THE UNIVERSITY OF GAZIANTEP

WELDING PROCESSES PART-II

ME 473 WELDING TECHNOLOGY Department of Mechanical Engineering

Instructor: Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

Plasma arc welding (PAW): Introduction

PAW is an arc welding process that uses a constricted arc between a nonconsumable electrode and the weld pool (transferred arc) or between the electrode and the constricted nozzle (nontransferred arc). The process is used without the application of pressure. Filler metal may or may not be used. Shielding is obtained from the ionized gas issuing from the torch, which may be supplemented by an auxiliary source of shielding gas. PAW is also used for metal cutting and for metal spraying.
2

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

PAW: Principles of operation

If an electric arc between a tungsten electrode and the work is constricted or reduced in cross-sectional area, its temperature increases since it carries the same amount of current. This constricted arc is called plasma. There are two modes of operation: nontransferred arc and transferred arc. In nontransferred arc mode the current flow is from the electrode inside the torch to the nozzle containing the orifice and back to the power supply. In the transferred arc mode the current is transferred from the tungsten electrode inside the welding torch through the orifice to the workpiece and back to the power supply.

The modes of plasma arc welding

The transferred arc mode is the most used for welding except for very low-current applications. The plasma acts as an extremely high temperature heat source to form a molten weld pool in the same manner as the TIG.
3

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

PAW: Advantages and major uses

Advantages of PAW when compared to TIG stem from the fact that PAW has a higher energy concentration. Its higher temperature, constricted cross-sectional area, and the velocity of the plasma jet create a higher heat content.
The torch-to-work distance is less critical than for TIG more freedom to observe and control the weld. The HAZ and the form of the weld are more desirable. The HAZ is smaller than with TIG, and the weld tends to have more parallel sides, which reduces angular distortion. The higher heat concentration and the plasma jet allow for higher travel speeds. PAW has deeper penetration and produces a narrower weld.

PAW is used the manufacturing of tubing, components made of thin metal, root-pass welds on pipe. PAW is normally applied as a manual process. Automatic and mechanized app. (limited) Join practically all of the commercial metals. Filler rod is used for making welds in thicker materials.
4

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

PAW: Equipment required

Power source; A CC drooping characteristic power source supplying dc welding current is recommended, however ac/dc power source can be used.

80 V open circuit voltage and max. 500 A for PAW applications.

Control circuit; The plasma torch connects to the control console or to the power source. The control console includes a power source for the pilot arc, a timer, water and gas valves, separate flowmeters for the plasma gas and the shielding gas. Usually the console is connected to the power source. A wire feeder may be used for mechanized or automatic welding.

Circuit diagram of PAW Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

PAW torch and wire feeder

Welding Technology

PAW: Materials required

Filler metals is used except when welding the thinnest metal. The composition of the filler metal should match the base metal. The size of the filler metal rod depends on the thickness of the base metal and the welding current. Plasma and shielding gas: An inert gas, either argon, helium, or a mixture, is used for shielding the weld area from the atmosphere. Argon is more commonly used since it is heavier and provides better shielding at lower rates.

For flat and vertical welding; The shielding gas flow rate 7 to 14 lt/min For overhead positions; Argon is usually used for plasma gas and flow rate 0.5 lt/min to 2.4 lt/min depending on the torch size and application.

Limitations: Equipment and apparatus are delicate and complex. The torch must be water cooled. The tip of tungsten and orifice must be maintained within very close limits.
6

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

Arc welding with consumable electrode

Electrode is melted and the molten metal is carried across the gap. A uniform arc length is maintained between the melting end of the electrode and weld pool.

Shielded metal arc welding Gas metal arc welding Flux cored arc welding Electro slag welding Submerged arc welding

The electrode is continiously fed into the arc and is melted by the heat of the arc as a deposition.

Arc region of the consumable electrode arc

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

Arc welding with consumable electrode

Good quality of welding and highproductivity welding depend on two major factors:
The penetration of the weld into the base metal The melt-off rate of the electrode

The maximum heat normally occurs at cathode.

When straight polarity welding (DCEN), the melt-off rate is high, but the penetration of the base metal is low. When DCEP welding, the max. heat still occurs at cathode, deep penetration occurs.

High current electrode melt-off rapidly Low current melt-off slowly Melt-off: The heat required to melt the electrode is a physical relationship between the current and the weight of metal melted, known as meltoff or burn-off rate which is the weight of metal melted per unir time.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Polarity and heat relationship

Welding Technology

Melt-off rate and its factors

Factors that affect the melt-off rate:

Melting point of the material (i.e. Al has higher melt-of rate) The size of electrode wire: based on current density I / cross-section area Electrode extension: resistance to heat
Steel-Wire size

Magnesium-Wire size

Aluminium -Wire size

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

Metal transfer across the arc

The forces that causes metal to transfer across the arc are similar for all the cosumable electrode arc welding. The metal being transferred ranges from small droplets, smaller than the diameter of the electrode, to droplets much larger in diameter than the electrode. The mechanism of transferring liquid metal across the arc gap is controlled by:
Surface tension The plasma jet Gravity Electromagnetic force

Electromagnetic force on drop about to transfer

Causes the surface of the liquid to contract to the smallest possible area Molten metal drops in flight are accelerated toward the workpiece Tends the detach the liquid drop Acts to detach a molten drop at the tip of the electrode.

The combination of these forces that acts on the molten droplet and determines the transfer 10 Dr.mode. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

Modes of metal transfer

The mode of metal transfer across the arc is related to the welding process;

The metal involved The arc atmosphere The size, type and polarity of the electrode The characteristics of the power source The welding position Welding current, current density, and heat input

The most common way to classify metal transfer is according to size and frequency and characteristics of the metal drops being transferred. Four major types of metal transfer:
Spray transfer Globular transfer Short-circuiting transfer Pulsed-spray metal transfer There is an intermediate form of transfer in the transition zone between two modes where both types of transfer may occur simultaneously.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

11

Welding Technology

Modes of metal transfer

Spray transfer: The drops of molten metal are approximately the same size as the electrode wire. It occurs in an inert gas atmosphere, %80 argon. Smooth transfer, large weld pool, good penetration, not used for thin materials. Globular transfer: The molten globule can grow in size until its dia reaches 1.5 to 3 x D electrode. It usually occurs when CO2 shielding gas used. Very deep penetration, only used in flat pos. Used for heavy steel sections. Short-circuiting transfer: It is a low-energy mode of transfer. The molten tip may grow up to 1.5 times the electrode dia. Weld pool is small, not used on nonferrous metals. Pulsed-spray metal transfer: It produces droplets of approximately the same or smaller size than the electrode dia. It is based on a special pulsed waveform of the welding current. Type of pulsing is difficult to adjust, never become popular.

Spray transfer

Globular transfer

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Short-circuiting transfer

Pulsed-spray 12 transfer

Welding Technology

Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)

SAW is an arc welding process with an arc between a covered electrode and the weld pool. The process is used with shielding from the decomposition of the electrode covering, without the application of pressure, and with filler metal from the electrode. SAW is also known as stick electrode welding.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

13

Welding Technology

SMAW: Principles of operation

It consists of an arc between a covered electrode and the base metal. The arc is initiated by touching the electrode momentarily to the workpiece. The heat of the arc melts the surface of the base metal to form a molten pool. The metal melted from the electrode is transferred across the arc into the molten pool. The size of the weld pool and the depth of penetration determine the mass of molten metal under the control of welder. If current is too high, the depth of penetration will be excessive and the volume of molten weld metal will become uncontrollable. A higher speed of travel reduces the size of the molten weld pool. The weld metal deposit is covered by a slag from the electrode covering. The arc in the immediate arc area is enveloped by an atmosphere of protective gas produced by the disintegration of the electrode coating.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

14

Welding Technology

SMAW: Advantages and major uses

It is the most popular arc welding process. It has maximum flexibility and can weld many metals in all positions from near minimum to maximum thickness. The investment for equipment is small. It is used in manufacturing and in field work for construction and maintenance. The method of application is manual. Semiautomatic and mechanised methods are not used. Automatic method can be used. Welding in the horizontal, vertical and overhead positions are possible depends on the type and size of the electrode, as well as the welding current and the skill of the welder.
15

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

SMAW: Equipment required

The welding machine or power source: to provide electric power of the proper current (CC, 25A-500A) and voltage (15 to 35V). Electrode holder, held by the welder. It firmly grips the electrode and transmits the welding current to it.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

16

Welding Technology

SMAW: Material used

The covered electrode is the only item of material normally required. The selection of the covered electrode is based on the electrode usability and the composition and the properties of the deposited weld. The coating on the electrode provides:

gas from the decomposition of certain ingredients of the coating to shield the arc from the atmosphere. the deoxidizers for scavenging and purifying the weld deposited slag formers to protect the deposited weld ionzing elements to make the arc more stable alloying elements to provide special characteristics to the deposited weld iron powder to improve productivity of the electrode.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

17

Welding Technology

Gas metal arc welding (GMAW)

It is an arc welding process that uses an arc between a continious filler metal electrode and the weld pool. The process is used with shielding from an externally supplied gas and without the application of pressure. This is also called as metal inert gas (MIG) or metal active gas (MAG) welding. There are many variations depending on the type of shielding gas, the type of metal transfer, the type of metal welded etc.
18

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

MIG: Principles of operation

MIG welding utilizes the heat of an arc between a continiously fed consumable electrode and the work to be welded. The heat of the arc melts the surface of the base metal and the end of the electrode. The metal melted off the electrode is transferred across the arc to the molten pool. The penetration is mainly controlled by welding current. The width of the molten pool is mainly controlled by the travel speed. Shielding of the molten pool, the arc, and the surrounding area is provided by an envelope of gas fed through the nozzle.

The shielding gas may be an inert gas, an active gas, or a mixture, surrounds the arc area to protect it from contamination from the atmosphere.
19

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

MIG: Advantages and major uses

MIG welding is one of the most popular arc welding process. Continuous wire feed Automatic self-regulation of the arc length High deposition rate and minimal number of stop/start locations Welder has good visibility of weld pool and joint line Little or no post weld cleaning Can be used in all positions Wide range of application: sheet metal industry, pipe welding.

Disadvantages: High level of equipment maintenance No independent control of filler addition Lower heat input can lead to high hardness values Joint and part access is not as good as TIG (tungsten inert gas) welding The MIG process uses semiautomatic, mechanised, or automatic equipment. In semiautomatic welding, the wire feed rate and arc length are controlled automatically. In mechanised welding, all parameters are under automatic control. With automatic equipment, there is no manual intervention during welding.
Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz
20

Welding Technology

MIG: Equipment required

A MIG system consists of:

Power source, 50-500A and 10-50V The electrode wire feeder and control system The welding gun and cable assembly for semiautomatic welding or the welding torch for automatic welding The gas and water control system for the shielding gas and cooling water Travel mechanism and guidance for automatic welding

MIG welding requires high current at a relatively low voltage. Three generic types of power source are suitable for MIG welding: AC/DC transformer rectifier or inverter, and DC generator. Wire feed unit is to feed the consumable wire at a constant rate. High performance feed units are capable of delivering wire at up to 30m/min.
Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz
21

Welding Technology

MIG: Material used

Two materials are used for the MIG welding process:

The electrode: following factors govern the selection of the electrode;

Metal to be welded: the composition and mechanical properties of the base metal are of primary importance. Thickness and joint design: thicker sections and complex joint designs require filler metals that provide high weld metal ductility. Surface conditions: the surface of the base metal Specifications or service conditions Selecting of the shielding gas involves; Electrode,the base metal and welding position

The shielding gas

The shielding gas will have a substantial effect on the stability of the arc and metal transfer and the behaviour of the weld pool, in particular, its penetration. General purpose shielding gases for MIG welding are mixtures of argon, oxygen and CO2, and special gas mixtures may contain helium. The gases which are normally used for the various materials are: Steels CO2, argon +2 to 5% oxygen, argon +5 to 25% CO2 Non-ferrous argon, argon / helium
Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz
22

Welding Technology

Submerged arc welding (SAW)

SAW is an arc welding process that uses an arc or arcs between a bare metal electrode or electrodes and the weld pool. The arc and molten metal are shielded by a blanket of granular flux on the workpieces. The process is used without pressure and with filler metal from the electrode and sometimes from a supplemental source (welding rod, flux, or metal granules). It is normally automatic process. It is also known as under powder welding or smothered arc welding

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

23

Welding Technology

SAW: Principles of operation

SAW utilizes the heat of an arc between a continiously fed electrode and the work. The heat of the arc melts the surface of the base metal and the end of the electrode. Shielding is obtained from a blanket of granular flux, which is laid directly over the weld area. The flux close to the arc melts and intermixes with the molten weld metal and helps purify and fortify it. The flux forms a glasslike slag that is lighter in weight than the deposited weld metal and floats on the surface as a protective cover. The electrode is fed into the arc automatically and travel can be manual or by machine. The metal transfer mode is less important in SAW.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

24

Welding Technology

SAW: Advantages and major uses

High quality weld metal Extremely high deposition rate and speed Smooth, uniform finished weld with no spatter Little or no smoke No arc flash, thus minimal need for protection High utilization of electrode wire Easily automated for high operator factor Highly used in heavy steel plate fabrication work:

welding of structural shapes and the longitudinal seam of larger diameter pipe manufacture of machine components of heavy industry vessels and tanks for pressure and storage Shipbuilding (fabrication of subassemblies) Steels in medium and heavy thickness
25

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

SAW: Equipment required

Welding machine or power source (CC, ac or dc can be supplied) Wire feeder and control system Welding torch for automatic welding Flux hopper and feeding mechanism Travel mechanism for automatic welding

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

26

Welding Technology

SAW: Material used

Two materials are used in submerged arc welding:

The welding flux:

Shields the arc and molten weld metal from atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen. The flux contains deoxidizers and scavengers, which help remove impurities from the weld metal. Introducing alloys into the weld metal The flux that melts and forms the slag covering must be removed from the weld (easily done after the weld cools) The flux is selected based on the mechanical properties required of the weld deposit.

Fluxes may be neutral or active:

Neutral fluxes will not produce any significant changes in weld metal chemistry and used for multi-pass applications. Active fluxes contain small amounts of maganese and/or silicon used to reduce porosity and weld cracking and used for single pass applications.

The consumable electrode: In SAW, it is necessary to select and electrode and flux combination to match the base metal composition and properties.

27

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

Gas welding: Oxyfuel gas welding

Oxyfuel gas welding (OFW) is a group of welding processes that produce coalescence of workpieces by heating them with an oxyfuel gas flame. The processes are used with or without the application the pressure, and with or without filler metal. Major processes are:
Oxyacetylene welding (most popular, uses acetylene as the fuel gas) Oxyhydrogen welding (uses hydrogen as the fuel gas, not popular) Pressure gas welding

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

28

Welding Technology

Oxyacetylene welding (OAW)

OAW process consist of high temperature flame produced by the combustion of acetylene with oxygen and directed by a torch. The intense heat of the flame 3482C melts the surface of the base metal to form a molten pool. Filler metal is added to fill gaps or grooves. As the flame moves along the joint, the melted base metal and filler metal solidify to produce the weld. The temperature of the oxyacetylene flame is not uniform throughout its length and the combustion is also different in different parts of the flame.

Flame temp C

The temperature is the highest just beyond the end of the inner core and decreases gradually toward the end of the flame.

Outer envelope

Acetylene feather

nner core 29

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

OAW: Chemical reactions

The chemical reaction for a 1:1 ratio of acetylene and oxygen plus air is:
C2H2 + O2 = 2CO + H2 + Heat This is the primary reaction, however, both carbon monoxide and hydrogen are combustible and will react with oxygen from the air: 2CO +H2 + 1.5O2 = 2CO2 + H2O + Heat This is the secondary reaction, which produces carbon dioxide, heat and water.

Neutral flame

There are three basic flame types:

Neutral (or balanced): 1:1 ratio of oxygen and acetylene. It obtains additional oxygen from the air for complete combustion. Generally preferred. Excess acetylene (carborazing): indicated in the flame when the inner cone has a feathery edge extending beyond it. It may add carbon to the weld metal. Excess oxygen (oxidising):has a shorter envelope and a small pointed white cone. The flame tends to oxidise the weld metal and is used only for welding specific metals.

Carburising flame

Oxidising flame
30

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

Welding Technology

OAW: Advantages and uses

The equipment is very portable, relatively inexpensive, versatile, and can be used in all welding positions. OAW can be used for welding, brazing, soldering, and with proper attachments, flame cutting. The equipment can also be used for bending, forming, straightening, hardening and so on. Normally used as a manual. It can be mechanised (not common), Semiautomatic applications (rarely) Welding is possible for most of the common metals Normally used for welding thinner materials up to 6.4mm. Industrial applications are in the field of maintenance and repair, and welding small-diameter pipe. The chemical action of the oxyacetylene flame can be adjusted by changing the ratio of the volume of oxygen to acetylene. Gases such as propane, hydrogen and coal gas can be used for joining lower melting point non-ferrous metals, and for brazing and silver soldering

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

31

Welding Technology

OAW: Equipment required

The apparatus and equipment:

Welding torch and tips: the function of mixing the fuel gas with oxygen and provides the required flame. It contains a handle and valves for regulating the gases. Oxygen and acetylene hose Oxygen and acetylene regulators: reduce the pressure of the gas in the cylinder or supply system to the pressure used in the torch. Oxygen 1 to 25 psi, acetylene 1 to 12 psi, reduced working pressures. Oxygen cylinders, 2200 psi (15.2 MPa) Acetylene cylinders, 250psi (1.7 MPa)

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

32

Welding Technology

OAW: Material used

Gases:

Oxygen: stored within a high temperature cylinders and supplied through a piping system to the welding station. Acetylene: or fuel gases, supplied in a cylinder to the welding station. The acetylene may be supplied to the piping system by manifold cylinders or by an acetylene generator which produces acetylene at the plant site by the reaction of carbide and water.

Welding rod: selected according to

base metal.

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

33

Welding Technology

End of the chapter.

Thank you

Dr. Ouzhan Ylmaz

34