CHAPTER 6: HISTOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY

OF BONES
Functions of Skeletal System:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Support Protection Movement Storage Blood Cell Production Mineral is removed from a long bone, collagen becomes the primary constituent, bone becomes overly exible. Collagen is removed from the bone, the mineral component becomes the primary constituent, bone is very brittle. Bone Cells Osteoblast produce new bone matrix release matrix vesicles stimulates further hydroxyapatite formation and mineralization of the matrix Osteocytes Mature bone cells that maintain bone matrix Lacunae spaces occupied by the osteocyte cell bodies Canaliculi spaces occupied by the osteocyte cell process Osteoclast responsible for resorption or breakdown of bones release H+, which produce an acid environment necessary for the decalcication of the bone matrix release enzymes that digest the protein components of the matrix Origin of bone: Mesenchymal cells

Cartilage:
1. Hyaline most of the bones of the body develop from 2. Fibrocartilage 3. Elastic Hyaline Cartilage - Growth in length of bones and bone repair often involve the production of hyaline cartilage, followed by its replacement with bone - Consists of specialized cells that produce a matrix surrounding the cells Chondroblast are cells that produce cartilage matrix Chondrocyte matrix produce chondroblast Lacuna space occupied by the chondroblast in the matrix Matrix Collagen - provides strength Proteoglycans - make cartilage resilient by trapping water Perichondrium - double-layered connective tissue sheath covering most cartilage Outer: Dense irregular CT containing broblasts Inner: more delicate layer, fewer bers and contains chondroblasts Articular cartilage - cartilage covering the ends of bones where they come together to form joints, has no perichondrium, blood vessels, or nerves. Appositional growth addition of new cartilage matrix on the surface of cartilage. Interstitial growth addition of new cartilage matrix within cartilage.

Commited Stem Cells

Osteochondrila Progenitor Cells (osteoblast or chondroblast) Woven Bone collagenous fibers are arranged in different versions bone resorption and becomes the lamellar bone Lamellar Bone mature bone organized In the lamellae Spongy Bone porous, consist of trabeculae
(resist bending and stretching of bones)

Compact Bone denser and has fewer space

*Concentric lamellae circular layers of bone matrix that surround the central canal. *Osteon or Haversian System consists of a single central canal, its contents, and associated concentric lamellae and osteocytes. *Circumferential lamellae forms the outer surface of compact bone

Bone Histology:
Bone Matrix 35% Organic
*Collagen and proteoglycans

65% Inorganic
*Calcium phosphate crystals or Hydroxyapatite

Aly Palamiano 2DPH | CHAPTER 6

*Interstitial lamellae b/n osteons, remnants of concentric or circumferential lamellae

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Bone Anatomy: Bone Shapes Long bones longer than wide; upper and lower limbs
*diaphysis shaft *epiphysis end of bone covered by articulate cartilage epiphyseal plate (growing) *medullary cavity large internal space filled with marrow *periosteum connective tissue membrane that covers the outer surface of a bone *endosteum single layer of cells lining the internal surfaces of all cavities within bones

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In a mature bone, the epiphyseal plate has become the epiphyseal line, and all the cartilage in the epiphysis, except the articular cartilage, has become bone. The original cartilage model is almost completely ossified. Unossified cartilage becomes the epiphyseal plate and the articular cartilage. Secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses of long

Bone Growth: Growth in bone length

1. Chondrocyte replication and hypertrophy result in interstitial cartilage growth. 2. Interstitial cartilage growth increases the length of the bone. 3. Ossification of calcified cartilage produces additional bone on the diaphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate. 4. The thickness of the epiphyseal plate remains unchanged because the addition of cartilage through interstitial cartilage growth occurs at the same rate as the addition of bone through ossification of calcified cartilage.

Flat bones interior framework of spongy bone sandwiched between two layers of compact bone. Short bones not elongated Irregular bones no diaphysis Bone Development: Intramembranous Ossification formation of bone within a connective tissue membrane.
1. Osteocytes are surrounded by bone matrix, and osteoblasts are forming a ring on the outer surface of the trabecula. As the osteoblasts lay down bone, the trabeculae increase in size. Spongy bone has formed as a result of the enlargement and interconnections of many trabeculae. Spongy bone forms as the trabeculae join together, resulting in an interconnected network of trabeculae separated by spaces. Red bone marrow develops within the spaces, and cells surrounding the developing bone specialize to form the periosteum.

Zone of resting cartilage. Cartilage attaches to the

epiphysis.

Zone of proliferation. New cartilage is produced on the

epiphyseal side of the plate as the chondrocytes divide and form stacks of cells. Zone of hypertrophy. Chondrocytes mature and enlarge. Zone of calcification. Matrix is calcified, and chondrocytes die. Ossified bone. The calcified cartilage on the diaphyseal side of the plate is replaced by bone.

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Growth in bone width

1. Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum lay down bone (dark brown) to form ridges separated by grooves. Blood vessels of the periosteum lie in the grooves. The groove is transformed into a tunnel when the bone built on adjacent ridges meets. The periosteum of the groove becomes the endosteum of the tunnel. Appositional growth by osteoblasts from the endosteum results in the formation of a new concentric lamella. The production of additional concentric lamellae fills in the tunnel and completes the formation of the osteon.

Centers of ossication where the ossification begins Fontanels larger membrane-covered spaces between the
developing skull bones that have not yet been ossied

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Endochondral ossication formation of bone within cartilage.

1. Chondroblasts produce a cartilage model that is surrounded by perichondrium, except where joints will form. The perichondrium of the diaphysis becomes the periosteum, and a bone collar is produced. Internally, the chondrocytes hypertrophy, and calcified cartilage forms. A primary ossification center forms as blood vessels and osteoblasts invade the calcified cartilage. The osteoblasts lay down bone matrix, forming spongy bone. The process of bone collar formation, cartilage calcification, and spongy bone production continues. Calcified cartilage begins to form in the epiphyses. A medullary cavity begins to form in the center of the diaphysis.

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Factors Affecting Bone Growth Nutrition

Vitamin D - normal absorption of calcium from the intestines and calcium is necessary to form bone matrix - synthesized( exposure to sunlight) or ingested - RICKETS insufficient VitD in children - OSTEOMALACIA insufficient VitD in old

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Hormones Aly Palamiano 2DPH | CHAPTER 6

Growth Hormone - from the pituitary gland increases general

tissue growth, including overall bone growth, by stimulating interstitial cartilage growth and appositional bone growth - GIANTISM increased height - DWARFISM decreased height Sex Hormone - Estrogen (a class of female sex hormones) and testosterone (a male sex hormone) initially stimulate bone growth, which accounts for the burst of growth at puberty, when the production of these hormones increases - Females stop growing earlier than male; Estrogen cause a quicker closure of epiphyseal plate

Bone Remodelling:
- Remodeling converts woven bone to lamellar bone and allows bone to change shape, adjust to stress, repair itself, and regulate body calcium levels. - Basic multicellular units (BMUs) make tunnels in bone, which are lled with concentric lamellae to form osteons. Interstitial lamellae are remnants of bone not removed by BMUs.

Bone Repair:
1. Fracture repair begins with the formation of a hematoma. 2. The hematoma is replaced by an internal callus consisting of bers and cartilage. 3. The external callus is a bonecartilage collar that stabilizes the ends of the broken bone. 4. The internal and external calluses are ossied to become woven bone. 5. Woven bone is remodeled.

Calcium Homeostasis: - PTH increases blood Ca2+ levels by increasing bone breakdown, Ca2+ absorption from the small intestine, and reabsorption of Ca2+ from the urine. Calcitonin decreases blood Ca2+ by decreasing bone breakdown. Effects of Aging on Skeletal System:
1. With aging, bone matrix is lost and the matrix becomes more brittle. 2. Spongy bone loss results from a thinning and a loss of trabeculae. Compact bone loss mainly occurs from the inner surface of bones and involves less osteon formation. 3. Loss of bone increases the risk for fractures and causes deformity, loss of height, pain, sti ness, and loss of teeth.

Aly Palamiano 2DPH | CHAPTER 6