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Most common materials which structures are built Wood Steel Concrete

INTRODUCTION

A code is a set of technical specifications and standards that control important details of design and construction. The purpose of codes is to produce sound structures so that the public will be protected from poor or inadequate design and construction. There are two types of codes exist. Structural code-written by specialists who are concerned with the proper use of a specific materials or who are involved with the safe design of a particular class of structures. ASTM-American Society for Testing and Materials. This code provides for the testing of materials to be used in structures. NSCP-National Structural Code of the Philippines. This covers the design of structural materials such as concrete, wood and steel. AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials which covers the design of roads and bridges. Building code of which the objective is to protect the public by accounting for the influence of local environmental conditions.

NBC- National Building Code. This covers minimum requirements of building construction of a given region and may specify additional requirements for earthquake, and wind. 1.1 Unit Conversions From Kip force N ksi MPa psf N/m2 kip/ft To kN lb MPa ksi N/m2 psf kN/m Multiply 4.448 0.2248 6.895 0.1450 47.88 0.02089 14.59

Force Stresses

Uniform loading

Introduction kN/m ft-kip kN-m lb/ft kN-m ft-kip 68.52 1.356 0.7376

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Moments

2.0 Concrete A mixture of cement, fine and coarse aggregates and when mixed with water hardens and forms into a solid mass also known as plain concrete. Cement sets when mixed with water by way of a complex series of chemical reactions still only partly understood. The different constituents slowly crystallise and the interlocking of their crystals gives cement its strength. Carbon dioxide is slowly absorbed to convert the portlandite (Ca(OH)2) into insoluble calcium carbonate. After the initial setting, immersion in warm water will speed up setting. Gypsum is added as an inhibitor to prevent flash setting. 2.1 Components of concrete: 2.1.1 Cement material that has adhesive and cohesive properties enabling it to bond mineral fragments into a solid mass. The cements of interest are those that can set and harden in the presence of water hydraulic cement. Made of limestone and clay(or shale) which is ground, blended, fuse in a kiln, and crushed to a powder. Portland cement usual hydraulic cement used for reinforced concrete, resemblance when hardened to Portland stone found near Dorset, England. Portland cement was developed from natural cements made in Britain in the early part of the nineteenth century, and its name is derived from its similarity to Portland stone, a type of building stone that was quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England. Typical constituents of Portland cement Cement Mass % Calcium oxide, CaO 61-67% Silicon dioxide, SiO2 19-23% Aluminum oxide, Al2O3 2.5-6% Ferric oxide, Fe2O3 0-6% Sulfate 1.5-4.5% Types of Portland Cement There are five types of Portland cements with variations of the first three according to ASTM C150. Type I: Normal. Used in ordinary construction where no special requirements exist. Commonly used for general construction especially when making precast and precastpre-stressed concrete that is not to be in contact with soils or ground water.

Introduction

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Type II: Moderate. Moderate sulfate resistance with or without moderate heat of hydration. This type of cement costs about the same as Type I. Ordinary construction where moderate sulfate resistance or moderate heat of hydration is desired and when concrete is in contact with soils and ground water. Type III: High-early. Rapid gain in strength. Its seven day compressive strength is almost equal to types I and II 28 day compressive strengths. It is usually used for precast concrete manufacture, where high 1- day strength allows fast turnover of molds. It may also be used in emergency construction and repairs and construction of machine bases and gate installations. Type IV: Low-heat. Known for its low heat of hydration. As a consequence the strength of the concrete develops slowly. After one or two years the strength is higher than the other types after full curing. This cement is used for very large concrete structures, such as dams. This type of cement has not been made for many years, because Portlandpozzolan cements and ground granulated blast furnace slag addition offer a cheaper and more reliable alternative. Type V: Sulfate-resisting. When high sulfate resistance is desired. This type is used in concrete that is to be exposed to alkali soil and ground water sulfates which react with (C3A) causing disruptive expansion. As with Type IV, Type V Portland cement has mainly been supplanted by the use of ordinary cement with added ground granulated blast furnace slag or tertiary blended cements containing slag and fly ash. Admixtures In addition to cement, coarse and fine aggregates , and water, oher materials kn own as admixtures to the concrete mix immediately before or after the mixing. Admixtures may be used to modify the properties of the concrete to mske it better serve its intended use or for better economy. Some purposes of admixtures are: 1. To increase workability without increasing water content, or to decrease the water content at the same workability (pozzolans, fly ash) 2. To accelerate the rate of strength development at early ages ( calcium chloride) 3. To retard the setting and thereby reduce heat evolution. 4. To increase the strength. Pozzolan cement a siliceous and aluminous material which possesses little or no inherent cementitous property but may react with calcium hydroxide at orfinary temperature and moisture to form cementitous poperties. It has low curing rate than cements without pozzolan and hence produce less heat during hydration.

Introduction

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At the basis of the pozzolanic reaction stands a simple acid-base reaction between calcium hydroxide, also known as Portlandite, or (Ca(OH)2), and silicic acid (H4SiO4, or Si(OH)4), and . Simply, this reaction can be schematically represented as follows: Ca(OH)2 + H4SiO4 Ca2+ + H2SiO42- + 2 H2O CaH2SiO4 2 H2O The product of general formula (CaH2SiO4 2 H2O ) formed is a calcium silicate hydrate, also abbreviated as C-S-H in cement chemist notation, the hyphenation denotes the variable stoichiometry. The ratio Ca/Si, or C/S, and the number of water molecules can vary and the above mentioned stoichiometry may differ.

1.1.2 Aggregates - gravel and sand. 1.1.2 Fine aggregates (sand) any material passing through a No. 4 sieve (5 mm diameter) 1.1.3 Coarse aggregates (gravel) any material retained by No. 4 sieve. Maximum size are specified as: 1. 1/ 5 the narrowest dimension between sides of forms 2. 1/3 the depth of slabs 3. 3/4 the minimum clear spacing between individual reinforcing bars or wires, bundles of bars, or pre-stressing tendon or ducts. Normal weight concrete- natural aggregates conforming to ASTM C33 are commonly used in construction giving a concrete weight of 2320 kg/m3 and with steel reinforcement this would sum up to 2400 kg/m3. Lightweight concrete 1,123 to 1,845 kg/m3 usually made from aggregates which are produced artificially in a kiln. water clean and free from injurious amounts of oils, acids, alkalis, salts, organic materials, or other substances that may be deleterious to concrete or reinforcement. admixtures- an additive to concrete mix to modify the properties of the concrete to make it better serve its intended use or for better economy. 2.2 Compressive strength of concrete Compressive strength of concrete is controlled by the proportioning of cement , coarse and fine aggregates , water and various admixtures. The strength of concrete is denoted by fc, which is the compressive strength in N/mm2 of test cylinders 150 mm in diameter by 300 mm high measured on the 28th day after they are made. Other standard test unit is the cube 200 mm to a side.

Introduction

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Concrete stress Tangent modulus at 0.5

Initial modulus (tangent at origin) Secant modulus at 0.5

0.001 0.002 Concrete strain

0.003

0.004

Modulus of Elasticity- varies unlike that of steel, with strength, and to a lesser extent , on the age of concrete, properties of the aggregates and cement, rate of loading, and the type and size of specimen The empirical formula :
1.5 Ec wc 0.043 f c' (MPa)

was developed for values of wc between1500 and 2500 kg/m3. For normal weight concrete: Values of modulus of elasticity for various concrete strengths are given below: fc (MPa) 20.7 24.1 27.6 31.0 34.5 Factors that affect concrete strength Ec (MPa) 21,760 23,503 25,130 26,650 28,030

water-cement ratio- the lower the ratio the higher the compressive strength. Minimum amount of water is necessary for the proper chemical action in the hardening of concrete. Extra water increases workability but reduces strength. A measure of workability is obtained by slump test. The slump test is common field test used to

Introduction control the workability and quality of concrete. Vibration will greatly improve workability and even very stiff no-slump concrete can be placed.

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27.58 Non-air entrained 20.68

Air entrained

20.68 13.79 13.79

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

Water-cement ratio, by weight aggregates for maximum strength, durability, and best economy, the aggregate should be packed and cemented as densely as possible. Graded by size and a proper mix specifies percentages of both fine and coarse aggregates. admixtures added to concrete mix immediately before or during the mixing. To increase the strength use water reducing and set controlling admixtures.

1.3 Tensile Strength Tensile strength of concrete is an important property that greatly affects the extent and size of cracking in structures. Tensile strength is usually determined by using the split-cylinder test Modulus of Rapture tensile strength in flexure computed from flexure formula gives higher values for tensile strength than the split cylinder test, due to non-linearity of stress distribution. The average value for the modulus of rapture is taken as: for normal weight concrete and 75% of that value for lightweight concrete. 1.4 Creep and Shrinkage time dependent deformations, that, along with cracking, provide the greatest concern because of the inaccuracies and unknowns that surround them. Concrete is elastic only under loads of short duration; and because of additional deformation with time, the effective behaviour is that of an inelastic material. Creep property of concrete by which it continues to deform with time under sustained loads at unit stresses within the accepted elastic range. This inelastic deformation increases at a decreasing rate during the time of loading and its total magnitude may be several times as large as the short time elastic deformation.

Mpa

Introduction To minimize creep Defer the application of load until the concrete gains strength Using high strength concrete Keep the volume of cement paste low relative to the volume of aggegates Add reinforcement Use limestone aggregates

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Shrinkage volume change that is unrelated to load application and due to moisture loss. To minimize cracking due to shrinkage Minimize water content Use dense non-porous aggregates Cure concrete well Limit the area or length of concrete poured

1.5 Steel Reinforcement consists of bars, welded wire, welded wire fabric, or wires. For usual construction, bars called deformed bars having lugs or protrusions are used. Billet steel (ASTM A615) is newly made steel having its chemical content sufficiently controlled to provide necessary ductility. Axle and rail steel bars, both of which are rarely used now, are rerolled from old axles and rails, and are generally less ductile than bars of billet steel. The modulus of elasticity of steel may be taken as 29,000 ksi or 200 GPa Bar Number 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 14 18 Diameter (mm) 9.5 12.7 15.9 19.1 22.2 25.4 28.7 32.26 35.81 43.00 57.33 Area (mm2) 71 129 200 284 387 510 645 819 1006 1452 2581 Weight (kg/m) 0.56 0.994 1.552 2.235 3.042 3.973 5.060 6.404 7.907 11.384 20.238

Introduction

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Nominal Stress MPa 120 100 80 60 40 20 Grade 60

Tensile strength Tensile strength

700 600 500 400 300 200 100

Grade 40

Strain 0.150 0.200 5000 5000 Typical stress-strain curve for reinforcing steel bars in tension 0.050 00 0.100 5000

ASTM Designation A 615-85 A616-85 A617-85 A706-84a A82

Types Billet steel Rail Steel Axle steel Low alloy Cold-drawn wire

Grade 40 60 50 60 40 60 60 Reinf Fabric

Min (MPa) 300 400 350 400 300 400 400 450 385

0.00138 0.00207 0.00172 0.00207 0.00138 0.00207 0.00207

Ult.Strength (MPa) 500 600 550 600 500 600 550 515 485

1.6 Reinforced Concrete- union of two materials: 1) plain concrete with high compressive strength but little tensile strength and 2) steel bars which provides strength in tension. Normal weight of reinforced concrete is taken as 2400 kg/m3.

Cross section of a reinforced concrete beam

Cross section of a reinforced concrete square column

Cross section of a reinforced concrete circular column

Introduction

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Design procedure: