Welding Hazards

TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................5 WHATS IN THIS MODULE? .......................................................................................................5 WELDING PROCESSES ...............................................................................................................6 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING AND CUTTING ...........................................................................6 Shielded Metal Arc Welding ..................................................................................................6 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding ....................................................................................................6 Submerged Arc Welding ........................................................................................................7 Flux-Cored Arc Welding ........................................................................................................7 Gas Metal Arc Welding .........................................................................................................7 Inert Gas Welding ..................................................................................................................7 Plasma Arc Welding ..............................................................................................................7 Arc Cutting............................................................................................................................8 GAS WELDING AND CUTTING ..............................................................................................8 Brazing ..................................................................................................................................8 Soldering ...............................................................................................................................8 Gas Cutting ...........................................................................................................................8 RESISTANCE WELDING..........................................................................................................8 SPOT WELDING ......................................................................................................................9 ELECTRON, LASER AND THERMIC PROCESSES ................................................................9 Laser Beam Welding and Cutting ...........................................................................................9 Electron Beam Welding .........................................................................................................9 Thermic Welding ...................................................................................................................9 UNDERWATER WELDING AND CUTTING ..........................................................................10 One Atmosphere Welding .................................................................................................... 10 Habitat Welding...................................................................................................................10 Dry Chamber Welding ......................................................................................................... 10 Dry Spot Welding ................................................................................................................10 Wet Welding........................................................................................................................10 Lance Oxygen Cutting ......................................................................................................... 10 ROBOTIC WELDING .............................................................................................................11 2

WELDING HAZARDS................................................................................................................. 11 AIRBORNE SUBSTANCES ..................................................................................................... 11 By-product Gases ................................................................................................................12 Ozone ..............................................................................................................................12 Nitrogen Oxides...............................................................................................................12 Carbon Monoxide ............................................................................................................12 Carbon Dioxide................................................................................................................13 Hydrogen Chloride ..........................................................................................................13 Phosgene .........................................................................................................................13 Asphyxiants .........................................................................................................................14 Fumes.................................................................................................................................. 14 Dusts ................................................................................................................................... 17 ELECTRICAL HAZARDS ....................................................................................................... 17 MATERIAL HANDLING HAZARDS .......................................................................................18 RADIATION............................................................................................................................18 HEAT STRESS ........................................................................................................................19 ASSESSMENT ..............................................................................................................................19 Fume Measurement .................................................................................................................21 Gas Measurement....................................................................................................................21 LEGISLATION SPECIFIC TO WELDING HAZARDS ............................................................22 Mining Regulations (Specific to Welding) ............................................................................22 Industrial Regulation............................................................................................................23 Breathing Equipment ...........................................................................................................23 CONTROL .................................................................................................................................... 24 CONTROL AT THE SOURCE................................................................................................. 24 CONTROL ALONG THE PATH ..............................................................................................24 Air Quality...........................................................................................................................24 General Ventilation ..........................................................................................................25 Local Ventilation .............................................................................................................25 Air Cleaners .....................................................................................................................26 3

Radiation .........................................................................................................................26 Electrical Systems ................................................................................................................26 Compressed Gas ..................................................................................................................27 CONTROL AT THE WORKER ................................................................................................27 Respiratory Protection ......................................................................................................... 28 Eye Protection .....................................................................................................................28 Protective Clothing ..............................................................................................................28 Medical Monitoring .............................................................................................................29 Safe Work Practices ............................................................................................................29 Posture ............................................................................................................................30 Manual Material Handling ..............................................................................................30 WORKPLACE STRATEGIES .................................................................................................... 31 REVIEW ....................................................................................................................................... 32 REFERENCES..............................................................................................................................32

INTRODUCTION
Welding is a technique for joining metals through the application of large amounts of heat, usually sufficient to melt the materials being welded. There are a variety of health and safety hazards associated with this process. Safety hazards include the potential for fire or explosion and injuries from radiation, electrical shock, or material handling. Health hazards include exposure to fumes released from the work or from materials used in the process. Welding hazards can cause both acute and chronic health effects. These include toxic effects from chemical agents and damage to the respiratory system as well as injury from physical agents such as noise, heat and radiation. Controlling these hazards requires that they first be recognized and assessed. To carry out these functions effectively, joint health and safety committee members need a basic understanding of welding processes and the nature of the welding environment.

WHATS IN THIS MODULE?

This module is intended to provide certified members with an understanding of the hazards associated with welding and the means for assessing and controlling those hazards. It stresses the need for systematic inspections of the workplace by members of the Joint Health and Safety Committee and the development of a welding and cutting control program. The module is divided into six main sections:

types of welding welding hazards assessment legislation review control workplace strategies

The module concludes with a brief review and a list of references for further reading.

WELDING PROCESSES
The American Welding Association recognizes more than 100 different types of welding, cutting and related processes. For simplicity, they will be discussed here simply as welding processes. The welding methods most commonly used in Ontario workplaces are discussed separately in the following sections. All welding process require that metals be melted. In most types of welding, the material to be jointed (hereafter the work) becomes molten so that the pieces fuse together. In brazing and soldering, only the filler metal is melted and it bonds to the pieces to be joined, creating the weld. Either way, large amounts of heat are created, leading to the vapourization of metal to form fumes and gases. The heat sources used for welding include gas flames and electrical arcs as well as laser and electromagnetic systems.

ELECTRIC ARC WELDING AND CUTTING

In electric arc welding, heat is created when current flows between an electrode held by the welder and the work, which is connected to the opposite side of the electrical source. In many types of arc welding a shield is provided around the arc to prevent oxidization of the molten metal. This shield can come from substances contained in the electrode or from gases supplied from an external torch. In some types of arc welding, the electrode is coated with a flux, which among other things, cleans the joint and helps the molten metals to fuse. The electrode, or rod, may be consumed in the process, in which case it may be a source of filler metal. Many types of arc welding use non-consumable electrodes.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding

In shielded metal arc welding, electrical current flows between a flux-coated electrode and the work. A shield is provided by the breakdown of the flux. Filler metal is obtained from the metal core of the electrode, and/or metallic particles in the flux. The arc creates intense heat and ultra violet radiation. Metal fumes are released from the base metal, the filler metal and the flux.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

In gas tungsten arc welding, the metal is heated by an electrical arc flowing between a tungsten electrode and the work. The electrode is not consumed and does not 6

contribute fumes. A shield is provided by a gas such as helium, argon or nitrogen. This process is used for welding stainless steel, copper, copper-nickel alloys, bronze, brass, titanium, titanium alloys and zirconium.

Submerged Arc Welding

Submerged arc welding creates a weld by heating the metal with an arc established between a base metal electrode and the work. A shield is provided by a granular flux material. It is called submerged arc welding because the arc is not visible. Metal fumes are produced in lower quantities than other welding processes, and sparks and splatter are eliminated.

Flux-Cored Arc Welding

Flux cored arc welding uses an arc between a continuous consumable electrode and the work. A shield is provided by flux contained in a core inside the electrode.

Gas Metal Arc Welding

Gas metal arc welding is a process in which the weld is created by heating the metal with an arc between a consumable electrode and the work. Shielding is provided by a gas.

Inert Gas Welding

Inert gas welding heats the metal with an arc established between a consumable electrode and the base metal. Shielding is provided by an inert gas.

Plasma Arc Welding

Plasma arc welding involves the use of gas from a torch as well as an electrical arc. It may use either a transferred or non-transferred arc. A transferred arc joins metals by heating them with an arc between an electrode and the work, while gas is supplied from a torch. A nontransferred arc is created between the electrode and the nozzle of the torch. Shielding is from hot gas flowing from the torch, which may be supplemented by additional shielding gases.. 7

Arc Cutting
Air-carbon arc cutting employs an electrode to strike an electrical arc at the work. A stream of compressed air from the torch oxidizes the metal and projects it away from the work, thereby cutting the metal. Other types of arc cutting use a jet of oxygen.

GAS WELDING AND CUTTING

Gas welding typically uses an oxy-acetylene gas flame as a source of heat. Some types of gas welding, such as soldering, use propane or other fuel gasses.

L. [Ed note - arent there other types of gas welding where the metal parts to be joined are melted? If so, these should be added]

Brazing
Brazing applies heat to the metal, usually from an oxy-acetylene gas flame. The metal does not reach its melting point. Instead, filler material and flux from a welding rod melt to form the weld.

Soldering

Soldering, like brazing, is accomplished without melting the metal parts that will be joined. The temperatures needed are lower than for brazing. Toxic fumes are generated by the solder, or filler metal, but not by the work pieces themselves. Fluxes and other cleaning agents used to ensure a good joint may also emit fumes.

Gas Cutting
Cutting creates a molten pool of metal using heat from a gas torch. A jet of oxygen is injected into pool to accelerate the oxidation of the material.

RESISTANCE WELDING
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Resistance welding is accomplished by passing a very high current through two pieces of metal causing melting at the interface. High magnetic fields may be created in the process causing hazards for workers wearing metal objects or pacemakers.

SPOT WELDING
A spot weld is made on overlapping metal surfaces by applying heat and pressure at a particular spot on the work. Electrical current typically provides the heat source.

ELECTRON, LASER AND THERMIC PROCESSES

In recent years, new technologies have advanced the use of more sophisticated welding and cutting systems based on laser beams, electron beams or liquid metal heat sources. These are used mainly for specialized applications.

Laser Beam Welding and Cutting

Laser beam welding joins metals using heat from a concentrated beam of coherent light. Laser beam cutting works with or without the application of jets of gas to augment the removal of metal.

Electron Beam Welding

In electron beam welding, metals are joined by heat from a concentrated beam of electrons, travelling at high velocity.

Thermic Welding
Thermic, also known as thermite welding, joins metals by heating them with superheated liquid metal. This is created by a chemical reaction between a metal oxide and aluminum, with or without the application of pressure.

UNDERWATER WELDING AND CUTTING

Underwater welding operations require the use of a variety of specialized techniques. Most of them work by enclosing either the arc or the entire process in a dry chamber. One process allows welding to be done in water.

One Atmosphere Welding

One atmosphere welding and cutting is performed underwater in a pressure vessel maintained at approximately one atmosphere, regardless of depth.

Habitat Welding
Habitat welding is done in a pressurized underwater chamber big enough to accommodate both the welder and the work. Diving gear is not required.

Dry Chamber Welding

Dry chamber welding uses a dry chamber fitted over the joint. The chamber may be of any size, but does not enclose the welder, and diving gear is required.

Dry Spot Welding

Dry spot welding encloses only the arc is in a dry environment. Shielding gases are maintained at the arc by a mechanical barrier.

Wet Welding
Wet welding and cutting are accomplished at ambient pressure with the welder diver in the water and with no physical barrier around the arc.

Lance Oxygen Cutting

Lance oxygen cutting is a form of cutting is used on concrete and cast iron. It can also be used in underwater operations. This type of cutting produces high fume 10

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concentrations.

ROBOTIC WELDING
Robotic welding allows the welder to work at a safe distance from hazardous processes by using a variety of remote-controlled devices. Because of their automated operation, robots can create their own hazards.

WELDING HAZARDS
The health effects of welding hazards are caused by both chemical and physical agents. Chemical agents are found in the gases that are used for fuel or shielding and also in the fumes created when metal vapourizes. Physical agents involved in welding include heat, noise, electricity and radiation.

AIRBORNE SUBSTANCES
Airborne hazards from welding include fumes, gases and dusts. The amount and type of substance produced depends on the type of welding involved, the metals to be welded, the filler and flux materials, and the shielding gas, if one is used. Gases are used in welding for two purposes: energy sources and shielding. These gases are not generally considered a major source of toxic contaminants, although some of them may be asphyxiants or may pose fire and explosion hazards. Toxic substances mostly come from gases and fumes that are produced as by-products of the welding process. Gases and fumes can be created from metal parts, or from welding materials as well as paint, coatings, cleaners and rust inhibitors that have been applied to the metal prior to welding. Dusts are created by cleaning, grinding and chipping operations associated with welding.

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PRINCIPAL GASES ASSOCIATED WITH WELDING Energy Sources Shielding By-product Gases Gases oxygen Argon ozone acetylene Helium nitrogen oxides natural gas carbon dioxide carbon monoxide hydrogen nitrogen carbon dioxide propane hydrogen chloride butane phosgene

By-product Gases

Ozone Ozone is created by an interaction between ultraviolet light and oxygen. It may be a problem when gas metal arc welding is conducted in enclosed areas with inadequate ventilation. Excessive ozone levels can produce headaches, chest pains and shortage of breath. In high concentrations ozone can cause pulmonary edema (fluid in the lungs) which can be fatal. A characteristic odour will usually warn welders of the presence of ozone but prolonged exposure can interfere with the sense of smell.

Nitrogen Oxides Nitrogen dioxide and other oxides of nitrogen are formed in a welding arc by ultraviolet light. They can irritate the eyes and mucous membranes. High exposures can cause coughing and chest pains. Pulmonary edema can occur within 24 hours.

Carbon Monoxide

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Carbon monoxide is created from carbon dioxide in certain welding processes. It is a product of incomplete combustion. It can also be produced from epoxy resin coatings on the work. Excessive concentrations can often be detected near the arc. Concentration levels decrease quickly with the distance from the arc. Carbon monoxide attacks the nervous system and affects the heart, blood, lungs and kidneys. Exposure to high concentrations can be fatal.

Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide is a colourless, odourless gas that is not usually considered toxic. It is present in normal air at a concentration of about 300 parts per million (ppm) The air in the lungs contains about 55,000 ppm. Health effects include an increased heart rate. Exposure to high concentrations, can cause coma and convulsion within one minute of exposure. Carbon dioxide is heavier than air, and may collect in pockets in confined spaces, where exposure can be fatal.

Hydrogen Chloride Hydrogen chloride is created when paints, dyes or coatings containing chlorinated organic chemicals are vapourized by welding heat. It is a strong irritant to the eyes, mucous membranes, and skin. It can have delayed effects on the upper respiratory tract causing cough, burning of the throat, and a choking sensation. Excess fluid can collect in the lungs, causing pulmonary edema.

Phosgene

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Phosgene is produced by heating metals that have been cleaned or treated with rust inhibitors with substances containing chlorinated hydrocarbons. Inhalation of high concentrations of phosgene gas can produce pulmonary edema, frequently after a delay of up to 72 hours. Death may result from respiratory or cardiac arrest. Phosgene also irritates the skin and the eyes.

Asphyxiants
Many gasses commonly used for welding fuel and shielding are simple asphyxiants, which means that they displace oxygen from the air. Normal air is made up of 21 percent oxygen and 78 percent nitrogen. When oxygen levels drop below 18 percent dizziness and unconsciousness may result. Shielding gases such as carbon dioxide, helium, and argon enter the air after performing their function as a shielding around the arc. Other gases may enter the air from leaks. As gases build up they displace the air. Argon is heavier than air and helium is lighter than air. Thus, they can readily collect in pockets. Chemical asphyxiants are substances that interfere with the bodys use of oxygen. They are toxic in concentrations far below the level needed to displace the oxygen in the air. Chemical asphyxiants may be produced when cutting surfaces coated with paint, rust, plaster and other substances. Examples of chemical asphyxiants encountered in welding include: hydrogen cyanide, hydrogen sulphide, and carbon monoxide, all of which are highly toxic. They can cause inflammation of the lungs, pulmonary edema, emphysema and bronchitis as well as asphyxiation.

Fumes
Fumes consist of tiny metal particles suspended in the air. Metals are vapourized by the high temperatures used in welding When circulated in the air, the vapour forms a metal oxide. This metal oxide quickly cools and condenses into particles that make up metal fumes. Each particle is less than 1/1000 of a millimetre in diameter. This means they are small enough to enter the deep spaces of the lung. There, they can damage lung tissue, or 14

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dissolve into body fluids. The fume and smoke that is typically seen rising from a welding operation is composed of many different substances including gases and fumes released by the electrode, flux, or metal being welded. The electrode is the greatest contributor of fumes. Breathing the fumes can cause health effects ranging from discomfort to long term illness. The major component of fumes from common structural steel is iron oxide in relatively low concentration. When welding other metals, toxic substances can form a large proportion of the fumes. For example, some copper alloys contain beryllium which is highly toxic. Other toxic components can originate from consumable welding materials and from coatings and residue on metal parts. A common health effect from exposure to metal fumes is known as metal fume fever. Symptoms occur from 4 to 12 hours after exposure and usually last for 24 hours. Recovery is complete with no permanent disability. The symptoms resemble influenza; sweating, shivering, headache, thirst, muscle aches, nausea, and fatigue. A metallic or sweet taste in the mouth, dryness or irritation of the throat, and coughing may occur at the time of exposure. Metal fume fever is frequently caused by exposure to zinc oxide fumes from galvanized steel. The fumes of cadmium, copper, magnesium, manganese, nickel and tin have also been implicated in some cases.

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METALS USED IN WELDING Substance Uses

Beryllium

Cadmium*

Chromium*

hardening agent found in copper, magnesium and aluminium alloys corrosion-resistant coatings, solders and brazes steel alloys

Health Effects from Exposure to Fumes or Dusts metal fume fever; suspected carcinogen

pulmonary edema; suspected carcinogen irritant of skin, eyes and mucous membranes; some forms are carcinogens anaemia; abdominal pains; kidney and nerve damage pneumonitis; cyanosis; delirium; dermatitis; carcinogenic. metal fume fever

Lead* Nickel

paints and alloys steel alloys

Zinc

aliminum and magnesium alloys, brass, corrosionresistant coatings

Copper

Magnesium Manganese

Mercury Molybdenum Titanium Vanadium

protective coatings on metal

metal fume fever, damage to livery, kidneys, nose and spleen metal fume fever, irritation of eyes and nose fatigue, nervous system disorders, respiratory disorders, liver damage systemic poisoning uncertain in humans respiratory irritation, slight fibrosis irritation of eyes and respiratory tract, possibly asthmatic reactions

filler wire

*Indicates designated substances under the OHSA

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Dusts
Dusts are fine solid particles which are larger than those in fumes and can remain suspended in the air for a considerable period. Some cleaning operations associated with welding generate dusts. They may also be produced by fluxes and filler metals. During handling, for example, rod coatings may release phosphates, silicates and silica. Tasks such as grinding and chipping of weld slag also generate dusts. Prolonged exposure to silica can cause silicosis, a disease of the lungs marked by a progressive shortening of breath. Silica is a designated substance. Metal dusts can produce the same health effects as metal fumes. Pneumoconiosis is another health effect caused by the inhalation of particles, such as those in fumes and dusts. Specific conditions associated with welding include aluminosis (aluminum), anthracosis (carbon), siderosis (iron), and stannosis (tin). There is some debate about whether the pure forms of these substances cause significant lung damage. Some authorities believe that most of the health effects are actually caused by impurities such as silica, that are mixed with the metal oxides in the workplace. If welding or cutting involves asbestos, the Act requires that the agency having authority must be consulted before beginning the job. Asbestos can produce fibrosis and lung and other cancers. Asbestos is a designated substance.

ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
The electrical current used to power arc welding equipment varies from 110 to 575 volts. Even at the lower end of this range, exposure to electricity can cause serious injury including shock, burns or paralysis. Exposure to higher voltages can be fatal. The voltage is reduced to approximately 80 volts at the welding machine output, and it drops further during welding operations. Nonetheless, voltages as low as 25 volts can transmit enough current to cause injury. For example, the involuntary muscle contraction resulting from such a shock may lead to a dangerous fall and possible injury.

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MATERIAL HANDLING HAZARDS

Welders often perform tasks which include repetition, manual lifting and material handling. They must adopt static postures such as sitting, crouching or kneeling for prolonged periods of time. As a result, welders may suffer from body strain and fatigue. Poor workplace design and the use of inappropriate tools and equipment contributes to these hazards. For example, arrangements that require welders to work with their arms above shoulder height puts stress on the muscles in the shoulders and arms. Maintaining fixed positions also forces the muscles to work harder. Welders who repeat tasks which involve working in unnatural postures face an increased risk of musculoskeletal injuries. Welders who work with gas welding equipment face the added hazards of handling compressed gas cylinders. In addition to the problems of manually moving these heavy objects, there is a risk of fire or explosion of they hard not handled properly.

RADIATION
Electrical arcs and gas flames produce ultraviolet and infra-red radiation. Either type can damage the eyes and skin if exposure is prolonged or repeated. The most common effect of ultraviolet is damage to the skin or the surface of the eye, similar to sunburn. This is painful and disabling but usually temporary. The effects of visible and near infrared radiation, on the other hand, may include permanent eye injury. Exposure to infrared radiation may result in burns to the retina, and with repeated exposure, cataracts (clouding of the lenses or membranes of the eyes) may develop. The generation of ultraviolet radiation is especially high in gas shielded arc welding. A shield of argon gas around the arc doubles the intensity of the radiation. In addition, the higher current required (particularly with a consumable electrode), can raise the amount of radiation to as much as thirty times the levels associated with non-shielded welding. Some welding operations also involve ionizing radiation. This radiation has a very short wavelength and can damage living cells. It can cause serious health effects and can be fatal in large doses. X-rays and gamma rays used to inspect welds are of the ionizing type. This type of equipment must be used only by specially trained workers. X-rays can also be emitted by certain welding processes such as electron beam welding.

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HEAT STRESS
Overexposure to heat can lead to heat stress. Heat stress occurs when the body is unable to regulate its internal temperature effectively. The symptoms vary from mild discomfort, rashes, and dizziness to cramps, exhaustion and heat stroke. Heat stroke is a potentially fatal condition in which the body's cooling mechanism stops working altogether. Welders are especially susceptible to heat stress because they are exposed to heat from welding operations, and must wear heavy protective clothing. The problem is often compounded by heavy physical work, carried out in cramped work spaces with poor ventilation.

ASSESSMENT
A variety of techniques are available to assess the severity of welding hazards. Most of them involve the collection of air samples so they can be tested for the presence of toxic substances. Typically, airborne contaminants are measured by a device which draws a known volume of air from the work environment. The air is passed through a collection device which removes contaminants so they can be tested for the presence of specific substances. The detection of the contaminant may take place in the sampling instrument, or at a laboratory. Levels of airborne contaminants that workers can be exposed to without suffering health effects have been established by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH). These guidelines for allowable exposures are called Threshold Limit Values (TLVs) and are calculated as 3 milligrams per cubic metre of air (mg/m ). In most cases, exposure is measured over a full 8 hour work shift, and is referred to as a time weighted average. The 8 hour daily exposures can also be averaged over a 40 hour week. In addition, the ACGIH has published maximum short term exposure levels that apply to any 15-minute period, and ceiling levels which must never been exceeded. Threshold Limit Values are considered the maximum levels that average worker can be exposed to without adverse health effects. They should not be interpreted as goals when designing a work activity. The reduction of all contaminants to the lowest possible level should always be the ultimate goal.

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TIME WEIGHTED THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES OF COMMON GASSES AND FUMES ASSOCIATED WITH WELDING Substance mg/m3 Welding fume not otherwise classified 5 Welding fume (aluminum) 5 Barium, soluble compounds, as Ba 0.5 Beryllium and compounds 0.002 Cadmium oxide, fume as Cd 0.02 Calcium oxide 2 Carbon dioxide 9000 Carbon monoxide 25 Chromium metal, Cr(II), Cr(III), Compounds 0.5 as Cr Chromium (V1) Compounds, Chromates, as Cr 0.05 Copper fume Fluoride, as F 0.2 Iron Oxide fume, as Fe 2.5 Magnesium oxide fume 5 Manganese, dust and compounds as Mn 10 Manganese, fume 5 Nickel, soluble compounds, as Ni 1 Nitrogen dioxide 0.1 Ozone (Ceiling) 6 Phosgene (Carbonyl chloride) 0.2 Phosphine (hydrogen phosphite) 0.4 Silica, fused, respirable dust 0.42 Titanium dioxide 0.1 Zinc oxide, fume 10 5

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Fume Measurement
Fumes are sometimes assessed using the fume generation rate. This measurement can be made using a special fume cabinet that collects all fumes emitted by the process. The fume produced is usually measured in grams per minute. The fume generation rate is not directly related to worker exposure, since that will depend on the nature of fume dispersion. Therefore, it is preferable to use samples of air from the workers breathing zone, which can then be compared to the TLVs. Fume concentrations will vary greatly over the work cycle. Typically, a 15-minute sample is taken to assess whether a problem is likely to exist. If excessive levels are suspected, a full-shift sample is collected and a time-weighted average exposure is calculated. Fume sampling devices pass an air sample of known volume through a filter designed to trap particles of a particular size. The filter is then analyzed in a laboratory. The trapped particles are weighed and the concentration is calculated as milligrams per cubic metre. The most common filter material is cellulose ester, but chromium reacts with this substance and must be collected on polyvinyl chloride filter medium. Samples taken from the general workplace air establish the amount of fume accumulation in the area. Personal exposures are determined by a battery-operated sampling device worn by the welder. Air is drawn in through a collection tube placed in the worker's breathing zone. Since the welders protective faceshield affects his or her exposure, it has become common practice to mount collection device inside the helmet.

Gas Measurement
Gas levels are commonly conduced in the workplace using colourimetric tubes attached to hand-operated air collection devices. A known volume of gas is drawn through a glass tube containing a chemical reagent that changes colour when exposed to a particular contaminant. The concentration of the substance in the air is read from a scale in the tube. Readings are generally in parts per million, but colourimetric tubes are not considered very accurate compared with other measuring techniques. Another assessment method for gases is known as sorbing tube sampling. In this case a pump draws a known volume of air through a tube containing a solid that absorbs the gas. The medium may be charcoal, flourish, or silica-gel, depending on the gas to be sampled. The tube is sent to a laboratory for analysis. This technique can be used for both area and personal sampling. Passive dosimeter has the advantage that it does not require pumps. They are small and light so they can be easily carried by a worker. Some use tubes containing charcoal that require laboratory analysis. Others employ tubes with colour indicators that can be interpreted with a special reader. They are used for both personal and area sampling. 21

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Direct-reading instruments with electronic components can be used for sampling a limited number of contaminants. They are effective in locating sources of contamination and are used to monitor work areas. They typically include a built-in alarm system.

LEGISLATION SPECIFIC TO WELDING HAZARDS

Several regulations under the Act relate specifically to welding hazards. Certified members in workplaces where welding is carried out should become familiar with any of them that are relevant to their situation.

L. [Ed note - this section will have to be re-written. It should briefly explain what the various regulations say specifically about welding. It should not repeat the regulations verbatim, but should explain in plain English when the certified member might need them. Regulations not directly specific to welding do not need to be mentioned. The reader understands that the entire Act and its regulations are indirectly related.] i. ii. iii. iv. v. Industrial establishments - Regulation 851 Designated substances Biological or chemical agents - Regulation 833 Workplace Hazardous Materials Information System (WHMIS) Regulation 860 Mines and Mining Plants (Specific to Welding) March 1993 - Regulation 854

Mining Regulations (Specific to Welding)

Section 30-(5) to (6) Section 36-(1) to (6) Section 194-(1) to (16) Construction Regulations (Specific to Welding) 22

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Section 122-(1) to (3) Section 123-(1) Section 124-(1)

Industrial Regulation
The Industrial Regulation does not have rules that are specific to welding, however several sectors do apply indirectly. They include: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) Confined Space Lockout Protective Equipment Ventilation/Air Supplied Section 71 to 75 Section 79, 80, 82 Section 83 to 90 Section 143

Breathing Equipment
(v) (vi) (vii) Molten Metal Industrial Hygiene Noise Section 97 Section 128 to 135 Section 144

There are other pieces of legislation affecting welding and cutting operation. They include: (i) (ii) (iii) The Ontario Fire Marhalls Act. The Ontario Fire Code. The Ontario Building Code.

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CONTROL
Welding hazards, like all health and safety hazards, can be controlled at three points: at the source of the hazard, along the path between the hazard and the worker, and at the worker. In general, the closer a control is to the source, the more effective it will be.

CONTROL AT THE SOURCE

Welding hazards are most effectively controlled at their source. Substances that contain contaminants such as coatings, cleaners and rust inhibitors can often be eliminated altogether. Alternatively, less hazardous materials can be substituted. For example, metals that produce hazardous fumes and gases can sometimes be replaced by less hazardous materials in the parts to be welded or in rods and fluxes. Another approach is to cut down emissions of fumes and gases by using a welding process that works at lower temperatures. For example, welding currents can sometimes be reduced. Finally, hazardous processes can be isolated and enclosed to reduce worker exposure physical agents as well as fumes and gases.

CONTROL ALONG THE PATH

If welding hazards cannot be eliminated, substituted or isolated, the next most effective point of control is along the path to the worker. Airborne contaminants and electrical hazards can both be controlled along the path. Barriers that protect non-welders from exposure to welding flash are also considered control along the path.

Air Quality
The usually way to control airborne hazards along the path is by ventilation. There are two types: general ventilation and local ventilation. The first type dilutes the general workplace air to reduce contaminant levels. Local ventilation exhausts contaminated before it has a chance to dissipate throughout the workplace environment.

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General Ventilation General ventilation is acceptable for welding operations if steps are taken to keep fumes and gases away from the workers breathing zone and to keep flammable gases at safe levels. The concentrations of contaminants must also fall below acceptable exposure limits and this must be demonstrated with personal breathing zone samples. In addition, combustible gases and vapours must be held at no more than 20 percent of their lower explosive (flammable) limits. The workplace must also be free of any areas of oxygen deficiency or enrichment. Natural dilution ventilation should not be used as the only control for welding in confined spaces, or in workplaces with barriers to natural air movement. It is also inappropriate for welding of several types of the steel alloys and non-ferrous metals.

Local Ventilation Local ventilation systems capture contaminants at or near their source, using hoods, ducts or vents. The contaminated air is then removed from the workplace. Local ventilation is preferred over dilution ventilation because it prevents airborne contaminants from entering the welders breathing zone, or mixing with general workplace air where it could harm other workers. Three types of local exhaust systems are suitable for welding operations: 1. fixed hoods over a welding bench; 2. portable hoods equipped with flexible ducting; and 3. fume extraction guns or devices with flexible ducting. To be effective, local exhaust ventilation must have a collection hood located above and to the side and as close as possible to the source. The velocity of the air should be at least 0.5 metres per second or 100 feet per minute.

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Air Cleaners Exhaust air from workplace ventilation systems is typically exhausted outside the workplace. In some cases it is acceptable to clean and recirculate a portion of air that would otherwise be exhausted. This has the advantage that contaminants are not vented into the outside environment. Recirculation is acceptable only under strictly controlled conditions. First, the air must first be passed through a high efficiency filter system. This must be done in compliance with regulations, and regular monitoring is needed to make sure that harmful gases remain below allowable limits. The system must be designed to stop recirculation of contaminated air if the filer fails. Recirculated air is not acceptable for some materials used in welding.

Radiation Whenever possible, arc-welding operations should be isolated so that other workers will not be exposed to either direct or reflected radiation. Arc-welding stations for regular production work can be enclosed in booths with non-reflecting surfaces. Portable screens or curtains should also be provided. Such enclosures should be designed to allow adequate air circulation.

Electrical Systems
The electrical hazards of welding can be controlled by a variety of measures that prevent worker contact with energized components. Electrical cables must be protected from damage. Cables on the floor should be covered or arranged so they will not come into contact with falling sparks. Alternatively, cables can be suspended overhead. They should never be coiled around the body.

Cables should be kept free of moisture, oil and grease to prevent deterioration. Worn 26

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or defective cables should be replaced immediately. Welding units must be properly grounded. The plugs and receptacles for portable units should be designed to prevent disconnection while the circuit is turned on. Special connectors approved for disconnection under powered-up conditions are also available.

Compressed Gas
Compressed gas cylinders pose a number of hazards which are discussed in detail in a separate module. In general, controls for this hazard involve proper labelling of gas cylinders, as well as protecting them from damage or deterioration during handling and use. Gas cylinders must be clearly identified when they enter the workplace and the labels or marks must not be tampered with. Never use unmarked cylinders. Cylinders weighing more than 40 pounds should be moved by a hand truck or by mechanized equipment. If cylinders must be moved by hand, they can be rolled on their bottom edges, but should not be dragged. Cylinders must be stored in clearly identified storage areas, where their fittings cannot be contaminated by oil or grease. They must be stored in an upright position, and secured from falling over. They should also be protected from ice, snow or direct sunlight. Different types of gases should be separated. In particular, Oxygen cylinders must be no less than 6 metres away from flammable gases, or they must be separated by an approved barrier.

CONTROL AT THE WORKER

Control at the worker is usually considered the least effective form of control because they do nothing to eliminate the hazard. But in many situations it is the only type that is practical. Control at the worker includes a variety of personal protective devices as well as administrative controls such as medical monitoring. In addition, a variety of safe work practices and procedures are also considered control at the worker. The use of personal protective equipment (PPE) is treated in greater detail in a separate module.

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Respiratory Protection
If gases, fumes and dusts cannot be reduced to acceptable levels by other types of control, welders should wear respiratory protection. It is recommended that such equipment should comply with CSA Standard Z94.9. Where oxygen is deficient, welders should use self-contained breathing apparatus. Special precautions are needed for workers performing inert-gas welding.

Eye Protection
Goggles, helmets, and shields are an essential part of a welders equipment. They should also be worn both by any other workers exposed to welding radiation. These devices must give specific protection for the type of welding or cutting involved. The workers eyes must be protected from exposure to ultraviolet, infrared and visible radiation. Protective eye equipment is classified according to shade rating. The shade number required depends on the type of welding as well as electrode size, arc current and plate thickness. CSA standard W117.s-94 lists the minimum protective shade number required and the suggested shade number for comfort. Arc welders must also wear standard safety glasses with side shields to protect their eyes from flying objects entering through the rear of the helmet.

Protective Clothing
Welders require a variety of protective clothing, made for leather or other flame resistant material. They must protect the worker from radiated heat, sparks and splatters. The main categories include the following:

gauntlet gloves; aprons; for heavy work, fire-resistant leggings and high boots; high top safety boots; safety hats or other head protection; and for overhead work, capes or shoulder covers, skull caps 28

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worn under safety hats and possibly ear protectors. People working with inert-gas-shielded arc-welding machines should cover all parts of the body that could be exposed to ultraviolet and infrared radiation, to protect against burns. Dark clothing, particularly a dark shirt, is preferable because it reduces reflection on the operator's face. Wool clothing is preferable to cotton because it is more resistant to deterioration, it protects the worker from temperature changes and is not readily ignited. Cotton clothing, if used, should be chemically treated to reduce flammability. In either case, clothing should be thick enough to keep radiation from penetrating it. Aprons and overalls should not incorporate front pockets that can trap sparks. For the same reason, trousers or overalls should not have turned-up cuffs. Thermal-insulated underwear is designed only to be worn under other clothing and should not be exposed to open flames, sparks, or other sources of ignition.

Medical Monitoring
In some workplaces, medical examinations, including a chest X-ray and lung examination, are performed when individuals are first employed as welders and thereafter at regular intervals. This is sometimes controversial because of the intrusion on personal rights and the difficulty of protecting confidentiality of medical information. Medical monitoring is required under the designated substance regulations, but in that case, individual examinations are voluntary and the use of medical information is strictly regulated. If the health and safety committee recommends medical monitoring, it will usually include provisions for the preservation of confidentiality of medical information, and the rights of individuals.

Safe Work Practices

Welding often involves adopting awkward positions. In addition, welders typically have to move heavy tools and materials as part of their work. Both of these factors can result in direct injury or lead to fatigue that can contribute to accidents. Permanent welding workstations can be designed to minimize these hazards. But welding is often performed in temporary situations, where the use of safe work practices by the welder 29

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are often the only effective control.

Posture Wherever feasible, welding should be done at a comfortable height, so that it is not necessary to maintain awkward postures. Ideally, the arms should be supported by a chair or a bench. Arm motions should be limited to the normal work area, with materials and tools within easy reach. If it is necessary to stand for long periods, a foot rest should be available.

Manual Material Handling Safe material handling procedures for welders are very similar to the general principles that are discussed in detail in a separate module. Safe work procedures include protecting the hands and feet from sharp edges or falling loads, and using safe lifting techniques. Heavy or awkward loads should be moved either by mechanized equipment or by a group of workers. Welders using gas cylinders should understand the proper way to move them. Manual handling of cylinders should be avoided where possible. If they must be moved by hand, the Industrial Accident Prevention Association recommends the following procedure: 1. Place forward foot around the cylinder. 2. Lower cylinder across the thigh by pressing down with the rear hand while holding the cylinder underneath and slightly beyond the centre point. 3. Raise the end to the desired height. 4. Push the cylinder forward with the rear hand.

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WORKPLACE STRATEGIES
Under the OHSA, employers are required to maintain a written health and safety policy and program. The joint health and safety committee is the main forum for discussion of health and safety issues by all workplace parties. Ideally, it will play a key role in the development and operation of the employers program. At a minimum, members of the committee have the right to conduct regular inspections of the workplace and to make recommendations to the employer. Worker members also have the right to be present at the beginning of workplace testing and to be involved in training programs. If welding is a significant part of the work process, the employer and the committee will probably consider a special welding and cutting control program, to form part of the overall health and safety program. In some workplaces, a sub-committee or working group of the JHSC may be designated to develop a welding program. This will normally involve the systematic inspection of the workplace, the identification of all welding and cutting hazards, and the specification of detailed work procedures. The committee may also recommend changes in processes or materials, or the use of engineering controls. Whether or not there is a separate welding and cutting control program, the procedures for assessing and controlling welding hazards should be reviewed regularly, perhaps annually. The review will include input and recommendations from the joint health and safety committee. It might include the following main components. _. Are-evaluation of all hazards associated with welding, including both chemical agents and physical hazards. _. An assessment of the adequacy of all controls, with reference to relevant legislation, accepted guidelines and an overriding goal of continuous improvement. _. An examination of personal protective equipment to make sure that it continues to meet all requirements for effective hazard protection, comfort and safe communication. _. An inspection of all welding and cutting areas to consider if monitoring is required. _. A look at new and improved control systems which have become available since the previous review. _. A review of worker education and training to ensure that all workers understand established safe work procedures and that welding workers have received specialized training. The CSA standard W117.2-94 "Safety in Welding, Cutting and Allied Processes" sets out a complete health and safety program for welding in much greater detail. It is an excellent reference for joint health and safety committees in any workplace where welding is performed. 31

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REVIEW
More than 100 different types of welding and cutting operations have been recognized. All of them involve health and safety hazards, which vary according to the type and setting of the welding process. Safety hazards include the potential for fire or explosion and injuries from radiation, electrical shock, or materials handling. Health hazards include exposure to fumes released from the metal parts being joined or from other materials used in the process. Controlling these hazards requires that they first be recognized and assessed. To carry out these functions effectively, joint health and safety committee members need a basic understanding of welding processes and the nature of the welding environment. Regular inspections of the workplace are the principal means of recognizing welding hazards. Assessment is often assisted by a variety of air monitoring tools, than can measure concentrations of gases, fumes or dusts in the workplace air. Control of welding hazards can sometimes be accomplished at the source though the elimination, substitution or isolation of hazardous materials. More commonly, it involves ventilation systems, radiation barriers, electrical protection devices and other systems that control hazards along the patch from the source to the worker. In many cases, especially for the welders themselves, the only effective means of control is personal protective equipment or individual safe work practices. As a result, training and evaluation of the training effectiveness are essential components of a welding and cutting control program. Ideally the joint health and safety committee will play a key role in developing and operating such a program.

REFERENCES
Author or publisher?] Accident Prevention Manual for Business and Industry, Engineering and Technology 10th edition. Canadian Standards Association, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes. (CAN/CSA - W117.2 94). Industrial Accident Prevention Association, Safety and Health in Welding. Welding Institute of Canada, Welding Health and Safety.

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