CHAPTER 1: Understanding the Science of Psychology Psychology is the scientific study of behavior (overt action and reaction) and

d mental processes (covert activity). Four goals of Psychology: 1. Description: what is happening? (observation) 2. Explanation: why is it happening? (use of theories, or the general explanation of sets of data or observations, coming from interviews, testing, and counseling) 3. Prediction: when will it happen next? 4. Control: what can be done to keep it from happening? (to focus is to modify a certain behavior to make it desirable from undesirable) History of Psychology Philosophers questioned the relationship between the human body and mind. Medical doctors studied the physical connection between the body and mind. Aristotle: defined the relationship of body and soul. Plato: introduced the idea of dualism (the body or the soul can exist without the other) Rene Descartes: theorized that the soul is located in the pineal gland in the brain. Wilhelm Wundt - Father of Psychology - Physiologist - Studied the human mind using science - First one to attempt to use objectivity and measurement to the concept of psychology. - The mind is made up of emotions, experiences, and thoughts. - Objective Introspection: objectively measuring and examining ones own thoughts and ideas. - First experimental laboratory in psychology. Structuralism - Theorized by Edward Titchner, student of Wundt, studied in Cornell. - Focuses on the physical structures of the mind. - Every experience can be broken down into different parts by emotion and sensation. - Consciousness, the state of being aware of external activity, can be broken down into elements. Functionalism - Theorized by William James, who gave the importance of consciousness in everyday life, studied in Harvard (first uni to teach psychology) - How the mind allows people to function in the real world. - Behavioral traits allow people to survive (like Natural Selection) - Can be seen today in educational psychology and industrial organization psychology. Gestalt Psychology - Gestalt: an organized whole. - Theorized by Max Wertheimer. - Psychological events cant be broken into elements and then understood properly. - The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. - Focuses on perception and sensation, particularly the perception of patterns. - Can be seen today in cognitive psychology. Psychoanalysis - Sigmund Freud - Highlights the importance of childhood experiences for whole life.

- Divides the human psyche into three: conscious, preconscious (superego and ego), and unconscious, which represses threatening urges and desires. - Psychotherapy: helps the patient gain insights and therefore change certain behaviors. Behaviorism - Science of behavior that focuses of observable behavior. - Ivan Pavlovs conditioning (dog and salivation with bell and bone) - John Watsons stimulus-response experiment (Little Albert) - Everything can be learned! Modern Psychology Psychodynamic: founded by Sigmund Freud. Focus on the unconscious mind and how it affects the conscious mind. Less emphasis on sexual studies. Importance of childhood memories. Emphasis on development as a person based on their behavior. Behavioral: founded by B.F. Skinner. Emphasizes behavior that will result in pleasurable consequences. Operant conditioning is when voluntary behavior is learned. Humanistic: founded by Abrahan Maslow and Carl Rogers. The third force in psychology. Focus on people directing their own lives, human nature. People have free will and can self-actualize, according to Maslow. Cognitive: founded by Piaget and Chomsky. Focus on how people think and remember and store information. Memory, intelligence, language learning, etc. Cognitive neuroscience is the study of the brain and nervous system. Sociocultural: focus on the relationship between social behavior and culture. Effect of people on one another (ie. Diffusion of responsibility). Biophysical: Behavior based on events happening inside the body. Biopsychology is the study of biological bases or behavioral and metal processes. Evolutionary: focuses on mental characteristics that are universal. Influenced by Darwins Natural Selection. (ie. Bitter taste, gender, infidelity) Psychological Professions Psychiatrist: has a medical degree, can diagnose, treat, and prescribe meds. Psychologist: no medical training, but has doctorate degree. Can work anywhere (schools, companies etc.) Psychoanalyst: psychiatrist or psychologist with special training in theories of Freud. Psychiatric Social Worker: trained in the area of social work. Focus on environmental conditions impact on mental disorder. Psychology and the Scientific Method System of gathering data so bias and error can be avoided. 1. Perceiving the question (whats happening here?) 2. Forming a hypothesis (tentative explanation of phenomenon) 3. Testing the hypothesis (issue of confirmation bias, or we only see what we believe) 4. Drawing conclusions 5. Reporting results Descriptive Methods Naturalistic Observation - Watch subjects behave in normal environment.

- Gives realistic picture. - Observer bias. Laboratory Observation - Watch subjects behave in a controlled environment. - Control variables. - Observer effect. Case Study - Study of individual in great detail. - Good amount of detail. - Not generalizable. Vulnerable to bias. Surveys - To ask a series of question to respondents. - Ability to get private info. Data collection from large groups. - Must study a representative sample. Accuracy of answers is sacrificed. Courtesy bias. Instrument issues. Correlation: measure of the relationship between two or more variables (anything that can change or vary). Measured by correlation coefficient, which represents the direction and strength of the relationship. Direction is positive or negative. Strong is -/+ 1.00, weak is closer to 0. Experiment: only research method that can determine the cause of behavior. Requires manipulation and controlling of variables. Experimentation Variables: independent (manipulated, independent of what participants do) and dependent (measured response of the participants depend on IV). Operational Definition: definition of a variable which allows it to be directly measured. Groups: experimental (group subjected to IV) and control (not subjected to IV, may receive placebo treatment) Randomization: assigning subjects to either the control or experimental groups randomly to give equal chances to everyone is called random assignment. Important to control extraneous variables. Experimental Hazards and Controlling Placebo Effect - The phenomenon in which the expectation of the participant can influence their results. - Single-blind Study participants are blind to the treatment they receive. Experimenter Effect - The phenomenon in which the expectation of the experimenter can unintentionally influence the results. - Behavior of the experimenter can change the response pattern of the participant. - Double-blind Study neither the experimenter nor the subjects know if they are in the control or experimental group. Quasi-experimental Study - Not a real experiment because of the inability to randomly assign participants to groups. Ethics of Psychology 1. Right and well-being of participants > science 2. Participants must have consent about participation. 3. Deception must be justified (debriefing of participants) 4. Participants may withdraw from experiment at any time. 5. Participants must be protected from/informed of the risks.

6. Participants must be debriefed, told the true nature of the study and the expectations of the results. 7. Data must be confidential. Critical Thinking Making reasonable judgments about claims: 1. Some things dont need to be tested (things with evidence) 2. All evidence is not equal in quality. 3. Authority/expertise of someone does not make their testimony true. 4. Have an open mind!