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Copy From www.ntcm.org NTCM Introduction We live in a mathematical world.

Whenever we decide on a purchase, choose an insurance or health plan, or use a spreadsheet, we rely on mathematical understanding. The World Wide Web, CD-ROMs, and other media disseminate vast quantities of quantitative information. The level of mathematical thinking and problem solving needed in the workplace has increased dramatically. In such a world, those who understand and can do mathematics will have opportunities that others do not. Mathematical competence opens doors to productive futures. A lack of mathematical competence closes those doors. Students have different abilities, needs, and interests. Yet everyone needs to be able to use mathematics in his or her personal life, in the workplace, and in further study. All students deserve an opportunity to understand the power and beauty of mathematics. Students need to learn a new set of mathematics basics that enable them to compute fluently and to solve problems creatively and resourcefully. Principles and Standards for School Mathematics describes a future in which all students have access to rigorous, high-quality mathematics instruction, including four years of high school mathematics. Knowledgeable teachers have adequate support and ongoing access to professional development. The curriculum is mathematically rich, providing students with opportunities to learn important mathematical concepts and procedures with understanding. Students have access to technologies that broaden and deepen their understanding of mathematics. More students pursue educational paths that prepare them for lifelong work as mathematicians, statisticians, engineers, and scientists. This vision of mathematics teaching and learning is not the reality in the majority of classrooms, schools, and districts. Today, many students are not learning the mathematics they need. In some instances, students do not have the opportunity to learn significant mathematics. In others, students lack commitment or are not engaged by existing curricula. Attaining the vision laid out in Principles and Standards will not be easy, but the task is critically important. We must provide our students with the best mathematics education possible, one that enables them to fulfill personal ambitions and career goals in an ever changing world. Principles and Standards for School Mathematics has four major components. First, the Principles for school mathematics reflect basic perspectives on which educators should base decisions that affect school mathematics. These Principles establish a foundation for school mathematics programs by considering the broad issues of equity, curriculum, teaching, learning, assessment, and technology.

Following the Principles, the Standards for school mathematics describe an ambitious and comprehensive set of goals for mathematics instruction. The first five Standards present goals in the mathematical content areas of number and operations, algebra, geometry, measurement, and data analysis and probability. The second five describe goals for the processes of problem solving, reasoning and proof, connections, communication, and representation. Together, the Standards describe the basic skills and understandings that students will need to function effectively in the twenty-first century. The ten Standards are treated in greater detail in four grade-band chapters: prekindergarten through grade 2, grades 35, grades 68, and grades 912. For each of the Content Standards, each of the grade-band chapters includes a set of expectations specific to that grade band. Finally, the document discusses the issues related to putting the Principles into action and outlines the roles played by various groups and communities in realizing the vision of Principles and Standards. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26798#sthash.IyhCOwL7.dpuf

Realizing the Vision Principles and Standards for School Mathematics acknowledges that there are significant challenges in realizing the vision for improving mathematics education. For example, How can all students have access to high-quality mathematics education? How can teachers learn what they need to know? Are assessments aligned with instructional goals? The Principles provide a useful perspective in addressing these difficult issues. Many groups and individuals need to be involved in attaining the vision described in Principles and Standards, including teachers, mathematics teacher-leaders, school and district administrators, institutions of higher learning, mathematicians, professional organizations, parents and other caregivers, politicians, business and community leaders, and students. Principles and Standards can help all these people engage in constructive dialogue about mathematics teaching, curriculum, and assessment. It is a means for developing a shared commitment to the improvement of mathematics education. A strong system of support is needed at both the local and national levels in order to make the vision of Principles and Standards a reality. Teachers must continually update their professional knowledge, both of mathematical content and of pedagogy. Teacher-leaders should strive to shift the conversation among their colleagues from just "activities that work" to a critical analysis of their practice. School, district, and state or province administrators must establish effective structures that support students' learning and teachers' professional growth. The teaching of mathematics can be controversial. Today's mathematics classrooms look quite different from classrooms of twenty years ago. Outreach to parents and others in the community is essential. Choices of instructional materials need to be based on a community's agreed-on goals for mathematics education. Parents and caregivers should know why an extensive and rigorous mathematics education is essential for their children and what options are available. Students must take responsibility to engage seriously with mathematics. Community members need to understand the changing goals and priorities of school mathematics and must be involved in the process of improving mathematics education. Though the challenge posed by Principles and Standards is great, there are good reasons to be optimistic. A substantial body of research on teaching and learning is now available that can guide the teaching of mathematics. Many strong communities of practice already exist among teachers, administrators, and others. Powerful organizations are supporting efforts to improve

mathematics instruction. If teachers work together with the many other groups that influence mathematics education, all children can receive the solid grounding in mathematics that they will need in the twenty-first century. It is our hope that Principles and Standards will serve as a catalyst for the continued improvement of mathematics education. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26798#sthash.IyhCOwL7.dpuf

Standards 2000 Project With the release of Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics in 1989, the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) moved to the forefront of efforts to improve mathematics education in the United States and Canada. The document marked a historically important first step by a professional organization to articulate extensive goals for teachers and policymakers in a school discipline. Since its release, the Curriculum and Evaluation Standardshas provided focus, coherence, and new ideas to mathematics education. In 1991 the NCTM, which is an international organization of teachers and others committed to excellence in mathematics teaching and learning for all students, published Professional Standards for Teaching Mathematics, which described the elements of effective mathematics teaching. Assessment Standards for School Mathematics, which appeared in 1995, established objectives against which assessment practices can be measured. Together, these three documents have given focus, coherence, and new ideas to efforts to improve mathematics education. NCTM recognized that its Standards would need to be periodically examined, evaluated, and revised to remain relevant. In 1995 its Board of Directors appointed the Commission on the Future of the Standards to recommend how NCTM might proceed in updating its existing Standards documents. As a result, the Standards 2000 project was begun in 1997, with the appointment of a Writing Group to produce an updated Standards document and an Electronic Format Group to produce an electronically enhanced version of that document. The Commission obtained input from many different sources to revise the Standards. The Writing Group consulted extensive collections of curriculum materials, state and provincial curriculum documents, research publications, policy documents, and international frameworks and curriculum materials. Association Review Groups, a set of "white papers" commissioned by NCTM's Research Advisory Committee, and conferences sponsored by the National Science Foundation and the Eisenhower National Clearinghouse furnished additional input. The Writing Group finished a draft version of the new document in October 1998, and many groups and individuals reviewed the printed draft and its electronic edition on NCTM's Web site. The Writing Group substantially revised the document on the basis of the many hundreds of reactions received in response to the draft. The resulting book, Principles and Standards for School Mathematics, is a single resource that can be used to improve mathematics curricula, teaching, and assessment. Principles and Standards is also available in an electronic edition on CD-ROM and on the World Wide Web at standards.nctm.org. The electronic edition of Principles and Standards has a rich array of examples to illuminate and extend the ideas presented in the printed text. Icons in the margins of the printed text indicate relevant electronic examples.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26798#sthash.IyhCOwL7.dpuf Principles for School Mathematics Introduction Educational decisions made by teachers, school administrators, and other professionals have important consequences for students and for society. The Principles for school mathematics provide guidance in making these decisions. The six principles for school mathematics address overarching themes: Equity. Excellence in mathematics education requires equityhigh expectations and strong support for all students. Curriculum. A curriculum is more than a collection of activities: it must be coherent, focused on important mathematics, and well articulated across the grades. Teaching. Effective mathematics teaching requires understanding what students know and need to learn and then challenging and supporting them to learn it well. Learning. Students must learn mathematics with understanding, actively building new knowledge from experience and prior knowledge. Assessment. Assessment should support the learning of important mathematics and furnish useful information to both teachers and students. Technology. Technology is essential in teaching and learning mathematics; it influences the mathematics that is taught and enhances students' learning.

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The Equity Principle Excellence in mathematics education requires equityhigh expectations and strong support for all students.

All students, regardless of their personal characteristics, backgrounds, or physical challenges, must have opportunities to study--and support to learn--mathematics. This does not mean that every student should be treated the same. But all students need access each year they are in school to a coherent, challenging mathematics curriculum that is taught by competent and well-supported mathematics teachers. Too many students--especially students who are poor, not native speakers of English, disabled, female, or members of minority groups--are victims of low expectations in mathematics. For example, tracking has consistently consigned disadvantaged groups of students to mathematics classes that concentrate on remediation or do not offer significant mathematical substance. The Equity Principle demands that high expectations for mathematics learning be communicated in words and deeds to all students. Some students may need more than an ambitious curriculum and excellent teaching to meet high expectations. Students who are having difficulty may benefit from such resources as afterschool programs, peer mentoring, or cross-age tutoring. Students with special learning needs in mathematics should be supported by both their classroom teachers and special education staff. Likewise, students with special interests or exceptional talent in mathematics may need enrichment programs or additional resources to keep them challenged and engaged. The talent and interest of these students must be nurtured so that they have the opportunity and guidance to excel in mathematics. Well-documented examples demonstrate that all children can learn mathematics when they have access to high-quality mathematics instruction. Such instruction needs to become the norm rather than the exception. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26805#sthash.JCud4Lgq.dpuf

The Curriculum Principle A curriculum is more than a collection of activities: it must be coherent, focused on important mathematics, and well articulated across the grades. Mathematics is a highly interconnected and cumulative subject. The mathematics curriculum therefore needs to introduce ideas in such a way that they build on one another. Instead of seeing mathematics as a set of disconnected topics, students should perceive the relationships among important mathematical ideas. As students build connections and skills, their understanding deepens and expands. The curriculum also must focus on important mathematics--mathematics that is worth the time and attention of students and that will prepare them for continued study and for solving problems in a variety of school, home, and work settings. The relative importance of particular mathematics topics is likely to change over time. Topics such as recursion, iteration, and the comparison of algorithms have emerged and deserve increased attention because of their relevance. Students should have opportunities to learn increasingly more sophisticated mathematical ideas as they progress through the grades. They should not spend a significant part of their instructional time reviewing mathematics content. A well-articulated curriculum is necessary for teachers at each level to know what mathematics their students have already studied and will study in future grades. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26804#sthash.3qjVAiCi.dpuf

The Teaching Principle Effective mathematics teaching requires understanding what students know and need to learn and then challenging and supporting them to learn it well. Students learn mathematics through the experiences that teachers provide. Teachers must know and understand deeply the mathematics they are teaching and understand and be committed to their students as learners of mathematics and as human beings. There is no one "right way" to teach. Nevertheless, much is known about effective mathematics teaching. Selecting and using suitable curricular materials, using appropriate instructional tools and techniques to support learning, and pursuing continuous self-improvement are actions good teachers take every day. The teacher is responsible for creating an intellectual environment in the classroom where serious engagement in mathematical thinking is the norm. Effective teaching requires deciding what aspects of a task to highlight, how to organize and orchestrate the work of students, what questions to ask students having varied levels of expertise, and how to support students without taking over the process of thinking for them. Effective teaching requires continuing efforts to learn and improve. Teachers need to increase their knowledge about mathematics and pedagogy, learn from their students and colleagues, and engage in professional development and self-reflection. Collaborating with others--pairing an experienced teacher with a new teacher or forming a community of teachers--to observe, analyze, and discuss teaching and students' thinking is a powerful, yet neglected, form of professional development. Teachers need ample opportunities to engage in this kind of continual learning. The working lives of teachers must be structured to allow and support different models of professional development that benefit them and their students. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26808#sthash.YGBVhZgg.dpuf

The Learning Principle

Students must learn mathematics with understanding, actively building new knowledge from experience and prior knowledge.

Research has solidly established the importance of conceptual understanding in becoming proficient in a subject. When students understand mathematics, they are able to use their knowledge flexibly. They combine factual knowledge, procedural facility, and conceptual understanding in powerful ways. Learning the "basics" is important; however, students who memorize facts or procedures without understanding often are not sure when or how to use what they know. In contrast, conceptual understanding enables students to deal with novel problems and settings. They can solve problems that they have not encountered before. Learning with understanding also helps students become autonomous learners. Students learn more and better when they take control of their own learning. When challenged with appropriately chosen tasks, students can become confident in their ability to tackle difficult problems, eager to figure things out on their own, flexible in exploring mathematical ideas, and willing to persevere when tasks are challenging. Students of all ages bring to mathematics class a considerable knowledge base on which to build. School experiences should not inhibit students' natural inclination to understand by suggesting that mathematics is a body of knowledge that can be mastered only by a few. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26807#sthash.cJw8kohU.dpuf

The Assessment Principle Assessment should support the learning of important mathematics and furnish useful information to both teachers and students. Assessment should be more than merely a test at the end of instruction to gauge learning. It should be an integral part of instruction that guides teachers and enhances students' learning. Teachers should be continually gathering information about their students through questions, interviews, writing tasks, and other means. They can then make appropriate decisions about such matters as reviewing material, reteaching a difficult concept, or providing something more or different for students who are struggling or need enrichment. To be consistent with the Learning Principle, assessments should focus on understanding as well as procedural skills. Because different students show what they know and can do in different ways, assessments should also be done in multiple ways, and teachers should look for a convergence of evidence from different sources. Teachers must ensure that all students are given an opportunity to demonstrate their mathematics learning. For example, teachers should use communication-enhancing and bilingual techniques to support students who are learning English. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26803#sthash.781Bpxje.dpuf

The Technology Principle Technology is essential in teaching and learning mathematics; it influences the mathematics that is taught and enhances students' learning.

Calculators and computers are reshaping the mathematical landscape, and school mathematics should reflect those changes. Students can learn more mathematics more deeply with the appropriate and responsible use of technology. They can make and test conjectures. They can work at higher levels of generalization or abstraction. In the mathematics classrooms envisioned in Principles and Standards, every student has access to technology to facilitate his or her mathematics learning. Technology also offers options for students with special needs. Some students may benefit from the more constrained and engaging task situations possible with computers. Students with physical challenges can become much more engaged in mathematics using special technologies. Technology cannot replace the mathematics teacher, nor can it be used as a replacement for basic understandings and intuitions. The teacher must make prudent decisions about when and how to use technology and should ensure that the technology is enhancing students' mathematical thinking. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26809#sthash.Dl5Y4IAc.dpuf

Standards for School Mathematics: Pre-K through 12 Prekindergarten through Grade 12 The Standards for school mathematics describe the mathematical understanding, knowledge, and skills that students should acquire from prekindergarten through grade 12. Each Standard consists of two to four specific goals that apply across all the grades. For the five Content Standards, each goal encompasses as many as seven specific expectations for the four grade bands considered in Principles and Standards: prekindergarten through grade 2, grades 35, grades 68, and grades 912. For each of the five Process Standards, the goals are described through examples that demonstrate what the Standard should look like in a grade band and what the teacher's role should be in achieving the Standard. Although each of these Standards applies to all grades, the relative emphasis on particular Standards will vary across the grade bands. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26863#sthash.tovU84qM.dpuf

Number and Operations

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to-understand numbers, ways of representing numbers, relationships among numbers, and number systems; understand meanings of operations and how they relate to one another; compute fluently and make reasonable estimates.

Number pervades all areas of mathematics. The other four Content Standards as well as all five Process Standards are grounded in number. Central to the Number and Operations Standard is the development of number sense. Students with number sense naturally decompose numbers, use particular numbers as referents, solve problems using the relationships among operations and knowledge about the base-ten system, estimate a reasonable result for a problem, and have a disposition to make sense of numbers, problems, and results. For example, children in the lower elementary grades can learn that numbers can be decomposed and thought about in many different ways--that 24 is 2 tens and 4 ones and also two sets of 12. Computational fluency--having and using efficient and accurate methods for computing--is essential. Students should be able to perform computations in different ways, including mental calculations, estimation, and paperand-pencil calculations using mathematically sound algorithms. All students should use calculators at appropriate times, setting the calculator aside when the instructional focus is on developing computational algorithms. Computational fluency should develop in tandem with understanding. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26859#sthash.AiJikM29.dpuf

Algebra

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to-understand patterns, relations, and functions; represent and analyze mathematical situations and structures using algebraic symbols; use mathematical models to represent and understand quantitative relationships; analyze change in various contexts.

Algebra encompasses the relationships among quantities, the use of symbols, the modeling of phenomena, and the mathematical study of change. The word algebra is not commonly heard in elementary school classrooms, but the mathematical investigations and conversations of students in these grades frequently include elements of algebraic reasoning. These experiences present rich contexts for advancing mathematical understanding and are an important precursor to the more formalized study of algebra in the middle and secondary grades. For example, when students in grades 3 through 5 investigate properties of whole numbers, they may find that they can multiply 18 by 14 mentally by computing 18 10 and adding it to 18 4, thus using the distributive property of multiplication over addition in a way that contributes to algebraic understanding. As with number, these concepts of algebra are linked to all areas of mathematics. Much of algebra builds on students' extensive experiences with number. Algebra also is closely linked to geometry and to data analysis. The ideas of algebra are a major component of the school mathematics curriculum and help to unify it. A strong foundation in algebra should be in place by the end of eighth grade, and ambitious goals in algebra should be pursued by all high school students. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26853#sthash.rCk1djfj.dpuf

Geometry

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to-analyze characteristics and properties of two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes and develop mathematical arguments about geometric relationships; specify locations and describe spatial relationships using coordinate geometry and other representational systems; apply transformations and use symmetry to analyze mathematical situations; use visualization, spatial reasoning, and geometric modeling to solve problems.

Geometry and spatial sense are fundamental components of mathematics learning. They offer ways to interpret and reflect on our physical environment and can serve as tools for the study of other topics in mathematics and science. Geometry is a natural area of mathematics for the development of students' reasoning and justification skills that build across the grades. As the study of the relationships among shapes and their properties becomes more abstract, students should come to understand the role of definitions and theorems and be able to construct their own proofs. For example, students in high school should be able to prove that the area of a triangle formed by vertices that bisect the sides of a larger triangle equals one-fourth of the area of the larger triangle. Principles and Standards calls for geometry to be learned using concrete models, drawings, and dynamic software. With appropriate activities and tools and with teacher support, students can make and explore conjectures about geometry and reason carefully about geometric ideas. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26857#sthash.cDf3PO9m.dpuf

Measurement

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to-understand measurable attributes of objects and the units, systems, and processes of measurement; apply appropriate techniques, tools, and formulas to determine measurements.

The study of measurement is crucial in the pre-K12 mathematics curriculum because of its practicality and pervasiveness in so many aspects of everyday life. The study of measurement also provides an opportunity for learning about other areas of mathematics, such as number operations, geometric ideas, statistical concepts, and notions of function. Measurement is the assignment of a numerical value to an attribute of an object. In the earliest grades, students can compare and order objects using language such as longer and shorter. As they progress through the grades, students' collection of measurable attributes, their understanding of the relationships among attributes, and their understanding of precision in measurement should expand. By high school, for example, students should recognize the need to report an appropriate number of significant digits when computing with measurements. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26858#sthash.2mOu2m0Y.dpuf

Data Analysis and Probability

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to-formulate questions that can be addressed with data and collect, organize, and display relevant data to answer them; select and use appropriate statistical methods to analyze data; develop and evaluate inferences and predictions that are based on data; understand and apply basic concepts of probability.

To reason statistically--which is essential to be an informed citizen, employee, and consumer-students need to learn about data analysis and related aspects of probability. The amount of statistical information available to help make decisions in business, politics, research, and everyday life is staggering. Consumer surveys guide the development and marketing of products. Experiments evaluate the safety and efficacy of new medical treatments. Statistics sway public opinion on issues and represent--or misrepresent--the quality and effectiveness of commercial products. Through experiences with the collection and analysis of data, students learn how to interpret such information. Young children will not develop statistical reasoning if it is not included in the curriculum. Work in data analysis and probability offers a natural way for students to connect mathematics with other school subjects and with everyday experiences. Students in grades 912, for example, should understand the various purposes of surveys, observational studies, and experiments. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26856#sthash.l23cFLWx.dpuf

Problem Solving

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to-build new mathematical knowledge through problem solving; solve problems that arise in mathematics and in other contexts; apply and adapt a variety of appropriate strategies to solve problems; monitor and reflect on the process of mathematical problem solving.

Problem solving is an integral part of all mathematics learning. In everyday life and in the workplace, being able to solve problems can lead to great advantages. However, solving problems is not only a goal of learning mathematics but also a major means of doing so. Problem solving should not be an isolated part of the curriculum but should involve all Content Standards. Problem solving means engaging in a task for which the solution is not known in advance. Good problem solvers have a "mathematical disposition"--they analyze situations carefully in mathematical terms and naturally come to pose problems based on situations they see. For example, a young child might wonder, How long would it take to count to a million? Good problems give students the chance to solidify and extend their knowledge and to stimulate new learning. Most mathematical concepts can be introduced through problems based on familiar experiences coming from students' lives or from mathematical contexts. For example, middle-grades students might investigate which of several recipes for punch giving various amounts of water and juice is "fruitier." As students try different ideas, the teacher can help them to converge on using proportions, thus providing a meaningful introduction to a difficult concept. Students need to develop a range of strategies for solving problems, such as using diagrams, looking for patterns, or trying special values or cases. These strategies need instructional attention if students are to learn them. However, exposure to problem-solving strategies should

be embedded across the curriculum. Students also need to learn to monitor and adjust the strategies they are using as they solve a problem. Teachers play an important role in developing students' problem-solving dispositions. They must choose problems that engage students. They need to create an environment that encourages students to explore, take risks, share failures and successes, and question one another. In such supportive environments, students develop the confidence they need to explore problems and the ability to make adjustments in their problem-solving strategies. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26860#sthash.GjtCUAsD.dpuf

Reasoning and Proof

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to-recognize reasoning and proof as fundamental aspects of mathematics; make and investigate mathematical conjectures; develop and evaluate mathematical arguments and proofs; select and use various types of reasoning and methods of proof.

Systematic reasoning is a defining feature of mathematics. Exploring, justifying, and using mathematical conjectures are common to all content areas and, with different levels of rigor, all grade levels. Through the use of reasoning, students learn that mathematics makes sense. Reasoning and proof must be a consistent part of student's mathematical experiences in prekindergarten through grade 12. Reasoning mathematically is a habit of mind, and like all habits, it must be developed through consistent use in many contexts and from the earliest grades. At all levels, students reason inductively from patterns and specific cases. For example, even a first grader can use an informal proof by contradiction to argue that the number 0 is even: "If 0 were odd, then 0 and 1 would be two odd numbers in a row. But even and odd numbers alternate. So 0 must be even." Increasingly over the grades, students should learn to make effective deductive arguments as well, using the mathematical truths they are establishing in class. By the end of secondary school, students should be able to understand and produce some mathematical proofs--logically rigorous deductions of conclusions from hypotheses--and should appreciate the value of such arguments. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26861#sthash.CVVBQgU2.dpuf

Communication

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to-organize and consolidate their mathematical thinking though communication; communicate their mathematical thinking coherently and clearly to peers, teachers, and others; analyze and evaluate the mathematical thinking and strategies of others; use the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas precisely.

As students are asked to communicate about the mathematics they are studying--to justify their reasoning to a classmate or to formulate a question about something that is puzzling--they gain insights into their thinking. In order to communicate their thinking to others, students naturally reflect on their learning and organize and consolidate their thinking about mathematics. Students should be encouraged to increase their ability to express themselves clearly and coherently. As they become older, their styles of argument and dialogue should more closely adhere to established conventions, and students should become more aware of, and responsive to, their audience. The ability to write about mathematics should be particularly nurtured across the grades. By working on problems with classmates, students also have opportunities to see the perspectives and methods of others. They can learn to understand and evaluate the thinking of others and to build on those ideas. For example, students who try to solve the following problem algebraically may have difficulty setting up the equations: There are some rabbits and some hutches. If one rabbit is put in each hutch, one rabbit will be left without a hutch. If two rabbits are put in each hutch, one hutch will remain empty. How many rabbits and how many hutches are there?

They may benefit from the insights of students who solve the problem using a visual representation. Students need to learn to weigh the strengths and limitations of different approaches, thus becoming critical thinkers about mathematics. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26854#sthash.QscsozNd.dpuf Connections

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to-recognize and use connections among mathematical ideas; understand how mathematical ideas interconnect and build on one another to produce a coherent whole; recognize and apply mathematics in contexts outside of mathematics.

Mathematics is an integrated field of study, even though it is often partitioned into separate topics. Students from prekindergarten through grade 12 should see and experience the rich interplay among mathematical topics, between mathematics and other subjects, and between mathematics and their own interests. Viewing mathematics as a whole also helps students learn that mathematics is not a set of isolated skills and arbitrary rules. An emphasis on mathematical connections helps students recognize how ideas in different areas are related. Students should come both to expect and to exploit connections, using insights gained in one context to verify conjectures in another. For example, elementary school students link their knowledge of the subtraction of whole numbers to the subtraction of decimals or fractions. Middle school students might collect and graph data for the circumference (C) and diameter (d) of various circles. They could extend their previous knowledge in algebra and data analysis to recognize that the values nearly form a straight line, so C/d is between 3.1 and 3.2 (a rough estimation of ). The opportunity to experience mathematics in context is important. Students should connect mathematical concepts to their daily lives, as well as to situations from science, the social sciences, medicine, and commerce. For example, high school students worked with a drug store chain to determine where it should locate a new pharmacy in their neighborhood on the basis of analyses of

demographic and economic data. Students should recognize the value of mathematics in examining personal and societal issues. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26855#sthash.EDefn2uL.dpuf

Representation

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to-create and use representations to organize, record, and communicate mathematical ideas; select, apply, and translate among mathematical representations to solve problems; use representations to model and interpret physical, social, and mathematical phenomena.

Representations are necessary to students' understanding of mathematical concepts and relationships. Representations allow students to communicate mathematical approaches, arguments, and understanding to themselves and to others. They allow students to recognize connections among related concepts and apply mathematics to realistic problems. To become deeply knowledgeable about fractions, for example, students need a variety of representations that support their understanding. They need to understand various interpretations of fractions, such as ratio, indicated division, or fraction of a number. They need to understand other common representations for fractions, such as points on a number line. Some forms of representation--such as diagrams, graphical displays, and symbolic expressions-have long been part of school mathematics. Unfortunately, these representations and others have often been taught and learned as if they were ends in themselves. This approach limits the power and utility of representations as tools for learning and doing mathematics. It is important to encourage students to represent their mathematical ideas in ways that make sense to them, even if those representations are not conventional. At the same time, students should learn conventional forms of representation in ways that facilitate their learning of mathematics and their communication with others about mathematical ideas. The integration of technology into mathematics instruction further increases the need for students to be comfortable with new mathematical representations.

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Standards for Grades Pre-K-2

Developing a solid mathematical foundation from prekindergarten through second grade is essential for every child. In these grades, students are building beliefs about what mathematics is, about what it means to know and do mathematics, and about themselves as mathematics learners. These beliefs influence their thinking about, performance in, and attitudes toward, mathematics and decisions related to studying mathematics in later years. Children develop many mathematical concepts, at least in their intuitive beginnings, even before they reach school age. Infants spontaneously recognize and discriminate among small numbers of objects, and many preschool children possess a substantial body of informal mathematical knowledge. Adults can foster children's mathematical development from the youngest ages by providing environments rich in language and where thinking is encouraged, uniqueness is valued, and exploration is supported. Children are likely to enter formal school settings with different levels of mathematics understanding, reflecting their opportunity to have learned mathematics. Some children will need additional support so that they do not start school at a disadvantage. Early assessments should be used not to sort children but to gain information for teaching and for potential early interventions. All students deserve high-quality programs that include significant mathematics presented in a manner that respects both the mathematics and the nature of young children. These programs must build on and extend students' intuitive and informal mathematical knowledge. They must be grounded in a knowledge of child development and provide environments that encourage students to be active learners and accept new challenges. They need to develop a strong conceptual framework while encouraging and developing students' skills and their natural inclination to solve problems. At the core of mathematics programs in prekindergarten through grade 2 are the Number and Operations and Geometry Standards. For example, it is absolutely essential that students develop a solid understanding of the base-ten numeration system in prekindergarten through grade 2. They must recognize that the word ten may represent a single entity (1 ten) or ten

separate units (10 ones) and that these representations are interchangeable. Using concrete materials and calculators in appropriate ways can help students learn these concepts. Understandings of patterns, measurement, and data contribute to the understanding of number and geometry and are learned in conjunction with them. Similarly, the Process Standards of Problem Solving, Reasoning and Proof, Communication, Connections, and Representation both support and augment the Content Standards. Even at this age, guided work with calculators can enable students to explore number and patterns, focus on problem-solving processes, and investigate realistic applications. See, for example, the problem in figure 1.

Fig. 1. A calculator activity to help develop understanding of place value

In the elementary grades, it often happens that specific blocks of time are not allotted to instruction in particular subjects. It is essential for students in the elementary grades to study mathematics for an hour a day under the guidance of teachers who enjoy mathematics and are prepared to teach it well. This basic requirement takes thoughtful arrangements of scheduling and staffing--whether by shared teaching responsibilities, the use of mathematics specialists, or other creative administrative means. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26852#sthash.NGUlPKAh.dpuf

Number and Operations Standard for Grades Pre-K-2

Expectations

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to Understand numbers, ways of representing numbers, relationships among numbers, and number systems

In prekindergarten through grade 2 all students should

count with understanding and recognize "how many" in sets of objects; use multiple models to develop initial understandings of place value and the base-ten number system; develop understanding of the relative position and magnitude of whole numbers and of ordinal and cardinal numbers and their connections; develop a sense of whole numbers and represent and use them in flexible ways, including relating, composing, and decomposing numbers; connect number words and numerals to the quantities they represent, using various physical models and representations; understand and represent commonly used fractions, such as 1/4, 1/3, and 1/2.

Understand meanings of operations and how they relate to one another

understand various meanings of addition and subtraction of whole numbers and the relationship between the two operations; understand the effects of adding and subtracting whole numbers; understand situations that entail multiplication and division, such

as equal groupings of objects and sharing equally.

Compute fluently and make develop and use strategies for whole-number computations, with reasonable estimates a focus on addition and subtraction; develop fluency with basic number combinations for addition and subtraction; use a variety of methods and tools to compute, including objects, mental computation, estimation, paper and pencil, and calculators.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26848#sthash.9JDcVnQ0.dpuf

Algebra Standard for Grades Pre-K-2

Expectations

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to Understand patterns, relations, and functions

In prekindergarten through grade 2 all students should

sort, classify, and order objects by size, number, and other properties; recognize, describe, and extend patterns such as sequences of sounds and shapes or simple numeric patterns and translate from one representation to another; analyze how both repeating and growing patterns are generated.

Represent and analyze mathematical situations and structures using algebraic symbols

illustrate general principles and properties of operations, such as commutativity, using specific numbers; use concrete, pictorial, and verbal representations to develop an understanding of invented and conventional symbolic notations.

Use mathematical models to represent and understand quantitative relationships Analyze change in various contexts

model situations that involve the addition and subtraction of whole numbers, using objects, pictures, and symbols.

describe qualitative change, such as a student's growing taller; describe quantitative change, such as a student's growing two inches in one year.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26842#sthash.5Uwe80Xv.dpuf Geometry Standard for Grades Pre-K-2

Expectations

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to Analyze characteristics and properties of two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes and develop mathematical arguments about geometric relationships

In prekindergarten through grade 2 all students should

recognize, name, build, draw, compare, and sort two- and threedimensional shapes; describe attributes and parts of two- and three-dimensional shapes; investigate and predict the results of putting together and taking apart two- and three-dimensional shapes.

Specify locations and describe spatial relationships using coordinate geometry and other representational systems

describe, name, and interpret relative positions in space and apply ideas about relative position; describe, name, and interpret direction and distance in navigating space and apply ideas about direction and distance; find and name locations with simple relationships such as "near to" and in coordinate systems such as maps.

Apply transformations and recognize and apply slides, flips, and turns; use symmetry to analyze recognize and create shapes that have symmetry. mathematical situations

Use visualization, spatial

create mental images of geometric shapes using spatial memory

reasoning, and geometric and spatial visualization; modeling to solve problems recognize and represent shapes from different perspectives; relate ideas in geometry to ideas in number and measurement; recognize geometric shapes and structures in the environment and specify their location.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26846#sthash.u6ZVMen0.dpuf

Measurement Standard for Grades Pre-K-2

Expectations

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to

In prekindergarten through grade 2 all students should

Understand measurable recognize the attributes of length, volume, weight, area, and attributes of objects and time; the units, systems, and compare and order objects according to these attributes; processes of measurement understand how to measure using nonstandard and standard units; select an appropriate unit and tool for the attribute being measured.

Apply appropriate techniques, tools, and formulas to determine measurements

measure with multiple copies of units of the same size, such as paper clips laid end to end; use repetition of a single unit to measure something larger than the unit, for instance, measuring the length of a room with a single meterstick; use tools to measure; develop common referents for measures to make comparisons and estimates.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26847#sthash.zVoiyEuG.dpuf

Data Analysis and Probability Standard for Grades Pre-K-2

Expectations

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to Formulate questions that can be addressed with data and collect, organize, and display relevant data to answer them

In prekindergarten through grade 2 all students should

pose questions and gather data about themselves and their surroundings; sort and classify objects according to their attributes and organize data about the objects; represent data using concrete objects, pictures, and graphs.

Select and use appropriate describe parts of the data and the set of data as a whole to statistical methods to determine what the data show. analyze data

Develop and evaluate inferences and predictions that are based on data

discuss events related to students' experiences as likely or unlikely.

Understand and apply basic concepts of probability - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26845#sthash.oy2uAG9o.dpuf

Problem Solving Standard for Grades Pre-K-2

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to build new mathematical knowledge through problem solving; solve problems that arise in mathematics and in other contexts; apply and adapt a variety of appropriate strategies to solve problems; monitor and reflect on the process of mathematical problem solving.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26849#sthash.LX7xSvfb.dpuf

Reasoning and Proof Standard for Grades Pre-K-2

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to recognize reasoning and proof as fundamental aspects of mathematics; make and investigate mathematical conjectures; develop and evaluate mathematical arguments and proofs; select and use various types of reasoning and methods of proof.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26850#sthash.tC3yI2mX.dpuf

Communication Standard for Grades Pre-K-2

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to organize and consolidate their mathematical thinking through communication; communicate their mathematical thinking coherently and clearly to peers, teachers, and others; analyze and evaluate the mathematical thinking and strategies of others; use the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas precisely.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26843#sthash.T9BphUkD.dpuf

Connections Standard for Grades Pre-K-2

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to recognize and use connections among mathematical ideas; understand how mathematical ideas interconnect and build on one another to produce a coherent whole; recognize and apply mathematics in contexts outside of mathematics.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26844#sthash.CQByg9C3.dpuf

Representation Standard for Grades Pre-K-2

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to create and use representations to organize, record, and communicate mathematical ideas; select, apply, and translate among mathematical representations to solve problems; use representations to model and interpret physical, social, and mathematical phenomena. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26851#sthash.TZtOibaT.dpuf

Standards for Grades 3-5 Students enter grade 3 with an interest in learning mathematics. Nearly three-quarters of U.S. fourth graders report liking mathematics, seeing it as practical and important. If mathematics continues to be seen as interesting and understandable, students will remain engaged. If learning becomes simply a process of mimicking and memorizing, students' interest is likely to diminish. Interwoven through the Content Standards for grades 35 are three crucial mathematical themes--multiplicative thinking, equivalence, and computational fluency. The focus on multiplicative reasoning develops knowledge that students build on as they move into the middle grades, where the emphasis is on proportional reasoning. As a part of multiplicative reasoning, students in grades 35 should build their understanding of fractions as a part of a whole and as division. The concept of equivalence helps students learn different mathematical representations and offers a way to explore algebraic ideas. Students should develop computational fluency-efficient and accurate methods for computing that are based on well-understood properties and number relationships. For example, 298 42 can be thought of as (300 42) (2 42), or 41 16 can be computed by multiplying 41 8 to get 328 and then doubling 328 to get 656. When these three themes are emphasized, the expectations for grades 35 reinforce two major objectives of mathematics learning: making sense of mathematical ideas and acquiring the skills and understandings needed to solve problems. In grades 35, algebraic ideas emerge and are investigated by children. For example, students in these grades are able to make a general statement about how one variable is related to another variable. If a sandwich costs $3, you can figure out how many dollars any number of sandwiches cost by multiplying that number by 3. In this case, students have developed a model of a proportional relationship: the value of one variable is always 3 times the value of the other, or C = 3 n. Given their central role in shaping the mathematics learning of students in these grades, teachers must recognize the need to develop mathematical expertise. Some elementary schools identify a "mathematics teacher-leader," who can support other teachers in their instruction and professional development. Other schools use "mathematics specialists" at the upper elementary grade levels, who assume primary responsibility for teaching mathematics to larger groups of students. Each of these models needs to be explored to enhance the mathematics education of students in grades 35. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26820#sthash.VD1VcrGY.dpuf

Standards for Grades 6-8

The middle grades represent a significant turning point in students' lives. During the middle grades, students solidify conceptions about themselves as learners of mathematics. They arrive at conclusions about their competence in mathematics, their attitudes, their interest, and their motivation. These conceptions will influence how they approach the study of mathematics in later years, which in turn will affect their later career and personal opportunities. If middle school students find both challenge and support in their mathematics classes, they will be drawn to the subject. They will be able to use their emerging capabilities of finding and imposing structure, conjecturing and verifying, thinking hypothetically, comprehending cause and effect, and engaging in abstraction and generalization. As in all the grade bands, students in the middle grades need a balanced mathematics program that encompasses all ten Standards, including significant amounts of algebra and geometry. Algebra and geometry are crucial to success in the later study of mathematics and also in many situations that arise outside the mathematics classroom. Students should see that these subjects are interconnected with each other and with other content areas in the curriculum. For example, students might be asked to explain the number of tiles that will be needed to make borders around pools of various lengths and widths, as in figure 2. Students might develop various formulas to express this relationship on the basis of a table or their reasoning about the situation; for example, "You need L + 2 tiles across the top and the same number across the bottom. And you need W tiles on the left and the right. So all together, the number of tiles needed is T = 2(L + 2) + 2W."

Fig. 2. The "swimming pool" problem

Students' understanding of these crucial ideas should be developed over all three years in the middle grades and across a broad range of mathematics content. This approach is a challenging alternative to the practice of offering a select group of middle-grades students a one-year course that focuses narrowly on algebra or geometry. However, all middle-grades students will benefit from a rich and integrated treatment of mathematics content. By the end of the eighth grade, students should have a solid background in algebra and other areas that will prepare them to enter substantive high school courses. Middle-grades mathematics also needs to prepare students to deal with quantitative situations in their lives outside school. For example, consumer magazines regularly publish comparisons of characteristics of various consumer products, such as the quality of peanut butter, the duration of rechargeable batteries, or the cost, size, and gas mileage of automobiles. When using data from such sources, students need to determine which data are appropriate for their needs, to understand how the data were gathered at the source, and to consider limitations that could affect interpretation. Special attention must be given to the preparation and ongoing professional support of middlegrades teachers. They need a deep understanding of mathematical ideas, pedagogical practices, interdisciplinary teaching approaches, how students learn mathematics, and adolescent development. States and provinces need to give much more attention to the development of special preparation programs for teachers of mathematics in the middle grades.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26830#sthash.7v63jbgV.dpuf

Number and Operations Standard for Grades 6-8 Expectations

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to Understand numbers, ways of representing numbers, relationships among numbers, and number systems

In grades 68 all students should

work flexibly with fractions, decimals, and percents to solve problems; compare and order fractions, decimals, and percents efficiently and find their approximate locations on a number line; develop meaning for percents greater than 100 and less than 1; understand and use ratios and proportions to represent quantitative relationships; develop an understanding of large numbers and recognize and appropriately use exponential, scientific, and calculator notation; use factors, multiples, prime factorization, and relatively prime numbers to solve problems; develop meaning for integers and represent and compare quantities with them.

Understand meanings of operations and how they relate to one another

understand the meaning and effects of arithmetic operations with fractions, decimals, and integers; use the associative and commutative properties of addition and multiplication and the distributive property of multiplication over addition to simplify computations with integers, fractions, and decimals; understand and use the inverse relationships of addition and

subtraction, multiplication and division, and squaring and finding square roots to simplify computations and solve problems.

Compute fluently and make select appropriate methods and tools for computing with fractions and decimals from among mental computation, reasonable estimates estimation, calculators or computers, and paper and pencil, depending on the situation, and apply the selected methods; develop and analyze algorithms for computing with fractions, decimals, and integers and develop fluency in their use; develop and use strategies to estimate the results of rationalnumber computations and judge the reasonableness of the results; develop, analyze, and explain methods for solving problems involving proportions, such as scaling and finding equivalent ratios. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26865#sthash.NeVmixJr.dpuf

Algebra Standard for Grades 6-8

Expectations

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to Understand patterns, relations, and functions

In grades 68 all students should

represent, analyze, and generalize a variety of patterns with tables, graphs, words, and, when possible, symbolic rules; relate and compare different forms of representation for a relationship; identify functions as linear or nonlinear and contrast their properties from tables, graphs, or equations.

Represent and analyze mathematical situations and structures using algebraic symbols

develop an initial conceptual understanding of different uses of variables; explore relationships between symbolic expressions and graphs of lines, paying particular attention to the meaning of intercept and slope; use symbolic algebra to represent situations and to solve problems, especially those that involve linear relationships; recognize and generate equivalent forms for simple algebraic expressions and solve linear equations

Use mathematical models to represent and understand quantitative relationships

model and solve contextualized problems using various representations, such as graphs, tables, and equations.

Analyze change in various contexts

use graphs to analyze the nature of changes in quantities in linear relationships.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26821#sthash.ebwwPDrs.dpuf

Geometry Standard for Grades 6-8

Expectations

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to Analyze characteristics and properties of two- and three-dimensional geometric shapes and develop mathematical arguments about geometric relationships

In grades 68 all students should

precisely describe, classify, and understand relationships among types of two- and three-dimensional objects using their defining properties; understand relationships among the angles, side lengths, perimeters, areas, and volumes of similar objects; create and critique inductive and deductive arguments concerning geometric ideas and relationships, such as congruence, similarity, and the Pythagorean relationship.

Specify locations and describe spatial relationships using coordinate geometry and other representational systems

use coordinate geometry to represent and examine the properties of geometric shapes; use coordinate geometry to examine special geometric shapes, such as regular polygons or those with pairs of parallel or perpendicular sides.

Apply transformations and describe sizes, positions, and orientations of shapes under use symmetry to analyze informal transformations such as flips, turns, slides, and scaling; mathematical situations examine the congruence, similarity, and line or rotational symmetry of objects using transformations.

Use visualization, spatial reasoning, and geometric

draw geometric objects with specified properties, such as side lengths or angle measures;

modeling to solve problems use two-dimensional representations of three-dimensional objects to visualize and solve problems such as those involving surface area and volume; use visual tools such as networks to represent and solve problems; use geometric models to represent and explain numerical and algebraic relationships; recognize and apply geometric ideas and relationships in areas outside the mathematics classroom, such as art, science, and everyday life. - See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26825#sthash.Yr6Ynhj3.dpuf

Measurement Standard for Grades 6-8

Expectations

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to

In grades 68 all students should

Understand measurable understand both metric and customary systems of measurement; attributes of objects and understand relationships among units and convert from one unit the units, systems, and processes of measurement to another within the same system; understand, select, and use units of appropriate size and type to measure angles, perimeter, area, surface area, and volume.

Apply appropriate techniques, tools, and formulas to determine measurements

use common benchmarks to select appropriate methods for estimating measurements; select and apply techniques and tools to accurately find length, area, volume, and angle measures to appropriate levels of precision; develop and use formulas to determine the circumference of circles and the area of triangles, parallelograms, trapezoids, and circles and develop strategies to find the area of more-complex shapes; develop strategies to determine the surface area and volume of selected prisms, pyramids, and cylinders; solve problems involving scale factors, using ratio and proportion; solve simple problems involving rates and derived measurements for such attributes as velocity and density.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26826#sthash.6gDhWWVb.dpuf

Data Analysis and Probability Standard for Grades 6-8

Expectations

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to Formulate questions that can be addressed with data and collect, organize, and display relevant data to answer them

In grades 68 all students should

formulate questions, design studies, and collect data about a characteristic shared by two populations or different characteristics within one population; select, create, and use appropriate graphical representations of data, including histograms, box plots, and scatterplots.

Select and use appropriate find, use, and interpret measures of center and spread, including statistical methods to mean and interquartile range; analyze data discuss and understand the correspondence between data sets and their graphical representations, especially histograms, stemand-leaf plots, box plots, and scatterplots.

Develop and evaluate inferences and predictions that are based on data

use observations about differences between two or more samples to make conjectures about the populations from which the samples were taken; make conjectures about possible relationships between two characteristics of a sample on the basis of scatterplots of the data and approximate lines of fit; use conjectures to formulate new questions and plan new studies to answer them.

Understand and apply basic understand and use appropriate terminology to describe

concepts of probability

complementary and mutually exclusive events; use proportionality and a basic understanding of probability to make and test conjectures about the results of experiments and simulations; compute probabilities for simple compound events, using such methods as organized lists, tree diagrams, and area models.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26824#sthash.45yTln4Q.dpuf

Problem Solving Standard for Grades 6-8

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to

build new mathematical knowledge through problem solving; solve problems that arise in mathematics and in other contexts; apply and adapt a variety of appropriate strategies to solve problems; monitor and reflect on the process of mathematical problem solving.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26827#sthash.txumsKg5.dpuf

Reasoning and Proof Standard for Grades 6-8

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to

recognize reasoning and proof as fundamental aspects of mathematics; make and investigate mathematical conjectures; develop and evaluate mathematical arguments and proofs; select and use various types of reasoning and methods of proof.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26828#sthash.BoXtB08c.dpuf

Communication Standard for Grades 6-8

Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to

organize and consolidate their mathematical thinking through communication; communicate their mathematical thinking coherently and clearly to peers, teachers, and others; analyze and evaluate the mathematical thinking and strategies of others; use the language of mathematics to express mathematical ideas precisely.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26822#sthash.NXSMFNbn.dpuf

Connections Standard for Grades 6-8


Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to

recognize and use connections among mathematical ideas; understand how mathematical ideas interconnect and build on one another to produce a coherent whole; recognize and apply mathematics in contexts outside of mathematics.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26823#sthash.FwwDWnCk.dpuf

Representation Standard for Grades 6-8


Instructional programs from prekindergarten through grade 12 should enable all students to

create and use representations to organize, record, and communicate mathematical ideas; select, apply, and translate among mathematical representations to solve problems; use representations to model and interpret physical, social, and mathematical phenomena.

- See more at: http://www.nctm.org/standards/content.aspx?id=26829#sthash.5UAeDtLp.dpuf

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