Exp5 9 PDF

INBIAN INSTIT0TE 0F TECBN0L0uY BB0BANESWAR
SCB00L 0F ELECTRICAL SCIENCES
C0NN0NICATI0N SYSTENS LAB0RAT0RY Page 1

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BHUBANESWAR

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL SCIENCES

COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
LABORATORY
(Part II)

Contents
EXPERIMENTNO.5a.....................................................................................................................................3
EXPERIMENTNO.5b.....................................................................................................................................9
EXPERIMENTNO.6a...................................................................................................................................15
EXPERIMENTNO.6b...................................................................................................................................18
EXPERIMENTNO.7a...................................................................................................................................26
EXPERIMENTNO.7b...................................................................................................................................27
EXPERIMENTNO.8.....................................................................................................................................28
EXPERIMENTNO.9.....................................................................................................................................34

C0NN0NICATI0N SYSTENS LAB0RAT0RY Page S
EXPERIMENTNO.5a

NAME:
FIBER OPTIC ANALOG LINK AND STUDY OF LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBER
OBJECTIVE:
1. Setting up of a Fiber Optic Analog Link
2. Study of Losses in Optical Fiber
EQUIPMENT:
Link-A kit.
20 MHz Dual Channel Oscilloscope.
1 and 3 Meter Fiber cable.
Power supply.
Microphone.
Speaker
THEORY:
Fiber Optic Links can be used for transmission of digital as well as analog signals. Basically a
fiber optic link contains three main elements, a transmitter, an optical fiber and a receiver. The transmitter
module takes the input signal in electrical form and then transforms it into optical (light) energy
containing the same information. The optical fiber is the medium which carries this energy to the receiver.
At the receiver, light is converted back into electrical form with the same pattern as originally fed to the
transmitter.
1. TRANSMITTER:
Fiber optic transmitters are typically composed of a buffer, driver and optical source. The buffer
electronics provides both an electrical connection and isolation between the transmitter and the electrical
system supplying the data. The driver electronics provides electrical power to the optical source in a
fashion that duplicates the pattern of data being fed to the transmitter. Finally the optical source (LED)
converts the electrical current to light energy with the same pattern. The LED SFH756V supplied with the
kit operates inside the visible light spectrum. It's optical output is centered at near visible wavelength of
660 nm. The emission spectrum is broad, so a dark red glow can usually be seen when the LED is on. The
LED SFH450V supplied with the kit operates outside the visible light spectrum. It's optical output is
centered at near infrared wavelength of 950 nm.
2. RECEIVER:
The function of the receiver is to convert the optical energy into electrical form, which is then
conditioned to reproduce the transmitted electrical signal in its original form. The detector SFH250V used
in the kit has a diode type output. The parameters usually considered in the case of detector are it's
responsivity at peak wavelength and response time. SFH250V has responsivity of about 4 mA per 10 mW
of incident optical energy at 950 nm and it has rise and fall time of 0.01 m sec. PIN photodiode is
normally reverse biased. When optical signal falls on the diode, reverse current start to flow, thus diode
acts as closed switch and in the absence of light intensity, it acts as an open switch. Since PIN diode
usually has low responsivity, a trans impedance amplifier is used to convert this reverse current into
voltage. This voltage is then amplified with the help of another amplifier circuit. This voltage is the
duplication of the transmitted electrical signal.
3. LOSSESINOPTICALFIBER
Optical fibers are available in different variety of materials. These materials are usually selected by
taking into account their absorption characteristics for different wavelengths of light. In case of optical
fiber, since the signal is transmitted in the form of light which is completely different in nature as that of
electrons, one has to consider the interaction of matter with the radiation to study the losses in fiber.
Losses are introduced in fiber due to various reasons. As light propagates from one end of fiber to another
end, part of it is absorbed in the material exhibiting absorption loss. Also part of the light is reflected back
or in some other directions from the impurity particles present in the material contributing to the loss of
the signal at the other end of the fiber. In general terms it is known as propagation loss. Plastic fibers have
higher loss of the order of 180 dB/Km. Whenever the condition for angle of incidence of the incident light
is violated the losses are introduced due to refraction of light. This occurs when fiber is subjected to
bending. Lower the radius of curvature more is the loss. Another losses are due to the coupling of fiber at
LED and photo detector ends.

Fig 1
PROCEDURE:
1. SettingupofaFiberOpticAnalogLink
Setting up a Fiber Optic Analog Link
C0NN0NICATI0N SYSTENS LAB0RAT0RY Page S
1) Keep all the switch faults in OFF position.

2) Make the connections and Jumper settings as shown in Fig 1.
3) Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to kit. While connecting this, ensure
that the power supply is OFF. Switch on the power supply.
4) Select the frequency range of Function Generator with the help of Range Selection Switch
SW1, frequency can be varied with Pot P2. Adjust the voltage LEVEL of the sine wave with
Pot P1. Adjust P1 and P2 as per the following: FREQUENCY: 1KHz, LEVEL: 2Vp-p.
5) Connect SINE post of the Function Generator section to IN post of Analog Buffer Section.
Keep Jumpers JP2 & JP4 towards +12V position, JP3 towards sine position, JP5 towards
TX1 position, JP6 towards TX1 position & JP7 shorted.
6) Keep switch S3 towards TX IN position.
7) Connect OUT post of the Analog Buffer Section to TX IN post of TRANSMITTER.
8) Slightly unscrew the cap of LED SFH 756V TX1 (660 nm) from kit. Do not remove the cap
from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap and assure that the
fiber is properly fixed. Now tight the cap by screwing it back. Keep INTENSITY pot P3 at
minimum position i.e. fully anticlockwise.
9) Connect the other end of the fiber to detector SFH 250V (RX 1) in kit very carefully.
10) Check the output signal of the Analog Buffer at its OUT post in Kit. It should be same as
that of the applied input signal.
11) Observe the output signal from the detector at ANALOG OUT post on CRO by adjusting
INTENSITY (Optical Power Control) Pot P3 in kit and you should get the reproduction of
the original transmitted signal.
12) To measure the analog bandwidth of the link, connect the external Signal Generator with
2Vp-p sine wave to IN post of Analog Buffer Section and vary the frequency of the input
signal from 100 Hz onwards. Measure the amplitude of the received signal for each
frequency reading.
13) Plot a graph of gain / Frequency. Measure the frequency range for which the response is flat.
14) Keep Jumpers JP5 & JP6 towards TX2 position. Remove Fiber from TX1 and connect to IR
LED 450V (950mm) TX2. Repeat steps 10 to 13.


Fig 2 ANALOG LINK WAVEFORMS
Setting up a Fiber Optic Voice Link
15) Make the connection on the Kit as per Fig 3. Connect the power supply cables with proper
polarity to kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is OFF.
17) Connect the microphone provided with the kit to the socket marked MIC on the kit.
18) Connect AUDIO IN post IN post of Analog Buffer Section.

Fig 3

20) Keep Jumpers JP2 towards +12V position, JP3 towards sine position, JP4 towards +12V
position, JP5 & JP6 towards TX2 & JP7 shorted. Keep switch S3 towards TX IN position.
21) Connect ANALOG OUT in Receiver Transimpedance Amplifier Section post to AUDIO
OUT post.
22) Connect speakers provided with the kit to the socket marked SPEAKER on the kit.
23) Switch on the power supply.
24) Speak from the Microphone and you could hear your sound from the speaker. Adjust
INTENSITY (Optical Power Control) Pot P3 and VOLUME Pot P5 to setup fiber optic
audio link.
2. StudyofLossesinOpticalFiber
1) Make the connections and Jumper settings as shown in Fig 4. Connect the power supply
cables with proper polarity to kit. While connecting this, ensure that the power supply is
OFF.
4) Select the frequency range of Function Generator with the help of Range Selection Switch
SW1, frequency can be varied with Pot P2. Adjust the voltage LEVEL of the Sine Wave
with Pot P1 as per following setting. FREQUENCY: 1KHz, LEVEL: 2Vp-p.
5) Connect SINE post of the Function Generator section to IN post of Analog Buffer Section.
Keep Jumpers JP2 & JP4 towards +12V position, JP3 towards sine position, JP5 towards
TX1 position, JP6 towards TX1 position & JP7 shorted.
8) Connect the fiber to LED SFH 756V TX1 (660 nm). Keep INTENSITY pot P3 at minimum
position i.e. fully anticlockwise.

Fig 4
10) Observe the output signal of the Analog Buffer at its OUT post on the CRO by adjusting the
INTENSITY Pot P3 in Kit. It should be same as that of the original transmitted signal. Mark
this amplitude level as V
1
.
11) Now replace 1 meter fiber by 3 meter fiber without disturbing any of the previous settings.
Measure the amplitude level at the receiver side again. You will notice that it is less than the
previous one. Mark this as V
2
.
12) If is the attenuation of the fiber then we have,
dB
=
10
L
1
-L
2
log
10
V
2
V
1
where = dB / Km,
L
1
= fiber length for V
1
, L
2
= fiber length for V
2
. This is for the wavelength of 660 nm. To
get the alpha for 950 nm wavelength proceed as follows.
13) Remove fiber from TX2 & connect it to TX1. Keep Jumpers JP5 & JP6 towards TX1
position. Repeat steps 34 to 36.
14) Compare the values of and find out the wavelength which has less attenuation in the fiber.

NOTE: SWITCH FAULTS
Keep the connections as per the procedure. Now put the corresponding switch fault button in ON position
and observe the effect on the output. Make a note of your observation.

EXPERIMENTNO.5b

NAME:
FREQUENCY MODULATION AND DEMODULATION USING OPTICAL LINK
OBJECTIVE:
1. Study of Frequency Modulation and Demodulation using Fiber Optic Link
2. Setting up Fiber Optic Voice Link using Frequency Modulation and Demodulation
EQUIPMENT:
Link-A kit.
1 Meter Fiber cable.
Power supply.
Microphone.
Speaker
THEORY:
1. FREQUENCYMODULATION
It is a type of modulation in which the frequency of the high frequency (Carrier) is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal. Consider a sine wave signal V
m
(t) with
pulse V
m
(t) = B sin(wt) and another sine wave V
c
(t) with upper pulse: V
c
(t) = A sin(t) The signal
V
m
(t) is called modulating signal, the signal V
c
(t) is called carrier signal. Vary the frequency of the carrier
V
c
(t) in a way proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal V
m
(t). You obtain a V
m
(t) frequency
modulated diagonal, which can be expressed by the relation: V
m
(t) = A sin [(t)] with (t)
instantaneous angle function of V
m
(t).
The instantaneous pulse (t) of the FM signal by definition: (t) = + K V
m
(t) with = carrier
pulse and K= modulation sensitivity. The instantaneous angle (t) to be used as subject of the sine to
obtain the mathematical operation of the FM signal, is detected by integrating (t): (t) = (t) dt.
In the case of modulating sine wave signal [V
m
(t) = Bsin (wt)], (t) it results: (t) = (t)
(KB/w)cos(wt). The expression of the frequency modulated signal V
m
(t) becomes: V
m
(t) = A sin[
(t)- (KB/w) cos(wt)].
The instantaneous frequency F(t) of the carrier modulated by a sine wave, results: F(t) = (t)/2 =
/2 KBsin(wt) and oscillates between a minimum F
min
and a maximum value F
max
: F
min
= /2
KB/2 and F
max
= /2 KB/2.
The frequency deviation F represents the maximum shift between the modulated signal frequency,
over and under the frequency of the carrier: F=(F
max
F
min
)/2. We define as modulation index mf as the
ratio between F and the modulating frequency f: mf = F/f.
C0NN0NICATI0N SYSTENS LAB0RAT0RY Page 1u
2. FREQUENCYMODULATIONGENERATION
The circuits used to generate a frequency modulation must vary the frequency of a high frequency
signal (carrier) as function of the amplitude of a low frequency signal (modulating signal). In practice
there are two main methods used to generate the FM:
DIRECT METHOD: An oscillator is used in which the reactance of one of the elements of the
resonant circuit depends on the modulating voltage. The most common device with variable reactance is
the Varactor or Varicap, which is a particular diode which capacitance varies as function of the reverse
bias voltage (the Varicap is described in the next chapter). The frequency of the carrier is established with
AFC circuits (Automatic Frequency Control) or PLL (Phase Locked Loop). In this KIT FM is generated
by using FM generation IC. This generated FM is then sent via Fiber Optic and is received by optical
detector. The output of the detector is then fed to the FM demodulation section. The frequency of the
carrier is established with AFC circuits (Automatic Frequency Control) or PLL(Phase Locked Loop).
INDIRECT METHOD: The FM is obtained in this case by a Phase Modulation, after the modulating
signal as been integrated. In the phase modulator, the carrier can be generated by a quartz oscillator, and
so its frequency stabilization is easier. In the circuit used for the exercise, the frequency modulation is
generated by a Hartley oscillator, which frequency is determined by a fixed inductance and by a capacity
(variable) supplied by Varicap diodes.
3. FREQUENCYDEMODULATION
To demodulate a frequency modulated signal a circuit is necessary which supplies the output with
proportional voltage to the frequency deviation of the input modulated signal. The ideal characteristic of
the demodulator is a straight line, also if it is actually sufficient to obtain characteristics which presents a
linear behavior only for a certain frequency range (demodulator usage range).
An FM receiver is very similar to an AM receiver. The most significant change is that the
demodulator must now extract the information signal from a frequency, rather than an amplitude,
modulated wave. The basic requirement of any FM demodulator is therefore to convert frequency
changes into changes in voltage, with the minimum amount of distortion. To achieve this, it should
ideally have a linear voltage/frequency characteristic. A demodulator can also be called a
discriminator or a detector. Any design of circuit that has a linear voltage/frequency characteristic
would be acceptable and we are going to consider the five most popular types. In each case the main
points to look for are: How do they convert FM signals into AM signals? How linear is their response -
this determines the amount of distortion in the final output? How good are they at rejecting noise signals?
For the detection of the frequency modulated signals different circuit solutions have been used, some
are out of use and others are used at the moment. Among the first ones, we mention:
PLL DETECTOR: It constitutes one of the applications of the Phase Locked Loop and is less
sensitive to noise. This employs a phase comparator circuit. It is a very good demodulator and has the
advantage that it is available as a self-contained integrated circuit so there is no setting up required-you
plug it in and it works. For these reasons it is often used in commercial broadcast receivers. It has very
low levels of distortion and is almost immune from external noise signals and provides very low levels of
distortion. The overall action of the circuit may, at first, seem rather pointless. The incoming FM signal is
taken to one input of the PHASE COMPARATOR CIRCUIT, where its phase is compared with the
square-wave output from the VOLTAGE CONTROLLED OSCILLATOR (VCO). If the central
frequency of the detector and the carrier frequency of the FM signal and local oscillator frequency
coincide, you will get the original reproduction of the modulating signal. There is a voltage-controlled
oscillator (VCO). The frequency of this oscillator is controlled by the DC output voltage from the output
of the low pass filter. Now, this DC voltage keeps the oscillator running at the same frequency as the
original input signal and 90 out of phase.
The question often arises as to why we would want the oscillator to run at the same frequency and 90
out of phase. And if we did, then why not just add a phase shifting circuit at the input to give the 90
phase shift? The answer can be seen by imagining what happens when the input frequency changes as it
would with an FM signal. If the input frequency increases and decreases, the VCO frequency is made to
follow it. To do this, the input control voltage must increase and decrease. It is these changes of DC
voltage level that form the demodulated signal. The AM signal then passes through a signal buffer to
prevent any loading effects from disturbing the VCO and then through an audio amplifier it necessary.
The frequency response is highly linear The FM Demodulation section consists of Phase Lock Loop
(PLL) IC which demodulates the FM signal. This demodulated signal is then fed to the filter section to get
the exact original signal.
PROCEDURE:
1. StudyofFrequencyModulationandDemodulationusingFiberOpticLink
that the power supply is OFF.
3) Select the frequency range of about 1 KHz from Function Generator with the help of Range
Selection Switch SW 1, frequency can be varied with Pot P2. Adjust the voltage LEVEL of
the Sine Wave to 2Vp-p with Level Pot P1.
4) Keep Jumpers JP2 towards +12V position, JP3 towards sine position, JP5 & JP6 towards
TX1 position & JP7 shorted.
6) Connect SINE post of the Function Generator section to FM IN post of FM Modulator
Section.
Fig1
7) Connect FM OUT post section of FM Modulator section to IN post of Analog Buffer

Section.
8) Slightly unscrew the cap of LED SFH 756V TX1 (660 nm) from kit. Keep INTENSITY pot
P3 at minimum position i.e fully anti clockwise.
10) Observe the signal on CRO at the OUT post of Analog Buffer.
11) Increase the time period on the oscilloscope and you could obtain the waveform as shown in
Fig 6 to obtain this Figure keep your voltage level to 0.5Vp-p.
12) The frequency deviation F can be calculated as follows: From the Oscilloscope evaluate F
M

and F
m
, detecting the periods of the respective sine waves. The frequency deviation F is
defined as F = (F
M
- F
m
) / 2.
13) The value of the modulation index mf is calculated by the relation, mf = F / f, where f is the
frequency of the modulating signal.
16) Observe the output signal from the detector at ANALOG OUT post on CRO by adjusting
INTENSITY pot P3 & you should get the reproduction of the original transmitted signal.
17) Connect ANALOG OUT in Receiver Transimpedance Amplifier Section to FM DEMOD IN
post of FM Demodulator Section.
18) Connect FM DEMOD OUT post to IN post of Filter Section.
19) Observe demodulated signal at FM DEMOD OUT post and then observe output at Filter
OUT post which is same as Input signal.

Fig 2

C0NN0NICATI0N SYSTENS LAB0RAT0RY Page 1S

Fig 3


2. SettingupFiberOpticVoiceLinkusingFrequencyModulationandDemodulation

Fig 4
4) Connect AUDIO IN post to IN post of FM Modulator Section.
5) Keep Jumpers JP2 towards +12V position, JP3 towards sine position, JP5 & JP6 towards
TX1 position & JP7 shorted.
7) Connect FM OUT post section of FM Modulator section to IN post of Analog Buffer Section
9) Connect one end of the fiber to the cap of LED SFH 756V TX1 (660 nm) from kit. Keep
INTENSITY pot P3 at minimum position i.e fully anti clockwise.
11) Connect ANALOG OUT in Receiver Transimpedence Amplifier Section to FM DEMOD IN
post of FM Demodulator Section.
12) Connect FM DEMOD OUT post to IN post of Filter Section.
13) Connect OUT post in Filter Section to AUDIO OUT post.
14) Connect speaker provided with the kit to the socket marked SPEAKER on the kit.
INTENSITY (Optical Power Control) Pot P3 and Volume Pot P5 to setup fiber optic audio
link.
NOTE: SWITCH FAULTS Keep the connections as per the procedure. Now put the corresponding
switch fault button in ON position and observe the effect on the output. Make a note of your observation.

EXPERIMENTNO.6a

NAME:
FIBER OPTIC DIGITAL LINK
OBJECTIVE:
1. Setting up of a Fiber Optic Digital Link
EQUIPMENT:
Link-A kit.
Power supply.
THEORY:
Fiber Optic Links can be used for transmission of digital as well as analog signals. Basically a
fiber optic link contains three main elements, a transmitter, an optical fiber and a receiver. The transmitter
module takes the input signal in electrical form and then transforms it into optical (light) energy
containing the same information. The optical fiber is the medium which carries this energy to the receiver.
At the receiver, light is converted back into electrical form with the same pattern as originally fed to the
transmitter.
1. TRANSMITTER:
Fiber optic transmitters are typically composed of a buffer, driver and optical source. The buffer
electronics provides both an electrical connection and isolation between the transmitter and the electrical
system supplying the data. The driver electronics provides electrical power to the optical source in a
fashion that duplicates the pattern of data being fed to the transmitter. Finally the optical source (LED)
converts the electrical current to light energy with the same pattern. The LED SFH756V supplied with the
kit operates inside the visible light spectrum. It's optical output is centered at near visible wavelength of
660 nm. The emission spectrum is broad, so a dark red glow can usually be seen when the LED is on. The
LED SFH450V supplied with the kit operates outside the visible light spectrum. It's optical output is
centered at near infrared wavelength of 950 nm.
2. RECEIVER:
The function of the receiver is to convert the optical energy into electrical form, which is then
conditioned to reproduce the transmitted electrical signal in its original form. The detector SFH250V used
in the kit has a diode type output. The parameters usually considered in the case of detector are it's
responsivity at peak wavelength and response time. SFH250V has responsivity of about 4 mA per 10 mW
of incident optical energy at 950 nm and it has rise and fall time of 0.01 m sec. PIN photodiode is
normally reverse biased. When optical signal falls on the diode, reverse current start to flow, thus diode
acts as closed switch and in the absence of light intensity, it acts as an open switch. Since PIN diode
usually has low responsivity, a trans impedance amplifier is used to convert this reverse current into
voltage. This voltage is then amplified with the help of another amplifier circuit. This voltage is the
duplication of the transmitted electrical signal.

Fig 1
PROCEDURE:
1. SettingupofaFiberOpticDigitalLink
that the power supply is OFF. Now switch on the power supply.
3) Keep Jumpers JP2 & JP4 towards +5V position, JP3 towards pulse position, JP5 & JP6
towards TX1 position.
4) Keep Switch SW1 at 100 Hz - 1 kHz.
5) Slightly unscrew the cap of LED SFH 756V TX1 (660 nm) from kit. Do not remove the cap
from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap and assure that the
fiber is properly fixed. Now tight the cap by screwing it back. Keep INTENSITY pot P3 at
minimum position i.e. fully anticlockwise.
7) Feed the Onboard Square (TTL) signal of about 1 KHz to IN post of Digital Buffer Section
and observe the signal at its OUT post. It should be same as that of the input signal.
8) Connect OUT post of the Digital Buffer Section to TX IN post of TRANSMITTER.
9) Keep Switch S3 in TX IN position.
10) Observe the received signal on CRO at TTL OUT post. The transmitted signal & received
signal are same. Vary the frequency of the input signal and observe the output response.
11) Keep Jumpers JP5 & JP6 towards TX2 position.
12) Remove fibre from TX 1 and connect to TX 2 (SFH 450V (950 nm).
13) Observe the received signal on CRO at TTL OUT post.

Fig 2 DIGITAL LINK WAVEFORMS

NOTE: SWITCH FAULTS


EXPERIMENTNO.6b

NAME:
PULSE WIDTH AND PULSE POSITION MODULATION AND DEMODULATION USING
OPTICAL LINK
OBJECTIVE:
1. Study of Pulse Width Modulation and Demodulation using Fiber Optic Link
2. Study of Pulse Position Modulation and Demodulation using Fiber Optic Link
EQUIPMENT:
Link-A kit.
Power supply.
Microphone.
Speaker

THEORY:
1. PULSEWIDTHMODULATION
This technique of modulation controls the variation of duty cycle of the square wave (with some
fundamental frequency) according to the input modulating signal. Here the amplitude variation of the
modulating signal is reflected in to ON period variation of square wave. Hence, it is also called as
technique of V to T conversion.
2. PULSEWIDTHMODULATION
The input signal is pulse width modulated, so the ON time of the signal is changing according to the
modulating signal. In this demodulation technique, the PWM signal is applied to an Integrator ,whose
output is then Filtered to obtain original signal.
3. PULSEPOSITIONMODULATION
The position of the TTL pulse is changed on time scale according to the variation of input modulating
signal amplitude. Now pulse width modulated signal is fed as input to this circuit. Please note that input
modulating signal must be converted into pulse width modulated form before applying to pulse
modulator. As the signal is PWM, naturally, according to the input signal, the pulse duration is changing
and this change in pulse duration causes for the delay in triggering. The input is given to trailing edge
trigger input of monoshot. So finally we get the pulses at the outputs which are shifted on the time slot.
This is nothing but pulse position modulation. The Pulse Positions are directly proportional to the
instantaneous values of modulating signal.
4. PULSEPOSITIONDEMODULATION
The pulse position modulated signal is ORed with pulse generated by the rising edge of pulse width
modulated signal. The o/p of the OR gate is fed to clk I/p of flip-flop. Thus flip-flop acts as a bistable
multivibrator giving out high o/p for the duration between rising edge of PWM signal and PPM signal.
Since PPM corresponds to the end of PWM pulse o/p of flip-flop is exactly same as that of PWM signal.
This signal is then demodulated using the same technique of PWM demodulation as described in previous
experiment.
PROCEDURE:
1. StudyofPulseWidthModulationandDemodulationusingFiberOpticLink
that the power supply is OFF. Now switch on the power supply.
23) Keep Switch SW1 at 100 Hz - 1 kHz.
24) Connect SINE post of the Function Generator section to PWM IN post of PWM/ PPM
Modulator Section.
25) Keep sine frequency at 1 KHz & amplitude of 2Vp-p.
26) Keep Jumpers JP1 at 32 KHz position.
27) Slightly unscrew the cap of SFH756V (660 nm). Do not remove the cap from the connector.
Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap. Now tight the cap by screwing it back.
Fig1
29) Connect the other end of fiber to detector SFH551V (Digital Detector) very carefully.
30) Observe PWM signal at PWM OUT Post. Variation in width of square wave is seen clearly.
Then keep frequency range upto 1kHz, 2Vp-p. If frequency is high then due to persistence of
vision, only blurt band in the waveform will be observed. If Function generator is OFF, only
square wave of fundamental frequency and fixed ON time will be observed and no width
variations are present.
31) Connect PWM OUT post of PWM/PPM Modulator Section to IN post of Digital Buffer
Section.
33) Observe the received signal over fiber at TTL OUT post. It should be exactly similar to the
signal available at PWM OUT post.
34) Slide the switch SW 2 to PWM position.
35) Connect this TTL OUT post to PWM DEMOD IN Post in PWM / PPM Demodulator
Section.
36) Vary input freq. POT P2 and observe demodulated signal at DEMOD OUT post.
37) Connect PWM / PPM DEMOD OUT post to IN post of Filter Section and observe output at
its OUT post which is same as Input signal.
38) For Different Sampling frequencies change the jumper cap of JP1 from 32 KHz to the
desired value of frequency. You can observe the PWM output clearly at lower sampling
frequency, demodulated PWM OUT is more distorted at lower sampling frequency.
39) Repeat the above procedures for SFH450V.

Fig 2
Setting up a Fiber Optic Voice Link Using Pulse Width Modulation

Fig 3
43) Connect AUDIO IN post to PWM / PPM IN post.
towards TX1 position & JP1 at 32 K Hz.
46) Connect PWM OUT post of PWM/PPM Modulator Section to IN post of Digital Buffer
Section.
48) Connect one end of the fiber to SFH756V (660 nm).
49) Keep Switch S3 in TXIN position.
50) Connect the other end of fiber to detector SFH551V (Digital Detector) very carefully.
51) Slide the switch SW 2 to PWM position.
52) Connect this TTL OUT post to PWM DEMOD IN Post in PWM / PPM Demodulator
Section.
53) Connect PWM / PPM DEMOD OUT post to IN post of Filter Section.
Volume Pot P5 to setup fiber optic audio link.

2. StudyofPulsePositionModulationandDemodulationusingFiberOpticLink

Fig 4
19) Connect SINE post of the Function Generator section to PPM IN post of PWM/ PPM
Modulator Section.
20) Connect one end of the fiber to the cap of LED SFH 756V TX1 (660 nm) from kit. Keep
INTENSITY pot P3 at minimum position i.e fully anti clockwise.
24) Keep the Function generator in sine wave mode and select frequency at 1 KHz & amplitude
of 2Vp-p (max) for proper observation of phenomenon.
25) Keep Jumpers JP1 at 32 KHz position.
26) Observe PPM signal at PPM OUT Post.
27) Connect PPM OUT post of PWM/PPM Modulator section to IN post of Digital Buffer
Section.
29) Observe the received signal over fiber at TTL OUT post. It should be exactly similar to the
signal available at PPM OUT post.
30) Connect this TTL OUT post to PPM DEMOD IN Post in PWM / PPM Demodulator Section.
31) Slide the switch SW 2 to PPM position.
32) Vary input freq. (not more than 3 KHz) & observe demodulated signal at DEMOD OUT
post.
33) Connect DEMOD OUT post to FILTER IN post & observe output at FILTER OUT post
which is same as Input signal.
34) For Different Sampling frequencies change the jumper cap of JP1 from 32 KHz to the
desired value of frequency.
35) Repeat the above procedures for SFH450V.


Fig 5
Setting up a Fiber Optic Voice Link Using Pulse Position Modulation

Fig 6
39) Connect AUDIO IN post to PWM / PPM IN post.
towards TX1 position & JP1 at 32Hz
41) Connect PPM OUT post of PWM/PPM Modulator Section to IN post of Digital Buffer
Section.
44) Slightly unscrew the cap of SFH756V (660 nm). Do not remove the cap from the connector.
Once the cap is loosened, insert the fiber into the cap. Now tight the cap by screwing it back.
45) Connect the other end of fiber to detector SFH551V (Digital Detector) very carefully
46) Keep Switch S3 in TXIN position
47) Connect this TTL OUT post to PPM DEMOD IN Post in PWM / PPM Demodulator Section.
48) Slide the switch SW 2 to PPM position.
49) Connect DEMOD OUT post to FILTER IN post
Volume Pot P5 to setup fiber optic audio link.

NOTE: SWITCH FAULTS


EXPERIMENTNO.7a


EXPERIMENTNO.7b


EXPERIMENTNO.8

NAME:
ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS
OBJECTIVE:
To study Antenna Characteristics through Polar Plots using
a. Dipole Antenna
b. Discone Antenna
c. Yagi Antenna
EQUIPMENT:
Personal computer with appropriate software installed
Antenna Trainer along with set of antennas
THEORY:
1. Antenna Fundamentals:
Antenna is a device which belongs to a class called transducers. The transducer is derived from
two Latin words, meaning literally to lead across or to transfer. Thus, any device that transfers,
or converts energy from one from to another, is called a transducer. The purpose of an antenna is
to convert radio-frequency electric current to electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic waves cannot be heard, seen, tasted or touched, so it is not surprising that the
process by which these waves are lunched in space by our antennas can be mystifying, especially to
a newcomer, a student. Daily, we come across different types of transducers: a loudspeaker, for
instance. A loudspeaker converts radio frequency electric current to from the output of your radio
or stereo into acoustic pressure waves, also known as sound waves. The sound waves travel through
air to your ears, where they are converted in what we called sound.
Generally we think of loudspeaker as that converts electrical energy to sound energy; however
we could reverse the process. We could apply sound energy to a loud speaker which it will convert to
electrical energy. When used thus, the loudspeaker becomes a microphone. The loudspeaker
/microphone are said to exhibit the principle of reciprocity, derived from Latin word to move back
and forth.
Now, we take a closer look at the special transducer called an antenna. When the transmitter
feeds RF current to an antenna, it lunches electromagnetic waves, which are propagated through
free space. This is similar to the way sound waves are propagated through air by a loudspeaker. In
the next city or perhaps a far away continent a similar transducer (a receiving antenna) intercepts
some of these electromagnetic wave and converts them to electrical current which is then amplified
and detected by the receiver.
In the same manner as a loudspeaker, the antenna also follows the principle of reciprocity. In
other words, an antenna can transmit as well as receive signals. However, unlike the loudspeaker the
antenna does not require a medium like air, through which it radiates electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic waves can propagate through air, the vacuum of outer space or the near vacuum of
the upper ionosphere. This is the miracle of the radio electromagnetic waves do not need any
physical medium to propagate.
2. Types of Antenna:
Antennas can be broadly classified by the directions in which they radiate or receive
electromagnetic radiation. They can be isotropic, omnidirectional or directional.
An isotropic antenna is a hypothetical antenna that radiates uniformly in all directions so that
the electric field at any point on a sphere (with the antenna at its center) has the same magnitude.
Such radiation cannot be realized in practice since in order to radiate uniformly in all direction an
isotropic antenna would have to be a point source. The nearest equivalent to an isotropic antenna is
a Hertzian dipole. The Hertzian is a name given to a dipole which is very small compared to its
wavelength that is about one-hundredths of the wavelength at its operating frequency: even in this
case its pattern is not truly isotropic.
An omnidirectional antenna radiates uniformly in one plane. Examples of omnidirectional
antennas are Monopoles, Dipoles and slotted-Cylinder. The radiation of a vertical dipole is uniform in
the horizontal plane and a figure of 8 in the vertical plane.
A directional antenna radiates most of its power in one particular direction. Examples of
directional antennas are Yagic, Log-Periodics, Reflector systems and Helicals. For a circularly
symmetrical reflector the radiation pattern is the same in all planes.
3. Main Characteristics of an Antenna:
An antenna is chosen for a particular application according to its main physical and electrical
characteristics. Further, an antenna must perform in a desired manner for the particular
application. An antenna can be characterized by the following key features, not all are applicable to
all types of antenna. Most of the characteristics mentioned below can be studied using this trainer
and software.
i) Its radiation resistance.
ii) Its radiation pattern.
iii) The beam width and gain of its main lobe.
iv) The position and magnitude of its side lobes.
v) The front to back ratio.
vi) Its bandwidth.
vii) Its aperture.
viii) The polarization of electric field that it transmits.
There are two principal planes in which the antenna characteristics are measured. These are
known as the azimuth and elevation planes and can be considered as the horizontal and vertical
planes, respectively, for land-based antennas. Some characteristics such as beamwidth and
sidelobes are the same in both planes for symmetrical antennas such as helical and reflectors.
Other characteristics such as gain on boresight (i.e. where the azimuth and the elevation planes
intersect) can only have a single value. In general, for unsymmetrical antennas the characteristics
are different in the two principal planes, with a gradual transition in the intervening region between
these two planes.

i) Radiation Resistance
We can consider an antenna as a load that terminates the transmission line that feeds it. In the
ideal case this load will have an impedance which is purely resistive, that is, the load will not have
any reactive component, such as an inductance or capacitance. In practice, the impedance of an
antenna is made up of a self-impedance and mutual impedance. The self-impedance is the impedance
C0NN0NICATI0N SYSTENS LAB0RAT0RY Page Su
that would be measured at the terminals of the antenna when it is in free space, given no other
antennas or reflecting objects in the vicinity. The mutual impedance accounts for the coupling
between the antenna and any other source. When the antenna is sufficiently isolated from other
objects, this mutual impedance tend to zero. On the other hand, in some antennas such as the Yagi
array the operation depends on the mutual coupling between the driven element and the other
parasitic passive elements.
When the antenna has the same impedance as the transmission line that feeds it, the antenna is
said to be matched on the line. When this occurs, maximum power is transferred from transmission
line to the antenna. In general the impedance of the antenna is not the same as that of the
transmission line. When the transmission line has a purely resistive impedance and the antenna has
an impedance that contains a different resistive value as well as a reactive part, the optimum
transfer of power can be achieved via the use of tuning circuits between the transmission line and
the antenna. In general, these circuits consist of an LCR circuit in which the capacitance of the
capacitor is altered in order to provide the maximum transfer of power.

ii) Radiation Pattern
The Antenna is a reciprocal device: that is, it radiates or receives electromagnetic energy in the
same way. Thus, although the radiation pattern is identified with an antenna that is transmitting
power, the same properties would apply to the antenna even if it was receiving power. Any
difference between the received and radiated powers can be attributed to the difference between
the feed networks and the equipment associated with the receiver and transmitter. The antenna
radiates the greatest amount of power along its boresight and also receives power most efficiently
in this direction.
The radiation pattern of an antenna is peculiar to the type of antenna and its electrical
characteristics as well as its physical dimensions. It is measured at a constant distance in the far
field. The radiation pattern of an antenna is usually plotted in terms of relative power. The power at
boresight, that is at the position of maximum radiated power, is usually plotted at 0 degrees: thus,
the power in all other positions appears as a negative value. In other words, the radiated power is
normalized to the power at boresight. The main reason for using dB instead of linear power is that
the power at the nulls is often of the order of 10,000 times less than the power on the boresight,
which means that the scale would have to be very large in order to cover the whole range of power
values.
The radiation pattern is usually measured in the two principal planes, namely, the azimuth and
the elevation planes. The radiated / received dB is plotted against the angle that is made with the
boresight direction. If the antenna is not physically symmetrical about each of its principal planes,
then one can also except its radiation pattern in these planes to be unsymmetrical. The radiation
pattern can be plotted using the polar or the Rectangular / Cartesian Coordinates.
Polar Plots
In a polar plot the angles are plotted radially from the boresight and the levels (dBuV) are
plotted along the radius. The angles may be selected as 5 degrees or 1 degree for better resolution.
This gives a pictorial representation of the radiation pattern of the antenna and is easier to
visualize than the rectangular plots. The student will easily understand the polar plot by studying
the polar printout as well as the polar display on the PC.
Rectangular / Cartesian Plots
In a Rectangular / Cartesian Plot the angles are plotted horizontally on the X axis and the levels
(dBuV) are plotted on the Y axis. The graph format is not in the conventionl X-Y graph mode. The
angle of the boresight is designated 0 degrees and the plot is spread 180 degrees on either side.
The maximum vertical is the max dBuV at the 0 degrees and is designated as 0dB line. All other
C0NN0NICATI0N SYSTENS LAB0RAT0RY Page S1
readings are plotted as ve with respect to the 0dB line. The student will easily understand the
Cartesian plot by studying the display on the PC.

iii) The beamwidth and gain of its main lobe
The beamwidth of an antenna is commonly defined in two ways. The most well known definition is
the 3-dB or half-power beamwidth, but the 10-dB beamwidth is also used, especially for antennas
with very narrow beams. The 3-dB or half power beamwidth, but the 10-dB beamwidth is also used,
especially for antennas with very narrow beams. The 3-dB or half-power beamwidth (HPBW) of an
antenna is taken as the width in degrees at the points on either side of the main beam where the
radiated level is 3-dB lower than the maximum lobe value. The 10-dB value is taken as the width in
degrees on either side of the main beam where the radiated level is 10dB lower than the maximum
lobe value. The IEEE definition of gain of an antenna relates to the power radiated by the antenna
to that radiated by an isotropic antenna (that radiates equally in all directions) and is quoted as a
linear ratio or in decibels referred to an isotropic (dBi, :i: for isotropic). When we say that the gain
of an antenna is, for instance, 20dBi(100 in linear terms), we mean that an isotropic antenna would
have to radiate 100 times more power to give the same intensity at the same distance as that
particular directional antenna.
The radiation pattern of an antenna shows the power on the boresight as 0dB and the power in
other directions as negative values. The gain in all directions is plotted relative to the gain on
boresight. In order to find the absolute gain in any direction the gain on boresight must be known.
If this gain is expressed in decibels, (as is normally the case) then this value can simply be added to
the gain at any point to give the absolute gain. The absolute gain on boresight is measured by
comparison with a standard gain antenna, which function as a reference antenna whose gain is
calculated or measured with a high degree of accuracy.

iv) The position and magnitude of its side lobo
The side level is usually quoted as the level below the boresight gain. Strictly all peaks on either
side of the main lobo are side lobos. However, in practice only the near-in lobes, those which are
adjacent on either side of the boresight maxima are reflected to as sidelobes. Their amplitude and
angle are easily measured using the cursors, on either the polar plot or the Cartesian Plot. For an
antenna that is symmetrical about its main axis, the radiation pattern is in general also symmetrical.
Thus, the level of the sidelobes on opposite sides of the main beam would be the same. The average
value is taken where the two sidelobes are different. The absolute level of the sidelobe can only be
calculated if the absolute boresight gain known.

v) The front to back ratio
The front-to-back ratio (F/B) is a measure of the ability of a directional antenna to
concentrate the beam in the required forward direction. In linear terms, it is defined as the ratio
of the maximum power in the main beam (boresight) to that in the back lobe. It is usually expressed
in decibels, as the difference between the level on boresight and at 180 deg off boresight. If this
difference is say 35dB then the front-to-back ratio of the antenna is 35dB: in linear terms it would
mean that the level of the back lobe is 3,162 times less than the level of the boresight.

vi) Its bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna is a measure of its ability to radiate or receive different
frequencies. The bandwidth if the range of frequencies that the antenna can receive (or radiate)
with a power efficiency of 50% (0, 5) or more or a voltage efficiency of 70.7% (that is 3 dB point).
A wide bandwidth is achieved as the expense of gain. In other words, if the antenna had the same
size but a narrower bandwidth, its gain would be higher. The operating frequency range is specified
by quoting the upper and lower frequencies, but the bandwidth is often quoted as a relative value.
Bandwidth is commonly expressed in one of the two ways; as percentage or as a fraction or multiple
of an octave. (An octave is a band of frequencies between frequency and the frequency that is
double or half the first frequency; for instance, we have an octave between 400MHz and 800MHz).
When it is expressed as a percentage bandwidth, its center frequency should be quoted and the
percentage expressed in octaves, its lower and upper frequency should be also quoted.

vii) Its aperture
The aperture of an antenna governs the size of its beamwidth. In general, the larger the
aperture, the narrower the beamwidth, and the higher is the gain at a given frequency. The
aperture (p 28) size can be defined in two ways; either in terms of actual physical size, in meters of
wavelength. For instance, if we say that an antenna has an aperture of two wavelengths, then its
actual size depends on its operating frequency. At a frequency of 1GHz, the physical aperture would
be 60cms, whereas at 10GHz it would be only 6cms. It is more meaningful to refer to an antenna
size in terms of its operating wavelength when the antenna is narrowband or single frequency
because its beamwidth and gain are directly related to the aperture in terms of its operating
wavelength. In this case we have to calculate its wavelength to find out its physical dimensions.
However, in the case of broadband antennas, its physical size is more appropriate because there is
a range of operating frequencies.

viii) The polarization of the electric field that it transmits
Although this could apply equally to magnetic to magnetic or electric polarization (p 70) , it is
used almost exclusively to describe the shape and orientation of the locus of the extremity of the
electric field vector as it varies with time at a fixed point in space. This locus could be a straight
line, an ellipse or a circle.
In the case of linear polarisation , the electric field varies sinusoidally in one plane. When this
plane is vertical it is called vertical polarization. When this plane is horizontal, it is called horizontal
polarisation. The electric field can also be polarised in any other angle between 0 and 90 deg to the
horizontal. In general the only other commonly used angle is 45 deg, which is known as the slant
polarisation.
The polarisation of a receiving antenna must match that of the incident radiation in order to
detect the maximum field. If the angles are not the same, only that component that is paralleled to
the plane of incident polarization will be detected. If we have a vertically polarized antenna and the
incident radiation is slant polarized, the magnitude of its component in the vertical plane will be
reduced by a factor of cos (45 deg).
Circular polarization concept is a slightly difficult concept to visualize. The electric field vector
at each point in space sweeps out a circle through each period of time. Circular polarization can be
generated by two electric vectors of equal magnitude that are orthogonal (at right angles) and also
in phase quadrature, that is in time domain they are 90 deg out of phase with each other, In the
case of elliptic polarization, the electric field victors may also be orthogonal and in phase
quadrature, but they may not have the same magnitude. Elliptical polarization may also result if the
orthogonal electric fields have the same magnitude but a phase relationship that is not 90 deg or
270 deg.
If the electric field vector moves clockwise then we call this right-hand circular polarization; if
counter clockwise then we call it left-hand circular polarization.
C0NN0NICATI0N SYSTENS LAB0RAT0RY Page SS
PROCEDURE:
1. TostudyAntennaCharacteristicsthroughPolarPlots.
Part A Setting up the experiment
1) Connect the Centrionics connector of the S-54R Receiver Synthesized and the S-54P
Positioner with the parallel cable.
2) Fix the antenna rod on the S-54P stud and connect the mains cable of the positioner to
the AC outlet.
3) Fix the dipole antenna on top of the Antenna Rod and connect the antenna cable to the
input of the S-54P receiver Synthesized. Remember to change the antenna position for
taking the (a) E-plane measurements and the (b) H-plane measurements.
4) Fix the transmitting antenna clamp on the table at a distance of about 2 to 3 meters from
the receiving antenna setup.
5) Fix the transmitting antenna (helical antenna) on top of the antenna rod. Connect the
antenna to the S-54V Transmitter Generator RF source and put the equipment ON.

Part B Obtaining the Polar Plot
6) Put S-54R ON.
7) Press the Position Stepper ON/OFF, select 1 for Antenna Stepper to put the stepper
ON. The LCD will display Stepper Motor Switched ON.
8) Press the Freq Mode switch and key-in the desired frequency (in this case use 800MHz).
9) Press the Capture Antenna Data switch and press Enter.
10) The LCD display prompts the user to select Array No; either Array 1 or Array 2.
11) The LCD shows the status of the selections made, confirm them by pressing Enter.
12) Adjust the positioned physically so that the antenna mounted on the positioned points to
the other antenna. This is the 0 degree position of the Antenna Polar Plot.
13) Select 1 deg or 5 deg angular step rotation and press Enter. For accurate measurement
of various parameters, select 1 deg step.
14) On completion, the LCD will show Reading 360 deg.
15) At this point, the data can be transferred to a PC via RS232 for analysis and cursor
measurement.
16) Repeat the above steps 6 to 15 for the discone and the yagi antenna.

EXPERIMENTNO.9

NAME:
VSWR STUDY OF ANTENNAS
OBJECTIVE:
1. To study VSWR using Directional Coupler for
a. Dipole Antenna
b. Discone Antenna
c. Yagi Antenna
2. To identify the operating frequency of antenna from VSWR plot
EQUIPMENT:
Personal computer with appropriate software installed
Antenna Trainer along with set of antennas
THEORY:
1. Antenna Fundamentals:
Antenna is a device which belongs to a class called transducers. The transducer is derived from
two Latin words, meaning literally to lead across or to transfer. Thus, any device that transfers,
or converts energy from one from to another, is called a transducer. The purpose of an antenna is
to convert radio-frequency electric current to electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic waves cannot be heard, seen, tasted or touched, so it is not surprising that the
process by which these waves are lunched in space by our antennas can be mystifying, especially to
a newcomer, a student. Daily, we come across different types of transducers: a loudspeaker, for
instance. A loudspeaker converts radio frequency electric current to from the output of your radio
or stereo into acoustic pressure waves, also known as sound waves. The sound waves travel through
air to your ears, where they are converted in what we called sound.
Generally we think of loudspeaker as that converts electrical energy to sound energy; however
we could reverse the process. We could apply sound energy to a loud speaker which it will convert to
electrical energy. When used thus, the loudspeaker becomes a microphone. The loudspeaker
/microphone are said to exhibit the principle of reciprocity, derived from Latin word to move back
and forth.
Now, we take a closer look at the special transducer called an antenna. When the transmitter
feeds RF current to an antenna, it lunches electromagnetic waves, which are propagated through
free space. This is similar to the way sound waves are propagated through air by a loudspeaker. In
the next city or perhaps a far away continent a similar transducer (a receiving antenna) intercepts
some of these electromagnetic wave and converts them to electrical current which is then amplified
and detected by the receiver.
In the same manner as a loudspeaker, the antenna also follows the principle of reciprocity. In
other words, an antenna can transmit as well as receive signals. However, unlike the loudspeaker the
antenna does not require a medium like air, through which it radiates electromagnetic waves.
C0NN0NICATI0N SYSTENS LAB0RAT0RY Page SS
Electromagnetic waves can propagate through air, the vacuum of outer space or the near vacuum of
the upper ionosphere. This is the miracle of the radio electromagnetic waves do not need any
physical medium to propagate.
2. Types of Antenna:
Antennas can be broadly classified by the directions in which they radiate or receive
electromagnetic radiation. They can be isotropic, omnidirectional or directional.
An isotropic antenna is a hypothetical antenna that radiates uniformly in all directions so that
the electric field at any point on a sphere (with the antenna at its center) has the same magnitude.
Such radiation cannot be realized in practice since in order to radiate uniformly in all direction an
isotropic antenna would have to be a point source. The nearest equivalent to an isotropic antenna is
a Hertzian dipole. The Hertzian is a name given to a dipole which is very small compared to its
wavelength that is about one-hundredths of the wavelength at its operating frequency: even in this
case its pattern is not truly isotropic.
An omnidirectional antenna radiates uniformly in one plane. Examples of omnidirectional
antennas are Monopoles, Dipoles and slotted-Cylinder. The radiation of a vertical dipole is uniform in
the horizontal plane and a figure of 8 in the vertical plane.
A directional antenna radiates most of its power in one particular direction. Examples of
directional antennas are Yagic, Log-Periodics, Reflector systems and Helicals. For a circularly
symmetrical reflector the radiation pattern is the same in all planes.
3. Main Characteristics of an Antenna:
An antenna is chosen for a particular application according to its main physical and electrical
characteristics. Further, an antenna must perform in a desired manner for the particular
application. An antenna can be characterized by the following key features, not all are applicable to
all types of antenna. Most of the characteristics mentioned below can be studied using this trainer
and software.
i) Its radiation resistance.
ii) Its radiation pattern.
iii) The beam width and gain of its main lobe.
iv) The position and magnitude of its side lobes.
v) The front to back ratio.
vi) Its bandwidth.
vii) Its aperture.
viii) The polarization of electric field that it transmits.
There are two principal planes in which the antenna characteristics are measured. These are
known as the azimuth and elevation planes and can be considered as the horizontal and vertical
planes, respectively, for land-based antennas. Some characteristics such as beamwidth and
sidelobes are the same in both planes for symmetrical antennas such as helical and reflectors.
Other characteristics such as gain on boresight (i.e. where the azimuth and the elevation planes
intersect) can only have a single value. In general, for unsymmetrical antennas the characteristics
are different in the two principal planes, with a gradual transition in the intervening region between
these two planes.

i) Radiation Resistance
We can consider an antenna as a load that terminates the transmission line that feeds it. In the
ideal case this load will have an impedance which is purely resistive, that is, the load will not have
any reactive component, such as an inductance or capacitance. In practice, the impedance of an
antenna is made up of a self-impedance and mutual impedance. The self-impedance is the impedance
that would be measured at the terminals of the antenna when it is in free space, given no other
antennas or reflecting objects in the vicinity. The mutual impedance accounts for the coupling
between the antenna and any other source. When the antenna is sufficiently isolated from other
objects, this mutual impedance tend to zero. On the other hand, in some antennas such as the Yagi
array the operation depends on the mutual coupling between the driven element and the other
parasitic passive elements.
When the antenna has the same impedance as the transmission line that feeds it, the antenna is
said to be matched on the line. When this occurs, maximum power is transferred from transmission
line to the antenna. In general the impedance of the antenna is not the same as that of the
transmission line. When the transmission line has a purely resistive impedance and the antenna has
an impedance that contains a different resistive value as well as a reactive part, the optimum
transfer of power can be achieved via the use of tuning circuits between the transmission line and
the antenna. In general, these circuits consist of an LCR circuit in which the capacitance of the
capacitor is altered in order to provide the maximum transfer of power.

ii) Radiation Pattern
The Antenna is a reciprocal device: that is, it radiates or receives electromagnetic energy in the
same way. Thus, although the radiation pattern is identified with an antenna that is transmitting
power, the same properties would apply to the antenna even if it was receiving power. Any
difference between the received and radiated powers can be attributed to the difference between
the feed networks and the equipment associated with the receiver and transmitter. The antenna
radiates the greatest amount of power along its boresight and also receives power most efficiently
in this direction.
The radiation pattern of an antenna is peculiar to the type of antenna and its electrical
characteristics as well as its physical dimensions. It is measured at a constant distance in the far
field. The radiation pattern of an antenna is usually plotted in terms of relative power. The power at
boresight, that is at the position of maximum radiated power, is usually plotted at 0 degrees: thus,
the power in all other positions appears as a negative value. In other words, the radiated power is
normalized to the power at boresight. The main reason for using dB instead of linear power is that
the power at the nulls is often of the order of 10,000 times less than the power on the boresight,
which means that the scale would have to be very large in order to cover the whole range of power
values.
The radiation pattern is usually measured in the two principal planes, namely, the azimuth and
the elevation planes. The radiated / received dB is plotted against the angle that is made with the
boresight direction. If the antenna is not physically symmetrical about each of its principal planes,
then one can also except its radiation pattern in these planes to be unsymmetrical. The radiation
pattern can be plotted using the polar or the Rectangular / Cartesian Coordinates.
Polar Plots
In a polar plot the angles are plotted radially from the boresight and the levels (dBuV) are
plotted along the radius. The angles may be selected as 5 degrees or 1 degree for better resolution.
This gives a pictorial representation of the radiation pattern of the antenna and is easier to
visualize than the rectangular plots. The student will easily understand the polar plot by studying
the polar printout as well as the polar display on the PC.
Rectangular / Cartesian Plots
In a Rectangular / Cartesian Plot the angles are plotted horizontally on the X axis and the levels
(dBuV) are plotted on the Y axis. The graph format is not in the conventionl X-Y graph mode. The
angle of the boresight is designated 0 degrees and the plot is spread 180 degrees on either side.
The maximum vertical is the max dBuV at the 0 degrees and is designated as 0dB line. All other
readings are plotted as ve with respect to the 0dB line. The student will easily understand the
Cartesian plot by studying the display on the PC.

iii) The beamwidth and gain of its main lobe
The beamwidth of an antenna is commonly defined in two ways. The most well known definition is
the 3-dB or half-power beamwidth, but the 10-dB beamwidth is also used, especially for antennas
with very narrow beams. The 3-dB or half power beamwidth, but the 10-dB beamwidth is also used,
especially for antennas with very narrow beams. The 3-dB or half-power beamwidth (HPBW) of an
antenna is taken as the width in degrees at the points on either side of the main beam where the
radiated level is 3-dB lower than the maximum lobe value. The 10-dB value is taken as the width in
degrees on either side of the main beam where the radiated level is 10dB lower than the maximum
lobe value. The IEEE definition of gain of an antenna relates to the power radiated by the antenna
to that radiated by an isotropic antenna (that radiates equally in all directions) and is quoted as a
linear ratio or in decibels referred to an isotropic (dBi, :i: for isotropic). When we say that the gain
of an antenna is, for instance, 20dBi(100 in linear terms), we mean that an isotropic antenna would
have to radiate 100 times more power to give the same intensity at the same distance as that
particular directional antenna.
The radiation pattern of an antenna shows the power on the boresight as 0dB and the power in
other directions as negative values. The gain in all directions is plotted relative to the gain on
boresight. In order to find the absolute gain in any direction the gain on boresight must be known.
If this gain is expressed in decibels, (as is normally the case) then this value can simply be added to
the gain at any point to give the absolute gain. The absolute gain on boresight is measured by
comparison with a standard gain antenna, which function as a reference antenna whose gain is
calculated or measured with a high degree of accuracy.

iv) The position and magnitude of its side lobo
The side level is usually quoted as the level below the boresight gain. Strictly all peaks on either
side of the main lobo are side lobos. However, in practice only the near-in lobes, those which are
adjacent on either side of the boresight maxima are reflected to as sidelobes. Their amplitude and
angle are easily measured using the cursors, on either the polar plot or the Cartesian Plot. For an
antenna that is symmetrical about its main axis, the radiation pattern is in general also symmetrical.
Thus, the level of the sidelobes on opposite sides of the main beam would be the same. The average
value is taken where the two sidelobes are different. The absolute level of the sidelobe can only be
calculated if the absolute boresight gain known.

v) The front to back ratio
The front-to-back ratio (F/B) is a measure of the ability of a directional antenna to
concentrate the beam in the required forward direction. In linear terms, it is defined as the ratio
of the maximum power in the main beam (boresight) to that in the back lobe. It is usually expressed
in decibels, as the difference between the level on boresight and at 180 deg off boresight. If this
difference is say 35dB then the front-to-back ratio of the antenna is 35dB: in linear terms it would
mean that the level of the back lobe is 3,162 times less than the level of the boresight.

vi) Its bandwidth
The bandwidth of an antenna is a measure of its ability to radiate or receive different
frequencies. The bandwidth if the range of frequencies that the antenna can receive (or radiate)
with a power efficiency of 50% (0, 5) or more or a voltage efficiency of 70.7% (that is 3 dB point).
A wide bandwidth is achieved as the expense of gain. In other words, if the antenna had the same
size but a narrower bandwidth, its gain would be higher. The operating frequency range is specified
by quoting the upper and lower frequencies, but the bandwidth is often quoted as a relative value.
Bandwidth is commonly expressed in one of the two ways; as percentage or as a fraction or multiple
of an octave. (An octave is a band of frequencies between frequency and the frequency that is
double or half the first frequency; for instance, we have an octave between 400MHz and 800MHz).
When it is expressed as a percentage bandwidth, its center frequency should be quoted and the
percentage expressed in octaves, its lower and upper frequency should be also quoted.

vii) Its aperture
The aperture of an antenna governs the size of its beamwidth. In general, the larger the
aperture, the narrower the beamwidth, and the higher is the gain at a given frequency. The
aperture (p 28) size can be defined in two ways; either in terms of actual physical size, in meters of
wavelength. For instance, if we say that an antenna has an aperture of two wavelengths, then its
actual size depends on its operating frequency. At a frequency of 1GHz, the physical aperture would
be 60cms, whereas at 10GHz it would be only 6cms. It is more meaningful to refer to an antenna
size in terms of its operating wavelength when the antenna is narrowband or single frequency
because its beamwidth and gain are directly related to the aperture in terms of its operating
wavelength. In this case we have to calculate its wavelength to find out its physical dimensions.
However, in the case of broadband antennas, its physical size is more appropriate because there is
a range of operating frequencies.

viii) The polarization of the electric field that it transmits
Although this could apply equally to magnetic to magnetic or electric polarization (p 70) , it is
used almost exclusively to describe the shape and orientation of the locus of the extremity of the
electric field vector as it varies with time at a fixed point in space. This locus could be a straight
line, an ellipse or a circle.
In the case of linear polarisation , the electric field varies sinusoidally in one plane. When this
plane is vertical it is called vertical polarization. When this plane is horizontal, it is called horizontal
polarisation. The electric field can also be polarised in any other angle between 0 and 90 deg to the
horizontal. In general the only other commonly used angle is 45 deg, which is known as the slant
polarisation.
The polarisation of a receiving antenna must match that of the incident radiation in order to
detect the maximum field. If the angles are not the same, only that component that is paralleled to
the plane of incident polarization will be detected. If we have a vertically polarized antenna and the
incident radiation is slant polarized, the magnitude of its component in the vertical plane will be
reduced by a factor of cos (45 deg).
Circular polarization concept is a slightly difficult concept to visualize. The electric field vector
at each point in space sweeps out a circle through each period of time. Circular polarization can be
generated by two electric vectors of equal magnitude that are orthogonal (at right angles) and also
in phase quadrature, that is in time domain they are 90 deg out of phase with each other, In the
case of elliptic polarization, the electric field victors may also be orthogonal and in phase
quadrature, but they may not have the same magnitude. Elliptical polarization may also result if the
orthogonal electric fields have the same magnitude but a phase relationship that is not 90 deg or
270 deg.
If the electric field vector moves clockwise then we call this right-hand circular polarization; if
counter clockwise then we call it left-hand circular polarization.
4. Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

The antenna is usually located some distance from the transmitter and requires a feedline to
transfer power between the two. If the feedline has no loss, and matches BOTH the transmitter
output impedance AND the antenna input impedance, then - and only - then will maximum power be
delivered to the antenna. In this case the VSWR will be 1:1 and the voltage and current will be
constant over the whole length of the feedline. Any mismatch at the antenna gives rise to a second
'travelling wave' which goes in the opposite direction from the incident wave. This situation will
causes a "standing wave" of voltage and current to exist on the line.
The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) is an indication of the amount of mismatch between
an antenna and the feed line connecting to it. The range of values for VSWR is from 1 to . A
VSWR value under 2 is considered suitable for most antenna applications. The antenna can be
described as having a good match.
PROCEDURE:
1. TostudyVSWRusingDirectionalCoupler
The directional coupler is used for the study of VSWR of an antenna. The voltage incident on
the load is measured and then the voltage reflected from the load is measured. From these values,
the VSWR is computed and displayed.
Part A Incident Voltage Measurement

1) Connect the antenna as shown in Figure 1 for measurement of incident voltage.

Figure 1
2) The RF source (the transmitter generator in this case) is connected to the A point of the
coupler.
3) The antenna is connected to point B of the coupler following the direction of Arrow which
indicates the direction of forward voltage measurement.
4) The receiver (the receiver synthesized in this case) is connected to point C of the
coupler.
5) Press the Freq Mode switch and key-in the desired frequency (in this case use 800MHz).
6) Press VSWR switch to measure incident voltage.

Part B Reflected Voltage Measurement
7) The connections are reversed for reflected voltage measurement, i.e., the RF source is
connected to point A and the receiver to point C of the directional coupler.
8) Press VSWR switch to measure reflected voltage.

Part C VSWR Calculation
9) Press VSWR switch again to calculate the VSWR.

10) Also obtain the ratio of the reflected voltage and the incident voltage manually to verify
the VSWR obtained.
Note: The value of reflected voltage keeps changing as the antenna position changes due
to reflection from various surfaces. This will be reflected in the change in VSWR value.
11) Repeat the above steps 1 to 9 for the discone and the yagi antenna.
2. ToidentifytheoperatingfrequencyoftheantennafromVSWRplot
1) Repeat the VSWR calculation for frequencies ranging from 40MHz to 840 MHz in steps
of 40 MHz and plot the VSWR curve with respect to frequency for each of the antennas.
2) From the VSWR curve identify the operating frequency of each antenna.

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INBIAN INSTIT0TE 0F TECBN0L0uY BB0BANESWAR

SCB00L 0F ELECTRICAL SCIENCES

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1) Keep all the switch faults in OFF position.

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7) Connect FM OUT post section of FM Modulator section to IN post of Analog Buffer

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4. Voltage Standing Wave Ratio

Part A Incident Voltage Measurement

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9) Press VSWR switch again to calculate the VSWR.

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