Journal of Sociology

http://jos.sagepub.com/ The Concept of Authenticity in Tourist Experiences

Philip L. Pearce and Gianna M. Moscardo Journal of Sociology 1986 22: 121 DOI: 10.1177/144078338602200107 The online version of this article can be found at: http://jos.sagepub.com/content/22/1/121

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121

The

Concept Experiences

of

Authenticity

in Tourist

Philip L. Pearce and Gianna M. Moscardo Department of Behavioural Sciences James Cook University of North Queensland
ABSTRACT
The major emphasis in this article is the development of the authenticity concept in tourist experiences. It is argued that the original form of the authenticity notion, which was proposed by Heidegger, has been only partially employed in the work of tourist researchers. The major development of the authenticity concept in the tourist literature is shown to be that of MacCannell who proposed, using Goffmans stage approach, that all tourists seek authenticity but are frustrated in their attempts because of the creation of frontstage, inauthentic environments. In another addition to the authenticity notion Cohen argued that some tourists perceive the inauthenticity of their settings. The elaboration of the authenticity concept offered in this paper highlights the need to define authenticity of both actors and their settings when appraising a tourist scene. Cohens emphasis on tourists ability to perceive authenticity and inauthenticity is included as an important element in the framework outlined. Accurate and inaccurate perceptions of authenticity, it was argued, need to be considered, together with tourists preference levels for authenticity, in order to explain tourist satisfaction. Some research possibilities generated by this framework included the study of tourist satisfaction, and the social status and identity concerns inherent in tourists social behaviour.

Recently such factors as identity, self worth, the establishment of reputation and the maintenance of honour have been heavily emphasised in the analysis of social behaviour (Schlenker, 1980; Marsh, Rosser and Harre, 1978; Harre, 1979). One domain of social life where these factors are particularly relevant is that of leisure, and within the leisure field the activity of travelling provides a potentially interesting example of self-initiated expressive behaviour. Unfortunately, this area has been trivialised and neglected by intellectual and social commentators. The basis of this campaign of disinterest is the view that tourists behaviour and tourists experiences are superficial and peripheral to the concerns of modern industrial society. This rejection has varied elements and ranges from social snobbery - Henry James, for instance, decided simply that tourists were vulgar, vulgar, wlgar - to elitist sociological accounts such as Boorstins emphasis
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the pseudo-events, contrived experiences and artificial products of tourist activity. The power of these analyses has been so great that an effective suppression of critical thinking has taken place in the area. As a consequence tourist research and the social behaviour seen in tourism have been overlooked and the packaged solutions of elitism have predominated In the present article it will be maintained that there is much to be gained from a full consideration of social behaviour in the tourist context. In particular, it will be argued that the concept of authenticity deserves a wider audience than in the past, for it can be conceived of as an important concept in both research and everyday assessments of social worth. That is, authenticity is useful for both researchers of social behaviour, as well as actors themselves when determining the sophistication and subtlety of the world view of others. In order to demonstrate the potential importance of the authenticity concept this article seeks to document its recent development, to provide a conceptual appraisal of tourist situations suggesting when and where authenticity is important, and to foster and suggest empirical studies of tourists social behaviour in relation to authenticity.
on

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AUTHENTICITY CONCEPT

A history of philosophical writing pertinent to the concept of authenticity is beyond the scope of this article. Nevertheless, it is important to identify the philosophical milieu from which the authenticity concept derives. This milieu can be described as one concerned with ontology, rather than metaphysics. The work of Martin Heidegger is fundamental to any discussion of authenticity. Zimmerman, summarising Heideggers early writings, suggests that the concept of authentic human existence proposed by Heidegger means to be most appropriately what one already is, (1981, p.xii). A psychological reading of Heideggers early work Being and Time (Heidegger, 1962, first published in 1927), suggests a close link between the concept ofself-actualisation and Heideggers concern with authentic human experience. The two concepts appear to have particular parallels in their emphasis on the openness to experience, the casting aside of ego-related concerns and the glimpses of understanding of the nature of existence. Nonetheless Zimmerman (1981) argues that self-actualisation and authenticity are clearly separate. A fundamental distinction between the two concepts lies in the role of effort or will in achieving these mental states, since while individuals can strive to achieve self actualisation, authenticity or openness has an unexpected gift-like quality. Further, the authenticity concept, particularly as explained in Heideggers later work, can be interpreted as emphasising a fusion of self and the external world as one appreciates and is concerned with being or Desain2. In comparison self actualisation is much more concerned with individual development and awareness and only gesDownloaded from jos.sagepub.com at b-on: 01100 Universidade do Porto on April 22, 2013

123
tures

towards the

more

universal

overtones

evident in

Heidegger

(cf Maslow, 1954; Rogers, 1970).

The first and major use of the authenticity concept in the tourist and leisure literature is found in the work of Dean MacCannell (1973, 1976). Heidegger is not included amongst MacCannells acknowledgements, but the possibility of an indirect influence exists. MacCannells writing on authenticity draws on a predominantly literary and sociological American tradition which is concerned with individual expression, democratic freedoms and the search for genuine, authentic human satisfaction. Its best exemplars are Veblen (1953), Riesman (1961) and Boorstin (1961), all of whom are quoted by MacCannell. These diverse sources are amalgamated by MacCannell to provide a less philosophical version of the authenticity concept. It is MacCannells contention that all tourists seek authenticity which he represents as the genuine, worthwhile and spontaneous experience of travel. MacCannell suggests the arrangement of tourist settings largely prevents tourists from achieving their authenticity goals. A clearer understanding of what MacCannell means by authenticity is provided in his use of the work of Erving Goffman. More specifically, MacCannell integrates the authenticity work with the front- and back-stage notions developed by Goffman (1959). In this initiative Goffmans front- and back-stage dichotomy is expanded into six regions which MacCannell claims are theoretically distinguishable. These consist of I Stage One: Goffmans first region which tourists supposedly seek to penetrate and overcome. II Stage Two: Here MacCannell postulates the existence of a tourist front region that has been decorated to superficially resemble a back

region. Stage Three: A front region totally organised to represent a back region. IV Stage Four. Environments open to outsiders but which should be essentially considered a back region. V Stage Five: Environments with more limited access to outsiders. VI Stage Six Goffmans back region. The experiences available in Stages Two to Five are more appropriately referred to as staged authenticity. As MacCannell himself suggested distinct empirical indicators of his six stages would be difficult to outline. This suggestion has been borne out in subsequent research directions. MacCannells commentary has been used essentially as a descriptive tool in analyses of various tourist settings. For instance, Buck (1978), in his study of the Old Order Amish Community in Southern Pennsylvania, argued that the community used staged authenticity to prevent direct contact with outsiders. In particular, Buck suggested that the tourism enterprises surrounding the Amish Community only permitted tourists to enter Stages One, Two, Three and Four of MacCannells
III
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schemata. Chalfen (1979), too, draws on MacCannells account of stages and in an analysis of tourist photography uncovered numerous instances of tourists seeking to enter back regions. In these examples, as well as in other tourist literature, MacCannells notion that tourist environments can be seen in front- and back-stage terms seems applicable. Nevertheless, some difficulties exist with the operationalisation of MacCannells stages. In particular, it is difficult to reliably distinguish between Stages Two to Five. It is salient to observe that MacCannells schemata was originally put forward ten years ago and while the work has been widely quoted, no empirical studies directed towards the interplay of authenticity (and tourists desire for authenticity) and the idea of stages have been forthcoming. Cohen (1979), mindful of these limitations, elaborated MacCannells framework Noting that MacCannell had ignored tourists impressions of the scene, Cohen added to MacCannells approach a new emphasis on tourists impressions of situations as either real or staged. By reducing MacCannells Six Stages of tourist space into Two, namely real and staged, analogous to Goffmans front and back regions, a four-fold table of tourist situations was produced.
Table 1 Cohens Four Cell Model of Tourist Situations

(Cohen, 1979)

pause and reflect on the diverse meaning of and perspectives authenticity encountered in this discussion. Heidegger, it was argued, represented authenticity as meaning to be most appropriately what one is. While this may be seen as related to the concept of selfactualisation, which is best defined as striving to maximise ones potential, the two notions differ in regard to the mutability of the self In particular, self actualisation stresses human growth and change towards a goal of self fulfilment whereas the authenticity notion implies an acceptance of the self and ones situation. The relationship between authenticity and selfactualisation will be clarified further after some extensions to the authenticity notion in tourist experiences are outlined. For the present interest in tourist behaviour these historical concerns and definitions are not irrelevant. MacCannell, in using the notion of authento
on
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It is useful here

125

environmental- or place-related experiences. and wide reaching interest in the nature of being general Heideggers reminds us that other people may be responsible for being what one is, and hence we need to look to other people as sources of authentic

ticity,

has focussed
more

on

experience.
For many social scientists MacCannells notion of authenticity which essentially highlights the elements of spontaneity, worth and genuineness in tourist experiences offers a more suitable operational definition than Heideggers notions of being. It would seem appropriate therefore to continue to use MacCannells meaning of the term authenticity in the tourist literature while adopting from Heidegger the notion that other people as well as places should be considered as sources of authenticity. The present authors do not disagree with Cohens perspective that people are able to perceive inauthenticity in tourist settings. It is suggested, however, that both Cohen and MacCannell have not allowed for the possibility that tourists can achieve authentic experiences through relationships with people in tourist settings. Evidence supporting the need for the development of a person-based3 category in an authenticity model comes from a detailed study of positive and negative tourist experiences (Pearce & Caltabiano, 1983). This work considered 400 case studies of tourist experiences, 92 of which proved to be centrally concerned with people and developing relationships. Accordingly, the following scheme is offered as an extension of MacCannells approach. Authenticity, it is argued, can be achieved either through environmental experiences, people-based experiences, or a joint interaction of these elements. Following Cohen and Goffman, it is proposed that a backfront distinction can be made for the authenticity of both the setting itself and the people in it. The distinction made by Goffman (1959) between backstage and frontstage settings is a familiar one. However, it is equally appropriate, and it is suggested necessary, to extend the back/front distinction to the actors in these settings. In the tourist context frontstage people refer to those conscious they are creating a display for the interest of tourism, while backstage individuals are those not in the tourist spotlight. These backstage people can either be those who support frontstage people and make frontstage scenes work (e.g. cleaners, mechanics, catering staff, gardeners, etc.) or people actively pursuing roles not connected with tourism (e.g.

workers, professionals, peasants, etc.).

Initially all tourist scenes can be objectively classified into four types as follows: 1. Authentic people in authentic environment, defmed as backstage people
2. 3.

in a backstage region. Authentic people in inauthentic environment, defined as backstage people in a frontstage region. Inauthentic people in inauthentic environment, defined as frontstage people in a frontstage region.
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4.

Inauthentic people in authentic environment, defined as frontstage people in a backstage region. These four tourist scenes may be further subdivided into nine tourist experiences on the basis of peoples perceptions of which element or elements are important. On some occasions tourists will perceive both people and environments as relevant, while in other instances only one of these two elements will enter into the equation defining authenticity. While it may seem, initially, to be cumbersome to outline nine possible classifications of tourist experiences, it should be remembered that the scheme is aiming for thoroughness and completeness. In practice, some of the categories of tourist experiences which are depicted would be likely to occur infrequently. To illustrate the viability of the conceptual scheme, exemplars of all nine categories are provided. These examples were taken from a natural corpus of written descriptions provided by tourists themselves in response to the question: please describe one of your best holiday experiences. The tourists sampled were chosen from both a local Australian community sample and a professional international tourist association (see Pearce and Caltabiano, 1983). It should be stressed that these examples come from a study which did not mention authenticity and was not directed towards studying this aspect of travellers experiences. The responses were condensed by the authors to fit the present format. The first classification of authenticity involves tourists encountering backstage people in a backstage region where tourists place importance on both the people and the environment. A 42-year-old American researcher reporting a holiday in Crete in 1970 recorded such an experience as follows:
searched and found
a little known chapel in the mountains with superlative fourteenth century frescos. An old Greek woman got the key from the Mayor of the village and took us up for a private visit. No English was spoken but her pride and our awe were all the communication necessary.

A second classification of authenticity refers to tourists encountering frontstage people in a frontstage region. Here, both the elements of the people and the visited environment are noted. A 20-year-old shop assistant pro-

vided

one

such

account:

Old Sydney Town is an attractive and exciting historical village. The entertainment was first rate, seeing convicts flogged was a vivid reminder of Australia as it was in the past. The buildings, especially the pub, looked just how I thought they would and my boyfriend and I enjoyed talking to the people in costume.

A third classification of authenticity involves tourists meeting frontstage people in a backstage region, such as when guides or tourist personnel assist tourists in appreciating the environment. As with the previous two
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classifications both the elements of environment and personnel are important in this classification. The comments from a 26-year-old American market researcher on the Salt Mines near Vienna illustrate one form of this classification.
This trip beginning at the top of a mountain and ending at the bottom was one of the most exciting experiences of my whole life. A guide led us along a dimly lit trail inside of the mountain explaining the history of the salt mine. The scenery was breathtaking and the guide was helpful, pleasant and trustworthy, making me feel that I had accomplished a difficult task.

The fourth classification refers to tourists meeting backstage people in a frontstage region. This instance, which may be considered to be uncommon, is the final classification where both the elements of the setting and the people encountered seem to play a dual role. In subsequent classifications the dominance of either the authenticity of the environment or the people encountered will be apparent. The example on this occasion comes from a 50-year-old New Zealand author
In conjunction with my job I was spending a week on a Hawaiian island in the major hotel complex of Maui. I was appalled by the cheap tinsel trappings of modem tourism and the negative social impact of tourism on the community. What I found worthwhile about the whole experience was a chance meeting with a gardener. This individual proved to be an extremely entertaining character with a fund of information about Hawaiian politics, violent local crimes, tourist stupidity and a range of views on modem society. He was just the sort of person who provides me with material for my work.

The fifth classification refers to tourists encountering backstage people. In this set of tourist experiences the environment seems to play no clear role and serves only as a remote background to the main concern with the meeting of people. An Australian traveller wrote with some candour about his meeting with a girl in Copenhagen:
rm single and I enjoy being that way so travelling for me is about getting on with other people, especially women. My best experience was meeting a Danish girl in Copenhagen. She was from the country but worked in the city. I like blondes and she was terrific looking so after chatting to her in a hotel bar I arranged to see her again. She actually turned up and we went to dinner and back to my room. You can imagine the rest. Apart from being really good, I liked her to talk to and I have written her a couple of letters since getting back two months ago. I reckon its the people you meet that make holidays.

The sixth classification involves tourists meeting frontstage people with little emphasis being placed on the environmental setting. An American, concerned with his travel arrangements, provides an example of a holiday experience which fits this category.
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Upon arrival at a Montreal motel on a late Friday afternoon,

we (my wife and another couple) immediately inquired about a bus tour of the city, which was provided by the motel. The manager apologised and said the bus was full, but would make other arrangements for us. On Saturday morning a Cadillac limousine with chauffeur was provided for us for a tour of the city at the same cost as the bus tour. Needless to say, it was one of the most satisfying experiences we have had.
.

In the seventh category the emphasis is placed more on the environment than the people visited and involves tourists exploring a backstage region. This classification is directly comparable to MacCannells backstage region. An American tourist and her husband report on an unusual circumstance which permitted them to enter backstage:
We were in Northern Spain at the time of the Catalan riots. Walking down a residential street in Lerida we were terrified to hear the screech of brakes and the muffled sounds of gun shots. My husband half threw me over a small wall into a Spanish courtyard where we lay quietly until the sounds died down. rd seen some of these courtyards in pictures but hadnt dared enter one. With its tiles, statues and small citrus trees it was very beautiful and of course safe. Quite a way to get a view of Spanish life!

The

eighth category is the final classification which emphasises authenticity. Here, the tourists encounter a frontstage region but place litle emphasis on the people in the setting. A young Welsh University students holiday experiences can be classified in this eighth category.
The beach at Scheveningen in Holland, June 1979 - the hotel had a huge lobby that opened out onto a pink marble terrace, with the beach and ocean beyond this. It was sunny and warm - the most beautiful light filled this lobby - I felt the overall scene with people, sun and hotel was exhilarating. I never felt so free and fortunate. The beach was not crowded but full of people and children, lots of music and smells of food.

The ninth category recognises that authenticity is just one aspect of tourists experiences. There are a number of holiday experiences where the backstage,/frontstage distinction is irrelevant or not appropriate. While the authors would argue that authenticity is a key concept in classifying many tourist experiences, the following example illustrates that the conceptual system being discussed does not encompass some cases.
The best holiday I had was one in which we left my son with his grandmother and left Canberra for a holiday on the Gold Coast and Brisbane in 1974. We had a limited budget, but sufficient, as we planned to laze on the beach and just make a few day trips to Brisbane. I had planned and daydreamed about this holiday, but it turned out to be much better. In the early part of the holidays we went to the races and when we overheard someone saying what horse they were going to back, we changed our choice and backed it too. We won a lot of
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money and I was able to afford to ring Canberra every day and thus didnt have to wonder if my son was fretting. We were able to go on trips we hadnt planned. We moved from the boarding house into a motel, and I had a rest from cooking I hadnt planned on.

It should be noted that the examples used to illustrate the nine tourist experiences are all positive experiences in which, as far as we can determine, the people have accurately perceived the level of authenticity involved. As Cohen (1979) has argued, correct perception of authenticity is not guaranteed. Perception of the authenticity of the experience is an important mediating variable affecting the tourists satisfaction. Another variable relevant in this context is that of the tourists preference for authenticity. This argument is foreshadowed in MacCannells own work where he notes that some tourists, but not others, are upset when they realise the staged nature of select tourist scenes. The whole issue of whether or not tourists are satisfied with their holiday experiences demands a full consideration of the nature of the tourist environment, the tourists perceptions of that environment and the tourists need or preference for authenticity. For instance, a tourist can recognise the staged nature of an environment and still enjoy the experience, provided his preference for authenticity is low. Other possibilities for positive and enjoyable experiences include: 1. having either a low or high preference for authenticity, but not perceiving the staged nature of the scene; and 2. having a high preference for authenticity and accurately perceiving the experience as authentic. The approach adopted here also satisfactorily explains negative outcomes. Here, tourist experience may be unsatisfying when authenticity is demanded and inauthenticity is perceived, or when authenticity is available but preference for it is low. Finally, the scheme permits both positive and negative experiences in situations where authenticity is irrelevant. Such situations include episodes where tourists are satisfied by eating, shopping, gambling and other activities. One critical comment on the scheme outlined above deserves attention. In examining the above scheme an anonymous reviewer argued that it is the relationship between the tourist and the host which determines authenticity. That is, all frontstage (inauthentic) actors have a backstage (authentic) region as well, to which certain people are permitted at certain times. For example, an obsequious frontstage hotel manager like Basil Fawlty might backstage be a fascinating character when describing the running of his hotel. According to this argument it is the relationship, not the backstage or frontstage role, which should be considered in defining the authenticity of the people in tourist settings. There can be no argument with this point. However it does not contradict the present emphasis since it helps clarify the goals of the present scheme and the kinds of information one must collect to be able to use it. The
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scheme is intended for use by researchers to develop a better understanding of tourist behaviour. It uses, in the first instance, an etic approach to the classification of tourist experience by focussing on the roles of actors as they apply to the tourist setting. Thus, a guide is a conventional frontstage figure. With no further information at hand, it would be appropriate for the tourist researcher to classify situations involving tourist guides as ones involving a frontstage character. However, it is desirable to collect tourists accounts of their own holiday experiences. This permits them to state their relationship with the frontstage actors in question, and could be used to modify the etic, role-based classification which is the starting point for the analysis. In essence, the collection of open-ended descriptive data allows tourists to transform characters from front- to backstage, and this can be accommodated in our research exercises. To confirm this point one may note the importance of the relationships in example 4 (New Zealander and the Hawaiian gardener) and example 5 (Australian tourist and Danish girl), both of which were backstage experiences. It is conceivable in example 2 (Old Sydney Town) that if the tourists went on talking to the costumed staff and the relationship developed then classification 4 would become the appropriate one. It is useful to foreshadow some possible research directions which can be followed as a result of the scheme outlined above. This emphasis on research possibilities is particularly important given the failure of researchers to develop MacCannells scheme of tourist stages and its relation to authenticity. It is unlikely, for example, that tourists experiences are distributed equally across the nine authenticity-related categories presented in Table 1.

particular, experiences involving backstage people in frontstage regions. likely to be infrequent. The present scheme also offers the possibility of empirically determining the relevance of authenticity in tourists experiences. MacCannells assertion that tourists seek authenticity in all experiences is probably an oversimplified approach to tourist motivation. One way in which to explore this issue is to relate existing motivational schemes for assessing tourists concerns with the authenticity literature. It has already been proposed that Maslows hierarchy is an appropriate
are

In

motivational scheme with which to summarise different levels of tourist motivation (Pearce & Caltabiano, 1983). It is particularly relevant that Maslows scheme culminates with a self actualisation component, since it can be suggested that this motivational level may subsume authenticity concerns. Nevertheless, it cannot be said that all self-actualisation experiences depend on authentic experiences, since some paths to self actualisation involve solitary, contemplative, cognitive activity. Research needs to be directed toward examining self actualisation in travel experiences and assessing when and where authenticity is involved. Additional research possibilities can be envisaged in the area of visitorevaluation. This work which is usually conceptually arid and limited to simple satisfaction scores and measures, can be enhanced with the scheme outlined
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above. Instead of limiting our assessment of visitor-evaluation to on-site or post-trip assessment, the present scheme offers some predictive possibility. For example, in a pre-travel appraisal, where the dependent variable becomes visitors likely satisfaction with the experience, it should be possible to estimate such satisfaction with a knowledge of tourists perceptiveness and an evaluation of the setting. Such a pre-travel appraisal could be useful for tourist establishments in targeting a particular population segment interested in the specified tourist activities. For post-travel evaluation the plethora of unstructured questions could be replaced with items directed at tourists assessments of the authentic aspects of their contact with the tourist setting. This material, taken together with tourists motives and interests could provide insights into what is working and what is failing in such contexts as a tourist theme park, amusement centre or resort. This dual attention to tourists needs and the nature of the authenticity of tourist settings should provide a stimulating conceptual framework for future visitorevaluation studies. There is a further research possibilility associated with the development of the present analysis of authenticity. Travel experiences, like other consumer products, can be used to demonstrate an individuals status and perceived worth. It would be interesting in this context to study how tourists use authentic experiences for status reasons. A technique to explore these social status implications could be that of presenting tourists with holiday descriptions, varying in authenticity and assessing tourists reactions to their experiences as well as asking the tourists to describe the audiences to whom they would relate these travel episodes. This kind of work relates closely to the recent concerns in social-psychological inquiry which were outlined at the beginning of this article, namely studies concerned with identity, self-worth and the establishment of reputation. This topic would also appear to suit the ethnomethodologists and other qualitatively-minded researchers, since there is much value to be gained from detailed behavioural observation in this context. It is hoped that in the arguments presented here, some interest in studying these factors in tourist behaviour may have been created.
NOTES 1.

2.

Ontology, although used in many different senses, is interpreted here as a fundamental concern nature of existence. This philosophical concern can therefore be distinguished from metaphysical interests in sensory perception and the nature of reality. Desain is Heideggers notion which is intended to embrace all being not just human
with the
existence. In a similar vein Lee (1973) has argued that while physical and social (personal) space are inextricably linked, it is sometimes very useful for the purposes of analysis to separate them. Previous applications of Lees advice have been in the analysis of peoples images of their neighbourhood and sense of community (Downs & Stea, 1977). The usefulness of Lees approach in the present context lies in emphasising from another perspective that an analysis of tourist space may also profit from the division between the physical environment and the people that inhabit that setting.
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3.

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4. These examples came from the written reports of positive and negative experiences collected in an Australian and American study of students and professional travel employees. 198 people were involved in the study covering a broad range of tourist experiences (cf. Chapter 6,

Pearce, 1982).

REFERENCES
Boorstin, D.J. (1961), The Image. New York, Harper and Row. Buck, R.C. (1978) Boundary maintenance revised: Tourist experience in an Old Order Amish Community, Rural Sociology, 43, 221-234. Chalfen, R (1979), Photographys role in tourism: Some unexplored relationships, Annals of Tourism Research, 6, 435-447. Cohen, E. (1979), Rethinking the sociology of tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, 6, 18-35. Downs, R.M. and D. Stea, (1977), Maps in Minds, New York, Harper and Row. Goffman, E. (1959), The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, Harmondsworth, Middlesex,

Penguin.

Harre, R (1979), Social Being, Oxford, Blackwell. Heidegger, M. (1962), Being and Time, Oxford, Basil Blackwell. Lee, T.R (1973), Psychology and living space, in R.M.Downs and D. Stea (eds) Image and Environment, London, Edward Arnold. MacCannell, D. (1973), Staged Authenticity. The arrangement of social space in tourist settings, American Journal of Sociology, 79, 589-603. MacCannell, D. (1976), The Tourist, New York, Schocken. Marsh, P., F. Rosser and R Harre, (1978) The Rules of Disorder, Routledge and

Kegan

Paul.

Maslow, A.H. (1954) Motivation and Personality, New York,Harper and Row. Pearce, P.L (1982), The Social Psychology of Tourist Behaviour, Oxford, Pergamon. Pearce, P.L and M. Caltabiano, (1983), Inferring travel motivation from travellers experiences, Journal of Travel Research, 22, 16-20. Riesman, D. (1961), The Lonely Crowd, New Haven, Yale University Press. Rogers, C.R (1970), On Becoming a Person: A Therapists View of Psychology, Boston,

Houghton

Mifflin.

Schlenker, B.R (1980), Impression Management, Monterey, Calif, Brooks/Cole. Veblen, T. (1953), The Theory of the Leisure Class, London, Unwin. Zimmerman, M.F. (1981), Eclipse of the Self, Athens, Ohio University Press.

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