FIGURE 4-28 Welding in a straight line will decrease bead width, but weld penetration will be increased Starting

an arc is not difficult. The trigger is pulled on the welding gun to initiate the arc. If the arc is not initiated, it generally means that the work lead connection is poor or is not connected at all. Oxidation present on the end of the electrode may cause the arc to stumble. Cutting the tip off the electrode prior to starting the arc ensures arc initiation. To aid in arc initiating further, cut the tip of the electrode at an angle, as opposed to perpendicular (see FIGURE 4-29).

MODES OF METAL TRANSFER

WHAT ARE THE MODES OF METAL TRANSFER? Metal transfer refers to how filler metal is deposited to the base metal to form the weld bead. The common modes of metal transfer are short-circuit, globular, axial-spray, and pulsed-spray transfers. The mode of metal transfer is determined by many mitigating factors:
{

FIGURE 4-29 Cutting the electrode wire at an angle will aid in initiating the arc

Base Metal Type Filler Metal Composition Electrode Diameter Polarity Arc Current Arc Voltage/Arc Length Shielding Gas Composition Welding Position

Short-circuit transfer occurs when filler metal is deposited from the electrode by short-circuiting to the workpiece surface. Amperage and voltage settings, along with proper shielding gas selection, determine if welds are produced with short-circuit transfer. Short circuit can be easily understood as it is related to what occurs in a circuit of an electrical fuse. If too much current (amperage) is
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AMPERAGE

SHORT RE-IGNITION

ARCING PERIOD

EXTINCTION

FIGURE 4-30 An electrical view of the short-circuit cycle

TIME

introduced to the circuit, the fuse overheats and blows. The same principles occur when short-circuit welding. The difference is that the electrode (fuse) is being continually fed, and the short circuit occurs over and over again, depositing the electrode on the base metal as weld. On steels, typical voltages range from 1620 volts. The filler metal is deposited when the electrode heats up and shorts to the workpiece, more than 100 times in a second, with typical short circuits in the 150180 times per second range. There is no visible open arc length when using short-circuit current unless observed in slow-motion photography. Short-circuit transfer operates at relatively low voltages and amperage ranges. FIGURE 4-30 shows the rise in amperage that causes the short-circuit cycle. 1. At this step, the trigger is pressed on the welding gun, and the wire feeds. 2. The electrode contacts the work, voltage drops, and amperage increases. 3. Magnetic forces pinch the electrode while the amperage peaks and voltage increases. 4. The electrode melts off, and the arc opens. There is a separation of weld deposit from electrode, and the open arc period begins. The arc length increases, and the weld pool becomes more fluid and wets out to the base metal. The low operating parameters of short-circuit transfer provide sufficient heat to weld sheet materials up to 3/16 inches (4.8 mm) thick. Welding in all positions is also easily accomplished. Small electrode diameters from 0.024 inches (0.6 mm) to 0.035 inches (0.9 mm) are easier to weld. Larger electrode diameters require higher electrical parameters more suitable for globular, spray transfer, or pulsespray transfer methods. Welding with larger electrode diameters increases the difficulty of successfully welding the thinner gauge steel without burn-through and other discontinuities. It is easier to produce a weld free of defects when using smaller electrode diameters on thin metals. Large electrode diameters increase productivity. Due to low heat input, short-circuit transfer is not recommended for plate materials, as penetration and fusion capabilities are limited. While it can be used

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FIGURE 4-31 A small lapse in welder technique and concentration could lead to weld defects, such as lack of fusion successfully on plate thickness, it must be pointed out that the skill level and concentration level of the welder must be significantly increased. A high degree of concentration and a higher degree of welder skill are necessary to produce sound welds. A small lapse in welder technique and concentration could lead to weld defects, such as incomplete fusion (see FIGURE 4-31) and poor penetration. Groove joint designs can help to overcome these issues for welding plate.

WHAT IS SLOPE, AND IS IT ONLY EFFECTIVE WITH SHORT-CIRCUIT WELDING? Most power sources have a preset slope and cannot be adjusted
by the welder. However, as stated earlier, some industrial power sources may be equipped with a variable slope control or tapped slope terminals. Slope is most effective when using the short-circuit transfer. As stated, typical short circuits occur about 150180 times per second. The number of turns of slope determines the number of short circuits per second. Slope can be explained by examining the representative volt/amp curves, found in FIGURE 4-32.
1 2 3 4

LE SS T

RE
O PE F SL SO RN TU

UR NS

VOLTAGE

OF

SL

O
PE

AMPERAGE

FIGURE 4-32 The amount of available amperage to pinch off the electrode wire (steps 2, 3, and 4) depends on the turns of slope
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All three curves have the same maximum voltage and are smooth. The difference among these slopes can be observed as welding amperage is increased. Remember, the rise in amperage causes the short-circuit cycle. The three given slopes provide different responses when the electrode wire short-circuits to the base metal. Because a constant voltage power source is designed to maintain a preset welding voltage, the short-circuiting of the electrode causes the power source to increase its welding amperage until the shortcircuit deposit is removed and the welding voltage returns to its preset value. With flat slope (less turns of slope), there is no limiting the short-circuit current. Thus, the high incoming amperage causes the wire to be pinched off rapidly and violently, resulting in poor arc starts and excessive spatter (FIGURE 4-33). For steels, about 8 turns of slope limits short-circuit current. This limited short-circuit amperage allows the electrode wire to be pinched off at a slower rate, resulting in smoother starts and less spatter. This volt/amp curve is typical of a fixed slope found in most power sources manufactured today. It provides acceptable arc performance for the short-circuit and spray transfer arc welding of mild steel and aluminum. Because of the poor conductivity of stainless steel, the curve would still allow too much short-circuit amperage, resulting in difficult arc starts and spatter. The steeper slope (more turns of slope) reduces the available short-circuit current compared to those curves of the flatter slopes (less turns of slope). A slope setting at 10 turns is beneficial when welding stainless steel, reducing both popping starts and spatter. However, it results in poor performance for welding aluminum and mild steel. Too steep a slope reduces short-circuit currents so low that the electrode may just pile up on the base metal. If the slope is set too steep for the other modes of transferi.e., globular, spray, or pulse spraythe electrode often stumbles prior to establishing the arc. If the slope is set too flat in these other modes of transfer, arc initiation is difficult, and the electrode wire often snaps back to the contact tip and may fuse to the contact tip. Once the arc is established, slope has no bearing on these other modes of transfer.

FIGURE 4-33 A slope set too flat may cause excessive spatter, as in this case on stainless steel

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WHAT ROLE DOES INDUCTANCE PLAY IN THE SHORT-CIRCUIT CYCLE?

While slope controls how many short circuits occur per second, inductance controls the rise in amperage (current) between the time the electrode contacts the base metal and then pinches off. The higher the inductance is set, the longer the arcing period. Both short-circuit cycles shown in FIGURE 4-34 illustrate the same amount of time. As the inductance increases, the rise in amperage is impeded, thus increasing the amount of time the electrode wire is in contact with the base metal while decreasing the amount of time the open arc occurs, which increases the puddle fluidity. Provided the voltage and amperage are set correctly and if the inductance is set correctly, the puddle will be fluid with little spatter. Voltage and amperage (wire feed speed) are the primary parameters to set. Inductance can be thought of as the final stage to fine-tune the arc. If the inductance is set too high, the rise of amperage is impeded, and the electrode will have poor arc starting stability. The electrode wire will stumble, and the operator will feel the welding gun push back.

AVERAGE INDUCTANCE 1 2 3 4

AMPERAGE

SHORT RE-IGNITION

ARCING PERIOD

EXTINCTION

TIME

INCREASED INDUCTANCE 1 2A 2B 3 4

AMPERAGE

SHORT RE-IGNITION

ARCING PERIOD

EXTINCTION

0 TIME

FIGURE 4-34 An electrical view of inductance of pinch effect. Steps 2, 2a, 2b, and 3 are the short, and step 4 is the arcing period
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If the inductance is set too low, the rise of amperage is not impeded, and the short-circuit cycle is fast and violent, producing a great deal of spatter. In worse cases, the short circuit is so violent that the electrode wire snaps back and fuses to the contact tip. Todays modern power sources have a usable range of inductance and have eliminated the problem areas at the extreme high and low ends. For carbon steels, 30% inductance is sufficient to reduce spatter and provide good wetting at the weld edges. Inductance settings for stainless steels are set significantly higher in order to reduce spatter, and a 50% setting is desired. The higher inductance tends to ball the end of the electrode, which must be cut before restarting the arc.

WHAT IS GLOBULAR TRANSFER? Globular transfer (FIGURE 4-35) occurs

with increased arc voltages in the same amperage range as the short-circuit transfer. The increased arc voltage melts the electrode back away from the weld pool. The electrode forms a balled end approximately 2 times the electrode diameter, and filler metal is deposited when gravity causes the molten droplet to detach from the electrode and fall across an open gap, causing an explosive deposit. The welder will observe an open arc or gap between the electrode and the weld pool. FIGURE 4-36 shows the volt/amp relationships among the common transfer modes. Amperage for the globular range parallels that of a short-circuit transfer, and an adjustment in voltage, up or down, changes the arc characteristic between short-circuit and globular transfers. Globular transfer is limited to flat position welding or horizontal fillet welds. The highly erratic arc creates undesirable weld spatter and makes welding in vertical and overhead positions impractical. Spatter often sticks to the base metal around the weld and must be removed before painting or finishing. For these reasons, globular transfer is avoided as a mode of metal transfer. Axial-spray transfer occurs both at higher currents and higher voltages than short-circuit and globular transfers and requires a gas shield rich in the inert gas argon. For steels, the minimum argon percentage is 80%. For welding aluminum, 100% argon is most common, with additions of helium for use on heavier plate

FIGURE 4-35 Globular transfer

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35 TRANSITION CURRENT

30

ANSFER Y TR A R SP

25 VOLTAGE

GLOBULAR TRANSFER

20
CUIT T C IR R O SH

E GE RAG MPE LTA A O H V H HI G IG

15 10 50

100

150 AMPERAGE

200

250

FIGURE 4-36 Area of modes of transfer

materials. Helium should not exceed 50% for spray transfer to occur when aluminum welding. The point where one mode of transfer converts to another mode is called the transition current. Note the transition current in FIGURE 4-36. Increasing current beyond the transition current and increasing voltage allows for spray transfer to occur. Higher voltages cause an increase in arc length greater than that of globular or short-circuit transfers. Small individual droplets are transferred across the open arc to the workpiece at rates from 150200 drops/second. Electromagnetic forces carry the droplets across the arc gap. The open arc is visible to the welder and looks like the lower half of an hourglass (FIGURE 4-37). High voltage and amperage settings of the spray transfer arc and the fluidity of the weld pool provide for deep penetration, flat wide bead contours, and high welding speeds. These characteristics are suitable to welding on thicker plate materials. Excellent bead profiles and elimination of spatter are factors that make use of spray transfer desirable. Due to weld puddle fluidity, spray transfer welding is limited to use in the flat position for grooves and flat and horizontal positions for fillet welds. Pulse-Spray Transfer combines high heat inputs of the spray transfer arc with slightly lower currents near the globular transfer range to provide a balanced average current low enough to allow for metal transfer in all positions. This is accomplished by pulsing the arc current between a high peak current in the spray transfer range and a lower background current (see FIGURE 4-38.)

FIGURE 4-37 Spray transfer

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PULSE WIDTH METAL TRANSFER

TRANSITION CURRENT

CURRENT

PEAK CURRENT

TIME AT BACKGROUND

BACKGROUND CURRENT

FIGURE 4-38 An electrical schematic of pulse-spray transfer

TIME

Increasing or decreasing times at each current level can change the waveform pulses between peak and background currents. For ease of use, many newer power sources have preprogrammed output waveforms for filler metal electrode types and shielding gas combinations to utilize this mode of metal transfer. This simplifies electrical setup for the welder to adjustments of wire feed speed and arc length. In some instances, welding engineers within a business make customized programs specific to company needs. The main advantages of pulsed-spray transfer in steels and stainless steels over conventional spray transfer that are it can be used for welding in all positions and the low fume output. Pulsing can also be used on thin materials with large diameter filler metals at high welding speeds. The lower overall heat input reduces distortion and size of the heat affected zone. Stainless steels benefit from lower heat input that reduces the chances of inter-granular corrosion occurring and considerably reduces distortion. Aluminum electrodes should never be short-circuit-welded and are almost always used in the spray transfer mode. However, the advantage of pulse-spray welding with aluminum electrodes is the ability to use larger diameters. Oxides are a bane of aluminum electrodes. Larger electrode diameters have a greater cross-sectional area of clean (non-oxide) electrode compared to smaller diameters (FIGURE 4-39). It may not be possible to weld on 1/8 inch (3 mm) aluminum sheet metal using a 1/16 inches (1.6 mm) diameter electrode in the spray transfer mode. However, using pulse spray, the task is easily accomplished. TABLE 4-4 summarizes the variation in GMAW process metal transfer modes discussed so far.
OXIDES

FIGURE 4-39 A cross-section of an aluminum electrode wire. Oxide contamination forms a ring around the electrode wire

CLEAN ALUMINUM

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Variations in the GMAW Process Short Circuit Plate Steel Not recommended Performs well in all positions Performs well in all positions Not recommended 1/41/2 inches Spray Transfer Flat position and horizontal on fillets Caution burn-through On plate in flat position and horizontal on fillets All thicknesses; all positions 1/23/4 inches Pulse Spray All thicknesses; all positions All thicknesses; all positions All thicknesses; all positions All thicknesses; all positions 3/85/8 inches Voltage Above 22 volts Amperage Set to match volts Set to match volts Set to match volts Set to match volts Inductance Low Slope ~ ~ 8 turns

Sheet Metal Steel Stainless

Below 22 volts Lower for short circuit; higher for spray Typically above 20 volts

~ ~ 30% SC ~ ~ 50% SC

~ ~ 8 turns Steep

Aluminum Electrode Extension TABLE 4-4

Low

Flat

ELECTRODES
WHAT MUST BE CONSIDERED WHEN CHOOSING AN ELECTRODE FOR GMAW? When choosing an electrode, one must consider arc stability,
solidification rate, mechanical properties, deposition rate, base metal compatibility, and parameter settings. Parameter settings for GMAW electrodes depend on:
{

Diameter of the Electrode Mode of Transfer Shielding Gas Composition Welding Position Manual or Automated

Other considerations may also include corrosion resistance, wear resistance, and if the metal is to be preheated, postheated, or have no heat treatment. Color match is also a consideration, especially when welding aluminum.

WHAT SIZES OF STEEL ELECTRODES ARE USED FOR GMAW? The GMAW
process uses a consumable, automatically fed wire electrode and is considered a semiautomatic welding process when welded by hand. Electrode diameters used in GMAW typically range from 0.024 inches (0.6 mm) to 0.062 inches (1.6 mm). However, electrode diameters are manufactured from as small as 0.020 inches (0.5 mm) to as large as 1/8 inch (3 mm). As a rule, electrode size selection is based on base metal thickness, welding position, and mode of metal transfer. Larger electrodes can obviously provide higher welding speeds and the higher amperages desired for spray transfer welding on heavier base metals. Beyond that, a few considerations should be made.
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