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Obviously, to learn about human anatomy and physiology. But, what does that mean? Before we begin, weve got to figure a few things out:
Whats a human? Whats anatomy? Whats physiology?
Mammals
Possess:
Mammary glands Hair Endothermy (i.e., we generate heat internally) Heterodonty (i.e., we have teeth w/ different shapes and functions) 3 middle ear bones.
Hominids
Bipedal (walk on 2 legs) Possess a large brain size/body size ratio
What is anatomy?
Anatomy is defined as the study of
Structure refers to the shapes, sizes, and characteristics of the components of the human body. The word anatomy comes from 2 words:
Ana which means up or apart Tomos which means to cut
Types of Anatomy
We can divide our study of structure into 2 parts:
Study of stuff seen by the naked eye (Gross Anatomy).
Physiology
Physiology is defined as the study of function so human physiology attempts to explain how and why humans function. Physiology is where we figure out how stuff works.
How do muscles contract? How do we run? How does our heart beat?
Levels of Structure
In order to understand how something is built and how something works, you must look at all of its components and analyze them both individually and together. In doing these collective and separate analyses, you must examine things at multiple structural levels, i.e., one must break them down from large to small this is called reductionism An organism (such as a human being) may be broken down as illustrated on the left.
Organelle
Cell Tissue
Levels of Structure
The basic unit of life is the cell. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. The human body contains about 100 trillion cells. There are about 200 different types of cells in the human body. The different types of cells have different features but for the most part, all cells are made up of organelles and various macromolecules (e.g., proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and nucleic acids). Organelles themselves are made of these macromolecules and macromolecules are polymers of smaller molecules which consist of atoms of various chemical elements.
A Prototypical Cell
Important Organelles
Plasma Membrane Separates the cell exterior from the cell interior (cytoplasm). Nucleus Membrane bound structure that contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which is the set of instructions for the synthesis of all the bodys proteins. CAN YOU SEE THE NUCLEUS AND THE PLASMA MEMBRANE IN THE CELL TO THE RIGHT? Mitochondria Structure bound by a double membrane and the site at which the energy stored in sugars and other organic molecules is transferred to ATP, the chemical which acts as the currency for energy in the cell. Ribosomes Not bound by a membrane. Sites of protein synthesis. May be free floating in the cytoplasm or bound to the endoplasmic reticulum.
Are the 2 pictures on this page to the same scale? How do you know?
Important Organelles
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Membranous set of tubes with ribosomes studded along its surface. Site of the synthesis of proteins that are destined to be exported from the cell. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum ER w/o the attached ribosomes. Site of cellular lipid synthesis, among other things. Golgi Apparatus Membrane bound organelle responsible for determining the direction of proteins synthesized in the rough ER. Lysosomes Membrane bound organelle that houses digestive enzymes that can be used to break down ingested toxins or worn out cell parts.
Integumentary System
Structures:
Skin, hair, sweat and oil glands
Functions:
Forms the external body covering Protects deeper tissues from injury Involved in vitamin D synthesis Prevents desiccation, heat loss, and pathogen entry Site of pain and pressure receptors
Skeletal System
Structures:
The 206 bones of the human body
Functions:
Protects and supports body organs
What characteristics might bone have that allows it to support and protect?
Provides a framework that muscles can use to create movement Hemopoiesis (synthesis of blood cells) Mineral storage
Bone contains 99% of the bodys store of what mineral? (Hint you can get this mineral from drinking milk)
Muscular System
Structures:
The 600+ muscles of the body
Functions:
Locomotion Manipulation of the environment Maintaining posture Thermogenesis (generation of heat)
Nervous System
Structures:
Brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nerves
Functions:
Fast-acting control system of the body Monitoring of the internal and external environment and responding (when necessary) by initiating muscular or glandular activity
Endocrine System
Structures:
Hormone-secreting glands
Pituitary, Thyroid, Thymus, Pineal, Parathyroid, Adrenal, Pancreas, Small Intestine, Stomach, Testes, Ovaries, Kidneys, Heart
Functions:
Long-term control system of the body Regulates growth, reproduction, and nutrient use among other things.
Cardiovascular System
Structures:
Heart, Blood vessels (arteries, veins, and capillaries)
Functions:
The heart pumps blood thru the blood vessels. Blood provides the transport medium for nutrients (glucose, amino acids, lipids), gases (O2, CO2), wastes (urea, creatinine), signaling molecules (hormones), and heat.
Lymphatic/Immune System
Structures:
Lymphatic vessels, Lymph nodes, Spleen, Thymus, Red bone marrow
Functions:
Returning leaked fluid back to the bloodstream, Disposal of debris Attacking and resisting foreign invaders (pathogens i.e., diseasecausing organisms)
Respiratory System
Structures:
Nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs
Functions:
Constantly supply the blood with O2, and remove CO2 Regulate blood pH
Digestive System
Structures:
Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, salivary glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder
Functions:
Ingestion and subsequent breakdown of food into absorbable units that will enter the blood for distribution to the bodys cells
Urinary System
Structures:
Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
Functions:
Removal of nitrogenous wastes Regulation of bodys levels of water, electrolytes, and acidity
Reproductive System
Structures:
Male:
Testes, scrotum, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, prostate gland, seminal vesicles, penis
Female:
Ovary, uterine tube, uterus, cervix, vagina, mammary glands
Functions:
Production of offspring
We must be aware of emergent properties as well as reducing structures to their component parts.
Stayin Alive
Your body has about 100 trillion cells in it. For your life to NOT end abruptly, these cells need to have the correct amount of:
Oxygen Nutrients Waste removal Heat Ions (sodium, calcium, etc.) Lots of other stuff
Homeostasis
Defined as the bodys ability to maintain stable internal conditions in spite of the changing external conditions. We just said that our body needs to have the right amount of stuff (i.e., temperature, blood [glucose], pH etc.) at all times in order to function properly. First, lets refer to all this stuff as different variables
Note: the brackets surrounding the word glucose in the above paragraph mean concentration of glucose, i.e., how much glucose is dissolved in a particular fluid (blood in this case)
Similar situations arise in the human body where there are lots of variables that we want to maintain at certain precise levels
Blood Pressure
BP is a variable that weve got to maintain at a certain level We have sensory receptors that measure the BP in the body. Theyre located in the aorta (the big blood vessel coming out of the heart) and in the carotid arteries (the large vessels that bring blood to the brain). These pressure receptors measure BP and then send the info (we can call this input) to a control center in the brain the particular BP control center is in the medulla oblongata of the brain
Blood Pressure
We call the connection btwn the receptor and the control center the afferent pathway. In the control center, the input BP is compared with a set value. If there is a difference between the current BP value and the reference BP value then weve got an error. And weve got to fix that error!
Blood Pressure
The control center will signal effector organs such as the heart in this case to alter their activity. This process is called output. The connection between the control center and the effector organ is called the efferent pathway.
Blood Pressure
Suppose the current BP is too high. The effector must act in a way to decrease it so the medulla oblongata (the control center) would signal the heart to decrease the force and rate of its contractions; this would decrease BP. Notice that the original stimulus was an INcrease in BP and the bodys response was to act so as to DEcrease BP. The stimulus is opposite the response!
Negative Feedback
B/c the movement of a variable in one direction causes the body to enact processes that cause the variable to move in the opposite direction (so as to return the value to the correct level) we call it negative feedback Lets look at BP again:
Increased BP
BP DECREASES Heart rate & force of contraction decrease Blood vessel diameter increases Current BP compared with set point and error signal generated
Homeostasis is Important!
Most of the physiological processes that occur in your body are designed to maintain homeostasis.
ALWAYS KEEP THIS IN MIND!
Question: Does the magnitude (i.e., size) of the error signal influence the magnitude of the response? Just to recap, lets look at a couple more figures!
Homeostasis is DYNAMIC!
What this means is that the homeostatic variables are NOT kept rigidly fixed upon a single value. They are kept within a certain range, and when they exit that range thats when negative feedback loops turn on to bring them back. Is your body temperature always exactly 98.6 F?
Another super important field is embryology, the study of how a single zygote (i.e., a fertilized egg) turns into a fully-fledged human being with trillions of cells.
Why is embryology so important to A&P?