GRAPHS: 1.the value which is varying is always on the y-axis while the constant value is on the xaxis. 2.

no unbroken lines 3.it must be neat and thin 4.the points can be joined using a ruler or by hand 5.do not draw beyond the plotted points. 6.blobs or centre points more than 1mm are NOT acceptable 7.if zero is present in the reading, your graph MUST pass through zero. 8.label both axis 9.use appropriate units 10.use appropriate scale 11.use sharpened pencil to plot 12.plot the dots within circles, of equal sizes, must be clear and not too big. SOURCES OF ERRORS: 1.temperature not controlled 2.pH not controlled or not measured accurately 3.difficulty in judging the colour. 4.difficulty in having the same time 5.inaccuracy in preparing serial dilution 6.inaccuracy of equipment, for e.g. pipette/syringe 7.too short time. 8.evaporation of the solution which can cause the concentration to change. LIMITATIONS OF ERRORS 1.measure the volume accurately using syringe with narrow range of calibration 2.repeat more times at each pH/conc./temp 3.use range of pH/conc./temp 4.accurate specific measuring devices 5.use colorimeter to measure the degree of colour change. 6.use buffer to control pHs 7.use of water bath/thermostat to control temp 8.use thermometer to measure the temp. 9.thermostatically controlled environment. 10.repeat with each conc. 11.volume of the sample(e.g. enzyme/substrate. must be the same.. because as volume increases, conc also increases 12.keep only one factor different, and all others must be the same.

RELIABILITY 1.take minimum of 3 readings 2.repeat with more pH/conc/temp and find out their mean

ACCURACY 1.seeing electronic thermostat 2. use of pipettes instead of measuring cylinders KEY 1.read the whole question till the end 2.decide number of readings to take 3.don't go for more or less than 3 readings per conc/vol of any ques. 4.make a table 5.write down the UNITS in each column of the table...e.g. conc/cm^3 , temp/C MICROSCOPY (IMPORTANT) 1.proportion of thickness must be correct. 2.draw the organelles where u see them, dont just draw anywhere within the cell never draw what u know. 3.whenever u see the plant cells, draw the cell walls. 4.IN PLAN DIAGRAMS, NO DRAWING OF ANY CELLS, AND NO SHADING...if u'll do either of them, You'll lose the whole mark 5.when asked to draw 2 cells, draw the ones that are easiest to draw. And dont draw more than 2 cells 6.fraw the adjacent (touching. cells. 7.drawing should be large, unshaded. 8.in plan diagrams show the relative thickness of each layer. 9.draw the exact shape, if its oval or round or has wavy outlines 10.label the diagram...simplest thing to label is cytoplasm, nucleus and cell membrane. 11.if its a trachea cell, then label goblet cells, cilia, blood vessels, muscular tissue, cartilage cells (lacunae. 12. when asked to compare 2 diagrams....make a table (drawing a table itself has 1 mark .....put at least one similarity

MAGNIFICATION

1.Measure the length of the object youre asked to measure in the question. 2.Your measurement will probably be in centimeters, you have to convert it to the same unit as the actual length provided in the question (usually micrometers, m). 3.To convert from cm to m , take the observed value in cm, multiply it by 10000. 4.Now you have an observed value in m, substitute it in the formula, and then substitute the actual in the formula to get the magnification.

MAKING TABLES Independent Variable in the first column....and observations or dependent variables in other columns.....in question 1 of exam..two kinds of questions can be set....one involving quantitative observations like most enzyme experiments and other involving qualitative observations like food-tests...as far as observations for qualitative data are concerned...these will include most probably color changes during course of investigation...so a likely error for these experiments can be difficulty in judging b/w different colors with your improvement being the use of colorimeter to measure color intensity.....

ERRORS IN MESUREMENTS 1.irregular in shape 2.difficulty in focusing 3.preperation is squashed