1.

0 INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEM

An operating system (OS) is software, consisting of programs and data that runs on computers and manages the computer hardware and provides common services for efficient execution of various application software.

For large systems, the operating system has even greater responsibilities and powers. It makes sure those different programs and users running at the same time do not interfere with each other. The operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system. Operating systems provide a software platform on top of which other programs, called application programs, can run. The application programs must be written to run on top of a particular operating system. Handheld computer operating system is designed to provide an environment in which a user can easily interface with the

computer to execute programs. Thus, some operating systems are designed to be convenient, others to be efficient, and others combination of the two. Modern general-purpose computers, including personal computers and mainframes, have an operating system to run other programs, such as application software. Examples of operating systems for personal computers include Microsoft Windows, Mac OS, UNIX, and Linux.

1.1 What is an Operating System?

An operating system is an important part of almost every computer system. An Operating system mainly performs three functions Convenience: It makes computer more convenient to use Efficiency: It allows the computer system resources to be used in an efficient manner Ability to solve: It should be constructed in such a way as to permit the effective development, testing and introduction of new system functions at the same time interfacing with services. It also provides basics for application program and act as an intermediate between a user of a computer and the computer hardware. Without operating System, a computer is basically a useless lump of metal. A computer system can be divided roughly into four components: the hardware, the operating system, the application program, and the users.

The hardware, central processing unit (CPU), memory, and the input/output (I/O) devices provide the basic computing resources. The application program such as word processors, spreadsheets, compilers, and web browsers-defines the ways in which these resources are used to solve the computing problems of the user. The operating system controls and co-ordinates the use of the hardware among the various application programs for the various users.

1.2 History of Operating Systems

An operating system (OS) is a software program that manages the hardware and software resources of a computer. The OS performs basic tasks, such as controlling and allocating memory, prioritizing the processing of instructions, controlling input and output devices, facilitating networking, and managing files. First three digital computers were designed by English Mathematician Charles Babbage in 1792-1871. It was purely mechanical design.

1.2.1 First Generation (1945-1955):-

In First Generation

Computers with Vacuum tubes and plug boards were evolved. In these days a single group of people designed, built, programmed, operated and maintained each machine. Programming was done in Machine Language. The first computers did not have operating systems. In the early 1950s, a computer could execute only one program at a time. Each user had sole use of the computer and would arrive at a scheduled time with program and data on punched paper cards and tape. The program would be loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to work until the program completed or crashed.

1.2.2 Second Generation (1955-65):- Transistors and batch

System. Here for the first time between the programmers and maintenance persons, Transistors Were introduced. To run a job, a programmer would first write the program on paper, then punch it on cards, bring the card deck down to Input / Output room batch system was to collect a tray full of jobs in the Input / Output room and then read them onto a magnetic tape just to reduce the wasted time.

1.2.3 Third Generation (1965-1980):-

Integrated Chips

and Multiprogramming In this generation, Integrated circuits were used, providing a major price/performance advantage over second generation machines, which were built up from individual transistors. Concept of Multiprogramming was introduced. When the current job was to wait for a tape or other Input / Output operation to complete the Central Processing Unit simply sat idle until the Input / Output finished. As the Central Processing Unit time is very precious this wasted time is not significant.

1.2.4

Fourth

Generation

(1980-present):-

Personal

Computers With the development of LSI (Large Scale Integration) circuits, chips containing thousands of transistors in a square centimeter of silicon, the age of personal computers dawned. Personal Computers are not that different from mini computers. The most powerful Personal Computers used by business, universities and government installations are usually called Work Stations (Large Personal Computers). Usually they are connected together by hardware.

1.3 Basic Functions of an operating system

At the simplest level, an operating system does two things. It manages the hardware and software resources of the system. In a desktop computer, these resources include such things as the processor, memory, disk space, etc. (On a cell phone, they include the keypad, the screen, the address book, the phone dialer, the battery and the network connection.)It provides a stable, consistent way for applications to deal with the hardware without having to know all the details of the hardware. The first task, managing the hardware and software resources, is very important, as various programs and input Methods compete for the attention of the central processing unit (CPU) and demand memory, storage and input/output (I/O) bandwidth for their own purposes. In this capacity, the operating system plays the role of the good parent, making sure that each application gets the necessary resources while playing nicely with all the other applications, as well as husbanding the limited capacity of the system to the greatest good of all the users and applications. The second task, providing a consistent application interface, is especially important if there is to be more than one of a particular type of computer using the operating system, or if the hardware making up the computer is ever open to change. A computer, without any software, is essentially of no use. If it is with its software that it can store, process and retrieve information. An

operating system is the program that controls all the other parts of a computer system both the hardware and the software. There are many important reasons for studying operating systems. User interacts with the computer through operating system in order to accomplish his task since it is his primary interface with a computer. It helps user to understand the inner function of a computer very closely. Many concepts and techniques found in operating system have general applicability in other applications.

1.4 Feature of Operating System

Multi-User: Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users. Multi Processing: Supports running a program on more than one CPU. Multi Tasking: Allows more than one program to run concurrently. Multithreading: Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently. Real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems, such as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time. The operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system. Performs many low-level tasks on behalf of users and application programs.

 Provides a way for users to interact with the computer.

1.5 Qualities of Operating System

Usability Robustness: -accept all valid input without error, and gracefully handles all invalid inputs. Consistency Proportionality: - Simple, cheap and frequent things are easy. Forgiving: -Errors can be recovered from. Reasonable error messages. Convenient: - Not necessary to repeat things, or do awkward procedures to accomplish things. Powerful: - Has high-level facilities.

1.6 Utilities of operating system

1.6.1 Resource Management/Allocation
CPU - determine which process the CPU works on. Main memory - determine which processes can utilize which memory locations.

1.6.2 Types of resource management allocation

Extended Machine

 Resource Manager

1.6.2.1 Extended Machine: - The program that hides the truth

about the hardware from the programmer and presented a nice, simple view of named files that can be read and written is, of course, the operating system. The function of the operating system is to present the user with the equivalent of an extended machine or virtual machine that is easier to program than the underlying hardware.

1.6.2.2 Resource Manager: - Operating systems as primarily

providing its users with a convenient interface are a top-down view. In short, this view of the operating system holds that its primary task is to keep track of who is using which resource, to grant resource requests, to record for usage, and to solve conflicting requests from different programs and users.

1.7 Operating system services

Program Creation: Operating system services editors and debuggers, to assist programmer in creating programs. These services are in the form of utility programs that are accessible through the Operating System. Program Execution: Program execution needs instructions and data to be loaded in to main menu, Input/output devices and files to be initialized and other resources to be prepared. The operating system handles all these Tasks for the user. Access to Input/output devices: Each Input/output device requires its own peculiar set of instructions of control signals for

operation. Operating system takes care of details so, the programmers can think in terms of simple read and writes. System Access: Operating System controls access to the system as a whole and to specific system resources. Error detection and response: Variety of errors can occur which a computer system is running, i.e., internal and external hardware errors, such as memory error, device failure error, various software errors, inability of Operating System to grant request of an application errors and so on. Accounting: A good Operating System collects usage statistics for various resources and monitors performance parameters such as response time, which can be used for billing purposes on a multiuser system.

1.8 Operating System Concepts:

Operating Systems are among the most complex pieces of software. Five major achievements in the development of Operating System are Process Memory Management Information protection and security Scheduling and Resource Management

It is somewhat more general term than job. Process is a program that is in execution. Three major lines of computer

1.8.1 Process:

system development created problems in timing and synchronization that contributed to the development of the concept of the process. The design of system software to co-ordinate the various activities turned out to be difficult. With many jobs in progress at any one time, each of which involved numerous steps to be performed in sequence, it became impossible to analyze all the possible combination of sequences of events. So many errors were detected which were difficult to diagnose because they needed to be distinguished from application software errors and hardware errors. To tackle these problems, it is required to monitor and control the various programs executing on the Processor in a systematic way. The concept of process provides the foundation process consists of the following three components. An executable program The associated data needed by the program Execution context of program

1.8.1.1 Execution

context includes the information that the Operating System needs to manage the process and that the processor needs to properly execute the process. If two processes A and B exist in a portion of the main memory, each process is Recorded in process list, which is maintained by Operating System. Process index register contain the index in to the process list of the process currently controlling the processor, Program counter points to the next instruction in that process to be executed. Base and limit register defines the region in memory occupied by the process. Thus process is realized as a data structure. A process can either be executing or Awaiting execution. The entire state of process is contained in its context.

Users need a computing environment that supports the flexible use of data, efficient and orderly

1.8.2 Memory Management:

control of storage allocation. An Operating System, to satisfy these Requirements has five principal storage management responsibilities as follows: Process Isolation: Operating System must prevent independent process from interfacing with data and memory of each other. Automatic Allocation and Management : Programs should be dynamically allocated memory across the memory is required. Operating System can achieve efficiency by assigning memory to jobs only as needed. Support of Modular Programming : Programmers should be able to define program modules and to create, destroy and alter the size of modules dynamically. Protection and Access Control: Sharing of memory at any level of memory Hierarchy. Operating System must allow portions of memory to be accessible in various ways by various users. Long term storage: Many users and application require means for storing information for extended periods. Operating Systems meet these requirements with the concept of Virtual Memory and file system facilities. Virtual Memory is a facility that allows program to address memory from a logical point of view without regard to the amount of main memory Physically available.

1.8.3 Information protection and security

Operating System must support a variety of protection and security mechanism to computer system and the information stored in them. Some overall protection policies are: No sharing : In this case, processes are completely isolated from each other and each process has exclusive control over resources statically or dynamically assigned to it.

 Controlled information dissemination : In some systems, security classes are defined to enforce a particular dissemination policy. Users and applications are given security clearances of a certain level, whereas data and other resources (e.g., I/O devices) are given security classifications. Access Control : Is concerned with regulating user access to the total system, sub systems, and data, and regulating process access to various resources and objects within the system. Information flow control: Regulates the flow of data within the system and its delivery to users.

1.8.4 Scheduling and Resource Management

A key task of the Operating system is manage the various resources available to it (main memory space, I/O devices, processors) and to schedule their use by the various active processes. Any resource allocation and scheduling policy must consider the Following three factors: Fairness : Typically, we would like all processes that are competing for the Use of a particular resource to be given approximately equal and fair access to That resource. This is especially so for jobs of the same class, that is, jobs of similar demands, which are charged the same rate. Differential responsiveness : On the other hand, the operating system may need to discriminate between different classes of jobs with different service requirements. The operating system should attempt to make allocation and scheduling decisions to meet the total set of requirements. The operating system should also view these decisions dynamically. For example, if a process is waiting for

the use of an I/O device, the operating system may wish to schedule that process for execution as soon as possible to free up the device for later demands from other processes. Efficiency : Within the constraints of fairness and efficiency, the operating system should attempt to maximize throughput, minimize response time, and in the case of time sharing, accommodate as many users as possible

1.9 System Structure

As more and more features have been added to operating systems and as the underlying hardware has become more complex and versatile, the size and complexity of operating systems has grown. The size of a full-featured operating system and the difficulty of the task it addresses have led to three unfortunate but all too common problems. First, operating systems are chronically late in being delivered. This goes for new operating systems and for upgrades of older systems. Second, the systems have latent bugs that show up in the field and must be fixed and reworked. And finally, performance is often not what was expected. To manage the complexity of operating Systems and to overcome these problems, much attention has been given over the years to the software structure of the operating system. Certain points seem obvious. The software must be modular. This helps to organize the software development process and limits the task of diagnosing and fixing errors. The modules must have well-defined interfaces to each other, and the interfaces must be as simple as possible. Again, this eases the Programming task. It also makes the task of system evolution easier. With clean, minimal interfaces between modules, one module can be changed with minimal impact on other modules.

2.0 Classification of Operating Systems

2.1 Evolution of Operating Systems

An operating system may processes its task serially (sequentially) or concurrently (several task simultaneously). It means that the resources of computer system may be dedicated to a single program until its completion or they may be allocated among several programs in different stages of execution. The feature of operating system to execute multiple programs in interleaved fashion or different time cycles is called as multiprogramming system.

2.1.1 Serial processing:The process of development and preparation of a program in such environment is slow and cumbersome due to serial processing and numerous manual processing. In a typical sequence first the editor is called to create a source code of user program written in programming language, translator is called to covert a source code into binary code and then finally loader is called to load executable program into main memory for execution. If syntax errors are detected, the whole process must be restarted from the beginning.

2.1.2 Batch Processing

The next logical step in the evolution of operating system was to automate the sequencing of operations involved in program execution and in the mechanical aspects of program development. Jobs with similar requirement were batched together and run through the computer as a group. But there was one problem in making batch processing efficient that is during this transition from one job to the next, the CPU sat idle. To

overcome this idle time, a small program called a resident monitor was created which is always resident in the memory. It automatically sequenced one job to another job. Resident monitor acts according to the directives given by a programmer through control cards which contain information like marking of jobs beginning and endings, commands for loading and executing programs etc. These commands belong to job control language.

2.1.3 Multiprogramming
A single user cannot always keep CPU or I/O device busy at all. Multiprogramming offers a more efficient approach to increase system performance. System supporting multiprogramming approach allows more than utilization. More number of programs competing for system resources better will be resource utilization. Multiprogramming has been employed to increase the resource utilization of a computer system and to support multiple simultaneous interactive users (terminals).

2.2 Types of operating system: Operating system can be classified into following types based on number of users using the same system simultaneously.

2.2.1 Single-user, single tasking

As the name implies, this operating system is designed to manage the computer so that one user can effectively do one thing at a time. The Palm O.S. for Palm handheld computers is a good example of a modern Singleuser, single-task operating system.

2.2.2 Single-user, multi-tasking

This is the type of operating system most people use on their desktop and laptop computers today. Windows 98 and the Mac O.S. are both examples of an operating system that will let a single user have several programs in operation at the same time. For example, it's entirely possible for a Windows user to be writing a note in a word processor while downloading a file from the Internet while printing the text of an e-mail message.

2.2.3 Multi-user, multi-tasking

A multi-user operating system allows many different users to take advantage of the computer's resources simultaneously. The operating system must make sure that the requirements of the various users are balanced, and that each of the programs they are using has sufficient and separate resources so that a problem with one user doesn't affect the entire community of users. It's important to differentiate here between multi-user operating systems and single-user operating systems that support networking. Windows 2000 and Novell Netware can each support hundreds or thousands of networked users, `but the operating systems themselves aren't true multi-user operating systems. The system administrator is the only user for Windows 2000 or Netware. The network support and the entire remote user logins the network enables are, in the overall plan of the operating system.

2.2.4 Real-Time operating System

Instruments and industrial systems need Real Time Operating Systems (RTOS). An RTOS typically has very little user-interface capability, and no end-user utilities, since the system will be a sealed box when delivered for use. A very important part of an RTOS is managing the resources of the computer so that a particular operation executes in precisely the same amount of time every time it occurs. In a complex machine, having a part move more quickly just because system resources

are available may be just as catastrophic as having it not move at all because the system is busy.

2.2.5 Batch
This strategy involves reading a series of jobs (called a batch) into the machine and then executing the programs for each job in the batch. This approach does not allow users to interact with programs while they operate.

2.2.6 Timesharing
This strategy supports multiple interactive users. Rather than preparing a job for execution ahead of time, users establish an interactive session with the computer and then provide commands, programs and data, as they are needed during the session.

2.2.7 Personal computing

This strategy supports a single user running multiple programs on a dedicated machine. Since only one person is using the machine, more attention is given to establishing predictable response times from the system. This strategy is quite common today because of the popularity of personal computers. Dedicated:- This strategy supports real-time and process control systems. These are the types of systems, which control satellites, robots, and air traffic control. The dedicated strategy must guarantee certain response times for particular computing tasks or the application is useless.

3.0 Process Management

3.1 Introduction
An operating system executes a variety of programs, Batch system jobs, Time-shared systems, user programs or tasks. Textbook uses the terms job and process almost interchangeably. Process a program in execution; process execution must progress in sequential fashion. A process includes: program counter, stack, and data section etc.

3.2 Definition and concept of Process

Process Management concerns the control of programs within the system. We use the term process to refer to a program that is loaded into computer memory and is being executed i.e. is utilizing CPU time resources. Recall that only the operating system can allocate system resources, so the process will execute in either user mode or system mode (system mode has direct access to resources). In order for different user processes to exist, the operating system must be able to create and delete both user and system processes.

3.3 Process State

Although each process is an independent entity, with its own program counter and internal state, process often need to interact with other process. One process may generate some output that another process uses as an input. A process is more than the program code. It also includes the current activity, as represent by the value of the program

counter and the processors registers. Two processes may be associated with same program. The operating system is responsible for managing all the processes that are running on a computer and allocated each process a certain amount of time to use the processor. To keep track of the state of all the processes, the operating system maintains a table known as the process table. Inside this table, every process is listed along with the resources the processes are using and the current state of the process. Processes can be in one of three states: running, ready, or waiting. The running state means that the process has all the resources it need for execution and it has been given permission by the operating system to use the processor. Only one process can be in the running state at any given time. The remaining processes are either in a waiting state (i.e., waiting for some external event to occur such as user input or a disk access) or a ready state (i.e., waiting for permission to use the processor). In a real operating system, the waiting and ready states are implemented as queues, which hold the processes in these states.

Different states of a process

3.4 Process Scheduling

CPU scheduling is the basis of multi-programmed operating systems. By switching the CPU among processes, the operating system can make the computer more productive. The main function of process scheduling is to schedule the process in such a way that none of the resource is wasted.

3.5 Real-Time Scheduling

3.5.1 Hardware real-time systems required completing a critical
task within a guaranteed amount of time. Systems are required to complete a critical task within a guaranteed amount of time. A process is submitted along with a statement of the amount of time in which it needs to complete or perform I/O. the scheduler then either admits the process, guaranteeing that the process will complete on time. Hard real time systems are composed of special-purpose software running on hardware dedicated to their critical process, and lack the full functionality of modern computer and operating system.

3.5.2 Software real-time computing requires that critical

processes receive Priority over less fortunate ones. It is less restrictive. It requires that critical processes receive priority over less fortunate ones. Although adding software real-time functionality to a time sharing system may cause an unfair allocation of resources and may result in longer delays. Soft real time systems acceptably in an environment require careful design of the scheduler and related aspect of the operating system. The system must have priority scheduling, and real time process must have the highest priority.

4.0 VIRTUAL MEMORY

Memory management strategies like paging and segmentation help implement the concept of multiprogramming. But they have a few disadvantages. One problem with the above strategies is that they require the entire process to be in main memory before execution can begin. Another disadvantage is the limitation on the size of the process. Processes whose memory requirement is larger than the maximum size of the memory available will never be execute. Virtual memory is a technique that allows execution of processes that may not be entirely in memory. Also virtual memory allows mapping of a large virtual address space onto a smaller physical memory. It also raises the degree of multiprogramming and increases CPU utilization. Because of the above features, users are freed from worrying about memory requirements and availability.

4.1 Need for Virtual Memory Technique

Every process needs to be loaded into physical memory for execution. One brute force approach to this is to map the entire logical space of the process to physical memory as in the case of paging and segmentation. Many a time the entire process need not be in memory during execution. Code used to handle error and exceptional cases is executed only in case errors and exceptional conditions occur which is usually a rare occurrence, may be one or no occurrence in an execution. Static declarations of arrays lists and tables declared with a large upper bound but used with no greater than 10% of the limit. Certain features and options provided in the program as a future enhancement, never used, as enhancements are never implemented. Even though entire program is needed, all its parts may not be needed at the same time because of overlays.

All the examples show that a program can be executed even though it is partially in memory. This scheme also has the following benefits: Physical memory is no longer a constraint for programs and therefore users can write large programs and execute them Physical memory required for a program is less. Hence degree of multiprogramming can be increased because of which utilization and throughput increase. I/O time needed for load / swap is less.

5.0 CONCLUSION
An operating system (OS) is software that runs on computers and manages the computer hardware and provides common services for efficient execution. It acts as an interface between hardware and software applications. Operating system is designed to provide an environment in which a user can easily interface with computer to execute programs. Operating system consists of graphical user interface (GUI). The operating system is also responsible for security, ensuring that unauthorized users do not access the system. Thus, some operating systems are designed to be convenient, others to be efficient, and others combination of the two.