The transfer function Lets begin with a general nth-order, linear, time-invariant dierential equation, dn d an n c(t) + ...

+ a1 c(t) + a0c(t) dt dt m d d = bm m r(t) + ... + a1 r(t) + b0r(t) (1) dt dt where c(t) is the output, r(t) the input, and ais, bis are coecients in the dierential equation. Taking the Laplace transform of the both sides and assuming that all initial conditions are zero, (an sn + ... + a1s + a0)C (s) = (bmsm + ... + b1s + b0)R(s) (2)

or C (s) bmsm + ... + b1s + b0 = G(s) = R(s) an sn + ... + a1s + a0 (3)

We call this ratio, G(s), the transfer function.

The transfer function can be represented as a block diagram as above. Note that the denominator of the transfer function is just the characteristic polynomial of the dierential equation. Also, we can nd out the output C (S ) by using C (s) = R(s)G(s)

Example: (i) Find the transfer function represented by d c(t) + 2c(t) = r(t) (4) dt (ii) Find the response, c(t), to an input, r(t) = u(t), a unit step, assuming zero initial conditions. Solution: (i) Taking the Laplace transform of both sides, assuming zero initial conditions, we have sC (s) + 2C (s) = R(s) The transfer function, G(s), is 1 C (s) = (6) G(s) = R(s) s+2 (ii) Since r(t) = u(t) R(s) = 1/s. C (s) = R(s)G(s) = s(s1 . Expanding by partial frac+2) tions, we get C (s) = s s+2 Finally, taking the inverse Laplace transform 1 e2t of each side yields c(t) = 1 2 2
3

(5)

1/2

1/2

Electric network transfer functions We now combine electrical components into circuits, decide on the input and output, and nd the transfer function. Example: Find the transfer function relating the capacitor voltage, Vc(s), to the input voltage, V (s), in the Figure below:
L R

+ v(t) + _ i(t) C v c (t)

Solution: Summing the voltages around the loop, assuming zero initial conditions, yields the integrodierential equations for this network as d 1 t i( )d = v (t) (7) L i(t) + Ri(t) + dt C 0 Changing the variable from current to charge d q (t) yields using i(t) = dt d2 d 1 L 2 q (t) + R q (t) + q (t) = v (t) (8) dt dt C The voltage-charge relationship for a capacitor is q (t) = Cvc(t) Substituting above to (8) yields d2 d LC 2 vc(t) + RC vc(t) + vc(t) = v (t) (10) dt dt Taking the Laplace transform assuming zero initial conditions (LCs2 + RCs + 1)Vc(S ) = V (s) (11)
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so Vc(s) 1/LC G(s) = = 1 ) V (s) (s2 + R s + L LC A technique for simplifying the solution 1. Redraw the original network showing all time variables, such as v (t), i(t) and vc(t), as Laplace transforms V (s), I (s) an Vc(s) respectively. 2. Replace the component values with their impedance values. for the capacitor V (s) = 1 I (s) Cs for the inductor V (s) = RI (s) for the resistor V (s) = LsI (s) (12)

3. Finally we bypass the writing of dierential equation, and applying kirchhof f s voltage law to the transform circuits.
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Example: Repeat the same example. Redrawn

L R Ls R

+ v(t) + _ i(t) C v c (t) V(s) + _ I(s) 1 Cs

+ Vc (s)

We obtain 1 (Ls + Rs + )I (s) = V (s) (13) Cs But the voltage across the capacitor, Vc(s), is 1 Cs Hence we have the same result. Vc(s) = I (s) (LCs2 + RCs + 1)Vc (s) = V (s) (14)

(15)
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Complex circuit via mesh analysis 1. Replace passive elements values with their impedances. 2. Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transform. 3. Assume a transform current and a current direction in each mesh. 4. Write Kirchhos voltage law around each mesh. 5. Solve the simultaneous equations for the output. 6. Form the transfer function.
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Example: Given the network of the Figure (a) below, nd the transfer function, I2(s)/V (s).
R
1

+ v(t) + _ i1 (t) L
C

i2 (t)

Figure (a) The rst step is to convert the network into Laplace transforms for impedances and circuits variables. The result is shown in the Figure (b).

1 Cs

V(s)

+ _ I 1 (s)

Ls

I 2 (s)

Figure (b) Around Mesh 1, where I1(s) ows, R1I1(s) + LsI1(s) LsI2(s) = V (s) Around Mesh 2, where I2(s) ows, 1 LsI2(s)+ R2I2(s)+ I2(s) LsI1(s) = 0 (17) Cs Rearrange the two equations above, R1 + Ls Ls 1 Ls Ls + R2 + Cs I1(s) I2(s) = V (s) 0 (18)
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Using Cramers rule R1 + Ls V (s) Ls 0 I2(s) = R1 + Ls Ls 1 Ls Ls + R2 + Cs = LsV (s)

1 ) L2s2 (R1 + Ls)(Ls + R2 + Cs

(19)

(20)

Forming the transfer function,G(s) I (s) Ls G(s) = 2 = 1 ) L2s2 V (s) (R1 + Ls)(Ls + R2 + Cs LCs2 = (R1 + R2)LCs2 + (R1R2C + L)s + R1

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Operational ampliers An operational amplier is an electronic amplier used as building block to implement transfer functions. It has the following characteristics; (i)Dierential two inputs; v2(t) v1(t); (ii)High input impedance, Zi = (ideal); (iii)Low output impedance, Zo = 0; ; and (iv)High constant gain amplication, A = (ideal) The output vo(t) = A(v2(t) v1(t)).

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Inverting operational amplifier If v2(t) is grounded, the amplier is called an inverting operational amplier. We have (i) Ia(s) = 0 and I1(s) = I2(s); (ii)V1(s) 0 I1(s) = Vi(s) Vo(s) = = I2(s) Z1(s) Z2(s)

Hence, the transfer function is Vo(s) Z (s) = 2 Vi(s) Z1(s) (21)

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o (s ) Example: Find the transfer function, V , for Vi(s) the circuit given below

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Solution: The transfer function of the circuit is given by (21). Since the admittances of parallel components add, Z1(s) is the reciprocal of the sum of the admittances, or Z1(s) = 1
1 C1s + R 1

1
1 5.6 106s + 360 103

360 103 = 2.016s + 1 For Z2(s), the impedances add, or 107 1 3 = 220 10 + Z2(s) = R2 + C2s s The transfer function is Vo(s) Z2(s) = Vi (s) Z1(s)

s2 + 45.95s + 22.55 = 1.232 s The resulting circuit is called a PID controller and can be used to improve the performance of a control system.
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