THE JOURNAL OF APPLIED SENSING TECHNOLOGY

MARCH 2001 VOL. NO. & T H E J& OAPRIL URNA L OF A P18 PLI E D 3S E4 NSING TECHNOLOGY

The Next Generation of Position Sensing

Parts 1 and 2

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AN PUBLICATION

The Next Generation of

Position Sensing

Technology

Part 1: Theory and Design

The Next Generation of

POSITION

Position Sensing Technology

Part 1: Theory and Design
NCAPS is a new noncontact angular position sensor [1] featuring an inductive attenuating coupler that measures phase shift rather than the magnitude of the coupling signal. The original implementations were for a 360 rotary sensor, but the basic concept has also evolved into a linear version.

o meet the stringent reliability, cost, and size requirements of the automotive, industrial, and aerospace industries, modern position sensors for motion control applications must be based on a noncontact design that minimizes wear and tear on the internal components. There are many different ways to measure position, and each of the most common has certain drawbacks that can be severe enough to preclude its use for some applications. Among the better-known technologies are: Wirewound potentiometric [2] Resistive ink potentiometric [3] Capacitive [4] Inductive LVDT/RVDT [5,6,7] RECEIVER Planar coil inductive [8] Hall effect [9,10] Magnetoresistive [11] Magnetostrictive [12] Optical [13]

Asad M. Madni, Jim B. Vuong, and Roger F. Wells, BEI Technologies, Inc.

HOUSING

With the exception of the first two, all of these sensors can be described as noncontact in terms of the relationship between the stationary and the moving parts of the sensor. Some of the salient features of each sensor type are listed in Table 1 (page 4). The Genesis of NCAPS The basic design parameters for the development of a new noncontact position sensor were: Low-cost components and materials Simple electronics with no onboard microprocessor Full 360 measuring range

COVER

COUPLER TRANSMITTER

Figure 1. NCAPS consists of a transmitter, a receiver (= transceiver), a coupler, the housing, and the cover.

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TABLE 1
Competing Technologies
Technology Wirewound Features Single or multiturn Potentiometric output Linear and nonlinear Advantages High-temperature use Temp. compensated High accuracy >360 No electronics High-temperature use Temp. compensated Inexpensive Low profile Noncontact Inexpensive DT very precise Disadvantages Uses contacts Axially large Noisy output Eventually wears Perceived short life Moderately noisy output

Resistive ink

Single turn Potentiometric output High linearity (tailored) Generally linear

Capacitive

<360 rotation for rotary sensors Very gap sensitive Very susceptible to misalignment errors DT very expensive Uses magnets Needs several Hall elements to exceed 360 rotation Uses magnets Needs temp. compensation for specific temp. ranges

Inductive

Planar coil rotary LVDT linear RVDT rotary Rotary to 120

Hall effect

Mature technology

Magnetoresistive

Rotary to 120

Magnetostrictive Optical

Linear applications predominate Rotary Linear Absolute Incremental

Very accurate Small package size Low cost for lowresolution incremental

Expensive Temp. limitation High cost for highresolution absolute Non-analog Needs compensation for LED deterioration

Applications for NCAPS Because NCAPS is a true 360 rotational sensor, any application requiring one or more full turns can be accommodated. The sensors frequency response will also allow its use on rotating machinery with shaft speeds up to 16,000 rpm, and will provide a signal ramping from minimum to maximum that will snap back to minimum at the 0/360 transition point. NCAPS will also meet applications with less than a full turn, thus providing a viable alternative to rotary magnetic sensors such as those based on the Hall effect. One ideal application for NCAPS is in automotive steering angle measurements. Such a sensor must satisfy certain requirements, among them: Very low acoustical noise Extremely limited installation space that necessitates a very thin profile Very low frictional torque Ability to accommodate steering column runout Versatile mechanical configuration Another requirement for steering position sensors is to measure absolute position from lock-to-lock, i.e., over several turns of the steering wheel. A supplement to this is that the sensor should have instant recognition of absolute position at key-on. The NCAPSs very low profile permits other devices and mechanisms to be added to the package. Commonly used methods for turns counting include: Geneva turns-counting mechanisms Simple optical devices Reduction gears Vernier counting devices using twin, geared sensors but with different gear ratios for each sensor rotor Theory of Operation An earlier paper, A Non-Contact Angular Position Sensor (NCAPS) for Motion Control Applications, by Madni et al. [1] was published in the proceedings of the UKACC International Conference on Control 2000, and copyrighted by the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE). The NCAPS is based on a transceiver concept. A loop antenna on the transmitter transmits a signal that is picked up by a cor-

Absolute linearity better than 1% over full range Minimal radiated signals Accommodation of significantly large misalignments between the rotary and static components in radial, axial, and tilted rotor conditions Simple analog output for drop-in replacement of potentiometric sensors Good manufacturability Operating temperature of 40C to >125C High EMI and RFI immunity The resulting NCAPS sensor meets all of these requirements, and also has some unique and desirable features that add to its performance: The sensors internal operating frequency can be selected as any desired value from a few kilohertz to many megahertz,
4

whichever is least likely to interfere with any adjacent device such as a radio receiver. The sensors primary output is a pulsewidth-modulated (PWM) signal with a voltage analog as a second alternative. The cross-talk immunity between two adjacent NCAPS with respectively different operating frequencies allows two or more sensors to be closely stacked in a very thin package. The basic sensor element size can range from 25 mm dia. to as large as the application requires. It can also be produced to measure linear motion with the same degree of size flexibility. For any specific application and sensor size, the electronics portion is common; only the rotor (or slider for the linear sensor) and the stator design and size are changed to accommodate specific packaging and installation requirements.

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responding loop antenna in the receiver. When there is no interfering (attenuating) object in this path, the amplitude of the received signal will be maximum. However, if a variably attenuating object is used to cause interference in this path, the received amplitude will attenuate in a proportionate manner. This variable attenuation characteristic of the received signal is proportional to the position of the varying object with reference to the transceiver. Theoretically, a single channel should be adequate to detect and provide the position and/or angular displacement information. However, since the detected amplitude will also be affected by the separation between the transmitter and the receiver, as well as by the power level of the transmitted signal, errors resulting from this uncertainty will not provide performance acceptable for critical automotive, industrial, and aerospace applications. To overcome this problem, a multichannel system with an amplitude-to-phase conversion technique is used to convert the amplitude information into phase information. The phase separation in degrees between adjacent channels is determined by the equation: = 2/N where: N = number of channels The sum of the received signals is converted into a single sinusoidal waveform through a summing amplifier such that the phase shift changes of the signal are proportional to the degree of interference (angular position). Since the signals received by the channels are ratiometric with respect to one another, variations in the transmitted signal amplitude will have no effect on the resultant phase information. System Description The NCAPS consists of a transmitter, coupler, and receiver (see Figure 1, page 3). The transmitter disk consists of N spiral loop antenna patterns connected in series; in this case N = 6, as shown in Figure 2. The receiver disk consists of the same spiral loop antenna patterns as the transmitter (1)

Figure 2. The transceiver pattern is composed of multiple loop antennas. Figure 3. The coupler is a tapered trace in a circular configuration.

Figure 4. The digital signal processing is illustrated by this functional block diagram of NCAPS.

disk, except that each receiver is connected separately to a downconverter circuit. The coils are positioned every 60 on a constant radius that is dictated by the application. Both the disks are stationary with respect to the housing. The coupler, or rotating middle disk, consists of a tapered pattern. It has a positiveimage crescent shape etched from copper, whose centerline coincides with the centerline of the elements. The cross section graduates from very little blockage of the signal down to completely blocking the signal from reaching the receiver element (see Figure 3). The main signal source of the system, Fc, is fed to the transmitter disk, and is also divided to generate N local oscillator

(LO) signals. These signals are separated by in phase, and downconverted to N intermediate frequency signals, IFN. A block diagram demonstrating the digital signal processing of the NCAPS is shown in Figure 4. Theoretically, the transceiver design approach can operate over a wide range of frequencies, but on a practical basis the range is limited by the material and structure of the loop antenna, i.e., epoxy glass G10 PC board is usable up to RF range, and Teflon glass duroid material is good up to gigahertz range. For the development units, a 1 MHz operating frequency was chosen due to the low-cost PC board etching process and the availability of standard off-the-shelf electronic components.
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Circuit Description When the signal Fc is sent from the transmitter disk to the receiver disk, the transmitted signal reaching each receiver coil is controlled by the couplers rotational position. The coupler is configured such that it causes the energy to be distributed over the array of N (in this case, 6) receivers in a sinusoidal manner. If coil #1 is receiving maximum signal, then coil #4 (180 apart) is receiving minimum signal and the others in between are receiving an amount that is attenuated in a sinusoidal or bellshaped manner. Each signal is then mixed against an LO that is derived by dividing the transmit oscillator, Fc. This maintains the phase coherency of the resulting IF signals. Each signal is then shifted in phase in accordance with its physical position on the circuit board (i.e., the element positioned at 60 will be given a phase shift of 60, the element positioned at 120 will be given a phase shift of 120, and so on for the 180, 240, and 300 elements). Thus, N different amplitude signals are generated at any one position of the coupler with a phase separation via the digital signal generator as shown in Figure 4, and summed by amplifier A1. The output signal of amplifier A1 is a sinusoidal waveform whose phase shift varies with respect to the rotation of the coupler pattern. The signal is then filtered and amplified by low-pass filter/limiting amplifier circuit A2 and converted to a 50% duty cycle square wave signal through comparator A3. Figure 5 demonstrates the combined waveform at the output of A2 relative to four different coupler positions. The output of A3 is fed into a phase comparator circuit that compares its phase difference to the IF reference signal that was generated by the digital signal generator (see Figure 6). The result is a PWM signal that will vary from <5% to >95% duty cycle in a pulse repetition frequency based on the reference IF, and which will track the rotation of the coupler from 0 to 360. A PWM-to-analog converter, A4, is placed at one of the two outputs of the PWM circuit to provide an analog output voltage range from 0.05 to 4.9 VDC. Amplitude-to-Phase Conversion As noted above, a single-channel trans6

ceiver based on amplitude level detection at the receiver is, in theory, adequate to provide the couplers angular position. This assumes, however, that the distance between and alignment of the three disks, and the power level of the transmitter remain constant. To achieve this requires both a relatively complex signal conditioner circuit with automatic gain control and a precise mechanical alignment, which would limit the sensors suitability for low-cost, high-volume production. To circumvent these problems, a multichannel transceiver with an amplitude-tophase conversion technique was used in the design of the NCAPS. The signal amplitude at each receiver, RI, is defined by: Ri(t) = Ai cos ct Ai = A cos [ + 2 (i/N)] where: N = number of channels i = 1 to N A = magnitude of the transmitted signal Ai = magnitude of attenuated signal received at channel i cos [ + 2 (i/N)] = attenuation factor related to each receiver based on the angular position, Each of the LO outputs may be represented by: cos ct cos [ot + 2 (i/N)] where: cos ct = transmitted signal frequency cos ot = predetermined IF frequency Based on the mixer downconversion process, the relationship between LO, IF, and RF (transmitted frequency) is defined by: IF = RF LO (5)
i=l

(2) (3)

Figure 5. The combined waveform of the A1 output shows change in the phase vs. coupler position.

(4)

Figure 6. A pulse width modulated waveform is generated as a result of the signal processing.

The signal at the output of amplifier A1 is given by: IFi = Ai cos [ot + 2 (i/N)]
i=l N N N

Assuming a lossless mixer, each of the IF signals may be represented by: IFi = Ai cos [ot + 2 (i/N)] (6)

= A cos [ + 2 (i/N)]
i=l

cos [ot + 2 (i/N)]

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= 1/2 A {cos [ot + 2 (i/N) + + 2 (i/N)] +cos [ot + 2 (i/N) 2 (i/N)]} = 1/2 A {cos [ot + + 4 (i/N)] + cos (ot )} = 1/2 A cos (ot ) + 1/2 A cos [(ot + )
i=l N i=l N i=l

Figure 7. The geometric symmetry of the coupler design causes the signal of each element to vary in a sinusoidal manner.

+ 4 (i/N)]
i=l

(7)

1/ A 2

cos [(ot + ) + 4 (i/N)]

N i=l

= 1/2 A{cos (ot + ) cos 4 (i/N) sin (ot + ) sin 4 (i/N)} when N=6
i=l

cos 4 (i/N)

= cos 120 + cos 240 + cos 360 + cos 480 + cos 600 + cos 720 = 0.5 0.5 + 10.5 0.5+1 =0 and
i=l

sin 4 (i/N)

then

= sin 120 + sin 240 + sin 360 + sin 480 + sin 600 + sin 720 = 0.8660.866 + 0 + 0.866 0.866 +0 =0
N

Mechanical Design The mechanical design of all three disks is based on mature PCB technology. The only requirement is that the thickness be adequate to keep the boards reasonably flat. Because the sensor is operated in the RF range, the transmitter and receiver antennas are based on a loop antenna design, which is typically a multiturn coil that can be printed on a multilayer PCB using standard manufacturing techniques. The number of turns of the coil determines the number of layers in the board. In general, this can be very costly because the inductance of the coil is inversely proportional to the operating frequency; i.e., the lower the frequency, the higher the required inductance. To achieve low cost and ease in manufacturing, an etched spiral inductor on a multilayer PCB was chosen for this application, as shown in Figure 2. Computation of the spiral inductor design is based on the planar rectangular microelectronic inductor method [14]: LT = L0 + M+M L0 = L1 + L2 + ..... +LX (9) (10) (11)

Figure 8. Plotting the width of the couplers physical pattern against the rotational angle shows the couplers sinusoidal characteristic.

i=l

1/2 A cos [(ot + ) + 4 (i/N)] =0

and equation 7 may be rewritten as: IF = 1/2 A cos (ot ) (8) LX = 2lx {ln[2lX/(w+t)]+0.500049 +(w+t)/3lx]} where: From Equation 8, it can be seen that the output signal of amplifier A1 is a phase relationship representing the angular position of the coupler and is not dependent on the transmitted signal amplitude variation. The varying composite waveform for a six-channel transceiver design, representing Equation 8, is shown in Figure 5. LT = total inductance L0 = sum of the self-inductances of all straight segments M+ = sum of the positive mutual inductances M = sum of the negative mutual inductances

= segment inductance (nanohenries) = segment length = segment width = segment thickness (all measurements are in centimeters) The number of channels on each disk directly affects the sensors linearity and accuracy. Initial tests indicated that a threechannel unit provides a linearity of better than 2.0%, and a six-channel unit better than 1.0%. The greater the number of channels, the better the linearity. However, the tradeoffs are increased cost and complexity. More channels require an increased number of modulators and digital mixers (demodulators) that end up driving the cost per unit higher. The coupler disk, as previously described, is a tapered trace in a circular layout. The geometric symmetry of the pattern is very important because it has a direct effect on the linearity error. The couplers linear rotation is designed to cause the received signal of each element, RI, to vary in a sinusoidal manner. Circular patterns, arranged as shown in Figure 7, provide this function and are easy to construct. Figure 8 illustrates the sinusoidal characteristic of the coupler by plotting the width of the pattern vs. rotational angle. Also shown is the square area of the inductor that is covered, which, as would be expected, closely tracks. The initial design of the single tapered pattern is Lx lx w t
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pler position relative to the receivers (rather than the amplitude of the transmitted signal), the air gap between the transmitter and the receiver is not very critical. Injection-molded, glass-filled plastics are used for the rotor hub, housing, and cover. If the sensor will be immersed or the electronic circuits or components will be exposed to corrosive or otherwise harmful ambient gases, vapor, or liquids, additional shaft seals will be necessary.
Figure 11. The full-scale linearity error is plotted at 25C.

Figure 9. The key components of NCAPS are shown in this exploded view.

Figure 10. The test setup for linearity measurement uses a 12-bit optical encoder.

Figure 12. Here, the linearity error is plotted against temperature.

based on: d3 = 1/4(3 d1 + d2) d4 = 1/4(d1 +3 d2) where: d1 = outer diameter d2 = inner diameter d3 = outer diameter of pattern d4 = inner diameter of pattern The surface area of the tapered coupler pattern is equal to exactly half the area of the disk between the d1 and d2: A3 A4 = 1/2 (A1 A2) where: A1 = area with outer diameter d1 A2 = area with inner diameter d2 A3 = area with tapered outer diameter d3 A4 = area with tapered inner diameter d4 Figure 9 shows the mechanical assembly of the six major components. The receiver
8

(12) (13)

(14)

PCB, which consists of the six inductive coil sections and the associated electronics, is attached to the front housing by heatstaked pins. The output of the six receiver channels is connected to the signal processing electronics. The receiver PCB provides the excitation signal to the transmitter via two pins that snap into receptacles on the transmitter PCB. It also provides interconnection for the voltage input and the PWM and analog outputs. The transmitter PCB, consisting of the six inductive coil sections connected in series, is attached to the rear housing by means of an epoxy preform. It has two receptacles for electrical connection. As stated above, the transmitter and receiver are fixed in position and the moving component, the coupler, is mounted on a hub with adhesive. The hub is connected to the shaft. The air gaps between the coupler and the transmitterreceiver pair can be as small as 0.1 mm, but to accommodate misalignment and runout, 12 mm can be used. Since the angular position is determined by the cou-

Performance To test the linearity characteristics and percentage full-scale error of the NCAPS, the test setup in Figure 10 was used. The sensor was compared against a reference 12-bit absolute optical encoder with a linearity better than 0.023%/step. The 360 of mechanical rotation is represented as 4096 codes (steps) of the 12-bit encoder and plotted against the analog output of the NCAPS, monitored by a digital voltmeter. From the test results shown in Figures 11 and 12, a linearity of 1.0% (compared to a straight line drawn through the two extreme position end points) is easily achievable without any fine tuning. The unit is also relatively forgiving with reference to the alignment of the three disks. Since the NCAPS technique is based on the transceiver concept, with < 1 / 8 in. physical separation between the transmitter and receiver disks, most of the transmitted energy will be received by the receiver. It should also be kept in mind that signal processing is based on a single down-conversion process. This is expressed in Equation 5, whereby a mixer is used to downconvert the transmitted signal, Fc, at the receiver to IF signals. Unless there is a strong field applied to the NCAPS at or very close to Fc, or a strong field that saturates all receiver channels and no phase relationship is available, electromagnetic interference (EMI) and electromagnetic susceptibility will have a relatively minor effect on the performance.

Acknowledgement The authors wish to thank Linet Aghassi for her help in the preparation of this manuscript, and Robert K. Hansen, Mitchell London, and Philip Vuong for their support.

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References
1. A.M. Madni et al. 2000. A Non-Contact Angular Position Sensor (NCAPS) for Motion Control Applications, Proc UK-ACC International Conference on Control 2000, University of Cambridge, U.K., 2-7 Sept. 2. C.D. Todd, P.E. 1975. The Potentiometer Handbook, McGraw Hill. 3. R.E. Riley. 1989. High Performance Resistive Position Sensors, SAE Technical Paper 890302. 4. R.D. Peters. 1989. Linear Rotary Differential Capacitance Transducer, Rev Sci Instru, Vol. 60:2789-2793. 5. J.V. Byrne et al. April 1987. The Screened Inductance Sensor: A New Position and Speed Measurement System, Proc Motorcon, Hannover, Vol. 10:220-237. 6. J.V. Byrne et al. June 1987. Linear-Motion Screened Inductance Sensors, Proc Conf on Applied Motion Control, Minneapolis, MN:221-230.

7. E.E. Herceg. May 1986. Handbook of Measurement and Control: An Autoritative Treatise on the Theory and Application of LVDTs , Schaevitz Engineering, LCCC #7624971. 8. J.H. Francis. PIPS, a New Technology in Inductive Position Sensing, Positek Ltd., Gloucestershire, U.K. (May be found at www.positek.co.uk.) 9. E.H. Putlye. 1960. The Hall Effect and Related Phenomena, Semiconductor Monographs, Hogarth, ed., Butterwort, London. 10. Sprague Hall Effect and Optoelectronic Sensors. 1987. Data Book SN-500. 11. W. Kwiatkowski and S. Tumanski. 1986. The Permalloy Magnetoresistive Sensors Properties and Applications, J Phy E:S. Intrum, Vol. 19:502-515. 12. P. Pecorari et al. 2000. Magnetostriction in Automotive Position Measurement, SAE Technical paper 2000-01-1374.

13. J. Fraden. 1993. AIP Handbook of Modern Sensors, American Institute of Physics:296-299. 14. H.M. Greenhouse. 1974. Design of Planar Rectangular Microelectronic Inductors, IEEE Trans on Parts, Hybrids, and Packaging, Vol. PHP-10, No. 2:101-109. s

Dr. Asad M. Madni is President and Chief Operating Officer, BEI Technologies, Inc., 13100 Telfair Ave., Sylmar, CA 91342; 818364-7215, fax 818-362-1836, bei1madni @aol.com. Jim B. Vuong is Senior Staff Engineer, BEI Technologies, Inc., 13100 Telfair Ave., Sylmar, CA 91342; 818-364-7210, fax 818362-1836, jvuong@bei-tech.com. Roger F. Wells is Vice President and General Manager, Duncan Electronics (a division of BEI Technologies, Inc.), 15771 Red Hill Ave., Tustin, CA 92780; 714-247-2531, fax 714258-8120, roger.wells@beiduncan.com.

Reprinted from SENSORS, March 2001

AN

ADVANSTAR 5 PUBLICATION

Printed in U.S.A.

The Next Generation of

Position Sensing

Technology

Part 2: Differential D i s p l a ce m e nt a n d Linear Capabilities

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The Next Generation of

Position Sensing Technology

Part 2: Differential Displacement and Linear Capabilities
The NCAPS noncontact angular position sensor, originally developed to measure 360 rotary motion, is capable of determining linear motion as well.

art 1 of this article, which appeared in the March 2001 issue of Sensors, examined the underlying theory of NCAPS technology and explored the details of rotary sensors based on it. The figures, equations, and references in Part 2 are numbered consecutively from those in Part 1.

Asad M. Madni, Jim B. Vuong, and Roger F. Wells, BEI Technologies, Inc.

NCAPS as a Differential Displacement Sensor The never-ending demand for higher efficiency and greater reliability in automobiles, and the introduction of the modern electric vehicle, have collectively doomed power-hungry devices such as the power steering hydraulic pump and the air conditioning compressor. The best replacement for the pump is at present an electric motor that directly assists the steering. The problem now lies with reliably sensing the driver-applied torque so as to know how much assist to add. This could be accomplished with potentiometers, but the limited life of the wipers is unacceptable in this critical application. Optical encoders are another option. While these would work, they are prohibitively expensive (especially absolute encoders), and reliability concerns discourage the use of a light source. NCAPS technology can determine angular displacement and at the same time comply with the very stringent demands of the automotive and heavy equipment industries. An NCAPS is placed at each end of a torsion bar, one mounted on the upper rotor, T, and the other mounted on the lower rotor, P, (see Figure 13). By electronically taking the difference between the two analog outputs or by comparing the phase shift of the two PWM signals and applying the transfer coefficient of torque to degrees, it is possible to obtain both torque and directional information. Referring to Figure 13 and the functional block diagram of Figure 14 (page 12), assume that the first NCAPS has an angular position a and the second an angular position b,with reference to 0.

Figure 13. NCAPS can be configured as a noncontact differential angular displacement and absolute position sensor.

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POSITION

Then, in accordance with Equation 8, the output of the first NCAPS is given by: IF1 = 1/2A cos (ot a) and the output of the second by: IF2 = 1/2A cos (ot b) (16) (15)

Taking the difference between these two outputs yields: IF = IF1 IF2 = 1/2A [cos (ot a) cos (ot b)]

(17)

IF = 1/2A (cos ot cos a + sin ot sin a cos ot cos b sin ot sin b) = 1/2A [cos ot (cos a cos b) + sin ot (sin a sin b)] (18) Let sin = sin a sin b and cos = cos a cos b Then (18) becomes: IF = 1/2A (cos ot cos + sin ot sin ) = 1/2A cos (ot ) (19) (20)

Figure 14. This functional block diagram of a noncontact torque and absolute position sensor illustrates the signal processing technique.

where: A cos ot = received signal = tan-1 [(sin a sin b)/( cos a cos b)] = torque component A typical automotive torque sensing application specifies a nominal 2.5 V output 2 V at 8. A typical NCAPS provides 11 mV/ to satisfy the 360 requirement. To achieve the required 250 mV/, a simple buffer with a gain of ~23 would be needed for the NCAPS output. This application also requires absolute position information over 2.25 turns of the steering wheel. This can be satisfied with a third NCAPS, P2, with a gear reduction mechanism. Referring to T, P1, and P2 in Figure 13, T is the torque sensor when compared to P1; P1 is the fine 0 to 180 sensor; and P2 is the gear-reduced 0 to 810 coarse absolute position sensor.
12

A potential obstacle presents itself with this method of torque sensing. It should be noted that the T and P sensors are set nominally at 2.5 V and are therefore step free for 180. The difference between their outputs is used to measure torque. As the steering wheel turns and the sensor approaches 180, however, the T sensor will transition first, so the output torque signal goes from seeing a difference of a couple of degrees to seeing a difference of hundreds, and tends to rail in the direction opposite to the one that needs assist. A few degrees later, the other sensor transitions and the measurement is back to normal accurate determination. This is, of course, totally unacceptable. To overcome this limitation, the following design approach was implemented. Since each NCAPS generates a 50% duty cycle signal at the output of its respective summing amplifier/comparator circuit, with a phase shift proportional to the respective coupler position, precise differential angular information can be generated without the crossover point concern by comparing these two signals via a phase comparator (EXLUSIVE OR circuit), when the output of T is phase shifted by 90 as shown in Figure 14. Under this condition, when the two signals are in phase (no torque), the output of the phase comparator is a 50% duty cycle signal due to one signals being shifted 90 (in this case, T). When a torque is applied to the shaft, the duty cycle of the signal will

Figure 15. In the presence of an applied torque, the signals duty cycle varies in a manner proportionate to the lead or lag of the two couplers.

vary in a manner proportionate to the lead or lag of the two couplers (see Figure 15). The differential angular displacement range of a typical drive shaft is 8 to 12, which implies that signals P and T will never cross over the 0 180 point with respect to each other. The output can be converted to a fullscale digital output by using the edge trigger counting method, or it can provide a full-scale analog output (in this case, 05 VDC) by using the gain and offset method in an amplifier circuit. Since the two NCAPS share a transmitter frequency, Fc, a common transmitter can be used for both couplers and receivers when the rotor gap is <0.1 in. With this approach, where the transmitters and receivers are mounted on a solid platform and the couplers are on the rotating shaft, a true noncontact differential angular displacement (torque) measurement can be made.

DISPLACEMENT

Figure 16. Assembly details of the torque and position sensor can be seen in this exploded view.

Figure 17. A sectional view of the sensors key elements provides additional information.

Mechanical Design of a Differential Displacement Sensor To measure steering effort in a torsionally compliant steering system, several mechanical construction and space considerations must be addressed. The first is related to the physical location of the sensor. There are two main candidate locations. The first is inside the passenger compartment and just under the steering wheel, a position that is comparatively benign in terms of environment. Operating temperatures are low and sealing is necessary only for protection from dust and occasional liquid spills. Salt spray and hot fluids found in under-hood applications need not be considered. Acoustical noise is an issue, particularly with electrically contacting sensors, but the NCAPS is noncontact and generates negligible noise. The second candidate location, in the engine compartment as part of the steering rack mechanism, subjects the sensor to ambient temperatures often >150C. Physical size, particularly the outside diameter of the sensor, is usually tightly constrained. Sealing is also crucial because the sensor must survive the full range of engine compartment fluids as well as salt spray and icy fluids from the roadway. Sensors in either location also have very low torque-to-turn limitations. At first it might appear that sensor torque is relatively unimportant because the large-diameter steering wheel will easily magnify small

Figure 18. A noncontact linear position sensor can be built based on NCAPS technology.

steering efforts and overcome any seal friction in the sensor. But this is not the case. Steering systems are designed to self-center, i.e., when the steering wheel is released and the car is in motion, the driver expects the wheel to automatically return to the straight-ahead position. Because of the stepdown gear ratio between the steering gears and the steering wheel shaft, the self-centering torque necessary to overcome the sensor seal friction will be multiplied by the steering gear ratio and added to all the gear train and steering joint friction plus tire-to-road resistance. The caster angle of the front wheels can be increased to accommodate this resistance but at the expense of increasing the steering effort necessary to maneu-

ver the car. The maximum allowable torque resistance for the sensor is typically 70 mNm (10 ozfin). This article details a design for the first case, but given the versatility of NCAPS, similar mechanical components can be assembled for a sensor to meet the requirements of the second case. Using limits of torsional compliance similar to those currently in hydraulic power-assisted steering systems, an operating range of 8 is available for the torque-measuring position of the sensor. The configuration in Figure 13 requires three sensor elements and a reduction gear assembly to be packaged in a single housing with a maximum thickness of 21 mm. Figures 16 and 17 illustrate the arrange13

DISPLACEMENT

Figure 19. The Lorentz force illustrated here describes the force on a charged particle moving in electrical and magnetic fields as being equal to the particles charge times the sum of the electric field and the cross product of the particles velocity with the magnetic flux density.

ment of all the necessary elements. As can be seen, the steering column is split and connected by a flexible torsion bar. Hard stops are included to limit the allowable twist that prevents the torsional windup from exceeding the elastic limit of the torsion bar. Other components are: NCAPS Elements. These consist of three coupler discs and three transmitter-receiver pairs. Because the torque element of the sensor uses a common transmitter, there is a total of eight sensor discs. Reduction Gears. To provide the absolute analog position from lock to lock, the motion of the position coupler is reduced by a 5:1 ratio gear train. Self-Centering Coupling. This component is included to accommodate radial runout of the steering shaft. Linear Version of NCAPS A linear version of the NCAPS technology (see Figure 18) was developed for use with linear voice coil actuators to provide built-in feedback control for motion control applications. Its basic design and theory of operation is the same as NCAPSthe transmitter and the receiver section each contains six identical loop antenna coils. The total length of the six antenna coils, La, determines the maximum measurable displacement. The slider section consists of a tapered pattern (equivalent to the crescent

shape in the NCAPS coupler) equivalent to La, except that the pattern is repeated on the slider so that the transmitter and receiver are exposed to 360 of the pattern at all times. The total length of the slider is equal to the measured displacement, Lc, plus La, with the limitation that Lc La. For a multisection tapered pattern (for long displacement measurement), a cycle counter must be used to identify the revolutions. The voice coil actuators are direct-drive, limited-motion devices that use a permanent magnet field and a coil winding (conductor) to produce a force proportional to the current applied to the coil [15]. The electromechanical conversion mechanism of a voice coil actuator is governed by the Lorentz principle, which states that if a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force will act upon it. The magnitude of this force is determined by the magnetic flux density, B, the current, I, and the orientation of the field and current vectors. Furthermore, if a total of N conductors (in series) of length L are placed in the magnetic field, the force acting upon the conductors is given by: F= KBLIN where: K = a constant Figure 19 is a simplified illustration of this physical law. In its simplest form, a linear voice coil actuator is a tubular coil of wire situated within a radially oriented magnetic field (see Figure 20). The field is produced by permanent magnets embedded on the inside diameter of a ferromagnetic cylinder, arranged such that the magnets facing the coil all have the same polarity. An inner core of ferromagnetic material set along the axial centerline of the coil, joined at one end to the permanent magnet assembly, completes the magnetic circuit. The force generated axially on the coil when current flows through will produce relative motion between the field assembly and the coil, provided the force is large enough to overcome friction, inertia, and any other forces (23)

from loads attached to the coil. The linear position sensor is embedded in the actuator as shown in Figure 20. The slider board is attached to the coil holder and moves in accordance with the actuation level, thereby providing the same function as the coupler in the angular version. For this application the maximum measured distance, Lc, was equal to 1/3 La. The electronics for processing the data from the linear sensor are identical to the functional block diagram in Figure 4. Figure 21 is a rear view of the actuator with the built-in sensor. This linear position sensor can also be used to detect differential linear position in accordance with the equations governing the angular position measurement. The signal processing circuitry would be the same as that in Figure 14. Future Work The next phase of development will focus on advancing the sensor functions, such as reducing the signal processing electronics to a mixed signal ASIC as well as incorporating several interface options. Serial and parallel data bus interfaces and an RS-232 option will be provided for most application interfaces, and a Controller Area Network (CAN) interface will be provided for automotive applications. Additionally, further enhancements to EMI and RFI susceptibility will be incorporated. Summary A noncontact angular position sensor with an inductive attenuating coupler has been developed for use in motion control applications. The sensor features a linearity of better than 0.5% over 360 of rotation. The measurement of phase shift, rather than the magnitude of the coupling signal, to determine the angular position gives the design a very high tolerance to mechanical misalignment of the rotating components and makes it conducive to mass production. The analog and digital signal processing electronics can be readily converted to an ASIC. The sensor, which does not use any permanent magnets, LEDs, or photodetectors, lends itself to the high-volume, lowcost, and high-reliability requirements of the automotive, industrial, robotics, medical

14

DISPLACEMENT

Figure 20. A linear voice coil actuator with a built-in noncontact displacement sensor provides a smart actuator.

Figure 21. This is a rear view of the smart actuator shown in Figure 20.

instrumentation, and aerospace and defense industries. A linear version of this sensor has been developed for use with voice coil actuators, resulting in smart actuators with builtin feedback control. Acknowledgement The authors wish to thank Linet Aghassi for her help in the preparation of this manuscript, and Robert K. Hansen, Mitchell London, and Philip Vuong for their support.

Reference
15. A.M. Madni et al. 1998. Adaptive Fuzzy Logic Based Control System For Rifle Stabilization, Proc World Automation Congress (WAC 98), Anchorage, AK, 10-14 May, TSI Press, PO Box 14126, Albuquerque, NM 87191:103-112. s

Dr. Asad M. Madni is President and Chief Operating Officer, BEI Technologies, Inc.,

13100 Telfair Ave., Sylmar, CA 91342; 818364-7215, fax 818-362-1836, bei1madni @aol.com. Jim B. Vuong is Senior Staff Engineer, BEI Technologies, Inc., 13100 Telfair Avenue, Sylmar, CA 91342; 818-364-7210, fax 818362-1836, jvuong@bei-tech.com. Roger F. Wells is Vice President and General Manager, Duncan Electronics (a division of BEI Technologies, Inc.), 15771 Red Hill Ave., Tustin, CA 92780; 714-247-2531, fax 714258-8120, roger.wells@beiduncan.com.

Reprinted from SENSORS, April 2001

AN

ADVANSTAR 5 PUBLICATION

Printed in U.S.A.

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15

MEMS-Based Optical Mirrors BEIs OpticNet Subsidiary is developing Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS)-based optical mirrors that will serve as the heart of new fiber optic telecommunications components, offering new silicon-based solutions for a host of new products.

Microgryro: A New System-On-Chip Designed as a rate of rotation sensor utilizing core proprietary processes for wafer bonding and deep silicon etch, these new chip-based technologies rely on Coriolis forces imposed on a vibrating mass.

Uniquely Focused. Uniquely Positioned.

When it comes to position sensing and motion control, BEI Technologies has the definitive edge. Were furthering our MEMS-based GyroChip success with new developments in quartz and silicon micromachining processes and other new technologies. From our proprietary new NCAPS noncontact position sensors, to MEMS and OptoASIC-based devices, to advanced intelligence, were integrating these new disciplines into our newest products. Visit BEI Technologies on-line to see all the details and buy our solutions to sensing, motion and position control from our on-line store. Were here to improve your position for the future. (800) 959-0506 www.bei-tech.com

NCAPS: Next Generation Noncontact Position Sensors Miniature Integrated GPS/INS System
The C-MIGITS II combines BEIs proprietery solid-state Digital Quartz Inertial Measure- ment Unit (DQI) with a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver. Micromachined quartz angular rate sensors and vibrating quartz accelerometers are compactly packaged with a coarse/acquisition (C/A) Code GPS engine, providing digital latitude, longitude, velocity, angle and rate output. BEI Systron Donner Inertial Division Featuring an inductive attenuating coupler that measures phase shift, BEIs NCAPS offers simple electronics and absolute position feedback with no microprocessor on board. Capable of compact packaging in both angular and linear styles, NCAPS provides durability and extended life, EMI/RFI immunity, withstands elevated temperatures (-40 to +85C), and allows flexible alignment tolerances. BEI Duncan Electronics Division

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Designed in a NEMA 4 & 4X all-welded, 316 construction unit for high reliability and high performance pressure measurements, these micromachined silicon pressure sensors provide exceptional stability (long term 0.15% FSO/year) and very low noise. Models 6-07 (13mm) and 6-08 (19mm) feature a media isolated diaphragm, ideal for instrumentation and process controls. Accuracy is rated at 0.20% of FSO @ 21C (BFSL). Operating temperature range is -40 to +121C, with pressure ranges from 5 to 5,000 psi. BEI Edcliff Instruments Division www.beipressure.com

High Performance Encoder With A Smart Future

Widely acknowledged as the standard for industrial encoders, the Model H25 is used wherever reliability and repeatability are critical. High efficiency optics, EMI shielding, CE and IP66 ratings are featured in a standard 2.5" package. Available in incremental, absolute and serial interface versions, the H25 is ideal for machine and process control, web printing, motor feedback and robotics. BEI Industrial Encoder Division www.beiied.com/quick

Intelligence-Based Controller Optimizes Direct Drive Actuators

Optimized position, velocity and torque control are achieved with BEIs VCA-100 Controller featuring 16-bit microprocessor architecture, when used with a BEI directdrive Actuator. The unit offers intelligent control and amplifier in a slim 1.23" thick case, easy-to-use Windows compatible set up and program editor. Features include RS-232/RS-485 serial interface, 10 Amp peak rating, 5 Amp continuous current at 50VDC, and PWM output frequency of 18kHz. Sixteen TTL general purpose, user programmable I/Os enable preemptive multitasking capability. BEI Kimco Magnetics Division www.beikimco.com

Fiber Optic Displacement Sensor Immune To RFI/EMI

Using noncontact reflective technology, BEIs Linear Gap Displacement Transducer (LGDT) measures displacements up to 12mm, provides accuracy and resolutions to 100nm, immunity to EMI/RFI, and ratiometric signals resulting in immunity to variations in input, power and temperature, target reflectivity and light source intensity. Scale factors, offset and polarity are adjustable over a wide range. BEI Precision Systems & Space Division www.beissd.com

Applying Intelligence To Sensor And Motion Control Products.

www.beiduncan.com (714) 258-7500 BEI Duncan Electronics Division 15771 Red Hill Avenue Tustin, CA 92780 www.beiied.com (805) 968-0782 BEI Industrial Encoder Division 7230 Hollister Avenue Goleta, CA 93117 www.beikimco.com (760) 744-5671 BEI Kimco Magnetics Division 804-A Rancheros Drive San Marcos, CA 92069

www.bei-tech.com
www.beissd.com (501) 851-4000 BEI Precision Systems & Space Division P.O. Box 3838 Little Rock, AR 72203 www.beipressure.com (818) 362-0300 BEI Edcliff Instruments Division 13100 Telfair Avenue Sylmar, CA 91342 www.systron.com (925) 671-6400 BEI Systron Donner Inertial Division 2700 Systron Drive Concord, CA 94518