Kinematics of a Particle

Introduction
Mechanics is a branch of the physical sciences that is concerned with the state of rest or motion of bodies subjected to the action of forces. o Statics is concerned with the equilibrium of a body that is either at rest or moves with constant velocity. o Dynamics deals with the accelerated motion of a body. Kinematics is a study of the geometry of the motion of a body. (i.e It defines the relationship among displacement, velocity and acceleration of a moving body) Kinetics is a study of the forces causing the motion of a body. (i.e It defines the relationship between the forces that act on a body and the motion of the body) Mechanics

Statics

Dynamics

Kinematics

Kinetics

Classification of Motion
Translatory motion or rectilinear motion or straight line motion. Curvilinear motion Rotary motion or rotational motion

Rectilinear Kinematics: Continuous Motion

Rectilinear kinematics refers to straight-line motion. The kinematics of a particle is characterized by specifying the particles position, velocity, and acceleration at any given instant. A car moving in a straight road is an example of rectilinear motion.

 Distance and Displacement: Distance and displacement are two quantities that may seem to mean the same thing yet have distinctly different definitions and meanings. Displacement is a vector quantity, that refers to the object's overall change in position . Displacement is a measurement of change in position of the particle in motion. Its magnitude and direction are measured by the length and direction of the straight line joining initial and final positions of the particle. Obviously, the length of the straight line between the positions is the shortest distance between the points. Distance is a scalar quantity that refers to "how much ground an object has covered" during its motion. Velocity: o If the particle moves through a displacement r during a time interval t, the average velocity of the particle during this time interval is
v avg = r t

o The instantaneous velocity is the rate of change of displacement with time. It is expressed as
v = ds dt

(1)

o Note that velocity is a vector quantity. It is different from speed, which is distance divided by time. Acceleration: o The average acceleration of the particle is
a avg = v (i.e increase in magnitude of velocity with respect to time ) t dv ( i.e a = dv/ds * ds/dt ) dt

o The instantaneous acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time. It is expressed as
a =

(2)

o Substituting equation (1) into (2) results in

a = d 2s dt 2

(3)

o Note that acceleration is a vector quantity. o When the particle is slowing down, it is said to be decelerating. In this case, acceleration will be negative (i.e. the body is accelerating in the direction opposite to the direction of v). o When the velocity is constant, the acceleration is zero. A differential relation involving the displacement, velocity, and acceleration along the path may be obtained by eliminating dt between equations (1) and (2). The result is
a ds = v dv

(4)

Constant Acceleration, a = ac Consider a particle with the following initial conditions: s = so and v = vo when t = 0. When the acceleration is constant, equations (1), (2), and (4) can be integrated to obtain the following: .. (5) .. (6) .. (7)

v = vo + ac t
s = so + vo t + a c t 2
2 1

2 v 2 = vo + 2a c ( s s o )

12.4 General Curvilinear Motion

Curvilinear motion occurs when the particle moves along a curved path. For curvilinear motion, the particles position, velocity, and acceleration are formulated by using vector analysis. Consider a particle initially located at point P. During the time interval t, the particle moves a distance s along a curve defined by the path function s . o The initial position of the particle, measured from a fixed point O, is designated by the position vector r = r(t).
r = r r . o The displacement during the time interval is

o The instantaneous velocity is

v = dr dt

(8)

Note: The direction of v is tangent to the curve.

o The instantaneous speed is

v = ds dt

(9)

Thus, the speed can be obtained by differentiating the path function s with respect to time. o The locus of points for the arrowheads of the velocity vector forms a curve called the hodograph (see details on page 32 of textbook). o The instantaneous acceleration is
a = dv dt

(10)

o Substituting equation (9) into (10) results in

a = d 2s dt 2

(11)

o The acceleration acts tangent to the hodograph.

12.5 Curvilinear Motion: Rectangular Components

The motion of a particle can be described along a path that is represented using a fixed x, y, z frame of reference. Consider a particle at point (x, y, z) on the curved path s shown in fig. 12-17. Position: o The location of the particle is defined by the position vector r = xi + yj + zk where x, y, z are the components of r and they are functions of time. o The magnitude of r is
r = x 2 +y 2 +z 2

(12)

o The direction of r is specified by the components of the unit vector ur = r/r. Velocity: o The velocity of the particle is
v= dr = vxi + v y j + vzk dt
vz = z

(13)

where the components of v are the first time derivatives of x, y, z, i.e.

vx = x vy = y

(14)

o The magnitude of v is
v =
2 2 vx + v2 y + vz

o The direction of v is specified by the components of the unit vector uv = v/v. This direction is always tangent to the path (see fig. 12-17b). Acceleration: o The acceleration of the particle is
a= dv = a xi + a y j + a zk dt
x = ax = v x y = ay = v y z = az = v z

(15)

where (16)

o The magnitude of a is
a =
2 2 ax + a2 y + az

o The direction of a is specified by the components of the unit vector ua = a/a. In general, the direction is not tangent to the path; it is tangent to the hodograph (see fig. 12-17c). Note: Since rectilinear motion occurs along each coordinate axis, the motion of each component is found using equations (1), (2), and (4).

12.6 Motion of a Projectile

A projectile is an object that is thrown or is fired from a weapon (e.g. a bullet, stone). The motion of a projectile is often studied in terms of its rectangular components. Consider a projectile launched at point (xo, yo), as shown in Fig. 12-20 of the course textbook. The path is defined in the x-y plane and the initial velocity has components (v o)x and (vo)y. Neglecting air resistance, the horizontal and vertical motions are described as follows: o Horizontal Motion (ax = 0):
v x = ( vo ) x x = x o + ( vo ) x t

(a)

o Vertical Motion (ay = -g): Equations (1), (2), and (4) give
v y = ( vo ) y g t

(b)
1 gt2 2

y = y o + ( vo ) y t
2

(c) (d)

2 vy = ( v o ) y 2 g ( y y o )

Note: By eliminating t between equations (b) and (c), equation (d) is obtained. Therefore, only two of equations (b), (c), (d) are independent.

 The problem involving projectile motion can have at most 3 unknowns. The 3 equations to be used are equation (a), and two of equations (b), (c), and (d).

12.7 Curvilinear Motion: Normal and Tangential Components

When the path along which a particle is moving is known, it is often convenient to describe the motion using n and t coordinates which act normal and tangent to the path, respectively, and at the instant considered have their origin located at the particle. Planar Motion Consider a particle P which is moving in a plane along a fixed curve as shown in Fig. 12-24. o A coordinate system whose origin coincides with the location of the particle is considered (i.e. it moves with the particle). o The t axis is tangent to the curve at P and the n axis is normal to the curve at P. o The unit vector on the t axis is designated as ut. It is positive in the direction of motion. o The unit vector on the n axis is designated as un. It is directed toward the center of curvature of the path (see Fig. 12-24a). Velocity The position of the particle from a fixed point O (Fig. 12-24) is s. Note that s = s(t). The particles velocity v is always tangent to the path. Hence,
v = v ut

(17) (18)

where
v = ds dt = s

Acceleration The acceleration of the particle has components on the two axes. It is written as
a = at ut + a n un

(19) (20)

where
at = v

or

a t ds = v dv

and
an = v2

(21)

In equation (21), is the radius of curvature of the path at P. If the path is expressed as y = f(x), at any point on the path is determined from the equation

[1 +( dy =

dx )

3/ 2

d 2 y dx 2

(22)

The tangential component of acceleration, at, is the result of the time rate of change in the magnitude of velocity. The relations between at, v, t and s (i.e. equations 20) are the same as for rectilinear motion. It at is constant, equations 5-7 apply. The normal component of acceleration, an, is often referred to as the centripetal acceleration. The magnitude of the acceleration is
a =
2 at2 + a n

(23)

Special cases
. 1. If the particle moves along a straight line, then and, therefore, an =0. Thus, a = at = v

= 0 and a = an = v2/. 2. If the particle moves along a curve with a constant speed, then a t = v

12.8 Curvilinear Motion: Cylindrical Components

For some engineering problems, it is convenient to express the path of motion in terms of cylindrical coordinates, r, , z. If the motion is restricted to the plane, the polar coordinates r and are used. Polar Coordinates The radial coordinate, r, extends outward from the fixed origin O to the particle. The unit vector ur defines the positive direction of the r coordinate (see Fig. 12-30a). The transverse coordinate, , is the counterclockwise angle between a fixed reference line and the r axis. The unit vector u defines the positive direction of the coordinate (see Fig. 12-30a). The angle is generally measured in degrees or radians, where 1 rad = 180o/. Position o At any instant the position of the particle is defined by the position vector
r = r ur

(24)

Velocity o The instantaneous velocity of the particle is

v = v r ur + v u

(25)

where
vr = r v = r

(26)

o The radial component vr is a measure of the rate of increase or decrease in the length of the radial coordinate.

o The transverse component v can be interpreted as the rate of motion along the circumference of a circle is called the angular velocity. having a radius r. The term o The magnitude of velocity (i.e. speed) is
v =
2 2 vr + v

(27)

o The direction of the velocity is tangent to the path (see Fig. 12-30c). Acceleration o The instantaneous acceleration of the particle is
a = a r ur + a u

(28)

where
2 r ar = r + 2r a = r

(29)

= d 2 dt 2 is called the angular acceleration. o The term

o The magnitude of acceleration is

a =
2 2 ar + a

(30)

Cylindrical Coordinates If the particle moves along a space curve as shown in Fig. 12-31, then its location may be specified by the three cylindrical coordinates. The position, velocity, and acceleration of the particle can be written in terms of its cylindrical coordinates as follows:
r = r ur + z uz
u + z ur + r uz v = r

2 u + r + 2r u + uz a = r r z r

Time Derivatives
, and in order to , , r The equations of kinematics requires that we obtain the time derivatives r evaluate the r and components of v and a. See pages 65 and 66 of the textbook for examples in which these derivatives are obtained.

12.9 Absolute Dependent Motion Analysis of Two Particles

In some types of problems the motion of one particle will depend on the corresponding motion of another particle. For example, in Fig. 12-36 of the textbook, the blocks A and B connected with a cord have their motions depending on each other.

 Analysis of the motions involves developing equation for length of cord as a function of the position coordinates of the particles. The procedure for analysis is itemized on page 78 of the textbook.

12.10 Relative-Motion Analysis of Two Particles Using Translating Axes

So far, we have determined the motion of a particle using a single fixed reference frame. When the path of motion for a particle is complicated, it may be feasible to analyze the motion in parts by using two or more frames of reference. In this section, the use of two frames of reference is considered. One frame is fixed while the other one is translating. Consider particles A and B moving along the arbitrary paths aa and bb, respectively, as shown in Fig. 1242a. o The absolute positions of the particles, measured from the fixed origin O, are rA and rB. o The relative position of B with respect to A is represented by the vector rB/A. o The three vectors can be related by the equation rB = rA + rB/A o Similarly, the velocity and acceleration vectors are related by vB = vA + vB/A aB = aA + aB/A (Study examples 12.25 12.27.) (32) (33) (31)