RAYKO PETROV

100 YEARS OF OLYMPIC WRESTLING

FILA

RAYKO PETROV

100 YEARS OF OLYMPIC WRESTLING

This history of Olympic wrestling is dedicated to the 100th anniversary of modern Olympic Games

m
FILA

Copyright

International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles 1997

Publisher: International Federation of Associated Wrestling Styles (IAWFS) President: Milan Ercegan Av. Juste-Olivier 17, CH-1006 Lausanne, Suisse Editor: Mihly Biro Design: Lszl Mszros Cover: Jnos Mihlyfi

5WERK Printing & Publishing & Distributing Co. Ltd. H-1037 Budapest, Kirlylaki t 47. Director: Lszl Mszros

CONTENTS
Page PREFACE 7 4.2. Decline and Revival 4.3. Renewal of FILA FORWARD 9 5. OFFICIAL AND UNOFFICIAL EUROPEAN AND WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS 67 Page 64 65

1. THE HISTORICAL ROOTS 1.1. Wrestling - Personality - Civilization 1.2. The Immortal Olympic Ideas

11 11 15

6. GREAT STRIDES FORWARD

69

1.3. The Renaissance and a New Pedagogical Approach 20 1.4. Stength and Inertia of the Tradition . 1.5. Legends Inspired by Wrestling 24 32 8. OLYMPIC WRESTLING 2. MODERN OLYMPIC GAMES 2.1. Introduction 2.2. The Beginning 43 44 46 7. DIVERSITY OF STYLES 79

ON THREE CONTINENTS 9 . PROGRESS I N THE SHADOW

OF POLITICS

89

97

3. GREAT TRANSFORMATION OF WRESTLING 3.1. The Challenge of the Time 3.2. Failure of New French Ideas 3.3. The First Steps of Free Style Wrestling 3.4. Both Wrestling Styles on the Olympic Programme 3.5. The Scandinavian Wave 51 51 51 54 54 57 11. THESE IMPORTANT PERSONS HAVE ATTENDED WRESTLING EVENTS 10. LOOKING FORWARD 10.1. Balance, Imbalance and Progress 10.2. The Start of the XXth Century 10.3. Modern Spirit of Competition 10.4. Strategy and Pragmatism 111 111 130 141 148

151

4. THE BIRTH OF FILA 4.1. The Foundation of FILA

61 61 12. ANNEXS 156

Milan Ercegan

PREFACE
In 1996 the sporting community solemnly marked the centenary of the Renaissance of the Olympic Movement. Modern Olympic Games have attained global importance. Thanks to the powerful influence of mass media all sports disciplines on the Olympic programme are disseminated worldwide. As an organization representing wrestling, the corner stone of the Olympic Games since ancient times, FILA has appropriately marked this important jubilee of the most popular social movement of the XX-th century. Among its numerous initiatives taken towards that aim stands the book: 100 Years of Olympic Wrestling by prof. Rayko Petrov, ranking among FlLA's most outstanding contributions to the celebration of this lofty event. This book may be considered as a follow up to the already published monography: Olympic Wrestling Throughout the Millennia, very popular with the readers. On the grounds of a historical and logical analysis, the author brings to the attention of the reader a number of facts and important trends within the development of wrestling and its international bodies, by focusing on the continuity of wrestling, its evolution and process towards modernization. I firmly believe that this book will not only gain popularity with the readers, but also make them reflect on the past, present and future of wrestling. Milan Ercegan President of FILA

<
Ray ko Petrov

FORWARD
In spite of the millennia long tradition of wrestling as part of Olympism, the last 100 years may be considered a "golden century" in its evolution. In ancient times Olympic wrestling was restricted to the Hellenic world. Nowadays it has attained a global level encompassing and embodying all ethical values of our time. Actually, the wealth of modern wrestling-both Greco-Roman and free-style-epitomizes hundreds of traditional forms. It is thanks to creative and resourceful coaches and athletes that a whole range of outstanding techniques and tactics have been developed. By adopting the Rules of Wrestling the international bodies have also significantly encouraged the development of modern wrestling. It is always very difficault to deal with recent history. Due to lack of historical distance the field of vision is restricted, abundance of facts makes selection very difficult and the criteria for evaluatioan is often affected by emotions. Moreover, every individual has his, or her, own vision of the experienced events. This is, probably, the reason why most authors prefer to compile compediums and statistical data on wrestling, or write about distant historical periods, rather than comment about the current performance on the mat. FILA has decided to fill in that gap by publishing four different books on the history of wrestling: 50 Years of GrecoRoman and Free-Style Wrestling Within the International Amateur Wrestling Federation (1912-1962): Sixty Years of the FILA (1912-1972) by Sten Svensson ; 75 Years of Amateur Wrestling by R Strmbck and The 75-th Anniversary-1912-1987-of Modern Wrestling by Milan Ercegan. Attempts at historical analysis can also be found in the works of: E.N. Gardiner, H. Lehmusto, G. Kent, A. Castelli, M. Fitta, D. Padovan, E. Touny, G. Lukas, R. Petrov and some others. In their excellent publications the National Federations of Italy, Germany, Finland, Sweden, France, Poland, the Check Republic, etc. have tried to keep alive the memory of their traditional wrestling. A great number of biographies and memoirs published in different countries have also contributed to the promotion of wrestling as a popular sport and encouraged future research into its history. This book is not a historical document and has no such aspirations. Its sole aim is to reflect the general atmosphere surrounding the development of wrestling. Actually, the factors that have affected the development of wrestling are not only more than numerous, but also inconsistant and versatile. Moreover, due to a limited scope of such books, on the one hand, and on the other, the necessity to deal with an impressive number of competitions, athletes, coaches and sports leaders who have marked the period under review, it was simply impossible to devote due attention to, or to even mention, all those who would merit it. There is another problem. In official documents the transcription of names is not uniform, and therefore without uniformity in this book as well. So, as it is, we submitt it to your attention, in the hope that in spite of its deficiencies, it will help you visualize that since its marked continuous evolution during the last 100 years, modern wrestling is well armed to cope with the challenges of the forthcoming century. The author

1. THE HISTORICAL ROOTS

Modern wrestling embodies eternal features, owing to the fact that man has practiced it since times immemorial as part of his daily life, closely linked to his customs and habits, his culture, his preparation for warfare and his vital needs. An outstanding amount of rich and diversified sources of reference have provided for the wealth, vitality and beauty of the revived Olympic Games during the last hundred years.

1.1. Wrestling-PersonalityCivilization
Competition wrestling is an intricate activity, some kind of a clash between physical and mental abilities of the wrestlers involved. On the mat the wrestler is all alone, face to face with his opponent. His victory depends only on his strength, his strong will and clever mind. During combat the circumstances change within split seconds, which also entails emotional changes in the contestants. Actually, it is difficult to simultaneusly practice offensive and defensive wrestling, attack and defend oneself, disguise one's own intentions and try to anticipate the opponent's plans and reaction, keep calm and collected in spite of strained nerves, and take decisions within the shortest possible time in spite of a lack of relevant information. During the training sessions and wrestling matches all groups of muscles are involved, all articulations, all sensorial organs, the will, the mind the overall personality of the wrestler. According to Gerald Anton Vieth, one of the most outstanding founders of the German school of gymnastics, "there is no other sport which helps develop the strength of the muscles better than wrestling; wrestling is the very best of all forms of gymnastics". Wrestling is a natural sport, accessible to all, since no special equipment, or expensive apparatuses are required for its practice. On the other hand, the division of the wrestlers into weight categories provide to all competitors-men and womenequal opportunities to assert themselves and excel at this sport. Moreover, wrestling plays a crucial role in the physical development of the individual, maintenance of personal hygiene, and promotion in all fields of education. Outstanding physical, mental and intellectual abilities required for success in wrestling are not only crucial for earning sports titles and winning medals, but these abilities greatly help the wrestler to enhance his social status and be competitive in various walks of life. (Table 1.) Modern society is an increasing threat to individualism. Some outstanding thinkers, such as Thomas Carlyle, opposing that trend, claim that the hero cult represents a driving force in society, whereas Jos Ortega y Gasset protests against this development, "reducing man to an average quantity", and believes that sports, including wrestling, should serve as vehicle for asserting one's own personality and individuality, for creating a public name and boosting morale. It is also a well known fact that many outstanding personalities have practiced wrestling, including: Plato, A. Drer, Avicenne, A. Lincoln, G. Washington, A.S. Pushkin, R. Tagore, N. Wiener, etc. There is no symbol that embodies our times better than Rodin's THE THINKER. This remarkable statue has aroused numerous controversies and was even compared to the ancient sculpture HERCULES RESTING. Actually, the resemblance is only apparent. Hercules is taking a rest and preparing his muscles for the forthcoming combat, whereas THE THINKER, created over two thousand years later, leaves the impression of mental power, a strong will and creative spirit reflecting modern times.

11

Strengthening of health

Handsome and well built body

Physical and mental potentials

Increased working capacity

Volitive and mental qualits

Social and mental status

Social activities

Competition fitness

Self-defense

Active rest

SOCIETY

Healthy individual

Productivity of labour I National prestige X Military potential

I
Recreation J_ Helps remove social and nervous tension

Table 1. Effects of wrestling on the individual and society

Single combat was born and has developed its numerous forms within a historical process involving all humankind. The first artificial movements in wrestling, both against animals, or other humans (holds, locks, blows) represent an outstanding achievement of the human mind. On the other hand, a repeated and constantly improving implementa-

tion of these movements has stimulated the intellectual development of the human mind. Single combat (in its various forms) has played a crucial role in human development, in the preservation of the human species and its evolution. Single combat is one of the primary cultural factors directly linked to the ability to work and be engaged in combat, directly

12

Lisippus: Hercules, Roman replica, 2nd century, The Historical Museum, Vidin

August Rodin: The Thinker

linked to the religious rituals, folklore, etc. The most prominent development of single combat took place within the so called great civilizations, which in order to survive and prosper, had to rely on outstanding creative individuals. The first authentic evidence of the development of wrestling can be traced back 5000 years among

the Sumerians. The epic poem GILGAMESH in cuneiform writing, the base-reliefs, sceaux-cylindre (cylinder seals) and sculptures provide evidence of the first competitions in wrestling with officiating and musical accompaniment. The wrestlers and holds shown in these works of art also provide information on various schools of wrestling existing at that time.

13

Archeological and historical traces of wrestling in Ancient Egypt are also numerous. Wall-paintings discovered in the Beni-Hassan tomb are particularly significant, showing 400 pairs of wrestlers. These wall-paintings, along with numerous other material proofs, reveal that Ancient Egypt had its Wrestlers' Association, organized international wrestling competitions attended by the pharaohs and had its own rules of wrestling and officiating at competitions. It was thanks to the Egyptians that a military skill had been transformed into a sports discipline. The island of Crete and Micenae are the cradle of the European civilization and the intermediate link between the Eastern and Western forms of wrestling. Crete is actually, the source of the rich Greek heritage in this field. Homer is the first historian of wrestling with his most impressive descriptions in the ILIAD and the ODESSY, of the combat between Nestor and Archas and between Ajax (Aias) and Ulysses (Odyseus), the wrestling matches of the Phaeaciens, etc. Written proofs on the development of wrestling can also be found in the Indian epic poems RIGVEDA, RAMAYANA, FURANA and others. In China a dozen different forms of wrestling were very popular, including: Djaoli, tchich-ushi, go-ti, ou-chou, etc. In Eastern civilizations sports events were part of military preparation and an aspect of various religious and philosophical doctrines and teachings. During the millennia that followed, wrestling continued to play an important cultural role as an integral part of all civilizations existing in those times.

Sumerian wrestling. The Bagdad Museum (3000 B.C.)

Gilgamesh is actually the embodiement of a philosopher, statesman and wrestler who has imbued all the knowledge available in his time, and thus equiped, was able to build temples and irrigation systems and face the challenge of the divine Enkidu.

Drawings of wrestlers. Beni-Hassan (2500 B.C.)

1.2. The Immortal Olympic Ideals

The Olympic ideals have very deep roots in ancient history and have always had a great social impact. Their ethical attributes and great popularity can be compared to the preaching and philosophies of the most widespread religions. After a period of 1,170 years these ideals were relegated to silence only to be reborn 1500 years later, to once again serve mankind and to promate the qualities of his physique, spirit and moral. The Olympic Games were linked to Zeus and his Pantheon and their triumphs under these auspices served the purpose of promoting religion and its unification. The Olympic Games also contributed to the unity and solidarity of Greek cities (city-states), to an overall harmonious development of the individuals involved, to the development of sports, and to the development of science and arts. In Ancient Greece wrestling was held in high esteem as a divine sport based on divine science and art. Legend has it that wrestling derives its divine origin from the goddess Athena Pallas who endowed this sport whit its rules. According to other legends the author of the rules of wrestling was either Hermes, Prometheus, Hercules, Theseus, Jason, or Palestra. Thus, that the origin of the rules of wrestling were divine remained uncontested. All unbiased historians of ancient times recognize the fact that Ancient Greeks, including their most outstanding philosophers, writers, sculptors, army commanders and many others, obtained their training in palestras and gymnasia where wrestling was one of the main activities in the curriculum. At the Olympic games single combat was a crucial part of the competition and was practiced in three different forms: Orthopal, as part of the pentatlon, was introduced in the Olympic programme in 708 B.C. and as part of the pancracium in 648 B.C. Later on, all forms of single combat for seniors can be found on the programme of the Olympic, Isthmian, Pythian and Nemean Games. In order to win in single combat the wrestler had to bring down his opponent or throw him three times on his back, hip, chest, knees or elbows. The victory could be earned by a 3:0, 3:2 and 3:1 score. The athletes wrestled naked, their skin oiled with rubbed in olive oil and then powdered with fine sable or special types of fine dust. Judging by the wall-paintings and written descriptions from that distant past, ancient wrestling was similar to modern free- style wrestling. It is a great mistake to look for the origin of the Greco-Roman wrestling in ancient Greece, which some authors do. Actually, this style was developed in the XIX-th century and its name only reflects a belated interest in the classical values of ancient times. The pancratium (a combination of wrestling and boxing) was most popular with the spectators. In this type of combat the point was to, in standing position, perform various holds and exchange blows. The performance of the holds was allowed only on the ground including painful locks and strangle holds. The pentathlon was a complex event consisting of five different disciplines: discus, javelin, long jump, running and wrestling. The exact order in which these disciplines were practiced at the Olympic Games and the rules and requirements governing victory have not yet been identified, and their establishment is still a controversial issue. However, there is no doubt that wrestling was the cruicial discipline of the pentathlon, among other things, because it was the last in the programme of the competition. At the time, different forms of wrestling were practiced, including: acrocheirismos (based on finger locks) alindsis (widely practiced during training sessions) and many other regional forms. The methodology of wrestling was highly developed. The training was conducted by the coaches (panditribes). A training cycle consisted of four days of practice and one day of rest. Before each competition, training session were more intensive and lasted 10-12 hours a day. In addition to being engaged in training, the athletes also had to observe strict rules of sporting life. The Greeks were familiar with most of the basic holds. The engravings on the amphorea originating from Andokides, and Exekias, a GROUP OF WRESTLERS (the Uffizi Museum in Florence), and other works of art demonstrate a perfect performance of wrestling holds according to modern standards. The Greek and Roman way of throwing the opponent

15

Wrestlers in Ancient Egypt (1400 B.C.)

16

over the shoulder could even nowadays serve as a pattern of how these actions should be performed. Actually, the sculptors used the wrestlers as models for their works of art, because as Hegel rightly said, "it was their bodies that created the sculptures". Milo of Crotone (Pythagora's student of philosophy) was one of the most famous wrestlers, six times Olympic Champion, ten times winner of the Isthmian Games, nine times winner of the Nemean games and five times winner of the Pythian Games. Many Triumphal odes were dedicated to him, extolling his exploits and his victories which were also the topics of numerous legends. But, in spite of all his lofty deeds he was punished for haughtiness. Legend has it that he wanted to split a tree into two with his naked hands, but his fingers got caught between the two halves which clasped back. Unable to disentagle his fingers he was thus imprisoned in the forest and eaten up by the lions. Many writers and two sculptors, Pierre Puget and Etienne Falconet, inspired by this legend, turned it into the topic of their respective works of art. Also, an outstanding number of wrestlers were repeatedly Olympic champions: Cahiron four times, Stratn three times, and so on. The list of names is rather long. The interest in wrestling was widespread and many outstanding personalities excelled in this sport, including: the philosophers Socrates, Plato, Cleanthes, Chrysippes, Democritus, Anaxgoras

 ce

18

and Prodikos, physicians Hippocrates and Hippias, statesmen Clisthenes, Alcibades, Philip II of Macedonia, etc. Wrestling in Rome was based on a rich Etruscan and Greek heritage and it owes its development to the revival of the Olympic Games. Numerous engravings representing wrestling were found in Etruscan tombs, evidence testifying of the Greek influenee in this sport fostered in Rome. The integral nature of gladiatorial fights in public events, the priority placed on military training within Roman civilization, the emphasis placed on stoicism and violent behavior in the education prevailing at the time, cast

a dark shadow on all other sporting events, Wrestling with its rude rules was a favourite sport not only of young Roman aristocrats, but also of the soldiers and shepherds. According to Classius Dion, the Romans owe their military success to the palestras. Among a plethora of outstanding names those of Marcus Aurelius Guermarius, Euriches and Aurelius Guelicus deserve special mention. Also, many statesman and army commanders were prominent in wrestling, patricularly: Scipio Africanus, Marcus Anthony, Marcus Aggrippius, Marcus Aurelius, Lucius Aurelius Commodus and Anthoninus Pius.

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In 394 the Roman Emperor Theodosius I issued a degree by which he prohibited the Olympic Games. This decision seriously jeopardized the Olympic Ideals which began to gradually lose their glow, obscured by the darkness of the Middle Ages. Fortunately however, these ideals were never totally relegated to oblivion. Already in the XIV-th century Pietro Verger and Rambaldon raised their voice in favour of the Olympic Games. At the same time a Bulgarian writer Isai'e speaks in his texts about the Olympic Games and sports. In 1430 Mato Ralieri raises the issue of the revival of the Olympic Games, which was later on supported in their written texts by Massuros (1516), Fober (1500), Mendes (1532), Mercurialis (1573), Fubrus (1590), Korsini (1838), Krauss (1838), etc. In 1793 the German pedagogue Johann Christopher Friedrich Guts Muths very strongly supported the idea of reviving the Olympic Games, but in spite of the wholehearted support from numerous

partizans for this idea, he did not succeed in his cause. On the other hand, already in 1604, an Englishman by the name of R. Dorer, with the support of King James I of England, planned the holding of the Olympic Games within four years time, renamed as the Cotswold Games, with wrestling, fencing, riding and some other sports on the programme. Unfortunately this idea was nipped in the bud by British conservatives. In 1772 Prince Leopold-FriedrichFranz von Dessau organized the Games in the vicinity of Dresden, which as a sporting event lasted for only seven years. Some sparks were also coming from Olympia with the idea of firing up the Olympic flame. Archeological excavations in the XVIII-th and XIX-th century, conducted by Richard Chandler from Great Britain and Favuel from France, on a French expedition in Morea, and the excavations conducted by two German archeologists: Curtius and Adler, also contributed to the revival of the Olympic spirit and ideals.

1.3. The Renaissance and the Pedagogical Approach

The main feature of wrestling is the variety of its forms fostered in practice, its constant and stable evolution and its adaptibility to the changes and requirements of the time. Modern wrestling actually comprises the wealth of hundreds of different forms of traditional wrestling, both the existing and these of the past, which numerous outstanding athletes, gifted for creative activities, succeed in mastering through training and practical experience. The Renaissance rediscovered man as a physical being and replaced the ideal of asceticism with one of an individual bursting with health, strength and joy of life. The nude bodies depicted by the Renaissance painters reveal a special kind of relationship between the body and spirit, thus giving a different meaning to the value system. Therefore, it is only natural that the presentation of ancient heroes and athletes engaged in single combat could provide a new incentive and approach to art, by placing emphasis on the ideal image of a strong and handsome body. Antonio Pollaiolo portrays the combat between Hercules and Antheus, the masterpiece in front of which Kennet Clark, an outstanding art critic, exclaimed : "One of the most extraordinary pictorial presentation of muscular strength." Porta della Mandorta paints his SAMSON, B. Cellini his PERSEUS, Canova his HERCULES and THESEUS, and Verrocchio and Donatello have each left us a vision of DAVID. Later on, these same topics were taken up by Vincenzo de Rossi, Tintoretto, Caravaggio, Nicolas Poussin, Guido Reni, Drer, Van Dyck, Rembrandt and many others. Michelangelo's wallpaintings representing Biblical heroes and saints with athletic bodies, and particularly his sculptures: DAVID, HERCULES AND ANTHEUS, and HERCULES AND CACUS, inspire our most sincere and lasting admiration. The sculptures of Falconet and Puget representing the outstanding wrestler Milo, JACOB'S COMBAT WITH GOD by Van Dyck, Rembrandt and Delacroix, the wrestlers of Gustave Courbet, and others, are primarily the portayal of genuine single combat with allegorical meaning, embodying and reflecting man's social and spiritual aspirations. The impact of these works of art was particularly great on the social elite involved in wrestling in their respective closed circles. In the castles and palaces, wrestling coaches were very much in demand. In the Far East wrestling coaches

20

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Pollaiolo: Heracels and Antheus. The Uffici Museum, Florence

21

5IU (. beo $>ans Sxtjofer, bes grten ^cd)tmciftcrs. im 15.^aljrfyunbert

taught their skills both in the palaces and monasteries. In the Middle East the strongest wrestlers were recruited into the Shah's guard and the Sultans offered them high positions within the army. In some CODES OF CHIVALRY wrestling is one of the compulsory disciplines. Up until the Xll-th century wrestling and fencing were taught together. Around 1300 Liberta da Primeracco wrote a CODE OF NONARMED COMBAT. THE WALLERSTEIN CODE enumerates all basic holds performed in the XV-th century. Similar holds can be found in some texts from remote periods, among which the best known are those by: Paul Kahl, Liechtenauer, Ott, Thalhofer, Walhausen, PH. Meier, etc. The first printed book was issued in 1500 and the first printed MANUAL OF WRESTLING in 1512. It contained colour pictures of 120 holds by the famous German painter Albrecht Drer. THE ART OF WRESTLING by Fabian von Auerswald, state minister, was published in 1539, another notable book on this sport. These two books depict complex offensive and defensive holds. WRESTLING IN THE TRENCH by Hans Wurm, from around 1500, still provokes animated discussions. This book describes various aspects of wrestling : as a sports activity, as a comic sports per-

formance combined with hobbling, as a means for resolving various differences instead of going to court, etc. In the XVI-th century interesting and precious books on wrestling were written by Peter Hltner, V. Solks, Nicolais Peter, Lon Alberti and by the most outstanding of them all, Romeyn de Hooghe, a Dutch engraver. Numerous books on wrestling testify to the importance of its social role at the time. Court writers have left a great number of written descriptions of wrestling contests between the nobles. Among the kings famous for their physical strength Charlemagne, Richard I the Lion-Hearted, Maximilian I, Henry II, Francois I, Auguste II the Strong, Peter the Great, Henry VIII and Abdlizaz deserve to be mentioned by name. The members of the German orders: BROTHERS OF SAINT LUKE and BROTHERS OF SAINT GEORGE also practiced wrestling in Saint Mary's College in Winchester (founded in 1384) and Martin Luther, the great religious reformer, recommended it to his disciples and followers. Vittorino de Feltre, an Italian pedagogue, used to teach basic wrestling to children. In the XVI-th century this sports disciplines can be found in the Zwickau and

22

Romain de Hooge: Wrestling

Magdeborough school curriculums. James I, King of England, wrote A BOOK ON SPORTS. Under the influence of this book many eminent pedagogues supported the idea of teaching wrestling as part of the curriculum. Rabiais' hero Gergantua and Rousseau's hero Emile also practiced wrestling. Motaigne, J.J. Rousseau, RH. Pestalozzi, J.A.

Komensky, J.B. Basedow, G.A. Vieth, Francois Amoros, Franz Nachtegal, M. Tirsch, P.F. Lesgaft and many others were keen supporters of wrestling. John Locke, a great English philosopher and teacher, once said: "I would rather prefer my son to become a good wrestler than a good fencer".

23

1.4. Strength and Inertia of the Tradition

Traditional (folklore) forms of wrestling stem from traditional culture, ethnic features, historical memory, weather conditions, the ruling system of values and the social and individual needs and requirements. Various factors, including the weather conditions, have determined the nature of wrestling practiced among the peoples living in the North (GLIMA in Iceland, Eskimoan wrestling, Swedish wrestling styles: CUVBIRLAND, BISCAST etc.) with the holds of the cloths and waist. Gripping of clothes is also widespread among the peoples practicing wrestling on horseback (the Mongolian BOKH, the Kourdish, Tartar and Kazakh KURESH). Actually, wrestling on horseback is popular all over the Middle East. Peoples physically taller prefer wrestling in standing position on the ground and practice holds of the body and clothes (The Scandinavians, the Kelts, the Georgians, Germanic and Slavic groups, etc.). Some others, on the other hand, place special emphasis on agility and speed (the Japanese, Turks, Koreans). Each traditional form of wrestling has its own name, some of which can be found in Table 2. Competitions in wrestling as part of various social and religious events and traditional customs were organized within the celebrations of religious and non-religious holidays, at funerals, within baptism rites and magic rituals, the rite of circumcision in the Muslim world, etc. As part of everyday life wrestling was practiced: during times of sowing and harvest at various social gatherings and events, (such as fairs, etc.), as one of the ways of solving controversial issues, as a means for winning a leading position (that of a commander, leader of a group, etc.) as an opportunity to win an object of status including even a beautiful girl, etc. The organizers, or sponsors of these competitions were outstanding individuals, or groups (committees), chiefs of administration, knights and nobles, even kings. The winners were awarded all sorts of prizes, including animals, different objects, money, even beautiful girls. There were no weight categories. Most often the classification was based on qualification categories (in BOKH, GRESH and some other forms of wrestling). The wrestling events were surrounded by a noisy atmosphere, accompained with music, dancing, prayers, solemn taking of oath (Keltic tradition), magic rituals (Africa), singing of odes, music played on various traditional instruments, kettle drums, gongs, etc. The rules of wrestling did not exist in the strict sense. Victory was scored by fall of the opponent (the fall with 3 points of contact of his body with the ground), by throwing down the opponent three times, by pushing him out of the combat area, by lifting him, ex-aequo, on points, etc. The wrestling technique was very diversified and greatly depended on the style practiced, on the clothes the wrestlers were wearing, the way of greasing the body before combat, the restrictions provided for by the Rules, etc. In some countries traditional wrestling is very similar to modern styles currently practiced and therefore remains a permanent source of inspiration to top wrestlers. Actually, many top wrestlers, including: Baladavz, Dagistanly, Takhti, Stantchev, Sirakov, Kaplan, Movahed, Tediashwilly, Andiew, etc. have started their sports career by practicing traditional wrestling. As a very popular sport it was celebrated in many epic songs, such as: NIBELUNGEN, CID, CHAH-NAM, KALEVALA, MANAS, the epic songs about ILYA MUROMETS, King MARKO and many others, in numerous works of art and literature. Actually, all these works glorify man's heroic spirit and strength. Highly appreciating the values of traditional cultures, FILA has decided to award traditional wrestling the status of independent styles.

24

Traditional (Folklore) Wrestling

Lancashire (Great-Britain) Cornwall (Great-Britain) Cumberland (Great-Britain) Westmorland (Great-Britain) Loosehold (Great-Britain) Norfolk (Great-Britain) Shooting (Great-Britain) Catch-gold (Great-Britain) Devonshire (Great-Britain) Ou-chou (China) Kio-li (China) Shinji-zumo (Japan) Toja-zumo (Japan) konaki-zumo (Japan) Karasu-zumo (Japan) Gorai (Brittany) Mazendarani (Iran) Guilan (Iran) Kochti perse (Iran) Kordi (Iran) lliati (Iran) Psarani pata (India) Hanoumante (India) Bhimcence (India) \zura (India) Djarazandji (India) Nara (India) Bando (Thailand) Letoussi (Burma) Nabast (Burma) Berslate (Malaysia) Pendjak-silette (Indonesia) Arias da mene (The Philippines) Rangeln (Tyrol) Galfava (Portugal) Moulapta (Arab wrestling) Mossara taban (Arab) Istlish taban (Arab) A la ceinture > (Russia) N v skhvatkou (Russia) Trinta dreapta (Moldavia) Trnta kunedika (Moldavia) Kouriach (Tartar wrestling) Kourach (Ouzbkistan) Sais (Kazakstn) Schwingen (Switzerland) Oodarich (Kirghisia) Koures (Kirghisia) Khourech (Tuva) Gouchti (Tadjikistan) Gulech (Azerbadjan) Gurech (Turkmenia) Lutte de Khiva (Turkmenia) Ristines (Lituania) Kokh (Armenia) Kourdstan-tustuu (Yakut wr.) Khapsagai (Yakut wr.) Gouchti de Boukhara (Tadjikistan) Goutzanguiri (Tadjikistan) Khatkabi (Daghestan) Ankoumara (Abkhasia) Toutouch (Tcherke wrestling) Kestik (Afghanistan) Kusag-gres (Turkey) Yagli-gres (Turkey) Kouchti (Pakistan) Barilda (Mongolia) Bokh (Mongolia) Koures (Kazakstn) Mundje vence (Albania) Rvanje (Serbia)

Table 2
Glima (Iceland) Lutte populaire (Bulgaria) Ssirium-ha-ki (Korea) Lutte bretonne (France) Lutte lonine (Spain) Lutte canarienne (Spain) Tchidaoba (Georgia) Biscast (Sweden) Beigtag (Sweden) Bondetag (Sweden) Rigcats (Sweden) Beltescast (Sweden) Cragtag (Sweden) Armtag (Sweden) Akseltag (Sweden) Boukatag (Sweden) Livtag (Sweden) Rintapani (Finland) Ritpani (Finland) Viopani (Finland) Toubata (The Sudan) Bri (Senegal) Olva (Senegal) Zvaha (Togo)

25

Hokusai: Sumo

Teh. Badamjavin: Mongolian wrestling

&&m
26

Cumberland and Westmorland wrestling

Breton wrestling

27

Swiss wrestling

The korean "Ss/reum" wrestling

28

great number of sumo, gres, Persian koshti and other wrestlers the practice of this activity was their only occupation. France is the first country of organized professional wrestling in modern times. The wrestlers, who were not allowed to mix with the social elite, organized their first professional companies already in the first half of the XIX-th century (in Bordeaux, Lyon and Paris). They also participated in various shows. According to German sources between 1830 and 1850 French wrestlers used to organize in Germany travelling shows demonstrating "standing wrestling". Later on, under the French influence, wrestling became popular in Austria-Hungary, Italy, Denmark, Russia and many other countries, promoting a new style called: Greco-Roman, classical or French. The most outstanding names in wrestling at that time were: Jean Dubois (France), Basilio Bartoletti (Italy), and Ladislaus Pytlasinski (Poland). They were masters of their sport and guiding lights to a great number of young and talented wrestlers in many countries. At first professional wrestling was faithful to all sport qualities and wrestlers were
Jan Dubois

Basillio Bartoletti

33

1.5. Legends Inspired by Wrestling

All outstanding wrestlers-from Milo of Crotona to the Russian "bogatiry" (knight) Alexandre Karelin-were personalities with a legendary halo of fame. Professional athletes were particularly popular, thanks to their beautiful bodies, attractive public events and experience they offered to their fans. Professional wrestlers existed already in ancient times. Mighty rulers, emperors, kings, sultans, shahs, rajahs, feudal lords, etc. always endeavoured to have in their courts wrestlers specially trained for attractive wrestling performances, which was part of their master's social status and promotion. For a

Eugene Sandow

32

great number of sumo, gres, Persian koshti and other wrestlers the practice of this activity was their only occupation. France is the first country of organized professional wrestling in modern times. The wrestlers, who were not allowed to mix with the social elite, organized their first professional companies already in the first half of the XIX-th century (in Bordeaux, Lyon and Paris). They also participated in various shows. According to German sources between 1830 and 1850 French wrestlers used to organize in Germany travelling shows demonstrating "standing wrestling". Later on, under the French influence, wrestling became popular in Austria-Hungary, Italy, Denmark, Russia and many other countries, promoting a new style called : Greco-Roman, classical or French. The most outstanding names in wrestling at that time were: Jean Dubois (France), Basilio Bartoletti (Italy), and Ladislaus Pytlasinski (Poland). They were masters of their sport and guiding lights to a great number of young and talented wrestlers in many countries. At first professional wrestling was faithful to all sport qualities and wrestlers were
Jan Dubois

Basillio Bartoletti

33

Kazakh wrestling

30

Senegalese wrestling

Braslllan wrestling

31

1.5. Legends Inspired by Wrestling

All outstanding wrestlers-from Milo of Crotona to the Russian "bogatiry" (knight) Alexandre Karelin-were personalities with a legendary halo of fame. Professional athletes were particularly popular, thanks to their beautiful bodies, attractive public events and experience they offered to their fans. Professional wrestlers existed already in ancient times. Mighty rulers, emperors, kings, sultans, shahs, rajahs, feudal lords, etc. always endeavoured to have in their courts wrestlers specially trained for attractive wrestling performances, which was part of their master's social status and promotion. For a

Eugene Sandow

32

great number of sumo, giires, Persian koshti and other wrestlers the practice of this activity was their only occupation. France is the first country of organized professional wrestling in modern times. The wrestlers, who were not allowed to mix with the social elite, organized their first professional companies already in the first half of the XIX-th century (in Bordeaux, Lyon and Paris). They also participated in various shows. According to German sources between 1830 and 1850 French wrestlers used to organize in Germany travelling shows demonstrating "standing wrestling". Later on, under the French influence, wrestling became popular in Austria-Hungary, Italy, Denmark, Russia and many other countries, promoting a new style called : Greco-Roman, classical or French. The most outstanding names in wrestling at that time were: Jean Dubois (France), Basilio Bartoletti (Italy), and Ladislaus Pytlasinski (Poland). They were masters of their sport and guiding lights to a great number of young and talented wrestlers in many countries. At first professional wrestling was faithful to all sport qualities and wrestlers were
Jan Dubois

Basillio Bartoletli

33

Ladislaus Pytlasinsky

proud of their beautiful and strong bodies which they abundantly displayed in public. Frederic Mller the Saxonian was the best of all. Under the assumed name of Eugene Sandow he appeared in numnerous circus and music-hall performances demonstrating his outstanding mastership in wrestling. Jean Exbroyat founded the first modern company of circus wrestlers. After his death in 1872 Rossignol Rollin, barrister from Lyon, took over the company and become the boss. He had a great talent for publicity, "arranged" matches, for distributing awards alledgedly coming from the "public", for

selection of high sounding nick-names given to his wrestlers, such as : Heracles, Apollo, The Monster of Sahara, etc. The names of Felix Bernard, Pietro Dalmasso and Abdullah Jeffery also remain memorable. Sometimes amateur wrestlers would defeat professionals. This is how Rabier, Ambroise le Berger, Charles Arpin and later on Nicholas Petrov, Ivan Paddubny and others began their wrestling careers, until later on, after some time of amateur practice, becoming professionals. The Rules and the programmes of competitions varied to suit the taste of the wrestlers, their

34

Georg Hackenschmidt

35

Kara Osman, F. Nurulas, . Yusuf and F. Doublier

36

IDE R O U B 7 S I X

Brasserie

" U n i v e r s e l l e , d e l a . G - a r e

programme Officiel de la 2 Journe

DIMANCHE 14 AVRIL 1901 DU

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TOURNOI INTERNATIONAL DE LUTTE

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D E LA

FEDERATION ATHLTIQUE DE BELGIQUE President ; Le cenerai wiLERT

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ai

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Premier Prix. DE LA FINALE: -'ODO fr P 2000 . Deuxime Prix. Troisime Pris. 5 0 0 . IOOO . H&S: l-'-. . ? PRIX DE CONSOLATION : Premier Prix. -i.">0 f r . Deuxime Prix. Troisime Prix. IOO . LES SANCES DU CHAMPIONNAT
AL'RONT I.IEL
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8 heures prcises d u soir Les D i m a n c h e 14et L u n d i 13 Avril

lib ii

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JULES LESAUVAGE IL

* HAT1HB *
3 heures prcises d e l ' a p r s - m i d i Y AURA ENTOUT NEUF SANCES ^^^, SSV*-' *-'/ - M-

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fc'i

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PRIX rscrcces <Pr DES PLACES sances 2 Fr. Galerie 2Q Fr. 1 Fr. "-* ! pour les neuf .

On peut prendre s e s places e n location de 1 h e u r e s d u m a t i n et d e 2 h e u r e s 4 h e u r e s

midi

tel

te

Programme of Wrestling Competitions

37

Ivan Poddubny

managers and their fans. The Rules published by Paul Pons provided for a break of combat every ten minutes. The lifted wrestler was allowed to lock his opponent's legs (Article 5); on the ground the wrestler was only once allowed to perform a lock with his legs; the wrestler was allowed to jump on the back of his opponent in bridge position; it was forbidden to lock the opponent's legs with hands; victory was proclaimed in case of instantaneous fall. The wrestlers coming from the East were allowed to use their legs in combat, but in a limited way, in order to make allowance for their lack of skill in French (GrecoRoman) wrestling. At the end of the XIX-th century wrestling was the trendiest sport in Europe. Thanks to the efforts of Dr. J. Reour, count Saint-Martin and Lon Bill the As-

sociation of French Athletes (Socit des Athltes Franais) was founded in 1890 with almost 200 members. A similar association, Wandsbeker Athleten Club (Hamburg) was founded in Germany even before France, in 1879. Fifteen years later it was an important sports organization with an outstanding membership of 1,300. Following in these footsteps athletic clubs have been founded in many other countries with the view of promoting and supporting the interests of wrestling and providing appropriate sports preparation to amateur wrestlers. At the time the heroes of the international mat were: Colossus, nick name of the French wrestler Paul Pons (195 cm), the Monster of the Orient, nick name of the Turkish wrestler Kara Ahmed: Lion of the Balkans, nick name of the Bulgarian wrestler Ni-

38

Omer de Bouillon

colas Petrov; Champion of Champions, nick name of the Russian wrestler Ivan Paddubny, etc. Many outstanding names in wrestling at the time still arouse interest in their sports mastership and feelings of admiration for their achievements. They were international wrestlers in the truest sense of the word. Many of them did not live in their native countries, but wherever the most interesting competitions were being organized, or else in the countries where they had the most numerous and ardent fans. French and Belgian wrestlers: Jean Dubois, Paul Pons, Constant le Boucher (the butcher), Constant le Martin, Laurent le Beaucairrois, Orner de Buillon, etc. were very popular with wrestling fans. Outstanding German wrestlers at the time were: E. Siegfried, O. Scheider, J. Koch, M. Hitzler, Burghard, Sturm, Strange, K. Abe, Schwartz, etc. Among the names of outstanding Turkish wrestlers were: Coca Yussuf, Kara Ahmed, Kurtdeley and Ibrahim who deserve to be specially mentioned for their outstanding performance. Nicolas Petrov and A. Dobritch were outstanding Bulgarian wrestlers; Pytlasinski and Cyganiewicz, father and son, were outstanding Polish wrestlers; Delmasso and Raichevich were outstanding wrestlers from Italy; Smeskhal and Fritstensky were outstanding Czech wrestlers; J. Pedersen, V. Petersen, A. Anderson, V. Tominen, V. Jearwinen and T. Koskinen, among many others, were ouststanding Scandinavian wrestlers. The Russians also had a great number of top masters in wrestling, among whom three Ivans: Ivan Paddoubny, Ivan Zakin and Ivan Vakhturov were particularly notable. Georg Hackenschmidt, Georg Lurich and A. Aberg (Estonia) were the most outstanding masters of wrestling technique. Wrestling in Great Britain and the USA was constantly following an upward trend. Competitions were organized in the
Jacob Koch

39

Jess Pedersen

Lancashire "catch", the Scottish "dinnie", with various forms of traditional wrestling and in the GrecoRoman style. In the USA the first championships in wrestling were already being organized in the midXIX-th century. Armstrong McLaughlin, Tibault Baur and many others mark the history of American wrestling as legendary heroes of the mat. In 1890 William Muldoon won the American Championship in Greco-Roman style. Donald Dinnie from Scotland decided to make a trip round the world covering all his expenses with the money earned from wrestling matches. In catch Monraou, A. Cameron, T. Jenkins, F. Gotch and as of recently J. Stecker and K. Lewis, have achieved outstanding results. Jim Londos, Dan Kolov, Henry Deglane and Charles Rigoulot should be mentioned as being internationally famous. Wrestlers in Greco-Roman style were masters in wrestling technique and tactics, which can be proven by consulting the books published at that time by Pytlasinski (1896), M. Kister (1897), L. Will (1903), A. Oenaska (1907), G.M. Solovyov (1910), etc. Dr. Georg Zadig is the author of the most important book on wrestling published at the time, illustrated with holds performed by the most outstanding

Georg Lurich

Stanislav Zbyszko-Cyganiewicz

40

Dan Kolov-Charles Rigoulot (1934). H. Deglane officiating

Ilya Bechlov: Wrestlers

* V 4 s

IT j^jg/

)
\

.
"^'^?*3**^

41

Joe Stecker

professional wrestlers: Omer de Buillon, Nicolas Petrov, Alexander Aberg, Cyganiewicz, Koch, Lurich, Strange, Schwarz, Romanow, etc. According to Aleks Aberg, a wrestler should be familiar with the anatomy and psychology of the human body almost as if they were psychicians. Laurent and Desbonnet, also coaching at some special schools of wrestling in Paris, guaranteed to their trainees an increase of the volume of chest by 8 cm, of the biceps by 3 cm of the neck by 3 cm, etc. after three months of training.

Professional wrestling and its reputation were seriously jeopardized by "arranged" matches, fixed scores, presentation of wrestlers under false names and false nationality, brutality and rudeness of combat, unbecoming quarrels, etc. At first the winners were determined behind closed doors. As of recently the approach to professional wrestling matches has been completely changed. Now, like plays and films, they are directed. The life of professional wrestlers was very hard, many of them suffered serious injuries, did not have a family, lived the lives of emigrants and died in poverty and oblivion... in his story In the Circus, A.S. Kuprine describes the sad life and destiny of Arbuzov, a professional wrestler. He was forced to compete in spite of a serious heart condition and died after a short match against the American wrestler Reber. "Everything happened so simply and so quickly, like blowing upon a candle burning in a dark room, to extinguish it." Professional wrestling was not accessible to average people. An increasing number of amateur wrestling clubs and training schools actually served the purpose of meeting their requirements in this sport. Evaluation of professional wrestling at the end of the XIX-th and beginning of the XX-th centuries from the point of view of Olympic amateurism is very often too severe and unjust. From the historical point of view, professional wrestling has its merits within the development of this sport. Its competitions contributed to the popularity of the sport: professional wrestlers were models of physical strength and corporal beauty for the young to imitate; under its influence the training system was improving, etc. In numerous professional clubs the amateurs also could receive sports training and their coaches were former professional wrestlers. Even Paul Pons had his wrestling school, opened in 1886, where he himself wery often coached young wrestlers. Thus, in many countries the experience acquired in professional wrestling was very early transmitted to amateur wrestlers. Table 3.

Anthropometric data of outstanding wrestlers

Sizes Name and S SURNAME URNAME Height Weight Thorax Waist Neck Shoulder

Leg
40 40 44,5 44 44

Fmur

E. Sandow G. Lurich G. Hackenschmidt . Poddubni N. Jerebtsov

170 176 176,5 183,5 181,5

78 90 93 118 101

122 122 125 134 123

80 88 85 104 88

41 45 50 48 49

41 40 47 43 43

60 59 68 68 68

42

2. MODERN OLYMPIC GAMES

A pillar In the Olympic Museum In Lausanne

43

2.1. Introduction
The revival and evolution of the Olympic Games was actually brought about by a number of ideological, structural and functional activities undertaken towards that aim. To begin with the model of the ancient Olympic Games served as a guiding light. It was this model which Pierre de Coubertin wished to revive, but with an updated interpretation of the Olympic ideals suit-

Pierre de Coubertin

44

ed to modem times and requirements. In his en thusiastic efforts to revive the Games, de Coubertin combined the ideals of the Renaissance with those of the most outstanding French intellectuals, fitting them into the framework of social movements in the XIX-th century and enriching them with the latest achievements in different fields of pedagogical science. He rejects Rousseau's concept of educa tion for an isolated individual, embodied in his EMILE and suggests the transformation of sports into a social force, a social activity serving the wellbeing of all. In the XIX-th the century the revival of the Olym pic Games was one of the almost constant topics and issues. A results of the archeological excavations and a nine volume book, "OLYMPIA", by Ernst Curtius was to provide a valuable support to these efforts. Among numerous initiatives in favour of the revival of the Games, those originating from Greece had the brightest prospects for success. In 1838 the municipality of Letrini, in the vicinity of Olympia, adopted a plan according to which the competitions were organized already the in following year. While Curtius was using his best efforts to shed light on ancient Greek values, Evaghelos Zappas, a Greek general living in Romania, was taking practical steps to revive the Games. In 1858 he set up and adundantly founded the FOUNDATION OF THE FRIENDS OF OLYMPIA. The FOUNDATION im mediately embarked on a project of building an exhi bition hall designed by Teophil von Hansen, a Dan ish architect. The first competitions took place already in the following year, with the participation of Greek athletes only. Success was moderate. Com menting on this initial effort Pierre de Coubertin said : "It was a premature and clumsy revival." Simi lar competitions were also organized in 1870, 1875, 1888 and 1889. Evaghelos Zappas wanted to lead the way and set an example, but did not succeed in going beyond the Hellenic framework. This initiative has however, been appraised as a logical link bet ween the dark past and uncertain future. At the end of the XIX-th century, social and historical circumstances favoured the revival of the Olympic Games. Cultural, economic and trade rela tions between and among the countries were boom ing. The individuality of Man was fully recognized. New scientific discoveries about the human being were outstanding, particularly favouring the practice of sports. This approach was translated into practice by the creation of national sports organizations, such as: the A.A.U. in the United States (1888) and the following international sports organizations: Eu ropean Gymnastics Union (1881), The International Federation of Rowing Associations (1892), The Inter

national Skating Union (1892), The International Gymnastics Federation (1897), etc. The setting up of the International Olympic Committee in 1894 actual ly encouraged and accelerated the creation of new international sports federations and national Olym pic Committees. In his book THE OLYMPIC GAMES 776. B.C-1895 Pierre de Coubertin gives a very faithful description of all activities initiated in view of reviving the Olympic Games. He also says: "The XIX-th century is characterized by a revived interest in physical exercise; at its dawn in Germany and Sweden, at its mid day in England and at its sun set in the USA and France. Moreover, the big technical inventions such as the railway and telegraph, have shortened geographical distances, which greatly changed life-styles. The races began to mix, got to better know one another and consequently, very soon developed the desire to compare with one another." In his book entitled A TWENTY ONE YEAR LONG CAMPAIGN (1908) de Coubertin gives a flash-back account of his life. With the aim of win ning a wider social support for his ideas he says: "Germany has brought to light the remnants of Olympia. It is now up to France to restore its splendour!" The first Olympic Congress was convened by the initiative of Adolphe de Pallisaux and Pierre de Coubertin. Baron de Coubertin (France), Herbert (G.B.) and W.M. Sloane (USA) were members of the Organizing Committee. The Congress was officially opened at the Sorbonne, on June 16, 1894. At the very last moment it was named a Congress for the revival of the Olympic Games. Twelve countries were represented. The Congress was opened by the Hymn to Apollo. In his address Coubertin placed the emphasis on the Olympic idea, which like a ray of light had pierced through the thick fog of centuries re-emerging to illuminate the threshold of the XX-th century with the brightness of hope. De Coubertin's idea got full support. On the other hand, the Con gress rejected his proposal to start the new century by organizing the New Olympic Games in Paris. It was decided to revive the Games in 1896, in Athens. Dimitrios Vikelas, a Greek writer, was elected Presi dent of the I.O.C. in line with the principle that its President should come from the country hosting the following Games. According to Carl Diem it was a brilliant move to set up the Olympic Committee whose main message should be "independence with regard to all contemporary forces". The idea of a total autonomy of the I .O.C. was severely criticised, but in spite of all obstacles both the principle and the Games have survived to this day. In his MEMOIRSde Coubertin describes all the difficulties connected with the organization of the

45

First Modem Olympic Games and the opening scenario. First, King George I pronounced the ritual words: "I declare the First Olympic Games of the Modern Age open". Then followed cannon shots, release of doves and the choir singing the Cantata by the Greek composer Samara, specially composed for the occasion. The competitions began immediately after the ceremony. It is with a feeling of relief and pride that de Coubertin also notes: "Our efforts have now become part of history". In case of failure, all the bright projects connected with the revival of the Games would have turned into ashes, thus sharing the destiny of Plato's utopias in the REPUBLIC, the SUN CITY by Tommaso Campanella, and the VOYAGE TO ICARIA by Etienne Cabet. According to Arnold Toynbee, an outstanding historian, de Coubertin was successful thanks to his Renaissance erudition based on Hellenism. With regard to his predecessors, de Coubertin's achievement is outstanding. He has created a philosophy of Olympism which has assigned the Games a new role within the democratization and internationalization process of sports in general, in promoting friendship among the athletes and peace among the nations of the world, in encouraging a harmonious development of physical, mental and moral qualities in man and in offering a unique feeling of joy and happiness which can only be experienced through the practice of sports...

Dimitrios Vikelas, first President of the C.I.O. (1894-1896)

2.2. The Beginning

The first modern Olympic games were solemnly opened on April 6, 1896, in Athens. The attendance was outstanding: 120,000 spectators. It is only at the X-th Olympic Games in Los Angeles, in 1932, that this impressive figure has been exceeded. At the Olympic Games in Athens the number of participating athletes (males only) amounted to 285, from 13 different countries. Competitions took place in the following ten sports on the Olympic programme: track-and-field, wrestling, rowing, cycling, fencing, gymnastics, weight lifting, swimming, target shooting and tennis. Many athletes covered their own travel and accomodation expenses in Athens, others were subsidized by their respective clubs, universities, various foundations, etc. At the opening ceremony only the Hungarian delegation was in uniform. Wrestling competitions were announced on official posters and wrestling as a sport was mentioned on the first page of the Olympic Hymn composed for this occasion (music by E. Samara, lyrics by K. Palloma). In Athens there were no weight categories in wrestling. The rules were similar to those adopted for professional Greco-Roman wrestling. During the first round of competitions Christopulos (Greece) defeated Popavicza (Hungary) and Schuman (Germany) pinned down the shoulders of his opponent Elliot (G.B.). The durations of the matches were not limited and they lasted until one of the competitors was victorious. It was also allowed to interrupt the match and resume it the following day. In the French paper "JOURNAL" in his article on wrestling competitions at the Olympic games James Lon Olivier says: "Tsitas and Schumann were fighting with equal strength for a long time, but they had to interrupt the match after sunset and resume it the next day". The following day he writes: "The match which was interrupted yesterday has been resumed this morning. Both Schumann and Tsitas were using

46

**..

"

gSC'C-er. . ^ U - - S p W f

-:
Poster of the First Olympic Games in Athens ( 1896)

.
47

JklAAOXJQN

NSTANTINON

nKOiSI

MOYZIKOY

OIKOY

MIX. KONZTANTINIAH
fi ZTOA <3>B=H

Front page of the Olympic Hymn ( 1896)

48

Shuman and Tsitas holding each other

their very best efforts to perform holds. They are champions worthy of each other, but the German seems to be more skilfull and smarter. For some time the score remained ex-equo, but all of sudden Schuman managed to defeat his opponent and win the Olympic Gold Medal." Tsitas was a famous wrestler in traditional wrestling, and altough heavier and stronger, he lost the match against the German, who was better trained in Greco-Roman style. His winning hold was the waist lock and fire-

man's carry throw. The fans also requested a match between Schumann and Christopulos, but due to a serious injury, he was content to remain in third place. After so many centuries the strongest men and the olive branch were together again. Carl Schumann, from Berlin, became the first wrestling champion of the modern Olympic Games. His destiny was rather sad. He did not deserve to be unjustly forgotten, but that's the way of the world...

Shuman and Tsitas holding each other

49

3. GREAT TRANSFORMATION OF WRESTLING

3.1. The Challenge of the Time
The Olympic Games have been revived after an interruption of over 1600 years. During that very long historical span wrestling has had its ups and downs, has been changing its forms, but in spite of all the challenges has remained an integral part of human life. Historical, political and ethnic changes have encouraged, or jeopardized the promotion of wrestling and brought about the transformation of hundreds of its traditional forms, in many schools and centers of education in Europe, the USA, Japan and many other countries, wrestling was practiced as part of the curriculum. The golden period of professional wrestling actually started at the beginning of the XIX-th century, with Paris as it center. In Hamburg competitions in wrestling were organized behind closed doors. It is also behind closed doors that it was customary to establish the rating of the wrestlers and determine the winner of the following competitions, prizes, etc. St. Petersburgh was the third most important wrestling center at that time. Following in the footsteps of Ancient Greeks, Russian wrestlers maintained social contacts with outstanding personalities in the field of culture: A.P. Chekhov, Maksim Gorky, A.I. Kuprin, Feodor Chaliapin, Stanislavski, Vakhtangov, chessplayer Alekhin, even with the French sculptor Auguste Rodin when he visited Russia. Chekhov used to organize wrestling competitions for members of athletic clubs. Professional and traditional wrestling dominated a significant portion of social space and exercised pressure on amateurs. At the time wrestling still had no international center, no uniform rules, not even an organized group of supporters to lobby for its promotion with the I.O.C. Yet, in spite of all obstacles and shortcomings, wrestling was developing and strengthening its position. For wrestling the XIX-th century was a period of great challenges, and of a keen struggle against conservatism and tradition, and a period of new solutions, of international cooperation, a period of tolerance and compromise. History should be fair in evaluating the work performed during that period and its positive achievements, including: 1. The development of both Olympic wrestling styles; 2. Establishment of greater stability within the Rules of wrestling; 3. Recognition of wrestling as an Olympic discipline; 4. Definition of amateur sports and its principles; 5. Foundation of national wrestling organizations; 6. Increased number of international competitons, and 7. The revival of Olympic cultural and moral values through wrestling.

3.2. Failure of New French Ideas

There was no wrestling on the programme of the second Olympic Games in Paris (1900), for various reasons, but above all because of the impregnable stronghold of professional wrestling. The organizers of the World Exhibition wanted an attractive accompaying programme for the event and even thought of organizing competitions in the game of billiards, chess, and even fishing. A poster from that time shows the Eiffel Tower with two wrestlers engaged in combat. For that very occasion a play entitled The Philosopher and Athletes, with wrestling on the stage, was performed at the Sorbonne. After the Olympic Games in Athens the number of national and international competitions had considerably increased, particularly in France, Germany, Sweden, Hungary and Finland. The Rules of Wrestling were not uniform, but they had a common basis. The Rules of a wrestling championship held in France, on April 14, 1904 given below will shed more light on that issue.

51

*Aip^SfZSSk ^Wrestling. Paris, 1900

- 1^

!**

$?
Poster of the first European Championship in Greco-Roman Wrestling, Vienna, 1898

52

RULES OF THE CHAMPIONSHIP Article 1. - The Referee is the absolute master of the wrestling competition. He implements the adopted Rules at his discretion. His decisions are final. Article 2. -The Championship is based on classification points. Each victory is awarded 1 point. The wrestlers defeated in the first match fight against one another for participation in the semi-finals. After two falls in semi-finals the wrestler may be eliminated. The title of the CHAMPION OF NORTHERN FRANCE is awarded to the winner of the finals. The title CHAMPION OF ROUBAIX is awarded to the wrestler living in the region of Roubaix (Northern France) who has earned the greatest number of points in the semi-finals. Article 3. - Only holds above the waist are allowed, and only those performed with an open hand. It is prohibited to grasp the opponent's hand below the fist and perform the following holds: - throat hold, - twisting of the arms, - twisting of the fingers, - leg trip, and - stretching the opponent's spinal column. Article 4. - After throwing down his opponent the offensive wrestler should also go into "per-terre". Article 5. - The duration of the first bout is 15 minutes. When the winner cannot be determined the referee decides to continue the match for one or more bouts, even for an unlimited duration. If again the winner cannot be determined the referee may disqualify the wrestlers, or decide that they change opponents. The winner will be the wrestler with the highest number of points scored for active, offensive wrestling. Article 6. - Victory "by fall" is scored only if the opponent remains in contact with the mat with both his shoulders, for a given period of time.

Article 7. - The wrestler loses the match if he leaves the mat under any pretext whatsoever. Article 8. - The Time Keeper is in charge of keeping the time of the duration of bouts, duration of breaks and interruptions. Article 9. - The Referee will disqualify the wrestler and request the Belgian Athletic Federation to procede accordingly, in the following cases: - when he violates the Rules; - when there is proof that he has "arranged" the match with his opponent, - when he places bets on his, or his opponent's victory, and - breach of discipline, or insubordination during the Championship. At the Olympic games wrestling enjoyed outstanding social support. In his magazine "Biceps" (1902) J. Metrel, writing about championships in amateur wrestling, says: "Wrestling is not just one of the sports; it is an eminent athletic sport which deserves support in order to secure among amateurs the place it deserves..." Metrel emphasizes that "in order to be successful, wrestling should have good guidance." He, therefore, reiterates the idea already published in his magazine that "an international federation should be set up for providing guidance within the efforts made to develop amateur wrestling". "This idea deserves attention and it would be normal for the athletes to support it. Unfortunately, this was not the case. Some even protested against the implementattion of that concept. This great idea was simply nipped in the bud by ill-meaning and incompetent sectarians and imbeciles, but above all, by unsuccessful! athletes!" "Fortunately, these protests will not impede the regular development of amateur wrestling, because the idea to set up an international amateur wrestling federation has been endorsed by all those who want to enjoy sports as such, and to encourage its development through sports associations." "All those eager to see wrestling on the top of the list of sports strongly support the idea to set up an international wrestling federation which would secure a successful future for this sport," concludes Metrel in his article. Most probably the above article was a reaction to the deletion of wrestling from the programme of the Paris Olympic Games. Wrestling did not have its Coubertin. It needed time to respond to the requirements of modern times.

53

3.3. The First Steps of Free Style Wrestling

linked to a World Exhibition, even placed under its patronge. The Games were opened on August 23, 1904 without a solemn halo, without speeches and without an attractive show. Free-style wrestling was on the Olympic programme for the first time, with the participation of 40 wrestlers, all of them from the USA. At that time wrestling was one of the most popular sports in the United States. According to R. Dilinger more than six presidents of the United States used to practice wrestling (George Washington, Zachary Taylor, Ulysses Grant, Andrew Johnson and Theodor Roosvelt). Abraham Lincoln, one of the greatest presidents of the United States, among the many other talents which he had, was also gifted for wrestling. He was even of one time the US national wrestling champion. At the time, the Rules of Wrestling were similar to those of "catch as catch can", but prohibiting dangerous holds. The wrestlers were divided into 7 categories, which was a significant novelty. Here are the names of the champions in freestyle wrestling of the Third Olympic Games: Curry (47.6 kg), Mehnert (52.2 kg), Niflot (56.7 kg), Bradshaw (61.2 kg), Roehm (65.3 kg), Erickson (71.7 kg) nad Hansen (+71.7 kg). "Anthropological Days" was a special competititon in various sports disciplines, including wrestling, held within the Olympic Games with the participation of African Americans, American Indians, the Philippinoes, etc. According to Pierre de Coubertin, the "Anthropological Days" put the Olympic principle into jeopardy. Two years later Extraordinary Olympic Games were organized in Athens. The tournament in Greco-Roman style had 57 participants from 13 countries. All three champions came from the Scandinavian countries: 75 kg - KARLSEN (Denmark), 85 kg - WECKMAN (Finland) and +85 kg - JENSEN (Denmark).

The Third Olympic games held in Saint Louis (1904) were successful and meant a step forward in the development of the Olympic movement. They were the first Games held outside Europe, with the participation of 496 athletes, out of whom 430 were from the USA. For the second time the Games were

3.4. Both Wrestling Styles on the Olympic Programme

Competitions in both wrestling styles were organized for the first time at the Fourth Olympic Games in London (1908). The mats were installed in the stadium, parallel to the pool for swimming competitions. Out of 74 wrestlers in Greco-Roman style, from 13 countries, only the competitiors from 5 countries arrived to the finals and no country won more than one gold medal ; Porro (Italy) in the 66.6 weight category, Martensson (Sweden) demonstrated an origi-

54

THE GREAT

STADI

UM

SHEPHERDS. BUSH LONDON*

nal wrestling style in the 73 kg category, Weckman (Finland) 93 kg category displayed his best sports abilities. In the "Heavy weight" category Weisz (Hungary) demonstrated admirable strength and original wrestling. In the finals the Swedish and Finnish wrestlers had the members of their respective teams for opponents. Out of 19 British wrestlers in Greco-Roman style not a single one managed to arrive even at fourth place. Russia was not very happy with the silver medals of Orlov and Petrov, in view of its rather long tradition in this sport. Doctor Krayevsy's CIRCLE OF HEAVY WEIGHT AMATEUR WRESTLERS was founded in 1856 and the championships had been organized all over Russia as of 1897. The country of the famous champions Pad-

V. Veckman FIN

Enrico Porro ITA

dubny and Zaykin, the critics claimed, could have secured a much better rating. These Games are also known for numerous protests filed against the decisions of the officals. According to Klaus Ulrich the Swedes had even with drawn some of their wrestlers from some of the competitions. According to official reports the scandals surrounding the competition in both wrestling styles received a great deal of media coverage and aroused great public interest.

55

R. Weisz HUN

The discussion about the Rules of Free-Style Wrestling held on the eve of the competitions was a very hot one. The Americans as favourites with seven Olympic champions from the previous Games, proposed the Rules of "catch as catch can".... The position of the British was not consis-

tant, in view of the differences among their regional wrestling styles fostered in: Cornwall, Cumberland, Westmorland, Scotland, etc. Thanks to small concessions here and there the American proposal was finally adopted. In the free style tournament 5 countries took part with 59 athletes, 49 of whom were from Great Britain. There were 5 weight categories with a large span between the lower and upper weight limit. Mehnert (USA) 54 kg won the championship for the second time, together with Dole (60.3) from this team. De Relwyskow an Bacon (Great Britain) became champions in their respective weight categories after having defeated their fellow countrymen. The match between the huge fireman O'Kelly (Ireland) and Gundersen (Norway) in the "Heavy" category (over 73 kg) aroused enormous interest. The Irish wrestler very easily defeated his opponent and earned his second gold medal. He also earned his first gold medal in rope pulling. The supremacy of the British wrestlers was evident. They took two gold, four silver and three bronze medals. From all European countries only Gundersen from Norway, a resident of the USA, and otherwise a wrestler with an outstanding reputation, took one medal. The British regional wrestling styles proved very efficient, but their devotion to tradition prevented them from taking steps in new directions. The London Olympic Games will be remembered for having both wrestling styles on the programme, by the improved pattern of weight categories, by the fact that they brought to an end the American monopoly in free-style wrestling, and by ex-aequo results of several European countries in Greco-Roman wrestling.

Saarela and Veckman, London, 1908

56

3.5. The Scandinavian Wave

The Olympic Games in Stockholm (1912) epitomized the triumph of the Olympic movement. After Paris, Saint Louis and London, this time the Games had not been organized as an event accom panying an International, or National Exhibition. The number of participants was outstanding : a total of 2,541 athletes from 18 countries. The duration of the event was shortened, but its organization was perfect. An impressive number of 444 accredited journalists covered the event. This time there was no free-style wrestling on the Olympic programme, probably because of the supremacy of the British and American wrestlers in this style. Instead, competitions in Icelandic GLIMA wrestling were organized to fill in the vacancy. Out of 171 wrestlers in Greco-Roman style from 18 countries 37 of them came from Finland and 34 from Sweden. The number of weight categories was increased from 4 to 5, but still with a great difference between the lower and upper limit. The Rules of all Olympic competitions were an nounced rather late, when the Games had already een in full swing and revealed a number of defiiencies related to some unanticipated practical problems and situations. This resulted in numerous protests being filed, and hot discussions, particularinternational Jury (Wrestling) in Stockholm, 1912. Sitting: F.X. Markones AUT, Longhurst GBR, Kissling GER, Radvany HUN and Lindsted FIN Standing: Czaplinsky RUS, Preuss GER, Nielsen DEN, Schindler AUT, Csanady HUN and Borg SWE

V*<

^.

- w vM
57

Georg Hackenschmidt

E. Vare FIN

Match between Asikainen FIN and Klein RUS at the Stockholm Olympic Games In 1912 which lasted over 11 hours

58

Asikainen and Klein (1912)

Voiyama FIN against Hauptman GER, in 1912

59

ly with regard to competitions in wrestling, tennis and fencing. In view of this negative experience, in his report Baron von Beningen, member of the I.O.C., suggests some improvements in the organization and officiating of the Olympic Games. There were three mats available for wrestling competitions, all of them in the open. The duration of the match was limited to 1 hour, except in the finals (unlimited duration). The envisaged decisions were: victory by fall, victory on points, elimination after two defeats and disqualification. The rating was based on the points scored. E.g. The match between Ahigren (Sweden) and Bohling (Finland) was interrupted after six hours of undetermined combat and the decision was taken to award a silver medal to each of the wrestlers. It was the very first and only such decision in the history of the Olympic Games. Klein (Russia) and Asikainen (Finland) fought a marathon match. It lasted for 11 hours and 40 minutes upon ending and is recorded in the Guiness Book of Records. According to another source, the first match lasted 10 hours and 30 minutes. It started at 11 o'clock on July 14, 1912, with the first interruption for a religious mass. At the beginning the breaks were much longer, 30 minutes, but later on gradually decreased to 5, 3 and finally 1 minute. The officials allowed a 30 minute overtime, which again did not decide on the winner. The number of points was equal. Upon that the contestants were given the last chance-two bouts in "par-terre", 3 minutes each. Finally Klein managed to defeat an 8 kg heavier world champion. The victory was decided after 21 h. and 51 min. Evidently, after so many hours of combat Klein was too exhausted to face Johansson (Sweden). Some Russian authors contest his title of champion. It is true that with regard to Klein he competed in a much smaller number of matches and was lucky to score several victories by forfeit. Even the famous Russian wrestler Al. Severov surrendered him the match. This is how the Swedish

wrestler managed to compile the points required for the champion title and to quite legally win the gold medal. The Finnish and Swedish wrestlers were absolute masters of this Olympic tournament. Their athletic performance was reminiscent of the exploits described in Swedish epic poems and in the Finnish KALEVALA. These achievements were actually the results of the great effort which the Scandinavian countries were investing in the development of wrestling already in the last decade of the XIX-th century. King Gustave V personally handed over the prizes to the champions : Koskeio - 60 kg (FIN), Vare - 67.5 kg (FIN), Johanssoon - 75 kg (SWE) and Saarela - 82.5 kg (FIN). The champions in wrestling actually came from a small number of countries: three gold, two silver and two bronze medals went to Finland and one gold, two silver and one bronze medal to Sweden. Germany and Russia won only one silver medal each and Hungary and Denmark one bronze medal each. It was a decision of the I.O.C. to also organize a competition in arts along with the Games in Stockholm. The prize in literature was awarded to an anonymous poet with a French-German pen name, for his ODE TO SPORTS... Actually, this unknown poet was no other than Pierre de Coubertin. He was not a poet, but like Rouget de Lisle, author and composer of la MARSELLAISE, he had many talents. In poetry, since Pindar in ancient Greece, there was no better ODE TO SPORTS written than this one by Pierre de Coubertin. The X-th Olympic Games showed that the technical and tactical qualities of amateur wrestlers were in no way inferior to those of the professionals. The public was particularly impressed by the throws over the shoulder, performed by Scandinavian wrestlers. Wrestlers from other countries took quite a long time to catch up with the Scandinavian "wave" in wrestling.

60

4. THE BIRTH OF FILA

Research into the history of FILA reveals a number of controversial issues. E.g. The European Championship (Vienna, 1898) and the world championship (Vienna, 1904) had taken place before the International Federation of Amateur Wrestling was founded. In most books on the history of wrestling these championships are treated as unofficial and it is only as of recently that a new classification of championships has shed a different light on this issue. We shall discuss it later on in the text. At present we shall only deal with the problems connected with the foundation of FILA and its evolution as an international wrestling organization.

4.1. The Foundation of FILA

The first group in charge of organizing and conducting the wrestling competitions was set up for the purpose of the Olympic games. It was a provisional organisational group which operated according to the Statues and decisions taken by the I.O.C. and its organizing committees. At the time, our sport was not fortunate enough to have a strong personality who would bring together under one umbrella the already existing national wrestling federations, unions and clubs. All efforts made in this regard in France, Hungary, Austria, Denmark and Sweden did not bear fruit. Ad hoc organizing committees of the European and World championships did not enjoy an international status and did not elect their members according to a democratic procedure. Therefore the I.O.C. did not recognize them as legal bodies. To make a long story short, the first international organization for the development of wrestling and weight lifting was founded in 1905, in Duisburg, on the initiative of the Deutsche Athleten-Verband (DAV). A committee set up with the task of establishing order in the organization of world championship, was composed of the following members : Monticelli (Milan), the van Els brothers (the Hague), Koetten (Kein) and Stolz (Munich). The exact date of the foundation of FILA is still controversial. By the way, the abbreviation FILA has been generally accepted because of frequent changes of the official title. Many authors connect the foundation of FILA with the Congress held in Lausanne on June 2-7,1921 (See: The Oxford Companion to Sports & Games, Oxford university Press, 1975; Enciklopedija Fizicke Kulture, Zagreb, 1977; le Dictionnaire Ecyclopedique, Moscou, 1963, Deutscher Ring-Bund Handbuch 1988/89). On the other hand, the Hungarian historian L. Kun, la Petite Encyclopdie Sovetique (Moscou, 1982) and some other sources place the foundation of FILA in the year 1914 and some even in 1913. Some recent bibliographical sources go even further back in history and place the foundation of FILA in the year 1912, but fall into their own trap mentioning Einer Raberg as its first president who actually served his term in the 1921-1924 period. Fifty Years of Greco-Roman and Free-Style Wrestling Within the International Federation of Amateur Wrestling- 1912-1962, published by FILA, is the first official book in which we find 1912 as the year of the foundation of FILA. But, in the book there is no mention of any official document supporting this statement. In FILA 1912-1972, a book published later, an attempt has been made to explain the historical development of FILA. In 1992, at the official celebration of the 80-th Anniversary of FILA, its President, Mr. Milan Ercegan, submitted a well documented report. It is true that the exact date of the foundation of an organization, or movement, cannot always be determined according to the established rules. The formal approach is based on the existing legal documents and the recognition on the part of other organizations (in this case the I.O.C). Actually, the arguments in favour of the year 1912 are historically opportune because they take into account the activities preceding and leading to the foundation of FILA, whereas the functional and structural ap-

61

proach takes into account the already existing organization and its activities. The first International Wrestlers' Union (Internationaler Ringer Verband) was founded for the purpose of the Stockholm Olympic Games. The Organizing Committee entrusted the Swedish Athletic Federation with the task of the convening of a Congress at which the representatives of all countries participating in the Games would adopt the Statues and Rules of procedure of a supreme international organization. According to Dr. Per Stroembaeck, specimens of the invitations to this Congress are stored in the Swedish Wrestling Federation archives. J. Lindstedt (FIN) and R. Preuss (GER) have already taken steps to obtain these documents for FILA. The delegates to the Stockholm Congress were heads of the Olympic Delegations, members of the main jury, judges, referees and coaches. Most of them did not have valid credentials. After the discussion about the Statues and Rules of Wrestling the delegates decided to convene their constitutional congress the following (1913) year in Berlin. In addition to that, an Interim Committee was set up with Dr. Peter Tatits, as President and M. Csanady Mor, as Secretary General, both from Hungary. The setting up of a supreme international wrestling organization was a logical step, a natural outcome of a number of preceding activities and a recognition of current and future requirements in wrestling on the global level. Actually, it is thanks to a number of factors that this organisation came into being, namely: - The I.O.C. and the Organizing Committee fully recognized the need to set up an international organization for that purpose; - The need to secure a good organization of the Berlin Olympic Games (1916); - A number of problems and difficulties encountered at the previous national and international competitions; - The fact that numerous national organizations had already been founded: in Austria (1889), Sweden (1900), Denmark (1901), Italy (1902), the Netherlands (1903), Great Britain (1904), Hungary (1905), Norway (1909), etc.; - The example set by other already founded international sports organizations, and - Emergence of a new generation of sports leaders with a supranational mentality in their approach to sports. A letter by M. Julius von Muzsa (Hungary), President of the I.O.C. to Pierre de Coubertin reveals some very precious information. Actually, the Presi-

. i 0YAH 0LYUPIAI BIZ0TTSAG.

State 4a 7.Dee!>r ^_
(

1312.

in Stockholm, nehmen wir uns die Freiheit lichen Erfahrungen und Studien welohe unsere

.',*^

ezugnehmend auf den Beschluss unsere- Coaitas Ihnen die samnt-

ungarischen hauen

Teilnehmer in den einzelnen Sportivo igen erfahren Ihnen hflichst mitzuteilen, so Jene Principien

darzulegen

welche durch die gemachten Erfahrungen, bei deu Arrangement der Serliner Olympiad unbedingt sein wird. Ich erlaube mir Ihre .Auf san i c e it darauf zu lenicen, dass die hier niedergelegten Meinungen, die Mei vor Augen .halten

nungen der einzelnen fhrender, ung ari echen Sportorumen sind, daher derart betrachtet erden Knnen, ali> die of fi-

olelen Wnsche der ganzen ungarieohen Sportwelt , deren Erfllung ein aufrichtiger Wunsch wre bei den der Deutschen Olympiad. einzelnen Arrangement

Die se Pachine i nungen sind laut den Sport zwe igen die Folgenden:

0 E

1.) Fs wre an z.iecknssigst en wenn die Regeln und Gewicht seintellung des Jetzt const itulrten lfTf ?0* RINGER VERBANDES aeeeptiert werden mgennicht mglich sein, so proponieren wir. OlympiadSieg 1-1 PunkSollte dies

2.) Die C-ewichtselnteilung der .Stockhol&er 3 . ) Classification nit Punkte

let zu lschen.

soll mit 2 Punkte, und unentschiedener Kampf mit te gewertet werden, nach 30 Minuten langen Kampf. 4.) Die Jury-Hitglieder Zubehren. 5.} Von einer Nation knnen hchstens 5 - 6 tan starten. sollen immer fremden

Nationen

Concurren-

6.) Die Jury ist alltglich zueamoen zu fcorufen um die -. ?r:'.ei'-t nc = h densa!tan Tag su erlei 6 e"der Jury soll eine jede teilnehmende JU

Nation mit einem Ver-

treter vertreten sein, hingegen von den Deutaoben so viel wie die Zahl, der Vertreter der.fremden Nationen ist. 7.) Es ist unbedingt erwnscht, dass die Hingwe tlltmpfe in einem geschlossenen Rume abgehalten *erden sollen,

daS3 die Concurranten nioht den Unbill en der Witterung ausge se tzt sind.

In die oben Vorgestellten Heraerkungen erlaubte

ich

mir die Meinungen unserer Fachleute den einzelnen S p o r t zweigen mitzuteilen und hoffe, dass der ungarische Sport-

geist auoh etwas beitragen wird, dass d a ^ V I . Olympiade in Berlin so glnzend, als mglich reussiren soll.

Hochachtungsvoll

erge ben st;

, ez; Julius v ou i'azsa Re hstaysabgeordne ter, Prsident des ungari sehen Olympi sehen Comit.

62

dent of the I.O.C. proposes that the wrestlers adopt the rules and weight categories of the then recently founded Internationaler Ringer Verband (The International Wrestlers' Union). Thus from this letter we learn about the recent setting up of an International Wrestlers' Union with its own rules and also some details about the conflicts at the Stockholm Congress. The Hungarians proposed to the Congress to limit the duration of the match to 30 minutes, with 2 points scored for victory, or divison of points, 1 to each wrestler in case of ex-aequo. In view of improving the organization of competitions they also proposed the restriction to 5-6 participants from each country, officiated by neutral judge-referees and holding of matches in the halls. The Stockholm Congress proposed the holding of the First Constitutional Congress in 1913, in Berlin. This is the reason why some authors mention this year as the date of the foundation of FILA. The title the First Congress was only formal, because the Wrestlers Union was actually founded in Stockholm. Was it really the First Congress? The participants did not feel that way, but nevertheless, history should pay them tribute for their achievements in this field. We must always bear in mind Aristotle's words: "The beginning is more than half of the endeavour." The Congress in Berlin took place from the 5-th to the 9-th of June, 1913, with the participation of delegates from nine countries: Germany, Finland, Denmark, Sweden, Russia, Hungary, Austria, Bohemia and Great Britain. The Internationaler Amateur Verband fr Schwerathletik was founded with the task of developing and promoting wrestling (Greco-Roman), boxing, weight lifting, rope pulling and putting over 10 kg of weight. German was adopted as the official language. The existing rules and weight categories

remained unchanged, in spite of severe criticism. Sweden proposed a 60 minutes duration of the match, whereas Germany proposed the duration of only 20 minutes, it was, finally, decided to have two bouts of 20 minutes each with 1 minute break. The Berlin Congress had also decided on the hosts of the forthcoming championships in 1914: St. Petersburg (World Championship) and Vienna (European Championship). An Organizing Committee was set up consisting of: President- Dr. P. Tatits (Hungary); Vice President - R. Preuss (Germany) an M. Csandy (Hungary); Secretaries: James Borg (Sweden) and F. Koller (Austria); members: J. Lindstedt (Finland), A.R. Nielsen (Denmark), P. Longhurst (Great Britain), R. Schwindler (Bohemia) and L. Zsaplinsky (Russia). This means that the organization had been set up and there was no reason whatsoever to look for the origins of FILA in the following year. The two congresses were actually an integral part of a single entity in form and content. The European Championships held in 1913 and 1914, according to the uniform rules and weight categories, are actually the outcome of all preceding activities. A complex evolution of the Federation after 1913 only reflects the reality of the times. Many wrestlers were also active in other disciplines, such as: weight lifting, rope pulling, weight putting, etc. Georg Hackenschmidt, the first European champion in wrestling (1898) was also champion in weight lifting. This practice continued up to the thirties, when Charles Rigoulot won the championships in both these sports. In 1914 the Federation underwent serious organizational changes. Amateurism was a very hot topic and seperatism became an apparent trend. On top of all these problems a big fire jeopardized the already ongoing big projects of the Federation.

63

4.2. Decline and Revial

In Ancient Greece, sacred truce (ekachiria) was observed during the Olympic Games, and all hostilities between the states were suspended. In modern times, to the contrary, it was the Olympic Games that were suspended by war. Nevertheless, the suspended Games have not been deleted from the chronological calendar, where they can be found together with the names of their host cities to be e.g. No. 6. - Berlin (1916), No. 12. - Helsinki (1940), and No. 13. - London (1944). In spite of suspension, the two world wars have not been able to extinguish the Games, nor the Olympic spirit. it was for the first time that the slogan : Citius, altius, fortius (quicker, higher, stronger) was launched. It was also the first time that the countries defeated in the war did not take part in the Olympic Games. All in all, the Anvers Games symbolized a new victory of Pierre de Coubertin and his achievements, the master brain of the Olympic Charter, oath, flag and symbols, another victory of a man of great merit for the revival of the Olympic Games and the development of the Olympic spirit into one of the most powerful social and peace movements in modern history. It is also at the Anvers Games that Pierre Coubertin celebrated the 20-th Anniversary of the I.O.C. Both wrestling styles were represented in the Anvers Games, with 105 competitors in GrecoRoman style, from 14 countries, and 61 competitors in free-style, from 13 countries. With regard to the Stockholm Olympic Games the participation of
Eino Leino FIN

S ^ S S

A U G U S T -SEPTEMBER

\QQ,0

"

After the calamity of the First World War the Olympic Games were already revived in 1920, in Anvers, with many novelties accompaying the event. It is in Anvers that the white Olympic flag was flown for the first time, with its five Olympic circles symbolizing all five continents united in the Olympic spirit and through the national colors of all peoples. Also,

64

wrestlers was much smaller, due to the absence of athletes from the countries defeated in the First World War. Both wrestling styles were finally established on the Olympic programme. Also, it was for the first time in Anvers that the wrestlers in both styles competed according to the same Rules and were divided into the same weight categories, according to the decisions taken by the Berlin Congress (1913). The Scandinavian wrestlers were absolutely outstanding in all respects and their achievements had a sweeping effect. Actually, they took 15 medals. Some of the Olympic heroes were winners of several medals, e.g. the Finnish athlete Paavo Nurmi, who took 3 gold and 1 silver medal. Here are the names of the champions in their respective categories: Firman (FIN) eho defeated all his oppo-

nents "by fall"; Vare (FIN), Olympic champion for the second time; Westergren (SWE); R. Johansson (SWE) Olympic champion for the second time, and Lindfors (FIN). Two Danish and one Finnish wrestler were also among the medal winners. The Belgians, hosts of the Games, had to content themselves with 4-th place. The Anvers Games feature an unexpected turn in free-style wrestling. The Swedish wrestlers put an end to the monopoly of the British and Americans in this style. Here are the names of the champions in free style wrestling: Ackerly (USA), Antillea (FIN), Leino (FIN), Larsson (SWE), and Roth (SUI). The Swiss Courant won a silver medal in their traditional wrestler SCHWINGEN. The British took only two bronze medals, which was a far cry from their former glory.

4.3. Renewal of FILA

At the Anvers Olympic Games the I.O.C. recommended the foundation of independent federations for each sports discipline. The International Federation of Free-Style Wrestling was founded on the initiative of the USA. Being completely passive, its existence only serves as a proof of the unequal status of the wrestling styles. The Olympic Congress of the I.O.C. held in Lausanne, from 2 to 7 June, 1921, devoted a special session to the foundation of the International Amateur Wrestling Federation (IAWF). The session was chaired by J.S. Egstroem (Sweden), later elected President of the I.O.C, who had worked very hard
J. Sigfrid Egstrm, President of the I.C.O. (1946-1952) Einar Rberg, President of FILA (1921-1924)

on the implementation of this idea. The Congress ratified the Statues of 19 Federations, including that of the newly founded IAWF Mr. Einer Raberg, Swedish army officer and former wrestler, was elected President of the IAWF English was adopted as the official language. The new Federation was founded for the purpose of promoting both wrestling styles on the basis of the amended rules. It organized two world championships in Greco-Roman wrestling in Helsinki (1921) and Stockholm (1922), with absolute supremacy of the Scandinavian wrestlers, and two European championships in Offenbach (1921) and

65

A. Brll, President of FILA (1924-1929)

V. Smeds, President of FILA (1929-1950)

Neunkirchen (1924), with the most numerous participation of German wrestlers. The IAWF was the successor of the previous international federations, but with clearly defined tasks and authority. Its main problem was to secure uniform conditions at all competitions, the appropriate calender of the events in both styles, weight categories, rules, protocol, etc. But, the new uniform standards often collided with deeply rooted traditional practices and national and individual interests. The

most imcompatible views were coming from the representatives of Sweden, Germany and Hungary. It may be concluded that, thanks to its deep historical roots and vitality, wrestling never ceased to develop, even in the absence of its relevant international bodies. However, the foundation of the IAWF has secured a legal status to wrestling vis-avis the I.O.C., the N.O.Cs, the national wrestling federations and global public opinion. The period of infancy was over.

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5. OFFICIAL AND UNOFFICIAL EUROPEAN AND WORLD CHAMPIONSHIPS

Lack of relevant documentation and often biased data available from national sources make the research into this topic rather difficult. Therefore, when evaluating our recent history we often rely on personal judgement based on individual preferences and specific interests, the case in point being the differences in the numeration of the World and European championships, and their division into the official and unofficial ones. All former European and World championships are historical facts. They have been organized by the Organizing Committees set up for the purpose, they had their own rules, supporters and their ceremonial protocol. True, at the beginning the participation of the athletes was rather small, which can be explained by the developing state of wrestling at that time, absence of consolidated national organizations, poor communications and lack of funds. In spite of all that, by 1925, 18 European championships had taken place in 9 cities of 6 European countries, and 17 World championships in 9 cities of 4 countries. As already emphasized, the development of wrestling had preceded the setting up of its international bodies. Actually, the athletes and their national organizations were eager to publicly demonstrate their athletic abilities outside the Olympic Games and professional championships. Although organized in Greco-Roman style, only the World and European championships have greatly contributed to the improvement of the training methods and promotion of publicity for wrestling and its development. Actually, they preceded the foundation of FILA. In the absence of a supreme international body the legality of these championships was grounded on the Statues of their Organizing Committees. Therefore, it does not stand to reason that these championships should be treated as unofficial. Following that logic all European championships organized before the foundation the E.C.A.W. (CELA) should be listed as unofficial. It is, therefore, difficult to understand why the world championships which had taken place before the foundation of the Internationaler Ringer Verband are not listed as official. Following the same logic, it does not stand to reason to list as unofficial the championships which included the participation of professional wrestlers. Actually, only Georg Hackenschmidt, the first champion of Europe (1898) had become a professional wrestler. It is true that some amateur wrestlers had been remunerated for competing in the matches preceding the professional wrestling programme, but, why not? Sincerely speaking, the value of the prizes nowadays awarded to athletes by far exceed the remuneration to professional wrestlers at that time. The systme of competition for amateurs was borrowed from the professionals, which remains the major problem. This system provided for two European championships annually. In 1907 they were organized in Copenhagen and Vienna, and 1912 in Budapest and Vienna. The same system was applied for the World championships organized in Berlin and Duisburg, in 1905, and even five in 1907, in: Helsinki, Stuttgart, Berlin, Dresden and Vienna. Today, it is not only impossible, but also superflous, to try to determine which of these championships should be listed as official. Another problem: the World championship held in Helsinki, in 1911. is listed as official, and the European Championships held in Offenbach and Neunkirchen, organized by the IAWF, are not, in spite of a large participation of wrestlers, but only from Germany. At the Saint Louis Olympic Games, only the American athletes took part in wrestling contests and in this case, noone challenges their championship titles and medals. The first European Championship in GrecoRoman style took place in Vienna, in 1898. The weight categories were introduced after 1905. Here are the names of the European champions at that time: Georg Hackenscmidt (Russia), 1898; HansHenrich Egeberg (Germany), 1902; Gustav Fristensky (Bohemia), 1903; J. Ploeger (the Netherlands), 1904; and Franz Blonner (Bohemia), 1905. Later on, the number of weight categories had been increased, except at the championship in Vienna, in 1907. The number of participating countries was in-

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creasing. Thus, in 1910, in Budapest, 57 wrestlers came from Austria, Bohemia, Finland, Denmark, Germany, Great Britain, Hungary and Sweden. Most wrestlers came from Central European and Scandinavian countries. As of 1913 the European championships have adopted the rules and weight categories of the Olympic wrestling tournaments. Here are the names of European champions from that period: H.H. Egeberg (Denmark), H. Christensen (Denmark), T. Fischer (Hungary), B. Varga (Hungary), G. Mlamstroem (Sweden), G. Gerstacker (Germany), etc. German wrestlers took the greatest number of medals-64, followed by the Hungarians who took 34 medals, the Danish-21, the Austrians14, etc. The Scandinavian wrestlers took all of the gold medals: Mertensson and Johansson from Sweden and Vare from Finland. The first World championship in Greco-Roman style, in two weight categories, was organized in Vienna, in 1904. Here are the names of its champions: Ahlqvist (Denmark) and Arnold (Austria). The Olympic weight categories were observed at the championship in Helsinki (1911), in Vienna (1920) and in Helsinki again (1921). Under the new weight category system some of the former champions have managed to demonstrate their top mastership in wrestling by winning Olympic medals: Verner Weckman, Eemeli Vre, Oskari Edvard Vesterlund and Carl Westergren. It is difficult to compile a reliable and objective list of championships. On the other hand, there is no ethical, or legal justification for challenging the titles and medals won at these European championships. However, in case we decide to establish a formal order and numbering of the championships we should adopt one of the following three approaches: - Recognize as a historical fact all competitions in question, without numbering them; - Number all competitions, except those repeated in the course of the same year, or

Einar Rberg, wrestler

- List and number only the championships which have taken place after the foundation of the first international wrestling federation in 1912. The World and European championships represent our historical asset, unique with regard to any other sport. The past is, undoubtedly, always a part of the present. But, when recognizing our past we also have to acknowledge its dark sides.

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6. GREAT STRIDES FORWARD

Stabilization and spectacular advancement are the main features of wrestling in the period between the two wars, with the new divisions, numerous political crises and the economic crisis of 1929-1932. Throughout this period wrestling was progressing to become one of the most popular sports, thanks to the Olympic games and the European Championships organized under the auspices of IAWF in Milan, from 1925 and onwards. In 1929 Paris hosted the first European championship in free style wrestling. Eurpoean championships have given a strong impetus to the development of wrestling on the global level. Due to a combination of circumstances other continents were not in a position to organize official competitions. Actually, the Pan-Ame-

Oskar Friman FIN

rican and Mediterranean Games were for the first time organized only in 1951, the Asian championship in 1966 and the African in 1969. The dark side of the period under review is the absence of World championships, evidently because of the high level of Greco-Roman wrestling in Europe, not yet attained by the rest of the world, which would turn these championships into a replica of the European events. At the Olympic Games in Paris (1924) both styles were represented with the participation of 146 wrestlers from 22 countries in Greco-Roman and 100 wrestlers from 13 countries in free-style wrestling. Once again, the German athletes were not allowed to take part. In Greco-Roman style the Scandinavians were once again, invincible. Here are the names of the Olympic champions of the Paris Games: E. Ptsep (Estonia), K. Antila (Finland), O. Friman (Finland), E. Vesterlund (Finland), Westergren (Sweden) and H. Deglane (France).

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Friman's holds

Apart from Finland and Sweden, very few other countries managed to win medals; Estonia took two, and France and Hungary one each. The Swede Carl Westergren won the champion title for the second time and in 1932 he became the first triple Olympic champion in wrestling of the modern Olympic Games. Oscar Friman is a double Olympic champion but he has an outstanding place in the history of wrestling thanks to his unique wrestling technique called "Friman's series". His grateful compatriots have engraved on his tomb one of his favourite holds. Actually, Friman was 11 times national champion of Finland. Henri Deglane, French fireman, was the lightest wrestler in the "heavy" category, at the age of 22. According to French sources, in spite of the advantage over his opponent, Andersson (Sweden) he lost the match. The French protest was "vehement" and the decision was taken to repeat the match. In two minutes Deglane defeated his opponent "by fall". Later on he became a professional wrestler and world champion in catch, in 1931. At the Anvers Olympic Games all former champions in free-style wrestling lost their titles. The American counterattack was crowned with success. They took a total of 6 medals and had 4 champions: R. Reed, R. Vis, J. Spellman and H. Steele. J. Pihlajamaeki was the only Finnish champion and other Finnish wrestlers took 5 more medals. H. Gehri and Fr. Hangmann (Switzerland) once again demonstrated their strength and the potential of their traditional wresting. The Olympic tournament in Greco-Roman wrestling (1928) in Amsterdam marks a turning point

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Lajos Keresztes HUN Ivar Johansson SWE Kustaa Pihlajmki FIN

in a different direction. Among 107 competitors from 23 countries, Finland took only one medal, thanks to V. Kokkinen. Other medals were divided among 5 countries: K. Leucht (Germany), V. Vali (Estonia), L. Keresztes (Hungary), I. Mustafa (Egypt) and R. Svensson (Sweden). The greatest surprise of the Games was the medal of Ibrahim Mustafa, who thus became the first Olympic champion from Africa. In free-style, 62 athletes from 15 countries took part in the competitions. The Americans lost their leading position and took only one gold, thanks to A. Morrison. Finland was better with its gold medals won by K. Mkinen and A. Haavisto. E. Kyburz was brilliant, but the was the last Swiss to take the Olympic gold. O. Kapp was the first Estonian champion in free-style wrestling. Thanks to their two gold medals taken by T. Sjstedt and J. Richthoff, Sweden stabilized its position in the "heavy" category for the years to come. The medals taken by Belgian, Canadian, British and French wrestlers were not only a token of their respective national success, but also a proof of successful overall development of free-style wrestling.

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In 1932, the second Olympic Games organized outside Europe occurred. The venue of the wrestl ing competitions was the "Olympic Hall" in Los An geles, where 41 wrestlers from 13 counries took part in Greco-Roman style and 49 wrestlers from 15 countries in free-style wrestling. The participation was rather small, due to the economic crisis and the geographical distance, and particularly in view of the decision taken in Amsterdam (1928) to admit to the Games only one wrestler per country, per weight category. In Greco-Roman style the supremacy of the Scandinavians remained unchallenged: E. Malmberg, Westergren and I. Johansson took the gold. I. Johansson was the first wrestler to win the champ ionships in both styles and R. Svensson became double Olympic champion. By demonstrating a new, attractive style of wrestling in swift pace the Italians won the sympathy

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Hermanni Pihlajmki FIN

of the public and took 4 medals: G. Gozzi-gold, M. Nizzola-silver and E. Gallegatl and M. Gruppioni a bronze each. As a team they earned the 4-th place on the unofficial rating list, but in spite of that, some journalists called these Olympic Games "Italian". German wrestlers were outstanding. J. Brendel took the gold and thus became Olympic champion.
Vino Kokkinen FIN

IF
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The Germans took two more silver medals. One of the winners, J. Foldeak later won the title of European champion and became famous as coach for the German national team and founder of a company for the production of wrestling mats. Once again the Americans were best in freestyle wrestling with three champions: R. Pearce, Van Bebber and P. Mehringer. I. Johansson and J. Richtoff took two gold medals for Sweden, the latter for the second time. France took its first gold in freestyle wrestling thanks to P. Pacome. H. Pihlajamki was the only Finnish champion. The progress of European wrestlers in free-style wrestling was evident. The Olympic Games in Berlin (1936) attracted an outstanding number of competitors in wrestling: 100 in free-style, from 20 countries and 110 in GrecoRoman style, from 23 countries. Defending the position of the strongest nation in Greco-Roman wrestling Sweden took three gold medals thanks to : R. Svedberg, I. Johansson (his third Olympic champion title) and A. Cadier. The gold medal taken by the Turkish wrestler Y. Erkan announced the

Werner Seelenbinder GER

bright prospects in wrestling for that country. Other gold medal winners in Berlin were: M. Lrincz (Hungary), L. Koskela (Finland) and Palusalu (Estonia). Germany took 4 medals, contrary to the more ambitions expectations of the organizers. They were so eager to achieve success that they even acclaimed the performance of Werner Seelenbinder, in spite of his socialist political views. He only earned the 4-th place in his category. In free-style wrestling for the first time the wrestlers from 6 countries shared the medals. The Hungarians were the surprise of the Games, with their forfeit matches and two gold medals won by Zombori and K. Krpti. The Finnish wrestlers, K. Pihlajamki, double Olympic champion and national champion over twenty times, demonstrated top mastership. F Lewis (USA), E. Poilve (France) and K. Fridell (Sweden) were also the champions of the Berlin Olympic Games.

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Kroly Krpti HUN

Annual European championships encouraged the development and promotion of wrestling on the global level. The scope of wrestling was constantly expanding and the number of countries developing this sport increasing. This resulted in the interest of new towns to host wrestling events. Thus, the championship in Greco-Roman wrestling was organized in 1925 in Milan, in 1926 in Riga, in 1927 in Budapest, in 1929 in Dortmund, in 1930 in Stockholm, in 1931 in Prague, in 1933 in Helsinki, in 1934 in Rome, in 1935 in Copenhagen, in 1937 in Paris, in 1938 in Tallin and in 1939 in Oslo. The European championship in Paris had the highest number of participants: 92 from 19 countries.
Joh. Richthoff SWE

Atik Arikan TUR Kurt Hornfischer GER

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Rudolf Svedberg SWE

Denis Perret SUI J. Fldeak GER in action

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European championships in free-style wrestling were less numerous, held in Paris in 1929, in Brussels, in 1930, in Budapest in 1931, in Paris again in 1933, in Stockholm in 1934, in Brussels again in 1935 and in Munich in 1937. The championship in Brussels, in 1935, had the highest participation: 60 wrestlers from 14 countries. At first the European championships had one weight category less with regard to the Olympic Games. It is only in 1930 that the pattern of the Olympic weight categories in free-style wrestling observed at the Olympic Games in Paris, in 1924, was adopted. This pattern was actually observed in both styles for the first time at the Olympic Games in 1932. Already in 1926, the IAWF limited the participation to one wrestler per weight category, per country. The European Championships were not organized in the Olympic years. The Berlin Congress (held from 25 to 30 May, 1930) recommended to international sports organizations to refrain from organizing World championships during the Olympic years and recognize the Olympic champion titles. In wrestling the Olympic titles have never been recognized. On the other hand, the continental championships were not organized in the years of the Olympic Games. The classification at the Olympic Games and the championships is the most reliable indicator of the balance of forces in wrestling, According to unofficial classification per nations at the Olympic Games, the Swedes were three times first in GrecoRoman wrestling in : 1908, 1932 and 1934, and once in free-style wrestling, in 1936. Finland was three times first in Greco-Roman wrestling in: 1912, 1920 and 1924, and twice in free-style, in: 1920 and 1928. Germany was first in Greco-Roman wrestling in 1928. In free-style wrestling the USA were first in: 1904, 1924 and 1932. Great Britain was first in freestyle wrestling in 1908. In spite of an outstanding development of freestyle wrestling, particularly in Europe, classifications at continental championships differed from the rating at the Olympic Games. Sweden was six times European champion: in 1929, 1930, 1934, 1937, 1938 and 1939; Finland twice: in 1931 and 1933; Germany twice: in 1926 and 1935 and Hungary in 1927. Swedish supremacy was unchallenged, particularly in the championships held at the end of the period under review. The picture of free-style wrestling was much more diversified. Hungary was champion in 1931 and 1935; Sweden in 1929 and 1934. From the historical point of view the victories of Belgium, in 1930, Switzerland in 1933 and Germany in 1937 are particularly noteworthy.

Some Olympic champions have also attained their mastery on the European mat and have become the brightest stars of XX-th century wrestling; Ivar Johansson (Sweden) three times Olympic champion and ten times European champion; Custaa Pihlajamki (Finland) and Carl Westergren and Johan Richthoff (both Swedes) were all three double Olympic champions and ten, five and four times respectively European champions. Moreover, Westergren won the World champion title in 1922. These giants of physical and spiritual strength have also invented new technical and tactical solutions and launched a new aesthetic approach to modern wrestling, worthy to be followed by all wrestlers of the world. Koroly Krpti, Olympic champion from Hungary and six times European champion, and his compatriot dn Zombary, twice European champion, have introduced a highly technical and balanced approach to wrestling, thus initiating a new trend in its development. Jacob Brendel (Germany), twice European champion, was a model of rational wrestling and the Italian Giovani Gozi, also twice European champion, was famous for his risky, emotional and inspired wrestling. The ups and downs in the work of the IAWF affected the development of wrestling. After the resignation of President Einer Raberg, in 1924, in Paris, he was replaced by Alfred Brll from Hungary. The Amsterdam Congress set up a Commission with the task of defining the philosophy of wrestling and drafting the rules of competition, consisting of the following members: Mikls Csillag, Einer Raberg and Victor Smeds. But, since they were some what distanced from the project, both geographically and in their respective approaches to the issues involved, it took eight years before its approval by the Berlin Congress in 1936. The Rules were published the following year. At that time the Hungarians exercised a very strong influence on the work of the IAWF through Mr. M. Victor, elected President at the Stockholm Congress in 1930, who remained in office for the following twenty years. As far as the Rules are concerned, their adoption was preceded by long and hot discussions. Their adoption was not an easy task, particularly because of the great number of already adopted amendments. At first, the match went on until victory by fall. Later on, in case of tied score the wrestlers were allowed to go into overtime. In this period the first situation of danger and the number of executed holds counted. In some cases the lighter wrestler was proclaimed winner. Breaks were allowed every 30 minutes, during which specially assigned "water boys" used to pour pails of water on the contestants to freshen them up.

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At first wrestling matches were held on bare surface and later on in the boxing ring, or catch, originally on rostrums made of leaves and wood chips, and eventually on canvas mats and nowadays on mats made of synthetic fabric. The New Rules provided solutions to a great deal of problems which had previously been cause for numerous disagreements. They also helped improve the organization of the competitions ; they determined the dress of the judge referees and competitors and the whole procedure from the outset to the end of combat. The Rules also established some criteria-although not very clear ones-for passivity, identification of illegal holds, warnings and rating of technical holds. The duration of the match was reduced to 20 minutes. After ten minutes the match was to be interruped at the signal of the judge and referee, to decide which of the two wrestlers had been more active. It was the right of the more active wrestler to decide whether he wanted to continue the match in standing position or "par-terre", according to the formula: 2x3 minutes "par-terre" and 4 minutes in standing position. In case of a tied score the competitors were allowed to go into overtime "par-terre". In case of an ex-aequo result the officials awarded victory to the wrestler whose actions on the mat had produced a better effect. For the first time the Rules provided for the negative points affecting classification. In case of victory by fall the winner was awarded 0 points; in case of victory on points -1 negative point ; in case of

defeat by fall or on negative points -3 negative points to the defeated wrestler. The wrestler with 5 negative points was eliminated from further competition. This decision particularly encouraged combat for victory by fall. The Rules also introduced significant changes in officiating. In 1912 the officiating team consisted of three members. The referee was dressed in white sports trousers and the members of the jury in frock coats. Very often the members of the jury were selected quite by chance, which means that they were not competent and very often partial. Therefore, in 1921 a compulsory course for the officials was introduced in view of enhancing their level of competence, by demonstrating for them various holds, including the illegal ones, by discussing officiating problems in complex situations, etc. Since the course was compulsory, all the judge-referees who did not attend them were not admitted to officiate. After the Berlin Congress (1936) the IAWF could be satisfied with its rational and uniform Rules, its concept of the future development of wrestling and its concept of a more efficient way of conducting its activities. Everybody was optimistic with regards to the expected results. But, after a successful European championship in Oslo and on the eve of the Helsinki Olympic Games, the annexation (Anschluss) of Austria occured, followed by the annexation of the Sudeten region, the Italian occupation of Albania, etc. Like in Chostakovitch's Leningrad Symphony, the sounds of war were approaching and becoming increasingly loud...

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7. DIVERSITY OF STYLES
Mars, the god of war, seriously jeopardized the Olympic idea, but the positive spirit of humanity fi nally prevailed, once again. In the Second World War, 80% of the total population was directly, or in directly involved, with over 50 million casualties. Ac cording to the German philosopher Nieztsche, war and courage usually bring about much loftier achievements than love for your neighbours. Speak ing of the Second World War it is difficult to identify any lofty achievement at all, but it goes without say ing, that along with destruction all war brings about significant changes. After the Second World War new states emerged, the anti-facist coalition was dissolved, the world map reshaped, the United Na tions Organization was founded, and new political, military and economic blocks came into being. People, tired of war and disgusted with its ca lamities, adhered with a passion to the religion of Olympism and sports... Like Phoenix, wrestling re-emerged from the ashes. Already in 1946, less than a year after the end of the war, Victor Smeds, President of the IAWF convened the Congress in Stockholm, to elect new leadership: Roger Coulon, to the office of Secretary General, Treasurer and Technical Director, Vehli Emre (Turkey), Per Tamm (Sweden) and Streit Jr. (USA) to the post of Vice-Presidents, and Members of the Bureau: Ratib (Egypt), Himberg (Finland), Perrel (the Netherlands), Cortenbosch (Belgium), Mackenzie (Great Britain) and Salvatorelli (Italy). The Congress also raised the issue of the Rules of Procedure and decided to renew the European championships. At the London Olympic Games (1948) wrestling competitions took place in new weight categories. The Congress discussed the Rules, and Roger Coulon together with Perrel and Cortenbosch were entrusted with the task of drafting new Rules of Procedure. Before the London Games two Europe an championships had taken place: in free-style wrestling in Stockholm, in 1946 and in GrecoRoman style in Prague, in 1947. A new balance of forces was coming into view. The Turks were first in free-style, and the Soviets second, immediately behind the Swedes, in Greco-Roman wrestling. The London Olympic Games made it clear that sports still needed time to recover. In spite of the

JL N D N

29JULY

1948

I4AUGUST

participation of 4,689 athletes from 59 countries, there was no single record broken. In wrestling, the number of competitors was slightly higher than to that in 1936: 112 wrestlers from 19 countries in Greco-Roman and 117 wrestlers from 24 countries in free-style wrestling. In GrecoRoman wrestling the Swedes took five gold medals : K. Pettersen, G. Freij, G. Andersson, A. Grnberg and K.E. Nilsson. Gustav Freij's wrestling was notably impressive. The two gold medals won by A. Kirecci and M. Oktav was an outstanding achievement of Turkish wrestling. All other countries traditionally strong in wrestling had a much poorer rating. Only Pietro Lombardi did not disappoint and saved the reputation of Italian wrestlers in the lighter weight category.

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Pietro Lombardi ITA

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Gyula Bbis HUN

It was on the Olympic mat that the Turks made their first break-through in free-style wrestling. Sincerely speaking, Turkish wrestlers and Egyptian weight-lifters were the biggest surprise of the London Games. No champion of the Berlin Games managed to take a medal in London. Only Y. Dogy, former European champion, took the gold, but by demonstrating a completely different wrestling style. Out of 16 champions 11 came from the countries which were not involved in the Second World War (Sweden and Turkey). New participants in the Games were weak. Pakistan was not admitted because their wrestlers were late for weigh- in, which developed into a scandal of the Games. The IAWF was very active. The Stockholm Congress (1950) adopted the new rules, and Roger Coulon organized in Paris a course in officiating with Mihaly Matura as the main instructor. The world was quickly recovering from depression and fear. It was in the spirit of optimism and peace that the Helsinki Games were held in 1954. These Games will be remembered by 49 Olympic and 15 new world records. The upward trend in

wrestling was evident. Energy of the newly emerging forces was prevailing over conservative forces and former stars. At the very outset, four Soviet wrestlers took the gold by demonstrating four different wrestling styles: B. Gurevitch by performing different throws in standing position, S. Safin by infallible overthrows, J. Punkin by overthrows performed turning his back and Johannes Kotkas, European champion in 1938 and 1939 and Champion of the USSR in wrestling and putting, demonstrated an outstanding pre-war technique with arm and head locks... The Hungarian M. Szilvasi was brilliant in performing sit-backs and drop-backs and his compatriot I. Hodos was outstanding in balanced wrestling. Watching their performance the spectators were overwhelmed by emotion and admiration. Axel Grnberg (Sweden) took the Olympic gold for the second time, which he added to his titles of European champion in 1947 and World champion, in 1950. K. Grdahl was the only champion from the host country-Finland.

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Mikls Szilvsi HUN

A. Masur, A. Mekokishvili and J. Kotkas

Johanes Kotkas

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The clash between the old and new school of wrestling has enriched our sport by introducing novel features and promoting a more dramatic approach. In free-style wrestling the main battle was waged between and among the teams fostering new styles. The victories of O. Anderberg and V. Palm were actually the last exploits of the Scandinavian "wave" in wrestling. Turkish style occasionally resembled of their traditional wrestling. Kemal Atatrk, the founding father of modern Turkey, was also a supporter of wrestling. He said: "Free-style wrestling is my favourie sport... It requires strength and intelligence. The road to lofty achievements is open to those endowed with both these qualities." H. Gemici and B. Sit were acclaimed as national heroes. W. Smith (USA) successfully demonstrated the type of wrestling practiced in his country. A. Mekokishvilli and D. Tsimakuridze demonstrated the overthrows with locks never seen before, borrowed from their tradional wrestling tchidaoba. There was a hint of a thousand year old tradition behind the title of Shohachi Ishi, first Japanese champion in wrestling. The wrestling of Iranian comptetitiors was marked by their traditional form kochti. They had to settle for two silver and three bronze medals. It is for the first time in its history that so many wrestling techniques inspired by traditional wrestling from different periods and of different origin have been demonstrated on the mat. Traditional forms performed in rationally modified versions actually enriched wrestling with a wide range of new technical holds, new ideas, new energy and new spirit. The IAWF has played an increasingly important role in the promotion of wrestling. The Helsinki Congress in 1952 elected Roger Coulon, a very energetic French officer, to the post of President and in 1954 the organization adopted the French abbreviation FILA (Fdration International de Lutte Amateur) as its official name. The second half of the century began with a new schedule of competitions. It has been decided to hold World championships in both styles biannually and the World Cup in the Olympic year. According to the new Calender three World championships in Greco-Roman wrestling took place: in Stockholm (1950), Naples (1953) and Karlsruhe (1955) and the World Cup took place in Istanbul, in 1956. The winners of these championships were oustanding wrestlers. The Swedes O. Anderberg and G. Freij were no longer in the prime of their youth, but they were experienced athletes for whom there were no secrets in wrestling. Already in Naples the gold medal ratio between the USSR and Sweden was 5:3.

Roger Coulon (1950-1971)

Beside the famous A. Ehglas and G. Kartozia, outstanding in their universal approachs to wrestling, new names emerged, such as: A. Terian, G. Gamarnik and V. Manner, outstanding in their brilliant techniques based on a large variety of holds. Attractive and risky wrestling demonstrated by I. Fabra (Italy) and Polyak's (Hungary) resembling Nelson's "unbreakable chains" has been highly appreciated as true artistic wrestling. In the "heavy" category the giants: J. Kotkas, B. Antosson, A. Masur and G. Bobis were reminescent of professional wrestlers at their very best. Due to the great geographical distance only 85 wrestlers in Greco-Roman style from 20 contries took part in the Melbourne Olympic Games in 1956. The Soviet wrestlers: N. Soloviev, R. Vyrupayev, G. Kartozia, V. Nikolayev and A. Parfenov took five gold medals. Their prudent technical approach to wrestling however, jeopardized the beauty of their performance. A 2 meter tall giant, A. Parfenov, became champion in the "heavy" category. During the war he was wounded crossing a river, but managed to carry with him a heavy gun and cover his comrades. Evidently, the valiant always behave appropriately, be it in every day life or on the mat. The Finnish wrestlers: R. Mkinen and K. Lehtonen

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In free-style wrestling participation was better: 110 competitors from 28 countries. No World champion from Helsinki (1952) managed to win a title at the World championship in Tokyo (1954). The favourites of the event were the Soviet wrestlers. They had seven Georgians and one Estonian on their team. They took five medals, two of them gold, thanks to the invincible Georgian "crochet". At the Olympic Games, however, it was only M. Tsalkalamanidze who managed to win the title of champion. V. Balavadze, one of the most outstanding masters of wrestling technique, only come in third. The opponents had discovered efficient ways and means to counteract each other's actions on the mat. It is thanks to their "thunderstorm" attacks and perfect tactics that the Japanese wrestlers won their champion titles. "Fireman's carry throws" performed by E. Habibi (Iran) were fatal for all his opponents and the mighty G.R. Takhti mastered the mat like an ancient deity. Dagistanly (Turkey) implemented the technique of "riveting" his opponents to the ground. His compatriot H. Kaplan, with his harmonious body, was a striking contrast to the big wrestlers of "heavy" category with their enormous bodies and bursting muscles. After a victory on points and a defeat by fall Nikola Stanchev (Bulgaria) in dramatic combat managed to win three matches in a row, by fall, and thus became the first Bulgarian Olympic champion. Also, some other Bulgarian wrestlers (Dobrev, Sirakov, Mehmedov) at the beginning of their wrestling careers demonstrated mastership in both wrestling styles. won two titles, but Finland did not manage to take a single gold medal. The Turkish champion demonstrated a successful combination of strength and outstanding technique. Progress in wrestling was characterized by a rapid shift in the title of champion. New names were emerging as Olympic champions. From among the world champions only Kartozia, Nikolae'iev, Degistanli and Sasahara managed to attain the Olympic top. It is at the Melbourne Olympic Games that the schools of wrestling which were to take the lead on the world mat in the forthcoming decade, actually asserted themselves. Also, FILA elected its new officials: Emre (Turkey), Himberg (Finland), Mackenzie (Great Britain), Hatta (Japan), Katulin (USSR), De Ferrari (USA), Matura (Hungary), Bafico (Italy), Ratib (Egypt), Strbck (Sweden), Perrel (the Netherlands), Pascal (Spain), Ercegan (Yugoslavia) and Hergl (Germany).

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. Lechtonen FIN and G. Toth HUN

A. Parfenov USSR

Shozo Sasahara JPN

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Shozo Sasahara JPN

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Lutvi Ahmedov BUL against Hamit Kaplan TUR, (Sofia, 1958)

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Kangasniemi FIN-Lewis USA

. Lehtonen FIN

Hamit Kaplan TUR

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8. OLYMPIC WRESTLING ON THREE CONTINENTS

The holding of three consecutive Olympic Games on three different continents was a testimo ny of their increasing universally recognized import ance at that time. Many new countries, neighbours of the host cities, took part in the Rome, Tokyo and Mexico City Olympic Games. The popularity of wrestling was growing and its athletic mastership in creasing. Different styles from the previous period were still being fostered, but tactical novelties were also taking root with the view of counteracting the new approach demonstrated by some wrestlers. Be sides, the coaches and their trainees were more than eager to develop a new approach to wrestling. Rome, the host city of the Olympic Games in 1960, opened its doors to 5, 337 athletes from 84 countries. The Basilica Massenzio in the vicinity of the Coloseum, the Forum and other ancient historical monuments in Rome, were the venue of the wrestling competitions. It was the right back-drop for the Olympic spirit. One could feel the effect better. The Eternal City had never had more enthusiastic and noble visitors and competitors than on that oc casion. Aminated discussions focused not only on athletic performance, but also on the art of Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael and Michelangello, thus reviving the Olympic spirit and the Hellenic ideals at their best. In Greco-Roman wrestling the number of com petitors amounted to 174, from 32 countries. M. Bayrak (Turkey) took his second gold and only one World champion, I. Bogdan from the USSR repeat ed his exploit and also took the Olympic gold. D. Pirvulescu (Rumania) and M. Siile (Turkey) were out standing in performing overthrows in standing position. "Par-terre" . Karayev (USSR) was invin cible in performing waist locks in bridge, whereas A. Koridze (USSR) and M. Bayrak (Turkey) were out standing in performing spectacular lifts by rear waist lock. D. Dobrev (Bulgaria), champion in weightlifting, demonstrated the power of spiritual strength combined with the strength of muscles. Kiss (Tur key) and Bogdan (USSR) demonstrated a less at tractive wrestling than usual, but sufficient to jeopardize the victory of such stars as: G. Kartozia, I. Kozma and W. Dietrich. The road to Rome passed through the World championships of Istambul (1957) and Teheran (1959) and the World Cup in Sofia (1959). H. Akbas, M. Dagistanly, V. Balavadze and E. Habibi offered genuinely spectacular performance in wrestling. The lame and stuttering Demosthenes, thanks to hard work and tenacity, managed to become one of the most famous orators of his time ; the lame Akbas managed to transform his handicap into a very dan gerous and mighty weapon against his opponents. H. Kaplan, World and Olympic champion, never be fore defeated, had to surrender the match to L. Ahmedov (Bulgaria). It is at the Olympic Games in Rome that P. Sirakov became the first Bulgarian Olympic champion. Out of all great wrestlers only M. Dagistanly (double Olympic champion and three times World champion) passed the Olympic test. T Mc Cann, S.

JEUX DE LA XVII OLYMPIADE ROMA O O O 25-.

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pic Games managed to take the gold in Tokyo (1964). The World championships took place in: Yokohama (1961), Toledo (1962) and Helsinki (1963). The Olympic champions: O. Karavayev, I. Polyak, G. Kartozia, I. Bogdan, A. Koridze and Ichiguchi continued their successful wrestling careers. Also, new names emerged: S. Rybalko, A. Kolessov, R. Abahidze and g. Sapunov, all from the USSR, J. Varga and I. Kozma from Hungary, B. Vukov and S. Horvat from Yugoslavia, H. Mustafa from Egypt and V. Bularca from Romania.

Dimitar Dobrev BUL

Wilson and D. Blubaugh, all three from the USA, took the gold in the most unexpected, but spectacular way. The Turkish wrestlers H. Gngr and I. Atli demonstrated a simple but self-confident wrestling. The results in the "heavy" category were most unexpected. W. Dietrich (Germany) was first in GrecoRoman wrestling, leaving behind him: S. Dzarassov, H. Kaplan, L. Ahmedov, etc. He also won another medal in Greco-Roman wrestling and the following year demonstrated his mastership in free-style wrestling as well. As of 1960 the championships in both styles have been organized annually. This decision, taken by FILA, has actually contributed to the promotion of wrestling. Not a single champion of the RomeOlym-

This time the Olympic top was not accessible to champions of the previous Games. The Soviet wrestlers, able to win even six champion titles at one single championship, in Tokyo, have only A. Kolessov who managed to take the gold. Thanks to their dynamic and technically outstanding wrestling T. Hanahara and M. Ichiguchi, both from Japan, and K. Ayvaz from Turkey, won the championships in their respective weight categories. In his wrestling the Hungarian I. Polyak once more demonstrated that there was no obsolete hold in wrestling. I. Kozma tried hard to use his strength as a weapon

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Imre Polyak HUN

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Boyan Radev BUL

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92

against his opponents, but they were equal to him in that regard. B. Simitch (Yugoslavia) demonstrated technically outstanding and mature wrestling; the victory of B. Radev was beautiful and unchallengeable. Championships in free-style wrestling took place in Yokohama (1961), Toledo (1962) and Sofia (1963). The advent of a new generation was the most salient common feature of all these events. At the Olympic Games in Rome the Iranian wrestlers had very high aspirations in six categories, but were defeated in the 4-th and 5-th circles. This time, the rejuvenated Iranian team took five gold medals at the World championship in 1961 thanks to: M. Safepour, M. Sanatkaran, E. Habibi, M. Savarabadi and G. Takhti. In 1962 M. Mehidzadah emerged on the mat. The Turks did not perform outstandingly. They took only two gold medals: H. Akbas in 1962 and G. Yanilmaz in 1963. The Bulgarians were climbing towards the top thanks to the victories of E. Valtchev and P. Gardjev. The phenomenal O. Watanabe and his compratiot I. Horiuchi were two

new names bringing fresh blood from Japan. The Soviet champions were again the most numerous: A. Aliyev (fifth time world champion), V. Rubashvili, A. Ibragimov, G. Sagaradze, and two more: A. Medvedev and A. Ivanitzki with brilliant prostects. In Tokyo (1964) 163 competitors from 36 countries took part in free-style wrestling competitions. Not a single former Olympic champion won this title again, at these Games. The Japanese, great admirers of their sumo wrestling (in their mythology these wrestlers are compared to the mountains), with great joy and enthusiasm accaimed their champions in the lightest weight categories: I. Jochida, Uetake and O. Watanabe. E. Valtchev and R Garyev (Bulgaria), Ogan (Turkey), A. Medvedev and A. Ivanitzki (USSR) managed to win their titles of champion only after strenous and difficult matches against their worthy opponents. This event clearly revealed the trend towards the uniformity of styles. Outstanding wrestlers such as: Aliev, Yanilmaz, Movahed, Mehdizadeh, Takhti, etc., did not manage to take a single medal.

Enyu Valtchev BUL

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The XVIII-th Olympic Games in Tokyo were a true festivity of peace. It was Yonoshori Sakai, a boy born in the neighbourhood of Hiroshima on the day when the bomb was dropped, who lit the Olympic flame. His torch and the slogan "The whole world is an Olympiade" have added a new meaning to the Olympic symbols.

Prodan Gardjev BUL Alexandre Ivanitzki and Lutvi Ahmedov

The Olympic Games in Mexico, in 1968, were not only a sports event but an equally important cultural event. The encounter with the vestiges of the Aztecan civilization, the paintings of Orozoko and Siqueiros, the song and dance performances and the impressive works of ancient and modern architecture was a unique experience for the officials, athletes and guests. During the Games, the Mexicans had to give up their passion for bullfighting for the benefit of sports competitions and Olympic humanism. Because of the specific climate the preparation of the athletes for the Mexican Olympic Games had to be conducted accordingly. The altitude of 2,240 m. and lack of oxygen could cause respiratory problems for the athletes. To prepare the athletes for efforts to be sustained in such conditions, the preparations had been conducted at similar altitudes.

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Competitions in wrestling attracted a great number of fans. In Greco-Roman wrestling I. Kozma (Hungary) took his second gold in the "heavy" category and with his other three World champion titles became one of the best wrestlers of this century. Boyan Radev (Bulgaria), World champion and famous for his great physical strength and attractive wrestling, also took the Olympic gold. Actually, the Olympic gold was taken by five countries: P. Kirov (Bulgaria) thus marking the beginning of an outstanding golden career; the experienced wrestlers: J. Varga (Hungary) and R. Rurua (USSR) did not give a chance to their opponents ; and the superiority of Munemura (Japan) and Metz (GDR) was unchallenged. It is at the World championships in Tampere (1965), Toledo (1966) and Bucarest (1967) that a cluster of great champions emerged. The Soviet wrestlers: S. Rybalko, G. Sapunov, A. Kolessov, A. Anissimov, N. Chmakov, V. Igumenov, V. Olenik, V. Bakulin, N. Yakovenko, etc., have demonstrated outstanding sport mastership. They took seven gold medals. At the Olympic Games, on the other hand, it is only R. Rurua who saved the honour of his country. World champions: A. Kerezov and B. Radev (Bulgaria), I. Cernea an I. Baciu (Rumania), I. Koz-

Petar Kirov BUL

Kazakov USSR and Varga HUN

ma and L. Sillay (Hungary), F. Stange (GDR), S. Horvat (Yugoslavia) and E. Tapio (Finland) have demonstrated top wrestling. The difference in rating at the World championships and the Olympic Games may be explained by the participation of a great number of wrestlers of equal level and the problems of adaptability connected with high altitude during the prepartions. In free-style wrestling (164 participants from 38 countries) Uetake (Japan) and. A. Medvedev (USSR) took the Olympic gold for the second time, the latter in the heaviest category. The offensive wrestling of Nakata and Kaneko (Japan) was awarded. After the gold medals won by M. Atalay and A. Ayik, the Turkish wrestlers had a rather long period of ineffectivennes as far as medals are concerned. Two more gold medals were taken by A. Movahed (Iran) and B. Gurevitch (USSR). Between the two Olympic Games the world championships in free-style wrestling were organized in: Manchester (1965), Toledo (1966) and New Delhi (1967). A. Medvedev, A. Ivanizki, A. Ayik and M. Koneko took the gold for the second time, thus becoming double champions. A. Movahed (Iran) managed to take gold three consecutive times, only thanks to his strength, prevailing in an unimpressive performance. P. Gardjev (Bulgaria) won his second title of World champion. A great success of D. Robin (France) and top rating of: Y. Yoshida, T Fukuda and M. Kaneko (Japan), San Sun Chang (Korea), S. Safepur and M. Mehdizadeh (Iran), G. Sagaradze, A. Aliev, B. Gurevitch, A. Medvedev and A. Ivanitzki (USSR) and M. Atalay and A. Ayik (Turkey) remain memorable. It is in Mexico that the Mongolian wrestlers participated in the Olympic Games for the first time and took three bronze medals thanks to their picturesque traditional style bokh. During the period under review FILA has been very active in various fields, and particularly in administration. Among its many achievements the following points deserve special mention: notable improvement in the exchange of information with the national federations, publication of the FILA BULLETIN, introduction of licences for wrestlers and development of a good qualification system for judge-

referees. Thanks to the efforts of Mr. Milan Ercegan, Secretary General of FILA, several films have been made for the education of judge-referees. However, the decisions connected with the organisation of championships for juniors and the number of weight categories increased from 8 to 10, count among the most important achievements of FILA in that period. The scope of wrestling by far exceeded its Calendar of competitions. FILA decided to place the World championship in Machester (1965) on equal footing with the continental championships. According to the new pattern the champions at these competitions retained their titles of World champion and the best rated wrestlers per continent in their respective weight categories were proclaimed champions of their respective continents. The Manchester World Championship has not been analyzed in any history of wrestling, but it was on event which was a driving force, helping to bring about the revival of European championships as independent competitions, organized already in the following year (Essen, 1966). Sambo, as an independent style was introduced in the FILA system in 1966. Like judo, this sport is an artifical product. Sambo was invented in the Soviet Union, in the thirties, as a synthesis of wrestling holds recognized in the Rules as legal. In its Decree No. 6,633, from 1938 the Committee for Physical Culture and Sports of the USSR, defines sambo as a combination of the most precious forms of traditional Georgian, Tadjuk, Uzbek, Kazakh and Kirgiz wrestling and the best defensive holds practiced in other varieties of this sport. Sambo is actually an abbreviation standing for (in Russian) "unarmed self-defense". The first European championship in sambo was organized in Riga, in 1972, followed by the championships in: Teheran (1973), Ulan Bator (1974), Minsk (1975), etc. Later on, attempts have been made to establish the rules and holds of sambo by borrowing them from wrestling. At the European championship in Skopje (1968) a festival of traditional wrestling was organized under the auspices of FILA. This was the first official presentation of traditional wrestling and the first effort to encourage the promotion of these wrestling forms.

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9. PROGRESS IN THE SHADOW OF POLITICS

From Pierre de Coubertin's MEMOIRSwe learn that the Olympic sky has never been clear and without clouds. Like Hercules fighting with the hydra Lerne, the Olympic movement has had to cope with all of the calamities our age has been exposed to: wars, colonialism, racism, chauvinism and political obstacles. In spite of sociological theories preach ing and supporting the autonomous status of sport in society, numerous elements testify to the opposite and prove its status of subordination with regard to the ruling social and political systems. The division of the world into political and mili tary blocks has only encouraged penetration of po litics into sports. Therefore, Olympic medals, titles and sports records have very often been rated as political achievements. Actually, unofficial classification started after the Helsinki Olympic Games (1952), based on the number of medals and overall scores of the par ticipating countries, particularly the USA and the USSR. This was a way of using sports results to demonstrate the sound foundation and validity of a given social system. This approach was particularly fostered in the socialist countries. E.g., as soon as Munich was selected to host the Olympic Games in 1972 the preparation of the athletes in the GDR be gan as a political task of paramount importance. The point was to make the whole world aware of the ad vantages, although most of them fictitious, of their ruling political system. At the Olympic wrestling tournament in GrecoRoman style, 194 wrestlers from 39 countries took part, demonstrating a large variety of styles. Only P. Korov (Bulgaria), won the title for the second time. In his career he was three times World champion and four times European champion. His mastership was based on an ingenious and impecable wrestling technique. Other champions: R. Kazakov and S. Khisamuldinov (USSR), G. Markov (Bulgaria), Hegeds (Hungary) and G. Berceanu (Romania) were intrepid, agressive and very skillful for their age. A. Rotkhin (USSR), N. Martinescu (Romania) and V. Maha demonstrated a more balanced wrestling style. After two consecutive titles of World champion V. Resanzev (USSR) was calm, but very efficient on the mat, using his strength sparingly.

The classification of the champions was logical: eight among them were already World champions, and Maha and Khisamuldinov were to take this title the following year. In the heavy category, already in the first round, the American Chris Taylor weighing 191 kg (his name can be found in the Guinness book) was confronted with V. Dietrich (Germany). Seeing the two of them facing each other on the mat, the public expected a fight between David and Goliath. At the beginning Dietrich was rather sluggish and indolent. At one point Taylor opened himself. Swift as lightning Dietrich reacted by thrusting himself forward and locking his opponent's body lifted him and performed one of the most difficult holds, sit back-

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(souplesse), to throw him down. All journalists agreed to have witnessed the performance of "a hold of the century". In the weight category up to 57 kg. European champion Trai'kov (Bulgaria) won the championship on points, in the matches with: K. Coric (Yugoslavia), R. Kazakov (USSR), F. Scuder (Italy), J. Lipien (Poland), I. Baciu (Romania) and H. Veil (Germany), who were all eliminated from competition without being defeated. This unprecedented case called for urgent amendments to the Rules. At the World Championships in: Mar del Plata (1969), Edmonton (1970) and Sofia (1971), in addition to Olympic champions the favourites were also: Zubkov, R. Rurua, N. Yakovenko, A. Yurkevitch, A. Nazarenko and V. Igumenov, all from the USSR, P. Krumov and A. Tomov from Bulgaria, J. Varga from Hungary, S. Popescu from Rumania, S. Damjanovic from Yugoslavia, H. Fujimoto from Japan, F Arluzahed from Iran and P. Svensson from Sweden. The Olympic tournament in free-style wrestling had a record participation of 219 athletes from 43 countries, almost all of them Olympic champions, except R. Dimitriev, Kato and B. Peterson, or World champions, once or more times. Two Japanese wrestlers: K. Kato and H. Yanagida performed remarkably in the "light" category, but were not able

Levan Tediashvili USSR

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CLASSIFICATION OF THE OLYMPIC AND WORLD CHAMPIONS-1973-1976 OLYMPIC CYCLE Greco-Roman wrestling
Weight cat. 48 52 57 62 68 74 82 90 100 + 100 World championships 1973 V. Zubkov(USSR) N. Ginga (ROM) J. Lipien (POL) K. Lipien (POL) S. Khisamutdinov(USSR) I. Kolev(BUL) L. Liberman (USSR) V. Resansev(USSR) N. Balboshian(USSR) A. Tomov(BUL) World championships 1974 V. Zubkov(USSR) P. Kirov (BUL) F. Mustafin (USSR) K. Lipien (POL) N. Davidian (USSR) V. Macha (TCH) A. Nazarenko(USSR) V. Resansev(USSR) N. Balboshian (USSR) A. Tomov(BUL) World championships 1975 V. Zubkov(USSR) V. Konstantinov(USSR) F Mustafin (USSR) N. Davidian (USSR) S. Khisamutdinov(USSR) A. Bykov(USSR) A. Nazarenko (USSR) V. Resansev(USSR) K. Losanov(BUL) A. Tomov(BUL) The Olympic games 1976 A. Shumakov (USSR) V. Konstantinov(USSR) P. Ukkola(FIN) K. Lipien (POL) S. Nalbadjan (USSR) A. Bykov(USSR) M. Petkovic(YUG) V. Resansev(USSR) N. Balboshian (USSR) A. Koltchinski (USSR)

Free-style wrestling
Weight cat. 48 52 57 62 68 74 82 90 100 + 100 World Championships 1973 R. Dimitriev(USSR) I. Jayadi (IRN) M. Farahvashi (IRN) Z. Abdulbekov(USSR) L. Keazer(USA) M. Barzegar (IRN) V. Siulshin(USSR) L. Tediashvili (USSR) I. Yarygin(USSR) S. Andiev(USSR) World Championships 1974 H. Issaev(BUL) Y. Takada(JPN) V. Jumin (USSR) Z. Oidov(MGL) N. Nasrulaev(USSR) R. Achsuraliev(USSR) V. Novojilov(USSR) L. Tediashvili (USSR) V. Gulutkin (USSR) L. Simon (ROM) World Championships 1975 H. Issaev(BUL) Y. Takada(JPN) M. Aral (JPN) Z. Oidov(MGL) P. Pinigin (USSR) R. Achsurallev(USSR) A. Seger(GER) L. Tediashvili (USSR) K. Bayanmunkh (MGL) S. Andiev(USSR) The Olympic games 1976 H. Issaev(BUL) Y Takada (JPN) V. Jumin (USSR) J. Mo Yang(KOR) P. Pinigin (USSR) J. Date (JPN) J. Peterson (USA) L. Tediashvili (USSR) I. Yarygin(USSR) S. Andiev(USSR)

to go beyond the limits of their traditional style. Among a great number of outstanding champions defending the colours of the USA, it was Dan Gable who epitomized the very top of American and global wrestling thanks to his tactical maturity. W. Welles and B. Peterson took two more titles for the USA. The Soviet wrestlers R. Dimitrev and Z. Abdulbekov demonstrated a similar style. The Georgian L. Tediashvili was technically outstanding. His compatroit from Siberia, I. Yaruguin, defeated 7 opponents by fall. The legendary A. Medvedev added one more Olympic gold medal to his seven titles of World champion, three of European champion and two Olympic golds. His is the highest achievement in this century. The World championships in free-style and Greco-Roman wrestling were organized jointly. Among the top wrestlers of these events the following names should be particularly mentioned: I.

Javadi (3 titles), A. Movahed (2 titles), S. Seyedabasi and M. Gorbani from Iran, T. Tanaka and T. Morita from japan, F. Fozzard and R. Sanders from the USA, R. Petrov from Bulgaria, A. Riza from Turkey and Z. Beriashvili, B. Gurevich, S. Lomidze, J. Shahmuradov, G. Strakov, V. Gulgutin and J. Gussov from the USSR. In spite of their political implications, athletic confrontations did not jeopardize the Olympic spirit. But, it was an act of terrorism commited by the Arab organization "Black September" that actually caused dishonour to the Games, when the terrorists entered the Olympic village and took as hostages the Israeli officials and athletes. The balance of this tragedy was 17 casualties. The media went so far as to quality that incident as "murder" of the Olympic Games. When Mr. Roger Coulon, President of FILA died, interim presidency was entrusted to the Secre-

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tary General, Mr. Milan Ercegan, a personality endowed with outstanding qualities for creative, organizational and operational work. At the Congress in Munich he was unanimously elected President of FILA. His programmes have opened up bright prospect for the promotion of wrestling by encouraging the National Federation to invest their very best efforts in the future of wrestling.

Milan Ercegan

At the XX-st Olympic Games in Montreal (1976), security was tight and efficient, but this time it was political problems that jeopardized their smooth running. The I.O.C. had decided to eliminate the South African Republic from all international sports events because of its policy of apartheid. Tanzania proposed to also ban New Zeland from the Games for their alleged contacts with South Africa. The proposal was rejected, but some African countries, namely: Gambia, Zair, Gabon, Madagascar, Malawi and the Central African Republic, decided not to participate in the Olympic Games in Montreal. Moreover, after the inauguration Algeria, UpperVolta, Ghana, Egypt, Zambia, Iraq, Camaroon, Kenya, Marroco, Tunisia, Nigeria, etc., left the Games. Political differences only slightly affected wrestling. On the other hand, East European coun-

tries boycotted the European championship in Modena (1969). Later on there were some incidents connected with protocol involving the national anthems and flags, then the forfeit of Albanian athletes after their matches against the Americans, Soviets, etc. In this atmosphere FILA has managed to successfully overcome political intolerance and assert the spirit of mutual understanding. In Montreal at the tournament in Greco-Roman wrestling it is the Soviet wrestlers that took the greatest number of champion titles. Beside Zubkov, triple World champion, A. Chumkov quite unexpectedly joined the Soviet Olympic team. V. Konstantinov and A. Bykov, although far from brilliant, managed to rate first in their respective categories. S. Nalbandian and N. Bolbochin, both double World champions, also rated first. V. Resanzev, a four time World champion, won one more champion title without introducing any essential change in his technical and tactical performance. Other champions paricipating in the Montreal Olympic Games have demonstrated strength and a rational technical approach to wrestling (P. Ukkola-Finland) elegance and perfection (K. Lipien-Pland), technical maturity and gift for anticipation (A. Koltchinsky-USSR) and M. Petrovic-Yugoslavia). In free-style wrestling seven World champions also took the Olympic gold L. Tediashvili (three times World champion), and Yaryguin (USSR), Ch. Issaev (Bulgaria) and Y. Takada (Japan) became double Olympic champions by demonstrating a diversified, impressive and beautiful wrestling. V. Jumin and P. Pineguin reached the top thanks to to their tough and agressive wrestling. In the heaviest category Soslan Andiev a 2 meter tall Soviet wrestler once again took the opportunity to demonstrate the advantages of an anthletic body. Although without a World champion title J. Yang (Korea) J. Date (Japan) and J. Peterson (USA) took the gold in their respective weight categories thanks to their mastership and self-confidence on the mat. Numerous are the World champions whose names remain engraved in the history of wrestling: A. Tomov (Bulgaria) four times World champion thanks to victory by fall in 90% of matches. K. Khisamutdinov, N. Davidian, F. Mustafin and A. Nazarenko, double World champions, and P. Kirov even three times. K. Lozanov (Bulgaria), N. Ginga (Romania), V. Macha (Czechoslovakia) and N. Dinev (Bulgaria) with their first World champion titles. Top mastership of World champions in freestyle wrestling: R. Dimitriev, Z. Abdulbekov, R. Achuraliyev and V. Gulutkin (USSR), I. Javadi and M. Barzegar (Iran), L. Keaser (USA), A. Seger (Ger-

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Three Olympic Champions: Kocsis HUN, Petrovic YUG and D. Dobrev, referee

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Nikolay Balbouchin USSR

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Al. Koltchinski USSR and A. Tomov BUL

Ivan Yarigin USSR Hassan Issaev BUL and Nikola Stantchev, coach

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Ivan Yarigin and Alexander Medved

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CLASSIFICATION OF THE OLYMPIC AND WORLD CHAMPIONS-1977-1980 OLYMPIC CYCLE Greco-Roman wrestling
Weight cat. 48 52 57 62 68 74 82 90 100 + 100 World championships 1977 A. Shumakov(USSR) N. Ginga (ROM) P. Ukkola(FIN) L. Reczi (HUN) H. H. Wehling (AUT) V. Macha (TCH) W. Tcheboksarov(USSR) F. Andersson (SWE) N. Balboshian (USSR) N. Dinev(BUL) World championships 1978 Alexsandru (ROM) W. Blagidze(USSR) S. Serikov(USSR) B. Kramarenko(USSR) S. Rusu (ROM) A. Niftulajev(USSR) I. Draica(ROM) S. Nikolov(BUL) N. Balboshian (USSR) A. Koltchinski (USSR) World championships 1979 Alexandru (ROM) L. Racz(HUN) S. Serikov(USSR) I. Toth(HUN) A. Supron (POL) J. Chopov(BUL) F. Kocsis(HUN) G. Korban (USSR) F Andersson (SWE) N. Balboshin (USSR) A. Tomov(BUL) The Olympic games 1980 Z. Ushkempirov(USSR) V. Blagidze(USSR) S. Serikov(USSR) S. Migiakis(GER) S. Rusu (ROM) F. Kocsis(HUN) G. Korban (USSR) N. Novenyi (HUN) G. Raikov(BUL) A. Koltchinski (USSR)

Free-style wrestling
Weight poids 48 52 57 62 68 74 82 90 100 + 100 World championships 1977 A. Beloglazov(USSR) Y. Takada(JPN) T. Sasaki (JPN) V. Jumin (USSR) P. Pinigin (USSR) S. Dziedzic(USA) A. Seger(GER) A. Prokoptshu (USSR) A. Bisultanov(USSR) S. Andiev(USSR) World championships 1978 S. Kornilaev(USSR) A. Beloglazov(USSR) H. Tomiyana(JPN) V. Jumin (USSR) P. Pinigin (USSR) D. Kemp (USA) M. Arazilov(USSR) U. Neupert(GER) H. Buttmer (GDR) S. Andiev(USSR) World championships 1979 S. Kornilaev(USSR) Y. Takada(JPN) H. Tomiyana (JPN) V. Jumin (USSR) M. Sharatshura(USSR) D. Kemp (USA) I. Kovacs(HUN) K. Ortskujev(USSR) I. Mate (USSR) S. Khasimikov(USSR) The Olympic games 1980 Pol lio (ITA) A. Beloglazov(USSR) S. Beloglazov(USSR) M. Abushev(USSR) S. Absaidov(USSR) V. Rajtchev(BUL) I. Abilov(BUL) S. Oganesjan (USSR) I. Mate (USSR) S. Andiev(USSR)

many) and many others deserve special mention. (Table 4) The boycott of the Moscow and Los Angeles Olympic Games staged by the two super powers respectively demonstrates the most serious ex ternal interference with the activities of the Olympic movement. Insisting that the organization of the Olympic Games solely pertains to its sphere of authority, the I.O.C. was up to its task by remaining above all political confrontation. In spite of the boy cott and the publicity campaign launched in the main-stream media the Olympic Games took place unimpeded. However, the disappointment of the athletes who were denied the opportunity to demon strate their athletic abilities and mastership re mained. In this context we should remember the words of the American scholar Santayana who said :

"Those who forget the past are doomed to repeat it." During the two Olympic cycles, from 1976 to 1984, the development of wrestling was on the as cent. However, it should be emphasized that compe titions were much keener at the World champion ships than at the Olympic Games. World championships in Greco-Roman wrestling held in Gteborg (1977), Mexico (1978) and San Diego (1979) demonstrated outstanding wrestling with unchallenged sumpremacy of the Soviet, Bulgarian, Romanian and Hungarian wrestlers. The stormy ascent of wrestlers from "Eastern" counties jeopardized the leading status of the Western wrestlers whose glory began to shrink like Shagreen leather. Only P. Ukkola (Finland) and F. Andersson (Sweden) took the gold.

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In Moscow A. Koltchinski was the only champion of the Montreal Olympic Games who took the gold. In spite of his outstanding performance Alexandre Tomov (Bulgaria), six times World champion and five times European champion, the wrestler who defeated Koltchinsky several times, concluded his sports career with three silver Olympic medals. Seven Olympic champions were also World champions. Since the competitors were of more, or less, equal sporting standing, their uninspired wrestling did not arouse greater interest. Uchkempirov (USSR) was first in the lightest category, leaving behind him Alexandru (Romania) double World champion and Chumakov (USSR) World champion. Blagidze defeated two World champions: Ginga (Romania) and Racz (Hungary). Servikov convincingly prevailed over his opponents. Korban (USSR), on the other hand, had great difficulties in this respect. The Greeks celebrated the victory of their first Olympic champion-Migiakis- with undescribable joy. Hungary greeted the success of Kocsis (World champion) and N. Noeveyu. According to A. Ivanitski, thanks to his "sixth sense" S. Rusu (Romania) facing on the mat opponents with champion titles managed to defeat them due to his technical mastership, maturity and cleverness. For various reasons many former World champions, including: Racz and Toth (Hungary), Macha (Czechoslovakia),
C. Andiev, J. Sachmuradov

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Stilianos Migiakis GRE Valentin Ratchev BUL

Anatoliy and Serguey Beloglazov

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Draica (Romania), F. Andersson (Sweden), N. Dinev. Ya. Chpov and S. Nikolov (Bulgaria) and Tcheboksarov, Kramarenko and Niftulayev (USSR) at this tournament rated lower than expected. The outstanding N. Balbochin, Olympic and five times World champion, had to leave the tournament due to injury. In free-style wrestling the competition was less keen. The victory of C. Pllio (Italy) in the lightest category was a pleasant surprise. No less surprising and brilliant was the victory of B. Raytchev (Bul garia), not even a national champion. The wrestling of the Beloglazov brothers was striking and very im pressive thanks to their performance of holds worth being included in the encyclopedia of wrestling. Strength and toughness- these were the praises describing the combats of M. Abuchev and S. Ab-

sadov (USSR). Offensive wrestling demonstrated by S. Oganessian was powerful, beautiful and swift like lightning. I. Abilov (Bulgaria) demonstrated an outstanding technical mastership. It is at this tournament that S. Andiev, double Olympic and four times World champion, ended his sports career, with only one victory scored. Later on he got his doctor's degree in science and became minister of sports. Due to the boycott many outstanding World championships did not appear on the Olympic mat in Moscow: Y. Takada, H. Tomiyama and T. Sasaki (Japan), A. Seger, nicknamed "Steel" (Germany) and D. Kemp and S. Dziedzic (USA). The names of other outstanding champions, masters of the mat from that period, should also be mentioned: T. Kovacz (Hungary), U. Neupert and H. Btner (GDR) and S. Kornilayev (double World champion) V. Jumin

CLASSIFICATION OF THE OLYMPIC AND WORLD CHAMPIONS-1981-1984 OLYMPIC CYCLE Greco-Roman wrestling
Weight cat. 48 52 57 62 68 74 82 90 100 + 100 World championships 1981 Z. Ushkempirov(USSR) V. Blagidze(USSR) P. Passarelli (GER) I. Toth (HUN) G. Ermilov(USSR) A. Kudriavzev(USSR) G. Korban(USSR) I. Kanygin (USSR) M. Saladze(USSR) R. Memisevic (YUG) World championships 1982 R. Kazarashvili (USSR) B. Pashaian (USSR) P. Michalik (POL) R. Swierad(POL) G. Ermilov(USSR) S. Rusu(ROM) T. Alkhazawa(USSR) F. Andersson (SWE) Wroclawski (POL) N. Dinev(BUL) World championships 1983 B. Tzenov(BUL) B. Pashaian (USSR) M. Eto(JPN) H. Lahtinen(FIN) T. Sipila (FIN) M. Mamiashvili (USSR) T. Alkhazawa(USSR) I. Kanygin (USSR) A. Dimitrov(BUL) I. Artjushin (USSR) The Olympic games 1984 V. Maenza(ITA) A. Miyahara(JPN) P. Passarelli (GER) W. Kim (KOR) V. Lisjak (YUG) J. Salonaki (FIN) I. Draica (ROM) S. Fraser (USA) V. Andrei (ROM) J. Blatnik(USA)

Free-style wrestling
Weight cat. 48 52 57 62 68 74 82 90 100 + 100 World championships 1981 S. Kornilaev(USSR) T. Asakura(JPN) S. Beloglazov(USSR) S. Sterev(BUL) S. Absaidov(USSR) M. Knosp (GER) Campbell (USA) S. Oganesjan (USSR) R. Gehrke(GER) S. Khasimikov(USSR) World championships 1982 S. Kornilaev(USSR) H. Reich (GER) A. Beloglazov(USSR) S. Beloglazov(USSR) M. Sharashura(USSR) L. Kemp (USA) T. Dsgoev(USSR) U. Neupert (GER) I. Mate (USSR) S. Khasimikov(USSR) World championships 1983 . Hwan (PRK) V. Jordanov(BUL) S. Beloglazov(USSR) V. Alekseev(USSR) A. Fadzaev(USSR) D. Schultz (USA) T. Dsgoev(USSR) P. Naniev(USSR) A. Khadartsev(USSR) S. Khasimikov(USSR) The Olympic games 1984 R. Weaver (USA) S. Trstena(YUG) H. Tomijama (JPN) R. Lewis (USA) You In-Tak(KOR) D. Schultz (USA) M. Schultz (USA) E. Banach (USA) L. Banach (USA) B. Baumgartner (USA)

(three times World champion), P. Peniguin (double World champion), M. Arazhilov, A. Bisultanov and S. Khassimikov (USSR). (Table 5). The boycott of the Los Angeles Olympic Games did not seriously jeopardize the wrestling tournaments. Actually, having new names on the Olympic mat, from the pragmatic point of view, was a positive development. In Greco-Roman wrestling the Italian

i j 980 t Otyrrtptc

Games of the XXIIIrd Olympiad Los Angeles 1984

Smith USA and Kim Gwang Choi PRK

V. Maenza (one of the lightest) had a brilliant start. He was also one of the winners. On the Olympic mat World champions have demonstrated very interesting technical and tactical nuances. P. Passarelle (Germany) was intrepid and agressive; A. Miyahara (Japan) and I. Kim (Korea) demonstrated a "staccato" approach to wrestling, performing clean, rapid and unexpected attacks; V. Lisjak (Yugoslavia), V. Andrei (Romania) and J. Salmaki (Finland) did not make a single tactical error; I. Draica (Romania) was calm, collected and unbreakable. Thanks to their good physical fitness the Americans: J. Blatnick and S. Fraser managed to make up for their lack of skill in Greco-Roman wrestling. In view of an outstanding number of World champion titles this Olympic cycle marks the beginning of a brilliant sports career for a number of outstanding wrestlers. By merging enthusiasm and talent, ingenuity and imagination, spectacular tech-

nique and desire to demonstrate beauty on the mat the Beloglazov brothers, V. Yordanov, A. Fadzaev, A. Khadartsev, the Schulz brothers and others, have written the unforgetable pages of the history of wrestling. In the heaviest categories the names of new giants emerged: S. Khassimikov, A. Bisultanov, D. Gobedishvili and B. Baumgartner. There was no single viewer unimpressed by the efficient wrestling of: S. Kornilayev and Mate (USSR), Asacura (Japan), Kim (Korea), Campbell and Kemp (USA), S. Chterev (Bulgaria), H. Reich and R. Gehrke (GDR), M. Knosp (Germany), R. Cascaret (Cuba), etc. In spite of the outstanding performance and sportsmanship demonstrated at World championships during this 8 year period, the level of competitors and the results achieved at the Olympic tournaments should not be underestimated. In this context let us recall an oriental saying: "Those who dared to kill the past with an arrow will have their future killed by gun."

CLASSIFICATION OF THE OLYMPIC AND WORLD CHAMPIONS-1985-1988 OLYMPIC CYCLE Greco-Roman wrestling
Weight cat. 48 52 57 62 68 74 82 World championships 1985 M. Allakhverdijev(USSR) J. Roeningen ( N O R ) S. B a l o v ( B U L ) G. V a n g e l o v ( B U L ) S. Negrisan ( R O M ) M. Mamiashvilui (USSR) B. Daras (POL) World championships 1986 M. Allakhverdijev(USSR) S. Djundjaev(USSR) E. I v a n o v ( B U L ) K. Madsjidov(USSR) L. Djulfalakjan(USSR) M. Mamiashvilui (USSR) T. Komaromi ( H U N ) B. Daras (POL) 90 100 + 100 M. H o u k ( U S A ) A. D i m i t r o v ( B U L ) I. Rostorotzky (USSR) A. Malina (POL) T. Gaspar (HUN) T. Johansson (SWE) V. Popov (USSR) G. Deseshauri (USSR) I. Rostorotzky (USSR) A. K o m t j e v ( B U L ) A. Wronski (POL) A. Karelin (USSR) World championships 1987 M. Allakhverdijev(USSR) P. Rogue ( C U B ) P. Mourier (FRA) G. V a n g e l o v ( B U L ) A. A b a j e v ( U S S R ) J. Salomaki (FIN) T. Komaromi ( H U N ) The Olympic games 1988 V. Maenza (ITA) J. Roeningen ( N O R ) A. S i k e ( H U N ) K. M a d s j i d o v ( U S S R ) L. Djulfalakjan (USSR) Y.N. K i m ( K O R ) M. Mamiashvilui (USSR)

Free-style wrestling
Weight cat. 48 52 57 62 68 74 82 90 100 + 100 World championships 1985 Hwan Kim (PRK) V. J o r d a n o v ( B U L ) S. Beloglazov (USSR) V. A l e k s e j e v ( U S S R ) A. Fadzaev ( U S S R ) R. Cascaret ( C U B ) M. Schultz (USA) B. Scherr (USA) L. K h a b e l o v ( U S S R ) D. Gobedjisvili ( U S S R ) World championships 1986 J.S. Li (PRK) Y.S. Kim (PRK) S. Beloglazov (USSR) H. Isajev(USSR) A. Fadzaev (USSR) R. Cascaret (CUB) V. Modosian (USSR) M. Khadartsev (USSR) A. Khadartsev (USSR) B. Baumgartner (USA) World championships 1987 J.S. Li (PRK) V. J o r d a n o v ( B U L ) S. Beloglazov (USSR) J. Smith (USA) A. Fadzaev (USSR) A. Varajev(USSR) M. Schultz (USA) M. Khadartsev (USSR) L. K h a b e l o v ( U S S R ) A. Khadartsev (USSR) The Olympic games 1988 T. Kobayashi (JPN) M. Sato (JPN) S. Beloglazov (USSR) J. Smith (USA) A. Fadzaev (USSR) K. Monday (USA) M.W. H a n ( K O R ) M. Khadartsev (USSR) V. Puscascu ( R O M ) D. Gobedjisvili (USSR)

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10. LOOKING FORWARD

At the threshold of the new century and the new millennium the world seems to have overcome its political nightmares and confrontations with the help of industrial civilization and information. Scientific achievements have by far exceeded all expectations, and even the imagination of Jule Verne. The human mind has performed nuclear fission, discovered new worlds on the microcosmic and macrocosmic level, Gagarine has made his trip to the moon and A. Armstrong set his feet and walked on the rocks of the Moon. Hopefully, humanity will opt for sacred truce (ekachiria) and Emerson's dark forcaste about the rule of objects overwhelming humanity will prove too far-fetched. It is very inapropriate to make forcasts, but, nevertheless, there are some points of support which help us anticipate our future. If the past is really the prophet of the future it means that it is from our past that we should derive strength and knowledge with the view of promoting wrestling in the forthcoming century.

10.1. Balance, Imbalance and Progress

Social systems remain in balance so long as their constituent elements remain undisturbed. It is well known that exogenous and endogenous factors may disturb social balance. If the regulatory mechanisms have the capacity to bridge the gaps the system may still not only continue to operate, but even attain a higher functional level. This is the angle of vision we should adopt when evaluating the development of wrestling in the post-war period, the boycott of the Olympic Games and the emergence of new states after 1989. The Olympic Games in Seoul (1988) and the spirit and atmosphere surrounding them were by far ahead of political events. In spite of recent discrimination against the host country the participants very soon managed to overcome their former grudges. As if the winds of change, soon to prevail on the international scene, had already reached Seoul. In Greco-Roman wrestling some changes had taken place since Los Angeles: Among the champions of the Seoul Games only J. Salomaki was World champion from 1987. V. Maenza joined the elite of the century by taking his second Olympic gold. In most weight categories new champions emerged each year, except for M. Allakhverdiev (three times champion of the USSR), J. Vanguelov (Bulgaria), M. Mamiashvili (USSR), B. Daras (Poland), T Komaro-

IMAGES OF THE WRESTLING COMPETITIONS OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES SEOUL 1988.

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mi (Hungary) and I. Rostorotsky (USSR), double World champion each. For these eminent wrestlers the Olympic top was impregnable. Only M. Mamiashvili took the gold. Actually, other World champions: J. Rningen (Norway), K. Madsydov and L. Djulfalakian (USSR) also took the Olympic gold. A. Sike (Hungary), Y.N. Kim (Korea), A. Komchev (Bulgaria) and A. Wronski (Poland) were already World champions. Karelin's very first actions on the mat announced his brilliant international career. Before him there was no such a strong and corpulent athlete able to perform a 2 m. large amplitude throw by

lifting the opponent by cross body hold. As if llya Muromets, the legendary Russian hero, had come down from one of the Vasnetsov's epic paintings to perform one of his exploits. The names of the following World champions deserve special mention for their outstanding performance during this Olympic cycle: P. Mourier (France), S. Balov, E. Ivanov and J. Vanguelov (Bulgaria), S. Negrisan (Romania), A. Malina (Poland), M. Houck (USA), T. Gaspar (Hungary). T. Johansson (Sweden), and S. Djindiayev, A. Abayev, V. Popov and G. Gedesiauri (USSR).

CLASSIFICATION OF THE OLYMPIC AND WORLD CHAMPIONS-1989-1992 OLYMPIC CYCLE Greco-Roman wrestling
Weight cat. 48 52 57 62 68 74 82 90 100 + 100 World championships 1989 O. Loutcherenko(USSR) A. Ignatenko(USSR) E. Ivanov ( B U L ) . M a d s j i d o v ( U S S R ) . Passarelli (GER) D. Turlisjanov(USSR) T. Komaromi ( H U N ) M. Bullmann (GDR) G. Himmel (GER) A. Karelin (USSR) World championships 1990 O. Koutcherenko(USSR) A. Ignatenko(USSR) R. Yildiz (GER) M Olivera (CUB) I. Dogutjiev(USSR) M. Iskandarian (USSR) R Farkas(HUN) M. Bullmann (GER) S. Demiaskievitj (USSR) A. Karelin (USSR) World championships 1991 D.Y. Gooun (KOR) R Martinez (CUB) R. Yildiz (GER) S. M a r t i n o v ( U S S R ) I. D o g u t j i e v ( U S S R ) M. Iskandarian (USSR) P. F a r k a s ( H U N ) M. Bullmann (GER) H. Milian (CUB) A. Karelin (USSR) The Olympic games 1992 0 . Koutcherenko(USSR) J. Roeningen ( N O R ) Han Bon An (KOR) M. Pirim (TUR) A. R e p k a ( H U N ) M. Iskandarian (USSR) P. F a r k a s ( H U N ) M. Bullmann (GER) H. Milian ( C U B ) A. Karelin (USSR)

Free-style wrestling
Weight cat. 48 52 57 62 68 74 82 90 100 + 100 World championships 1989 J.S. Kim (KOR) V. J o r d a n o v ( B U L ) S.S. Kim (PRK) J. Smith (USA) B. B u d a j e v ( U S S R ) K. Monday (USA) E. Djabrailov(USSR) M. K h a d a r t s e v ( U S S R ) A. A t a v o v ( U S S R ) A. Soleimani (IRI) World championships 1990 A. Martinez (CUB) M. Torkan (IRI) A. Puerto (CUB) J. Smith (USA) A. Fadzaev(USSR) R. S u k r a ( B U L ) J. L a h y n a ( T C H ) M. Khadartsev(USSR) L. K h a b e l o v ( U S S R ) D. Gobedjisvili (USSR) World championships 1991 V. O r u d j i e v ( U S S R ) L. Jones (USA) S. Smal (USSR) J. Smith (USA) A. Fadzaev(USSR) A. K h a d e m ( I R I ) K. Jackson (USA) M. K h a d a r t s e v ( U S S R ) L. K h a b e l o v ( U S S R ) A. Schroeder (GER) The Olympic games 1992 I. Kim (PRK) H.S. Li (PRK) A. Puerto ( C U B ) J. Smith (USA) A. Fadzaev(CIS) J.S. Park (KOR) K.Jackson (USA) M. Khadartsev(CIS) L. Khabelov (CIS) B. Baumgartner (USA)

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Ataas Komchev BUL

113

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During the period under review Greco-Roman wrestling was undergoing a gradual evolution. At the World championship in Martigny, in 1989, only two Olympic champions, Karelin and Madsjidov, got to the top and won the World champion titles. The following Olympic cycle is marked by the fall of many Olympic gods. Karelin took all the gold medals he could, in line with Aesop's saying that: "It is to the lion that the lion's share belongs." Here are the names of the Olympic champions: M. Bullman (Germany) with three Olympic titles and M. Iskandarian
OLYMPIC CHAMPIONS OF THE XXVth OLYMPIC GAMES BARCELONA 1992.

Barcelona'92

OQP
(USSR), P. Farkas (Hungary) and H. Miliari (Cuba) with two World champion titles each. The outstanding J. Rningen (Norway) took his second Olympic gold. The performance of the Olympic champions: O. Kutcherenko (USSR), double World champion, Han-Bong An (Korea), M. Pirim (Turkey) and A. Repka (Hungary) was very impressive. D. Gooun (Korea), K. Martinez and M. Oliveras (Cuba), R. Yildiz, S. Passarelli and G. Himmel (Germany), E. Ivanov (Bulgaria), and A. Ignatenko, S. Martinov, K. Madsyidov, D. Turlisianov and S. Demiaskievitch (USSR) have reached the top of global wrestling.

It is not only the frequent changing of the champion title holders that indicated an upsurge of Greco-Roman wrestling, but also the number of countries sharing the medals. In 1976, 11 countries shared all the medals awarded, and only four of them took the entire gold; in Moscow 9 countries shared all the medals awarded, and 5 of them the golds, and in Los Angeles 11 countries took all the medals and 8 of them the golds. In Seoul and Barcelona the circle of the medal winning nations increased: 13 countries shared the medals and 7 of them took the golds. In free-style wrestling only M. Schultz, Olympic champion, also became double World champion. S. Beloglazov, Olympic champion of the 1980 Games won his third World champion title and in Moscow took the Olympic gold by demonstrating an outstanding wrestling performance based on lasting values. D. Fadzaev took the gold in 1983 without a single defeat. K. Choi Hwam (PRK) was twice first on the world mat, but at the Olympic Games he was defeated by T Kobayashi (Japan). The wrestlers from the Far East: M. Sato (Japan), and M.V. Han (Korea) got to the Olympic top. Passionate, risky and creative wrestling has embellished the combat of the Olympic champions: J. Smith and K. Modey (USA), and K. Khadartsev and D. Gobedishvili (USSR) all of them World champions. The victory of V. Puscascu (Romania) reafirmed the importance of good tactics in wrestling, otherwise an experienced, but not one of the greatest masters of this sport. V. Yordanov (Bulgaria) was crowned with two more World champion titles, in addition to the unique experience and great aesthetic joy his wrestling offered to the public. In spite of their World champion titles, L. Khalebov (USSR-three) and R. Cascarei (Cuba-two), outstanding wrestlers, did not find themselves among the Olympic champions. Y. Kim (PRK), H. Issaev, A. Varayev, V. Modosian, A. Khadartsev and A. Alexeyev (USSR) and B. Scherr and B. Baumgartner (USA) will be rememberd for their attractive performance on the mat. For free-style wrestling the 1988-1992 Olympic cycle was the period of "gestation", during which the masters of universal wrestling managed to assert themselves on the mat, on the grounds of their combined and diversified techniques, harmony between the spirit and body and strong will. Double Olympic champions: J. Smith, A. Fadzaev and M. Khadartsev are also World champions. Thanks to I. Kim and H. Li the wrestlers from North Korea reached the top in the lightest weight categories. L. Khabelov (USSR), A. Puerto (Cuba), K. Jackson (USA) and J.S. Park (Korea) managed to defeat their opponents of equal standing. With his second Olym-

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A. Pirin TUR

Attila Repka HUN

Iskandarian and Tracz

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J. Smith USA Vincenzo Maenza ITA

M. Iskandarian EUN

Kevin Jackson USA

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pic gold . Baumgartner ranked amongst the greatest wrestlers of this time. V. Yordanov and R. Sukra (Bulgaria), A. Martinez (Cuba), M. Torkan (Iran), S. Kim (PRK), J. Lohuna (Czechoslovakia), L. Jones and K. Monay (USA), V. Orudyev, S. Smal, B. Budayev, J. Djabrayilov and D. Gobedshvili (USSR),

A. Reza and Soleimani (Iran) and A. Schrder (Germany) will be remembered by their outstanding wrestling techniques. All athletes have demonstrated wrestling of great beauty, as if endeavouring to act according to the Roman saying that "it is of his fate and not victory that one should be ashamed of.' '

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In the 1976-1992 Olympic cycle it was 11 countries that took all the medals, with the following distribution of the golds: 1980-three countries, 1984 four countries and 1976 and 1992 five countries. Upon disintegration of the socialist block, the USSR in particular, fresh blood emerged on the international mat endowed with enormous potentials. Even if the number of medal sharing countries does not considerably increase in the future, the names of medal holders will undoubtedly change more often. The rating at the World championships in 1993 and 1995 fully endorse this statement. In Greco-Roman wrestling two Olympic champions: M. Iskandarian and A. Karelin won the World champion titles. Thanks to their superiority and at-

tractive style S. Martynov and A. Karelin triumphed at three championships. In other weight categories M. Ljungberg (Sweden), H. Yerlikaya (Turkey), Dutchiyev (USSR), etc., got high on the rating list. Cuba, Germany, Poland, Ukraine, Korea and the USA, had excellent wrestlers on their teams, who demonstrated a distinguished performance on the mat. In free-style wrestling a great number of Olympic champions got to the top: A. Puerto, J. Park, K. Jackson, L. Khabelovand B. Baumgartner. But, it is only V. Yordanov (Bulgaria) who, thanks to his attractive and dynamic wrestling, managed to secure victory at all three championships. The wrestlers of Cuba, Iran, Ukraine, Armenia, Germany and Moldavia also demonstrated great potentials in this style.

CLASSIFICATION OF THE OLYMPIC AND WORLD CHAMPIONS-1993-1996 OLYMPIC CYCLE Greco-Roman wrestling
Weight cat. 48 52 57 62 68 74 82 90 100 + 100 World championships 1993 W. Sanchez ( C U B ) R. Martinez (CUB) A. Manukjan ( A R M ) S. M a r t i n o v ( R U S ) I. Dogusjijev(RUS) N. A l m a n z a ( C U B ) H. Yerlikaya (TUR) G. Koguashvili (RUS) M. Ljungberg (SWE) A. Karelin (RUS) World championships 1994 W. Sanchez ( C U B ) A. Mkrtchyan (GER) I. Melnitchenko (KAZ) S. M a r t i n o v ( R U S ) I. Dogusjijev (RUS) M. Iskandarian (RUS) T. Zander (GER) G. Koguashvili (RUS) A. Wronski (POL) A. Karelin (RUS) World championships 1995 K.H. Sim (KOR) S Daneliam ( R U S ) D. Hall (USA) S. M a r t i n o v ( R U S ) R. A d j i ( U K R ) Y. Riemer (FRA) H. Yerlikaya (TUR) H. Baser (TUR) M. Ljungberg (SWE) A. Karelin (RUS) The Olympic games 1996 K.H. Sim (KOR) A. Nazaryan ( A R M ) Y. M e l n i c h e n k o ( K A Z ) W. Zawadzki (POL) R. Wolny (POL) A. Aguilera ( C U B ) H. Yerlikaya (TUR) V. O l e y n y k ( U K R ) A. Wronski (POL) A. Karelin ( R U S )

Free-style wrestling
Weight poids 48 52 57 62 68 74 82 90 100 + 100 World championships 1993 A. Vila ( C U B ) V. J o r d a n o v ( B U L ) Terry Brands (USA) Thomas Brands (USA) A. Faliam (IRI) J.S. P a r k ( K O R ) S. O z t u r k ( T U R ) M. Douglas (USA) L. K h a b e l o v ( R U S ) B. Baumgartner (USA) World championships 1994 A. Vila (CUB) V. J o r d a n o v ( B U L ) A. Puerto ( C U B ) M. A z i z o v ( R U S ) A. Leipold (GER) T. Ceylan (TUR) J. Luchman (MLD) R. Khadem (IRI) A. S a b e j e w ( G E R ) M. Demir (TUR) World championships 1995 V. O r u d j e v ( R U S ) V. J o r d a n o v ( B U L ) Terry Brands (USA) E. T e d e e v ( U K R ) A. Gevorkian ( A R M ) B. S a i t i e v ( R U S ) K.Jackson (USA) R. Khadem (IRI) K. Angle (USA) B. Baumgartner (USA) The Olympic games 1996 I. Kim (PRK) V. J o r d a n o v ( B U L ) K. Cross (USA) T. Brands (USA) V. B o g i y e v ( R U S ) B. S a i t i e v ( R U S ) K. Magomedov (RUS) R. Khadem (IRI) K. Angle (USA) M. Demir (TUR)

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A rather large variety of styles, a more or less balanced level of sportsmanship, boldness in the effort to take the crown from the long-standing champions and an outstanding development of its techniques and tactics, these are the main features of wrestling fostered by its elite in the period under review.

Melnichenko KAZ-Hall USA Sim KOR-Pavlov BLR

Zawadsky POL-Maren CUB

Wolny POL-Jalouz FRA AscuyCUB-Asell FIN

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YerlikayaTUR-Wafflard BLR

Oleynyk UKR-Hodzic BIH

Wronsky POLNaouar TUN

124

Alexander Karelin

125

Wronsky POL Kim PRK-Yefteni UKR Mamyrov KAZ-Jordanov BUL

126

Sissaouri CAN-Cross USA

Bogiyev RUS-Fadzaev UZB

Brands USA-Smal BLR

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Khadem Azghadi IRI

Saityev RUS-Leipold GER

Angle USA-Jadidi I

Yang KOR-Magomedov RUS

Demir TUR-Medvedev BLR

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10.2. The Stars of the XX-th Century

Sports as a universal activity through which individuals may see their dreams come true is also a means to achieve immortality in this specific field. Like Gilgamesh, the legendary hero, or Faust, the literatury hero, a top wrestler also strives to achieve immortality, although in a different way. As gods can be found on both sides of the mat the road to Olympic immortality is paved with hard work and a successful and beneficial implementation of scientific achievements. Classification of stars is a convention in any field of human activity. It is very difficult to compare exploits, styles and features from different historical periods... Once upon a time Milo of Crotona won six Olympic championships. Nowadays, a similar exploit would simply be impossible. Alexander Medvedev, the wrestler with the very best performance in modern times was: 3 times Olympic champion, / t i mes World and 3 times European champion. Carl Westergren, A. Karelin and Iwar Johansson are also triple Olympic champions. Double Olympic champions are much more numerous.

A. Medved, A. Karelin, I. Yarigin

> nu

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MANIFOLD CHAMPIONS IN WRESTLING

Name 1. Johansson Westergren A. Medved A. Karelin G. Mehnert E. Vare . Johansson . Antilla 0. Friman K. Pihlajmki V. Kokkinen R. Svensson J. Richthoff A. Gronberg M. Bayrak M. Dagistanli B. Radev Y. Uetake 1. Kozma P. Kirov V. Resanzev 1. Yarigin L. Tediashvili S. Andiev A. Koltchinski S. Beloglazov V. Maenza B. Baumgartner J. Roeningen A. Wronski J. Smith M. Khadartsev A. Fadzaev 1. Kim Country SWE SWE RUS RUS USA FIN SWE FIN FIN FIN FIN SWE SWE SWE TUR TUR BUL JPN HUN BUL RUS RUS RUS RUS RUS RUS ITA USA NOR POL USA RUS RUS PRK Olympic titles 1932 (GR), 1932 LL), 1936 1920, 1924, 1932 1964, 1968, 1972 1988, 1992, 1996 1904, 1908 1912, 1920 1912, 1920 1920 (LL), 1924 (GR) 1920, 1924 1924, 1936 1928, 1932 1928, 1932 1928, 1932 1948, 1952 1956, 1960 1956, 1960 1964, 1968 1964, 1968 1964, 1968 1968, 1972 1972, 1976 1972, 1976 1972, 1976 1976, 1980 1976, 1980 1980, 1988 1984, 1988 1984, 1992 1988, 1992 1988, 1996 1988, 1992 1988, 1992 1988, 1992 1992,1996 1986, 1993, 1995 1985 1994 1989, 1990, 1991 1986, 1987, 1989, 1990, 1991 1983, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1990, 1991 1989 1962, 1966, 1967 1970, 1971, 1974 1970, 1971, 1973, 1974, 1975 1973 1971, 1973, 1974, 1975 1973, 1975, 1977, 1978 1978 1981, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986, 1987 1954, 1957, 1959 1966 1950 1921, 1922 1921 1922 1962, 1962, 1966, 1967, 1969, 1970, 1971 1989, 1990, 1991, 1993, 1994, 1995 World champion titles

131

I. Johansson SWE

132

133

Kustaa Pihlajmki FIN

134

Vino Kokkinen FIN

135

J. Mehnert USA

E. Vare FIN

. Anttila FIN

. - S A

IllilJ

136

I. Kozma HUN

138

Rnningen NOR and T. Mkrtchyan EUN

V. Rezancev RUS (refree) Khadartsev RUS-Douglas USA

139

^
1 | ^ ^^^^
V

. Baumgartner USA

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R. Wronsky POL (blue)-Lishtvan BLR

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I. Kim PRK-Yefteni UKR

140

Among the wrestlers with a single Olympic champion title V. Jordanov (7 times World champion), A. Movahed (6 times World champion), A. Ivanitski, Y. Takada, and V. Kuzmin (5 champion titles each), P. Pineguin (3 titles), Ch. Issaev, A. Ayik and G.R. Takhti (2 titles each) deserve to be mentioned for their outstanding mastership in free-style wrestling. In Greco-Roman wrestling the names of the following champions deserve to be mentioned: N. Balbochin (5 World champion titles), R. Rura (4 titles), A. Kolessov, I. Polyak and M. Bullman (3 titles each). Although the most prominent occasion for evaluating sports mastership, the Olympic Games are not the only yardsitck in sportmanship. There are so many outstanding wrestlers, world and continental champions, who never took one of the Olympic medals, to mention only a few: A. Aliev, A. Tomov, V. Igumenov (5 titles each), N. Dinev, V. Zubkov, M. Mehdizadeh, H. Issaev, A. Alakverdiev (3 titles each), etc. Wrestling on the global level actually derives its driving force from an inexaustible source of creative athletes and their fresh blood, who by developing its new nuances and new technical and tactical models on the mat demonstrate attractive wrestling. Here are some names of the most talented masters of creative wrestling: Friman, Freij, Balavadze, Dagistanli, Yordanov, the Beloglazov brothers, Smith, Fadzaev, Seger, Habibi, Szilvasi, Sasahara, Medved, Kartozia, Dietrich, Radev, Kirov, Karelin and many others.

It is a sad fact that very often the coaches, actually the genuine creators and master minds of sports exploits, remain hidden in the shadows of top wrestlers and their glory, while behind the scene their role is noble and of crucial importance. It is the coach who discovers new talents, it is the coach who provides the trainees physical, intellectual, ethic and aesthetic education adapted to their respective genetic features. Top wrestlers require an intelligent, highly educated, competent, self-confident coach endowed with pedagogical intuition and sharp perception. All these qualities are not visible on the mat. There is a great number of outstanding coaches praticing their profession all over the world, to mention only some of them from the post war generation: Matura, Katulin, Atik, Fldeak, Zimakuridze, Corneanu, Jovanovic... Researchers are another group of important people working in the background, who remain un seen. Development of modern wrestling would not be possible without their scientific achievements used in designing the training, evaluating the effects of physical training and different methods of work on the human body, in the development of motor skils, in the development of bio-mechanics of holds, in psychological preparation, in the analysis of technical and tactical performance, etc. Wrestling relies on the work of outstanding scientific teams. It is thanks to their achievements that coaches are in a position to develop the professional competence required for the education of talented wrestlers, and their preparation for outstanding technical and tactical performance on the mat.

10.3. Modern Spirit of Competition

There is no other human society in the world where the spirit of competition (agonism) was so pronounced and overwhelming as in Ancient Greece. Actually, to this day, wrestling has remained one of the rare sports still encompassing the Hellenic ideals of agonism, harmony, virility and dignity in their original meaning. The calender of competitions is the most reliable source of the upsurge in the development of wrestling. It is thanks to FILA that an annual calendar is at present busier than it used to be for the entire decade of 1950-1960. Now, in addition to the Olympic Games the wrestlers have the opportunity to size up their forces in both wrestling styles and in different age groups at the world, continental and regional championships, international tournaments or other numerous competitions organized by various sponsors.

141

Mario Moschi: Young Wrestler (1939)

142

Wrestling for Children

Wrestling for Children

143

Thousands of spectators at the World Championship in Sofia ( 1963)

Award to the public

144

145

Women's wrestling

146

Women's wrestling

All children are great fans of wrestling and adore it as a sport. In Ancient Greece there was a special Olympic programme for children in three disciplines: wrestling, pancratium and penthatlon. On the other hand, it is in the rural areas where traditional wrestling is fostered, that many outstanding wrestlers have made their first steps towards the international mat, like: Akbas, Dagistanly, Ayik, Takhti, Habibi, Tediashvilli, Andiev, Balavadze, Akhmedov, Gardjev, etc. It was a very bright idea to organize world and later continental championships for juniors of different age group. These events have attracted a number of young athletes to wrestling. Special sports centres provide training for high performance. It is at junior championships that many talents have been discovered, including: Andersson, Mamiashvilli, Tzenov, Karelin, Beloglazov, S. Andiev, V. Yordanov, Fadzaev, Khabelov-actually almost the whole elite in wrestling. Women's wrestling, also part of the competition programmes, has nothing to do with matriarchate, or the mythological wrestling in Atlanta and Crete. It is part of women's emancipation, an expression of their social equality and a means to achieve per-

sonal beauty and overall development. There is nothing more beautiful than a feminine body, healthy and strong, embodied in the works of art like: Venus of Milo, Venus of Cyrene, Nioble, or the Venus by Botticceli, the Dawn, by Michelangeli, Ceres by Rubens, the heroines of Delacroix and Siqueiros, even les Baigneuse by Renoir. Women's wrestling first started in the Scandinavian countries and France. At first both styles were fostered and had some success, but after long discussions a compromise was reached to develop a single style for women. FILA has set up a special Committee for Women's Wrestling, headed by Michel Dusson (1984). The first championship in Women's Wrestling took place in Oslo, in 1987. FILA has recognized traditional wrestling as one of its official styles, not only out of respect for its cultural values, but primarily because its traditional forms may be a precious source of new wealth in modern wrestling. We have already mentioned that before embarking on the international mat, many outstanding wrestlers began by practicing traditional wrestling. It is worth recalling that all over the world hundreds of thousands of competitions in

147

traditional (folklore) wrestling take place before millions of spectators. Still now many African countries (Senegal, Cameroon, Kenya, etc) organize competitions in traditional wrestling. The active career of a wrestler is a long one. Milo participated in 7 Olympic Games, which means that he was over 45 and still an active competitor. Ivan Paddubny became champion after the age of 50 and, Kotkas, Masur and Mekokishvilli after the age of 40. Anderberg, Freij, Polyak, Fabra, Martinescu and Baumgartner are also known for their long sports careers. It is worth mentioning the case of V. Yordanov who at the age of 37 became champion for the 7-th time. He is still active and takes part in com-

petitions. He has not even changed his weight category (52 kg). Championships for Veterans have been organized since 1992 (Guapi, Colombia). The number of competitors and the number of participating countries has been increasing from one year to the next. Some of the participants want to preserve their physical and mental vitality, others endeavour to attain the results which they missed in their youth; former outstanding champions use this opportunity to enjoy in a new glory. John E. Dupont is the master brain and sponsor of these championships and Adolf Seger, five times World champion, is the best participant in these competitions.

10.4. Strategy and Pragmatism

Carrying out its activities FILA has also had to cope with the difficulties that as a rule crop up when it comes to making compromises between the tradition and future. In 1972 the new President, Mr. Milan Ercegan, launched a development strategy of wrestling on the global level. Rather a new philosophy, this strategy was based on a global as well as pragmatic approach. According to the Programme submitted to the Congress, President Ercegan has initiated rational reforms in FILA's organization and style of work, with special emphasis on democratization of its activities, implementation of the statutes and improvement of human relations. This method of work has encouraged numerous specialists to mobilize all their creative potentials and embark on projects and tasks of national and international interest. Reorganization of FILA was undertaken with the view of enhancing its efficiency, which was achieved through structural modifications. Most of the reorganized, or newly set up committees, commissions, and departments of ad hoc bodies have become much more efficient in their work. Their excellent concrete results prove that good initiative and know-how are much more effective than the intuitive approach prevailing in the past. The Federation grounds its work on scientific methods. In addition to that, the development strategy of wrestling is also based on scientific forcast and programmes drafted accordingly. The FILA GOLDEN PLAN launched by President Ercegan, is a far reaching project. This long term programme of technical assistance to the developing countries is the very first of this nature initiated by an international sports organization, which means that FILA's role is that of a trend setter in this regard. Within this Programme over 600 workshops for coaches have been organized and a considerable number of mats distributed to national federations, in addition to a great number of books, magazines, video cassettes and other pedagogical tools made available free of charge. The High School of Wrestling was opened in 1973 and the Olympic Academy in 1995, in Moscow. All these activities have given a great impetus to the development of wrestling. In 1966 FILA had 72 affiliated member-national wrestling federations. In 1988 this number went up to 108 and in 1992 to 130. Nowadays FILA has 140 affiliated members. FILA recognizes the following forms of wrestling: GrecoRoman, free-style, women's wrestling, veterans' wrestling and traditional wrestling. It was, therefore, logical for FILA to change its title in 1994: Fdration Internationale de Lutte Associes (International Federation of Associated Wrestling). In the spirit of the Olympic and Ancient tradition and inspired by Pindar's Odes, wrestling also got its Hymn entitled "PALESTRIADE" (composer: Tontcho Russev, lirics by Liliana Kaneva). The Charter on the Development of Wrestling Till the Year 2000 and other important documents, in addition to identifying new development trends in modern sports, also anticipate its prospects in the XXI-st century. The CHARTER is based on a theoretical and sociological evolution of human society including sports in general, and wrestling in particular, on the global level, with the view of providing

148

new guidelines and methods of work conducive to the future development of wrestling. Practical results followed very soon, evident in the promotion of wrestling on the global level, with special emphasis on active and attractive wrestling and top mastery. The Rules of Wrestling are still one of the hottest topics on FILA's agenda. The world is changing and sports has to follow suit, The German pedagogue Diesterweg appropriately summarized the reality by saying: "Nothing is constant, except change." The modern man, always in a hurry and overwhelmed by hundreds of different commitments, simply has no time to watch endless matches in which actually nothing happens. All sports are using their very best efforts to establish an aesthetic contact with the public and thus secure a place on TV. Sports performances are, therefore, becoming increasingly risky, beautiful and attractive. This means that wrestling has to compete keenly with other sports from the selection of the athletes up to its participation in the TV programme. History teaches us that since wrestling is not in a position to change the surrounding circumstances, it can secure its survival only by changing itself. The amendments to the Rules mainly refer to the duration of the match and competitions, evaluation of the holds, the ways of achieving victory, the activity of the competitors on the mat, wrestling "par-terre", restriction of dangerous holds, etc. FILA is using its very best efforts to bring wide acceptance to the philosophy of attractive, total, universal, creative and risky wrestling developed to the level of virtuosity. A comparative analysis of the past and present combats has established a considerable increase in the number of holds performed, and more beauty and tension on the mat. Although not always for the best, changes have always paved the way for progress. Already four centuries ago Miguel de Cervantes expressed the same idea in the following manner: "It's better on the raod, then in the inn." An increased sports mastership of the competitors and a greater complexity of combats have also called for a different approach to officiating. Professionalism had to replace amateurism. Therefore, a system of categories has been introduced forjudges and referees, which also has entailed re-classification, requirements for additional qualifications, age limit, etc. Within the efforts to improve the quality of

officiating, 46 officials have been awarded THE FILA GOLD WHISTLE. Actually, all the steps taken in this regard are aimed at bringing the level of officiating into line with the quality of wrestling. Two important events: the Days of the Olympic Ideals (1994) and 100 Years of Olympic Wrestling (1996) have greatly contributed to the promotion of wrestling. A part of these festivities was devoted to the history of wrestling and its future prospects. The same spirit prevailed at the FILA Olympic Congress in Atlanta (1996). In support of this statement let me recall a passage from President Ercegan's report addressed to the Congress : "It is by virtue of one hundred years of its dignified life, and even more important than that, by virtue of the millenia long existence of wrestling as a social activity and an integral part of human culture and civilization that we must not surrender to its obsolete forms. On the contrary, It is our imperative duty to create a wrestling of the future." At present the Bureau of FILA, its supreme body, consists of: President: Vice-presidents: Mr. Milan Ercegan Messers: Mihaly Biro, Raphy Martinetti, Rako Petrov, Matteo Pellicone and Kemal Octay

Secretary General: Members:

Mr. Michel Dusson Messers: Adel Mustafa, Ivan Yarigin, Gustavo Rolle Fernandez, Mario Saletnig, Tomiyaki Fukada, Per Swensson, Mohammed Tavakol, Teodoros Hamkos and Larry Sciaccetano

Coopted members:

Messers: Oswaldo Johnston, Chang Kew Kim, Tzeno Tzenev and Mohammed Ibnu Zahir.

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The FILA Bureau (1995): Sitting: M. Biro, M. Dusson, M. Ercegan and R. Martinetti; Standing: M. Pellicone, O. Johnston, G. Rolle, A. Novikov, H. Schwindling, R. Petrov, K. Oktay, M.l. Zahir, P. Svensson, B. Carayannis, M. Saletnig, M. Tavakol, A. Mustafa and Chang Kew Kim

Wrestling has always been one of the crucial sports of the Olympic programme, and its main pillar. Also, the I.O.C. and its President, Mr. Juan Antonio Samaranch, have always been keenly interested in wrestling, which they have proven by providing support to: the New Olympic Charter, the Olympic Solidarity Programme and Sports for All, all of which pave the way to the development of sports in the forthcoming century. Also, the role of mass media is never too emphasized, because it is thanks to their omnipotence and omnipresence that the idea of Olympism has succeeded in transforming the whole world into a huge Olympic stadium, with all citizens participating in the Games. Wrestling is part of that universe. In the next century amateur wrestling will be even more closely linked to the social, physical, psychological and specific requirements of the individual. The world will remember Hegel who said: "It is the wrestlers who have chiseled the sculptures

with their own bodies." The world will also remember Handel's music inspired by Theseus, Samson and Hercules, or martial themes resounding in the music of Haydn, Gluck, Camille Saint-Saens, Wagner, Borodine... Finally, the world will be able to understand, like Romain Rolland did, the nature of the drama underlying the combat between Jacob and the Angel as reflected in Beethoven's IX-the Symphony-a relentless tension, an exasperate fight, gasping breath of a man who does not give up... followed by another theme, the elegy of a losing fighter, his maddening exasperation, his modulated wailing, the pounding of his heart, his fervant desire to disentangle himself and finally his failure and... collapse... But, those who have fallen down do get up. Wrestling has recovered and, firm on its feet, is heading forward. Global wrestling should also bring to the mat the rhythms and tempests of a symphonic drama.

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11. THESE IMPORTANT PERSONS HAVE ATTENDED WRESTLING EVENTS

A Glance at the future

Juan Antonio Samaranch

John Paul II receives the Polish wrestlers (1994)

Mr. Gabor Kuncze, nterior Minister of Hungary, Mr. Milan Ercegan President of FILA (1995)

152

His Majesty Carl XVI. Gustav, King of Sweeden, Mr. Milan Ercegan (1993 World Championship in Stockholm)

Ms. Tansu Ciller, Prime Minister of the Republic of Turkey, Mr. Milan Ercegan (1994) World Championship in Istanbul

153

M. Fidel Ramos President of Philippin Republic and M. Ercegan

Abraham Lincoln was the wrestling champion of his county, and is considered the roughest and toughest of the wrestling U.S. Presidents (courtesy of National Wrestling Hall of Fame).

154

MSki

JL
President of IRI Rafsanjani

President of Republic Turkey M. Demirel

DEVI ET BAKANIMIZ 0/DTIN SUKRU E S M R t b i ARIMI/ ADIflATFSFKKURIF

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12 . ANNEXS
Country AZERBADJAN AUSTRALIA AUSTRIA GERMANY ARMENIA BELGIUM BELORUSIA BULGARIA CANADA CHINA CUBA DENMARK EGYPT ESTONIA FINLAND FRANCE GREAT BRITAIN GREECE GRUZIA HUNGARY INDIA IRAN IRELAND ITALY JAPAN KAZAHSTAN KOREA LATVIA LEBANON MEXICO MOLDOVA MONGOLIA NORWAY PAKISTAN POLAND PEOPLE REPUBLIC OF KOREA GERMANY DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC RUMANIA RUSSIA USA SOVIET UNION SYRIA SWEDEN SWITZERLAND TURKEY CZECHOSLOVAKIA UKRAINA YUGOSLAVIA 43 COUNTRY

NUMBER OF MEDALS BY COUNTRY IN OLYMPIC GAMES

Gold Silver 1 1 3 6 1 19 1 3 3 15 29 5 1 1 16 5 2 3 2 1 5 27 3 2 1 1 3 2 1 26 4 4 3 4 6 2 4 30 6 9 4 1 18 13 18 1 4 1 6 20 1 8 8 1 1 1 1 4 2 2 4 1 1 5 3 2 6 4 46 68 9 2 4 8 4 37 35 1 28 4 26 1 1 4 324 6 324 25 4 15 7 28 6 9 7 3 6 324 9 2 3 17 2 24 28 2 4 14 10 12 1 8 10 1 12 2 2 14 Bronze Total 1 3 5 39 2 4 4 60 10 2 8 11 5 10 8( 13 15 8 1 49 1 26 2 18 44 2 28 1 3 1 1 8 5 1 23 7 9 31 10 107 131 1 80 14 50 15 4 16 972

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Fila Congresses
1912 1913 1920 1922 1924 1926 1928 1930 1932 1934 1936 1938 1946 1948 1950 1952 1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1987 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996

l-st

ll-nd
lll-rd IV-th

V-th
Vl-th Vll-th Vlll-th IX-th X-th Xl-th Xll-th Xlll-th XIV-th XV-th XVI-th XVII-th XVIII-th XIX-th XX-th XXI-th XXII-th XXIII-th XXIV-th XXV-th XXVI-th XXVII-th XXVIII-th XXIX-th XXX-th XXXI-th XXXII-th XXXIII-th XXXIV-th XXXV-th XXXVI-th XXXVII-th XXXVII-th

Stockholm Berlin Antwerpen Stockholm Paris Riga Amsterdam Stockholm Los Angeles Rome Berlin Tallin Stockholm London Stockholm Helsinki Tokyo Melbourne Budapest Rome Toledo Tokyo Toledo Mexico Edmonton Mnchen Istanbul Montreal Mexico Moscou Edmonton Jnkping Budapest Clermont-Ferrand Seoul Rome Barcelone Istanbul Atlanta

World Championships - Greco-Roman wrestling

World championships - Free-style wrestling

1-st 2-nd 3-rd 4-th 5-th 6-th 7-th 8-th 9-th 10-th 11-th 12-th 13-th 14-th 15-th 16-th 17-th 18-th 19-th 20-th 21-th 22-th 23-th 24-th 25-th 26-th 27-th 28-th 29-th 30-th 31-th 32-th 33-th 34-th 35-th 36-th 37-th 38-th 39-th 40-th 41-th 42-th

1904-Vienna 1905-Berlin 1907-Frankfurt 1908-Vienna 1909-Vienna 1910-Dusseldorf 1911-Helsinki 1913-Breslau 1920-Vienna 1921-Helsinki 1922-Stockholm 1950-Stockholm 1953-Naples 1955-Karlsruhe 1958-Budapest 1961-Yokohama 1962-Toledo 1963-Helsinborg 1965-Tampere 1966-Toledo 1967-Bucarest 1969-Mardel Plata 1970-Edmonton 1971-Sofia 1973-Teheran 1974-Katovice 1975-Minsk 1977-Gteborg 1978-Mexico 1979-San Diego 1981-Oslo 1982-Katovice 1983-Kiev 1985-Kolbotn 1986-Budapest 1987-Clermot Ferrand 1989-Martigny 1990-Rome 1992-Varna 1993-Stockholm 1994-Tampere 1995-Prague

AUT GER GER AUT AUT GER FIN GER AUT FIN SWE SWE ITA GER HUN JPN USA SWE FIN USA ROM ARG CAN BUL IRI POL URS SWE USA NOR POL URS NOR HUN FRA SUI ITA BUL SWE FIN CZE

1-st 2-nd 3-rd 4-th 5-th 6-th 7-th 8-th 9-th 10-th 11-th 12-th 13-th 14-th 15-th 16-th 17-th 18-th 19-th 20-th 21-th 22-th 23-th 24-th 25-th 26-th 27-th 28-th 29-th 30-th 31-th

1951-Helsinki 1954-Tokio 1957-lstanbul 1959-Teheran 1961-Yokohama 1962-Toledo 1963-Sofia 1965-Manchester 1966-Toledo 1967-New Delhi 1969-Mardel Plata 1970-Edmonton 1971-Sofia 1973-Teheran 1974-lstanbul 1975-Minsk 1977-Lausanne 1978-Mexico 1979-San Diego 1981-Skopje 1982-Edmonton 1983-Kiev 1985-Budapest 1986-Budapest 1987-Clermont Ferrand 1989-Martigny 1990-Tokyo 1991-Varna 1993-Toronto 1994-lstanbul 1995-Atlanta

FIN JPN TUR IRI JPN USA BUL GBR USA IND ARG CAN BUL IRI TUR URS SUI USA YUG CAN URS HUN HUN FRA SUI JPN BUL CAN TUR USA

158

European Championships Greco-Roman wrestling

1-st 2-nd 3-rd 4-th 5-th 6-th 7-th 8-th 9-th 10-th 11-th 12-th 13-th 14-th 15-th 16-th 17-th 18-th 19-th 20-th 21-th 22-th 23-th 24-th 25-th 26-th 27-th 28-th 29-th 30-th 31-th 32-th 33-th 34-th 35-th 36-th 37-th 38-th 39-th 40-th 41-th 42-th 43-th 44-th 45-th 46-th 47-th 48-th 49-th 50-th 51-th 52-th 53-th 54-th 55-th 56-th 57-th 58-th 1898-Vienna 1902-Haag 1903-Rotterdam 1904-Amsterdam 1905-Amsterdam 1906-Haag 1907-Copenhague 1909-Malm 1910-Budapest 1911-Budapest 1912-Budapest 1913-Budapest 1914-Vienna 1921-Offenbach 1924-Neunkirchen 1925-Milan 1926-Riga 1927-Budapest 1929-Dortmund 1930-Stockholm 1931-Prague 1933-Helsinki 1934-Rome 1935-Copenhague 1937-Paris 1938-Tallin 1939-Oslo 1947-Prague 1966-Essen 1967-Minsk 1968-Vasteras 1969-Modena 1970-Berlin 1972-Katowice 1973-Helsinki 1974-Madrid 1975-Ludwigshafen 1976-Leningrade 1977-Bursa 1978-Oslo 1979-Bucarest 1980-Prievidza 1981-Gteborg 1982-Varna 1983-Budapest 1984-Jnkping 1985-Leipzig 1986-Athen 1987-Tampere 1988-Kolbotn 1989-Oolu 1990-Poznan 1991-Aschaffenburg 1992-Coppenhagen 1993-lstanbul 1994-Athen 1995-Besancon 1996-Budapest AUT HOL HOL HOL HOL HOL DEN SWE HUN HUN HUN HUN AUT GER GER ITA LAT HUN GER SWE CZE FIN ITA DEN FRA EST NOR CZE GER URS SWE ITA RDA POL FIN ESP RDA URS TUR NOR ROM CZE SWE BUL HUN SWE RDA GRE FIN NOR FIN POL GER DEN TUR GRE FRA HUN 1-st 2-nd 3-rd 4-th 5-th 6-th 7-th 8-th 9-th 10-th 11-th 12-th 13-th 14-th 15-th 16-th 17-th 18-th 19-th 20-th 21-th 22-th 23-th 24-th 25-th 26-th 27-th 28-th 29-th 30-th 31-th 32-th 33-th 34-th 35-th 36t-h 37-th 38-th 39-th

European championships Free-style wrestling

1929-Paris 1930-Bruxelles 1931-Budapest 1933-Paris 1934-Stockholm 1935-Bruxelles 1937-Munich 1946-Stockholm 1949-lstanbul 1966-Karlsruhe 1967-lstanbul 1968-Skopje 1969-Sofia 1970-Berlin 1972-Katowice 1973-Lausanne 1974-Madrid 1975-Ludwigshafen 1976-Leningrade 1977-Bursa 1978-Sofia 1979-Bucarest 1980-Prievidza 1981-Lodz 1982-Varna 1983-Budapest 1984-Jnkping 1985-Leipzig 1986-Pireus 1987-V. Tarnovo 1988-Manchester 1989-Ankara 1990-Poznan 1991-Stuttgart 1992-Kaposvar 1993-lstanbul 1994-Rome 1995-Fribourg 1996-Budapest FRA BEL HUN FRA SWE BEL GER SWE TUR GER TUR YUG BUL RDA POL SUI ESP RDA URS TUR BUL ROM CZE POL BUL HUN SWE POL GRE BUL GBR TUR POL GER HUN TUR ITA SUI HUN

African Championships - Senior

1-st 2-nd 3-rd 4-th 5-th 6-th 7-th 8-th 9-th 10-th 11-th 12-th 13-th 14-th 15-th 16-th 1969-Casablanca 1971-Alexandrie 1974-Alger 1979-Alexandrie 1981-Tunis 1982-Casablanca 1984-Cair 1985-Casablanca 1986-Alexandrie 1988-Tunis 1989-Cair 1990-Cassablanca 1992-Safi 1993-Johannesburg 1994-Cair 1996-Tunis MAR EGY ALG EGY TUN MAR EGY MAR EGY TUN EGY MAR MAR RSA EGY TUN 1-st 2-nd 3-th 4-th 5-th 6-th 7-th 8-th 9-th 10-th 11-th

Asian Championships - Senior

1979-Jullundeer 1983-Lahore -Teheran 1985-Teheran 1987-Pune 1988-lslamabad 1989-Oharai 1991-New Delhi -Teheran 1992-Teheran 1993-Hiroshima -Ulan-Bator 1995-Manila 1996-Xioshan IND PAK IRI IRI IND PAK JPN IND IRI IRI JPN MGL PHI CHI FS FS GR FS-GR FS-GR FS FS-GR FS GR FS-GR GR FS FS GR-FS

Oceania Championships - Senior

1-st 2-nd 3-th 4-th 5-th 6-th 7-th 1984-Brisbane 1986-Aucland 1988-Melbourne 1990-Aucland 1992-Apia 1995-Melboume 1996-Victoria Footscray SAM NZL AUS NZL WSA AUS AUS FS FS FS FS FS FS FS

Panamerican Championships - Senior

1-st 2-nd 3-rd 4-th 5-th 6-th 7-th 8-th 9-th 10-th 11-th 12-th 13-th 14-th 15-th 1973-Mexico City 1977-Mexico City 1980-Lincoln 1981-Mexico City 1985-Valencia 1986-Colorado Springs 1987-lndianapolis 1988-Villa Clara 1989-Colorado Springs 1990-Colorado Springs 1991-Havana 1992-London 1993-Caracas 1994-Mexico City 1996-Call USA VEN USA USA CUB USA USA CUB CAN VEN COL

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