LCR MEASUREMENT PRIMER

ISO 9001 Certified 5 Clock Tower Place, 210 East, Maynard, Massachusetts 01754 TELE: (800) 253-1230, FAX: (978) 461-4295, INTL: (978) 461-2100 http:// www.quadtech.com

Preface
The intent of this reference primer is to explain the basic definitions and measurement of impedance parameters, also known as LCR. This primer provides a general overview of the impedance characteristics of an AC circuit, mathematical equations, connection methods to the device under test and methods used by measuring instruments to precisely characterize impedance. Inductance, capacitance and resistance measuring techniques associated with passive component testing are presented as well. LCR Measurement Primer 3rd Edition, July 2003 Comments: info@quadtech.com

5 Clock Tower Place, 210 East Maynard, Massachusetts 01754 Tel: (978) 461-2100 Fax: (978) 461-4295 Intl: (800) 253-1230 Web: http://www.quadtech.com

This material is for informational purposes only and is subject to change without notice. QuadTech assumes no responsibility for any error or for consequential damages that may result from the misinterpretation of any procedures in this publication.
3

Contents
Impedance Definitions Impedance Terms Phase Diagrams Series and Parallel Connection Methods Two-Terminal Measurements Four-Terminal Measurements Three-Terminal (Guarded) Impedance Measuring Instruments Methods Functions Test Voltage Ranging Integration Time Median Mode Computer Interface Test Fixtures and Cables Compensation Open/Short Load Correction Capacitance Measurements Series or Parallel High & Low Value Capacitance ESR Inductance Measurements Series or Parallel Inductance Measurement Factors DC Bias Voltage Constant Voltage (Leveling) Constant Source Impedance DC Resistance and Loss Resistance Measurements Series or Parallel Precision Impedance Measurements Measurement Capability Instrument Accuracy Factors Affecting Accuracy Example Accuracy Formula Materials Measurement Definitions Measurement Methods, Solids Contacting Electrode Air-Gap Two Fluid Measurement Method, Liquids 5 5 6 7 7 10 10 10 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 14 14 15 15 15 16 17 17 18 20 21 21 21 22 22 22 23 24 24 25 25 26 27 28 30 30 30 30 31 32 33 Recommended LCR Meter Features Test Frequency Test Voltage Accuracy/Speed Measurement Parameters Ranging Averaging Median Mode Computer Interface Display Binning Test Sequencing Parameter Sweep Bias Voltage and Bias Current Constant Source Impedance Monitoring DUT Voltage and Current Examples of High Performance Testers Digibridge Component Testers 1600 Series 1659 1689/89M 1692 1693 1700 Series 1710 1730 1750 Precision LCR Meters 1900 Series 1910 Inductance Analyzer 1920 LCR Meter 7000 Series 7400 LCR Meter 7600 LCR Meter Dedicated Function Test Instruments Milliohmmeters Megohmmeters Hipot Testers Electrical Safety Analyzers Appendix A 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34 35 35 36 37 37 37 37 38 39 39 39 39 39 39 39 40 40 40 40 41 41 41 41 41 42 42 42 42 42 42 42 43

Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratories (NRTLs) and Standards Organizations 44 Helpful Links Typical Measurement Parameters Impedance Terms and Equations Application Note Directory Glossary 4 45 46 47 49 53

Impedance
Impedance
Impedance is the basic electrical parameter used to characterize electronic circuits, components, and materials. It is defined as the ratio of the voltage applied to the device and the resulting current through it. To put this another way, impedance is the total opposition a circuit offers to the flow of an alternating current (ac) at a given frequency, and is generally represented as a complex quantity, which can be shown graphically. The basic elements that make up electrical impedances are inductance, capacitance and resistance: L, C, and R, respectively. In the real world electronic components are not pure resistors, inductors or capacitors, but a combination of all three. Today's generation of LCR meters are capable of displaying these parameters and can easily calculate and display many other parameters such as Z, Y, X, G, B, D, etc. This primer is intended as an aid in understanding which ac impedance measurements are typically used and other factors that need to be considered to obtain accurate and meaningful impedance measurements. Complex Quantity However, if capacitance or inductance are present, they also affect the flow of current. The capacitance or inductance cause the voltage and current to be out of phase. Therefore, Ohms law must be modified by substituting impedance (Z) for resistance. Thus for ac, Ohm's Law becomes : Z = V/I. Z is a complex number: Z = R + jX . A complex number or quantity has a real component (R) and an imaginary component (jX). Phase Shift The phase shift can be drawn in a vector diagram which shows the impedance Z, its real part Rs, its imaginary part jXs (reactance), and the phase angle . Because series impedances add, an equivalent circuit for an impedance would put Rs and Xs is series hence subscript s. The reciprocal of Z is Admittance, Y which is also a complex number having a real part Gp (conductance) and an imaginary part jBp (susceptance) with a phase angle . Note = - . Because admittances in parallel add, an equivalent circuit for an admittance would put Gp and Bp in parallel. Note from the formulas below that, in general, Gp does not equal (1/Rs) and Bp does not equal -(1/Xs). Refer to Table 1 for Impedance terms, units of measure and equations.

Definitions
The mathematical definition of resistance for dc (constant voltage) is the ratio of applied voltage V to resulting current I. This is Ohms Law: R = V/I. An alternating or ac voltage is one that regularly reverses its direction or polarity. If an ac voltage is applied to a circuit containing only resistance, the circuit resistance is determined from Ohms Law.

For DC, Resistance, R =

V I

For AC, Impedance, Z =

V = R + jX I

Table 1: Impedance Terms & Equations

Parameter Z |Z| Rs or ESR Xs Y |Y| GP BP Cs CP Ls LP RP Q D, DF or tan Quantity Impedance Magnitude of Z Resistance, Real part of Z Reactance, Imaginary part of Z Admittance Magnitude of Y Real part of Y Susceptance Series capacitance Parallel capacitance Series inductance Parallel inductance Parallel resistance Quality factor Dissipation factor Phase angle of Z Unit Symbol ohm, ohm, ohm, ohm, siemen, S siemen, S (was mho) siemen, S siemen, S farad, F farad, F henry, H henry, H ohm, none none degree or radian Formula Z = R S + jX S = | Z| = RS 2 RS = 1 =| Z | Y 1 + XS2 = |Y |
2 j

GP G P + BP
2

RP 1+ Q2

XS =

BP G P + BP 2
2

Y = G P + jB P = |Y | = G P 2 GP =

1 =| Y | j Z 1 + BP 2 = | Z|

RS RS + X S 2
2

BP = CS = CP = LS =

XS RS + X S 2
2

1 = C P (1 + D 2 ) X S

CS B = 1+ D2

X Q2 = Lp 1+ Q 2 1 1 LP = = L S (1 + 2 ) B P Q RP =
Q=

1 = R S (1 + Q 2 ) GP
1 X S GP = = = tan D RS BP

B 1 RS = = P = tan(90 0 ) = tan Q X S GP = D=
=

Phase angle of Y

degree or radian

Notes: 1. f = frequency in Hertz; j = square root (-1); = 2f 2. R and X are equivalent series quantities unless otherwise defined. G and B are equivalent parallel quantities unless otherwise defined. Parallel R (Rp) is sometimes used but parallel X (Xp) is rarely used and series G (Gs) and series B (Bs) are very rarely used. 3. C and L each have two values, series and parallel. If no subscript is defined, usually series configuration is implied, but not necessarily, especially for C (Cp is common, Lp is less used). 4. Q is positive if it is inductive, negative if it is capacitive. D is positive if it is capacitive. Thus D = -1/Q. 5. Tan is used by some (especially in Europe) instead of D. tan = D.

+jX
1 -j CS

RS

+jX +R Z

+jB Y

+jB
1 -j LP

GP

jLs

jCp

+G

-jX Z -jX

RS

+R -jB

GP

+G -jB

RS

RS CP RP or GP LP RP or GP

CS

LS

IMPEDANCE Capacitive Inductive

ADMITTANCE Capacitive Inductive

Figure 1: Phase Diagrams

Series and Parallel

At any specific frequency an impedance may be represented by either a series or a parallel combination of an ideal resistive element and an ideal reactive element which is either capacitive or inductive. Such a representation is called an equivalent circuit and illustrated in Figure 1. The values of these elements or parameters depend on which representation is used, series or parallel, except when the impedance is purely resistive or purely reactive. In such cases only one element is necessary and the series or parallel values are the same. Since the impedance of two devices in series is the sum of their separate impedances, we can think of an impedance as being the series combination of an ideal resistor and an ideal capac7

itor or inductor. This is the series equivalent circuit of an impedance comprising an equivalent series resistance and an equivalent series capacitance or inductance (refer to Figure 1). Using the subscript s for series, we have equation 1: Z = Rs + jXs = Rs + jL = Rs j C

1:

For a complicated network having many components, it is obvious that the element values of the equivalent circuit will change as the frequency is changed. This is also true of the values of both the elements of the equivalent circuit of a single, actual component, although the changes may be very small.

Admittance, Y, is the reciprocal of impedance as shown in equation 2: 2: Y= 1 Z

It too is complex, having a real part, the ac conductance G, and an imaginary part, the susceptance B. Because the admittances of parallel elements are additive, Y can be represented by a parallel combination of an ideal conductance and a susceptance, where the latter is either an ideal capacitance or an ideal inductance (refer to Figure 1). Using the subscript p for parallel elements, we have equation 3: Y = Gp + jBp = Gp + jCp = Gp j L

3:

Gp, Cp and Lp are the equivalent parallel parameters. Since a pure resistance is the reciprocal of a pure conductance and has the same symbol, we can use Rp instead of Gp for the resistor symbols in Figure 1, noting that Rp = 1/Gp and Rp is the equivalent parallel resistance. (By analogy, the reciprocal of the series resistance, Rs, is series conductance, Gs, but this quantity is rarely used). Two other quantities, D and Q, are useful, not only to simplify the conversion formulas of Table 1, but also by themselves, as measures of the "purity" of a component, that is, how close it is to being ideal or containing only resistance or reactance. D, the dissipation factor, is the ratio of the real part of impedance, or admittance, to the imaginary part. Q, the quality factor, is the reciprocal of this ratio as illustrated in equation 5. 5: D= Rs Xs = Gp Bp = 1 Q

Note that an inductance susceptance is negative and also note the similarity or duality of this last equation and Equation 1. It is important to recognize that, in general, Gp is not equal to 1/Rs and Bp is not equal to 1/Xs (or -1/Xs) as one can see from the calculation in equation 4. 4: Y= 1 Z = 1 Rs + jXs j Xs Rs2 + Xs2

Rs Rs2 + Xs2 Gp + jBp

Thus Gp = 1/Rs only if Xs = 0, which is the case only if the impedance is a pure resistance, and Bp = -1/Xs (note the minus sign) only if Rs = 0, that is, the impedance is a pure capacitance or inductance.

A low D value, or high Q, means that a capacitor or inductor is quite pure, while a low Q, or high D, means that a resistor is nearly pure. In Europe, the symbol used to represent the dissipation factor of a component is the tangent of the angle delta, or tan . Refer to Table 1. Some conventions are necessary as to the signs of D or Q. For capacitors and inductors, D and Q are considered to be positive as long as the real part of Z or Y is positive, as it will be for passive components. (Note, however, that transfer impedance of passive networks can exhibit negative real parts). For resistors, a common convention is to consider Q to be positive if the component is inductive (having a positive reactance), and to be negative if it is capacitive (having a negative reactance).

Formulas for D and Q in terms of the series and parallel parameters are given in Table 1. Note that the D or Q of an impedance is independent of the configuration of the equivalent circuit used to represent it. It should be emphasized that these series and parallel equivalent circuits both have the same value of complex impedance at a single frequency, but at any other frequency their impedances will be different. An example is illustrated in Figure 2.

Series 1k 0.05uF 0.1uF

Parallel

2k

DUT

+jX

1k

+jB +R j 0.05uF Y

Z DUT= 1000 -j1000 at 1.5915kHz

= 2 f

-j 1 0.1uF

-jX Z -jB

f = 10/2 kHz = 1.5915kHz

2k

= 2 (10/2) kHz +G = 10 kHz

Figure 2: Complex Impedance

Connection Methods
Connection to the device under test (DUT) is crucial in determining the most accurate value of the DUTs impedance. The use of multiple connections can reduce or remove impedance measurement errors caused by series impedance in the connections or shunt impedance across the unknown. Refer to QuadTech application note 035027 for an excellent tutorial on Multi-Terminal Impedance Measurements. For the discussion in this primer we will illustrate 2, 3 and 4-terminal connection methods. Note: 1- terminal = 1 wire = 1 lead = 1 connection. typical impedance measurement range for a two-terminal connection is limited to 100 to 10k.

Four-Terminal Measurements
First let's jump into four-terminal measurements, which are simpler to explain and more commonly used than a three-terminal measurement. With a second pair of terminals available, one can measure voltage across the device with one pair and apply current to the device with the other pair. This simple improvement of independent leads for voltage and current effectively removes the series inductance and resistance error factor (including contact resistance) and the stray capacitance factor discussed with two-terminal measurements. Accuracy for the lower impedance measurement range is now substantially improved down to 1 and below. There will be some mutual inductance between the current leads and voltmeter leads which will introduce some error, but much of this is eliminated by using shielded coaxial cabling. The most famous use of the four-terminal connection is the Kelvin Bridge which has been widely used for precision DC resistance measurements. This circuitry associated Lord Kelvin's name so closely with the four-terminal connection technique that "Kelvin" is commonly used to describe this connection.
QuadTech PRECISION 7600 LCR METER
!

Two-Terminal Measurements
The impedance of a device is defined by Ohm's Law as the ratio of the voltage across it to the current through it. This requires at least two connections and therefore the arithmetic of terminals starts with two. With only two terminals, the same terminals must be used for both applying a current and measuring a voltage as illustrated in Figure 3.
QuadTech PRECISION 7600 LCR METER
!

IL

IH

PL

PH

Figure 3: Two Terminal Measurement

When a device is measured in this way it might not be an accurate measurement. There are two types of errors and these are the errors that measurements with more connections will avoid, one is the lead inductance and lead resistance in series with the device and the other is stray capacitance between the two leads, both of which affect the measurement results. Because of these error sources, the
10

IL

IH

PL

PH

Figure 4: Four Terminal

Q uadTech 7600 PRECISION LCR METER

!

IL

IH

PL

PH

Z
Zb Za

Figure 5: 7600 3-Terminal Kelvin

Three-Terminal (or Guarded) Measurements

While the four-terminal measurement applies a current and measures the resulting open-circuit voltage, the three -terminal measurement does the opposite, it applies a voltage and measures the short circuit current. The extra terminal, or third terminal, is called the guard. Any components shunting the unknown can effectively be removed by connecting some point along the shunt to this guard terminal. The effect of any stray path, capacitive or conductive, (shunting Zx) can be removed by intercepting it with a shield tied to the guard point. Likewise, "shunting Zx" can effectively be removed in a series string of actual components by connecting some point along the string to the guard and making a three-terminal measurement. Sometimes three-terminal measureFigure 6: Three-Terminal Guarded using Delta Impedance Configuration

ments are simply called guarded measurements. They are also called direct impedance measurements. Figure 6 illustrates one representation of a passive 3-terminal network. The impedance Zx is that impedance directly between points A and B. As shown by equation 6, errors caused by Za and Zb have been changed. If it were not for the series impedances, the effect of Za and Zb would have been removed completely. The combination of series impedance and shunt impedance has given us two new types of errors. We'll call the first (z1/Za and z3/Zb) the "series/shunt" error. It's caused by a voltage, or current, divider effect. The voltage between point A and guard is reduced because the attentuating or dividing effect of the impedances z1 and Za. Likewise, Zb and z3 divide the current Ix so that it doesn't all flow in the ammeter. Note that this error is a constant percent error, independent of the value of Zx. It usually is very small at low frequencies unless the series and shunt impedances are actual circuit components as they might be in in-circuit measurements. A three-terminal connection usually employs two coaxial cables, where the outer shields are connected to the guard terminal of the LCR meter. The guard terminal is electrically different from the instrument ground terminal which is connected to chassis ground. Measurement accuracy is usually improved for higher impedances, but not lower because lead inductance and resistance are still present.

z1 A Za C Zx Zb B

z3

Zm =

V I z1 + z3 + Zx z1 Za

Equation 6: formula for Figure 6

= Zx 1 +

z3 Zb

z5 Zx Za Zb
11

z5

Impedance Measuring Instruments

Digital LCR meters rely on a measurement process of measuring the current flowing through the device under test (DUT), the voltage across the DUT and the phase angle between the measured V and I. From these three measurements, all impedance parameters can then be calculated. A typical LCR meter has four terminals labeled IH, IL, PH and PL. The IH/IL pair is for the generator and current measurement and the PH/PL pair is for the voltage measurement. Most recently instruments have been developed which employ elaborate software-driven control and signal processing techniques. For example, the QuadTech 7000 LCR Meter uses a principle of measurement which differs significantly from that employed by the traditional measuring instruments. In particular, the 7000 uses digital techniques for signal generation and detection. In the elementary measurement circuit as shown in Figure 8, both the voltage across the device under test (Zx) and the voltage across a reference resistor (Rs) are measured, which essentially carry the same current. The voltage across Zx is Vx and the voltage across Rs is Vs. Both voltages are simultaneously sampled many times per cycle of the applied sine wave excitation. In the case of the 7000, there are four reference resistors. The one used for a particular measurement is the optimal resistor for the device under test, frequency, and amplitude of the applied ac signal. For both Vx and Vs a real and imaginary (in phase and quadrature) component are computed mathematically from the individual sample measurements. The real and imaginary components of Vx and Vs are by themselves meaningless. Differences in the voltage and current detection and measurement process are corrected via software using calibration data. The real and imaginary components of Vx (Vxr and Vxi) are combined with the real and imaginary components of Vs (Vsr and Vsi) and the known characteristics of the reference resistor to determine the apparent impedance of the complex impedance of Zx using complex arithmetic.

Methods
There are many different methods and techniques for measuring impedance. The most familiar is the nulling type bridge method illustrated in Figure 7. When no current flows through the detector (D), the value of the unknown impedance Zx can be obtained by the relationship of the other bridge elements, shown in equation 7. 7: Zx = Z1 Z2 Z3

Z1

ZX

Detector

Z2

Z3

Oscillator

Figure 7: Bridge Method

Various types of bridge circuits, employing combinations of L, C, and R as bridge elements, are used in different instruments for varying applications.
12

IH IX ZX IL

PH

IH PH K VX ZX PL K VS IL RS VX Differential Amplifiers VS

PL

RS

ZX =

VX (RS) VS VX VS = ZX RS

VS

7000 Measurement Circuit, Simplified

7000 Measurement Circuit, Active 5-Terminal

Figure 8: 7000 Measurement Circuit

Figure 9: QuadTech 7600 LCR Meter

Functions
The demand on component testing is much more than a resistance, capacitance or inductance value at a given test frequency and stimulus voltage. Impedance meters must go beyond this with the flexibility to provide multiparameters over wide frequency and voltage ranges. Additionally, an easily understood display of test results and the ability to access and use these results has become increasingly important.

A source resistance (Rs, internal to the meter) is effectively connected in series with the ac output and there is a voltage drop across this resistor. When a test device is connected, the voltage applied to the device depends on the value of the source resistor (Rs) and the impedance value of the device. Figure 10 illustrates the factors of constant source impedance, where the programmed voltage is 1V but the voltage to the test device is 0.5V. Some LCR meters, such as the QuadTech 1900 have a voltage leveling function, where the voltage to the device is monitored and maintained at the programmed level.
1910 Source Resistance

RS=25

V PROGRAM

VP= 1V

Test Voltage
The ac output of most LCR meters can be programmed to select the signal level applied to the DUT. Generally, the programmed level is obtained under an open circuit condition.
VM= VP

ZX= R+jX R = 25 X = 0 VM= ? R2+ X2 (RS+ R)2 + X2

DUT

V MEASURE

I MEASURE

Figure 10: Source Impedance Factors 13

Ranging
In order to measure both low and high impedance values measuring instrument must have several measurement ranges. Ranging is usually done automatically and selected depending on the impedance of the test device. Range changes are accomplished by switching range resistors and the gain of detector circuits. This helps maintain the maximum signal level and highest signal-to-noise ratio for best measurement accuracy. The idea is to keep the measured impedance close to full scale for any given range, again, for best accuracy. Range holding, rather than autoranging, is a feature sometimes used in specific applications. For example, when repetitive testing of similar value components, range holding can reduce test time. Another use of range hold occurs when measuring components whose value falls within the overlap area of two adjacent ranges, where if allowed to autorange the instruments display can sometimes change resulting in operator confusion.

tion. In median mode 3 measurements are made and two thrown away (the lowest and the highest value). The remaining value then represents the measured value for that particular test. Median mode will increase test time by a factor of 3.

Computer Interface
Many testers today must be equipped with some type of standard data communication interface for connection to remote data processing, computer or remote control. For an operation retrieving only pass/fail results the Programmable Logic Control (PLC) is often adequate, but for data logging it's a different story. The typical interface for this is the IEEE488 general purpose interface bus or the RS232 serial communication line. These interfaces are commonly used for monitoring trends and process control in a component manufacturing area or in an environment where archiving data for future reference is required. For example when testing 10% components, the yield is fine when components test at 8% or 9%, but it does not take much of a shift for the yield to plummet. The whole idea of production monitoring is to reduce yield risks and be able to correct the process quickly if needed. An LCR Meter with remote interface capability has become standard in many test applications where data logging or remote control have become commonplace.

Integration Time
The length of time that an LCR meter spends integrating analog voltages during the process of data acquisition can have an important effect on the measurement results. If integration occurs over more cycles of the test signal the measurement time will be longer, but the accuracy will be enhanced. This measurement time is usually operator controlled by selecting a FAST or SLOW mode, SLOW resulting in improved accuracy. To improve repeatibility, try the measurement averaging function. In averaging mode multiple measurements are made and the average of these is calculated for the end result. All of this is a way of reducing unwanted signals and effects of unwanted noise, but does require a sacrifice of time.

Median Mode
A further improvement of repeatability can be obtained by employing the median mode func14 Figure 11: 7000 Series Computer Application

Test Fixtures and Cables

Test fixtures (fixturing) and cables are vital components of your test setup and in turn play an important role in the accuracy of your impedance measurements. Consider these factors pertaining to test fixtures and cables.

Open/Short
Open/Short correction is the most popular compensation technique used in most LCR instruments today. When the unknown terminals are open the stray admittance (Yopen) is measured. When the unknown terminals are shorted the residual impedance (Zshort) is measured. When the device is measured, these two residuals are used to calculate the actual impedance of the device under test. When performing an OPEN measurement it is important to keep the distance between the unknown terminal the same as they are when attached to the device. It's equally important to make sure that one doesn't touch or move their hands near the terminals. When performing a SHORT measurement a shorting device (shorting bar or highly conductive wire) is connected between the terminals. For very low impedance measurements it is best to connect the unknown terminals directly together.
LCUR (-) LPOT Test Terminals HPOT (+) HCUR

Compensation
Compensation reduces the effects from error sources existing between the device under test and the calibrated connection to the measuring instrument. The calibrated connection is determined by the instrument manufacturer, which can be front or rear panel connections, or at the end of a predefined length of cable. Compensation will ensure the best measurement accuracy possible on a device at the selected test conditions. When a measurement is affected by a single residual component the compensation is simple. Take the case of stray lead capacitance (CSTRAY) in parallel with the DUT capacitance (CX), illustrated in Figure 12. The value of the stray capacitance can be measured directly with no device connected. When the device is connected the actual DUT value can be determined by subtracting the stray capacitance (CSTRAY) from the measured value (CMEASURE). The only problem is, its not always this simple when stray residuals are more than a single component.

OPEN

Kelvin Test Leads

Kelvin Test Leads

CSTRAY

CSTRAY Z CDUT

SHORT

CDUT = CMEASURE -

CSTRAY

Figure 12: Lead Compensation 15

Figure 13: Open/Short

Load Correction
Load Correction is a compensation technique which uses a load whose impedance is accurately known and applies a correction to measurements of similar components to substantially improve measurement accuracy. The purpose being to correct for non-linearity of the measuring instrument and for test fixture or lead effects which may be dependent on the test frequency , test voltage, impedance range, or other factors. Criteria for selecting the appropriate load include: a. Load whose impedance value is accurately known. b. Load whose impedance value is very close to the DUT (this ensures that the measuring instrument selects the same measurement range for both devices). c. Load whose impedance value is stable under the measurement conditions. d. Load whose physical properties allow it to be connected using the same leads or fixture as the DUT. A prerequisite for load correction is to perform a careful open/short compensation as previously discussed. This feature, found on a number of QuadTech LCR Meters, provides for an automatic load correction. The load's known value is entered into memory, the load then measured, and this difference then applied to ongoing measurements. Z actual = Z measure +/- delta Z delta Z = the difference between the known and the measured value of the load. Through the use of load correction it is possible to effectively increase the accuracy of the measuring instrument substantially, but this is only as good as the known accuracy of the load used in determining the correction.

16

Capacitance Measurements
Capacitors are one of the many components used in electronic circuits. The basic construction of a capacitor is a dielectric material sandwiched between two electrodes. The different types of capacitors are classified according to their dielectric material. Figure 14 shows the general range of capacitance values according to their dielectric classification. Capacitance C, dissipation factor D, and equivalent series resistance ESR are the parameters usually measured. Capacitance is the measure of the quantity of electrical charge that can be held (stored) between the two electrodes. Dissipation factor, also known as loss tangent, serves to indicate capacitor quality. And finally, ESR is a single resistive value of a capacitor representing all real losses. ESR is typically much larger than the series resistance of leads and contacts of the component. It includes effects of the capacitor's dielectric loss. ESR is related to D by the formula ESR =D/C where =2f.

Series or Parallel
Advances in impedance measurement instrumentation and capacitor manufacturing techniques coupled with a variety of applications has evolved capacitor test into what might be considered a complex process. A typical equivalent circuit for a capacitor is shown in Figure 15. In this circuit, C is the main element of capacitance. Rs and L represent parasitic components in the lead wires and electrodes and Rp represents the leakage between the capacitor electrodes.

RS

RP
Figure 15: Capacitor Circuit

ALUMINUM ELECTROLYTIC

TANTALUM ELECTROLYTIC

METALIZED PLASTIC

CERAMIC

0.1

1.0

10

100

1000

0.01

0.1

1.0

10

100

1000

104

105

1F

picofarad (pF)

microfarad (uF)

Figure 14: Capacitance Value by Dielectric Type

17

When measuring a capacitor these parasitics must be considered. Measuring a capacitor in series or parallel mode can provide different results, how they differ can depend on the quality of the device, but the thing to keep in mind is that the capacitor's measured value most closely represents its effective value when the more suitable equivalent circuit, series or parallel, is used. To determine which mode is best, consider the impedance magnitudes of the capacitive reactance and Rs and Rp. For example, suppose the capacitor modeled in Figure 16 has a small value. Remember reactance is inversely proportional to C, so a small capacitor yields large reactance which implies that the effect of parallel resistance (Rp) has a more significant effect than that of Rs. Since Rs has little significance in this case the parallel circuit mode should be used to more truly represent the effective value. The opposite is true in Figure 17 when C has a large value. In this case the Rs is more significant than Rp thus the series circuit mode become appropriate. Mid range values of C requires a more precise reactance-to-resistance comparison but the reasoning remains the same. The rule of thumb for selecting the circuit mode should be based on the impedance of the capacitor: * Above approximately 10 k use parallel mode * Below approximately 10 use series mode * Between these values follow manufacturers recommendation Translated to a 1kHz test: Use Cp mode below 0.01 F and Cs mode above 10 F; and again between these values either could apply and is best based on the manufacturers recommendation.

If C = Low then Xc = High and Rp becomes the most significant resistance

CLOW

Rp

Rs

Figure 16: Rp more significant

If C = High then Xc = Low and Rs becomes the most significant resistance

CHIGH

Rp

Rs

Figure 17: Rs more significant

The menu selection, such as that on the QuadTech 7000 Series LCR Meter, makes mode selection of Cs, Cp or many other parameters easy with results clearly shown on the large LCD display.

Measuring Large and Small Values of Capacitance

High values of capacitance represent relatively low impedances, so contact resistance and residual impedance in the test fixture and cabling must be minimized. The simplest form of connecting fixture and cabling is a two terminal configuration but as mentioned previously, it can contain many error sources. Lead inductance, lead resistance and stray capacitance between the leads can alter the result substantially. A three-terminal configuration, with coax cable shields connected to a guard terminal,
18

can be used to reduce effects of stray capacitance. This is a help to small value capacitors but not the large value capacitors because the lead inductance and resistance still remains. For the best of both worlds a four terminal configuration, discussed earlier and shown in Figure 18, (often termed Kelvin) can be used to reduce the effects of lead impedance for high value capacitors. Two of the terminals serve for current sourcing to the device under test, and two more for voltage sensing. This technique simply removes errors resulting from series lead resistance and provides considerable advantage in low impedance situations.
IH PH

+ V
PL IL
D U T

Figure 18a: 4-Terminal to DUT

Besides a 4-terminal connection made as close as possible to the device under test, a further enhancement to measurement integrity is an
QuadTech
<MEAS DISPLAY> Cs : 1.2345 pF D : 1.2345

OPEN/SHORT compensation by the measuring instrument. The open/short compensation when properly performed is important in subtracting out effects of stray mutual inductance between test connections and lead inductance. The effect of lead inductance can clearly increase the apparent value of the capacitance being measured. Open/Short compensation is one of the most important techniques of compensation used in impedance measurement instruments. Through this process each residual parameter value can be measured and the value of a component under test automatically corrected. One of the most important things to always keep in mind is a concerted effort to achieve consistency in techniques, instruments, and fixturing. This means using the manufacturers recommended 4-terminal test leads (shielded coax) for the closest possible connection to the device under test. The open/short should be performed with a true open or short at the test terminals. For compensation to be effective the open impedance should be 100 times the DUT impedance and the short impedance 100 times less than the DUT impedance. Of equal importance, when performing open/short zeroing, the leads must be positioned exactly as the device under test expects to see them.

1730 LCR Digibridge

FREQ. : 100 kHz LEVEL : 1.00 V PARA : Cs - D NEXT PAGE 1/3 F1 F2 F3 F4

1 l

LCUR

(-)

LPOT

HPOT

(+)

HCUR

Figure 18b: 4-Terminal to DUT 1730 LCR Meter

IH

and Kelvin Clip Leads

+ DUT -

PH

PL IL

19

Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR)

Questions continually arise concerning the correct definition of the ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance) of a capacitor and, more particularly, the difference between ESR and the actual physical series resistance (which we'll call Ras), the ohmic resistance of the leads and plates or foils. Unfortunately, ESR has often been misdefined and misapplied. The following is an attempt to answer these questions and clarify any confusion that might exist. Very briefly, ESR is a measure of the total lossiness of a capacitor. It is larger than Ras because the actual series resistance is only one source of the total loss (usually a small part). At one frequency, a measurement of complex impedance gives two numbers, the real part and the imaginary part: Z = Rs + jXs. At that frequency, the impedance behaves like a series combination of an ideal resistance Rs and an ideal reactance Xs (Figure 19). If Xs is negative, the impedance is capacitive and the reactance can be replaced with capacitance as shown in equation 8. 8: Xs = -1 Cs

If we define the dissipation factor D as the energy lost divided by the energy stored in a capacitor we can deduce equation 9. 9: D= = = energy lost energy stored Real part of Z (-Imaginary part of Z) Rs (-) Xs

= RsC = (ESR) C If one took a pure resistance and a pure capacitance and connected them in series, then one could say that the ESR of the combination was indeed equal to the actual series resistance. However, if one put a pure resistance in parallel with a pure capacitance (Figure 20a) creating a lossy capacitor, the ESR of the combination is the Real part of Z = Real part of equation 10 as shown in Figure 20b. 10: 1 1 + jCp Rp = Rp 1 + 2Cp2Rp2

We now have an equivalent circuit that is correct only at the measurement frequency. The resistance of this equivalent circuit is the equivalent series resistance: ESR = Rs = Real part of Z

From Figure 20a, however, it is obvious that there is no actual series resistance in series with the capacitor. Therefore Ras = 0, but ESR > 0, therefore ESR > Ras.

RS

RP 1 + 2CP2RP2 1 2CP2RP2

DUT XS

RS CS

Cp

Rp

= CS = CP ( 1+

a: parallel
Figure 19: Real Part of Z 20

b: series
Figure 20: ESR

Inductance Measurements
An inductor is a coiled conductor. It is a device for storing energy in a magnetic field (which is the opposite of a capacitor that is a device for storing energy in an electric field). An inductor consists of wire wound around a core material. Air is the simplest core material for inductors because it is constant, but for physical efficiency, magnetic materials such as iron and ferrites are commonly used. The core material of the inductor, its length and number of turns directly affect the inductors ability to carry current.
Coil of Wire, Air core = Inductor

Put Current Through Wire

Produce Magnetic Flux Linkage Out

Inductance =

Magnetic Flux Current Through

Series or Parallel
As with capacitor measurements, inductor measurements can be made in either a series or parallel mode, use of the more suitable mode results in a value that equals the actual inductance. In a typical equivalent circuit for an inductor, the series resistance (Rs), represents loss of the copper wire and parallel resistance (Rp) represents core losses as shown in Figure 21.
LX RS

In the case where the inductance is large, the reactance at a given frequency is relatively large so the parallel resistance becomes more significant than any series resistance, hence the parallel mode should be used. For very large inductance a lower measurement frequency will yield better accuracy. For low value inductors, the reactance becomes relatively low, so the series resistance is more significant, thus a series measurement mode is the appropriate choice. For very small inductance a higher measurement frequency will yield better accuracy. For mid range values of inductance a more detail comparison of reactance to resistance should be used to help determine the mode. The most important thing to remember whenever a measurement correlation problem occurs, is to use the test conditions specified by the component manufacturer. Independent of any series/parallel decision, it is not uncommon for different LCR meters to give different measured results. One good reason for this is that inductor cores can be test signal dependent. If the programmed output voltages are different the measured inductance will likely be different. Even if the programmed output voltage is the same, two meters can still have a different source impedance. A difference in source impedance can result in a difference in current to the device, and again, a different measured value.

Inductance Measurement Factors

Here are four factors for consideration in measuring actual inductors: DC Bias Current Constant Voltage (Voltage Leveling) Constant Source Impedance DC Resistance & Loss There are other considerations such as core material and number of coils (turns) but those are component design factors not measurement factors.
21

RP
Figure 21: Inductor Circuit

DC Bias Current
To get an accurate inductance measurement, the inductor must be tested under actual (real life) conditions for current flowing through the coil. This cannot always be accomplished with the typical AC source and a standard LCR meter as the typical source in an LCR meter is normally only capable of supplying small amounts of current (<1mA). Inductors used in power supplies need a larger current supply. Instead of using a larger AC current source, inductors are usually tested with a combination of DC current and AC current. DC bias current provides a way of biasing the inductor to normal operating conditions where the inductance can then be measured with a normal LCR meter. The bottom line is that the measured inductance is dependent on the current flowing through the inductor.

Since it is possible to apply large values of current and voltage to an inductor, CAUTION must be taken when the current through an inductive circuit is suddenly interrupted because a voltage transient then occurs across the open circuit. Put another way, if the current could be instantly switched off, then the voltage would in theory become infinite. This does not occur because the high voltage develops an arc across the switch as contact is broken, keeping di/dt from becoming infinite. This does not however prevent the voltage from increasing to potentially lethal levels. If a person breaks the contact without the proper protection, the inductor induces a high voltage, forcing the current through the person. Refer to Figure 22.

Constant Source Impedance

The current flowing through the inductor from the AC source in the LCR meter must be held constant. If the current is not held constant the inductance measurements will change. This change is generally a function of the LCR meter's open circuit programmed test voltage. The programmed voltage in an LCR meter is obtained under an open circuit condition. A source resistance (Rs, internal to the meter) is effectively connected in series with the AC output and there is a voltage drop across this resistor. When a test device is connected, the voltage applied to the device depends on the value of the source resistor (Rs) and the impedance value of the device. The source impedance is normally between 5 and 100k.

Constant Voltage (Voltage leveling)

Since the voltage across the inductor changes with impedance of the inductor and the impedance of the inductor changes with current, a typical LCR meter designed for measurements on capacitive and resistive devices can cause the inductance to appear to drift. The actual inductance is not drifting but is caused by the voltage across the inductor not being constant so the current is not constant. A voltage leveling circuit would monitor the voltage across the inductor and continually adjust the programmed source voltage in order to keep the voltage across the inductor constant.

Figure 22: Breaking Contact Across an Inductor 22

DC Resistance and Loss

Measuring the DCR or winding resistance of a coil of wire confirms that the correct gauge of wire, tension and connection were used during the manufacturing process. The amount of opposition or reactance a wire has is directly proportional to the frequency of the current variation. That is why DC resistance is measured rather than ACR. At low frequencies, the DC resistance of the winding is equivalent to the copper loss of the wire. Knowing a value of the wire's copper loss can provide a more accurate evaluation of the total loss (DF) of the device under test (DUT). (Refer to Figure 23).

Loss
Three possible sources of loss in an inductor measurement are copper, eddy-current and hysteretic. They are dependent on frequency, signal level, core material and device heating. As stated above, copper Loss at low frequencies is equivalent to the DC resistance of the winding. Copper loss is inversely proportional to frequency. Which means as frequency increases, the copper loss decreases. Copper loss is typically measured using an inductance analyzer with DC resistance (DCR) measurement capability rather than an AC signal.

Eddy-Current Loss in iron and copper are due to currents flowing within the copper or core cased by induction. The result of eddy-currents is a loss due to heating within the inductors copper or core. Eddy-current losses are directly proportional to frequency. Refer to Figure 24. Hysteretic Loss is proportional to the area enclosed by the hysteresis loop and to the rate at which this loop is transversed (frequency). It is a function of signal level and increases with frequency. Hysteretic loss is however independent of frequency. The dependence upon signal level does mean that for accurate measurements it is important to measure at known signal levels.

Direction of Magnetic Flux CURRENT Eddy Current paths Solid Core Current carrying wire

Figure 24: Eddy Currents induced in an iron core

Inductance, L is blue 0.1 Dissipation Factor D = -1/Q

1H H

Loss is red

10

0m

mH

10

1m

0.01
Lo ss , De ~
O hm ic

f
Dd ~ f2

D ~ 1-

1 f fr
2

Ro Lo
Do Ohmic Loss

+ GeLo +
De Eddy Current Loss

f fr

Do
Dd Dielectric Loss

0.001 1kHz

10 Frequency

100

Die

lec

Ed

tric

dy

r Cu

Lo

Figure 23: Factors of Total Loss (Df) 23

ss,

t en

Resonance Factor

Lo ss D o ~ 1/ f

1MHz

Resistance Measurements
Of the three basic circuit components, resistors, capacitors and inductors, resistors cause the least measurement problems. This is true because it is practical to measure resistors by applying a dc signal or at relatively low ac frequencies. In contrast to this, capacitors and inductors always experience ac signals that by their very nature are prone to fluctuation, thus these components are generally measured under changing conditions. Resistors are usually measured at dc or low frequency ac where Ohm's Law gives the true value under the assumption that loss factors are accounted for. The thing to keep in mind is that if resistors are used in high frequency circuits they will have both real and reactive components. This can be modeled as shown in Figure 25, with a series inductance (Ls) and parallel capacitance (Cp).

Series or Parallel
So how does one choose the series or parallel measurement mode? For low values of resistors (below 1k) the choice usually becomes a low frequency measurement in a series equivalent mode. Series because the reactive component most likely to be present in a low value resistor is series inductance, which has no effect on the measurement of series R. To achieve some degree of precision with low resistance measurements it is essential to use a four-terminal connection as discussed earlier. This technique actually eliminates lead or contact resistance which otherwise could elevate the measured value. Also, any factor that affects the voltage drop sensed across a low resistance device will influence the measurement. Typical factors include contact resistance and thermal voltages (those generated by dissimilar metals). Contact resistance can be reduced by contact cleanliness and contact pressure. For high values of resistors (greater than several M) the choice usually becomes a low frequency measurement in a parallel equivalent mode. Parallel because the reactive component most likely to be present in a high value resistor is shunt capacitance, which has no effect on the measurement of parallel R.

LS

RX

CP

Figure 25: Resistor Circuit

For example, in the case of wire-wound resistors (which sounds like an inductor) its easy to understand how windings result in this L term. Even though windings can be alternately reversed to minimize the inductance, the inductance usually increases with resistance value (because of more turns). In the case of carbon and film resistors conducting particles can result in a distributed shunt capacitance, thus the C term.

24

Precision Impedance Measurements

QuadTech manufactures several instruments for the measurement and analysis of passive component parameters. The 7000 Series LCR Meter is an automatic instrument designed for the precise measurement of resistance, capacitance and inductance parameters and associated loss factors. It is also suited for use in calibration and standards laboratories and can assume many tasks previously performed only by high priced, difficult to use, manually balanced impedance bridges and meters. standard deviation to 5 ppm. It is therefore possible to measure the difference between two impedances to approximately 10 ppm with the 7000. Averaging many measurements takes time, however an automatic impedance meter like the 7000 can take hundreds of averaged measurements in the time it takes to balance a high-resolution, manual bridge. Measurement precision and confidence can be further improved by using the 7000's median measurement mode. In the median measurement mode, the instrument makes three measurements rather than one and discards the high and low results. The remaining median measurement value is used for display or further processing (such as averaging). Using a combination of averaging and median measurements not only increases basic measurement precision, but will also yield measurements that are independent of a large errors caused by line spikes or other non-Gaussian noise sources. The ppm resolution of the 7000 is also not limited to values near full scale as is typically true on six-digit, manual bridge readouts. In the case of a manually balanced bridge, the resolution of a six-digit reading of 111111 is 9 ppm. The 7000 does not discriminate against such values; it has the same 0 .1 ppm resolution at all values of all parameters including dissipation factor (D) and quality factor (Q), the tangent of phase angle.
Measured Parameters

Figure 26: 7400 Precision LCR Meter

Measurement Capability
The measurements of highest precision in a standards lab are 1:1 comparisons of similar impedance standards, particularly comparisons between standards calibrated at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and similar reference standards. This type of measurement requires an instrument with high measurement resolution and repeatability in order to detect parts-per-million (ppm) differences rather than instruments with extreme, direct-reading accuracy. In such applications, two standards of very nearly equal value are compared using "direct substitution"; they are measured sequentially and only the difference between them is determined. The resolution of the 7000 is 0.1 ppm for the direct measured values and such direct reading measurements, at a one/second rate, have a typical standard deviation of 10 ppm at 1 kHz. By using the instrument's AVERAGING mode, the standard deviation can be reduce by 1/(square root of N) where N is the number of measurements averaged. Thus, an average of 5 measurements or more typically reduces the
25

Cs 17.52510 pF DF 0.000500
Measuring Freq Range Delay 1.0000kHz AUTO 0ms AC Signal Average Bias 1.000V 1 Off

Figure 27: Parts Per Million Resolution

The 7000 instrument also provides a unique load correction feature that allows the user to enter known values for both primary and secondary parameters, as illustrated in the load correction display of Figure 28. The instrument measures these values and automatically applies the correction to ongoing measurements.
Load Correction Measure Primary Nominal Secondary Nominal Measured Primary Measured Secondary Freq 1.0000MHz Range 49 Off On 60.00000 pF 4.000000 m 60.25518 pF .0042580 Primary Secondary Cs Df

Measuring Correction

Basic Accuracy Manufacturers of LCR meters specify basic accuracy. This is the best-case accuracy that can be expected. Basic accuracy does not take into account error due to fixturing or cables. The basic accuracy is specified at optimum test signal, frequencies, highest accuracy setting or slowest measurement speed and impedance of the DUT. As a general rule this means 1VAC RMS signal level, 1kHz frequency, high accuracy which equates to 1 measurement/second, and a DUT impedance between 10 and 100k. Typical LCR meters have a basic accuracy between 0.01% and 0.5%. Actual Accuracy If the measurements are to be made outside of "optimum" conditions for basic accuracy, the actual accuracy of the measurement needs to be determined. This is done using a formula or by looking at a graph of accuracy versus impedance and frequency (refer to Figure 31). It is also important to understand that the measurement range is really more a display range. For example an LCR will specify a measurement range of 0.001nH to 99.999H this does not mean you can accurately measure a 0.001nH inductor or a 99.9999H inductor, but you can perform a measurement and the display resolution will go down to 0.001nH or up to 99.999H. This is really why it is important to check the accuracy of the measurement you want to perform. Do not assume that just because the value you want to measure is within the measurement range you can accurately measure it. The accuracy formulas take into account each of the conditions effecting accuracy. Most common are measurement range, accuracy/speed, test frequency and voltage level. There are addition errors including dissipation factor Df of the DUT, internal source impedance and ranges of the instrument, that effect accuracy.
26

HIT <START> TO MEASURE CORRECTION HIT <ENTER> TO CHANGE VALUES HIT <MENU> TO RETURN TO MAIN MENU

Figure 28: Entry of Values for Load Correction

Obviously, automatic instruments such as the QuadTech 7000 have the significant advantage of speed, since a balancing procedure is not required. Balancing manual ac bridges is tiresome, time consuming and frequently requires highly skilled personnel. Another advantage of programmable instruments is the ability to create a fully automated system by utilizing the instrument's RS-232 and IEEE-488.2 bus interface capability. With a computer based system, correction calculations can be made without the chance of human errors, especially the all too common recording problems with + and - signs.

Instrument Accuracy
In determining how the instruments measurement capability is defined, take a look at the specified accuracy of the instrument. Also, to maintain the accuracy and repeatibility of measurements, the calibration procedure should be investigated. A DUTs measured value is only as accurate as the instruments calibrated value (plus fixture effects).

Factors Affecting Accuracy Calculations

DUT Impedance High impedance measurements increase the error because it is difficult to measure the current flowing through the DUT. For example if the impedance is greater than 1M and the test voltage is one volt there will be less than 1mA of current flowing through the DUT. The inability to accurately measure the current causes an increase in error. Low impedance measurements have an increase in error because it is difficult to measure the voltage across the DUT. Most LCR Meters have a resistance in series with the source of 100k to 5 ohms. As the impedance of the DUT approaches the internal source resistance the voltage across the DUT drops proportionally. If the impedance of the DUT is significantly less than the internal source resistance then the voltage across the DUT becomes extremely small and difficult to measure causing an increase in error. Frequency The impedance of reactive components is also proportional to frequency and this must be taken into account when it comes to accuracy. For example, measurement of a 1F capacitor at 1 kHz would be within basic measurement accuracy where the same measurement at 1MHz would have significantly more error. Part of this is due to the decrease in the impedance of a capacitor at high frequencies however there generally is increased measurement error at higher frequencies inherent in the internal design of the LCR meter. Resolution Resolution must also be considered for low value measurements. If trying to measure 0.0005 ohms and the resolution of the meter is 0.00001 ohms then the accuracy of the measurement cannot be any better than 2% which is the resolution of the meter.

Accuracy and Speed Accuracy and speed are inversely proportional. That is the more accurate a measurement the more time it takes. LCR meters will generally have 3 measurement speeds. Measurement speed can also be referred to as measurement time or integration time. Basic accuracy is always specified with the slowest measurement speed, generally 1 second for measurements above 1kHz. At lower frequencies measurement times can take even longer because the measurement speed refers to the integration or averaging of at least one complete cycle of the stimulus voltage. For example, if measurements are to be made at 10Hz, the time to complete one cycle is 1/frequency = 1/10Hz = 100 milliseconds. Therefore the minimum measurement speed would be 100ms. Dissipation Factor (D) or Quality Factor (Q) D and Q are reciprocals of one another. The importance of D or Q is the fact that they represent the ratio of resistance to reactance or vice versa. This means that the ratio Q represents the tangent of the phase angle. As phase is another measurement that an LCR meter must make, this error needs to be considered. When the resistance or reactance is much much greater than the other, the phase angle will approach 90 or 0. As shown in Figure 29, even small changes in phase at -90 result in large changes in the value of resistance, R.
+jX -j(1/Cs)
Reactance Resistance

RS

+R

XC

Impedance

-jX Capacitive Figure 29: Phase Diagram for Capacitance

27

Example: Accuracy Formula

7600 Precision LCR Meter Test Conditions: 1pF Capacitor at 1MHz 1VAC signal Auto Range Non-Constant Voltage Slow Measurement Speed Df of 0.001 Basic Accuracy of the 7600 is 0.05% Accuracy Formula for Slow Mode R, L, C, X, G, B, |Z|, and |Y| is given in Equation 11. Vs Zm Fm Kt = Test voltage in voltage mode, = I * Zm in current mode* = Impedance of DUT = Test frequency = 1 for 18o to 28oC = 2 for 8o to 38oC = 4 for 5o to 45oC VFS = 5.0 for 1.000V < Vs 5.000V 1.0 for 0.100V < Vs 1.000V 0.1 for 0.020V Vs 0.100V For Zm > 4* ZRANGE multiply A% by 2 For Zm > 16* ZRANGE multiply A% by 4 For Zm > 64* ZRANGE multiply A% by 8 *: For I * Zm > 3, accuracy is not specified
.05 Zm .02 VS

The impedance range (ZRANGE) is specified in this table:

In Voltage Mode ZRANGE= 100k for Zm 25k 6k for 1.6k Zm < 25kW 400 for 100 Zm < 1.6k 400 for Zm > 1.6k and Fm > 250kHz 25 for Zm < 100 In Current Mode 400 for I < 2.5mA 25 for I > 2.5mA

6k for Zm > 25k and Fm > 25kHz

The Calculated Accuracy using the formula in Equation 11 is 3.7% substituting the values listed herein. Kt =1 Zm = 1/(2*frequency*C) = 1/(2*1000000*1x10-12) = 159 kohms = 400 ohms

ZRANGE

Vfs =1 Multiply A% = 8 A% = 0.46% Multiply A% times 8 due to Zm > 64 times ZRANGE A% = 0.46% * 8 = 3.68% Refer to Equation 12 to fill in the numbers.

A% = +/- 0.025 +

0.025 +

+ Zm x 10-7

+ .08 x

Vfs VS

(VS - 1)2 4

0.7 +

Fm 105

300 Fm

x Kt

Equation 11: 7600 Accuracy Formula 28

Equation 12: Completed 7600 Accuracy Formula .05 .02 1 1 1

A% = +/- 0.025 +

0.025 +

159000

159000

x 10-7

+ .08 x

(1 - 1)2 4

0.7 +

1000000

105 1000000

300

x1

Example 7600 Accuracy Graph The accuracy could have been predicted without the use of a formula. If we calculate the impedance of a 1pF capacitor at 1MHz we get a value of: Z = Xs = 1/(2*frequency*capacitance) Z = Xs = 1/(2*1,000,000*0.000,000,000,001) = 159kohms

Use the graph in Figure 30 and substitute Z for R. If we find the position on the graph for an impedance value of 159kohms at 1MHz we see a light blue or teal representing an accuracy of 3.45% to 3.65%. Overall the graph and formula point to the same accuracy of 3.5%.

Accuracy Z vs F Slow
0.1 1 10 Impedance 100 1000 1.00E+04 1.00E+05 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 50 0 10 % 1.00E+06 1.00E+07 2.00E+06

3.6500%-3.8500% 3.4500%-3.6500% 3.2500%-3.4500% 3.0500%-3.2500% 2.8500%-3.0500% 2.6500%-2.8500% 2.4500%-2.6500% 2.2500%-2.4500% 2.0500%-2.2500% 1.8500%-2.0500% 1.6500%-1.8500% 1.4500%-1.6500% 1.2500%-1.4500% 1.0500%-1.2500% 0.8500%-1.0500% 0.6500%-0.8500% 0.4500%-0.6500% 0.2500%-0.4500% 0.0500%-0.2500%

100

1000

1.00E+04

1.00E+05

5.00E+05

1.00E+06

Frequency

Figure 30: 7600 Accuracy Plot

29

Materials Measurements
Materials Measurement
Many materials have unique sets of electrical characteristics which are dependent on its dielectric properties. Precision measurements of these properties can provide valuable information in the manufacture or use of these materials. Herein is a discussion of dielectric constant and loss measurement methods. where o is the permittivity of a vacuum, and the absolute permittivity. o = 0.08854pF/cm

The capacitance of a parallel-plate air capacitor (two plates) is: C = Ka o Area / spacing

where Ka is the dielectric constant of air: Ka = 1.00053

if the air is dry and at normal atmospheric pressure.

Figure 31: QuadTech 7000 Meter with LD-3 Cell

Measurement Methods, Solids

The Contacting Electrode Method This method is quick and easy, but is the least accurate. The results for K should be within 10% if the sample is reasonably flat. Refer to Figure 32. The sample is first inserted in the cell and the electrodes closed with the micrometer until they just touch the sample. The electrodes should not be forced against the sample. The micrometer is turned with a light finger touch and the electrometer setting recorded as hm.

Definitions There are many different notations used for dielectric properties. This discussion will use K, the relative dielectric constant, and D, the dissipation factor (or tan ) defined as follows: K= and D = tan = r" r' ' = r

The complex relative permittivity is: r* = o = r' - j (r")

h=ho ho

Figure 32: Contact Electrode

G Specimen Cxm and Dxm

G Air Ca and Da

30

The LCR Meter should be set to measure parallel capacitance and the capacitance and dissipation factor of the sample measured as Cxm and Dxm. The electrodes are opened and the sample removed and then the electrodes closed to the same micrometer reading, hm. C (parallel) and D of empty cell are measured as Ca and Da. Calculate Kx and Dx of the sample from: Kx = (1.0005) and Dx = (Dxm - Da) The factor 1.0005 in the formula for Kx corrects for the dielectric constant of (dry) air. Subtracting Da from Dxm removes any constant phase error in the instrument. For even better D accuracy, the electrode spacing can be adjusted until the measured capacitance is approximately equal to Cxm, and then Da measured. Note that both Kx and Dx will probably be too low because there is always some air between the electrodes and the sample. This error is smallest for very flat samples, for thicker samples and for those with low K and D values.
ho

Cxm Ca

The Air-Gap Method This method avoids the error due to the air layer but requires that the thickness of the sample is known. Its thickness should be measured at several points over its area and the measured values should be averaged to get the thickness h. The micrometer used should have the same units as those of the micrometer on the cell. The electrodes are set to about .02 cm or .01 inch greater than the sample thickness, h, and the equivalent series capacitance and D measured as Ca and Da. Note the micrometer setting as hm which can be corrected with the micrometer zero calibration, hmo to get: ho = (hm + hmo)

The sample is inserted and measured as Cxa and Dxa. Calculate: M = (ho - h) ho Ca Ca - MCxa 1.0005 1 + Dx2

D = (Dxa - Da) (1-M) Cxa Ca - MCxa

Kx =

Figure 33: Air Gap Method

L L

G Air Ca and Da

G Specimen and Air Cxa and Dxa

31

The factor (1 + Dx2) converts the series value of Cx to the equivalent parallel value and is not necessary if Dx is small. The factor of 1.0005 corrects for the dielectric constant of air (if dry). The formula for Dx assumes that the true D of air is zero and it makes a correction for a constant D error in the instrument. The Two-Fluid Method This method is preferred for specimens whose thickness is difficult to measure and for best accuracy which will be limited by the accuracy of the C and D measurements. However it requires four measurements, two using a second fluid (the first being air). The dielectric properties of this fluid need not be known, but it must not react with the specimen and it must be stable and safe to use. A silicone fluid such as
ho

Dow Corning 200, 1 centistoke viscosity, is most generally satisfactory. The four measurements of series capacitance and D are outlined in the Figure 34. Note the spacing is the same for all measurements and should be just slightly more than the specimen thickness. The accuracy will be limited mainly by the accuracy of the measurements made. From these measurements calculate: h ho = 1CaCf (Cxf - Cxa) Cxa Cxf (Cf - Ca)

Cxser = Ca

Cxf Cxa (Cf - Ca) Ca (CxaCf - Cxf Ca)

which is the ratio of the equivalent series capacitance of the sample to Ca.
h

G Air Ca and Da

G Specimen and Air Cxa and Dxa

Figure 34: Two Fluid Method

ho

G Fluid Cf and Df

G Specimen and Fluid Cxf and Dxf

32

If Dx is close to Df or larger use: Dx = Dxf + Ca (Cxf - Cxa) (Dxf - Df) (CxaCf - Cxf Ca)

If Dx is very small use: Dx = (Dxa - Da) Cxf (Cf - Ca) (CxaCf - Cxf Ca)

which makes a zero D correction. From the above results calculate: Kx = h ho Cxser Ca 1.0005 1 + Dx2

As before, the factor of 1.0005 corrects for the dielectric constant of air (if dry) and the factor (1 + Dx2) converts Cx to equivalent parallel capacitance.

Measurement Methods, Liquids

Measurements on liquids are simple, the only difficulty is with handling and cleanup. Equivalent parallel capacitance and D of air (Ca and Da), is measured first and then that of the liquid (Cxm and Dxm) Determine Kx and Dx: Kx = Cxm Ca 1.0005

Dx = (Dxm - Da) Note that the spacing is not critical but should be narrow enough to make the capacitance large enough to be measured accurately.
33

Recommended LCR Meter Features

As with most test instrumentation, LCR meters can come with a host of bells and whistles but the features one most often uses are described herein. tance (B), phase angle () and ESR can more fully define an electrical component or material.

Ranging
In order to measure both low and high impedance values measuring instrument must have several measurement ranges. Ranging is usually done automatically and selected depending on the impedance of the test device. Range changes are accomplished by switching range resistors and the gain of detector circuits. This helps maintain the maximum signal level and highest signal-to-noise ratio for best measurement accuracy. The idea is to keep the measured impedance close to full scale for any given range, again, for best accuracy.

Test Frequency
Electrical components need to be tested at the frequency in which the final product/application will be utilized. An instrument with a wide frequency range and multiple programmable frequencies provides this platform.

Test Voltage
The ac output voltage of most LCR meters can be programmed to select the signal level applied to the DUT. Generally, the programmed level is obtained under an open circuit condition. A source resistance (Rs, internal to the meter) is effectively connected in series with the ac output and there is a voltage drop across this resistor. When a test device is connected, the voltage applied to the device depends on the value of the source resistor (Rs) and the impedance value of the device.

Averaging
The length of time that an LCR meter spends integrating analog voltages during the process of data acquisition can have an important effect on the measurement results. If integration occurs over more cycles of the test signal the measurement time will be longer, but the accuracy will be enhanced. This measurement time is usually operator controlled by selecting a FAST or SLOW mode, SLOW resulting in improved accuracy. To enhance accuracy, the measurement averaging function may be used. In an averaging mode many measurements are made and the average of these is calculated for the end result.

Accuracy/Speed
Classic trade-off. The more accurate your measurement the more time it takes and conversely, the faster your measurement speed the less accurate your measurement. That is why most LCR meters have three measurement speeds: slow, medium and fast. Depending on the device under test, the choice is yours to select accuracy or speed.

Median Mode
A further enhancement to accuracy can be obtained by employing the median mode function. In a median mode 3 measurements might be made and two thrown away (the lowest and the highest value). The median value then represents the measured value for that particular test.

Measurement Parameters
Primary parameters L, C and R are not the only electrical criteria in characterizing a passive component and there is more information in the Secondary parameters than simply D and Q. Measurements of conductance (G), suscep34

Computer Interface
Many testers today must be equipped with some type of standard data communication interface for connection to remote data processing, computer or remote control. For an operation retrieving only pass/fail results the Programmable Logic Control (PLC) is often adequate, but for data logging it's a different story. The typical interface for this is the IEEE488 general purpose interface bus or the RS232 serial communication line. These interfaces are commonly used for monitoring trends and process control in a component manufacturing area or in an environment where archiving data for future reference is required. For example when testing 10% components, the yield is fine when components test at 8% or 9%, but it does not take much of a shift for the yield to plummet. The whole idea of production monitoring is to reduce yield risks and be able to correct the process quickly if needed. An LCR Meter with remote interface capability has become standard in many test applications where data logging or remote control have become commonplace.
Q uadTech
7400
PRECISION LCR METER

Display
An instrument with multiple displays provides measured results by application at the press of a button. Production environments may prefer a Pass/Fail or Bin Summary display. R&D Labs may need a deviation from nominal display. The 7000 series instruments have seven display modes: measured parameters, deviation from nominal, % deviation from nominal, Pass/Fail, Bin Summary, Bin Number and No Display. Refer to Figure 35. Figure 36 illustrates three of the 7000 Series display modes.
Setup Display I/O Analysis Utilities

Measured Parameters Deviation from Nominal % Deviation from Nominal Pass / Fail Bin Summary Bin Number No Display
HIT MENU TO RETURN TO MAIN MENU

Figure 35: 7600 Display Menu

DISPLAY

SELECT 1 4 7

ENTRY 2 5 8 0 3 6 9
ENTER MENU

TEST

!
CAUTION HIGH VOLTAGE

255.2 204.3 153.4 102.5

CNCL

STOP

IL

IH

51.59

START

IZI

10.00

572.9

32.82k

2.000M

FREQUENCY Hz

PL

PH
0 1

Measured Parameters

Pass / Fail Ls 158.450uH Q 1.000249

Bin
1 2 3 4 5 11 12 13 14 15 Totals:

Low LIMIT
90.00 k 100.00 k 110.00 k 120.00 k 130.00 k PRI Pass SEC Fail LOW PRI Pass SEC Fail HI PRI Fail SEC Pass PRI Fail SEC Fail NO CONTACT Pass 595

High LIMIT
110.00 k 120.00 k 130.00 k 140.00 k 150.00 k

Total
250 100 90 80 75 60 55 50 20 5 785

Cs 17.52510 pF DF 0.000500
Measuring Freq Range Delay AC Signal Average Bias Freq Range Delay

PASS
AC Signal Average Bias

Fail 190

HIT <MENU> TO RETURN TO MAIN MENU

Measured Parameters

Pass / Fail

Bin Totals

Figure 36: Example 7600 Display Modes 35

Bin 3 Bin 2 Bin 1

N
-1% -5% -7% Figure 37: Nested Limits Nominal Value 100.00k +1% +5% +10%

Measured Value

Binning
A necessary production application, binning sorts components by test results quickly by a predetermined value set by the test engineer. Two of the most common methods of sorting results into bins are using nested limits or sequential limits. Nested Limits Nested limits are a natural choice for sorting components by % tolerance around a single nominal value with the lower bins narrower than the higher numbered bins. Nested limits for three bins are illustrated in Figure 37. Note that the limits do not have to by symmetrical (Bin 3 is -7% and +10%).

Sequential Limits Sequential limits are a natural choice when sorting components by absolute value. Figure 38 illustrates the use of sequential limits for a total of three bins. Sequential bins do not have to be adjacent. Their limits can overlap or have gaps depending upon the specified limit. Any component that falls into an overlap between bins would be assigned to the lower numbered bin and any component that falls into a gap between bins would be assigned to the overall fail bin.

Bin 1

Bin 2

Bin 3

Measured Value

85.00k

90.00k

100.00k

120.00k

Figure 38: Sequntial Limits

36

Test Sequencing
A sequence of tests, each with different test parameters and conditions can be performed on a single component. Combined with the binning process, test sequencing enables multiple tests on a single component and then sorting by test. This is a great electrical characterization tool for finding out under which conditions your particular component fails.

Figure 39 illustrates the parameter sweep function of the 7000 Series instrument.

Bias Voltage and Bias Current

A bias voltage or bias current function enables real time operating conditions to be applied to the device under test. Bias an inductor with DC current of 1-2mA to simulate the current running through it in its real application (such as in a power supply).

Parameter Sweep
Another excellent device characterization tool of LCR meters is the parameter sweep function. A sweep is a user-defined number of measurements for a particular test. The QuadTech 7000 Series instruments display a table or plot of measured results versus a test variable such as frequency, voltage or current. The user defines the lower boundary of the sweep in Hz, Volts or Amps; the upper boundary in Hz, Volts or Amps; the step or number of increments in the sweep and the format (table or plot).
Setup I/O Analysis Sweep

Constant Source Impedance

An LCR meter with a constant source impedance, will provide a source resistance (Rs) that will hold the current constant. Therefore one knows what the voltage at the DUT will be. Rs is in series with the ac output such that the programmed voltage is 1V but the voltage to the test device is 0.5V. Refer to Figure 40.

Utilities
Current

Figure 39: Parameter Sweep Function

Freq Voltage Parameter Sweep Begin = 10.0 Hz = 1.0000 kHz Sweep End 25 Sweep Step Sweep Format Table 50 Plot 100

200

HIT MENU TO RETURN TO MAIN MENU

Sweep Parameter Setup Plot Table

Frequency
1.0000kHz 1.2915kHz 1.6681kHz 2.1544kHz 2.7825kHz 3.5938kHz 4.6415kHz 5.9948kHz 7.7426kHz 10.000kHz

Cs
471.4576nF 470.4563nF 469.8878nF 468.9983nF 466.4532nF 462.6634nF 460.6645nF 459.7892nF 458.7845nF 456.5454nF

DF
0.003135 0.003675 0.003867 0.010035 0.010078 0.011045 0.012895 0.014786 0.016782 0.018544

200.0 180.0 160.0 140.0 120.0 Prev Page Next Page 100.0

IZI

50.000k

51.000k

54.000k

62.000k

Frequency Hz

Sweep Table

Sweep Plot

37

1910 Source Resistance

RS=25

V PROGRAM

VP= 1V

ZX= R+jX R = 25 X = 0 VM= ? R2+ X2 (RS+ R)2 + X2

DUT

V MEASURE

VM= VP

I MEASURE

Figure 40: Constant Source Impedance

Monitoring DUT Voltage & Current

Monitoring the voltage across or current through the DUT during test enables real time analysis of the device. If the voltage can be kept level (constant) across a DUT then the impedance can be measured accurately. In inductor measurements it is necessary to keep the voltage across the inductor constant because the voltage across an inductor changes with the impedance of the inductor which changes with the current through it. So the ability to monitor the voltage and current to the DUT will provide the most accurate conditions for impedance measurement.

Figure 41: Digibridge Family: 1689 & 1689M

38

Examples of High Performance Testers

Examples of passive component measuring instrumentation manufactured by QuadTech, Inc of Maynard Massachusetts is provided herein. Included are: Digibridges, Precision LCR Meters and Impedance Analyzers. 1692 LCR Digibridge

Digibridges
The 1600 and 1700 Series digital bridges are high performance passive component testers.
Figure 42: 1692 Digibridge

1600 Series
Common Features
Full five digit display for primary L,C & R Four digit display for secondary D, Q Continuous or Triggered Measurement Mode Open & Short Circuit Compensation DC Bias: Internal to 2V, External to 60V Auto Ranging with Manual Hold Pass/Fail Bins for Component Sorting Charged Capacitor Protection Optional IEEE 488 and Handler Interfaces Full Range of Accessory Options

Measurement Parameters: R/Q, L/Q, C/R, C/D Test Frequency: 100Hz, 120Hz, 1kHz, 10kHz and 100kHz Accuracy: 0.05% LCR; 0.0003 DQ Applied Voltage: 0.3V to 1.0V maximum 2, 4 or 8 measurements/second Constant Voltage Mode (25 Source) Single Triggered Measurement or 1-10 Averaged

1693 LCR Digibridge

1659 LCR Digibridge

Measurement Parameters: R/Q, L/Q, C/R, C/D Test Frequency: 100Hz, 120Hz, 1kHz, 10kHz Accuracy: 0.1% LCR; 0.0005 DQ Applied Voltage: 0.3V maximum 2, 4 or 8 Measurements per second Figure 43: 1693 Digibridge Measurement Parameters: R/Q, L/Q, C/R, C/D, R/X, G/B, Z/, Y/ 500 Test Frequencies: 12Hz to 200kHz Accuracy: Primary 0.02% L,C,R, G, Z, Y Secondary: 0.0002 DQ; 0.01o Programmable Test Voltage: 5mV to 1.275V Up to 50 measurements/second* Constant Voltage Mode (25 Source) Median Value Mode

1689/89M LCR Digibridge

Measurement Parameters: R/Q, L/Q, C/R, C/D Programmable Test Frequency: 12Hz to 100kHz Accuracy: 0.02% LCR; 0.0001 DQ Programmable Test Voltage: 5mV to 1.275V 1689: Up to 30 measurements/second* 1689M: Up to 50 measurements/second* Constant Voltage Mode (25 Source) Median Value Mode

* With High Speed Option

* With High Speed Option 39

1700 Series
Common Features
Guarded 4-Terminal Kelvin Connection Selectable Test Voltage & Frequency Selectable Measurement Rate External DC Bias Voltage Full Range of Accessory Options Figure 45: 1730 Digibridge

1750 Digibridge 1710 LCR Digibridge

Figure 44: 1710 Digibridge Measurement Parameters: Primary: L, C, R Secondary: D/Q, Q/R, Q/L, R/C, R/L Test Frequency: 120Hz or 1kHz Basic Accuracy: 0.2% LCR; 0.0005 D; 0.001 Q Applied Test Voltage: 0.25V or 1.0V 3 measurements/second External DC Bias Voltage: 0-60V Internal Zeroing Function 7 Measurement Parameters Basic Accuracy: 0.1% LCR; 0.001 DQ 43 Preset Test Frequencies: 1kHz to 200kHz 500 Programmable Frequencies: 20Hz-200kHz Programmable Test Voltage: 10mV to 2.5V Up to 20 measurements/second Programmable Source Impedance IEEE-488 & Handler Interfaces, Standard Monitor DUT Current Storage/Recall of 10 Setups Pass/Fail Binning Measurement Averaging (0-10) DC Bias Voltage: 0-35V External Open/Short Compensation Load Correction Median Value Mode

1730 LCR Digibridge

12 Measurement Parameters Accuracy: 0.1% LCR; 0.0001 DQ 7 Test Frequencies: 100Hz to 100kHz Programmable Test Voltage: 10mV to 1.0V Up to 62 measurements/second Programmable Source Impedance IEEE-488 & Handler Interfaces, Standard Monitor DUT Voltage & Current Storage/Recall of 50 Setups Pass/Fail Binning Measurement Averaging (1-256) Measurement Delay (0-10 seconds) DC Bias Voltage: 0-5V Automatic Open/Short Zeroing 40 Figure 46: 1750 Digibridge

Precision LCR Meters

The 1900 and 7000 Series digital LCR meters are precise impedance analyzers with a host of useful functions for component testing and data analysis.

1920 Precision LCR Meter

20 Measurement Parameters Basic Accuracy: 0.1% LCR; 0.001 DQ 27,000 Test Frequencies: 20Hz to 1MHz Programmable Test Voltage: 20mV to 1.0V Up to 40 measurements/second DC Bias Voltage: 0V to 2.0V, Internal DC Resistance Measurements: 0.1m-100k Monitor DUT Voltage & Current Storage/Recall of 30 Single tests, 10 Sequential 14 Pass/Fail Bins Measurement Averaging (1-1000) Measurement Delay (0 to 1000 ms) Open/Short Zeroing Displays Usage & Calibration Data

1900 Series
Common Features
High Performance, Fast, Production Oriented Wide Frequency Range Automatic Test Sequencing Internal, External or Manual Trigger Programmable Source Impedance Constant Voltage Mode (Voltage Leveling) IEEE-488, RS232 & Handler Interfaces, Std. Built-In Automatic Calibration Procedure Cable Compensation (1M, 2M, no cable) Self Test Routine- Verify Instrument Operation

7000 Series
Common Features
Fast, Precise, Production and R&D Oriented Wide Frequency Range Programmable Test Voltage & Current Graphical and Tabular Display Automatic Test Sequencing Swept Frequency & Signal Level Measurements Internal, External or Manual Trigger AutoAcc (Automatic Accuracy Calculation) Built-In Calibration Routine IEEE-488, RS232, Handler, Parallel Printer and 3.5 Disk Drive Interfaces, Standard Internal Storage of Test Setups & Floppy Drive Full Range of Accessory Options

Figure 47: 1910 Inductance Analyzer

1910 Inductance Analyzer

20 Measurement Parameters Basic Accuracy: 0.1% LCR; 0.001 DQ 27,000 Test Frequencies: 20Hz to 1MHz Programmable Test Voltage: 20mV to 1.0V Up to 40 measurements/second DC Bias Current: 1mA to 1A DC Resistance Measurements: 0.1m-100k Monitor DUT Voltage & Current Storage/Recall of 30 Single tests, 10 Sequential 14 Pass/Fail Bins Measurement Averaging (1-1000) Measurement Delay (0 to 1000 ms) Open/Short Zeroing Displays Usage & Calibration Data

Figure 48: 7400 Precision LCR Meter

41

7400 Precision LCR Meter

14 Measurement Parameters Basic Accuracy: 0.05% LCR; 0.0005 DQ Programmable Test Frequency: 10Hz to 500kHz Programmable Test Voltage: 20mV to 5.0V Programmable Test Voltage: 250uA to 100mA Up to 40 measurements/second DC Bias Voltage: 0V to 2.0V, Internal DC Bias Voltage: 0V to 200V, External DC Bias Voltage: 0V to 500V, External (7400A) Internal Storage/Recall of 25 Setups 15 Pass/Fail Bins Measurement Averaging (1-1000) Measurement Delay (0 to 1000 ms) Charged Capacitor Protection Displays Usage & Calibration Data

Dedicated Function Test Instruments

In addition to passive compent test instrumentation, QuadTech manufactures milliohmmeters, megohmeters, AC/DC Hipot Testers and Electrical Safety Analyzers. View Product specifications at http://www.quadtech.com. Milliohmmeters

Figure 50: 1880 Milliohmmeter

Megohmmeters

7600 Precision LCR Meter

14 Measurement Parameters Basic Accuracy: 0.05% LCR; 0.0005 DQ Programmable Test Frequency: 10Hz to 2MHz Programmable Test Voltage: 20mV to 1.0V Programmable Test Voltage: 250uA to 100mA Up to 25 measurements/second DC Bias Voltage: 0V to 2.0V, Internal DC Bias Voltage: 0V to 200V, External DC Bias Voltage: 0V to 500V, External (7600A) Internal Storage/Recall of 25 Setups 15 Pass/Fail Bins Measurement Averaging (1-1000) Measurement Delay (0 to 1000 ms) Charged Capacitor Protection Displays Usage & Calibration Data Figure 52: Sentry Plus Series Hipot Tester Figure 51: 1865 Megohmmeter

Hipot Testers

Electrical Safety Analyzers

Figure 49: 7600 Precision LCR Meter

Figure 53: Guardian 6000 Series Production Safety Analyzer 42

Appendix A

43

Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratories (NRTLs) and Standards Organizations*

Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. 333 Pfingsten Road Northbrook, Illinois 60062 USA Tel: 847-272-8800, http://www.ul.com American National Standards Institute 1 West 42nd Street New York, NY 10036 Tel: 212-642-4900, FAX: 212-398-0023 http://www.ansi.org British Standards Institution 389 Chiswick High Road London W4 4AL United Kingdom http://www.bsi.org.uk CENELEC Comit Europen de Normalisation Electrotechnique Rue de Stassart, 35 B - 1050 BRUSSELS Tel: + 32 2 519 68 71, FAX: + 32 2 519 69 19, http://www.cenelec.be Canadian Standards Association Central Office 178 Rexdale Boulevard Etobicoke (Toronto), Ontario M9W 1R3 Tel: 416-747-4000 or 1-800-463-6727, http://www.csa.ca VDE-Verband Deutscher Elektrotechniker Merlinstrasse 28 D-63069 Offenbach Federal Republic of Germany http://www.vde.de Japanese Standards Association 1-24, Akasaka 4, Minato-ku Tokyo 107 Japan IEC International Electrotechnical Commission 3, rue de Varemb o PO Box 131 1211 Geneva 20 o Switzerland Tel: +41 22 919 02 11 FAX: +41 22 919 03 00, http://www.iec.ch The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc 345 East 47th Street New York, New York 10017 Tel: 800-678-IEEE http://www.ieee.org NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology Calibration Program Bldg. 820, Room 232, Gaithersburg, MD 20899 Tel: 301-75-2002, FAX: 301-869-3548, http://www.nist.gov National Electric Manufacturers Association Standards Publication Office 2101 L. Street, N.W. Suite 300 Washington, D.C. 20037 USA Tel: 202-457-8400 FAX: 202-457-8473, http://www.nema.org ISO International Standards Organization 1, rue de Varemb Case postale 56 CH-1211 Genve 20 Switzerland Tel: + 41 22 749 01 11, FAX: + 41 22 733 34 30, http://www.iso.ch OSHA Region 1 Regional Office JFK Federal Building, Room E340 Boston, Massachusetts 02203 Tel: 617-565-9860, FAX: 617-565-9827, http://www.osha.gov TV Rheinland of North America, Inc. 12 Commerce Road Newton, CT 06470 Tel: 203-426-0888 http://www.us.tuv.com

* Partial Listing
44

Helpful Links
TYPE PARTS 874 Connectors 874 Connectors 900 Connectors EQUIPMENT ATE for Circuit boards Variacs NAME Gilbert Engineering Microwave Distributors Maury Microwave ADDRESS 5310 West Camelback Rd Glendale AZ 85301 1707-32 Vet. Mem. HW Islandia NY 11722 2900 Inland Empire Blvd. Ontario CA 91764 321 Harrison Avenue Boston, MA 02118-2238 P.O. Box 222 14 Commerce Drive Danbury CT 06813 178 Orchard Street Watertown, MA 02172 RD#1 Box 117 Yukon PA 15698 10 Dedham Street Newton MA 02461 534 Main Street Westbury, NY 11590 TELEPHONE 800-528-5567 800-637-4353 909-987-4715 WEBSITE http://www.gilbertconnectors.com http://microwavedistributors.com http://maurymw.com

Teradyne Inc Power Designs Jerry Voity Dielectric Products Co. Gerard Gilkie Vertex Image Products Chuck Bobich IET Labs

617-482-2700 800-682-8235

http://www.teradyne.com

Dielectric Cells Dielectric Cells STANDARDS Inductance, Capacitance & Resistance Standards; Decades, Strobes MAGAZINES Compliance Conformity EDN (Electronic Design News) Electronic Products EE Times Evaluation Engineering Passive Component Test & Measurement World RESOURCES The Capacitor Source PRODUCT SITES Electronics Electronics

617-924-5688 724-722-3400 http://www.verteximage.com

800-475-1211

http://www.ietlabs.com

Canon Communications Conformity Magazine Reed Business Info. (Formerly Cahners)

11444 W. Olympic Bd. Los Angeles, CA 90064 531 King Street Littleton, MA 01460 275 Washington Street Newton, MA 02458

310-445-4200 978-486-0888 617-558-4671

http://www.ce-mag.com http://www.conformity.com http://www.e-insite.net/ednmag

Hearst Business Publishers CMP Media Inc Nelson Publishing The Paumanok Group Reed Business Info. (Formerly Cahners)

645 Stewart Avenue Garden City, NY 11530 600 Community Drive Manhasset, NY 11030 2500 Tamiami Trail North Nokomis, FL 34275 132 Preston Exec. Dr. Cary NC 27513 275 Washington Street Newton MA 02458-1630

516-227-1300 516-562-5325 (Fax) 941-966-9521 919-468-0384 617-558-4671

http://www.electronicproducts.com http://www.eetimes.com http://evaluationengineering.com http://www.paumanokgroup.com/ http://www.e-insite.net/tmworld

FaradNet

Knoxville, TN 37922

865-966-8958

http://www.faradnet.com

GlobalSpec Inc ChipCenter

350 Jordan Road Troy, NY 12180

518-880-0200

http://www.globalspec.com http://www.chipcenter.com

45

Typical Measurement Parameters for a Variety of Components and Materials**

Component Capacitors " " " " Inductors " Resistors " Materials " " " Motors & Transformers " " Cables " " Battery Circuit board Network Filters Transducers Sensors Type Electrolytic, Non-polarized Electrolytic, Polarized Electrolytic, Polarized Plastic, Ceramic > 1000pF Ceramic < 1000pF High-valued Low-valued (rf) Low values High values Insulators Semiconductors Conductors Magnetic Capacitance Inductance Resistance Capacitance Inductance Impedance Impedance Impedance Impedance Impedance Frequency 60 Hz 120 Hz 100K-1MHz 1kHz 1MHz 50 - 1000 Hz 1k - 1MHz DC - 1kHz DC - 100Hz DC, 1k, 1M dc, low freq. 100, 1k 50-1 kHz 1k, 1M 50Hz to 1MHz DC, 100Hz 1k, 1M as required 1k, 1M 100,1k 1k, 1M as required as required as required as required .1 1V AC .1 1V AC varies low varies varies 1, HV DC varies any varies 1 1 1 1 any any 1 1 any any any any Voltage .1,.3,1 Low, DC bias Equiv. Circuit Series Series Series Series Series/parallel Parallel Series Series Parallel Parallel Parallel Series Series/parallel Parallel Series Series Series Series Series/parallel Series Series Series/parallel Series/parallel Series/ parallel Series/ parallel Quantity C, D C, D ESR, |Z| C, D C, D L, Q, RP L, Q, Rs R, Q, L R, Q, CP C, D, R, G, dielectric const, K C, G, C vs. V R, Q, L L, Q, R C, D L, Q R, Q C L Z Z, R C, Z, L, G R. L, C, Q, G, Z, G, Y, R, L, C, Q, G, Z, G, Y, Z, C, L, R, all

** Partial Listing, Check Standard and Governing/Certifying Agency for specific requirements.
46

Impedance Terms and Equations*

Parameter Z |Z| Rs or ESR Xs Y |Y| GP BP Cs CP Ls LP RP Q D, DF or tan Quantity Impedance Magnitude of Z Resistance, Real part of Z Reactance, Imaginary part of Z Admittance Magnitude of Y Real part of Y Susceptance Series capacitance Parallel capacitance Series inductance Parallel inductance Parallel resistance Quality factor Dissipation factor Phase angle of Z Unit Symbol ohm, ohm, ohm, ohm, siemen, S siemen, S (was mho) siemen, S siemen, S farad, F farad, F henry, H henry, H ohm, none none degree or radian Formula Z = R S + jX S = | Z| = RS 2 RS = 1 =| Z | Y 1 + XS2 = |Y |
2 j

GP G P + BP
2

RP 1+ Q2

XS =

BP G P + BP 2
2

Y = G P + jB P = |Y | = G P 2 GP =

1 =| Y | j Z 1 + BP 2 = | Z|

RS RS + X S 2
2

BP = CS = CP = LS =

XS RS + X S 2
2

1 = C P (1 + D 2 ) X S

CS B = 1+ D2

X Q2 = Lp 1+ Q 2 1 1 LP = = L S (1 + 2 ) B P Q RP =
Q=

1 = R S (1 + Q 2 ) GP
1 X S GP = = = tan D RS BP

B 1 RS = = P = tan(90 0 ) = tan Q X S GP = D=
=

Phase angle of Y

degree or radian

Notes: 1. f = frequency in Hertz; j = square root (-1); = 2f 2. R and X are equivalent series quantities unless otherwise defined. G and B are equivalent parallel quantities unless otherwise defined. Parallel R (Rp) is sometimes used but parallel X (Xp) is rarely used and series G (Gs) and series B (Bs) are very rarely used. 3. C and L each have two values, series and parallel. If no subscript is defined, usually series configuration is implied, but not necessarily, especially for C (Cp is common, Lp is less used). 4. Q is positive if it is inductive, negative if it is capacitive. D is positive if it is capacitive. Thus D = -1/Q. 5. Tan is used by some (especially in Europe) instead of D. tan = D.

47

48

Application Note Directory

49

QuadTech Application Notes

Contained herein is a list of QuadTech application notes available for download in Adobe PDF format. To access these application notes visit: http://www.quadtech.com/resources and click on the Application Note link. In the table below, the application note (AN) numbers highlighted in blue contain information relevant to LCR topics.
A/N P/N
035000 035001 035002 035003 035004 035005 035006 035008 035009 035010 035011 035012 035013 035014 035015 035016 035019 035020 035021 035022 035023 035024 035025 035026 035027 035028 035029 035030 035031 035032 035033 035034 035035 035036 035037 035038 035039 035040 035041 035042 035043 035044 035045 035046 035047 035048 035049 035050 035051 035052 035053 035054 035055 035056 035057 035058 035059 035060

Title/Description
Measuring Insulation Resistance of Capacitors Series & Parallel Impedance Parameters and Equivalent Circuits Equivalent Series Resistance (ESR) of Capacitors Increasing Test Voltage on the QuadTech Digibridge High Voltage DC Bias on the QuadTech Digibridge Application for Precision Impedance Meters in a Standards Laboratory Application for Precision Impedance Meters in a Standards Laboratory Application of DSP to Precision LCR Measurements Measuring Biased Inductors with the 7000 Precision LCR Meters A Guide to LCR Measurements A Practical Guide to Dielectric Testing Measurements of Dielectric Constant and Loss with the LD-3 Cell Sentry Series Light Ballast Application Guardian 1030S and Cable Reel Immersion Test Guardian 1030 used for IR Test on Adhesive Heat Shrink Sentry Series Panel Meter Application Helpful Tips on Measuring Capacitors Testing Capacitors with the QuadTech Model 1865 Megohmmeter/IR Tester Whats Changing in Appliance Hipot Testing and Why Measuring Biased Inductors with the QuadTech Digibridge Characteristic Cable Impedance Calibrating Impedance Meters Using Resistance Standards Advanced Technique for Dielectric Analysis Medical Equipment Test Applications using the 7000 Precision LCR Meter Multi-Terminal Impedance Measurements (Why do these bridges use so) Testing Automotive Engine Oxygen Sensors using the 1900 Precision LCR Hipot Testing of Motors and Safety Standard Compliance Transformer Turns Ratio using the 7000 Series RLC Meters The QuadTech 1865 as a Current Meter Measuring Large Capacitors with the 1865-52 Component Test Fixture Insulation Resistance of Cables 1865 Remote Pass/Fail Lights 1865 Specified Accuracy The QuadTech 1865 Average Function How to Connect a Foot Switch to the 1870 Dielectric Analyzer The 1880 Specified Accuracy & Constant Current Ranges External DC Supply for the 1536 Photoelectric Pickoff Cell Basic Program to Control the Flash on a 1539 Strobe Characteristic Cable Impedance Constant Current with the 1693 RLC Digibridge Charged Capacitor Protection Circuit for the QuadTech Digibridges Transformer Ratio Measured Directly on the 1689 & 1693 Digibridges How Much is One Joule 7000 Series Connections to the LD-3 Dielectric Cell Digibridge Connections to the LD-3 Dielectric Cell Battery Impedance Measurements Charged Capacitor Protection for the 7000 What Voltage and Current is Applied to the Unknown? Power Factor of a Capacitor (1900 Series) Tutorial on Safety Standard Compliance for Hipot Testing Benefits and Advantages of Digital Electrical Safety Testers Measuring Electrical Properties of Copier/Printer Toners Monitoring the Production Process of Tantalum Powder Transducers used in Monitoring Nuclear Waste Tanks Measuring the Dielectric Constant of PVC Compounds Testing Animal Identification Implants Testing Telecommunications Transformers Enhanced Protection When Measuring Charged Capacitors

Release
06-03-03 06-29-00 09-28-00 10-10-00 10-10-00 10-10-00 07-18-00 08-17-00 11-08-00 06-23-00 06-24-03 02-11-02 10-03-02 10-03-02 10-03-02 10-03-02 06-27-00 11-08-00 11-08-00 11-08-00 01-24-03 08-18-00 06-24-03 09-28-00 04-18-03 02-11-02 12-19-00 12-19-00 12-19-00 06-03-03 09-28-00 01-08-01 01-08-01 09-19-02 01-08-01 01-10-01 01-10-01 01-10-01 01-24-03 05-26-00 02-15-02 03-25-03 07-05-00 01-15-01 01-15-01 07-18-00 02-13-01 01-24-03 02-01-02 06-24-03 02-13-01 02-13-01 02-28-01 02-28-01 02-28-01 02-28-01 02-28-01 02-28-01

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QuadTech Application Notes

A/N P/N 035061 035062 035063 035064 035065 035066 035067 035068 035069 035070 035071 035072 035073 035074 035075 035076 035077 035078 035079 035080 035082 035083 035084 035085 035086 035087 035088 035089 035090 035091 035092 035093 035094 035095 035096 035097 035098 035099 035100 035101 035102 035103 035104 035105 035106 035107 035108 035109 035110 035111 035112 035113 035114 035115 035116 035117 035118 035119 035120 035121 035122 035123 035124 035125 Title/Description Light Ballast Application Cable Reel IR Testing Application Adhesive Heat-Shrink IR Testing Why Perform Electrical Safety Testing? Ground Bond, Ground Continuity and Earth Continuity Appliance Testing with the Guardian 6200 Production Safety Analyzer Determining if a DUT is connected, using the Low Trip Limit (G1000 Series) UL Standards Guidelines for External Bias on the 7400 and 7600 Digibridge to 7000 Handler Conversion Increasing Test Voltage of a 7000 Series RLC Meter Mutual Inductance Measurements with a 4-Terminal LCR Meter Connection of the 1865 Megohmmeter to a Resistivity Cell Guardian 5000 Demo Guide Guardian 2500 Demo Guide Sentry 10-35 Demo Guide Sentry 50 Demo Guide Glossary of Electrical Safety Terms Digibridge and Battery Impedance Measurements (1557, 1659, 1689, 1693) Use of Palm Switches with QuadTech Hipot Testers Analyze This Inductor So You Need To Measure Some Inductors LCR Product Accessories EST Product Accessories Whats Your LCR IQ? Applying DC Bias to Inductors with the 1910 Inductance Analyzer Applying DC Bias to Inductors with the 1910 and 1320 LCR & EST Product Interfaces Electrical Safety Testing of Medical Electronic Equipment Ensuring RH Sensor Repeatability with Capacitance Testing Measuring IR with the Guardian 2530 Errors in Low Resistance Measurements Building the Perfect Component Test Fixture Custom Design Your Own Shock Therapy Test Instrumentation: Cant Always Get What You Want? Guardian 2500 Series Features & Benefits Sentry Series Features & Benefits Overview of IEC 60601-1 Medical Electrical Equipment Why Product Safety Test Your Electrical Medical Products? Line Leakage Measurement & Human Body Equivalent Circuits IEC60601-1 and Your Electrical Medical Products A Bridge to the Future Capacitance Measurements Through The Ages What is the Accuracy Anyway? 25 Patents Reference Digibridge Henry Hall: Father of the Digibridge 1920 Used in Eddy Current Sensor Testing 1689 Digibridge Used In Gas Sensor Materials Testing Classification per IEC60601-1 EST 101 (IEC60601-1 Electrical Safety Tests) Ensuring the Safety of Medical Electronics Low ESR Capacitor Measurements Measurement of Dielectric Constant and Loss: 1900 LCR Meter & LD-3 Cell 1900 Series Remote I/O Handler Resistive Load Boxes for Hipot Testers and Megohmmeters Guardian 6000 Series Scanner Connections Leakage Current Part 1 Leakage Current Part 2 Calibration of 7000 Series Precision LCR Meters Testing Power Line Filters Using the Guardian 1030S 1864 Megohmmeter used in DC-10 Aircraft Maintenance 1864 Megohmmeter used in Aircraft Fuel Pump Inspection National Deviations to IEC 60601-1 Ground Bond testing per UL 60950 Connection of Isolation Transformer to Safety TEster Release 10-03-02 10-03-02 10-03-02 06-23-03 06-23-03 03-27-01 02-04-02 03-27-01 04-24-01 04-24-01 04-24-01 08-18-00 04-24-01 07-18-00 07-31-00 07-18-00 07-31-00 06-23-03 05-16-00 05-09-00 02-11-02 06-04-01 09-19-02 09-19-02 04-16-03 05-19-00 06-15-00 09-19-02 06-16-00 06-16-00 07-05-00 07-31-00 09-26-00 06-13-03 11-28-00 01-23-01 01-23-01 06-09-03 06-09-03 06-09-03 06-09-03 10-05-01 11-11-02 10-15-01 10-15-01 10-16-01 10-17-01 06-09-03 06-06-03 06-06-03 02-11-02 02-11-02 03-11-02 03-12-02 03-29-02 06-09-03 06-09-03 08-09-02 08-09-02 09-06-02 09-06-02 06-09-03 06-13-03 05-15-03

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Glossary

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AC Alternating current, an electric current that has one polarity during part of the cycle and the opposing polarity during the other part of the cycle. Residential electricity is AC. Accuracy The difference between the measured value or reading and the true or accepted value. The accuracy of an LCR meter is typically given as a +/- percentage of the measured value for primary parameters and +/- an absolute value for the secondary parameter. Example: +/-0.05% for L, C & R and +/-0.0005 for Df. ANSI American National Standards Institute, an industry association that defines standards for data processing and communication. Basic Accuracy basic accuracy is specified at optimum test signal, frequency, highest accuracy setting or slowest measurement speed and impedance of the DUT. As a general rule this means 1VAC RMS signal level, 1kHz frequency, high accuracy which equates to 1 measurement/second and a DUT impedance between 10 and 100k. Binning A procedure for sorting components into bins using sequential limits or nested limits. Breakdown Failure of electrical insulation to provide a dielectric barrier to current flow. Capacitor Abbreviated as C (as in LCR). A capacitor is a passive component comprised of two conductors separated by a dielectric. A capacitor stores charge, blocks DC flow and allows AC flow based on frequency and capacitor design. Capacitance The ratio of charge on either plate of a capacitor to the potential difference (voltage) across the plates. When a voltage is applied, current flows immediately at a high rate and then decays exponentially toward zero as the charge builds up. If an ac voltage is applied, an ac current appears to flow continuously because the polarity of the voltage is reversed at the frequency of the applied voltage. The waveform of this current, however, is displaced in time from the applied voltage by 90.

Capacitive Reactance Measurement of the actual AC resistance of a capacitor. How effective a capacitor is in allowing AC to flows depends upon its capacitance and frequency. Xc = 1/2fC. Clearance Clearance is the shortest distance between two conductors through air or insulating medium. Compare A procedure for sorting components by comparing the components measured value against a known standard. Creepage Creepage is the shortest path along the surface of an insulator or insulating medium that separates two conductors. The insulator or insulation medium cannot be air. CSA Canadian Standards Association. Current Draw The mains current consumed by the product or DUT. DC Direct current, non-reversing polarity. The movement of charge is in one direction. Used to describe both current and voltage. Batteries supply direct current. Delay Time The amount of time an instrument waits before performing a task. Dielectric A material which is an electric insulator or in which an electric field can be sustained with a minimum dissipation of power. Dielectric Constant Abbreviate K, relative dielectric constant. The dielectric constant of a material is the ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor filled with a given dielectric to that same capacitor having only a vacuum as a dielectric. Discharge The act of draining off an electrical charge to ground. Devices that retain charge should be discharged after a DC hipot or IR test. DUT Device Under Test - the product being tested.

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DUT
Series Parallel

RS

RS CP RP or GP LP RP or GP

CS

LS

IMPEDANCE Capacitive Inductive

Equivalent Circuit Dwell Time The amount of time the DUT is allowed to stabilize at the test voltage before measurements are performed. Electric Current The flow of electrons (or electron "holes") through a conducting material, which may be a solid, liquid, or gas; the rate of flow of charge past a given point in an electric circuit. The magnitude of current flow through the conductor is proportional to the magnitude of voltage or electrical potential applied across the conductor and inversely proportional to the resistance (or impedance) of the conductor. Current is expressed in amperes or milliamperes (amperes/1000). Equivalent Circuit The configuration of the device under test. The components of the DUT can be represented as a series or parallel equivalent circuit. Fall Time The amount of time it takes to gradually decrease the voltage to zero potential. Frequency The rate at which a current or voltage reverses polarity and then back again completing a full cycle, measured in Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second. GFCI An acronym for Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter, a safety device that breaks a power circuit as soon as it detects current flow of a certain magnitude through the ground return of a power circuit. Also known as GFI.

ADMITTANCE Capacitive Inductive

Ground The base reference from which voltages are measured, nominally the same potential as the earth. Also the side of a circuit that is at the same potential as the base reference. Handler Device for remote control of test instrument in component handling operations. Hertz The unit of measure of frequency, equivalent to cycles per second. High Limit The upper value for a test to be considered a PASS. If the measured value is higher than the high limit the test is considered a FAIL. In hipot, leakage current and ground bond tests a high limit is required. IEEE An acronym for Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, a professional association of engineers. IEEE 488 General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB) - an industry standard definition of a parallel bus connection for the purpose of communicating data between devices.

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Impedance A term used with alternating current circuits to describe the "ac resistance" to the flow of current through a circuit when an ac voltage is applied across the terminals of that circuit. Impedance is a complex quantity composed of real (in phase with voltage) and reactive (out of phase by 90) components. Impedance is calculated as voltage divided by current. Impedance (Z) is a vector summation of resistance (R) and reactance (X). Capacitors: Reactance = XC = 1/jC Inductors: Reactance = XL = jL Resistors: Resistance = R Impedance = Z = square root (X2 + R2)

Low Limit The lower value for a test to be considered a PASS. If the measured value is lower than the low limit the test is considered a FAIL. Megohmmeter An instrument designed to measure high values of resistance using a dc voltage usually greater than 50 V DC. Milliohmmeter An instrument designed to measure low values of resistance using a dc current or voltage. NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology, an agency of the U.S. Government that sets standards for physical measurements and references, formerly called the National Bureau of Standards. NRTL Acronym for Nationally Recognized Testing Laboratory, such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Factory Mutual (FM), or Canadian Standards Association (CSA). Offset An automatic zeroing function to correct for leakage currents or additional resistance due to test leads or fixtures. An offset is performed by making a measurement at the programmed test settings, calculating the difference between the leakage current or resistance measured and the ideal current or resistance and then subtracting this difference from all future measurements. Ohm's Law The fundamental law of electrical circuits that describes the relationship between voltage, current and impedance (or resistance). For DC circuits, Ohm's Law states that Current =Voltage/Resistance. For AC circuits, Current = Voltage/Impedance. Stated conversely, Voltage = Current x Resistance (DC) or Current x Impedance (AC). The difference between the dc resistance and ac impedance is that ac circuits must deal with phase and time relationships and dc circuits do not. Ohms () The unit of measure of resistance and impedance, derived from Ohm's Law. OSHA Occupational Safety and Hazards Administration, an agency of the U.S. Government that regulates industrial safety.

Inductor Abbreviated L (as in LCR). An inductor is a coil of wire. It is used to create electromagnetic induction in a circuit. Inductance The property of a coil to oppose any change in current through it. If the turns (coils) of the wire are stretched out, the field intensity will be less and the inductance will be less. Unit of measure is the Henry (H). Inductive Reactance A measure of how much the counter electro-magnetic force (emf) of the coil will oppose current variation through the coil. The amount of reactance is directly proportional to the current variation: XL = 2fL. Insulation The protection against unwanted flow of current through a path, as between a circuit of a product and the ground reference. Materials that prevent current flow are referred to as insulators or dielectrics. Kelvin Connection A circuit configuration that automatically compensates for measurement errors caused by resistance of leads between a tester and the point of measurement on a DUT. Level The test signal level is the programmed RMS voltage of the generator in an LCR meter. The actual test voltage across the DUT is always less than the programmed level. Load The total resistance or impedance of all circuits and devices connected to a voltage source. 56

Parameter Electrical property being tested. The primary parameter (L, C, R) is the first property characterized of the device under test. The secondary parameter (D, Q, ) is the second property characterized of the device under test. Permittivity Abbreviated . The dielectric constant multiplied by the dielectric constant of empty space (o), where the per-

Range The resistance ranges the test instrument uses for reference in making the measurement. Reactive The component of an ac voltage, current, or impedance that is 90 out of phase with the "real" or in phase component. Reactive components are associated with capacitive or inductive circuits. Real The component of an ac voltage, current, or impedance that is in phase with the "real" component. Real components are associated with purely resistive circuits. Regulation When applied to electrical circuits, regulation refers to the variation in output voltage that occurs when the input voltage changes or when the connected load changes. When applied to test laboratories and agencies, refers to the control exercised by these entities over test specs and rules. Repeatability The difference between successive measurements with no changes in the test setup or test conditions. Reproducibility Similar to repeatability but adds the element of what could be expected under real life conditions. Reproducibility would take into account the variability in things like fixturing where the DUT being tested is removed from the fixture and then inserted again. Resolution The smallest value that can be shown on the display in a digital instrument. LCR meters typically specify a measurement range that is the largest and smallest value that can be shown on that meters display. Resistance The electrical characteristic that impedes the flow of current through a circuit to which voltage has been applied. Resistance is calculated by Ohm's Law as voltage divided by current (for DC circuits). For AC circuits, it is the inphase or "real" component of impedance. Units are expressed in ohms (). RS232 An industry standard definition for a serial line communication link or port.

mittivity of empty space (o) is a constant in Coulombs law, equal to a value of 1 in centimeter-gram-second units and to 8.854 x 10-12 farads/meter in rationalized meter-kilogram-second units.

Phase The time relationships between alternating voltages, currents, and impedances. Usually expressed as complex vectors with "real" (in-phase) and "reactive" (out of phase) components. Polarization A term used to describe a "one way" limitation on the insertion of a plug into a receptacle for a corded product. A polarized plug can be inserted in only one orientation and cannot be reversed. Potential Electrical potential is a term equivalent to "voltage". Prefixes The prefixes for Multiple Scientific Engineering Symbols are: 1000000000000000 1015 Peta P 12 1000000000000 10 Tera T 1000000000 1000000 1000 0.001 0.000001 0.000000001 0.000000000001 0.000000000000001 109 106 103 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 10-15 Giga Mega Kilo milli micro nano pico femto G M k m n p f

Protective Earth Conductor that connects between any protectively earthed parts of a Class I product and an external protective earth connection. Microsecond One millionth of a second. 57

Scanner A scanner is a device designed to switch or matrix signals. SCC The Standards Council of Canada, an agency of the Canadian Government analogous to OSHA in the United States. Speed The rate at which the instrument makes a measurement in measurements per second. Speed is inversely proportional to accuarcy. Spikes A large momentary deviation from a normal voltage or current waveform. Stabilization Time The time required for a transient disturbance to decay to a steady state value. Source Impedance The impedance of the measuring instrument applied to the input terminals of the device under test (DUT). If 1V is the programmed voltage and the source impedance is 25 ohms, DUT is 25 ohms, then the voltage at the DUT is 0.5V. Trigger The device for initiating the test (applying the voltage or current). External Trigger The test is initiated via an external source such as a computer with an IEEE-488 or Handler interface. One measurement is made each time the external trigger is asserted on the handler. Internal Trigger The instrument continuously makes measurements. Manual Trigger The operator initiates the test by pressing the [START] button. One measurement is made each time the trigger is pressed. UL Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., an NRTL located in Illinois. Voltage The electrical potential applied to a circuit.

Waveform The instantaneous value of a variable such as voltage or current plotted against time. X (Reactance) Reactance is the imaginary component of Impedance. Y (Admittance) Admittance is the reciprocal of Impedance. Y = 1/Z Z (Impedance) Impedance is the sum of alternating current oppositions (capacitive reactance, inductive reactance and resistance). Z = R + jX

QuadTech is a trademark of QuadTech, Inc. Digibridge is a registered trademark of QuadTech, Inc. Copyright 2002 by QuadTech, Inc. 3rd Edition, July 2003, P/N 030122/A3 All rights reserved Printed in U.S.A.

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