GATE - 13 - Mech - Fluid Mechanics - V.venkateswarlu

1
VIGNAN UNIVERSITY :: VADLAMUDI

GATE Material

Department :
School of Mechanical Engineering
Subject :

Topic : Fluid Mechanics
Faculty :
V. Venkateswarlu

PART 1

SYNOPSIS

Fluid Mechanics Synopsis:

1. Properties of Fluids

Continuum: In engineering problems dealing with fluids, one generally deals with
dimensions that are very large compared to molecular sizes. The space between the
molecules is not considered and the fluid properties are considered to vary continuously in
space. The density of fluid is thus a point function. This method of considering fluid as a
continuous mass is stated as continuum principle. Except in dealing with rarified gases, all
normal fluid mechanics analysis deals with fluid as a continuum.

Units

In fluid mechanics four fundamental dimensions namely mass, length, time and
temperature are involved. These days the SI units are adopted in describing the various
parameters of fluid flow. In this system the fundamental units are

Mass [M] kilogram kg
Length [L] metre m
Time [T] second s
Temperature [ c ] Kelvin `K
(For thermodynamic or
Calculations) Celsius C

Based upon these fundamental units, a number of derived units are developed. The most
commonly used derived units is the unit of force which is Newton (N). A Newton of force
corresponds to an acceleration of 1 ms
2
of a mass of 1 kg. The commonly used derived
terms and their units are listed in Table 1.1.

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING FLUID MECHANICS
2 VIGNAN UNIVERSITY

Table 1.1 commonly used Derived Terms in Fluid Mechanics

Derived term Dimension SI unit Abbreviation
Area (L
2
) m
2

Volume (L
3
) m
3

Velocity (LT
-1
) m/s
Acceleration (LT
-2
) m/s
2

Force (MLT
-2
) N
Pressure or stress (ML
-1
T
-2
) N/m
2
Pascal; Pa = N/m
2

Energy or work (ML
2
T
-2
) N.m Joule ; J=N.M.
Power (ML
2
T
-3
) J/s Watt ; W=J/s
Density (ML
-3
) Kg/m
3

Viscosity (ML
-1
T
-1
) Kg/m.s (N.s/m
2
) Pa.s
Surface tension (MT
-2
) N/m

DENSITY, SPECIFIC VOLUME AND SPECIFIC WEIGHT

Density
The density () of a fluid is its mass per unit volume. The units are kg/rn3. In general, the
density of a fluid depends upon the temperature and pressure. For incompressible fluids
(liquids), the variation of density with pressure is however small.

Specific Volume
The reciprocal of mass density is known as specific volume; it represents volume per
unit mass of the fluid and has units of m
3
/kg.

Specific Weight
The specific weight of a fluid is its weight per unit volume, thus,
= g in units of N/m
2

The standard value of acceleration due to gravity g is 9.086 m
2
/s and is usually
taken as 9.81 m
2
/s. At 20C temperature and one atmospheric pressure (760 mm of
mercury) the density of water is 998 kg/rn3. Thus, the specific weight of water at 20C
temperature and 1 atmospheric pressure (known as NTP = normal temperature and
pressure) is

= g =998 x 9.81 = 9790N/m
3

= 9.79 kN/m
3

Relative Density (or Specific Gravity)
Relative Density (RD) of a fluid is the ratio of its density to that of standard reference
fluid, water (for liquids) and air (for gasses). In engineering practice, the term specific
gravity (SG or S) is used synonymously with the term relative density. Thus

RD
liquid
= (SG
liquid
) =
) / ( 998
) / (
3
3
m kg
m kg liquid of Deisnty

RD
gas
= (SG
gas
)=
) / ( 205 . 1
) / (
3
3
m kg
m kg gas of Deisnty

For example if the relative density of a liquid is 0.85, it means that its density is 0.850 x
998 = 848.3kg/m
3
. Commonly used values of approximate specific gravities in fluid flow
calculations are 1.0 for water and 13.6 for mercury. When no other information is
3 VIGNAN UNIVERSITY

available, the following values corresponding to NTP (20C temperature and one
atmospheric pressure) are used:

Item Water Air
Density
Specific gravity (=Relative density)
Specific weight
998 mg/m
3

1.00
9790 N/m
3
(=9.79kN/m
3
)
1.205 kg/m
3

1.0
11.82 N/m
3

Unless otherwise stated, the above values are used for p and y(for water and air) in this
book. [Note: In approximate/quick calculations, for water [ = 1000 kg/m
3
and, = 9.8 or
10.0 kN/m
3
are used].

VISCOSITY
Shear Stress:-While the pressure, a normal stress, is encountered in both fluid static
and dynamic conditions the shear stress (r) is encountered only in real fluids and also
only when they are in motion. The unit of shear stress is N/m
2
and is designated in Pa or
kPa depending on the magnitude.
Viscosity:-Dynamic Viscosity is the resisting property of a fluid to shearing force. The
shear stress is related to the deformation rate in most of the commonly occurring fluids
by the Newtons law of viscosity, as

dy
du
t =
Where
dy
du
= velocity gradient in the Y direction and = coefficient of viscosity, which is
a fluid property. The fluids which obey Newtons law of viscosity are known as
Newtonian fluids. Most of the common liquids like water, kerosene, petrol, ethanol,
benzene, Glycerin and mercury are Newtonian, Further, all gases are Newtonian.

The coefficient of viscosity, , is also known variously as the coefficient of dynamic
viscosity, absolute viscosity or simply as viscosity. It has the units
s Pa m s N
m
s m
m N
dy
du
. / .
/
/
2
2
= =
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
t

Sometimes, the coefficient of dynamic viscosity p is designated by a unitpoise
(abbreviated as P) or as centipoises (abbreviated as CP) where

1 poise
2
sec .
1
sec .
1
cm
ond dyne
ond cm
gm
= =

s Pa
m
s N
.
1000
1 .
) 10 (
10
2 2 2
5
= =

1 centipoise s Pa poise .
1000
1
100
1
= =

The coefficient of viscosity depends upon the temperature. Generally, for liquids the
value of decreases with an increase in temperature, and for gases, the value of p
increases with an increase in the temperature.
4 VIGNAN UNIVERSITY

Kinematic Viscosity: The ratio of dynamic viscosity to the density of the fluid is known
as kinematic viscosity. This term is designated by the Greek letter v(nu) and has the
dimensions
|
|
.
|
\
|
T
L
2
as shown below:
s m
m mg
s m kg
m kg
m s N
v /
.
.
/
/ .
2
3
1 1
3
2
= = = =

Sometimes, the kinematic viscosity vis designated by a unit stoke or as centistoke where
1 stoke = s m
s
m
ond
cm
/ 10 ) 10 ( 1
sec
1
2 4
2
2 2
2

= =
1 centistoke = s m stoke / 10
100
1
2 6
=
Table given below gives the dynamic and kinematic viscosities of some commonly used
fluids at 20C and 1 atm pressure.
Fluids Density

Dynamic
Viscosity

(Ns/m
2
)
Kinematic
viscosity
v
(m
2
/s)
Surface
tension
o
(N/m)
Bulk
modulus
K
(N/m
2
)
a) Liquids
Water
Sea water
Petrol
Kerosene
Glycerine
Mercury
SAE 10 oil
SAE 30 oil
Castor oil

998
1025
680
804
1260
13550
917
917
960

1.00 x 10
-3

1.07 x 10
-3
2.92 x 10
-4

1.92 x 10
-3

1.49
1.56 x 10
-3

1.04 x 10
-1
2.90 x l0
-1
9.80 x 10
-1

1.00x10
6
1.04 x 10
6
4.29 x 10
7

2.39 x 10
4
1.18 x 10
3
1.15 x 10
-7
1.13 x 10
-4
3.16 x 10
-4
1.02 x 10
-3

7.28x10
-2
7.2 x l0
-2
2.16x10
-2

2.80 x 10
-2

6.33 x 10
2

4.84x 10
-1
3.60x10
-2

3.50x10
-2

3.92x10
-2

2.19 x 10
9

2.28 x 10
9

9.58 x 10
8

1.43 x I0
9
4.34 x 10
9
2.55 x 10
10
1.31 x 10
9

1.38 x 10
9
1.44 x 10
9

(kg/m
3
) (Ns/m
2
)
V(m
2
/s
Specific
heat ratio,
k=c
p
/c
v

b) Gases
Air
Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Methane
Oxygen
Water Vapour

1.205
1.840
0.084
1.160
0.668
1.330
0.747

1.80 x10
-5

1.48 x 10
-5

0.90 x 10
-5

l.76 x 10
5

1.34 x 10
5

200 x 10
5

101 x 10
5

1.494 x 10
-5

0.804 x 10
-5
10.714 x 10
-5

1.5I7 x 10
-5

2.000 x 10
-5

1504 x 10
-5

1352 x 10
-5

1.40
1.28
1.40
1.40
1.30
140
133

Non-Newtonian Fluids

While most of the common fluids like water, air, petrol, ethanol and benzene follow
Newtons law of viscosity there exists a large number of fluids which do not follow
thislinear relationship between the shear stress and the rate of deformation,
dy
du
.
Such fluids which donot obey Newtons law of viscosity are known as Non-
5 VIGNAN UNIVERSITY

Newtonian fluids. Typical examples of non- Newtonian fluids are blood, suspension
of corn starch in water, paint, slurries, pastes and polymer solutions.
In the non-Newtonian fluids, such as the ones mentioned above, the
relationshipbetween rate of deformation,
dy
du
, and the shear stress t can in
general be expressed as a power law relation like
n
dy
du
m
|
|
.
|
\
|
= t
In this, m is known as consistency index and the power n is the flow index.

When n < 1, the fluid is known as non-Newtonian pseudo plastic fluid. Gelatine,
milk and blood are typical examples of pseudo plastic fluids.
When n > 1, the fluid is known as non- Newtonian dilatant fluid. Starch suspension,
sugar solution and high-concentration sand suspension are typical examples of
dilatant fluids.
It may be noted that in above Eq, the case of n = 1 represents a Newtonian fluid,
with m = .
The relationship between t and
dy
du
is known as rheological behavior and Fig. 1.1
is a schematic representation of rheological classification of fluids.

Fig. 1.1 Rheological Classification of Fluids

In Fig. 1.1, the x-axis also represents a Newtonian fluid with = 0, that is a fluid
with zero viscosity. Such fluid called an ideal fluid or inviscid fluid. When
dy
du
zero
for all , the situation is represents an elastic solid. Some non-Newtonian fluids
can be modeled as
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
dy
du
p y
t t
Such fluids which require a yield stress z,, for the flow to be established, are
known as Bingham plastic.
While the above non-Newtonian fluids are time independent, there exist some
non-Newtonian fluids which are time dependent, that is the shear stress and
corresponding deformation rate are functions of time.

6 VIGNAN UNIVERSITY

SURFACE TENSION

The horizontal components of cohesive force of the molecules keep a fluid
particle on the surface under tension and this tensile force acting normal to a unit
length on the surface is called surface tension (sigma).

Referring to above figure, the molecule p with diameter 2aexperiences equal
attraction from surrounding molecules at all direction. But the molecule q on the
surface experiences a resultant inward pull due to unbalanced cohesive force of
the molecules.
The dimensional formula for surface tension is MT
2
, as is considered as force
per unit length. o . The most common interfaces and values of o , for clean
surface at 20C, are
o = 0.073 N/m for air-water interface and
o = 0.480 N/m for air-mercury interface.
Note that the surface tension has the dimension of force/unit length (N/m).
When a liquid interface interacts with a solid surface, a contact angle u is
formed. For water-clean glass surface u = 0
o
and for mercury-clean glass u =
130.
Due to surface tension, pressure changes occur across a curved interface. The pressure
difference between inside and outside of a curved surface lip is related to the radius of
curvature R and surface tension o as
(i) For the interior of a liquid cylinder
R
p
o
= A
(ii) For a spherical droplet
R
p
o 2
= A
(iii) A soap bubble has two surfaces and the pressure difference is given by
R
p
o 4
= A
Thus, the pressure inside a droplet or a soap bubble will be higher than the surrounding
atmosphere. The pressure inside will be higher, the smaller the size of the droplet or
bubble:

Capillarity
Liquids have both cohesion and adhesion, which are forms of molecular attraction.
Capillarity, the rise (or fall) of liquid in small-diameter tubes is due to this attraction.
Liquids, such as water, which wet a surface cause capillary rise.
7 VIGNAN UNIVERSITY

In non-wetting liquids (e.g. mercury) capillary depression is caused.

For a cylindrical glass tube the capillary rise (or depression) h is given by

R
h
u o cos 2
= Where u = contact angle,

= unit weight of the liquid ( g),
R radius of curvature of the glass tube

o = coefficient of surface tension.
For clean glass and water u can be assumed to be zero. For clean mercury-air-glass
interface, u =130.

COMPRESSIBILITY
Bulk modulus, Ev is defined as the ratio of the change in pressure to the rate of change
of volume due to the change in pressure. It can also be expressed in terms of change of
density.
K = dp/(dv/v) = dp/(d/)
where dp is the change in pressure causing a change in volume dv when the original
volume was v. The unit is the same as that of pressure, obviously. Note that dv/v =
d/.
The negative sign indicates that if dp is positive then dv is negative and vice
versa, so that the bulk modulus is always positive (N/m
2
). The symbol used in this text
for bulk modulus is K.
This definition can be applied to liquids as such, without any modifications. In the
case of gases, the value of compressibility will depend on the process law for the
change of volume and will be different for different processes.
The bulk modulus for liquids depends on both pressure and temperature. The
value increases with pressure as dv will be lower at higher pressures for the same value
of dp. With temperature the bulk modulus of liquids generally increases, reaches a
maximum and then decreases. For water the maximum is at about 50C. The value is in
the range of 2000 MN/m
2
or 2000 106 N/m
2
or about 20,000 atm. Bulk modulus
influences the velocity of sound in the medium, which equals (K/)
0.5
.

Velocity of Propagation of Sound (C)
Sound is propagated in fluid due to compressibility of the medium, and the speed of sound
C is given by
C =
K

8 VIGNAN UNIVERSITY

Where K = bulk modulus of elasticity of the medium and

= mass density of the fluid.
VAPOUR PRESSURE
Vapor pressure is defined as the pressure at which a liquid will boil (vaporize). Vapor
pressure rises as temperature rises. In many liquid flow situations such as in hydraulic
machines and in flow through constricted passages, a low pressure approaching vapour
pressure of the liquid may occur. When this happens, the liquid flashes into vapour forming
a rapidly expanding cavity, This phenomenon, known as cavitation, has serious implications
on the operating performance of hydraulic machines and passages of high-speed flows
Vapour pressure of a liquid depends upon temperature and increases with it. At 20C, water
has a vapour pressure (pv) of 2.34 kPa (i.e. vapour pressure head = P
v
/ = 0 24 m)

2. Fluid Statics
PRESSURE

Definition and Units
Pressure is the compressive stress on the fluid and is given by
Pressure p =
A Area
F Force
for uniform pressure.
Pressure p =
dA
F d
for variable pressure

The units of pressure are N/m
2
= Pa. (Pa is the abbreviation for Pascal)
1 Pa = 1 Pascal= I N/m
2

1 kPa = 1 kilo Pascal = 1000 N/m
2

Bar is a unit extensively used in meteorology and in calculations involving atmosphere
and high pressures. Here, 1 bar = 10
5
Pa = 100 kN/m
2

One bar is approximately equal to standard atmospheric pressure at sea level which is
101,325 kN/m
2
.

Atmospheric Pressure

The pressure of 101,325 N/m
2
= 101.325 kPa is called one atmosphere and is denoted by
1 atm.

The standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) defined by IUPAC, is air pressure at 0C
(273.16K = 32F) at 1 atmospheric pressure ( 1 atm = 101.325 N/rn
2
= 101.325 kPa = 760
mm of mercury = 10.336 m of water).

Normal Temperature and Pressure (NTP) is a standard commonly used in engineering
practice and refers to 20C temperature and I atmospheric pressure (1 atm 101.325 kPa).

It is common to express the pressure in terms of the height of an equivalent column of a
fluid of density . Thus

= gh = h and
h (meters of fluid) =
) / (
) / (
3
2
m N
m N p
g
p

=
In such cases, h is called the pressure head.
9 VIGNAN UNIVERSITY

For example,
i) A pressure head of 5.0 m of water is equivalent to a pressure of 5.0 x 9790 = 48950 Pa
48.95 kPa.
ii) Similarly, a pressure of 4.0 kPa is equivalent to a pressure head h of mercury where
h = mm m 04 . 30 03004 . 0
9790 6 . 13
4000
= =
of mercury.

Pressure in a Static Fluid
The basic law relating to the pressure (normal stresses) in a static fluid is Pascals law
which states that (he pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is same in all directions. For
incompressible fluids (i.e., for liquids and such of the gas flow situations where
compressibility effects can be ignored), the variation of pressure in vertical direction in a
static fluid is given by
=
dz
dp

) ( ) (
2 1 1 2
z z p p = = constant
Where = where y = Specific weight of the fluid
and Z = Vertical distance measured from a datum (positive upward).

At a free surface the pressure is atmospheric. If h is the depth below the free surface of a
point M, the absolute pressure at M (Fig. 2.2) is

atm m
p h abs p + = ) (
If the pressure in excess of atmosphere is recorded then
h p p abs p
m atm m
= = ) (

Fig.2.2

Note: That h is measured positive downwards from the liquid surface.

The pressure Pm is then called gauge pressure.
10 VIGNAN UNIVERSITY

The linear variation of pressure with depth below the free surface is known as hydrostatic
pressure distribution.
The variation of gauge pressure in a liquid below the free surface is shown in Fig given
below. From this, P
1
= h
1
and p
2
= h
2
, or

) ( ) (
1 2 1 2
h h p p =

Note that in the above the atmospheric pressure was assumed as the datum, i.e.,
reference with a zero value, Different references can be taken and depending upon the
reference pressures we have the following:
Absolute pressure is the pressure measured above the absolute zero, Absolute pressures
cannot be negative.
Gauge pressure is the pressure measured with respect to local atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressures are extensively used in engineering practice and as such are indicated
with a symbol or a numeral without any other explanatory notation. e.g. 14.0 kPa, 3.2
kPa, Pm are gauge pressures.
Gauge pressures can be positive or negative.
Negative gauge pressures are also called vacuum pressures.
It is seen that
Absolute pressure =(Local atmospheric pressure) +(gauge pressure)
Pressure has the dimension of [Force/Area] = [FL
-2
] and is usually expressed in pascals
kPa (= N/m
3
); kilo pascals kPa (= 10
3
N/m
2
); height h of a colunm of a fluid of specific
weight y, in bars (= 10
5
Pa) or atmospheres ( number of standard atmosphcric pressure
value). The pressures are commonly indicated as gauge pressures and unless a pressure
is specifically marked absolute the pressure is treated as gauge pressure. The
atmosphere, however, is an exception and is an absolute pressure unit.
Gauge pressures are commonly measured by a Bourdon gauge. Differences in pressures
are measured by manometers.
Local atmospheric pressure (i.e. the absolute pressure of the atmosphere at a place) is
measured by a mercury barometer. The local atmospheric pressure varies with the
elevation above mean sea level and local meteorological conditions. For engineering
application, a standard atmospheric pressure at mean sea level at 15C is often used. The
value of this standard atmospheric pressure (called 1 atmosphere)is
1 atm = 10.336 m of water
760 mm of mercury = 101.325 kPa
= 10132.5 mbar

Aneroid barometer is another instrument commonly used to measure local atmospheric
pressure.

Aerostatics
The variation of pressure in the earths atmosphere is of importance in many aspects of
engineering. The study of atmosphere in its state of static equilibrium is known as
aerostatics. It is generally observed that from sea level up to an elevation of about 11,000
m the temperature varies linearly with the elevation. This region is known as troposphere.
Beyond 11,000 m up to 24,000 m the region is known as stratosphere and the
temperature is found to be approximately constant at 216.5K in this region. Three
approaches used in aerostatics studies are given below.
Density-Pressure Relationship in Compressible Fluids
For a compressible fluid, the density changes with pressure and temperature. For a
perfect gas
p = pRT (2.4)
Where p = absolute pressure

= mass density
T = absolute temperature (in Kelvin),
R = gas constant
Since = g
dz
dp
= (2.5)
} }
= dz f dp

Depending upon the process involved, i.e., isothermal, constant temperature lapse rate or
adiabatic, the corresponding variation of pressure with Z can be determined.
(1) Isothermal Process
In an isothermal process, T= T0 = constant.
Since
RT
p
=

RT
p
dZ
dp
=

} }
=
2
1
2
1
dZ
RT
g
p
dp
o

(

=
0
1 2
1
2
) (
exp
RT
z z g
p
p

(2) Non-Isothermal Atmosphere

It is usual to consider that in troposphere the temperature decreases linearly with elevation
as

Z T T
o
o =

where T
o
= Absolute temperature at sea level (that isat Z= 0)
T = Temperature at an elevation Z above sea level

o = a constant known as lapse ratet

For standard atmosphere, o = 6.5 K/km andat sea level, tempereture T
o
= 285 K and
density
Po 101.325 kg/m
3
.
Variation of Pressure with Elevation
) ( Z T R
p
RT
p
o
o
= =
Substituting equation
) ( Z T R
pg
g
dz
dp
o
o
= =
) ( Z T R
gdZ
p
dp
o
o
=
on integration
o
o
o
T
Z T
R
g
p
p o
o

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
ln ln
o
o
R g
o o
T
Z
p
p
/
1
|
|
.
|
\
|

3) Adiabatic Process
For the case of adiabatic process (zero heat transfer), if there is no friction (isentropic)

k
p
p
Constant = C
s
where k adiabatic constant for the gas. Combining with perfect gas law (Eq. 2.4) we get

1 k
T
Constant
And by using (Eq. 2.5), on integration
|
.
|
\
|
k
k
T
1
= constant
Substituting equation and on simplification
|
.
|
\
|
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
1
1
1 2
1
2
) (
) 1 (
1
k
k
p
z z g
k
k
p
p

The variation of the temperature with Z in adiabatic process is given by
(

=
1
1 2
1
2
) ( ) 1 (
1
RT
z z
g
k
k
T
T

The rate of variation of the temperature with elevation
dZ
dT
is known as lapse rate (L) and
for the atmosphere having adiabatic process it is given by

(
|
.
|
\
|
= =
k
k
R
g
dZ
dT
L
1

Measurement of pressure
Manometers
(i) Simple Manometer.
Simple manometers are those which measure pressure at a point in a fluid
contained in apipe orvessel.
Types.
(a) Piezometer:Measures gauge pressure only. Gas pressure cannot be
measured as they do not form free atmospheric surface. Piezometers are
also used to measure pressure heads in pipes where the liquid is in motion.
Such tubes should enter the pipe in a direction at right angles to the direction
of flow.

(b) U-tube manometer: The tube contains a liquid of specific gravity greater
than that of thefluid which the pressure is to be measured.

0
1
2
1
=
s
s
y z
ws
P
A

1
2
1
s
s
y z
ws
P
A
+ =
0
1
2
1 2
1
= +
s
s
h h
wS
P
A

2
1
2
1
1
h
s
s
h
wS
P
A
=

AU-tube manometer can be used to measure negative or vacuum pressure.
- (c) Single column manometer:
(
+ =
A
a
s s s
s
h
ws
P
A
) (
1 2 2
1
2
1

In case of inclined,
(
+ =
A
a
s s s
s
h
ws
P
A
) ( sin
1 2 2
1
1
1
u
Advantage: Only one reading is required. Negative gauge pressure can
be measured.


(ii) Differential Manometers.
Differential manometers measure the difference of pressure between any two points in a
fluid contained in the pipe or vessel. These are used for measuring the pressure difference
between any two points in a pipe or in two pipes or containers.

Types.
(a) Two piezometer manometer.
(b) Inverted U-tube manometer.
1
hs
w
P
w
P
B A
=
When U-tube is filled with a liquid of specific gravity S2, where, S2 < S1 then
) (
2 1
s s h
w
P
w
P
B A
=
(iii) U-tube differential manometer.
) (
1 2
s s x
w
P
w
P
B A
=
(iv) Micro manometer.
These are used for the measurement of very small pressure difference.
(vii)MECHANICALGAUGES.
These are pressure measuring devices.Generally, these are used to measure high
pressures and where high precision is not required.

Commonly used pressure gauges are
(i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge
(ii) Diaphragm pressure gauge: low pressure intensities similar to
averoid parameter.
(iii) Bellows pressure gauge.
(iv) Dead-cut pressure gauge: used to serve as a comparison
device.
Corrections for Manometers and Gauges.
(a) At the gauge point hole should be drilled normal to the surface.
(b) Hole should be about 3 mm to 6 mm.

FORCES ON PLANE SURFACES
An important problem in the design of hydraulic structures and other structures which
interact with fluids is the computation of hydrostatic forces on plane surfaces.
Computations of magnitude and point of application of hydrostatic forces on plane
surfaces are described.

Magnitude of Force on a Plane

When a plane area is immersed in a static liquid with its plane making an angle with the
free liquid surface the total hydrostatic force on one side of the area is
A h F =
Where = specific weight of the liquid

h = depth of the centre of gravity of the area below the free surface
A = area of the immersed plane.

It may be noted that the force F is independent of the angle of inclination u so long as the
depth of the centroid h is unchanged.

Centre of Pressure
The point of application of the force F on the submerged area is called the centre of
pressure. Considering the line of intersection of the plane area with the liquid surface
(Line OX) as the reference axis, the centre of pressure is located along the planeat
y A
I
y y
gg
p
+ = Where

gg
I = moment of inertia about an axis parallel to OX and passing through the centre of
gravity of the area
y = location of the centre of gravity with respect to the axis OX
A = area of the plane area

Note that the distances y are measured along the plane from the axis OX.

The lateral position of the centre of pressure with respect to any axis Perpendicular to OX
and lying in the plane of the lamina is
y A
I
x x
xy
p
+ =
Where

xy
I = product of inertia (=
}
dA sy ) of the area about axis GY, passing through the centre
of gravity of the area and parallel to OY and OX.
When either of the centroidal axes x = x or y = y = is an axis of symmetry,I
xy
= 0 and x=
1.
Properties of some commonly encountered simple geometrical shapes are collated in
Table 2.6
FORCES ON CURVED SURFACES
When the fluid static force on a curved submerged surface is desired, it is convenient to
consider the horizontal and vertical components of the force separately.

Horizontal Component
The horizontal component of hydrostatic force in any chosen direction on any area (plane
or curved) is equal to the projection of the area on a vertical plane normal to the chosen
direction. The horizontal force acts through the centre of pressure of the vertical projection.

Vertical Component
The vertical component of the hydrostatic force on any surface (plane or curved) is equal
to the weight of volume of liquid extending above the surface of the object to the level of
the free surface. This vertical component passes through the centre of gravity of the
volume considered. The volume and the free surface can be real or imaginary.
Tensile Stress in a Pipe or Shell
In a circular pipe subjected to high pressure, the pressure centre can be taken to be at the
centre of the pipe. The tensile circumferential stress (hoop stress) in a pipe wall subjected-
to an internal pressure of p (Fig. 2.6) is

I Moment of inertia about indicated axis
I
c
= Moment of inertia about indicated axis passing through the centre of gravity of the
area

hoop stress
r
pD
h
2
= o
where D = diameter of the pipe
t = thickness of pipe.
This formula assumes t/D < 0.1 and hence is based on thin cylinder theory. If the ends of
a cylinder are closed and the cylinder has a fluid under pressure, a longitudinal stress
L
o
is produced in the cylinder. This stress is given by

t
h L
pD
4 2
1
= = o o
For thin spherical shells the tensile stress is

t
pD
s
4
= o


Sketch Area
Location
of
Cent
roid
I and I
e

Rectangle

bh
2
h
y
c
=
12
3
bh
I
c
=
Triangle

2
bh

3
h
y
c
=
36
3
bh
I
c
=
Circle

4
2
D t

2
D
y
c
=
64
4
D
I
c
t
=
Semicircle

8
2
D t

t 3
4r
y
c
=
128
4
D
I
c
t
=
Ellipse

4
bh t

2
h
y
c
=
64
3
bh
I
c
t
=
Semi-ellipse

4
bh t

t 3
4h
y
c
=
16
3
bh
I
c
t
=
Parabola

3
2bh

8
3b
x
c
=
8
3b
y
c
=
7
2
3
bh
I
c
=

BUOYANCY
When a body is submerged or floating in a static fluid the resultant force exerted on it by
the fluid is called buoyancy force. This buoyancy force is always vertically upwards, and
has the following characteristics.
1. The buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the solid body.
2. The buoyancy force acts through the centre of gravity of the displaced volume, called
the centre of buoyancy.
3. A floating body displaces a volume of fluid whose weight is equal to the weight of the
body.

Stability
A submerged body is stable if the centre of gravity of the body lies below the centre of
buoyancy.
For a floating body the stability depends upon the type of couple that is formed for small
angular displacements. For a body shown in Fig. 2.7(a) the centre of gravity is G and the

centre of buoyancy is B. Initially it is stable with G above B. Figure 2.7(b) shows the same
body with a small displacement. If B is the new centre of buoyancy a vertical from B
intersects the line of symmetry through G at M. M is known as the meta centre. If M is
above G, then MG the metacentric height is positive and the equilibrium is stable. If M is
below G, MG is negative and equilibrium is unstable. The metacentric height MG is
independent of magnitude of angular rotation (so long as it is small) and is given by

BG MG
=
1

Fig 2.7
In this equation
I =Moment of inertia of the water line area about an axis through the centre of the area
and perpendicular to the axis of tilt (longitudinal axis).
BG = Vertical distance between the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy.
= Volume of the fluid displaced by the body.
If M coincides with G, MG is zero, the body is said to be in neutral equilibrium.

RIGID BODY MOTION
When a fluid mass in a container is subjected to a motion such that there is no relative
motion between the particles, such a motion is known as rigid body motion. The motion
can be either translation or rotation at constant acceleration or a combination of both. As
there is no relative motion there is no shear stress in such a motion and the pressure
distribution is similar to that in fluids at rest, of course modified by the combined action of
gravity and fluid acceleration.

Translation
If a container with a fluid is given a translation (a linear motion) with a uniform acceleration
the piezometric head will have a gradient in the direction of motion.
If the motion is in the x-direction with a constant acceleration a, then
g
a
dx
dh
x
= = u tan :
Where h = (p/ + z) = piezometric head above datum

u = Inclination of hydraulic grade line.
= Inclination of water surface, measured clockwise with respect to the x-direction.
Thus, if a vessel containing a liquid is given an acceleration a in x-direction (Fig. 2.8) the
surface will back up against the farthest side, i.e., it will have increasing depth in (-x)
direction.

Fig.2.8
If a closed tank without a free surface is involved, an imaginary free surface equivalent to
the piezometric head line can be considered. This piezometric head line will be inclined to
the x-direction such that

g a
x
/ tan = u
It follows from the above that if acceleration is solely in the vertical direction (+ z direction)
then a
x
= 0 and tan u = 0. This means that the liquid surface will remain horizontal.
However, the pressure ph at any depth h below the free surface will now be

|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
g
a
h P
z
h
1
In this a
z
= vertical acceleration in + z direction (if the acceleration is vertically downwards,
a
z
is taken as negative).

In vertical acceleration the liquid suffers an apparent gravity equal to (g + a
z
).
If the acceleration is a in any direction s, then the components a
x
and a
z
in x- and z-
directions are considered. The fluid surface will now have an inclination tan u given by
) (
tan
z
x
a g
a
dx
dh
= u
Rigid Body Rotation
When a vessel containing a liquid with a free surface is rotated about an axis, the free
surface will be a paraboloid of revolution given by
g
r
y
2
2 2
e
=
wheree = angular velocity
y = height of the free surface above the vertex at a radial distance r from the
At any two points r1 and r2 from the axis
) (
2
) (
2
1
2
2
2
1 2
r r
g
y y
e

Since r e = V = tangential velocity.

y y y A = ) (
1 2
= difference in the liquid surface elevation between the points 2 and 1 (Fig.
2.9)

Fig.2.9

|
|
.
|
\
|
A =
g
V
g
V
g
V
2 2 2
2 2
1
2
2

= difference in the velocity head at these two points
The pressure distribution in any vertical line at a radial distance r will, however, remain
hydrostatic. At point 2, h
2
= + Z for all values of A on this vertical line.
If the free surface does not exist, the piezometric head will follow the relation for y as:
g
r
h h
2
) (
2 2
0
e
=
where
h = piezometric head above a datum at any radial distance r from the axis
h
0
= value ofh at r = 0, i.e. on the axis
e = angular velocity.
The piezometric head h =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ z
p
will vary with r as a paraboloid of revolution and this

surface can be considered as an imaginary liquid surface. The volume of a paraboloid of
revolution is one half the volume of the circumscribing cylinder.

3. Fluid Flow Kinematics
Classification of flow
A) Steady flow: Fluid flow conditions at any point do not change with time. For example
0 =
c
c
t
V
, 0 =
c
c
t
p
, 0 =
c
c
t

In a steady flow steam line, path line and streak line are identical.
Unsteady Flow: Flow parameters at any point change with time, e.g., 0 =
c
c
t
V
.
B) Uniform flow: The velocity vector V is identically same at al points at a given instant.
Non-Uniform Flow: The velocity vector V at any instant varies from point to point.


Streamline
In a fluid flow, a continuous line so drawn that it is tangential to the velocity vector at every
point is known as a streamline. If the velocity vector V = iu + jv + kw then the differential
equation of a streamline is given by

w
dz
v
dy
u
dx
= =

Stagnation Point:
A point of interest in the study of the kinematics of fluid is the occurrence of points where
the fluid flow stops. When a stationary body is immersed in a fluid, the fluid is brought to a
stop. When a stationary body is immersed in a fluid, the fluid is brought to a stop at the
nose of the body. Such a point where the fluid flow is brought to rest is known as the
stagnation point. Thus, a stagnation point is defined as a point in the flow field where the
velocity is identically zero. This means that all the components of the velocity vector V ,
viz., u, v, and w are identically zero at the stagnation point. Pitot tube which is used to
measure the velocity in a fluid flow is an example where the properties of the stagnation
point are made use.

Acceleration:
Accleration is a vector.
i) In the natural co-ordinate system, viz., along and across a streamline.

dt
dV
a = and
2 2
n s
a a a + =
In the tangential direction:

s
V
V
t
V
a
s
s
s
c
c
+
c
c
=

Fig 3.1

In the normal direction
r
V
t
V
a
s n
n
2
+
c
c
=

Where r = radius of curvature of the streamline at the point, Vs = tangential component of
the velocity V and V
n
= normal component of velocity generated due to change in

direction. The terms t V
s
c c / and
t
V
s
c
c
are called local accelerations. Also
s
V
V
s
s
c
c
= =
tangential convective acceleration and r V
s
/
2
= normal convective acceleration.

(ii) In Cartesian co-ordinates:
V= iu + jv + kw
Acceleration a, a and a in the x, y, z directions respectively are:

z
u
w
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
a
x
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=

z
v
w
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
a
y
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=

z
w
w
y
w
v
x
w
u
t
w
a
z
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
(iii) In two-dimensional polar co-ordinates (Fig. 3.2)

r
v
y
v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
a
r r
r
r
t
2
u u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=

r
v v v
r
v
r
v
v
t
v
a
r
r
t u u u u
u
u
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=

Fig.3.2

Continuity Equation

In One-dimensional Analysis
In steady flow, mass rate of flow into stream tube is equal to mass rate of flow out of the
tube

2 2 2 1 1 1
V A V A =

(i) For incompressible fluid, under steady flow (Fig. 3.3).

2 2 1 1
V A V A =

Fig.3.3

(ii) When there is a variation of velocity across the cross section of a conduit, for an
incompressible fluid discharge.

} }
= =
2 1
A A
vdA A vd A

In Differential Form
Cartesian co-ordinates:
0
) ( ) ( ) (
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
w
y
v
x
u
t

For incompressible fluid (/t) = 0) and hence above Eq. is simplified as
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
w
y
v
x
u

ROTATIONALAND IRROTATIONAL MOTION
Consider a rectangular fluid element of sides dx and dy. Under the action of velocities
acting on it let it undergo deformation as shown in fig given below in a time dt.

1
= angular velocity of element AB =
x
v
c
c

2
= angular velocity of element AD =
y
u
c
c

Considering the anticlockwise rotation as positive, the average of angular velocities of
two mutually perpendicular elements is defined as the rate of rotation.
Thus rotation about z-axis

|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
y
u
x
v
x
2
1
e
For a three-dimensional fluid element, three rotational components as given in the
following are possible:

Fig.3.5 (a) Fig.3.5 (b)

About z axis,
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
y
u
x
v
z
2
1
e
About y axis, |
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
x
w
z
u
y
2
1
e
About x axis,
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
z
v
y
w
x
2
1
e
Fluid motion with one or more of the terms
x
e ,
y
e or
z
e different from zero is termed
rotational motion. Twice the value of rotation about any axis is called as vorticity along that axis.
Thus the equation
for vorticity along z-axis is =
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
= =
y
u
x
v
w
z z
2 ,
A flow is said to be irrotational if all the components of rotation are zero,
Viz. 0 = = =
z y x
e e e
i.e., 0 =
c
c
c
c
y
u
x
v
, 0 =
c
c
c
c
y
w
x
u
;
and 0 =
c
c
c
c
z
v
y
w

Thus for a two-dimensional irrotational flow
0
2
1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
=
y
u
x
v
z
e
Or 0 =
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
y
u
x
v

Circulation
In rotational fluid motion, circulation is very useful concept. Circulation is defined as the
line integral of the tangential component of the velocity taken around a closed contour.
The limiting value of circulation divided by the area of the closed contour, as the area
tends to zero, is the vorticity along an axis normal to the area.


Circulation is taken as positive in anticlockwise direction. Referring to Fig.

Fig.3.6

} }
+ + = = I
C C
wdz vdy udx S d V ) ( .
=
I
C curve closed of area
Vorticity along the axis perpendicular to the plane containing the
closed curve C.
STREAM FUNCTION
In a two-dimensional flow consider two streamlines S
1
and S
2
. The flow rate (per unit depth) of
an incompressible fluid across the two streamlines is constant and is independent of the path,
(path a or path b from A to B in Fig. 3.7). A stream function is so defined that it is constant
along a streamline and the difference of s for the two streamlines is equal to the flow rate
between them. Thus
A B
= flow rate between S
1
and S
2
. The flow from left to right is en as
positive, in the sign convention. The velocities u and v in x and s directions are given by

y
u
c
c
=

And
x
v
c
c
=

The stream function is defined as above for two dimensional flows only.
For an irrotational flow,
y
u
x
v
c
c
c
c
= 0 and hance, 0
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
c
c
y x

That is, the Laplace equation 0
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
c
c
y x

is satisfied by the stream function in
irrotational flow. Conversely, if does not satisfy
2
V =0, then the flow is rotational.

In polar coordinates v
r
=
u
c
c
r
1
and
r
v
c
c
=

u


POTENTIAL FUNCTION
In irrotational flows, the velocity can be written as a gradient of a scalar function | called
velocity otential.

x
u
c
c
=
|
,
y
v
c
c
=
|
and
z
w
c
c
=
|

Considering the equation of continuity (Eq. 3.14) for an incompressible fluid.
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
w
y
v
x
u

and substituting the expressions for u, v and w in terms of | ,
0
2 2
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
2
z y x
| | |
|
Thus the velocity potential satisfies the Laplace equation. Conversely, any function
which satisfies the Laplace equation is a possible irrotational fluid flow case.
Lines of constant | are called equipotential lines and it can be shown that these lines will
form orthogonal grids with = constant lines. This fact is used in the construction of flow
nets for fluid flow analysis.

RELATION BETWEEN AND FOR2-DIMENSIONAL FLOW
| exists for irrotational flow only.

y x
u
c
c
=
c
c
=
|

x y
v
c
c
=
c
c
=
|

By continuity equation 0
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
c
c
y x
| |

By irrotational flow condition, 0
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
c
c
y x

= constant along a streamline.
| = constant along an equipotential line which is normal to streamlines.

Some common Formulae in Cylindrical Co-Ordinates

1. Equation of continuity:
0 ) (
1
) ( ) (
1
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
u
u
V
r
V
r
V
r
r r

For incompressible fluid flow:
0
1
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
u
u
V
r r
V
r
V
r r

2. Stream function :

u
c
c
=
r
V
r
1


u
u
c
c
= V

3. Potential Function | :

r
V
r
c
c
=
|

r r
V
c
c
=
|
u
1

4. Laplace equation
0
1 1
2
2
2 2
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
u
| u |
r r r r

ELEMENTARY INVISCID PLANE FLOWS
Since the Laplace equation is linear, several interesting potential flow sitwitions can be
constructed by using elementary solutions and method of superposition. The basic flow
types are Uniform flow, Source, Sink and Vortex. These are briefly described below.

Uniform Flow
A stream of constant velocity U in x-direction is shown in Fig. 3.8 and has
Uy = and Ux = |
In polar coordinates
u sin Ur = and u | cos Ur =

Fig.3.8

Line Source and Sink
A two-dimensional flow emanating from a point in the x-y plane and imagined to
flow uniformly in all directions is called a source. Since the two-dimensional source
is a line in the z-direction, it is known as a line source.
The total flow per unit time per unit length of the line source is called the strength m
of the source. The velocity at a radial distance r from the source is

r
m
v
r
=
The stream function and the potential function | for such line source is given
by u m = and m = | ln r

Fig. 3.9 n 3.10

Line Vortex
Suppose we reverse the role of and | in Fig. yielding

Fig.3.11
r Kln = and u | K = (3.35)
from which we get 0 =
r
v and r K v /
0
= representing a circulating flow. Such a flow is known as
line vortex and K in Eq. 3.35 is known as Vortex strength. The centre of the vortex is a singular
point and the circulation r of the vortex around a circular path about the centre is given by
K t 2 = I

Two-Dimensional Doublet
The limiting case of a line source approaching a line sink of equal strength while keeping
constant the product of their strength and the distance between them ( ) is known as a two
dimensional doublet, For a doublet.

r y x
y
doublet
u
sin
) (
) (
2 2
=
+

r y x
x
doublet
u
|
cos
) (
2 2
=
+
=
Figure 3.12 shows the streamlines and equipotential lines in a doublet.

Fig.3.12

Other Inviscid Flows
Using the basic flow elements described above various flow situations can be created
by the method of superposition. A few examples are given below in Table 3.1.


Table 3.1 Some Ideal Fluid Flow Simulations
Sl.No. Name
Combination (and flow
description)
Equation of Stream
function
1
Rankine Half
Body
Source + uniform flow
[curved, roughly elliptical
half body]
u u m Ur + = sin
2 Rankine Oval
Source - sink + Uniform
flow [cylindrical oval
shaped body]
) ( sin
2 1
u u u + = m Ur
3 Circular Cylinder
Uniform flow + doublet
[circular cy1inder
r
Ur
u
u
sin
sin =
4
Rotating Circular
Cylinder
Uniform flow + doublet +
vortex
[rotating circular cylinder]
r K
r
Ur ln
sin
sin =
u
u

4. Energy Equation and Its Applications:
BERNOULLI EQUATION
Euler equation: For the frictionless flow along a streamline of an incompressible fluid
the relationship among the pressure, elevation and velocity is given by the Euler equation.
0
1
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
s
V
V
s
z
g
s
p
t
V

Berloulli Equation: Integration of the Euler equation for steady, incompressible fluid
flow, without friction, yields the Bernoulli equation
z
g
V p
+ +
2
2
= constant = H (4.2)
It can be shown that the Bernoulli equation is applicable across the streamlines also if the
flow is irrotational.
In above Eq. the term V
2
/2 g represents kinetic energy of the flow per unit weight of the
fluid. Similarly, Z represents potential energy per unit weight. The term p/y represents flow work,
i.e. the work done by the fluid on the surroundings. All the terms in above Eq. have unit of [U =
(N.m/N) of fluid. The constant H is called the total energy. For any two points in a steady
irrotational flow field of an ideal fluid,
0 ) (
2 2
) (
2 1 2 1
2
2
2
1 2 1
= = +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
H H Z z
g
V
g
V p p

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI EQUATION
In practical applications of Bernoulli equation the restriction of frictionless flow is
accommodated by introducing a loss of energy term and the restriction of irrotational flow
is waived in most of the cases. Equation 4.2 is used as a special case of the general
energy equation. The general energy equation dealing with the conservation of energy is
written for steady, incompressible fluid flow between two sections 1 and 2 as
H
I
+ H
E
H
L
= H
2


Where
H
1
= total energy at section 1
H
E
= energy input to the system between sections 1 and 2
H
L
= energy loss due to friction, etc. between sections 1 and 2
H
2
= total energy at section 2.

Energy is transferred to the system as mechanical work done on the fluid by a pump.
Similarly, energy is extracted from the system by a turbine. For incompressible fluid flow
all non-recoverable energy such as change of internal energy and heat transfer are usually
clubbed under a common term energy loss.

Thus for a fluid flow system shown in Fig. 4.1 the Bernoulli equation is
H
1
+ H
E
H
L
= H
2

Where
1
2
1 1
1
2
Z
g
V
H + + =

Fig.4.1
2
2
2 2
2
2
Z
g
V
H + + =

H
E
H
P
= energy input per unit weight of fluid per second by the pump
H
L
=energy loss between points 1 and 2

ENERGY EQUATION
The general equation for conservation of energy fcr an incompressible fluid flow can be
written as
) (
2 2
1 2 2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
e e Z
g
V P
H q Z
g
V p
E w
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + = + +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +

(4.4)
where
q
w
= heat added per unit weight of fluid
e
1
, e
2
= internal energy per unit weight of fluid at the respective states
H
E
= external work done (i.e. shaft work added) on the fluid per unit weight of fluid from a
device such as a pump.
If the total head H= Z
g
V p
+ +
2
2
then Equation4.4 is written as

H
1
= H
E
= [(e
2
e
1
)- q
w
] = H
2


The term:
(e
2
- e
1
) - q
w
= (reversible + irreversible) head
In incompressible fluid flow irreversible head is called head loss H
L
and represents energy
loss per unit weight of fluid due to friction and other causes. Thus for an incompressible fluid
| |
(
=
(
(
(
+
(
2 sec 1 sec tion at

head Total
loss Head
pump a
as such amachine
to due aded Head
tion at
Totalhead

or H
1
= H
E
H
L
= H
2
(4.3 a)

When a pump is used H
E
= H
P
(a positive quantity), and when a turbine is used H
E
= H
P
(a
negative quantity).

Hydraulic Grade Line
A line joining the piezometric heads at various points ma flow is known as the hydraulic
grade line (HGL).
As the piezometric head z
r
p
h + = the HGL represents the variation of |
.
|
\
|
+ = z
r
p
h
measured above a datum.

Energy Line
The total energy
g
v
h
g
V
z
p
H
2 2
2 2
+ = +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

A line joining the elevation of total energy of a flow measured above a datum is known
as energy line. The energy line lies above the HGL by an amount of V
2
/2g.

Kinetic Energy Correction Factor, o

In one-dimensional method of analysis, the average velocity V is used to represent the
velocity at a cross section. The actual velocity distribution in the cross section may be non-
uniform. Hence, the kinetic energy calculated by using V must be multiplied by a correction

factor to obtain proper kinetic energy at the cross section due to non-uniform velocity
distribution.
Thus the velocity head in the Bernoulli equation will be
g
V
2
2
o where

}
|
.
|
\
|
= dA
V
v
A
3
1
o
The term o is called the kinetic energy correction factor. For uniform velocity distribution
o = 1.0 and in all other cases it will be greater than 1.0. Greater the non-uniformity in velocity
distribution larger will be the value of o . For laminar flow through a pipe, o = 2.0 and for
turbulent flow through a pipe its value varies from 1.01 to 1.20. In the absence of specific
information about the value of a, it is usual practice to assume its value as unity.
POWER

In the case of work done over a fluid the power input into the flow is
m
QH P =
Where
= unit weight of fluid in N/rn
3
,
Q = discharge in m
3
/s and
H
m
= head added to the flow, in m

In a pump Hm = H
P
is positive. In a turbine H
m
= H
t
is negative and power is extracted from
the flow. If
p
q = efficiency of the pump, the power input required at the pump is
p
m
in
QH
P
q
=
In the case of a turbine, in r is the efficiency of the turbine, power delivered by the turbine
is
t m out
QH P q =

5. Momentum Equation and Its Applications:

LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUATION

This equation states that the vector sum of all external forces acting on a control volume in
a fluid flow equals the time rate of change of linear momentum vector of the fluid mass in the
control volume.

The external forces are of two kinds, viz, boundary (surface) forces and body forces.
Boundary forces consist of
1. Pressure intensities acting normal to a boundar F
p
, and
2. Shear stresses acting tangential to a boundary F
s
.

Body forces are those that depend upon the mass of the fluid in the control volume, for
example weight, F
b
.

The linear momentum equation in a general flow can be written for any direction x as

+
c
c
= + =
x x cv x bx px x
M M M
t
F F F
out
) (
where M
x
momentum flux in x-direction
x
QV Suffixes out represent the flux going out of
the control volume and in represent the flux coming into the control volume.
F
px
, F
sx
and F
bx
represent x-component of pressure force, shear force and body force
respectively acting on the control volume surface.

cv x
M
t
) (
c
c
= rate of change of x-momentum within the control volume. This component is
zero in a steady flow.

Thus for a steady flow, in the x-direction.

in x out x bx sx px
M M F F F ) ( ) ( = + +

in x out x
QV Qv ) ( ) ( =
Similar momentum equations are applicable to other coordinate directions, y and z also.

Application to One-dimensional Flow
Momentum Correction Factor In one-dimensional analysis the flow characteristic in one
major direction, say longitudinal axis direction, is considered and the variation in other
directions neglected. Thus, for example, in the two-dimensional transition shown in Fig.
5.1, the velocity distribution of u with y is accounted for by taking average velocity V=
}
udy
B
1
and Vis used in the analysis.
The discharge Q = VA.
A momentum correction factor

}
= dA u
A V
2
2
1
| (5.3)
is used to account for the variation of the velocity moss the area in the calculation of the
momentum flux. Thus the momentum flux at section 1 is

1 1 1
QV M | = (5.4a)

and the momentum flux at section 2 is

2 2 2
QV M | = (5.4b)
For uniform velocity distribution | = 1 and for all ber cases, | > 1.0. In laminar flow through a
circular tube, | = 1.33 and for turbulent flow through pipes | = 1.05. By definition /3 depends
upon the nature of the velocity distribution; larger the non-uniformity greater will be the value of
6. If no other information is given, it is usual practice to assume | = 1.0:


Fig.5.1

Control Volume In the application of the linear momentum equation the control volume can be
assumed arbitrarily. It is usual practice to draw a control volume in such a way that (Fig. 5.2):
i) Its boundaries are normal to the direction of flow at inlets and outlets.
ii) It is inside the flow boundary and has the same alignment as the flow boundary.
iii) Wherever the magnitudes of the boundary forces (due to pressure and shear stresses)
are notknown, their resultant is taken as a reaction force R (with components, R, R
and R) on the control volume. This reaction R is the Force acting on thefluid in the
control volume due to reaction from the boundary. The Force F of the fluid on the
boundary will be equal and opposite to the reaction R.

Fig.5.2
Reaction of the Boundary, R As indicated above, the reaction of the boundary R, with
component R
x
and R
y
is the force exerted by the boundary on the fluid. In most of the
applications, R is an unknown to be determined. As such, R
x
and R
y
are assumed to act in
chosen directions and the momentum equation written. Upon solving for R
x
and R
y
depending
upon the sign of the answer, the assumption is corrected, if need be. Thus, R
x
and R
y
can be
assumed to be in positive or negative direction of x and y respectively and upon solving, the
final answer will emerge out with the proper direction of the reaction force, R. Also,

2 2
y x
R R R + = (5.5)
And its inclination o to x-axis is

x
y
R
R
= o tan (5.6)
When | at a section is given, the momentum flux past the section in the chosen x-
direction is given by

x x
QV M | = (5.7)

In Fig. 5.2, the momentum flux in various directions are:
at 1, in x-direction:
1 1 1
QV M
x
| =
at 1, in y-direction:
1 y
M = 0
at 2, in x-direction: u | cos
2 2 2
QV M
x
=
at 2, in y-direction: u | sin
2 2 2
QV M
y
=

Discharge
2 2 1 1
V A V A AV Q = = =

Forces on Moving Blades
A major application of the momentum equation relates to impact of liquid jets on blades.
Figure 5.3 shows a liquid jet of velocity V impacting on a curved blade moving at a velocity u.

The static pressure is atmospheric everywhere. Relative velocity of water entering the
blade = V
r
V
1
- u, where V
1
= absolute velocity of the jet.
If there is no friction, the relative velocity will remain constant all over the blade. At the
exist of the blade, the relative velocity V
r2
= V
r
= V
1
-u. The absolute velocity V
2
is obtained as
vector sum of V
r
and u as in fig.
u v V
r
+ =
2

The relative velocity is always assumed to leave the blade tangentially. Hence, the momentum
equation can be applied to the relative velocities.

If P
x
is the reaction of the blade on the fluid in the control volume.
) cos ( 0
r r r x
v v Q P = u
) 1 (cos 0
2
+ = u
r x
AV P
) cos 1 ( ) (
2
1
u + = u V A P
x

Force on the blade | |
x x
P F = + in the positive x-direction
Power developed F
x
u (5.10)
If a series of vanes are so arranged on a wheel that the entire jet is intercepted by one
blade or other, the discharge to be used in Eq. (5.8) is the actual discharge of the jet Q instead
of Q
r
.
This principle is used in Pelton turbines. In reaction turbines, the pressure on the blade is
not atmospheric and the velocity triangles have to be written for both inlet and outlet of the
blades.

Fig.5.3

Momentum Equation for Steady Flow

For a control volume lying in a horizontal plane, shown in Fig. 5.2, the linear momentum
equation for steady flow is written as outlined below.

Let R
x
along positive x-direction and R
y
in negative y-direction be the reaction of the
boundary on the fluid of the control volume (cv). Then in x-direction:

(
=
(
cv into going
flux Momentum - x
cv of out going
flux Momentum - x
direction - in x cv on
forces all of resultant the

Thus
) cos ( cos
1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 1
QV QV M M R A p A p
x x x
| u | u = = + (5.11)
Similarly my-direction,
u | u sin sin 0
2 2 1 2 2 1
QV M M R A p
y y y
= = (5.12)
For any direction, that does not lie in a horizontal plane, the component of the body force
(weight of fluid in cv) should be suitably included among the forces on cv.
In the solution of Eqs 5.11 and 5.12 often, depending upon the data, the continuity
equation.
A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2
(5.13)
And the Bernoulli equation

2
2
2 2 2
1
2
1 1 1
2 2
Z
g
V
g
p
Z
g
V
g
p
+ + = + +
o
(5.14)
Will have to be used.

THE MOMENT OF MOMENTUM EQUATION

The moment of momentum equation is based on Newtons second law applied to a
rotating fluid mass system. Moment of momentum about an axis is known as angular
momentum. The moment of a force about a point is torque. The moment of momentum principle
states that in a rotating system the torque exerted by the resultant force on the body with
respect to an axis is equal to the time rate of change of angular momentum.
In a steady flow rotating system, i.e. when the rotating speed is constant,

(
(
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
cv the
entering fluid of
momentum angular
cv of out
leaving fluid of
momentum Angular
element rotating
by the fluid on the
exerted Torque

] ) ( ) [(

=
in u out u
r V r V Q T (5.15)

where Q = discharge, V
u
= tangential component of absolute velocity, r = moment arm of
V
u
out and in denote items leaving or entering a control volume (cv) respectively.

Equation (5.15) fInds considerable application in the analysis of rotc) dynamic machines,
viz,, turbines, pumps, propellors, etc. In the following section, the details of reaction with rotation
with a typical application to a lawn sprinkler is given.

6. LAMINAR FLOW
BASIC EQUATIONS
The basic equations which govern the motion of incompressible viscous fluid in laminar motion
are called as NavkrStokes equations. In Cartesian coordinates, for two-dimensional flow,
these are:
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
y
u
x
u
u
x
p
X
y
u
v
x
u
u
t
u
----- (1)

|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
y
v
x
v
u
y
p
Y
y
v
v
x
v
u
t
v
------- (2)
The continuity equation is
y
v
x
u
c
c
+
c
c
-------- (3)
These equations can be solved exactly for only a few simple flow situations.
An important result that can be obtained from the above for the two-dimensional, steady,
uniform laws in the X-direction is
y x
p
c
c
=
c
c t
-------- (4)
Which stares that in steady uniform flow the pressure gradient depends upon the existence of
viscous shear losses and its variation across the flow.

Flow in Circular Conduits
Consider a horizontal circular pipe carrying an incompressible fluid in laminar motion, as
illustrated in Fig. 7.1. The following relationships for the velocity distribution, shear stress and its
distribution and for the head loss have been established analytically.

Fig.7.1

Velocity distribution: ) (
4
1
2 2
r R
dx
dp
u
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
------ (5)
Maximum Velocity:
2
4
1
R
dx
dp
u
m
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

Hence
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
R
r
u u
m
-------- (6)

Mean velocity:
2
8
1
2
R
dx
dp u
V
m
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
----- (7)
Shear stress at the boundary: |
.
|
\
|
=
dx
dp R
o
2
t

D
V
o

t
8
= ------- (8)
Variation of the shear stress:
R
r
o
t t = -------- (9)
Pressure gradient |
.
|
\
|
dx
dp
:
For a horizontal pipe, for two sections 1 and 2 distance L apart,
L
p
L
p p
dx
dp A
= |
.
|
\
|
= |
.
|
\
|
2 1

For inclined pipes, replace |
.
|
\
|
+ |
.
|
\
|
Z p
dx
d
by
dx
dp
(
i.e., by |
.
|
\
|
ds
dh
where h = p/ +Z = Piezometric head
Here
L
h
L
Z
p
z
p
L
h h
ds
dh A
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
= |
.
|
\
|
2
2
1
1
2 1

Head Loss h
f

Designating h
f
=- h A = head loss in a length L

L
h
ds
dh
f
=
Note that for a uniform flow the velocity is same all along the length and hence the energy loss
= head, loss = drop in Piezometric head.
In general, the variation of the head loss h, due to uniform laminar flow in a length L of a pipe of
diameter D is given by,
2
32
D
YL
h
f

= ---------- (10)
This equation is known as Hagen- Poiseuille equation. Since the mean velocity

2
4
D
Q
V
t
= Where Q = discharge

4
128
D
QL
h
f
t
= ------ (11)
Power, P
Power required to overcome a head H is
QH P =
Hence, in laminar flow the power required to overcome frictional resistance in a pipe of
length L and diameter D, carrying a discharge Q of a fluid of specific weight and viscosity p is

4
2
128
D
L Q
Qh P
f
t
= = ---- (13)
Friction Factor,f
It is usual to designate the frictional resistance to flow in a pipe by Darcy- Weisbach equation as

gD
fLV
h
f
2
2
= ------- (14)
where f= friction factor. For laminar flow

gD
fLV
D
VL
h
f
2
32
2
2
= =

Hence
Re
64 64 2
.
32
2 2
= = =
VD LV
gD
D
VL
f
------- (15)
or
Re
64
= f
where
V
VD
= Re = Reynolds number

Flow Between Two Stationary Parallel Plates
For uniform laminar flow between two stationary parallel plates separated by a distance B, an
exact solution of the NavierStokes equations yields:
Fig.7.2
Velocity distribution
) (
2
1
2
y By
dx
dp
v
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
--------(16)

(
(
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2 / 2 /
2
B
y
B
y
v
m
--------- (16 a)

Maximum velocity
2
8
1
B
dx
dp
v
m
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
------ (17)

12 3
2
2
B
dx
dp
v V
m
|
.
|
\
|
= = -----(18)
Shear stress at the boundary
B
V B
dx
dp
o

t
6
2
= |
.
|
\
|
= --- (19)
Variation of the shear stress |
.
|
\
|
= |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 /
1
2
0
B
y
y
B
dx
dp
t t for y < B/2
and |
.
|
\
|
= 1
2 / B
y
o
t t for y > B/2
The head loss h in a length L is
2
12
B
VL
h
f
=
Viscous Flow with a Free Surface
When a viscous uniform how takes place in laminar regime down an inclined plane with a free
surface (Fig. 7.3), the flow is similar to flow between two parallel plates. Here the depth of flow d
= B12 = half the spacing between the plates.

Fig.7.3
On this basis the various parameters of the flow, viz, the velocity distribution and shear stress
distribution can be estimated.For the head loss equation,

2
3
sin
d
V
S
L
h
o
f
u = = = ---- (22)
where S
0
= slope of the inclined plane
= slope of the liquid surface
= slope of the hydraulic grade line
Coutte Flow
The flow between two stationary parallel plates is a special case of a general flow
situation representing flow under pressure gradient in the gap between two parallel plates, with
one of the plates moving relative to the other. This general flow, schematically represented in
Fig. 7.4 is called Genera! Coutte flow. In Fig. 7.4,
U = Velocity or the plane
u = velocity at a distance y from, the bottom
B = gap between the two plates.

The solution of two-dimensional Navier-Stokes equation for the boundary conditions
represented in Fig. yields
|
.
|
\
|
=
B
y
dx
dp By
B
Uy
u 1
2
----- (23)
(dp
In this equation |
.
|
\
|

dx
dp
1 = pressure gradient in the direction of flow. Using the non-
dimensional pressure gradient |
.
|
\
|
=
dx
dp
U
y B
P
2
2
the velocity distribution of Equation (23) can be
represented as
|
.
|
\
|
=
B
y
B
y
p
B
y
U
u
1 ----- (24)

Fig.7.4
The variation of
U
u
with
(
P
B
y
fn , is shown in fig. as the variation of
U
u
with
B
y
for various
values of P
For non-horizontal Coutte flow, the pressure p is to be replaced by piezometic head h as
h Z
p
y p
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
Thus for inclined Coutte flow
|
.
|
\
|

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
B
y
dx
Z
g
p
d
g
By
B
Uy
u 1
2
----(25)
Fig.7.5 velocity distribution in coutte flow
Limts of General Coutte flow
If U= 0,11 is easy to see that we get the case of flow between two fixed parallel plates (known
as 2-D Poisuille tIow) discussed in Sec. 7.1.2.

- Plain Coutte Flow The particular case of Coutte flow with 0 = |
.
|
\
|
dx
dp
is known as Simple
or Plain Coutte Flow.
In plain Coutte flow,
B
y
U
u
or
B
y
U u i.e., the velocity varies linearly from zero at the fixed
boundary to U at the moving boundary.
The velocity gradient is
B
U
dy
du
= is constant all across the gap.
Fig.7.6velocity and shear stress
distribution in plain coutte flow

Fig. 7.6 shows the variation of velocity and shear stress across the gap between the plates
in a simple Coutte flow.

CREEPING MOTION
Very slow motion of an object in an infinite expanse of a viscous fluid is known as creeping
motion. For the case of a sphere of diameter D moving with a velocity V0 in a viscous fluid, the
creeping motion occurs at the Reynolds number
0 . 1 Re s =
v
D V
o
- -----(26)
Through an analytical procedure Stokes has shown that the net longitudinal force F exerted
upon the sphere is

o
V D F t 3 = ----- (27)
This equation, known as Stokes Equation, finds application in the determination of the fall
velocity of small particles.

LUBRICATION
Whenever there is relative motion of two surfaces ui contact there exists friction and consequent
loss of energy. In machine elements having moving pans. the friction is considerably reduced
through application of lubrication and use of bearings. There are a wide variety of bearings in
use and the mechanics of commonly used bearings can be modeled through laminar flow in
passages of simple geometries. Examples of common hearings that can be analyzed by simple
laminar flow concepts include journal bearing, conical bearing, collar bearing, pedestal hearing
and slipper bearing & few examples to illustrate the analysis procedure are given in the example
set that follows. In mechanics of flow related to lubrication, it is always assumed that the flow is
laminar.

VISCOMETERS
A viscometer is a device for determining the viscosity of a liquid. Many of these instruments use
laminar flow situations to estimate the viscosity of the liquid. The capillary tube viscometer
utilizes the Hagen-Poiseuille equation to estimate the coefficient of viscosity M of the liquid.

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FLOWS
It may be realized that the examples considered in this chapter are flows bounded by walls.
Such flows are known as internal flows. If the flows are not bounded by walls such flows are
known as external flows. Both laminar flows and turbulent flows exist as internal or external
flows.
8. Boundary Layer Concepts:

Fig. Boundary Layer Growth Fig. Boundary Layer Thickness

As u reaches the free stream velocity U asymptotically, the boundary Layer thickness o is
defined as the value of y at which u = 0.99 U.

Re
x
=
v
U
x
is called the local Reynolds number, where v = kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
Initially the boundary layer wilt be Laminar. But around a value of Re
x
= 5 x I0
5
the flow in
the boundary layer will undergo a transition phase and soon becomes turbulent. A boundary
Layer in which the flow is turbulent is called turbulent boundary layer. In a laminar boundary
layer the velocity distribution (i.e variation of u with y) is parabolic, while it is logarithmic in a
turbulent boundary Layer.

In boundary layer theory the following thicknesses of the boundary layer are defined and
used:
Nominal thickness, 8: ft is the thickness, measured from the boundary at which the x-
component velocity attains 99% of the free stream velocity U, i.e. the value of y at which u =
O.99U.
Displacement thickness, o*: It is defined as
}
|
.
|
\
|
=
o
o
0
*
1 dy
U
u

Momentum thickness, u : It is defined as
}
|
.
|
\
|
=
o
u
0
1 dy
U
u

Energy thickness,
* *
o : it is defined as

dy
U
u
U
u
}
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
o
o
0
2
* *
1
Shape factor, H: The ratio u o /
*
= H is said to be the shape factor of the boundary Layer.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
For a laminar boundary layer, the boundary conditions are:
1. At the wall y=0,u=0 andv=0.
2. At the outer edge y=o ,u=U.
3. Shear stress at the wall,
0 =
c
c
=
y
o
y
u
t
The flow over a flat plate which is described in this section is a particular case in which
U= constant or the pressure gradient
dx
dp
is zero. This case is also known as zero pressure
gradient flow
There are situations in which the pressure gradient can be favorable |
.
|
\
|
ve is
dx
dp
or
adverse |
.
|
\
|
+ ve is
dx
dp
in which U = f(x). These are beyond the scope of this book. The boundary
layer thickness o and the local shear stress i are functions of x.

LAMINARBOUNDARYLAYER OVER A FLAT PLATE
For laminar flow over a flat plate, Blasius solved the basic boundary layer equations and
obtained analytical solution which have been verified experimentally to be remarkably accurate.
The classic Blasius solution for laminar boundary layer are:

x
x
Re
0 . 5
=
o

Where
v
Ux
x
= Re
by defining
2
2
U
C
f o

t = (8.2)
where C
f
= local shear stress coefficient.

We have
x
f
C
Re
664 . 0
= (8.3)
If the total drag force on one side of a plate of length L and width B is defined as,
2
) . (
2
0
U
B L C dx B F
Df
L
o D

t = =
}


Then
L
Df
C
Re
328 . 1
= (8.4)
Where
v
UL
L
= Re and
Df
C = total frictional drag coefficient.

KARMAN MOMENTUM INTEGRAL FORMULATION
This is an approximate but simple method of solving boundary layer equations. By the
application of momentum principle to a steady boundary layer over a flat plate it can be shown
that,
x
dy
U
u
U
u
x
C
U
f
o
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|

c
c
= =
}
u
t
o
0
2
1
2
1
(8.5)
Putting ) (q f
U
u
= where o q / y =
q q q
o
t d f f
x
U
o
) ( 1 ( ) (
1
0
2
c
c
=
}

Let o q q q =
}
d f f ) ( 1 ( ) (
1
0

Then
x
U
o
c
c
=
o
o t
2
(8.6)

From the boundary conditions for a laminar boundary layer,
0 0
) (
= =
(
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
=
q
q
q
o
t
d
df U
y
u
y
o

Putting |
q
q
q
=
=0
) (
d
df

o
|
t
U
=
0
(8.7)

Equating the two expressions for
0
t
o
| o
o
U
dx
d
U =
2

dx
U
u
d |
.
|
\
|
=
o
|
o o
1

Integrating with the boundary condition (x = 0, o =0)
x
x
Re
) / ( 2 o | o =
x
x
Re
) / ( 2 o | o
=
(8.8)

Substituting the value of Sin Eq. (8.7) for
o
t , and simplifying,

x
o
f
U
C
Re
1
2
2 /
2
o|
t
= =
(8.9)

The drag force on one side of the plate, for a plate of unit width is
}
=
L
D
dx F
0
0
t
L Df D
C L U F Re / 2 ) 5 . 0 /(
2
o| = =
(8.10)

In Table 8.1, some of the commonly adopted forms of u/U= f(q ) and the corresponding
boundary layer parameters o , C
f
, C
Df
, obtained by using the Karman momentum integral
equations, are given. After studying the Example 8.5, the reader is advised to derive all the
elements listed in Table 8.1 as a good exercise.
Table 8.1 Laminar Boundary Layer Solutions for Various Velocity Profiles

u/U = f(q )
x
x Re ) / (o
x
x Re ) / (
*
o
x f
C Re
L Df
C Re
Exact
(Blasius)
5.00 1.729 0.664 1.328
4 3
2 2 q q q +
5.84 1.752 0.686 1.372
3
2
1
2
3
q q
4.64 1.740 0.626 1.292
2
2 q q
5.48 1.826 0.730 1.460
|
.
|
\
|
q
t
2
sin
4.80 1.741 0.654 1.308
q
3.46 1.730 0.577 1.154

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR A PROPER f(q )

A proper function u/U = f(q ) must satisfy the following essential and desirable boundary
conditions:
Essential Desirable
At the wall, y =0; u = 0 0
2
2
=
c
c
y
u

At y =o ; u = U 0
2
2
=
c
c
=
c
c
y
u
y
u


TRANSITION FROM LAMINAR BOUNDARY LAYER
As the flow passes down the plate, i.e. as Re
x
increases the boundary layer thickness
increases and soon it becomes unstable. Turbulence persists and grows in the boundary layer
at higher values of Re
x
. It is generally believed that the transition from laminar to turbulent
boundary layer takes place between Re
x
= 1.3 x 10
5
and 4 x 10
6
, with the mean value of Re
x
=
(Re
x
) = 5 x 10
5
taken as the commonly accepted critical Reynolds number.
In a flow past a long plate, the initial part in the boundary layer up to X
crit
will be laminar
and the onwards the flow of the boundary layer will be turbulent.

TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER
The turbulent boundary layer will have much steeper velocity gradients at the boundary
than the laminar boundary layer. The velocity distribution is logarithmic and could be
conveniently expressed i the form of a power law,
n
y U u
/ 1
) / ( / o = over a range of Reynolds
number. The power n can be 5 to 10 depending on the Reynolds number range.
Next to the boundary, in a turbulent boundary layer over a smooth bed, there exists a thin
layer called as laminar sub layer.
For Re
x
between 5 x 10
6
and 2 x 10
7
the velocity distribution can be expressed by the 1/7
power law,
7 / 1
) / ( / o y U u = . The turbulent boundary layer characteristics found by experiments
and analytical calculations, to be valid for 5 x 10
5
<Re
x
<2 x < 10
7
are

5 / 1
Re
377 . 0
x
x
=
o

5 / 1
Re
059 . 0
x
f
C =

5 / 1
Re
074 . 0
L
Df
C =

The above formulae assume the boundary layer to be turbulent from x = 0. To account for initial
laminar boundary layer, C
Df
can be calculated by
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
L L
Df
C
Re
1700
Re
074 . 0
5 / 1

For higher Reynolds numbers (10
7
< Re
x
< 10
9
), the logarithmic form of velocity
distribution in the turbulent boundary layer is more appropriate. The boundary layer shear
coefficients are expressed by the following formulae given by Schlichting:
58 . 2
) Re (log
370 . 0
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
x
f
C
58 . 2
) Re (log
455 . 0
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
L
Df
C
The boundary layer thickness o is estimated by
) Re (log
22 . 0
6 / 1
x
x
=
o


If correction for initial laminar boundary layer is applied then,
L x
Df
C
Re
1700
) Re (log
455 . 0
58 . 2
=

The term 1700/Re
L
is so small that omitting it does not cause any appreciable error. In Fig. 8.3,
the values of C
Df
are plotted against the Reynolds number Re
L
as obtained from various
equations for various regimes of flow.
LAMINAR SUBLAYER
The laminar sub-layer is usually very thin and its thickness 3 is found by experiments to
be
*
/ 6 . 11 ' u v = o
where
t
o
u =
*
shear velocity.
If the roughness magnitude of a surface c is very small compared to ' o i.e., ' o c << , then
such a surface is said to be hydrodynamically smooth. Roughness does not have any influence
in such flows while the viscous effects predominate. Usually 25 . 0 ' / < o c is taken as the criterion
for hydrodynamically smooth surface (Fig. 8.4).
Fig 8.4

If the laminar sublayer thickness ' o is very small compared to roughness height e,
) ' ., . ( , o c c >> e i in such flows viscous effects are not important and the boundary is said to be
hydrodynainical rough. Usually 6 ' / > o c is taken as the criterion for hydrodynamically rough
boundaries.
In the region 6 ' / 25 . 0 < < o c , the boundary is in the transition regime and both viscosity and
roughness control the flow.

Rough flat plate: For flow on a completely rough flat plate the local friction coefficient C
f

and total drag coefficient D
f
are given by

5 . 2
log 58 . 1 87 . 2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
c
x
C
f

5 . 2
log 62 . 1 89 . 1
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
=
c
L
C
Df

ESTABLISHMENT OF FLOW IN A PIPE
When a flow enters a pipe from a reservoir a bounds layer forms in the pipe at the
entrance. The thickness of the boundary layer in the radial direction grows along the length of
the pipe till it merges at the centre line at a distance Le known as entrance length. The flow is
uniform beyond L
e
. The establishment length in the laminar and turbulent flow is given by the
following formulae:
In laminar flow: Re 07 . 0 =
D
L
e

In turbulent flow: 50 =
D
L
e

BOUNDARY LAYER SEPARATION
Separation Phenomenon
The flow past a flat plate held parallel to the flow is a case of boundary layer with zero
pressure gradients. Flows in converging boundaries are examples of favourable pressure
gradient and flows in diverging conduits or diverging boundaries are examples of adverse
pressure gradient flows.
In adverse pressure gradient boundary layer flow the boundary layer may at some section
leave the boundary. This is called as separation and downstream of the separation section
turbulent eddis exist and this disturbed region is called as a wake (Fig. 8.5). Separation can take
place in both laminar and turbulent boundary layers. The location of the separation section on
the surface of a body and the size of the wake have important bearing on the total drag force
experienced by the body.
Fig 8.5
At the separation point, the shear stress is zero and the velocity gradient 0 =
c
c
y
u
.

Control of Separation
Separation of flow from the boundary leads to inefficiency of the flow unit. In the lifting
surfaces such as aerofoils, it may cause reduction of lift and even stalling. Diffusers, conduit
transitions, pump and turbine blades and aerofoils are some common flow units where
separation may impair the performance.
Common procedures to control separation are based on the following methodologies:
Streamlining of blunt body shapes

Fluid injection into the boundary layer
Suction of fluid from the boundary layer
Creating a motion of the boundary wall.
Fig.8.6
9. TURBLENT PIPE FLOW

CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBULENCE FLOWS
Turbulence is the breakdown of orderly laminar flow in to a state of random fluctuations of
velocity. The source of turbulence is the formation of eddies at the shear layer formed either at
the boundary or at the layer of separation at the surfaces of discontinuity in the flow. If the
turbulence is generated at the wall as in internal flows it is known as wall turbulence and those
developed in external flows, away from any boundary, such as in free jets, is known as free
turbulence.
For purposes of modeling, a turbulence property such as a velocity is considered to be
made up of a mean value and a fluctuating component. Thus the velocity components are
' u u u + = , ' v v v + = , ' w w w + =
Where dt u
T
u
T
}
=
0
1
etc. for v and w. It is obvious that 0 ' ' ' = = = w v u
The rms value (root mean square value) of the fluctuations is an important statistical
property of turbulence. Thus for x-component

2
1
0
2 2
'
1
'
(
= =
}
dt u
T
u rms
T

Similarly
2
' v and
2
' w are defined. These rms values are measures of average values
of turbulence intensities in x, y and z-directions.

The intensity of turbulence of the flow is expressed as

2 2 2
' ' '
3
1 1
w v u
V
I + + =
where V is the mean velocity of flow given by
) (
3
1
2 2 2
w v u V + + =
The average kinetic energy of turbulence per unit of mass is defined as
KE per unit mass = ) ' ' ' (
2
1
2 2 2
w v u + +
A correlation exists between the various turbulent fluctuations u, v and w. These are
represented as, for example, ' ' v u
}
=
T
dt v u
T
0
' '
1
. Similarly for ' ' w v , u w' and so on. These
correlations of fluctuations of velocities cause additional tangential stresses and
normal stresses due tomomentuth exchange and could be represented in a compact
form as

2
2
2
' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' '
' ' ' ' '
w v w u w
w v v u v
w u v u u

In this
2
' u ),
2
' v and
2
' w are normal stresses on planes normal to x, y and z
directions respectively. The remaining are tangential (shear) Stresses Oil appropriate
planes. For example, ' ' v u is the turbulent shear stress on xy plane. Obviously ' ' v u
= ' 'u v and so on. These turbulent shear stresses play a very important role in the flow
mechanism and energy losses of turbulent flows.

The continuity equation for turbulent flow is written for the mean motion as
0 =
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
x
w
x
v
x
u
and it should satisfy the continuity condition for the fluctuations as
0
' ' '
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
x
w
x
v
x
u

Shear Stress
In turbulent flow the shear stress r is expressed as

dy
du
dy
du
dy
du
turb lam t
) ( q q t t t + = + = + =
where = dynamic viscosity and q = eddy viscosity which is not a fluid property but
depends upon turbulence conditions of the flow. Different models are proposed for the
estimation of the turbulent shear
stress
dy
du
t
q t =
Prandtls model assumes

2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
dy
du
l
t
t

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
dy
du
l
2
q
Where mixing length l = ky
In which k is the Karmans coefficient = 0.4
Karmans model assumes the mixing length to be

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2 2
/
/
dy u d
dy du
k l

2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
dy
du
l
t
t

Turbulent Flow Near a Wall
For turbulent flow near a wall typical shear stress and the velocity distributions are shown
in Fig. 10.1. Three important regions are to be noted:

1. Laminar sublayer where
lam
t predominates
(viscous wall layer)
2. Overlap region where both
lam
t and
turb
t
are important
3. Outer layer where flow is turbulent and

turb
t Predominates

Fig.10.1 turblent flow near a wall
The shear stresses at the wall r0is an important flow parameter.
*
/ u
o
= t is called shear
velocity. In the laminar sublayer

v
yu
u
u
*
*
=
and the thickness of laminar sublayer ' o is taken as

*
6 . 11
'
u
v
= o

TURBULENT PIPE FLOW
Critical Reynolds Number
When the Reynolds number
v
VD
= Re of a pipe flow exceeds a critical value, the flow
becomes turbulent. Even though the critical Reynolds number can assume a value within a
range depending upon many flow parameters, for practical purposes 2000 Re =
crit
is usually
adopted.

Pipe Flow
Fully developed pipe flow is called as equilibrium boundary layer flow. Here boundary
layer thickness = = = 2 / D r
o
o constant. The shear stress varies linearly with the distance from
the boundary to become zero at the centre
) / 1 (
o o o
r y =t t
where r
0
= radius of the pipe.

In a horizontal pipe of diameter D carrying a steady flow there will be pressure drop (p
2

p
1
) in a length L of the pipe. Equating the frictional resistance to the difference in pressure
forces.

DL
D
p p
o
t t
t
=
4
) (
2
2 1

|
.
|
\
| A
= =
L
D p
L
D
p p
o
4
.
4
) (
2 1
t
Designating
2 4
2
V f
o

t =
Where f = Darcy Weisbach friction factor,
8 / /
*
f V u
o
= = t
and
2
) ( ) (
2
2 1
V
D
L
f p p p

= A =
For sloping pipes, ) ( p A will be replaced by change in piezometric head and Eq. (10.13)
can be written as

gD
LV f
h z
p
z
p
f
2
2
2
2
1
1
= =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

Here h drop in piezometric head in a distance L of the pipe due to friction, Equation
(10.14) is known as Darcy-Weisbach formula.
Hydrodynamically Smooth and
Rough Pipes
On the basis of relative magnitudes of surface protrusions c and thickness of laminar
sublayer ' o , a pipe surface is classified as follows:

(a) Hydrodynamically smooth:
25 . 0
'
s
o
c

i.e., 0 . 3
*
s
v
u c

(b) Surface in transition:
0 . 6
'
25 . 0 < <
o
c

i.e., 70 3
*
< <
v
u c

(c) Hydrodynamically rough:
0 . 6
'
>
o
c

i.e., 70
7
*
>
v
u c

It may be noted that the laminar sublayer thickness ' o could be expressed in terms of
pipe radius, as

f
f V
D
v
u r
v
r
o o
Re
6 . 65
8 /
2
6 . 11 6 . 11 '
*
= = =
o


Hence
) 6 . 65 )( / (
Re
' ' c o
c
o
c
o
o
o
r
f r
r
= =
Thus
' o
c
< 0.25 corresponds to 17
) / (
Re
<
c
o
r
f

>
' o
c
6.0 corresponds to 400
) / (
Re
>
c
o
r
f

Velocity Distribution
(a) Local Velocity For turbulent flow in a pipe of diameter D (radius r
0
=D/2), the velocity
distribution at any distancey from the boundary, the local velocity u is given by the following
expressions:
(i) for a smooth boundary
5 . 5 log 75 . 5
*
*
+ =
v
yu
u
u

(ii) for a rough boundary
5 . 8 log 75 . 5
*
+ =
c
y
u
u

(b) Mean Velocity: The mean velocity V in a pipe of radius r
0
is obtained by integrating the
velocity u over the entire area of the pipe and dividing by 1cro. This gives
For smooth pipes:
75 . 1 log 75 . 5
*
*
+ =
v
u r
u
V
o

For rough pipes
75 . 4 log 75 . 5
*
+ =
v
r
u
V
o

(c) Maximum Velocity u
m
: For both smooth and rough boundaries, the maximum velocity
u
rn
is at
y = r
0
and is given by

o
m
r
y
u
u u
log 75 . 5
*
=

(d) Relations Among V. U, Um, u
*
and f:
(i) In terms of mean velocity ] 4 / /( [
2
D Q V t = , the velocity u and the maximum velocity u
rn

are given for both smooth and rough pipes as:
75 . 3 log 75 . 5
0 *
+ =
r
y
u
V u

Replacing u
*
8 /
*
f V u =

32 . 1
log 2
0
+
=
r
y
f V
V u
9.23b


(ii) In terms of centreline velocity u
m
, the mean velocity V and f are related by the
expression.
1 43 . 1
max
+ = f
V
u

This equation is obtained from Eq. (9.23(b)) after making a small change in the
coefficients to fit the experimental data better.

(iii) In terms of u
m
, V and u. are related as 75 . 3
*
max
=
u
V u

FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE
The energy loss due to friction in the
pipe flow is expressed by Darcy-
Weisbach formula as
gD
fLv
h
f
2
2
=
and the variation of the friction factor f is as follows:
(a) Laminar Flow Up to 2000 Re s

Re
64
= f
(b) Smooth Turbulent Flow
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
s
|
.
|
\
|
17
Re
0
c
r
f
when
i)
4 / 1
Re
316 . 0
= f . . . Blasius equation valid for
5 4
10 Re 10 < <
ii) 80 . 0 Re log 2
1
= f
f
for all Reynolds numbers in the turbulent range in smooth
pipes.
For explicit relationship of f one can use either
237 . 0
Re
221 . 0
0032 . 0 + = f to get
approximate but adequate value off
(c) Rough Turbulent Flow 8 . 0
) / (
Re
log 2 log 2
1
0
=
c c r
f r
f
o
valid for uniform sand grain
roughness only.

COMMERCIAL PIPES
However, in commercial pipes the roughness magnitude, shape and distribution vary
widely. To overcome the difficulty of describing all these parameters the concept of equivalent
sand grain roughness is used. The roughness of a uniform sand grain coated pipe of the same
size as the given commercial pipe which gives the same value of fin the completely rough
turbulent regime is termed as the equivalent sand grain roughness, and also as effective
roughness (
s
c ), Some of the usual ranges of equivalent sand grain roughness of commercial
pipes are given inTable 9.1.

9.1 Table: Values of e for Some Common Commercial Pipes

Pipe material
s
c mm
1. Glass, drawn brass piping plastic, fibre glass
2. Wrought iron, Steel
3. Asphalted cast iron
4. Galvanised iron
5. Cast iron
6. Concrete
7. Precast concrete
Smooth (0.0025)
0.045
0.120
0.150
0.260
0.30 to 3.0
0.90 to 9.0
Colebrook Equation
For commercial pipes Colebrook found a semiempirical relationship amongst f, Re and r
0
/
s
c covering the smooth pipe, transition and rough pipe turbulent flow regimes, as

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
f
r r
f
s o
s
o
Re
/
log 2 74 . 1 log 2
1 c
c

which simplifies to
(
(
+ =
f
D
f
s
Re
35 . 9
log 2 14 . 1
1 c

This equation gives a smooth transition which is asymptotic to smooth pipe and rough pipe
relationships off= fit (Re, r
0
/
s
c ), The Moody diagram is a graphical plot of this relationship.
As the Colebrook equation is too complex for practical application, many empirical
equations are available for easy and explicit solution of f.
Three of these are given below. In the following three equations D = diameter of the pipe.
Re = Reynolds number VD/v.
(1) Moody Equation

(
(
(
+ + =
3
1
6
Re
10
20000 1 0055 . 0
D
f
s
c

valid for Reynolds numbers between 4 x I 0
3
and 1 x 10
7
and
s
c /D up to 0.01. This is
claimed to give values within 5% of the Colebrook equation.
(2) Swamee and Jam Equation
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
9 . 0
Re
25 . 21
log 2 14 . 1
1
D f
s
c

valid for
8
10 Re 5000 s s and
2 6
10 / 10

< < D
s
c . This equation is claimed to yield
values off within 1% of the Colebrook equation.

(3) Haaland Equation:

(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=
11 . 1
7 . 3
/
Re
9 . 6
log 8 . 1
1 D
f
s
c


This equation yields f values within 2% of Colebrook equation.

Note: Moody diagram is sometimes referred to as Stanton diagram as it is believed that
Stanton was the first person to propose such a plot.

Moody Diagram
It is a chart showing the variation of ) / (Re, D fn f
s
c = for the full range of Reynolds
numbers. It is a graphical representation of the Colebrook formula. Moody diagram is accurate
to about 15% for design calculations and finds a large number of applications. It can be used for
non-circular conduits and also for open channels, by replacing D with 4Rh where Rh is the
hydraulic radius of the conduit. Figure 9.2 is a reproduction of the commonly used form of
Moody diagram.
Fig.9.2
AGING OF PIPES
All commercial pipes change their roughness characteristics due to continuous usage. The
increase in the equivalent sand grain roughness e, with age is usually taken to be linear as
t
s s
o c c + =
0

10. PIPE FLOW SYSTEMS
The basic equation used in the calculation of head loss h
f
in a pipe is the Darcy-Weisbach
equation
gD
fLv
h
f
2
2
=
Where L= length of a pipe of diameter D;
V=mean velacity in the pipe
f=friction factor=fn(Reynolds number relative roughness) in general.
The ratio
f
f
S
L
h
= represents the energy slope which is equal to the hydraulic gradient in
uniform flow in long pipelines h
f
forms a very large part of the total loss.

Minor Losses
In pipe line systems there will be a large number of pipe fittings such as bends ,elbows ,joints
values and Trasitions.These fittings cause localized energy loses due to their shape and these
losses are classified as minor losses. Table 10.1 some important minor losses.
Minor losses are usually neglected as insignificant if they less than 5 % of the frictional losses.

Table 10.1 Minor Losses in Pipe Line Systems

Situation Head loss=h
i
Remarks/Explanations

1.Sudden expansion

2.Sudden contraction

3.Square edged entrance to a pipe

4.Exit from a pipe

5.Conical expansion

6.Bends

7.Pipe fittings

8.Nozzle
g
v v
2
) (
2
2 1

g
V
C
v
2
1
1
2
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|

g
V
2
5 . 0
2

g
v
2
2

( )
g
v v
K
2
2
2 1

g
v
K
2
2

g kv 2 /
2
1

g v
C
v
2 / 1
1
2
2
|
|
.
|
\
|

Expansion from section 1 to 2

c
C =coefficient of contraction

2
V =Velacityin contracted section

Square edged entrance from a reservoir

K=fn(
|
.
|
\
|
1
2
,
D
D
u

) / , ( D R fn k u =

Values of K given in Table 10.2

C
v
=coefficient of velocity of the nozzle

Table 10.2 Loss at pipe fittings ( ( ) g kV h
L
2 /
2
= - Thus if the head loss in pipe fittings is
expressed as average Values of K.

Fitting K
1.Globe value (fully open)
2.Angle value(fully open)
3.Gate Value(fully open)
4.Gate Value(half open)
5.Standard lee
6.Standard elbow
7.sharp 90
0
bend
8.sharp 90
0
bend with vanes
10.0
5.0
0.19
5.6
1.8
0.90
1.20
0.20
Table 10.1 Equivalent Legth
Equivalent length L
e
of a minor loss is that length of the pipe which will have the same head loss
for the rate discharge.
Thus if the head loss in pipe fittings is expressed as
g
V
k h
L
2
2
= then the length
c
L of a pipe of
diameter D and friction factor f which has the same velocity V is called its equivalent length if

gD
v fL
g
v
k
e
2 2
2 2
= (10.2)
The equivalent length
e
L will then be
f
kD
L
e
= (10.3)
Equivalent Pipes
(i) A pipe with length
1
L ,diameter
1
D and friction factor
1
f will be equivalent to another pipe of
corresponding parameters
2 , 2
D L and
2
f , if
5
2
2 2
5
1
1 1
D
L f
D
L f
= (10.4)
(ii) If a set of pipes described by )... ( ), , (
2 , 2 , 2 1 , 1 1
f D L f D L are connected in series then an
equivalent pipe ) , (
, e e e
f D L is related as
...
5
3
3 3
5
2
2 2
5
1
1 1
5
+ + + =
D
L f
D
L f
D
L f
D
L f
e
e e
(10.5)
(iii) If a set of pipes ( ) ( ) ( )... , , , ,
3 3 3 2 , 2 , 2 1 , 1 , 1
f D L f D L f D L are connected in parallel between two
points, then an equivalent pipe( )
e e e
f D L
,
, is related as
....
3 3
2 / 1
5
3
2 / 1
2 2
5
2
2 / 1
1 1
5
1
2 / 1
5
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
L f
D
L f
D
L f
D
L f
D
e e
e
(10.6)
SIMPLE PIPE PROBLEMS
If a pipe has large number of minor head losses the total head loss
...
2 2
2
2
2
1
+ + + =
g
v
k
g
v
k h H
f L

or
g
V
K
gD
fLv
H
n
i L
2 2
2
1
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ =

Power required to pump the fluid over a length L,

L
QH P =
By energy consideration, if
=
1
H Total energy at the beginning of the pipe
=
g
v
Z
p
2
1
2
1
+ +

2
H =total energy at the end of the pipe (after a length L from section 1)

g
v
Z
p
2
2
2
2
+ +

Then H
1
= H
2
+ H
1

Also ,since the velocity V is same at sections 1 and 2.

L
H Z
P
Z
P
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
2
2
1
1

(10.9)

Siphon
A siphon is a situation where the centerline of the pipe is above the hydraulic grade line (Fig.
10.1 and 10.2)

Fig.10.1 Fig.10.2
In a siphon that portion of the pipeline which is above the hydraulic grade line experiences
negative pressures. In Fig 11.1, by taking atmospheric pressure as datum(zero).

) 2 1 (
2
0 0
2
2
2
1

+ + + = + =
L
H
g
V
Z
P
Z
=
) 3 1 (
3

+
L
H Z
Where
) 2 1 ( L
H =total head loss= (friction loss+ minor losses) between sections 1 and 2

It is seen that
) 2 1 ( 2 1
2
) (

= =
L
H Z Z
P
(gauge pressure) (10.10)

Pipes in series
When two or more pipes of different diameters or roughness are so connected that the full
discharge of the fluid from one flows into the others serially the system represents a series pipe
line.Figure 10.3 shows a typical set of pipes in series.The head losses are cumulative.

Fig.10.3

The total head H at A and B are related as H
A
= H
B
= H
L
Where
L
H =sum of energy losses in pipes 1,2 and 3
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +
|
|
.
|
\
|
+

2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
1 1 1
2
1
2 2 1 2 2 gD
V L f
g
V
K
gD
V L f
g
v
k

( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ +

3
2
3 3 3
3
3
2 2 gD
V L f
g
V
K (11.11)

|
|
.
|
\
|
g
V
K
2
2
represents the total minor losses in each pipe.
Also by continuity, Since the same discharge passes through all the pipes.
Q
1
= Q
2
= Q
3

i.e
2
3 3
2
2 2
2
1 1
D V D V D V = = (10.12)
The solution of pipes in series is generally relatively straight forward and simple.

Pipes in Parallel
A combination of two or more pipes connected between two points so that the discharge divides
at the first junction and rejoins at the next is known as pipes in parallel (Fig 10.4) .Here the head
loss between the two junction (M and N) in Fig 10.4) is same for all the pipes.

Fig.10.4
Thus as total discharge
Q = Q
1
+ Q
2
+ Q
3

Head loss
N M N
N
M L L L
h h Z
P
Z
PM
H H H =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ = = =

3 2 1
(10.13)
It is usual to consider minor losses as equivalent lengths in parallel pipe flow problems and as
such

gD
fLV
h H
f L
2
2
= =
Two types of problems can be recognized:
(1) Given piezometric heads at M and N (
M
h and
N
h ) to find
,..... 2 , 1
Q Q etc .This is a straight
forward problem, especially if f of each pipe is known
(2)Given total discharge Q, to determine the discharge division (i.e, to find .... ,
2 1
Q Q etc).
Three solution procedures are available to solve this problem
1. Exact method
2. Equvalent Pipe method
3. Trail and Error method

(1) Exact Method Let there be N pipes in parallel
Put
2 2
1 1
2
2 2
2
1 1
.... ..........
n n f
Q r Q r Q r Q r h = = = =
In this


|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
i
i i i
f
i i
i
gD
V L f
h f rom obtained
gD
L f
r
2
8
2
5
1
2
t
(10.14)

Thus

1
2
1
2
Q
r
r
Q =

;
1
2
1
3
Q
r
r
Q =

;

1
1
1
1
Q
r
r
Q = (10.15)
By continuity total discharge
(
+ + + + + + + =
N
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
r
Q Q
1
1
1
3
1
2
1
1
...... ..... 1

(
(
=

N
r
r Q
1
1
1 1
1

Thus
(
(
(
(
N
r
r
Q
Q
1
1
1
1
1
1
(10.16)

Knowing Q
1
, other discharges Q
1
can be found from Eq.10.15 .In addition from Eq 10.14
1
h can
be found
(2) Equivalent pipe method: This is an alternated exact method .In this an equivalent pipe is
used a replacement of the set of parallel pipes.
(3) Trial and Error method
(i) Assume a trial discharge
1
1
Q in pipe 1,(10.4)
(ii) Using
1
2
1 1
1
1
1
1
2gD
V fL
h find Q =
(iii) Using
1
1
h as common head find
1
2
Q and
1
3
Q
(iV) Find ) ' ' (
'
3 2 1
'
Q Q Q Q + + =
(V) Assume the correct discharge is split among the pipes in the same ratio as
'
3 2
'
1
: ' : Q Q Q
Thus
1 3
'
2 2
'
1 1
, KQ Q and KQ Q kQ Q = = =
Where K=
|
|
.
|
\
|
'
Q
Q

(vi) Check the necessary of this assumption calculating
3 2 1
,
f f f
h and h h .If the differences
greater than 5 % repeat step (iv) onwards .
Branching Pipes In this junction three or more pipes lead off different terminals. A
typical branched pipe problem is the three-reservoir problem .Here at junction J the
continuity equation must be satisfied i.e., the flow into the junction=flow out of the
junction

Three-Reservoir problem
Referring to Fig 10. 5 , Three reservoirs A,B and connected by three pipes 1, 2 and 3 at
a connected junction J. The three reservoir problem is about finding the direction and magnitude
of the discharges in the three pipes when the geometric characteristics of the pipes and the
water surface elevations of the three reservoirs are known
Two solution procedures Viz.(i) Exact method and
(ii)Trial and error method are in use. In this type of problem the calculations are greatly
simplified by putting h=
2
rQ where
5 2
8
gD
fl
r
t
=
(1)Exact method : Let
1
H -Piezometric head at the junction and
c b a
H and H H are the
piezometric heads at the highest reserviour (A),intermediate reserviour (B) and lowest
reservoiur (C) respectively.
(I) To determine the direction of flow:
Let
'
h
H H
H H
c b
b a
=
and
1
2
1
R
r
r
=
- If
1
1
R h > the flow is of Type-1 with
With
j
H >
b
H and
3 2 1
Q Q Q + =
- If
1
1
R h < the flow is of Type-2 with
j
H <
b
H and
3 2 1
Q Q Q = +
- If
1
1
R h = the flow is of Type-3 with
. 3 1 1
Q Q and H H
b
= = This is the rate situation and the problem degenerates to a case of
two pipe in series.
(2) Solution procedure for Type-I flow

Between the junction j and the reserviours A,B and C successively
1
2
1
Q r H H
j a
+ =
2
2
2
Q r H H
j b
=

3
2
3
Q r H H
j c
=

Put
2 3
mQ Q = resulting in
2 1
) 1 ( Q m Q + = (10.17)
| |
2
2 2
2
1
) 1 ( ) ( Q r m r r H H H
b b
+ + =
| |
2
2 2
2
3
) ( Q r m r H H
c b
= (10.18)
Dividing Eq.11.17 by 11.18
( )
'
1
3
2
2
3
2
2
1
h
H H
H H
r m r
r m r
c b
b
=
+ +
(10.19)
Equation 10.19 is a quadratic equation in m.Considering th positive root as the
relevant value.Q
2
is found by applying this value of m in equation 10.17 or eq.10.18 and
hence values of Q
3
and Q
1
.H
j
is found by energy relation ship between a reserviour and
the junction ,e.g
2
1
1 1
Q r H H
a
+ =
(3) Solution Procedure for Type-2 flow:
The energy relationships for this type flow are:

1
2
1
Q r H H
j ca
+ =
2
2
2
Q r H H
j b
+ =
3
2
3
Q r H H
j c
=
Put
2 3
mQ Q = resulting in
2 1
) 1 ( Q m Q =
( ) ( ) | |
2
2
2
2
1
1 Q r m r H H
b a
= = (10.20)
( ) | |
2
2
2
2
3
Q r m r H H
c b
+ = (10.21)
Dividing Eq.11.20 by 11.21
( )
'
1
2
2
3
2
2
1
h
H H
H H
r m r
r m r
c b
b a
=
=
=
+

(10.22)
This quadratic equation in m has two positive roots. Selecting the root where m >1 as relevant
(as m<1 gives negative Q
1
values) the discharge Q
2
is found from Eq.10.20 or Eq.10.21 and
hence Q3 and Q1.The head at the junction ,Hj is found from energy relationship between a
reservoir and the junction J.
(2) Trial and Error Method
(i) Assume a trial value of Hj, The first trail H
j
may be taken around the average value of
the lowest and highest reservoir levels.

(ii) For each H
j
calculate Q
i
in each pipeline with each positive sign if it is towards the
junction and negative sign if away from the junction. Find
= A
1
Q Q and find
f
h
Q

(iii) The additive correction to be added to the assumed value of
2
H for purposes of next
trial is

A
= A
hf Q
Q
H
j
/
2
(10.23)
(iv) New
j
H for next trail is
j
H =previous
j
H +
j
H A
(v) Continue till Q A is very small
[ usually two iterations would suffice.]

PIPE NETWORK
An interconnected system of pipes is called a pipe network.The flow to an outlet may
come from different pipes.Figure 11.6 shows a typical network.
In the network:
(1) Flow into each junction must be equal to flow out of each junction
(2) Algebraic sum of head losses round each loop must be zero.

Fig.10.6
Generally, the solution of real pipe networks, as used in engineering practice, is difficult and
needs the help of digital computers. Here for illustration purposes simplified situation is used.
The head loss in each pipe is expressed as
n
rQ h =
1
.The coefficient r depends upon pipe
length,diameter and friction factor. For turbulent flow n is of the order of 2.
Hardy-cross method of Analysis
(i) In this method a trail distribution of discharges is made ,arbitrarily but in such a way as to
satisfy
Continuity at each node.
(ii) Headloss in each pipe is caliculated as
1
1

= =
n n
Q rQ rQ h and also the quantity( )
1 n
Q rn is
calculated for each pipe.
(iii) For each loop ,the quantity

= A
1
1
n
n
Q rn
rQ
Q (10.24)
Is calculated, This represents the correction to the assumed discharge.

(iv) Value of Q A is calculated for all loops.
(v) Corrections are now applied to each pipe in a loop and to all loops .Clockwise direction is
considered positive.
(vi) The procedure is repeated till Q A is very small.
Note: The directional sense is important Flows in a loop which are clockwise are taken positive. Positive
Q A represents to be added to clockwise (positive) flows. Some pipes which are common to two loops
may get two corrections].

Contaminant propagation
If a contaminant enters a steady state pipe network shown in Fig.10.6 at any node (say node A)
with a concentration Ca, its propogation through the network can be determined by simple mass
balance i.e continuity relation ship extended to include the contaminant
It is assumed the complete mixing place at a node and the contaminant is conservative,
i.e does not die off. Then at any node
i
i i
out
Q
C Q
C (10.25)
Where
out
C =average (mixed) contaminant concentration going out.

1
Q =inflow rates nd

i
C =contaminant concentrations of inflows.
MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
A large number of variations in the basic situation described above are possible. Some of the
common types of pipe flow problems of interest are:
(i) Pipelines with pumps/turbines.
(ii) Nozzle at the end of a pipe
(iii) Non uniform flow in a pipe, e.g tapering pipe or pipe with gradually decreasing
discharge.
(iv) Combination of series and paralle pipes.
(v) Non-circular condults.
These are illustrated through carefully chosen examples.


PART 2

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS
(GATE / IES)

1. For a Newtonian fluid (GATE-206)
a) Shear stress is proportional to shear strain
b) rate of shear stress is proportional to shear strain
c) shear stress is proportional to rate of shear strain
d) Rate of shear stress is proportional to rate of shear strain

2. An incompressible fluid (kinematic viscosity, 7.4 10
-7
m
2
/s; specific gravity, 0.88)
is held between two parallel plates. If the top plate is moved with a velocity of 0.5
m/s while the bottom one is held stationary, then the fluid attains a linear velocity
profile in the gap of 0.5mm between these plates. The shear stress in Pascals on
the surface of top plate is
a)
3
10 651 . 0

b) 0.651 c)
3
10 651 . 0 (GATE-2004)

3. A U-tube manometer with a small quantity of mercury is used to measure the static
pressure difference between two locations A and B in a conical section through
which an incompressible fluid flows. At a particular flow rate, the mercury column
appears as shown in the figure below. The density of mercury is 13600 kg/m
3
and
g = 9.81 m/s
2
. Which of the following is correct?
(GATE-2010)

a) Flow direction is A to B and P
A
p
B
= 20 kPa
b) Flow direction is B to A and P
A
p
B
= 1.4 kPa
c) Flow direction is A to B and P
B
p
A
= 20 kPa
d) Flow direction is B to A and P
B
p
A
= 1.4 kPa

4. A closed cylinder having radius R and height H is filled with oil of density . If the
cylinder is rotated about its axis at an angular velocity of e , then the thrust at the
bottom of the cylinder is
a) gH R t
2
b)
4
2 2
2
R
R
e
tt (GATE-2004)
c) ) (
2 2 2
gH R R e t + d)
(
+ gH
R
R
e
t
4
2 2
2

5. The pressure gauges G
1
and G
2
installed on the system show pressures of
00 . 5
1
=
G
P bar and 00 . 1
2
=
G
P bar. The value of unknown pressure P is
(GATE-2004)

a) 1.01 bar b) 2.01 bar c) 5.00 bar d) 7.01 bar

6. A water container is kept on a weighing balance. Water from tap is falling vertically
into the container with a volume flow rate of Q; the velocity of water when it hits the
water surfaces is U. At a particular instant of the time the total mass of container
and water is m. The force registered by the weighing balance at this instant of time
is (GATE-2003)

a) QU mg + b QU mg 2 + c) 2 /
2
QU mg + d) 2 /
2
QU

7. You are asked to evaluate assorted fluid flows for their suitability in a given
laboratory application. The flowing three flow choices, expressed in terms of the
two-dimensional velocity fields in the xy plane, are made available:
P: u = 2y; v = -3x
Q: u = 3xy, y = 0
R: u = -2x, y = 2y
Which flow(s) should be recommended when the application requires the flow to
be incompressible and irrotational? (GATE -2009)
a) P and R b) Q c) Q and R d) R

For Q.8 and 9
The gap between a moving circular plate and a stationary surface is being
continuously reduced, as the circular plate comes down at a uniform speed V
towards the stationary bottom surface, as shown in the figure below. In the
process, the fluid contained between the two plates flows out radially. The fluid is
assumed to be incompressible and inviscid.

8. The radial velocity v, at any radius r, when the gap width is h, is
(GATE-2008)
a)
h
V
V
r
r
2
= b)
h
V
V
r
r
= c)
r
Vh
V
r
2
= d)
r
Vh
V
r
=

9. The radial component of the fluid acceleration at r = R is
a)
2
2
4
3
h
R V
b)
2
2
4h
R V
c)
2
2
2h
R V
d)
2
2
4R
h V

10. A two-dimensional flow field has velocities along the x and y directions given by u
= x
2
t and v = -2xyt, respectively, where t is time. The equation of streamlines is
(GATE-2006)
a) x
2
y = constant b) xy
2
= constant
c) xy = constant d) not possible to determine

11. The velocity components in the x and y directions of a two-dimensional potential
flow are u and v, respectively. The
x
u
c
c
is equal to
(GATE-2005)

a)
x
v
c
c
b)
x
v
c
c
c)
y
v
c
c
d)
y
v
c
c

12. A fluid flow is represented by the velocity field

+ = j ay i ax V , where a is a constant.
The equation of stream line passing through a point (1, 2) is (GATE-2004)
a) x 2y = 0 b) 2x + y = 0 c) 2x y = 0 d) x + 2y = 0

13. In a steady flow through a nozzle, the flow velocity on the nozzle axis is given by
v = i
L
x
u
o
|
.
|
\
|
+
3
1 , where x is the distance along the axis of the nozzle from its inlet
plane and L is the length of the nozzle. The time required for a fluid particle on the
axis to travel from the inlet to the exit lane of the nozzle si
(GATE-2007)
a)
o
u
L
b) ) 4 ln(
3
o
u
L
c)
o
u
L
4
d)
o
u
L
5 . 2

14. A Venturimenter of 20 mm throat diameter is used to measure the velocity of water
in a horizontal pipe of 40mm diameter. If the pressure difference between the pipe
and throat sections is found to be 30 kPa, then neglecting the frictional losses, the
flow velocity is
(GATE-2005)
a) 0.2 m/s b) 1.0 m/s c) 1.4 m/s d) 2.0 m/s

15. Air flows through a venture and exits into atmosphere. Air density is ;
atmospheric pressure is P
a
; throat diameter is D
i
; exit diameter is D; and exit
velocity is U. The throat is connected to a cylinder containing a frictionless piston
attached to a spring. The spring constant is k. The bottom surface of the piston is
exposed to atmosphere. Due to the flow, the piston moves by distance x. assuming
incompressible frictionless flow, x is

a)
2
2
2
D
k
U
t
|
|
.
|
\
|
b)
2
2
2 2
1
2
s
t
D
D
D
k
pU
t
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
(GATE-2003)
c)
2
2
2 2
1
8
s
t
D
D
D
k
pU
t
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
d)
2
4
4 2
1
8
s
t
D
D
D
k
U
t
|
|
.
|
\
|

16. Match the flowing. (GATE-2010)
P. Compressible flow 1. Reynolds number

Q. Free surface flow 2. Nusselt number
R. Boundary layer flow 3. Weber number
S. Pipe flow 4. Frounde number
T. Heat convection 5. Mach number
6. Skin friction coefficient

a) P1, Q4, R 2, S 6, T 3 b) P 3, Q 4, R 6, S 1, T
2
c) P5, Q3, R 6, S 1, T 2 d) P 5, Q 3, R 6, S 1, T
2

17. A model of a hydraulic turbine is tested at a head of 1/4
th
of that under which the
full-scale turbine works. The diameter of the model is half of that of the full-scale
turbine. If N is the rpm of the full-scale turbine, then the rpm of the model will be
(GATE-2007)
a) N/4 b) N/2 c) N d) 2N

18. For air flow over a flat plat, velocity (U) and boundary layer thickness ( o ) can be
expressed, respectively, as

x
x
x y y
U
U
Re
64 . 4
;
2
1
2
3
3
= |
.
|
\
|
= o
o o

If the free stream velocity is 2 m/s, and air has kinematic viscosity of s m / 10 5 . 1
2 5

and density of 1.23kg/m
3
, then wall shear stress at x = 1m, is (GATE-2004)
a)
2 2
/ 10 36 . 2 m N b)
2 3
/ 10 6 . 43 m N
c)
2 3
/ 10 36 . 4 m N
d)
2 3
/ 10 18 . 2 m N

19. Consider a laminar boundary layer over a heated flat plate. The free stream
velocity is
U . At some distance x from the leading edge, the velocity boundary

layer thickness is
v
o and the thermal boundary layer thickness is
T
o . If the Prandtl
number is greater than 1, then
(GATE-2003)
a)
T v
o o > b)
v T
o o > c)
2
1
) ( ~

= x U
T v
o o d)
2
1
~

= x
T v
o o

20. The maximum velocity of a one-dimensional incompressible fully developed
viscous flow, between two fixed parallel plates, is 6 m/s. The mean velocity (in m/s)
of the flow is
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 5(GATE-2010)

21. Water at 25
o
C is flowing through a 1.0 km long G.I. pipe of 200mm diameter at the
rate of 0.07 m
3
/s. If the value of Darcy friction factor for this pipe is 0.02 and
density of water is 1000g/m
3
, the pumping power (in kW) required to maintain the
flow is (GATE-2009)
a) 1.8 b) 17.4 c) 20.5 d) 41.0


22. Consider steady laminar incompressible axi-symmetric fully developed viscous
flow through a straight circular pipe of constant cross-sectional area at a Reynolds
number of 5. The ratio of inertia force to viscous force on a fluid particle is
(GATE-2007)
a) 5 b)
5
1
c) 0 d)

23. The velocity profile is fully developed laminar flow in a pipe of diameter D is given
by u-u
o
(1-4r
2
/D
2
), where r is the radial distance from the centre. If the viscosity of
the fluid is , the pressure deep across the length L of the pipe is
a)
2
D
L u
o
b)
2
4
D
L u
o

c)
2
8
D
L u
o
d)
2
16
D
L u
o

24. A siphon draws water from a reservoir and discharges it out at atmospheric
pressure. Asuming ideal fluid and the reservoir is large, the velocity at point P in
the siphon tube is
(GATE-2004)

a)
5
2
2
2 1
) ( 2
LR
R R Q
t

b)
3
2
2 1
2
) ( 2
LR
R R Q
t

c)
5
2
2
2 1
2
) ( 2
LR
R R Q
t

d)
5
2
2
1 2
2
) ( 2
LR
R R Q
t

For Q.No. 25 & 26
A syringe with a frictionless plunger contacts water and has its end a 100-mm
longer needle of 1 mm diameter. The internal diameter of the syringe is 10 mm.
Water density is 1000 kg/m
3
. The plunger is pushed in at 100 mm/s and the water
comes out as a jet.

25. Assuming ideal flow, the force F(in N) required on the plunger to push out the
water is

a) 0 b) 0.04
c) 0.13 d) 1.15

26. Neglect losses in the cylinder and assume fully developed laminar viscosity flow
throughout the needle; the Darcy friction factor is 64/Re, where Re is the Reynolds
number. Given that the viscosity of water is
3
10 0 . 1

kg/s m, the force F (in N)
required on the plunger is
a) 0.13 b) 0.16
c) 0.3 d) 4.4

27. A U-tube manometer is connected to a pipeline conveying water as shown in the
given figure, The pressure head of water in the pipeline is

a) 7.12m

b) 6.56m

c) 6.0 m

d) 5.12 m

28. If a vessel containing liquid moves downward with constant acceleration g, then
a) The pressure throughout the liquid mass is atmospheric
b) The pressure in the liquid mass is greater than the hydrostatic pressure
c) There will be vacuum in the liquid
d) The pressure throughout the liquid mass is greater than atmospheric

29. The eye of a tornado has a radius of 40m. If the maximum wide velocity is 50 m/s
the velocity at a distance of 80 m radius is
a) 100 m/s b) 2500 m/s c) d)

30. A circular cylinder fo 400 mm diameter is rotated about its axis in a stream of water
having a uniform velocity of 4 m/s. When both the stagnation points coincide, the
life force experienced by the cylinder is
a) 160 kN/m b) 10.05kN/m c) 80 kN/m d) 40.2 kN/m

31. An automobile moving at a velocity of 40 km/hr is experiencing a wind resistance
of 2 kN. If the automobile is moving at a velocity of 50 km/hr. the power required to
overcome the wind resistance is
a) 43.4 kW b) 3.125 kW c) 2.5 kW d) 27.776 kW

32. When a cylinder is placed in an ideal fluid and the flow is uniform, the pressure
coefficient C
p
is equal to
a) u
2
sin 1 b) u
2
sin 2 1 c) u
2
sin 4 1 d) u
2
sin 8 1

33. A stream function is given by (x
2
y
2
). The potential function of the flow will be
a) 2xy + f(x) b) 2xy + constant c) 2(x
2
y
2
) d) 2xy + f(y)

34. The velocities and corresponding flow areas of the branches labeled (1), (2), (3),
(4) and (5) for a pipe system shown in the given figure are given in the following
tables.

Pipe Lable
1
Velocity Area
(1) 5 cm/s 4 sq cm
(2) 6 cm/s 5 sq cm
(3) V
2
cm/s 2 sq cm
(4) 4 cm/s 10 Sq
cm
(5) V
5
cm/s 8 sq cm

The velocity V
x
would be
a) 2.5 cm/s b) 5 cm/s c) 7.5 cm/s d) 10 cm/s
35. A pipeline connecting two reservoirs has its diameter reduced by 20% due to
deposition of chemicals. For a given head difference in the reservoirs with
unaltered friction factor, this would cause a reduction in discharge of
a) 42.8% b) 20% c) 17.8% d) 10.6%

36. The development of boundary layer zones labeled P, Q, R and S over a flat plate is
shown in the given figure.

Base on this figure, match List I (Boundary layer zones) with List II (Types of
boundary layer) and select the correct answer using the codes given below the
lists:
List I List II
A. P 1. Transitional
B. Q 2. Laminar viscous sub-layer
C. R 3. Laminar
D. S 4. Turbulent

37. A pipe 20 cm diameter and 30 km length transports oil from a tanker to the shore
with a velocity of 0.318 m/s. The flow is laminar. If 0.1 N-m/s
2
, the power
required for the flow would be
a) 9.25 kW b) 8.36 kW c) 7.63 kW d)

38. Separation of fluid flow is caused by
a) reduction of pressure in the direction of flow
b) reduction of the boundary layer thickness
c) presence of adverse pressure gradient
d) presence of favourable pressure gradient

39. Consider the following statements regarding the volute casing of a centrifugal
pump:
1. Loss of head due to change in velocity is eliminated
2. Efficiency of the pump is increased
3. Water from the periphery of the impeller is ollected and transmitted to the
delivery pipe at constant velocity
Which of these statements are correct?
a) 1, 2 and 3 b) 1 and 2
c) 2 and 3 d) 1 and 3

40. Differential pressure head measured by mercury oil differential manometer
(specific gravity of oil is 0.9) equivalent to a 600 mm difference of mercury levels
will nearly be
a) 7.62 m of oil b) 76.2 m of oil
c) 7.34 m of oil d) 8.47m of oil

41. Three immiscible liquids of specific densities , 2 and 3 are kept in a jar. The
height of the liquids in the jar and at the piezometer fitted to the bottom of the jar
are as shown in the given figure. The ratio H/h is

a) 4

b) 3.5

c) 3

d) 2.5

42. The convective acceleration of fluid in the x-direction is given by
a)
z t
v
v
x
u
u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c e
e b)
t t
v
v
t
u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c e
e c)
z y
v
v
x
u
u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c e
e d)
z
u
y
u
v
x
u
u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
e

43. At location I of a horizontal line, the fluid pressure head is 32 cm and velocity
head is 4 cm. The reduction in area at location II is such that the pressure head
drops down to zero. The ratio of velocities at location II to that at location I is

a) 3
b) 2.5
c) 2

d) 1.5

44. For maximum transmission of power through a pipe line with total H, the head lost
due to friction h
t
is given by
a) 0.1 H b)
3
H
c)
2
H
d)
3
2H

45. Laminar developed flow at an average velocity of 5 m/s occurs in a pipe of 10 cm
radius. The velocity at 5 cm radius is
a) 7.5 m/s b) 10 m/s c) 2.5 m/s d) 5 m/s

46. The velocity distribution in the boundary layer is given as
o
y
u
u
s
= , where u is the
velocity at a distance y from the boundary, u
s
is the free stream velocity and d is
the boundary layer thickness at a certain distance from the leading edge of plate.
The ratio of displacement to momentum thickness is
a) 5 b) 4 c) 3 d) 2

47. For the velocity profile q =
u
u
, the momentum thickness of laminar boundary layer
on a flat plate at a distance of 1 m from leading edge for air (kinematic viscosity =
2.10
-5
m
2
/s) flowing at a free stream velocity of 2 m/s is given by
a) 3.16 mm b) 2.1 mm c) 3.16 m d)

48. If a reciprocating pump having a mechanical efficiency of 80% delivers water at the
rate of 80kg/s with a head of 30m, the brake power of the pump is
a) 29.4 kW b) 20.8 kW c) 15.4 kW d) 10.8 kW
49. The level of runner exit is 5m above the tail race, and atmospheric pressure is
10.3. The pressure at the exit of the runner for a divergent draft tube can be
a) 5m b) 5.3 m c) 10 m d) 10.3 m

50. The gross head on a turbine is 300m. The length of penstock supplying water from
reservoir to the turbine is 400m. The diameter of the penstock is 1 m and velocity
of water through penstock is 5 m/s. If coefficient of friction ois 0.0098, the net head
on the turbine would be, nearly
a) 310 m b) 295 m c) 200 m d) 150 m

51. The capillary rise at 20
o
C in clean glass tube of 1mm diameter containing water is
approximately
a) 15 mm b) 50 mm c) 20 mm d) 30 mm

52. A dam is having a curved surface as shown in the figure.

The height of the water retained by the dam is 20 m density of water is 1000 kg/m
3
.
Assuming g as 9.81 m/s
2
, the borizontal force acting on the darn per unit length is
a) 1.962 10
2
N b) 2 10
6
N c) 1.962 10
6
N d) 3.924 10
6
N

53. The equation of a velocity distribution over a plate is given by u = 2y y
2
where u
is the velocity in m/s at a point y meter from the plate measured perpendicularly.
Assuming = 8.60 poise, the shear stress at a point 15 cm from the boundary is
a) 1.72 N/m
2
b) 1.46 N/m
2
c) 14.62 N/m
2
d) 17.20 N/m
2

54. Which of the following assumptions are made for denying Bernoullis equation ?
1) Flow is steady and incompressible 2) Flow is unsteady and compressible
3) Effect of friction is neglected arid flow is along a stream line
4) Effect of friction is taken into consideration and flow is along a steam line
Select the correct answer using the codes given below :
a) 1 and 3 b) 2 and 3 c) 1 and 4 d) 2 and 4

55. While measuring the velocity of air ( 1.2 kg/m
3
), the difference in the stagnation
and static pressures of a pitotstatic tube was found to be 380 Pa. The velocity at
that location in m/s is
a) 24.03 b) 4.02 c) 17.8 d) 25.17

56. A pump running at 1000 rpm consumers 1 kW and generates head of 10m of
water. When it is operated at 2000 rpm, its power consumption and head
generated would be
a) 4kW, 50m of water b) 6kW, 20m of
water
c) 3kW, 30m of water d) 8kW, 40m of water

SOLUTIONS

1. Ans : c

2. Ans : b
Given: v = 7.4 x 10
-7
m
2
/s, = 0.88 x 1000 = 880, and u = 0.5 m/s

Shear stress,
dy
du
v
dy
du
= = ) ( t
=
0005 . 0
5 . 0
880 10 4 . 7
7

= 0.6512

3. Ans : a

h g p p
B A
A = .
= 13600 x 9.81 x 0.15
= 20 kPa
As pressure is decreasing from A to B, so the direction of flow is A to B

4. Ans : d
We know that r
r
r
r
v
r
p
2
2 2 2
e
e
= =
c
c
[ r v = e ]

} }
= c
r r
rdr p
0
2
0
e

2
2
r P
2
= e

Area of circular ring = dr r t 2
Force on elementary ring = Intensity of pressure x area of ring
= dr r r t e
2
2
2 2

Total force on the top of the cylinder =
}
r
dr r r
0
2 2
2
2
t e

=
}
R
dr r
0
3 2
2
2
t e

=
4
2
2
4
2
R
t e


=
4 2
2
R t e

Thrust at the bottom of the cylinder = Weight of water in cylinder + Total force on the top
of cylinder
=
4 2 2
4
R H R g t e
t +
=
(
+ gH
R
R
e
t
4
2 2
2

5. Ans : b

P = P
2
G
P + Atmospheric pressure
= 1.00 + 1.01 = 2.01 bar

6. Ans : a
Volume flow rate = Q
Mass of water strike = Q
Velocity of the water when it hit the water surface = U
Force on weighing balance due to water strike
= Initial momentum Final momentum
= QU 0
= QU
(since final velocity is perpendicular to initial velocity)
New, total force on weighing balance = mg + QU

7. Ans : d
For irrotational flow,
v
y x
=
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2

For R, v
x
=
c
c
y
x
2 =
c
c

0 ) 2 (
2
2
=
c
c
=
c
c
y
x y

Now u
y
=
c
c

0 ) 2 (
2
2
=
c
c
=
c
c
=
c
c
x
y
u
y y


0
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
c
c
x y

Hence, it is irrotational flow.
For P,
2
2
x c
c
= -3
and 0 5
2
2
2
2
= =
c
c
+
c
c
x y

Hence, not irrotational.
Similarly, Q is also not irrotational.

8. Ans : a
Applying equation of continuity
rh V
pr
V
r
t 2
2
=

h
Vr
rh
r V
V
r
2 2
2
=
=
t
t

Alternative method:
= h r
2
t constant
0 1
2
= |
.
|
\
|
+
dt
dh
r
dt
dr
rh t
|
.
|
\
|
= = = V
dt
dh
h
Vr
d
dh
rh
r
dt
dr
2 2
2

9. Ans : b

h
VR
dt
dR
2
=
|
.
|
\
|
=
dt
dR
h
V
dt
R d
2
2
=
2
2
4 2 2 h
R V
h
VR
h
V
= |
.
|
\
|

10. Ans : a
Given u = x
2
t and v = -2xyt
We know xyt v
x
2 = =
c
c
----- (i)
t x u
x
2
= =
c
c
------ (ii)
Integrating equation (i) , we get
) (
2
y f y x + = Differentiating equation (iii) with respect to y, we get
) (
2
y f t r
y
+ =
c
c

Equating the value of
y c
c
from equation (ii) and (iv), we get
) ( '
2 2
y f t x t x + =

Since ) ( ' y f = 0, thus ) (y f =C (where C is constant of integration)
C yt x + =
2

C is numerical constant so it can be taken as zero
yt x
2
=
For equation of streamlines, = constant.
yt x
2
= constant
For a particular instance, x
2
y is costant.

11. Ans : c
0
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
c
c
y x
| |
(Laplace equation should be satisfied)

x
u
c
c
=
|
and
y
v
c
c
=
|

2
x x
u
c
c
=
c
c
|
and
2
2
y y
v
c
c
=
c
c |

Putting values in equation (i), we get
0 =
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+ |
.
|
\
|
c
c
y
v
x
u

y
v
x
u
c
c
=
c
c

12. Ans : c
Given: u
x
= ax and y
y
= ay
Equatin of steam line is,
y x
u
dy
u
du
=

ay
dy
ax
du
=
Integrating both sides, we have
Log (ax) = log(ay) + log c
or ax = c.ay
or x = cy
Since the steam line is passed through point (1, 2)
1 = 2c

2
1
= c

2
y
x =
Hence, equation of steam line is 2x y = 0

13. Ans : b

|
.
|
\
|
+ =
L
x
u V
o
3
1
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
L
x
u
dt
dx
o
3
1
dt
L
x
u
dx
o
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
3
1

Integrating,

} }
=
|
.
|
\
|
+
T L
dt
L
x
dx
0 0
3
1

T
L
x
u
L
L
o
=
(
|
.
|
\
|
+
0
3
1 ln
3

) 4 ln(
3
) 4 ln(
3
o o
u
L
u
L
T =

14. Ans : d
We know, A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2

1 1 2
2
2
1
2
4
16
V V
D
D
V = =

V
2
= 2V
1

Applying Bernoullis equation

2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
z
g
V
g
p
z
g
V
g
P
+ + = + +

g
V V
g
p p
2
2
1
2
2 2 1

=

1000
10 30
2
15
3 2
1

=
V

4
2
1
= V
0 . 2
1
= V m/s


15. Ans : d

Applying Bernoullis equation at points (1) and (2) we have

2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
z
g
v
g
P
z
g
v
g
P
+ + = + +

Since venture is horizontal, therefore z
1
= z
2

Now
g
v
g
v
g
P
g
P
2 2
2
1
2
2 2 1
=
|
|
.
|
\
|

( ) ( )
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2 2 1
2 2
) ( v v v v
g
g
P P = =

Since P
2
= P
a
= atmospheric pressure

2
1
2
2 1
2
) ( v v P P
a
=

Applying continuity equation at points (1) and (2), we have
A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2

2
1
2
1
v
A
A
v
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
Since v
2
= U
U
D
D
v
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1
2
1
4
4
t
t

U
D
D
v
t
2
1
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
From equation (i)

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
2
2 1
2
U
D
D
v P P
t
a

=
|
|
.
|
\
|
4
4
2
1
2
t
D
D
U

For the equilibrium of piston, Spring force = Pressure force due to air

(
=
4
4 2
2
1
1
2 4
t
D
D U
D kx
t

(
=
4
4 2 2
3
1
8
t
D
D
k
U D
x
t

16. Ans : d

17. Ans : c
From similitude,

actual el
D N
gH
D N
gH
|
.
|
\
|
= |
.
|
\
|
2 2
mod
2 2

actual el
N N =
mod

18. Ans : c
Given:
2
/ 23 . 1 m kg =
s m v / 10 5 . 1
2 5
= =

U = 2 m/s, x = L = 1m

5 . 10 5 . 1
1 2
) / (
1 2
Re
= =

uL
x
= 1.34 x 10
5

Now, shear stress
0 =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
y
o
dy
du
t
Where
3
2
2 2
3
o o
y y
U
u
=

(
=
2
2
2
3
2
3
o o
y
U
dy
du

Hence,
o 2
3
0
U
dy
du
y
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

Given :
o
Ux
x x
x
64 . 4
Re
64 . 4
= =
Putting x = 1,
5
1
10 5 . 1
1 2
64 . 4
) (
=
x
o =0.0127

o
t
U
dy
du
o
2
3
= =
=
2 3
5
/ 10 355 . 4
0127 . 0
2 ) 23 . 1 10 5 . 1 (
2
3
m N
=

19. Ans : a
Prandtl number =
heat of y diffusivit Molecular
mom of y diffusivit Molecular

From equation, since Prandtl number > 1
Velocity boundary thickness
v
) (o > Thermal boundary thickness

20. Ans : c
U
max
= 6 m/s

U
max
= s m
U
/ 4
3
2
6
15
max
= =
21. Ans : b
23 . 2
) 2 . 0 (
4
07 . 0
2
=
=
t
v m/s
Head loss, h
f
=
g d
lv
2
2
= 35 . 25
81 . 9 2 2 . 0
) 23 . 2 ( 1000 02 . 0
2
=

Power =
f
gQh
= 1000 9.81 0.07 25.35 = 17407.85 W = 17.4 kW

22. Ans : a
Reynolds number =
force Viscous
force Inertia
= 5

23. Ans : d
By Hagen Poiseuille law, for steady laminar flow in circular pipes

r
u
u
c
c
= t

2
.
r
x
P
u
c
c
= t

2
.
r
x
P
r
u
c
c
=
c
c

2
.
8
2
r
L
P
D
r
u
o
= |
.
|
\
|

(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
2
4
1
D
r
u u
o

P =
2
16
D
Lu
o

[(-1) sign is due to drop]

24. Ans : c
By energy conservation, velocity at point.
) ( 2
1 2
h h g Q =
As there is a continuous and uniform flow, so velocity of liquid at point Q and P is
same


) ( 2
1 2
h h g V
p
=

25. Ans : b
=
water
= 1000 kg/m
3

Applying Bernoullis equation at points 1 and 2, we have

2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
2 2
z
g
v
g
P
z
g
v
g
P
+ + = + +

Since Z
1
= Z
2
and P
2
= 0

g
v
g
v
g
P
2 2
2
1
2
2 1
=

P
1
= ) (
2
2
1
2
2
v v

Applying continuity equation at points 1 and 2, we have A
1
v
1
= A
2
v
2

1
2
1
2
v
A
A
v
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
1
2
2
) 001 . 0 (
4
) 01 . 0 (
4
v
t
t
= 100 v
1
= 100 x 0.01 = 1 m/s
Now from equation (i) | |
2
1
2
2 1
2
v v P =

=
2 2 2
. 95 . 499 ] ) 001 . 0 ( ) 1 [(
2
1000
m N =
Force required on plunger = N A P 04 . 0 ) 01 . 0 (
4
95 . 499
2
1 1
= =
t

26. Ans : c
Given, v = velocity of water = 1.0 x 10
-3
kg/m
Now, Re =
3
2
10 1
001 . 0 1 1000

=
V
d v

Re = 1000

27. Ans : c
Stating from pipeline and writing manometric equation
P + 0.56 1-0.45 13.6 0.5 0.88 = 0
P = 6 m of water

28. Ans : a

In a fluid at rest, pressure varies as g
dz
dp
=
When fluid moves downward, then 0 = + = g g
dz
dp

P
1
= P
2
= constant
i.e., pressure throughout the liquid mass is atmospheric.

29. Ans : a
Since angular momentum is conserved.
Mv
1
r
1
= mv
2
r
2

V
1
r
1
= v
2
r
2

50 x 40 =v
2
x 80
V
2
= 25 m/s

30. Ans : b
Lift force, F
L
=
2 2
2
1
2
1
v DL Av = t

2
16 4 . 0 1000
2
1
2

= =
t
tDv
L
F
L
= 10.05kN/m

31. Ans : b

2 2
d v
F
= constant

2
1
2
1
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
V
V
F
F

F
2
= 125 . 3 ) 25 . 1 ( 2
40
50
2
2
2
= = |
.
|
\
|
kN
Power = 3.125 |
.
|
\
|

18
5
50 = 43.4 kW

32. Ans : c
For rotating cylinder
(
+ =
R u
r
g
u
P P
s
t
u
t
u
e
2 .
sin 4
4
sin 4 1
2
.
2
2
2
2

For ideal flow, t = 0

P S
C
g
v
P P
2
2
e
= + =
where, C
P
= 1 4 sin
2
u

33. Ans : b

dy
d
x
dx
d |
= = 2
x
dy
d
2 =
|


and
dy
d
y
dx
dy |
= = 2
y
dy
d
2 =
|

Now x
dy
d
2 =
|

| = -2xy + f(x)
Differentiating with respect to x
y x f xy
dx
d
2 ) ( ' 2 = + =
|

) ( ' x f = 0
f(x) = constant
xy 2 = | + constant

34. Ans : a
Q
1
+ Q
2
= Q
4

10 4 8 4 2
5
= + V
V
5
= 2.5 m/s

35. Ans : a

5
2
1 . 12 d
lQ f
h
f
=

5 2
d Q

2 / 5
d Q
5724 . 0 ) 8 . 0 (
2 / 5
1
2
= =
Q
Q

% reduction = 100 1
1
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
Q
Q
= (1-0.5724 100 )= 42.8

36. Ans : a

37. Ans : c

2 2 1
32
D
uL
P P

=
Power = Q P A

= u D
D
uL

2
2
4
32 t

= 63 . 7 30 ) 318 . 0 ( 1 . 0 8 8
2 2
= = t t L uv kW

38. Ans : c
When pressure goes increasing |
.
|
\
|
>
c
c
0
x
P
in the direction of flow, then pressure
force acts against the direction flow; thus retarding flow in the boundary layer and
rapidly. Thus boundary shear bring the causes back flow. Due to this, boundary is
shifted away from the boundary. This phenomenon is called Boundary layer
separation.

39. Ans : a
In volute pump, impeller is surrounded by a spiral shaped casing which is called
volute chamber. Shape of the casing is such that sectional area of flow around the
periphery of the impeller gradually increases towards the delivery pipe. This
increase in the cross-sectional area results in developing a uniform velocity
throughout the casing.
In volute type of casing, there is only a slight increase in the efficiency of the pump,
because a considerable loss of energy takes place in eddies developed in the
casing.

40. Ans : d
13.6 0.6 = 0.9 h

Differential pressure head, h = 8.47 m of oil

41. Ans : c
0 3 3 2 5 . 1 3 = + + H h h h
3 =
H
h

42. Ans : b

dt
du
dz
du
dy
du
v
dx
du
u
x
+ + + = e o
Where
dt
du
is Local or temporal acceleration Remaining terms are called
convection acceleration.

43. Ans : a
From Bernoullis equation
dy
d
y
dx
d |
= =
g
v
2
0 4 32
2
2
+ = + 36
2
2
2
=
g
v

Now
4
36
2 /
2 /
2
1
2
2
=
g v
g v
9
2
1
2
2
=
v
v


3
1
2
=
v
v

44. Ans : b

Power transmitted by the pipe,
P = ) (
f
h H gQ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
g
v
D
fL
H gAv
2
.
2
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
g
v
D
fL
Hv gA
2
.
2

For maximum power, 0 =
dv
dP

0
2
. 3
2
=
g
v
D
lF
H
3
H
h
f
=
45. Ans : c

(
(
|
.
|
\
|
=
2
1 2
R
r
U U
av
= 5 . 7
10
5
1 5 2
2
=
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
m/s

46. Ans : c

2
5
2
1
5
0
2 5
0
=
(
= |
.
|
\
|
=
}
o o
o
y
y dy
y

dy
y y
dy
y y
} }
(
(
|
.
|
\
|
= |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
5
0
2
5
0
1
o o o o
o
6
5
3 2
5
0
2 2
=
(
=
o o
y y

3
'
= =
o
o
H

47. Ans : b
Re =
5
5
10
10 2
1 2
=

0158 . 0
10
1 5
5
=
= o

6
.
5
1
5
0
o
o
u = |
.
|
\
|
=
}
dy
y y

1 . 2 = o mm

48. Ans : a
B.P. = kW
R
mgh
m
4 . 29
8 . 0
30 81 . 9 80
=

=


49. Ans : b

g
V
g
P
z
g
V
g
P
atm
2 2
2 2
1 1
+ = + +

3 . 10 5
2
2
1 1
= + +
g
V
g
P

g
V
g
P
2
3 . 5
2
1 1
=

If V
1
= 0 then
m
g
P
3 . 5
1
=

50. Ans : b
m
gD
fLv
h
f
5
1 8 . 9 2
) 5 ( 400 0098 . 0
2
2 2
=

= =
mm H
net
30 56 300 = =

51. Ans : d
At 20
o
C, surface tension of water (contact with air) = 0.0736 N/m
Capillary rise,
h = m 030 . 0
10 10 81 . 9
0736 . 0 4
3 3
=

= 30 mm

52. Ans: c
Horizontal force per unit length
= m N x wA / 10 982 . 1 10 1 20 1000 81 . 9
6
= =

53. Ans : b
At y = 0.15,
7 . 1
15 . 0
=
= y
dy
du

2
/ 46 . 1 7 . 1 86 . 0 m N
dy
du
= = = t

54. Ans : a
Assumptions made in deriving Bernoullis equation:
1. Flow in steady flow
2. Fluid is incompressible
3. Fluid is non-viscous (inviscid)
4. Equation is applicable along a stream line
5. Effect of friction is neglected.
6. Only pressure and gravity forces are taken into account
7. Velocity is uniform over the cross section.

55. Ans : d

g
P
g
V
=
2
2

s m
P
P
V / 17 . 25
2 . 1
380 2 2
=
= =

56. Ans : d
When diameter is constant
(i) U
1
= H
DN
60
t

2
N H
(ii) Q =
f
V b D
1 1
t
N V Q
f

2

3
N Q
(iii) Power, P = gQH

2
N N P

3
N P
Now,
2
1
2
1
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
N
N
H
H

40
1000
2000
10
2
2
= |
.
|
\
|
= H m

3
1
2
1
2
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
N
N
P
P

kW P 8
1000
2000
1
3
2
= |
.
|
\
|
=


PART 3

EXERCISE

01. To avoid a correction for the effect of capillarity in manometers, diameter of tube
should be
a) less than 1 mm b) less than 3 mm
c) less than 4.5 mm d) more than or equal to 6 mm

02. What pressure, in MPa, must be maintained in a diving bell, at a depth of 1200 m,
to keep out the ocean water (S = 1.03)?
a) 1.24 b) 5.16 c) 9.32 d) 12.1

03. The river flow during floods can be classified as
a) steady uniform flow b) unsteady uniform
flow
c) steady non-uniform flow d) unsteady non-uniform flow

04. Wake always occurs
a) before a separation point b) after a separation point
c) before and after a separation point d) none of these

05. In a flow field, at the stagnation point
a) pressure is zero
b) total energy is zero
c) pressure head is equal to velocity
d) all the velocity head is converted into pressure head.

06. Pressure at an elevation of 2000 m in an isothermal atmosphere assuming T =
20C and atm = 100 kPa, is
a) 87 kPa b) 82 kPa e) 79kPa d)2lkPa

07. Total drag on a body is the sum of
a) pressure drag and velocity drag b) friction drag and velocity drag
c) friction drag and pressure drag
d) pressure drag, velocity drag and friction drag.

08. Pressure force on the 15 cm dia head light of an automobile travelling at 0.25 m/s
is
a) 10.4 N b) 6.8 N c) 4.8N d)3.2N

09. Viscosity of a fluid with specific gravity 1.3 is measured to be 0.0034 Ns/m
2
. Its
kinematic viscosity, inm
2
/s, is
a) 2.6 x 10
-6
b) 4.4 x 10
-6
c) 5.8 x 10
-6
d) 7.2 x 10
-6


10. When pressure p, flow rate Q, diameter D, and density d, a dimensionless group is
represented by
a)
4
2
dD
pQ
b)
4 2
D dQ
p
c)
2
4
Q
d pD
d)
2
4
dQ
pD

11. Viscosity is the most important property in the
a) travel of a bullet through air b) water jet issuing from a fire air
c) formation of soap bubbles d) flow of castor oil through a tube

12. In a free vortex flow, the tangential velocity is
a) directly proportional to the radial distance
b) directly proportional to the square of the radial distance
c) inversely proportional to the radial distance
d) inversely proportional to the square of radial distance

13. A type of flow in which the fluid particles while moving in the direction of flow rotate
about their mass centre, is known as
a) steady flow b) uniform flow c) laminar flow d) rotational flow

14. If pressure at any point in the liquid approaches the vapour pressure, liquid starts
vaporising and creates pockets or bubbles of dissolved gases and vapours. This
phenomenon is
a) surface tension b) adhesion c) vaporisation d) cavitation

15. In a steady flow of a compressible fluid through a pipe ,thedensity, area and
velocity at a particular section are 1.5 kg/m
3
,0.5 m
2
and 3 m/s respectively. At
another section the density and area are 0.75 kg/m
3
and 1.0 m
2
respectively. What
is the velocity at this section?
a) 1.5 m/s b) 3 m/s c) 4.5 m/s d) 6 m/s

16. A pipe connecting two reservoirs with adifference in their elevations, conveys
discharge of 0.1 m
3
/sec. if this pipe is replaced by another pipe, four times in size,
then the discharge will be
a) 0.4m
3
/sec c) 0.2 m
3
/sec b) 1.6m
3
/sec d) 3.6 m
3
/sec

17. The velocity distribution in the turbulent boundary layer follows
a) Straight line law b) parabolic law
c) hyperbolic law d) logarithmic law

18. A piece weighing 3 kg. in air was found to weigh 2.5 kg when submerged in water.
Its specific gravity is
a) 1 b) 5 c) 7 d) 6

19. The units of dynamic or absolute viscosity is
a) m
2
/sec b) kg. sec/metre c) newton-sec/m
2
d) newton-sec
2
/m

20. A body floats in stable equilibrium

a) when its metacentric height is zero
b) when metacentre is above c.g.
c) when its c.g. is below itscentre of buoyancy
d) none of the above
21. The vapour pressure over the concave surface is
a) less than the vapour pressure over the plane surface
b) equal to vapour pressure over the plane surface
c) greater than the vapour pressure over the plane d) zero

22. To avoid vaporization in the pipe line, the pipe line over the ridge is laid such that it
is not more than
a) 2.4 m above the hydraulic gradient b) 6.4 m above the hydraulic gradient
c) 10.0 m above the hydraulic gradient d) 5.0 m above the hydraulic gradient

23. A vertical wall is subjected to liquid (of specific weight w) pressure on one side. If
h be the height of liquid surface, then total pressure on wall per unit length is
a) wh b)
2
wh
c)
2
2
wh
d) wh
3
2

24. Property by virtue of which a liquid opposes relative motion between its different
layers is called
a) surface tension b) osmosis c) viscosity d) cohesion

25. If the surface of liquid is convex, then cohesion pressure is
a) negligible b) decreased c) increased d) absent

26. The resultant upward pressure of the fluid on an immersed body is called
a) upthrust b) buoyancy c) centre of pressure d) all the above

27. Rain drops are spherical because of
a) viscosity b) air resistance
c) surface tension d) atmospheric pressure

28. Which of the following forces does not act in case of fluids?
a) centrifugal force b) tensile force c) vibratory force d) elastic force

29. Ratio between inertial forces and the square root of pressure forces is known as
a) Euler number b) Weber number c) Froude number d) Mach number

30. The locus of elevations that water will rise in a series of pitot tube is called
a) hydraulic grade line b) pressure head c) energy grade line
d) head loss

31. For a flow between two stationery parallel plates, if the velocity distribution is
parabolic, the mean velocity is equal to
a) maximum velocity b) half the maximum velocity
c) one-third of the maximum velocity d) two-third of the maximum velocity

32. Eulers equation in the differential form of motion of liquids is given by
a) 0 = + vdv gdz
dp
b) 0 = + vdv gdz
dp
c) 0 = + + vdv gdz
dp
d) 0 = + + u u d gdz dp

33. The two important forces for a floating body are
a) buoyancy, gravity b) buoyancy, pressure
c) buoyancy, inertial d) inertial, gravity

34. The depth of water below the spillway and after hydraulic jump are 1 rn and 6 m
respectively. The head lost will be
a) 1.04 m b) 5 m c) 1.7 m d) 2.05 m

35. Relation between gauge pressure p inside a liquid droplet (i.e difference of
pressure between inside and outside of a liquid drop) of diameter d and surface
tension a is
a) pd = o b) pd t o = c)
t
o
pd
= d)
4
pd
= o

36. Which of the following flow is rotational?
a) u=y;
b) u=xv
2
; v=x
2
y
c) both (a) and (b) d) none of the above


EXERCISE - KEY

01. c 02. d 03. d 04. b 05. b 06. b 07. c 08. b 09. d 10. a
11. c 12. b 13. c 14. a 15. b 16. d 17. d 18. d 19. c 20. b
21. a 22. a 23. c 24. d 25. c 26. b 27. c 28. b 29. a 30. c
31. d 32. c 33. a 34. a 35. d 36. a

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1

VIGNAN UNIVERSITY :: VADLAMUDI

will vary with r as a paraboloid of revolution and this

then Equation4.4 is written as

2 sec 1 sec tion at

(gauge pressure) (10.10)

U . At some distance x from the leading edge, the velocity boundary

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