man1ir attachn wnt ln om bny. 1his can he rclatccl 10 1lw conrintaclcxistcnce o r a sex ual duubll standard, \l'hl'rt girl" cou ld (asih beco me known as ~lag~ if' th L'I' 1\'l'lll o ut ll'ith se1cral boys ("L'l' tht cli~c ussi o 11 ol' l.rrn11iug lo Labo1 tr, \\'i ll is 1\177. in SL'C lion R5. 1).

there i' .111 Cl\'l'r" h ~llnin ).; iniL'I"l''l in pn~o n a l inf'ot utation. Tlw tmtgatill t:~ i1 ltrl'a,i11gh pl:11 1hc roh <ll p11hliri't fot thc 1;1riou' b;m d~ l\'hn 1 :111 inlu llw 1t'l' 111 boi>)Jl'l' c nn p. In rl'l tll'll tltL'I pagt~ ,ll't' filkd ll'ith g l m~~ pi r ltll't'~ and 1h e~ ca11 claim 1o hall' a clitl'l l lilll' Lo lht ~ t:t rs . Tlti' lll:tkl'' l'o r l lw;q>a11d l'<t\\ cnpy. Thrl'e pag't'' can bl' cmt-rtd in a ll:"h ld th tia lll'lp o( ; t l'<lll ~;lll:tn l ic lcJtoph otll' e; JI, a tapC' l'l'CUI'C Jto r .11 1 d a ,tltft ion of' publicitY ~ h ot.~ nl'tl' ll 1 )1'1 \1 itiL'd h~ 1la l'l'Coi'd C<l1 11pan)'. (~ lrRobbi e. 1 !1\) 1: 1(i!l) ln :'l it Rnl>bit's 1('ll', pop 11111.~i c is more imponant LO girls n o 11' titan i1 was in thc l97tb. Hol\'l'l'tr. g irJ, a re llCl t 01111' imo l\'cd ll'ith pop III USic o r thc ll't'111'bop ~~pe. ancl ~lcRobbil' h :h ;1bu cli'a\\'1\ ll tt n t ion t o Lhc ir participation in ra w c11 lturc. Sht argut~ th:H ~u c h n t1111 n Clll lw ronlll'C ttd to clras1ic change' in kt ninini ty OI'L'I' rt'Cl' ltt l't:tr., in Bri l<ti 11 , wh ich h,l\'l' "Jll'lll'cl 11 p t ht pm,ihi li ~~ or 1\('\\' role ... loa 1\'0 IIIl'll . <uggt"'ti llg 1h;ll 'girl ~ lm tlt IJI.1c k ;uHI 11hitt' ltaw bl'l'll "11 nhi11 ~ld" from tlll'il 11.1Ciitional genckr po~ i tion wltik tht gl'nclt-r a11cl cJ:t,~ dl~ t in~ ol t ht~, malt' counterp:UL!'. ha' l'l'lllaimd mot t'

i. 1\lcRobhie ;11'!-(lll'cl that 1lte g irl' shc sllldicd srnsstd

'<llnt' clominant idea~ o f'f'emininitl in a n ex;;ggcrated fa, Jtio n. Tltb ma1 fw 111 p;tl'l ol a culwrc tltat opp_used thr p crccil'ccl school l'thic of' respnmibilit1. ha rcl 1mrk and 'triot<~ II L'~' T hc .{IriS spenL I11\1Ch time talki n ahout bo1~ ami wm ttcltt httt cllltL' ' t ltool <ull's ahnu1 drcss <lnd makc-up in"' fasi~ionablc" direction a~ po,,ibll'. :'-l e Ruhbil ;u guccl 1h.11 thh cuhurc,

346

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Subcu lture s: read ing, resistan ce and social divisions

347

stabl l" ( ~le Ruhb ie . 1 00:~ : -10::-\). ~le Ro b h it .;ug~e~ I S 1hal wh ilt' 111 iddle-class 1\'0 lllt'n a re inne asing th c ir mnic ipatiun in tra di1ion:1 l pro ft''' io n s likl' m edi c ine and th at black IIOJ'king-c Jas, g-irls are lllot'l' l ikc ]~ LO W' i1110 hi g ile r ;nH ) rlll'l l1t'r e du ca tion Lhan th e ir m a le p eers. \1 onoH r , \l e Ro bbic re iten u es ~nm e o f 1h e )>O 11 1 ~ alreacl1 m ad t a bo u1 tit e c ha n g ing nat11re o( g: irls' maga1.i11t'S. htn cleYe lups hcr a rgtt t ll e tH~ a bout dance. Sh e tl ' dan ce is ,,h e rl' g irls pn ints 10 th t~ ru1Hinuit~ o l' ra H Cllilurc ll'ilh e ar licr rtt l t 1 m ~ in th < wc rc alwaYs fonnd in 'ttbr ulLUrc~. lt was their n ul~ tn litlc nH' nL ll niiT IT r. ' in r:m : it beCOilll'' 1111: moti 1';\1 i n g fo r ce ror llw l' Jl 1i l't' 'll b cu lt lll't'. ( \lcRo bbie ' 1ml ~ : i 19). T h c ce ntra lit> o f dan ce a llo11." a f: 1r 111orc imponant plan fo r gi r ls 11ithin 'ur h cont t mporary subc ulturcs. Hol\'t:' l't:' r. in continu i t~ with e ar licr 1m1 h., \ lr Ro bbic ~ till 'tTS t lw d a ngc r of th esc occasion~ ro r g ir b. t'l't' ll if at thi ' latn dat e it is a~ a parent ra Llt tr 1han as a sociolog ir:d obscrl'cr.

ex:nn intd tite ide a rac ia l ickntill' in co ntl.'lll(JOI'a ry Binning ham . althnu ~h hb prima n t' lllpha,is ,,as o n ,,hite \'u ttth.

nr

8.7.1

Simon jones's Block Culture, White Youth: new identities in rnu ltiracial cities
0 11

Simon .Jon e:,~ ( 19::-\8) boo k

/Jiad: C ul/1111'. 117tilr l'oulh r;d ls into

l\\'!J

rdatilc h cliscre tc

pan~. In t lw lirsl lw p rcsc nts an 0\'CI'I'iCII' o r th e clcHIoplllclll

tio n lO J'nrms u r ndt lliT in Britain ancl J a lllaica . HOII'l'\'C r , book , \l'hi c h Coll lain' :l ll l' thn og raph y u r blac h. :tnd ,,hit e youth in Binningham. that is of g n atCI' illlt'l'l'\t. .IOnt'$ cJi .~C ll ~'l' S th e ft'lll < tti<lll ( 1(' id e ntit ~ in <1 lllllltira cial area uf lhl' ci t~ of' llinning ll:nn in tite Engl i~h ~licllancl s . Thu~ m : ut~ white boy.~ had adopte d fo nm or cu lture th~u ll'n tlld in 111on.: co m emi u n a l <lll a l\'~e., he see n a~ blac k. In partic u lar. 'Biac k ' l;ut g uage was m e d to ex press o pposition to author i t~ o n th e part o f ,,hite c hilclre n ( 19~K : 1-l!l ) . Rcggac 11a s acloptccl hr t h e young \\'hite p eo ple g ro \\'ing u p in this c nl'ironm e nt, a ncl J o n cs sh o11s ho,, dilfe r e n t tlt c mts l'rom.Jamaica n music ,,ere ad a pte cl by yn un g whitc nH:n ;111cl ,,o nw ll (see a lso J tat e r, 1~192). T hus. h e maintains t hat: Blac k lllll ~i r gc m ralll' :lllcl .Jam;Ir an lllliSiC in particu lar haH runrtion ed ; (S Ll':lil'lll i llt r~ uf opp o~itional 1a Jucs and Jibc ra ting pica~urc~ to d il'f'crt' lll ge n e rat i on~ of ll'h itrs l<r ttcarl ~ tltre< ' d ccadcs. Thcl' haYe con ~i s tc nt l )' suppli ed ll'hitc yo utll 1rillltll<' raw m:Hcri:d l'u r t llcir 0\1'11 di ~ ~ inc l iw Jo rm s ol' cuhur;1l e:-: pre~sion. T hruu g h the politic 1l di ~cour~es o( Ra s tal~1ri . reggac has prmidcd \'Otln g ,,hites ll'ith a cu llct:ti1e l ang11a~l' :utd s~ mbo lbm u f re be ll ion tha1 ha~ prowd rlsonant tn th t ir Oll'l'l predicam e nt- anrl to tll (' ir ex pe ri e nn:; uf <li>tinu. b ttt relat erl , fnnm o f o pprcssio n . (J o ncs. IHHH: 2~ 1 )

or l'l'ggae ancl it~ connecit is th t' scco ncl h a lf or th f'

8.71Youth subcul tures and race

Th t mo.;t ~ i gnifi c ant (' CIII ' id t ra tion or racc ' fro lll ll'ithin t lll' Ce n tre for Co nlcmporary C ultura l S tud ies ( p. :~~ /) lt;HI wmc in th c colk c ti n h' aut h orecl/'rdirill~ //11' Cri.1i., (Hall r/ of.. 1 \17~\. This con siclncd Inedia con~tntc tinn of mugg in );' in t ht con t c~ t o/' tll c repa tte rning n r lt cgcmom i11 Britai 11 . ~! u re:: spcci fi r alh in th e COillt :-- 1 or cumid e rat ion or sub culturcs. 1 kbdi g < ( l~l /!1) h a cl su-cssecl t lw <Tntralitl o ( blac k c llltttre ancl th e black prcscn cc in Bri lain in th t gc n c ra tion th c Sll'lc ll'hitt' subc u ltmcs. l lt:lxligc ' s inte rcst 11a, iu tll c e lk c l'> ol' b i:Kk r u lltll'< ' o n 11hitc yo1 11 h. Rarc ,,as r econ.;iclc rcd in Tlll .;111/II' Slri/;~ lJIIdl (Ce n tre f'or Co lli C' tnpu r a ry Cul tu ra l Sludi es, 19W2) . rlti s collecti o n of a rtidt:'$ e~a mincd thc plan or rar l' in thc politi r al prnhkms o J' British capita lism

or

or

i 11 1he 1 970~; e xplc )re el ancl c ri t icis<:d rc prc~c nta tiOJl S, t 1H'ories ancl in1cst igat ion" or ra cc in nw inst re am sorinlogy; ~.xanl in e d t't' prese n t:ll ions of hlac k cri 111 i nali ty; ;m el r onsiclcr<'d t iW CIJ;Jic n ge prt'SC IIlCd lO \l'hitL' remini'-111 h1' bJac k \I'Oill t' n anrl th e p o Jiti cal ('X]W ri e n ce oJ' .-\sian \\'OIIH'Il in Bl'il<tn. T hc prcdonlin<tlll lOill' th e \'Oiume was a critirptc of ,,hat had g onc hclrc aiH I th c idcological ( p . ;.) o r 'cornlllolhe nsical' ima <re.s or racc that liad in/'ormcd su -callcd '\Cl' n tilic r cscarc h . S~ m e nr thc~L' 1h cmcs 1\'l'l'C furt lwr d ('IT in pt'tl b~ Paul G ilroy (p . 166) ( 19:-1 7) ll'hich

or

Holl't' l'fT, .lone ' recog nises contradictio ns th at e xiste d a r o und th csc m o cles uf appropriat ion . Thus. 'powerful fe elings a ura c tion to black n dt 1m~ rou ld easily cuexi~t ll'ith wrccptio ns of' that cu lture as thrcatc ning ami with r ese n tmcnt nnd f'ear o ( blac k pe ople (Jont~s, 19Nf-\: 2 16 ).

or

jones sugge sts th:ll 111'11' fonllS of ' rac ial' ide ntiLy < ll'f' be ing i'o rmccJ in pal'ls of Birming ham a nd ot lwr inner-city llll' trnpo litan a rcas. lle e ncls his boo k ll'it.ll a quot<ni o n l'ro m u1w tlw p eopk ht: swclie d \1hi c h captures this. lle says:

or

built upon th c disn t:'.'\ion' ol' tlw tarlin collcc ti l't' CC:CS m lurn r . . \ ga in . this bo ok critic i,ed a g re at d e a l n/' l'~ tahl i ,h td 1\'o rk . . 111cl ~o ug lJt 1 .0 txpJorc the re JatiOil'; be twce n ra cc and c l a~' in cotllt'mpor;m Br itain . l t c~amin cs a ll lllllhc r o r cli iTerc nt cl im e n.;i o ns o f b la ck l'Xprcssil'l' c u lture and inc lucle' exte n si1c di,c t~ssion ..- ni' blar h. music (sc e also ll l'hdi ~c. Hlt\ 7). In more rc u~ nt ,,ork. G i1rov (e .g. 1 99~ ) ha., co n 1in ucd to e m phasise th L' 11<\t\ll'C' of black n d tttl't' in tht: COlllClllpnr;n; \\'orlcJ . in cle lc io p in g an a lte rnatI'C acco unt uf tlH' nall tr< oJ' m odcrnHy ( p. 1 00 ) (st'<' fttrth c r . Chapter -1). For prcscnt purpo~c 5 . it i." impo nant to no tl' that th erc ,,as n : lat inh littlc dis<.: ussion of' ~u br ultun in t 11 is prcdum in : n1t l ~ c ri t ical :m el r c fr;nn i ng 1i t.e ra tu rt>. Thcre Ita el been stucl i<:s. from ou tsicl(' th c CCC:S tra rl ition . o f b la ck subc ulturc ' in Bl'istn l in th<' 11ork of Ke n l'nn ' ( ltl/!1) . but une nr tht importalH stucli cs in llttc m td 1>1' thi s critique re-

[in.lo :lo's] e loquent C'On cl u~ i cm b c;lptured bmh th e l'ea li t~ of tite n e\1' 'E ng land ' 1ha t a lreacl1 l' lll t' r~i ng. as IIT II a ~ th c hn pc that ~nc h ;111 Eng;land lllig ln itself tlot be recngni ~a bl c a~ th e ~;un e nation it ha ~ hten '. n r 1 wrhap~. onc da 1. a ~ a 1tatiu n at a JI':
i~

lts Jike. l lo1e thi s place ... thc rc s no p lan likt> h01n t .. . 13a b a ll Heath i ~ th f' ce n lrt' nf lht illl' lting-pot, lll<tn . 'c:os alllt\c r ~Cl' wh c n 1 go n ut is ha lf-t\ra h, h:1 lf-Pakist:mi. ha ii:J;unaica n , half'-Sco ui ~h . l lall~ ll'i sll , 1 knnw 'ro ' 1 :1111 1 h : III ~Sc<1 lli ~h - l rbh ] ... \\'ho am 1? .. . Tcll me~ \\'hn du 1 lwlo ng to? Th e~ cri 1ici'e me . tite goud o ld Eng land. .\ lrig ht 1hc n. ll'ht'fc do 1 be l o ng ~ . .. ~o u k11o11. J ,,a~ bruug lu Ll l> ll'ilh b larks. Pa k i, t ani~ . .-\l'rie<m s, .\ sians. < 'l't' l'l'thing. younamc it ... \\'ho do llwlong to? J'mjust ,1 broad pe r~o11. T hc t' arlll is min e. Ym1 knm,, ' ll'c ll'<lS not horn in Eng land. ll't' ll'as not bom in]:unai ca ... liT was IJO m here man ! 1 1 ~ o nr ri){ht ! Tlwt's th e ,,ay 1 ~ee it .. . That \ lile wav 1 d eal ll'ith it. (.J rmes, 1 ~188: 2:1!)- 10 )

348

lnlroducing Cultural Studies

Subcultures: reading, resistance and social d ivisions

349

Jones~ di,c u~~io n nsonate!- ,,i th thos<:' pos tm oclcrnist {p. -100) ar!-\umtn h . o u tlined al otlwt poitm in tlt is buuk. that ~ugge;;t that tltet e ha' bttn a 'cltntltrin( of our iclentitics (p.~~ 1) in contcmpon1n cultttrl'. For t'Xampk. it ha' bttn ~u~gt~tecl h\ a

lllllllhtt ol "' itt'l'' that "" no longer h an t ht :-:unl' auacllllll' tH~ 10 place '" <:arlicr .{t'llt't.ltion,. hi' might he the re,ult of Ji,in.{ in a 'ncit'l\' " lte1t'. in 'Ollll' rcspccts. it is t.:a,itt tn ,ce '' hat , happcning on the o th t't :oide of tiH' "orld t h rott~h tclc,ision co\et.lg'l' than it i' to obscrn ennb at thc othe1 c nd ol tlw 'll'l't'l. In an introcluctol\ discussion ofthe idca. l lall (1992) di~tingui,hc~ thrcc Coltcepts of idtntil\: ~.nlighwnment'. socio l o~;ical' ami po,t-mocktn'. T he ' Enl ightlnnwm concq>t reqrd on th e idea uf thc existencc ol';lll e~'e nti :tl ro11' to id cn tit~ \\'hich "'"~ born ,,ith tlw indi\ ichtal and unfoldcd through hi' 0 1 htr li ft'. The ~ocio l ogic:tl ronce pt arg-ueclt h :ll a colwrc nt identi ty , fonncd in rebtiun' " 'ith oth tr' amltht" d enlops a nd t hall )!,('' o\'t'l' tintt'. Thc postmodern o;ubject is thnu ~ht 10 h a\(' n o fixtcl ur t~~cntia\ icle tlli ~ ~. l11 J H I~tnwd c rn ~oc i t l ies id e n lit ies haw bc.:co ull el io;JtoCal t< l' . T he e m phasis on icl tn til\ , , if't., tltt llx u' 011 tit e CCCS approar h (~<et Sl'C'IOil' H. ll and H. l ~) l'rom rla~s lo 1110l'C.: (\j('fli St' !'OII i 'C('~ of ~oc ia! bt>lo n g ing.

8.8
.-\ 1

The Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies and youth subcultures: a general critique

c:tarkt icle llti flt' //n' intponant comcqucnces that stetn frn nt tht~t r riti ci'n'' Fir,t. tht't l' i' t\t t' \ad. of ('C) II'dl't':tl Oil o(' ''>llbCUillll"al llux .lllcl cll'll:tlliC ll .lllll t' o( '1\ k., ( 1~\10: <:{,!). S(roncl. 1h l'l'l' b 1h l' 'tp.u-;uion of 'ttbcu\ture' f'rom t ht' l't'l ni ~oril'l\ \\ ltid1 b incot pot attcl in to .1 'rothen'u, or clominanl ocialrelatimh. Thi rcl. a '\:tgut totH l'j>l oht\le' , elelattd 'lllthl' 't:tltt' nf an ol~jccti\T catcgon (Cia rke . 1990: ~1\. Stank' C:olwn ( l!l:-l7) ll'>td the intrndunion toa n c\\ edi tion of Fui/: LJ,l'il' alltl .\lm111 l'anin to deHlop a n itiqttt' ol tlw <.CCS approarh. \rhich had beromt inlhttnti.tl ,imt hi~ book wa~ 01 igin.11ll' puhli,ht<l. Cnhtn organi;;cd hi, critiqut '' ith t ~''Pt'tl to thl' Birmingham 1..<:~\\ord, ol 'tllltllllt', tu lt un ami biograpll\. \\'i th re.,ptc t to ~tl'l t Ou t t', C:olwn arg-ues that in m u ch l'l'l'l'lll \\'nrk on ~ubt ultttt t' tit e n is an 'mer-l'acil t d t il't 10 h is t orici~m ( 1987: ,iii ) . B, thi-. phra~e Cohtn '>tlggt'''' that tl wrt is tno tllllc h contt':O..Iltali,tion atHI me tTmp h asi ~ on h is tot ita l dt,dopment ,,ithin tlw Binni n).{hant ,,orl... which olten ll\'ohcs the panicul:11 t mpha'is o f ot tl' histnri cal Y a ri ab ll' at tl H' l':O.. j)l' il'(' ol ; \':ti't' l\' otlH'rS. H e a rg urs ti tal ol'tt:n ';t ~ in ~lt and onc-di tn t n ~i o n al h ist nric;tl tr(' nc\ is p ickc d o ut - ro Jt1111t'rci a li1.at io n . l'l'tJl'l'S~io 11 , bo urgtoi,if icat ion . d (\ll'llct ion ol commun i ty, l'l'<>sio n of lt is11 rt \'ah t<s - and 1lll' n pn~t'rtld 0 11 to a p t'l'"t' nt ( ol't e 11 b' tl ll' samc "o ciologist s ml'll :H hn i"i Ht) 11'11 ir 1t i ~ mudt more romp l ir:~ l c cl , co ntraclict<lt'~ or ambig uous' ( 1 9~7: l'iii- ix). ~ l mill g' tl ll lO ('()IISickr t lH .tn ~ c ultlll't'. Colten ( l \lH7: x) r ltar:lt'li' I'Sl'' tlt t Bi mting lt:uu a ppm:tt'lllo ~1\ k in tt'f'tns nftl''" dominan ! th e nte', ll'lliclt slloulcl COIIII' :t ~ n o ~urp 1 'l' b1 1his 'tage:

or

or

thi' point t i~ llt'lT~S::\1'\' 10 Cllll~idtr S0111t' of tit e 111:1i11 poillh lll<tdt :tg,tilh l th l' CCCS ,1pproacl1 lO \ Ollth <ottbcultlli'CS. 111 a \'l'l'\ meruJ 0\l'l':tJl Cl iti(jll(', C::tt'\' Cl.ll'kl' ( 1990) m.tke' a tlllllthel o f ~ptfi< critici<.m~ ol \\'01 J.. lrom C:CC.S:

\. Std t 'i,, t'">t' llli:tll \' a

t~pc

uf' r csis taiiCC (p.

~?11'\) to

s11bordin:ttion' .

2. [T] IIt l'o nn wktn b1 tlti, l l'.,i\la n ce i, 'omehtm ~' mbolic or m:~gica l. in th l 't'll'l' ol n ol bein~ an anual. ~ IICCl'\'lu l ~ol tttion to wllate,rr is tlw prohlt'111.'
C:ohcn m a J..t, a 1111111lwr of' poinl-; ag.1imt t lli' approach . Fir'l. ht m.Int.Iil'> tltat it , on.'r-<.impli,tit lo dtcock '''"'' onh in tl'lllt' of re~i~tann ami oppo,itiott. In hi' \il'\\. stylc., tmw be b otll ttactiotta l\ ancl inckecl incOihi,tt'ltl. T h u'. ,nnlt' "'IJl'C'I' m:l\ lw nppo~itinnal ancl o t htr, rtactinnan. Sl'roncl. lw 'u~gest' 1ha1 t h e tltH Iopnll'lll ol' '''k is often sttn '" .,omt'lw1,. in terna! toa group. Commercial i ~a t io n collll'S la tt'r. 1tt lact. "' ,,e h aH 't't'lt. thcre are muc h more int imatl' rclations hl'l\\'ttn tht cltn lop rutn t ol' su bcult llns ;111 rl ron u mrcia 1 act i,i t ics. Thircl . Cohcn argue~ that too nltl'll tl w at 1il'i t it'' o[ subcultura l ad lwnnts :tri' 1111<krsto od or intcrprctccl in lhl' con ttx t oJ' tr:tdi ti o n ' o l F.nglish '''OI king-class n~i,t:t tl fl' to dominan cc. T hus. Co h c n ( HIH7: xiiiJ m:~intaitt' 1hat ' ll'h tTc \\'C a n l'l':tllv h ti n g clircrtcd is tm,a rd~ lh c ' prof'ottnd li m ol' ltistot ical co ntinuit v" bet\\'l't'll loc\a,, d e linqtttnt '\ and lltl'i l' "tcp ti,ak nt s" in lltt past'. T lt is k :1cls t.o tlt l f'ourth i ~s u e ol'\\'llt't iHr 'l tbc ltl lttr:ll llll'lllbtr, :11e a"arc' of' 11lt :1L tlt l' \' an doing. wh e tll t'l' tll l''' ;ll'l' doin ~ i1 lllt'lllinnall\', or II'Ou ld ~ee it in 1he sanw t e tttl ~ a' tl ll' :tnah,t. \.o h e n \ point i' l h a t th l'St' 1ll t'o r L''> . l'<.peci:t 1 11 1-1 l'bcl ige ( 1~179). pl: 1 ~ dtm'll t ht ltll':III ng o f slylt and Slthcnltu l'l'' to thn,t wh o arl' a p a n o f it. 1ll' cu nll'ncls that ' it i:o. ha rd to ~m \\'hi c h is t lll' 11101'1' 'oriologira 1 k in c rcd iblc : ;1 t h co r\' ,,h ic h pos tu l:ues cu llttra 1 dtlltlltl it..\\'ho giw homolngou~ tlll'atting 1n all a rtil ans stnTotmdin~ tlttm or a tlll'OI"\' which S 11gg'l'~ l' th a t inclilid11al llll':tllin g~ d o not m:tlll'l' a l a ll ' {C:olttn. l!lH7: XI). Fina l!\ , Co h e n rai~e' a ll ttttlhtt ol i"lll'' nHH't' rning tit e mt thoc(, aucl re,uh' 111 tite rtacling'

l. :\lmh ol thi' 11riting ~ impreci\e 011 thl n.llttH' ol dw ,llttlllll~ll lor.uion of 'llbt ultun, and tlw nalllrt ofthc pmbk11t 'ohing imohtd in tht 'uh< uh1ue.

2. rlll'll' 1' rd.lliHh lillk explanation of \dlt'lt' the dillt~tnt '"ht ultutal

auually conw lrout. Fo t cxampk. \dl\ doc.:' otw working-d.1" 'tth< uhurt adopt thl' fopp ish ,at torial ~ t,k of thc Ech,:m\ian e t~1. 11 hilt anotht' l c.1rirature' tiH' hoot~ an<l braces

''"t''

d!'l' '' o ( tlll' factot'\' worktr~

:t

T IH'I'l' is a 1 i~i clit' in tlw anah'sis. a~ th l' S1thcu lttll't'' th a t :trl' idtntifitd tt' tHl to be 't'''t' tttia lisl and n on-conlraclictnry'. nH aning th<tt t lwrc b littlt < llH' Illio n paid lO \ariatio tl ' n i '>ldt :tnd com mitmcnl \\'ith in dilletTnt sllht u lturo. In pan th is is a cn n ~l'fjllt'll Cl' o th t ttnd e n cy f'nr thest an:t ly't'' tu stan J'mm slth r nlllll'ts :tnd 1\'0rk h :td.ll'.trcb t.o rl:t~s ' itnatic>ll ' aiHl r on tradirticms. T ltis l cad~ toa ki 11 d o l rn'l'7ing' of
di ~tir1u

subcu lttm''

1. T lwrt , a lack ol' allt'lllinn lo th t "'"' in ll'hi r h i rtdi,iclual~

1110\'l' in :tllcl o ut of 11111'. Uarke ( l ~l~lO: ~2-:)) , argll l'S tll ,ll l'ltil Cuhtn 'c la~'ilil'S C:romhi cs and p.uka, ;, dbtilll l 'ubrultltrt~. hut ~111\'11 th t u11h "p1ohll'm" \\'hic h distingui, lll'cl thl' lll J't.,m ,J..jn, .uHIIIIoC h l 't~pt'('I H'il \\;t~ lh t lll't'd LO J..ttp 1\'<trlll'.

~lilllul lltns.

:i. rlll'lt' i' a cli<hotnlll\ httiH't'll :-uhtttltlltt'' <tnd th l' tl''l o l l'llltllg >l'opil. \dto are in
t he

m.1 in' tt t'a m.

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Subcultures: read ing, resistance a nd social d ivisions

35 1

w rform cd b) th c likc.:s of H cbdige ( 19/~1 }. H e p oses thc qu csti o n uf" ,,h~ 11e sh o ulcl 1 be Jien th e interpret<Hions n JTe rcc.J o J' th cse subc u llures a nd 10 11h a t e:o.: te nl th erc i' a ny ri go ur in th e way in ll'hic h t hc.:~ h an betn a tTiHd a l. A g raphic c :-.:ample thi~ po int C<lll be sec.:n in the t:-.:tract f"rom Co iH : n in Ro:-; t:.+ 1dti c h criti c i ~c.:~ 1 kbdigc ~ rc acling o [ Llw snnbo lism of th e s11a~ tika.

or

re~ trict i n immig ration

~-(H11h .

p o lic i e~ amon g substantial secti o n s o f 11orking-class

BO.\'

8. 4

Stanley Cohen's critique of Hebdige's reading of the symbolism of the swastika

Lc Lm e conclude thi ~ sec1ion by g i1ing an e xample o f th c dan ge rs ur ~c<1rc h ing th e f'o rc~t o f symbol~ ll'itllo ut suc ll a me tlwcl - or indeed an y nw th od. This is th e c :-.:amplc of1cn u secl by 11e bclige .tncl o tiHt tlworists or punk: th e ,,e ar in g ol' th c l>ll'a q ika cmblcm. T ime ancl1ime ag ain, ll'l' are as ure cl1hat a hh o ug h th is s~mb o l is ' u n ont lc H: I' in 1e nded to o utrage a n d s hoc k. it is rl'llllr be ing e mp lm ed in a me wlangua gc: t he ,,carer s are iro n icall\' el is1anci ng themse h'e~ rmm 1h e 1cr~ 1 11essage that t he sy mbo l is u sually in1c nde d to com cy. Ois p lal'ing a s11a sti ka (o r sin g ing h-r ics like 'liel~e11 ll'as a gas') sh<.n,s lw11 s~mbu l!< are .strippecl l'rom tlw ir natural C Olllt'XI , (':-; p)oitccl J"or c.:mp t ~ cf'f'cCL. clispJayed lhi'OUg h lllOC kcr~. di~Lan c i ng, iro ny. J)<ll'OCh . iili'('1 'Sioll . o ld mu c h abo uL th e 'thing': ll'htn , IJut hnll' a re \\'e tn k 11 011. this:- \\'e are nciT r L h o ll'. 11'lw rc. b\' ll'hom or in ll'h:1t C011tl'X t it is ,,ont. \\'e do not kn oll' 11hat, if an~ difTe re n ce e xists lw tll'een iJl(li g<' 1HJtt~ ami socin logic tl ex p lana1ions. \\'e a re g i1e n no clue abouL h o 11' th e!>e particu la r actors n mu age thc.: complicatc d busin ess of dlstancin g ancl lro ny. In th e e nd . tite n is 110 hasis "h ~lfsoe,e r for choosing bctll-ccn this particular so n o J' inrerpre tation andan~ n th c rs: say. th a t for m a 11~ o r m ost of the kids ll'a lking arnund II'th Sll'asti ka.s on tlteir jac ke ts. the d o n1i11a11L co 1He xl is sin1p l)' ro nlnrmi1y. blincl ig nmancc nr knce:je rk rac ism . Son w tl1in g n1n rc o f' a n ans11T r is n ecclecl L o su cll qt tes ti o n ~ than ~ imph CJIIn ting o ha1e ll e bdige's adnJis,ion (about a c:e n e l or Breton . ~o r do cs it h dp mu c h L si mi lar e q u a Linn ) t h a L 'ttc h in tcrprc w ti o ns are not o pc 11 to be i ng te.stecl b)' standard sociological procedures: 'Thoug h it is und cniably th e re is th e social stn1cture. it is th c re a~ an immane n cc. as a .subm c rged p uss ibi lity. a s an existen tia) option: ancl o n c cannot 1 e rih an e x isten ti;tl opti on scie nt ifi ca lll' - yo u c ithc r st'c it o r Hlll don ' t. \\'1..ll. in th c s,,asti ka e x a m pie , l don L. And. more m c r , ll'h t n 1 -kbdi gt clocs dcfcndt h is panic ular inte rpreta! inn or punk, h e cloes it nul by a m ex i.stc n ti a l lcap b ut b \' a good o ld -f';tshio n ccl posi1i1ist a ppca l to Cl'ide ncc: punks, wc a 1 e t.o ld , ~,e re n o t ge n c ra ll\' sym pa t11 l' Lic to the partics o r th e e xtre m e right' ancl sh o11ed wicles pre ad suppo rt fn r th e anti-Fasc ist mmT m c nt' . Th e~c tale ments cenain ly co n tilutc e\'id e n ce. n o t imn1ane n ce- tltough 110t partic ularl) gooci i.Ticlcncc and going rig ht agains1 ll'iclespread findi11gs a b o ut th c racism ancl suppon for

. 1 d o n ot wa nt 10 judge o n e r ead ing aga i11s1 tiJ c o th e r n or to d e tr<1C t fro m t ite con side rable intcrcst and ,a luc o f this 11t'l'' clccocling work. \\'e nce d l o be m on scc ptical tlt o ug h o f th e exquisite ae~t h e t i cs 11hic h te ll us abou t thin gs bcing fi c ti o n a l aud real. abscnt and present . ca ri ca tures ancl re-assenio n s. This lang u age mig h t indccd lte lp b~ f'ramin g a m ea ning tn tite o1h c1wise m ea nin gl e~s; bu t this h e lp seem s limited when 1,e are dr;H,n to ~aying abo ut skinhead a tt ac k~ o n Pakistan i in1111ig n111b: 'E1cry time th e bont ll'e nt in . a con t rad ic ti o n was con cea led. g lossed m e r or m acle LO disapp ear'. lt see n1~ tome - 10 borro w fro m th e la ng uage of co1Hra d ictio n s - that bo11J a lo tmore a nd ;1 lo t lcss 11as going o n . T ime inclced tu lca1 e tite fon.:s t of s~1 nbols: and . . . slntdder back Lh a nkJ'ull ~ into th c lig ht o f th c social day.

l'ii- x,iii 1 Cohcn ( 1\lt:\7: X

Cohen a lso examin e~ th <:: iss11c or biograph )' H e sugges Ls th at th c Birming ham approac h te nds tu focu s Loo muc h on th e sp cctac ular a nd no1 e nottg lt on e1crydar dc1iancc o r 'ordinary' 11nrkin g-c lass actilitics. Funh e rm o r e, th e b o und a ries a ro und subc ulturcs are o fte n drall'll in far to o tig ht a m a nne r. Coh c n m a ima ins th at th c)' a re ac tuall r much loosc r ancl th a t pe opk drirt in aml o ut o f th e m u1er time and indecd at 0 11(' p o int in L ime. :'llo reo\'e r. can tite Lhcnry c:-.:plain ,,hy onc incli\' idual IJeromcs in\'o h'cd in :1 subr ulturc and oth c rs d o not ? Jn this l'l'n . C larkc argues th a t th e re is :1 n e('d to stucl ~ what a ll categorics of ~o u th are cloing , ra tl wr than jttst su bct tllllres: 11 is 1rnc tha l nwst ~o utlb do not e ntc r into subc ultll i'l.'~ in tite e lite form d csnibld i1 1 tite litc rature . bu 1 laqjl' numbc rs d o draw o n pa rtic u lar ckm cn ts of subcultura l stl'l l' and cre: uc tl w ir mm 111eanings a m l nses of thcm. (Ciarkc. 1990: lJ2) Fmthnmorc. lw s ugge~ ts that titen.: a re in1portam differe nces in tite ('arly 19ROs l'rom th t situation d esc rihe d in ti te l 960s all{) 1 ~170~ b)' 1he classic ll'rit.ers fronl Birming-han t. Thu ~ . thcrc ll'as the co mbinatio n o f st\' lcs itli'Ol\'e d in mme m e1 1ts like pun k ancl III'0 -1011 e, and th c arg um c n L tltal 'ne,, wmc' brokc 1hc ' clisli n c tion b e lii'Ccn " tce n~bo ppers" aiiCI ~o uth ' basccl aro und th e distin c L ion bet,,ccn LPs a nd singlrs. T lt us, C larke's (l~l90: 9.">) gtncntl con clusio n is that:
wltat is n:cuirc d i ~ a n anah's is uf tlw act il-itics n f all \'Ollth ~ to lo catc coJHI1uitics and discontinui ti cs in culture ancl so cia l re i:Hion ~ ami tn discmc r th e me:tn ing th c~c actil'ities ha1c Cor thc youth ~ th c m~e h'cs.

So m e re ce nt lit e raturt 11hic h h as a u e mpte d ne xt sec1ion.

lo

takt up this c halle n gc is analyscd in th e

_.

352

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Subcultures: readfng, resistance and social dlvisions 353

8.9
8. 9. 1

Aspects of contemporary youth culture

Symbolic creativity

\\"iJii, ,., ni. ( 1990) a r!{IIC that a' human beings m a t e "mboliralh treatiH'. ,;wi n~ that '1\"l' .trgm lot ''mbo lic creati,-it, "' an intq~ral ( .. o rdin a 11 .. ) pan o f tht human tond itio n. ll tll a~ the ina nim.nt pea\...; (popul.u or n motl') 1 i~;ing ahme tlw mi,, (\\'i Jii, t/111.. 1!1911: ti). 1\c ing: ~nnboli calh crtati c im oln~ II" Oik ola spnbo lic (p . 281:!) \..in el. "hirh i': 1hl' <tppliralinn uf hnman ca pacilil' ' 10 .md thltllt~h . o n an d 1dll t '~ Jl1h(l1it Jt,nu ce~ all d ' ''" nwtcri<th (cnll coiun~ of ,ig m .tnd ,~mbolo: - fn1 in , ta lltl', tht langnagl a' ''l' inh tt it it ., ll'l'll .1~ ll'XI'. ,ong,, film'. in WKt''- :nu l :u ti l:tr h ol .di J..ind'l to prnrlnce 111l':111II g , , (\\'il1i, 1'/11 /.. 1 ~1!1(): 1()) Thc ba'ir dl'mcnt' or ,~mbo li c 1mrk in cl ud t lang uagt ;utcl th e actin hnd,. a nd '~ 111bo J i c t' l'l':tlil'it y inl'llh't' th e ' proC hLClOll o f 111'11' .,. IIH.'iliiil p ill ll' ilsC:t lh attar hecl lO lct ling,, lo t'IH'I'g}. to l'XCitcment and pwc h ic 11Lo\'l' nl t' nl ( \\'illi ~ 1'1 o!.. 1\l!HI: 11 ) . ...\ m tmbn of' dilfvre m prodttc ts an.: producccl throttg h Wlnho 1ir II'Ork < ntd ~ymbo lic t'l't'<lli\II', Th t~c includ e o u r 0\\'11 inclilidu;d iclcmitic:-. t ll t 1ut a ti un of tllu>L' idtfltiti cs in ,, ,,iclc r ~o cia! co nt cxt and tit e notion that liT h a n th l' ca paC' ll' lt r h a 11gc thin g> i11 'nme
rc~ptc t. Thu,, in a gv neral stmc. \\' illis
t'l

al. ( 19\IIJ: Jl i) aq.{tH' that :

111 ,, 11'<1~ th t spec1acu lar 'illb-nrllllll'' n i' tit e 1 9~l(b .tnd ti(b prl'iig tllt'd ~ollll' of the gt'lll'l a l ,hiJ'l, wt are claiming lor the cn nttmpo r;u ,. ,juation. 1 h tl cldined th e m 't'ht< l'l'l'l ea1 h and g;1inecl their IT I'I ' Pl'Ctaclt lt 0111 'tTkiug 1,jbk i<lcntitil''> ami '''le~ Olll'ide o1 agai tbl work ami ,,orl..illj! l l'')>l'(l,tl>ilit k,. :"ti'' l hl' idt'.l uf a ,pntatul.ll 'uh-cu hurl' , ,uicth impo"i ble bet.lll\l' .tll ,,k ancl ta'>ll' u1h11 tt' '-. 10 "lllll' clq!rt't' 01 .11101her. c:-..pre~' 'Oilll'thillg o f a gt'llt'l .11 ll't'IHI lo fiud :111cl lll:tke icltntitl ouhide th e rl'.tllll of 11ork. llo '''t'\'l'r. it cloe' \ eem to be tht ra~e t h at ~o lllt' 'llbtllltltn, a rl' ratht t more spccta cular than u th e rs. Exampk~ of th e mort ' lwl'l.ltll lar lo ht lo n ncl in carh l~l90s
~ l .t ncl H' \I< 'r can be fou n cl in Fi~ure

Figure 8.4

Youth subcultural styles in Manchester in 1992. (Source: courtesy of Julie Weir.)

R..J .

\\'illi(s book ex pl ore~ tll c synt bolic crcatii' II' nJ' l"llllllg peopk acm" ,, numbcr of dillt'n nt climtminn ~. inc luding tcle l"io;ion . \ 'CR and mi c rnco1nput e r "'c . rda tiomh ips to film. ad\'Citisi ng. ancl ma ga Line o; and t ng agcmcn l\ 11ith J'ashi o n. pub n 1hmc. ~trcc t c u lltii'C, ~ pon ;1ncl ronwnn. Pe rh aps l'or n uTe nt purpo~l'S on(. ni' ,, m os1 imporwn t llttntpt 10 hrtak clmm Lltt' ha rricr' bl' lll'l'l'll ~ubc ultur('S nncl o tlwr young poi111' , Lhl' < peopll'. Tl!t id t a tlt at pvople ,liT in gl' nl'ral mol'l' l'l'l'<tlI'l' 11 :" i>t' t' ll link('cl tn th e d ewloptlll' lll oJ' IH.'\1' f(li'I11S o f' COilSIIII Wr ex prt~s ioll :tllcl llll' i< ka o J' il poSI111UdCrll
suc i c t ~

8.9.2

Postmodern ism and youth culture

Sontt' th t' ll\L'' co n ceming pmtnwcle rnism and thl' 'tu<h ol I Olll h c u lture h:ll'l' bce n adcll t'-'vcl b1 Rc clhtacl ( 1990: ~ee a l o Rtcl ltl'acl. 1 9~l:t 1!l!l:>. 1997. ancl Redheacl fl al.,

1997) 1d10 pl.t n ' ' a panirn l:tr tmpha.;i < c111 th c cxamination ol' t lw n l;llion ,hip., beliH'l'll mu,ic .111<1 ,ulJ< n1tlll'l'' Rcdh ead c rit icise' th c idea or a ne. ll fi1 1,.,,, ccn difTt JT nt l'lcml'll l' of \O ttth ~ ttbr ulturc. ,,ltic h are cn t:ti lecl in t h c cun ce plof honto1o~~ u sed )), \ \ 'i 11 i' ( 197/4) an d 1 k hdigc ( 1\179). 1 k abo 'u~gt'st' 1h:t t i t is prnbklll:ll it tn ~ce musir liS tite \ll'ai g hll i.ll 11';11 el <'X prcssio n nr a subc ultura l COI11 1l11111il1" . For l'X:1111pll'. , is often dilfinrll tn 'j)Cc if ~ ll'hal tll<' community is of ll'hic h llllt ~( , an exprt~~ i on. Furthc nnnrl' . tlt l' ~ trl ln rltll l 'l.~ am i l'O IIllllltlliti c~ from ,,l!ic h music is oflt' l\ ll dclto ,,ut o r wllic h pu l it tu tL't'. rlo 11 0 1 ~ int J II ex i ~ t . l>ut han lo be L 'X< Illtinl'd II'IIrin lang u agc ancl co nnnun ica ti o n . T lwy are. in impo 1:111 1 'tn s t~. ro nstru ctl'cl 11ithin IIT Iilg a hou t th c m o r in ot htr tc rnls. el i~n , .. ,,t 1 ~ co n st ru c t<cl. Rl'CIIt t'<Jd rom icll' l'' ll'hl'iltl'l' tll cTc ,,a~ a c lea r fit lw t\\Tt' n mmic ;111cl 'ubc u ltllra l use in th t ""'- id t ntilitd IJ1 tllv Birmin ~h<tnl ''Titers. or ldJ tthe r t h t rt h ;" bt't' ll a c it a n ~( in th e ani c 11btion o f' lllll'ic ,,ith ~ubcultures in thl' period !'in n pun\.. 1ock i11 th e late 1970:-. In Stllllt' at co u n t' pos unodc rnis m ( p- JO()) in pnp ha' cll'l'l'lnp cd th rough th c 19SOs. IL-ading- lO t lt t brt' a k-up ol tlw lorm' of :t~'oriation idc ntilkd b\ ta rlil'l' wri ters.

354

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Subcultures: reading, resistance and social divisions

355

1lowt'\('1, Redhtacl ar~llt'' 1hat in many n~pec ls pop lllll,ir h,,, ah1:1\~ po"t'~'cd ~nnw of lhoo;t featuiTS l11at are characteri~lic uf po,tmodcm i,m. Fn1 ex:1111pk. ht maintain, that pnp musil ha' brokcn harricrs bet,,ecn high ami pop11l.1r cullurt .11 dilkrtnl poim~. In common 11i1 h 1hcories o l posmwdcrnism. h<. ar~ue<. 1h a! 1he bt''' "" 10 nnde1 'land co lllt'lllPnrar~ pop nn1~ic is no1 through sonH: of the roll\l'l1lionil oppo,iliono; which h,l\'t' oltt'll been med 10 study it. like thosc h<'lllt'l'tl 'roe!- .m el pnp'. ':ullht'lllic and :.1 11the1ic'. 'u ue ami falsc' a11cl 'high ancl low'. bu1 th10ugh lht di,linninn and rdatiomhip betii'CCilth e local ancl1he global (p. 1:)9). T hu' ,,orle! nlll,ic, are afl'ccting !oral mu~ic mal-ing in a number of compkx and cliiTr'l' \\'al'

8.9.3 1 R ave and dance culture

~!ore l'l'Cl'lll II'Urk '"'' cunsickrecl different climen,iom ol C l lle nlporar~ n1u ~ic and
~ uu 1h. For tx: un pie. Ritl\'elel ( 1993) ex a m in e~ :1 n u m bt1 o! clil'l'l'l't'lll cti mcmiom or ra1e cuh11re in th e no rth of Eng land in the l:ue 19ll0~. Th e accoun 1 ghln 1his lnrm of cullu l'l' is nol dissimilar J'rom 1ha1 of the CCCS \\'l'il crs. Fo1 t'X<II11pk, Rictl'l' ld ( 1~l ~l ~~ : "i3)

nr

subn iltural capi tal is g-m<.rnccl' b1 media. Tho rn1on \ approach draws al!tn tion to 1he compkxitl', fluiclitl' ami rapidit1 or change in contemporary,outh culture. Fu 11hermort'. in her 'icw. it i:, imporwm 1 0 con,ider the rehuio ns 1\'thin culwres. rather 1han anl' sim~!e op!.>o.~itio~l-l:etl,t::l the dominan~ and 1~1~e subcultural. lf thc \\011- o l 1Iebdig~ ( 19d)). \\1Ith (1.111. 191~'! ami ~JcRobb1e (191~) can bt St<:n as concenwcl 11ith 1lw dynamic bclll't't'll incorpomtion in 1he mainstream and lc~i'-l<liiCt'. or o ppn~i1io n . to il, then Thomton i, addlt'"ing l'ar more complex and in1ricatt' relations bciii'Ctn powcr (p. !1-1) .tnd cuhuH. Thi' i' not 'imp!l a proces.' th.u is cnn fincd w thc '-tuch ol subcuhurc'. bu1 can abo bt. trac<.'d inthe ~tuclie~ ofmedia audi c n ce~ as ,,di (~<:e funhcr ,..\bercrombie a11d l.on ~l llll'~l. Hl9tl). T hornton's an ahsi~ rcprestnts an imponan1 corn:c lil'c lO '-OIIlC of tli<. clal-~ic fonnulations of the CCCS approach. 1-loll't.'ITI', it clucs ll'llcl to rctain an elllp li asi~ 011 ~omc of 1hc more 'pccmcular dimension' of conlt.'lllPOran youth culture. Thcn 'tilltt~t d.-. to be relali,dl' liule imes1igmion o!' tlit ' ordinan'. Fo;. Hullands ( 1!l\1!'1} 1lt t. idl':t :tnd practin nf going o ut can be scen asan illlpOrtanl ;,,pcc 1 or rontem pura r\' 1 '01 11 11 at'l il'i 1)' a e ros~ a "'id e spcctrum.

ar~ ll l'S

ll'ith l't'1'pcctto 1'<11e culture that:

Nol onh tht' lack or fii1<111Cl'. but also the inlt'lhil'(' dancing and tht ll ~l' ul tlll' drug l.n1a,,. dett'l'lllined the ~1\k . lt makes a pcrso11 ,,,c;H, 'o h:tg'!{' ' cotton r lo1hing b 1he 1110~1 romfonabl t' tu II'C'<lr. i\ lakC' up i~ u~clcs~ in those cirullllSl<tlltl'' ber.lll't' i1 ll'nuld ~ mph 'wa'h. urr in a ~hon ti me. The cnphi ia c:Hbl'(( hl 1 he l.' X( l{'llll'lll or llll' l':l\'(' t'l'l'lll'. llll' t'XCt'~,i\'C' boch' mmei1H:'11l ami dru~ lhl' all inlt'lfert 11i1h .1 pn,nn\ wme ol balance: high ht'e!S <ll:t. lherefon ctefinitch 'out of order' h 0111 :1 1:tlt'r, poilll of \ l'll. Th b i~ l'l'l'\ clo~t to the ~on o f homolo!,''~ argumc111 u~cd b1 1k hcligc all(l \\'ill is which tontinut''- thtT<:Iore 10 be inflllt'lllial. H011'CI't'l. o1her nce11l ,,orl- on ran culture has hctn mm e critica! of thc Birmingham approadl. \\'e h,l\l' .tlrt:ul~ rnn,id<.'H'<I thc work ol T h01nton ( 1\l9l. 199.)) in rclation w 111111'al pan ir .111cl tht ro k ol llll'dia in the Cl'l'olliOII ol ~m11h subcultlli'CS. but she also. i11 clirc('l Cl itiCi\111 ,1\HI lht 1101 J..ing o\ll of htr o1111 ;tnah,io;. mak<.s an importan! cn1111 ibution to tht anah:-i' ol 111Clt'l' contempo ran I'Clllth r ullllrl'. Thorn1on arg-ue~ dta t ll'h:ll , (ll' talb '('lub n tllllln are 'taste n tltu n~ ( tml: i : :l). This is ,gnificant as it mean~ 1hat sh e is connml'd to l'Xilllli lll' 1hc rolt ol disti 1 11.: tiun i11 dub cuiLIII't'S. Conflich ami hit'l':trrhin aH' ol' tTillral signilicance, bu th 11'i1hin thc cu hure ami in ana ty~ is. Thnn11o11 comickr1- thl't't' i111pnrt:11H 'dislinctic)lls': 'llt t ;luthtnlit: 1ersu' the phn11l'y. th c " hip" l't'I'Sil' iiH' " main,II'L': uu", and the '' undl'rg rouiiCI " l't'r~u s " the med ia" ( 199 .1: :\- 1). !u d<.,Tioping this approach, Thom1o11 llln\'t'' m,ay l'rom thl' emphasi' 1\'ilhin thc CCCS approach <11 lht dill'crencc bt'l\\'t't'll tht ~uhru l 1ur:tl :mcl thc nt:tinsliTi\111 or 1he 111a~'>. :" shl ' llg'g'l'~l' 1hb ttnds W l't' procltiCl' a COI't' a<;pt'C I of subcu ltural idt'Oh>gl i1'l'll'. ll t'llt'l', htr .lrgul1ll'11l and .ln.th si' 'i-; 1101 abo u1 el u minan 1 ickologie' a nd '" b1 l'l''in 'll bcullu l't'' bul abouL 'ubutltural ideologit, ( 19~!.1: 10). 1 In argumt'lll' are inlluencccl h1. ancl denloped 1'1 om. ilw Frene h o;oriologisl Pierrc Bourdieu. Slw argut, tha1 'llbntlturt'' 1rade in wh<1t she calh subcultmal capi1al', the currenn of ,,h ich i' 'hipmso;', 1 ht lirculation of

Defming concr~jJf

8.J

Cultural capital and habitus

The concepts of cultural capital and habitus, developed by the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu, have become increasingly influential in cultural studies. lnitially best known in Britain and the English-speaking world through his work on education, Bourdieu's book Distinction (1984, orig. 1979) represented an important potential bridge between those in the social sciences concerned with class inequality and domination, and the developing emphasis on culture in a number of disciplines, including cultural studies. Bourdieu's central innovation was to coin the concept of cultural capital, which he used in tandem with the more familiar idea of economic capital. Thus, in discussing the ways in which classes seek distinction from each other, Bourdieu pointed out that some groups, while high in econornic capital, are low in cultural capital. Hence businesspeople rnay be well paid and own shares in their company but they may not be able lo appreciate or understand fine art or classical literature. On the other hand, there are sorne groups thal are high in cultural capital but relatively low in economic capital, university lecturers for instance. Cultural capital, like economic capital, is a resource to be drawn upon in the pursuit of power. Cultural capital is not secondary to economic capital in general, as each rnay be important in different contexts. Distinction used survey data lo map sorne of the complexities of the relations between different seclors of the French middle class. This has inspired theoretical refinement of the concept as well as further ernpirical work in a number of countries. lncreased attention lo the cultural significance of consurnption has been influenced by Bourdieu. One clear implication of Bourdieu's work is that distinctions between a variety of groups may be based

356

lntroducing Cultural Studies on differences in capitals. For exarnple, Thornton (1995) argues that subcultural groups rnobilise subcultural capital. through the notion of 'hipness', lo create their own distinction. lt is important to possess or have knowledge of the hip dance record and to be wearing the right clothes. Bourdieu, in addition to a range of other conceptual innovalions, developed the concept of habitus to refer to the way in which different social groups classify the world and view it. R ather than arguing that a particular class position carries with it a specific ideology, Bourdieu points lo the way in which groups have habituated ways of seeing ora disposilion to classify the world. Groups inhabil a particular cultural space. Again, this emphasis on classification has been influential especially as it echoes and connects to the centrality of such ideas in social anthropology, which itself has been important to sorne variants of cultural studies. Bourdieu's reliance on survey data, and his inaltention to the aspects of culture shared across social classes and groups, may be criticised, but his concepts and approach are likely to beco me more influential in the fu tu re as more empirical work is done.

Subcultures: reading, resistance and social divisions 357

8 .10 1 Rethinking subcultures: interactions and networks

The .\mcrican intL'ract ion i~t autltor' (;;u~ Fi nc a n d Sh nryl Kltinman ( 197!1 ) argue that thc conccpl of 'ubutlttll't' nccd~ Lo be rethought 11ith in a fl~lntt\\ork clniHd fJom ~ociological appro.tch <:' th .ll cm pha'i'l' imeraction. In tite main. b' implicatiun thei 1 \\01'1.. a~~ociatecl \\'ith the cccs ,,hich p laccd tmplta~i' a pp10ach i' critical of tht ,011 on thL '>lrllrtlll~ll a'J>l'CI' uf ~oriet\ . lit..e cla~' T he\' argue that th e connpt ol ~ubcu lturt had prt'\ ioush' bl't' ll ustd in .1 conl'u ed ancl unclcar ra~ hion. Th<' icl<tllih fo 111 conceptual probkn1~ 1\'itlt thi' litnatme. 1\'h ich conccrn : lir't. 'ubu tltun aiiCI , 11 ~. ' oc i<:ty; l>t'Coll d. tite rdtrL'lll; third. subutltur~ as a h omogcn<:cHh and 'tatit ''"t<m ; ancl final!\. the \'id li t' 01 t' nt.nio tl in 'llbutltlll~ll r csearc h . . \\'ith rl'Sp l'<'l lO tlt t' flt '~ l poin t. they argu e that h eC:tliSl' o J' thl' 11:1~ in 11 lt ic h subc u lt ur<:~ ilil\'(' IJnn , tl'liCIIII'alh dcfinecl 'as aggregat<: uf' pcr.Soi\S. tit e~ han Of'tl'll b e<: n trealed a~ :t :-ubdil'i...;ion ol socic t1. a~ ,,ha t th c~ c;t ll ;1 -;ub'm i<'l\'. llo\\'<:\'l'r. in contemporary ,.;ock tits ,,ltic h ;tilo " moH'IllCJll bcii,Tcn dilll'rc nt ~ru u p' and ll'hirh ha,<: a numbe t ofdil'l'<rt'llt i>v li eJ'~,stem s, it is d il'fic u ltto scc s ub~oci c t\' ancl ~ubu dttt l'l' a~ th c samc th in.('. . \ ..; Pilll' and Kll'ntnan ( 1 07~): :~) c xplain: .

or

Furlha rradi11g
)enkins, R . (1994) Pierre Bourdieu, London: Routledge. Bourdieu, P. ( 1990) In Other Words: Essays towards a reflexive sociology, Cambridge: P olity. Thornton, S . (1995) Clvb Cultures: Mvsic, Medio ond 5ubcultural Capital, Cambridge: Polity.

Thu~.

;di 111\'lllhl' l'~ of th ~ .t).\L' tall'g'UI'Y 1:~ - ~ 1 111ig ltt . acrorcli ng to :1 ~11 tiC lll l'.d ' con cepttta lii ;Hion, bl ro t t~idl t td pan of' th l' ,u utlt ~ubru l u tt 'l'. l ln,l'\'l' l', i1 i' clt-.tr th a t man1 ol' 1he person ~ "it hi 11 111.11 ag<' coltort do not ~h a re ron1111on ut llural 'a lt lt'~ aud IJL ha\ ior~.

8.9.4 1 Going out and extending youth

l lo ll:md -. suggc,ts that thcrc has bc<:n a sh ift in \'Out h c ulture in tlw scme th:n 'going o ut '. c~pecialh- on a Frid ay or S:nurda, nigh t. to thc centre o f a large c it' (in hi~ a mllrsis, i'\t'\\Ta,tlc-upon-T ) n c in the n onh-cast of England ) has bcconw a ccntrll '"pcct of cultur<. for n>tlllJ,\ pcoplt bet,,een 16 and :m. In rt,pon~c to (ronomic change \\'hich tlll'lllb that 'oung pcopl< are les l i kel~ 10 be cmploycd . gtt married and ~~'"' fami lics, goi n g Olll often in a group h as become lcss of a 'ritC of' p assagc' frolll ch ild hood LO ad ulth o od , wh ic h b the n cun ailed. but mon an o n g-oing pan of' th L t,eryd"}'- The m ctti ng o f' 1ric nds ( ofte n in mixed gro u ps for more 111 iddk-da~s vou n g p eo pk) is an im porta m part o f' this p roces~. Going ou t, in l ln ll:m< b ' ,,ords. is a pcnnancnL f'r< ll('rnisati u n ritua l' ( 1995: -11 ) . T h c 1\'0 rk cxamincd in this senion on m o re ccllllt'rnpo rary \'Ollth culture has ckm o nstra t<:d sume of' th e 1\'a~ s in whirh a nalysis h a s 1110\ t'Cl lx~oncl th c Birming ham a ppro ac h . lt can b e argmd t.hat th cn.. is l c~s cun ccrn 1\'ith 1h e sp l'C tac ular. :-. loreo,er, tlH re is a bn: a k 1\'th sontl' or the m o re simple oppositions b e t\\'l'L ' n th c ~ubr u l tural and th c milinstrt'am in a way th a t rcduces the intluc ne<: ol \ larxist th c orits ol' lXl\\'l'l' and opposition to hegc mon y. Funhe nno rc, th cre is a n incrcas<d rn n cern " 'ith tlw c mpiri cal in nstigation of su bcu ltu rcs allCI less '''ith ti H' 'ckcodin{ n i' th t ir inner mcani ngs. Fin al k. th crc i~ a ntme awa\' from thc examination of\'outh toa nwn l'Xpa nrled no tion ol 1\'h;tl i' hap1 wni n g in pc~1plt' ~ culturalli,c~ more \\'idl'h . 011L' ,,;" fon,arcl f'rom this ~0 11 of' \\'Ork i ~ 10 J'L'COI1Sidl'r a ra thcr dill'l'n' nt appro. trh ltl th t \llld\' of'~ubcu lture.

On t h i ~ ba~ i ~ Fine: and Kkinman argue that it i ~ important 10 db ti ngui-.h lw l\nen sub~ocic t ie~ and :;uh' ulttll'l:~. Conce1 nin~ th~ -.erond i~SII(', tht, argm thatthc concc1 n of ~ubc ult ure i ~ oftcn mLd \\'ithout a rdc:rent - a d l':trh ddinc:d population which sharcs cult u ral knollkclgc' ( 1!.179: 1). r hu... :1\ tht'\ <:xplain: .\ ltlwng h rc:~c:;llrh<r, ickntir~ tht 'ubulltlll't' tu "hich the g10u p 'bdong, (,11ch '" th< clelincul'lll '"hcuhtll't). thn haH' no \\'a~ ofknml'ing tht extcnt 10 \\'hirh tite culttllt'' of tlw ga ng' mc:1lap. dte ~xtetll tn ll'hich 1he panicular gang cxamintcl b l l'Jll'l'~tn t:t rhc of a ll gang'> in th e populatiuu ~eg t mttl. anclthc d cgrcC' of intPrrPialcdn cs~ amnng th t r uh urt~ n f 1he gangs llllck'r 'lucir ( 1~l/9: IJ. Tite thircl p o int i~ 11101t' t:uniliar in th :t t Fine a n d Kl ci nma n a rg u e that th c qucl y o f SllbCI ti U II '('S ICncls l O ll'l'i\1 1h l'lll as i(' tJH'~ 1\'t'J'l.' b o t h h o tlloge n t'Oll\ - 111111 '(' or k.'~ :1', i ['a 1 1 me ntbn' of llll' g ro up ll'l'l'l' th e 'an1e :t11Cl al l sh a r ed e xacth tlH' .\ :tille !)( l i et:~ and practicc~ - and unclt;tn~i t tg. In f'a ct ,,hat sh o ulcl b e: kc pt. ir; \' c: \\' is tite Jluidil.r oJ' Sll bc u lll trts. Fina l! ~. t l l(:~ :tl'g'lll' that through thc ~del'livifr ol' th c ll':tl' in 1\'hic h th e subcultun. is disn~H d 11r rmd, t h e rcprcsc nta ti o n o f it often. beco m e~ lit.d c mnrc than a cari cature . Thc rt is :t l l' lld L n r~ to locu s on till' ce ntra l th emc~ o r th c subculltll't' a t th c expense o r th c: c<1111pkx inll'rp l : t~ of diff~rl' nt c ulwral aspccts wh ic h m a~ bt a part o l th e su bcu lu 1re. Finl' :me\ Kk inman argul' that thcrl' ., a bclll'l' wa~ w tiiHit-r,t:md \tlbc tdtu n :, , propo,i ng that ' tht co nccp t uali~ation of th e subcultun Cllll,llllct \\'it h in a 11

358

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Subcultures: reading, resistance and social divisions

359

intcmnion i;,t f'ranwwork 1\'ill p ro\'iclc a m ore aclt:qualt' arnnt nt n i ~ u bna hu ra l ,ariation, culwral changc. and thc cli ffu~io n of u ll tur~al l'lemtn t:;' ( 1979: ~). Th c~ arguc that \Ubcuhun sh oulcl he uscd LO refer lO .111 inlt'l'i\( tin~ gmup. On lir't ,igh t thi' ,,ould ~cc nt 10 produce rather small ubcuhun.'s. Ho'''l'\l'l'. Filll' .tncl Kkinm.tn argw..- that .,u bcuh 11 rc~ cxi'l hc,ond immcdiate grou p:-. hcclll'l' ol tht 1\':11' in \\'hirh cultural pallt'l'n'> are dilfuscd in comcmporar\' ~ocietie'. T lw llt'l\\ork that rc~ult' l'rom thc dilfu;,ion o l cllhural ckm tnt i' tlwn thc rdtrenl ,,hich clicl not cxi-.t in most ta rlier 1\Titing.. ubnaltiiiT'\ "tan from group culttiiT~: Cultural lorm..; arC' cre.ned 1hrough the iatcli1 irlu.al oa t olk r tiH' m.tnipulatiun of ~~m bol-. From ,, poi nt or rnation. 1ht nalttn.tl ltll lll , l Olllllllauit'.lll'd to other'..tnd cl ill ll~t'd Olllii<IJ'(I rrom tlH' in di,idurt l' ~ 011'11 llll'l'actinn p:lrtall'l ' TIH' ll'<lll'llli,.ion ol n llt lll'l' i ~ tl ll'l'd'ore .a prorlllct or illllractinn. The di lln ~III 1 111:1\ ll'lllain qnilt' limitC'd unk'~ 1he in formalion rcaches ll'iclt-r audienn Y ia tllt' 11 1<1'~ media. (Fillt' and Kkin ma n, 1\170: ~)) Fi nc and Kle in m a u idcnti l'y fou r 111 t'C han isans hy ,,] ich ro tn 1111111 iC<Hion can ncrtar. First, i tt di\'idu a l ~ may he m c mbc r~ u f :t t1umbcr of di lftn tll g toups; St'Cond . tltcl'l' may be otiH:r int t rcottl1 l'Ctinns ll'ltich do nol illl'u ll't> g roup 11tttnbtrsltip a ~ -,uch but wh ich are l)a~c cl 0 11 1\'c ak tils. casual coni'Cr.'<llions with :tLCJ ll a int a n n~ and so 0 11 : thi rd . !'ome in cl h icluals or grou ps ped'orm ,,hat Fine ancl Kl t'in ma n re flor to a:; stnactural roles, in lin king group' that may nol o then ,isc bt' in con tan all(l pro1 id ing n dut ral in for mation ( drug dea ll'r,, fnr txa m pie); aml fourt h . thcn m ay bt nadia di l'l u,ion a-, whC'n ccrtain li hm or tdel'isioll progran ullt.'' in lltlt' ttcc cu l tu re~ in tlt l "iclc r 't'II'C. Thi~ approaclt also cmpha isc~ the need for anah,, 10 connn1 i t ~cll 1\'ith what thcy call tht al lecthe' dimtminn of ;,ubcullllrt'' (Fim ami 1 -:ldnman. 1979: 1 ~). Peoplc nced w be seen a~ ini'C>kecl in choice~ ab0111 cultt1n aml tht t'Xtent of the idcntification 11it h the cultutc need~ 10 be considercd all(ltT~l;u-rh ed . 1 hc~e are impmtaut points, 11hich need tu be rlcogni~ed in contcmpm-atT ll'ork on -,uhothllll'' l11deecl. thcy ha1e hccn l'Chocd. ir in ,111 in di rert 11'<11. in 11ork th.ll ha' hcgun w e:-..plore l he -,ubcultutTS or ~rouping:; ol'telelision and pop ;mt~ic l:tm (for l'Xampk. l.e11i,. 19\12: . \itle~' ood . 199-l; Robtat:-.. 1\l\l-1 ) alHI en t huo;ia~b ami hobb1 isl\ (lor t:-..ampll-. lloggcu and l3hhop. 1986; .\ loorh 0 u-,e. 1~19 1 ). lt can be: Stlgge,led thal auention lO contt.mpo r;uy cu ltural life has 10 pay grcatcr ;tttCillion 10 actual prtKt'\\t'' of in teraClOII . t h ~' l'll~l' of tll(' m~cl i a in lhC con ~tntctio n of the nc11mrk (a~ Thornlo n ~ ( 1\1\l.)) study 111: 11nta 111 ~ 111 rC'Ia uo n to club cllltllrt~J. and th r importancc uf ';dlect' (Grosslx rg. 1 9\1~) or plc:t~ lll'l'. Rcnnt studics of (\ an ~ can be takcn :ts t xamples of this ckn-loping appruaclt.

thc ll.'l'111 ) :tncl d tra t1gt:d (Jl'IISOII. 1992: 9) . jen~o n mainta ins thatllll' litera tll l'l' 0 11 tan-, ha' prmluctd 111o t110clch uf the 'pathnlogir .tl ran. Fi r~t. then i~ tite ob~e"t>d loner'. ,,ho ( 1111dt-r th t inllttl'lll't' ol thl tllcclia) Ita~ t'ntcrecl in 1 o an inlt'mt !'ant a,~ rda tion~hip 11ith .1 nkbri11 li).{lllt'. Tht''l' indi,idual~ achie1e public IIOtoritt,. b1 ~ta l ki n g or thrcatl' llilll{ or killing the tdl'bri tl <Jcnsun . 199~: 11 ). Sermul. tlttn i' tltl ' lre ntitcl ot l11stelicalllll.'ll1ber ola tl'mi'CI' ( l\192: 11). 'houting a t a rotk 'lar or mi~be lt.11 i n~ at a 'pon~ match. JelhOII C011l{'~l' thi.; idea th:H tlH'rl' j., ' OIIlCthing \\J'Oilg 11i1h the 1 :111 b1 COilll a~ t in g tltt tra it ~ oll ht 1.111 11ith thme o l't ht ltigh culture 01 ac<tdcmic 'a ficio 11ado'. Sht .1rgun that man~ :ac:tdl'lltir-, form <~tt. a c llllH'nts w thcir l\11ourile 11'1i t er~ or tl ll'ori~t' ,,hich art j u' t as ob~e"i\'(' a~ tilos(' tit e l.an 111a1 l(:el for thl' pop star. Hm,e,er, tlll' dilision ol 1he wnrlcl betllt'cl1 fa 11 ~ and no11-l:111\ a llc H,~ tlw~e ll'ho ckli 11e t h e m ~t'll't's as 110 11- fa n ~ to ~ugge~ llh a t o tlwr~ arl' ab normal and thu' to constitutc lh e m se ke~ as tllt JIOI'Il lal or th t ~;~ ft'. ForJ L nsoat ( Hl!l ~: ~ 1): Ddi 11 i11g l':md< 1111 "'.adn i:alll an I' I,. . di e ,,,.~ ( i nd i,idualh) a rcaN ari11_(. 't'l r-;a ggr;ll tdi t~ t;l11 ct' lo lw ;Hlopitd . lt ; al ~o .~ lll > pon s llw celel)l'atioll of parlin alar 1': 1111 ~.~- tla v r:ational l>l'la thl t' llllllion:d. th1 cdll ra tn l mt r the uneducatn l. tla v ~11hdau d 0 \ '1'1' tia ~ pa,~ i on a tc. l he d i1 t' owr tltl' popular. alte 111aimt rt'< ll1l mer tllc a11argi11 . thc ~ 1 : 1 11 a ~ qno on1 th t altcm :atI'I'.
il1g

Cllantntrisi l1.{ l:ttb a~ 'ot htr in llais 11';1\ blorks an al~" i~ ancl p rowr u nck rstandi t1g ol ltoll' pl'uplt' anual h ill lt'ract ll'ith thl' tncdia in rontcmpor;u; ~oritl~ . h tn ller. 11'1itea, like Fiskc ( 1mt~) l1:aw 'uggl'tld tllat l'a11 acti,itic' are anua l! ~ ntort likt 1ho'l' of' 'orclil1al:. wopk. 1\\ 0 ,,udil'' orlan~ han lwen p;~ni c ulari~ i111lttl'I\1al.

8.11.1

Fans of Star Trek

8.11 1 Fans: stereotypes, Star Trek and opposition

\\'e all probabll' hal'l' co mmo n-, cnsical image~ ol th t !a11 in o11 r 111inch and .t1.1 e1 woui~l pc rhap~ lw linkcd br thc idea of somc ki nd oJ' c~cTss o l aclmirat ion ol an ac tt l'tt~ or stal. :--lorcmtr. therC' Ita' bcC'n a dcar tcndtncl lor mur h ll'riting on l:111' w ;,uggC'Sl that thc 1 e is somcthing \\l'ong ll'ilh being a En t. F;m s are 'l'C t1 a' lanatic~ (l'rom thc origin of

Camilll' 13acoi1-Sillitla ( 199~) (Oihidl'a '' tlw appropriatiol1 ami re u,ing o r ll'll'\ i~i l lll IL'\(l~ like Sta r T1d1. I.Jinlu<' iand 'f'lw l~wftllionall a~ tlw b:t~i~ 0 11 which 10 clewlop lll'\1' cu ltural fonn~. So tht ,,otllt'll in Bacon-Smi th , ' lll(h do th ings with such le:>..ts. Tlt('\' go 10 conH' Il l i on~ o n tlwm. drl',.~ up a~ r haracte as f'ron1 tl H' sho11s. ll'ri te ancl >l' l fon1 1 'lllksung~ abuul thl' tll. p:ai nr pinurcs n i tltc chararlt'l'". all(l pnJd ucc nHisit 1 id eos about thl' ln . Baro i1-SIII i1h d n n tt'\ nntch d i~n ~s i o n lO lite type~ or ll'rilll'll ll'XI tllat <11'(' procl uccd. tllilising- tlll' t IJractvr:-; and '\i t11Hiint1 " l'rom the clil'lcnt series. all iHHaglt ag:ain ll t r .. and situntinn' rrom tlw ~l' ri t' ~ art pland in nt'''' main li Jc us i-, 0 11 .\ /or '/'1'/t. Ch:aracte a situat io tl\ ancl dilli.rt'll l 1111 hcrses' . ~ el\' charattns ar(' i nl roclllrecl o r OIH'-" ,,.11 o liad only rt'la til'eh 11111 or roit's <tl'l' cll'l'tlopccl at 11111d1 grcatcr leng th ancl dc pt h . She examim., l'o ut tnain g'l'ttrts ol' Sia l 'J''I'fn,Titing. T he lir~ l o !'thcsc is the \ \ lat'\' Sul' which entaib th e in trocluctio tl o l a ~ oun g ,,o man into tite crew or lllt' Fn te rpri'c who m ~u1 al{C'S to sa1 e 1ht ~ h ip ancl i ts ( ' Jl'll' lro m cli.;aster. bu t ll'ho pc ri ~ h es el m w ltlr d 'lon s. 11 is ., ohen lht lirst son n i' 'tot; 11 ri tl l' ll b~ tltt clcwlop ing Siar Trl'l: ha u . an d Ita' h('Cllll lt' a rehuild~ d i.slikld l'orm. T hc tl' l llt ' .\ lan Sm' i~ oltcn usl'cl in a negatil'l.' ~L'II'l'. thc phras< 'it':-. a bit ol .t :-- l a r~ Suv inclir ating d i,appro1al.

360

lntroducing Cultural Sludies

Subcullures: reading, resistance and social divisions

361

TIH stcond 11-pe of ll'ritin~ ,tite ,,~ Spod.' (or :wmtonc l'iw from the crcw). f his 1 1\'nl\'es producillg' a si01Y ,,hich entai l~ pladng Spnck in a h t t etmcx 1 ~<11 rcla ti o n ~hip, ror l'X~Impl e with ;-ur.;e ( :llape l. wlw is tlt ou~hl to he a ttraCICclto him. Thc t h irrlt~w or \\Titing is lhc z s ()1' ,Ja ~h (St't> :1lso Pt: nl t'\', 1992) ll'hirh plan'' Kirk and Spotk in" homostxual relation.;hip. Thi~ form of ''riting stem-; p:u t irularl~ 'tran grc,!'i\'l'. of the accepted mc a nin~" of Stfll '/d:. lt i' ugge~tcd that fcmak 1;1~1 s ha,e L_a~cn up an af rectiH corc ol Strn Tnl: (the friemhhi p oll\..irk ancl Spockl and tnflened ll 1 n .t 1.11hcr s11rprising clinction . T ht ti nal 1~'Pl' is ' l l11rt/ Cnmlo rt ' ,,h ich agai n ol1e n )laces ,,o of th t Ct'IHral characters in to a clo1(c relationship. Om o!' the c harac t t.r~ ~ uiTcrs pain throu~ lt a tt 1rible inju1y anclthc o the r character is in\'olnd in caring and comlo ning tl.t<' injured :"plained b, Hacon. mith 10 be pa1t icularh' con tr<>H' 1 '' 1 al among friend. Thi<; gemc i' < fam due. for exampk. to th c distrcs,inl{ dfen, that the rcotding about tht !\l'H'I't' pain inflictt:d on a much lil..td charac tcr can haH' o n them. Tlwse texts ;11 <' o lh-n producecl in a rollerti\T man1w 1. IH' indi\'idt1al lll il)' be pri 111 arily respomiblt.: for the in i ti al de,<:lnptne l11 of' an ;tl tc1 :n".' i\'t' S/111' Fnli un \"l'l'S<'. btll th is is thcn opcncd up f'ur e;o;pamio n b\' ntller~ \dlO can 1111 111 gaps ancl own up new po~'ibi lities in the swn. In an importnm stn w, the auth ors l ~~p of tll e~c.str.ll'il ~ i~ 'h~1rc~ an d is a pan ol a 1ll'I\\Ork in tht ~l'lht' idt'1llifitd b\ llllt' ancl _h.lt1 nm.an. 1 hc1r prndunion goc' agai11'1 the stercot' pe of tht Ion e ;utthor at \\orl.. 1 11 crcaun~ lor an i11dmtrialised book markct. Tllis subculture is al'o inro l\'cd in a lo1 m ofrcsistancc ( p. 2:i8), like that clco;crihtd in the CCCS approach . Bacon-Smit h tlcscrihts the \\a~ in " llich tht \\'O illl'll in hcr stucl)' c;u'\t' nu t a remaktt rrnrist spacc' for tiH"ir ac 1hiti c~. Ont of tlw thin ~s wltirh is signifirant about Bacon-Smith s hoo l.. i-. 1 1l'r r haracterisa1 ion of the ,,om en a~ opposing llw domi n ant mak cont rol kr~ of 1he lllOJ'l' ollicitl fon m o l ~cit'nce fin ion fandom . The c'tablishcd mak ~citncc fietion (SF) comcntions are both organiscd a11d often clis;1ppr0 ,ing uf 1he a e 1iritics of thc ft mak r;,ns. There io; al... o so me in ~igl uf ulmatcrial of 1ht: i 11 t im idatio n oC wo1ncn i11 Lhc rok-pla~i n ~ Sl'C l ions or tlw SF con lere nns. Thtse. on Haron-Smi th , :tccntllll , are ,irtuall\' compk it:ly m:tle-clntninated. Dnminant rorms wltich are nppnscd by thc femalt forms lt nclto be both ind i\'idualistic and ma~c uline, ahhoul{h whtn tiH'' .m: engaged in '-ll'll~glt or <trc unckr .nlark the~ tcncl lo\\arcl a~~oci;~i,e modcs of organ i~ation. hi~ ta n he sccn a' a tll'l\\orl.. of interaction which fo rm ~ a ~ubcuh u re on tite basi~ of ,,hirh ma~'-circulatcd ~lol'il~ ancl characll'rs are re workcd ancl de\Tiopld in a \\'ay that opposes th t. control or th< " ider ~cit n ct lictiou culture by mcn. ll cnry_l<:nkins ( 1992). in an oth cr su 1d~ ol Stor Tn>lr, reinlore<:s thcse pni 1 11s. . . .Jen kins e mpha ~is('s thc rreathi l\' ol' fa11s. 1k ~h m,~ h11\,. tht> are lll\'Oincl 111 1hc \\Ti tina of d ilfercnt ~ 1 01 ic~ based cm the r h a1ac t er~ from l'am ili:u tl'lt,ision programmes ancl. ~ke Bacnn-Smith. di~cu.~cs ~ome of th e difftre111 gt'lll't';. of thc~c ~tori<' In aclclition fans indulgt in ,ideo making. p:1 in ti ng. singing- aiHI , o 011. Lik< a grcat clcal of thc \\Titing on f:111 '. J cnkins argm~ again~t the ideas that f'al11( an ~omehcm fi~ures of l\ 11 1. clcrangecl. or isolat t>d (sml ancl lont"l~) indi\'icluals. The~ are see n a~ actl\'t:' and in,n l\'cd in exttnsin comnnmicath'l' l1 t'lii'Orks fnrmi ng a ~ ubn tl ture th:11 is opcn 10

,1uls. outsicl( inriu e n ce~. Tlw m t rnbcr!' also engage in a f'ul l ra nge ol normal' an 1 J c nl..ins nlso shm,~ ho\\' technnlogies likc co1nptllt'r nc t\\'nt'ks are l'<tci lita li ng nc,, J'orms (lr i nte raction . a del ill g' ~ ig l l fi can l lll'\1' di ll1 t:: nsious or thc (0 111111llll icat ion pn~-i hi li ti es thal ,,ere clcwilcd in Fint: :uul 1\Jcinman ~ l':trlicr articlc. In ~\' tnpathy ,,ith much o th n wri ting- on subcuh urc. these fans are ~een a~ t'llgaged in rdraming th e llll'anings 0 a domina nt culture: thC\ are not ~o far :ma\' fiom Hl'bcligcs (1979) \'Out h -'llbcuhural lniro!turs. Howe,cr. o nc of the signilk:m t b~ue' that thi' litcraturr raises i~ thc txtcnt 10 \\' hi r~l _alltelt: \isio n \'i C\\'<'1'~> <11't' bccoming a~ sl..illecl and ac ti,c i11 their t1nd e r~ta11din g 0 te kns1 on programmcs as th e fans d cscribtcl b~ Bacon-Sn1i1h anci.Jcnkins. Thi~ rcl'e rs bark to the point nwclc by \\'ill is 1'1 al. ( 1 9~10) about the <:ss<: nti:tl crcati\'itl' in\'Oiw d in en, ~ ~d a, culturallifc. ll owe1er. as .J<:nki m ( 19\:J!l) shows tltroug h his di sc~1~sio n of thc l':lilure of fans lO con\'ince the p roduc('l'' o l panicular prognunmc to kecp them running or not to dc,clop a panicular swnIinc. the lans tend to be in relat h ch- IHak positions in a wickr sensc. ;\loreO\er. scmt(' more recen t \\'orl.. on thc fam of d;wtime tdc,ision progrannm' in the L' nit C'd Stalt'' has takc n a r;nh t r cliffc re nt , i~ "' of l11nclom.

8.11.2 1 Fans of daytime soap opera

Harrington and Bic lll\ ( 1995) examine a dilfntmtypc of J'a n frnm 1hat con idcrld t}\ 13acon-Smi th ( 1992) .Jcnkin' ( J99!l) and Pen l('\ ( 1992) in 1hat t h e~e are 1101 pcoplc ,,.hJ engagl' in thc procltiCtin- g'l'11L'nttion oJ' 11 t' \\' texts in th e concre te ~ense 011 th c ba~i s of' i n g~ ::tnd id e n 1i ficat ion , are thdr fan attachmcnts: r:n ht r, th c~ suggl'SI 1ha 1 fa 11 fe e 1 1 ot ccnt ral in 1he product i''l' r on ~ truc tion of' icltn l i1\'. Their approac h is o q llt'SIion 1 jmt ,,h at fans do but \\'ho the> rm' (llarrington :md Bielb,. 1 9~15: 7) . In impon:m t rcspcc t~ th is lack of concrelt.'. prod union i ... rdated 1 0 th t pltasurc thal r;, ns lind in thc airead\ existing tcxt~. \ ... Harrington amlllil'lbr ( 199f>: 21) explain. 'lt is berau1r f< mak consum ers of \\'Olllcn '.s ll'xts - includ ing soaps- find it easin to ide ntif1; with ancllincl pie-asure in the primary narrati,e tlta 1 tlwy rarc l~ produce d c rimti\'c t~xts. II D\\'l'\'tr, partly lxcause of tit e clcrision l O ,,hich soaps and thc ir J;,ns an ~ tlbjl'Clt'cl , ill\'oh'CIII('lll tcncls to take p la(( within a supponin' cmironmcnt. Thc increa,ing ickntillcatio n \\'i th thc soap anclthe iclcnlity (p. 22 1) of a ~oap f'a n is diffic ult. As has bccn arguecl IJ\ Cro,sbcrg { 1!l9!l: se< furt hcr Longh ur...t 1995: 2:1:1-.i). tl w fan f~nns :111 affccti,c link to 1lw objcct of' a uachmt:nt. T his i' critica! tn Ha1Ting1on ancl B1clb\'\ examina tion or ~oa p fans. 1\'ltCr(' pkasure in the p rod uct i:o. centml. Tltis 111 a, be an cssellli;tll r pri,atc p lca,urt. o r it ma\' blcomt more puhlic tltro ug h panicipation in fa.n lunclws. coJnspo ndc nce. cumput cr bu lltti n boards and so o n. I Iarring to n ancl B1c lby ~mphasise thc plca~ure that. is in\'oh-< :d in thcsc allecti\'t' conncnions ancl suggc ~t that th1 s should he con~iclc rcd in its own ~('ll't' a~ a form o l'lcwc allachment r;llher than bcing tx plainecl in o1lwr tcnns as a fnrm o f struggle allCI oppo~i t i on. Thi~ dol'~ 1101 mean tltat t h e~ ignon struggk ancl opposition hu t. as wc ha,c argued in general tt'l'ms. tltcy re locate thesc ickas in a different f'ram e,mrk with an l'mphasi" on spectaclc and pcrfo nnati\i ty (se e Chapter () for cli~c u ssi o n ur perrorn l:ll i\'i l \' in COlll C111 poran poi i1ics) ' Thcy argue: '

362

lnlroducing Cultural Studies

Subcul tu res: reading, resistance and social divisions

363

Unlike 1110 tmedia liH'Priqs who pnsit a barrier ()(' l\\Tt n ~ui:~}:Cl :~nd o l~j{'c l. ll'e belie\'c that soap 11':-ttchin ~ (li ke rcacting or l:un:\s~ gaming) is simuhan co ml~ a spect:unr and Y ancl thc ahl>rnatin:! ,,orld do not panici]Xl11l :~n i ,i ~ li is panicipawn i11 that the SlOJ exist unti liiT conscinush and ac ti1e l ~ en{agt: thc text ... : it is a spectalr at lII\' inthat '''C nlrcssa ril) aclupt a IJordt'rt:d p o~itinn to 1hc flc tiunal world. (1 -!aningwn aud Bit-lb1. l ~19:1: 132) For Jlarrington ;~ncl Bie lbv ( 199:i: 1 71-l-~l), soap l:nJ.s' praet ires are guided h) a sen se of agenC)' - an a\\'artness of their abilit1 as ~oc iall l' t lllbt ddecl indilicluals lo initiate and control be hal'in ur. Soap fans ' ,ie11ing c hoi ce ~ < tncl prac ti ce~ t' Jn e r~e I(Jr a myriad of reaso ns. in d ttd in ~ pleasure ancl experienn or emo tio n. T lw concept ur age ncy more adequateh capLUres the gene ral proccss of inl entionality that is obscurecl by a foc us on hcgemonic resb tance . \\'hat fan s are or ,,hat the\' do art ex te n si o n~ oftheir integration ancl pa rticipa! io n in ,iell'ing and el-ct: da) life. In the con clusion L o this chapter ,,.e shall build o n th is impon ant poi n l.

.;oriel\' o ll cr~ ft'II'L'l' job.' f'or 1 ill' and in,uln, more el, ol'CC. fa mi h br<'a k-u p ancl rcconsti ttt lion . lu ~ tt ch :1 coiii <'X I. the coll t.Trn "ith nJ uth suhculturcs ma1 h a~t hnn a st:trting pnin t. bttl sttclt ' lltd' lll>\1' llt'l'd' tn ()e rt'l'<> ll ~i d l'rcd 11ithiu tht d e\Tiopn ttn t ol )le lil't cottr'L'. iu f'ragnll'll lt'd :tn d C<>tnpk" 1\':t\s. St>I IH' J.w opk t n :1 ~ IJl t llci111H'r~ nf' rea,o u. thll ti~h l 'ulwtt lt un,~. lttt l ptrhaps :1 btt tn ,,; l\ t<> l><lk al the cnn1plexi ti t,s o l ctT r omplcx e1 crnla\ cultttr:tl inll'ran iou b ill ronglt lll'lll'o t "' oikd h~ tttl'rl ia. 1d1 icknti li t:; are l'l-con,ttt tl' iecl i11 lht' tt rl'<>nll:ttl\'t'' of ~.ntwh t\ lirc (:1 1 1 argt tllll'll l dc,LIopt>d fu n lwr in .\IJerU<Iltl llie <lltd Lnn g lllll'~ l . (q~)K).

R e-ca p
This chapter has considered:
11

a range of conceptual issues introduced by the concept of subculture; Jiterature on deviance and gangs and the concept of moral panic; the na tu re and the critique of the approach to the study of youth subcultures developed at the Birmingham Centre for Contempora ry Cult ural Studies; the nature of fans and enthusiasts and the developing importance of the concept of identity in this field.

11

8.12 1 Conclusion: from resistance to identity and performance

At the ou1se1 of' this chapter ,,.e suggcsted that alt e tllio n to subcu iLUrcs ,,as important throngh the consideration of threc issucs: rc~i s t ance/ in cu rpora tion : social di1isiuns ancl fragm entation: and interpn.: l< ttion/ nplTselllatio n. T hc core of' the clw ptcr (sections 8...1-- l:U\) exami ned the approac h de,e lopecl at thc Centre for Contempotary Cultural Studies (p. ~~27) attht Unhersitl' of' 13irmi ngham ll'hich rocuscd on the 11ay in ll'hich thc dis tinctiw p a 11 c rn s of life associatcd ,,ith ubculturcs could be read or intcrpreted ll'ithin th t fram e o r their resistance (p. 25R) or incorporal io n ll'ithin dominant culture ami 1heir re lation to parent culture. Thi~ approach was ~op hbti ca t ed ancl influential. Ho\\'t>I'Cr, the discussion in thc subscqucn t sec 1ion~ snggests thaL it now seems inadequate as a war of undcrstanding thc c o rnpl ex il ~' nf co nt e mpurar~ cu lture. lllorc reccnt studies of,o uth ami fans can be read 10 suggcst that ,,hat is important is not so much thc rcading of' sttbrnltnrc~ f'or esistance allCI opposition, bu t the unclerstancling ami ga thering or cl'idc ncc :tbout the ac til'ities of a d h-crsc ra nge of groups which poinl 10 the mcan ings or the actil'itics. cspccia llr in tcnns ol' pleasure, lo th e pcopk that e n ga~c in tllcm . Funher. it ma~ be ~ u gges tcd th:ll tht:se activities conetrn the perrormancc of se Ir (see Chapter 0). Postmodernist (p. -lOIJ) a r~um e nts hal'e suggestcd tha t socic 1 y has bccomc both mor fragmented ancl more media sat.urated. ll !orcmer. idenlities (p. 22-1 ) ha\'e become more complex. The burckn of much of Lli t' lit erature consiclered in the later sectio ns of this chaptcr is to support such id ea~. dcspitc tlle fram ing o!' some of thc !'a n studies in tenns ofopposi tion and rcsist<llHT. 11 c tn be suggcstcd th at. o ur sense ofselfis oftcn constructed in rda tion to o ur enthusiasms as \\'ellas in the con tcx t of fa mil)' and occnpation. \'outh ~ ubc nliures seemccl to be a place l'or re~ista ncc ami opposition al a panin tlar stage in the life cott rsc. whcre mo,eme tll from nnc scl o f rclat ions in the ram ily was man:tgccl in the proccss uf transition toa tH. ' ''. scL. 1 -lolleY er. contemporary

a
11

Further reading
Ken Gelder and Sarah Thornlon's The Subwltures Reoder (1997) contains an excellenl selection of papers and extracls on subcultures. Sluilfl H all and Tony )elferson's R esislance lllrough Rituols (1976) is lhe classic collection from the Centre for Conlemporary Cultural Studies. M~ny of the subsequently influential B irmingham writers such Dick Hebdige (Subwlture, 1979), Angela McR obbie (Feminism and Youth Culture: From 'jackie' to 'jusi Sevenleen', 1991; Postmodemism ond Popular Culture, 1994) and Paul Willis (Leaming lo Labour, 1977; Profane Culture, 1978; Willis el al., Common Culture: Synbolic Work at Play in the Emyday Cultures of the Young, 1990) can be found in shorter form in these books. For fans, Lisa L ewis's The Adonng Audience (1992) is a good collection. L ess academic but equally enlightening are the works or Nick H ornby
(Fever Pitc!l, 1994; High Fide/ity, 1995).

Visual culture 365

chapter

Visual culture

(section 9.6). The visual culture of cilies, especially behaviour in public places and the built environment itself, forms the topic of the next two sections (9.7 -9.8). Finally, so me of the ideas first introduced in the earlier sections are reconsidered in the light of suggestions that visual culture is assuming the increasingly simulated forms characteristic of postmodernism (section 9.9). However, in arder lo appreciate the purchase of these studies, it is essentialto give attention to the concepl of visual culture. The learning objectives for this chapter are: to understand changes in visual culture as connected to the re-ordering of power relations; to appreciate different ways of studying visual culture; to idenlify the key importance of the changing visual culture of the cty.

9.0

lntroduction

9.1
or " 11

Visual culture and visual represen ta tion

In this chapter, three main themes are used to organise our consideration of visual culture. First, there is a historical theme. In accord with other chapters in the book we have organised material here in terms of a shift from modernity to postmoclernity or late modernity (p. 400). We shall suggest that forms of visual culture are intimately connected to changes in society - moreover, that such shifts are themselves part of the re-ordering of power (p. 94) relations, especially in respecl of their gendered dimensions. Second, in the context of this historical change we introduce the theme of the alternative ways in which different aspects of visual culture can be studied, in both textual and practica! senses. Third, we shall place particular attention on the city in this context. This is partly because sorne more general forms of representation and visual culture, such as painting and television, have already been raised in other parts of the book (see Chapter 2), bul more importantly il also allows specific focus to fall on a key site of social transformation. In 1975 sorne 39 per cent of the world's population lived in cities. By 2000 il is estimated thatthisfigure will have risen to 50 per cent and by 2025 over 63 per cent of the world willlive in urban environments (Giddens, 1993: 556). Cities, which have always been significan\ centres of science and culture, are now accommodating an increasing proportion of the population, a trend that can only accentuate the significance of the social and cultural developments concentrated therein. Alter a consideralion of the ideas of visual culture and visual representalion (section 9.1), these three general themes are addressed in this chapter through the examination of a range of aspects of Lhe visual culture of cities, beginning with the ideas advanced In the earlier part of the twentieth century by the work of S immel and Benjamn (sectlon 9.2). We then consider photography and film as modern representational practices which are widely regarded as outstanding methods for 'capturing' elements of that visual culture (seclion 9.3). In the next seclion (9.4) we consider the importan! work of Michel Foucault {p. 28) on surveillance and the gaze. Work on a different type of gaze is considered in a section on tourism which also examines the application of the concept of postmodernism to this activity (section 9.5). This is followed by an examination of the differences between the glimpse, the gaze, the sean and the glance 364

ol' illl' \( 'llSVS 1ha l lltllll<liiS pm~CS<;, .;ig h l is l hL' mm! l'\ 'l' letpl'd. T lll Sll'lll' lllll' ul' hu n t;ut l'l'l'-' and rla ir p l;tCl' llll'lll :u ril e lrunt ol' thL' h l'aci g-iH~ human l'isio n ... llliH' impott;u\1 r: lp;t l>ililil'' l'hl l'lt'' ni' IH1man' ca n clttt'Cl and n.:,oht li ttl' cll'tai l: !la~ an ca pahk o l clhr ing u i,lting a 11'itk rangl o l culn ur' llt L' o;plruum : :tiHl th c ir h l't):tcl ;ln',l bi n ocu la r 11\l'd.ll' Pl'IIIII.\ reach .1ppnciation uf lht' dl'>l h o l' \ j,ual lit Id\ ( l'a" illg ham. ) ~)/'\~: :~ti- 1 /o\). II H''l' r. tp.lhilitil'\ .ll'l' pan or !he unil'l' l,,d biologictl ll':tllllt'' "''ig1ll'd 10 /Iom" '"/'IIII in llw t'\o)urionan ~equlnc~.. di,tillgui,hing u' hom olltt'l spe rie' . Tm~tl hlr 1hn lonn tht hiolo:{ica l ba-is for thc primac1 aLtorcltd to ,jglu a111011 ~ hum.111 wtht'' :-,,Ti ll ~ ('0 11H'S hdorc ,,nrds'. ,a,s .Joh n HcTgtT ( 197~: /). 'tlll' child loo!...' amlll'lOgiH'l'' hdtlll' il <.m 'peak.' Thl priman ol 1,011 i'l'\ ide111 in 111:1111 <'l't' tYd:tl ':11 ing' 'lit h '': ,,.~.i ug , htlin i11(. J would11'1 haH' lwlitHd il 1 had11't 'L' l'll il \1 i l h lll\ 1111 11 l'H'' . i 1 loo k' t ould k i 1 1'. i1 ' '' aring \ 'tlll in llw l.lll' ( n. tckr' 111 igh 1 1ikl' lO furni'h hulhl'l' t':0..,1111pl<, ol lht'il ll\1 1\ ). Stting prol'iclt"' a rtTI:I lll\ t lt at no olhtt srm1. 'l'l'l\\' rapabil' o l'all'nrding. 11 , rht IL'fon ttll-.tt l-pri,i n g tlt:u 'rit'lllillr clio;rollr.;t , rqJil 'll' ,,irh ,i,ual im;lg'l'l\. :-.ril'llet' , hao;ccJ on ll'tte 'oh~l~ tYalioll, ol rl~t \\'Odcl .11\CI e n rk:l~"<HII'\ L o d l'l l' lo p o hj l'CI \l'. 'r lear-~ ig lll l'd'. unhi ast d ,.<',,.,, o l lht plh'I\Clllll'l\i\ that iL l ll'l''L i g': l ll'~. .\ hlt o 11 g' h 1b ion , ; 1\;lln l;d h <' ltclniiT d sc n sc. our wa~~ n ( looking :u thiu g.; ancl sce ing t iH' " '" rl d an I I H1l'tlll,~ hl ~ r u ltu re cl. T lll' biolugy o ( \' ~i on r anno l l'x p l:ti ll thl' 11:11 1ha 1 ll't' a c tu a l! ~ l ll l'I'Jll't' l rll v :q tpl'; tran rco; ol' !111 1mrl d . Scci ng is :t lll'ot\'' r u lt urtd St't'ing. Antlt rupo lo , ts l'l'Jl<ll'l itt,l<l lH'to; o [' un cntn p 1 T il tnd ing rt,ponsto; ll'il tn l'c l'l;t il t 1\!111 \\'cstc m pl'up lt'' unl. u uili a r ,,it ll 11tod1' l'll p h t~ t ograph i c L t'C h no log\. arl' ~ holl'n piloto grap lts or ord in at 1 ol ~j<'<' l ' T IH'M' IW"Pk' lar k 1h t .1ppropriall' cn lt m al 1i lt r:H 1' to g t asp wh:u Ll ll' p h otog1 aph~ ll'Jll'l'~t nt. .\ -; nd ttual lw i11g, IH' ;trt' altk to ~tt' l\\11 pl'opk walking do1111 th l' ~ l ll'l'l a' a llltllltcr going ~lt oppin g- II'ih h tr r ltilcl' orLo ''l't llt t' ptr~on:o. t'lll brat i ng :H a 1ai lwa1 ,;u ion a~ 'luHr.;; ~a~ ing lil t' r la teiiL' JI,'. Ol~jl'rh. L ' J>l'' ol persun ;1nd rcla t iou,hip' an: rc,( (ularh rcncll'rcd imclligiblc 10 u' b1 lookin g. 1 hi.; qn iH

or

or

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lntroducing Cultural Studies

Visual culture

367

01dinan anclea-.ih t:-erci-.ecl 'kili i~ not innatc In u , arquirtcl 1hrou gh ~oria l ilan1i11g. \\'hat lit' 'l'l' i'> ah,a,' conclitionecl l)l' 11hat 1,.,. l..no11' - tht n tl1111.tl catq~nrin liT tmplol', tht ('llllllllOll--.l'llSl' l..no1dedgT 11e >O:>~l'~~- ailCI ll'liat ll'l' l..no11 i-. tltt prodUtl o(' long lll'riocl-. ol -.ociali-.ation. T ht worlclth:ll liT l')..Pl'l il'll({' i-. lull or aplwara!ICI'' the look, of thing-. ll'hich mal..c -.en;;e 10 u '\. :u lea-. a' aduh ll1l'lllhe1:-. ni a c ultun. Yet lit' haH all l'11lllllllll'rl'CI ..;ituation' wht-rt thc look-; o! thin~' .1n not .tll'''ll' ttalh>art'11l: our l..nmdccl~e ma1 lw clclicicnl 10 gr'P 1\'hat i~ anualh g:oing on. or ll't' lll.\1 ~en;,t that -.onH t hin~ i-. 1101 quite ri~ht. out o! plact. ancl infer that a pu11lin~ or 111110\lillcl cnm i~ ltapptning:. (StiCiolug:i't' tlf l'H' ncl:11 lik. notabl~ Ening (.of!m.lll - 'lT <cuion 9.() hlhm - h;t\l' ;,)Hmn thc imponanre of ,.,jun in t:urnuntt'1' hetll'l't'll llnaccuai iiH:cl IH'I'S01l' in public pbCt''-) For !he lllOSl pan. IHJI\'l'H'l', l!lll ordinar\' l..tHlldtdg<. he 1\'IJilcl i' ackqua te f(r l l ' lO un ckrstan d i t ~ apptarauns. Th ;n ktlllll kdgc and d w~e :1pJWar:II1Cl'' arl' ~ubj cc tto comtant rc1ision -.inCl', "' lk t ge1 ( 1~~~~) 1'l'll1ind-. " ' 11 h a t 1\'e l.. n o\1' a ncl ll'h a t 11'1.' -.ee n enr <ta ncl in a finalh ' l'llkcl reh!lioHl - 1\'ordo; ancl imagts are

or

('Olll i Jit'X l ~ illll'l'l\1 inl'c\.

T hb ll-:Hl ~ u s

10

tite inf llle n!ial nn1 ion of' l'isual mf/1111'. L.i kt

:1111'

inf lmntial idea it

ddi<~ ~ lr: tig l llf'H W~II rf c lntran e ri <ation 1>111 11e ra u tll:t kl' a b q.:i nning b~ proposing lhat \' s11a l c ullllrt' l' n r nmpa''l'' :lll th osc sociall\' ~ta ncl:trdi sl'd 11a~, of thinl..ing. ac ti ng and f'ttli ng 101\'anl-. th l' ap p carance' nf th l' 1\'0i'kl. ;\lo re .-.p n ifitall \', \\'(' 1\'Sh l O l'l"il'l'alt' th e

idea pur~1 1 ('(l th ro ug-h carli e r chapte r)> uf thl hool.. that cuhmc can h e u ~erull r utHkr~tood ancl ana l ~s!'d in ge n eral ttrms a~ a ll'Xl and '' a 11:11 n f' lil e .. \-. tr-.:1. thc conrq>t of' l'i~ual cull!tre clrall''i all<'tllion tu thn~t objt'CI' (drawing -.. paintings. phutogr:tph~. film. fashion ami adornmcn1. <tr. l cotl\'t'ntionall \' rcg:arckd a~ the atcq>lahle mrgct of ;,u;;taincd lonl..ing. ancl thl' techno logit~ ( 1wnc ik c ranms. :n mm rallll'l\1\, \'CR~. eat-piercing l'Cluipml'nl. ttr.l itwoiH' d 10 prl)(htCl' these ohjtcts ..\-. ll'll.l' nf f!Jr. \;,IIal rullltl't' point<. to one dimcn;,iou ol tht 'dt,igu 11)1 li1 in.( hdd h1 an1 group ol people. EH'I'I cult u re prmicle ih llll'llther' 11ith ;tll ordi u a t'l C;tpi!ritl' lo cll'coclc the appt'aranccs ol things. JX'r>mh. rclation-.hip~ and 'o fonh that .trc t'IKOIIIHt'red e1cry <1:11 . ,\, acluhs walking dcmn a cit1 stn'l't 11e 11ill bt ranf'ul 10 gin that hlind pcrson t''CO tted ()1' a guide clog pltnt1 of room to pa~-.: il \\l' at l' ftmak. lit' mm :1\'oid the impotlllllilll' ()l'lt:tlilllll'' of' 111alc \I'OI'kl'l'S 011 a building ' ill' b1 tal..ing anP ti H'r 1'01111' lO 011r rfe,tination . \\\ are abk LO lig11r(' th l''l' thin g ' o111. a-. II'L' -.a\ , ',j u -.1 b1 looking. \\'hat , 11r h -.impk art~ d o tlO I cli>clo' l' is tlll' comicltrabk ~ucia l kilr ll i ll ~ hin .( a t tl H' back of tht'M' litw-. o l' co11duc l. learni 11g' tlt at (a~ c ltild i'l'll) 111 a~ h:tn illl luckcl being lorcibly pu lJet! 0 111 of thl' p:Hh o f' a hlincl p erso n 01' th a t (a-. adoksn tll gi rl o;) llla~ han inmlred :111 l ' ill b:t i'I':I~S ill g: l'pi..;ock of nlllning tite gn1111kl of' btti l din ~ 1\'0l'ktr~ Cilln tlfs. i.;ual r ll lll il'e sufl'uses our < 'H'tYdal' t':\ll'l it' IICl' b 111 it a lso takcs more ,\ s w:11 of' lifc. 1 in ~t illllion a li sed fr m '. Sntlana .l. lp l' rs ( Jmt {) ;,lw11s ltn11 'l'\'t' lll t't' tlll l-l'l'111111'\' l lo lland had a r i c ltl ~ cltll'ln p c d I's11al c ulture 1dtic h 11as m m t obdoush n1arl..{cl lll' th c 11o rk of 11 11 grc:ll l.tn d'ira pc paintc rs nf' Lhc <ra (l'i;,u a l c u lllll'l' a' tl':\ 1) h11 1 ll'hich it ~df ,,.<15 t' n1 bl'cldcd in wickr arrangcmen ts inch tcling tlw d <1dopmc nl o f 11 1 a n ~ np ti ra l instru' mn1~ (ca mera ob~cura. tdesco1 w. miCI'Il."co pt) ancl mappi n g dt lin~. These pcnniuecl tltl' :tl'llll'illl' ch al ti ng o(' span ancl built li J> a cli'-l'l iminating I'OC:tf>ttl:ll'\' f'or in tl'rprcting 1 j;,ual tepre~tn tatitHl'- thal "'"' sh a t ed b1 man\' 01dinar~ Dul< lt pcopk. The ach'cnt of

mode rn ity (p. 1110 ) h as lt tigl ll t'lll'd th c .;igniflcancc of' th e l'i!-u a l. .\lthoug h tht l'l'rha l, in bullt sp okt'll a ncl 11'1illtn llll 111~. b tht primary llll':tm of CUI111111111iCation, \\'t:.tcrn culllll'l' ' pl' IY:t~il't' l'Oll t:l' tll "itlt 1hL appcarann nf objerb mal..es i l dtcidedh ucularccntric. r h tTl' i~ a pri1 iltging o f ~~~.ing: a, a ~tmorial modc. a ' h egenwm ol thc, i'>llal' (Tdn. 19S 1l tmboditd in thl' la n guage all(l thought or European, and :"\onh . \ mtric;tt1-. . . \ h ege m o ny (p. 106) ol tlw 1i-.11al can o n h- al'isc in a cu lllltT 1l'lt<'tT li'>u.tl- or nlort ::.perifka lh pictoria l - rcprcscnt.uion~ o;muraH cwnd a1 lift . .-\'"a-. argued in Ch.tpttr ~. tht ll'rtn re p resentatio n (p. lil) mos t ){t'tH'rally me;ut!' one t hin g 'tanding lot a twthtl. Ho" a pinun r; 111 rt-.cmblt tlw objtn lo which it nkrs is a mallt'l' of <kbatt' an1on~ phi loo;oph tr-; and p'>ycholngi-.Ls. So me arglll that a piett tn tltat Lo 11 hirh it rl'ftrs (t' .g. 1lw p:ti 111 i ng t'111 i tlcd tlw :-, 1on;t Lisa hear' a reSt' l11b l:llll'l' w :t rta 1 11" 0111:111). O tl wrs ' ll){){l'' ' th :11 a p ictlll't' i, :1 l'llnetinna l 11i1JIIil11/t or :-.urroga te tltat t licit' lrom l'il:'ll't'l'' tlt t' ~il lll l:' l'l'.'>J>Oil '-l' 1h:\1 1h l'l' 11 0 11ld h:tl'l' i(' th e~ t' IICOlllll t'l't'd 1h t l'l' J>I'l'St'llll'd snn e o r fi g u re f':1n tu f: ttl' (e.~. c uri os it~ abu ulthe m o ti l'S for ;\lona Li;,; \ StHi k). Still o t lt e r~ m:1int:t in tltal ~~ pic turc m c re ly rfl'llnlts its ol~jen and th a t t his rl'lation~hip is as a rbi trary ''' an ~ rt I:Hi n n sh i p bl'lll'l'l'll a sig n ancl i ls rcferl' nt , a nd 1hu-. dot~ n n i mccssa ri 1~ < n ta i1 d 111 t'l' t' lentt' n h of rtsc m bla n ce o r su bs l illll io n ( l h us. l'or tx:nll pie, 1h t t\ lona Lisa as tlt l l' llt boclinlt'lll o f a historically ~pcc ifl c con cep1io n o f' II'O illanl~ l'irtu t) (Coh c n . 1!IS\1). Pltotogr< q> h s c 111 h e rq;arcled :t'- just a noth c r t~ p e o f' \'isual reprt~t' lll a tion ll'h ich r an lw ttllclt'I')>IOod in tac h of the~c threc senses, ur t h e1 can lw rq~arclcd ;1\ a :-.pecial 11 J>l' o /' repnsttllatio u 011 acnnull of th eir causal rdationship lo wh a t 1hc1 refer. This 'photograp lt ic rau."al itl 1il'll' emph asiscs th e neccssatY tic bl'LI\l'l'll tltt photographic image illld ol~jcns iu 1hc 1m r iel th a t results from the p h otogt a ph ,.. production thruugh tht ac tion of' ligh t txpo~td 10 photographic film. T hi-. f'eatlll'l' of photograph~. a-. \\t' ~hall <.ce in '-CCLiou !1.2 below. is strongl~ acccntu ated in docu-

ltlf'"'''"''

mentar~ photog raph ~.

9.2

Modernity and visual culture: classic writers and key themes

In t h is ~~c tion m shall ro n sidt r th e inf lucntial ideas o f' t\\'u carl~ tll'tn ti l't h-re ntur~ Gcrman thl'orist;,, C:torg . in1111l'l and \\'alter lknjami n. The ir idea~ lta\'t' pr()l ickd bc n c hm:trk fo t Sllh'-l'(jlll' lll a n ai~S('S ol tit e \'isua l c ulture o f' mnde rn c ilie,, In paniu dar, tlt t~ h a\'l' don t' much to l't'kind lt illllTt'~l in th c figure of 1hc jiiII !'Ur. a kl')' 111 t' la l)lto l' in th e apprccia ti u n ol th l \'-. ll:ll clilllt' llSions of city life.

9.2.1 1Georg S immel: metropolitan culture and visual interaction

Georg Simme l ( 18:''ltl- 1~11 Hl , n uw best kn 01m as onc uf' tlll' ea rli e~l l'Xponc tl!S nf 1le 1\'<15 origin a lh trained as a ph il nsnphn and lti' itll cn-.ts rangecl wdl bcyond the narro\\' confines of' a singk di,ripli ll l'. isual cu lture amlmodtrnitl prinripa ll\' Simmcl's con11 ihuliotl 10 0111 uuclt'r'>tandi n g o! 1
socio l og~ in la Ll' nillt'll'l'tllh et' tllur~ Cermam.

368
~te lll '
tall

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Visual culture 369

11on1 h i ~ 1hinking on d,u.ll i11 tt'l'action and 1lw di ~ti l l rl i n: k:1l 11 H'~ o f llll'lropolicullllre. T hesc anahH'S in 1urn h:IH' to he loca tcd in tlw CU I IIC' XI ol Si rn mel 's broadl'r lhlon uf moclcmity (p. -10()) an iculal ed lllm l rulh l l n,,. J>ltiloi(Jfih.\ t( ,\Joney
( 197R}.

Key injluence 9.]

Georg Simmel (1858- 1918)

Georg Simmel was born on 1 March 1858 in the centre of Berln, a cosmopolitan city in which he spent all but the last tour years of his life. His parents had converted from J udaisrn to Protestantism, a faith Simrnel also embraced, albeit weakly. However, othersdefined him asa jew and for much of his career Simmel fell victirn to the pervasive anti-Semitism in the German university system of the time. He was denied a full-time appointment commensurate 1 with the growing recognilion of his intellectual stature. When he did finally obtain a salaried post, it was at the university of the border city of Strasbourg, in 1914- just in time to see the cessation of normal academic activity by the outbreak of the First World War. For most of his lite Simmel was dependent upon the per capita fees paid by students who enrolled in his classes and the legacy he was left by the friend of the family who had brought him up alter death of his parents. Anti-Semitism is only part of the story. Throughout his life Simmel was no stranger to controversy. He was widely regarded as a brilliant philosopher and sociologis ,t, but also recognised as a maverick intellectual, the possessor of a mind that delved into a range of topics and areas that was perhaps too wide for his own scholarly good. After initial studies at Berln University in the fields of history and folk psychology, he settled on phlosophy, the discipline that provided an enduring identity for his intellectual interests. In 1881 h~ was awarded a doctorate by Berln University. His first thesis (on the psychological and ethnological origins of music) was rejected as unsatisfactory but an earlier, prize-winning essay was allpwed to stand in its place. In 1885 he was finally awarded the Habilitation (a higher doctorate. which is a prerequisite for university teacping). Al the oral defence of his thesis Simmel resppndd to one of his examlners in a manner that was construed as offh'and and sarcastic, and he was. s~nt home for six months 'to pender how one behaves toward worthy older scholars'. Throughoul his subsequent career Simmel attracted a reputation for the dangerousness of his thinkin'g. Working for fees only, Simmel quickly established a reputation as a ~ ifted lecturer at Berln. Hisclasses became attractions for the cultural elite of the city, as weJI as large nurnbers , of foreign and women students, a following that did not endear Simmel to the state's edt~cati onal authorities. Simmel's forte was asan essayist. His writings reveal a sharp eye for the universal elements ('fonns~) underlying the manifestations of cultural phenomena. He was not interested in building a system or inventing a method. Rather, he sought to find 'in each of life's details the totality of ils meaning'. His essay on fashion shows how cloth i ~g styles can articula te apparenlly contradictory wishes for difference (e.g. use of clothing lo set

Further re{tdi?J.g , ' F eath; rstone, M. <~p.) (1991 )~< sp~cia(ssueon Ceorg Simrnel,

Theory1 Culture and 5ociety 8(3),

August. . Frisby, D. .(1984) Georg Simme/,1 L<: mdon and Chichester: Tavistock/EIIis Horwood. ' Weinstein, D. and Weinstein, M. (1993) Postmodern(ized) Simmel, London; Routldg~.

_.

Simmcl 's work cloes no t sit casily ,,ithin disciplinary bounclaries as Jdt im awly he ,,as concenu.:d with analysing 1he essential fcaturc.s of modern ity. a task tha1 lay o u1side 1ht pu1Yic11 of any acadcmic discipline. Fo r Simmcl, mode rnity imoh'ed ' the modes of expe ric ncing- what is "n cw" in "moclc rn " socic ty' ( rrisby. 19i:l5: l ). :\la ny o r Simmel's obscn atio ns werc :\parkcd off by his kn o wledge and expcri c ncc o f th t' city of Be rln , a cosm o po li tan urha n cenlrc in ,,hic h he s pe m nea rly ll his lifc. S immel soug ht L o pe ne trate the 'inne r mtllll'c: or 'sou l' ofmoclernity by co nte mpl nting th c conditions of existc nce of ib p ro cltlC I ~. What resultcd was a fo rm of analysis that was as nn tc h aesthel it in c ha rac1e r as scie mific. Sinunel hcld o ut thc pros pcc t ar findin ~ in eac h of li fe's details t hc totality or irs mcaning' ( 1 978: 55); he soug ht 1o extrac t thc most gene ral prin cipies from thc inspec tion or cultu ral minutiac. for example cl ucidating reatures o!'

370

lntrod u cin g C u ltura l Sludies brl'cl b1 t h l nl<~ IH'I t't'O lHlll ll IJ1 1vll-1 t' ll t'l' te> llw pranice ol'

Visua l cu ltu re

37 1

th l' ithllllllll'll ta lit'

eH incht,tri.tl ,ot it'll. 11, r~>Ol' 1.11 hutiH1 hac k in hi,tot 1 . .\loclt1nil\ , w igin' ;nt lo bt lo1111cl in lht ,lcl\l'lll ol ,\ J'ulh . lliOIIl'l,ll'i-:l'cl l'tOnCJII\\ r.lliltt !hall ill \,lri;ll1h Ol lht tradition.tl ,o('cl\ indthtrialt.tpitali'm di,timtion. Fw Simntd it i' lltl' rephtnmc1H of ,d~niot i.ll chlt'' ancl otlwr fornb ol h.ull'l' b1 llHlllt'' a' the Jll incipill nwclium of l'( OllOillC exchangt thal ha-; Curl'ad1ing (011\t'C)IIl'IH l'' IIH' {'01110111"' I.IKt'll h~ moclt l ni ll'. In a clctailtd ancl compk:--h .n gllld anah 'i' '-;immd 'h"'" ho\\ lnont~ ,a higllh lkxihk formolexchange which can bt dil ickcl in .1111 11t1111lwr 11! \\,JI' .n1d ,,hirh u m hl' puL 111 an inli nil\ uf purposcs. \lnn tl, th en. i' p n rt in,lllllllt'll t.tlill. ro tu plc td~

J>l'O' Iillllion or thtnlntra, Lin).{ a llilllck~ o l thl' l1li't'l' ancl tht 'J>t' ll cllln ift. Joc 11 Simmd. 11\CIC!t-rnitl "~,, nol to be llmkr~totHI ,,, ,i1nph thl' ut\1111'<' ol' t.tpitali'lll

('a (< ulatilt'. ll,l'l'. l l''\'1\l'clnl h.lll clllt'l ltl i' abk lO 'C<lll iht illliiH'clialt' t' lllil'llllllll'lll f'o1 all kincl' ol prauiral p111 pt"l''- 1'1ncling t lllt', 1\a~ .tbout. a1o iding ro lliclillg 1\i lh othtt, oll a bu" 'lll'l'l. hting \\,llthlnl lor poll'lllial 'lliii'Cl'' or da llgt'l. n w~t l'l'l'l'l'dal illll'raction-. 1\L' It' con,ickrl'cl b1 ~immd bl' tht b:l'>ic m:~ttTial o! 'oriet1 .. \ltliough it i, cnmnHHlpl.ttt' 10 think .1hnu1 ,o( it'll' in LC'I'Ill' o( institulioll:tliwcl ~ocia! ~1 1111 llll'l'' 'nrh a' poltica\ aiHI l'tonomic organi, .uioll'. <oocial cla''t.'~ ami tht likc. tht''t' hugt-,call' ,tiiiCillll'' a ll' 1ht'nhdH' tl'l ,;t\) i'al ion' ol muh itlldt' o( t'l'l'J'\ cla1 in ll'l'aCl ion' ht t\\ t' t'll wopk (htll ing ti rt..<.'l'. ,,,king tht ,,-;1\. clining togt.ther. :t:ulcling in a qut'llt' .111cl 'o l'onh ) . Simntd co thidt'l'l'd .1 funcl.tmttllal t,,,k fiu 'odolog' lo ht th l' dl''tl i>tioll .111cl anah~i' o( tlw dtat.u tcri,tit fl'atllt'l'\ c1f thest fonll~ e1f inHraninn (01 'o;uriatioll in Simml'l'' lt'l'lll] :tJHI IIttlt' nlnalh CC Hholiclattd tlH ">t IHJl l i Ji e~ in a 'ub~tantial 1olllllH'. -~''ri"lo,!!,1'.' /, ,figotioll' fljll11 F111 1111 of' ')r, irtliolt. )llblblwd in Ct'rman in HIOI\ .1nd 1101 H'l tra n si:Jttd in, , t' III I'i'll' into E ng lish. In a h ril'l 't't'lion o( th i:-; pat h hn:aking h nu k l'l11itkd 'Socitll ng-~ o i'LIIe se n se~. Si nllll l' l ~a\'t' par ti n tl a r allt' IIIoll lo 'ig-111 , lor o t' a ll ol' ltumanity ~ \t'II ~L' ' ' tll l' t'\'l' hao; a uniqllt' il' Sllc io log-it:d l'u n r lion' {:''lilllllld . l!ll i! l; :\i'K). Co n ~ider li r~ 1 tlw tnlll lla l g lall t'l'. 1\'htll l\\'o p t' l''\cJ IJs lotll.. a l (' il ll o'll':Jdt o ill l'I'.St'>l'~. a,clbtinct l'mm t ll l' simpk ohst' J'I';IIitHlot'ont ptJ''\1111 l11 .u w th tr. In tlt t llli lllla l g la n ce. ' a''' S imml' l. 1\ t: fiml ' th t n1o~ 1 dirtt' l :u1d pun'.\1 n ri p mr i1,. 1h ;u 1':-- ;,,,' ;ul\ 1\'IH'I'l' . Eac h pe r~o n g il'l'' ec u :d 1 > to Lh t t n r ollnlt' l'. 'Th e t'l't' tallno t t:Jkl lllllt" al Lll l " u11 e ti me it gil'ls . ... In th l , ;um Otl'l in 11hidt tltl' OiJWI'I'l'i' >t'l'k' lO kilO\\' lhl' niJ,t tnd . lt t: ~Ut'l'l'llCkt'S himsclf' lo bt IIII C kt',IOCid 1>1 t ia olN'J'I'ed ( 1!lli!l: :l:i-1 l . :'\ a111 ral h c nrug h. g lan cc~ a re tran ~ ICil'l' p iHnoJn t n ;t. go llt' in tlt l lllOlllt'lll 1ht'l ocet11. But ,tKial illlcraction "',,e know it would 1101 hl' p o "iblt il hlllltan' clid 11o1 h.l\l' tht capati t~ for llll' llllllllal glanct. 'itH't' tltt' gl.IIH't' 'l'l'lt'~ a' .1 n 'hitk ftll cotllt' l ing lt'tognition. at kllowkdg<'nwnl. llllclt1.,111clillg'. intillla(l. 'hanw ancl 'o lilrt h. Simmd dr~"" o11t huther ,1\]H' Ch o f tlw ~orio logical ,ignificu1n o! tlw t'lt'. \\'lwn hum a lh inlt'l,lll tht tace ll' IICI' lo he IIH' priman locll' or \ l'll<ll allenlion hl'C:III'(' it i' .t crucial indit.nnr ol nwod ;me\ inlt'lll: J>l'Opk :ut lir~t knmn1 h1 tht'ir CO IIIll l'llaiH't'. 1101 th cir act'. l n dltcl, tl1t' h11ma11 bre stnto; 110 practica! ptn pose l':--Ccpl lo 1e ll "' abo111 th t stall' ol minclnf it' J>O'~t,~or. 11 lollo\\'.; l'ro111 tltt''t' nh'ln ;11 ie11h abo ni gla n n, anc l lat e ' l hat tlll' all itu ek ol tlw blind c harat 'll.' ti,li <a lh di ll t' l ' lmm tlt:H ol tl w c\e;d. ' F'tll t h l' b lind. tllt' ot llt'r pt'l',!lll i ~ ac tn a lly prtSt'lll on l1 in 1h v a ll l' l'll :ll in g- pt t iocl' ol' ili ~ llllerancl' ( 1\lli~l : :~!1\l). '1 il i' g il'\'~ th l' hli1HI. S i111111l'l 'l l gg't'~" a p l'aCl'l'ul ami ca lm ex istc n ct:' in {'(llltl'a' l 111 Lli l' of'ttn ' more pt'rpltxtd . p 11 11kd .111d wmril'cl ' ( 1 9!1~1 : :~ 60) allit ud c ot' tlt t' dl'ar. .\ lono\ l' t tli t' visua l mnclt "~~ ll lll t'~ " g' l't:lll' l' 'ign it ictn n in tlw la rgl' cit1 IKr: 111 ~t 1111 )!1'1''11 11 i, likt h Lo c n cuutHtr ma111 )l'o p ll' in a rdatie>11,1Jip uf :1110 111'11litl', :1 rtla ti o n ship in 1\ hi c h al l that i ~ :11ai la hlt 10 lil (' wr~on i ~ til c ;~p wa raJH T ol II H ot h<'r. Ci lit,o; Jl l 'l'~l' lll a ra ng-t o!' si tuation o; (t' illt' llla'i. til ta tl't'' l'l''-I:Jnra11 1'. hl l'it'S a nd train ') in ,,hi clt tlll' indi,idtJa l i ~ pland in til t t11 111 pa11~ o l ;utHIIIIItllh o lh l' r ..; 1d1o al'(' onh t..nol\'11 to tli l' in clhidual lh rollgh 1\' hal can ht inll-rrcd ahoul 1iltir appL'<tt'alll'l'. Thl' increa't'd ro k or 'llll'l'\' l'isu.tl i 111p rt~'ion ' ( 1!ll)\l: :'liO) i' <lt ar.tntri~tit ol' modtt n. largl',ca k '<l('it'l\ . Ptt>pil lil'ing i11 Mil h ,\ 'Cil it'l\. '-;illllllt'l t'IIIH ludt,, '>llfft'l' f'I'Oill iollllll' o( th t :o..lllll' tJl'l pkXill th.ll

rw

, 11 ,,e 1 '1 icn1 111 thl' t'tH I' 1o " h it h it i~ pnt. In thi ' rt''PL'Ll it 1>1t't'cl' llll' r akulati\t' out lnok , t\'pica l .,r m<~dern ~nc i t tit' ' Tlt t p roCL'SSL's nl' m lion :tl ba t ion ~n ,,.t ll t'~ l >lictttd b~ 0 \\'e b 1r ('t't' C hapt l'rs 1 ami 6) h a1e tlwir nrig-in' in 11l<Jnt tan t'Xt' ll nn.;t ,,h tc h b t'Co mes ;d lltll'l :o.\'IHHl >llHH I' 1\'ith calcu la tion. In h is cl:ts~ i c l'S''" 1 ~10:'> . 'TIH' mttrnpo li' and lll t' nta l lifl''. Si t11111 l'l ( 197 1) d ucidalt'S SO ilH' sn('; J I pSI'CiiOlog ica) ((.'allii'C~ of' t li l' n ilt ll l't' of' III Odl'l'll l' li l''i. In lh t.: II HJclcrn ri 1 y 111a111 anon ymnuo; p e r-'>oll:< come int(l li l'l' till g' l't llll :lct 1\'ith Oll<' ;uwth e r. f'or txa mpk l r;tl'e ll in g- u11 public 1ranspo r1 or pu rr li < l'illg f..\<l llcl' in .1 dt );IIIIIWIIL ~ lore. l11di l'iclua l ~ an i'l'lliOI e el 1ro m 1hl' t'ntmion<t 1 L ic' a n cl 'orial hc111cl' 1h< ll 1i 11 k wople L<~gt Li w in ~ma il t' l contlllllllitie'i. Sinnnl'l dl,r riht'' a ~ocia ! pwdwlogicaltollfigurati on 1, h ic h ~t'l'llh rharalll'l'i"l i r ol' thmt 11'1 10 Ii t' in l;u gl' 111 han t.:l' llll'l':-o. ' ] hl' urhan dl'l le r's nlt'lllal lifto , pnclominanth illtl'lltl'ltutfi,fit in t:h.ll',tt lt'l. l'l'!l]lk i't''-pn11clto 'ituations in , 1 nuional ra dwr 1ha11 an emotioual mannl'r. Tlll' hro.td 111 itlltatioll o l urb.1n ch,cllcrs ll'tHJ, 10 ht mlrula/i ~ th e daih lil'e of wopk , filkd '11th 1ni~hing. calculating,

or

l'll\lllll't.llill~( 1\'ltich nclucC' qualitaliw l.tllll'' lo cu.tlltit;lliH' l\'1'111'>. ( 197 1: :\28). A comnmn ,ann ol urhan dll'clkrs i' thu~ tht h/a\t; ottllr111/:. ,, ntH tll t iatiun ol l't'')>lllbiw1\t'" ,tn indillere11ce to\\,JI'd" tlw , ahtl'S that di,tillglli'h thing,, 1\~t 1\0tlcl ol the bb ptt , 0 n i' flat. ).(l'l'l ;me\ homo),{ellolls. Often acn"np.m1 llj.; thi, 11\ttloot.. i' 10 he found ;111 a11 itn<k nf' 11 \t'l'l't'. \ rt'>ened aniwde a el'"' a pro ten iH 'h id el lc1r tlw 111 ba11 d\\Tik r lll'hinc\ 11'11ich ra 11dicl l'it"' ancl hl' ;J nfdt 'L'IItillll' n l' tan l)l' prt' 't'l'l't'd from ,cnuiny. SinmwJ', in [hll'tll ial papl'r h ao., 11ll t'll hetn Jll i'taktllh roll,l llll'<l b1 con HHt'JH:ttnr~ as llll'lling- arouncl ;m ;mal ~'i' ol'tiH' co tlli :l'l bt' lll't't'l1 ll l'h<l ll .111d nnal11.1~' ot' lif'c. Btll this , b\' 11 oml'all~ ill t' cast' (~tt S;l\'aKe ancl \\'ardt. l ~l \1:~: 110- 1 1). \ 'er~ tll'tt n ,,Jmt S imlllcl

, ' t't'k in f..\ 111 t'HHI'a't ;n't' illl' cl i ll'~:n n ns IWL I\'t't' n

il11 lmr/ililillftl l'illag'l' ur ~lllal l l0 \\'11 a n<l tlt l' nwdtTII ci 1 1 . .\l on.,, c r . S im md maintaim ll tal wit li ill IIHJcll'l'n ~oc i vt il' ' il is not t'ilSI lo Sll'lai 1 1 a d i,tillet in tl lw t\\'cc n r u ra l ~tncl urb;u1 1\a>s o t hl'cau~t th t' city's

tm

inlllll' ll Ct' r:uuifi c ' thrn11g lw11 1 tl ll' e ntin t ~ ol th t ~oc i t' ll', F u rth t' l'. Si n11n d clol'' n ut sce tiH (ea ll ll'l'' he <iesni h c' ao; ">tllph origi n :lli 1 1g lrom tlt t' tro log~ and org.tn isatiun of thc tnnd l' l'll r it1 . l ll ' ll'nd lw reganb. th t d 1~ ;, t li l' 11 i1nt' ,t'oll o l i111 nwm~ tronomy' 1111 o ugh ll'hi r li an rt l'ractl'd reautn' (ra kulatinnt'" th t lila'l' auit 11clel th a t uhiul<ttc ly cit'ril'l' lrolll tl ll' adl'l'IH 11f (' ((\ lllOIH'I;tl'i,l'cl \1'\ll'lll'\ o l t'XChatl g'l'. 11 11 k.llun~ ol' nwclt'l'll urban r ulturl' dl'limattd b1 :O,i 11111H'I poi ni 111 tltl' prcdolll in;IIH't ol tite I''ual <;t' Jl:>l'. In p11hlir plan' lm t:--;nnpk. i1 , t'"l'IHial that the

372

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Visual culture 373

a micl:< 1he dear: thc increast:d role o r mert \'s11a 1 i111 prcssion con 1ri htnes to a ,,idespread sen se o l cstrangemc nt. ':\ \'isiunar\' of th c real 1\'o rld ' (Senn cu . IDG!l: 10; no1c the me tapho r: ) . Simmel 's thinking abo t;l metro po litan culture ancl \'isu;d itlleraction ind icates the ,,.a,s in which m odc rnit~ impact.s nn 1 isua l culture. !lis lrl'cp.tt' tHh dilfnst. ell iptical \'C l ptTsuasi,c \\Tlings ha\'C influcncccJ J'urth cr SltldCS of the \'iSual dimc nsiOllS Of' O rdinar~ C'I\' ]i fe, includ ing thosc or \\'a ltl'l' lktuamin.

Key influence

9.2

Walter Benjamin

1892- 1940

9.2.2 1 Walter Benjamn: mechanical reproduction, aura and the Pars arcades
.-\s ,,ith Simmel, Walter Benjamin's (p. ~~ '7 3) ( 1892- 19!1)) \\Titings arl' \\'ide ranging and challenging. n::sisting disciplin;uy classilkation. He swclied a dilerse se t of' topics in an often litcrary ancl philo.sophiral stylc rellccting th e inl lttc ncc o i' progrcssi1e anistic mo1e111ents <1 11 d the Gennatt philosophicaltradition. \\'e '''anl to hig hlig ht his contributio n 10 debates o n modernity (p. -100) ami 1isual cultmc in l\1'0 main areas. First, Renjamin po inted to tltr signilicant tra n s ro rmati o n~ ctfected by thc de\'clo pmc tH of ne\\' technologl' (specifi calh plto tograpll\' < md 111m ) !'or rcprcsl'nting 1isual culture. Second, he conside red p<ln iculu aspccts of t,ct; da)' lile in the changing citics (particularly Paris) or the nint~ tc e ntlt Cl' lllll l; ' . In his nwst ramous essay. 'The wo rk of art in the agc of mcchan ica l reproduction' which ,,as first published in 1936. Be tamin ( 1970) asks thc qucstion ol' how ari is changed ur affectcd in an e ra 11'!1en it can easily he nproduced by ml'chanical means. Fo r tilm ancl photography allow a largc numbe r of copies to be made oran art ,,ork that orig inally ltacl a single uniquc cxistc nce. He suggests tha t tltis proces~ lead ~ to a decline in 11hat he ca lis tht au m o t' the ,,Grk. lk njamin arg ues tha t in predous pe riods in history tite wo rk of an \\'as speritlcally locatcd in time, space a nd traditio n (churchcs and cltapels, relig ious rilltal. aristncratic patronage allCI so fo nh). Sttch traclitions werc not 1tnchancrinothe 11ork of an a speciA c at1(( o riginal mean ing. h o hut thel' d id ,,.in \.., Conte tn po rarl' reproduction 1cclt n iq u es (photog ra ph~. film . a u el io record ings 011 records. tapes and CDs) lilt ,,o rks ofan out of tradition ami lcad toa decline in what he cal led the aura or unique mcaning or t.ht: 1 mrk. Traditio n is particularly impo rta m in Ik n,iamin 's argttiiH .' nt. T raditio n mobi lises ri uta ls ancl cultic mea n ings. T h us, paintings a nd o bjects \\'Ottld hal'c pos~cssed a se cure mtaning arising fro m 1he ir clcar anclwragc in th e rclig io us a11CI n tltic pran ices of panicular social g ro up.o;. In a sensc this gcne rates a sense or e,e re nce Ot' poll'er around tite objcn . Within tllf' Clt ri ~ tian tntdition. f r cxamplt>. an o bjects locatcd in churches such ,;s the painting-s 1>11 tlw 11alls of the Sistinc Chapel in Rome possess an aura in thc tangible se nse that th ey cre<-u e a ~pace aro unclthe m. The ,,ork of an ,,as then located in traclit.io n a11CI had po\\'e r due LO it:; prcse nce in that traclition crcating aura. T he text \\'as an o riginal in the sensc that it existcd in a specific pltysical location ami could only be scen and apprcciatcd by \'isiting that location. Tlw dcHIopmc nt of mcchanical rcprocluctio n (pho tography anclliltn principalk ) transfonns this ~ ituati o n . As Benjamn txpl<t ins: for the fi rst ti me in 1m riel h isto r\' mechan ical reproch LCI ion c manci patcs the wo rk of art from it s parasitical d cpcndence on ritual. To an e1cr g reater clcgrec the
~

Walter B enjamin's work combined a creative Marxism (p. 97) with elements of Judaic Messianc theology. He was a close associate of members of the Frankfurt School (p. 109). He wrote about modernity, the city, baroque and nineteenth- and twenteth-century literature. Benjamn was born in Berln and studied philosophy and literature in Berln, Freiburg, Munich and Bern. His first and only published book-length study, The Origin of German Tragic Drama (1928), failed to secure him an academic job. After the First World War he worked as a freelance critlc and translator. In the late 1920s he met Bertolt Brecht whose work he defended and championed. With Brecht he too k a more optimistic view of mass culture than members of the Frankfurt school llke Theodor Adorno. He argued that the 'mechanical reproduction' of art a'nd culture could be used in a progressive politics as well as be the tool of Fascist propaganda. In the 1930s, Benjamin moved to Pars to escape the Nazis and there worked on his most ambtious undertaking, the 'Arcades Project', which attempted toread the work of the poet Charles Baudelare in the context of nineteenth-century capitalism. The unfinished work has proved a rich resource for sociologis.ts and cultural critics writing about the modern city. After the German i11vasion of France, Benjamn escaped to ~he FrancoSpanish border where he cornmitted suicide rather than be handed over to the Nazis>As a consequence, most of his work was published posthumously. Theodor Adorno and Gershon Scholem helped to revive interest In his work after the Second World War and collectons of his essays began to appear. Benjamin's irifluence in cultural studies has been diffuse. His work on Brecht and Kafka has been important to the nderstanding of the relationship between modernist art, poli ti es and mass culture. His essays have sparked debates within feminism, postcolonial theory and historical studies. One of his best-known essays is 'Theses on the philosophy of history', which crilicised the idea of a linear, causal history. lnstead, Benja~in proposed the spatial metaphor of the constellation as the way in which the cultural historian .should relat- the present to the past. f
1 /

Fw:llwr reading
The best introduction lo Benjamin's work are the colleclions of his essays:
1

/1/uminations, London: Fontana (1970). Charles Baude/aire: A L yric P oet in the E ra of Hig/1 Capitalism, L ondon: Verso (1983). Understanding Brec/11, London: New L eft B ooks (1977). '

wo rk of an rc prodnctd beco m e~ thc work ol' an ck sig ncd f'p r re producibil ity' ( 1\1 / ll:
22()).

Kenja min atg11es that tltis lilting o ut . o r 'clisembecl<lin( (Giddc ns, 1\190). o t'arl fr~ lll lraditi lll leacb tu :t po liticisa tion nr an . Sin cl' lccltn iques o[' lllL'C itanical reproducl tOll lllake kn o\d e cl ~t: o r thc art II'Ork ~O lllUCh 11101'(' 1\-i cJ e )~ :1\'ai Jabk. l can beCOlllC' tht

374 lntroducing Cultural Studies

Visual culture

375

\llbjrrt ul rotHested meaning ami itnplicatl'd in a mtJC'h mure d en lopt d seme in wid~e r

aurm pl\ tu j ustih thl' {'X('IT\e or ptn\'l'J'. Tllli ~. it can he ' uggc sted tha t ram ili:lrt\' ll'ith rrtt.tin lihns ami pho togt a ph' can prm ick t ht b:hi' fo 1 allt'mpt' to i nll 1ttncc the puhlic
in p.1tti! lll.tr di rectiom. h ut that t he .lltditJice can in l.tu oftt'n li nd dillerem meaning~ 11ithin tho\e form ~. lt abo kads w th t iH aea~cd impunann of 1dtat Benjamn calls 'c~h ihi ti on l~tl ue ll'hich he traco in tht cltlelopntt' tH ol' phn tography :md fi lm.\\\ ll'i ll concrttt t~ttc on the th('ll H.'~ introclucl'd b~ l:kn,j:nn in clJl 111m at thi' po int , : 1 , this illn~tratcs some important aspt'CI~ ol lknjamin 's tiH.''l'' on aura. lknj.11nin argucs th.ll th< ptJfmman n oran anor in a phn ha' a11ratic dtmlnt'. 1t is (ancl nmain ~) a un iqut ptt fo nnanct i 11 t he enst t hnt i l is socia ll~ le IC'ated in one place - thl' :u tor perli.lnnl'd hi' or her pan i11 the partintlat pl' rforman ce ol tht p la\'. in tlwt place, un /llfltnight. \\'ith tl w dnelo pm t nt or film. clta r c han gl'~ C )('('Ur. T hc aud it'llC l' migltt tt,urh thc anw pnfonuatH't' i11 a numlwr of' p lans ( tht ,,une fi lm can be watchtcl b1 audienccs in thc Cnited tatt'' or in F1.tncc :11 the ' anH' time) . lmportantly, thc notio n of perfonnnnn abo cha ngc:-. T hc perl'orm;lnce o r thl' ,\Ctur in tlll' liltn b act u~ll) lll:tdc up of a nun1lwr or segnHclls ccl itccl togttht~ r lo ng .tlkr th c actors h:t\'e fini1hecl thcir II'Ork. Thi' s ttggc~ ts a ckclinc in th ~e uriginality ol' th t work ancl thc authrn tirity and o riginalit\' of thc perl01mance. Tite decline in tltt aur of thc perfottnancc. Bltljantill maintaim. i' compen,:nccl by thc risc ol' tlt t' pht nom tno n of personalit( and qarclotn ' . ldll'rt ac to r~ ;m el lwrfonners are ~tars who g<.ner:llt < Htclie tKt' ;tppc:d hy tlwi r spccial per,o nal f]Ualitics. T ite prochtrtion oft11ms to bt solcl on a tn:trkt t. that i ~ as ('ontmoclitie-;, h ['at'i ltat ed 1>)' tite f.1ct that a securc dc mand for th tm can be gcmt .11ed ]), tlll' ll~l' of ' tar.,. One COllS('CJIICIICt' of th is an~111gcmcn t i<. that tht' deci<,ion b' a <,tar ;, to wlttth er he or she ll'lltlts tn ac t in a partir n lar lilm can dtttnnine \\'htther that film b macle or not. Stnrs can gcnnatc a forn1 o f' bramlloyalt~ (l .ut: . 1993) from tht p11blc. In SOtllc rcspect' lk nja min 1ict,lcl snr h clcnlopmt'IHS r:nher more pmitil'll)' than ser('ral othtr writc..-~ "'~oc iatt'fl "'ith tlw Frankfurt School (p. 109). He recogniseclthat tite ltidlr a\~ti labilit' ol wmks of art madc po..,,ibk b1 prons~l'' of mechanical rep!Ochtctio n could lead 10 a greal!t de m ocl ~Hi,ati o n of an. Thm. culture coulcl bccomt pan of a prug res.~i ,e poli t ical prncticl' in t he '''"Y' t h:ll i1 " '' " ttsl'CI. b~ l3rccl! t for examplc (st'e Chap tc r ()). Bm Ben,ian1in 11as als11 nry critica) of asptns o f thcsc dclclopmtnts. He sa,, th :tt the1 cotdcllead to th t: COJIII11oclilica tion of an and alsn w the u'itof ntO\ies and pcNmalitic~ w prop up txplo itatiw ami rcpn"iH' pol itical rcgimes throngh propaga nda .. \~ he .;ays: l lwcult ol' tlw m m it , t;tr. l'nsterecl h\' tite llWIH'\ olthl l'dm induSll'\'. p re~l'rws nnt thc uniC]tll' aura ol th t wr~n n but thc . ,pell o( tite pc"onalit,. th( phonl'\ spell uf a COIIIII!Ciclit\', So long'' ti te 1110\'C-IIIakn , capital 'l'l' tltl ra~hi o n . ;, ,\ 1 ult no otlll'l' rnohHon:-ttY mcrit can be: accreclitecl 10 toChl\ , lil111 th:m thl pwmotion of a r~10h11iun a Y critici'm oltradirional eoncl'pt~ of a11. ( 1 !Ji' O:~:~:~)
Tn ~IIIHmari se, lk n,i:unin sees :1 d ('cl inc in the au ta o!' an "'' it ))('nmtt'' t'l'protlnn:d. Thi) t<'production lif't, an n ut or -;pcci lic ami tradi ti nnal ront c: x t ~ .tnd a lflm~ it to be rclocat<'clmore width. l'ht work of an leN'' originalitl ami uniquem" in this proces

Table 9.1 Aura tic and non-aura tic art

Aura tic art Non-aura tic art Copy Modern E nterlainment Secular Exchange lmmediacy Fragmented

Original Tradition R itual R eligion Use Distance Whole

Funhermore. 111.1" or con!lnocli liccl :u t ten el' tm,ard, tlw ~upcrfic ial .m el tht phnne'. Surfare apptal' .tre mack ancl tl! t public i~ man ipulated b' thc n tlt o f pcr,onalit~ ancl ~ ta rs. Som e o[ thl' ke, dilltrt tH'ts bt'I\H'l'n auratic and no n-aurat ic art :1r1 indi catccl in Table 9.1. In adclitinn to thesc impcH t.t nt and inl lllt'Jllial ideas r on n..-ning aura and l'l'))I'OChtrtion . in 'The 1\'ork o l art in tht age of nwcl!anical reproduuion' Bl'l~jami 11 ;tf..,0 offer' mn te ~igt~ i lira u t romml'll h o11 arcl! ittTttrn all(l thc 1\.1\~ in "hirh hui lclin" ' an approp1 iatecl h~ nHtnbl'r,, o [ tit e public. ltt tit' di,cussion he tmplwsi~t'-' tltt' ;~1lc o!' tottr lt. in tltat l > t t i l ding-~ :u't' 1/.11'1/1>~ IWo plt. and ~i g-ht. in that l>eopk rw r< ti\'l' intag-ts of building' anclt he ri t1. 11 0\\l'\"l'J. it is in '"riou ~ of'hb ntlwr \lrit ing-s a nd in particu l:n in hi' 1\'ork on P:tri' in the nitwteenth n ntu t 1 that l'k njamin cxplorl', tlll' , i'ital ancl t'l't' t~d:l\ ntlt tllt' ol' tht cit\ at grl:uer lcngth (B uck-\lor". 1\l~Hl. In this ''otk Btnjantitt cxplm-co; the rd:nion.ship i>ttwttn the ct\' "' lt'Xl ;111 d :" expericnccd b~ tiH' peopk 1\'110 liH. II'III'K ancl play in it. ll oll't'\'tr. lkn_.j;nnin wa~ not so muc h intc rc'tlcl in the con~tious "a~s in h'hirh peoplt tJ \t' cit it'> :"in ti te " ': " ' thatthe 1 cxperiencc them un ron~ciou'h. a ln10'1 h'ithout cogn ition in ,, 'ill~tig-ht l on, rd sen~e. Thtn: i.; in lknjamn -; \ t'\\ a wn~t in ,,h iclt ci ties mm ht expe rien recl almost a' a clrt'<lllt (Sa,agt aiiCI \\'arde. 1\1\1:~). T iten ,, thtJt. a rclat(Ill, hip bet\\'l't' Jl tltt nt t;tnin ~s th:lt < liT ;.(Cirl'clllp in thl' CI\' allcl th t :ISSCIC' :IIiollS that th l'\' po~se:,s and tht l'XptTiCil ~l' nf th o-.e nJe;ttti tlg' for tlw in ha bitant and tlw 1 j,ito .-. \\'l' , Jw ll rcturn to thcse i.s'iH'' in the l:ner stct ioth of t hi~ rhaptc r. Fi r:.t. "e ro nsidt..- an i tnpona n 1 lonn o f a nah 3 , of tlw expcrie nc!' ol t ht cit,. is,;uing lrom thc idea ol the fltilll'lll:

9.2.3

The figure of the flneur

.-\ lllllllbl'r Of' CO il\l'I'J..:l'll l tltt'lllt'' COllfl'rtiII){ 1110 d e rnity

(>. 10()). \Ual Ctt h llt't' ancl tl w Ci l\' in the tho ugltt of SilllllH'I ;uHI Benjamn at (' capturecl "' the liglllt' or ti H' fl!ll'/11. imml' l\ bmad a JJ,th tic ~ un n . iL h a~ ))n ~ll){g't'' t ecl. ,. tl!:n o [ a flrilll'lll ( Fri'b' 198 1: btn '~'t' \\'l' instl' n allCI \\'dn .~ t l' i 11. 1 9!l~) l. tl!t J..:t'll t kntan st rol kr of the ci t\' .~ II Tt: ls wlw. in tlw nitlt' lt't'll th-Cl'llllln Frcnch pue t and 1\'l'itt'r C:lt:trl< s lb ud t' l ai re ' ~ expr<.ssion , gcws 'bot:-~n i~in ~ o n tl! t asphalt ( lkn jamin . 197:': Jti) a~ he ohst't'\'l'S tiH' urhan ,pectacle.

376

lnlroducing Cltllural Sludies

Visual culture

377

Thi~ int~'l)lll'tation ol Silllml'l it,l'll ha' h oli{in~ in lknj.Hnin, intt'l"l''' in the ''"'in 1,1Jirh titit~ <lit' l''\p~~i~nced by peopk in tiH" tnllr'e o l 01dinan \\or\.. alHI lei~ure
acti,itk-:. In \\Ttt~n in tht' mid-1 \I:W, lknjamin ( 1~17:1 \\a, lcd to t'X.tiHitH tite \\'Ork o l Bauddaire ,,]w had earlit'l pn) llhll i,ed tit e cumep t ol tht flrutl 'llt. dr:111'ing aue 11 1ion 10 1 h i' fi gu t t' "hu t.tkl' <1 n ;d 1110'1 1'11\'t'lll i' t ir plt;"lll'l' i 11 dl't:lt l ~td 1 ~ ,,:nt h ing

li\..e Booth and :\ladlel,-. the 'ntmt in tite< rm,d of Edg.u .\Jkn 1'()(: a nd tlw ~ociolo . G eo rg Simme l Cp. Proj tt t ).

l'""''

~~6~).

a'

IH'Il

,1, Btnjami n 's mm

rdlt"ttion~

on Pars (t he

.\rc~d~~

th c doi n gs ul' ((' ilow r itl'-d\\'l'ilers. Tht l'l.'Cl' ll l d 'llo resn:n ce u f intl'l'l''l in th l' lig m l' thl' f/rillt'/11' ll a' Wl't ral dint emitlll,. Firitol'all it ~ee n1 s th at thl' jllIII'II/'\\ ,1' .1 '''JK' ofpe1~u11 \\' itlt a na l h i,toric'al txi'ltnct. a' t hi' .IIHlll\'lllllll" dt,tription lt o m l'ari' ( 1\){)() l ~htl\\'' (.1claptcd f'rom

or

\\'ihon. l HH~: H 1-:1): .-\ gtntil-man whn ~wnd' nw<;t of tht d.11 roami11~ tln- ~llTl'l' oh,tn ing the urhan 'PLTiat le - tht fa,hion' in dre-<o; aiHI aclm nnwnt. thl' building,. tiH' 'IHIJ>' tlll hooks, 1ht 1 101 l'lti 1.; .md .ti t ran ion'. . \ kincl of \ ' 0\T\11' ,,.!11 an tmlk's t'llt io,itl fot \\ itm"ing tht ordill:ll~ 'Ct'tll'' u ! t it~ lik. Jli ' IIH':t tt ~ ol , u ppm1 :tH' illl i:>ihk : tlttt't' i' ilt t' ' ttggl'~t iun ni pril.llt' 1\\'.dill (he is po." ihh a 1'1'/t/rr) bttt an appilJ'tn t :th "-l'lll'l' o l' lamil~. b n s im~~ 0 1 l:mdoll'ning rt,pom i11i 1i1 t'' ll i' itlll't'l'''' :11t p1 itnarih at,1hctil a11d ht 1rcqlll'lll"- ca l(~ and tl''taut.ttlts " hcr< anor,.jmlllt:tli:-t,, 11rilLT'- a nd atti'" ~.tthtt. Fo 1 tite /rinun a ,ignilicant part of th t 111 han '(WCI:Itll i~ prol'ichcl h1 Lh t lwha1iour of tlw lm'l't nt ckt , {\\or\..~'1''- ~olclitt ' 'lt't't'l H'nclor< a nd 'trc:ct pcopil'l . J le j, ,t t11al'gII;tlli)..(lll'l'. lt'llcillg' to()t' po tlt:\\l'ci ,oli L.tn lig11rt' in cnJ\\'rJ,, :\o
0 111 :1'

. 1-'tm ini , t ~ hm~e hi ghli).{htcd tlw t.ll..t ' ll-l(> rg-t anted maJ e a .,... oriatiotls impl ici t in thc j/ttl/1'/11' fl~tll'l'. l rnm Oltl j)() I11 ni 1 it'l\' thc ll ll-e.'\i~tt' II Cl' c>f th (' role Of jlriteSp s~tnhol i sts 1\'UilH'tl , re, tr irtl'cl p :1ni c ipntio n in public p la ce-' a" \\'l'l l "' th e malestrea 111 h ia,o l' son1l' o l'tlte c l a~' ka ll i te r: 11111't' o ttm od e rnit~ (" 'oii'J'. I\IH:"1). Th c: imisibilit 1 o flh e jlrillt'llll' tlltd ersco rl'S hm, thl' lrndnm 10 roam "'"~ \'t'1Y nwch :1 mak freedom: lhl' flrillt'!tl'~ licc:ncc: lo wa1ch tit e citl' ,jght ' ca n b e rt~a rclecl "' l lll 1\':tiking tmbodi m en t of tht ' male l{:tze' (see belol\) . Ot h <'r l e mini't~ h an: argut"cl 1ha1 1lt ne i~ a ris\.. of 0 ,ergemrali~inl{ 1his argument. The~ p oi nt out that 1\'0ille n's expt'rience ... ol urban lik . Cl'l'll in lhC' ninetcen lh cenwn. \':trie<! from cit' 10 ci 11 ancl ltom cla<>s 10 dass. Th us Elitabct h \\'il ~on ( 1992) has \ll~){l'~tcd th:n i1 ., misleaclin~ to claim tha1 1mmen wcr( comprl'll(' tt ~ive ly exclucled from ptt blic spaces i 11 la te n i11e H tn t h(' l'111 t 11'\' En g la nd. Slw tnaintains that th e g rm,th o l cle partmen t stores, tea J'llO ill \, rai h,m sta1inn buffc ts, lad icvo111\' el in i ng room s, pu b lic co m e11 itn ccs wi t h f'c tm dt :ttt l'1Hlan t~ ancl su f(nh. mack i1 po." ihle ror midclle- < lll cl IO II'('t' m iddl e-class \\'OillC II l O tx pericn ce Jlltbli c p lac cs and tlms afforclc d at l ca~L -'O illt' 1\'c) mtn the oppo nttni1 \' for .fltillt'I'I'. Thcse issucs CO tllll'CI lO III OI'e COillClll porar~ 1.'1 11 pi ri ca) 11\'C'Stga t iom of bthill iour in f>ll b lic place.; (St't' a l ~o sec ti on 9.7 helow).

j,olatl'd fi'Oill tho o:.t(ll' olht'IY('~, a

9.3 1 Technologies of realism: photography and film

t\s lk nj < Hnin 's di scu.ssio n ni' a t1 ra impl ies, p hnwgraphy ami fi lllt ;~re l':ICh ni ll e lce nthrc n t ltr~ tcc hnica l innma 1ions tlt a 1 hal'l' n1acl c a m ;~j o r i111pac t o n tl1 e d('1T io pme 111 a nd apprc.: ll<'llsio n of the ,.i."-wtl r ultttns o l m o d e mity ( p. 400) ancl late modcrnitl'. In thi s S<nion ll't' rom idc r holl' ph o 1ograp hy :1ml fi lm hal-l' promoted a C011ctTn .ll'ith thc realis ti c ( p . li 1) n:pre~entation of t he \\'Orld. a claim that ll l'l'Cb to he approach cd cattl iou'l~ ami treat e el cri 1ira 111-.

(..n .. 11~ just lt o11 wicksprcad thi' so ri:1l II ']W 11as in Pa ri' a nd utltt-r ri tL'S of

n itt t'1t'l'llthll'tllltry Enropc. In ltl:tll\' rt'S(Jl'('l" th l' "-ig n ilica nn : u l' th t fi g ure of' th e lrinrtt l' li n 11 nt so lllt tdl in t iH' hbtori t-.tl pht' lllltt1l'tloll :t" it doe~ in 1ltc n l>'l'l l'a tio nal .:'lalltl' tha1 it d l'IIO il'' rhc j/rt/1'/ 11 i, .111 tllt'lit-Cllt:li ~~~lll't' ' J>t,ti.;.n g lO thC ll C\1' ron clitiom. ,, tuncllt nit1. rtrinttit - .1 ki,url'h amal~am tll strolling. loittting ancl. impu1tanth. gating at tlll' 111 han ~Jtc t.u k - onh btconw~ po.,.,ihlt it~ tht ,ocia! cnnclitinn' p1 m iclcd b1 tht big citit, ol inclu,tt iali,in~ L-:uropt. 1 hu'. tht flon'"' can he con,ickrcd to 11pill the cxpericmc ni modt'11lill , puhlic pi.Kt'' Tht flmur. ,11olling tln,ugh dw e it1 't t t'l't' a ncl prese n ing hi' imo~nito ~~~ 1hc ,1nonl t11I I of' 1hc cro,,cl . I\1nt'"l'' a -.u it'\1 of si tn ations ,,hich are 'L't'll .11 :t 'alc and dtl :tt:lt td . <]i,tan< t' . \\ :nd ti ng tlll' \\'orld go h~ 1t'' at 1h e lwart nf' t hl' tri ttrtu' s sta tt cc:

9.3.1 1 The development of photography and film

Canwra' cx i ~ t cd lo n g: lwfore pho t ograph~ clicl. The ca mna oh~cura was in ,,ickspread as a dra11i ng <~id lll' th e ~i x t <'(' ll1h C'l'lllt ll')', a lthoug-lt thc prillc iplt un whi c h it wa,.: hase el ( 1i ~h t e ntni ng a ~ t nall roo111 nr bo:-.. 1h mug lt ;m a ptn urc or ltn , t h rm,s a n 11 1cn e cl il nagt :tgHinst lltt hack \\'all } II':IS kllOI\'11 to 1lw a n c ie nts. l'h utog ra p lw is a m odnnist tcc hnolog,. l'lle 1\'0rlcl'.~ fir,t gt'll ttim p lto tograp h was tak c n b1 tltt Frt't1r h imtntor Joseph 1\itprl' in 1H~!l. Earh phtt 1ographs IHrc o n e-ot:a-\..ind in.t:tgl~ prochtcLcl 1 )1' the
11 M'

, 1n pl t obst' l'l'<ll io n . tt n 1 prc~rript io n etr n nacl ~. \ 'ision i ~ p:1r:unntt11 t: ' 11 )(' /ft t/l'll t. 1~1 1 :es 1h rong 11 ,part' :111 d .tmon~ 1h e p co pk ,,itlt :1 l'i~c mi 1,. t h a 1 hot h t'n ahlt~ :11 HI pmtl cges l'i"ion ' (.J e nk,. l \l!l:"1: 1 H i). For Llll fltiltt'tll li te ri11 , nol a h onw but a ~lto,, >l a~e . ~he lab~ 1inlhilll' imagl'' o!' metropoliLatt Llllt lllt' Jllll\ ick :tll l' IHIIl'" ~~ >lll ll' o l la~~ n :lltotl

ln~ed \\'i th 111\'ll'l \ .. rhi~ incoliS>tllllll' Jll"l'll)\ . ''"~ lknjamill. Ita' 'illl' cltgnur of ' pde't a11cl 1he <;cn'e l01 clttl':> ul .1 e1t'lt'tllll' . . ( <. 1 . f' rt' . 1 ' N<) ''()) 1 11 thc ltl'C 111 11. ( ()X' . .1. -- -. : ,-aryin).{ dq,:tt'l'' lrillt'ltt i' t'\ iclem in thl' no~tl' ol ( h.1ril'~ Di rl..tn, ( lk11 j.unin ~pectfic: a lh i<knt ilit'' S/uf llr., /~1 /lo:. 1he dnt unlln wn rtpot "ol t he \ 'ictoriatl "'t iall''-'Piorers

action oll ig l11 on ~wcialh tt t'alecl pl.ttt'' Tltrough the ll'>:W, tht ,tarrh " ''" on 10 r~fim th e tl'< lmique. One ol lh c: 111o't infhu11tia l ttc hniqut'' ,,.;, dag u t't ttot\ P'. cit'\ i.;ed b1 a ~ollt'<lgm ol :\iq>ee. l.t)tti ~ IJ;I!-('llt'ttt'. '' ho ,olcl h i., inn11 1ion to tht' Frl'nch gmernnH' tll 111 IR:\\1. l'lw da!:{Ul' t n ot,w ()llicl..h hnanw popular tltroug hout l:111o>t and .\m erica

378 lntroducing Cultural Studies

Visual culture

379

bul it' big dr;ndJad. ,,a, 1l1 ;11 i1 ('OII Id onh m,fiutt 'i ng le im;1g1'~ . In Engbnd lh( ll'al'el ln . ling 11i'1 and :'1 11' \\'il liam 1knn Fo~ f'a lbm Jin;dh pcrl'tclccl lht calo11 pt i 11 1S 11. Tht c;dt 111 pe on h rtq u ind a 11 t~p<NIIt' 1inw o l .1 u Htpk ni \tTolld' 111 ct it "~'' llw lit,. '1~1em to prin1 muhiplt C'opit'"JI po,iti~t , olla 'ingle lll'l.\lliH. lndetd . lht 1rord . pho10grapl11. and lill' t t't'lll~ 'pt "i 1i1 e . . llld nl'g.ll i11. 0 1igi 11 ;1 ltd J'rolll f'; lbot ~ fricnd. II H ' cicJHi'l Sir.Jo hnl kr., r lwl. 1he 1 Olllll1t'l'ci.t l po"i liilili t'' tof photograplll ll't'J't (jllickln'q>loi tccl ancl .;noll p ho tugr;qJhi r ' tlldio' ll't'l't' to be l'lttnd i11 (' H ' II l<ll\'11 ancl l'tl', fiN in Emope and '\u1 th \ nwrica. thtn quic kh t'l'l'" ht t t'. Fo1 mmt ol the nint'llTIIIh centull. photogt.IJ>Ill ll'lllaitwd largth in thc hand, ()f small tlll lllhl'r' of ll'C'hllit .tlh 1-.nnllkclgt.Jhk pr.tt litiont'J ' ll s popu l;u i'atio11 a' an tnn da\ praniu: re<11iring 1111 ~ p eci; l l 'kil i' c;u w ;thout ll'ith tht .\IIICJ kan :'llax [a,llJI<IIl , lllarke ting oJ' lht 1\.ucla k ho:.. <;IIIICI'a in I NHH lillclt'l' lill' J'anlnt~o; ' log;ut. y0 u J11 C~' tlt t Jmllull . ll'l' do tiH' n-;1'. rill' (';IJlll'l'<l \1';\" l'<llliJlJ>l'cl 1\'ih ;1 l'oJitof Ji( m lhattook 1011 pirtuJ<'' Oncl' tite 11holl' lilm 11a' ll'td. tite t.tnwra ''"' nwtntcl 10 tlw l.tcto11 1\hl're tlw old lilm 11." <k~t l opcd ;111<1 ,, Jll'\1' nnc il l,t;tlkd. Tlti' 111arkccl tllt' be).{inning o( tite lllajor t'CI'Oitllioll in tlll' lli,tot~ oJ' pllotogi'<L Jl)tl 11h icll 11<1' ,uhanccd b~ tite iutrocl tl t' litlll oJ' Lh t Brml'lli< ho ~ C:lllll't';t ;11 lll t llll'll ol' lht rc n ttm . .\ si mple and cltta p calltl'l<l. l1 n iikt 1he t':>.ptn,in 1\.oclak ancl i1' succe"or:-. t h i:- n:<tl h llltl p hotogra plt ~ into thl' hattd' of l.trg~: 'eniotb ol 'otil'll. 1 Jti, 'ckm uu.tli,:nion ' ol plt~Hogt .tplt1 ha, hecn ach<tnnd h1 .t mtmher ol impon.mt ttC'It ttical de,t'lopn~tnl ' thi' ntt tllll inc lttcl in~ tlw inwntiu1 1 ol the :~:tJIIll Ctllln<t (dtt l.ek<t. 1 ~1~:->). tiH' l'olaroid ins1<1111 l'<IIIH-ra (by 1he .\mc rican 11<-tt r~ Lmd. l!-17). tite c:llll'i clg(' lll,lllll :ll ic ( 1 ~1( \:l) .uiCI t ht l,idt,pt ead arailabi lit1 oJ ro luur p l t<llog r;tplt~ J'nnn t he late )!)(lO, 1111. Tod.11 the at'l o( taki 11g piclltrt'' i' an acnpttd patt ol' l~tclclillg,, eh i'lcnittg'. ltolicl;tl, a ttd olltl'r occa,iott~ of uentoni.tl 'ignirir.1111 t'. \\'e takt: pltoto' ol 11111 l.unilit' out lt t'JIIk uttt J>el~. 0111 hei'IH'' \\\ "'<' th e lli< 1111 es ll't' takt lo 1 on., tntn out biogr;tJill h tt SpetH'l' a11d Jlolla11d . 1!!9 11. Phutog1apl11 , < 1 ' Jll icldk-hrol,. ;11'1 ' {Btl ttl'clitll el o/.. 1\l! H) ). \'cta.~ :ttlla.~~ rl'rttauthll pranice Jho 1 ograph1 i' <llt h a t'C' Illlli"l old . Film - tltntion phowgt.tplll - ha~ att t'l't'11 bril'ltJ Jti,t<>t'l tlta11 'till pltotog-raplll . lltr rin~:matog.tph 11a, imtntl'cl l11 tite brotlttr~ Lo ui' attd \u g11~ll' LumitJt wlto openl'<l thc II'Orld', lir't cine ma in P.uis in IK\1:,. l ' ttlikc <tl~t r pn>toti i ><'<~Inttllit ClllltTa' 1he <inc m :ll<~g raph II'<LS pnn:t iJic and llti,. l'llttthin ed ,,itlt lltl' etlt'rgc li r t' lllrcprtttl'Ltl'ial ac tirit1 nJ t he Ltnn itrt' tt hU red lit :11 thl'it i tt n n t ion "'' in'talled i11 t'l t'l'l' ttt;!jnr r ity of tltt' ll'oild lll lhl' n ttt\11'1 , tncl. :\ o11acla1~. of UHII.,l'. tht mmie hu,im" i, the leading entert.tittntt'tll incltl\111 on 1ht pl.uHt .11HI ih impart i' kh e1 t'J111 htre. \\'e nced to t'l'111l'lltht J th:u both ttltllio n a ncl ~till photogr:t pl11 c ut 'l'tYC di nt~t pt t rpo~ts- as ~cic 111il ir instntllll'ttt,., ;.; l'll lt-rt:tin nHJI I. a' lonus o l Mt. "' Jllethocl ~ o( 'liiYl'i ll:utce, liJI' t X;tt11pit-. . \ , ll'l' 'h:tJI ' l'l' in <llll' COil.<dtf';ltifltl of tlt t' doCIIIIH'Il[:IIY pho l og r:tpiJ~ Of Cil)' lifc. tht''l' puqH>'t'' < li t' oltl'll ('Om plc:.. h inttTIItll't'll.
~ci enli'l.

tlw .tct u:tlitit' o l llw 1mrlc l. ()oc uttlt'III;IIY ln1 ' a rit h and lat in iJt i,ln t'l , ltt 1h e L' nitl'cl a >ig'ttili ralll t~a rh lllllll'ibtno r "'' .laroh Rii' 1d l11M' :-\tll Yu rk p iriiii'L'' o l L(lll l't t:a,t "iclt- pm't'tll' in //o;, 1111' Otlu r flnlj l n1 1 { 1~90 ) ltad .t major imp.ttl on puhlit npiniou. In illl' l'.trh cltt<lfil'' ol the IIITtllitth centttll lt''''" llim, pltotogt.lplh ol inclu,.lrial 1111t'ki ng cottditioll ' inllue nnd l'S rdorm IIIDit'lllt'nt' .tnd k gi,latitHt . . \ ~L' II LT:II io11 (;1 11.'1'. a largt' ('OJil'l'l < 111 oJ' pi<'llll'l'' \1';(.; a ~'1.' 111 J, Jvd lll' piJ DI11g 1 <t (lll t'l' ll'lll'k illg f'tll' thl' Fann Stutritl .\dlnini, tratio tl. l>i.-;.,l'ntittattcl lht'tn tglt th t popul.u prt'" l''lwci.tlh- da llt'll 11\.t"t it ( ul;nion pi<turt nt.tg:tlilll'' likt / .1/r 11hidt tmplolt'd photo < '".11 fontt.th. tltl'l hrottglll hume to 11 idtt puhlit' illl' nti't'l 1 la< ed h1 ,m,tll brmtt' in 1he 1!l:~os a nrl t he 1rnu()Jt-, t lttl t'nrot llllt'l td 1dtt'll nt ig-ral ittg 1" 1lw toll th .111< 1 ci lt'' o( 1hc ll'e'L as d rottg ltt ~ lllllll'd ag-ric ttltutalland illltJ d ustbtl\1'"- Pc rlta ps ill l' ntm t l'anH>tt.< book lo d t.' n il>t th<:st di ,l<~t:II<~Ih was 1.1'1 / '.1 .\'ou /'mi" 1-'rrlllllll\ ,\/m 1J ~~ 11 ) b1 _l.tl nt, .\ gce and \\'.tll..c r I-:1an~. In J:uru pc>. tlw pitlllt t'' oJ' l'.ni,ian 'l tl't'l '< t'IH'' and r.tll' lilt macle b1 llt-n ri ( :anicr-Bt t'"lllt and l3i.t"ai tl'.t< lwcl 11 ick .ntditnu~, ( " 't' \\',tet ht<k a nd :'lle~t nJI' itt.\ ( 1~l!l 1) < "\Cl'llt-111 Jti,ltll 1 ol 'lll't'l plt<ll<~g tapl ll) . . \t .t time 11 hl'll tt:ltlision ''"s ' 1ill in it ~ inh11 n. dott l llll' llt<lli ' l ~ fou 11rl :1 ltl ;t'~ ou 11l'1 lor llwir 11ork i11roug-lt 1h v ll t'll' and ittlltll'lllia l occupa ti on ol' pltoto jot ll'll :t li,tn. l ltal do t' l1111l'll tan lu nd 'Lidt a rt;tdl' auditttt<' in tlw 1 ~1:11>-. in hoth Ftii O(lt' .tttd .\nttrit a . ha~ w lw utldCr'-t<u><l a' pan ol 11itkt 'm ial nttTt'llh 1dticlt 'ho11tcl a lll'll " ''''itid11 to tlll' dncrptotl oJ' tlll' t'X)X'l it'tlCI'' ni thl' 111 dllt:ti\ J WI ~t lll ;11tcl ll'lticlt (Otllld l'~j)l'l'"ion t h rnu~lt S tiCh d inr~t 1u nn' as :'1 la~s O hst'l'\'<1 1ir011. comn11 11111 1 ' 'ltldil''- pltt'lllllllt'IHJ log~ . lo lk an. public :t ri . ll l'll'\l'l't'l C II L 'Illa. plt<>tojuuma Ji,ttt Jll:tg;tti ll t'S < Hiel "'"Jl u w ras. One ol tite Jir,t m<>IlHI piuurt~ t'lt'l' produrl'd 'holl'td worktl' ll'.ll'ill!.{ llt t' l.unt il-rt< lal'loll. Tltt l.untit'll'' uwd tlwir Jtt'\' inlt'llliott to (',,, llt'll light uJt ntam ,t,l>t'l'l~ ni daih lile hot lt .11 holl1t' ancl .d>t o, tel. lndetd. tlw1 ro iJttd tite llTJII tlllr111111 '1 / lflin, tn dt''t rilll' tlt tir ' hon tral'cl li l tll ~ . .-\ltlt<tllg lt lil nt ''''" c ni tk l ~ t ~ploit trl h~ ll o llll,ood l'n t t'lltc nailllll t'lll purpo't'' ih rapacit1 lo dt t'lltlte nl 11'<11'' ,. lii'L 11a~ 1101 negltntd. Ont mileslt>tt<' ""Roben H.dt t'tll , acttlll ll o l F., l..inJ<> lilt- i11 .\ nnoo/; of lhr .\'mili ( 1! 1~~ ). In t he So1 itt l 11 ion aspcct-. ol 1hl' 11<'11. ~ont'll hl'in~ 1orgl'd 11 <'t t' t.tplttt'tcl b1 1\i llofnm rlfl ( Film T n11 h l ci tH'IllaHg-r.tphet ' T ht te k (o~ical pottnl ial ol dot tlt11t' tll<tn 11a, ;dsn rccog ni ~td in :\;vi <l'l lll< llll ll'livn l.t ni Ril'l t n,l ali l'' -pie do( t1111 C' IIlan 'f'riuJJifih (Jj'/lu 1\ 'il/. ni' lltl' 1 ~!~1 1 '\ati PaJ I\' n;uit iii ;Jiralh. il'llt ll t'll tl i 111t't1~ i on' ( t) tllt' propaga nd; runnioll o l' film . h i' Cll' l 0tlt;tr~ lO di,tillgtti,IJ dontllll'ttl.tl'l rrotll lirtiott:tl \I'Cll'k. Dot lllllt'Jll.tl'\ i' aho ut repotli ng. not inH'Il iilg. ldtatt'll't' ,in tite 11otld .. \ <<ord in~ In :\l it hael Re no1 ( HlH6: r ittd itt \\'in:-ton l~nl.): 1 )). 'el't'll dt>t'llllll'tllan i,:-ltt'.' :1 "lrttth t l:Lim " ul a ~ort . pnsiling a rt' lationsh ip to liiston 11 h irll l'~t'l't' d' t he :lll ;ilo.L: ic;t l slaltts ol' i1~ fi c tional ro tttltl'rpan. Tit e reali~ l ittlptd<>c i~ paranttllllll: don llnt' tllan pic utrt, .11td lilttt aim to t~ ltihit tltt lat" ol a ,ituatioll.
S t .tl t'~ [ Dorllmt.nt ~tt'l 1 lll(l<h<'' it-; meattillg. lt t nllfrulll' . '" tltt .tudiettn. 11 itlt t'lll J>I ir~ll e1ide nn ni ' llch 11atttn .1 , '" t't.nde t d i~ J llllt illl J)('"ihlt an d lllt'l Jll't Jali< ll t '"JWr1111<>11:-. . \llttnplta,, , <JII lite ...,irknre; tllt lan' IIH' tn ,c l ~t., s w<~ k ... :- IIrt' ll' t thl' l': tr t malll't ' i1 ra n ht 1tall,llti ltt'd i11 a m pl.tll'ihit lltt'd itlltt .... Tltl' htan ni douttt tl'Jll< ll.l , 11<11 lotttt or ' " k ot nwdillttt. b111 .thl.ll' t<llllt'lll . ('-;tnll. Hll :~

9.3.2

The documentary tradition

'l ite don llllt'lltary tradition oJ' p lu1 1 ogt ap l11 atHI lihn t'ltltrged in 1lt e late nin e tt'<~ ttth centttt') in Lttro pe attd .\Jn t-rict " 'a 'or ialh cottsciot J' tncltanJur to dq )in graphicalll'

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Bttt documentary is also clesig ncd to cncouragc I'<:\\Trs to come to ~~ particular condusion about ho\1' the 1,orld is and thl' 1\:n it 1mrks. Of'ten 1\'hat i' ckpincd is the C\'Cr>d :11 <lClil'itics ancl pkasurc' o l orclin:u: p<:opk 01' 1he CX I X'I' i <:llCl'~ of llw o;uf'lering ancl opprl:'s,ecl. 1\ho are pnrtra~ecl in a 1,a~ that enabJc, tlw \'e\\er to t> 1npathi'l' "ith thei r ~ twuions. Documen U1 ry starts off b~ 011o\\ing ttwrely desuiptin conu ' rns. ' te lli ng it like it is' . -\s onc distingu ished exp<Hlt'llt. Dorothl>a LangT. pu l it. ' doetlln C illar~ photogr<l ph~- n: cord~ th c social scent' ofot ll time. ll mirrors the prtsent and documcnts for the l'utmc' (quotcd in O hrn. 1~80: 37). Ro ~t tin t'l~. h o\\en~ r. the.se realist conccrns of doc umental'\' a t'l' linkccl to pers11:tsi1e on e~. e 1~j oinin g lht I'C\\'e r to take a partic11lar auitudc to 1dun is dcpicted . For example._lohn Grie rson , the Scouish filmmaker or thc 1930s ancl 19-10' 1\'hO is wide ly regarckcl as a pi,o tal l-igure in the d el'elopmen t ol Brilish ami ~ort h America n traclitions of documentan 1-ilm , expressll' considered the cinema lO be a ptdpit and explai ned 1hat his philosophy \\'as to exploi t t.he obsetYational p<Htntial of fi l111 in order LO construct a p icltlre or reali t)' and thereby 10 realise cinema's ckstin> a~ a social commentator ami so11rce ol' inspira1ion for social changc (see BanHHm. 1974) . Dontmtntary tlnts CI>1al ises upon phntog raphy's immense d escriptii'C putcnlial. Photographs proYide a precise record or materia l re~ditl'. 1vhat is indubitably therc in tite 1,orlcl. Photography has becn d estribed as 'a benchmark oC "pictorial fact". (Snydcr and r\llen, 1982: 6()) arising fro m th< a11tomatism o f the prucess thruugh which phoLOgraphs are produced (by the m achine-generated cxpmurc of lig-ht to clHtnically treated pape r) 1,hich is said LO remo\'e l11tnwn agency ancl yield a representatio n possessing an authenticit)' and o~j ec til'it)' that ease l painting c:1n nc1e r obtain . lnJohn Berger'i> ( 1989: 96) Sllllllllary. ' Photographs do 11 0 1 translatc rrom appcarances. Thcy quote thcm .' T hc camera is. in thc Camous slogan . a mirror with a m cm01:' . These are all po11-crful cbims on bch alf of plwtographic realism (p. 61). But thcy d o not suppon thc mort exaggenued affinna1ion th i-ll artfice is fon:ign 10 photograph~. no r do they wpport a hard and fast con tras! bt' l\\'l'C'n d ouHneut ary (or scil'ntific) ancl art photography..-\n phn1ograph\' e merges around th t rc.:cogni tio n that plwtograplts are nol simph documen ts but arf' also aesthetic ohjec ls. As Susa11 Snn1 ag ( 1979: Rfl) pul it: 'Nobody C\'L'r clisco\'ered ugl iness through photog raphs. But man y, thro ugh pholog r<tphs. ha\'e discoY ered beamy.' Some ol' the issues at stake are summarised in Table 9.2. \\'h at Tablc 9.2 scts out are not L\\' O distinct ~pes of photograph but rathe r lii'O dimcnsions f'or <tppraising photographic imagcs. lnclcccl. thc most crediblc 1 iew 1.0 take is thal doCt tllH'IIIary is dcfin td b> its use; documcnt~ll)' picturcs are th osc 1hat are used in docnmCHtaJ'\' 1\'<t)'S (Snyder, l ~lB-1 J. T his a !so llo11s aesthctic ro nsickrations a place in documenl < ll'\' photograpln : a p<ll\'erfu l im<~ge is oftcn 1hl n1ost eiTccti\'e 1\'<1\' oJ' clrhing hnmc the fact s uf ~umc silltation. T he perSIJasii'CIH'SS of clontn1t'lllary is ;~ c hic,ed thrnugh th e arl fu l fu,iun ol' cll'scriptin' and aesth etic concerns: prodttctiun dccisions about po:-.e, lig ht. co mpn~itiun , l c n se~ . npes of fi lm and l'ncus. a~ 1\'d l as editing juclf!;l' llll'lll" ~uch as r ropping aml the liJ..e. are guided b~ the photograplwr's ~t'nse of 1,hat makes <111 d'fcrti1c imagl'. 11 of clonnnen tan i~ th usa profcssional icleology (p. Hl). 111 its most sim pie T lw n a l is1

Table 9.2 Artistic and documenlary conceptions of photography Art photography The photographer as seer Photography as expression Theories of lmagination and conceptual trulh Affectivity Symbolism
So,Irce: adapted lrom Sekula (1975)

versus

Documentary photography The photographer as witness Photography as reporlage Theories of empirical trulh lnformation value Realism

f'orm it rest!' on ti''" qucst inl1:tble a~sumptio n~: that lit e l'<II11Cra tal-. e:; pinu tc, :111cl lll'l l'l' l ie~ . ancl thatthe C:lllll'r<t l'aithlltlh r<'Co rds thc ll urlcl a~ it appcars (Rub1 . l!l/6). ,\g:tinst thc lirst as~umptiun it nHISt bl' remtntlwred tha t pcnpk. nnt Glll\l'l'a', t:~ ke pictu res :tncl tlw~l' pictu rcs are al\\'a\, takcn lrom somc poin1 of ,ic1, tllat h<t' an arbitrar~ compnnl'lll. 1le rl' arbitran cJ.,c~ tl<ll111can ltapp<:ncll < llll'l' : it llll':lll ' i1 cuu ld liaH l>t'l' J1 ol h er\\ise - anotlttr. el ilfe l'l:' lll pil'ltl re cou ld l'asi h h:t,.L. ht'l'll madl'. T h e grl'~ll Frl' nr 11 dOClllll{'lllarisLll en ri Cattitr-lk c:;:;nn o;pokc or tlti ~ as \\'oti ting for llw 'ckcisil'l' lll<lllll'lll. to ncatc h i~ :t iTL'Siil1g picttll 'l' ~ o l' l'< 1rio;ian ' ll'l'l'l lif\:. T ite SL'nmd < 1SSII 1 11p1ion :tl'o r<lllltn l ' liot og r:1 piJ, do n"t 11 11:1111 bignot tsh' < IIH 1 1r:ll1 \be arrcptccl 1\'1hou t q u:tl iti ca 1ion. 1 parcn th l'l'Corcl rca 1 i ~. Thc 'l'll 'l' th :u \\'l' nw ke o l :1111 phntngr:1ph cll'(.JCIHl~ liiH >11 a \aricL\' ol' l';u:tnrs in cl uding OJJ r t'll lln ra l <111<1 ><'l'sott<d knOidtdgt. ,isll<d litl'rar\' < 111 <1 tlw pinurc's pl:tel' ol' puhlication and C<tption. Suclt cri ticism' lt-ad t" ~unw lullllt'r
i ~~ u t~.

9.3.3 1Colin MacCabe: the classic rea list text

In :1 much-quntecl pape r Col in :--lacC:al)l' ( l !IX l) d l'\'l'l<>ped a cnntrmn;;i;d critique ol tllt' clai111' f() r realism (p. 1) 1) in .tl'h ]J..l' li l111 .111d p iH>Iop;raplty. rk :ll'g'l ll'd 111:11 llll' clnmin:lllli CX Ill:t l tlm11 in contt'lliJl<>r<t1'\' 'oc i e t~ i' thl' cb1 ssir rcal ist ll'XL lt b ituporlatll 10 not.l' tltat :--larC:tlx,._ argntnnll i, primarih ahot tt. tlit jo1111 of lllt lt'XI. :--larC:tl w\ b nota rel't'l'l'll tia l argumcn l 1\hirli construc' rl'a ],n1 :t~ corrl'.spond('ll l'l' lo IHJ\1' 1hin g~ acl11al h ar!' in lli<' 1\orld. Th tts cL1ssir realist tt ~~~ r;11 1 ra11g-c lrom Disnc> canoons L() lh l' 110\'Cb or Dicken ~ . J'mm ,\'l'lg ltflllll}:\ tu ,\')'/'}) 1Jfuc and f'rnm '/ innina/!11' 2 LO 'clao;,j c, ol Hritish 'rl'alist' cinema sttcll ;, S!I /II!Y/(1_\' .\'ig!tt 1111d .\ 1/111111_\ .\ Jt,l'llillg. lle ddill l'' the cl:t.,.,ic redisttcxt througlt f(Jttl' m:tin IL-;tllll'l'' ( 1.\ >~l'IJ. l D~O) . First. thl' Llas,ic nal is1 LL'XLr< >tiS'-LS o f .1 hicrarcltl nf' discomscs (Jl. :~ O ) . . \1 i11v wp o l this h il'l'arc h ~ ,a di,.,cout,l' th<tl ci.II11' :t< lequac> to tlil' rl' ~d. In tltt ll<nd 1h b 111011 he tlw n1icl' of thc narralnr, or th\ llcHI o lthe (cnllslrtJC'Il'd ) 11arra1 in- ISl' IL llllll!ll'l' ,,ttal l'orm~ uf lilt' c b~., c rcal i ~t l\'XL tlw 1n11h 11il l he ll'\takd lll 1dtat ll'e 'ec ol1 tlw ~C I'l'l' ll (Hill. 1 9~0). \\'hl'll ll'~ltc hin~ a tL'Ielbion pmg n1111111t' or :1 lilnt. ll'l' l':-. pnt tht ln ttlt ' tn

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383

o[

be ITH'aled to u s at so me poilll. Funltcnnore . it i ~ displa1<~d vi.wal(r. nonn:tlh <ll th e e nd th e narra thT. fh us. a l t ill' co n c(usinn o(' a ckt<('l in S tor~ 11e txpeC l 10 lind OU t ' ll'ho dun it' . T his ,,.JI ol'tl- 11 be r en;1led to u <> b1 1he ce ntra l mak h e ro. 11h ost> ;H: tions kaclto thc ~n l utiun n ft lt t n im e. In ma11~ rt,x c ts 1l1t cho mi11ant cli ~cottrS(' ofl ll t' clio,pla~ <ll'the truth and th t <kpiction of reali t~ is assuciat ed 11 itlt m ale acti\'i ty, ll'h k h itst~ l f strunnres tht n nrratin: (.-\l w r crombie and l.o ng hur~ t. l rl0l). Second , 1h t clas-;ic re a lis1 lt' XI p romotes re la 1ionshi P' of icknt ilica 1ion. panic ul a r!\' bt' l\\'('t'll lile Ite ro and t h e r tadtr or \'t lle r of 1h e lt:X I. :\' re<tcl e rS or Yie ll'e rs \l'l' lC' Ild l i d e ntif~ 11itlt tlt(' a c ti ons ol 111(' ht ro :u1d hb point of \'l'\1' in th e narra ti n '. nl't(n ll 11a~s. The cla::sic rt:alist IC'Xl d oes panicular 1mrk inflmnc in g us in ideological ( p . X 01 1 11~ :1~ m c mbe rs of an ;mdie n ce, sti tch ing us into 1he flo,, th e narrali H, and its el i~(O lii'St' of 1h(' n Ha 1i ng or 11'11 111. Th liS. lO ~i lll pli [\ ~o m e\l'hat . i 11 tlw S herlock 1 lo lmc \ lories. lrtllh i' <lSS\lCi:u c(\ ll'ilh t h e a r tio n" and knoll'lcclge or Holm es. \\'h ll ,,j(( rt:le;(

l!of)l' sh<l\1'11 '>11 Bril ish tt: it' Yision. ldtic h clramatised th c <:'\'CIHS o l tht' Ce n e ra ) Strikt o r
Hl~6 . In t.urn. illacC:a bc dispu tes the rea list claims of' do cumental'\' film m a kc rs m pltotogr;1plters. illacC.:abe's <sst"l1tia lh Brech tian positi o n 1\':t~ a r:~clica l om ll'lt ic lt suggcs te cl that suc h a llc mpt.<. \l'tH tl d be cluomcd to l'ai lu rc and tltattltc cle ar a ltcrna1in 1\'a~ to 11~c 11IOIT radi cal fnn s 10 di,rupt t he ex pt:c ta tions as. , ociatcd \l'ith tht: c la--.ic c.s ind1 tcc passi1it1' and ,,h a l rta Ji,l t<xt. ~ l acCabe th e n s uggt'q~ th a t clominant narra ti Y can he stt n a-; c~~c nti a lly f;1lse pJt>a,urc'.

9.3.4

L aura Mu lvey: the male gaze

ur

tlt:H 1n11 h 10 th e reacltr. Th e ac tnal n.ll'ra wr is Dr \\'a tson. to whom t ltings are co mmtt n icatecl b~ Hollll t' ' and ll'ho :1c ts ;1 \ a m e el ia tor to th e a u el ie n ce. \\';u ~on m ay ~ometimes lw cri 1ica l o l' H o lnws. espt'c ia lh ,,h e n h e ans p:1rtic u larh in se n siti1d~. hut ultimai e l~ this d isco urse 11ill bt' ~ 11hs tunt'd h e nt:ath th:u. ol'the sciemi li c re,elatioll of' th e ll'lllh a ncl th c real su1tc a fbirs. Th ird. ancl re la tc dh. tit e cla~;;ir reali.\1 1ex1 i' c losccl. lt do cs not tTI'C:tl a r:mgc or op ti ons un th e ll'lllh or r ca lit\. tltl' ll l l'a , in ~ tlw a uclie n cc to c lt onst hcliiTCil th t m. Tt olfers lh t soluti o n lo th c range uf' iSS Ut'S 0 1' e ni gmas l':l 'tci cluring th c CO\ II '' C o f th e narra ti,e . lt i~ \'('1 '\' rare f'o r a popular l'tlm nr nnH' i to end without a rcsoltnion nr a cun c l u~ion . whi r h 1ie ' up a llthe loost' e n e!-. ln clccd. it , po,sibk to 111a in tain that one of the p l ea~ urt ' IIYn ln d in th c comumptiun n i' th e c l;1ssic Hal ist te xt is thc resnlutio n of' the 11arratin\ b~m~ mtd its c h aractcrs Enes. Fou rlh . lit < ' rt'ad<T or sud1 l<' XI' is < 'SS<' tl tialll' >a"in. T hl' lnlllt or r<':liill ,,ill be se t 0111 fi >r itim or h e r by th e e nd. T hi.<; nwan~ th a t wlll'n 11e rt'ad or wa tc h c lassir rcalist lt' XI ~ \l'e hal't' rl' la tin ' h' lillll' work tod o. \\'t ~imp ly han to lw recc ptiH to th t lt'Xl, n ot a r l i1ell' c nga~e wi tlt i ts pte,u pposi 1ion.,. illarCa bc i ~ hi g ltly cri ti ca ) o f' tlll' dominan cc o l' ~ u c h c las~i c rca l i~t lt':oas and th e ir l'lfec ts. Fo r ~lacCa lw su c h texts are idellogical. 1101 in 1lw .' ensl' tit;u tite c ha rac ters may represent ( p . 6 1) ra cist or sexi-.t s t etTo t~pcs. a lt lwug h th c1 ma, indeed do this. but r;ulwr b ec:tust th e strurturc of th e Ll' Xl sugge q s that cnntradi c ti o n-. or cliiTciT nt points of'1irll' ca n b e r eso hTcl. ~lacCabe argucs th < H -;uc h text~ cmmnt h ancllc o r clcal l\itlt Lhc \'t' IY n a l co tllradinio tl.' tlt:11 l'X ist in a capi tal is t socic 1 ~ 11itho u 1 p ri or i ti~i ng om: partic u lar \'l' rsio n or 1h l' re a J. 111 t)H' ( 'IH l r~l' of' tlti;; proccss >;1( h ll'XlS I'Cildtr ilJC reacJer
pa~~in . ra tlter than t' IH' ot trag in g 11te m <trlil'c i ~ to ~e<'k 0 111 th e lrtlllt or retlit~ for tlt c m ~ci i'C' ' or in a~~u c i at i on with oth<'l's. Tlt i ~ i~ tiH ca"c l'l'l'l1 11ih t ho~e tcx ts that

or

:'1 lacCabe 's dl'scripl ion <tllCI c ri tiq tt < ' of' clo111 inant, r cali '' o r narratiw c inl'ma e1t i m e-: ll'ith illuke~s p:nhh rc;1king 11ork <>11 lit <' gazt in COIIIC111porary ll o lhwoocl c inema."' ;n th c COI T nl th c das~ ic rca lis t lL 'X l b th c a r ti l'i1y and th t look of tht: malc hero. :\ftlktl b cgim f'ru m 11ithin 1h l franw ,,ork of' psycltoanalysis (p. K). In partic ul ar sllt' cxplort' lht ~l' X\Ial :l~ ( )t' C l S of \~ll:l ) ple:t ~\1 rl'' l ha l d cri1'<' frn111 tlll' 11'<1 tc lt in g uf' narra t\'<:' ci lll'lll.l uf' thc do mi nant HoJl ~,,ood t ~ x . S he m;li nta ins 1ha t narra t in c inema pml'ide-, l 11o mai ll ronn s n r plcasttr< : .,copophi lia a nd ide ntilitation . Scopophi lia re l ~ 1<> lit e ~c xual plea.,urc clc ri,cd from luok ing. In its ex tre m e fonn this pita:>lll'l' bt'COIIIC \'O~'t' U ri s ti c - thc 'pc 1 '\'l' rsio n ' of scopopltilia is lO bCCOnll' <1 'JK't: p in g tom'. Scopoplt i 1ic pl<asm c clc p c ncls on a ~c para t io n u f 1he ,.it'll't'l' from 1ha 1 1dtich is h c in g ,je,,t'cl. \\'e are looki 1 1g i11 u pon a ~ituation ora tl'Xl. In gen n a l. 1\'e dlri1c pkasure fro tn usittg ano th cr pers(m as an o l~jc c t of -;exttal s1in11tlatio n thro ug h sight ' ( llluhcl' 1 9~ 1 : ~0~).
In addition 1<> th l'Sl' pkasures. \ lnl n y ;trgms llta t tlll' \'il'II'Cr ora film a lso clnil't'.'ple; t,l lrl' li'OIII lil e process or idc nlifi cation. Tite luukin g :ll tite "c ree n le tcb lO th e tite specta tur ll'ith 1\'lta t <tppcars in f'ront or Lhl' lll. T h is process o f ide nti fi ca tion

or

atlL' tnp t lo u ' t' thc rca list J'n rm to coni'C\' .1 radi cal or lc 1'1-11'ing nwssage. :\ ga in, accordi ng to ~ l ;llC1be . a ve r~inn o[' tl w rea l, di~pla~ed 10 tite rt:ader lo accep t, truth rl'latiHh u nprobknw ti c. T his 1'ic11 g;we ri't' 1.<> a d e bate around pulitica l pr;u' ti cc ancl film or 1de1ision making. 11hi c h is ol kn ktHIII'Il a-. th e l>rn 1 o //ofH' clc b :Hc (ste Bcnnetl d al.. 1~:; 1 ) . \llt trt ~ 1acCabc ' pnsi1iun' \\'ere cli'()lttccl b1 t ho se whu sa,, poten tia 1in l he ,i11 g ol' r:1 dical cn n tc nt. csplci;tll~ in a series su c h as /Ja)'S of rea Ji; lo nn f'or tlw cou1<

ide nti fica tion lt n ds Lo bre:tk dtJ\1'11 t hc d is t< m cc ur scparatiun th <ll is inlt< n nt in t it e scu pophilic proce ss o ut lincd abu1t:. The hou 1ularics betiiTe n th e ~c lf and th e fi lm b rea k d01m. Thc spl'ctalor a ln 1ost l>ccomcs a pan of' tltc ac 1ion in thc fi lm . ~lukc, ~ twgt q~ tltercfore tiLH th est two proce$.'CS are intt:rt11incd :tiiCI paracloxic:d. This c;~1\ be e xplain ed throug h ~l u kt>~ main co n ce rn: tltt' ~enckrerl nature ol' thcse proct'sSt's. ~lukc~, co nte n tin11 lun is 1hat ' In a ll'orld ordln d h> 'l'Xual imbala n cc. p lca.\ urt in looking ln1s be t'll "Piit b CIII't't' lt ac tiH/ mak ancl pa ~sil't'/ le ma le. Thc ckt crm ining rn :l lt gazc pr<ccts its phanta~~ 011 lo titt km;tle fi g ure ll'hi c it i.-, Slyled acco rding l ~. ( ] m; 1: 209). C:o nwntional 1 l n iJ ~,,nuc\ c i1Wt11a di,pla~s 1mmcn to be lookcd at by m e n . ~l e n art' ac tiYe wi1hin tite f'i lm itsdr and in th e ir lovki n g. \\'o mc n are to 1>< look<'cl a t. 1 Jm,TIe r, an d Ite re ~lt tkt~ retu rn ~ tu thc p:lladox o tt llinc cl abme. th c clispht\' of' tht 1mma11 o tt thc SCI'C'l'll tc nds lO in tcrrupl lile narratii'C driH of th e cJe,e loplllt'lll t it t lii lll. IJ' spenato rs beco m e fixated 011 th c imagc th c 11'()1 11;!11 cJi-;p(aled beli.>l't' 1111'111. 1ht'll tite\' 1\'ill 1 101 b e intcgratcd in l o tit e 11arratiH fl o\1' or IIH film allCI \\'ill llol h t' St'll'n into tit e clominant icle olog ical fralll l' in tit e ,,ay mn lin c cl h\' ~fa cCa bc . illu l\ey argue' th a t thi.s paradox is r eso h'td in panic ular 11'<\~s by co nHn tiona l r in t' l'll <l. .-\ ,.;~ he says:

or

or

The prese nre o l' ll'fllll;tll is <lll indbp<:11sab le c lc m c 11 1 n f' spec taclc in norm a l n a rr;ui,e f'ih11. ~e t h e r 1bual prt:St: II CC lt'llCb lO II'Ork al-(a itl >l 1111' flt\eJoplllt'!ll of' <1 Story li nc. I n

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l'lt't'/.l' thc fl o11' ol' tlw ;trtion in tnonwn ts ni cmtir CC > Illemp l :~ ti on . T h b a li n1 pre~t'll CC' th tn h;b 1o lw in tq.(ra Jcd in1n rn ht>ion 1dtl1 tht narra til't'. ( ~ l u htl. 1 ~1:-i l : ~ 11\l) rh , , ort('ll dolll' hy posil i() Jl ing l he II'UI11 a n ;1 ~ tll l' n b_icn or li H' K;t l t' ll'i th i 11 1he n :nTat il't' lsl'll'. \\'omt' ll l' harac lt'l'' are o ft tn lon kcd :ll b1 1h c mak r haraners in 1he Cl>lii'St' n i" lhl' film . T lll' rcmalc c h ;Jraner 111:\\' bt il >hcmgi r l or )(;lnti h d re,sed prostitult'. l'or l':\<1111plc. To use :111 C:\<ttnplc !'mm tc kl'i, ion. tl11 11on1e n p ol ict ofTiccr:; in .\lir1111i \ 'iu orten Sl'l' J'Il e d 1.0 be 1101'1.-i ng tl llcitI'('O\'t'J' as prn ~ l lllll'S. faci li tatin ~ lh t d i, p la~ ni' 1he ir budies l'ur th c m :1le spcc ta to r. \hllt' spec ta to r.s d<' r in p lea,nre lrom looki 1tg ( in 1h c ~cupophi l i c ~cnsc) and a re inlegrat<'d into lhl' n arra tin lh rough ~h :1rin g :tnd idc n1i f1ing II' ll t lill' look and th e p lea,urt o l' lh t ma ll' c har; t c t n~ in tit e ll<I IT<~lit' i l ~l'l r. Tht actilt' IH'ro in 1h c flltn posstsst ~ tite i"t' llt<tll' c hara ncr and icl\' ltlilitalio n occ tll'' II'lh hi' ac 1io n : 'Tht mak p ro 1ago n b 1 , frcl' tcJ con tm an d th c '-l:tgt , :1 ' 1age of'spatial illt tsi<Hl in ,,h ir ll h e arl ir ulate.' t lt t' look .ut d c c:Ht'' lh t act iun' O lull't'l. I ~IS l : ~ 11 ). Th ruug h tllc't' prnct'"l'' lhl' '-[>t't' la lor l wconH~ ti c d 1 11o the l'ihn . \ luhc , co n clttdt~ b1 -.u~gcst in g tll a t th c r c ar<' linTe 'loo ks' ''~'oc i a tecl 11ith 1he r int' lll<l: lirst. ' t h ;n ol' Lh t ca m era ;ts iL n-r<>rcb ilH' prn-l ilmic e 1en t' ( that 1\'hich is ;u ran.;tcl itt !ron t 1lw C:lllll" l'< .l): St't'O illl. 't lta l o( iltt' andience a~ it ,,at c lws 1hc final [H<>duu: .ut d. th ird . ' that .. r th c cltara c tlT'- a l car lt o tlicr ll'i lhin the ~cree n illusion' ( l !l~l: ~ 1 -l } . l11 'lll11111<ll '~ . \ lu llc, .Jrglll'' t h.ll ' II H COII I't' lttion' ol't lt e n ;uTalI'l' fi ll1l cle ny tht fir,tii\'O :J il(l ~u hmdinatt Jlt tm to ilt t' tli ird' ( 1 0~ 1 : ~ ( -) , l' l ca~tJ r( i ~ ckrincl fmm tlw m :ll t ga t e a l lh t f't ' II Wk c h ;1ran crs hn 1 t lt b , in corporalecl in to t h t narrat in : ofthc fi lm itsd i' ;111d 11l a n sc11n in . \\'e l'o rg tL1ha1 ll't' ;uc ,,atchin g a cr ea tecl product . t ha LII'C < 11'( ll a Cii Wtll: t :titd < ' lll l'l' thc 1\'l)t'[cl of' th l' CC nl l'a[ (m a ll') prntagoni ~ t. ~lul\e~ S ex< vp 1i o n a ll ~ crit ica( 1 hi~ mak gatc an cl nf' r on,e nti nna l and d o n itl <l lll ll ol l ~'lmod 11 :1 1r:ll i1t cilll' llta. Slw co nl t' lt cl' 1lt:ll '1\utn c n , ,,.,ll>'C: image has ht'<'ll con J IIlla ll~ 'tole n <Llld ll\t'tl (or lh i~ (mye ui'\l C I L'IHl. L'<lll ll!l l \'t'\\ t lll' d u li llt' o[ 1111' ll'adiiOila [ fi lm fO I'Ill 11i 1h :llll'llti n.; m ore Jitan ~L'IHI1lL'111:l l regrc t' ( 1\lx l : ~ 1:1). In 1lw n a m e ora mo re p r<>grc,-.i,c f'd 111 prac1ice. ~ hv illl l'IHI' lo clc-. t o~ tlH' pl<'a' u re in do mi n a 1 1t c ine ma. ~luil'n ' ~ 11ork is located 11itltin :1 P'~, i w :l nall li r [>C:I'>[){'ClI't: 11h ir h h a' bcen l't:l')' inf h1 en tia l in fi lm stucli t' ll n iiTI'l' r. lwr ll'ork tvnd' lo n eglt:Cl ~o i\H' i" ucs 11h ic h ltal'e ~ u bscqu e ntly hccn rai~cd i11 bo th ,.,nriolu)..,>'l ' a n d nt lln ra l , tu cl ies. Fo r c:\am ple. it can be >ttg-gcsJ t'd 1il<.tt h cr 1mrk is onTgcn era l in Lltat it n cglcc ts t h c more rnnc rc te ll'ays in '' hi r h difre rt'll l g r o 11ps u( p co pll' rn;1~ rcac1 tn ni m in panic u lar 11:11s acco rcling to gt'I Hlcr, r la". l' l lini c i l ~ :11 HI .<o on . \lu h'e~ 's focm i~ u 1 1 ho11 1111' CIH'IIl:l ton, uu cl' ma le ~ wna 1 or po-.ilio u -.. T lt b ~ I'L'' 11~ liu ll' inkl i1tg- : 1 ~ 1n h o 11 a u di t n n~ an n al ly he ha1T a ud !lit lt' l ,. ~rw r ifl t pleasurt'' tlta t t l w~ dtriw !'mm c int' tii<L. Likcll i ~e. ' lll' ha~ H' l')' 1nonol ithi c n o li on~ ol' mak aml f(:m:ll t, ig no r ing lht cliff Nt' IICes 1hat ex i~ l hcrt, I.O ll'il iclt c tlhu ra l , L udi es Itas in cJTa'ing ll clr:nm a ll t' l1 lion. lloll'cl'l'r. nnc kt~ mc r it o f' ~ luht'l'.' 1\'0rk " ''' be en 1 o pro\oke ele b :1le 011 1h n e t ll<lllt'l'~. Th 11~. ro r l'X<Llll p lt, th e rc h as bccn conce rn 1,it h th c con cc pt o f' l(: malc s ptc Jalor~hip (S tact,. 199-l: 22) anclthe cx tc n tm 11h ic h the rc is :1 fc 111 :tll' g a;rt. As S ta cc y ( 19!!-1) su gg-csts. (ll\C nf 1hc r lear f'ault 11m tucl ies' lines in ilwst arg 11me n t' h :1s lwc n be t,,et n 1h ose 11ho ha1c acloplcd a 1

approac h a11Cl th osc o p eratin g in th c domain Ctdlura l s tud ics. Film stucli c.s te nds lO e mphasise t h e n aturc o l' the te xl a nd holl' it co nstru c ts wbjcct o r sp ectat.or positio ns for th e l'ie,,e r. lt l licore ti call ~ exa min e~ th cse iss ttes ll'ith liulc n:gard f'o r hm, pcopk a c tua lk \l'a lc li fl lm s in a cinema. Cl d tura l studi es shares t.lw conrc rn 1\'ith tlw ana hsi ~ of th e lex t. bt tt a rgues that h oll' lt' XI S are prodttCt"cl and cu n sum c d are in1p ort:111t Lhco retical a ncl e mprica[ iss ttes. Th is has kcl 10 in ,c::~ tigaliom o f rfa l :ntd it n ccs tn icl e nti f~ lh e ir an ua l modes of looki ng ancl prac ti ces d e ri,c::d fro m cinema a ti e n d an ce (Swn,-. 19!1-1) . Dc."p ite th ese pro b lems ,\ 1uln:y's 11s< ol' ps~-c h oa n ah's i ~ rc prc~c nts a n impo l'lant inlluc n cc o n 11 id tT 1mrk 11hi c h h as taktn up thc idea o f lht gan in l'ery dii'ICrt IJl co n texts; an impul'lant e xa mp le o l' thi~ C<tn bt fo u n d in co nt.e mpor arv 1,ork o n touris1n a nd lc isurc . \\'e sh a ll addrcss lhi ~ in scction 9.5. ll m,e,e r, Lhe CXI('ll<kcl ro n sicleratio n of th c tc c h n o logies of r e a lis m ( p. Gl ) in th is scrtion h as in 1rod ucecl so m e critic:Jl d isc u ssinn of th e d o minan n o f fonn s o r looking. realism aliClLhe \'Stl:-11 in m odernity ( p. 100). T h is c ritica! edge is a lso appar<: nt in 1hc work o n th e g aLe by Mich e l Fo u cault (p . 28). whi ch h as b ee n a ke~ influc n ce on co n te mp o rar~' discu ssions o l' stt rl'l'i ll < m ce.

or

or

9. 41 Foucault: the gaze and surveillance

In a numhe r of impo rtant s1udies Mich e l Foucaull (p . 2R) ( 1926-8-1) d en : loped a c ritiq ue of 1hc ll'a~ in 1,hich 1h e 'gaze' is implicated in 1h e opc:: ratio n of po11er. Pc::rhaps his m ost ram o us bnok, Disf'ipfilll' rn11f Punish ( 1977), open s with a strikin g co n tras! bct11-ee n lii'<J form s o f punishme nt. In th c firs t fro m 1757 Dami c:: n s thc regic icle is to nurc d ancl his body li tc ralh ripped lo p ieccs in a pu blic sp eetacle . In Fouca ult's scconcl exa mple l'ron1 tig lHy ycars later, yo un g priso n e rs are subj ect to a regulatecl n :g in1c in whi c h a l! th c ir acti,itics a re s uuctmed br proresses o /' in ~pec t io n (scc secti o n

or

7.:). 1).
Fo uta u lt' s c~sent ia l p n i n L lit' re is not tha t StJm e h o w pun ish m e n t h as beco m e lcss barbarie (alt houg h this mig ht h e th e r a se). Ra th e r, iL is 10 idcntir)' h ow punishnH: nt h as b eco m c kss ~pcctac ular as a puhlic riw a l, movin g away fro m clcsrroying th e ho dy (ste al so C h ap ter 7). to beco m e a process o f inspcctio n. classifica lio n a ncl stnYe illa n ce 11h c re 1hc fo cu s is o n ge u ing throug h th e body to affcctthe soul.lt is no acc idcn tth c n th a t th e m o d crn priso n was kn01m as th e pe n ite n1iary o r the r efo rmatory. T h c kc y princ ipies of th c nwclern p rison arc:: co n d e n secl in th e Eng li ~ h philoso p hcr J e rc:: m y lk ntham 's p lans for thc p anop ti co n (se<:. secti o n 7.3.1). The basic icl<:a h e re is that indi,idua l ce lis in 1h e priso n 1,oulcl b e a rrangc d a rou nd a cemral insp ecti o n / surYe illa n cc l01,er. This wou ld m ea n that a ll th e prison c rs co ul d pote ntia ll y b e insp ectcd a t ;Jn r tim e ch ose n b )' 1he g u ards in thc to \\'e r. i\loreo,c r , beca use th c tower II'Ould b e fltted 11'ith blinds tlw prisoncrs 1\'0uld n o t know wh e n th ey 1\'<.' tT be ing ilhpec t.e d. T h t~- co uld b e und e r co n s1a n 1 MIIYc illan ce o r not stttdied aL a ll. This lcad s to th e inte ma lisati o n a mi th e n o rma lisati on of thc idea of b e ing und e r t h e g azc of thc po \\'erf'ul. l t b eco m es pan or th e e xpe ri e ll((" th c priso n a nd punishme nt. \\'hile

or

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Visual w lture

387

lorh.td in thei 1 tt ll, the p1 i'o ll l'l~ wo1dd hall' IIIH' to rdlcct con tlil'ir n inlt''- and llll'mw iH, to thc procc..:" of rcfonu . a' tht teptnc'lll:ltioll o l thl' pri,ont' l in Fi~u1c !1. 1 ,11.,11 ' '1 he l..e1 poinh le r 0111 JlliiPP'e'' het e .lll' that thi' panopti< ancch:llli'an e llll'llll<:h tht po11t' t le" pt i'otttt ,1, .1 ~ul~jcn ni thc gatt ol 1111' 1>111\l' t l11l. Thtt e .are 1111 clark t ntllt' l' llhett' lw 111 'lll' can 'lll'hl'r. Puni,hmetll i' no longt' l .a 'Pl'<l,H k. huta lorn1 of ill,pntion .tlld ... uneillancl'. lt i" not clillicuh tu '-lT hcm much c'llTid,tl lik in ntodttn 'oc ittit'' .appn,,inl<lll'' to Foucnah , account. rtnh. it i, iatt 1e':t...i11gh thl' c;h(' th.ll :h 1\'C
<c~tnmit

9.5

Tourism : gazing and postmodernism

lO

rht. ,lltlh01 \\ Jw 11,1, cllllll' lliC"l

pul lllllri~lll

Oll

thc .tgl'nda in CUIL\It,ll 'lllclit' in

n u tH liam-. i, ,loh11 l111 . l11 hi-. hook 'J'/u 'Jinni, (;a:r ( 1990.1 ) :tll(l in a tllllllhtt ol

<lltidt' ( lot e,,11npk. 19~~- l~l!lllb. 19!1~ ) . L' 111 icll'Jllilil'' a llllnlhtl ol' h.tl ,J,Pt't" ol
cunlt'lllPOl~\1 1 111111 i,lll, 1k '11ggn1' 1hat ll.t\el .111cl tuuri'm .lll' tTnll.tl ,J,Ill't '' ol conttmpoa.u 1 or nwclc-tn 'oriallik. 1 k, .JI,o conn nwd 11 ith pottnlial t hangt' in thl' natlll'l' ol touri-m in lht mo't n nnt Jll'' iocl. ancl e'l)lcialh :t... to 11 hethtt .1 loa m ol pn,t lCit11 i'111 j, cltl(')opillg'. 1 hi~ 1\'0IIJ\ he :1 COl L' :t~)JL'CI uf a >OSIJllOdern (>. 100 ) ~~ ll it'l\

'lwp in <utlle' lllpoa~tn \\'e>tl'rn 'ocil'til'' lit' are undl't thl' gatc ol e :tiiH'I',I' 11'hich anonitor and record our anions. <.amtra' 111;11 he ln c.ul'rl in pe ol kl' t:tr, chl'< l.. in~ trarric 011 tl ll' IH 'I i llll'll'l'' o[ more htll ''ill!{ del'<: lopmtn b. 1nlt'll''' in ~h. '"' ~til l :IIH' t' Cllntt~1 ~ nlll'l' mt'l''''''' onl~ llll' 111oo;1 l''\Clthin houo;ing - no11' lhtl :111' 10 be l'onnd 011 a 11 ide 1':11'it i\ ol' h othillg 11 J 1l'' or clil krl'lll \illll'' Ol ltn. 1\'l' l :tll llCll i>e '-111'(' il II'C' :11c l>l'ing 1\':tt d ll'd 0 1 l'l'l'lll Ckd .11 ;t ll\' ellll' lllOnH: nt. ()(' e'lllll',l'. 101 l'Xalll pit-. '11 11t' ll.tll l'l' of CI'OII'd S .1 1 loolh:t llln:ll l' ll\''- 11 1;1\' ilt' in thc int l.' l'l'' ' ' ol'~al'l'll . h111 l abco h a' 111plir:n in 11s lor c il'il li iHr tie>. lt ha ' lwt' ll ' ltg-gt:;tvd th<tt con t t' lnpura r~ c'itiv., II'i h th d r t'X Il' llclccl 'li 1 Yc il1:111 n' ,l,lc' l1h h:11r lwcoa n t 111\ll't' prio;on-likl' . Sucic 1 1 ha' illtolll t' t :tl'l'l' l'l':t l (Cnlaen 1!lH:'1). ldt :t, o i' tlat' JlOII'c 'l' ol tlw g-;11.c h ;IIT l)('l'll a pplitcl i11 dil'l'I'St' 1,a1~: pc 1 l1ap' ont 0 ;.
01

or culture. Suc 11 dtll'iopmcnl' mighl aJ,o rl'ilcct a chan~c fro111 an inclu'irblto :1 po>t indn~lri:tl ' 'lt'itll. l lcll<t', L' a1 ' an.tkt, di,tincliun' bl't\\'tt.n mode rn tp. 1001 :uu l po'l JJlCickrn n tlt ll l't'' i nd 11,11 i;ll a nd pn... t industrial .;uritt t''. and m a" 1011 ris111 :111d po, t totni,l1t.

9.5.1

The tourisl gaze

lltl' III OI't' '' " pt j,ing , i11 tlll :t n a h;;is of' tourism .

l ' r rl' id l' nli lit' u lllltll iH I o l lt-a tu rts ul' to uri ~ll1 in gc lll'ral. o r 11 11:11 r a11 la ra ll l'd 1 11:1" tollr,lll o l lilt co nl t'll1por.ll '\ ptriod . L' l'l'l' ( l 990.t: ~- 1) id t' lltilit., tlt l' lul lolling nia11 a-.pt'l'l' 11 11 icil cldillt' '' '"' ,111 :

1. St'p:u.llio ll o l 1101 'k .111d tolll'i,111. "' .1 Jt-i,un .1r1i1ll'. " clilft'l'l'lll '(Jhel't'' col lil't-.
2. l all'olle, llltll'e'llll'lll .a11cl a, , ;~ in .t clilkrt'tll plan or pl.ttl''

:t
l.

I' I:H'e'' ,1,1\c'd in :u e clilkrl'nl lt om place~ ldll're tht tnurbt twt malll lill-' ' a11d 1\'oth.,, htll lile llltll i-.t 11 illte'lllln lo IHlllll' .md 11m k.
l'l;~n-.

'i'ited .u e dilfl'tt'llt lrom 11ork.

.'l . . \ ,uh,tantial ' p.111 ol tlll' popttlation t'JH~a~C' in tnurio;m , and i1 i' a ~ocial a< lI ill lo bt t'll11tra-ll'<l 11i1lt tnorc indilicl11.tl :111cl in,uunll'nlaltr.IITI.

6. l'lan-. \i,ittcl an
1.

< ho.;c11 btcH J,l' ol thl' alllicipation o[ pk:t\111'1' and dillcn111

c'<ptri~ltC'l'' lro111 th<ht' imohtd in normal. cnndal l'Xpt-ril'IHT.

The g:lll' oJ' 1111 10111 i'l i~ lo lt-ature' 11hich are di ll'cn: n t l'rom tilO~\' tlol 'llt:tlh l'll{'(H111l l'i'('( J. 1Jai -: i111pJl'' g lc ': tl l' l 'l'llSilil'il~ tn tltl' ,.,11:11 lh:tll 1\Cll'll1:tJI\ OCC111'' in l'l'l'l'l'(l:ll' li k. rl ll''l' k:ll11 1 'l'' :tl't' thcn rqJroclurcd in phnlogr:tplts. po~l l':ll'd ' a11cl >et
Cl ll.

~ . T h is lcot 1ri'1 g:1 11' is ro n ..:trllt lt'cl th l'ollgh 'ig n,, ' \ \ 'h t'11 lo ll r o; ls 'l't' tll'o JH'P i>k ki., ,i ng

in l'ari' ,,Jt:ll th cl' I< IJl ll llt' i1 1 th l' g:llt' , " t inll'lts' rcnll :ll t li c l'ari, ... \\'h t n a ' 111:tll l'ill:tgt i11 En g la nd i' S\'t' ll , ,,ll :ll lht'l g:1/t' 11pon i' tl ll' "n:t l o ldt Eng i:11HI " ( l . IT~

1!l!lO:a: :1).

Figure 9. 1 A prisoner in his cell, kneeling al prayer before lhe central inspection tower. (Source: Foucault,
1977.)

\l. Touri'lll .tc'llt'1,t tn a11 ' :t ll':l~ ol' IOIII'>t prok"ion:aJ, ... 1dao :t lletnpt e'll'l-111'1\ ohjnl'- o llill lnllti't g.lll'. (l. rry. 19\lfla: :1) .

10

reprocl ut e'

!'-.uch lclltl'i'111. cll "'"" totll i'1t1. dc1l'iopl'd in tltt lalt' llill t' lt't'llth nntu t 1' in thl Brili,Ja pr:tt tic e ol tht lll.l"- llllllt' Jlle'lll or th(' 1\'orl..ing d;N\ ni ;111 inclll~ll i:al citl lll :1

388

lntrod ucing Cul tura l Slud ies

\t':t~ id c l'l'~Orl

Visua l cul ture

389

tn \1hi t )J t ht Cll' 11'<1~ C0111lt'( tl'<l ])1 t.d lll'a\. rh u, \ j,j l(ll'~ lU on tllc twn h-1\'t''l ro.l\1 o f E11gbnd ra111c tron t Bt .ldf orcl in Ynrk, hit t' and llw IHh t,trial 11ot ki11g rht,, ot Lanca,lli rc trawlltcl 10 nl.H kpool. llli' .trtilitl took a 111.1'' litllll in that hHgt tllllllhtr, of peoplt- el id it .11 the ,,llllt' tinw. ,1, alllht lanorit' in .1 p.tttiutl.tr to1111 11oulcl clme fo1 1he \:lllll' holid.11 ptl iod (a praCiirl' 1ha1 'till h<~s t t''><hlt'' in 111.111\ llllt thct 11 1011 lh aucl < i1ie,J. a11d 1lw .tui1 it1 1\0IIId he org.uti,td ~o 1hat peoplt tended 10 do thc ~ame '>011'> uf thin~-. attd lo g.vt on llw ~ame ,j~llh. Thc clcdim olthc 't'.t,ide re,on lromthc 1970' on11ard' ('t'l' L' 111. l!l!lll.t: :12-9) ha' lcd (() .t g1eattr 1attgt ol to111 i,t .uHI ]ei, ure txperienn-.. a, ll'l'll '' lht dtll'lupntt'lll of au t''-lt'll,iH and I1UTa,ing l ~ global lolll i-,1 indu' u~. .\ kt~ a~ptn Urrys 1m rk i~ his a rgumem 1hat llll' g.vt i-, tt'lllra l tu tlw tmui-,t t''-Pl'l'itnct. T hu' he ma in ta in' tha1 tlH' p rat' ticC'~ o ( lookin g. sudt ,,, the ta king o f pllellog ra ph' ;md th t purc ha,i11g n f po, tcard o,, :li'C' ,tl thc C!ll'l' of' t hl' lOli i'SI a c til i l~. ll oll'l'\ t' l'. gil'l'lt it~ n nt ra lill' the na tu rC' o l 11lc ga; c i' 1101 ,~~ tt' lll1ti call\' d tle loped in L' rry, buu k u n tht to p ic. lluwc1er. he clun suggcst para llc b be tll'ce n ltis no1io 11 of 1he g;l/ l' a nd l lt ;n o f tlw Fre nc h thc o rist Miche l Foucauh (p. ~H) in trncluccd in the pn1iu us ' l'Ciiun . in tha t IIH: g:tl.t' i,~ ~o r i a lly nrga nisc d a m i syste ln:u i., t'd ' ( 19 UOa: :\) . Despitc tlt is, he a lsct lll<liltl< lills tha t, (1) 1 1 1 1'~11~' lO thc ideas F0 11C:111h , ' CIHI ( l' 11 1 !)0 1';tl'~' /-OCic 1its are 1 thl' bas i ~ oJ' SlliYCill a ii Ct' < lll d 1he 11 01'111 :-t li.~: ll inn Of' incli1 idua l\, ancl d t\'l Jopi ng k~' 0 1 1111 li t' < 1 11 1l1t ha~, <ti 1ht d e nH 1 c ra1isat io n e1 1' tlw ll illl'i't ga; v :111 < 1 1he ~ p tc:tac ll- i sa t ion of piare ( l ~l90a: 1:1(1). J hu ,, he a rg u<:~ th:u IIH: rc .tiT in part in dar 1 11 o d ilh rvn l f'tlllltS of 1he g:11e: t lw ro 111a111 ic ami th e colkc l iiT . T h c roman 1ir 1011ri'1 g:t/l' im oh'c.s looking a t ,,ha t ha.; hl'l'll called u ndbtu rbed n a tu ra l beautY' ( L' rn. 1H!lO:t: 1 :}). t hc collectil-c g .ll t' imohes 'lhe presence or large lllllllhers of p('oplt'. and it i~ lht' intnaction betll<.'l'll ~uch large 11Umber~ 1h:u cna1 cs 1hc a 1mo,phc1e o l tlw 1 o u ri~1 p lact. L"rrl' ( 1992) 'llb~equently H'l'ised ~ome ol the-,e id ea~ on tite g.tt.c.. In panicular he rdtt'ntlt'd hi' 'it" 1hat in emphasi~ing tht ga;c lw el id 1101 ll.tnl 10 d tnigt .llt' or play ciOII'II o1 htr a~ptct' of 1ht tou ri~1 expcrien ce (smell. lt'lll pn.uurl' ami 'o Hl ): 1~11 htT. ht :ug-m:. 1h.u i1 , 11lc ,,ualthat i ~ domi nan t or mgani1r.1 1hi' t:tllg't' olt')o.j>t'l iente. ~ !ore llllllldaut al'lil i tit~ like ' lwpping or ll':tlki ng a long a Sl l't'l'l lll'Cilllll' cliflertIH hecau e of lht \'iMtalt' J1\ I'olllllt'lll i11 11 h ic h 1ht1 art car ried o ut. ll oll't'\'tr. L' rrv aclmit' that he d id tHH cl i'u''' th e preci'e na ttJre of the gan in t nough d l' l:til in lti ~ book o n th e to pic. He dc'l'c lo p ... thi' in more clcta il. firs1 1)1' s holl'ing- II H' ll':tl' in ll'hidt lht co n n:p l n i tit e gaLC tl w t h l' l' mp l o~s is de rin:d f rom ancl co n ti nu o u ~ ll'il h d 1t' wo rk o( Fo uc n d t. :utd seconcl bl' g'l' IH'I'<ll jng SOilll' ideal l~ p es o f' cli f"lere 111. fI'Ilh ol' 1h e 1< liii'Sl g a /l' \\' lt ic it oiJ1a i 11 in el il'f'lonn t <.: n l11t'Xh. T h i ~ c nabJe, Ll rry lo prod uce 1he t in lolcl cn ~tgo ri~a t ion o ( tit e gaze rtprnd tiCt'd in T able 9.:t In d t,do ping t h t ~t' ca tcgo rics. L' r ry dra\\'s u pon tite \\'ol k o l' Sharra tl ( 1~HH ) a ml illCOI JlOI':t lt'' IJj.'> di sn JS~O ll o f d iffc rCII I typC'S nf ]ooking i11 10 h i.'- \'NSiOII of' ti H' gaze. J loll'<'l't'l . a ... 11i ll i>t" ~ h 0 \1' 11 lw lo11'. i1 is pm~ i bk 10 ust Sha rra ll \ 11 ,d'ttl c negorisalio ns in 1ll hl'r ll':t\'S. T h t kt~ a ~ pec t o l' L' rr,s ll'o rk l r th e prcsent discu"iun i ~ thi' t' mp h a~i ~ o n lhe CL'll ll'alill o ] Lhc gat.e. f-IOII.C\.t'l', in accord II'ih Jlll' Jlt t' llll' o f' histori r al c hangc in ' i ~ua l cu ltu re in 1h io; chap1cr. i1 is a l ~o importan 10 con , idtl l lny's argumc nt in this rtahn. p:tt ltll l:tl'
~ l onr:unbt

Table 9.3 Fonns of the tourist gaze Romantic Solitary Sustained immersion Gaze involving vision, awe, aura Communal activity Series of brief encounters Gazing at the familiar Cornrnunal activity Series of brief encounters Glancing and collecting different signs Collective organisalion Sustained and d idac tic Scanning to survey and inspect Solitary Sustained immersion Scanni ng and active interpreta tion

Collective

5pectatorial

or

Environmental

Anlhropological

or

Source: Urry (1992: 22)

9.5.2

Postmodernism and post-tourism

l ' ny '"~gl''" 1ha1 thett , dt~t lopin~ or ha'\ dt,doped a ftm of p<>-1-10111 i'111. 11hid1 i'
t'l1g':t~l'd in h1 lht po,l-l<llll ,l. 1 ht ]>D'-1-touri, 'don tllll halt' 10 ll'a\l' hi' 01 hcr homt

in ordl'r 10 '-l'l' m,lll\ ol lhl' ohjt'( h ol lltt l<Htri,, ga;e. E ']>l'Ciall~ llilll allCI ,icko t'\l'l'\lhing t.lll 11011 lw '.'l'll. nottd. lompand ancl conte)o.lllaliLl'cl. ( I!IHR: :17). FurlhcJ mon. 'lht po,I-IOIIt i't , pt~,founclll ;n,;ut of ch an~e ,utd dclight.. in lhl lllllllilt1dt or tlwiu. ( 1!ll'IH: J;-{). In . onll ,,, lo lht ~ IU:II ion ldtl'l'l' a Id tole l0\1'11 1101 del go :tW:t\ ICI tht ~alllt' \l',t,ick loll'll al 1h e ,,1111l' tilllt' ol' 1he ~tar. ti te n i' 11 e111' g-na 1 a ncl iiH'Il'<t-I I).{ c hoice ol 1nuri'1 dt, tin:t lio n:-. ancl cx pcrit ncc.s. Fina lly. 1hc pos1 -tn uris1 i' imn htcl in ,t gaml'- th l' ga nw o J' 1o n 1 isn1.. \, L' rn cx plai ns: thl' pml-1 !111 1,, i ~ lht IWI''itllll lto klHIII'' tlta l lte or ~h e, .1 1 0111 i ~ l . 111.11 i1 i~ a g-a nll'. o r l':tllil'l' ;t 1\'ltoit- St'l t'' o l g':lll ll'' ll'itlt lllllilipll' 1 CXI' ;md 110 ;;inglt, <l llllit Jii \' 1eJt ll'b l C'X IJL'l l'lltt'. l'lit fltt'l -teHJI'\1 kn o\1'~ lh;tl lll' o r .;IJc ll'ill han lO fJ11<.' 1 l.' Ill h' an d ti llll' :t~ai 11 . 1ha t llitrt 11 ill he ' ll a,~ l < ~ Ol'< 'l' fore ig1 1 l'XChang-e. tlt:u rl w {l el'~' hrer lll ll'l' , :1 pil'c< < l' pe p r ld ltll'l'. 1ha1 1hl ':tt 1 lhln lit' i<lCtl e nte r1aIIIIl t:lll b as ~or ial il' C< lll ii'I't'd as i ~ litl' 'clltnir' h:11 . .tud 1h.11 lltl' q ua inl ' t i ~hing 1illagc' pre~e rw d in a~pir e ou ld 11o1 ' 111'\ \t' ll'i li ll HII lhl ll( e>IIH' 11'!11 11 1011 1\11 1. ( J!l:-lf\: ;\;-{) L' r r\' :1rg11t''\ 1ha1el tl t' lo ~ocia 1 c ha ng< to11an 1~ postmod e rnis m (p. 1 00) . .1po,l-ltllll i ~ 111 hao; dtl c loplcl. l'hi' ~nr i : d l h a ngt' i~ r h:J racll'ri o;td bY thnt g. ner:tl p tcH t'"l'': fir,l. a c hange in 11h:t1 \l't' rol1'11111l': 'lTeHHI. ch a ngt in ll ll' nalll re ol our idenl ilit,: .tnd ll tircl , the clt\elopnwnt .tnd IH l'.'.l't'd inll llt' llCt' of middlt-t l:t" social ?;l'tliiP' C:onrt'1 11ll)!,

390

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Visual culture

391

\\'hi lt it 111:1\ lw 'uggt,l('(l tha l tltt l..ind o l poqmockrn to 11ri'' pr.anin.; 1lt :11 l ' n , Jabel' pmt-tnllri'l 111:11 lw ronlinl'd to tlti~ ~rnup initia lh. hi;; poin1 i' that ht'C.III~~ ol1he inrrea-.ed o,alitnn and inflllt'IHl' n i thi~ ~ nup 'urh prartirn art likl'l, to htt otnt. mnlt' wid e~pnad. In la< t. o1w implit.llion ol L11, , mon rc.-cent worl.. 11'ith ';roll l..1.,h ( I_..,J alHI L-n,. 1!1!1-1 ). llht'll' the1 pl.11 do11n tlw imponann of da" di.,tIH titllh in .111

1hlllg up .JIJOH' l .akt RtHomahana. Tlw~t w~:n dt,lrm~:d l11 1nl< .III< L'IIIJ>Iinn' 11 11:11'\ti allhoug-h pho.lot: ' 'P"' _ol rhnn h:ne rcm.tinl'cl popuhu l'l ,., ,inn. '1 Jl:'1 .Jrt a ll'l' IJknt o llll aii i .IU IOil l'l't'll 1 1 1hn han 1101 l'Xbtl'cl fw a Ct'lllltn . \'cm. 11111t'l'tr. lhtt ~: ,a pl:~n '" l't'C'I'L'at~ l ht phl ,tcal :lllt-;tc lio tl hl' n iiiii IIg gcot ht'l llla l \l':llt'l mt' l ani fi cialll' l~ut.ll..'l'l ~": ':L::-. 111 an L'lll i rd~ d irli.Tt' lll lncui o n . bu r tll lt' cl t"L' to l'X , ri 11g lourb t f o~u lltt t'.' llu:-. ~t'l o l what IIIJg lll be callccl th t tn cd le rrarts 1-i ll loo!-. 1110 .-1. aullltn lic 1h:11 1 llt l' ori,l.(.ill al 11 lt ir h , on )~ knCl\1'11 ;JIHllll lwr.ttht' 0 1ht 11 III Hircd-war u ltl plH llllgnpllll llii:J).\"l'' ( L' rn . 1\l! lO:t : 1 11 _ 71

~ !>opul:u nint'll'tJllh-nHlll~ 1ourio;1 :ull.lclion 11.1\ a 'l'l ol pinl.. and 11 hill.' lt'll.\ce,

inrrca,in~h rdkxiH nHllempnr:u 1 'ociet1. , 10 ,ug~L''' that ,omc. ol dlt''l' pt' lltitl'' ha\'C incltTd nmtcl 0111 ltolll the 'lT\ irc cJa,, tu u tht'r cla"' lranion ...

9.6

The glimpse, the gaze, the sean and the glance

~t'.td among ~umt group~ lor tlw de~irc fur 1hc au thenlir' c.xwrienn. or tht ;,,1111 ra l. as 111 ~l,'t.'. popt~hu it1. of' hill 11.1ll..ing .mwng renain ~oci;d group~.

Scc'''." l. i11 a~c.,rd. ll'ilh Hlter IITtcrs 011 pmlnH>dl'rni' lll , L' l'l')' m :tintaim that our o~ 'l' ~ l. o r de n lll)' (p . ~2-1 ). is , iJiftitJg in ('(ol1 t t'll1J>orar~ so r ie t1. \\'e ar~: muc h less oo ted ~~-~ . llllll' :l lltl ~pace 1h a n ll' l' l'<' p co pk in J)l'l'l io m lilll t'' \\ 't :tl'l' 11011' ;llltili:1r ll'ith n .an ~ d lll trt n ~ t'tpn.'~t'tll a tiun ~ o l dilferc nt r llllltl'l'' a 11 el p iares. eh,,. ,,, 1ht ir ;11ai labil ll' 11~ r~11 1g h 11 ll'. " ' u.tl mt_d i:t, a n d t ht 1 a e l JI 1a 1 pt'oplc n 011 1r:11l'l 1 110 rl. a nd l'Xpl'lit'nc~ ~lll ltt t' lll . 1h 1ng'. ~o L JT~ 'ugg<'~ts th:n \IT lust o u r wno;1 of , l'l fh nod anc l became 1111 oh'ed 111 p l:11 l1'ilh di lkrcn t imagt~ ami cliffet l'lll e:-..perietH't'' P. tracloxira lh. th i ~ can
St' ll'L'

O th e r \l'tll'k h a ' d tH lnw d th t idl'a o f 1111 .::tt l' in rath e r dilfc t'L' lll di rcc1io n ' to th ow p tt rsu e d 1 11' L' n Y. For ex:llnpll'. iu 11o rJ.. on lit l' difl(rt' ll Ct'S ht tll't'l:' ll tel c \i,iol1 :tnd ll w CIH' tlla . .Joh n Ellis ( 1 \IX~l dr:lll'' a ck :tr cJi.,t in nion lw iii'L'L ' ll tlll' g"~'' ll'h ic h . l'n ll n ll'ing :\llth o rs Jike i\ Ja r(:ah e iiiHl ~ Jnht l, J w :tssoci;ll t'S II'rll fo t' llh of dom inant CiiH' Il1a . :tllcl th e glruJtl' ll' h ic h c h a ral. l l' t ' i ~t s tltt 1\':tl' 11t:u tl' ll'l bion is l'iCII'l'cl. l'c lc 1i..;ion is a tllllllt'Sli r m edi ta m ( ~ltll' l l'l', l ! l ~t \) and du 1. to it .; plact' in h o us~: l wlcl rolltim' i..; rl' hlli l'l'l\' rard1 lo oJ..c d at in th t 11': 1\' 1h :n lih11 o; :11\' in IIH t'itH'Illit. \\"h ~: n 1\'at chiltg te ln i,ion ll'l' are n f't t' ll d o ing ot h er lh in g;, ( iro ni ng. p l:t1i11 g 11i lla r h ildt'l' tl. clo ing h ome11n rk. read ing tlt1 n e 11''Paper) and d o no t gi\'l' 11 11: ~n t't' n o u r lll :tlll'tllio n . l t migh 1 he aq; lll'd . tlw 1d n t'. th a t in ron temporan ru lllll't 11'1' 111:11 lw g lanring a' murh "' ~:ving. S11dt a >oinr ot \e11' i' dalJOra ttcl b1 lk1nard Sharra11 ( 1!1~!1) 11 h o d i ~tingu i.;hls betll't'l'll four llllldt, ol looking which txi'l in Cllllll'lli(>OI an cuh u c: the ~l imp~e . thc g.llt'. t lll' ,rn and lill' glance. Tlw gli111p~<. acco 1ding 111 ~h:u rall. i~ ' tht. duc,i r d" llcomplete. thtlll.{h 1101 IH'n~~arih llttliug. chal.tttc.r ol tlll' 1 j,ibilitl of th t di1 in e. of powe1. t'\'l'll uf the 'l' 'dt.tl' ( 19X9: :)\1). Tlw gli1n J>'t' ni kr:-. ,.., ,, p:n1 ia 1 1 it'\1', pe!l1ap' of .1 Jtprt~l'lll:ll ion t hat i' pott' IHialh poii'L'I fui. 0 1 -.onHthing 11c. dr~i lt'. 11 is perhap~ a rharartcri,tic ol powcr ( p . !l-1). 1hat ... omc t h i n~ ., kt'Jll lt iddt n . ancl llll'refon m.tclc n11 :>tt>riouo; <~11<1 th l'l':llt'll ing. Tlw gatc ," m url' prolollgtcl lo111t ol louki llg .. \ccorclin~ to Sh arra ll . it co 11,,,, ni th rcc regi m cs. 1 h e l ir~ t. rt p n~tn t a li un. is a rl'g imc ~i mil a r lo rh:ll icktllil itcl l11 :\JacCab t in his t"\:t i\Itl :lli n tl olllll' c Ja " C rc a[i,lll' Xl. rh c id ea i.o; th a t ' !llll t' llt ing c:llt he replT~l'lll c d iu it ~ kty nt n pre,;t nt a tile lonns ll'h ic h co t11cl a \ t' IISt' o( rl':tlitl llt:ll is ope n tn :tll. Reprodurtinn 111pli es that 'ome t h ing ca n h t. conpll'tl'il' rcprodtiCcd . th a t a f'ull pinure can hl' g i\'e n . lln11t.wr. tit e n is a clc:r st. n st. in ll'hic h dais loma itnplits llt l' art i flri itl , " \l't' :trt' ol lt'll lw in g g il'l' ll ccop L '' of swll t' l lt ill{. 111t ic h suggtsts o;olllt.' clcg'l'tt. ofartilin in th (' rqwndnttillll . T h l' 1hird H'giu w or tit e gat.l' io; th l' sp cct:llo r i:t l. ll'lti ch d escribe ' tl ll' 11:t~ in 11'hi c h a 'Ptctar o r tll:tl' lll' lo oking . lll' g:11.ing. o n :111 ac111:tl. ra i iH' r than a repr od llced . l :t llrl ~c:t w. Sh a1 r:m idc nti li ts ~l' ll 'L'' of tlt l' :-can . ,,Jt iclt are concemccl II'th tl w opt'l a lio n ol power in modem o;ocittito;. i11 "" s d e i1 ~:d lrom the II'Ork of' Foura ult . rlH'st <'.111 lw ~ummari,tcl in t t.nn~ o( ,u a ~ti llante. ,u petYisioll . mero;igln' :tllcl ' insH'nio n . T h u~ i11 contem por; ti'\ ~oril't ie~ ll'l' :11 t' ohc.n lltHkr ~UIYeillanre. 1hrough ramt'l'.l' in , Jwp,

t<g.udul .h p.ut of tite \\'urktng cla.s~ ( 19X1: -10 ). T ll l fi1 ur kattll'l'' of art '<'t out i11 llttt:-..uan lrom L' n: (I!IXR: 10- 1) in l1 o:-.. !l. l.

~ '"'.' . (~w aho l..t~h ancl L'rn. 191{7). Tlll'~(' :11'<' gt'<>IIJh th:u ' ndtlwr 0\1'11 nor .:el" .cl~t.tl.h managc. capital. :.111CI whir.h ran~ot I)(Tall'-c or di~tint. tio 11:. 0 t:Ne be ~implr
th~: st1 ...-in cJass

l lnnl. L ''~

hnJ..~ 1he~e

p<htmodern dell'lopmetll' 10 tlll' inllut'IIU' ol tlw

~t'tYice

Bo.\

9.J
Features of the service class
St' l o l p la ce.'>. in

tlll~ll ll: th~ OI~IHT,h tp ol ca pual: (~ l ll'll ic h :ll't lon n ecl 11it h in :t ' t.' l of in tl' rlorking S~K t:l l. tllsttllll tol1s ti t<tt 'sen ice ca pi ta l: (:~) in ,,it ic h s 11 pni 11 r ll'urk a lid '"" rk t t
' lllt:lllo ns an to lw li 1und parti c u l ar! ~ hcc: n tst. ol 1it c cxi, tc tH'l' 11 (' 11elf-d e llaHd r; ~rt.'L'r'; :tlt.d ( 1) i1.' " 'hiel t.' llll'l 1~ ge n c t a ll~ r cg l lat c d ltl' tl w <lil'f'e n nti a l posst~,i o n o l rredt'll lt.tl o; 1 1htrl t putc llli : dl~ '-l'IYc. to cl('lll,\ITa tc ~ u ch .1 ~~.a 1 i 1 1 rJ;~, from th c 11\ort. gt'IIL'I a l ll'h ll'-COJi ar II'OI' ktT'.
l 11 \ ( 1!l/l~: 10- 1)

~TJIJ:~t

t~ll'

s:1r ial di1i,ion

ufl:~bout

( 1) l1'hida do IHIL princ ipall y

392

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Visual culture

393

lor exa1 nple. 11hich ma1 H 111:11' 1101 lw Jt't c)I'()n); 0 11r at'IIHI~. Such SIJI'I'\'i llancl' 1 11a1 be tlStd Lo '-llf)t'r\ -.c a11CI nrdl'l o ur beha\'OIII , :1 s 11htJ1 G1111 t'i'a' are ll'trl i11 llw proce~~ of nm,cl to111rol. Fltrthtnnol!'. lht ~can imoht' uotio11' ni uH:J,ight .111<1 in-.penion. 11 1lw ~l'll't' ol hein~ lool..td mtr ancl out hd1a\ou1 ot appt.Jr:lllte in,ptt ltcl . H t' n1plit' a fkl'lillg' or rapicl (tllll\ nf lool..iug-. 11 hL're lhelt' i'" rapiclalc)ll of T ht g i.11 rq{i.-.Jr;uon ' .1 1HI a po.-.q)o11t' lllt'nt of llw g limp~c aml tl w g-:1/t': a tJ L'IJH'IJJal pruc ra~l ina !on (ratlit' l 1hanlook long ata lanclsca pc lll' lakt pil o t o~ lora l'uttll'l' ~tT LIInl l h.lt llt'l't:J ;ui'e,)' ( ~haJI.HL I!IH!l: 101 . Through lhl'\l' Lllt'go it,. \\l' tan ho1h 'uggt''' ltllllh ol '''~' ol lool..ing 1dlich t hangT hi-.ltlricalh a11d idt'lllill dilfert:lll idl'al 11 I H'~ oJ' lonl..ing 1dlich 111.1~ lw mobili ~t:d in the anual : lllall'~i s ol' fonu s ul ,-j,ual t' llliurt . Tllll'-, lh ert ma~ ht .1 -.hi l't frnm a domiualllt' oJ' th e g liJJI(l'-t' in pn: modeJ'Jl SPCil' ll . ll'htJ't' po11cr OJWI':lll'cl tlirougiJ 111\'.Sltn a11d kel'ping ;hJH'<l' ot ihl'lf hiclckn. Tamali-.ing g-Jimp-.(~ ,,m del he gin:-n tn m,e 01 iuuigut illl' pop11h11io11. \ lorkrn JlOIIt'r relatimh .lit' maimain~c:d In tlw lorm-. of ~liiYeillanrt and insp<:cliOJlof lhl' popuhuinn de~n ilwd in 1he sean. and 'i'ual ndlttrt , :d~o char:ICI\'i'bcd bl' tlie cJ(nlopmt'l1l ol l'urm' o/' illt' g<t/l' :i' in phnltig' J '; tph~- and lhl' cilltllt:t <ksrribcrl abon. Tia ~la11 ce impli e.~ a 'lwtcl-lljl o t' lik a'> imagt' lla~ h bt t'u rt' ~~~ mon rapid h . Thi~ i' wa a'ptct ol 11 ha t IJ;, ht'l'll ll'lllll'CI late nr poslmodernily ( p. -100 ). \lhlrc ''"l' are :..lid 111 inhabi1 a ml'clia-,aliii.Jltd ,oril-11 . llmH'\l'l, in addi 1ion 1 0 tl'ing Sh.ur.ul~ c;negoli(, in 1his ,,;11 in ll'rlll ' of1lw hi,IC>rical tht'l11l'lll 1hi-. chapu:r. lhl'l' can al"1 bl' ,ecl in lt' Jl m of lhl' ~l' l'll l H I in thl' anah'i.' offnl'lll'- ol 1i-.ual cu lture. In panintlar. il is import:Jlll lo romickr lclJ'lliS o!' looking ll1a1 do n o t cnulorm lo 1h e ~<lll' a~ sel tHll ll\ '11ch as ~ l uh't'l anrl L'nY. a' i11c'l' ma1 bl' r!J .t rancri~ li c ol thc ,,;w in ,,IJit:h a ntllnbe ol lon11' of 1i'ual cuhun ;u t' ;ICtualh app1 op i:ul'rl. 1 hu'. :.onH llf lht .lllah..,es of .l(l~< ll i,ing txaminl'd in (.h.q>ll'l :! \l'<>ldd 'l't'lll 111 in1ph through 11Wil clost attcntiou to 1he adn nSt' llll'l11~ tht'lll '-l'ht' 1hat th tl art appropria1ccl 1hrongh a COI1CC111r:lll'cl g:JZl', ll'ht'll 1 1 lan l h l'~ :ut IJIOI'l' likeh 10 lll' glanccd :11. 1hi ~ al'o r:~i.~ts thc i111p01 1:1111 i"tlt' ol' ho11 1 isual reprnt'lll:uiolls .tn ll ll'gmtecl i111o lhl' rc l a1 i on~ of l'l'tncJa, iuteraction. 10 ,,hit h ,,ue ll'l' uo11 111r11.

ge nom populatio11 make... l'or 'slinHilw; mTl'ioad' in tlw i l lrlil'icl n al'~ expert'llCl'. Tlw 'urhanite' :tdapl'- lo ll\'l'rload b1 c h oo~ in g and priorilising. SinCt mbanitl''- ha~t ma111 nwre contact~ 1\'th pcoplc 1han nral-d11d1<:1 ' 1hcy ll'IHI 1t1 kl'l'P lhl''it' roul.H" brid and ~uperfiria l (<liH' fihnic t''\alllplc i, 1he 'J>knclid ~u~lll' 11 hl'lt' C1 ocmlik Dnndce. rrcsh from lhe .\11\ll':tlian Otl lhacl... e nckaiOtlr~ lO g-reel tI('J'\1111L' he 111 l ' t'h ()JI a :\el\' \'ork slrcct}. L' r i )<JIIilc~ minimi.' l' imu l\'t'llll'lliS 11'lh unacqnaJ1 1 cd pcrsom b~ a ra nge ul' m ea~ UI'C' '- including. f'or cxam pk. g-i,ing- loll' prioriti' to thc 1<'C(lll''l' nr di,lrt'" ol'o1 1i n~. a''''nling an 11111'1 icndh etH111It'I1:111Ct' 11htn IJ.tnlling on public lr;ul'poll. or b1 ~dtu in g 11ho Glll approach llwm b~ tclq>hom h1 going ex-dilt'Cton or l..eeping 1he ;tlli-1\'('I'Phone :llnl<l'l pt nn anc nll~ turnccl 011. The~t lllt' Ll lllrl~ or dealin~ ll'illl Olcr)tacJ C<lll re:;ult in a11 :tllt'll tJ:llinn or 11 ithdrall'al o l lllt' ('1111111Wll CO I I I ' t <~ i es. li kt rt' l'll ~ ing to g i\'l' up on e's Sl':Jl to an t' lderh 1 wrso n or l:tiling 111 a po l o~i,t tolh c per:>on om h asj u~t collickcl "ith .. \t \1or'1 1hcre b thc phtnomtnon ol 'bl~la ndcr apa1 h1 : pn-.on~ ha1-e bt>en kidnappecl. ,c,erd1 a<.,aultecl and t'ITll 11111rckrecl in bu,, public plan, becau~e no Ont ll'otlicl ro me 10 tlw \ c lim ~ airl . 1\on-imoln' mtJJI lwcomcs 111t' shit'ld 1h a1 urbaJlil cs use 10 prolt'<'l tiH, nlsthc, lrwn mcrload. lhn thc prc.~t' IY~tti on o l pri1'aC1 i~ SOllll' l hing thal a !so rt:(jiiI't''- pc >-iil'l' act.s rnllll 0 1hers: tiiCI' lllll'l :ICI lllll'<ll'd ~ tht ~l' lf in lhl' :-.t n~t w;w that -.c lf acts to,,;u ((, 1hcm l'n1 orckrh lil'e in puhlic 10 be su-.lainl'<l. Tht' !{t:llnal orderlim<.~ o l pnblic place~ is acrompli<.llCd through lht IIH'Ihod ... and ;,tralt'!{t's that pt'oplc cm pl01 1dlt'll \\alking clcll\'11 1he Slr<TI. a,l..ing dircctions. b111ing goods i11 <1 shop a 11CI so rorl h. In 1he acco111plish m en 1 ol' 1h i., ordcrl i ness. ordi nan praclicc,.; ol' looking and making in l'crl'IICl'.'- tlll 1he ha-.is ol' ll'hal is set'l1 arl' Cl' lll r:d. Th~ IT~>l o f 1his ~tction <' ton,ider~ hcm ... ocial organi,.nio n a nd cuhuralu JHI<-r.standing' fig ure in lhe ~e ordinan looking aJHI init'rl'nce-mal..ing p r;IClicc,.

9.7.1 1Categoric knowing: appearential and spatial orders

Puhlir /Jiart,, nm be cldincd a~ tho't' silt~ in a sm it t ~ 1hat are lnd1 acccs;,ihk 10 ptrsOI1' hiiT<'l". :.tatio11' ancl -.o on) and ,,hich can ht COIIll< l'tl'd \\ ilh fnhwft filan' hmh a' honH ~ ami nffilT~) 111wn arn''' i' re~ l rirl\d and ,,h irh 111.11 on l\' bl' g r;uHed ))1 imitation (Colfman . H16:~a: ~1; I.olland. IH 7:~: 1~1 ). Obl'iou-.!1- lht dislint JioJ1 is 11o 1 ab~olt1l c: thl' t'e arl' Joc:1 1ions. likt GPs' 11ai1ing roo1ns or rn.ta u J';HJis, that haw a l11bricl stalm . .<;cm i-puiJI ir pl.tcl',. a nd ollter piare:- li kt a irpons 111lich card ul h clt'I11<1J'Calt' J>ll bJic p lan.> <. f1 11111 lh O~t' lhal ill'l' l'l'~t rictcd lO \~lriou.; C:JI\'~01 ie' of pt'l"lll ( )Jt'O)>It dropping off or colltcl ing lriencl-. and nlatIT'- g.uhcr gro und ~ ide' . ,,h ile pa'-'('llg-er,. ai rli nc person nc l ;md ~ccu ri 1~ ''al'!' hn1c arce~~ lo a irsidc ). In p u bl ic plans m" n 1 of t ht ptople 11e t:: ncoullll'r ll'ill he kiiiJ\\'11 lo u~ o11 l ~ in rrt/r gorit' lt'l'll!S. \\'e icknli(\ 1hcm a~ 'f't Jnak.-. '11 hi te' , 'elclcrly' . 'll'all.. ing ll'ith " lin1p'. ca l t'{OI'ie~ 1ha1 l\'e can {kan lrom l'i'ilal e u cs. unlikt l hO~t \\'{' 1-.ncl\\ prnOIIfll~\'. 1hat i-. Jho~t abcHil 1dw~e biog apl11 ll'l' knoll' some 1hin~ - grea1-aun1 ,\lai~ie 11'!10'<; bttn lincling it diflicuh to get aronncl sinct lwr ;,JI la~L ~tar. ,\ g-a in. ra tq.{oric and JH' Nl nal knowing ar<' mcJ T I~ <'llcl~ ol a l'OIIIil llllllll. Tht' modem (p. lOO ) citl' dilkrs l'rom ih p1 c-i J Jdu~trial C<H IIllnllarl in ,jgni licuu \1',1\, .. \ ccordinglo !.111 Lofland ( 1 97:~). publi( lilt in Cll''' 111.1Cit' po..;~ibk 1lnongh th<:

9. ,_,/

Visual interaction in public places

r he ligllll' olllwf/lll'l/1. \\l' hal(' noltcl. took plco;l,llll' inllillll'"ing IIH' 'ighh afTmckd b\' iJlt' pttblic plaCt'S <Jil() ~j):ll'l'' of lht III OcltTn CII. \\'IJal l:tciiiilll'' thl :Jli \ il\' of llll' flrillt'lll'i' llw a non~n1i1 ~ ()[l ile in th t' pnhlir n:a lm . ;1 katu J't nol('d lll Simmc l (p . :~6R) and m;nll o1 lwr COIIIJm'lll alor..;. Sin1111l'l .-.:111' thi' aJWJll mit1 and ill t' :tcro mpan,in.( 1'\''t'I"'T a11cl hla ... :JIIi1111k ,, cJnub(e tclglcl: 1111 tlw oiH' hancJ il tnl.ll'~l" lhl' COj)t' of indil idu.1l f1t'l'clnm htl o11CI '' ha1 "'' po"ihll' in ,111,111-,cale rural '"< it'l\', lnn 011 tlw n1h er i1 c'l'(':Jil'd condilio11~ 1h:11 ' l'l'lll to ilnpo~<Tish colknil'c hum.m txi-.Hnn. J'hS CJ'iiC:tJ Jinc is t']J ic)lll ,;d (~ boOK' ll'ilh Iilt ~ lil..t 'J'/11 f(/ /f tf f J{J//1 ,\/f/1/ u~\ ' ll lll' ll , l!)/7) :ul<l 1'111' l .mu[y ( .'r i!ml ( Rti, JH:tl1 ,., fll.. 1 ~ 1:,:~1 . . \ ~ol'i;d p~1'C I H>lngi, 1 I\1t i11g in 1l1is 1radilio11. S1anlt1 \lilg1.1111 ( 1!170 ). 'll,!..(l{t'''' 1h.11 tiH til,, lar~l'. cll'll 'l' and ht'I('IO

394 lnlroducing Cultural Studies

'oa<krin.( ol urhan populati<>lh b1 lhl'ir .1p1w.tr:111Ct' ancl 1>1 llitir 'PIIi.d lnt.llio n . Shc
'''\{~t'''' 1h.n '' i1h i 11 a l i 11 ,11 :u1 ~cr' kno11 a grc.11 dt:d .1bou1 ctllt' :11101 h l'l ,i m 1 >h hr lookitH.( (l .olland. 1 97:~: ~~. tmpha~i' rt'lllll\t'd l. lln tht,j, , 1ha1 lht prtindu~tli;;l
dt~millalt'd lll apptarential orckring: tlll' di,I11(1I't' ("thll1111t' and in,igni.t ,,-0111 h1 >l'ople 1.{<1\l' ',1t<11l'l"idenn ol 'orial1~111k :111clocn1pa1ion. l lw p1t' ndu'll ia l cill 11a\ llttldtt'lt' m at ,1, br!{t' ,1, h modt-rn t'!JIII.dtnt .IIHithu' ll't' ol puhlit 'Jlltt' 11a, n;i,td " pri,oll' IH'I'l' huill m.1rb1 palan, aiHI rirh .111d pow liHd in llit ,,llllt' p.u h ol to1111 _ ~1;1111'. lq,:i tiln.llt'd b1 l.1w .111cl n1,10111. 11a, cxpn"h "111holi,td i11 d ot hi11g 11hich

Visual cullure 395

imponanl in tht moth-rn
t

i11 .tnd 1ha1 in _.:i l'l1 i11~1.mn' 1woplc ,,jll tnh:IIIC'l' d~t

e i11 11a,

rcliahilill ol'il1lL'rttH't'' .tlunll 'tr:tngt'l'' ll\ ht ingin ~ to l)(':tr tlwi1 tatq~ot icd knmdl'cl~t ofpl.lu' \ 111 tlllllhlllnlilllltcillt t.lll'~orit.d h.no1d n lgt ol "J>IH',\I,tll Ct'' l n~ttdt'l lllitnthl't cun~idtr tlw com plt"\iti<., ol 'lit h init' I'<' IH t' mah.in!!. on tlw ha,, ol ob,tn .thil- k.lllllt'\ o l Cll'f'IClal lile 1\l' lll'l'cl lO Ulll 'cltt 'OIIll' "'IJl'Cb of thl' \\lll k ol 1 nillt: (. oll lll.lll ( 1\1~~-H:l). J>l'l'hap' tht ptt'l'lllilll' lll ... dtol.u ni 1.1\ \'lof.ltl' llll'l.lt tion . o l 11h,11
tralhpirc~ ll'htn pl'opk < lit' in OIH' anotlttt , ph"ical pn,tnn.

<Tafhpt'1 )011 . t'llltTiai lll'l . pril''t. 't'l 1.1111 01 11 adtt . Puhlic rHdnlillt'" dt' IH'Ilch 11po11 th <> pt> rsollal :qlJH'.tl;tiHt' o l tht 'll.tllg t'l' rdi.thh i11clt-:-.ing lhtir ,andin ~ iu ~ol't' l ' . lu < Oll lr:" l 1lw ut odn u < i11 b do11111alcd In >p:ll i:d onl\'l'i11g. ( :oii,dt'r.t l>h l.trgel in arva :111d popula1 iu11 1lian i1~ pninclu~ ria l cut lllll'I'J>:II t. it t' II\'Oillj):t"t'' a II'dt ra ll gt 0 ' Pl'ria 1i'('d ; ('! i1 i 1es :111d :lll l'Xlt'll\ \'t> d YSilll1 n f' I:JI 1<>111'. , \ t 1I'tin l ha 1 l'<> lllllle)11 h n t'l' lll rtcl ll p11l> lic pla <'cS, liu l'X:unp lc t lll' tdtll ':ti<>II "' r h ild l't'll . thl' l' lilllili:U inn hl1111<11l 1\':l\li'' :111d llll 1HIIIi >h lll t' lll o( o(J't' IHit-1'..;, .ll'l ' 11\111 CeH l ii lll'd II'IIJi ll 1\':dil d SJ.l,lt't'>. l't1 so11s :ll't' , jf'lcd :md o;onecl in tu d is<Tt' tt 'pans :1s lll'l>an land tl \t' ht'l'Oll lt'S ' IJt'( i a li ~cd. Re,idtllt ial 'cgrl'_;:lli on t'lllt'J').!,'t'' .t long c l.1" .lllcl lt ll nit lillt 'S, l)i,I IH I d i, trin' d tll'lnp: 11< orkingl la" l''l :t l l'~. 111 idd lc-cla " S1 1h1 tri),_ ( :11 i11:11 t l\111,, g lw tl o' :11H1 (' ttrl:tl t'>. ltal ian :uu l g:11 '1 ill agcs'. rcdc,cloped docklanck Thtrt , :tl'o ind 11 ~llial and Collllli <.' IT ial
'q~rtg. uitm : l1dll'll'i;tl ,.,1:1\t'' mall~ and oiiH ll teollll 'IHppin g .111d L'lllcrt:till llll'lll contpkxt' \nd tlll'n.' i~ a~t 'egrq.~.11ion. e,pt'< ialll' :11 l'i thtl cnd ol thl' lik l 1cl(': ro lltgt'' ~el molo; a 11d nnr,cric~ kcq> '< 11111){ lll'nplt nlf tlll' 'll'tTI' .md al''"' l'rom 1101 kpi.H'l'' lor ,i,Lahk parh ol tiH' chtl' 11 hile older ptoplc :11 t' 10 ht lound in holllt'\. .,hdtl'l td hou,in g .1ncl rttinuwnt com nlltllitil'' ~ l otc'Oi l't .

~i~ 1 1ilic~ 1hl' pt'1'1111 .'

'''"11' .h

9.7.2

Unfocused interaclion, civil inattention and normal appearances

,;f

'Copl'l'S\'111' J>L'I'\011'. ,jmph hl' lilllll' o( thl'I t.tp:tr itl llllllll .t ll ~ llllllt111iiiH L',HIIIIlliti' actions. g-enn.llt' .111 anahti r a lh cli~tillgui,h.lbll' dtllllain Lh at Coll n1.111 ( 1 ~1~ :\1 <.t ll' 'tl~t i mcraninn onlt-r' . 111 <~l h t l 1\'ords. 11 hl'll t'l't' l 1\l' a n i11 li t<' at llla 1 p1 tw n<T ()1 o 1h t'l ~ 11111 anio11s an at lta, l in pan .;liapl' d lll n tl t' :nul ll ll cler:-tandi ll g'' dt' l ili 11g lru111 tli l' d e mando; ill lt' I'<ICLiO II . 1\roadh SJll':I K ll g'. tliov 1 1l t'1<1Ci iun;d d t'111< 111 d' ill 1t'fj11 I'l' lll t' lll -' l>o il clo\\'11 lo 111'<1: tlll II IOtmat ion;d a nd 1he r iltl;d (>t'l' Fig nrt \l.~). \\'li t' ll lll' in1crac 1 \1'< 111 \ISI :tCqlli l't ~u llll ' ll( \lltll:t lie Ht aho u t th c mnod. ill l<' lli rtll >. lnt, lllllrt ll i nc~~ . kno\\lt-dg<'ahil ill' :utcl 'o le11l lt o[ ol lt t ~ i11 nrdc 1 L o :tt' ll icll' li \1 1' pr:ll tic:d IHII'JIII'l'' (a thii'LTill g a cut,tioll . gtllillg .111 .tppoi lllllll' ll l 11itlt thL rk nti,l. nh t .dn i n~ clirnloll' to the cimmatltat 1\'l'. l\' h :11ing- trouhk ll lincli11g). Bullll' lllll"l.lllt'lltl Lo ritu:d unn 111'. that i.; ,,.t need tel addn" tia t':-.l)l't'~' i on :tlld cunuol ol nur n11 11 lttlin g" :tnd tltow ol o1hc rs, 'IIOII' ng rt''Pt'CI I0\1:trcl' Htr,t'll .tnd Clln,ideration l<lllard thl ot lll'r (lor t,tkill g up dwir tim e 1d1h 011 1 IJIIt'Il',. lor cxampld . lnlonnation.tl :111d ritu.tl dtnt:IIHI' :11<' intttlcmcd in intt n-; tin ~ 11a" in atwal illl<'lactiun . T akc th c .,implt- .t< 1 o l 11,tlking de m 11 ,, muclcratch- hth\' 'Lll'l'l. 1 hi' i' .111 t'\alllpk u(

nr

,, dll'"

1 ocle,

ht'Comt nmrc lll''\ihk. (O,IIIIlll'

l l'il' l' '

to he .1 'lahle

indit .llol o l
( M' I'

'IH

ial '''"'' Peo plt link tllt'i1 1 lothing 1 hoin, to tlwit .lt II itit, t.lllll'r than

thl'ir ''"'"' olttn cl~t"i 11g up or down or thing dotht, to pl:11 11 ith ' ocial tonwntiu ns aho C.h.lplt'l 7). \\'h<'lt' :1 p<T><>Il:<l:tllds i11 IIH 11to dtrll < 'ill 111:tllt'l'' 11 1o1T tha11 what ht 01 -'ht 1\l'~ll ,; \ linlllll'l' '"'lnl.llt b a 111:\1) in a hnllltl'l'XII.d ha1 .111<1 11e11 llt't t'" " i11 :t 111:111 111 a pink r11 lll nl 'hir1. .\ pro,titutc i~ a 1\'Cllll:m ' Lmrlin.l.\' :tltHH' i11 lht 'Ttlldt11oill ' :111d 1101 IH'<'l'";" ih a '""11:111 iu a l'l'H':tlin.( l'P>IIIIIlt'. Uitl'' anwr,olh II'I1Ctt.lllll\' Jou11d in tllt' , 101 l'' aud 1 .IIH> 11 hi r h ca 1e1 lo th e i1 llcndihll l1111 i11g pnll'l'l :tlld IItH llt'l't'""' il r pl'I'\Clll' llhcoll't':ll , jJJ... Th t' pmii' :tll' pt'l''tlil' 11ho li1c ll .1 t't'l l:ti ll 'l'\ Inll o l [()1111 ,111< l ll!i l IH'll'"ll'ih illl l)l'Pj)it- 11 1111 \1(',11 lht lllehl l:llll' lt'd t lco lh t,, , , ,, ,\ IIII \t'i'' I ~' pro l'l'~o;or , < e>1ll l'lllll' llho ..;t;JIHI' f';Jcing lllt' ''"clvnh i11 .lllliit'I'' ll ri.I"I'CIOIII. .\ud lli l' l';tu th < ll li l' 11 1;11 l..oh, li kl' lii~ 'llldcn ts. li kt a \\'all .'-ll't'l'l 1 :11,'\\' 1. nr li kv a .;kid rnw b1111 1 'ltnu ld 1101 bt allolltd lo o iHCUit' tlti~ sitn plc 1r 111 h . ( l .o ll :t11d. 1~ ~ ~:~: ~~-:~

Coliman ca lb ttll/11111\t'tl 11/ll'/flt(mll 1lltt' lt' pcopk ,imph e<Hnming-ll'. ini<Htli.H ion aholllthtm btnttllill~ oh, cn.1hk at .1 ghllttt' in 1irt11t' ol ~hnT and llll'll' tnprt''l'lllt'. .\hhough ,,.l. 111. 11 not ta lk tn .IIIIIHH'. IH' .lit'. IHHH ' tltl' lt" inttro~< 1i11 ~ 1dlt' ll lit' 11,1lk

11 h.u

INFORMATIONAL: Conce rning the exprssion

,1 nd contro l al iniormation 'given' ,1nd 'given of' . Ultimately dctcrmi ned by the physical li mil~ C>f the human bocly, hence L he possibility o ( pan-cuhur,\1 formulat ions.

l''"""

Facc-to facc intcr.1cton

In tht mndl'l'll ri tl', '11hu' \'oll are i~. lor initi:d purpn"'' al ka~l. \'\'1\ llllll' h hon11d 11p "itlt '1dwrt ~e Hl arc. Thc ''1 pp l ~1 111 i11 g- e1f 1h e p1 it nat' e11 IJ 11 )\ an ' lll i:t 1 e" dt' l i11_.: 1)1 ~pat i:tl ord tt in g in tia mo(h-rn ri11 i' no lt'" a , .i,11:1l phtnolllt'lloll. di,rl' tllihll- 10 1xr,on~ , 111 ph b1 lonh. ing. l.of l:md ' appearent i.d w 'Jl:ll ial tlll''i' .tn in do~IL' ' a 1t'l'' broad hi,torita l ll't' IHI. Slw rccolo!n i't''- th;u a ppcarL"Illi:t l ton,iclet.llion' um tinut ll> be

RIT UAL: Concern ing the> expre;.sion JllCI contml of one's own feelings .1nd those of ot her,. The ;.tand, ,rds govern ing lhec;e are tu lturally v.uiable.

Figure 9.2

Basic dimensions ollace-to-lace inleraction.

396 lntroducing Cultural Studies

clo11'11 th c ~ trce t. \\"e take ta re so a~ n ot to ge t in their \1'<1\': ll't' a m icipaw a war round pcr~on 1\"ith large :-.h nppi n g- ba~s. \\'l' are oriente cl lO tht aniuns o f' th o~t othcrs. \\'ithollt giling it much conscious th o ug ht ll'l' glance ;u tlw o th e r. !'Can th c ir appearauce. thtn quickh' look aw:n . if 11eed be acUus ting out cotll se. Tlw oth<:r clot, the ~ame. Lach pet~on th us succeecls in conn:-~ing to the o thet thatt w it h tr ,a threa t. Tlwse brief action~- likened b y Coliman to p assi11g car~ d ippin g th eit lig hts- are imta11ccs of th c nonn ol 'ri,il inaucntion (Goffman. 1963a: ~.:3-8) at worl,.. :"\ott' that ci,il in a u en tion is not ign01 ing ~omeone. gi1 ing them 11on-pt'~''o11 trcatmen t, 1101 is it inci1il a ltt' tHion, as nnllr\ ll'htn ont p crson puintedh stare.., a t anot h er. t'.g. tht . \1 Paci n o c h aranl'r in the ,JIOt' ~hop ~ren e in Sra of L O!'I' (di r. H ;tro ld lkcker. 1989). e , inattt'll tion occurs L'l't't,d:ll' on con n tless occa,io n s in c i1ies thto ughoull hl' 1\'0 rld . l t l1\'oh-es ;m info rmati o nal dt ut t' l1t as II'C acqu ire ~ome ratt:gor it kn owled gc o l' th e ot h t'l' and it ittmhes a t itu al tlc nwnt b ccausc the ac1 o f llLrnin g ;nq1\ ' n ur g lancl' a' SOfJ I1 a ~ l is g"I'Cll is an ac t ol' ('()LLI'lc~~. a ll't~ 1101 ru rt h c r i 11\'adi ng tl ll:' prii:IC\' of 1h c uther. ' \ s Goffman '")'S. civil in:tll l'lltio n ' is pnh ap~ th e slig ht cst o f lll l'rp e rso n al rl ll:t ls, \'Cl otH: 1h a t consLantl)' J'(gul:tll'S t1H' ~I>C i CL 1 in tcrcoursc or p ersons in 0 111' \ Ot:iuy' ( 1~)()~~a: R.J). 1Lis Olll' l'SSC nt ial prt rtr tti ~i t l' for tro ub lc-free inte rac Lio n in p nb lic. th c card ina l 11 0 1'111 throug lt II'ILich ci1 ili t)' is reaJi,cd .

Visual culture

397

between persons. 1 o bt surt' . <Htl' apprabals are fa llibk (we a ll kn<)ll t h l' adagt tlt :ll
appear~Ln ces can be cltctptin-). bu t thc1 are. none th e l es~ . a d equalt..' for 111aLW o l our

or

Y c t intc rac t ion i 11 pu b lic i.s n o t a k m:; fnc o l' t rm1b ies. Som e t nw~ c i\' i1 i nattcntion ta n '><'em Lt WtT lto n o urc d in th e hreacl1. As n owrio u' C:L St'S li ke th a t o l Rodney King aiHithc Los .\ngt'les p o licc (Chapte r R) I'L' ntind m . public p laccs can b e ri,k~ sitcs for tite citil.t'l1 1 '\'. B11t so too do m ore routine fo nns of public lt ara~'me tlt. 'tite abuses, hanYing~. ancl a n noraHccs c h a racteristic of puhlic p lans aL1CI uniqucll' fac ilitatecl b\' . ' co m nH tnirat ion in pu hlic ( Car dner. 199.">: ~ ). Public ltar.t"llll'll l inclttde~ ~hotu cd ntllarJ,.,, Krat uitom imults a ncl imntendoes. stari11g. ~t.lll..ing ami tht like. ll'hich are LIHI\l comntollh' (btll noL excl u~in:ll) targetecl al 1\'0ille n i11 public. 1 h e initiation ofth is llll "'i011 , ba~ecl 011 th e o bsetYable charac teri~tic<.. ot th c pt'L',Oll - thcir ge ndcr, l'tltnicitl', 't':-..ual orien tation. ph\'sical h andica p and ~u lorth. Tht rdations hi p~ or ties bctween co-pns<'nl p<: r~om i~ ,, hu th<t oh~l'rl'able feat ure ol' publir pl:tces. GoOm;m distingui~hes tlw anonnnous t cla t ion~ ocru r ring bctl,ecn pa,~C'h-111' 1,ho know <'ach o ther onl~ in catt' goric lt'l'111' l'rom ancl to t'l'd rel:uions', "here an t'l c ml' tll nr personal knnll'in!{ exi~ L ~. Gofl m an ck,ig n a t c~ a' :t fit-~i:;11 th at l'licknre of th c rcla tiunship b etwecn cu-present p e rso" ' Lliat CiLll be d i<;ccm e cl L ltro ug h L 1Ll'ir 'body place m c n 1, p ostttr('. gcs ture. a ncl m cal ex pn' ~~in n ( 197 1: 19:-J). Exam p1es of tit-~igL h inrlnde h and- h o1ding anct ki ss i n~. sha ring tl w ~; un e r n p or 1h t .<ame boule o f ~ LttHan lo t ion . s ta n ding c1ose L O < lLWlh c r or distin c tly L'llcll'a\'olll'ing tu kl'ep o n e's d i,t :ll tCt', ll'iping :uto th c r 's n ose o r ((:tclin g lhtm ll'ith a spoon , ;~ddrc.~sing a f)(Tson as 'sir ' or ' ntada m ' n r rcp lying to th e m ll'i L it " tnm ni e n ckannl' nt. Tit-sig-n s suc h as th cse, ll'lt t n p laccd in rlw < " 0 1He xt ofwhat 1\'C kn o \\' ami han ll'illlt' '~l' d . r n a b lc us to inf'e r th e likch anc h o rcd tJ r p r r.somtl r e la ti o ns hip bt' l\l'l'l'll pc r~o n s: a~ intimall'' St't'\'itor ancl elicn L. part n t ancl eh ild, sa ltsp e t'"011 a ncl cusLont tr, ho" a n cl t'l11 p loyL't', 1ong-marricd .~ )()use~ a11CI ~o ro nh. \\'hi k tlic public realm is ' n nw tint t'' c liaratte ri,cd ,,, a II'Orld of ~ t ranger'. tit e unacqua i ntecl o tlt ns II'C encounter att' 1Lot 11'1 tolh st range to U'. \\'e can re.td ilr intnptTl tite ti c-~igns ll't' 11itncss to l'orm an apprai,al ol the lil..elr rdationship

practica! purpo'c~. ~lonmn, th e ' c appr.lisal of re la tion~hip clepend u pon fiui ng tht re ig n to other ft'.lllll'l'' ol' t1 1l' cotH ex t "tch a~ time and place. app<:arancl'. ;l('t Ill. prior l..nowll'd~t ancl )>() fotth . Finalh. 11 hile 111am tie-<.ign are acces:.ibl t to '" b, llll'll'll Jooki n g. o lhers d t'J>t'lld upon the comt'l''>ational fragmellt~ 11e hl'ar {' l lom,. ll'lttre ,\l'l' m~ su nglas~t'!>~) . Tht oh't't'l'abilitl o l' a relationship includes 1rhat , nwrt hroadh perceilablc abo ut it. not j11'1 11h a t can be literalh o;een. Especialh in puhlir p l acr~. then. hu man bci11gs are \1hat 1lane1 Sa ck~ olln' ralkcl ' i11feren ce-making machin e~ (Sack,. 1 ~!9~). ,-\, m e mbet's u! a socitt,. 1\'l' arq u in a hoch' of common-stmt t ultlt ra l knmdcdge atHI practica! kili~ whiclt t' nabk us to accomplis h t h t ordin.t L ' t a~J.., Lha t face ~ in o ur c 1er~da'' lift . In going about o ur e 1en Thw bu s i 11 e~~ 1\'L' 11il1 o ft (ll adopL a swn ce nf ea~v con tro l 1r ltic h i ~ onl~ mack p oss.iblt: b ecaLLSt' n o tlti ng o ut o l' th c nrdinan is h appe nin g. \\'l' c lttr k our i1nmldi:tlL' surro uncls. our ( '11111'1'// (Cilll'man , IH7 1: 2:2-:). th e sph t t-e around 11s in ll'ltic h ~<> LLI'Ct~ of abrm. of d a n gtr to oui'Sl'll'<:s r eside. to t"on fi rm rh a t a ll is ll't ll . T ltc act u a l ,,e o l' th t indiviclttal 's 1 '11171'1'/1 wi ll \':1 L 'I': on a cro\\ckd stncLthis bubblc of re lt1'a tLCl' 1\'II o nl v ~p:11 1 a m c ll't' or two: on a Lt l' LliJ;l~ ~trce t :tt ni g hL 11 e can bccom e con n. r t1 c d aL th c app roaclL of a s tran gc r ln t Lt clrcd~ of' tn C lL'l'~ a\\'a~. In public p laccs es ptT i a ll ~ \\'L' will sean our imnLediate sun ound., t'o r ~ ig n~ of tltreal to o u r p e r o n . o ur prnpet Ly. o ur pri1ac, :1nd p erso n a l \\'e1Jbci11g. \\'e h:tl't' \\'l' lJ-cleldoped o;cnsc o f n o rnta l :tppcar,lllCl'~, of tJH II'Orl d aro und thc inclivicll1 :tl l ooki n ~ jmt a 11e exptct it sltoulcl. porlt'llding 1111 threatening or .tl.trmi llg re.lltLn'' (Coffman . 1!17 1: ~~9). .-\' cultura l being.> i1Htrarti n!{ in publir place:. ll'l' pn"l'" ttol onh acqu irL'<i knmdtdge but .tlsn practica!. t'tnhoditd ski lb. in shon 'txptr itmt ' in copin g 11ith the thtTats aliCI opponunitie~ tltat 'ituatioll' can prescm . One intpot tant climen<.ion ol txpe .-ie nce concenh tht look\ of tH>L m.tl appearance'. Cenain occupation' 11hic h i111oh'c lmtl.. on the ci t~ s trcets. surh a' tlw polire. ,al llt' su ch experit'nre .tml cle<,cribe it in craft-likt term;.. T he polictman's pr.l ctical problcm in CO ndU CL Llg 1\'0rk 011 tlll' \ll'l'l'l~ i~ lO infcr Cl'i mina1l\' from tht appearan('('\ Of pcrson s (Sack~. 1972) . 1 h t l'X]>t't t' IICl' requircd to inl'er niminalil~ COI'I'l'Ctly , acq uired 'on th e h ea t' lll 11m in' f'rom n10re matu re pol ice officer,. Pan ol' L hi' e xpe rien ce in\'ol w~ acloptin~ a ~f< ' J) Ii ca1 attitude to norllla l :\ l)pearallet'' 1 101 lrt'< Lling a ppearan ces at thl'i r t':Ln l': tlm buL r a Lhl'r scru ti nising them l'ut l'lidtn ct o f' ni 1nin al actil'ities th at 111a1 1 w a<'< 'o tnplbh c d unclcr lllt'ir gu i ~e . . \11 'in ro ngruit\' prort'durt' . i' cmployed by 1h t o flirt'1 in t llcle r 10 ll'< liT;t 111. l't 1t'L her i n \'estig atiu n. \\'h t n som v tlt i L lg' occ u rs tha t i' a L \'ar ia L H't' 1\'111 norma1 apwaran ces the orticcr h ;L s gro11 1 1(h to pu rsu c inquir ics. Oflinrs ;u't' tau g ht L (l sn pn~o11s in h e h a\'io ura l l('l'lns. i.< '. in te rms o l' thc a cti,itie.s in ll'hi C'lt t h ~:~ art t ngaged : ' tlt e lmeh yo ung bd~ a lig lt ting fmm a n b i ~ tLO\\' obserl'ablt a~ a ca ll-f,!;irl arr i\'i 11g ror a ' e "ion ' (Sa c k~. Hl72: ~~:l). Th l' n o m ta l it ,. o r n ormal appearallCC' , prac t iral h del i ncd as normal for t h e place a t a ti 11 L l' : tn tt k' tha t clo tL o t n otmalh tLnloacl a t ntidnig ht in tlti' clistri c t becom e object~ of :.mpicion to thc officer. T h cre ..,a 'nonn.tl L'Coln.," o f territo tie.;;'; persuns 1\'lto 'clonL belon~ in this place - e .g. th t app:n e nth poor in a wealt h1 neighbomhoocl - 111.11 b<: a~kld 111

,.,

398

lntroducing Cultural Stuclies

Visual culture

399

ju ~l ily 1hei r prt~cncT . l'eoplt \\'ho ob"t'IYab lv 1rc:ll llw police" p rc~cncc a~ am1h ing nlhLr than normal - giving .111 olliccr a cloublc loo l.:. lor in~1.1nce - m.11 ro me unde1 ~n tt1in1. Th c 1illt1i n c ll~l'" o f pla ce~ a ncl o bj t'C 1 ~ < ll l' "t'Cn in tt' llll ~ of fvonrtd mi,mcs: d m tbi n s can ro111ain (knd b a bics. p l : n~rot t nd ~ :111 rac t e h iId 111 o ks tl'r~ . ~ h o p~ an.: rl'~a rckd a~ n. n1ws f<Jr -,lwp lifling. ' l lw police o lf ict>r ~ qrce l c:-;pcricnn ckm a nd -, a s11 1 diccl altt'n1ion lo normal app<:arann" and "h.11 the1 n1.11 conctal. ht ofliccr\ qfc t~ m a l rlqwnd upon i1: ' \\'h c r c h e is nu,, , radi ca l11 a m a 11cr nf,,(H.'rc h t 1\ill h mc 11trn cd 0111 tn lw. Thc conwr he appro:tc h t:'s ma1 bl' thc cornt r a t wh ich lw "ill lt a1 e btt tl ki lltd' (Sad.~. 1~~7~: ~~~:~) . Po li rc o lli ccrs " ork ing 1he ~I I'{'L' I ~ n o donbt <o n slil nlt a bouncla1T ra-;c. :-\cHnhdt~,. aHc n1ion 10 normal appcaranrt'" i~ 1he 111<'<111'- whe 1d w a ll ll't'rs of pnblic p l ace~ c ndcannu 10 mi n imi-.e thcir 1j,k, :n1cl ma:-;imi'l' 1ht'ir ll'e llbt ing. ()f COll rSe i1 \ po,, i])[c lllt''\ilgger,lll' 11\l' d egree of r i, k. thl'l'<ll alH] inc ivi(ill' ll urban public plan:'' and lhercl)\' In <wcrlook 1lw rich 'II'L 't'l lifc of\\ick bonle1ard'. pa1Tlllt' lll cali:s. parades. t' IHcnainmt'lll,, sporh a nd g-anH'' :111(1 tiH' li kt 111:11 i1 is po,-,ihle to cn jor in n1an ~ ci 1ies. Plea,urc ;md c o 1 nil'i ;di1 ~ are n o lcss nal featt1re' o f t h e ap prdlt'n sion <;f' c ill' lill. But both plcasurt ancl risk in publir p l a ce ~ < liT 111Hit-rwri11 e 11 h1 a takt n -l'org nllllt'cl norm:Hile o rclcring. tn~tmhlt'' ol" cultural utHltr-la iHling ' 1h;11 impottamh cl<ptncl 11 pon 1lw 1 isual nll'cl ia1 ion of o u r social i~Lcl rn mpttcnn.

Box

9.2
or

The experience of modernity

Tl iC' re is a mude u( 1 ila l experil' nce- C:'\ ()l' l iLnet o f ~pace a ncl ti 111('. o r 1he se 1r :tnd ot h er-.. life'-; po"ibililies a nd >el il.; - lh.ll , sharcd bl llll'll ancl \\lllllell al! 0\l' l' 11te \\'OIIcl todm. l ,,IJ rall 1hi' bod~ o l expe1it n n mocl ernit~ . To be mudcrn i~ to llncl o ur~l' I Hs in a n l'J\\ironnwmt ltaL pro mist.s u s :tdH' tllllrc, p oii'L' t. jm. g rowth . lll l l'~l:' hes and tl ll' 1\'orlcl - a nd. al th t ~ame time, tlta t thrt'<ll!.'ll\ lra n -,l'ol'llla ti o n 10 clt,lro, e\cnl hing ''!:' h me. l'll'l~ l h i ng- \\' l' kn o" eun thing 1n .trc . .\ lodt'lll e n lironmtnts .111<1 experiencn t lll arro' ' all bounchtrit'' of gl'ograpl11 a nd e thnic itl', o f c l a~s a nd llalio n:Jlitv. o l l'l'fig ion ancJ id1o l og~ : in Lit is ~ell ~l'. m o d e n1ity can be "a i<lto unite ;li l ma nkind. H111 it i ~ a par:tdoxica l unitl', :t nnil\' (f' clisunit~: it po11r, lh al! into a mad'!rom ol p e1petual di~ i nlegra ti on a nd rt'lll'\\al. or Slntgg-lc a u d Ulll lradirtion. ol ambigni11 and angui,ft. To bt modcrn , tu bl part o l ,, ll tliwr,t i11 ll'hir h . "' ;\l;u x said. :d i that is ~o lid m e lLs intn ~tir' .

or

lll'l 111 :111 ( I~IX:I : J;,)

9.8 j lnterpreting th e built environment

In 'LT iion 0.!!.!! 1\'t' id c ntificd li lC' StTo tJd st1a nd in \\'a lte r Benjamin ' ~ (p . :n:n comri lnuion 10 lhe ~l uth of' 1 isual ru liure a'> 1lw cxaminalion o( 1hc ci 1 1. and in panirular 1he di,cu,sion o l thc ~oria l ancl cultur:d lile ol P:u , in Jlw ninl'll't'nth Ct'll llll ~ . Paris h:1s oJ'ten b ctn ~t't' ll a' 1lw capita l o f th c ni n c lctntil ce n111rl'' in til( scmt th :ll it l't:'prt:'~l' IH td a nd cn t1<k1 1.-<>d thl' kl' l dewl npnw nt~ o f'n HHk mity. lt. ,,;~ htre th al 1lw , Jwppin~ .1 rcadc~ a n d 1h1 jfrinl'llrcu igin:ned. 'Jiw kc1 rok old1ies likt P.u ,in 1hr dtlclopmenl of m odem lo1111' ol'lill' .llld 1isu.1l nllttlrt' , g1.tpi1it.dh c.I(Htlled in1hc \\'OI k ol ;\la rshal l Bnman ( l !l~-1:~).

pt'oplc art j u:.t IJcg inn ing 10 t'X (ll' I'l'1Kl' llHHiv111 lik: lh tl lc;~rdl l' k1 1e111 11h at h a~ hil th cm. hn gropl'. cll''[ll'l<lll'h hc11 ha Ir i>li ud !1. 1lll :m .tdcqu.llt' voca bu lan: tllt' han lilllc 01 no 'en~e ol .tmod~ 111 puhlir or UlllliiHmil' 11ithin11hich their 11 iab :md hopt~ ra n be ~h; 11 e d . W enn.tn . 1mt~: 1ll- 17) i\lodcrn Jii't- ~ JlC\\' :nHf lhl'l't' is th e St' II Sl' o f hl'ing bo\\(ed 0\'t' l' ()~ th t'~l' lll'l\' dtldoplllt'lllS. Thc 'l'l'Oild pha~e or IIIOdcrnil\' bq{ins 1\'i h the J'l'\'lllutionan 11:1\'l:' tht l 7HO' :111(1 1791b a liCI faq<> 10 tite heginning ol 11te tll't'lllkth ct'lllun. lkn n an a t gue tha t after th l' Frc n r h Rt,u lution a moclern public cl cn l op~ . 1\o ple rcalbc that ill C) lin in thc mod t rn agt. b u t r a n rt'1 11L' lllbc r ll'h a l cam c bl'f( r<. T hus. tlH d tta l i ~m o l moclerni11. \l' h ich i" 'o impo1 ta tlt I(Jr lknn:n1 arisc~: 1he eombina lio t\ o r 1h c scn st of ach'cnlurt 1ha1 i' imolnd in modcrnitl' 11ith 1he '~'ll'l' of los' a 11<l 1he fccling of i n scc uri1~. 11 i" hcrc 1h:JL iiH: g r ea l 1\'o rks o f moclc rni'>t litt'l',llure a ndan arise as ,,.<11 "' thosc l onn ~ of poli1ies a11d 11Ti1ing th a1 a ll c lll pl w confm nt Lhesc rlikmmas ( n n lab i)'
.\l arxi~m ). ~ t an~ ol thc e change' are cm11aiu ed in 13a ud clail e, \Hting-., from Par,, \\'h ic h acld rc!'' th t llt'l\' lcm ns o !' m odern lilt in 1hc a rcad es a ml th c poli1ica l im urrec1ion,., of l H4R, a n el in tlll' sultst'<JI.te nt recl<,dopm c nl ol' !':tris as bou kTards 1\'l' rt co ns tru cttd in accorcl ,,i1h th t p lan ' o l Baron ll au s~mann . T lw bottlevard' d es1rovcd o ld ll'urking-class n ei.{hbuurhood' from 11 ht'IT 1he t'a llil'r poli1iral proll''-1 had ari't'll. aJHI 1\'l'l'l' conMntr tccl to ali oli' 1he cka1 an d f<bl lllOI'Clllt' nt o l 11 oops to p111 clown :111~ luturc prolt'sl. Thesc m ,, matls :we : li ~o th e p la ce of 11af'llr a nd th c dan ~~ ro us l)l t'i lt or m ockrnit~. ' Thus th e lil< ol th c bou ln:trds ,,as a J,o mort ris k1 a nd f'riglttt nin g f()l' 1he mtdtillldes ol mcn and 1\'0IHCil \\'ho 1110\'t'cl 011 l(m t ' ( Bellllan. 19S~: 1.>9). Tite lllt' ll tieth Ct'l\ llll' i ' 1hC' th ird p eriocl o l mocle rn i11 . HtTt' nwdcm$alion ha'

or

9.8.1

Marshall Berman: modernity, modernisation and modernism

li (J

;\lan' of 1hc kt'l lh c m c~ in l k nn .111 ~ ,,ork :IH' sll tllllltd h is hook ,,hic il is rtprocl ll nd in Bo:-; !l .~.

in tlt t' opc ning par.tg raph o f

Bl'nnan u~ed thrce ke1 lt'rm' in hi, 1\'ol k ( ~oml' of " h ich ll'l' h.IIT a l ~o 'l'<'n in 1he ,,mk of' L' rn ton,idnl'd .1hme ): m o derniry < p. 100}. \\hirh , a lw111 ol '\ori.ll ex Jll'l'il'nn:: 111C Hlvrn i'a 1io n . 1d 1i<lt i ~ a -.ori.d p t eH~'": .tml 1111Hkl'tl ,111 . "hit h i' a ' e l of \'i, ion' ancl l': t l n ~ ' BtTi n a n i ~ ~~~e 11 1 i:tlll' r o lh'l'l'1h 'd 11 it 1t tl ~t ttla t io11,ft ip h l' t\\ecn morkrn i,a lion :1 1ul 1t1odt1ni'm . "i1h tht link lwtlll'l'll l ht,t 1\\o lwi n ~ 1lw l''\lwricnre lll llfl'lcl in lllllcil'lllII {. \ll dl'I'Oil. )9:-; f ). lknna11 \1 ' ( ' ' 1111 t'l' ph.t'l'' in IIHicltllltl: flr~l. from thl' s1:11t ol 1hc ,XIt't'llllt Ct'llllln to iiH cnd o( th1 l')Zillt't.'ll th. ,,hcn

400

lntroducing Cultural Sludies

Visual culture 401 other previous texts, break boundaries between high and popular culture and so on. A problem here is the attempt to apply an overarching term to diverse forms and types. This is particularly paradoxical when the nature of postmodernism as idea or philosophy is considered. A key suggestion here (associated with Lyotard) is that one of the characteristics of postmodernism is the impossibility of 'grand' or 'meta' narratives. Knowledge is both more local, contingent and relative. Postmodernist ideas in theory and philosophy often blur with those associated with poststructuralism (p. 24). Meaning is contested, as is the relalion between words and things. Debates over postmodernism were the storm centre of academic life in the social sciences and humanities in the 1980s. Some on the political left saw them as a new irrationalism which fitted well with the rightward drift of Western society and culture. Others emphasised the way in which these ideas allowed those previously marginalised (women, black people, homosexuals and so on) a place from which to speak and contest the domination of even lefti st ideas and practices. This connects to contemporary nolions of identity (p. 224) politics.

become 'o gentt-.lli,tdth.n it ha' wken in 'litlllalh tlw ll'hole "orle!'. Dcspitc. thc.: fan that thb b oflcn cittd "' lht period of the greatt''l .tdtitHment of modcrni~m in the ;~ns . 1dtich Bcrman rtcogni't'' he :1lso feel~ tlt:tl lh i-. i' lht period 1\'hcrc modt.rnbm loses its ,,a~. a' 1he ~l n~t of' 1he dual i t,. o l mocknt i l~ , O\'ercome. Onc co ur~t 1\':t~ 10 cc lc br;~te moclcrnit~ a~ in 1hc l1alian fumrists anclt hose 1\'110 " ou lcl influenct thl' look of ci ties and a rchiti..'C llll't' J'or 1hc rest ol th c l\\'Cllliclh ccn1 u1 : likc Le Corb usic.:r. wlto celebrates thc p<~ll'c r of tlH' motor car ;mrl tlll rational red cl'clopmtnl of lhe city (Bc rman , 198:': Hi(i-7) in the direcliun th ;u 11ill )oint thc ,,ay forward 10 1hc ci ty of1hc.: tower block alHit ht moton,ay. The othc r ro 11 r~c.: ll':ts lo denigr;~te modern i1y and stek ,, rcwrn to traditional fcum~ of .tn and architt<'llll'l'.

Defining contejJI

9.1

Modernity, moderni sm, postmodernity, postmodernism

F11rfliP r m rtli ng
Connor, S. (1989) Postmodemist Culture, Oxford: Blackwell. Docherty, T. (ed.) (1993) Postmodemism: A Reader, Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheat. Giddens, A. (1990) The Consequences of Modemity, Cambridge: Polity.

These terms are often used in relalively loose and ill-defined ways, leading to much confusion and contestation. Any codificalion will itself be controversia!. Modernity is best thoughl of as a form of society or experience. For Berman (1 983) the key feature ls its double-edged nature: change that disrupts the traditional is stimulating but frightening in that old cerlainties are lost. The sociologisl Giddens (1990) argues that modern societies differ from traditional ones in pace and scope of social change, as well as in institutions, like the nation-state. Currently, the idea of modernity is resurgen! in social science and the arls as attention has moved away from capitalism and patriarchy as structural concepts. Modernism is most frequenlly used to characterise a range of activities in the arts and culture (in the more narrow sense) which developed between 1890 and 1930. A key fea tu re was the contestalion of realism (p. 61) in representatlon (p. 61) and a related focus on form. The role of the artist was emphasised, as was the politlcal nature of art. Postmodernism is also often used in rather loose ways to refer to: a society or experience, particular forms of artistic activity, and a philosophical or theoretical approach. These should be separated analytically. Prefacing modern(ity, ism) with postimplies in some ways that the modern has been superseded, or that new activities are built upon the modern bases. Postmodernity might then refer to a society that still contains some modern aspects (it is not tradilional) bul which has added or developed a greater role for the mass media of communica llon (for example, in Baudrillard) or consumption (as in Featherstone, for instance). However, some authors rejecl this idea, suggesling that the besl description is late modernity (Giddens, for example). As a form of artistic activity, postmodernism has been applied to diverse producers in different fields. Rap music or Talking Heads are examples from music. Twin Peaks was seen as a postmodernist television show. lt can be suggested thal such forms share some of the emphases of modernism, but inflect them in differenl directions. They are playful, refer to

Thc: ll'urk of' critics like Benjamn and Bennan suggests 1ha t it is po...,ibk 10 reacl citics as lCxts: to ' rc:acl' tlte m as mcaningf'ul ~ ign s lhat are ,isually a\'ailabk 1 0 till' cilizen 1:. .-\t lea-.t J'o u r aspt'('l ~ or cities a~ bui 11 ('1 1\'ro n lllClllS can be In tc:rprel cd in l h is rash ion: h 1 ti l d i n~s and Mchi lecturc, fcaturts of1he city, the rit~ itsclfand thc dty (or landsca pe) a., condens:11 ion of p(J\\'er. \ \ 'c: i 11 mt ra te 1he se: di ITere nt aspects in liw fo llowing to ur su b~ections (sn also Chaptcr'> -1 and ti).

9.8.2

Reading architecture

Tite 'ociologbt Keith :\lacDonald ( 19R9) Ita' interprcted tht' fcatun :s of panicular huilclinKs in Lo mlon as representing litt !'tatus daims and dcsirc, of professional gr(Htp~. One 11ay in 1 ,hich groups so11gln Lo enhanrc their prcstig<: ,,as in architectura l d isplal'. ht l(:aturt"s exami nccl '" '(' stll nmarisccl by :\ lacDo nalcl ( 1989: :8) as follows:
.-\. SITE
( 1) \ larke t \'alut

(?)
(~)

.-\ppropriatenc.,~

Respectabil itl' a 11d Fash ion

B.

f\l" ILD I ~G

( 1) Expenditme /11'1 lt' - ~ilc: - appeat~IIICl' (m.lleriab. om amema1ion , etc.)

402

ln troducing Cultural Sludies

Visual culture

403

Expc ndit ii iT- qu.ll ilatin - ,,asted ~pace - impJi c:HO II .., n i kiSlll't'. \Cil oJarsh ip. ClC. (:\) Cc kbritl' rating - cl':t lua tinns or th c buildings and tlwir architccts ha~nl Ull 'Jl<ICl' dtlotccl tn thc m lt ; lllllllbtr oJ' ' tan chrcl hoo k~ on a rch iL cCLu n \lad)() nalclcx.uuincd llil'tT IJro fcs,jo ,: acrou tll ;lllCI. ,oli< lt ll'.' (;s rc p rcs<' rllecl br 1lw L:lll' ? JCt'LI ) ancl pl11 ~ i c i a 1 r.- a nd 'urgcn ll ' (a, rcprcscrll<cl h1 th c Rc~a l Col lcge o f Phl, rcl;lll' and LI H Ro1 :1 l Colltgt uf' Surgcon.s) .. \rcnll lltan L s a re 1he cri1ical ca'c n tlial I IH~ 1\ l'l't' 1101 ;, \llCCcsslu l ll tlwi r clriH fo r ('Oit L rul 0 \'t'l' Lile rcguLHion nr th <:ir JH'<>kssinn :1s ~u l it i 1o r.~ nr thc o ldt-r c' t ahl i .~ ll cd 1ncd ical prokssions hac\ hctn . lle used tlin< tnc th ncb tn l'Xaminc L ht'\l' < : 1 ~c~ : '( i) ob~t' lYali u n a nd pllotograph': (ii ) ~ Lud y of 11nrks <>11 are h i lct lllH': ( i ii) tx:un inat ion ufjour11 ;il ~ and cloc u nwnt~ ,,.h ich refc rc~l 10 1he cons1l'll CI ion :nHI .lt q 11 i,j 1ion .,f !lw hu i lcli ngs ( 1~l::\9: :i!l ). \Jad)ona lrl a r~tl t' '> th:ll bu ildi llg-' \L lch a' thc C:han crt'd .-\ ccou ntants Hall (scc Fig ure ~~.:~) ;e clta r allcmpL ' :11 " mbu li ~:H io n n l thc Stalm of' a p rofc ~s i o n . This is dcmon, tratccl b1 1 he 1i/r ol Lh c builcling' whid 1 ll<'re apprnpriatc to thcir calling ancl

(~)

are ~vug li 1 atk r and expensil'l.:' ( 19::\9: 75 ); Lht na 1u re ofth c lm ilrling.\ 1 h e mse h'e~ . which liTre i1nposing and clcarly cxpcn sin: th e Cl'lebril_r of the builclings as inc\icatecl b~ Llwir e1aluaLion 1 )\' arc hitenural cx pcn s; and 1he ju111nre raiseclLo purcliase thc m. T lie pmchasc :1nclusc o t such buildings is a l rm of co n~pi c t to tts consumption ,,hicli t rms pan u f 1hc stratcgic :ttte nlJ>IS ot 1h csc prolcssirms 10 f' nhance thcir po11Tr. .-l.s \lacDonalcl ( 1989: /7) conducl ts:
T hus the proJ'essiona l budies rn ie11:d he re. ha1 e (11i1h Lile exct'p tion of Lile ACC. \ ) ercncd o r purch:tscd impn~in g building:- (which were charactcristicalh d ifTcrcrll from thl ofnce block~ oJ' :11 W perind ). n can f'u ll\ r hosell loC:lliOilS and furubh ed ll'ith painlings. panelling :tll(l of,jrl., d'or// dt ' '''r/11. ami dtwnccl in pan 10 ge nl.l e m a n l ~ aCLI'L ies.

.J;urlt'son ( 19\l 1) oJTcrs a rathc r ditTcrcm typc of intc rpn:tation bu ilding in Bnx ~U .

or

a particular

Box

9.3

jameson's analysis of the Bonaventure Hotel

l\o11 he ron concluding, 1 wanl 10 sketch an analysis nf a t'nll-blmn1 postmodc rn bui ld ing - a ,,Cirk whi ch i~ in many wal's uncharac teristic nf that pos1moclcrn arch i tectun: \\'hose principal propone nts are Roben \'en llll'i. Ch arle~ ~ 1o ore, ;\ lir hae l Gra1es. a nd. mo re rtcenLl y. Frank Gc hry, hu1 ll'hich 10 my mincl o iTers some 1er~ striking les ons abu ul the o rig inalit}' o f posLmoclern is t span. l.e1 me amp lil~ thc fi gure which has run throug h the preceding re marks and make i1 e,en more cxplicit: 1 am proposing thc n otio n that 11e are here in thc prese nce of somc Lhing likt. a muLa tion in built space itst lf. :\h- implication is that 11e ourscl\'es. thc human .sul~j<::c ts ll'ho happcn in to this nc\1' space. ha,c not ke pt pace ll'ith that cmlu1io n: LIHrc h a~ becn a 11Hitatiotl in Lhe ubject unaccompaniecl as yc t by any ecu i1a lcnL nH ll:HiOll in Lhc subject. \\'e el o no t ~e t posscss 1he perccpwal N luipm enL 10 match this 11<.' \1' hyperspacc. as 1 ,,jiJ ca ll it. in part because our percepwal habit~ ,,ere form ed i11 that o lde r 1-..incl of spare l ha1e callcd thc space of hi ~h moclcrnism . T he llell'e r architecturc th erc l'o rc - like man y or th e o1 1le r cultural proclucts 1 hme eHJked in the prcccdin K re marks - stands as ~o m e 1hing li kc an impcralH' lo ~ro11 ne11 organs. to cxpand our sensorium ancl our body Lo some nc\1'. yc r unimaginablc. perhaps ultimal c ly impo!>siblc. dim t nsions. T ht. bui ldiug ,,hose fea tur<.s 1 will n ' ry rapiclly cnumnalc is 1he Westin Bonan' llllll'<.' ll o te l. bu ilt in thc 11 <:11' Los :\ngcles cloll'ntmm l.>y thc arc hitect and d eHIopcr.John Ponman, 11hose othcr wo rks includc th e 1arious Hyall Regcncics. tl1e P<:ar htrce Cente r in .-\tlanta. a nd the Renaissanc(' C:t'lH er in De troil. 1 hme

Figure 9.3 The Chartered Accountants' Hall. (Source: MacDonald, 1989: 62.)

..

404

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Visual culture

405

mentioncd 1h c populiM aspect ofthe rhtwrica l ddcnse ol pos1nwderni~m agaim1 1he d i te (and L' 10pian ) auste rilics of 1hc grt:ll architeclll ral 1n odcrni~m': i1 i, gt' nerally al li nnccl. in nth e r words. tha1 lht'l' ll<.'ll't' r buildin Ks a re po pular work, , o n 1hc o nc ha ncl . a ncl 1h;n 1h e~ respcct iltt' l'c rnac u la r o r the Amnican r i1~ l'a iJ ric, on lh t o lhcr: 1hat is LO ~al' , t hey no lo ng lr a ll('lll)Jl. as did 1he 1nas te n mrks and mo tJllnH nts o l'hig h m od e rni~m . to insen a diiTl'l't' nl . n cli,tinrl , an t ln at c d . a nc 11 Llw pia n Jangu a~<. in lo 1l w t:11rd rl' a11CI commncial 'i ~n ~~ste m of thc ' lllTOII IHiingci ll', but ra 1hcr 1he1 '-ct>k to ~peak 1ha1 ICI' languag<.. using its lexiron ami ~1n 1 ax as 1ha1 has bctn emblematicall~ Jcarncd from l.as \ 'tg;v;'. On 1hc flrs1 o f 1hc~e cmuHs Ponman s 13ona\'l'JlltliT fulh conli1nh 1h c claim: it is a popular buildi ng. '<;ted " 'ith CIHIHI'-ia-.ln b1 loc~ls and IOlll'i'l' .tlikt 1 tnon <.ucccssfu l in th is rcspcct). (a h hough Ponman':-- 01h er bu ilclings are en 1 The pop uli ~l inwnio n in ln the cill' fabric i,, holl'l'l'l'f', a nother mat ll' r, and it b with thi ~ 1h a1 ll'l' ll'ill bcgin . T hne a re Lhrct t' tllra ncl'' tn the 13u nmt tllll rl. Ollt' rro m Fig ttl'I'C)( and L ile Olhe r 111'0 b~ ll'a~ or l'il'l';t ll'cl gardc ns 0 11 the othcr siete o f' lhe ho te l, 1\'hidl i' built into th L' n :ma il1il1g slnpt 1ht lo rmc r BIII1Kt'l' llill. ~O ilt' ofth ese is < 1111'1hing li ke the o ld ho te lmarq tl t'l'. or tht IIIOIIUI11e l1 tal pon e ror htr< ll'it h which tlll' 'umptuom h uildin gs oflesiC'l'l't'otr ll't'l'l' ~~"OillLo s1 age ~0 11 r p:~~~agc from c i t~ sut't'1 to the imerior. T he tntnwa~s ol 1lw BonaHnture are. a' i1 1\'t'rt. late ra l ancl r-a1her backdoor affairs: the garden-; in !lit back admit 1011 to 1hc \,tll floor of LhC 10\\'l'rs. <llld CI'C'n 1herc ~ou lllll<.l 1\',tJ).. dm\'11 one IJigJn 10 find lile cll'I(JlOr b~ 11hidt you gain acce~~ LO !11(' lobb1 . .\ leanwh ilc. wha1 une b ,iJI 1emp tcd to 1h ink of a~ thl' fro m e 1 Hr~. on Figunoa. ad ntil:, ~ou . baggage a nd a l l. o 1110 thc scconci-StOI ~ shopping ba l co n ~. fro m ll'hic h 1 o u must 1a ke a n escala wr clo wn lo 1hc ma i1 1 registrati o n d esk. \\'ha 1 1 llr:;t 11:un w sn~mcs1 abo u1 th <sc curiously lllllllarked ,,ays in is that th ey scc m lo han: bce11 imposcd b1 ~o m e 11 ('11' category of c losurc go1 ernin g 1he inne r spact' o J' 1lw ho te l itself (and th is mtr ancl o work) . 1 lxl icl'(' t hat. a bme thc n1a terial constrai111s undcr 11hich Porl ma n had L 1d th a ccnain n umber of other c haracteri,tic pos1111odnn bui ld ings. ~ u ch a~ 1he Beaubourg in Pari' 01 the E;non Centre in Toronw. tht 1301ta\entuH a .. pir("i 10 bcing a t01al <;pa<T. a complete "'orld. a kincl of' n1iuiaturT cifl: LO 1hi~ Jll' ''' wwl .space, meam,h ik, conT~po n ds a ne,, colleclilc practke. a ne\\' modc in ,,hicll in d i1id ua l ~ mol'<.' a nd congregate. M)lll t'lh ing- like L he practi ce ol a Jlt'l\' a ncl hiswricalll' origi nal kin d uf h ~ve rcrowd . In 1his ~e n se. th e n . ide al k the min ici tl' nf O han t'lll r:t iiCCS at a ll, sin ce thc e ll ll'\ 11 ; ; \' is Po nma n 's Bo na1c 111 u re o ug h l no t L ah,ays 1hc scam tha t links tlu: building 10 lh\' 1'<'~1 o( th e city tha l surrm1nd~ i1 : 'ro r o be a pa n o f thc c ity bu1 rn the r its l'CJtiI'a lc lll ;md rc plan me n1 it d oes no 1 ll'i ~ h L o r su bslilutc. T hat is obl'iousl ~ not po~~ibk , 1\'ltcnce 1he d oll'n playi ng of' 1ill' en u"nce Lo i1s han minimum. Bui 1h is di ~junc1io n from the surround ing- ci1 1 i' clifferent from that of t hc monumenh of thc l n1t'lllalional Stl'le. in ,,hicll tlw ac1 of di~j u nction wa\ 1iok1H. 1 isible. and hada l'l'"' 1 e al :.1 mholi~ signilicancc- a~ in

or

Le Corbtl';ier~ g reat fJi!otis. whost geMurl raclically separate lit<.' lll'll' L' topian ,pan of the modern !rom thc degraclcd ;111 cl fal len ci ll' fabri c whkh it thercbl' expl icitly rcp ucl i;Hes (altho ugh the gamble of the modent 11':1 ' that this IIC\\' L' tn pia n span:. in 1he l'iru k nct o !' its nol'tlm. II'Otllcl f'a n o ut a nct e1 e ntua lly 1ran ~ l'o nn iLS surroundings bl' lhl' l't r~ p< mc r o r its 11('\1' spa lial la ng uagc ) . T he B o n ;l\'C lll.lll'l' , ho we1er, is con H nt 1 0 'kl th l falle n city l'abric conlinut to be in its bl'i n ~ (lo pamch' Heid egger): no f'u nhlT c iT~ns. no larger pr01opolitical Ll10pia n transf'ormation . is either expt'C1ccl o r cksired. This diagnosis is con flnned bl thc gnat rencniH' ghns ,J..in of lhc Bonal't'll ltll't' . 1d10'e funct ion 1 ll'ill noll' in ll'rpret rather differcnth tllan 1 did a momen1 ago "'h en 1 saw 1he phcnomcnou of' reflcction gcneralh a~ cle1e loping a cchnology (1lle n,o reacli ngs al'l'. llO\\'CI't'r. nm thcma1in uf reproclu nin 1 in compatibk). ~ow one would want 1~11 her lo st ress the way in 1d tich tht g lass ski n rcpd' 1h t c i1 y o utsick. a rq )ll(o;io n f't)l' " 'hiel! 1\'C' ha l'e a na logit:-; in th nsc n oflector sn n g l a ,~t~ " 'hic h ma kc i1 illlj)O,,iblc l'o r your intc rloCL tlo r 1.0 !'Ce ypur ml'll e ycs ancl 1hcrd )y ac hien a cerwin ag.:rc, silill' ltl\\'ard a ncl pm,cr Ol't' r 1hc Othe r. In a 'im itar " '"" the g lass skin ac hic1cs a pec1 1liar a nd pl acc l e~' cli"ocia tion o f' th e Bon:ti'Cil 1111'L' from its ne i ~h borhood: i1 i' nol c1en an exterior. ina,muc h as when ''Oit ~e<. k w loo k a l the hotel's OU 1 {'l' " a lis 1 ou c;Jnnol sce llll' hntll it,rlf' hut o nly 1he cli\IOI'Ied imagcs of e1cnthing 1hat <;UITOIIHds it. ~m~ comider the cscalator~ ancl clc1awrs. Ghen thei1 1cr~ real plea~urc in Ponman. panicu lar!~ the lattcr. " hich tht anist ha~ 1 ennccl 'gigamic kinctic sn ll p lu rc~ ami which cenainll' accou nt l'or utuch of ll1 {' "JWClaclt a mi exciteme111 o lthc ho te l in tnio r - pa nic ula rl y in 1hc 1ha11s, whe re likc grcat,lapa lltse la nttrns or gondo las thc1 cease lcs~ h ri'l' ancl fall - .!;I'e n such a dc libc r:lll' ma rki11 g :111d foregrounclin~ i; r the ir ow1~ rig ht. 1 bdit"l't' 'one has 10 see suc ll 'pcople moHrs ( Po n m a n ~ o ll'n te r m . aclap1e d f'ro m Dbnel') as som e\\ha l mo re sig n i1ican 1 Litan case tha l H'cen t m ere funrt io ns a11Cl e nginceri ng co111poncnts. \\'e kn ow in a n1 arc hitcctural 1lleo1" hao; begtt n to borrm1 from n arra1i1e anaksis in other 11elds ami 1 0 ill1<'11lJll Lo ~ce otJr plll'~ical 11 ;~jectoric' 1hrough surh bui lding~ as l'irtual narratil't'' or storits. as eh na m ir p:11h' ancl nan-ati1e pm-acligm~ "h ich ,,e as 1biwr~ a re askeclto fullill ami 10 compktt' willt o ur 0\\'11 boclics a iiCIIIImements. 1n (he HottalenlUI't'. hOI\'('I'er. 1\'l' fi nd (1 d ia kctical h eigllleni ng or (Ir i~ p roct:'ss: i ( scC III$ 10 me tha t the escalatnr" a n cl t'it'I:Hor~ here ht:' ncefonh l'l'placc moi'C'IliCil l 1 !-. a nd e mble ms but a lso, ancl a hm e all. dc si ~n:t l l' 1ht' lllSt'll'es a~ nm, re fl exile sig 1 of mo1e mc nt prope r (som e1hing wlti ch ll'ill beco me e lid e mii'IH' II 1\'t~ comt to the ((lll'\liOII o f 1\'ha l re mains o f' o Jckr fO I'Ill ~ of' lllOI'elllL'IH in this building-, ll10Sl 11 otab l ~ " a lk in{ itselfj. Htrt' thc narra til't' stro ll Itas becn und er~cored, ~> mbolitcd. rc iflt'd . and replaced by a tra nsponation machim ll'h ich lxcomes 1he allegorical ~ignilier of 1hat olcler pronwnadc 1\'t' are no longcr alh1w<d 1 0 conduct on our o" n: and 1his is a dia)c{'(ical iu ttn,i fi calion of 1h e au iOI'l'ftr t' tHialill' of all

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modern c u ltun:. ,,hich tcnd~ LO lll nt upnn it~d l a nd de<;ignale;' it' 01\"11 c u llll ral production~ a~ it'> contcn l. 1 am m o re al a Jo,s ,,h t n it com es to co rll't'l'ill!-\ 1lw 1hing it-e lf. 1h e t'Xptritnn o f ~pa ct ynu und c rgo ll'hcn ,ou ste p nlr .. u c h al l q.~ori c a l cJe,ices i111o lh t' l o l >b~ or a 1rium. ll'ith its g rt<fl cc r11.ral columns ~ u rro u11 ck rl b~ a miniature lakl'. lil t who lt positiutll.:cl bct11cen il w four symmetrical rt,identi:ll towc r~ ll'ith tlair t lt l':llor,, and surrounclcd b\' ri<.in g balconies ca pptcl l>\' a kincl o J' green h o u~e roor < 11 1hc sixth le\'tl. 1 : 1111 ltm pttd 10 ~;r~ that ~uch 'pace tnakt' it impossibk fw u, to u~t the languagt ol \'olu me or n1l umc~ an1 Ju ngc t . 'iJH't' tlH'se are impo~'ibk w ,dte. l langing ;o,lrt:amer<; incke d ,uiTmc thi~ elll)>tl 'J>an in uch a ,,.a, a' lo di,lract sy temalicall\' and cklibct ,\lth from ,,h a te,er l01 111 it might be u ppo\ecl 10 h an.. ,,h ile a co n,l a nt b tl'' ne~' g iH!> t h e feeling th a l t mpl i n cs~ is hct e a b ..oh tl th pac ked . th a l it , an c lcme nt within ,,hi c h 'ntt l'ottr,tlf an: imme r sccl. ,,i1hou1 a m of th a t dista11 ce 1h:u lurmcrl~- enablccl th c pt'I'Ct' ption of x rspcc1i1c or \'O lunlt'. You are in this lt ~pc.: rs pace 11p 10 ~our L'~cs ami ~o u r hndl': aml ifit ~c c nwd lw lor< that tltat 'upprtssio n of d e p1 11 1 !ipokt of' i 11 pos1r11odcm pai n ti ng ur 1i1e ra tu rt ,,otlld n cct's~ar ilv b(' dilli c ult to achicw in artltilt'CIUrc ihL I f. p c rhaps rhis bc11ilde rin g irl1111 l'l''io n ma~ ll0\1' 't'li'l' a'- th e f( aaual eq ui,alcnt in th t m11 m e dium. Yct c~calato1 all()cJc,awr are a l-.o in t h i' t'Oil lt':-.t dialenical uppo-.itl~: a n d IH' 111;11 sugge!>l th al dw glurion~ mon:111Cill o! 1he cle1a1m ~ondo l a i, a),o a d ialcctical compt'll'-a ti on for this li llc cl span ni th c atrinm- it g in <> ~~ ~ t hl cha11Cl' at a r acl ic Jh d illen nr , but complemtni < IIY, 'J>al ial cxperien ce: thal ol ra 1> idl~ shou1i11 g n p thro ug h tlw ceiling and Ollhi<il', a lo11g on c of thP fo llr ')'llllll t' lr ica l Hil brcathlakingl)' ancl t'l't n toll'e rs. with rh t rc f'c re nl. l.os Ange Je, it~e l l', sprl'acl < alarmi ng ly bd'of'(..' liS. l~ tll <n n th is \'l'l'l ic:t1 rn ol'l' lll t' lll is co n tai 11 ed : t h <:" l' k l'alor lifts ro u to ont of' 1hose l'l'l'o hing coc ktai llo ullgt'' in whi c h . sca tPd . )'O ll arl' ag:1in p assi iT iy rotatccl abou t a 11d off'e red a <"OIIlCn lplatil'c ~pec rade ol'the c itl' ihe lf. now tn m sfo nncd i11 to it, 0 11'11 images b1 tlll' gla~..; wincltms thro ug h ,,h ich ,o u 'iew i1. \\'<. 111<1\' cu n cl ttdl all this by reunn in g to 1hc un tral space of the lobbl' ihl'lf (,,i th tht pa!>,illg ob~tn~nion that the ho1d room'> are l'isibly marginalittd : 1he corr idor!> in t h l' rcs idcn1ial sectio11s are Jtl\,nilingl'<l and dark. mo~t ck pn:<>,in~l ~ functio Hal. whi c h o n e u ndersta n ds th a l 1lw rt>tllll' a re in th e 11o r~1 ol' tastt). '1 he d escem is clramatic enoug h . plumme ling back dmm throu gh Lhe roo! 10 splas ll d01\'ll in llw lake. \\'hat happe n s 1dwn ~utt g't' l 1ilen: i' snme thing e hl'. wilirll r an on l ~ be c ll:mtn~ritcd a .. mi llir1g con l\ tsio n. SIJIIIL' tltin g- likc the ,cngtanc< !lais spact takcs on liHISl' who s til l seck 1o ll'< dk LhrcH rg il it. Cil't' ll the absolute wrnnll'll)' o ftiJ e fo ur lUII'CJ'S. l i,_ C]llill' impo,~ibJt- lO gt( )'IHif iJl'a rin gs inthi ~ J obb~: fl"Cl' llll \', color {'Oding allCI clitl'l'lional ~ig nals ha,e bttn add cd in a piril'ul ami n :,'L'aling, ratlw r d t' p t ratc. a tt cmpt 10 re wre th t coorclina t t~ of a n older ' P:ttT. 1 11ill takc a the ni OM drama1ic practica) re~u lt of thi-. 'Patial nHH:Hion t ht notot iou~

clikmma o f 1he ~hopkcc.:per~ 011 t h t 1ari<H"- halconit~: i1 ha' bt't'll obl'iou, ~ince 1h c np e nin g th e hottl in 19ii that n obt)(h cou ld el'er lind < 111' of t h c'e stores. and < nn if \'tHI once Jocatl'd th t apprnpa iate boulicue. \ '011 wo uld be mos1 unlil..d1 111 h~ as Conun~He a ~econd tiam ; as a co n sequl'n e<., 1ilc CmmetTial t c nanl.~ art in dcspair and al l Lht lll t'rr lta ndise is markecl dnii' JI ro h argain prices. \\'ht n \ '011 rc.call 1ha1 Pnnman b a bu..;in cs~ m;lll "' 11'Cll as an a rc hitc ct and a mi lli onairt' c)c,cloper. :111 arti ~ tll'lto i' at o n L' anrl1ile samc Linlt' a c apitali ~ t in his 0 1111 riglt t. onc ca nnol btll l(el tha1 lt t rt too ' cHnc thin g of a rc turn of' th e

or

IT)JI'L'~~NJ' i~

i 11\'0h-ecJ. So 1 come final h- 1o 1111 principa l point h ere. thaLLhis latl''l llllttntion in space po,lmodttn h'Vl'I:O:JKICe- h n~ final h hecn ~ucceeded in tran;,cellding tile capacit l'' 0 ( lht illdi,id n al llllm.tn hodv to locatt i1scl l. lo organ itc ih inunecliate o;urro nlldin g-o; wrceplllalh , .1nd cog nili\'t'lv w map its posi1 ion in a m appablc t'X Il'l'lla l \\'urld. lt mal' no11 bl' Sll.{l-{t''lt'cl 1ilat thi~ ;~ l ;trmin g di ~jutlrt i n n p o int h t!ll'l'L' II th e both ;nltl .ih huilt tm itonllll'l"ll - ,,hi c h is to till' ini 1i a l be11ildc rm c nt e;[ lilt oldtr mod.trn ism a ~ tll l' \'l' lo c itits n i 'paccc ral't to tll o~t llitllt :n r1 omobilc l":t 11 i 1 ~ctr :.tan el as tlll !'1"111 bol ancl a 11 alogon or rhat en :n .. llat p e r di l<:nnna wll ic h i~ lht incap:tc itl' of' ou;. mincb. at k:t~l al prese nt. to 111a p thl' g rcat g ln bal multinational ancl clecentend u1mmunica ti o nal n et,,nrk in ll'h icll ll'l' lind olll't' l\l~ caught "' indiddual 'lalljtcl'.

Bu 1 ::1~ 1 a m anxiou' that Poalman ,'-pare not be p<'l'et'i\l'd "' ..;onwt hin g (ither :-.etptional tu '''emingl" n1a1g-inalittd as l ei~t liT-special itcd on th e o r der of 1 Di ~ n C'' land . 1 ll'ill conduele bv juxl apo~i ng thi-; complan nt and rn tc naining (al1hnugh he11ilckring} il' i~ure-tinH' spacL' ll'illl its a nalog u<. in a n ry dil'kre m arc:t. na1mh. tll e spact \lr po, lnHHkrn 11:1rl"aH. in p a nicul<1r as :'llichad 1-le rr e1nkt'' ir in f)isjHllche.\, hi ~ g rl':ll ho n k on 1h t' t:'Xper iL' IH'<.' o l \ ' ictnant. The c "traorcliHary Jin g uisri c innmatiotls o!' this lmrk m :w still h e consiclered postm odnn . in th c eclccti c "'~" in ,,hi ch it'i lang na!-\e imJt r~onalh fH'' a wh o le rallg'l' o f C\liHl'lllpnrarv colknil't' icliokc ts. n1os1 n u tabh- ro r k lang nag<. and blac k language: but tlll' rusion i.. diU:tll'd bl prnhlems of (O IIIl'l1t. T hi .. lit ~~ te rrible po,tmodcmi.;t war cannot hl' w ld in .un of tlw traditional paradig111s o f the war 11 owl or mmit - indecd. 1hat bnakdown of' a ll ptTdo u' narratin paradigm<> is, :!long 11it h the breakdowll ol'am 'hared l.n 1~11agC' thron g h ,,hich a n1eran might ('Clll\'l'l ,lll h I.'Xpe ril'n Ct:. ,\ll1 0 11 g' !111.' principie sul~j l'C b uf th t bool.. a nd 111; 1~ b e said 1;1 o wn up tht p la ce ni',, 111 wk nc\1' rt n e xilit~. l k11 jamin '~ accou tll uf 1\autk l:tin. ancl of' II H' tmcr~t' ll lT of mod c rnisn1 rrom a aww l'XperitmT of city ll'C h nol og, ,,ll ic h 1ran ~cC' nd s ;tll 1h e o ldcr h a bi ts of' bocl i h p ercc P' i011 . is b o th ,i 11 g ularl l' .rc ]e,a nt and ~in gtdnt h an ti quarecl in th c lig ht o l' this 111.'11' a iHI 'irnmlh u n i111.1ginabk cwlllllllll lcap in tltt tlr hn o logical a lic nations:
l'XC't'Jll

1k 11'01' a mmin~-lar~el~llllillll 'tJINJilwr. a tntt' rhild of' dtt 11'<11'. h erall,t' ln1 lh t I'<II'L' tilllt'' llhl'll \1111 1\1'1'1.' Jlilllll'd lll \ll~lll((tocJ lht W\ll'lll \l':t<

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g~:u ~d lll kctp I'O ll mohik. if that " '"' "h;tt yo u 1hnu~l11 yo u ".tntnl. . \, a

tcchniqm fo t ''a' ing a lin' it ~eemcd w makc as m ueh ~cn~l a~ :ul\'thing. ginn n:uuralh th.n 1ou wcrc therc 10 begin 1\'ith :md \\'antcd 10 'ce it clo~l: it \lalted 0111 'ound ancl :.traight b111 it formed a eone :hit progre;;,lcl. hecau,t thc mure 1011 mmecl the more \'OII ~aw. the more 1'011 ':1\\' thc mon hc,icle~ death :md mutil.uion 1011 ri~ked. and the more 1011 1 bkecl of that thc 1nme 1'011 \\'ould han tu kt go or one da1 a~ a ,u1Yi1or.' Some uf m mmecl .ltullncltiH: war like u<J/\' pcople liiHil 1\'\.' couldn't ' e e \\'hi ch 11ay the 11111 11~H taking 11~ a m IIIOtl.'. onlr tht w.1r a ll on.1 itl' sutface 11ith uccasional. 11nexpected pemtr.uion. ,\,l ong a ... 1\'t' co ulcl h.11'1' c hopper~ like taxis it took re:1l exh:1mtion or dcpre,,iutl mar ~hock 0 1 a doten pipl'S of upium lO kc cp us CI'Cn aJliKll'l' tllh' quict. 1\'l''d ~till be rtllltiII!{ am und in~ick our ~kins lik( some thin~ \\a~ af'ter 11~ , h:t hn, l.a \ 'ida Luc,t. In tht tn o nths after 1 go t back thc hundncb. o f h dicopllr~ l'd f1ol\'ll in IH:g.ttl to drall' toget her until they'cl furm ed ,, colll'cti rc m e t:trhopper, <11 1d in tn~ ttlind it "'"~ tit e sexint tlting going: ~,1\.t"rdc-;tro~er. prmid e rwa~ tl' l '. r ig ltt h:HHI- Id t hancl. nimbk>. f111 en t, ca nn~ ~t ncl huma11; lwt ~ l ct l , gr~a~l. ju 11;lc s:tluratccl c;tm,, ~ ll'e bbing. SII'Cat coolin g- a nd ll'armin~ up :l:(<li n . ca~Sl' llt' rnc k <l nclrnll in one l'<ll a nd door-~un Ci rc in th c o th c t. fuel. lt e: tt . Italitl' ancl cleath, dt;tih l ~e lf. ha rcll r a n intrudcr. . In thi ~; m,, marhinc. ll'hirh do es not , like th c o ldcr 111ockrnist machinet 1 or thc locol11otI'l' o r 1he ai rplane. represent 1110 1ion. b111 1\'h irh can on h bt repr~stntt;<d in molinn. snmething- nf the 1111sten of the ne\\' post modcrni~t 'J>:I CL' i' co n ce n
ll~ ltl'd.

thc ba-.is of tiH'ia o11n pn,onal txperiLncc. Thus. anti-clishers' madl' no rcferl'llCl' 10 tekl'i,ion prol-{rammcs' ( 1\lHJ : ~~ ll a~ th c1 o;poke abo utth e architcct m e di'll~urcmcnt prodnced hy th<: ertnion of tlw di,h . Thcy 11erc knoll'led~eable about rl'lc,an t plann ing k{islation and con ,imnth used e1~1 111ati,e phrase:. to :.ugge\t that dishe' II'CI't' e,e,ores that 1\'l'l'l' ckl'aluing tht ~mironmtnt in financia] and suuu~ tcnn.,, Ccnain of thc ant i-d i~h<r-. " ere concermcl 10 ... uggc.., th:u the mo1uHing of a clish woulcl ch an gt' th e chararte o l tht l'lll'it onncnt for thc 11orse. T he suggestion i' that thc public emironmcut \\'Ould lw contamiuated or dt,alued b1 the di,h. Thc dish-encwrs mad<' thdr case in more persona l or indilidua1 tc:nn'-. Tht'~ " 'antcd tht grcater ch oice or thc p oten tia] ,ari:uion in 1\'atch in.: that a cli~h co uld bring ancl tlu.:sc concerns m crrocle cnnccrn abuut 1hl' t' lll i ro nnwttt. Thc de bate around 1h e si ti ng of clishes rai,es is,m ~ of o;La l liS and lS cli ~p l:t y ll Cllll'-lllllplion. '(lti ~ feaLUre Of Lh t;< bui lt cmirOllll\('111 a]~t) con n cc t ~ to ~,ue' o f p owcr (p. 9 1). in ; ,,ay si milar lO th l accounts proridccl bv

;\ lacDona ld a n ciJtnt l'~on in tl ll' j)l't'I'om ~ln ion.

9.8.4 1 Reading cities: leg ibility and imageability

\\'e haw a 1rcach' sltcll\ n h oll' n it ics li kt;< Benjamn (p. 373) aiiCI Bcrm:m inwrprel a c i t~
like Pa rs. Othn l,r itcrs from clifl<:rl'n t clisciplina tY b:t c kKrottncl~ h a1c CIITilcl o ut si milar l'Xl'I'Cisl~ in di l fcrtnt 11 '~ s ;m el u si ng difkren Lco ncep t~ . One in flue nt ial r;-.e of' thi.; can he ftnmd in tll(' ll'ork of l.,nch ( 19110) wltic h \\as uscd by J :tme~on ( 1991) in hi' 11ork on posunndernism and p ostmo d e mity (p. -lOO). !.1 nch anahst~ t hl II < Httre :1nd in h abitan t, cxpericnce o! thnt . \ mcric:m ci t il'': Bostotl.jerse1 C:it1 ancl l .o~ . \ngek~. At thc htan ofhi anahsis is t iH conccpt of lt:t.,ribilil\ -'tite ease ,,ith 11h ich b J>.ll'b can bt recogni7<:d ancl can be organiLcd into a co h CI'l'lll pattern ( 1!)1)0: ~-:n .. \lso of grt;n impo tan ct:' is the icka of imagmbility- h:ll qualitr in a physical ol~ject " hiclt ~i1e ita high p rob:1bilil\ of cmking a qrong image in anv gin'n o b,enT r ( 191i0: 9). From his thne example~. Ln1ch cla~ ific~ fil'e difTcJTilt l'lemenl'- of th e ci n wltich are impot tant in the gt'llt'l'ation of the cxpcrienrc of the cit~: p ath:.. eclges. dist ict,, noclc~ .1ncl 1:utclmarks. Dt'linitions ancl cxamples or thc~e are giwn in th e ex trac t from I.111Ch ( ! ~)()()) in Box \1.1.

)alltl''"" f 1\191 : :IS- I.il

For .Jallll''-011. th( Ro llal't'1Hun condense<> sonH. kt'l a<>pects nf po~unoclern culture and life. J;lmel>Olls focu~ on the idea of pos tmo d ern ( p . -100) 'P:t<'t' and the cxpnicnce of it ., parti cularlv important. Fo 1 .Jamcso n tll(: co n fusion cHgendcrcd b1 th c Bona ,ent ure b ::.nnbulic uf \\idc t confusions a11d o n r inahi litl' to loratt Ollf'!'t'in:'i in th c comp1cxitv ol' th c posunodern 1\'orld. Sttch claim' abc~11t po., ttn odemist n " ill he cn n ~id ercd f'unhcr in ~ection 9.0: h o\\'e\'cr. it m :l\' be illnminming 10 reacl tltis long C\ 1raet cart l't tll ~ al1C1 111 cn n sidcr if' these argumcnt~ mi g ht bt app licd mon ,,icle k

Box

9.4

lmportant elements of the city

9.8.3 1 R eading the landscape of taste

In 'Satdlit e di s h e~ ancl the l:lndscapt of tas te' Brunsd o n ( 1~ 19 1 ) t' X<nn i m~ thc :trg um e m s o\'er th e siting u f sate llitl' dish es betiiTCII 198\l a nd 1\l!lO <lS rtponcd in the Britbh prC'S1-. Sh l' ~>ttgReSLS that this co ntnWei'SI' 1':1St'S a llttlldWr SSltl'S :ti'Ollllcl c lass. st :tt 11 ~. natio na1 hnitagc ami taste. Brunsclon say~ th:u th esc pr~ss rcpnns iclentifl' two oppo,cd forns: '"Anti-dishns" ami " Di~h-rrector, ... ( 1\l!ll: :W). ' , \nti-clisiH.'r~ liTre profcss ional~ ll'ho rtprt;<~tnt<:d group'. cti ~h-erecwr-. ll'lre pattkuLtr indiridu a l~. The 'a nti-cli~htr~ :u !{tttd in a consi~tent ancl uniform ,,;w. ll'h ere:l~ ctish-trcctos '-pokt;< on

or

T IH: cotlll' llt S o l' tite c it \' imagt'~ ~o fa r studi ed . wlt ich are rlferab1 e tn phy~k: t 1 forms. ra n co mt ~ti c ntl v lw r 1 :t,sil kcl in to fil'l' 1~-p cs of l'lf'nwnts: f)(l!h, , t'dgr.l, rli~trirl s. llt!l/1'.1, 1/1/(l!rlllrllllrll'l!s. Thc~c tkme11LS may b e ddi n e cl a~ f'o llows: /. Pfllhl. l':till-. art tia c hnnttl'IS :tl on~ ll'h ich thl ob~c..-nr Ctl'l0111 ili'h. occas iona ll ~ or pnt l'll liall ~ mml''- The1 may h e ~trcels . 1,a1k11ays. t ran-.i t lin<'S. ca nal ~. railroads. For 111<1111 peopk. the't' are th e predominan! clC'men t-. in tl w ir

4 1 O lntroduc ing Cultural Studies

Visual culture

41 1

ima){l'. Pe~1pk o b~e rn the ci ty ,,hi le tno\'in g tl11cntgh it. ;mcl a long t lll''l' path ' tht o th tr l'll\' tronllll'lltall'ltnHnt~ :m: a rra n{ed allfl rt'l a ted.

2. l:dKf'!>. Edgcs a re th e li near dement~ tHH mld or um ,ide t t:d ;, path~ h\' tht oh-;tn t r. T hc1 are the houndaries hcth'C't'n 111'0 pha'ics. lin ea r hHak' ir; con tin u it,: 'i hon:'. railroacl cut,, edgcs of de,-clopnll'lll, ,,a lk J"hc1 an lal<:t.tl rcftortfl tt'' ratllt'r th a n coordin a re a xc -. ~ urh cdgc~ m;l\' be ba rr itt ' ntof'l or Je,\ pcn<.ll~tb k. 1\'hich close em e region ofT from a notlw r: or thl'' rn ;l\ IJl wa 111, , l irw~ .dcmg 11 1t ich ,,o rtgiun s a re re la re d and joi ~ttd togl't her. ' flw,o,e edge d~metlls. a lth m~g.h probahh' not as d o min a 11t as pa t h ~. a re fo t mam p top le importan o r~a11 11.1 11 g fc:uures. panic ularly in tit e role' oflwlding l<lgl tlt c r g-tn e 1 ~ 1 1 i 1 c d a rt'a~. a ~ 111 thc outhn C' o l a ci 1 1 b1 1\'ate r o r \\'a ll.

direc rion . Such are solated towns. goldcn domes. g r ea t hills. E1c n a m o bik p oi nt, like thc sun. ll' h ost motion , su fficientll' sloll' a ncl r egula r . mm be e mpiO)'CCI. Othe r landmark~ art primarill' local. beng l'io;iblt o nly in rc~rri ctecl localitie ancl from ('(.'tta in a pproac ht~. Thesc are tlll' innumerable signs. , rore fron ts. trce.,, d oorknob,, .111d othtr urban detail. 1rhich fill in the imagc o l m c>~l o bstn e r:.. T h e\ <l l'l' ftt'CJliC:Iltl\' ll:.ecl du e~ of id entit\' ancl el'en or ~lfllCll ll'(', ;ncl se<.m to bt in rrea.,i ng h reliecl upon a.!. a jounH:, hecome~ m ore and nwrt fa mil iar.
1 'n tlt < 1!lliO: 11\-H

3. /Ji.1trir t ~. Di,t.-ic ts an t h e m ed ium -to-l;trg e Sl'Ctio11,o, ol' tia rit1, conn iHd o f h al'i n g- t\\'Odi ttl<'llsio n :J i t:-a e n t. 1dti ch tit e obsetYl' t' tttt' ll ta lh t' ll ;tr:-> ' ittsidt ol'.' a 11d 1\'h ic lt ;~ r:e r('rc.> .{ni t.a b le. a~ lt min g so tll!' com nH) II , i ck llt i f ~i r t g c ha r ac tn . . \ lll';tys td t llttf tabll' lro m th c m sidc . illC)' a re a lso u ~c d for c:-.: rerior rl'fi: t'l' ttet il l'isibk f'ro m l h e o tnsiclc . .\ 1os t p eu pk ~ t r u c tu t'l' tl w i t' c i,,. 1 11 so nt t' l'X l t' lll i 11 tlt is 11':11'. ll'ith in d i1id ua l cli fferc n ces as 1.0 1\'h e th er pa th, , or d i.~ t rict- ;t t't t lw dun r i nan~ dc m t tHs. lt sccms tu clc p end 110 1 onl ~ u pun th c ind il'iclt ta l b 111 abo u pon rltc ){hen c it1.
;,

'' .\'or/1'\. :"\'ocks are po i nt~ . t h e srratcgic spots in ;1 c i11 in ro 11'hich anohse n cr can l'tlll'l'. a iHl ll'hi c h are the intcnsi1e fnci to a ncl from ll'ltic h hl' i ~ tr; t,c lin g. 1 h c 1 m a~ bt p t imari l\' ju nniom. place' o f a break in rramp ot ta tion . a l'f'o,~i n.{ 0 ;. com tr){t'll Ct' ni pa th~. m oments of shifl from om , tntc tu n ro a n ot h n. Or th e rwcles m a' . be ~imph conccntratio n s. ,,h ich gain tht ir impw t.m n fm n r lxi n.{ rhe concltn,auon of som e u sc or ph~si ca l charancr. "'a \lf'l'Ct-co n 1l't 11. 111 ~0111 r>r an tn~lc>\.ed sq u :1rc . .~cHne of thcsC' conccntration node ... art' th e fi1cu, ancl q>itouw o f a dt\ti'ICI. mTr 1d11dr t hl'ir influence t<tdia tc s attd ol'" hich rhc1 ,o,tancl ;ha.,, m bol. 1hc1 ma' ht called core~ . .\J a n~ nodes. of coursc, pattakt of th l nat u rc o l both junc tit:n s a~td c~llCl'tllrations. Tlw con ce p t of n odc is rdatld ro tht cnncept of p ;Hit. ~.n ~t .f uncuon~ are 11 pica !11' the co m c rg encc of patlts. CI'Cil t, c111 t he jc n r m c~. ~ ~ 1.-. '~t11l l atl:l ' rd ~He c_l lo the co n ce pt ol distrin . .-.incv r ort' ' art l)pira lh tit e ll t tc ttSI\'l' lo.r t o l d ~ 'lrtt'ls . th e ir po la t'iLin.{ cem c r . In an~ c n nr. , 0 1 111 nocla! points art lo be lo nttd 111 a lmost l' \'l 't'\' im agc. and in <Trtai tt <'l'l'' rh 11 mal' ht tlw d cltllill;ull ka tu re. La ndn tarks a re: an o th e r 1\'p l' poi lll-l'CI't nn cc. bt tl ill tlt is ca~t' th c obsct'l't'l' dc ws no t l' ll tl' r 1\'tlti tt th l' m , tlt ey arl' l'Xll'1'11a l. T h t 1 a rt ttsua lll' a ~ a tlt tr .si tH p l> cle lirwd ph )~ i ca l objen: b ui lding. sign , ston.:. or 1110l111.tai 1 1. T lt eir u ~e 111\'olrts t ht ' ing li ng Otll or e)f] (' e le l11 (.'11l l't'Olll lw' t ol' po.~..,b il i1ks. SOI11l' landm:uk'i are d istant ollt'S, l)-p i ca ll ~ ~e e n from man) anglc~ a ttcl cl i,t:tllC't'' m tr tltl lO JH o l ~ura ll cr t'ltnte tlls. all(l u ..ecl as rad ia l rde rt rr ns. Tht' ma1 hl' \\'it h i 11 tlt t' cit1 .1 or at sur h a distan ce that lil r all pranica l purpo~l'' tlt~' ,, mholitt' a r 0 11 ,t;11 1

L\'nc h u se~ thc idc nt ificati o n ancl clbc ussion of th ese c.: h.:me n ts f () inlorm a 11d ar..(lll' fo r p<trt ic u htr de.sign stra tt:gies. llo11c\'lT , it is irn p o rt ant LO r ccog-nisl' th at th c.:sc e le m e nts ca n a [,o ht' ttsed as a m e tlt u d o lo;ical base l'o r th e imer p rc ta t io n o l' ti te cit)' in Lyn c h ~ ,,ork is tl ll' c m p ltas is 1hat h l c ul tura l .stud ies. A11 0 1h e r i m pon;uH as p ert pl a ce~ o n tl w i ttlt a b i ta n t'' ex p t r it n n of' tit e c i l1. L> n c h d oes not si m p ly ll'f'll' "' th t ittterpntct or c r itic. bu1 a ttl' tll j>IS ro m obilisl' or tap ,,h at mg ht be ca lltd ti H cxp tricn ce tite 'audknn' fnr th e c in . l lcJ\\'t'\'t.'l'. it is im p ortan \ to rcmtmbn th:tt the rc may hc: mam di iTtn nt a ud ie n ce~ for th c ci11 is di\'ide d by r l a~s. gc nder. race :nrd age and so on.

or

nr

9.8.5 1 R eading landscape and power

The cxa m ple~ cxamincd in th i' \ t'Ction h:ll'c raistd thc iso;uc o fth t rdatioll\hip betlll't'll la n dscape a ncl powcr (p . 91) (~ec al~o Chapler ..J ). Fmtxamplt . .\l ac Dorlald a rguc:. 1h.11 th e o lfi cc~ of p ro l'co;,icma l ~roup' ran ht intnp r eted "' p a rt o f th t cle ... ire lot p rofe,sio nal tnhan CCill('llt .111<1 po11~r a nd Bnm\don sh ow~ ho,, con fli c l\ 0\'tr ' ;udlitt' dishcs con nect LO aml \ lf'ltt' tlll'l' ar~ument bet11een difTerem \Ocia! g rou p' u\l' t the mean ing of tlw cmiroll nH'n t. Sha ron Zukin ( 1991. 1 99~) has ide n tiflcd sn m c o l th t ge n eral iss1 rcs rai ~l'CI in tlt i' rca lm . She s ug~c.:~Ls thatlandscapc gin:s a m a tc riallorm to n : la ti onships Of pl)\\'Cf'. l.ancl ~cap cs can th cn be in terp rete d lO r ep rcsent 01' ')'lltbo l i ~< th e d iiTe re n t ('()l1 1tl llf'S re lation,hip' POI\'(.'1' at spccific h i'lu ri ca l l'llOIIl(' ll lS. Znki n i' p an ic u lar! \' c:o n cc rn ccl with th t rda t ion~h i ps of' p011T r th a t ;u < r h arac tt' l ,tic o l

or

or

5. l .u//rlll/r/1/(\,

or

cap i t a l i ~m :

Asymm L' Irical pm,cr in th t ,.,u;d 'e tt ~c ~u~ge~ ts cap ita lisr, g-rca t a bi li t~ to clra1, 1ro rtt a pu tc n tia l rc:pc:rtu irl' oi' lll . lg'l',, IU d tl'l'lop :1 S li CCl'~S O il of' re:~ l and ')'lll bolic la ncJ, capc, tlt a l de: fin e t ' \ Ct )' lt btorir a l wrind. inc h tcli ttg- po,llnod l'l'll t\'. This rc\er'c:' .la tntson'' dictUI1 l tha t arch ilt'Cillf't' j, illlpOI'Illll lO po~l ll iCtd l'rn it )' lwctllSl' l i' ilt t' ~~ t ubo l o!' c:tpitalbm. Ra illt'r, arr hittcturt is import;tlll bc c;w~e il is thl' cap iw l o/,~ mholi ~m. (Zukin . l!l\12: 22;)) .-\ ke 1 a'pcct nf Zukin', ,,o r k i~ the c mpha s i~ that ~he place on th c- natmt of rlw transform a ti o n of ci tie,. Slw <:xamim, t he nature o f t he process of f.{t'lllriftmliml ,,hch

412

lntroducing Cultural Studies

Visual culture 41 3
unfo lding in a dear and ('Oit l'I'Cill ra~hion. There has been a \\'l'ake ni ng tlf g-ra nd 01' mcta-narrati1cs. Thesc dt'\Tiopme tHs a re represente<! by the pupularity of thc nostalgia' film whiclt incoqwratcs a notion of pastness or earlier films inw an unlocatcd and 1 ague prtsenl.

ha~ tr<tnl'f'onned pan' ol' older r ities of modernit1 like Lo nd o n or i"t'll" York (Zukin,

1\l~9. 19!l:"i), .:--/e"er citie~ do not coma in the son s of building!' that can be tramfonned this proce~~. Such citics. like Los Angeles. which are cmblcmati c of p ostmodernity ])1 (j). -100) .tre ~trunmecl arou ncl entertainment- the~ are lit...<. a kincl of Di~ne1 \\'orle!. In thi~ ra~hion Zukin rai~e som e crucial issues concet n ing th e contcmpor:Hy tramformatio n of pm,er and ,isual cu ltu re in tlw cit1. which i~ thc subjcct of the next \t'C I ion.

3. ,\ 'r.1 t'motionaltolll'. Tht waning of affect' as ,,e no longer set"k 1h c dqJth~ of ltuntan p crsonalit) or feel 'eparated from our ec;sential self (a'> in th e idea ofali<:n ation) btll
are 'burnt-out'. 4. Pmtiche. Postm o d trn cu lture doe~ no1 paroch o1her c ultu re with the intcntion of producin~ a panintlar cffcct b111 pa,tiches in <t pl:l~ful manncr to no ult ima1c a im. tran,formatiom are a lso 1aking place in th e ,,ider c tLiture of th e con 1e mp01 ary period. !1 h as bt'l'll '~~~~tst ('d 1h:11 postmoclern it\' consists of fea tures tha1 di~tingu ish i1 f'rom moclern it~ ~u c h a~ 1hose dclailccl by Dad d Harn:y ( 1990) in Table !l. .J. Th e kind uf c h ange~ idcntiflcd by \\Ti ters likc 1 -latYcy a ncl J anw!'on secrn tn lw funlwst ach'a n ccd in th e L.: ni1 ed S 1 a 1 e~ a nd cspcciall y in its ci 1ies. lf' Eurow a nd Paris were th c sil el' ol' th c clel'c lop1Ht' lll of m o d e rni ty, th c n p ostm o d e rni ty ( p. -100) is Ccltll'l'CI in th e L nitcd Sta l <'~ ancl Los :\ngc l t ~. Tlw latttT contains the pre dumin a nl 'cl t't'alll factory' of tite la tt' l\\'t:nti e th ccntury - 1-l o ll ~ wood - but is a l~o al th e COl'l' ol' contemporary con1municmions and media de\'elnpme nls in tht wickr scn se. Los Angeles is also ltonH: to m a n y aspec t:, o f LIS military power (S~ja. 1989) a nd lll'\1' fonm of postm o d ern httilding likt 1hc Bona1cn ture. The honae of the motor car has bce n central in the ~e 11 erat ion of ncw modc-; of social imeracti o11. 1he acTotnmodation o( which has tramfonucd ol htr cit i e~.
The~e

9.9 jVisual culture and postmodernity

In this hook, a ncl in this chapter, \\'t' han: suggested that c ulture can be u n derstoocl in ''''e) ma in ,,;1\s: a ~ trxt andas ,,.a, of life. [n kt't'pin; with this rli~tin c tion , it is p o ~ibl c lo ~trguc that r;m tc mporary denl~pments in cultun: can be cl hidccl into th e 1110\'e ntcnt lO\,;trds 1 ht dontinancc of post ntode rnism as a textwtl fo nn mi p oslmodcrn ity (p. -100) as a 11('\1' way of lifc. Su c h a n ana lyt ic d istin n io n htlp..- w urga nise a \'ast rangl' o f ro n tc utpor:wy <l r b:Hcs on conte mpo ra ry cu lturt. l nt t' rp n la ti o n s ol' postmode rnism/ ity can hc !'ummaristd f]llitt' n catl y itt cli~cussions of thc cil)' :md its bui l ding~. Thus in his dbcu~~ion of tltl Bo n a\'t' lltliiT, Jnneson examine~ th c nature of 1his b11ilding-, th e e:"peritnces it prmokt'!' a n cl its locatio n in a p:ntictdar cit\'. Charlcs.J encks ( 1989), who is the mo~t prontint' IH 11ritl'l' on p mt m o d e m i:-.m in arc hiwc1ure. maintains that architec1ural posunoderni~m ill\'olws 'double coding . ll c ( 1989: 7) suggcsts that postmodernism is ftutcbnwnt.tll\' thc cclcctic mixture of a m tradition with that of tltt immccliatc pa~t: l i~ hoth the ~olltitHtation of ~lodcmisn~ and b lr:ut~nndtnn. h~ bc~l 1mrk~ are ch;u act<t i'ticalh doubi\'Codcd an d ironic. mal..ing a f't:uurt of the \\'clc choice. conllict and dbcontinuitl' of traditions. bee<tnse this heuaugeneitl' liH>~t capuarcs our phu ali,m. 1" l11 hrid '1\ k is oppo~ed lo 1he m in imalbm of L:llc-~ l <>dem ideo lo~ and :all rn h.tl, 1dtic h are h.~>td on ;m l'XclmiH dogma or l.~'>tt' . ll w l'ollo\\ing- ,tct ion-; cxplnn
the~c i~'llt"~

9.9.2 1 jean Baudrillard: simulacra and hyperreality

icd 10 !>how lhl' ran.{c ofw<1ys in \\'hich culture both a~ text att(l to i t ~ mcmbcrs. Sccing, we hal'e !>ugge~ted. is alwa\S cultu;ed seting and .tppearances a re on l\' real to us in so far as the~ h ;we cu ltlll~tl ~ignific:ance . .-\11 c ultu rts mal..c ~omc uf 1heir feawres ,isualh- mai lable b tll the changc~ ush ered i11 by m ockrnity ma~nify 1his tcnden c~ Tlw \ITitcrs cli sc u s~cd in the prt,iou' section s ta~gt'' l tlaat C011lt:111porary shift ~ in cultu re a nd soc i et~ art leacling towarcls 1hr d e,elopmen t of n cw forms of ,isu a l c ult ure of a postmudernbt natuiT. \\'hik t h is i!' del'eloped u pon 111< fonndations of modcmity it can be seen lo h ;t\'t' nnain distii1 Ctiw f'c:atu res. Sume tlw ~ ~~ ifh i11mhnl 11:1\'C' be e n charac t erised by B;a ud ri llard. wltos< work has a lrc:tdy b<'l'l1 consickrl'd in th is cltaptn as influe ntial o n.John l ' rrys :ut :tll'., is Of' thl' posl lnll r i\1. Baudrillard cri lit'i'l'' th c da~s i r ~farx ist ( p. ~17 ) ideas th e deterrnin;uioll thl' id eological (p. ~ 1 ) 0 1 cultura l supcrs1runun b~ thc ecunomic ba'l' and of tiH' di~lin c tion bctll't'l'll u ~e ancl l'XChangl' ,ahlt'. !le suggests th ;-t t th c~c hinatY di,tinninn' ha1e heen co1tl'usnl or blurrcd IJI' the prnlifcra1ion of' imagcs and tht prouounccd aoks of the media in COillt'ltlf)Oral'\ capitalbl <.ocicties. jamcson \ IJOilll tltat cit'pth 1110Cft-ls are in crea~in~ l~ ks' nntral i~ similar. :'\loremcr. Baudrillard dtHlop~ a n <.''l:tcncled

In th is c h<1ptcr we hal'e

11

as w;t,. o f lifc i' ,.i,ualh'

<1\~lil:lble

in more detail.

9.9.1

P ostmodernism and capitalism: Fredric jameson and David Harvey

ltt IIHH'v n it ira l rJi,cmsion ... of' po,tlnockmbln nnrl posttiH >dl'rn ill , sur lt proctsst'\ imply lh t los'i o l' t llt' ,\t'llSl' of hi.'ilorical locat iOll. ;a, f'l': llll l'l'S l'ro111 111 :111 ~ di l'floi'C ilt histnrica l lkriucls ancl p lacl'.' a re brough t togl' t h er. pmdt acing ' l l;attcttin( (.l:unc son , 1\lfl l ) ancl ' liiiH'- ,pan ro mpn.:ssion ( ll a i'\'CI'. IUUO). Th is \\'t'<tkening of Jti,toriri ly i ~ o iH' of tite f'o11t k:ll lln ~ of post nwdl'rn i~m idcnti fied h\' Jamt,on ( 1\ l~ll : li -~:i ): l . l h'Jilhlt\1111'1.1. Tite break-do\1'11 o( tite dq>th lltOdd... rita aal' ll'l'btil or pre-pn~lltlCldtfll 'o c ittit~. ,eh a~ 1ho'e bet11'ee11 the insiclt Ollhiclc. e~wtll' c' appe<trann. an lltentic i11 inaulltt'tlli c it~. signifier significcl. latt' IH manift'SI.
~.

or

or

or

11 i flluning of hillorifll_\. \\'e are no

lon~ta

ah le to si 111a tt o ur~dn:; i 11 h istorical 1imc as

414

lntroducing Cultural Studies

l. lt
i~

Visual culture
a reflection of a basic rcalit\. a nd perwns a basic rc:llitl'. th e
obSl' llll' of a lnt~ir 10

415

Table 9.4 Fordist modernity versus flexible postmodernity, or the interpenetration of opposed tendencies in capitalist society as a whole F ordist modernity economies of scale/master code/hierarchy homogeneity/detail division of labour paranoia/alienation/symptom public housing/monopoly capital purpose/design/mastery/determinacy production capital/universalism state power/trade unions state welfarism/metropolis ethlcs/money commodity God the Father/materiality production/orig inality1 authority btue cotlar/avant-gardism lnterest group polilics/semantics centratisation/totalisation synthesis/collective bargaining operationat management/master code phallic/single task/origin metatheory/narrative/depth mass produclion/class politics technical-scientilic rationality utopia/redemptive art/concentration specialised work/collective consumption function/representation/signified industry/protestant work ethic mechanical reproduction becoming/epistemology/regulation urban renewal/retative space state interventionism/industrialisation internationalism/perm anence/time
Source: Harvey (1990: 340-1)

2. lt

n msk~ ma~k~

:>.

lt

rl';llit\.
bit~

Flexible postmodernity economies of scope/idiotect/anarchy diversity/social divislon of labour schizophrenia/decentring/desire homelessness/entrepreneurialism play/chance/exhaustion/indetermina cy fictitious capital/localism financia! power/individualism neoconservatism/counter-urbanisation aesthetics/moneys of account The Holy Ghost/immateriality reproduction/pastiche/eclecticism white cotlar/commercialism charismatic politics/rhetoric decentralisation/deconstruction antithesis/local contracts strategic management/idiolect androgynous/multiple tasks/trace language games/image/surface small-batch production/social movements/pluralistic otherness heterotopias/spectacle/dispersat flexible worker/symbolic capital fiction/self-reference/signifier services/temporary contract etectronic reproduction being/ontology/deregulation urban revitalisation/place laissez-faire/deindustrialisation geopolitics/ephemerality/space

L l t bca1' 11 0 rdation

<111\' realit1 \\'lt<lll'\'t'l': it

o\\n pttrt' ,jmulac nun.

criticul' ol' tlw rela tiomhip h e t\\Tl'll tht sign. a' concrplllalio;ccJ with in s emi o ~ics ( p. $..j) (sn C hapl t'l' ~) . a11d th c rt'fcrt ll 1. Bancl ri llar el ( l UHH: 1711) a rg 11es t h:ll t hl' stg n , nr 1h l' i ma~e. m oYes 1h rough 1ht l'ollO\dng rmu .s t age~:

In tite llr~ t sta~c. imagcs or la 11g-u:tg-r a re .~ce n lo n: p rcsent rcalin. T ln1s . fr cxan1plc. natural ~denct :-.uggc~t~ that it ca11 capuu e thc nawrc of tlw 1mrld in la11guag-l' ,,hich in 111 a 11 ~ wa\'S co rrc~po n cl s w tlt a t \\'t)rld o1 rl'fll.'c ts itas if' in a mirro r. In tite scconcl st:tgc. the sign or language con cea l ~ or mi~repl'l''t'nl\ thc n aiLIIT of re; lit\'. f his i' tlw pre mi~c of ~larxis t llwories of' ideolog, (C:onn o r. 1\1~9: :).;). wh c n : iclcolog-y or thc r:1lse consciou-;ncss ol tlw ll'orktro; 'iCIYl'~ 10 mi,rcprcscnt m conccal the ts~e nti ;Jiy txplo ita til'e ll:ttlll'l' of ca pi ta list socitt1. Thc i rn age cliston s rca lit~ in 1li t' 1nann tr or 1 ri c k mi rror:. al a lairgmun d . T h i' situation has dc1dopcd in thc third phast ldlt' l'l' it \ 1101 som c thi ng real that is masktd bu t the ab~encc o f a rtal. This r ea c h ts its ~:t nith in tll l' final stage. ,,hen the 'ign bcars 11 0 relation w realit1 a t all. Baudrillard's ideas can he illustratl'CI tltro ug-h con sirkra tion or th l' t' X: nnple nr lhl rcponing .111d ntt:dia ro,eragc o l an e ltetion tampaign. In ~lilgt' l. thc elenion i ~ 'ee11 as :111 i n dewndc11 ti~ l'Xi ~ti 11g c ,e nt 11h it' h is n.> pntwcl in a n ujnthl' wav ll'h ic lt rdk c ts it.s mtlity. Cenain 'Clttalit,' n t'll'l'>apt'I'S and public ~l'IYice hroadra'lin~ ,,o1tld probabh wm t to argu c 1ha 1 1IH'ir co\'cragt o l .111 de e l ion -~ ' i11 n n fo 1111s tu 1h is a11o d e l. The e k c tion 1\'uul d l':O.st in this \\':1\' \\t h out t h e rq>onin~ ami th c nponing doe~ not :tfTt'ct its courst. In the stag-c 2 1nocld. thc elcction is l'l'pon~d in a 11a, that mnstm cts it idcnlogicalh . For exampll'. th crc is C'ollc calmcllt o l rore i~~lll'~ :111d n1tain aspec t ~ a re emphasistd ll a con-.is te nl 1:-ashion whiclt rl'flect th t illl('l'l'Sl.'> of pmrcrf'u) gro u ps. :\larx iqs arg ue that th e mass media clo thi ~ w~temati c ally (~te C haptcr 2). 111 stagt :~ tht elertion is becomi ng a media ('\ Cnt, for exnmpk aspect~ of ac tors b c ltmiou r ru'< ta ilorcd 10 th c ti111 c sc:tl c oft h c mtclia. Spcechc~ are madt w hit iiC\\'S bulletin cleadline. for prime time ami so forth. Tlw t lectio n a~ :1 l't'<ll l'\'Cill is beroming a n a b.scnn. lt is o ftc ll suggts ted tltat thi ~ process bega11 in Brita in \\'ith tltt' gtllera l t lcction of 1959. 11hich is sccn a~ th c fir,t te ll'\ision ckction . Fo r Ba udrillard th e crit ica! poi11t is reachcd in 'tage 1. In tcrm-. of tht election example, thc medi:l c01e 1~1gc is thc <'k-c tion, "hich c\ocs not cx i1-1 ou tsicle it ~ CO\'l'rage. T lw m o; L importa n t p layers are th o.se 1d10 scket th c imagl'S and clcterminl' the ~nu nd bit<:S. 1 -le n ce. in th e 1 997 13ritis h ge nt rn l elt'ctio11 c.1111 paig n. thc Labour Pam 'spi11 d oc tors m acle sur e th < ll 110 poii tiC'ial1 m acle a m istal.. t' ak i11 10 ~ 1ic had Foot, c ltoicl ol' coat al the C:enotaph di'\CIIS\l'd ill Chaptt'l' ti. In thb lit'l\' it is ianp OS!-oible lO COIH'ei\'l' or the d cc tioll Olltside lil e m edia cirn llatioll o r ituage, , Thc imagts :tl'l' tlll' e k etion . 13am lrillard propo't'' that ,,.,.Ji\ l' in a ,,orle\ of sim n bcra, in hyfwnwdit.r 1dwre i n mge~ clespcratc ly try lO pro du ce :111 c fl\:l'l lht rea l. T hi!' \ C\\' j, hugdy C:OIIl i'O\'l'l' ia l. For e xamplc. 13auch illard~ claim that the C n lf \\'ardid not happtn. st-enh 10 ntglert the o b,iou s fa ct tlta t p eopil di l'd in it. o r th c claim that liH dection dm,. not cxist cou lcl ~eem to 11cglen the point that ptopk do actualh- 1ote. 1101\'t' \'l'l', the poin t 1hat it is impossibk 10 tlti11k 01' COII C'C p ltt;tlisc tlt cse l'\'l'llh ()lllSck lhe lllt'dia intagc,<; of t h l'lll seem s plausibk. \\1mt is also lntl' is th:H thl' 'C' l'\'l' tllS arl' nm, mtdia ewnt~ in tlw

or

41 6

lnlroducing Cultura l Sludies

Visual cu lture

417

extl' n siw nnturc of IIH' cO\e rage g in n to the m. In t hc ad\'ancccl \\'cstc rn wor ld we are n ow acc ustorn c cl to ~ 1 -h o ur te [e,isio n ancl radi o ntws c hannl'l~ th a t will rc lay images in st:l Jllancom l~ acros~ the globe. In ~u ch a corllt'Xl th <: ad\ancC Jil('IH of media tcchno logics bcrond th c realms of photograplw and film i~ o r ~rtat significan cc.

9.9.3 1Digitalisation and the future of representalion

In p an icular. th e ~o-call ccl 'dig ital re,olution looks sct to exttnd thc rea lm~ of th e lwpcrrcal. C:omputer tcchniqucs which d igitisc photographic a n d fi lm im agc.<. p ermit an u n p rcccdellled c nha n cem cnt ancl m a nipu la tion or t h t procltrc tion o f pictorial rc prt' 'l' lllatio n s. Dig itisatio n is a proces~ thro ug h ,,hic h a pic ttr n is di\'icltd in a grid into small pic lure clemen ts (' pixcl~ ). Eac h p ixel i ~ assig n cd a nt1111bc r f"ro m ;r codt of colo urs or brightn l.'~~ . By c hang in g th e \'<tilles o l thc pixt l~. or by adding or r c mo\'ing th cm, ir b ecom cs possible w c hange th e photograph ...\, thc popu lar prcss 11 0\,ad ars ofh:n shows 11 ~. p c rso11s who cou ld n o t possibly han: lll l'l can bt: d e p ic tcd in ; sea 111 iess pho10gn1ph . .\ lmics 1101, con tai n sh o ts cu n structcd a~ si111u lat ions f'ro 1 11 an~l es that no human Calll t'raperson ,,ould b e capablc of fi lm ing , a!Tording pl' rsp ccti \'cs rh ;n o nce ru u ld on ly be clrcam t. T hc prod nction u f n ws~mediat(d ''i ll ancl lliCII'ng i111ages is con1 1 1g lo b e more a lllallc r ol' ro mputin g pro llc ierl c ~ t ira n ca nl t'nl. cla rJ...room or editin g ~k i l k Th cse cl ra ngcs srri kc at th c ll lan or the n otion o r phot ographic ca u~a l it ~ ancl th e l'a' r con ce p 1iom o f r calis m ( p. Gl ) th ey ~ uppon , \l'l't'ring tlr l.' n ece,\a ry ti e ht>t,,een pho togra p lh and thcir refnelll . Dig i ti~ation rin a ll ~ puh an ~.:n d to d ocum c ntarv's 'innocc Jll :11 rogan cc nr ol~jecti ,e fan br remol'in g itl> c lai111 on th c na l' (\\'instn, 19\J!1: 2:>9). \\1lcll placcd a longsid e su ch cogna te d enlopmenrs as multime d ia applicatiom. thc g r01nh of th c lllle m ct. th t: e mngence of largc e lccrronic elata banJ...s and \nual realirv tcc hnologics. it seem s that the po~t-ph otogra ph ic ' agc ma~ han arTi1 ed. T hc broacl s hifts in th c charaner of1isu a l culture occasioncd b~ rhesc dc,C'Io pmcn ts are summa riscd in T able 9.c1. Somc co n~idcr t h c c hangcs 1hus sig n a lled to be as momen tous as th ost: po~t ul a tcd by lknj a min 's c la~sic ess:w on m echanical reprodurt ion's impl ica ti on!> for t h e 1\'o rk of an. Digi ti,a tion can promnte rh e c m ergen cc of rw,, form s of pinorial rc prcscntatio n , fo r cxample rh c pop \'ideo which exe mplifi c:s such kcy p ostm o d e r n (p. ~00 ) rhcmts as h C i l' J'O~t'llCty a ncJ frag me11latOil . \\l1i lc th c re S a has i~ ro1 claiming lhat dig itS<liOII mig ht pm\'idc ll C\\' 1{rounds fo r perce p tion, claims about tlr(' clcath of plrotograph)'

n eed w b e treate d more c irc ums pec tl ~ Such c la ims rTst un an over-simplc tcc h nological detenninism a ncl Ol'c rlook th e dcpc n dcnce of th e n e " techn o logies o n o lclc r skills, knowle d ges a n d "'"' ~> o l sccing. Continuitics coexist ,,ith techn o logicall r clri\'c n ruptures . .\loreo,er. thc po~rmodcrn worl d is rharaneristi call~ an increasingh inttr tex tual one "he re a ll kinds of borrowing ancl p astich e are p erm i s~ible ( Li~ttr. 199i). o thc m ore port ctHOll' cla ims about a po t-photogra phic e ra are probabh' prcma tu rc .. \, ,,as sugges te d in th c d i ~cus,ion of li lm a m i phowgrap h~ as technologits of r<:alis m (scc rion 9.:\ abme). re:-.li\111 h a~ a h,otys been p roperly u n de r:.tood in q u alilit.d tt'rms. 'Seei n g i ~ bclie1 ing b a n aclagc th otl ha' lo n g been ironically framcd. Digi tisation nm' rcnd ers clai m s about. for ex a m pie. d oc um en t ar~ realism, a:. ll':lmparc ntl\' ideological (p. 8'-1 ) - it ' d estro1s t h l' pho rograph ic iruaKt' as C'1ide nce oLmythin g cxcqnt h t prorc~s of digiti!>atio n ' (Wimton. 199!1: 2!19). l f thi' shifts auention a,,.a, from th e pnlali\'cll' clisti ll C\T c h a ra C ll.'ri s ti C~ o f 1h e pho towaph C re presen tal ion lO\\arcls 1h e l'l'Cl' J>I oll ti)(] interpre tatio n o l tl c~l.' imagc~. 1h c n tllis may b e a s te p in th e ri g ht clircetinn . O r it 1 11;11' be seen as just anot ll C'I' wmp10111 ol what Bandrillard ha ~ termc d ' tlw lr cllllph ol signil)'ing c u ltur'l.' . l1 1 1 1l c~c rcsp tc ts, as ,,.l. ha \'l.' st1 ggeqcd in l h e course ol ll r, e h aptc r. tll e re are dilhrcnt ,isu a l rq~im es con Jl CCt c d w form s or so c ic ty all(l cn ll rrt ( prt mode rn . mod t n 1 ;ul([ po,LJIIOdnll - 1h:ll arl' thcm.'>eh-c' i m plka te el i 11 d J<lll~i ng stru gg'k~ onr p owe r (p. 9-l).

9.10

Summary

\\'t hal't' organ\l'cl th i' c h a ptcr a rou nd tllrt' l' main thcme . Fir.;t. \H' h;llt ~h o\\ 11 hcl\\' ,isu a l c u ltme h a\ dt;lllg'l'cl in rh c shi ft l'rom m oclernity lO p oo;tnrodtmitl . . \ 1 th l' b eginni ng or lhe ch a pter. \\'(.' p o intecl 10 the \ignificancc of tlH: 'cla,.;ir' \\'I'ting' o l Si mmel a ncl Be njamn on dw \'isn al cultnres or modernity an cl deHIop tclthh cli~t 11"ion rhrou~h considcratio n of p ho tograpll\' :mcl film. In the closing H'l'lons o f tlw r h a p ttr we examinccl th c n c\\' \'~ua l rcpresem a tio n s of p osunodern iry. Tlw~e shif"ts are intima tc l\' conn tneclto tl w re<> dc J ing of p o \\T I' rclations. Sl'COJHI. 1\'e h;l\'e ex plo recl a numbcr ~f diiTtr<.nt \\'ay~ in whic h l'isu a l culture can be st1Hiied . using ideas likt: th c classic realis1 lt'XI , the maJe g;11.r, sur\'Ci lbn n. unfoc u~ed intcranion. chil inattc ntion ancl so on . Fin a lh. ,,e ha\'e p a icl p;rricular at tl'ntion to tlll' c ity, as a kc~ sitc of' ~ocia l i n ttracl ioll and ;ocia 1 1ra n ~rormal ion . Spec ifit.:a lll'. " e h:we ~hown how :1 n umlxr o l cliffere nt dimcn~io11' th e c il)' can be in tc rpre te d. u sing somc of tht ickas in tmclt trcd

ur

in th e c h apter. Table 9.5 Types of society, modes of pictorial representation and th eir associated posilions Traditional society Modernlty Postmodernity Autographic (handmade) fmages Photographic images Electronic images Worshippers Viewers lnleractive users

418 lntroducing Cultural Studies

Re-cap
This chapter has: illustrated the range of ways in which seeing is always cultured seeing; shown how the concept of visual culture and the technologies of visual representation are connected to changing relations of power in the growth of cities; examined the cultural significance of the appearance of ordinary social activity, buildings and places in the contemporary city; suggested how the modern and poslmodern city can be read as texts.

Afterword

Further reading
The nature of photographic representation and how lt implica tes the viewer is critically examined in Susan Sontag's On Photography(1979). The arguments advanced in john Berger's Woys of Seeing (1972) ca used a great deal of controversy when they were first made a quarter of a century ago and they still deserve careful consideration. A wide range of ssues arising from the history, forms and technologies of photography are covered in con tributions to Liz Wells's Photography: A Critica/ lntroduction (1997). Chris jenk's edited colleclion Visual Culture (1995) contains a number of papers that deal with aspects of the 'visual turn' in conternporary cultural theory. Ethnographic uses of photography are considered in Michael Ball and Greg Smith's Analyzing Visual Data (1992). A comprehensive method for explicatlng 'the grammar or visual design' is set out in Gunther Kress and Theo van Leeuwen's R eading lmages (Roulledge 1996).

01 1r :1 1ll in \\Tlllllg' dli~ ia11 ro<111C10ry tt x t h<~s hetn lo ~t i mnblc an inlcrc-.t in d w t'<~Htt-p l >. lhcorics :1nd a11. d v~c-. u l' cult11 ra l sl.udic.' . \\\ lwpl' 1hal 1his h o o k wi ll 1':1111 lo tiud cHll mon aho111 udlural >lt1dic1>- lhc lo pies il <~ddns~e~. 1 11 c cHII'agc \ 'O ll lo 1 il1l' appro.1chcs it n nplm ... dw ck batl'' it 11,,, ' lim u la u:d. u r o l~jt'C I H' ha-. bc>t' tl w u t.11..t anl~,ibll ' Oilll' ol ll1c<.c top ic'>. i-.-u t, a nd deba le:>. \\'e art no t in 1he hu ~i ne~' o l l''l abli-.hi ng a canon . Cuhu ra l qudie-; i' . in :1 fanHiritc m c t;phm . :1 Ct)lltestccl terrain. riH' Il ,,.1h poli 1ic:1l di-.pllll' and i nttrpnl iH' d i sa~rcc me ms. l n III~ .\ fll'l 1\'ord ,,e wan 1 10 hridh ."uggt'SI so11H' di rtT ii nns lll'yond this ll':>:lhool.. lO dtl'l' lop yo m understandin g o l c ultural ~ tudi e~ l'llllh tr. l'ltt ti r~ l 1hin.; ~ 011 111.11 ,,.i,h 10 do i-. tn ro n ~111L llw orig in al.. ot' 1110sc ~ lUdie~ that h a\'l' c~plri a l h in 1erc,1ed 1'011. T h t Bibl iogt~1 pl11 g i\ c~ full refe re n te~ ro r a\1 th l \ O illH'' m tn lio n('(l in each chap lt' r. 1! th cre i ~ a p at tic11br <.ou t'Ce 1ha t ~ou 11i-.h to fo lk l\1 n p. i1 can he locat ed in a good r('l'e rc n cc librarY. In addili o n ,,e h:t\t' (h~l\l'n ,nte nlion 10 :1 ''"'" ~deninn ol'(unlHr rtadin g :u the c'lHI c>l'cac h chapter. T h is .\fltn,ord de,cribt': (a) IHriod ical :;o urrc o;, (h) u ~ing tlw ln lt'l'll t'l :1n d \\'o rlcl \\'idt \\'e h in cultu ra l studit'' and {e l -.ome ~ ug~nlion.; I( H doing prc ~j ec ts i11 cuh m al stucli cs.

Periodicals
T h t' IT i ~ .1 g ro hing nu1 n lwr o l' jnurnals clci'Oied ln cu llll ra l -.1ud il's or 11h o sc ed ituria 1 l)l)licil'-. a r(' Sl'lllj><llh tli C: ICJ puhlishin g 1\'Cil'K ll llli; arca. rhty n C: llldC thc fo Jlowing:
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r he e joumah publish anide~. replies ancl sltontor re r)<>I'IS and illleiYi"w~ ~ 11 <1 !J } I r 1 11 co ll q~t ancl 1111il'(' r~il\' li bn ri es F'1Ch h: . ... " can usu,t . )(' Ollll C 1 ~ ' ~ 1 ~o" 11 e IStmctll'e acnnt' and llllertsts.

lncl uclts an l'XLL'IISH' Ji <;ting o/ 'thc intcr,cc tio n bctl,< c n cultural critici\m/ tllto: ancl ~dt'C II'e n :so urces in soc i n l o~'l'. llll'd ia s tucli e~. po~ t co l o nial stuclic ~. \.'Co n omi c~ . literawre. and other lldd~ chn~en to r<present tht' .tlignnH'nlo; thal now sign il\ " cultun" f'or tite:: COillt'lllpora1 ; huma 11ities'. ln tl uclc~ ~ u c h sptcial topic~ as bod~ 1 corport'alitl' thcon . culture/ canon 11':11'~ and fa~hion. Listsjournab , nc:'\\'S g ro ups :~ nd cottl'\t'' and programnu:s in cultural ~1 udi<:s. Each ol' thcse ~ i t es has 1 11'pt-rtcx t li nks Lo relatcd , uft en mc n ~pcc iali~cd pages (such as those for Black Culwral Studit' Subaltern Studi('' or IIH' Pau l (.;ilroy pagt'). f un h( ~ ites cau a l~o be local<'d b~ u ~ in g a .'-tarclt engint' ~uc h a~ .\ lta\ i,ta. 1 lotBot. or Yahoo ( L' RLs: <11\\11.a ltai',ta.digi tal.com>. <11'11'11 . hotbo l.com> an<l <\\.\\'\\', yahoo.com>). T o anJid bcing on.'l'll'hdnwd 11ith link\ 10 pages irreltlantlo 1011r in l t'l'L'~l~. you may find it lld pl'ul tn rolllbine l\\'O or more kc~ word~- for <xamplt. ' pom,~r .Uld ' Fo ucltt lt'- in ~o 11r searr h (J'o llow 1hc g uidance and sugg<.stiono; o;upplied by tht ~>e arc h engin t'}. Th e sallle mtthod\ can al~o be usecl w locat<. wt'b.;i tco; that ll'ill supph in f(>rnlation on suhs1 amiw to pic-. abo ut11h ich 1 '0\11\'ish 1 0 li ncl nu t m ore.

Internet and Web sources for cultural studies

T ite i11 lo rmat~ 0 11 su pN hig Jn,a, ofl'er~ ~~ 1111e u11 para llclccl upporl1111 i1ies l(r fu n IJ . t"ngag('nJen t ll'llh cultural stttcl ie,. Among- the ites ll'orth 1 isiting arl' the foJ1 011 1w C.: l
o

C:u//u /(1/ Studi1'\ (.iutm/

URL: <h ltp: / / ho mt.vanh link.nt l/ - mark(Jwitl./> .-\ccording 10 ,, index l>'we '( '1111 .. , S ' ( .tntra ' J 1' a g.uhenng 'POI aud cenual . .-, 111.1 . !tiC1 lb clcanugltouscl\ht're lho-.c o{ u~ 1dw li~t a nd hc: 1 tiH.' Cultlll'al Stuclit'' ca n u o 10 k"lf'l l mnrc aud do more.' ~ ' Culluwl Studin N.t 111111111 L' RI.: <h 11 p: / 1 atiHi.;ul.illMLcdn; 11.". hun l> .-\ si 1 e that 'pnJI'id es li11ks and inlormatillll (c11 eJ(Jing L' S cu ltu ral lncludn sectious on nwdia. lllti\C :tll(l 'PUl l. CL 'L '/'STL'V-1 .

Doing proj ects in cultural studies

The gooclnews i~ that yon do not lll't'd hug<. resourccs or expensi1e l'CJllipm<.nt. Somt kinds Ol' II'OI'K in ClllluraJ ~ t uclie~ I'('Cjllil'l' 110 lllOrC' tll;In a ll'X l (a Jll;l!;(ai' ine, a fiiJ 11, a (:1) , a book) anclan analytical :mcl crit iral in clin :lliu n. For othe r ki ttds o l'1,ork you 1 11ay nctd Lo dntw more l'Xten il'eh on l''-lahli~hl'd ~ocia! ,cience nw1hods (intenie11s. ethnog raphy, contc nt anal \'~ is). l'c nti :\la~ uu1 a 1 i pres('ll ls a goocl g uidc to conct"pts ancl mcthods in l?r.wn rf'lliug Ctdt u t~': (ua/itatil 'l' ,\1/hod 1 111d C:ufluml Studit-1 ( 1993). .-\ u~dltl cxerci'c is 10 takc: a tcxt ancl Lo int<.'l roga te i1 1\'ith idea drall'n from a part ic1dar th eo1 ~ ur t h eori~t. \\'hat insig llt m ig h 1 ~e: miot ir\ u ffer i nto th t Spict Cirls' d rc:ss senst~ Hlm 1\'0tlld \\'alter 13c njatnin rcspo ncl LO tl w In te rnet: In 11h at respcus coulcl th<. bnc't Rolling ~ton e~ LOUI be reg.trdecl '"a posunodern pht' 1 10111enon~ \\'hat lig ht could Gto r_( Simmcl rast o n illl' attractions ol sho pping lllalb :- 1lo1, mig lll Richard Hoggan l't'l\'ri t(' Thl' L'11'.\ o( /.ilnmy al ilw 111rn o /' thl cenLUJY;. Au cmpting 1 0 ap ply llll' ideas o/' a t heori~l or pcr~pectil'l' 111 a cultural ph tnomenon should gi1e I'Otl a Slii'L'I' sensc ol it~ putcntial and shunr o111ings. \\'llal do(s thc thcory or 1hcorist ill1uninatc~ \\'hat g(ts o1crlookcd: 11m, 11T II d oc~ tiH' l'l iclen re 'upporl a panicula r intt rpretatio n: OlllL' carl'fttl tltought ll<'ecb lo 1}(: gi1cn lo the 'tkuion of th e tht'OI) thc01 i ~l uscd w mo bilist yo m : u 1al y~ i s (1( any gi1en phcn onHno ll (ll'hich tiH .:o : or thcorist wo uld .\1111 choose lo ana l ~o;c the l.ollc n~). Proccnling in tltis manncr can bt a good "a~ ofwdting a p.tper or cloing a projeu in cultura l studies. \\'t ho l)(' thatlhe icka::: prt'S<'I1tccl in 1his book hal'<: prol'ickd nso11rc<~ and :.Ugl.{t::o.tt>d pm~ib ili t i e~ that 1\'II t ncomage ~o 11 10 takc a rri tic:~ J ami a n:~ l yt ical loor.. <11 the ((:alllres ni tite cultures 1'011 en coUillt'r.

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UJU.: <lm p:! "'"w.c:~ ... usf. tdu tommtmicalion rodman tll lbltld incl.html> .\ rliscussion li~t C'tabli-;ll td ;u tite Lrn iHr<;LI' of Smnlt Flol'id.t '' hich now h ;h a s ll'<bsit c. selection or cs~ay" aJHI iJJi eJYie" ' a1ailahk o n i1
Thr t:nglisft Srll'rl

URL: <lt ttp:// c n g-. h ss . r miJ. ~ du l> On its Cu ltural Thcory pagc ~o u c:~n find a widt' sclcctio n of orig inal sources. cliSCtJ\,ions and hih l iog-rap h ie~. r he EngJ j<;) SCIIL'J' ha<; ;m exc<"lltJll collccl ion or links to o thcr si te~ .
Somh luj1ko's Cu /t um f Sturfic5 0 '1111'1

L' RL: <http:/ / 111\W.mcs.net/ - w pko/ popwlt.h tm > this,si o-c of l)'lgc< ll g r Established . . . . ' in . 1994. , . te It a ~ a ,cn. cx[(1,si 1c ,... " 11 .., , ., cl"ll ~ 1 r 1\'1 1 l.JOll 1'11 < 11 S, .uuclcs .. th<:otJ <;ts and cn ucs. news groups. conf t' rcnces, book rel'iews. pu blishers and acaclem1c programmes.
Thl' 111.1/iulr: SOIII'tt.~ in Sotiulog)', Cu/tuml Sludirs rn1d Cril imf 'J'Iuo1y L' RL_: <htt p:/ / 11'\_ n':geoci tics.com / Athens/7:,1).. l n~l_ CS_pagc .l; u nl> On-lnw essays. b1b!Jograph ics. jou m a ls ancl Jinks to o ther , iles. 1'oi r1 ' oj th1 Shullfl': C:u/lu mf Studif'l fJutr(' l 1RL <1 ... uc,b.cclu 'hu ~"> u lt udtu ral.h un l> tup: lnunanua

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. \b trcrombil', :-J. ( l!l!l6) 'f r h'l'i1ion al/({ Sori1ty, C:un brid{e: l'n l it~ . .\h(' I'Cl'Oillbil, 1\ .. llill. S. allCI T ttrncr. ll.S. ( 10~0) T/11 /Jrl/nillllllllrlt r{J.!..1' :\l kn ;\: l lm1in .
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App i ~ ancsi , 1.. :1 1 111 .\ 1 :ai tlaml. S. ( I H~fl) Tht Hus!lllil' File. Lonclon: Fo11rt l1 E~ tat l' . Ardc nl'r, E.\\'. ( 1!171) ' lklkl' ;11 a l th e proble11 o l \\'ome l1 in JS. La F'unt:aitH', Tht' t11 t1mtalirlll o{ Uitu al. S<1ci;ll Scil'I\Cl' p:apcrback. l .nndon: T:a\'i., tock P11 hlicat ion~

l.onclon : . \lkn L tm.

AbcrcrombL'. K. llill, S. allCI T urncr. 13.S. (l-ds) ( 1!1!10) /)omiunnl lrltologi1.1, Lonclon: Uml'in llyman. \bcrcrombit. J'\. ;ami Longh urst. B. (199 1) hulilitluali1m. Cnl/!cfnllm a 1111 (:rnrll'l' 11 Popu!rn Culturt. Sa1ford Papen; in Sociolo&"' 110. 12. Abcruonabit. :"\ . and Lon~hurst. B. ( 1998) . \ uduntrl: . \ .\ oriolo,t..riml T/1, 1111 ofP1'1jinma 11 r1 aml l maginafion. l.ondo11: Sagc . . \belme. 11. . BaraJe. ~1..-\ . and Halperin. D .~ l. (eds ) ( 19~l:\ ) Tlw l t1bian aJI(/ Ca 1 Studh'~ Hmd1'1. l.ondon: Rntn lnlge. . \hu-Lug hod . .J. ( Hl89) 81jrm 1:-lll ojJtf/11 !ltgnnrmy: TIJt' ll rnlrl .\\'.1t1111 . l./). 1250- 13 o. f\l 11 Yo rk: Oxf'ord L' n iHt ~it\' !'res.-.. . . Adld)e, (. ( 1!lRS) 1/ojlt'\ r111 tf f llijmlimmls. Lonclon: ll eine111an11. ,\d.et. K. ( lH\1:~ ) ' Aga in~t ordinary language: llll' l:tng uagc of tlt t bo<h. in .\ . ancl ~1. Kmke r (td, ) Tht' !.mi St'x: f-iminis111 t111d Outlmt' liorltt'' Lonclon : ~J;t l' lllill an ,
~0 - 7.

(orig. 192). .-\.rdener. S. ( 1\).) (td.} l't'l'f t'il'illg 11 lll/1'11, 1\e" York: \\'ile~ .-\ries. P. ( 1~)1)~) (.'lf/III''' of C:hiltlltllfJI/, Lonclon: Cape. ,.\nnqron~. D. ( 1ni't \) l'olitiwl . \ 11olcm1\' of tite Bod_ \'. Cam brid!,l': C:ambrid~c l ' ni\'(: rsity Pre'is . .-\shcroft. B.. Criffith<.. C . and Ti !fin . 11. ( 1 98~1) '1711' Emjlin \\'ritl'.l Uar/1: T!Jrm)' llll!i l'lllrtin iu l'nii-Colouia/ 1 itlmt1111 1. Londnn: Roullcd g-e . .\~~i tcr, .-\ .llld Caro!. ,\ . hd,) ( 199:') Bad C:irl\ 1/1/{1 D irf_ Y Pif'funs: Tlw Clwlllllf(l' tu U1r/aiw
J-imilli\1/t. Londnn : Piulo. .\,e ni . . \ . ( 1990) l .'mjiIII o(Tiflu: .tdtlldm '. Clori1!J nnd Cul/urrs. l.onclon : !.B. T atni,. . \zan~thu . .\l. ( 19!Hi) 'Tiw p<l\\'t'l' of comnttmorati\(' succl n:Hnes. Fn 11it OIIIIII'III ami l'lrn111i11g /J: )m il'l_ \ a/111 .\m u 11. 3 11 -:,o. . . . . Back. L. ( 1991)) .\'1'11' 1-.'thllii'IJI'\ r111rll 'tllllu Cu ltu n: Rari\11/l all(/.\lultuulttllt 111 l 111111g 1.11'1'.' London : l 'CL l' rl'.~~-

:\domo. T. ( 19ti7) /Jri~ t/15. Lomlon: Nedlle Spc<U tllan . Adorno. T. \\'. ;lllcl J lorkltc im('r. .\J. ( 1972) f)irrlw tir t~j !.'nli!!;lilt'illllt'lll 1\t'll' Y ork Contill lllllll (orig. publ. in Cerman. l9D). . ' ' \~11<'11'. ./ ( 1 9~7} l 'latt' lllirll'olilit 1: Tlu' r:rofimJ,fliml .\ INiiO/ioll o(SI!i ll' 11 nd Su, it'l\'. 1 .onclun:
Alltn S.: U l'lll' i 11 .

lh co n-Smith. C. ( 1 9\1~) 1 ;'/l'rni.,illg 11(11111'11: Tdcvi.lir111 Fa111lou1 a/11/1111' Cl'l'lllioll o f>opulm ,\lrth , l'hi ladc lphia: U ui\'l'l '.~i l\ ol l'tnl1s\hania Press. BaJ..1 ;tin , ,\l..\ l. ( l!l~ l ) 'f'lt1 /Ji11f(Jgir 1111agmrtlio11. :\us tin : L'ninrsil,. ofTexa~ Pn~s. Bakhtin . ~1. ( 1\IH-1) /lnlwlui,, al/lllli1 \\'orlrl, Bloom ing1on. 1:--.!: Indiana L' ,, i,e , il\' P rc~~

\ gncll'. J ancl Dtii iCtn. J. S. (cd.;) ( 19R9) Tlu Pmt'l'l' oj Plau: Bringiug ToJ!./'1111'1 (;mgrrtJillirttl 11111/ S 'ori11fop,im l lmtl[!i lwlioiJ\. Lunclon : Lm,in Hnnan . .\itll'lmocl, J (ce!. ) ( 1 \1~11 ) / _ m,,. J ffl,, Drug. Lundon: l'cnguitl. . \J a~UIII.tri. P. ( 1m l;j) Nt'J('(fl'(hing Cu i/U/1',' Qualitafll'f' .\ / tlwrl fltlll Cultu m/ Studill. l.ondon: Sagt. 422

(orig. 1!11)8). Bakhtin . .\1..\1. ( 1!l~l ) PmUt'IIIS of /)o.\/OI'l'lliy'l /'ot'/rs, i\Janchcstcr: ~lclnclt cs lL'l' L' nht. rsil\' .Pnss. 13all . .\ 1. ancl Sn)ith .l;. ( l!l\1 2) .\11 alr:ing \ 'iwa//)ata. ;\e\''blll'\' Park. C.\ : Sagl'. Bal~anw . .\ . ( l!Hl.J) ro, nh "lltrh;w1ogical cm hodiment: rC'adi11g thc bod\' in r ont cmpor;-ary nd ttt re' . /J111(r o111f Srll'il'ly 1(:~ ' -1 ). :--.!nwmber. 21:1-37. . . Harber. B. and Ldl'. S. ( l ~l:l~) "Fash ion " in \mll1 e l1 ~ clmhes and thc .\nw1 IC:\11 'onal ,,stcm'. Social f 1111'1'\ :\ l . 12-1-:' l.

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\ 'cr~o.

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T r lu: rkl'I.Oif, S. ( 1 99:~) 'Tit t illtt, ion ofdual sn1 i11 Samo a. "B rol l wr~-:lllcl-~ i ~ t lTS .. are 11 01 " lllt'll-a nd- II'OI!1c n .. in T . d e 1 \ ':tllc (e d .) (;1'1/tfl'ml . 1uth mjJIJ/op,y. Eu rop l'a tt .-\ssociato n of Socia l :-\m h ru pologi:-.h . l.o ndon and :'\t\1' \'cu k: Routk clgt. T elle:o.. Jl .. ( I!IH!i) 'Time. rank ancl ~ocia) coall rol' , SonoloKimf /1/(uin .10(~). 171-R:t Thell l' lt it. K. ( 1!1:-!7) .\ l rtfrFaii/(1\il. \ 'olumt 1: ll inllrlll, Floork Borfi~. llillllt)' Cam b r id g l: Poli ti'. The ll'l' ki 1' K. ( 1~1/-\0 ) ',,,Fa /1/(/.\ir'.\, 1'ol/11111' 2. .1/uf nodir s: f.Jl_\'diO(I I/(/~\'S ug (/ p 11 71ite Tr'/'1'01~ :'llinmapo l ~: LT niHT~I\' :'lli tt iH'SOla Pnss (ol ig. 1 ~178) . T ho mpson, E. l'. ( 19 6 1) 'Titl lo ng re,ululin n . Xw I J'/1 l?fl'll'w 9. :'1 1;11'-:Jttlll', ~o.l<t~. T homNIII. E.P. ( 19!1!}) 'T ht Pecu li ari 1ic~ of tht Engli'h in R. :'11 ilihancl and J. Smilk (t>d ,) Tf,. Soria/ist RtgI/1'1 /%5. l.o n don: :'l krli n . ,. T h omp~on. E.P. (1968) '/'/,, .\lahiug oj tlw /~ 11p,/11lt \\ rn1iiK Urt\ \ , ll a anaond s,,o n lt ; Pe n g-ui n ( 01 ig-. 1915:{). Thon1pson . E. P. ( 197t>) T/11 I 'WI'Jiy of'TittOIY 111111 Olh1'1' 1-.'.1\II)'S. Lundon : J\Jerlin . T ho mpson, E. P. ( Hl91 ) Cus/o1111 i u Col/11111!11. Lo ttc lc>n: \lt'rlin. T h u mN ~tt.JB . ( 19:-\-1) Stu di1'1 i11 t/11 'fh i'OI)' of ldwlo, !.,'i'. Cambridge: Pn lill'. Tho t nton. S. ( 199-1 ) ' :'llnral pa n ic. llw med ia ancl Brilish r:\1'1' cu lture'. in. \ . Ros~ and T. Ro'e kcl~) .\liuojJltmu Fitnrl\: l'outh .\l usit n111l l 'outh Cuftun. Lond on: Ro auledgl.'. 176-~l~. Tltorn tnlt , S. ( 1993 l Clu!J C ulltms: ,\ lusit. .\ lrdia a 111/ .\ u/Jru l/11 m i Cujiit11l, Ca m bridg t: Polill', T us h . .J. ( 1! 1~1 1 ) Th r l'ursttilof 1!istory 2 nd edn. l .oltclon : I .ong ma n. Tscdon. E. ( Hl!l:1) Tltl' .lla.\lfl/1' of F1 '1 11iniuitv: '/'/ l 11ntttlaliou of ll illllt/11 in l:'t'I'ITdm l.ifi'. Lonclon : Sagc. .

or

T u mc r. B.S. (19R..J ) Tht /lod_ r a111l Smitf.\: 1-:xjJiomlioll.\ in Srniol 1'111my. O xrord : Rlackll'dl. T urn c r. B.S. ( 1\l!ll ) . rh l' cJi,course u f di l'l. in :'11. Fe;uhe rSlOlW. :'11. llqJII'Ortlt atld B.S. T ttrncr ( ccls ) Thc 131111\': .~oriall'rou~~ 11 J/1/ Cul/11 mi 'f'ht u1 y. I.undon : Sagl' ( ori~. 1 9K~). 'l um c r. B.S. ( 1992) u,gula/ IIj.[ Hodirs: b\(/\'.1 ll ,\/rtliml Socio!O,Ifi . l .ondon : Rolt ill'dg'l'. 'lur ner. B.S. ( 19\ll ) (hil'nlafillll. l'oslmodl'mi'lll rnul (;fFJbofilm. l.onclon: Routleclgl'. 'l u mtr. C. ( 19901 Uritlllt Cultumf Sltulin: . \ 11 lllfllllliufi(lll. l.onclon: l ' nwi n 1-l ~man. lurner. \ '.\\'. ( 1\)()7) '1111' /iml/ n(Symbofl. llh aca. :'\\': ConKll l ' n i\'l' r~i ll Pre'" T d t'l', S.A. ( 19R-l ) 'Thl' 1 isio n q ms1 i 11 1h l \\'es l. or 11hat th e tn i ncl' s l'l'l' se e' . .folll'lllllof . 111/ / mfHdugiml I?I'S I'II rr h. -l () ( 1) . 2:1--1O. T \'1()1'. E. ( 187 1) l'rilll i fh C ulllll'l'. London :,l o htt :'l llltTal. L' rrl'._l. ( 1\1 881 'Culw ra l c hangt and r <lll ('lltpo ratY ho licl;11-ma king'. TlttOI)' Cul/ul'l' 111111 .\oril'ly :1( 1>. :n-:'>:J. l ' rn . .J. ( 1990a) 7'/u Tourtll (;a:t. Lonclon: ~a~e. l ' rr~. _l. ( 1990b) T lw "cotNtm plion " o l to tt t i ~m. Soriolog,y ~-1( 1). 2:l- :,5. l l ti ~ . .J. ( 1992) 'Tiw tottti'l ga l.t' a ncl th l e nli ro nnw nl , rlwlll)' Cu lllnr allll Sr11iil.\ !1(:,). 1-:l. l 1 ti~ . .J. ( l flfl!j) /1.\IIIIIIIg Sfmt l'-' London : Roulleclge. \ 'ale minc . C:. ( 19 6~) Cu l/111 1' ru1d Pmnf.r. C.lticago: l ' ni\'e rsll ol' C hi ra~o Press. 1all Gcnnep ..-\. ( 1960) 1'111' Nilt~ of l'l/)I(IJ!t. C:h icago: l ' n il'er:o.ill o ! C hicago l' re:.' (orig. 1908). \ 'eblcn, T. (19:q) Thr hrm-:t oftlu.' 1 l't.lllll (.'/(lis. :'\e,, York: :'ll orlcrn Li b ran (o t i{. 1H\l~l ) . \ 't'lllltl'i . R .. Scoll Hro\1' 11 , n. ancl (7('11<)111'. S. ( 1 ~177) l .f'I/1'/IIIg Fmlll l .rts \ '1'1(1/S, rl'\', nln , Cantbriclge . :'1 1.\ : :'I IIT l'tT ss. \ 'o l o~ inm. \ '.:"\. ( Hl73) .\/arxism o 11111111' l 'ltilo\Ojihy of l .rlllguag. Lo ndo n : Semina t Prt'' ' (ori~. 1929 and 19~0). \\':arqua n l. L:J .D. ( 199.1) 'P ug~ a1 11ork: boclih capita l and boclih labour among profe~,io na l boxers'. llody & Socilty 1( 1). :'l lar ch . ()5- 91. \\'alko wi11. . .J. ( 1 9\l~) C:il) o{ /Jm uljid Ueli.~ht: .\'rrrmliln u j St'.\ llaf /)a ngl'r i 11 l.all'-\ 'iflorion 1./JIItlfl rl, Lonclon: \'irag n. \\'a lle rs lc in . 1.:'11. ( Hl7 1) '{'/ .\/Nfem 1\ (,rft/-Sy, n, :-.! ew Yo rk: .\ cadttnic Prtss. \\':tll'in. J. {1 9H21 . 1 C:hi!tl\ \1 (rrltl: . 1 .\'orla/ /li l /01) r1 l~n;li1h Clultlholirf 180fJ- / IJI-f. ll armond~won h: 1'1: nguin. \\',ah in . .J. ( 1997) Fmil\ oj l:"mflil'l': 1 :\olit Pftn\111'1'1 nmf /Jriti1h {(11/t', 1660-/8fJO. Ba,ing-;tokl': :'l lacm ilbn. \\'a r<l. . \ .H. ( 1 99:~) Dan r i ng in 1he clark: ra1 ionalism a nd 1he mg lcn uf so c ia l clan Cl' in 11. Tltomas (t'd .) Otmu . {;I'Jider a/111 Cultu n. Basngs tokt a ncl l.onclon : :'l lac milbn .
lli -3~ .

\\'a rne r. 111. ( 19H:1) .\loii/11111'11/S

(11/({

,\/oidtlls: Thr .l flep;m;. of 1111 Frmrdt Fmm, l.o ndo n :

Tuan. \ i-Fu ( 197-1) pact' .llld p lace: h uman i ~1ir per~pcCI\'t'. 1'111,1(1'1'.11 111 C:!'ogmjJhy H. ~ 1 1-.12. Tul loch. J a nd,ll'nkin,. 11. ( 19\1 :1) Sril'nuFirtioll , llld li'JII'I'C l\ tdt i 11g '/Jol'l or l\hli .(lltr/ 'Stor T1 '1'1i , l.ondon: Routlt d~t .

Pic:tdor. \\'a n. 1. ( 196:~) Tite /{i1 oj tht .\'ml'!: "itudit1 in /Jftw. Ritluml1oll ollff Flding. H a nno tt d~1\'0I'Ih : Pcnguin (n rig. 1~1.1 7 ). \ \';al'lc n . C . ( 19\12) R1 11t in ki 11.{ ll'onwn ' s )oli lical partic i pal io n and prolL''t: C hile 19 70- 19 90' . in /'oliliml Studie' :\L (2) . .J1111 l' . 2~l!I- :H "1.

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45 1

lndex

lbkh tin . ~1il..h ai l ~ l .. 10. ! i~. 200-:1. 2:H . ~:'>2. 2T',H. ~(j~ lhrrl'II..John. 1 l~J-:11 Bartltt' Rolancl. 2 l-:"1. :\ l. -10. :>O . .:>2- l.

:!:\2
1Ja,l'-..,11per~uuuun

:\bbot. Dian e. ~:~! l - -1 0 a ccu lwraLion . 7. K, :t). 1:"> .\ C'IH:Ix . C llinua, 10 , 1!1. 1\10 .\ e kcr. 1-:;ull~. :\OH-!l an io n. thnu~ht and. -lt-1-\l :\d 11 tirah~ .\rcl t. ~:i~. ~:1:~ a rlontnt l'll l (of bod~ ), 290- :~ .\clorno, f h codor. 17. 108- 10. ~~73 a<lwn tl trt tilll'. 20 1 adwrti~in~. 1:'> 1- 2 reprt'\l'll t:ltion allCI. .'i 1-60 . \tutid. Tlu (\'i rg il). 199-~00 .-\frica ,\fri can c ultme, 19. 12:1. 176- 7. ~06. 225 agt. cultuml clif lt ren ct a n d, 12-1 -6 agl' llC\ . 96. 17:~. :~li~ :1~!-{l'l'~S\'l' bl' ha\ O II I'. 2!);'), :~ 19 .\ gnt'II'.John. 111 a 1l'll;tl OII , 22\) :\lthu.ssl'r, l.o uis. 2il. !JO, ~:'i. HN, 96. 107. 337 .\11///(/.1\0don. T/11 ( ll o lbein} , 77- H. ~ 1 Aml'rican isat io n . l.'i, 178 Anckrson. lk n edin , ll2, 1!">1'1. 200 Hn th ropo log-ical gat.l'. :1R9 :m tllrn polo g'' 7.9, 1 ~. lf1, -l!1-li. 1 2~.136.
:~!1 1i . :~6:1

appt'arann:s. normal. :19!"> -R appe arc n tia l ordcrs, :~U :I-.-> .\rcack~ Pmjcct ( Pars}, 7!1, :n2-il. :177 arch ato logy. 2:l. 20:1 arc hit L'CIIIIT. 21 5-6. :n:\ -101 -R .-\rdene r. Ech1in . 7 1. 7:1 Arendt. H annah. 109 .-\rge ntina (wotm' tt Hcti,i ~ts) , ~7> 7. 21)0- 1, 265 .-\ri~totl e. l:"1

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lH/ acti,i,. -1. 7. l.'i- 16. 3n au r atic. 372-5, :~77 bocly :.m~ (dance). :~02-:~ imagt~ of rural lile. 1-l!l-.' l . 1112 m erhanical rcp rocluc ti o n , ~72-.'i represen t:nion ancl. 77-H 1 in \'isual c ultttl'l'. :~ !iti-7 . :\H0 - 1 .-\sh croft. 13 .. Gli-7 a udi(.'nce, 2:'iH-9. :~7"f . .J 11 w afsu g a ze a udio-mcalic ~~s t e m. ~@ aura / ;ntrati c an. :~ 72-5. J77 a uth o rl\', lO J. 212 -~\. ~-f:i. 2-IH, 2:1 1, 2!'1!> ,-\,c ni. .\ntltom, 11 Azande c ulturt. 12- 1:~. 1~>

an.

1~6.

ani~tic

mocld. :~H . !l\l. 100-1. 1OH. 11 :~ Ba~i c Skill' . \ l(tnn. 11:1 Ba,ti1k. -.onnin~ of ( n;u ra ti\l' ). lml Bauddaire. C h ark~. IH!i. 21 :\.277. :~7:'. :~/.'i -6, :~!J\l. 102 1 3auch illard . .Jtan . 2:i. :~\JO. 11 :~- 1 6. 117 Bauman , Z~g nlltnl . 21\l-:'>0 h eattll paradClX. 20 1-:"> llen,iantitt. \\'alw r. 10\l. 1 :-1:~. I N7. 1 ~J l. ~ I :t ~ 1H-1 !l. :11; 1. :~1 i!J . :17~ - 7. :~m.; . -1o2. -10!). 11 (j lknth;un .,lei'L' lll\', ~H 1-:\. :\:-1!"> J.kr<"ln. C .. lili lkrgt t' . .Jolm. 77 -~l. H0- 1. :lli.'i. :~lili. :'~() lknna n . :0,1 ar~ h a ll. 277. :~! JH - .JO !. -111!1 lknNt'tl. Ha..,il. li:\- li. 11 7 1"\hahh.t. ll omi. 1!ill- 1. 1\lO Bid fi1m ). 2li7. ~70. 27 1 binan oppmition:-.. :tt :\\1. :10. 1 IK 22.) binonlar ,...,jou. 2ti!l bio-p01rcr. 2t\ 1 biographit:. (in 'ubcuhttrc:.). :t\1'!-9. :H9 biolo~ c u lture ami. 2\J:\- 1
bipccla l i~m. ~m1

building- (s,tnboli,m). :~07 - 11 proCt'!-'-. 2/8. 2R 1- ti cnrporcalit,. 26~-71 as r ulwra l objen. 267 -:H i> fragmenta! ion e nd o l. :H 1- 1 1 g lo'' idiom. 2/)-ti "' medi u m uf expre~<.ion . :m0-11 nudi11 (in anl . ~0-1
c i,~iJi;;inf{

pierrin~. 292-:~

regu la tion n.: ~traint. 276-R9 ttr hnique!' of. 271-!1 Bonanc- nturc H nttl. .JO:)-H -11 :~ Uorl,r of (.fass (Pie re~). 2 lli. 2 17- 18 Bourd ie u. Pic tTl', 16. 7h. 1 lll- 1 1. :~:j 1.
~5!"1-6 ho:-<c r~/ boxing.

:)0 1-2 lkec ht, Be nolt. 6 1. 22~1. 2:\0. :n:) lirimft'lm/ f,rirolog:r', 2R!l. :W:!. ~ 11 .% 1 British culture. IH-l!l ,uuth subrulture~ in. :~2/- :)\1 British l' a rlia nH'IIl. 2:'.6- ~10 Briti'h Soriological.-\;;;;ociation. 6H- 7 1 buildings. 2-l:l- ti. :\75 built tmironmenl ( in ttrpntingl. ~9R --l 12. 11 3 lntrt'aucran ( a~ c ulturd. 211 -T'lO Butler. .Judit h . R. 121. 20H. 2~:l. ~~0 - 1 Cabra!. .-\mil. 189 Caldll'cll, J C: .. 20 125
ca l ot~-pe.

Birmingham Cen tre ft11'

Contt' tllporar~

:HR

Cuhtu ~ll S tud k~. :~~. l'{(i, K~.

111:1.

11 :~. 11 \J. 1 H1!l subc uhurcs ,uch . :~ 1ti-1\:~ Wruh .\tla11lil' (Ci lro\' ). lli l , 11\li, 176- 7 f31url: Cuf/111'1'. \\ hitr l 'r111fh. (Jnm,). :H7-R lllack E ng lish \ 'cr u nc ula r (BE \ '), li6. 11 H /Jiadr jrrmbin1 , 'f'hr (lame,.;), 19 1, 1\l~. 2 ll(i-7

:n.

Black Pantht'l'~. :\20

a nt i-racist languagc. 6\l-71. 20G

a nti -~exist la tt~ tt;t~t.

11tl-9

.-\ntalclu.t. Clm ia. 11\0. llil

450

Bacon-Smith. Catnilk. :n9 - 61

Blackmss/ b lac k cultttl'l'. 70. ll)(i-7 Bloch . l~rn st. 10 ~) bud1. 9 : 1 an:. (dan ce) . :~02 -~~

Cah'itl , John. 27 ca pitalism. 27. 28. 1[,9. 17K. 2 10. 22~. :t~O . :~70 . . 11 an a nd. 77-~l. sn mudemit\' a nd. 1H:1. 1Rl , 1\) l . 11 :~- 1 1 postmoclc rnistn and, 100. 11 2- 15 poll'cr and in eq ua l it~ in . \12-:\. \l.'i- 7. 1O.'i. 10~. 11 O. 126-7. 1:)!) C:arby, 11a,.c l. l D~ C:ar:t\'an Site:> L-\nH'ndme nt ) Bill. l :"1:~ C:arhk. Thoma, . 199 cami,alesque. ~00-l. 2:~ 1 -2. ~:IH. ~)7 - ti::! passim. 2G 1

452

lndex

lndex

453

Carp c nti cr, .\k: jo, Hl ~-:s C:a rr. E.I r.. 19.1. 197 rasu: M>Cil'tic:-.. 102. 10:1-1. 1 1-l ra ~trmion complex. 9 r.negoric kno,,in g. 39:~-5 . 396 can !e (in :"\uer cuhun). -16 Cavel!. Ecl it h. 2:12-:> <'<: >ll>'l'~. ma rking o f' (montuncms). 250- 2 Chambt s. lain. :w~ Cham bri ptopk, 122 e h aismatir mnlwrit,. 1()-1 C h anered Acnll llllant~ Hall, -!02 C heync, G<.:org<:. 286-7 C h il t: ( 1\"0ill(.'ll Ht'l il'iSlS) . '.!,::, 7. 259-60. '265 C hom~ky. i'\oa 1 11, ~\ 2, !lO e h ro n o to p e . 200 - 1 citics c ullllra l im agt~ of, l!'l l-7 jlrnutn; :~li7 , 37.1- 7. 392. :mH idtologv a ncl h C).{l'lliOill . 1 H~ -:i 7 inttrprt tillg' bt1ilt t' lll'ironllle lll , :~~1H- 11'J. m u lti radal ( m :11 idc n tit ic in). 3.J7-l-l pede~ l ria ns in . 276. 277 postm ocler n i~m. I I'J.- 1:1 rcading ( legibilit,/ imagtahilitv). c l09-ll l'isual c ultu1 <.. 36 1. :1!\7- 'J. 1 bu al intcraction, 392-H Cit,r oj l>l'rndjul IJI'Iighf ( \\'a lkowitl}. 209- 12 c il'il inallt"n ti o n . 27li. :19.'i-8 cil'il ~OC i(ty. 'J.3() Chilisiug fJmrf'~s. Thr ( t:: lias). 2/H. 'J.H-1-6 C ixous. 1k lt' lll', '.!.:\~ C lark, TJ. 7\1 Cl;rkt, C ill'~. :\.J~ -!l . :~5 1 C larkt. J , 1O:". :t!H-:1-1 , :t):l -~1 class. 1o , ~2'2. 2:so. '.!.3!>- 6 ca~ ll' socit tits ancl. 103 - -1 r nl tural diffl: rt nct ancl. 112- 1 c u l ture~. 11 2. 1'26. ~\'J.t-: . :13 1--1 domi n alll. 1 Hl- 11. :t \ l. :t~3. :13l-\ txplu italion . 'J. I 0 - 11

fo rn mtin n . 95. 20.i. 2(}(j inequali ty ancl. li:i-?i. 1Ol . 1OG-t3.

11 ~ - 17.1~(\

languagc ancl. 63-.} ami r<.:prt'Sl'>llation of r u ral lile, l -19-.1 1 social confl ict. 26-7. 10 ~truggle. s:~. 9:i-l ()() ~u bcu ltu rc:. a n d . :~'28. :t~O-.J, :t~!l-6 l fl' a/~u middlt da~'; ru ling cla ,~: und e rcl ass: ll'orki ng cla~s d ass ic realist Lexl. 38 1-:~. :Hl 1 CliiTord . ja1nes, 17:1. 175- 6, 17~ c loth ing. 'J.:ll'i--10. 2-IH. '290-:l. :\\l-1, 11 5 clt b culture. :io:~ . :r1-J- ?i, 35tl codts, ~tl. :lJ. :m d ecocling, 5 1-:1, H6- 9, 'J.!'lH-9. ~l.J!) , 3:it) c n coding , k6- 9. 2: i f\- \l COl' I'Cioll . 1()f,. 2'J.K Coilcn . Albnt. :l l H Colle n . Phi l. 3:l J. :t\5-li. :tn. :~ IH Coh e n . St:nd t,. :l2'J.. :l2:l-li. :l-1!1-:l l collccti \( ga1<'. :l~H . :~H~l colon ia lism . 1.1 . 2 1. :Hl. 9'2. 11H. 1R9-90. 206- 7 wr a/m imperiali~n: moco lon iali~m: P'>'tcolo n i a li~n comic-h ook ma~culinit' . :~07 -1 1 COil\111011-SCilSl' idcologY. :{7, :l\l, 89, 105-8 commun cat io n. represen ta l io n and. -13 - 9 1 COI11111tlllism. D?i. 97 com pi e x a<ll <.:rl ~c m c n ts ..'l: com pnuml adlertiscfll l'llh, :'i.i con n p1 u a l oqp n i~a t ion ( o l in cJu,l ria 1 ll l'II'S) . R2-l r:olllll' lllflm r:otta,!!,tl (1 k 11 n ) . lliJ-r, connot;nio ns. 5 1. 5:\ . :l Conrad . .J ose p ll . 1 ~1 . 2 11 co nsc inu s nc~' -11 . 271 f; l.;c . K:. ~l:-1 . 1O(), 11:i Ctlll't' n l. 10:1. 1t l7. 101'1. 'J.'J.H C:on~tahk. jnl111. 1 -l~l-:i l. 1()2

COibll llll'l' n dt llf't' , 21\8. :lO:l-1 contro l. cuilllf'l' ;, (ot boclt''-l. 2/!i-:-19 come iHonal politin. 2:\:)--11 (011\'t' l'.';\liOII, I'J.-I:t 1-5 core i'"lll'' (i n -tuck uf cull u l'l. i-'J.:l corpo nality. ~olia l con,t Juction ot. 'J.fiR-7 1 Corrigan. P. Ju l. 2:>0 C:o..,grml'. Dc:n i,. l:~li-7. l iK countn ~id e:. l l'PI'l''l'll l:lliOih o f. IIH-:)7 Criminal Lall' .\mcndnH' Ilt .\ c t. 20H. 2 10- 11 criminali11 . ~9. 11 ~. :'16. :l~ l d l'\':lll Cl', :\ 1 :4 - ~.i. :'l.J J C rips (Los Angl'k' g:~ n g ,). :\'J.0 - 1 cri1ic 1J Lill'OI'\', 1ml C:u h i~ m . 7i Cu e ca (C hill-:111 natiunal cl :IIHT ). 2.1\l. 21\0 t ullu ra l capital. -10.:\01 . :\r,.>-(1 c ultural c ocl('~. 11'1 cmk~ c ullura l ckp I'< Hion l cldicit. 1 1 c ullural dt,dopnc nt pron~' li- i cultural clifftnncc:. 7~. 'J. II cl,l\\ ;ntd . 1 12- 1i nKt' t" lhnicitl a nd. 117- 1~~ cult ural fimatiom. :t'. :n tilllt' ancl h isto1Y a~. IRI-220 cHIIural gcogra p h' . 1 :~3- 1 0. 17H. IRO c ullural ick n tity. 1H-19. 111. 178 c ullu ra l im agts 1111~ 11 lile:. I .J\1-!1:~ urban li fl'. 15 1- c ultural impl ria l i~n. lili-7 c ull n r a l 1\larxism , 100- 1 cu illll'a lma[('riali"m, .'l. 2 0~ . '.!. 12 cultural politir~. :'IR, liO, (i'J., \).J, J:n. 1-10, 1: >:~. 2 12.22 1 of b nnauc r:tt y. 211 - 50 O( dt' lllOCran. 2:\:~-fi pc'l't'orm i11 ~ iclt nt it i t.:~. 2:1:l-ll. '.!.!> 7 -()~ poli1ical c ulturt' a ncl , 222-:\:\ ~tate f'on n a ti o n and, 250-7 of Lram~rc"<.inn. 'J.()'J., 'J.:l0-:1. 2~\l:l- 1 0 c ultura l pmHr.

n d tu ra l product,, 17:> culwral re hui,i.;m . \l-1 U. 12- 11 cu lwral re,~oistann,~o, 17- 1~. :ll 0 - 1 1 culw ra l ~t ud ies cull tne ancl. 3--12 cuhured bodic<;. 2li7-:\ 15 Internet and \\'d> sourcl's . .J'J.0-1 i~~lll'" and pmhkm~. 7-2:' periodical ~C11 1 rce'. -11 9-20 politic' an<l c ulture. 221-6ti projt'CIS, -121 subc ullures. ~) 1ll- 1 1:1 1iml' a n<l histnn. 1S 1-'.!.20 tn pog raphi c s or Clilture . 1~\:1 -HO c ultural theory comnHtnication and rcprt'SC III :It iun .
.. :~ -~~~

c ulture ami c ullu ral studic'-, :l--12 pm,er a nd i mq11:tli L~ . 9'2. 129 c ultural 1~1lu cs. 2()S n llllll't" accultura tio n . 7. 8 . :tl. -1:1 bureaucran a,. 'J. Ll -50 as contml (ol h uma n h odil-s). '276tl~l

aiHI

cu l uu~ll lorn1~

(<lilknHial ,ahl l'),

:tm. :t'2

15- 17 and cultu ral ,udies. :~- 12 cl efi nition~ / u se~. -l-7 d o m in a n! , $ 16 - 17. :12R. :13 1- -1. :t~7. 3-10- 1 as foru f'or c hangc. 27-:~ 1 indus1ry. 101:1, 110 la ng uagc a ~. 7 2-:~ la n g u agc and tho u g ht. l.->- 7 location 1/() - n nationa l icl e nlil~ ancl, 157-!i7 poli1ics and, 22 1- 6() po,,er ancl, 17- 1S p0\\'('1' ami int:qu:llitl . n'.!.- 129 ;m d p oll'c r ofplace. I..J0-8 socia l stru c ture all(l. 25-:3 1 theori cs oC 2:~ --11 time ami h b to rv. 1t-1 l-:no

ur.

454

lndex
ra~lti on . 2ntl-:~

lndex

455

CU]l\IIT - 1'1111/IIII!'d

time .1ncl. 1K"!

11'1' allll. cult1n~tl difltrence cligilbati(lll di.{ilal rt1olution. 11(}- ( 7 d in ancl l11g ic ne. ~~l -:10 cliscipliii HIY j)OII'Cl'. 2/K. 2:-1 l. 2~ 1 cli~ci plin t. :101

topog ~p h ie

uf. 1:t~-RO

under-.tanding-. !1- l t> cult url'd hocl ils. ~m 7-:~ 1;,

cultuJT'ol difTtrtnce. U7-9

I:J io1. Ccorgt. 2:t1 Elio1. T.~ .. :1. li. 1O t1ilt'~. l!i. 101-l. ~91 l'lllhodl'd llSII'UIIlCJH:liitil'S. 2 71 -7 l' lll bocli 11 H:' 111. reprcsc nt a tiom o f. 2\10-!1 tmotional hoch. :~00-1
t'ltrodin~. Ht1-9. 2."iR-!l

;,,ting fea>ling pattern. ~l'l7 -S

Ft'.lllwr~wne. ~l.. :lo:~- -1

Ft'l.;ki. Rita . 1 H~l lt' lnale gat.t', :~H 1 fl'mak talk. 7:l fcmiu int m01ilil\. 27:~-:1 i'tlnininit~ S, ~l. 17- IR. '27 , 2 11. 2-LR. 270.

n.

ol' poli 1ical po11er. ~:t~ -5 7 uf' l'l' ~ is t ance. ~;"i 7 - !i 1

in \llbcu lllln:s. :1:~H -~l.

di~cour~t.. l!ili. 1KO. '1.~."1. :l~2. :~~ 1 - ~

:q9

e~ borg cyhorgi~m. :! 1:\. ~ 13-1 7. :" 1-l-1

or

oi'Ea'l (0rit nt a 1i -.m}. l tiH - 7-1 r l bocl~ . :~ 11:1-7 h i 'lorie ... ~(J:~- -1
'1.7K-~-I

t n c ulturation. 1. ~- 3:~. IT'l

En~e hl1ann .

S.. ti()

po1:r ancl. 29-:11. H!l-\10. 9-L 2:17. clagutrrto tyw. :177- N dance, :W~-:~. ~-1 -1 - t\ . :til-5 Danicls. ' tephen. 16:! IJa,is. Frecl. ~9 1-2 Da1is, :\likt. 13-1. 1:'">7, :~ 19-2:! rcprese n1 a1 io n and . 11. 7:t ~m. H!l-!lO.

1 ngds. Friedrich. 8-1-:'">. 9?>. 9/. ~1!1-1 OO. 197 Eng l i~ h CL d lllrt'. 1H- I!I. ~ ~ <~ En!-(l bhn t~' '22, -10. 1-11 . 1;,:t 1?>~l . 1Wt
] ()(j

:~ 15 l'l'(li'CSt'lllalilll'- oL /'l1. 2\1:~ -.'J kminism. IR.~(\. 27. Hl. 1:19. 2:~1 c ulture cl bodie~. 2tiR. 27:1. 298-~l. :W'l. :H'l- 1 :~

1-JH
()i,racl i. 13tt~jamin. 2:t'- l. 2:t1 d i,tancinl-{ d'l'tn. ~2!1 el istri c ts. -l lll Dittmar. ::\ .. (}ti 'clorile bodils. ~79. :~() 1 do cu tmnt:u'\ lt~ tcli 1ion. :{71-i-81 l)u ll im orc. Jon;L t h:1 11 , ~O K- U. ~ 12. 2~-1 -5 /Jom/H') and Son ( D ickcn~). lH l. IK) clominant t. la"-. 1 10- 11. :n l. :ttt :tiH do ttli nant c ulturl'. :~ lli- 17. :\2H. :tll- 1.

lti,tOIY a nd . 1KK-9. :!WJ-(1. ~ml. ~ 12 incqnalitl and. 120-1. 12:1 P''Thoan.th -,, :m d. K. 12 1. 1RR liclds or can. pi nces a~. 1 -1 ~. 1 -l ~

tm ironmtnta1 g<ILl'. 3S\I. :NO l' pic cli~tan ct. '200 l'jlis/1'1111'~ 2Z"l. 20:'>. 20-1. 20Z'> trotica. 297- H. 299 ('"-t'llliali,m. 1-l:t 1!\7. 16\l- 70. 22.i. 2:\0.
'l~U - 1

l>ay' of 1/ojJI' debate ,:~~~-:~

da~"limt ~o.1p fans. :lti 1-~

film 11oir. 2!!6- 7

film~

ckath paradox. 29 1 /Jmth '!/Sorda nawfu.1. T/11 (De lacro i:-.) .

170. 172

cu hmcd boclic; in. 2!11. 270-l. '2%- 7. :'> 11 - 12

,-~1 1a1 cu lturt . :~ti..J . 3 72-Z'>. :n7 - H!'l.

ele Beaumi r. Si mone. 1~~~-!. 27:'

decoding. :'i 1-:'. 1:>6-!l. :!::iS- 9. :~ 1!1. :t) t\ deco lo n isa t io n . :"i-1. ~()(\
Dclaun c~.

clillclTI1n aml. 13S- !l. :!O. 2014 t'lilir'. hun:aucraC\ ancl. 2-1!1-50 tthnicil' cu1ltlral di fftrtnn anc l. 117- 1~~ la nguagl' ami. 66-7 1 l'lhnograplll or ~pcaking. -1\1, 7:~-6
t.thnoph,~ioloh"' thl'~k 3 10 han~-Prit c hard .

1 lli-17 Fint'. G ..\ .. :~!'17-~. :>ti l

Dc lacro ix. ELLgem. 170 . 17'1. Roben. ING- 7

:t17. :\-10- 1

ti1 ilnch/ fiu e~' :~o :~-7

jftin,to<H\7, 37T'>- 7. :~92. :~~lH Flaubt'rt. Gmta\'t'. 21:1 Fkmin g. J ad.\. 72.73 i'olk d e,ils. :'> 17. :~22 . :12:1-!i. :HU Foil! IJ,oi{s 11111/ .\Jora{ l'anir.1 (Colll'nl. :12:1-6. :~ 19 f'oll.. gcograph~. 1-16-7 ((lo cl (ea tin g- l dit' l) . 2~6 -9 Fool, :\lich a c l. 2:1ti-9, :.110 , -11 :) Fnrdi,m. 106. 107. -ll-1 Fourault. ~lichel. 2~. ~H. 10. :>O. 1'1.2. 121. 267-R r llltu ra l polit ks. 222. ~:~o . ~;,.; clbcours<'. '1.9-:H. R6. f\9. H l. 16H. 171 . 20:1- l. 2/t;-8-1 gan a nd ~u nci ll ance. :Hi l. :~R!>-ti. :IH('I.
:1\l 1 h i,tori ral llll'l hod. 211:1-."1. :! 1O. 2 12 pm,cr. di,course anc1 boch'. 27H-~ 1

dtmocrac~. cut un a l poli tic~

or. 2:3:\-.i.

clominan1 cll'ology. :H-!l. H!)- 7. 89. 111. 258-9.328.331.333 clorni n atio n , 7:~. R6. 1~ :~. 1:{7. 17~-:~. ~H 1. :~ 27. :\:l0- 1 l>ouglas. ~lou 1. 2R 2H. :1:\ cl1Tss coclt_,, ~:~ti--lO. 2 -IH. :~~11. -11.-,

2:Hi d t n o ta ti on . :"i l. :'i:~. :1-1 ckpri1~1lion, n cle o f', 11-1- l :"i. 1'1.7 lkrricla . .Jacqu c!>. 2:>. 10

E.E.. 1 :~. ltl. 1 8:~

t'l'l' ryday lllll', 201 e:-;change ,;d u e. \17. 11:~

t"'\~Ientiali,m. 1-11 t:-; pi'C':"SOil boch a~ m td ium or. :~00- 11 facial. 21)\l. 27:'i. 27()

R.. ~69. :109 ele s i1'<'. 200, 20 t. 2 1 1. 2 1!l. 25S

de\'c1opmtn l (of cu llurt). ti- 7 de,c1opment gap. 9'1.- :1 dc:1ia n t ~/ clt'l iancc. :11 H-~3. :~11 di;1sp o ri c c ultures, 176-7 Dicktm. C h arles. 1H-1-li. 19.1-1). 2:t~. 376 diet a n d t'ill in g. 281\-H di !Te re n n. ti:~. 76. 1H8 c u ltures of. 137-!l cmbod iccl. ~~~ ll~lOI~ 0111(1, 20-1--!

De~ca rte~.

du (;a~. l'au l.:! 17 el u pi ic ity p: uaclox. ~!l -1

cll\topia dl''-topianism. ~ 1:t ~ 1-1 Ea.l.{leton. T .. ti2. R6 Eas t Lo ncl o n .-.lud , .. :~:1 1 . :~:{5-ti tat ing and clit' l. 286-~1 cconomic capit.tl. :t'l: "i t'clgc!'. -Jl O tgc . H

f'act-to-I;He i nterac t ion . :m:l !acial cx prt,~ion. 2!19. ~7:'1. 216

l'art~. hi-.tnn a~. 19:'">-7

ll1l~e COihC Oll,llt'):~. ~."i. !JR. 106. 11 . 1

(;unil ~ ramil~ lill'.

l:'iff / Tmrrr. 'f'fu ( Delau llt'l'). 1Rli-7

d.tiJo ~uecl rodt (languagt' ). 63-.'i. 117

Flias. :\orhtt. :!()R. 27H. 2H 1-6

20- 1 Fa n o n. Franll . 1S9. l !l2 l:tm. 3 17. :~:i~- 112 1;111 ta~\ . H. ~!19. :102 fascism. 29:-J- Ii

456

lndex

lndex

457

fragtnt'lli:IIOil ofboc\1. :1 11 - 14 Frankfun 'c hool. 17. 97. 105. lOR- 10. 11 1. :{7:~. :n 1 Freikorp~. 29:>- 6 Frcnch Re' olution. 199. 206. :~99 Frc ud. igmund. H- 9. 21 - 3. 109 lun c tionali~m . 2. 1- 6. :~ 1 luturc. 21 :~-19. 11 6- 17 C:aisford . .J ., -1:1 Ga llaght'l'. C:atht'l ll t', 2:1~. ~:1:1 ga ngs. clt,iatll' a nd . :~ IR-22 Carber, .Jt'llll\', :~ 1 ~ Carlil1ktl. ll arold. :1:1 Ca~kcll. Eli1.a be th . 2:B
~\ 1\l. :1 10. :n7. ?.l'\:1-.'l ' ttl\'(iii;111 Cl' a11cl. ;l()"l, :~R:i -(1, :1H~. :{!ll -2 totll .,, , :~Hi-\11 <.eettt. C:lilli1rd. ll :t 2:1 1 ~c nd cr. 17-ltl. l: l -2. 2 11 - 1 ~ ach'cni-,i ng and . :"1H- 110 an and. RO- l c ultural difknKt' ami. 120-:: dilf{rtn r t ( hodit~ ) . 27:{- li. 2~1~ - 7 ickntit\. R. 121. l fi:i. 20.1-6.230. 2-17- R languagt an<l. 71-2 O ienrali'>lll and. 17::--J social co11 fl ict. 21)- 7 ~outh subcu lture' a nd. ;: 12-6 W '' ' alfo. 111 l'l1 : \Hlmc n ge ma l og il'~. 20:\. 20 l. 27H gc ntrilica l ion pmrts~. -111 - 12 gcogra phiral rq) n~t' l llnti o n . J/2- 3 g'l'O).('l'a phl'/ _tt'O_:raphit'> of et d ltll'< ', 1:1:1-HO geo politic,, 227. 2-l.-l Cib"lll. \\'illi:11n . 2 1.1- lb. 2 1R. ;q 2 Ciddc ns . . \nr ho n,. 7. 2 1:\. 2 I..J. :\6..J . ..JOU Cidc , ,\ll()re. 20R C:iJm,. Pa ul. li D. lli l. ltili- 7. 17:1. 171i- 7. !Wil. :t~H . :q 1 1 girJ-, ( Hllllh '>llhCIIIt\11'1'~). ::-12-(1

gaH. 1'4.7 malt-. ~O - l .

g lancc. ga1.e and. ;:(11- 2 Cl:"go11 l 1 nil'er,it' ~ledia Group. R~-1. 107 Gla"ne r. Barrv. :10:>- () glimpse. g:vc ancl. :~HI-~ globalis:uio n. 1:>. 9~ . 9:'. 21:>. :\.'1 l politic~ ami. 221. ~~7 . ~6:\ tnpolog ies of culwrt. U :t 1 JO. l il9- 61. 17: . 1 7~ - 9 C~ P pcr rapita. \1~-:~ C.offn1a11. Erl'ing. 1\0. 2711. ~75 - 6. 28~1. :1G6. :39:1 - 7 'going o ut (mung plo pltl. :\:1 J- 6 ~0\'('1'11 :lllCl', 227 Gram,ci . .\nt o nio, :n- H. ~1'1. \1 7, 10:1 - 7. 111\l, nn - :~o . :t~l-1 g ranel na ITa 1\'t'' 2 1O. -11:1 Gnc nblatl. Stephcn. :1H. 2 10 g\ P'Y Cl d 1lli'CS. 11\
H aherma~ . .Ji'tq.~c n . 10!1. 1Kli. 20 1 habi tll,. 110-11. :t">:J- 6 l lai tian rcmlu tion , 206 1 lall. Stuan . ~6-9. 107. 11 :\. JI H. 25~-9 . :\27-:t'l. :\ 111. ~ IH h and~. 269 Haraw;l\', Donna. 21.1. 2lll. 217 . :ll2- l-1 1-/rm/ Timt'.l ( Oirkcn~). 19.1- tl HatYe\. 0 ;1\id. l.l.1. 1:'!6. 1.1!1. IRii-7. 2lli. 2."12. 2?'>:1. 11 2- 1 1 1fau,~mann. Baron. 7!1. 277. :'>!1!1 1/f(.\'- \\ {lin. '!'lit (Con,tabkl. 1 1\l-fiO. ]()~ JI ai'Cia pcoplc. 12:' l lcbdig'C'. Dick, (), 2H9, :102. :q 7. :HH. :l~ x. :1-11 - 2. :1 1 1 1. :Wl- !i l. ::;,:~ -:1. :Hi 1 H egel , G.\\'.F., 97, IHO. 221 hegttnonic ni,is. 11H- 1H h e.~c nwn ic dn111 in :11 io n. :327 hegenwnic ideolngy, :17. :111- !l. Hli. H7. ~!1 hl'gl' nwn ic mascnlinil\. 12:t 2!1 l. 2!15 hcgcmon, 1110. 22H. 2)H. 21'1~1 ideo l o~. !1 l. 1O.J-H. 1 IH-r7. :t\7- H 'ubcuhttrt, :\27- K :ti0- 1. :t:7- H. ;\ 11 ,.i,ual cu lture. :\li7

Hti nt' tll:l lll l, ~ l. trgot. ~2 1h-11 n . Paul. lli:,-.-1 IH'I'Ili('IH'IIl it ( i 1 dt. :\.-, he tlllt'lll'lllt ' :\:- li. 127 hetero-exualit'. 2117. 22.". 2:{0- 1 high Cllltllll'. 1.-l- 1li. H l. 10~. 1111. 2112. :t-ll

id. H icleaJi,m. 1!l l. 1~1) icle ntililati<111 pron''' :\H:~ idt' IIIl\. 2!1 ..12. ~11. IIJI). 1/:t :\ J2 .1111 bi,altn ce'>. 292 bnrcaurran and.? 1/- 9
c ultural.l ~- l \ 1.111.171'1

11ig hla nd clrl''' 1 1- 12 1l indui,m. 111:1- 1

hippil'" :110-l hi,wrical matt'l iali,lll , 1:lli. 1:11i. 1!17 hi ~tori ca l rl la tid,nl. 12. 1:' - 1 1 hi,tori r i ~m . ~ 1O. 2 12. 2 1H- 1!J. :H!I. 11 2- J:l histon d i fl'crcncc a nd. 20 1- H as l;1rts. 1~1:1 - 7 .\ htrxi!'m a nd. 1\17- !l a~ narra! in. 1!H. 1!J0-20:~. ~OH- 1 1 past aiHl, HH -2 1:1 tinw and (a~ c nltu ra l l'ormatiom). I RI-220 \'isual cu lt ure. 315 l. :l72. :n7- Hl.
3!l~-:

Il obsba,,m. Eric, 225-6 1l och~c hilcl. :\.. :wo. :10 1 l loggan. Richard. ~H. 112. J I:t :~27 1lolbcin thc Youll~l'l', lla11:-. 77-R. ~ 1 ll olla n cl~. R.G.. 3:1[1 , 3. 16 homosex ua l ir' , 30. 205. ~09. 2 11 . 2:\ 1. 259-fi 1 q ucer po1iLics. 22:. 2:\0 q ueer th eor~. 207 - S. 2:'0 hooks. bcll. l :19. 2~ l . 22:1 1 -Iopi pcop lc , IK l.lmkhc imc r, i\lax, 1OH-!1 l l o use ot' Lords, 26 1-2 humanism. 1%, 1 -1 :~- -1 . 17:\ h~bridity. 1:1, 110, 15!1- l. 1li6, 1 75 -~1 . :~o~. ~ 12
h~ g i c n e/din. 2!1-:~o h~ peq:~l oba l ba t ion . 160 hyperrca 1 it,, 11:'- JI) h~ pcr~pacl' , IO :t 1 01)- 7

gcndc red. H. 121. 1ti.'1. 211:1- li. 2:\0. 217- H lang uage and . !i7-71 national. 1.'17-117. l!i:-\. 171i perfurn111g 1pe1f(nma the, 2:1:- JI , 2:'! 7- H2 place and , 1:~ :\ 390 po litics. 13!1 . 222. 223. 221-:1. 231 i- !1. -10 1 ra re all(l, 88 suhcu lt u res, 3 J7 -H. ;: 1- :: iclcological <; ta te appar;nuo;cs ( ISA, , 107 ideology. 30, :"i2. 5\). X.J - .1. 180. ~-1 6. :1HO, :182 a~ common-sense. :'7. :~9. R9. 10.1-R discoursc and pnwer. S9- 90 domimml. :n-~1. 86- 7. R9. 11 1. 251'!- !l. :~28. 33 1. 333 enroding and dccoding. H6-9 h egcmonic. 37-9. H6-7. H!l h ege mon~ ancl. 9 l. 10.1 -H, 118- :l 7.

:)3/- 8
incorporatio11. 1OH- 1O llll':tll illg (1 11(1, 36-9 illu,o n he li e f~ . R: 1 -li imageabilit\' (citiesl. -109-11 inaginary gcog raphics. 17 ~ imaginativc geogra phics. 172. 1HO imaginc d comm ttni tics. 1!'>H- 6 l. 1ti2, 1n:,, 164. l li7 imagining th c n;!lion . 11}2-:\ ituperialism, 10, 19, 27, 16R-7 1, 1 7~. l RH. 200.206- 7.2 11 cultural, 66- 7 we ofso colonialism : n cocoloni;lii~m lmprcssionism. 77. 79-RO inrorpora tion. 1OS- I O. 33 1. :~-JI
o;;

-458 lndex
.Jtrrerson. T .. tlH. 107. ~58. 327. 328-~."'> ,le n ki ns. 1-1 e n ry. %0- l .Je n son.J . :\59 J ohn~nn. l .inton K1,l'~ i . li7 JohtN111 . Rir hard. 11-~ . :127-i:\ _ )ont,, Si mo tl, .\-17- K .Joscph . S ir Kt ilh , 11 -l - l ?i cummun ication and reprncntat in n . -l-1-jU n( indus trial d isputes. ~2 -ll la ng uc t paro le. ~-l. J-l le:-:iro n. 17. -lH. l\1. W. -10-1 ))0\IT I' c llld. 1)2-:-1, /2-:1, ('\(j pn11T r ol place. 1-10-K r;tn <Jil(l cthnici tl .lib-11. 11 K rcprl'~l ntation a nd incqual itl', 60- 77
~mta:-: . -1 1.

lndex

459

India (castc S)'Stem). 103- +. 11 -1 indus tri <~ l d isputes. 82- 6. 87 indum ia ltimc. 1;)3-5. HJ:1
ineq ualit~

cu lture aJHI po"er , 9~- 1 ~q Janguagc. poll'tr a nd n : prcsenta lion. f)O - 77 Jegitima ti ng. 10+-11 produc tion / reprodun ion o r. 11 :!-~1'1 in formal p o litics. nJ. ~~7 inrormatiun sources. 419- 2 1 informational a<he rtiscmcnt~ . :i-1 informa tional dimcnsion o r in tc ranio n ,
~N). ~~%

kil ts. 11 - 12 King , Rocln e~. 1i'il. ~2~ . ;~9() A:ill.!!.'d(J/11 nf This \\ 'm'/d. '!Jif' (Carpenl in ) .
1 92 -:~

1\.l. 101 wr (1/m <liscn urse: sclllio log,: sem intics:

..;ori 1linguist ir.~ :\ 1

location ntl tltre. 171)- \) Lud~t'. Da1id. ?l:i-8 Los .-\ngcl{'s. 1.-)-1-7. :~~J(j gang~ in. :'> 1 ~. :H9-~2 l.ollt'tllh a l, Lt'o. 11O Lu lt1 11a n n . :'\ ik la!>. 2 11 Lukac'>, <_;eorg, G1, \:!7. ;i ()~l l. u kl~. S 1t" l 't' n . ~1-t. 2t'\l Lumit re brothcr,. :~ 78 . :~79 Lmr iL . K .. -!09- 11 l.m lard . H. ~10. -10 1
~ 11 6 . 2-1:)-6 \ lacCabe. Col n , :{t-: 1-:1 \ lacDon a ld. Kc itll , -101 <~. -111 .\ 1a e h ia1e lli. i\iccoln. ~~U \lcRobbic, .-\n~el:1. :102-:~. 326, g2s. 3~2-6.3i'i5

or

intelleclllals, 37 . :1K. 8f1 inte ntion. 3~ interactio n conn:rsationa l. 12 - 13. 7"1-.i subcu lturcs, 35 7 - B unf(xll''td. ~9:i-t-i \'sua l ( in p ubli c p lace.;). :)~l2 - t-1 lntt m e t, 1:i:~ 2 16, -1ll), -119 , -120- 1 i111 t'rprcta t ion arch iteclll rc (s tatm represl'11Lat io n ), -101 - H built emirunmenL, :~!)8--! 1~ cilies (lcr;ibili ty a nd imagcability). -109- 11 in c ulwra l s LUdics. ~)- lO. 12 lwrmcmutics ancl. :~5- li la n dscapt alHI pmrn, -11 1- 1'2 hllldsca p t or wqc ( '>tallls

or

KJei 11 ..-\ .. :~os. ~ 1o Kkinm ;u1. S .. :)57-8. % 1 k n<mJerlgc ca1 cgorit knoll'ing. :)~l:'l -5 . .\~l() tfii.lttll/1'~. 2:1, ~o :~. 201 , 20.1 j)OII e l' and. 2R-:1l , \l-1, 10 l , 122-:t 20:1--f. 2R 1, 2fH ~oc iol og' of, 9- 1O. :1:1 Kri ste,a . .Jltlia , R. :!:i. -10. IRR -9. 1 92 - ~. 20ti. ~~~2. 2~~H. 2?1 7. 21i . 1 l\..ra1 t\l'in s. :\~2 Kroke r. .-\rthm. :1 1~ Krokcr. \la ri l ouisc. :1 12

l an~ ttl' , ~--L

Lascll. C.. :1o:1 Lbl t, Scot t. :~H I

J.;l\ l'l'. J .tllll'S, 29() Leac h. E.R.. 1-1, ::\~~ l.mminp, lo l.nho11r (\\ 'illis). :1:~9 - -10 . :\H Lc;l\is, F. R.. t. -l!l- 50. 60 Le Corb usie r . ..J OO, 10.1 Lct'cbiTl'. 1-le nri. ~ ,JI legal-ralio na l authori t ~ . 10-1 kgibil it1 (rcacling citit'). l()~l - 11 legitimatinn c ultural politics. ?27-3:~ i n cq un lit ~. 10-1- 11 k-isure-ti m e span. -J()i l.t' l i-SI ranss. C, 2-1. ;n_ 50, 1\l< l Le 11is. Osear, J 12 , 11 -l lc:-: ico ns, -17, --18, ,\), 6:~. 10 1 Le \'. Dal'icl, 1 -l :~
' lifl'II'Orlcl~', ]

magazincs. : H :t 3-1.'1. 341 1. 3 7~1 maJe gazc, RO - l . ~D~J. :~ 1 0. 3 77 wr alsojlft 111'11 r 111;1 l!' 1al k. 72, 7:1 .\lalinoll'ski, 13 .. 11 :\lanc h cstcr (subn lltura l ~ ,k~). 3.">2.
:~5:~

rc prc ~e nt a ti o n ). +OR-~l

subc u lt m es. :) 1G-I R -IU-1 Jnu it cu lture. 300 Jriga r;n. Luce. 25. 232 1re la nd / 1ris lmcss. 16~- +
in tenex tual it~.

_ j;Kkson. Pc tl'l', 1:Hi-7 .]aceptes. :\Ianin. Hi'1 James, C .L.R.. 189. l\11-2. 200, 20() _ )amcsun. Fre dri c, lOO. J!lt-1-D. 2 10. 2 1~2 1 5 . -!U3-8.~09,-! 1 2- 1 3

Labm . \\'., liG. 72, 73. I IH Lacan . .J acquc~. 9 , ~-1- :'i, :JI) ' lads' c ultu re. 121i. :nD--10 L:1ko!T. Rnbin . 7 1-2. 7;>, 'Lan cl i~ Ours campa ign. 1?>:\ landmarks. -11 0 - 1 1 landscapc, IRO c n l1ural. 1:1-1- 6. 1:)9. 1-10 - 1 n;Hio nalislll ami. 162, J 6~~ - i'i po11er a n d. -! 11 - 12 rmal (cu ltmal images), 1-1\1-.).\ of tas te. -10~ -9 urban (c ultma l images). l fl-l-7 langu agc. li. ~ 5 -0.:\~. 13 attribu tes oL 11-:"'> Rl;tck English \ 'c m ac ul ar, lili. 118 cod es. 6:1- :'i. 1 17

J:\, 11 -1

Lincloll' \J a n , 19!1
l ingui~tirs, ~2-3

sncio l ing-n isti c~. -19-!'10. 72

sN' also lang uage: scmiotics: semi o logy lil<'l< ttun. l:-16. 18. 2 1 - ~. :19--10 . . 18-1--S.

1U~1-ti
llOI'<: lS. 2()1. 203, 2 13- 18, 233-?>,
~62--l

local co n ceptirm or puwer. 126-8 Inca! cultures, l ~l . 20- l , !i7, 1-13 l.uc tl Gownnue1 H .--\ct ( 1~188). 2G 1 lo ca l it~ (pmrer or p la ce) . 1-l0-8

81 nnn1 n e r~. 28-l-() ~ lan nh e im , Ka rl. 35- G i\larntse, 1-lcrben, 108. 109 ~ l ar:-: , Karl, ~:!-1-6. H 1-j, \!:5 - 101. 10?>, 108 -9. 11 1. 115, 1% . 1 -f~l. 1:)(), 197. 19K. 222. 32~l, :~:1 0 i\larxism . :1, 8 . -1 1. 6 1. 8i'i. ~R . 232. :127-~. :373.-1 13. -! l fi h istory" nd. lRrt. 19 1, 197- 9 , 2m- -t. 2m1. 2 10 p tm e r a n d. 8-1. 8\1-90. \15- 1O1. l 06. l09. 111. 119, 156. 222 11Jasai pcoplc, 125 lll <lSCU ii n it~. t\. 9 , J 7- 18. t( l. 2 11. ~2-!. 270.27fi bureaucratic identi ty, 247- 9 'comi c-bnok', :~07- 11 d e ,iant.:e nn d, :~U~. :~ Hl

~lanc t , Eclo u:~rd ,

460

lndex

lndex

46 1

m:"t u linit1 rtll//llllllli lll'j.:l' lll<>lllt . 1~ .l.~!) l. :!U~1 l l' J)It'WII Iill l<lll\ nf. :!\1 ."- / 11 1 ,uhnahllll' ' llK :11!1, :t!~. :H"> "''" llthu~t. , !ti. 1l. :11. XI. I 0~ -10 . :!0 :!. :1-, l. :~1 \ \ J.t,\l' l . Doll't' ll. 1 11. 1l. 111". 1/~1 lllall'l i.tli'l hi,lnll . lll l. l\1,). 1\l'i- t: \I.Ht.t. D.11id. 'HI' \l a m,, \l.u u l. :!ti~.~~~-:~. :!/[. :!'i. \l a 1 h t" 11 .. 1 :!~

:\kad,

(; t'OI ~t lkt hl' ll. :_!/(1

lllt ' , llllll~.

1111 t'Oll1111 llllit',tlOI1 Ol. JI . 19- ;}11. 1 )0. (i:!. 7!1- 7. Hli n altnra l. 10. 11 . IHii c u ltu res ol' d iff<'rtnn. 1:~7- \J in f'as h ion . ~~~ 1 - ~
111 a ps

:l:~ - 1.

() r. :12~).

:\:~()

or~ani,atinn ni. :~ 1-

-11

pmnr a nd. \1. 11 . Kli. 1:)7-9

ro lt or ndt tl l'<tl \lllcll'\, 9- 15 ntt-rlt a nical dor l-. I11H' . IK2. 1~~ . I H-l- !1, 19:1- 1 nwch a ni cal 1 q >rodn rl io n , :H :!-:> llH'II ' l:lds' c u hu rc. 12t). :tN--10 m a lc ga t c . H0- 1. ~99 . :110. :n7. :18:~-5 m a le 1a lk. 72. 7:~ -;exualit y ol. '" ' llttt'I'O\t'X U:tlity: IIOIIHl~ (' XIIl Ji 11' ,1/'1' o/mma,ru lini11; pata i.ard11 ' l\kn or lltt i\'oriiH' I JI Zone' ( Ktllti~hau}. 1li~\ l\k nndl. S.. :!8."1- ti, '!.H7. '!.HH. '!.H~l :'I ! CI'lea u - l'o nt~ \!au ritc. 27:t '!.7 !. 302 i\lt's~ i ani c tinl t' , '!.Hl IIIPSI: IJ/ IIir'SIW, ltiO, 1(j) lll t' la-narr:HI'l'' 11 :1 nw 1ropoli1a n ntlllll't. 1!HJ langt l:lg t o !', nn- i 1i~u.al illl t' l ;1( tiou .an d . :lli7-7'!. :-. h-xi w. 1:1."- li :-.1e1 t' l .. \eh i:111. 1O 1

middk cla~' :!0. 7'2. :tll . :1:12 \ lil l< r. \\'.l) .. :H t-.- 1!1 m i nw<.i ~. 7ti mi nd . 2(i\1 - / 0. '.!/ l. '2/ti m ockrn t i11. :\!l:\-.1. :\~IX 1\HlCkl'll lillll' pa ra d o x o f. 1K1-X tr. ulil io n .d liiiH' ,., " "' 1!lO-:\ modnni,:u io n. 1/K built l'lll imllllH'IIl a11cl. :\\)H- lO 1 mocl<'nt i,IH. 'i!l- KO. H l . 1KK hnilt tmirolllllt' lll allCI. :l~lX - 101 . 10:1- H n mh:rlli tl, !."1H. !lili- 7. IHI, :!O!l, '!.J:l. 21.1. 21H. :~ lti h nilt e a\I'I'Oillllt' lll. :l! l ~ - 10 1 l'ashi o n :a n d . '!.!) 1 prcsc nt and. 1H~-H-1 1is11a l c ul tu re and. :1!) l. %7- 77. :~8:1. -11 ~1. 11 li- 17 nHJdc,ty paradox . 2H 1
:-.rods .~2j- J .~26, j3j,335- ~ j37

narratin. ci1 h'ma . :IK:I-.i ol'1hc ftlllll'l' . 2 1-1- IX h is to t'\' a'i. l!l..J , 199-20:1. ~OH- JI. '21 2 :'\a ~h . C ;athl'rine. 1ll:1- 1 ll<lliOil\latl''-. 1.-,~- 61 fmt~im. 17H. 190. '!.OO. 226. -100 n a ti o n a l i dl' IHit~. I:H-t\7. l (iH. 171i natio nali<.m. J:IH. 1.1 7-H, J.,g, 162. 17ti. 17H inclu~iou:- and l'X r lthion'l. 1(). 1- 7 II'Oillt'll a11 cl J.ncJ,cqw. 1t):l -.i na ti n n s. 1!' 7- (i!\ 11at u rc. gl' nd e r :and . t., 1- '.! nl'gu ti a tio n ol II H':IIt ing , 7li n cgot ia tio n proc~ ~, (u d tun a' p<n,e l'),
1 7- 1 ~

oi l paiaHing-, 77-0 Okei~ . .J udilh. ]() 0 /rmfJia (\lan c t l.l:l l opera . 1G o ppositio n. r; tll!' a nd ('llbu tlt ll tl' \ l.
:E8 -6~

:\2. 60. !lH. 1 1!l 11 nrg-anisationa l idcnti11. 2 -17-!1 Or~an i7ation for Econ 1111 ir ( .o pt' J.u iota ancl De1dnpmt'l1t ( O I.C:D l. 92 O ri cn ta !ism . 9-l. ltiR- 7 1 Orirlllrtlislll. ( Said). 11!1 , l ti~ - 7 1 , 1H!l Outrage. 2~1\l oppre ssio n .
or~a nisa ti o n

~7 .

or llll':tnin.{. :1 1-

9. 1. '];'j {}- 7 :-.ro rag a. Cherir. 1!10 m o ra l panic'. R9. 11 H s ubc nltun.''- and. :\ 17. :t.?2. :\23-6.
lllUilllll1C'11lS.

35 1
mora 1 i 1\' . 2!). 2-Hl \ !orle\'. D .. H9. 259 \lord~. De'imond. 1'.!0 \ !o thers (in Plata clt- \ l ayo}. 21iO- l. ~()5 mmorbike bo~s. :1 10- 1 nw~tme nl ( f'l'mini n e moti litl ), 27:1-:'"1 .\In l>rrllnH'fl\' ( \\ 'ool!) . 1R7. 1RH mugg in!-{. K9. II H. :\ lo multirac ial citics (lH' \1' icl(' lllit it~ in ). :\-17- K \luh-t~. Laura. Hl. ~lH:I -:'"1 . !IU2 amtrdt r 1rial. 7: i \ lurnl\', C h arle,, 1 JI) 11lltSic. ](), 1OH, 1 1o. 177, :tn. :~ 10- 1. :) 17 pop, :W:! < l . :1'!.(), :\ l.i-ll. :ti :\ - ) 111 th. :1:\ 1 'cmio1ir ' and . :~ l. :t 1 . .1'2-1

JWgri tude. ~2:1 nt nco lon ial i\1 11 , 1:1, 1H!l, 1\10 111'1 1\'0I'ks. l."l. :1 1 1 snbcnlture,, :1:17- R n e ,, hi~toric i~m . 2 111. '!. 12 :'\C \1 l.tft. 221 :'\e\1 Rig h t. 11ti. ~2-l nc\\ ~ocia) 1110\T ille nls. 1:N. ~~2 . 2 2 1 m,,s (o n T\'). Hl - 1. H7. 1'{9 m1,,pa p e r' (cm11er,hip a n cl r mTrag e) . :\ti-7 .\'itl' llinh ( l.odge) . 55-H ;\idwl~on , l.i11da. 12 1 nucles, 11 0 nomadic pastoralism , 1ti n orma l appcar:utcts. :{9[1- 8 IIOI"Ina lis:aaion pro rcss, 2R l . :H:!H :'\orth co te-Trl'l'el)'a at Repo n ( 18Sl), 218 nme ls. 20 l . :!0:1, 2 1:~ - 1 H. 2:1:1-5, 262-1 11< n,-1 i m e. , 1K:l, 1K7 nnclit~ ( in :ll'l ), 80- 1 :'\ucr cultun, ..Jii. 1 H~ Oakland Sc ltool Board. 11 H Ocdipu' tompkx. !1 onicial g eo grapl11 . 1 lti-7

/ '11// .\lrr/1 (;(l~l'/li. 20~1 'pa ni t bocl(. :H 2 panoptico n , 28 1-:1, :1H.1- ti paren t culture. :~214. :1:11- H j1111.1im l'ar i~. 277. 39K. :1~19 arcad e~. 79. :~72-5. :Hi Commum', 2:i .'i- ti Parkin, Frank. 89 Parl ianwn tar\' clemona n . '!.:1 ti pa ro le. 21. :1-1 Parso ns. T a lcott. 2.1- ll panialit1. -10 . 2:i 0 . 2.12 patw. inequalit1 a nd. 101 l'a se ro n. JC.. 11 1
p<t'-l

h i,totY and. 191-'!.1 :1 lllldcrstanclinl-{. 10-12 patli~ . 109- 10 patriarcli y, 20, 21i. 27. 7 J. 9.-,, 120- 1. 122- 3. 271. -11)0 p ed es tri ans (in c it~ }, 27!i. 277 l'c ircc . C.S., 3-1 p e rcc puaal r e hui1ism . 1~1- 1 1 pcrror111an cc. ~n-1 cu ltural p o li1ics, '!.27-:~:1 da n ce. :102 lll O ilttlll en t ~ a~ partial, ~:1 2-.i of poll'et, bun:a 11cracy :mcl. 2H - Ii subculture s. :161 , :162-:1

462

lndex

lndex capitali'm :m d. JI 2-J :1 cultural bodic,, :\IJ.'l-7. :~ 1 l - 1:! l'i;;ual culturl'. :\K7-!l:!. Jll l. W!l. JI~ I'CHIIh cuhure ami. :\ 1:\. :I JH. :l!W- 1. :111:! p< htmockrn i 1' . 21.'l ,.i,ual c uhun and. :11\ l. :l6.'1. :\\1:!. 10 l. -107-~1. JI :!- 17 pn,tsmrturali..:m.:! l -.'1..'l2. 1:! 1. 1li7. 2:!2. ~:l2 hi~wn and. 1 t\~1-\lll. l \IH. :!111. ~0\ 1 - l o tman in ).\' and. :1\1- 11 . 1111 p<hllOlll'i\111 , :11'~1 - \1 ( Ptlrrt" 1Jiggt'l ,\, Tht ( 1 ktli '\'). J () J j)OI't'l'l\', 1 1,), :l:! 1 n tlll iH' ol'. 11 :!, J I J ' Pon-n1 oJ T lu ol'l'. T lw' (T IJ o nlpSOi l l. 1\17 -H j)OII'tr. N-1, :FI:l cultural politir..; and. :!:.? J. ~:!~ c ullurt a u el. 17- 1~ cullurl' and incquali11. \l~- 1 2\l Cl tlture ' e1f di lfl'renct. 1:\7-!1 cuhurc' of rl'~i,wnrt. :!.'17. ~.JH discmn,e ami. :!9-:11. H9-~l0. \1-1.
~m-HI

463

ptrl'orm i ng idcn1 i 1l'~ in t' Oil\'l'll lional pcolitic'. ~:~:>--11 in untotwt.nlional poli ti c, .~.} 7-6~ pttlonning ,dr. :10 1 1wrfo nning 'lalt' po,,tr, ~:'l0-7 lll'l ioclir.tl ,0111 t t'' 1 Hl-~0 phenon~tnolog'. I.J l. 27:t 27-l philo,ophit'' idtologit'\ a'. :H-~ l'hilolllfih) of .\lmu'). '1/w (Silnnul) . ~<iH. :\ti!l piJOIIt'IIH'S, 1-1 photogt.tphv. 1:~. (j l. :!!17 't'llliolic anah'i'. ?l l . :'l:~ ,._ , n;d t ultttlt', :lli-1-7. :r1~-:'i. :~77-~.'l. Jlt i- 17 Pil'rn. ~Jar){l'. :! lli. :!17- U.) placl' cri ti c.t l uncln,tancling' col'. J-1:1--l g Jnbalktlion and. 17K. J7!t. IKO ll<lllll'' 1 J 1 - ~ phi l o~nph i t.~ ni. 1 JO-:! (lOh'l'r o f. 1 10 -H 10111 j,Jll IOlll'i'-1 g'alt'. 179. :)~ 7 -9 1 pltNII'l', 2\!9. :W), :{H:~- -1. :{!1~ poctit' ul rq>rt''-l'lll:tlion. 1:{!1-..JO. 1 ~X policc. 2JI. :H!l-:!0. :1:!:!. :12-1. :m7-H political c ulturt. :!~:!-:t~ politicall'C'<IIIOill\'. :!.J. ~li. :lli-!1. \ll-! political poh'l'l. nllllll't'' ol. 2:tl-:17 pulititalu't' ollanguagt'. 67-71 poli tic' ndturt a nd. :!2 1- 111\ ol l:lllgll:tg't'. 7:!-:) pnf'onnin g idl'nlitil''. :!:~ :1- 11. :!57-62 ol rt' PI't''l'lll:t l ion. 1:l~l --10. 1-fi{. 2:t> pop lllll,ic. :\02-:1. :1 1:"-li. :'>:i:~-:1 popuhu t'tt ltmv, 1:"'>- l li. 17. HJ. IOH- 10. :!tl:!. :F l. :H:l Ponm:111 , .Jn hn . 10:\-!"l. 1 07 pornngrap h ~. 2!17-H po,lmloni.tJi,lll. R. 71. !1~. !lli. 1HO. 168. 17:t 1H\1-\1:!. :!OH- 7 po'IIIIOdttn i,nl. H..i:!. (\(), 1-l l. :-l8. J:J.J- 6. J!HI. 22:t 2J5-Ii. ~W:t :!!IJ

~ tt bcu 11 na~. ~ 1li-1 H

wpographk, nf ruhu t t , 1:1:1-HO ,.,ual c nhllrt.% 1, :1\1 1. :192 .J0\1, -117 prc-inclthll ial li11. :I!U. :1\l-1 Pred . .\llan. 1 11 -H presem. :! JI - 1:! mocll'rnitl all(l. IX2-9 1 pri,nn . 27H. :!~ 1-:\. :IS.'l-li pri1 .llt' plan' :~lH:I Pmfonr Cul/1111' (\\'illi,). :110-1 projt'l'l' (i n cu ltural ~tud it ~). 12 J pron101 ion:ll ntltlll l'. liO prosti tu ti o n . :!mi. :! IJ Prottst:lnl tlhi r. :!7-l-l P"rho a nall,is. X-\1 . 1:! 1, 1HH, HIO. 204, :!:\:!, :IH:l, :IHr> public C'Xl'Cl i1t>n , 27~- ~ 1 m h l ic ha r; '''llll'll 1, ~\1!1 public p laces. ' i'11al int nauic m in . 392-8 public ~\mbo l , , placcs a~. 11 2, 1 1 ~~ Pul g-r<~ m. E.. 6:~ punishment. 271-l- Hl. :~H.J punk subcu hure,, :117. ~~ JX. :1:10. :~[J J, ::153 Quecr ~'a tion. 20~. 2:10 qut'L'I poli 1ic~. 225. 2:\0 qu('t'l tlwon. 207-R 2:10 ran. 90 clill'cnurt ancl. 117-19 identi11 nc\. ~~ l;mguagc ami. ti()-7 1 'ncial m nll ic1. 2ti-7 yn utll 'ubcu hures a nd, :1-lli-H raci.;m, 26- 7, :17- 9. 1'19. 1l i . 11 9. ~\r1 0- J :ntti-ra rist lang uagl', t\\1-7 1. 206 c u lltlral p o lilirs. 2:\!1--10. :!6:~ topograph it'S oJ' cuhul'l', J:Y1. ltifi. 1 r ap music. :122 raliuna lis; uion. ~ 12. :.?1 :1- 1. 217- H. 2!>0.
nllllu~d

an and. 77-9. 1-lO. t\ 1 classic rt'alist ll'XI. Jg 1-:1. :\!11 rcpresclllation :md. Gl. t\2. 100 ter hnologic~ of Cp hotograplll .111<1 filmL :\77-8:1 rcalit\. 1-11. 1~7 . ..J l:> h1verreali 11. -1 1:1-1 11 re ception. 32 Rcdhead. .. ~\52- 1 Refonn Bilis ( l~i:\2. IH67 ). 2:1:\ rcgionalism, JG::l regulmion of human boch. 271i-i"\!l relationships bclll't'cn c ul tu res (und crswnclin).\'). J..l - ! ~1 rc ligio n. 13.27-8, 9.8, 99. I0:\ - 1. l ~:"i.

228-9.289,372
Rc mcmbrancc Da)' cc rc mon~
2:l l i-~ 1 .

240, 41 5
re prescnlation adl'ertising a nd, 5 'J-60 art and, 77-8 1 bodily (effects), 297-9 COIHmunication and, 13-91 c ultural polit ics, 227-33 o r embodimcnt, 290-9 o f feminini l)' 81, 293-5 fmme of ( d igitnlisat ion), 4 16-17 languagc, poll'cr an<l incqualit\', li0-77 limits of (bodily), 297-9 ofmasculinity, 295-7 poctics ancl politics of, 139--10 n :alism and, GJ, 62, JOO of rural lifc (Co n stnbJc), IHl-!l 1 television ancl, 8 1-90 to pographies c u llllrc, 133-80 \'isua l, 365-7 resistan ce, 95, 119, 200, 284 cultural, 17- 18, 3 10- JI cultural politics of, 255-t> ct~ltures of, 257-64 cultures of di!Tcrc n cc, 137-9 place an cl, 1-10, 148 riwa ls of, 127,328-35 subcullures, 3 16-63

di..;cour-;< and hoch ( Fomault) . ~71'!-H 1 g<'O).\'raphical rq>n''l'lll:uion ancl.

1 7~-:1

ancl cJi,ro ur,t. H\1-90 kno11 J l'cl~e .utd. 2R-:I I. 9-1. 101. 122-:1. :!11:1- l. 2H J. 21-l 1 languag(' ancl. 62-:\. 7~ -:1 . Hli m c;ming ancl. !1. JI . Hli. 1:'.7-!1 pe rl'nrman rc o f'.:! 1 1- li ol' p lace. 1-10- H nad in g land..;r:qw :lllcl . I IJ - 1:! r<' l:llion..;, J7, .J2, H O. ~ l. 1-l!i. 10.1. 1:N l-l~- -1 . l -1 ~. 2:! l. :!:!:.!, 2:10 , :1111. :1!12 . ..J 17 rcpn,tnt~uion a n d intqu:tli11. !111-77 Sl<llt' (pcrf(JI'Ini n g). 2.">0-7 stru uu ral .md lma l ronreptioth of. 1211-H

icll'olog~

or

:m1
nwc cu lturl'. :W:!-:1. :121i. :1-l?l-n. :\:l-1-5
rcading snhcu lttu t'' :\ l li-li:\ reaJi,m. JJ(). Jl7

464

lndex

lndex

465

f<sislt/11 1'1' tlim11gh Rituri/_ , ( H al l and

J e ffe r~o n ).

88. 107-8. 23H. 2:)8.

:J,27. ~~~K- 35 restra int o f hutnan b oclies. 27\i- 89 rcs Lric ltd cod c ( lan gua~e ). :l-: 1. 117
n:n;~ r~e di ~co ursc".; . ~2~-5

ri ~ k.

:mx

scie n ce liCLion, 2 1:1- 1-l , 2 1: 1- 18 . 3 11-l.f, ~ 17. ~5~1-61 scnpnp h i1 ia. 3(t '.-4 ScotL) o an. ~06 Snlltish ntltlln.', 11 - 12 Sed K" ick, E,e Kosol :~kr. ~0/ ~e 11 , ~W1 , 270. 2 71. 276. 28:~. 2~-L :~0 -L

r itc<. o l p a.s., ;tgc. 125. ~~1 2- :'> . ;t)6 ritual , 17. 10:1. ~;)O. 393. :~% clrc.:' s cod e. 2:16- 10 res i ~t;111ce. 12/. 2:18. 328<'> :1 S\ tnboli ~m a mi. 288 -~1 roe ke rs. 323--1. 326. :~3 :1 l () lll (llll' l:', 201, 2 1-1- 15, 21!), 2 1::1 tcen ybop c ul tu re of, 3-12- 3. 3~ l-:'> ront:111 t it g:1zt. :1:-:N. 3K9 Rowll lt't'C 'UIYl'' ' ( 1:1~19) , 2~/ Rm; J. \ .;ia t ic Socie ry. 1/0 Rubn . Cade. 12 1 ruli n~ c ht'>. '>, 81-:1, ~17-~1 . 100, 103 - H jm.1 si 111. 2~5. :t~O. :13H ' rural idd l'. l.f9. 1S:'> rural li {(: coun u: side ( h cgcm o ny/ icl<:olt1g \), 1 1 ~ - :'>7 CU 1! U ra l images o f', 149-!):3 Ru~h . Benjamn. ~/9 Rn,IJd ie. S:tlntan, 160, 167, 190, 262-,1. 26:1

:190
~e manti c u t ti\'t~ rsalill,

-l :"J

~emiol og-y, :~2. ~-l-!1 ..;:,0--1

~e miot i c analrsis. -1~1. 2> l. .;:,:t :."i- 8 se m io t ics. 2-1.:~ 2. :):). 81i. ;{ 12. 3 17. 3< 11

or

s ~nsa ncl ,3-l-5,50-~2R8, -l l -l - 1 5

5:-tcks. ll:l tw~ 397- 8 Said, EcJ\,ard \\.. 1O. G7, l Hl, 168- 74. 1 8~1 . 20G Sapir. Ed11arcl. 290 Sapir-\\'h o rf' 11\-po th esis . .J7-9. ti:J, 72 Salrtn i f' \ '1'1.\I'S, Thr ( Ru,hcli C'). 160, 21i2 -.f,
2 ().)

sen sitisatio n proccss. :02-J sc n ice c l as~. :190-l Seura t. Georges, 79- 80 sexistlang uage. 68 - 9 ~cx ual cl iscourses. 2i-l4 Sl'.\'llrd J>i~ ,idf'lltf ( Doll imon:'), 208 -9 sex ual cxploitatio n . 2 JO. 21 1 sexual imagc: . 2 9/ -~l sexu < tlity. H- 9. ~05, 248- 9 . 2::13 h c tcro sexualit: . 207. 225, 230 - 1 ltcHncNxualitY. :~ o . 203 , 2 0-~l . 2 11. 225, 2:1 1' 2:)9- 11 1 Shakcspcare , stndy of (r u ltunt l apprnac h ), 2 1 - ~, :19 - .fO share cl c u lture , 1OG share cl m eaning~. J42. 1 -1~ sharccl 1alucs. 26. 289. 3:)7 Sharra ll. B.. :388. :391-2 ~ign ili<:r / sig n iflccl. 2-(. 23. 3~ . ti:3--l. 2!1 1 ~i gn s. 25. 32. 33 scmiotics ancl. :H - 5. 50- -1. 2H8. -ll-1- 1!"> Silk Cu t a dn nist tn e nt. 5:1-8 Simmel, Ceorg, 2!10, %-J., 3ti7-72, :1/:"i- 7,
;'.~1 2

socia l el as , 11'1' class so cial con fl ic t. 26 -7 so cial constru c tion of corporca li t~ 268-7 1 social construc ti o nism , 138, 207 socia l contro l, 182. 2 1.'l. 3 1 ~. 322. ?.2-lso c i:.tl dan ce. :102 social cli\'isio ns (subcultun:s). :ll6- 63 so cial gro u p. R 1-5. l Ob. 1 9~ social ind i,id m d , 329 social lan g ua~t. 62 social m o ,e m e nl s. n e \\'. 139. 222. 22-l social stru c ture. c ultu re ;utcl , 2-1, 25- :1 1 socialisatio n , 7- 8, .f5. 6:"1, ~08 . 273, 2713.

passages. 125 reprtsc ntatiun oL -101-\1 Stead, \\'.T., 209 - JO sL erco t~'Pes, 190 . :1,02 fans. :ISK- 1 12 Swcklwlm ( 11-\RO- HI()()J. 1+1 - l:l Strath ern, :'11.. 121 - :1 S 1re e1, B.. 6:~ ."li'IICttl ra l con ce ptio n of po,,er. 126- 8 stru c ttt ra l lin gui~li cs. 7.J stru c tt1ralism. 2-l--5. 39 . .J9. :"JO. 52, 7-1, R6,
~~-11

278.
~oc i a l i s m.

~t~ .J . 3()1) ~17

5, 95.

.!': lte lli tt dis h es. -108 -~1. clll Sane r. C tr l. 13-t-7. 139. l.f2. 179 ele Saussure. Fe rcl inancl, 2-L :12, 3-~. :'>0, 5-J S:l\'agc, i\1 .. ~.J7. ~NS. ~4!1 Saye ~ De rc k, 16 1.250 sean , gazc ;mcl . 39 1-2

simple ach'cnise m e nts. 5-1- 5 sim u lacra, ll :~- Hi Skinhcacls, :t)3, 33:'>- , :V~ 7. :)5 1 ~o a p o pnas, (i 1 fan s. :1 17. ;)() 1- 2 ~oc i a l a c li,itl', 62 , 76

wcict\', 6. 2~-9 con st itu l io n nr. l -1 :~ - -l soc i o lin~ui s li c~ . 1!1 - 50, 72 .\ o< iol ug: ol' knmd e dg<.: . 9 - 1O. 35 Sllja. Ed11ard. I r):). 157 soplt islicatl'cl arh-crtiscm c n ls. :"J: )- 8 su und-i mage. :~-1 smc rc ig n pmq;r. 27't'> 'pace, l.J0-2 , 178. 17~1 , I KO bureau crat isa tinn o f, 2-1-l - 5 hyp e rs pace. 40:0. -~OG- 7 spatia l m e tapho rs, 41 , 48, 133, 179- 8 0 spatial o rdcring. 393- 5 sp ectatorial gazc. 388, 38~1. 39 1 ~peec h , 62- 5, 72. 77. 11 7 e 1h nog raphy o f sp eaking, 49, 73-6 la ng u e, 2-J.. 3-J. m canin g ancl. :12 Spender. Dale , 123 Spi,ak. (.;ayatri, 1O, 11 9. 190, 261 ~pon ( lang uage/ i magcry of) . .f6-7 s poning bod\'. :~ o 1- 2 S1a llybr ass. Pe ter, 202. 2~~ l. 257, 2!'S, 26 .1 , 2ti-l Star Treli Em!'. :3 J7. :l:>~l-61 sta tc po we r. pl'rfmming. 250 -7
s t a tu~

m eaning ancl. :~2-:"i ~ tru c tures (i n ~ ubc u l tllt 'C.'\). :-t~S -!1 . :q9 ~ubalterni 1 y, 119. 1/:i. 190 ~ubc ultural ca pital. ?.5 1-3 .'\/l(lt//UI'I ' : 'f'lll' : \lm ni11g of'.'ityft ( He bdige),
:~11 -2

stlbc ulturcs. JI) de, i:Ht cc and . :~ 1 ~ - 1 ~1 fo lk cb ils, :w :~-ti intcrac lio m amln(twork~. :~!17-H re~i~tanct and ~oc i : d d i,isions. :1 1h-63 you th , W 'I' YOlllh S l t hrll lltt rt~ -;ubjtr ti\'ity. 9. 2:-l -~l. -l0-1. 20:1. 2 11.
223 --1, 232.2~3 .3 1 2

ine qua lity ancl . .IOl -3

Sllbordinatioll , 105, 11)7- l:>. []). g:\0-:1. :149 o J' " o mcn / g irls. ~l. 2G, 27. 72, 7 ~). 120 . 12~ . 2~H, 2-17, 2/.f subsocie ty, :~57 Sunday Ajtemoo11 011 La r:murlt.Jatfl. .-\ (Seura l), 7~1-~0 s1 tpcr-cgo . R ~ lltYe illan ce, 2~ l. :~li-1. 385- 1 ). :~88. ?!9 1-2 swas tib (symho l i~ t ll nf) . :)50 - 1 .S)/{ (O israel ). 2:1:1. 2:1-J.. 23j symboJic t:rea tili~ ( o J" \OIIt tg- JH.:ople) . :~:i2 symbulisati o n prnccss. 32~~. ::12-1 symbolism , 111 . 2:"1 1- '2. of bodybuilclin g . 30 7- 11 of tn O ll tllll (' II(S, '2.5 0-7 ritua l and, '2.8~-~ 1 sym b o ls, -1, G, 2()

466

lndex
ro m pn.;,ion. LiH. 1Kli- 7. -1 12 wpograph ie' ol eu h urt. 1:n - Ro touri 'In. 17!1 touri~L gatc. :1H/- !II 1radi1ion 1radi1ion.al < nlltll t. 10- 1~. :~7~.
1i me-., pace

lndex 467
\ cnd(Hnc Colunm , 25!1-!i \ 'crnc . .J u les, ~U \ 'ici n m. ~l:tnha. 207 \ 'icwria ~lomament, 251-2 \ 'irgil. Tht .-\mt'id. 199-200 ,.~ihilit~ par adox. 29 1 \'~>ual culture. :161--118 ,.,ual intnaction melropolit.m cuhun: and, 367-72 in public piares, :192-8 1isual rcprCSl'IHal ion. :l6-l , :l65-7 \ 'oJo ,alOI', \.~ .. .JO, 62, 202 \\'acqu:llll . LJ.O. , 30 1-2 \ \'alcou. Dn~ k. l O \\'a1kcr . .-\ Jire. 1O ,,a1kin g s1 yk~ . 271) \\-a lkoii'tl.. ,lndilh . 1\l 1, 20 7,209- 12,2 19 1\'<l\' o f' lif'l', n tltu n oa ~. 1, G. 7, 327, ;,.\ 66 \\'cb. -11 \l. 12\l- 1 \\'eber, .\la:- . 26. ~7-H. 10 1-3, 10 1,
2-1 1 -~.217 , 249.370

~~ n1ax.

,,nntI '-111. 1-10. 17:1, 171). 177, 17S- 9 1-l. 1 9. 1 0~

Tanncn. De boa ah. 1~. 7~-:l a.;k-ha.;<:cl iant. ll':l- 1 a,t<: . land~c.tpt ol. -llll'-~1 l<l,ll' Clal!lll'l'' :l:, 1 l:l!IOO'-. ~92 lt:chniqm. ol lht ho<h. ~7 1 -li lcchnolo.{t''-, 2 1(i of rta l'-111 . 3 ii -H:i rtdd~ Bm~. :ttl. :t'lti. :1~ 1 ll'(' ll ~'bO JI Cl dltl l'(' (o!' I'OI II<IIHT). :J -1 ~-:t :l-1 1-!1 idl'I'sion, ~iH-\l, :lH~-:1, :~!) l llt'I\'S, H1- -1. H7. K!l l'('jll't'S<'Ill:t lOil .1 11d , K l -90 'oap ope r;ts.lil. :111. :il i l -~ .~/111 '/'u lt, :l l 7. :l:i9-ll 1 lt'I'I' I OI' ;t l j ~ l il7-li. 162 lel\1 1 tl'l\llta litl. :1~. 10-1. t\~1 -~10. 366. :lt-> 1- :l, :191 theorit'' u f cu ltUI'l', 2:l- 11 po\l'er .m el intqualit~ ~I!'J-1 IH 'Th{'\l'\ (lll IIH' Philo,opll\' or IJi,ton. ( Btnj.unin). 2 1R-19 Thtl,deit. 1\.lau,. 2!1.1 -li ' h j d ... p.tet' .. 1li0-1 T homN>n. E.l'.. ~J(), 1 1 ~. 1!-1:1-1. 192 -:~. 196-l-1. ~();), 2:10 Th nmp~n a a. J B .. li:i-li Thornton, Sarah. :l~li. :l: i 1-.i. :tili 1houg hL htngagc ancl. -1 7-~l. li:1. 7~ lang aagc, n th lll'l' and. l.1-7 1 l'1'!-\IlS. :1\Hi-7 linw. 12, 11, 1 ~ d if'fc n n cc a nd . 1::lil h iswr\' a nd. 1 8 1 -2~ 0 incln,ria l. 1H:l-!'> modtTil (parad ox nf). l K>-H nwckrn 1'1'11111 tradiliona l. 190-:1 ta,k-ba,ccl. Hti-.J \\Ollltn a nd. IRR-9

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hoch a' nll'clium nf'. :{110-11 cn ltmal p(lli lil' ol'. ~O~. ~:lO- :\. ~:\X-111 cultu res of' resi, tallCl'. ~.-J 7 -~1. ~li 1- 1 lemi nini tl'. :\07- 11 limi1' ol' ( '1'111 .\ alt111ir 1 'l'll' ll, ~ ~)~- 1 tra\'C: IIi ng- c ultul'l'' 1: 1:1. 17.- li T ro bri a ncl l ~ l anclt r~. 1~ . 11- 1:" Troifu 1 m11f <:n.idu (.'>ha kl~ >t':l l'l'), ~2 -:~ Trotsk1ism. 1~~ 1 tnnh . {)(1. 1'\ :1-ll. H~l. 20:1- 1. :~79. :'H I -~ Tscclon. C 2!1 1 Tuan. ) i-Fu. 1-HJ- :1 Turner. B.S., ~1'\(1 - 7, ~,'{\) T unwr. \ 'inoa. ~~H
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\ \'nn ick . .-\ncln" 110 \ \\~t 1\'0od. Salli('. 127 \\11a1HWI. Paclch'. ~. \\llitc . .\llon. 202. 2:H. 257.258.261,26-1 \\'horf. Ben jamn Llc . ..J7-9. 65. 72 \\'ilde. o~raa. 20H. 211.21 -1. 225 \\'illiam'-. Drid. 111-1 \\'illiam,. Ra~mond. -I<J. 6, :H. Gl. 62, 8 1, R-1. ~l.:'l, 1011. J:n. 20:1, 20S. 23-1 \\'illiam~o n , J ..1\) \\'i lli~. Pa ul. Hil. 107. 12.:1-li. 2R9, 302,328, :1:\SJ--12. :~ 11 - !1. :,:l'l- 5, :'6 1 11"t('hcraft . 1~. 1:\ \\' iugc n ~te in , LHch,ig, ~.'i

\\'iuig, .\lonique. 2:12 \\'ilZ ...-\ .. 247. 2-1 8. ~-~~~ \\'oiiT. J a net. .;.. 1,omen buch-. 273-6 female gaze. 38-1 fcmale la1k. /2.73 monuments. 252-?i motilitl' namcmeut. 273-:i n atio n a l i~ n1 ami. 1fi3-i resi~ ta n cc (pcrforming icltuti til'S) , 257-li2. 26.i 'Cl\Uali ty of'. .l'l' h C' tCI'(JSCXUa J11 ': h o mo~cx 1ra li 1\' sub o rclina tion u r, 9 , ~6. ~7. 7:1. 120 , 12:1. 23 1, ~-1 7. ~?7 1 time ancl. 188-9 5ee afso fc minis m; lc mininit y \\'oo lf. \'irgi nia , 1H7. 1~8 work urga nisations. pm,Tr in , 127 working class, 2 10-11 , :1 1S- 19 po11'cr ami incquality, ~)6- 7. 10;). 1OH, 111 - 13, 1 15. 119 subcuhmes. 3 18- 19. 332-..JO. :1-19. 35 1 World \\'idc \\'e b . . 19. -120-1

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11 :"J-17. 127-X (role of c uiltu.d 'lladit,).

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Young, Iris .\larion. 273- l. 27!, youth culture, con temporar~ ( a~ptct' o!). 352-6 youlh subculturcs, 11 2, 2~>R. 2H~I. 302.
3 1 7,320,322,362-~

u ni OCII'l'cl i 11\l'l':tct ion. 3!1:"1 - X urba tt lik CII' a 11cl co llll ll~. 1-IX-: 17 c ultural im:1~t'' o l ( l.m . \ll .('t: l t'~).
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in British cultura l stu d i c~. 327- :W gc ncle rand,342-6 race, 3 116-8 Zukin, Sha ron, 4 1 1- 12

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