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A Numerical procedure to calculate the temperature of protected steel columns exposed to fire Lie, T. T.; Harmathy, T. Z.

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Publishers version / Version de l'diteur: Fire Study, 28, p. 40, 1972-03

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NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL O F CANADA DIVLSION O F BUILDING RESEARCH

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v-* - -r 3 z[:L~. p
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A NUMERICAL PROCEDURE T O CALCULATE THE TEMPERATURE O F PROTECTED S T E E L COLUMNS EXPOSED T O F I R E

T. T. L i e and T. Z. Harmathy

F i r e Study NO. 2 8

of the
Division of Building R e s e a r c h

OTTAWA

arch 1972

A NUMERICAL PROCEDURE TO CALCULATE THE TEMPERATURE O F PROTECTED STEEL COLUMNS EXPOSED TO FIRE by T. T. Lie and T. Z. Harmathy ABSTRACT
A numerical technique has been developed for the calculation of the t e m p e r a t u r e history of protected s t e e l columns in fire. This technique was used for the theoretical simulation of s e v e r a l f i r e t e s t s . A comparison of experimental and theoretical information clearly showed that the technique i s capable of yielding acceptable accuracy.

Some basic assumptions used in previous works have been examined in the light of s e v e r a l numerical studies. It has been proved that the mechanism of heat t r a n s f e r between the protection and s t e e l c o r e h a s little effect on the s t r u c t u r a l performance of the s t e e l core, and that every p e r cent of moisture in the protection i n c r e a s e s the t i m e of f i r e endurance of the column by about t h r e e p e r cent. INTRODUCTION Columns a r e the most c r i t i c a l s t r u c t u r a l elements in a building in that their collapse can lead t o the l o s s of the entire structure. T h e r e fore, the performance of protected s t e e l columns in f i r e h a s long a t t r a c ted considerable attention in various countries. The conventional method of obtaining information on this subject i s by standard f i r e endurance tests. The possibility of making realistic theoretical estimates h a s been hampered by two factors: (i) the lack of knowledge concerning t h e r m a l properties of the commonly used protecting m a t e r i a l s at elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s and certain rheological properties of steel, and (ii) the complexity of the mechanism of heat flow, especially through physicochemically unstable solids. The f i r s t of these difficulties i s not s o serious now a s it was 10-1 5 years ago. During the past decade information has accumulated on the t h e r m a l and rheological properties a t elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s of

many important building materials, among them s t e e l and concrete. The difficulties related to the complexity of heat flow analysis have also been greatly reduced by having the calculations performed by high-speed computers. Thus many f i r e performance problems that not long ago had t o be solved by experiment can now be solved by numerical techniques.

In previous publications by the Division of Building Research, some numerical techniques have already been described for the calculation of the t e m p e r a t u r e history of various one- and two-dimensional configurations typically employed in walls and floors, and of the deformation history of s t e e l supporting elements, such a s beams, joists, etc. In this paper a numerical procedure will be described which can be used for predicting the temperature h i s t o r y of another important group of building elements, protected s t e e l columns. It will be seen that the r e s u l t s a r e also applicable t o the estimation of the point of failure of these elements in "standard" f i r e s .
PREVIOUS WORK
A considerable amount of theoretical work h a s already been done during the past ten y e a r s in connection with the f i r e performance of protected s t e e l columns. These works represented various approaches t o obtaining analytical solutions of the problem of heat conduction through the protective insulation into the s t e e l core. It was unavoidable, t h e r e fore, that numerous simplifying assumptions w e r e employed with r e s pect to both the m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s and the heat t r a n s m i s s i o n mechanisms. Consequently, the applicability of the derived formulas i s limited t o those c a s e s in which the assumptions used a r e closely satisfied.

With respect to the modeling of heat transmission mechanisms, the following concepts w e r e employed ( s e e Fig. 1): (a) The t h e r m a l conductivity of s t e e l i s infinite; in other words, the t e m p e r a t u r e in the s t e e l c o r e i s uniform over the entire volume ( 1 -8). (b) The thickness of the insulation in relation t o i t s circumference i s s o s m a l l that the heat flow through it can be regarded a s one-dimensional (1 -8). (c) The t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e between insulation and the s t e e l is negligible (1-8). (d) The t e m p e r a t u r e of the exposed surface of the insulation i s equal t o the f i r e t e m p e r a t u r e (2-4, 6, 8).

(e) The variation of the t e m p e r a t u r e a c r o s s the insulation i s approximately l i n e a r (1, 5, 7).

(f) The t h e r m a l conductivity and heat capacity of the insulation can be characterized by constant values within the t e m p e r a t u r e ranges that a r e of i n t e r e s t (2-4, 6-8).

(g) The t h e r m a l capacity of the insulation i s negligible (1, 5, 7). (h) The a i r enclosed by the protection h a s the s a m e temperature a s t h e s t e e l (2, 33, o r its capacity is negligible (1, 4-8). (i) The influence of moisture in the insulation i s negligible (4, 6, 8), o r the m o i s t u r e i s concentrated and evaporated at the inner surface of the insulation (2, 3).

Of course, some of these assumptions, e. g. assumptions (a) and (h), a r e fully justifiable f r o m a practical point of view, and, therefore, will a l s o be used in the present studies. Yet, with the u s e of m o r e adaptable numerical techniques, it will no longer be n e c e s s a r y to retain those highly r e s t r i c t i v e assumptions that w e r e previously introduced only t o render the problems amenable t o theoretical solutions. In the p r e s e n t studies an attempt will be made t o u s e the fewest assumptions possible concerning m a t e r i a l behaviour and heat t r a n s m i s siori mechanisms. The unavoidable presence of m o i s t u r e in some protective m a t e r i a l s will a l s o be taken into account, even though only in a simplified manner. The r e s u l t s will be compared with information obtained f r o m t e s t s . Some of the r e s u l t s will further be utilized t o check out the accuracy of simplifying assumptions used in previous studies. It should also be mentioned that the applicability of the technique t o be described i s not limited to protected s t e e l columns. In fact, it can be applied t o any assembly consisting of a c e n t r a l c o r e of relatively high t h e r m a l conductivity, surrounded by a square -shaped envelope of much lower conductivity, which is exposed t o radiative heating on a l l four sides. It can also be used for the calculation of the t e m p e r a t u r e history of monolithic columns o r beams. NUMERICAL PROCEDURE The heat t r a n s p o r t in and at the boundaries of the insulation will be formulated with t h e aid of a finite difference method originally described

in Ref. 9 and l a t e r elaborated upon in Ref. 10. This method has been applied t o the solution of f i r e resistance problems in Refs. 11, 12 and 13. The f i r s t step in applying this method t o the present problem i s t o divide the cross-sectional a r e a of the insulating protection into a l a r g e number of elementary regions by the u s e of a two-dimensional network. Since the t h e r m a l conductivity of s t e e l i s normally at l e a s t 20 t i m e s higher than that of the protection, the idealization that the temperature of the s t e e l c o r e i s uniform all over i t s volume s e e m s a justifiable one. Consequently, this two-dimensional network need not be extended over the cross-sectional a r e a of the s t e e l core, the subdivision of which thus can be done on a m o r e convenient basis, as will be described later. As in a previous numerical study (l3), for practical reasons a diagonal mesh has been selected for subdividing the cross-sectional a r e a of the insulation ( s e e Fig. 2). The elementary a r e a s a r e s q u a r e in the inside of the insulation and triangular at i t s boundaries. F o r each inside element, the temperature at the centre i s taken a s r e p r e sentative of the entire element. F o r each triangular boundary element, the representative point i s located on the hypotenuse. Since only columns with square protection will be considered in these studies, it i s possible, owing to four-axes symmetry, to calculate the t e m p e r a t u r e distribution in only one-eighth of the c r o s s -sectional a r e a of the insulation. As Fig. 2 shows, in an x-y coordinate system a "representative" point of the protection, Pm, (representing region (ma n) o r Rm, n) has It i s obvious the coordinates x = (m-1) A 5 /J2 and y = (n-1) A 5 / J2. from the figure that only those points of the x-y plane a r e defined for which (m n) i s an even number.

EQUATION FOR THE INSIDE OF INSULATION A convenient way of obtaining equations for the calculation of the t e m p e r a t u r e h i s t o r y of insulation i s by writing heat balance equations for i t s elementary regions. F o r an inside region h , , (represented by point Pmr,) the heat balance equation for a unit height of the column covering a short period of A t duration i s a s follows:

Ikim+l),

(n-1)
2

t kj

~j m

)( 1 ) A5

"

m, n

~ m t l )( n , t 1) t 2

kJ
'

Tj T~ ( m t 1), ( n t 1) m, n ' A5
1

The t e r m on the left side of this equation expresses the accumulation The four of heat in Rm,, during a time interval jAt < t r ( j t l ) At. t e r m s on the right-hand side describe the heat entering Rm, by conduction during the s a m e period from the neighbouring regions: R (m-l), (n-1)' R R R The t e r m s in round ( m t 1), ( n t 1)' (mt1 n l ( m1 ( n t1 brackets represent the temperature gradients and those in square brackets, the average conductivity of the material along the respective paths of conduction.

kj ma n

j \ k ( T m , n ja etc.

(P c)j m8 n

j (Tm,n

'

),

etc.

and (pc)' represent the values of k and ( P C ) , in other words, kj at t = jAt. respectively, at t~&Pemperatur=kqhat prevails at P ma n The k(T) and pc(T) functions, which can be determined experimentally, a r e assumed t o b e known. If the t e m p e r a t u r e s in all elementary r e ions a r e known at t = jbt, the only unknown quantity in Eq. 1 i s T6 1 i. e. the t e m p e r a t u r e at P , at t = (j+l) A t . 1t can be c a l c u ~ e s ,therefore, from the following rearranged form of Eq. 1:

:. k j
\
( m t 1), ( n t 1)

kj ) m, n

~ j (m+l), (nt1)

TJ

m,n )

I
J

EQUATIONS FOR THE OUTER BOUNDARY O F INSULATION In a standard f i r e t e s t heat i s t r a n s f e r r e d from the "furnace" (i. e. f r o m the flames and furnace walls) to a column specimen both by convection and radiation. When the flames a r e of sufficient thickness, r a diative heat t r a n s f e r i s the p r i m a r y mechanism (14). Experimental data have indicated (13) that in a f i r e t e s t furnace the transmission of heat to the t e s t specimen i s approximately equivalent t o radiative heat t r a n s f e r f r o m a black body at the so-called "furnace temperature". Consequently, in the present studies the columns will be modeled a s

receiving radiative heat flux f r o m a black body, the temperature of which varies according t o the temperature-time curve specified by ASTM E l 19-69 (15). This curve can be described approximately by the following expres sion (13):

Tf = 530 t 1530 [ 1

- exp (-3.79553

1 -

')

] t 306.74 t z

which i s only slightly different f r o m the expression recommended by the Centre Scientifique et Technique du Batiment (16), and approximates the ASTM standard curve within 11" F in the 15-min to 8-h interval. The heat absorbed by an elementary surface region, R1, n1 during the period jAt < t < ( j t l ) At can be written a s

F r o m this region heat i s transmitted by conduction t o the two neighbouring regions, R2, (n-l) and R2, ( n t 1). Again, a heat balance equation c a n be written f o r Rkn, for i s the only un own the period j A t < t i ( j t 1) At, .in which TJ quantity. By solving i t for T J ' ~ one finaky obtains: 1, n

Although in this equation . t e m p e r a t u r e dependent quantity, a s constant in the p r e s e n t studies. emissivities in the range of 0.85-0.

it

is, s t r i c t l y speaking, a m a t e r i a l and i s sufficiently accurate t o regard it Since most building m a t e r i a l s have 95 (27), a value of 0. 9 will be used.

EQUATIONS FOR THE INNER BOUNDARY O F INSULATION AND FOR THE S T E E L CORE As Figure 1 shows, the inner surface of the insulation i s in direct contact with the s t e e l c o r e along a certain fraction, a, of i t s surface, and it i s separated by an a i r gap from the s t e e l along a f r a c tion (1 -a) of i t s surface. Obviously, the mechanism of heat transmission along the a r e a s of contact i s conduction. Through the a i r gap, heat i s t r a n s f e r r e d by radiation and convection. Since the radiative heat t r a n s f e r i s predominant, especially at higher temperatures, the convective t r a n s f e r mechanism will not be taken into account in the present studies.

The model used in this paper t o describe the mechanism of heat t r a n s m i s s i o n at the triangular elementary regions of the inner surface of insulation i s shown in Figure 3. In this model the total m a s s of s t e e l c o r e i s assumed to be divided into elementary pieces amounting t o the number of elementary regions along the inner surface of the insulation, i. e. into 4 (N-M-1) pieces. It i s further assumed that a fraction a of each elementary s t e e l m a s s i s in direct contact with the adjacent elementary insulation surface, and thus receives heat from the insulation by conduction, while a fraction ( l a ) of i t s m a s s is a t s o m e distance from t h e elementary surface and receives heat by radiation. Obviously, by varying a from 0 t o 1, all possible practical conditions, including pure radiative and p u r e conductive heat t r a n s f e r s t o the s t e e l core, can be simulated. In this way the relative importance of the t r a n s f e r mechani s m on the r i s e of t e m p e r a t u r e of the s t e e l c o r e can be studied. The radiative heat t r a n s f e r r e d to the s t e e l c o r e from a ( 1 4 ) of the inner surface of insulafraction of the elementary region R m . 1n tion during the period jA< t s ( j t l)A t is

where the emissivity factor following equation:

E,

can be calculated approximately from the

Here, again, c and c will be regarded as constants for the temperai t u r e ranges considered and equal to 0.9. Since, by assumption, steel i s regarded a s a perfect conductor, the temperatures of those fractions of elementary steel masses which a r e in direct contact with the insulation surface a r e identical to those of the adjacent elementary regions of insulation. Consequently, their presence can be taken into account simply by adding their heat capacities to those of the adjacent elementary insulation regions. Again, from a heat balance equation written for region R Msn for the period jAt < t s ( j t l ) A t , the following equation can be derived for .j+l

Man

'

where (c )j is the specific heat of steel at a temperature that prevails S M, n at P ~nat , t = j A t . From available data (17, 18), the following expression has been derived for the dependence of c on temperature:
S

Of course, the p r i m a r y purpose of all these calculations i s t o obtain information on the temperature of the steel core. Again, by the application of the law of conservation of energy, the temperature of that (1-a) portion of the core which receives heat by radiation i s obtained a s

As has been said earlier, the temperature of the fraction, a , of each elementary s t e e l mass, which i s heated by conduction, i s identical to that of the adjacent surface element of the insulation. The ayerage temperature of the entire steel c o r e at t = ( j t l ) At, i, e. T J ' ~ can now be calculated from the following equation: sa =j+ 1

S j+l
T s ~

dT

2a N-M-1

N-M C n= 3, 5,.

Tj t l

..

which i s obtained by expressing the enthalpy of the steel c o r e in two different ways; once with the aid of already defined variables, and once by using T J ' ~ sa

AUXILIARY EQUATIONS As Fig. 2 shows, the following equations a r e applicable to the elementary regions along both sides of the lines of symmetry. Along line A-D:

and along line B-C: .j+ 1 ma (N-m)

( m t I), (N-mt 1)

With the aid of Eqs. 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12 and 13 it i s now possible t o calculate the t e m p e r a t u r e distribution in the insulation and on i t s boundaries f o r any ( j t l ) At t i m e level, if the t e m p e r a t u r e distribution at the jOt level i s known. Initially only the t e m p e r a t u r e distribution a t the t = 0 level i s known. In f i r e endurance studies the initial t e m p e r a t u r e of the column (insulation and steel) h a s always been taken a s 70" F and uniform; thus

And, s t a r t i n g f r o m the initial condition, with repeated application of Eqs. 4, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12 and 13 the t e m p e r a t u r e h i s t o r y of the p r o t e c tive insulation and of the s t e e l c o r e of t h e column can be determined up t o any specified t i m e level. Since in f i r e endurance standards 1 0 0 0 F i s usually regarded a s the t e m p e r a t u r e of failure of s t e e l core, the calculations can be terminated a f t e r i t s t e m p e r a t u r e h a s exceeded 1460"R. E F F E C T O F MOISTURE Although t h e r e h a s already been a f a i r amount of work done a t the DBR/NRC concerning the effect of m o i s t u r e on the f i r e endurance (19, 20), a l l previous work related to walls and floors. Since i t seemed unlikely that the r e s u l t s of this work could be applied to columns, a different concept had t o be considered to take the p r e s e n c e of m o i s t u r e into account in the p r e s e n t studies. It i s well known that under n o r m a l atmospheric conditions, i. e. a t room t e m p e r a t u r e and at about 50 t o 70 p e r cent relative humidity, the bulk of m o i s t u r e in building m a t e r i a l s i s in the form of capillary water. The capillary water h a s a f a i r l y high mobility and, a s numerous observations and theoretical work (19) indicated, under the effect of high p r e s s u r e gradients developing during a f i r e exposure it will move slowly toward the cooler regions; toward the inner s u r f a c e of t h e protective insulation, in the c a s e of a column. It s e e m s reasonable to assume, therefore, that a l a r g e portion of the m o i s t u r e originally

present in the insulation will finally vapourize at the inner surface of the insulation. A comprehensive computer study was undertaken t o find out whether the r a t e of moisture migration had any significant effect on the temperature history of steel core. The computer studies indicated that the influence of the r a t e of moisture movement was not sufficient to justify the increased labour involved in a m o r e elaborate formulation of the problem. It was decided, therefore, that in further work only the limiting case would be considered, in which the r a t e of moisture migration is infinite; in other words, all moisture originally present in the insulation i s transposed into the inner surface layer of the insulation right from the beginning of the f i r e exposure. This model can be recognized a s p r a c tically the s a m e a s the one already used in Refs. 2 and 3. The hypothetical moisture concentration in the triangular elementary regions of the inner surface, after the moisture originally present in the insulation was transposed into these regions, can be written a s follows:

This equation can be verified with the aid of Fig. 2. Since, according t o this model, moisture exists only in the elementary regions along the inner surface of the insulation, the effect of moisture can be taken into account by modifying the equation concerned with the temperature of these regions, namely Eq. 8. The presence of moisture affects the heat balance for an elementary region, Rm, nr by (i) absorbing latent heat in the vaporization process and (ii) increasing the heat capacity of the regions. To enable one to formulate the problem of vaporization of moisture, it i s necessary to define a function which describes the fraction of the net heat, supplied to an elementary region, that i s used for evaporation of moisture on reaching certain temperature levels. Since the bulk of evaporation is known to take place in the vicinity of the boiling point, i. e. 672" R, the function to be chosen should obviously have a steep section a t this temperature. The following function fulfils this requirement:

6 = i

erfc

where A is a constant, generally taken a s 10 in the present work. When t h e r e i s still moisture in the insulation,a fraction of the net heat inflow in a certain region RM,, is used f o r 5 ) for increasing the temperaevaporation and a fraction ( 1 r n t u r e of insulation and steel core.

b,

- CL

v n-

From a heat balance equation similar to Eq. 1, it can be derived that the change of the hypothetical moisture concentration

in an elementary region

RM, due to evaporation

) t is: in the period jAt < t ~ ( j t l A

The additional heat absorbed by these elementary regions, p e r unit time, due to the presence of (hypothetical) moisture can be expressed as

The t e r m in brackets is, in fact, a heat capacity additive to those a l r e a d y introduced in Eq. 8. Thus the f o r m of Eq. 8 modified for the p r e s e n c e of m o i s t u r e and f o r m o i s t u r e evaporation becomes:

[J

(18)
a s long a s there j " This equation i s applicable to the calculation of TM, i s m o i s t u r e in the insulation, i. e. coJ > 0. If the insulation*is d r y , M, n = 0, T J + ~ o r becomes d r y during the heating process, i. e. T J M, n 1 M , n i s t o be calculated by Eq. 8.

EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION T o verify the validity of t h i s n u m e r i c a l technique, standard f i r e t e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d out on s e v e r a l protected s t e e l columns. The r e s u l t s w e r e then compared with those obtained by the theoretical simulations of t h e s e t e s t s . In the t e s t s t h r e e different protecting m a t e r i a l s and two different s t e e l c o r e s w e r e used. The effect of the m o i s t u r e content of insulation on the t e m p e r a t u r e h i s t o r y of s t e e l c o r e s was a l s o studied i n a few c a s e s . A typical t e s t specimen i s shown in Fig. 4. of the components of the specimen i s given below: The description

1.

Insulating f i r e bricks, to reduce heat l o s s e s f r o m the bottom of the s t e e l core. Protecting device, t o contain an insulating m i n e r a l wool. Mineral wool, t o reduce heat l o s s e s f r o m the top of the s t e e l core. Steel core: H-section. Protecting insulation. In the c a s e shown in the figure the insulation and s t e e l a r e separated all around by an a i r space. S e v e r a l of the t e s t specimens w e r e constructed with the insulation in contact with the flanges of the s t e e l section, a s shown in Fig. 1.

2. 3.

4.

5.

The following t h r e e protecting m a t e r i a l s w e r e used: lightweight concrete of expanded shale aggregates, insulating f i r e b r i c k Group 23, and a heavy clay brick. The t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s of the lightweight concrete w e r e derived f r o m the data given in Ref. 21; and those of the insulating f i r e b r i c k f r o m Ref. 22. Those of the heavy clay b r i c k w e r e m e a s u r e d for a few t e m p e r a t u r e s according t o the method described in Ref. 22. Since the m e a s u r e d p r o p e r t i e s w e r e approximately equal to those given in Ref. 23, the l a t t e r data w e r e used for the whole t e m p e r a t u r e range under consideration. The t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s of the insulating m a t e r i a l s used, t h e i r m o i s t u r e content before t h e test, and t h e weight and s i z e of the s t e e l c o r e s a r e given in the Tables 1, 2 and 3. TESTING PROCEDURE The t e s t s w e r e c a r r i e d out by exposing t e s t specimens to heating in a furnace specially built for this purpose. The heat input into the t e s t furnace was controlled in such a way that the average t e m p e r a t u r e closely followed the standard t e m p e r a t u r e v e r s u s t i m e c u r v e given by Eq. 5. The furnace t e m p e r a t u r e was m e a s u r e d by nine thermocouples located at s e v e r a l levels around the specimen with t h e i r hot junctions 12 in. away f r o m the s u r f a c e of the specimen. The t e m p e r a t u r e of the s t e e l c o r e was m e a s u r e d at four levels, but because of the s m a l l t e m p e r a t u r e differences between t h e various

locations, only indications by t h r e e thermocouples located at the midheight of the specimen w e r e used. The average of the t e m p e r a t u r e s recorded by t h e s e t h r e e thermocouples, of which one was located in the c e n t r e of the web and the two others at the edge of either flange, was taken a s a m e a s u r e of the t e m p e r a t u r e of the s t e e l core.

RESULTS
Information concerning the variation of the average t e m p e r a t u r e of s t e e l c o r e a s obtained from the f i r e t e s t s , together with that obtained by theoretical simulations, i s presented in Figs. 5 to 8. In all t e s t s the furnace t e m p e r a t u r e followed v e r y closely the temperature v e r s u s t i m e curve formulated by Eq. 5, and therefore it h a s not been plotted in t h e figures. Probably because of condensation of moisture on the thermocouple wires, no reliable information could be obtained of t h e s t e e l t e m p e r a t u r e in the initial stages of those two t e s t s (shown in Figs. 5 and 8) in which the protection contained moisture. These doubtful t e m p e r a t u r e measurements have not been plotted in the figures. It is seen that in all c a s e s a good agreement exists between experimental and calculated temperatures. This finding also confirms t h e validity of the model used t o account for the presence of moisture. As mentioned e a r l i e r , in previous works the t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e between insulation and the s t e e l c o r e was always disregarded (1 -8). To check the validity of this concept, calculations w e r e performed for the following t h r e e modes of heat t r a n s f e r f r o m the insulation t o the s t e e l core: (a) All heat i s t r a n s f e r r e d by radiation t o the c o r e (i. e. a = 0 in Eqs. 8, 11 and 19). (b) 50 p e r cent of the heat is t r a n s f e r r e d t o the c o r e by radiation and 50 p e r cent by conduction; t h e r e i s no t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e at contacting s u r f a c e s between the c o r e and insulation (a = 0. 5). (c) All heat i s t r a n s f e r r e d by conduction from the insulation to the c o r e without any t h e r m a l r e s i s t a n c e at the contacting surfaces between s t e e l c o r e and insulation ( a = 1). The calculated t e m p e r a t u r e s of s t e e l c o r e have been plotted against t i m e in Figs. 9 and 10. Fig. 9 r e l a t e s t o a column made with

a lightweight concrete protection, and Fig. 10 t o a column protected with insulating f i r e brick. It i s clearly seen that the mechanism of heat t r a n s f e r from the insulation t o the s t e e l c o r e has only a s m a l l influence on the s t e e l temperature. It s e e m s justified, therefore, t o neglect the t h e r m a l resistance at the contacting surfaces between s t e e l and insulation, in other words, to assume that the s t e e l temperature i s equal to t h e temperature at the inner surface of insulation. F u r t h e r calculations w e r e performed t o obtain information on the influence of the moisture content in the protection on the t e m p e r a t u r e of s t e e l core. The r e s u l t s a r e shown in Figs. 11 t o 13. It i s usual t o regard the time at which the temperature of s t e e l reaches an average of about 1000"F a s the t i m e of failure for the column. At this temperature, s t e e l will have lost s o much of i t s strength that i t no longer can support the load. It i s seen in Figs. 11 and 13 that f o r columns made with lightweight protection of considerable thickness, the gain in time due t o the presence of moisture may be substantial. With the exception of concrete, however, commonly used inorganic building m a t e r i a l s do not hold much moisture under normal atmospheric conditions. An examination of data (24, 25, 26) indicated that while at 50 p e r cent relative humidity concretes can hold 3 t o 6 p e r cent moisture by volume, most other m a t e r i a l s hold l e s s than 1 p e r cent. F r o m the data given in Figs. 11 13 it can be derived that the gain in f i r e resistance, i. e. in the t i m e that it takes the s t e e l c o r e t o r e a c h the 1000"F level, due t o moisture in the protection i s roughly 3 p e r cent for each p e r cent moisture. Thus, one can expect gains of the o r d e r of 10 t o 20 p e r cent in the c a s e of concrete protection and hardly any gains for other inorganic materials. CONCLUSIONS A finite difference calculation method has been described. It can be used for the prediction of the t e m p e r a t u r e history of the insulation and s t e e l c o r e of protected s t e e l columns. The acceptable accuracy of this method has been demonstrated by comparing experimental and theoretical results. It h a s been shown that the temperature of s t e e l c o r e i s insensitive to the mechanism of heat t r a n s f e r from the inner surface of the insulation to the steel. Thus a close approximation of the average t e m p e r a t u r e of s t e e l c o r e can be obtained by assuming that this i s equal to the average t e m p e r a t u r e

of the inner surface of the protection. To facilitate the calculation of the temperature of s t e e l c o r e it i s permissible t o a s s u m e that all moisture i s concentrated a t the inner surface of the insulation from the s t a r t of the heating process, and evaporates from this surface a s the t e m p e r a t u r e at this place r i s e s . In general, the influence of moisture on the t e m p e r a t u r e h i s t o r y of s t e e l c o r e i s negligible for most inorganic building materials. A notable exception i s concrete, for which the presence of moisture may cause a 10 t o 20 p e r cent gain in the time that the column can support the load. Although the method has been developed p r i m a r i l y f o r the calculation of t e m p e r a t u r e s in protected s t e e l columns, it has a m o r e general applicability. It may a l s o be used t o calculate the t e m p e r a t u r e history in solid s t r u c t u r a l elements, such a s concrete beams and columns, and unprotected s t e e l for any f i r e exposure. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The authors wish t o thank E. 0. Porteous f o r his assistance in conducting the experimental work.

NOMENCLATURE Notations a
c

empirical constant, " R specific heat; without subscript: specific heat of insulation, Btu/lbOR = 0, 1, 2,

.. .

thermal conductivity; without subscript: thermal conductivity of insulation, Btu/h f t OR

number of m e s h points along x axis

N P R t

number of m e s h points along y axis point elementary region time, h temperature, O R (if not specified otherwise) m a s s of steel core, lb/ft coordinate, ft coordinate, ft

T
W

Greek l e t t e r s fraction increment or difference mesh width, ft emissivity emis sivity factor latent heat of vaporization, Btu/lb 3 density; without subscript: density of insulation, lb/ft -8 Btu/h ft2 o R~ Stefan-Boltzrnann constant, 0 -17/3 x 10 3 moisture concentration, ft3/ft 3 3 hypothetical moisture concentration, ft /ft

Subscripts a
f i

average of the "furnace" of the insulation at o r around a m e s h point in the m-th o r M-th row, respectively a t o r around a m e s h point in the n-th o r N-th column, respectively of the s t e e l c o r e pertaining t o radiation of water

m, M
n, N s

R
w

Superscripts o j att=O at t = jAt

REFERENCES
-

Geilinger, W. and Bryl, S. Feursicherheit der Stahlkonstruktionen, IV. Teil: Feurschutz von Stahlstiitzen, Verlag Schweizer Stahlbauverband, Zurich, 1962. Fujii, S. The theoretical calculation of temperature-rise of thermally protected s t e e l column exposed to the fire. Building Research Institute Occasional Report No. 10, Tokyo, 1963. Pettersson, 0. Utvecklingstendenser rorande brandteknisk dimensionering av st%lkonstruk tioner, VSg -och vattenbyggar en, No. 6-7, Stockholm, 1964, pp. 265-268. Lie, T. T. Bekledingsmaterialen en Bouwconstructies bij Brand, Heron No. 2, 1965, pp. 57-81. Witteveen, J. Brandveiligheid Staalconstructies, Centrum Bouwen in Staal, Rotterdam, 1966. Lie, T. T. Temperature of protected s t e e l in fire. Paper 8 of "Behaviour of Structural Steel in F i r e , " Ministry of Technology and F i r e Offices* Committee Joint F i r e Research Organization Symposium No. 2, H. M. S. O., London, 1968. Berechnung des Brandwiderstandes von Stahlkonstruktionen. Schweizerische Zentralstelle f c r Stahlbau, Zurich, 1969. Law, M. Structural f i r e protection in the process industry. Building, Vol. 216, No. 29, 1969, pp. 86-90. Emmons, H. W. The numerical solution of heat conduction problems. Transactions of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 65, 1943, pp. 607-615. Dusinberre, G. M. Heat t r a n s f e r calculations by finite differences. International Textbook Company, Scranton, Pennsylvania, 1961. Harmathy, T. Z. A t r e a t i s e on theoretical f i r e endurance rating. American Society for Testing Materials, Special Technical Publication No. 301, 1961, pp. 10-40.

10

11

Kawagoe, K. Calculation of t e m p e r a t u r e i n double-layer walls heated f r o m one side. Bulletin of the F i r e Prevention Society of Japan, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1965, pp. 29-35. Harmathy, T. Z. T h e r m a l performance of concrete m a s o n r y walls in f i r e . A m e r i c a n Society f o r Testing and Materials, Special Technical Publication No. 464, 1970, pp. 209-243. Thrinks, W. and Mawhinney, M. W. Industrial furnaces. Carnegie Inst. Technology, John Wiley and Sons, h c . , New York, 1961. Standard methods of f i r e t e s t s of building construction and m a t e r i a l s , ASTM Designation E l 19-69, 1969 Book of ASTM Standards, P a r t 14, pp. 436-452. F a c k l e r , J. P., "Cahier 299", C a h i e r s C e n t r e Scientifique e t Technique du B2timent, No. 38, A p r i l 1959. Liley, P. E., Touloukian, Y. S., and Gambill, W. R. P h y s i c a l and chemical data. Chemical Engineers Handbook, J. H. P e r r y , Sec. 3, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1963. Brit. Iron S t e e l Res. Assoc., P h y s i c a l constants of s o m e c o m m e r c i a l s t e e l s a t elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s . Butterworths Sci. Publ., London, 1953. Harmathy, T. Z. Effect of m o i s t u r e on the f i r e endurance of building elements. ASTM Spec. Techn. Publ. No. 385, 1965, p. 74. Harmathy, T. Z. and Lie, T. T. Experimental verification of the r u l e of m o i s t u r e moment. F i r e Technology, Vol. 7, 1971, p. 17. Harmathy, T. Z. T h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s of concrete at elevated t e m p e r a t u r e s . Journal of Materials, JMLSA, Vol. 5, No. 1, March 1970, pp. 47-74. Harmathy, T. Z. Variable s t a t e methods of m e a s u r i n g the t h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s of solids, J. Appl. P h y s . , Vol. 35, 1964, p. 1190. P l u m m e r , C. E. et al. Brick, s t r u c t u r a l clay products and r e f r a c t o r i e s . Engineering M a t e r i a l s Handbook, C. L. Mantell, Sect. 25. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, Toronto, London, 1958.

24

Powers, T. C. and Brownyard, T. L. Studies of the physical properties of hardened portland cement paste. Research Laboratories of the Portland Cement Association, Bulletin 22, Chicago, 1948. Harmathy, T. Z. Moisture sorption of building materials, Technical P a p e r No. 242, Division of Building Research, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, NRC 9492, March 1967. Lie, T. T. Feasibility of determining the equilibrium moisture condition in f i r e resistance t e s t specimens by measuring their electrical resistance. Building Research Note No. 7 5, Division of Building Research, NRC, Ottawa, 197 1. Gilmor e, C. H. et al. Heat transmission. Chemical Engineer's Handbook, J. H. P e r r y , Sect. 10, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1963.

25

26

27

TABLE 1 INFORMATION ON THE TEST COLUMNS BUILT WITH LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE PROTECTION

Thermal properties of protecting insulation

P

Temperature
O F

70 100 200 300 40 0 500 600 700 750 800 850 900 950 1000 1050 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1700 2000 2300

Volumetric heat capacity, (p c) ~ t u / f t 3 R

16.35 17.00 18.75 23.95 25.10 25.20 24.90 24.80 25.00 26.60 33.50 41.25 43.30 35.70 27.90 23.90 23.85 25.75 25.25 23.90 24.20 24.65 25.30

Thermal conductivity, (k) ~ t u / f th O R

0. 317 0.399 0.320 0. 323 0.323 0.325 0.326 0. 328 0. 327 0. 327 0. 327 0. 320 0. 315 0. 311 0.308 0. 307 0.306 0. 305 0. 303 0.303 0.312 0. 327 0. 342 3

Density of insulation a t room temperature: P = 9 0 lb/ft cpo = 0.032 t3/ft3 Average moisture content: Thickness of protection: 3 5/8 in. Steel core: H-section, 6 x 6 in., 20 lb p e r ft length. Outside dimensions of specimen: 19: in. x 192 in. (no contact between s t e e l and protection). Emissivity of protection: C i = 0. 9. Emissivity of steel: C s = 0. 9.

TABLE 2 INFORMATION ON THE TEST COLUMNS BUILT WITH INSULATING FIRE BRICK PROTECTION

T h e r m a l properties of protecting insulation Temperature, Volumetric heat capacity, (pc) ~ t u / f t "R ~ 7.21 7.39 8. 00 8. 60 9. 14 9. 55 9.88 10.25 10.57 11.12 11.66 12.21 12.76 13. 31 13.86 14. 41 14.95
-

T h e r m a l conductivity, (k) ~ t u / f t hO R 0.098 0,100 0. 107 0.114 0.120 0. 127 0.134 0. 141 0. 148 0.165 0.182 0.204 0.230 0.255 0.281 0. 307 0. 332

70 100 200 300 40 0 500 600 700 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2 400

3 Density of insulation a t room temperature: p = 45 lb/ft Average moisture content: CQ, = 0. Thickness protection: 22 in. Steel core: H-section, 6 x 6 in. , 20 l b p e r ft length. Outside dimensions of specimen: 11 in. x 11 in. (contact between steel and protection at the s t e e l flanges) Emissivity of protection: C i = 0. 9. Emissivity of steel: C S = 0. 9.

TABLE 3 INFORMATION ON THE TEST COLUMNS BUILT WITH HEAVY CLAY BRICK PROTECTION

T h e r m a l p r o p e r t i e s of protecting insulation T h e r m a l conductivity, Volumetric heat capacity, Temperature, (k) ~ t u / f t h "R (p c) ~ t u / f t " R O F
70 100 200 300 40 0 500 600 700 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
-. -- -

24. 24. 25. 26. 26. 26. 27. 27. 28. 29. 29. 30. 31. 32. 32. 33. 33.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0. 5 4 0. 5 5 0. 57 0. 6 0 0. 6 0 0. 6 1 0. 63 0. 6 5 0. 6 6 0. 7 0 0.73 0. 7 6 0. 8 0 0. 8 3 0. 8 6 0. 9 0 0. 9 2

3 Density of insulation a t room temperature: p = 1 3 3 lb/ft Average m o i s t u r e content: (a) cpo = 0 3 3 (b) cpo = 0 - 0 4 f t / f t . Steel core: H-section, 8 x 8 in. , 48 l b p e r ft length. 1 Thickness protection: 2 7 in. Outside dimensions of specimen: 12$ in. x 12$ in. (contact between s t e e l and protection at the s t e e l flanges). Emissivity of protection: E i = 0. 9. Emissivity of steel: s s = 0. 9.

FIGURE

CROSS S E C T I O N O F A T Y P I C A L PROTECTED STEEL mar~a~z-I COLUMN

FIGURE

THE ARRANGEMENT OF THE ELEMENTARY REGIONS OF A ONE-EIGHTH COLUMN PROTECTION

SECTION OF
~ I ~ ~ - P .

M A S S O F STEEL ELEMENT: ~ c W

LMASS O F STEEL
ELEMENT : (I-oc) W 4(N-M-1) C = C O N D U C T I V E HEAT FLUX
R = RADIATIVE HEAT FLUX

FIGURE 3 M O D E L O F M E C H A N I S M O F HEAT TRANSFER FOR A T R I A N G U L A R E L E M E N T A R Y R E G I O N O F THE I N N E R SURFACE O F I N S U L A T I O N IRWS~ -3

SECTION A-0-C-D WITHOUT ITEM 3

FIGURE 4

FIRE TEST SPECIMEN

E l I###-I

1
-

--

EXPEH l MENTAL CALCULATED

1
0 60 120 180 T I M E , MINUTES FIGURE 5 240

1
300 360

A V E R A G E T E M P E R A T U R E O F STEEL CORE I N A C O L U M N PROTECTED W I T H L I G H T WE1 G H T CONCRETE Y' = 0.032, oc 0. (FOR FURTHER D E T A I L S O F S P E C I M E N SEE T A B L E 1) ~RYO~Z-4

FIGURE 6 A V E R A G E T E M P E R A T U R E O F STEEL C O R E I N A C O L U M N P R O T E C T E D W I T H I N S U L A T I N G FIRE BRICK Y o = 0, d = 0.5 ( F O R F U R T H E R D E T A I L S O F S P E C I M E N SEE T A B L E 2 )

-- E X P E R l M E N T A L

CALCULATED

TIME, MINUTES FIGURE 7 A V E R A G E T E M P E R A T U R E O F STEEL C O R E I N A C O L U M N P R O T E C T E D W I T H H E A V Y CLAY BRICK 'Po = 0, o C = 0 . 5 SR4aLIZ - 6 ( F O R F U R T H E R D E T A I L S O F S P E C I M E N SEE T A B L E 3 )

IMENTAL -EC XAPL EC R ULATED

--

TIME. MINUTES FIGURE 8 A V E R A G E T E M P E R A T U R E O F STEEL C O R E I N A C O L U M N P R O T E C T E D W I T H H E A V Y CLAY BRICK Y o = 0 . 0 4 , OC= 0 . 5 ( F O R F U R T H E R D E T A I L S O F S P E C I M E N SEE T A B L E 3)

I
-

d
=

1 (PURE CONDUCTION)

0 (PURE R A D I A T I O N )

0
0

I
120

1
180 TIME. MINUTES
240

I
300
360

60

FIGURE 9 CALCULATED TEMPERATURES OF STEEL CORE I N A C O L U M N PROTECTED W I T H L I G H T W E I G H T CONCRETE FOR V A R I O U S R A T I O S OF C O N D U C T I O N TO R A D I A T I O N HEAT TRANSFER F R O M THE P R O T E C T I O N TO THE STEEL 8R4842 - 6 'Po = 0 . 0 3 2 , (FOR FURTHER D E T A I L S OF THE C O L U M N SEE TABLE 1)

TIME, MINUTES FIGURE 10 C A L C U L A T E D T E M P E R A T U R E S O F STEEL C O R E I N A C O L U M N P R O T E C T E D W I T H H E A V Y C L A Y B R I C K FOR V A R I O U S R A T I 0 . S O F C O N D U C T I O N TO R A D I A T I O N H E A T T R A N S F E R F R O M T H E P R O T E C T I O N T O T H E STEEL .R*~*X-9 Y o = 0 , ( F O R F U R T H E R DETA l L S O F C O L U M N SEE T A B L E 3)

60

120

180

240

300

360

TIME, MINUTES F I G U R E 11 C A L C U L A T E D T E M P E R A T U R E S O F STEEL C O R E I N A C O L U M N P R O T E C T E D W I T H L I G H T W E I G H T C O N C R E T E FOR V A R I O U S M O I S T U R E C O N T E N T S DR4a+1-IO oc-0, ( F O R F U R T H E R D E T A I L S O F C O L U M N SEE T A B L E 1 )

TIME, MINUTES FIGURE 12 C A L C U L A T E D T E M P E R A T U R E S O F STEEL CORE I N A C O L U M N P R O T E C T E D W I T H H E A V Y C L A Y B R I C K FOR V A R I O U S M O I S T U R E C O N T E N T S . d . O . 5 , (FOR FURTHER D E T A I L S O F C O L U M N SEE TABLE 3) SR+~*L-II

If IN. THICKNESS

23lN. THICKNESS

TIME, MINUTES F I G U R E 13 CALCULATED TEMPERATURES O F STEEL CORE I N A C O L U M N PROTECTED W I T H I N S U L A T I N G F I R E B R I C K FOR V A R I O U S M O I S T U R E CONTENTS A N D T H I C K N E S S E S OF THE P R O T E C T I O N d = 0.5, (FOR FURTHER D E T A I L S O F S P E C I M E N SEE TABLE 2) OR*WIL-IL