You are on page 1of 65

INTRODUCTION

TO

BASIC OPERATIONS
IN THE

OIL & GAS INDUSTRY

3. OIL & GAS PRODUCTION, SEPARATION & GAS DEHYDRATION

CRUDE OIL & NATURAL GAS PRODUCTION, SEPARATION & GAS DEHYDRATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE SUBJECT

2 6 7 10 12 19 26 39 60

SECTION 1: Introduction - Origin & Production of Crude Oil & Natural Gas Xmas Trees & Flowlines Well Test Separator Wells, Wellheads & Reservoir Basics Restoration of a Depleted Well Gas Lift Operations SECTION 2: Separators Principles, Functions & Operation Separator Types & Control SECTION 3: Natural Gas Dehydration - Process, Equipment & Regeneration Operating problems and Glycol care

Compiled, Illustrated and Produced by: Norman Wiltcher. Senior Technical Instructor (Oil & Gas Production & Processing) (Retired).

SECTION I
OIL & GAS PRODUCTION & SEPARATION INTRODUCTION

The Origin of Crude Oil & Natural Gas Many people believe that crude oil and natural gas are contained in huge cave-like structures deep underground. Geological studies of sedimentary rocks indicate that oil originated during the deposit of dead marine organisms together with sand, silt and other sediments which formed the rocks under the sea beds. The formation of layers of rocks continued to take place and to build up containing the organic matter of the marine organisms and to create high pressure and temperature. In the absence of oxygen, and under the effect of the combined factors of pressure, temperature, catalysis and time, the chemical components of these marine substances have undergone break-down and transformation into HYDROCARBON compounds trapped in small pores (pockets) in the rocks, the result of which was the formation of crude oil and natural gas within the rocks. Migration of Oil, Gas and Water While the oil and gas were forming in the rock beds, it also tended to move (migrate) in an upward direction. This takes place from the source bed rocks through permeable porous rocks. Water, Oil & Gas move under the same forces, but in slightly different directions, Gas is much less dense than oil, and oil is less dense than water, so there is tendency for the gas and oil to move upwards through the water. This upward movement of the components (water, oil and gas) continues, until the petroleum becomes trapped under an impermeable layer (or Cap Rock). It then flows along under this impermeable cap layer, until it reaches a position from which it cannot move any further, and becomes trapped. Migration continues and the Oil and Gas build up pressure under the cap rock. Oil and gas may also be trapped by another formation like a fault, which has a non-permeable surface. The Reservoir (See Simplified example of a reservoir formation on page 2). The known forms of petroleum accumulations are classified as folds, anticlines and stratigraphic traps; these are known as structural traps or reservoirs. About 80 or 90 percent of known petroleum reserves occur in such traps which have the following characteristics :a). b). c). It should be of sedimentary origin. The rock must be porous and permeable. The reservoir must be capped by a non-permeable bed.

SIMPLE DRAWING OF A 'TRAP' TYPE RESERVOIR

WELL BORE

GAS

OIL

WATER

Most of the worlds oil occurs between depths of about 600 and 3000 meters. Gas tends to occur deeper than oil and it is more stable at higher temperature and in some cases, it is a primary product in the source rock.

DRILLING When a reservoir is identified, the geological forecast for a well will be issued with the expected formation boundary, the unstable beds that could make difficult drilling, the depth of the well and the possibility of oil and gas in the reservoir. On the basis of this forecast, a drilling point is located, and a planned schedule is prepared including materials and estimation of time and cost. The main components of drilling equipment are made of a Bit, Kellys or Drill-collars (heavy sections of drill pipe), Rotating table, Mud injection systems and other utilities. CHRISTMAS TREE The final act of drilling is to fix an assembly of valves onto the casing head of the well. This assembly is called a Christmas Tree (Xmas-tree). As one valve is not enough to control oil flow, at least two valves are needed. The first one is called the Master Valve which is normally kept open and is used only when the second valve fails to operate or when under maintenance. FLOW LINES The lines that carry the three-phase flow - (water, oil and gas) from the wells to the production manifolds, are called 'Well Flow Lines'. There may be more than a hundred wells in one field all piped to a Field Production Manifold. The production manifolds then transfer the three phase liquid to the GOSP (Gas Oil Separation Plant) via a single flowline. The well flowlines will have various instruments fitted and provision for anti-corrosion chemical injections. In some cases, well flowlines have a 'Choke' which governs the maximum flow from the wells in order to prevent high velocity flow causing erosion of equipment. The manifolds normally have Production and test flowlines and a blowdown header (See Pictures on the following pages) The produced fluids often contain acid gases like Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2). To minimise corrosion, an inhibitor will be injected into the well flowline.

Typical Oil Well Christmas Tree

CORROSION INHIBITOR

TO PRODUCTION TO BLOWDOWN TO TEST

Field Manifold with Production & Test Flowlines

8
From Field Manifold

6 1

4 2 7
Well Test Separator

In the above picture the numbers indicate the following:1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Note: Start-up Charge Control Valve Main Inlet & Control Valve Produced Gas Metering (Daniel Type Orifice Meter) Separator Pressure Control Valve Oil Level Controller (Displacer & Torque Tube) Water Level Controller ( " " ) Water Drain to Pit & Vessel Blowdown Line Safety Valve (Set at 1.5 x Normal Operating Pressure) The Oil & Water outlet lines are on the other side of the Vessel.

TYPES OF WELLS AND RESERVOIRS Crude oil and natural gas reservoirs are found in rock formations called 'Anticlines, Traps, Faults etc', below the surface of the earth and the well is drilled into these formations. A pipe is then run into the hole to allow fluid to flow to the surface. Smaller diameter casing strings (pieces of pipes connected to each other) are set in the well string (if needed for operational reasons). Finally the production or oil string. The depth that each string is set, is determined by special conditions at the well site. Wellheads and Flowlines A wellhead is the equipment at the surface which controls the well. It is usually made of cast or forged steel and machined to a close fit to form a seal and prevent well fluids from blowing (or leaking) at the surface. The wellhead is sometimes made up of many heavy fittings with certain parts designed to hold up to 30,000 Psi. The wellhead is formed of combinations of parts called: 1) Casing Head. 2) Tubing Head. 3) Xmas tree. 4) Gauges.

Where production and pressure are very low, a simple wellhead may be used. A choke valve is used to control the gas flow for gas lift wells. A choke may also be used in the production line at the separation facility or on the wellhead to control fluid flow. 1. CASING HEAD

During well drilling as each piece of pipe (string) of casing is run into the hole, it is necessary to install heavy fittings at the surface to which the casing should be attached. The casing head usually provides some kind of gripping devices to hold the weight of the casing, it acts as a support for the casing string, and also provides the connections at the surface for controlling the flow of fluids. 2. TUBING HEAD The most important purposes of the tubing head is to : 1. 2. 3. Support tubing strings. Seal off pressure between casing and tubing. Provide connections to control flow of fluids.

The tubing head is supported by the casing head.

3.

THE XMAS TREE

This consists of the equipment required for the control of the well: -

1.

2. 3. 4.

Master Valve - Generally, two master valves are installed both of which is open during production. The reason for two valves is that, should one valve fail (jam) in the open position, the other can be used to isolate the well in an emergency. Wing Valve - This is usually used for production from the tubing and may be followed by a choke for control of production. Crown Valve Used for well servicing Wireline operations: - Installing/removing gas lift valves, well surveys: - Downhole pressure & temperature gradient measurement Etc. Pressure/Temperature gauges for operational checks.

TUBING PRESSURE

CROWN VALVE

WING VALVES XMAS TREE MASTER VALVES

CASING VALVES TUBING HEAD

WELLHEAD SURFACE CASING CELLAR

GROUND LEVEL

Figure: 1

VARIABLE CHOKE (FLOW CONTROL)

LOCAL FLOW RECORDER FLOW ELEMENT

BLOWDOWN

HIGH / LOW PRESSURE SHUTDOWN VALVE

TO PRODUCTION MANIFOLD

Figure: 2 - Natural Flow Oil Well on Production from the Tubing

During the early life of a well, the high pressure fluids in the reservoir flow through the formation to the bottom of the well bore, then pass to the surface via either the tubing or casing (annular space) to the surface using it's own pressure energy. Before a well is drilled into a reservoir, the well fluids are static, once a well is drilled into a reservoir the static fluids begin to flow to the surface. When the well is not producing or shut in, the fluids are static, giving what is known as the 'Static Bottom Hole Pressure' (SBHP) (reservoir pressure). When the well is opened up, the bottom hole pressure will decrease due to the flow of fluids to the surface.

This is known as the 'Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure' (FBHP). For a well to flow, a pressure difference (DP) must exist between the actual reservoir pressure and the bottom hole pressure. This DP between the SBHP and the FBHP is known as 'Drawdown'. The greater the drawdown, the greater will be the well productivity. The surface equipment back pressure plus the pressure exerted by the depth of the column of fluids will govern the FBHP. When the pressure in the reservoir becomes equal to this pressure, i.e., drawdown = zero, then the flow stops and the well is termed as 'Dead'. RESTORING A DEPLETED WELL Many wells, due to depletion of reservoir pressure, can no longer be produced by natural means. An artificial lift system is used to maintain production of these wells. One system may be the installation of a down-hole pump. Another system used is 'Water Flood' where injection of water into the drive water table by way of a number of water injection wells placed at strategic points around the position of the oil producing well(s). The injected water is obtained from a different water table to that which is the drive water table for the oil wells. This increase in the water level in the drive water pushes the oil to the surface. A widely used system is that of 'Gas Lift' where high pressure gas supply is injected into the production string through special gas lift valves. The gas lift process is the method we will discuss later. As stated earlier, the oil, gas and water produced by whatever method, will be piped to 'Field Manifolds' where a number of wells can be fed into a single production line feeding the 'GOSP' - Gas, Oil Separation Plant where the required well products of oil & gas are separated and treated as required while the water is drained away to disposal or may be used as injection water as described earlier. Figure: 3 Shows a typical field manifold

10

Figure: 3

11

THE GAS LIFT PROCESS


RESTORING A WELL'S PRODUCTION The illustration (Figure: 4), shows a simplified idea of the formation of petroleum within a fold deep under the earth's surface and the effects of drilling a well into it. It should be borne in mind that the fluids are not contained in a 'cavern' type basin, but are held by the pores of the rocks forming the permeable sedimentary layers of the strata and trapped there by the overlying layer of impermeable cap rock, (often a salt dome).

WELL BORE

GAS OIL 3,100 PSI WATER 3,100 PSI

Figure: 4 Here the Static Bottom Hole Pressure (SBHP) is 3,100 psi and the Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure (FBHP) is also 3,100 psi. There is no DP i.e. no 'Drawdown'. The well is not producing and is classed as 'Dead'. The following illustrations show a natural flow producing well, a dead well and the process of gas lift as applied to the dead well. The diagrams are simplified for ease of understanding and are accompanied by notes.

12

WELL ON NATURAL FLOW TO PRODUCTION

'DEAD' WELL NO FLOW

GAS-LIFT GAS INJECTION

WELL ON GAS-LIFT PRODUCTION TO PRODUCTION

WELLHEAD CHOKE

CASING AND TUBING LEVELS

1st GAS LIFT VALVE CLOSED

TUBING FLOW NO FLOW

2nd GAS LIFT VALVE CLOSED

3rd GAS LIFT VALVE OPEN - OPERATING VALVE

CASING LEVEL

FBHP = 3,100 psi SBHP = 3,500 psi DRAWDOWN = 400 psi

CASING & TUBING EACH AT 3,100 psi DRAWDOWN = ZERO psi

FBHP = 2,700 psi SBHP = 3,100 psi DRAWDOWN = 400 psi

Figure: 5 The illustrations above are explained in more detail on the following pages.

13

TO PRODUCTION G/L GAS INJECTION DECREASING TUBING FLUID DENSITY


G/L VALVE OPEN. GAS ENTERS TUBING G/L VALVE CLOSES

G/L GAS INJECTION

G/L VALVE OPEN

CASING FLUID LEVEL DECREASING

G/L VALVE OPENS

G/L VALVE OPEN

G/L VALVE OPEN

G/L VALVE OPEN

G/L VALVE OPEN

PACKERS

SBHP 3100 psi FBHP 3,050 psi


FLUIDS BEGINNING TO FLOW THROUGH PERFORATIONS. DRAWDOWN AT 50 psi

FBHP 2,900 psi


FLUID FLOW INCREASING AS MORE GAS ENTERS TUBING. DRAWDOWN NOW AT 200 psi

Figure: 6

UNLOADING THE WELL Figure: 6, above, shows a gas lift well where injected gas has begun to force down the liquid in the casing and uncovered the first special gas lift valve. The gas entering the tubing effectively decreases the density of the liquid and thereby decreases the head pressure within the tubing. This action continues and further gas lift valves are uncovered allowing more gas to enter the tubing further decreasing the liquid density in the tubing and therefore increasing the drawdown. Production from the well is slowly being re-established. (FIGURE: 8)

14

PRODUCTION

PRODUCTION

INJ. GAS

INJ. GAS

Valve Closed

Valve Closed

Valve Closed Valve Open

Valve Closed Valve Closed

Valve Open

Valve Open (Operating Valve)

SBHP 3,100 psi

FBHP 2,800 psi


DRAWDOWN INCREASING NOW AT 300 psi

FBHP 2,700 psi


DRAWDOWN NOW AT 400 psi WELL PRODUCTION AT DESIRED LEVEL

Figure: 7

The unloading of the well continues as in Figure: 7 and production is increasing as drawdown increases. Note that the upper gas lift valves have now closed and the injection gas is passing through valve No. 3. This occurs because the valves are constructed with a nitrogen filled bellows. While the valve is immersed in the casing liquid, the combined pressure of the injection gas and the liquid head will keep the valve open thus allowing the casing liquid to pass through the valve into the tubing.

15

This process continues until the supplied gas lift gas can no longer decrease the level in the casing. At this point the last valve to be uncovered will become the 'Operating Valve' and the well is back on near normal production. The operating valve is not necessarily the bottom valve of the system. The following picture is of a gas lifted well producing from the casing (or annulus) with injection gas into the tubing. The principle of operation is the same as previously discussed with some differences in the gas lift valve arrangements.

Gas lift gas injection to tubing

Xmas Tree
Production from Casing

Well Producing on Gas Lift to the Tubing and Production from the Casing Figure 8 on the following page shows a gas lifted well with the gas lift gas injection into the casing and production from the tubing. Note the gas lift gas metering unit and the choke control valve. Also note the injection of methanol into the gas lift gas. This is to prevent freezing of any small amounts of water in the gas when the gas lift gas is pressurereduced across the choke valve. Such icing within the choke would cause problems with the system and, as these well locations are generally remote, the arrival of an operator to solve the problem may take some time. Meanwhile, production would suffer losses.

16

P.R. (PRESSURE RECORDER) METHANOL (ANTI-FREEZE INJECTION) PRODUCTION LINE Pump

BLOWDOWN

VARIABLE CHOKE

TO GOSP
BLOWDOWN

INJECTION GAS F.R. (FLOW RECORDER)

Figure: 8

Figure: 9 on the following page, is a diagrammatic example of a gas lifted well with the gas lift gas injection into the tubing and production from the casing.

17

INJECTION GAS

PRODUCTION

'BULL' PLUGGED TUBING

OPERATING VALVE (UPPER VALVES CLOSED)

ANNULAR (CASING) PRODUCTION Figure: 9 - Gas lift gas to tubing - casing production

When a reservoir has been drilled (a number of wells may be drilled into the same formation), the well flowlines are fed to a manifold. This may be situated out in the field if the wells are some distance from the process facility. In this case, the production from many wells will be fed into a single production line to the plant facility. Other nearby wells may be piped to the plant either directly into a separator or to an inlet manifold feeding a bank of separators.

18

SECTION II - SEPARATION & SEPARATORS SEPARATOR FUNCTIONS


INTRODUCTION A SEPARATOR is a vessel in which a mixture of immiscible fluids are separated; e.g. Crude oil, Natural gas and Water. A separator may be a 'Horizontal', 'Vertical' or 'Spherical' vessel and generally consists of the following :-

1. 2. 3.

A primary separation section to remove the bulk of the liquid from the gas. Sufficient liquid capacity to handle surges of liquid from the line. Sufficient length or height to allow the small droplets to settle out by gravity (to prevent undue entrainment). A means of reducing turbulence in the main body of the separator so that proper settling may take place. A mist extractor to capture entrained droplets or those too small to settle by gravity.

4.

5.

Where a vessel is simply separating total liquid from gas, it is called a 'Two-Phase Separator' When the process requires the separation of two liquids and a gas, the separator is called a 'Three-Phase Separator'. 'Two or Three Phase separation', refers to the number of streams leaving the vessel and not the inlet fluid stream. Petroleum as produced from a reservoir is a complex mixture of hundreds of different compounds of hydrogen and carbon, all with different densities, vapour pressures, and other physical characteristics. A typical well stream is a high velocity, turbulent, constantly expanding mixture of gases and hydrocarbon liquids, intimately mixed with water vapour, free water, solids, and other contaminants. As it flows from the hot, high pressure petroleum reservoir, the well stream is undergoing continuous pressure and temperature reduction. Gases evolve from the liquids, water vapour condenses, and some of the well stream changes in character from liquid to free gas. The gas is carrying liquid mist droplets, and the liquid is carrying gas bubbles. The function of field processing is to remove undesirable components and to separate the well stream into sellable gas and petroleum liquids, recovering the maximum amounts of each at the lowest possible overall cost.

19

Field processing of natural gas actually consists of four basic processes:

1.

Separation of the gas from free liquids such as crude oil, hydrocarbon condensate, water, and entrained solids. Processing the gas to remove condensable and recoverable hydrocarbon vapours. Processing the gas to remove condensable water vapour which, under certain conditions, might cause hydrate formation. Processing the gas to remove other undesirable components, such as Hydrogen Sulphide and / or Carbon Dioxide.

2. 3. 4.

WELL FLUIDS & WELL CLASSIFICATION Fluid flow from a well can include gas, free water, condensable vapours (water or hydrocarbons), crude oil, and solid debris (basic sediment). The proportion of each component varies in different well streams. When water is produced with crude oil, it is mixed in either or both of the following forms: 1. FREE WATER: Water mixed with the oil but will separate easily into a clear layer when the mixture is allowed enough time to settle. Water can also be mixed with the oil in the form of very small droplets of water coated with oil. A mixture like this is called an EMULSION. Water in this case cannot be easily separated from oil.

2.

EMULSION:

As for the gas, it can be found in the well as: 1. SOLUTION GAS: Gas dissolved in the well fluids under the effect of pressure of the reservoir. As the fluids flow from the reservoir into the well and up to the surface, the pressure of the fluid decreases. The capacity of the liquid to hold gas in solution also decreases and gas starts to separate out of the oil. Gas that is NOT held in the oil under reservoir conditions.

2. 3.

FREE GAS:

ASSOCIATED GAS: Total gas produced with the oil in a crude oil well.

20

Wells are generally classified according to the type of fluid they produce in the greatest quantity. The main three types of well are: 1. CRUDE OIL WELL: A well that produces mostly crude oil with varying proportions of water, solution gas, possibly free gas and some solid debris. DRY GAS WELL: A well that produces mostly gas with no crude oil (or liquid hydrocarbon). The produced gas can contain some water.

2.

3.

GAS CONDENSATE WELL: A well that produces both gas and light liquid hydrocarbon (condensate) and maybe some water, but no crude oil.

Much of the hydrocarbon condensate is very light, and changes from liquid to vapour at near atmospheric conditions. Therefore, when they are produced from high-pressure reservoirs to a surface line at near atmospheric pressure, they vaporise. Gas, which is produced from a well together with oil, is called 'CASING HEAD GAS' or 'ASSOCIATED GAS'. Gas produced alone or with water is called NON ASSOCIATED GAS. This gas is produced from both dry gas wells and gas condensate wells. The following table shows well classifications, fluid compounds, and processing methods.
CLASS OF WELL
DRY GAS GAS CONDENSATE

FLUIDS IN RESERVOIR
GAS, POSSIBLY WATER GAS, POSSIBLY WATER CRUDE OIL, POSSIBLY GAS, POSSIBLY WATER

FLUIDS IN FLOW LINE


GAS, POSSIBLY WATER GAS CONDENSATE, POSSIBLY WATER CRUDE OIL, POSSIBLY GAS POSSIBLY WATER

PROCESSING STEPS WHICH MAY BE REQUIRED


SEPARATION, GAS DEHYDRATION SEPARATION, GAS & CONDENSATE DEHYDRATION SEPARATION, GAS DEHYDRATION

CRUDE OIL

Oil well fluids are produced normally in two phases - vapour and liquid. These two phases require entirely different handling, measuring, and processing methods. Therefore, it is necessary to separate the phases as soon as practical after leaving the wellhead. The basic equipment used for this purpose is the OIL & GAS SEPARATOR. Reservoir pressures are generally much higher than atmospheric pressure. As well fluids reach the surface, pressure on them is decreased. The liquid ability to hold gas in solution decreases, and the liquids begin to release 'Solution Gas'. Light fluids begin to separate naturally when the pressure on them is lowered. The solution gas released as Free Gas is held by the surface tension of the oil.

21

This free gas is released from the oil when the well fluids are warmed to reduce the surface tension of the oil. Gravity alone will eventually cause heavy components to settle out and light components to rise. In summary, there are variables which aid in the separation of a fluid stream. 1. Temperature of the fluids. 2. Pressure on the fluids. 3. Density of the components. In addition to using the force of gravity, modern separators make use of other forces to get the best possible separation of oil and gas. The way in which each of these forces is used can be better understood by following the flow of a mixture of oil and gas through a separator. SEPARATOR FUNCTIONS A wellstream separator must perform the following: A. Cause a primary phase separation of the liquid hydrocarbon from those that are Gas. B. Refine the primary separation by removing most of the entrained liquid mist from the gas. C. Further refine the separation by removing the entrained gas from the liquid. D. Discharge the separated gas and liquid from the vessel and ensure that no re-entrainment of one into the other takes place. If these functions are to be accomplished, the basic separator design must: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Control and dissipate the energy of the well stream as it enters the separator. Ensure that the gas and liquid flow rates are low enough so that gravity segregation and vapour-liquid equilibrium can occur. Minimise turbulence in the gas section of the separator and reduce velocity. Control the accumulation of froth and foam in the vessel. Eliminate re-entrainment of the separated gas and liquid. Provide an outlet for gases, with suitable controls to maintain the required operating pressure. Provide outlets for liquids, with suitable liquid-level controls. If necessary, provide clean-out ports at points where solids may accumulate. Provide relief for excessive pressure in case the gas or liquid outlets should be plugged. Provide equipment (Pressure gauges, Thermometers, and Liquid Level gauge assemblies), to check visually for proper operation.

Most platforms have a series of production separators, starting with a high-pressure separator, which separates the (HP) gas from the liquids. Liquids are then piped to a medium pressure (MP) separator, which removes more gas and then passes the liquids to a low pressure (LP) separator that removes even more gas and then separates water from the oil.

22

The water from the low-pressure separator is piped to a skim tank or to a drain pit, with the oil being piped to a metering and pumping station to be piped to other processes or storage tanks. Well fluid separation depends on the composition of the fluids, and on their pressure and temperature. The pressure of the fluids is controlled by the back - pressure regulator and the temperature may be regulated by expanding the fluids through a choke, by addition of heat in a furnace or by heating or cooling in a heat exchanger. Therefore, separators can be designed to handle fluids according to the fluid composition. Separators are built in various designs, such as horizontal and vertical. The internal structures of the vessel, to aid in the mechanical separation of the gas and liquids, are of a spherical design, depending upon the manufacturer. Although most separators are two - phase in design, separating the gas and total liquids, three - phase vessels can be built to separate natural gas, oil or other liquid hydrocarbons, and free water. The main principles used to achieve physical separation of gas and liquids are: GRAVITY SETTLING and COALESCING Any separator may employ one or more of these principles, but the fluid phases must be 'Immiscible' (cannot mix), and have 'Different Densities' for separation to occur. GRAVITY SETTLING: During the separation process, the gas is moving in an upward direction into the vapour section of the separator and the liquid particles are tending to fall to the vessel bottom under the influence of gravity. Gas will separate more quickly from a liquid when it is flowing 'HORIZONTALLY'. In a 'VERTICAL' separator, the gas is moving vertically upwards and the liquid droplets, due to gravity, are falling vertically downwards. The contra-flow of the two fluids therefore interferes with the flow paths and separation is slower. Generally, because of the above factors, the vapour section of a Horizontal separator will be of a smaller volume than that of a Vertical vessel.

23

COALESCING: Very small droplets such as fog or mist cannot be separated practically by gravity. However, they can be coalesced to form larger droplets that will separate out. Coalescing devices in separators force gas to follow a tortuous path. The momentum of the droplets causes them to collide with other droplets or with the coalescing device, forming larger droplets. These can then separate out of the gas phase due to the influence of gravity. Wire mesh screens, Vane elements, and Filter cartridges are typical examples of coalescing devices. Separation vessels usually contain four major sections, plus the necessary pressure and liquid level controls. These sections are: 1. Primary Separation Section:

For removing the bulk of the liquid from the inlet stream. For example, free liquids, slugs and large droplets. This is usually accomplished by a change in the direction of fluid flow, either by baffles or deflection plates near the inlet nozzle or by using a tangential inlet nozzle as in 'Tangential Feed' or 'Cyclone' separators which operate by centrifugal force being set up within the vessel. 2. Secondary Separation Section:

For removing the maximum amount of small liquid droplets without an elaborate design. The major separation principle in this section is by gravity settling of the liquid droplets from the vapour stream. 3. Mist Extraction Section:

For removing the maximum amount of tiny liquid droplets remaining in the gas stream. The mist extractor may be of the impingement type; (mesh pads) and/or may use the centrifugal force principle; (the vane type). 4. Liquid Accumulation Section:

For receiving and disposing of the liquid collected. Sufficient volume and proper level control equipment should be provided to handle surges that may occur during operations. The length of a horizontal separator has a greater effect on capacity than the height of a vertical type. In the horizontal vessel the path of any droplet ideally has a trajectory similar to that of a shell from a gun. Therefore, the length required depends on: 1. Droplet size. 2. Gas velocity. 3. Droplet density. 4. Vessel diameter. 5. Degree of turbulence

24

In the above picture, the system consists of three separators - all are 3-phase separation vessels. The 1st stage on the right, is the Low Pressure suction KO drum to a LP compressor, the 2nd stage (in the middle), is the Medium Pressure separator - discharge from the LP compressor and, suction to the HP compressor. The 3rd drum, on the left, is the final separation stage for the HP discharge gas. Cooling stages are installed after each discharge. Separated water is usually dumped to a disposal pit. The gas condensate will then be metered and pumped to further treatment facilities and, the gas will be metered and go on to further processing units. The following diagrams depict common types of separator.

25

TYPES OF SEPARATOR
1. GAS / LIQUID SEPARATORS

A. The simplest type of Horizontal separator is shown in Figure : 10. They are used to separate a two or three-phase inlet fluid into liquids and gas. The vessel inlet and gas outlet nozzles, consist of curved pipes which cause a change in direction of the inlet flow and the gas outlet. The liquid particles fall to the vessel bottom by gravity, while the gas rises to the top. This type of simple separator is not very efficient. B. The 'Knock-Out Drum' is another simple type of separator as shown in Figure : 11. It is used to separate a two or three phase inlet fluid into liquid(s) and gas. The vessel inlet flow generally hits an inlet deflector plate to begin the separation process. Between the inlet and the gas outlet, some form of de-misting element may be installed which can be a wire mesh 'screen' or 'pad' or an angled vane type. The demister construction presents a large surface area to the liquid mist entrained in the gas which causes small droplets of liquid to coalesce into larger drops which fall to the vessel bottom by gravity. The gas outlet nozzle exits the gas from the vessel above the demister screen

HORIZONTAL TYPE 2 PHASE FLUID INLET GAS OUTLET

GAS LIQUID LEVEL

LIQUIDS OUTLET

Figure : 10 - Separator

26

VERTICAL TYPE

GAS OUTLET

2 PHASE FLUID INLET

GAS

LIQUIDS

LIQUIDS OUTLET

Figure : 11 - K.O. Drum FACTORS AFFECTING SEPARATION The following table shows some of the factors that affect separation :-

SEPARATION FACTOR

EFFECT OF THE FACTOR

1. Difference in Fluid Densities

The greater the difference in densities, the easier the separation. The longer the fluids are in the separator, the better the separation. The greater the area of the coalescing element, the better the separation.

2. Residence Time

3. Coalescing Element Surface Area

27

HORIZONTAL SEPARATORS Figure 12, is a field separator labelled as an actual operating unit together with control systems (The 'M's' are the inlet manifolds). After separation and metering, the oil and gas are re-combined and piped to the main production line feeding the plant GOSP facility. This operation saves the need for two pipelines - gas and oil - to the main facility where they will be separated along with other produced wells.

PRODUCTION LINES FROM FIELD MANIFOLDS


M.1 M.2

TO FLARE SYSTEM
FR TI S/V INSTRUMENT GAS FI

3 PHASE FLOW

S/V's

PIC PG PCV LG LIC


KO DRUM

PICV

GAS OIL WATER


LIC

LG

DEMULSIFIER M.5. M.4 M.3


PDM

PI METERED OIL & GAS TO GOSP LCV


FI

METERED WATER TO DISPOSAL LCV TO DRAIN

LEGEND:

M = Manifold. FT = Flow Transmitter. FI = Flow Indicator. TI = Temperature Indicator. PG = Pressure Gauge. PI = Pressure Indicator. PIC = Pressure Indicating Controller. LIC = Level Indicating Controller. LI = Level Indicator. LG = Level Gauge (Glass). KO = Knock Out Drum (Separator). PSV = Pressure Safety Valve

Figure: 12 - Typical, Single tube, 3-Phase Separator and Control System.

28

Figure 13, Shows a typical horizontal, Single tube, 3 - phase separator internal arrangement. Figure 14, Shows a Double tube, 2 - phase separator internal arrangement.

HORIZONTAL SEPARATOR

SAFETY VALVE CONNECTION INLET FLUID DEFLECTOR 3 - PHASE FLUID INLET PRIMARY SEPARATION BAFFLE PLATES SECONDARY SEPARATION BAFFLE PLATES

GAS OUTLET MIST EXTRACTION SECTION

OIL & WATER

OIL WATER

OIL WATER

OIL

WATER OUTLET Figure: 13 - Typical Horizontal, Single tube, Separator Internals

OIL OUTLET

29

UPPER TUBE

LOWER TUBE

Figure: 14 - Double-tube Horizontal Separator LEGEND: A: D: Fluid Inlet. B: Primary Separation Section. C: Liquid Down-pipes to Lower Tube. E: Gas Outlet. Secondary Separation Section. F. Liquid Outlet

30

VERTICAL SEPARATORS

SAFETY VALVE CONNECTION PIC GAS DEMISTER PAD 3 PHASE FLUID INLET LIC H/C LIQUID OUTLET
LICV
LIQUIDS INTERFACE

PICV HYDROCARBON LIQUID LIC WATER

GAS OUTLET

LICV

FREE WATER TO DISPOSAL

Figure : 15 - Typical Knock-Out Drum (3-Phase)

C.

The Tangential or Cyclone Separator

(Figures : 16 & 17).

This type operates by centrifugal force. It is used to separate a two or three phase inlet fluid into liquid(s) and gas. The inlet flow enters the vessel side at a tangent to the circumference. This causes the fluids to rotate at high speed inside the drum. The centrifugal force of rotation causes the heavier liquid particles to be forced downwards while the lighter gases are forced upwards. Again, a demister screen may be installed near the vessel top to coalesce liquid droplets from the gas and drop them back into the liquid.

31

Some de-misters consist of 'Packing' type materials like 'Raschig Rings', 'Ceramic Saddles' or other suitable materials. As seen in Figure: 17 Note: Demister screens can become fouled and lose efficiency. From time to time, it is necessary to shut down the separator and remove the demister for cleaning or renewal.

GAS OUTLET THE ROTATING, CENTRIFUGE ACTION CAUSES THE HEAVIER COMPONENTS (LIQUID AND HEAVY MATERIAL) TO FALL TO THE BOTTOM. THE LIGHTER COMPONENTS , (GASES), RISE TO THE TOP. 2-PHASE FLUID TANGENTIAL INLET GAS OUTLET SAFETY VALVE CONNECTION

2-PHASE FLUID TANGENTIAL INLET

LIQUID OUTLET TOP VIEW

Figure 16:

Tangential or Cyclone Separator

32

GAS OUTLET

FLUID INLET

TANGENTIAL FLOW

LIQUID OUTLET

Figure 17:

Two-Phase Cyclone Separator

The two magnified drawings indicate 2 types of demister systems that may be used in separators. A. Represents 'Conical Impingement' contacting devices. B. Shows a packed bed of loose 'Raschig Rings'. Each type coalesces the droplets of mist entrained in the gas and, as they form larger droplets, they fall into the bottom liquid. (Droplet size is exaggerated)

33

2.

LIQUID / LIQUID SEPARATORS

This type of separator is referred to as a 'Coalescer' and is used to separate two immiscible liquids like hydrocarbon and water emulsions. Tiny water droplets entrained in the hydrocarbon liquid would take a long time to separate out in a conventional separator. The Coalescer vessel contains 'Filter' type elements, generally made of fibre-glass. As the mixed liquids pass through the elements, the heavier (more dense) water droplets are slowed down and stick to the fibre-glass surfaces of the elements where, as more droplets collide with them, they coalesce into larger drops and fall to the bottom of the vessel and flow into a 'Boot' in the vessel bottom. The lighter hydrocarbon liquid rises to, and leaves by the top, of the Coalescer. The Coalescer is operated 'Liquid Full' and, should any gases be released during the process, they are vented to flare or fuel system by automatic 'Vent-trap' systems in order to maintain the liquid-filled state of the vessel. (If gases were allowed to build up in the vessel, the liquid level in the vessel would be forced down by the gas. This would gradually decrease the efficiency of the Coalescer operation). (See Figures : 18 & 18A)

HYDROCARBON LIQUID CONTAINING TINY DROPLETS OF FREE WATER FIBRE-GLASS ELEMENTS

HYDROCARBON LIQUID

THE FIBRE-GLASS ELEMENTS GATHER AND COALESCE THE DROPLETS OF WATER WHICH COLLECT IN THE BOTTOM OF THE VESSEL. NOTE: THE HYDROCARBON LIQUID WILL STILL CONTAIN SOME WATER OF SOLUBILITY THAT THE COALESCER CANNOT REMOVE

FREE WATER

Figure: 18: Coalescer

34

TO FLARE SYSTEM PURGE GAS FROM FUEL SYSTEM VENT TRAPS

FE / FIC PICV PIC S/Vs SURGE DRUM / COALESCER LdIC 'B'


LdIC 'A'

FICV

LIC

GAS DOME

COALESCER ELEMENTS SEPARATOR ELEMENTS FROM SHUTDOWN SYSTEM

VENT TRAP

FT LdICV 'B' LdICV 'A'

TO CONTROL ROOM

DRAIN SYSTEM
FROM OTHER DRAIN SYSTEMS

FE / FI DRAIN HEADER

LICV

DRY H/C LIQUID TO FURTHER PROCESSING

WATER TO DISPOSAL
WET HYDROCARBON LIQUID

Figure: 18a: Coalescer with Controls

35

LOW PRESSURE SEPARATION

(Recovery of Naphtha-rich Gases)

After the 1st - Stage (High Pressure - HP) and 2nd - Stage (Medium Pressure - MP) separators (GOSPS), the liquids, (oil & water) still contain some heavy solution gases rich in Naphtha compounds Propane, Butane & heavier. The liquids are piped to further separation units to recover this heavy gas. The first unit is called a 'Degassing Boot' where the liquids are decreased to a Low Pressure (LP) causing most of the gas to be released from the liquid and piped to a compressor station. The liquids leaving the degassing boot, is finally passed via an Oil Boot into a 'Surge Tank' where the pressure is decreased to just above atmospheric causing most of the last traces of gas to leave the liquid as Very Low Pressure (VLP) gas that is then piped to a small compressor where its pressure is increased to that of the LP boot gas and added to it. The total gas stream is then compressed further, cooled and the resulting condensate (C3 + Naphtha) is separated, metered and put to other processes. The lighter gases in the surge tank, the oil and water are also separated. (A demulsifying agent is added to the liquids upstream of the degassing system to speed up the separation of the water from the oil). The water is then pumped to a de-oiling station and drained away to a disposal pit. The oil is metered and pumped to storage for distribution. The following diagrams and picture show such a degassing system. (Figures: 19 & 20, & photo)

36

FOUR STAGES OF SEPARATION

HIGH PRESSURE (HP) GAS

MEDIUM PRESSURE (MP) GAS

INLET FROM WELLS (3-PHASE FLOW)

1st STAGE SEPARATORS

2nd STAGE SEPARATORS 3-PHASE FLOW

LOW PRESSURE (LP) GAS VERY LOW PRESSURE (VLP) GAS COMPRESSOR

GAS

OIL
3-PHASE FLOW

3-PHASE FLOW

WATER
SURGE TANK DEGASSING BOOT SALT WATER CRUDE OIL

Figure: 19 Degassing System

37

S/V

SURGE TANK

S/V

PERFORATED PIPE

LP GAS TO COMPRESSION OIL BOOT

FLOW SPREADER

VORTEX BREAKER

DEGASSING BOOT VLP GAS TO COMPRESSION WATER TO (SWD) SALT WATER DISPOSAL PUMPS OIL TO BOOSTER PUMPS, METERING & MAIN LINE PUMPS TO STORAGE

3-PHASE FLUID FLOW FROM 2nd STAGE GOSPS

Figure: 20

DEGASSING BOOT SURGE (DEGASSING) TANK


LP GAS OUTLET

OIL BOOT
VLP GAS OUTLETS

MP, 3-PHASE FLUID FROM 2nd STAGE GOSPS

38

SECTION III - DEHYDRATION - GENERAL DESCRIPTION Before starting on the processes used in the treatment of natural gas for the removal of water vapour, look at the following diagrams that show definitions of 'Absorption' and 'Adsorption'. ABSORPTION : Uses liquid desiccants to take in gases. These liquids are called 'Absorbents' and are used not only for water removal but also to remove other unwanted gases from the natural gas, such as: -

Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2). These processes use different absorbents to the Glycol used in dehydration. These processes are discussed in other booklets. Absorption then is: - 'The ability of some liquids to 'Take in' or 'Absorb' gases' ADSORPTION : Uses solid desiccants. These are called 'Adsorbents' and are generally in the form of pellets or granules. Adsorption processes are used for the removal of any unwanted impurities mainly from gases or liquids such as: -

Water Vapour (H2O), Hydrocarbon Compounds and other undesirable substances. Adsorption then is: - 'The ability of the molecules of some solids, to hold on their surface, molecules of other substances Gases, Liquids or Solids'. e.g. A cigarette filter will adsorb nicotine and tar; A car oil filter will adsorb solid particles from the circulating oil; Blotting paper will adsorb ink or other liquid etc. See Figures: 21 & 22

39

EXAMPLE OF ABSORPTION MINERAL WATER SUCH AS 'PEPSI' CONTAINS 'ABSORBED' CO2 UNDER PRESSURE. 'ABSORPTION' IS THE ABILITY OF SOME LIQUIDS TO 'TAKE-IN' OR 'ABSORB' GASES. IN NATURAL GAS PROCESSING, 'GLYCOL' IS USED TO DEHYDRATE NATURAL GAS BY ABSORBING THE WATER VAPOUR

WHEN THE BOTTLE CAP IS REMOVED, A 'HISS' IS HEARD AS THE PRESSURE IS RELEASED. THE ABSORBED GAS 'STRIPS' OUT OF THE LIQUID AS BUBBLES AND ESCAPES TO THE ATMOSPHERE. THESE PRINCIPLES OF 'ABSORPTION' AND 'STRIPPING' ARE USED IN GAS PROCESSING TO REMOVE WATER AND OTHER IMPURITIES.

Figure: 21

40

EXAMPLE OF ADSORPTION CONTAMINATED PRODUCT INLET


REGENERATION MEDIUM OUTLET

ADSORBENT BEDS

MOLECULES OF SOLID ADSORBENT

MOLECULES OF IMPURITIES

SUPPORT GRIDS REGENERATION MEDIUM INLET

CLEAN PRODUCT OUTLET

Figure: 22 Most produced natural gas contains water. Some of this water is called 'FREE' water, (liquid phase) and may be removed by passing the gas through a separator or scrubber. After scrubbing, the gas will still contain Water Vapour. This is the water we are concerned about in this discussion. The term 'DEHYDRATION' is a process of 'WATER REMOVAL' from a substance or the Drying of a substance. The process of water vapour removal from the natural gas stream is carried out by a process of 'ABSORPTION' (using a LIQUID desiccant), or 'ADSORPTION' (using a SOLID desiccant). In many systems we use the 'Absorption' processes - with a liquid desiccant called 'GLYCOL'. (Generally Tri-Ethylene Glycol (TEG). The process is carried out in towers called 'ABSORBERS' or 'CONTACTORS'.

41

In some processes, the water vapour is removed from natural gas by 'Adsorption' using a solid desiccant called 'Activated Alumina' (Aluminium Oxide), or 'Molecular Sieve' in a 'Drying' process. Other processes using the Adsorbent principle are: - Instrument air systems generally use 'Silica Gel' adsorbent; Activated Charcoal is used to remove hydrocarbons and other impurities from a process stream etc. GENERAL DEHYDRATION OF NATURAL GAS All of the medium, low and very low pressure gases from the gosps and degassing areas are compressed to the same pressure and added to, the high pressure, first stage gosp gas. The wet HP gas then enters the absorber tower bottom and flows upwards through contacting devices (Raschig rings .. etc, or Bubble-caps). The glycol (called LEAN glycol), enters the tower top and flows down across the contacting devices which give intimate contact between the rising gas and down-flowing glycol . Dry gas leaves the top of the tower and goes for further processing while the wet glycol, (now called RICH glycol), leaves the tower bottom and passes to the glycol 'REGENERATOR' or 'RECONCENTRATOR' where, by DISTILLATION, the water is vaporised out and passed to the atmosphere as steam. The rich glycol, is then re-circulated around the dehydration unit. (See Figures: 23 & 24)

42

DRY GAS TO COMPRESSION

RISING DRY GAS DEMISTERS

LEAN GLYCOL

RISING WET GAS

FALLING GLYCOL

WET GAS INLET RICH GLYCOL TO REGENERATION

GAS CANNOT PASS UP THE DOWNCOMERS DUE TO THE LIQUID SEAL FORMED BY THE TRAY BELOW.

Figure: 23 - Operation of a Bubble - Cap Tower

43

GAS WEIR TOWER WALLS

RISER

BUBBLE CAP

GLYCOL GAS TRAY DOWNCOMER

TRAYS

Figure: 24 - Operation of Bubble-caps

The up-flowing gas has to pass through the RISER and into the BUBBLE CAPS. The cap turns the gas flow through 180 forcing it into the liquid on the tray. The gas bubbles through the glycol and gives up water vapour to the liquid and, after the top tray, the gas passes through a demister screen that coalesces glycol mist into droplets which fall back down the tower. The trays are fitted with 'DOWNCOMERS', (Weirs), that maintain a liquid level on the tray and carry the glycol down to the tray below and so on down the tower. the down flowing glycol becomes 'Richer' (absorbs more water) as it flows across each tray to the bottom of the tower. The rich absorbent is then piped to the REGENERATION unit. The dry gas leaving the tower top, goes to a knock-out drum to separate entrained glycol should any be carried over with the gas. This glycol, if any, is returned to the glycol system. See Figure: 25

44

DRY GAS ABSORBER (CONTACTOR) TOWER WET FEED GAS STILL COLUMN
VAPOUR

WATER VAPOUR

REBOILER

FREE WATER K.O. DRUM RICH GLYCOL

SEMI-LEAN GLYCOL
GLYCOL DRUM

FREE WATER

LEAN GLYCOL ABSORPTION SECTION GLYCOL REGENERATION SECTION

Figure: 25 - Simplified Dehydration Unit

The presence of water vapour in natural gas can lead to many problems. The dehydration of natural gas is therefore carried out for the following reasons: Water vapour reduces the ability of gas to flow in the flowlines and process systems. Water vapour causes corrosion in lines and equipment. At low temperature, water vapour & hydrocarbons form hydrates - complicated molecules of hydrocarbon liquid and water, causing blockage of lines and equipment.

Natural gas may contain from 10 to 300 pounds of water vapour per million cubic feet of gas produced - (10 to 300 lb. water/mmcf), depending on the temperature and pressure of the natural gas; the warmer the gas, the more water vapour it will contain. Tri-Ethylene Glycol (TEG) dehydration systems are the most common means used for the process. When lean TEG is brought into contact with wet natural gas, it absorbs the water vapour from the gas stream.

45

The picture below shows two absorber towers using Tri-ethylene Glycol as absorbent for the dehydration of Natural Gas. The towers each have sixteen bubble-cap trays as contacting devices to give intimate contact between the rising gas and down-flowing glycol.

Absorber Towers

The pictures on the next page view a Glycol Regeneration Unit from each side: -

46

Flue Stack Still Column Water Vapour to Atmosphere

Gas Fired Reboiler

Reboiler Fuel Control Area

Glycol Receiver

Glycol Filters Glycol Pumps (Centrifugal) Glycol Flash Tank & Level Control

47

PRINCIPLES AND OPERATION OF GLYCOL DEHYDRATION UNIT DESCRIPTION OF PROCESS AND EQUIPMENT In the contactor, the up-flowing gas gives up water vapour to the glycol flowing down from the top tray. At the tower top, the dry gas passes through mist extractor elements and then leaves the contactor top to go on to other processes. The mist extractor coalesces fine particles of liquid into large droplets which fall back into the glycol passing down the tower. In this way, glycol carry-over with the gas stream is minimised. See Figure: 26. Referring to Figure: 48, the wet natural gas enters the bottom of the glycol contactor tower and rises through the column where it is brought into contact with the lean glycol flowing downwards across bubble cap trays.

DEMISTER SCREENS (OR PADS) PLACED AT THE TOP, INSIDE A TOWER OR SEPARATOR; CONSIST OF WOVEN WIRE MESH THAT PRESENTS A LARGE SURFACE AREA TO THE VAPOUR. THIS ALLOWS FINE DROPLETS AND MIST TO COALESCE AND FALL BACK INTO THE TOWER BOTTOM LIQUID.

WIRE MESH PADS

TOWER WALLS

MAGNIFIED VIEW EXAMPLE OF WIRE MESH DEMISTERS

Figure: 26 - Demister Pad Operation

48

The absorption of water vapour during the process, gradually dilutes (weakens) the glycol. The rich (dilute) solution collects in the bottom of the glycol contactor tower from where it is discharged to the glycol regeneration unit by way of a level control system. At the regeneration unit, the wet glycol flows first to the glycol flash tank where a pressure drop takes place causing the dissolved gases to leave the glycol as it passes into the flash tank. (This is similar to opening a bottle of Pepsi for example. As the cap is removed, the gas bubbles out of the liquid). Flash tank pressure is controlled by a PCV in the gas line. (The released gas may be piped to a flare or fuel system or may be passed into the still column). The rich glycol leaves the bottom of the flash tank under level control and passes through a 'Reflux coil' placed in the top of the still column. (This will be explained later). After the reflux coil, the glycol is filtered and then passed through a double-pipe heat exchanger to be heated by the regenerated 'lean' glycol leaving the unit reboiler. (This in turn, cools the regenerated (lean) glycol). The rich glycol now enters the still column at the top tray (below the reflux coil), and flows down across the bubble-cap trays. THE REFLUX COIL The cool, rich glycol as it passes through the reflux coil, picks up heat from the hot, rising gases passing up the tower from the reboiler. These hot vapours consist of water vapour (steam), entrained gases and glycol vapour. The exchange of heat between the liquid in the reflux coil and the rising hot vapours causes the glycol vapour to condense and drop back down the still column. Some water vapour will also condense but, as it drops back, it is re-vaporised on the top trays of the column. These liquids dropping down from the reflux coil form the internal reflux in the tower thus controlling the tower top temperature and therefore the final separation process. Above the reflux coil, the uncondensed vapour consisting of water vapour and entrained gases pass from the tower top to atmospheric vent stack. Improper operation of the still column - excess vapour flow, fouling of the reflux coil, low flow rate of rich glycol through the coil .. etc, will result in glycol vapour remaining uncondensed and escaping to atmosphere causing glycol losses. As the glycol flows down the tower across the contacting devices, the absorbed water is stripped out by hot rising vapours from the reboiler. The glycol, as it collects in the still column bottom section, is now partially regenerated and is referred to as 'Semi-lean' glycol. It is then passed into the reboiler for final water removal.

49

Generally, the reboiler is of the 'Fire-tube' type and contains a 'weir' which ensures that the fire tube is completely immersed in glycol. (In systems that have separate reboiler and still column, the weir also maintains the level in the still column bottom). In the reboiler, the glycol flows over the weir and enters a stripping section containing Raschig rings or other contacting devices. (Extra stripping action may be provided by an injection of dry stripping gas into the reboiler stripping section). On leaving the reboiler, the lean glycol passes through the glycol/glycol exchanger into the glycol accumulator (or storage drum) from where the circulation pumps take suction and discharge the glycol back to the contactor via the glycol cooler, to complete the circuit. (In some small field units, the still column may be a packed type and is usually an integral part of the reboiler). (See Figures: 27 & 28).

50

ABSORBER TOWER
TOWER BYPASS PRESSURISING GAS

DRY GAS TO COMPRESSION WATER VAPOUR TO VENT STACK STILL COLUMN


REFLUX COIL FLUE GASES

TRAY TOWER FLASH GAS TO FLARE

TRAY TOWER

RICH GLYCOL PIC VAPOUR


SDV

FROM FUEL SYSTEM

PIC LIC

REBOILER

FUEL
STRIPPING GAS

FIC

BLANKET GAS

GLYCOL MAKEUP

FILTER
FLASH LIC TANK GLYCOL / GLYCOL EXCHANGER RECYCLE

VENT

PCV

DRAIN

GLYCOL RECEIVER DRAINS

WET FEED GAS


PUMP-OUT TO STORAGE

LEAN GLYCOL COOLER

FIC

LEAN GLYCOL PUMPS

Figure: 27 - Complete Glycol Unit - Absorption & Regeneration

51

WATER VAPOUR & WASTE GASES

REFLUX COIL ATMOSPHERIC VENT STACK STILL COLUMN (PACKED TYPE)


FROM FUEL SYSTEM

STACK

TIC

TICV

FIC

SDV FIRE-TUBE REBOILER


FUEL STRIPPING GAS

FICV

GLYCOL / GLYCOL EXCHANGER

BLANKET GAS FILTER GLYCOL MAKE-UP

PCV LEAN GLYCOL ACCUMULATOR


DRAIN L.G.

FROM ABSORBER TO ABSORBER


'TRIPLEX' PISTON PUMPS

Figure: 28 - Package type Glycol Unit as used in Field Locations

52

Figure: 29. Shows the 'Double-pipe, Glycol/glycol exchanger, in more detail.

SHELL HOT FLUID INLET SHELL BYPASS TUBE-SIDE HOT FLUID OUTLET

TUBE-SIDE BYPASS

TUBE-SIDE COOL FLUID INLET

SHELL COOL FLUID OUTLET

DOUBLE-PIPE HEAT EXCHANGER Figure: 29 - Double-pipe Glycol/Glycol Exchanger

53

PACKING BEDS ARE USED TO BRING VAPOUR AND LIQUID INTO INTIMATE CONTACT WITHIN THE TOWER. THEY PROVIDE A LARGE SURFACE AREA FOR THIS PURPOSE. THE EXAMPLE BELOW SHOWS A BED OF CERAMIC 'RASCHIG' RINGS. OTHER MATERIALS MAY BE USED e.g. STAINLESS STEEL 'PALL RINGS', BROKEN TILE, CERAMIC SADDLES .. ETC.

SUPPORT GRID

TYPES OF RASCHIG RING

Figure: 30 - Types of Packing Used in Some Still Columns

54

ALTERNATIVE DEHYDRATION PROCESS PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION This dehydration process differs from other gas plants in two ways :

1.

The glycol used to remove water from the wet gas is MONO-ETHYLENE glycol (MEG) instead of TRI-ETHYLENE glycol (TEG) which is used in most other fields. (See Table of Comparison) MEG HO(C2H4O)H 387 1.1 240 TEG HO(C2H4O)3H 549 1.1 330

Formula Boiling Point (F) Specific Gravity Flash Point (F)

2.

The lean glycol (MEG) is injected into the wet gas via various points in the system - (i.e. there is no contactor or absorption tower.

The injection of glycol will prevent the freezing of the water in the gas when a refrigerant (usually propane) is used to cool the gas to below 0 F for glycol recovery. The rich glycol is collected, separated from gas condensate in a two section separator and then sent to a glycol regeneration system similar to the systems used in other field plants. It is important to keep the Reflux Coil in the Still column at a temperature sufficient to condense the MEG and allow only water vapour to pass to the vent stack to atmosphere. The lean glycol (after regeneration) is returned from the reboiler to the injection points.

55

REFRIGERANT CONDENSER

S/V
PROPANE SURGE DRUM

PIC
HOT GAS BYPASS

VAPOUR REFRIGERANT

PIC
PROPANE REFRIGERANT COMPRESSOR

FRACT'n O/H GAS GLYCOL INJ'n

LIQUID REFRIGERANT

FIC VAPOUR O/H's CHILLER

FIC
WARM GAS INLET

LIC INLET GAS CHILLER


TO SEPARATOR

LIC
EXPANSION VALVE

EXPANSION VALVE

COOL GAS TO FEED GAS EXCHANGERS

Figure: 31 - Glycol injection system and Propane Refrigeration Unit MAIN OPERATING VARIABLES AND LIMITS In order to understand the operating mechanism of the glycol dehydration process, it is necessary to consider and understand the effect of the following four major variables: 1. 2. 3. 4. Temperature Pressure Glycol flow-rate Glycol concentration

56

1.

TEMPERATURE

Temperature of the incoming wet natural gas to the contactor is very important, and is the key factor affecting the potential use of a glycol dehydrator. This can be seen clearly by looking at the following points : The higher the gas temperature, the more water it will contain in vapour form. If the temperature of the wet natural gas is around 140F or above, the natural gas does not want to give up the water vapour to the glycol. On the other hand, if the natural gas temperature is 40F or below, the glycol becomes viscous and does not want to pick-up the water vapour. Therefore, dehydration will take place at temperatures between 50 to 130F. The best results will be obtained between 80 and 110F . The temperature of the lean glycol entering the top tray of the contactor tower should be 10 to 15 F above the temperature of the gas to be treated. If the glycol temperature is too much higher than the gas temperature, the glycol will tend to foam and be carried out of the contactor tower with the gas.

Conversely, if the glycol temperature is much lower than the gas temperature, liquid hydrocarbons (condensate) will tend to form and fall to the bottom of the contactor tower causing problems in the glycol regeneration system. 2. PRESSURE

At constant temperature, the lower the pressure, the higher the water content of the inlet gas. Other than affecting the water content of the inlet gas stream, pressure has very little effect on the mechanics of glycol dehydration. 3. GLYCOL CIRCULATION FLOW-RATE

Determining the proper glycol circulation rate is not an easy task due to several limitations and considerations involved. There are many factors that must be considered but, for simplicity, over a normal pressure range up to 1200 psi, about 3 to 5 gallons of glycol must be circulated for every pound of water removed at a 55 F dew point depression. This quantity of glycol is based on equilibrium conditions, plant design, glycol concentration and other factors, and is calculated by the Plant Chemists.

57

4.

GLYCOL CONCENTRATION

Since the main objective of natural gas dehydration is maximum dew point depression, relatively high glycol concentrations are used. The usual practice is to introduce, at the top of the glycol contactor tower, a solution of regenerated glycol with a concentration ranging from 97 to 99 %, and to remove the solution from the base of the contactor tower at a glycol concentration of 80 to 90 %. In general, high glycol concentrations will give larger dew point depression (the larger the better), if the glycol circulation flow-rate is proportional to the water content of the feed gas. GLYCOL REGENERATION PROCESS AND EQUIPMENT THE GLYCOL REBOILER The glycol regeneration process is very important to maintain the correct concentration of the lean glycol. Refer to Figures: 50 & 52 for the equipment used in the Glycol Regeneration Process. The glycol reboiler is the main piece of equipment that plays this role in the regeneration process. The reboiler supplies heat to separate the glycol and water by a simple distillation process. The system consists of a ' U ' shaped, combustion chamber with gas burners, set into the shell of the reboiler and includes an outlet stack for the waste combustion gases. The shell also contains a ' Weir ' that maintains the level of glycol above the fire-tube in order to prevent overheating of the tube and subsequent damage and/or glycol decomposition by excess heat. (See Figure: 32)

58

VAPOUR OUTLET

STACK

WEIR
PRODUCT SECTION FIRE-TUBE

LIQUID LEVEL

DISTRIBUTOR

IN THIS SECTION, THE WEIR MAINTAINS A LIQUID LEVEL ABOVE THE FIRE-TUBE TO PREVENT OVERHEATING FEED

STRIPPING GAS CONTROLLED FUEL SUPPLY

LEAN GLYCOL

Figure: 32 - Fire-tube Reboiler

The temperature of the reboiler should be in the range of 375 to 390 F. This temperature will usually give good distillation of the rich glycol and evaporate all water out of it. The glycol should never be heated above 400 F as it begins to decompose above that temperature. Note: When making adjustments to reboiler temperature, never increase the temperature setting by more than five degrees at a time. Too great an increase will cause the control system to open the fuel gas valve too wide, giving a large burner flame which in turn will cause flame impingement on the inside of the fire-tube. This will lead to ' Hot-spots ' and cause damage to the fire-tube and breakdown of the glycol into corrosive organic acids. If coke , salts or tar deposits form on the fire tube, the heat transfer into the glycol is reduced, the control system will increase the fuel to maintain the glycol temperature and tube failure can result. Localised overheating, especially where salt deposits accumulate, will decompose the glycol.

59

Salt deposits can be detected by shutting off the burner on the glycol reboiler system at night and looking down the fire-box. A bright red glow will be visible at the hot spots on the fire tube walls where salt deposits have collected. An analysis of the glycol will determine the degree of the contamination. It is highly recommended that, during a plant start-up, make sure the reboiler is up to the desired operating temperature before flowing gas through the contactor . Some fires have been caused by leaks in the gas lines near the fire-box. The best precaution is to have valves and regulators in the gas line at a suitable distance from the firebox. Another very effective measure is the addition of a flame arrestor around the fire-box. If the flame arrestor is properly designed, even severe gas leaks in the immediate vicinity of the fire-box will not ignite. OPERATING PROBLEMS AND GLYCOL CARE Most operating and technical problems usually occur when the circulating glycol solution gets dirty. In order to get a long, trouble-free life with the glycol system, it's necessary and very important to recognise these problems and know how to prevent them. Some of the major problems are :1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. GLYCOL LOSS FOAMING THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF GLYCOL DEW POINT CONTROL GLYCOL pH CONTROL SALT CONTAMINATION GLYCOL OXIDATION SLUDGE FORMATION

60

1.

GLYCOL LOSS

The physical loss of glycol is probably the most important operating problem in the dehydration system. Most dehydration units are designed for a loss of less than 0.10 gallons of glycol per million cubic feet of natural gas treated. However, if the system is not operated properly, the loss might be much higher than this. The glycol contactor (the absorber) and glycol regenerator are the most common places in the dehydration system where about 90% of glycol loss occurs. High gas velocity through the glycol contactor will cause carryover of glycol into the pipeline and a poor mist eliminator (mist extractor) in the top of the glycol contactor will pass some glycol even at normal gas velocity . The glycol losses occurring in the glycol regenerator are usually caused by excessive reboiler temperature which causes vaporisation or thermal decomposition of glycol (TEG). Also, excessive top temperature in the still column allows vaporised glycol to escape from the still column to atmosphere with the water vapour. 2. FOAMING

Foaming of glycol is another problem frequently encountered. It can increase glycol loss and reduce the plant capacity. Entrained glycol will carry over from the contactor (absorber) with the sales gas. Also, foaming can cause poor contact between the gas and the glycol solution ; therefore , the drying efficiency is decreased. The best cure for glycol foaming, is the proper care of the glycol solution. The most important measures in the program are, effective gas cleaning ahead of the glycol system and good filtration of the glycol solution. De-foaming agents such as Mono-ethanolamine (MEA) are widely used to control the problem. However, it's very important to point out that, the use of these does not solve the basic problem, and its only a temporary measure until the cause of the foaming can be determined and eliminated. Some factors that can cause foaming are: Low glycol solution concentration to the contactor. High differential temperature between wet gas inlet and lean glycol inlet to the contactor. High glycol pH - (Note: Basic glycol solution of pH > 9 tends to foam and emulsify) Hydrocarbon liquids (condensate) Finely divided suspended solids Salt contamination Field corrosion inhibitors

61

3.

THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF GLYCOL

It has been established that the glycol reboiler temperature is limited by the Tri-ethylene Glycol decomposition temperature , and glycol vaporisation losses. Laboratory data indicates that glycol (TEG) is thermally stable up to about 400F. Excessive heat as a result of one or more of the following conditions will decompose the Tri-Ethylene glycol (TEG) and form corrosive compounds . A high reboiler temperature above the glycol decomposition level. Localised overheating, caused by deposits of salt or tarry compounds on the reboiler fire tube or by flame impingement on the fire tube

4.

DEW POINT CONTROL

Dew Point' is the temperature at which the water vapour first starts to condense to liquid. In industry, the dew point is used to indicate the water vapour content in the gas stream. For the dew point to have meaning as a descriptive term , the pressure at which it is determined must be stated . When the dew point depression of the treated gas is too low, there can be several causes such as; Low glycol circulation rate; Low lean glycol concentration - i.e poor regeneration of the rich glycol solution; Foaming (leads to poor contact between the wet gas and the lean glycol solution); Blocked or dirty contacting devices in the absorber tower; High gas velocity in the contactor .... etc. Check the glycol circulation rate. Check the glycol reboiler temperature and make sure its on the right setting. If temperature setting is normal , verify the reboiler temperature with a test thermometer and make sure that the temperature control system is working properly.

As a conclusion, the dew point depression indicates the extent to which the moisture content of a gas is lowered. For example, a 50 dew point depression below a saturation temperature of 80F at 600 psia, would indicate that the natural gas, after dehydration, would have to be cooled, to 30 F before any condensation of water vapour would occur. From the water vapour content curves, it is seen that the concentration of water vapour would be decreased from 51.00 lb / mmcf to 9.4 lb / mmcf, representing the removal of 41.6 lb / mmcf or 5 gallons of water per one million cubic feet of gas. (The greater the dew point depression, the more water vapour removed).

62

5.

GLYCOL pH CONTROL

The pH of a glycol solution is the measure of its acidity or alkalinity, and is measured on a scale of 0 14. A pH of less than 7 is an acid solution , 7 is neutral and, greater than 7 is an alkaline solution. PH SCALE 0 MORE ACIDIC 7 MORE ALKALINE 14

NEUTRAL The corrosion rate of equipment increases rapidly with a decrease in the glycol pH. The formation of organic acids, resulting from the oxidation of glycol, thermal decomposition products or acid gases picked up from the gas stream, are the most troublesome corrosive compounds. Therefore, the glycol pH should be checked periodically and kept on the basic side by neutralising the acidic compounds with borax, Ethanol-amines or other suitable alkaline chemicals to maintain the pH at 7.5 to 8.0. A glycol solution that is too alkaline - i.e. pH greater than 9.00, tends to foam and emulsify .

6.

SALT CONTAMINATION

Salt deposits accelerate equipment corrosion, reduce heat transfer in the glycol reboiler and change the specific gravity readings when a hydrometer is used to determine glycol concentration. These troublesome compounds cannot be removed by normal regeneration processes. Salts should be prevented by the use of effective filters or an efficient scrubber. 7. GLYCOL OXIDATION

Oxygen can enter the glycol system via the vapour space of an un-blanketed storage tank or through the glycol make-up pump packing glands ... etc. The glycol will oxidise readily in the presence of oxygen (air) and form corrosive organic acids Precautions should be taken to prevent glycol oxidation. It is highly recommended, that process vessels that can draw in air as the liquid level is lowered, should contain a gas blanket to keep oxygen (air) out of the system. Oxidation inhibitors, such as Hydrazine can be used to prevent the formation of corrosive, organic acids.

63

8.

SLUDGE FORMATION

Accumulation of solid particles and tarry hydrocarbons very often forms in the glycol solution. This sludge is suspended in the circulating glycol and, over a period of time, the accumulation becomes large enough to settle out. This action results in the formation of a black, sticky and abrasive gum which can cause erosion of the equipment. It usually occurs when the glycol pH is low and becomes very hard and brittle when deposited on the absorber trays, still column parts and other areas in the circulating system. Good, effective filtration will prevent the build-up of sludge in the glycol system.

64

You might also like