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1 boiler horse power is about 42,000 BTUs of INPUT 1 pound of steam is about 1,200 BTUs of INPUT fuel, and about 1,000 BTUs at the point of use, depending on the pressure of the steam Low pressure steam is considered to be up to 15 psi; high is generally 100 psi and higher. Superheat is a term that refers to higher temperature steam, as a result of a second special steam heat exchanger in the boiler that allows steam pressure to increase, thereby taking on more BTUs (in excess of 500 psi is typical of superheat). Superheated steam is very dry steam. Smaller boilers are generally rated in horse power; larger are generally rated in thousands of pounds of steam (500 hp and under will typically be rated in hp) Typical boiler efficiency will be in the 75 - 85% range; new highest efficiency boilers may be near 90%; newer quick heat up types of boilers with copper heat exchangers can be more efficient, especially at startup and part load than older, heavy mass cast iron boilers.
Source: DOE 'Improving Steam System Performance - a Sourcebook for Industry' Oct.2004 Click on image for larger view
boilers are used where high steam pressures (as high as 3,000 psi) are required. Watertube boilers are also capable of high efficiencies and can generate saturated or superheated steam. The ability of watertube boilers to generate superheated steam makes these boilers particularly attractive in applications that require dry, highpressure, high-energy steam, including steam turbine power generation. The performance characteristics of watertube boilers make them highly favorable in process industries, including chemical manufacturing, pulp and paper manufacturing, and refining. Although firetube boilers account for the majority of boiler sales in terms of units, water-tube boilers account for the majority of boiler capacity. For more info on boiler type terminology, see Boiler Basic Types
Steam Generators
Steam generators are like boilers in that they are fired by gas and produce steam, but they are unlike boilers in that they do not have large pressure vessels and are made of light-weight materials. The fact that they do not have pressure vessels means that in most locations they do NOT require a boiler operator (always confirm with local codes). This can be a substantial savings when there is no other reason to have an operator other than the local code requires it for a large pressure vessel. The fact that they are made out of light weight materials means they perform well at part loads and respond quickly to changes in loads. This greatly increases part load operating efficiency. For more information see Steam Generators
Modern materials, controls and the pursuit of ever higher energy efficiency and reduced emissions is leading to boilers that are smaller in physical size, have cleaner emissions and produce dryer steam. Materials are critical because old cast iron boilers relied on mass to prevent them from thermal shocks that could split the boiler apart. New metals reduce mass which improves thermal transfer and can handle the thermal stress of going from cold water to steam in seconds. Space is money, especially in new construction. Boilers of similar output capacity made smaller to reduce their space requirements can result in overall lower first cost of equipment plus space. Boilers have a certain efficiency curve that tends to result in the boiler having the highest efficiency at full-fire. As the boiler is 'turned-down' to run at less than 100% capacity, efficiency typically drops. To counter this situation, a modular boiler bank of 3 or more boilers with a programmed controller can improve operational efficiency over a single boiler operating in a turndown mode, and provides a certain amount of redundancy for back-up.
efficient. Boilers that are designed for condensation and use advanced controls to squeeze every possible BTU from the combustion process are able to achieve efficiencies in the high 90's. There is a first-cost premium, but when energy prices are high, paybacks are more acceptable. "Tubeless" Boilers use tubing coils instead of rigid tubes. "Direct Contact" water heaters have no tubes, tubing or coils; they have heat transfer media such as spheres or cylinders and allow flue gases to come in direct contact with the water.
Steam Information
Steam is an invisible gas that's generated by heating water to a temperature that brings it to the boiling point. When this happens, water changes its physical state and vaporizes, turning from a liquid into a gas. Conversely, when heat energy is removed from steam, it loses its ability to retain a gaseous state and condenses back into a liquid. The resulting liquid is called condensate. The temperature at which condensation takes place is known as the dew point. When water is heated at atmospheric pressure, its temperature rises until it reaches 212F (100C), the highest temperature at which water can exist at this pressure. Additional heat does not raise the temperature, but converts the water to steam. One pound of water takes 1 BTU per Degree of Temperature rise up to 212F; to form steam, an additional 970 BTUs is required for the "Latent Heat of Vaporization". Therefore, steam has (970 + (212 Condensate Temperature)) BTUs per pound. EXAMPLE: If the condensate temperature is 160F, (970 + (212 160)) = 1,022 BTUs per pound. This clearly shows why steam has more energy content than hot water. NOTE: These are BTUs delivered to the water; efficiency must also be factored in to determine INPUT BTU requirements. For more information about Steam For specific information about Steam Trap Audits
Superheat
Superheat refers to the process of increasing the temperature of steam above about 400F and 100 psi to produce a very "dry" steam with absolutely no water vapor. This feature is most common in very large power plant boilers of watertube construction. An additional heat exchanger capable of the high temperatures and pressures is required.
At least one company promotes a "direct fired" superheater, that could have some advantages for facilities with smaller sized boilers that need higher temperatures and pressures, but do not want to invest in a new boiler or use a Thermal Fluid system. According to their web site, the Cannon Superheater can be used on new boilers and retrofit installations. The Cannon Superheater can be used on watertube or firetube boilers in the 25 HP to 1,000 HP range. For more information, see www.cannonboilerworks.com.
the boiler or large amounts of live steam are used in the process so there is no condensate to return.) The savings potential is based on the existing stack temperature, the volume of make-up water needed, and the hours of operation. Economizers are available in a wide range of sizes, from small coillike units to very large waste heat recovery boilers.
For More Information see Boiler Stack Economizers and Flue Gas Condensers
outlet exhaust temperature and take advantage of the energy in condensed flue gasses (the Latent Heat of Vaporization). For more information see Flue Gas Condensers
Because boiler systems are constructed primarily of carbon steel and the heat transfer medium is water, the potential for corrosion is high. Iron is carried into the boiler in various forms of chemical composition and physical state. Most of the iron found in the boiler enters as iron oxide or hydroxide. Any soluble iron in the feed water is converted to the insoluble hydroxide when exposed to the high alkalinity and temperature in the boiler. These iron compounds are divided roughly into two types, red iron oxide (Fe2O3) and black magnetic oxide (Fe3O4). The red oxide (hematite) is formed under oxidizing conditions that exist, for example, in the condensate system or in a boiler that is out of service. The black oxides (magnetite) are formed under reducing conditions that typically exist in an operating boiler. External Treatment External treatment, as the term is applied to water prepared for use as boiler feed water, usually refers to the chemical and mechanical treatment of the water source. The goal is to improve the quality of this source prior to its use as boiler feed water, external to the operating boiler itself. Such external treatment normally includes: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Clarification Filtration Softening Dealkalization Demineralization Deaeration Heating
Any or all of these approaches can be used in feed water or boiler water preparation. Internal Treatment Even after the best and most appropriate external treatment of the water source, boiler feed water (including return condensate) still contains impurities that could adversely affect boiler operation. Internal boiler water treatment is then applied to minimize the potential problems and to avoid any catastrophic failure, regardless of external treatment malfunction. Feed Water Preparation The basic assumption with regard to the quality of feed water is that calcium and magnesium hardness, migratory iron, migratory copper, colloidal silica and other contaminants have been reduced
to a minimum, consistent with boiler design and operation parameters. Once feed water quality has been optimized with regard to soluble and particulate contaminants, the next problem is corrosive gases. Dissolved oxygen and dissolved carbon dioxide are among the principal causes of corrosion in the boiler and pre-boiler systems. The deposition of these metallic oxides in the boiler is frequently more troublesome than the actual damage caused by the corrosion. Deposition is not only harmful in itself, but it offers an opening for further corrosion mechanisms as well. Contaminant products in the feed water cycle up and concentrate in the boiler. As a result, deposition takes place on internal surfaces, particularly in high heat transfer areas, where it can be least tolerated. Metallic deposits act as insulators, which can cause local overheating and failure. Deposits can also restrict boiler water circulation. Reduced circulation can contribute to overheating, film boiling and accelerated deposition. The best way to start to control pre-boiler corrosion and ultimate deposition in the boiler is to eliminate the contaminants from the feed water. Consequently, this section deals principally with the removal of oxygen, the impact of trace amounts of contaminants remaining in the feed water, and heat exchange impact. Feed water is defined as follows: Feed water (FW) = Makeup water (MW) + Return condensate (RC) The above equation is a mass balance (pounds or kilograms). Deaeration (Mechanical and Chemical) Mechanical and chemical deaeration is an integral part of modern boiler water protection and control. Deaeration, coupled with other aspects of external treatment, provides the best and highest quality feed water for boiler use. Simply speaking, the purposes of deaeration are: 1. To remove oxygen, carbon dioxide and other noncondensable gases from feed water 2. To heat the incoming makeup water and return condensate to an optimum temp 3. Minimizing solubility of the undesirable gases
4. Providing the highest temperature water for injection to the boiler For more information see Water Treatment
Deaerators
Mechanical deaeration is the first step in eliminating oxygen and other corrosive gases from the feed water. Free carbon dioxide is also removed by deaeration, while combined carbon dioxide is released with the steam in the boiler and subsequently dissolves in the condensate. This can cause additional corrosion problems. Because dissolved oxygen is a constant threat to boiler tube integrity, our discussion on the deaerator will be aimed at reducing the oxygen content of the feed water. The two major types of deaerators are the tray type and the spray type. In both cases, the major portion of gas removal is accomplished by spraying cold makeup water into a steam environment. Tray Type Deaerating Heaters Tray-type deaerating heaters release dissolved gases in the incoming water by reducing it to a fine spray as it cascades over several rows of trays. The steam that makes intimate contact with the water droplets then scrubs the dissolved gases by its countercurrent flow. The steam heats the water to within 3-5 F of the steam saturation temperature and it should remove all but the very last traces of oxygen. The deaerated water then falls to the storage space below, where a steam blanket protects it from recontamination. Nozzles and trays should be inspected regularly to insure that they are free of deposits and are in their proper position. Spray-Type Deaerating Heaters Spray-type deaerating heaters work on the same general philosophy as the tray-type, but differ in their operation. Springloaded nozzles located in the top of the unit spray the water into a steam atmosphere that heats it. Simply stated, the steam heats the water, and at the elevated temperature the solubility of oxygen is extremely low and most of the dissolved gases are removed from the system by venting. The spray will reduce the dissolved oxygen content to 20-50 ppb, while the scrubber or trays further reduce the oxygen content to approximately 7 ppb or less.
During normal operation, the vent valve must be open to maintain a continuous plume of vented vapors and steam at least 18 inches long. If this valve is throttled too much, air and nonconclensable gases will accumulate in the deaerator. This is known as air blanketing and can be remedied by increasing the vent rate. For optimum oxygen removal, the water in the storage section must be heated to within 5 F of the temperature of the steam at saturation conditions. From inlet to outlet, the water is deaerated in less than 10 seconds.
Click on images for larger views Deaerators and Economizers Where economizers are installed, good deaerating heater operation is essential. Because oxygen pitting is the most common cause of economizer tube failure, this vital part of the boiler must be protected with an oxygen scavenger, usually catalyzed sodium sulfite. In order to insure complete corrosion protection of the economizer, it is common practice to maintain a sulfite residual of 5-10 ppm in the feed water and, if necessary, feed sufficient caustic soda or neutralizing amine to increase the feed water pH to between 8.0 and 9.0. Below 900 psi excess sulfite (up to 200 ppm) in the boiler will not be harmful. To maintain blowdown rates, the conductivity can then be raised to compensate for the extra solids due to the presence of the higher level of sulfite in the boiler water. This added consideration (in protecting the economizer) is aimed at preventing a pitting failure. Make the application of an oxygen scavenger, such as catalyzed sulfite, a standard recommendation in all of your boiler treatment programs. Treatment The foregoing discussion shows the importance of proper deaeration of boiler feed water in order to prevent oxygen corrosion. Complete
oxygen removal cannot be attained by mechanical deaeration alone. Equipment manufacturers state that a properly operated deaerating heater can mechanically reduce the dissolved oxygen concentrations in the feed water to 0.005 cc per liter (7 ppb) and 0 free carbon dioxide. Typically, plant oxygen levels vary from 3 to 50 ppb. Traces of dissolved oxygen remaining in the feed water can then be chemically removed with the oxygen scavenger. More on Deaerators see Deaerator, Deaerator - Energy Recovery
Blowdown Control
The main purpose of blowdown is to maintain the solids content of the boiler water within prescribed limits. This would be under normal steaming conditions. However, in the event contamination is introduced in the boiler, high continuous and manual blowdown rates are used to reduce the contamination as quickly as possible. Because each boiler and plant operation is different, maximum levels should be determined on an individual basis. Bottom Blowdown By definition, bottom blowdown is intermittent and designed to remove sludge from the areas of the boiler where it settles. The frequency of bottom blowdown is a function of experience and plant operation. Bottom blowdown can be accomplished manually or electronically using automatic blowdown controllers. Continuous Blowdown Frequently used in conjunction with manual blowdown, continuous blowdown constantly removes concentrated water from the boiler. By design, it is in the area of highest boiler water concentration. This point is determined by the design of the boiler and is generally the area of greatest steam release. Continuous blowdown allows for excellent control over boiler water solids. In addition, it can remove significant levels of suspended solids. Another advantage is that the continuous blowdown can be passed through heat recovery equipment. Blowdown Control Summary Proper boiler blowdown control in conjunction with proper internal boiler water treatment will provide the desired results for a boiler
water program. Many modern devices can automate boiler blowdown, thereby increasing the overall efficiency of the unit.