1

2
LO! MO! A\
(Ban in |uu hanh noi bo nam 2004)
C|a .r|n| nay 1u+. '|en san .| s|n| t|en 'a. 1a| |. .|u. .a. nan| '|a |. xa ||
ta n|an tan 'a 1| .u+n |an Jay .ua .a. |a .a| Tru+n Da| |. Su p|am TI H C|/
M|n|. !| Jun '|en .|u. 1u+. .r|n| 'ay + 1ay 'a '|. |. ||n| .|u. ('|. 'u+n .r(), n|am
.un .ap .| s|n| t|en n|un '|en .|u. .+ 'an 'an 1au te '|. |., 'am .+ s+ 1e .u 1 s|n|
t|en, neu quan .am, . .|e 1| sau n||en .uu .a. '|uyn| |u+n '|a. n|au .ua '|. |. ||en
1a|.
B|en san |a .r|n| nay, .|un .| . an 'am sa. Chng trnh giao duc ai hoc ai
cng J B C|a Ju. ta Da .a 'an |an| nam l995, |. p|an !|ap mn l|. |., ma s
.5l (Tn) 2.l ta Chng trnh thi tuyen nghien cu sinh va cao hoc, mn .|| l|. |.
(mn .+ 'an .| .a. nan| _uan '/ .n .a. tan |a, |a Ju.) .ua T|eu 'an xay Jun ta
'|en san 1e .u+n mn .|| .uyen sau 1a| |. B C|a Ju. ta Da .a 'an |an| nam l998.
!|u tay, n|un '|en .|u. '|. |. 1u+. .r|n| 'ay .rn |a .r|n| n|ap mn nay .|u yeu
'a .ua '|. |. .ruyen .|n.
De t|e. .r|n| 'ay ta '|n| || 1u+. r ran, .|a. .|e, |a .r|n| nay .un tan Jun m. /.
'/ ||eu .ua '|. .an |.. Tuy n||en, n|u 1a n|, J 1| .u+n 'a s|n| t|en .|u. .a. nan|
'|a |. xa || ta n|an tan nen n|un '/ ||eu .an |. 1u+. Jun + 1ay .|/ 'a n|un '/
||eu .u+n 1| quen .|u. ma 'a. .u s|n| t|en na .un 1a .un 1u+. 'am quen + .|u+n
.r|n| .an |. 'a. p| .|n. Va t+| mu. 1/.| |up s|n| t|en .|uan '+| '|| .|am '|a .a. .a|
'|eu '|a. n|au, .rn |a .r|n|, 'en .an| .|ua. nu 1u+. .|n Jun, '|| .an .||e., .|un .| se
.|u .|/.| .|em n|un .|ua. nu '|a. .u+n un.
Trn 'an .a| 'an nay, |a .r|n| 1a . m. s .|/n| '/ s t+| 'an |n 1au .|en ('uu |an| n|
') nam 2..2 ta .a. 'an .a| 'an sau 1. Ma. Ju tay, |a .r|n| .|a. |an '|n .|e .ran|
'|| sa| s.. C|un .| ra. mn n|an 1u+. n|un y '|en 1n p .u 'an 1. 1e .|ep .u. sua
.|ua .| |a .r|n| 1u+. |an .||en.
X|n .|an .|an| .am +n.

TP Ho Ch Minh, thang gieng nam 2004
Tac gia
3
MUC LUC
Trang
L0I N0I IAL.................................................................................................................................... 1
NLC LLC......................................................................................................................................... 2
Chng I. Dan nha oe loqic hoc................................................................................................4
1. Io tuong cua logc hoc................................................................................................... 4
2. Luoc su hinh thanh va phat trcn logc hoc ................................................................... 4
J. Y nghia cua vcc nghcn cuu logc hoc ........................................................................... 7
4. Not so k hcu thuong dung ........................................................................................... 8
* Cau ho ............................................................................................................................. 8
Chng II. Cac qaq laal co ban caa la daq ............................................................................... 9
1.1hc nao la quy luat va quy luat co ban............................................................................. 9
2. Cac quy luat co ban cua tu duy ....................................................................................... 9
2.1. 0uy luat dong nhat ...................................................................................................... 9
2.2. 0uy luat (cam) mau thuan......................................................................................... 12
2.J. 0uy luat ba trung ...................................................................................................... 1J
2.4. 0uy luat tuc l ............................................................................................................ 14
* Cau ho va ba tap .......................................................................................................... 1b
Chng III. Khai niem................................................................................................................ 18
1. Kha ncm la gi:............................................................................................................. 18
2. Su hinh thanh kha ncm ............................................................................................. 18
J. 0uan hc gua kha ncm va tu ngu .............................................................................. 19
4. Phan loa kha ncm ...................................................................................................... 20
b. Cau truc logc cua kha ncm ........................................................................................ 20
b. 1hu hcp va mo rong kha ncm .................................................................................... 21
7. 0uan hc gua cac kha ncm ........................................................................................ 2J
8. I}nh nghia kha ncm .................................................................................................. 2b
9. Phan cha kha ncm .................................................................................................... 29
* Cau ho va ba tap .......................................................................................................... J1
Chng IV. Phan doan............................................................................................................. 33
1. Phan doan la gi: ............................................................................................................ JJ
2. Cau truc cua phan doan don ........................................................................................ JJ
J. 0uan hc gua phan doan va cau ................................................................................... J4
4. Phan loa phan doan ..................................................................................................... J4
b. 1nh chu dcn cua cac han tu trong phan doan ........................................................... J8
b. 0uan hc gua cac phan doan co ban (A, I, L, 0) - Hinh vuong logc ........................... J8
7. Cac phcp lcn kct logc trcn phan doan ...................................................................... 42
4
8. Cach lap bang tnh ga tr} logc cua phan doan phuc (chung mnh cong thuc) ......... 47
9. 1nh dang tr} cua cac phan doan Not so hc thuc tuong duong ............................... 48
* Cau ho va ba tap .......................................................................................................... 49
Chng V. Saq laan ................................................................................................................... 52
1. Suy luan la gi: ............................................................................................................... b2
2. Phan loa suy luan ........................................................................................................ b2
J. Suy luan dcn d}ch (suy dcn) ....................................................................................... bJ
J.1. Suy luan dcn d}ch truc tcp ...................................................................................... bJ
J.2. Suy luan dcn gan tcp: tam doan luan .................................................................... bb
J.2.1. 1am doan luan xac quyct ....................................................................................... bb
J.2.2. 1am doan luan tinh luoc ........................................................................................ bJ
J.2.J. 1am doan luan co dcu kcn ................................................................................... bJ
J.2.4. 1am doan luan lua chon ......................................................................................... bb
J.2.b. 1am doan luan phuc ............................................................................................... bb
J.2.b. 1am doan luan hop ha ........................................................................................... b8
J.2.7. 1am doan luan lua chon co dcu kcn (song quan luan) ..................................... b8
J.2.8. Cach phan tch tnh hop logc cua mot suy luan ................................................... 71
4. Suy luan quy nap .......................................................................................................... 7b
b. Suy luan loa ti .............................................................................................................. 78
* Cau ho va ba tap .......................................................................................................... 80
Chng VI. Gia lhaqel, chanq minh, bac bo oa nqaq bien....................................... 83
1. Ca thuyct ..................................................................................................................... 8J
2. Chung mnh ................................................................................................................. 84
J. ac bo ............................................................................................................................ 87
4. Nguy bcn ...................................................................................................................... 89
* Cau ho va ba tap .......................................................................................................... 9J
1AI LILL 1HAN KHA0 .................................................................................................... 94

5

Chng I

DAN NHAP VE LOGIC HOC

1. oi tng cua logic hoc
1.1. Thuat ng logic hoc trong tieng Viet cung ngha vi cac thuat ng logique trong tieng
Phap, logic trong tieng Anh, trong tieng Nga, Logik trong tieng c va eu co
nguon goc t thuat ng logos cua tieng Hi Lap co ngha la li noi, t tng, l tnh, quy luat,
chan l, hu the
Theo quan iem truyen thong th: Logic hoc la khoa hoc nghien cu ve nhng quy luat va
hnh thc (khai niem, phan oan, suy luan...) cua t duy chnh xac.
Nhng quy luat t duy ma logic hoc nghien cu la nhng quy luat ton tai trong y thc, t
tng con ngi. Va cac hnh thc cua t duy ma logic hoc nghien cu la nhng phng thc
phan anh mot cach chung nhat cac tnh chat, quan he cua s vat, hien tng trong hien thc
khach quan.
Trong qua trnh phat trien, oi tng cua logic hoc cung dan dan co s thay oi. Khai
niem, nh ngha va phan chia khai niem c xem la nhng van e cua triet hoc, phng
phap luan khoa hoc va cac khoa hoc cu the, nen logic hoc c xem la khoa hoc ve s suy
luan (bao gom logic dien dch va logic quy nap). Roi logic quy nap hien ai tr thanh logic
xac suat; nen oi tng cua logic hoc ch con la suy luan dien dch (suy dien)
1
.
1.2. Trong giao trnh nay, chung ta tm hieu ve logic hoc co tnh chat nhap mon, nen oi
tng nghien cu se bao gom toan bo nhng quy luat va hnh thc t duy a c xac nh
cua logic hoc truyen thong, va ch xet moi phan oan vi hai gia tr chan l (lng tr hay
lng gia): hoac ung hoac sai .
2. Lc s hnh thanh va phat trien logic hoc
phng ong, bat nguon t An o, ngay t thi Co ai, trc Tay lch khoang nam ngan
nam, tc trc rat xa logic hoc cua Aristote, a xuat hien Nhan minh luan la mot mon hoc ve
phng phap suy luan quy nap
2
.
phng Tay, cung t thi Co ai, Heraclite (khoang chng 520 460 tr. CN), Trng
phai Ele (Ecole eleate) (cuoi TK VI au TK V tr. CN), Democrite (khoang 460 370 tr.
CN), Platon (427 347 tr. CN)... a nghien cu ve mot so kha canh cua logic. Tac pham Ban
ve logic hoc (hay Canon tac pham nay a b that truyen t lau) cua Democrite la tac pham
logic au tien trong lch s logic hoc. Tuy nhien, en Aristote th logic hoc mi c nghien
cu co he thong, t duy mi lan au tien tr thanh oi tng nghien cu cua mot khoa hoc
chuyen nganh. Phan lc s sau ay ch trnh bay qua trnh hnh thanh va phat trien cua logic
hoc phng Tay.
2.1. Logic hoc truyen thong (Logique traditionnelle)

1
Xem: Nouveau Larousse Universel (1969); Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (1992); Le petit Larousse illustre (1982
& 1993); Hoang Chung (1994), Logic hoc pho thong, NXB Giao duc, tr. 8 9.
2
Xem: Nhat Hanh (khong e nam), Nhan - minh hay la ong - phng luan - ly- hoc, Hng que xuat ban, Sai Gon; Hoa
thng Thch ong Quan (1996), Nhan minh luan, Thanh Hoi Phat giao TP. Ho Ch Minh, tr. 12.
6
Nh a noi, ngi at nen mong va hnh thanh ve c ban logic hoc phng Tay la nha triet
hoc Hi Lap co ai Aristoteles (384 322 tr. CN) (thng goi theo tieng Phap: Aristote; tieng
Anh: Aristotle), vi bo sach gom 6 tap Organon (Cong cu)
1
. Trong bo sach nay, ong trnh bay
nhng van e sau ay cua logic hoc hnh thc truyen thong: cac pham tru, phan loai menh e,
tam oan luan, chng minh, tranh luan, phan bac nguy bien.
Sau Aristote, cac nha logic hoc khac k
2
a bo sung cho logic hoc 5 menh e:
1. Neu co P th co Q, ma co P vay co Q
2. Neu co P th co Q, ma khong co Q vay khong co P
3. Khong co ong thi P va Q, ma co P vay khong co Q
4. Hoac P hoac Q, ma co P vay khong co Q
5. Hoac P hoac Q, ma khong co Q vay co P.
Cuoi thi Co ai, Apulee a ra hnh vuong logic trnh bay quan he gia cac phan oan c
ban A, I, E, O; Galien (131 200) bo sung them loai hnh tam oan luan th t va Boece he
thong hoa logic hoc hnh thc, a ra mot so quy tac cua logic menh e.
Gan suot thi Trung co, do qua c sung bai nen gan nh logic hoc khong co c s phat
trien nao ang ke, ngoai mot so ong gop nho nh: Abelard ao sau kha canh ng ngha va
triet hoc cua logic hoc, Pierre dEspagne tom tat 19 kieu ung cua 4 hnh tam oan luan thanh
mot bai ve c thuat bang tieng Tay Ban Nha, Guillaume dOccam a ra nguyen tac li dao
Occam, hay Buridan ao sau phep suy luan co ieu kien
2.2. Logic hoc ng dung (Logique appliquee)
Trong thi Phuc hng, trc s phat trien cua khoa hoc thc nghiem, tai Anh, F. Bacon
(1561 1626) a xuat ban tac pham Novum Organum (Cong cu mi) e phe phan phng
phap suy dien va logic hoc hnh thc cua Aristote, va e cao phng phap suy luan quy nap
cung nh logic hoc ng dung dung trong khoa hoc thc nghiem. Ong a ra ba bang (co mat /
vang mat / trnh o) e tm moi lien he nhan qua gia cac s kien. Sau o, R. Descartes (1596
1650) a phat trien t tng cua Bacon vi tac pham Discours de la methode (Phng phap
luan).
Ve sau, nha logic hoc Anh J. Stuart Mill (1806 1873) a hoan thien phng phap cua F.
Bacon, a ra bon phng phap quy nap da tren c s moi lien he nhan qua: phng phap
tng hp (methode de concordance), phng phap sai biet (methode de difference), phng
phap ong bien (methode des variations concomitantes) va phng phap tr d (methode des
residus).
2.3. Logic hoc k hieu
1
(Logic toan hoc Logique mathematique)

1
Bo sach nay do hoc tro ong tap hp lai t nhng tac pham cua ong. Ngay ten goi Logic hoc hnh thc (Logique formelle)
cung la cua ngi i sau.
2
Chu ngha khac k Stoa (Stocisme) la trng phai triet hoc do Zenon sang lap cuoi the k th IV tr. CN. Do trng phai
nay thng to chc hoi hop tai ni ma tieng Hi Lap goi la Stoa nen c goi la chu ngha Stocus.
Thi k au, chu ngha khac k Stoa la mot hoc thuyet ve vu tru va logic: con ngi va t nhien c quan niem la mot
tong the, ma muon nam c quy luat cua tong the th phai lam chu duc vong. en thi k e che La Ma, chu ngha khac
k Stoa nhan manh ve ao c: con ngi chu yeu la tm c hanh (ch khong phai vui thu), phuc tung so menh, song
thanh am, t duc vong, can trng chu au kho.
1
Ten goi Logic hoc k hieu do J.Venn e xuat. Thc chat ay la logic toan hoc. Logic hoc truyen thong cung s dung k
hieu tng trng e bieu hien cac hnh thc t duy, nhng noi chung, viec k hieu hoa o co mc o va quy mo khac vi
logic toan hoc.
7
Nha bac hoc c G. W. Leibnitz (1646 1716) la ngi au tien e xng viec ap dung
nhng phng phap hnh thc cua toan hoc (k hieu, cong thc) vao lnh vc logic hoc (ong
cung la ngi a co nhng t tng quan trong au tien ve logic xac suat). Y tng nay en
gia the k XIX a c hien thc hoa bi nha toan hoc Ireland G. Boole (1815 1864), vi
cac cong trnh: Toan giai tch logic (The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, 1847), Tm hieu
nhng quy luat cua t tng at nen tang cho l thuyet toan hoc ve logic va xac suat (An
Investigation of the Laws of Thought on which are founded the Mathematical Theories of
Logic and Probability, 1854). Tiep o, la cong trnh cua nha toan hoc Anh De Morgan: Logic
hoc hnh thc (Formal Logic, 1926) Trong cac cong trnh nay, logic toan hoc c trnh bay
nh mot bo phan cua ai so: ai so logic (ai so Boole).
ay la giai oan mi trong s phat trien cua logic hoc hnh thc. Logic toan hoc, ve oi
tng, la logic hoc, con ve phng phap, la toan hoc.
T cuoi the k XIX, mot hng nghien cu khac cua logic toan hoc co lien quan en nhng
nhu cau cua toan hoc cho viec luan chng cho nhng khai niem va nhng phng thc chng
minh cua no a c phat trien trong nhng cong trnh cua J. Venn (ngi Anh, 1834 1923),
G. Frege (ngi c, 1848 1925), cua B. Russell (ngi Anh, 1872 1970) cung A. N.
Whitehead (ong tac gia bo sach Principia Mathematica)...
Logic toan hoc co anh hng rat ln en toan hoc hien ai. L thuyet angorit, l thuyet ham
e quy a c phat trien t logic toan hoc. a co rat nhieu khuynh hng, bo phan khac
nhau trong logic toan hoc: logic kien thiet, logic quan he, logic to hp, logic menh e, logic v
t Trong k thuat ien, k thuat tnh toan, ieu khien hoc, sinh l hoc than kinh, ngon ng
hoc eu co ap dung logic toan hoc.
2.4. Logic hoc bien chng (Logique dialectique)
Logic hoc bien chng la khoa hoc ve nhng quy luat va hnh thc phan anh trong t duy
s phat trien va bien oi cua the gii khach quan, ve nhng quy luat nhan thc chan l
1
.
Nhng yeu to cua logic hoc bien chng a co trong triet hoc Co ai, nhng G. V. Hegel
(nha triet hoc duy tam khach quan c, 1770 1831) la ngi au tien nghien cu ve no mot
cach toan dien va co he thong (ac biet, trong tac pham Khoa hoc logic). Gia the k XIX,
cac nha duy vat Nga la Bielinski (1811 1848), Herzen (1812 1870), Tchernychevski (1828
1889) a cai tao no thanh bien chng duy vat. Cuoi the k XIX au the k XX, K. Marx
(1818 1883), F. Engels (1820 1895) va V. I. Lenine (1870 1924) a phat trien logic bien
chng thanh mot khoa hoc chat che ve nhan thc.
Logic hoc bien chng khong bac bo logic hnh thc, ma ch vach ro ranh gii cua no, coi
no nh mot hnh thc can thiet, nhng khong ay u cua t duy logic. Trong logic bien chng,
hoc thuyet ve ton tai va hoc thuyet ve s phan anh ton tai trong y thc lien quan chat che vi
nhau; logic bien chng la logic co tnh chat noi dung...
1
.
2.5. Ngay nay logic hoc a phat trien thanh nhieu he thong. Ben canh nhng he thong logic
hoc tren ay, con co nhng he thong logic khac nh logic a tr, logic m, logic tnh thai,
logic tam tr xac suat, logic trc giac, logic ngon ng, logic thi gian, v.v... Va s phat trien o
co le se van con tiep tuc.

1
T ien triet hoc, NXB Tien bo, Matxcva, ban dch tieng Viet 1986, tr.322.
1
T ien triet hoc, sd, tr.322.
8
Lu y: Ten goi Logic hoc hnh thc la e ch ca logic hoc truyen thong do Aristote khai
sang cong vi logic hoc k hieu. Logic hoc hnh thc ch nghien cu nhng hnh thc t duy nh
khai niem, phan oan, suy luan, chng minh t kha canh hnh thc cua chung, tach ra phng
thc lien he chung gia cac bo phan cua ket cau logic ma bo qua noi dung cu the cua cac t
tng.
Ngoai cach phan loai logic hoc theo trnh t xuat hien tren, ngi ta con phan loai logic
hoc thanh: logic hoc truyen thong va logic hoc hien ai (bao gom: logic hoc co ien va logic
hoc phi co ien), logic hoc hnh thc va logic hoc bien chng...
3. Yngha cua viec nghien cu logic hoc
Co t duy, at co sai lam, nh Brochad a tng phat bieu: oi vi con ngi, sai lam la
quy luat ma chan l la ngoai le
1
.
Co loai sai lam do t duy khong phu hp vi thc te khach quan (ngo nhan ve the gii t
nhien, ve ngi khac va ca ve ban than); loai nay dan en nhng phan oan gia doi. Co loai
sai lam do t duy khong phu hp vi cac quy luat cua t duy; loai nay dan en nhng suy luan
phi logic.
V vay, logic hoc luon luon co ch va can thiet cho moi ngi.
Khong phai khong hoc logic hoc th ngi ta eu t duy thieu chnh xac, v t duy ung an
co the c hnh thanh bang kinh nghiem, qua qua trnh hoc tap, giao tiep, ng x Nhng o
cha phai la th t duy logic mang tnh t giac. Va nh vay, ta cung rat de t duy sai lam do
ngo bien. Chang han: Co ngi lap luan rang: Ngi tot th hay giup ngi ngheo. Ong Ba
hay giup ngi ngheo. Vay ong Ba la ngi tot ma khong hieu la mnh a lap luan sai.
Logic hoc se giup ta nang cao trnh o t duy e co c t duy khoa hoc mot cach t
giac. Nh o, ta co the chu ong tranh c nhng sai lam trong t duy cua ban than, nh v
du tren ay.
Logic hoc cung la cong cu hu hieu e, khi can thiet, ta co the tranh luan, phan bac mot
cach thuyet phuc trc nhng lap luan mau thuan, nguy bien, thieu can c cua ngi khac.
Chang han, Cratylos hoc gia co Hi Lap tng tuyen bo: S khang nh hay phu nh cua toi
oi vi bat k s vat nao cung eu la gia doi ca. Aristote phan bac rang: Li Cratylos noi co
ngha la: Moi menh e eu la gia doi het. Va neu nh vay th chnh ngay cai menh e: Moi
menh e eu la gia doi het nay cung la gia doi.
Logic hoc con trang b cho ta phng phap t duy khoa hoc, nh o ta co the tham gia
nghien cu khoa hoc, lnh hoi va trnh bay tri thc, tham gia cac hoat ong thc tien khac mot
cach hieu qua.
Logic hoc cung giup ta co c mot the gii quan, nhan sinh quan toan dien, bien chng.
ac biet, logic hoc la cai c s khong the thieu c trong mot so lnh vc nh toan hoc,
ieu khien hoc, phap l, quan l, ngoai giao, ieu tra, day hoc
oi vi ngi day hoc, e soan giao trnh, giao an co chat lng, truyen at kien thc khoa
hoc co hieu qua, can phai tuan theo cac quy luat, quy tac logic. Ve pha ngi hoc, t duy

1
Dan theo Vnh e... (1973), Luan ly hoc 12 abcd, tr.4.
9
logic giup lnh hoi bai hoc de dang; dien at y ngh c ro rang, mach lac, khong mau thuan;
tranh c nhng sai lam ve t duy khi tham gia tranh luan, nghien cu khoa hoc.
4. Mot so k hieu thng dung
Chu t cua phan oan: S Thuoc t cua phan oan: P
Cac bien menh e (menh e s cap = phan oan n): a, b, c, d hay p, q, r, s, u, v
Phep phu nh: , hoac: , hoac:
_
(v du: a, a, )
Phep hoi: Phep tuyen long:
Phep tuyen chat: , hay: Phep keo theo:
Phep tng ng: Khac:
Bang: = ong nhat (trung) :
(Tap hp / gia tr) rong: Tr: \
Hp: Giao:
Phan bu: (v du: A
B
E
, oc la: A la tap con cua phan bu cua B trong E)
Bao ham: A B (A cha trong B, hoac B cha A)
hay B A (B cha A)
x thuoc X: x X x khong thuoc X: x X
Lng t pho dung (toan the):
Lng t ton tai (bo phan):
Dau ngoac k thuat: ( ), [ ]
Chu dien:
+
Khong chu dien:

(v du: S
+
P
-
)
Phan oan chan that: (hay 1, hay c)
Phan oan gia doi: s (hay 0, hay g)
Hay: / (v du: Moi / Mot so; oc la: Moi hay mot so)



CAU HOI

1. oi tng cua logic hoc truyen thong la g? oi tng o ve sau co s thay oi nh the nao, v sao?
2. Nhng nha logic hoc tieu bieu cua logic hoc truyen thong, logic hoc ng dung, logic hoc k hieu va
logic hoc bien chng la nhng ai? Nhng ong gop chnh cua ho cho logic hoc la g?
3. V sao can phai nghien cu va nam vng logic hoc? oi vi ban than anh (ch), viec hoc tap logic
hoc co y ngha g?




10
Chng II

CAC QUY LUAT C BAN CUA T DUY

1. The nao la quy luat va quy luat c ban?
Theo T ien triet hoc, quy luat la moi lien he ben trong c ban cua cac hien tng, chi
phoi s phat trien tat yeu cua nhng hien tng ay. Quy luat bieu hien mot trnh t nhat nh
cua moi lien he nhan qua, tat yeu va on nh gia cac s vat hoac cac ac tnh cua oi tng
vat chat, bieu hien nhng quan he c ban c lap i lap lai, trong o s bien oi nhng hien
tng nay gay nen s bien oi nhng hien tng khac mot cach hoan toan xac nh
1
.
Nh vay, quy luat phan anh moi lien he c ban ben trong c lap i lap lai cua s vat,
hien tng, no mang tnh ban chat, tat yeu va on nh. V du: nh luat chon loc t nhien trong
sinh vat hoc, quy luat cung cau trong kinh te th trng,
T duy la san pham cao nhat cua cai vat chat c to chc mot cach ac biet la bo
nao
2
cho nen tat yeu no cung co nhng quy luat cua mnh. Va, con ngi, muon t duy
c chnh xac, nhat thiet khong c vi pham cac quy luat o, giong nh ngi di chuyen
tren ng, neu khong muon gay ra hay b tai nan th phai chap hanh luat giao thong vay.
Nhng nh moi he thong, he thong quy luat t duy cung co nhieu tang bac khac nhau; v vay,
trc tien, ta can tuan thu cac quy luat c ban la nhng quy luat pho bien, co tac dung lam c
s, lam nen tang chi phoi cac quy luat khac trong he thong cac quy luat cua t duy. o la: quy
luat ong nhat (principe d identite), quy luat cam mau thuan (principe de non-contradiction),
quy luat bai trung (principe du tiers exclu) va quy luat tuc l (principe de raison suffisante).
3

Trong logic hoc hien ai, moi cong thc hang ung c coi la mot quy luat logic.
2. Cac quy luat c ban cua t duy
2.1. Quy luat ong nhat
Chu ngha duy vat bien chng cho rang s vat khach quan ham cha mau thuan noi tai
khong ngng hoat ong, phat trien va bien hoa. The nhng trong mot giai oan phat trien nhat
nh, s vat khach quan lai co tnh quy luat ve chat ac thu. Chnh do tnh quy luat ve chat
nay cua s vat ma cac s vat c phan biet. Luat ong nhat trong logic hoc chnh la quy luat
c ban cua t duy logic c hnh thanh t tnh quy nh ve chat cua s vat khach quan hang
tram van lan phan anh trong y thc con ngi
1
.
Theo o, trong qua trnh lap luan, mot khai niem, mot phan oan, mot suy luan nao o
phai c dung theo cung mot ngha, luan e phai c gi nguyen; noi cach khac, t au en
cuoi t tng phai am bao tnh xac nh va tnh nhat quan, khong c lan lon, thay oi,
anh trao oi tng t tng. Quy luat nay xuat phat t tnh chat tng oi on nh cua cac s
vat, hien tng trong the gii khach quan, va c phat bieu nh sau: Moi t tng phan anh

1
T ien triet hoc, sd, tr. 481.
2
T ien triet hoc, sd, tr. 634.
3
Co tai lieu goi cac quy luat noi ay la luat (loi), co tai lieu goi o la nguyen l, nguyen tac (principe).
1
Trieu Truyen ong, Phng phap bien luan Thuat hung bien, ban dch: Nguyen Quoc Sieu, NXB Giao duc, 1999, tr.
16.
11
cung mot oi tng, trong cung mot quan he th phai ong nhat vi chnh no, hay: Cai g co
la co. K hieu: A A (oi vi khai niem), hay: a a (oi vi phan oan), va oc la: a la a.
Quy luat nay con c goi la luat mach lac logic (principe de coherence logique), v no
am bao cho t duy c xac nh, chnh xac, ranh mach.
Hay phan tch mau chuyen sau ay:
Anh L.V.H. la cong nhan phu trach sa cha va bao tr may tai Cong ti I., trc ay cha
he vi pham noi quy. Mot hom, anh nhan c quyet nh sa thai vi l do t y mang vat t ra
cong. S viec la v, chieu hom trc, sau khi bao tr cho co may quay li tam, anh H. don dep
ve sinh ni lam viec, thay ch co may con tan h, anh tien tay bo luon vao tui quan bao ho lao
ong thay v cho vao ong phe lieu. Khi ra cong, lon tui quan e kiem tra th may con inh tan
ri ra
Anh H. khi kien. toa s tham, ai dien Cong ti I. nh gia tr may con tan vao khoang
50.000 ong. Toa an nhan nh vi pham o cung cha en mc b k luat sa thai va tuyen
buoc Cong ti I. huy bo quyet nh sa thai, phuc hoi moi quyen li vat chat cho anh H. Cong ti
nay khang an. Trong phien phuc tham, Cong ti a ra lap luan: Nhng con tan o nam trong
linh kien may quay li tam thuoc day chuyen cua nha may nhap t nc ngoai, tr gia hn 4
trieu USD. Neu mat phai mua t nc ngoai ton kem rat nhieu ch khong phai ch 50.000
ong. Toa phuc tham tuyen huy an s tham va e ngh Cong ti I. can tham khao y kien c
quan chuyen mon e xac nh ro gia tr, tnh nang, tac dung cua nhng con tan. (Theo Tuoi
tre 10 11 2001, tr. 12).
Mau truyen tren cho thay, phien toa phuc tham nay, nhng ngi x an a vi pham quy
luat ong nhat cua t duy: may con tan phe lieu khong the co gia tr vat chat nh nhng con
tan ang nam trong co may quay li tam; s s y bo quen may con tan phe lieu trong tui quan
khong the anh ong vi hanh vi t y mang vat t ra cong!
Nhng nha nguy bien co Hi Lap (Sophistes) thng hay anh trao khai niem bang cach
da vao hien tng ong am nhng d ngha cua t ng.
V du:
Vat chat (1) th ton tai vnh vien,
Banh m la vat chat (2),
Vay banh m ton tai vnh vien.
v du nay, hai khai niem vat chat co noi ham khac nhau: vat chat (1) la mot pham tru
triet hoc, ch hien thc khach quan ton tai ben ngoai y thc cua con ngi va oc lap oi vi
y thc, con vat chat (2) lai co ngha khai quat la nhng g thuoc ve nhu cau the xac cua con
ngi; chung khong he ong nhat vi nhau.
Nhieu mau chuyen ci cung a c xay dng da tren s anh trao khai niem nh vay.
V du:

LAI CON TRACH TOI
Mot a tre sot d lam. Thay lang cho uong thuoc, no lan ra chet. Bo no en tan nha bat
en. Thay khong tin, en xem lai, s thang be roi bao:
The nay ma con trach toi ? Ong bao toi cha cho no khoi nong, bay gi ngi no lanh
nh the nay roi con keu g na!
12
(Truyen tieu lam Viet Nam)
oan oi thoai gia A va B vi chu e: The nao la ve vang sau ay minh hoa cho s vi
pham quy luat ong nhat do luan e trong qua trnh tranh luan khong c gi nguyen (t the
nao la ve vang tr thanh co hay khong co ma):
A: Oi dao, ve vi chang vang. Toi cho rang co tien th ve vang, khong tien th ng noi
en ve vang, that n gian. Co tien mi lam c viec, khong tien th chang lam c g ca.
Cau c vao quay hang ma mua i, thieu mot xu th ng co ma mua. Ma vao rap xem phim,
thieu mot hao cung ng ngh en chuyen vao lam g.
B: L do cau neu ra khong noi len c co tien th ve vang, ch noi len cai tac dung cua
ong tien
A: Tien ng nhien la co tac dung roi! Co tien th sai khien c ca ma quy keo coi xay!
B: Cai o t khong ong y! Tren the gii lam g co ma quy, vay th lam sao co the noi ti
viec sai ma quy keo coi xay?
A: Ai bao khong co ma? Neu khong co ma th sao xa nay trong nc ngoai nc bao
ngi noi ve ma?
(Theo Trieu Truyen ong, sd, tr. 17)
Can lu y:
- Tnh ong nhat luon luo n gan lien vi s khac biet va la tng oi. Nh ta biet, vat chat
luon luon van ong va phat trien, cho nen ben trong s vat luon cha ng s khac nhau. Tuy
nhien, trong qua trnh nhan thc, trong nhng ieu kien nhat nh, nhat la trong cac khoa hoc
chnh xac, ngi ta co the va can phai l tng hoa va n gian hoa phan nao tnh chat hien
thc cua oi tng. Bi vay, tnh ong nhat cua cac s vat ch la tam thi, tng oi.
Cac s vat, hien tng trong hien thc khach quan eu co nhng quan he nhat nh,
nhng neu chung khong co cung tat ca cac ac tnh tieu bieu th chung khong ong nhat vi
nhau. Chang han, anh va em la co quan he huyet thong, nc va li la co quan he chat c
cha ng va vat e cha ng, nhng anh la anh ma em la em, nc khong phai la li ma li
khong phai la nc.
Mac du cac s vat, hien t ng trong hien thc khach quan luon luon van ong, phat trien
va bien oi, nhng khi cha bien oi han ve chat th no van phai la no. Chang han, con bm
von do con sau hoa thanh, nhng khi con sau cha hoa thanh con bm th con sau van ch la
con sau.
Nh a noi, trong long moi s vat bao gi cung ham cha nhng mau thuan noi tai,
nhng o la hai mat oi lap trong mot the thong nhat, tc van ch la mot s vat ch khong
phai la hai s vat khac nhau. Chang han, mot ngi nao o co luc khoe manh, luc om au,
nhng khong phai v vay ma co en hai con ngi khac nhau trong mot con ngi.
e tranh vi pham quy luat ong nhat, chung ta can hieu ung ngha cua t ng s dung,
nhat la cac thuat ng khoa hoc; can dien at chnh xac t tng cua mnh cung nh hieu chnh
xac noi dung dien at cua ngi khac; khong c thay oi oi tng va luan e trong lap
luan, tranh luan; trung thanh vi nguyen tac khi trch dan, chuyen ng
13
2.2. Quy luat (cam) mau thuan
1

Quy luat cam mau thuan con c quen goi la quy luat mau thuan (principe de
contradiction). No oi hoi t duy, trong cung mot hoan canh, cung mot quan he, khong the
ong thi neu ra nhng phan oan, nhan nh bai tr lan nhau cho cung mot oi tng t
tng, neu trong o khong co mot phan oan la gia doi. Aristote a trnh bay ve quy luat
(cam) mau thuan nh sau: Mot vat khong the ong thi va la no va la cai trai vi no. Cung
mot thuoc tnh khong the va co va khong trong mot chu the, ong thi trong cung mot tng
quan
2
.
Quy luat (cam) mau thuan c phat bieu: Mot phan oan khong the va la chan l, va la
sai lam, hay: Hai phan oan trai ngc nhau th kho ng the ong thi cung chan thc. K
hieu: ~(A ~A); oc la: khong the va la A va khong phai la A.
T mau thuan bat nguon t ien tch sau ay:
Co ngi nc S lam nghe va ban mau (th binh kh co can, mui nhon), va ban thuan
(cai khien, cai moc). Ai hoi mua mau th y khoe rang: Mau cua toi rat nhon, bat c vat g
cung co the am thung. Ai hoi mua thuan th y noi: Thuan cua toi co the ngan can moi th
binh kh. Co ngi hoi: Neu lay mau cua anh ma am cai thuan cua anh th sao?. Y khong
the nao ap c.
(Han Phi T)
Kieu t duy nh tren ay la t duy cha mau thuan trc tiep.
Mau chuyen ci sau ay lai cho thay kieu t duy cha mau thuan gian tiep.



KHONG LAY TIEN
Tai bai gi xe cho khach hang cua cong ty:
Tien gi xe bao nhieu vay anh?
Da, cong ty gi xe khong lay tien. Anh muon cho bao nhieu th cho.
Ngao Op
(Theo Tuoi tre ci, so 167, thang 12 / 1997, tr. 18)
Mot ngi noi: Toi khong biet ro ve ch A, nen khong dam phat bieu g ca. Tuy nhien, theo
toi ch A la mot ngi rat tan tuy vi cong viec; hay nhan nh ve mot hien tng nao o,
co ngi cho rang: No luon luon (thay v thng) la nh the nay. Tuy nhien, cung co mot so
trng hp khong nh vay th ro rang, nhng ngi ay a t mau thuan.
Lenine a tng phan biet hai loai mau thuan: mau thuan cua i song thc te va mau
thuan cua lap luan khong ung an
1
. Mau thuan logic la loai mau thuan th hai, no mang tnh
chu quan, the hien s suy ngh, noi nang tien hau bat nhat; con mau thuan cua i song thc

1
Con goi: luat khong mau thuan, luat phi mau thuan.
2
Dan theo Le T Thanh (1991), Tm hieu logch hoc, NXB Tre, TP HCM, tr.28.
1
V. I. Lenin, Toan tap, tap 17, NXB Tien bo, M., 1981, tr. 450.
14
te la mau thuan bien chng, no mang tnh khach quan, ton tai trong ban than s vat, la ong
lc e s vat van ong va phat trien. Kieu noi gian th gian, ma thng th thng ch la
mau thuan trong tam l con ngi, ch khong phai la mau thuan logic. Neu cung mot oi
tng xuat hien trong nhng thi iem khac nhau, hay trong nhng quan he khac nhau ma co
nhng thuoc tnh khac nhau th cung khong co mau thuan logic.
Quy luat (cam) mau thuan co tac dung oi vi cac cap phan oan sau:
S nay la P va S nay khong phai la P
Moi S la P va Moi S khong phai la P
Moi S la P va Mot so S khong phai la P
Moi S khong phai la P va Mot so S la P
- Neu S
1
la P
1
th S
2
la P
2
va S
1
la P
1
nhng S
2
khong phai la P
2
.
Trong nhng cap phan oan tren, nhat nh co mot trong hai phan oan la gia doi, ch
khong the cung chan thc.
Tuy nhien, quy luat nay khong ch ro phan oan con lai la chan thc hay gia doi (co the ca
hai phan oan cung gia doi).
2.3. Quy luat bai trung
1

Quy luat bai trung la ac trng cua logic lng tr (logic hai gia tr).
Ta hay xet v du: Nam la sinh vien.
Phan oan nay co the phu hp vi hien thc, khi o no chan thc (ung); hoac no khong
phu hp vi hien thc, khi o no gia doi (sai).
Khi tha nhan moi phan oan eu co tnh chat tng t, ta co logic lng tr vi quy luat
bai trung tng ng.
Quy luat nay khac quy luat (cam) mau thuan cho: quy luat (cam) mau thuan, hai phan
oan trai ngc nhau th khong the cung chan thc; con trong quy luat nay, hai phan oan phu
nh lan nhau th khong the cung gia doi. Trong hai phan oan: A la B va A khong phai la
B, nhat nh phai co mot phan oan la chan thc.
Quy luat bai trung c phat bieu: Mot phan oan ch co the la chan thc hoac gia doi,
ch khong the co gia tr th ba nao khac.
Cung co the phat bieu quy luat nay bang cach khac, cu the la: Hai phan oan phu nh
lan nhau th khong the cung gia doi - nhat nh co mot trong hai phan oan la chan thc. Ky
hieu: A ~A, va oc la: A hoac khong A.
V du:
(1) Mot so nguyen th hoac la so chan hoac la so le, ch khong the va la so chan va la
so le.
(2) Trong hai phan oan: Moi loai ca eu song di nc va Co loai ca khong song
di nc phai co mot phan oan chan thc, ch chung khong the cung gia doi.

1
Con goi: luat triet tam, luat kh tam, luat gat bo (loai tr) cai th ba.
15
Ca dao ta co cau: Co thng th noi la thng. Khong thng th noi mot ng cho xong
la b chi phoi bi quy luat nay. Kieu phan lap lng cua may ga thay boi: So co chang giau th
ngheo. Sinh con au long chang gai th trai chnh la s van dung quy luat bai trung e truc
li! Trong i song thng ngay, ngi ta thng goi nhng ke vi pham quy luat bai trung la
ba phai, thieu lap trng.
Trong toan hoc, ngi ta van dung quy luat bai trung e chng minh phan chng. V du: T
nh ngha hai ng thang song song la hai ng thang cung nam trong mot mat phang va
khong co iem chung, ta co the chng minh hai ng thang a va b song song vi nhau bang
cach xet quan he cua chung trong cung mot mat phang:
P = a cat b
P = a khong cat b
Ta chng minh a cat b la sai (P sai).
Ma P sai th theo quy luat bai trung: P ung.
Vay, a song song vi b.
2.4. Quy luat tuc l
1

2.4.1. Trong t nhien va xa hoi, moi hien tng sinh ra va ton tai eu co l do ay u e no
sinh ra va ton tai. Logic hnh thc phan biet hai loai l do: l do chan thc va l do logic. L do
chan thc la nguyen nhan trc tiep cua hien tng. V du: S ma sat sinh ra nhiet. L do logic
la l do co tnh chat thuan l, bang mot hay nhieu phan oan e chng minh cho phan oan. V
du: Nam sap co viec lam, v Nam a vt qua cuoc phong van tuyen dung.
e mot t tng c coi la chan thc, ang tin cay th no can phai c chng minh, no
can co ay u can c khach quan. V vay, quy luat nay mang tnh phng phap luan. Quy luat
tuc l c phat bieu nh sau: Tat ca nhng g ton tai eu co l do e ton tai. Mot t tng ch
c coi la chan thc khi no co l do ay u lam can c.
e tuan thu quy luat tuc l, trc het trong bien luan, luan c phai chan thc, chnh xac.
Phien toa s tham trong mau chuyen sau ay a xet x sai do da tren luan c gia doi:
...Trong mot vu an hnh s, do cai nhau ve so tien phai tra , mot ngi ap xch lo a anh
chet khach i xe. Tai toa, ngi ap xch lo khai a thoa thuan gia cuoc xe la 5.000 ong,
nhng khi en ni ngi khach noi ngc, ch chu tra 3.000 ong. Ngi ap xch lo khai
khach tra tien bang mot t 2.000 va mot t 1.000 ong. Khi anh ta khong chu lay, khach ut
tien tr lai tui roi bo i, v the anh ta mi tc gian rt theo anh khach. Toa s tham a tin
vao li khai nay, cho rang s viec xay ra co phan do loi cua nan nhan nen ch tuyen phat b
cao 3 nam tu. Nhng en phien phuc tham, s viec a c nhn nhan lai khac han, nh vao
mot tai lieu do ngi nha cua nan nhan cung cap cho luat s: Theo nh bien ban cua cong an
th trong tui nan nhan ch co may t giay bac 5.000, 20.000, ch khong co giay 2.000 va 1.000
nh b cao a khai. Luat s a xuat trnh chng c nay tai phien toa, ket qua toa a tang mc

1
Con goi: luat l do ay u, luat c s ay u. Co tac gia a khai quat cac quy luat t duy thanh hai nhom :
nhom cac quy luat suy luan hay nguyen l ong nhat bao gom cac quy luat: ong nhat, cam mau thuan va bai
trung; nhom cac quy luat nhan thc hay nguyen l tuc l bao gom cac quy luat: tuc l, nhan qua, tat nh va cu
canh. (Theo Tran Xuan Tien (1971), Luan ly hoc tu tai II ABCD, NXB Van hao, Sai gon, tr. 31 35; Le T
Thanh, sd, tr .138).
16
an phat b cao len en 10 nam tu. (Theo Tuoi tre, 03 4 2002, chuyen muc Cau chuyen phap
luat).
Quy luat nay cung con oi hoi gia luan c vi luan e phai co moi lien he tat yeu, t luan
c tat yeu suy ra luan e. Cau chuyen sau ay cho thay cai ket luan cua nha sinh vat hoc no
that la v van, v gia luan c vi luan e khong co moi lien he logic nao ca.

ECH MAT CHAN KHONG BIET NGHE

e nghien cu kha nang nhay xa cua ech, mot nha sinh vat em ech vao trong phong th
nghiem va ra lenh: Nao, ech con nhay i! Nhay i!.
Con ech nhay ve pha trc. Nha sinh vat hoc o khoang cach va ghi ket qua: con ech bon
chan nhay c 2m. Ke tiep ong cat hai chan trc va ra lenh: Ech con i, nhay na i, con
ech vung vay mot luc roi nhay i mot oan. Nha sinh vat hoc lai o khoang cach va ghi: con
ech con hai chan nhay c 1 m.
Sau cung ong cat not hai chan con lai va tiep tuc ra lenh: Ech con, may nhay i c
chang? Nhay i nao!.
Lan nay con ech ng yen. Va nha sinh vat hoc cua chung ta a ghi ket qua nh sau: ech
mat chan khong biet nghe!?
M.B. st
(Theo Tuoi tre, ngay 9/ 9 / 1999, tr. 7, muc Th gian)
2.4.2. Trong the gii khach quan, quy luat tuc l the hien moi lien he nhan qua gia cac
s vat, hien tng. Moi s vat ton tai eu co nguyen nhan ton tai. Trong cung ieu kien, cung
nguyen nhan, at se co cung mot ket qua.
V du: Tong hp hydro vi oxy [nguyen nhan] th co nc [ket qua]; b nung nong [nguyen
nhan] th thep gian n [ket qua].
Trong khoa hoc t nhien, moi lien he nhan qua c goi la nguyen l tat nh (principe de
necessitarisme). Nh o, nha khoa hoc co the tai lap cac hien tng t nhien trong phong th
nghiem, co the d bao ve kh tng thuy van v.v. Nguyen l tat nh c Edmond Gobblot
(1858-1935) phat bieu:
Trong thien nhien co mot trat t bat bien bao gom nhng nh luat;
Cac hien tng eu tuan theo nh luat, ngha la nhng ieu kien quyet nh chung la
the nay ch khong la the khac
1
.
Nh vay, nguyen l tat nh trong khoa hoc t nhien khac vi thuyet duy y ch va thuyet
nh menh. Thuyet duy y ch (volontarisme) cho rang y ch la c s ban au cua moi cai ton
tai
2
. Thuyet nh menh (fatalisme) th quan niem rang qua trnh the gii, ke ca i song con
ngi, eu c sap at trc bi mot lc lng sieu nhien (so menh, Thng e).



1
Dan theo Le T Thanh, sd, tr. 32.
2
Can phan biet hai loai thuyet duy y ch: loai mang hnh thc cua chu ngha duy tam khach quan va loai mang hnh thc
cua chu ngha duy tam chu quan.
17
CAU HOI VA BAI TAP

1. Phan tch noi dung tng quy luat c ban cua t duy, co kem theo v du minh hoa.
2. Phan biet mau thuan logic va mau thuan bien chng khach quan.
3. Phan tch e ch ra s giong nhau va khac nhau gia quy luat (cam) mau thuan vi quy luat bai
trung.
4. Phan tch cac mau chuyen sau e ch ra quy luat t duy a b vi pham:

a. KHONG CAN HOC NA
Mot lao nha giau a dot lai ha tien. Con a ln ma khong cho i hoc, s ton tien. Mot ong khach
thay vay, hoi:
Sao khong cho thang nho i hoc trng?
Cho chau en trng, s hoc tro ln bat nat.
Th rc thay ve nha cho chau hoc vay!
No cha co tr, biet no co hoc c hay khong?
Co kho g, thay se tuy theo sc no ma day. Nay day ch nhat la mot, mot gach, chau thuoc; qua
ngay mai, day no ch nh la hai, hai gach; qua ba mot, day no ch tam la ba, ba gach, lan lan nh
vay th chau phai biet ch.
Khach ra ve, thang con mi bao cha:
Thoi, cha ng rc thay ve ton kem. May ch ay con khong hoc cung biet roi Con nghe qua la
con thuoc!
Ngi cha bao no viet ch nhat, ch nh, ch tam, no viet c ca, ong ta khen con sang da, khong
mi thay ve na. Mot hom, ngi cha bao no viet ch van. No thung thang ngoi viet, viet mai en
chieu toi cung cha xong. Ngi cha mang:
Viet g ma lau the?
No tha:
Ch van dai lam bo a! Con viet hn na ngay mi c na ch thoi!
(Theo Truyen ci dan gian Viet Nam, NXB Giao duc, 1985, tr. 14)

b. LI KHONG XNG

Mot ngi vao ca hang ban giay, th roi noi:
oi nay, toi i kh chat.
Nha hang bao:
Khong he g. Ong c i, t lau no gian ra th va.
Mot lat, co ngi vao mua, th roi noi:
oi nay, toi i hi rong.
Nha hang bao:
Khong he g! Ong c i, he gii hanh, no co lai th va.
Ngi th ba vao mua, th giay roi noi:
oi nay, toi i va chan lam.
Nha hang bao:
Th giay toi ong, bao gi i cung va ca, khong bao gi co ma cung khong bao gi gian!
18
(Theo sd tren, tr. 35 36)

c. UNG NH LI

Me chong va con dau nha no chang may eu goa bua. Me chong dan con dau:
So me con ta rui ro, thoi th can rang ma chu vay!
Khong bao lau, me chong co t tnh, ngi con dau nhac lai li dan ay, th me chong tra li:
Me dan la dan con, ch me th con rang au na ma can.
(Theo Sd tren, tr. 47)

d. CON RAN VUONG

Anh chang kia co tnh hay noi phong ai. Mot hom, i rng ve, bao v:
Hom nay, toi vao rng hai cui, trong thay mot con ran to i la to! Be ngang hai mi thc, be
dai mot tram hai mi thc!
Ch v bu moi noi:
Lam g co con ran dai nh the bao gi.
Khong tin a? Chang mot tram hai mi thc, th cung mot tram thc!
Cung khong co ran dai mot tram thc.
That ma! Khong ung mot tram thc cung en tam mi thc.
Ch v van lac au. Anh chong th gan co cai, va muon cho v tin, c rut dan xuong. Cuoi cung
noi:
Toi noi that ay nhe! Qua toi trong thay con ran dai ung hai mi thc, khong kem mot tac,
mot phan nao!
Luc ay, ba v bo lan ra ci:
Be ngang hai mi thc, be dai hai mi thc, the th con ran ay vuong roi!
(Theo sd tren, tr. 62 63)
19
Chng III

KHAI NIEM

1. Khai niem la g ?
Khai niem (concept) la mot trong nhng hnh thc phan anh the gii vao t duy, nh no
ma ngi ta nhan thc c ban chat cua cac hien tng, cac qua trnh, ma ngi ta khai quat
c nhng mat va nhng dau hieu c ban cua chung
1
. Noi cach khac, khai niem la mot
trong nhng hnh thc c ban cua t duy (noi khai niem la mot hnh thc t duy v no la ket
qua cua s tru tng hoa cua t duy oi vi s vat, hien tng trong hien thc khach quan),
no phan anh nhng thuoc tnh ban chat cua s vat, hien tng trong hien thc hoac nhng moi
lien he cua chung. Khai niem c the hien bang t hay ng
2
.
Chang han, khai niem ma trong tieng Viet goi la ca (trong tieng Phap goi la poisson, trong
tieng Anh goi la fish) la s phan anh vao t duy mot loai s vat co cung nhng dau hieu c
ban (thuoc tnh ban chat) sau ay: loai ong vat co xng song, nc, th bang mang, bi
bang vay
3
; khai niem ma trong tieng Viet goi la hat (trong tieng Phap goi la chanter, trong
tieng Anh goi la sing) la s phan anh vao t duy mot loai hien tng co cung nhng dau
hieu c ban sau ay: hoat ong cua con ngi, dung giong tao ra nhng am thanh co tnh
nhac; khai niem ma trong tieng Viet goi la nguyen nhan (trong tieng Phap va tieng Anh goi la
cause) la s phan anh vao t duy hien tng lam nay sinh ra hien tng khac, trong quan he
vi hien tng khac o.
2. S hnh thanh khai niem
Nh ta a biet, qua trnh nhan thc cua con ngi i t cam tnh en l tnh.
V. I. Lenine a tng noi: T trc quan sinh ong en t duy tru tng, va t t duy tru
tng en thc tien - o la con ng bien chng cua s nhan thc chan l, cua s nhan thc
hien thc khach quan
4
.
Nhan thc cam tnh ton tai di ba dang:
Cam giac (sentation): la ket qua s ang cua s tac ong cua the gii khach quan en
nhng giac quan cua con ngi. V du: Mau sac, am thanh, mui v...
Tri giac (perception): la hnh anh hoan chnh cua s vat nay sinh do tac ong cua the gii
khach quan vao cac giac quan. V du: Khi thay mot bong hoa, ta khong ch nhan ra nhng
thuoc tnh rieng le nh mau sac, mui hng... cua no, ma con nhan thc c mot cach trc
tiep, tron ven o la mot bong hoa vi ay u nhng thuoc tnh cua no, khac vi moi trng
xung quanh.

1
T ien triet hoc, sd, tr. 274.
2
Can phan biet thuat ng logic hoc khai niem vi cach dung trong sinh hoat hang ngay: khai niem la s hnh dung ai khai,
s hieu biet con n gian, s lc ve mot s vat, hien tng hay van e nao o. V du: oc lt qua e co mot khai niem
ve van e sap ban.
3
Mot so nh ngha trong giao trnh nay c lay t T ien tieng Viet do Hoang Phe chu bien (1988), NXB Khoa hoc xa
hoi, HN.
4
But k triet hoc, NXB S that, HN, 1976, tr. 189.
20
Bieu tng (representation): la hnh anh trc quan cam tnh ve cac s vat va hien tng
cua hien thc, c gi lai va tai tao trong y thc va khong co s tac ong trc tiep cua ban
than cac s vat va cac hien tng en giac quan. V du: ang song gia thanh pho, toi van
nh nh in tieng ga gay trc ay que toi.
Tren c s ay, nhan thc l tnh (tc t duy tru tng, phan anh hien thc mot cach gian
tiep) bao gom cac hnh thc: khai niem, phan oan, suy luan... - phat trien. Bc qua o t
nhng hnh thc phan anh cam tnh len khai niem la mot qua trnh phc tap, thong qua nhng
bien phap nhan thc nh: so sanh, phan tch va tong hp, tru tng hoa va khai quat hoa.
So sanh: ay la phng phap logic dung e oi chieu cac s vat, hien tng nham phat
hien ra nhng net tng ong hay d biet gia chung. Nh phng phap nay, ta phan biet c
cac lp oi tng.
Phan tch tong hp: Phan tch la phng phap logic nham phan chia mot oi tng
thanh nhng bo phan hp thanh no (vi tnh cach la nhng yeu to cua toan the phc tap); va
tong hp la phng phap logic nham t cac bo phan, cac ac tnh, cac quan he a phan tch
c o hp nhat lai thanh cai toan the thong nhat. Hai phng phap nay khong c tach ri
nhau, v chung eu la nhng qua trnh logic quy nh lan nhau. Nh cac phng phap nay ma
au oc ta rut ra c cac thuoc tnh (dau hieu) khac nhau cua s vat, hien tng.
Tru tng hoa khai quat hoa: Tru tng hoa la phng phap logic nham tach ra cac
thuoc tnh ban chat (dau hieu c ban) cua s vat, hien tng va bo qua nhng thuoc tnh th
yeu, nhng chi tiet vun vat cua s vat, hien tng ay. Khai quat hoa la phng phap logic
nham ket hp cac oi tng rie ng biet co cung thuoc tnh ban chat thanh mot tap hp, la
chuyen t khai niem thuoc tap hp con en khai niem thuoc tap hp cha no.
3. Quan he gia khai niem va t ng
Ngon ng la hien thc trc tiep cua t tng, nh ngon ng ma t duy tru tng co the
ton tai. Hn na, ngon ng con tham gia trc tiep vao qua trnh hnh thanh t tng, nh Marx
va Engels a viet: S san sinh ra y tng, bieu tng va y thc trc het la gan lien trc tiep
va mat thiet vi hoat ong vat chat va vi giao dch vat chat cua con ngi o la ngon ng
cua cuoc song thc te
1
. Nhng ngon ng va t duy eu co nhng quy luat ac thu nen chung
co tnh oc lap tng oi.
Khong co khai niem nao khong ton tai di dang t hoac ng. Ngc lai, thc t noi
chung, ngoai mat ng am con co mat y ngha (ngha t vng, ngha s bieu) tng ng vi cai
c goi la khai niem trong t duy. Nh vay, khai niem vi t ng luon co quan he gan bo mat
thiet vi nhau.
Tuy thong nhat vi nhau nhng chung khong ong nhat.
Khai niem ve cung mot oi tng trong au oc con ngi la hoan toan giong nhau du no
c bieu th bang nhng t khac nhau cac ngon ng khac nhau. Chang han, cung mot khai
niem o dung bang vat lieu cng, gom co mot mat phang va mot hay nhieu chan , dung e
bay o ac, thc an, e lam viec, nhng c bieu hien trong cac ngon ng khac nhau la
nhng t khac nhau: ban (tieng Viet), table (tieng Phap, tieng Anh), (tieng Nga) Ngay

1
Mac, Angghen, Lenin ban ve ngon ng, NXB S that, HN, 1962, tr. 8.
21
trong cung mot ngon ng, cung khong thieu nhng t ng ong ngha kieu nh: chet, mat, t
tran, qua i, quy tien, hi sinh, t nan,v.v.
4. Phan loai khai niem
Co the phan loai khai niem theo nhng cach khac nhau.
4.1. Da vao nguon goc (hay trnh o hieu biet), ta co:
Khai niem chan that (hay khai niem that) la khai niem phan anh s vat, hien tng
trong thc te khach quan. V du: nha, ma, tnh yeu, hanh phuc, vui, buon, song, chet, at
nc
Khai niem gia doi (hay khai niem ao) la khai niem khong phan anh thc te khach
quan, ch do con ngi tng tng nen mot cach hoang ng. V du: than thanh, ma quy,
thien ng, a nguc, nang tien ca, thuoc trng sinh
4.2. Da vao ngoai dien cua khai niem, ta co:
Khai niem n nhat la khai niem ma ngoai dien cua no ch cha duy nhat mot oi
tng
1
. V du: con song dai nhat Viet Nam, so t nhien nho nhat...
Khai niem chung la khai niem ma ngoai dien cua no cha t hai oi tng tr len. V
du: trng hoc, quoc gia, sach, xe Neu khai niem chung co ngoai dien c m rong toi a,
khong thuoc vao loai, hang
2
nao ca th c goi la pham tru (categorie)
3
; no nham phan anh
nhng ac tnh, nhng mat, nhng quan he can ban nhat cua cac hien tng cua hien thc va
nhan thc, chang han: khong gian, thi gian, vat chat, y thc, van ong
Khai niem tap hp la khai niem ma ngoai dien cua no cha nhieu oi tng, nhng cac
oi tng o hp thanh mot chnh the. V du: Ban giam hieu, to Tieng Viet, oi Olympic Viet
Nam, chom ai Hung Tinh.
Khai niem rong la khai niem ma ngoai dien cua no khong cha oi tng nao.V du: ma
ca rong, nang tien ca, thuoc trng sinh
4.3. Ngoai ra, ngi ta cung con phan biet: khai niem cu the va khai niem tru tng (v du:
nha ca vi hanh phuc), khai niem khang nh va khai niem phu nh (v du: hu ch vi vo
bo), khai niem quan he (v du: giao vien vi hoc sinh) va khai niem khong quan he (v du: bac
s vi cay)
1

5. Cau truc logic cua khai niem
5.1 Moi khai niem eu co noi ham (comprehension) va ngoai dien (extension). Khi ta nh
ngha mot khai niem nao o la ta xet no ve mat noi ham, va khi ta phan chia mot khai niem la
xet ve mat ngoai dien.

1
Theo quan niem hien nay, nhng t ng nh Nguyen Du, Ha Noi, anh kia, no khong bieu at khai niem.
2
Ve cac khai niem ngoai dien, loai va hang, xin xem muc 5 & 6 sau ay.
3
Theo Aristote, co mi pham tru c ban: thc the, so lng, chat lng, quan he, v tr, thi gian, t the, s hu, hoat
ong, thu ong. Ve sau a co s ieu chnh oi vi cac pham tru.
Thuat ng pham tru con c dung e goi ten khai niem khoa hoc, bieu th loai s vat, hien tng hay nhng ac
trng chung nhat cua chung. V du: Cac pham tru ng phap (T ien tieng Viet, sd, tr. 792).
1
Xem them: Vng Tat at (1998), Logic hoc ai cng, NXB ai hoc Quoc gia Ha Noi, tr. 30 31.
22
Noi ham cua khai niem la toan bo nhng dau hieu (thng la nhng dau hieu c ban) ma
theo o ngi ta khai quat hoa va phan ra cac oi tng trong khai niem ay
2
. No cho ta biet s
vat, hien tng o la nh the nao.V du: Khai niem ca co noi ham la tap hp toan bo cac dau
hieu (thuoc tnh) c ban nh: loai ong vat co xng song, nc, th bang mang va bi bang
vay. Noi ham e cap chat cua khai niem.
Ngoai dien cua khai niem la lp cac oi tng c khai quat trong khai niem
3
. No cho
ta biet s vat, hien tng ay co bao nhieu oi tng cung loai. V du: ngoai dien cua khai
niem ca la pham vi bao quat tat ca loai ong vat co xng song, nc, th bang mang va bi
bang vay a, ang va se xuat hien tat ca moi ni. Nh vay, ca voi, ca sau nam ngoai ngoai
dien cua khai niem ca. Ngoai dien e cap lng cua khai niem.
5.2. Noi ham va ngoai dien cua khai niem co moi tng quan nghch (ngc chieu) nh
bang 1 sau:

Bang 1

NOI HAM NGOAI DIEN
Phong phu Hep
Ngheo Rong
Chang han, noi ham cua ca nc ngot phong phu hn noi ham cua ca, cho nen ngoai dien cua
ca nc ngot hep hn ngoai dien cua ca, nh s o hnh 1 di ay:
NGOAI DIEN NOI HAM
- (1) ong vat co xng song
CA - (2) nc
- (3) Th bang mang
- - (4) Bi bang vay
CA NC NGOT Gom tat ca 4 thuoc tnh
tren ay cua ca +
- (5) Ch song trong moi
Hnh 1 trng nc ngot.

Nh vay, noi ham khai niem cang phong phu th ngoai dien cua no cang hep; ngc lai, noi
ham khai niem cang ngheo th ngoai dien cua no cang rong.
6. Thu hep va m rong khai niem
Chuyen mot khai niem co ngoai dien rong hn thanh mot khai niem co ngoai dien hep hn
va ngc lai, o la thao tac logic thu hep va m rong khai niem. Co lien quan en thao tac
nay la hai khai niem loai (genre) va hang (espece).
6.1. Loai (hay: lp) va hang (hay: lp con)
6.1.1. Hien nay trong cac sach logic hoc nc ta, thuat ng bieu at khai niem co ngoai
dien rong hn (A) va khai niem co ngoai dien hep hn (B) con thieu s thong nhat. Cu the la
co ngi goi KN (A) la loai, KN (B) la hang (Le T Thanh, Nguyen Trong Van, Nguyen c

2
T ien triet hoc, sd, tr. 386.
3
T ien triet hoc, sd, tr. 386.
23
Dan, Nguyen Chng Nhiep), co ngi goi KN (A) la chung, KN (B) la loai (Hoang Chung,
1994), co ngi goi KN (A) la loai, KN (B) la chung (Le c Quang chu bien), co ngi goi
KN (A) la loai, KN (B) la giong (Nguyen Van Tran), co ngi goi KN (A) la giong, KN (B)
la loai (To Duy Hp - Nguyen Anh Tuan; Ha S Ho), v.v.
1

6.1.2. Trong giao trnh nay, chung ta dung thuat ng loai e ch khai niem (A), va hang
e ch khai niem (B). Khai niem loai la khai niem co ngoai dien bao cha ngoai dien khai
niem hang. Con khai niem hang la khai niem co ngoai dien b bao cha trong ngoai dien khai
niem loai.
V du: CA Khai niem loai
CA NC NGOT Khai niem hang
Nh vay, khai niem hang la khai niem loai + ac iem rieng.
6.1.3. Moi quan he loai hang co tnh tng oi. Tr pham tru, cac khai niem (KN)
khac, tuy moi quan he, eu co the la KN loai cua KN hang nay nhng lai la KN hang cua KN
loai kia. V du:
CA KN loai

CA NC NGOT KN hang KN loai

CA RO KN hang
Lu y: Quan he loai va hang khac vi quan he toan the va bo phan. Can phan biet moi
quan he loai hang vi quan he toan the bo phan.
Vi quan he loai hang, ta co the dien at: Moi hang la mot loai. V du: Moi cuon
sach logic hoc la mot cuon sach...
Con vi quan he toan the bo phan, ta khong the dien at kieu nh vay c. V du:
Khong the noi: * Moi ngon tay la mot ban tay, * Moi cau van la mot oan van...
6.2. Thu hep va m rong khai niem
Thu hep mot khai niem la thao tac logic chuyen mot khai niem loai thanh mot khai niem
hang, tc them thuoc tnh mi vao khai niem ban au. V du: Ca Ca nc ngot Ca ro
Ca ro con Gii han e thu hep khai niem la khai niem n nhat. Neu tiep tuc thu hep
khai niem n nhat th phai them vao noi ham cua no nhng thuoc tnh ma oi tng khong he
co, khai niem thu c ch la mot khai niem rong.
M rong mot khai niem la thao tac logic chuyen mot khai niem hang thanh mot khai niem
loai, tc bo bt thuoc tnh la ac iem rieng cua lp s vat trong khai niem ban au. V du:
Sach Logic hoc pho thong Sach Logic hoc Sach Van hoa pham Khai niem co the
m rong en pham tru.
S o (hnh 2):


1
Xem nguon danh muc Tai lieu tham khao.
24

Thu hep KN M rong KN



Hnh 2
7. Quan he gia cac khai niem
7.1. Xet theo noi ham cua khai niem th gia cac khai niem co the xay ra hai trng hp:
quan he so sanh c va quan he khong so sanh c.
Quan he so sanh c la khi gia cac khai niem co chung mot so dau hieu (thuoc tnh)
nao o. V du: cay va thc vat, oan vien va sinh vien.
Quan he khong so sanh c la khi gia cac khai niem khong co dau hieu (thuoc tnh)
chung nao. V du: ban va mat tri, trau va en.
7.2. Xet theo ngoai dien cua khai niem th co cac loai quan he:
Quan he hp la quan he gia cac khai niem co ngoai dien trung nhau mot phan hay hoan
toan. o la cac quan he ong nhat, giao nhau, phu thuoc (xem sau).
Quan he khong hp la quan he gia cac khai niem khong co phan ngoai dien nao trung
nhau. o la cac quan he tach ri, oi choi (tng phan), mau thuan, ong thuoc (xem
sau).
Co the quy cac khai niem co quan he hp va khong hp vao 7 kieu sau ay:
Quan he ong nhat
Quan he giao nhau
Quan he phu thuoc
Quan he tach ri
Quan he oi choi
Quan he mau thuan
Quan he ong thuoc.
e bieu hien quan he gia cac khai niem, ngi ta thng dung bieu o Venn. Vi bieu
o nay, moi khai niem c bieu hien bang mot ng cong khep kn tng trng cho tap hp
cac oi tng thuoc ngoai dien cua khai niem o.
7.2.1. Quan he ong nhat (k hieu: A B): la quan he gia cac khai niem co ngoai dien
hoan toan trung nhau. V du: so chan (A) va so chia het cho 2 (B)
S o hoa (hnh 3):



Hnh 3

A B
25
7.2.2. Quan he giao nhau (cheo nhau) (k hieu: A B): la quan he gia cac khai niem co
mot phan ngoai dien trung nhau. V du: oan vien (A) va sinh vien (B), bac s (A) va
nhac s (B).
S o hoa (hnh 4):



Hnh 4

7.2.3. Quan he phu thuoc (rong hn, hep hn) (k hieu: B A): la quan he gia hai khai
niem ma ngoai dien cua khai niem nay nam het trong ngoai dien cua khai niem kia. Noi cach
khac ay la quan he gia mot khai niem hang vi mot khai niem loai. V du: cay (B) va
thc vat (A); sach toan (B) va sach (A).

S o hoa (hnh 5):





Hnh 5

7.2.4. Quan he tach ri ( k hieu: A B = ): la quan he gia cac khai niem ma ngoai
dien cua chung khong co phan nao trung nhau. V du: ban (A) va mat tri (B), trau (A)
va en (B).
S o hoa (hnh 6):




Hnh 6

7.2.5. Quan he oi choi (tng phan) (k hieu: A
C
B
E
,
hay: A (E \ B) vi (A B) E):
la quan he gia hai khai niem co noi ham trai ngc nhau, va tong ngoai dien cua chung nho
hn ngoai dien cua khai niem loai chung (E). V du: mau trang (A) va mau en (B),
ong (A) va tay (B).
S o hoa (hnh 7):

E
Hnh 7
7.2.6. Quan he mau thuan (k hieu: A =
C
B
E
, hay: A=(E\B) vi (A B) = E): la quan he
gia hai khai niem co noi ham phu nh lan nhau, va tong ngoai dien cua chung bang ngoai
A
B

A B
A
B
A

B
26
dien cua khai niem loai chung (E). V du: en (A) va khong en (B), so chan (A) va so
le (B).

S o hoa (hnh 8):
E


Hnh 8
7.2.7. Quan he ong thuoc (ngang hang): la quan he gia cac khai niem co ngoai dien cung
nam het trong ngoai dien cua mot khai niem khac. ay la mot trng hp rieng cua quan he
khong hp.
Co hai loai quan he ong thuoc: tach ri va khong tach ri.
7.2.7.1. Quan he ong thuoc tach ri (k hieu: (A
1
A
2
... A
n
) A vi (A
i

j
= khi
i

j
).
ay la loai quan he gia cac khai niem co ngoai dien khong trung nhau cung nam het trong
ngoai dien cua mot khai niem khac. Noi cach khac, ay la quan he gia cac khai niem hang
co ngoai dien tach ri vi mot khai niem loai chung. V du: sach toan (A
1
), sach ng van
(A
2
), sach logic hoc (A
3
) va sach (A).


S o hoa (hnh 9):







Hnh 9
7.2.7.2. Quan he ong thuoc khong tach ri (k hieu: (A
1
A
2
... A
n
) A vi (A
i
A
j

khi
i

j
). ay la loai quan he gia cac khai niem hang co ngoai dien giao nhau vi mot khai niem
loai chung. V du: nha van (A
1
), ca s (A
2
), giao vien (A
3
) va ngi lao ong tr oc (A).
S o hoa (hnh 10):







Hnh 10

8. nh ngha khai niem
8.1. nh ngha la g?
A B

A A
1

A
2

A
3




A
A
1
A
2
A
3

27
nh ngha khai niem la mot thao tac logic nham xac nh noi ham cua khai niem hay lam
ro ngha cua t (thuat ng) bieu th khai niem.
V du :
(1) Nc la the long khong mau, khong mui va khong v.
(2) Hnh vuong la hnh ch nhat co bon canh bang nhau.
(3) Hai khai niem ong nhat neu (khi va ch khi) chung co ngoai dien hoan toan trung nhau.
Trong cac khoa hoc, viec nh ngha khai niem, nhat la nhng khai niem mi, la mot yeu
cau co tnh bat buoc.
8.2. Cau truc logic cua nh ngha
8.2.1. Mot nh ngha thng co cau truc:


Dfd: Definiendum Khai niem c nh ngha;
Dfn: Definiens Khai niem (dung e) nh ngha
1
;
= (hoac: = )
2
oc la la (con oc: bang,
theo nh ngha, neu, khi va ch khi).
V du:
Hnh vuong la hnh ch nhat co bon canh bang nhau
Khai niem c nh ngha Khai niem (dung e) nh ngha

Neu khai niem (dung e) nh ngha ng trc khai niem c nh ngha th trong tieng
Viet, ngi ta thay la bang (c) goi la. V du:
Hnh ch nhat co bon canh bang nhau (c) goi la hnh vuong.
8.2.2. Trong cau truc nh ngha tieu bieu, khai niem (dung e) nh ngha phai:
- Nham phan biet khai niem c nh ngha vi nhng khai niem khac gan gui vi no
bang cach neu ra khai niem loai gan nhat cua khai niem c nh ngha. V du: e nh
ngha ca, trc het ta phan biet: o la ong vat co xng song;
Neu ra nhng thuoc tnh ban chat (dau hieu c ban) phan biet khai niem c nh ngha
(khai niem hang) vi cac khai niem khac cung nam trong ngoai dien cua khai niem loai ay. V
du: Vi ca, o la: nc, th bang mang, bi bang vay.
8.3. Cac kieu nh ngha
Co nhieu kieu nh ngha khac nhau, co loai la nh ngha khoa hoc, co loai ch la nh
ngha thong thng.
8.3.1. nh ngha thong qua loai va hang. ay la kieu nh ngha c dung trong cac
khoa hoc nham xac nh noi ham cua mot khai niem. V du: Tam giac can la tam giac co hai
canh bang nhau, Ca la loai ong vat co xng song, nc, th bang mang, bi bang vay.
8.3.2. nh ngha kien thiet (nh ngha theo nguon goc). ay la kieu nh ngha thng
c dung trong vat l, hnh hoc, hoa hoc; trong o, khai niem nh ngha neu ro nguon goc,
cach thc hnh thanh oi tng can nh ngha. V du: Hnh tron xoay la hnh c tao ra

1
Bo phan nay co the gom mot chum khai niem.
2
= con c k hieu la ; def hay n la k hieu lay t ch definition (tieng Phap), definition (tieng Anh) hay nh ngha
(tieng Viet).
Dfd = Dfn

def
def n
28
bang cach cho mot hnh quay quanh mot truc co nh, Nc javel la dung dch do chlor tac
dung vi xut loang sinh ra.
8.3.3. nh ngha qua quan he. ay la kieu nh ngha thng dung cho cac pham tru triet
hoc; trong o, khai niem nh ngha ch ra quan he cua no vi khai niem c nh ngha,
thng la quan he oi lap. V du: Vat chat la hien thc khach quan ton tai ben ngoai y thc
cua con ngi va oc lap oi vi y thc, Hien tng la s bieu hien ben ngoai cua ban
chat.
8.3.4. nh ngha qua mieu ta. ay la kieu nh ngha thong thng; trong o, khai niem
nh ngha neu len mot hay vai dau hieu ac trng cua oi tng nham giup nhan dang chnh
xac oi tng. V du: Cay leo la cay co than yeu, moc bam vao cay khac bang cach t quan
than chung quanh hoac nh nhng tua cuon, Ga tay la loai ga than cao va to, long thng
en, con trong co bu da co, long uoi co the xoe rong.
8.3.5. nh ngha qua so sanh. ay la kieu nh ngha thong thng; trong o, khai niem
nh ngha neu ra nhng oi tng tng t vi khai niem c nh ngha. V du: (Mau) xanh
la mau nh mau cua la cay, cua nc bien.
8.3.6. nh ngha ngoai dien. ay la kieu nh ngha thong thng; trong o, khai niem
nh ngha liet ke cac phan t (cac hang) nam trong ngoai dien cua khai niem c nh
ngha. V du: oan the quan chung la oan thanh nien cong san Ho Ch Minh, Cong oan,
Mat tran To quoc, Hoi nong dan, Hoi lien hiep phu n, Hoi cu chien binh, Thc t gom
ba loai chu yeu la danh t, ong t va tnh t.
8.3.7. nh ngha nh danh (nh ngha t, nh ngha chiet t). ay la kieu nh ngha
thng dung oi vi nhng t ng co nguon goc vay mn hay cac thuat ng, bang cach dung
nhng t ng thong dung giai thch ngha cua t ng can nh ngha. V du: ai dien la thay
mat, Hai ang la en bien, Quang hoc la t dung e goi ten mot lnh vc vat l nghien cu
cac tnh chat cua anh sang.
8.3.8. nh ngha trc quan. ay la kieu nh ngha thng dung cho tre em, bang cach
a ra ngay s vat, hoac hnh anh, mo hnh cu the cua mot hay nhng oi tng cua khai
niem c nh ngha. V du: ay la bong hong (a bong hong ra), Hnh la hnh tam
giac.
8.3.9. nh ngha theo chc nang s dung. ay la kieu nh ngha thong thng; trong o
khai niem nh ngha neu ro nhiem vu, tac dung, muc ch s dung cua oi tng can nh
ngha. V du:Nha giam la ni giam gi nhng ngi co toi, Benh vien la c s kham benh
va nhan ngi om au nam ieu tr.
V.v.
Trong thc tien, khi nh ngha thong thng, ngi ta co the phoi hp vai kieu nh ngha
vi nhau. V du: Nc mam la mot loai dung dch man, co v ngot, dung e cham hoac nem
thc an, Cm la gao nau chn, rao nc, dung lam mon chnh trong ba an hang ngay,
Ban la o dung thng bang go, co mat phang va chan ng, e bay o ac, thc an, e lam
viec v. v.
Can phan biet nh ngha vi nhng cau truc co hnh thc giong nh ngha nh so sanh tu
t hoc, thuyet minh, boc lo tam trang, kieu: Th gi la vang bac, Ngi ta la hoa at,
Hoc sinh la ngi To quoc mong cho mai sau, Yeu la chet trong long mot t
29
8.4. Cac quy tac nh ngha
Muon nh ngha co gia tr phai tuan thu cac quy tac sau:
8.4.1. Ngoai dien cua khai niem dung e nh ngha phai tng hp (can oi) vi ngoai
dien cua khai niem c nh ngha ( Dfd Dfn)
ieu nay, theo Aristote, co ngha la nh ngha phai khong hep va khong rong, nhng
phai bao ham het y ngha cua t
1
.
V du, nh ngha sau ay la qua hep (Dfd Dfn):
Thau knh (Dfd) la mot dung cu quang hoc c gii han bi hai mat cong eu an
(Dfn) (thau knh con gom ca loai dung cu quang hoc c gii han bi mot mat cong va mot
mat phang).
Con nh ngha sau ay la qua rong (Dfd Dfn):
Nc (Dfd) la chat khong mau, khong mui va khong v (Dfn) (pha le cung la chat khong
mau, khong mui va khong v).
8.4.2. nh ngha phai ngan gon va ro rang
nh ngha phai ngan gonco ngha la trong khai niem nh ngha khong c cha ng
nhng thuoc tnh co the suy ra c t nhng thuoc tnh a neu.
V du, nh ngha sau ay la khong ngan gon: Hnh tam giac eu la hnh tam giac co ba
canh va ba goc bang nhau, v mot tam giac co ba canh bang nhau th at no cung co ba goc
bang nhau.
Tuy vay, trong nha trng, oi khi v l do s pham (nham khac sau mot so thuoc tnh ban
chat cua khai niem gan lien vi nh ngha), ngi ta co the a ra nhng nh ngha co ve
dai dong, chang han, mot nha toan hoc noi tieng a a ra nh ngha sau ay ve ng
thang song song: Hai ng thang song song la hai ng thang cung nam trong mot mat
phang va khong cat nhau du keo dai chung en vo tan
2
.
e nh ngha ro rang, trong khai niem nh ngha khong nen dung nhng t ng co the
hieu theo nhieu cach, cung nh, trong cung mot he thong nhat nh th ch nen dung mot cach
nh ngha (du co the co nhieu cach nh ngha khac nhau cho cung mot oi tng).
8.4.3. nh ngha khong c luan quan (vong quanh)
Quy tac nay yeu cau: khong c lay chnh khai niem c nh ngha (Dfd) lam khai
niem nh ngha (Dfn), va cung khong c dung Dfn e nh ngha Dfd, roi lai lay Dfd e
nh ngha Dfn. V du: Toi pham la ke pham toi, hay:Goc vuong la goc co 90 o, va o
la so o cua mot goc bang 1/90 cua goc vuong.
8.4.4. nh ngha khong nen theo cach phu nh
1


1
N. I. Kondakov (1971), T ien logic, Moscow (dan theo: Iu. V. Rozdextvenxki, Nhng bai giang ngon ng hoc ai cng,
o Viet Hung dch, NXB Giao duc, 1997, tr. 89).
2
Xem: Hoang Chung (1994), sd, tr. 124.
1
Thc ra, yeu cau nh ngha phai ro rang th a bao gom trong no khong nen theo cach phu nh, nh Aristote a giai
thch: ro rang, ngha la khong c mieu ta a ngha, va khong mang tnh phu nh. (Theo: Iu. V. Rozdextvenxki, sd,
tr. 89). Viec tach rieng thanh mot quy tac nh ay la nham muc ch nhan manh vao noi dung nay.
30
nh ngha cung khong nen theo cach phu nh, v mot khai niem b phu nh th khong the
xac nh c noi ham. V du: Khong the nh ngha: Trang khong phai la en, v khong
phai la en co the la xanh, o, tm, vang Cach nh ngha mang tnh phu nh, neu co dung,
ch nen dung khi can thiet, hay oi vi nhng cap khai niem mau thuan. V du: Hai ng
thang song song la hai ng thang cung nam trong mot mat phang va khong cat nhau, Tron
la khong meo
2
.
9. Phan chia khai niem
9.1. Phan chia khai niem la g?
Phan chia mot khai niem la thao tac logic nham vach ro cac khai niem hep hn (khai niem
hang) cua khai niem o (khai niem loai). V du: Khai niem cum t co the c phan chia
thanh (1) cum t t do va cum t co nh, hay (2) cum t tng thuat, cum t ang
lap va cum t chnh phu.
9.2. Ket cau cua phan chia khai niem
Khai niem ma ta em ra phan chia (KN loai) c goi la khai niem b phan chia. Chang
han, khai niem cum t trong v du tren ay.
Cac khai niem hep hn ma ta vach ra o (KN hang) c goi la cac thanh phan phan
chia hay khai niem phan chia. Chang han, cac khai niem (1) cum t t do va cum t co
nh, hay (2) cum t tng thuat, cum t ang lap va cum t chnh phu trong v du tren
ay.
Dau hieu (thuoc tnh) ma ta chon lam can c phan chia c goi la c s phan chia.
V du, khi phan chia khai niem cum t nh tren ay, c s phan chia cua (1) la mc o
co nh, cua (2) la quan he ng phap gia cac thanh to cau tao cum t.
Khi phan chia khai niem, tuy theo muc ch, ngi ta co the da vao nhng c s phan
chia khac nhau. Hn na, trong khoa hoc, mot oi tng nghien cu rat can c xem xet
nhieu goc o, vi nhieu cach tiep can khac nhau. Nhng e s phan chia co gia tr can hng
en muc ch khoa hoc va thc tien.
Lu y: Phan chia khai niem khac vi phan chia cai toan the thanh cac bo phan nh: Cay
gom co: re, than, canh, la, hoa, qua.
9.3. Cac hnh thc phan chia khai niem
9.3.1. Phan oi (lng phan dichotomie)
Phan oi khai niem la thao tac logic phan chia mot khai niem thanh hai khai niem mau
thuan. V du:
- HS thuoc dien chnh sach
Hoc sinh (HS)
- HS khong thuoc dien chnh sach

- Biet th
Nha
- Khong phai biet th


2
Co tac gia neu: nh ngha khong c phu nh.
31
Phan oi khai niem la thao tac phan chia khai niem de dang, nhanh chong, lai tuan thu ay
u cac quy tac nen rat thng c ng dung trong sinh hoat hang ngay, nhat la khi ta ch can
hieu ro khai niem khang nh.

9.3.2. Phan loai (classification)
Phan loai khai niem la thao tac logic nham phan chia lien tiep mot lp cac oi tng cho
trc thanh nhng lp nho dan cho en n v cuoi cung, sao cho moi lp chiem mot v tr xac
nh.
Co hai kieu phan loai: phan loai khong t nhien va phan loai t nhien.
Phan loai khong t nhien (bo tr, nhan tao) la kieu phan loai da tren nhng dau hieu
thuan tien ch khong phai la dau hieu quan trong cua oi tng. Kieu phan loai nay giup cho
viec phat hien oi tng c nhanh, ap ng yeu cau he thong hoa cac oi tng trong thc
tien. V du: Phan loai ngi theo mau t au cua ten.
Phan loai t nhien la kieu phan loai da tren nhng dau hieu c ban, tren s nhan thc
cac quy luat ve moi lien he gia cac loai, chuyen t loai nay sang loai khac trong qua trnh
phat trien cua oi tng. ay la cach phan loai c dung pho bien trong nhieu nganh khoa
hoc, nh sinh hoc, ngon ng hoc, hoa hoc V du, cach phan loai cac nguyen to hoa hoc cua
D.I. Meneleev, hay he thong phan loai T (tieng Viet) sau ay trong sach Ng phap tieng Viet
(tap mot) cua Diep Quang Ban Hoang Van Thung (NXB Giao duc, tai ban lan th nam, tr. 41)
(hnh 11):
T

T n T phc
(mot tieng) (nhieu tieng)

T lay T ngau ket T ghep


T n to T a to


9.4. Cac quy tac phan chia khai niem
9.4.1. Phan chia phai triet e, ngha la khong c sot, tong ngoai dien cua cac khai niem
phan chia phai bang (can oi vi) ngoai dien khai niem b phan chia.
V du: Phan chia t phc (tieng Viet) thanh t lay, t ghep la khong triet e, v
nhng t co cac tieng ket hp mot cach ngau nhien nh bu nhn, radio, nitrat se khong nam
trong ca hai tap hp nay.
9.4.2. Phan chia khong c trung lap, ngha la cac khai niem phan chia o phai la nhng
khai niem tach ri, loai tr nhau.
V du: Khong c phan chia khai niem ngi thanh ngi chau Au, ngi chau A,
ngi chau M, ngi chau Phi, ngi chau Uc va ngi chau ai Dng, v ngi
chau Uc va ngi chau ai Dng ch la mot; hay khong c phan chia ngi thanh
Hnh 11
32
ngi chau Au, ngi chau A, ngi chau M, ngi chau Phi, ngi chau ai
Dng va ngi ong Au, v ngi ong Au b bao cha trong ngi chau Au.
9.4.3. Phan chia phai da tren cung mot c s, ngha la trong suot qua trnh phan chia,
khong c da vao nhieu c s phan chia khac nhau.
V du: Phan chia khai niem t phc (tieng Viet) thanh t phc lay ngha, t phc
nghch cu phap, t phc phu ngha la thieu nhat quan ve c s phan chia, v ng ngha va
cu phap la hai thuoc tnh khac nhau.
9.4.4. Phan chia phai lien tuc, ngha la phai theo trnh t t khai niem loai en khai niem
hang gan nhat cua no, khong c phan chia vt cap (nhay vot).
V du: Phan chia khai niem t (tieng Viet) nh cua sach Ng phap tieng Viet (a dan tren
ay) la hp quy tac. Neu phan chia nh sau la vi pham quy tac phan chia phai lien tuc:
ngi bao gom: ngi Viet Nam, ngi An o, ngi Trung Quo c, ngi Nga,
ngi My, ngi Phap, v.v...
Noi chung, phan loai trong khoa hoc, nhat la trong khoa hoc t nhien, la mot yeu cau co
tnh bat buoc nhng cung lai kha phc tap. Do vay, ngay nay con co ca mot chuyen nganh la
Phan loai hoc (taxologie).




CAU HOI VA BAI TAP


1. Khai niem la g? Khai niem c hnh thanh nh the nao?
2. Trnh bay quan he gia khai niem va t ng.
3. The nao la noi ham va ngoai dien khai niem? Tng quan cua chung ra sao?
4. The nao la khai niem loai va khai niem hang? Quan he gia chung co ac iem nao can lu y?
Neu vai v du ve thu hep va m rong khai niem.
5. Xet theo ngoai dien, gia cac khai niem co nhng kieu quan he logic nao (co neu v du va bieu
dien bang bieu o Venn)?
6. nh ngha khai niem la g? Cau truc cua mot nh ngha ra sao?
7. The nao la mot nh ngha khoa hoc? Co cac kieu nh ngha khac nhau nao?
8. Trnh bay cac quy tac nh ngha khai niem. Neu v du minh hoa cho nhng trng hp vi pham quy
tac nh ngha khai niem.
9. Phan chia khai niem la g? Phan chia khai niem co ket cau nh the nao?
10. The nao la phan oi va phan loai khai niem?
11. Trnh bay cac quy tac phan chia khai niem. Neu v du minh hoa cho nhng trng hp vi pham quy
tac phan chia khai niem.
12. Xac nh noi ham va ngoai dien cua cac khai niem: cai quat, hoc tap, sinh vien, giao duc, ao tao,
giao vien, trng hoc, ong vat, l luan, triet hoc.
33
13. M rong va thu hep cac khai niem a cho bai tap 12.
14. Dung bieu o Venn the hien quan he gia cac khai niem sau: a.Bang va Phan; b.Trng ai
hoc, Trng ai hoc s pham, va Trng ai hoc kien truc; c. Thanh nien, Sinh vien va
oan vien; d. Nha va Ca; e. Nong va Lanh; f. ng,ng nha va ng
at; g. Ngay va em; h. Nam va N; i. Nang va Ma; j. Gio va May; k.
Nhan va Phi nhan.
15. Cac nh ngha sau ay hp hay khong hp quy tac? Neu la nh ngha khong hp quy tac th hay
ch ra no a vi pham quy tac nao?:
a. Chan l la s phan anh s vat, hien tng cua hien thc vao nhan thc con ngi ung nh
chung ton tai trong thc te khach quan.
b. Chim la loai ong vat co xng song va co canh.
c. Ngi la ong vat tien hoa nhat, co t duy, co ngon ng, co kha nang noi, viet, biet sang tao
cong cu trong qua trnh lao ong xa hoi.
d. Thc la trang thai khong ngu, cha ngu, trong thi gian thong thng dung e ngu.
16. Phan loai cac khai niem sau ay:
Khoa hoc, phng tien truyen thong ai chung, hnh thai kinh te xa hoi, am nhac, (cai) nha,
(cai) ban, song.















34
Chng IV

PHAN OAN
1. Phan oan la g?
Phan oan (P) (jugement) la mot hnh thc c ban cua t duy tru tng, trong o cac
han t
1
c ket hp vi nhau theo nhng nguyen tac, trat t nhat nh nham khang nh hoac
phu nh ve mot ieu g o (ve s ton tai thuoc tnh nao o cua oi tng, ve s ton tai cua
chnh oi tng trong hien thc, hay ve quan he gia cac oi tng). Phan oan co the chan
that hoac gia doi tuy theo s phan anh chnh xac hay khong chnh xac hien thc khach quan
cua no
2
. V du:
(1) Trai at quay chung quanh Mat Tri (P chnh xac, chan that).
(2) Trai at khong quay chung quanh Mat Tri (P sai lam, gia doi).
Trong ngon ng hoc va toan hoc, ng vi phan oan la menh e. Menh e (s cap) la
nhng cau theo tieu chuan khach quan ve y ngha noi dung phan anh cua chung, la ung
(chan) hay sai (nguy). Nh vay, nhng cau ma oi tng khong xac nh (cau 3), cau khong co
tieu chuan khach quan e khang nh ung/sai (cau 4), hay cau khong neu len c mot
khang nh ung/sai nao ca (cau 5 va 6) nh trong cac v du sau ay khong phai la menh e:
(3) So x ln hn 5.
(4) Thi tiet hom nay ep lam sao!
(5) Hom nay la ngay th may nh?
(6) Ta goi la so chan mot so chia het cho 2.
3

2. Cau truc cua phan oan n
Cau truc ien hnh (dang chnh tac) cua mot phan oan n, v du: Mot so sach la sach
logic hoc, gom co cac bo phan sau:
Chu t (con goi: chu ng), la bo phan neu len cai oi tng ma t tng e cap (oi
tng t tng). K hieu: S (lay mau t S trong ch Subjectum cua tieng Latin). Trong v du a
cho, o la sach.
Thuoc t (con goi: tan t, v t, v ng), la bo phan neu len khai niem la dau hieu co lien
he vi oi tng t tng. Ky hieu: P (lay mau t P trong ch Praedicatum cua tieng Latin).
Trong v du a cho, o la sach logic hoc.
He t (con goi: t noi, lien t), la bo phan thiet lap moi quan he gia chu t vi thuoc t,
noi len s khang nh hay phu nh dau hieu thuoc ve hay khong thuoc ve oi tng t tng.

1
Han t (hay thuat ng): Mot thanh to can thiet cua phan oan hay cua tam oan luan (T ien triet hoc, sd, tr. 553).
Han t ch mot tap hp oi tng; tap hp o co the gom nhieu hay mot oi tng, hoac khong cha oi tng nao (rong).
Nh vay, han t khong nhat thiet phai bieu at khai niem.
ay, chung toi tranh dung ten goi thuat ng v trong tieng Viet hien ai, ten goi nay thng c dung e ch t,
ng bieu at cac khai niem chuyen mon khoa hoc, k thuat.
2
ay la theo logic lng tr. Con trong logic a tr, nh vi logic tam tr th phan oan, ngoai hai gia tr chan that va gia
doi, con co mot gia tr th ba la khong xac nh (gia tr trung gian hay gia tr rong () ), v du: Tren Sao Hoa co s
song...
3
Theo: Hoang Xuan Snh (chu bien) (1998), Tap hp va logic, NXB Giao duc, tr. 46 47.
35
He t trong tieng Viet thng c bieu th bang la (phan oan khang nh), khong la, khong
phai la (phan oan phu nh). Co khi trong phan oan khong co mat he t nh cac v du (1)
va (2) tren ay, hoac c bieu hien bang dau gach ngang ( ), dau phay (,) nh: a Lat
thanh pho du lch noi tieng cua Viet Nam, Ong Ba, giao vien khi viet, hoac mot cho ngat
giong tng ng khi noi.
Lng t la bo phan cho biet phan oan e cap toan the hay ch mot bo phan oi tng.
Trong tieng Viet, lng t ch toan the oi tng thng la tat ca, moi (k hieu: ), lng t
ch bo phan oi tng thng la mot so, a so, phan ln, co nhng, nhieu (k hieu: ). Lng
t cung co the c tnh lc, v du: Ca (toan the ca) song di nc.
Chu t va thuoc t cua phan oan c goi chung la han t (terme con c goi la danh
t, hay thuat ng).
Lu y: Thuat ng co yeu to - t (dung bieu at mot han t cua phan oan) trong logic hoc
c dung e goi ten ca t hay cum t trong ngon ng hoc, .
3. Quan he gia phan oan va cau
Cung nh quan he gia khai niem va t ng, gia phan oan va cau cung co moi quan he
thong nhat nhng khong ong nhat.
Phan oan nao cung c hien thc hoa thanh cau, noi cach khac, cau la dang thc ton tai
cua phan oan. Cho nen chung luon luon co quan he thong nhat.
Tuy nhien, xet ve mat quan he gia cai c bieu at va cai bieu at, cung mot phan oan
co the c bieu at thanh nhng cau phat ngon khac nhau trong nhng ngon ng khac nhau.
Chang han, cung mot noi dung phan oan c dien at trong cau tieng Viet Toi hoc logic
hoc, th trong tieng Phap la cau J etudies la logique, trong tieng Anh la Im studying
logic, trong tieng Nga la
Xet ve cau truc, phan oan n co cau truc Moi/Mot so S la P hay Moi/Mot so S khong
phai la P, va cau truc nay ch tng ng vi loai cau n co u hai thanh phan chu ng v
ng (cau bnh thng). Nh vay, nhng cau co cau tao gom mot thanh phan (cau ac biet) nh
Ma!, May bay! khong phai la phan oan.
Xet ve muc ch bieu at, phan oan nham khang nh hay phu nh ve mot ieu g o,
nh vay no ch tng ng vi moi mot loai cau tng thuat. Ma cau th, ngoai loai cau tng
thuat, con co cau nghi van (v du: Anh i au o?), cau cau khien (v du: Anh i ve i!),
cau cam than (v du: Cau nay gioi ghe!), la nhng cau co muc ch phat ngon khong phai e
tng thuat.
Va cung do tnh a dang cua cau trong ngon ng t nhien ma muon bieu th mot phan oan
trong trng hp cau truc ay u cua phan oan o khong c the hien tng minh trong cau
(dang phan oan phi chnh tac), ta phai chuan hoa phan oan, tc a phan oan ve dang
chnh tac. Chang han, Ca song di nc (dang phan oan phi chnh tac) c chuan hoa
thanh Tat ca ca eu la loai song di nc (dang phan oan chnh tac), hay Ai ma chang
chet c chuan hoa thanh Moi ngi eu la loai phai chet, v.v.
4. Phan loai phan oan
4.1. Can c theo cau truc, phan oan c phan thanh: phan oan n va phan oan phc.
36
4.1.1. Phan oan n la phan oan c tao thanh bi s ket hp cua hai han t. V du:
Trai at tron, Trai at khong vuong.
4.1.2. Phan oan phc la phan oan c tao thanh bi s lien ket cua nhieu phan oan
n. S lien ket o thng la thong qua cac ket t logic (con goi: cac tac t logic
1
, cac lien t
logic) khac nhau, nhng cung co khi ch bang ng ieu (hoac dau phay).
Co cac loai phan oan phc sau ay:
a. Phan oan lien ket la phan oan phc c tao thanh bi ket t logic va
2
. V du: San
nay rong va sach. Nhng ket t nh: va va, ong thi, nhng, song, ma, roi, con hay
cho ngat giong, dau phay (,) cung co y ngha logic nh va. Phan oan lien ket la phep hoi
trong cac phep toan menh e (xem 7.2., chng IV).
b. Phan oan la chon (hay P phan liet) gom hai loai:
- Phan oan la chon lien ket la phan oan phc c tao thanh bi cac ket t logic
hay, hoac. V du: Gia nh toi se i ngh mat Nha Trang hay a Lat trong he nay.
Loai phan oan nay la phep tuyen long (phep tuyen yeu / phep tuyen thong) trong cac
phep toan menh e (xem 7.3.1., chng IV).
Phan oan la chon gat bo (hay P la chon tuyet oi) la phan oan phc c tao
thanh bi ket t logic hoac hoac. V du: Gia nh toi se i ngh mat hoac a Lat hoac
Nha Trang trong he nay. Cac ket t mot la, hai la, hoac (hay) cung co khi c
dung nh hoac hoac, chang han: Mot la c phep gia hnh. Hai la lai c lau xanh pho
ve (Nguyen Du), Cau nay la anh hoac la (hay la) em cua Nam. Phan oan la chon gat bo
la phep tuyen chat (hay phep tuyen manh / phep tuyen chon) trong cac phep toan menh e
(xem 7.3.2., chng IV).
c. Phan oan co ieu kien (hay P gia nh) la phan oan phc c tao thanh bi ket t
logic neu th. V du: Neu tri ma th ng t. Nhng ket t khac nh: he th,
gia (ma) th,t suy ra, khi th, v / do / bi / tai / nh (cho) nen / ma, ch
co th mi, ch can la, chng nao (th mi), phai chi th,v.v. cung co y
ngha logic nh neu th Phan oan co ieu kien la phep keo theo (hay phep tat suy) trong
cac phep toan menh e (xem 7.4., chng IV).
d. Phan oan tng ng la phan oan phc c tao thanh bi ket t logic khi va ch
khi hay neu (va ch neu). V du: Mot so chia het cho ba khi va ch khi tong cac ch so no
chia het cho ba. Phan oan tng ng la phep tng ng (hay phep ang gia) trong
cac phep toan menh e (xem 7.5., chng IV).
4.2. Can c theo noi ham cua thuoc t, phan oan c phan thanh ba loai:
4.2.1. Phan oan xac quyet (jugement categorique) (hay: P nhat quyet, P ac tnh, P
thuoc tnh) la loai phan oan khang nh hay phu nh moi lien he gia oi tng vi thuoc

1
Da tren l thuyet lap luan, chung toi co s phan biet ket t (connecteurs) vi tac t (operateurs) (Xem them: o Hu
Chau (2001), ai cng ngon ng hoc, tap hai, Ng dung hoc, NXB Giao duc, tr.180)
2
Can lu y, trong tieng Viet, khong phai phan oan nao co lien t va cung la phan oan phc lien ket. V du: Hoc va
hanh phai i oi, n v nay co hang tram can bo va nhan vien ch la phan oan n.
37
tnh nao o. Cong thc: Moi/Mot so S la P hoac Moi/Mot so S khong (la) P
1
. V du: Ban nay
ve ep, Canh ni ay khong ep.
ay la loai phan oan tieu bieu, co tan so xuat hien cao. V vay, trong logic hoc truyen
thong, ngi ta thng nghien cu chu yeu loai phan oan nay.
4.2.2. Phan oan quan he la loai phan oan phan anh moi quan he gia cac oi tng.
Cong thc: R (a,b), trong o: R la moi quan he, a, b la cac oi tng co quan he. V du:
Hom nay nong hn hom qua, Quan 10 nam gia quan 3, quan 5, quan 11 va quan Tan
Bnh.
4.2.3. Phan oan ton tai la loai phan oan khang nh hay phu nh s ton tai cua oi
tng. Cong thc: S la ton tai hoac S la khong ton tai. V du: Ngay nay van con chien tranh
lanh, Khong co s song tren Mat Trang.
4.3. Can c theo chat cua phan oan, phan oan xac quyet c phan thanh hai loai:
4.3.1. Phan oan khang nh la loai phan oan phan anh rang thuoc tnh thuoc ve oi
tng. Cong thc: Moi/Mot so S la P. V du : Trai at tron.
4.3.2. Phan oan phu nh la loai phan oan phan anh rang thuoc tnh khong thuoc ve oi
tng. Cong thc: Moi/Mot so S khong (la) P. V du: Trai at khong vuong. Phan oan phu
nh co the co nhieu dang thc, hoac phu nh thuoc t (Moi/Mot so S la khong P), hoac phu
nh chu t (Khong S nao la P), hoac phu nh he t (Moi/Mot so S khong la P), hoac phu nh
ca phan oan (Khong the co chuyen moi/mot so S la P). Trong ngon ng t nhien, chung ta
thng dung nhng tac t phu nh nh: khong, chang, khong phai (la), au phai,
au co, nao co, ch co,Bao rang / Noi rang la sai / la khong ung,v.v.
1

4.4. Can c theo lng cua phan oan, phan oan xac quyet c phan thanh hai loai:
phan oan toan the va phan oan bo phan.
4.4.1. Phan oan toan the (hay P chung) la phan oan phan anh rang toan bo oi tng
eu co hoac khong co thuoc tnh nao o.
Cong thc: Moi S la P hoac Moi S khong la P.
Trong tieng Viet, lng t toan the thng gap la: tat ca, moi, toan the, tat thay, het thay,
moi mot, ai (ai) cung, khong ai, ch co V du: Moi sinh vien eu phai hoc tin hoc.
Khi phan oan phan anh rang ch co mot oi tng duy nhat la co hoac khong co thuoc tnh
nao o th no c goi la phan oan n nhat
2
.
Cong thc: S nay la P hoac S nay khong (la) P.
V du: Xuan hat hay, Anh nay khong phai (la) cau thu.
4.4.2. Phan oan bo phan (hay P rieng) la phan oan phan anh rang ch co mot bo phan
oi tng la co hoac khong co thuoc tnh nao o.
Cong thc : Mot so S la P hoac Mot so S khong la P.

1
e tinh gian, lng t trong cong thc phan oan n co khi c lc bo.
1
Can phan biet phan oan phu nh can c vao chat trong phan loai phan oan xac quyet n vi phep phu nh trong Cac
phep logic tren phan oan se trnh bay sau.
2
Xet ve lng th phan oan n nhat la mot loai rieng cua phan oan toan the.
38
Trong tieng Viet, lng t bo phan thng gap la: mot so, mot vai, phan ln, phan nhieu,
phan ong, ai a so, tuyet ai a so, hau het, co nhng, vai, khong phai tat ca (eu) V du:
Mot so sinh vien phai hoc logic hoc.
Lu y:
Khi trong phan oan ma lng t c tnh lc th e xac nh o la loai phan oan nao
theo lng, ngi ta thng can c vao hien thc khach quan
1
. V du: Trai at khong vuong
(P n nhat, v thc te ch co mot trai at), Nam moc trong rng (P bo phan, v thc te la
ch co mot so nam moc trong rng), Ca song di nc (P toan the, v tat ca ca eu song
di nc).
4.5. Can c theo ca chat va lng cua phan oan (tc ket hp 2 cach phan loai theo chat
va theo lng tren ay), ta co:
4.5.1. Phan oan khang nh toan the (k hieu: A)
2

Cong thc trong logic truyen thong: Moi S la P (SaP).
Cong thc trong logic k hieu: x (S(x) P(x)), oc la Vi moi x neu x co thuoc tnh S th
x co thuoc tnh P.
V du: Moi kim loai eu dan ien.
4.5.2. Phan oan khang nh bo phan (k hieu: I)
Cong thc trong logic truyen thong: Mot so S la P (SiP).
Cong thc trong logic k hieu: x (S(x) P(x)), oc la Ton tai x co thuoc tnh S va co
thuoc tnh P.
V du: Co kim loai la the long.
4.5.3. Phan oan phu nh toan the (k hieu: E)
Cong thc trong logic truyen thong: Moi S khong la P (SeP).
Cong thc trong logic k hieu: x (S(x) P(x)), oc la Vi moi x neu x co thuoc tnh S
th x khong co thuoc tnh P.
V du: Tat ca ca eu khong song tren can.
4.5.4. Phan oan phu nh bo phan (k hieu: O)
Cong thc trong logic truyen thong: Mot so S khong la P (SoP).
Cong thc trong logic k hieu: x (S(x) P(x)), oc la Ton tai x co thuoc tnh S va khong
co thuoc tnh P.
V du: Mot so sinh vien khong hoc logic hoc.
4.6. Can c theo tnh thai, tc da vao mc o nhan thc ve moi lien he gia oi tng va
thuoc tnh, phan oan c phan thanh ba loai:

1
Tuy nhien, cung co y kien cho rang, logic hoc hnh thc khong quan tam en noi dung cu the cua phan oan, nen can c
vao hien thc khach quan e xac nh lng cua phan oan la khong hp l.
2
Cac k hieu A, I, E, O ay co nguon goc t cac ch Latin AffIrmo (Toi khang nh) va nEgO (Toi phu nh).
39
4.6.1.Phan oan kha nang (hay P xac suat): phan anh mc o lien he hay khong lien he
gia oi tng va thuoc tnh la cha chac chan. V du: Han han co the con keo dai, Chac
chieu nay tri khong ma.
Cong thc: Moi/Mot so S co le la P.
Moi/Mot so S co le khong phai la P.
4.6.2. Phan oan hien thc: phan anh mc o lien he hay khong lien he gia oi tng va
thuoc tnh a ro rang, chac chan. V du: Cac ban ang hoc logic hoc, Hom nay khong phai
la ngay le.
Cong thc: Moi/Mot so S chac chan la P.
Moi/Mot so S chac chan khong phai la P.
4.6.3. Phan oan tat yeu (hay P tat nhien): phan anh mc o lien he hay khong lien he
gia oi tng va thuoc tnh la hien nhien, co tnh quy luat. V du: Nc chay ve cho trung,
Ca khong song tren can.
Cong thc : Moi/Mot so S tat yeu la P.
Moi/Mot so S tat yeu khong phai la P.
5. Tnh chu dien cua cac han t trong phan oan
1

5.1. The nao la han t chu dien va han t khong chu dien?
Mot han t cua phan oan c xem la chu dien (tc co ngoai dien ay u, k hieu
+
) khi
ngoai dien cua no hoan toan nam trong, hoan toan nam ngoai hay trung vi tap hp oi tng
ma phan oan nham ti; va c xem la khong chu dien (tc co ngoai dien khong ay u, k
hieu
-
) khi ngoai dien cua no ch co mot phan nam trong hay mot phan nam ngoai tap hp oi
tng ma phan oan nham ti.
5.2. Tnh chu dien cua cac han t trong cac phan oan c ban A, I, E, O.
Tnh chu dien cua cac han t trong cac phan oan A, I, E, O c trnh bay trong bang 2
sau ay:

Bang 2

Phan
oan

S

P

V du va s o hoa


A


+

-




(+)
(1) Ca song di nc.




(2) Tam giac eu la tam giac co 3 canh bang nhau.




1
Con goi: quy tac pho cap cua danh t.
S
+
P
+
P
-

S
+
40




I


-
-



(+)
(3) Mot so sinh vien la oan vien.



(4) Mot so sinh vien la sinh vien gioi.





E

+

+

(5) Ca khong song tren can.







O



-



+

(6) Mot so sinh vien khong phai la oan vien.




(7) Mot so sinh vien khong phai la sinh vien gioi.








Lu y :
Trong phan oan toan the (A, E), S luon luon chu dien.
Trong phan oan bo phan (I, O), S luon luon khong chu dien.

Trong phan oan A, P thng khong chu dien, tr trng hp ngoai dien S P th P chu
dien.
S
-
P
+
S
-
P
-
S
+
P
+
S
-
P
+

S
-
P
+
41
Trong phan oan I, P thng khong chu dien, tr trng hp ngoai dien cua P S th P
chu dien.
Trong phan oan phu nh (E, O), P luon luon chu dien.
6. Quan he gia cac phan oan c ban (A, I, E, O) Hnh vuong logic
Quan he gia cac phan oan n A, I, E, O a c Apulee (the k II) trnh bay qua hnh
vuong logic (con goi: ban c logic, ma phng hnh) sau ay:
A oi choi tren E

Phu Phu
thuoc thuoc


I oi choi di O
[
Hnh 12
6.1. Quan he phu thuoc la quan he gia hai cap phan oan A va I, E va O, trong o A I
va E O.
hai phan oan phu thuoc, t phan oan toan the ung co the suy ra phan oan bo phan
cung ung; va t phan oan bo phan sai co the suy ra phan oan toan the cung sai. Neu phan
oan toan the sai (hay phan oan bo phan ung) th phan oan bo phan (hay phan oan toan
the) tng ng khong xac nh (co the ung hoac sai).
V du:
(1) Ca song di nc (A) (2) Co loai ca song di nc (I).
(3) Ca khong song tren can (E) (4) Co loai ca khong song tren can (O).
(5) Moi sinh vien eu la sinh vien gioi (As) (6) Mot so sinh vien la sinh vien gioi (I). (A
sai ve lng th I ung).
(7) Moi loai ca eu song tren can (As) (8) Mot so loai ca song tren can (Is). (A sai ve
chat th I sai).
(9) Moi van hoa pham eu khong oi truy (Es) (10) Mot so van hoa pham khong oi truy
(O). (E sai ve lng th O ung).
(11) Moi loai ca eu khong song di nc (Es) (12) Mot so loai ca khong song di
nc (Os). (E sai ve chat th O sai).


Tom tat:
Bang 3

A I ; E O
A s ve lng I ; E s ve lng O
ve chat I s ; ve chat O s

Mau thuan
42
I s A s ; O s E s
I A khong xac nh (co the ung hoac sai)
O E khong xac nh (co the ung hoac sai)


6.2. Quan he mau thuan la quan he gia hai cap phan oan A va O, E va I. Cac phan oan
co quan he mau thuan khong the cung ung hoac cung sai; neu phan oan nay ung th phan
oan kia sai, va ngc lai.
V du:
(13) Ca song di nc (A) (14) Mot so ca khong song di nc (Os).
(15) Moi sinh vien eu la sinh vien gioi (As) (16) Mot so sinh vien khong phai la sinh
vien gioi (O)
(17) Ca khong song tren can. (E) (18) Mot so ca song tren can. (Is).
(19) Moi loai ca eu khong song di nc (Es) (20) Co loai ca song di nc (I).
Tom tat:
Bang 4
A O s A s O
E I s E s I
6.3. Quan he oi choi tren (hay quan he oi lap chung) la quan he gia hai phan oan A
va E.
cap phan oan oi choi tren, t phan oan A (hay E) ung co the suy ra phan oan E
(hay A) sai; nhng neu phan oan A (hay E) sai th phan oan E (hay A) khong xac nh (co
the ung hoac sai). Do vay, hai phan oan oi choi tren co the cung sai nhng khong the cung
ung.
V du:
(21) Ca song di nc (A) (22) Ca khong song di nc (Es).
(23) Ca khong song tren can (E) (24) Ca song tren can (As).
(25) Moi sinh vien eu la sinh vien gioi (As) (26) Moi sinh vien eu khong phai la sinh
vien gioi (Es). (A sai ve lng th E sai).
(27) Moi loai ca eu song tren can (As) (28) Moi loai ca eu khong song tren can (E).
(A sai ve chat th E ung).
(29) Moi sinh vien eu khong phai la sinh vien gioi (Es) (30) Moi sinh vien eu la sinh
vien gioi (As). (E sai ve lng th A sai).
(31) Ca khong song di nc (Es) (32) Ca song di nc (A). (E sai ve chat th A
ung).



Tom tat:
Bang 5
43
A E s ; E A s
A s ve lng E s ; E s ve lng A s
ve chat E ; ve chat A

6.4. Quan he oi choi di (hay quan he oi lap rieng) la quan he gia hai phan oan I va
O.
cap phan oan oi choi di, t phan oan I (hay O) sai co the suy ra phan oan O (hay
I) ung; nhng neu phan oan I (hay O) ung th phan oan O (hay I) khong xac nh (co the
ung hoac sai). Do vay, hai phan oan oi choi di co the cung ung nhng khong the cung
sai.
V du:
(33) Co loai ca song tren can (Is) (34) Co loai ca khong song tren can (O).
(35) Co loai ca khong song di nc (Os) (36) Co loai ca song di nc (I).
(37) Mot so sinh vien la sinh vien gioi (I) (38) Mot so sinh vien khong phai la sinh vien
gioi (O).
(39) Co loai ca song di nc (I) (40) Co loai ca khong song di nc (Os).
(41) Co loai ca khong song tren can (O) (42) Co loai ca song tren can (Is).
(43) Mot so sinh vien khong phai la sinh vien gioi (O) (44) Mot so sinh vien la sinh
vien gioi (I).
Tom tat:
Bang 6

I s O ; O s I
I O khong xac nh (co the ung hoac sai)
O I khong xac nh (co the ung hoac sai)

7. Cac phep lien ket logic tren phan oan
1

T nhng phan oan n cho trc, ta co the xay dng thanh nhng phan oan mi ngay
cang phc tap hn thong qua cac phep lien ket logic (nh cac ket t, tac t logic, con goi: cac
hang logic). Cac phan oan n c goi la phan oan thanh phan. Gia tr logic cua chung the
hien qua bang gia tr chan l (con goi: bang chan tr, bang gia tr). Cac phep lien ket logic c
ban la: phu nh, tuyen, hoi, keo theo va tng ng.
7.1. Phep phu nh Phu nh kep
Cho phan oan a. Ta co phan oan phu nh cua no bang cach at tac t logic phu nh
(goi la khong, k hieu: , hay , hay
_
) vao phan oan a. Hai phan oan a va a
luon luon mau thuan nhau, ngha la neu a ung th a sai, va ngc lai. Va neu phu nh mot
phan oan phu nh (tc phu nh kep, k hieu: (a), oc la: khong phai khong a), ta se co
gia tr chan l cua no giong vi gia tr chan l cua phan oan khang nh; tc (a) tng
ng logic vi a.

1
Con goi: cac phep toan menh e, cac phep toan logic, cac tac t menh e .
44
Gia tr chan l cua phan oan a va cua (a) c xac nh nh trong bang 7 sau:
Bang 7

a ~ a ~ (~a)
s
s s

V du: a: Tri ma. ()
~ a: Tri khong ma. (s)
~ (~a) : Khong phai tri khong ma. ()
Phu nh phan oan n co cac trng hp sau:
SaP SoP
SeP SiP
SaP SeP (trong trng hp o la phan oan n nhat).

7.2. Phep hoi (ng vi phan oan lien ket)
Cho hai phan oan a va b. Ta lien ket chung bang ket t logic va, tc bang phep hoi, k
hieu: a b, oc la a va b, hoi cua a va b. Phan oan lien ket co gia tr la ung khi va ch
khi cac phan oan thanh phan cung ung, va sai trong moi trng hp khac.
Gia tr chan l cua chung c xac nh nh trong bang 8 sau:


Bang 8

a b a b

s s
s s
s s s

V du :
Nam hat hay va ve ep.
Phan oan nay ch ung khi Nam co hat hay () va co ve ep (), va sai khi Nam ch hat
hay () ma ve khong ep (s), hay Nam khong hat hay (s) ma ch ve ep (), hoac Nam khong
hat hay (s) cung khong ve ep (s).
7.3. Phep tuyen (ng vi phan oan la chon)
Co hai phep tuyen: tuyen long (ng vi phan oan la chon lien ket) va tuyen chat (ng vi
phan oan la chon gat bo).
7.3.1. Phep tuyen long
45
Cho hai phan oan a va b. Ta lien ket chung bang ket t logic hay / hoac, tc bang phep
tuyen long, k hieu: ab, oc la a hay b, tuyen long cua a va b. Phan oan la chon lien
ket co gia tr la sai khi va ch khi ca hai phan oan thanh phan cung sai, va ung trong moi
trng hp khac.

V du:
Ba ay i ch hay en nha con trai.
Phan oan nay ch sai khi ba ay khong i ch (s), cung khong en nha con trai (s), va ung
khi ba ay co i ch () ma khong en nha con trai (s), khi ba ay khong i ch (s) nhng co en
nha con trai (), khi ba ay co i ch () va co en nha con trai ().
Gia tr chan l cua chu ng c xac nh nh trong cot (3) bang 9 sau ay.
7.3.2. Phep tuyen chat
Cho hai phan oan a va b. Ta lien ket chung bang ket t logic hoac hoac, tc bang
phep tuyen chat, k hieu: a b, oc la hoac a hoac b, tuyen chat cua a va b. Phan oan
la chon gat bo co gia tr la ung khi trong hai phan oan thanh phan co mot ung mot sai,
va sai khi ca hai phan oan thanh phan cung ung hoac cung sai.
V du:
Ba ay hoac i ch hoac en nha con trai.
Phan oan nay ung khi ba ay co i ch () ma khong en nha con trai (s), khi ba ay khong
i ch (s) ma co en nha con trai (), va sai khi ba ay co i ch () va co en nha con trai (),
khi ba ay khong i ch (s) ma cung khong en nha con trai (s).
Gia tr chan l cua chung c xac nh nh trong cot (4) bang 9 sau ay:
Bang 9

a
(1)
b
(2)
a v b
(3)
a v b
(4)
s
s
s
s s s s

7.4. Phep keo theo
1
(ng vi phan oan co ieu kien)
7.4.1. Cho hai phan oan a va b. Ta lien ket chung bang ket t logic neu th, tc
bang phep keo theo, k hieu: a b, oc la neu co a th co b, a keo theo b. Trong phan
oan nay, a c goi la ieu kien / c s (tien e), con b c goi la he qua (ket luan, hau e).
Phan oan co ieu kien co gia tr la sai khi va ch khi phan oan thanh phan ng trc ung,
phan oan thanh phan ng sau sai, va ung trong moi trng hp khac.
Gia tr chan l cua chung c xac nh nh trong bang 10 sau:

1
Con goi: phep tat suy.
46
Bang 10

a b a b

s s
s
s s
V du:
Con hoc gioi th con c thng.
Phan oan nay ch sai khi con co hoc gioi () ma con khong c thng (s); va ung khi
con co hoc gioi () va con co c thng (), khi con khong hoc gioi (s) nhng con c
thng (v mot l do nao khac, chang han, c thng ve thanh tch trong phong trao van
nghe) (), khi con khong hoc gioi (s) va con khong c thng (s).
Lu y: Trong ngon ng t nhien, co khi cac phan oan thanh phan cua phan oan co ieu
kien b ao trat t. V du: S d toi en muon la v b ket xe, Toi en muon v b ket xe
Trong trng hp nay, ta phai chuan hoa phan oan theo trat t a b, chang han vi v du
tren: V b ket xe nen toi en muon.
7.4.2. Can phan biet ba loai ieu kien: ieu kien u, ieu kien can va ieu kien can va u.
a) ieu kien u (condition suffisante). K hieu: a b, oc la: neu co a th co b.
Xet phan oan:
Neu em hoc gioi (a) th em c thng (b)
a b
Phan oan nay co the c dien at:
Em co hoc gioi la u (ieu kien u) e em c thng.
Em muon c thng th ch can em hoc gioi.
V.v.
Vay: a c goi la ieu kien u e co b, v khi co a th co b.
ieu kien u co the c dien at theo nhng cong thc sau:
Co a la u e co b.
Muon co b th co a la u.
Muon co b th ch can co a.
Co b khi co a
b) ieu kien can (condition necessaire). K hieu: ~a~b, oc la: neu khong co a th
khong the co b.
Xet phan oan:
Neu khong tot nghiep ai hoc loai gioi (a) th khong c hoc chuyen tiep bac cao hoc
(b). ~ a ~ b
Phan oan nay co the c dien at:
47
Tot nghiep ai hoc loai gioi la can (ieu kien can) e c hoc chuyen tiep bac cao hoc.
Muon c hoc chuyen tiep bac cao hoc th can (phai) tot nghiep ai hoc loai gioi.
V.v.
Vay: a c goi la ieu kien can e co b, v neu khong co a th khong the co b .
ieu kien can co the c dien at theo nhng cong thc sau:
Co a la can e co b.
Muon co b th can (phai) co a.
Co b ch khi co a.
Ch co b khi co a
c) ieu kien can va u (condition necessaire et suffisante). K hieu: a b, oc la: co b
khi va ch khi co a.
Co loai la ieu kien u (a b) ma khong phai la ieu kien can (~a ~b), v khong co a
van co the co b. V du: Neu em hoc gioi th em c thng, nhng khong the noi Neu em
khong hoc gioi th em khong c thng, v Em khong hoc gioi, em van co the c thng
(~a b) nh nhng thanh tch khac, chang han thanh tch ve phong trao van the m.
Va co loai la ieu kien can (~a ~b) ma khong phai la ieu kien u (a b) v co a van
co the khong co b. V du: Neu khong tot nghiep ai hoc loai gioi th khong c hoc chuyen
tiep bac cao hoc, nhng tot nghiep ai hoc loai gioi th van co the khong c hoc chuyen
tiep bac cao hoc (a ~b), v con phu thuoc vao nhng ieu kien khac, chang han, khong qua
tuoi quy nh hay khong b tc quyen cong dan.
Vay, ieu kien can va u la neu co a th co b va ngc lai, neu co b th co a .

V du:
Mot so chia het cho 3 khi va ch khi tong cac ch so cua no chia het cho 3.
ieu kien can va u co the c dien at theo nhng cong thc sau:
a la ieu kien can va u e co b.
Co b khi va ch khi co a.
Neu co a th co b va neu co b th co a.
Ch co a (th) mi co b
Lu y:
- Phan oan Co a mi co b, noi chung co ngha la Neu khong co a th khong the co b. Tuy
nhien, cung co khi Co a mi co b lai c hieu la Neu co a th co b, hoac Co b khi va ch khi
co a
1
.
- Neu goi (1) a b la phan oan thuan, th:

1
Xem: Hoang Chung (1994), sd, tr. 42 44.
48
(2) b a la phan oan ao cua (1),
(3) ~a ~b la phan oan phan cua (1), va
(4) ~b ~a la phan oan phan ao cua (1).
Hai phan oan phan ao cua nhau th luon luon co cung gia tr chan l (cung ung hoac
cung sai), nen chung tng ng logic: (a b) = (~b ~a). V vay, khi a la ieu kien u
e co b (a b) th b la ieu kien can e co a (~b ~a). V du: Trong phan oan: Tri ma
(a) th ng t (b), tri ma la ieu kien u (ma khong can) e co ng t, va ng t
la ieu kien can (ma khong u) e co tri ma.
7.5. Phep tng ng
1
(ng vi phan oan tng ng):
Cho hai phan oan a va b. Ta lien ket chung bang ket t logic khi va ch khi, neu va ch
neu, la ieu kien can va u e co, tc bang phep tng ng, k hieu: a b, oc la co b
khi va ch khi co a, co a khi va ch khi co b. Phan oan tng ng la s ket hp cua
(ab) /\ (ba) a noi ieu kien can va u tren ay.
Gia tr chan l cua phep tng ng a b cung chnh la gia tr chan l cua bieu thc (a
b) /\ (b a), c xac nh nh trong bang 11 sau:

Bang 11

a b (a b) (b a) (a b) /\ (b a)

s s s
s s s
s s

Vay: phan oan tng ng co gia tr la ung khi cac phan oan thanh phan cung ung
hoac cung sai, va sai trong cac trng hp khac.
V du:
Mot so chia het cho 3 khi va ch khi tong cac ch so cua no chia het cho 3.
Phan oan nay ung khi so o co chia het cho 3 () va tong cac ch so cua no co chia het
cho 3 (), khi so o khong chia het cho 3 (s) va tong cac ch so cua no khong chia het cho 3
(s), va sai khi so o co chia het cho 3 () va tong cac ch so cua no khong chia het cho 3 (s),
khi so o khong chia het cho 3 (s) va tong cac ch so cua no co chia het cho 3 ().
8. Cach lap bang tnh gia tr logic cua phan oan phc (chng minh cong thc)
Ap dung cac phep lien ket logic, t nhng phan oan cho trc, ta co the xay dng nen
nhng phan oan mi. Cac phan oan c xay dng nen nh phng phap nay c goi la
cong thc (k hieu bang nhng ch cai in hoa nh A, B, C). e phan biet cac bc, ta s
dung cac dau ngoac n. Gia tr cua cac cong thc c xay dng theo bang gia tr cua cac
cong thc thanh phan.

1
Con goi: phep ang gia.
49
Tren ay, chung ta a co cac bang gia tr chan l cua nhng phan oan phc gom 2 phan
oan thanh phan (tc 2 bien menh e). Moi phan oan co hai gia tr chan l (ung va sai), nen
bang co 4 dong, c trnh bay nh tren. Neu phan oan phc co 3 phan oan thanh phan (3
bien menh e) th so dong la: 2
3
=

8 dong, co 4 phan oan thanh phan (4 bien menh e) th so
dong la: 2
4
= 16 dong, vi n phan oan thanh phan (n bien menh e) th so dong la: 2
n

dong.
Do tnh chat kien thiet dan cua cong thc, nen khi tnh gia tr cua no, ta phai tnh gia tr cua
cac cong thc thanh phan trc, va da vao gia tr a tnh c o e tnh gia tr cua cong
thc cuoi cung can tnh. Gia tr cuoi cung cua mot cong thc c tnh la gia tr cua cong thc
o.
Neu cot cuoi cung, ket qua cho ra ch nhan gia tr ung th o la cong thc hang ung, va
o la quy luat logic; ngc lai, neu cong thc ch nhan gia tr sai (hang sai), hay co ca gia tr
ung va sai th cong thc o khong phai la quy luat logic.
V du:
Chng minh cong thc: (((a b) ~c) (b c)) a la quy luat logic (xem bang 12).
Bang 12

a b c ~a ~b ~c

(a b) (a b) ~c (b c) ((ab)c)
(bc)
(((ab)c)
(bc)) a

s s s s s s
s s s s s s
s s s s s
s s s s s
s s s s s s
s s s s s
s s s s s
s s s s s
9. Tnh ang tr cua cac phan oan Mot so he thc tng ng
Khi cac phan oan co gia tr logic giong nhau trong moi trng hp (vi moi bo gia tr co
the co) th chung co tnh ang tr. Trong trng hp nay ta goi chung la nhng he thc (hay
cong thc) tng ng, k hieu: AB, oc la: A tng ng logic vi B. e gian tien, ta co
the thay k hieu bang =.
e khao sat hai bieu thc nao o co tng ng logic vi nhau hay khong, ta lap bang va
tnh gia tr logic cua chung theo nh ngha ve cac phep lien ket logic a neu. V du: Tri
ma th ng t (a b) tng ng logic vi ng khong t th tri khong ma (~b
~a), v chung co moi bo gia tr cua cac bien menh e eu nh nhau (oi chieu hai cot (3) va
(3) bang (13)).

Bang 13

a
(1)
b
(2)
(a b)
(3)
~ a
(1)
~ b
(2)
(~ b ~ a)
(3)



s

s
s
s
s


s
50
s
s

s




s




Tnh ang tr cua cac phan oan cho phep ta co the thc hien viec thay the cac menh e
tng ng trong qua trnh lap luan va chng minh.
Sau ay la mot so he thc tng ng n gian khac:
a) (a b) = a b ( he thc De Morgan)
b) (a b) = a b (he thc De Morgan)
c) a b = ~a b
d) a b = ~(a ~b)
e) a b = ~(a ~b)
f) a b = ~(b ~a)
g) a b = ~(~a ~b) (phep hoi bieu th qua
phep tuyen)
h) a b = ~a b
i) a b = ~b a
j) a b = ~(~a ~b) (phep tuyen bieu th
qua phep hoi )
k) a (b c) = (a b) (a c)
l) a (b c) = (a b) (a c)
m) a (b c) = (a b) (a c)
n) (a b) c = a ( b c).



CAU HOI VA BAI TAP


1. Phan oan la g? Mot phan oan n co cau truc nh the nao?
2. Trnh bay quan he gia phan oan va cau.
3. Trnh bay ve cac loai phan oan can c theo cau truc, theo noi ham cua thuoc t, theo ca chat va
lng, va theo tnh thai.
4. Xac nh tnh chu dien cua cac han t trong cac phan oan c ban (A, I, E, O).
5. Trnh bay quan he gia cac phan oan A, I, E, O qua hnh vuong logic.
6. Trnh bay bang gia tr chan l cua cac phep lien ket logic tren phan oan. The nao la ieu kien u,
ieu kien can, ieu kien can va u?
7. The nao la tnh ang tr cua cac phan oan? Neu mot so he thc tng ng n gian.
8. Hay xay dng cac phan oan chan thc t moi cap t ng sau ay, roi cho biet o la phan oan A,
I, E hay O, va xac nh tnh chu dien cua cac han t trong phan oan ay:
51
a. Tr thc va giao vien.
b. Danh t rieng va t ch ten rieng cua s vat.
c. Lan va moc tren cay.
d. Bac s va y ta.
e. Ca s va thanh nien.
9. Viet di dang k hieu cac phan oan sau (neu ro k hieu cua tng phan oan thanh phan):
(1) Cau ghep gom co hai loai: ang lap va chnh phu.
(2) Lan va Thuy ang lam bai tap logic hoc.
(3) Phong nay va chat va nong.
(4) Phong nay a chat lai nong.
(5) Phong nay khong chat, cung khong nong.
(6) Phong nay tuy chat nhng khong nong.
(7) No hoc an hoac hoc ve.
(8) Toi se ket thuc cong viec luc 10 gi hoac 10 gi ri.
(9) Phong nay au co nong hay chat.
(10) Khong the co chuyen phong nay chat ma lai khong nong.
(11) Bao rang phong nay chat ma lai khong nong la sai.
(12) Noi rang phong nay chat hoac nong la khong ung.
(13) V benh, toi phai ngh hoc.
(14) Phong nay v chat nen nong.
(15) Neu kho khan th anh hay bao toi.
(16) Phong nay khong chat th khong nong.
(17) Toi i taxi khi tri ma.
(18) Cau ch c thi vao ai hoc khi co bang tot nghiep Trung hoc pho thong.
(19) e en trng kp gi hoc, toi phai ri nha t 6 gi sang.
(20) Toi khong i ngu sm tr phi sap om.
(21) Khong co la th sao co khoi.
(22) oan trng ai co qua cau mi hay.
(23) Muon hoc gioi th phai co phng phap hoc tap ung an.
(24) Co lam th mi co an.
(25) Ch nhng ngi co giay mi th mi c tham d cuoc hop nay.
(26) Anh ranh hay tien ng th ghe toi chi.
(27) Neu nc oc lap ma dan khong hng hanh phuc th oc lap cung khong co y ngha g. (Ho
Ch Minh)
(28) ng i kho, khong kho v ngan song cach nui ma kho v long ngi ngai nui e song.
(Nguyen Ba Hoc)
(29) Lan co nhieu ban khong phai v nha Lan giau, cung khong phai v Lan ep.
(30) Lan co nhieu ban khong phai v nha Lan giau hay v Lan ep.
10. Lap bang chan tr e chng minh cac cong thc sau la hang ung (quy luat logic):
52
a. ((a b) (b c)) (a c).
b. (a b) ( ~a b).
c. (a b) (a b).
d. ((a (b c)) (~b ~c)) ~a.
11. Xay dng bang chan tr cua cac bieu thc sau:
a. a (a b).
b. ~ (a (a b)).
c. ((a b) c) ((b c) a).
12. Hay lap bang va tnh gia tr logic cua nhng he thc tng ng a neu muc 9 chng IV e
lam ro tnh ang tr cua chung.
13. Hay dien at bang ngon ng t nhien nhng he thc tng ng t a en j a neu muc 9
chng IV.
53
Chng V

SUY LUAN


1. Suy luan la g?
1.1. Suy luan (raisonnement, con goi: suy l) la mot hnh thc t duy trong o xuat phat t
mot hay vai phan oan a co (goi la tien e), ngi ta rut ra mot phan oan mi (goi la ket
luan), theo nhng quy tac logic xac nh (goi la lap luan hay luan chng).
V du:
(i) Triet gia la tr thc, suy ra: Co tr thc la triet gia.
(ii) Moi ngi eu phai chet,
Hoang la ngi,
Vay, Hoang cung phai chet.
1.2. V du sau ay cho thay t tien e gia doi van co the suy ra ket luan chan thc:
Sinh vat nao cung song di nc, [Tien e gia doi]
Ca la sinh vat,
Vay, ca cung song di nc. [Ket luan chan thc]
Con v du sau ay cho thay t tien e chan thc van co the suy ra ket luan gia doi:
Cay hoa hong th co gai, [Tien e chan thc]
Cay hoa nay (v du: Cay xng rong) co gai, [Tien e chan thc]
Vay, cay hoa nay la cay hoa hong. [Ket luan gia doi]
V vay, e mot suy luan c coi la ung an, can hoi u ca hai ieu kien:
a. Tien e phai chan thc;
b. Ket luan rut ra t tien e phai hp logic.
2. Phan loai suy luan
Can c theo cach thc lap luan, ngi ta thng phan chia suy luan thanh ba loai: suy luan
dien dch, suy luan quy nap va suy luan loai t.
Suy luan dien dch (goi tat la suy dien deduction), theo logic hoc truyen thong, la hnh
thc lap luan i t cai chung en cai rieng. Theo logic hoc hien ai, suy luan dien dch la suy
luan tuan theo nhng quy tac logic nhat nh, trong o, ket luan a c bao ham mot cach
tiem tang nhng tien e, nen no tat yeu c rut ra t o; nh vay, neu tien e xuat phat
ung th ket luan cung phai ung. Suy luan dien dch bao gom suy luan dien dch trc tiep va
suy luan dien dch gian tiep. Suy luan dien dch gian tiep thng c trnh bay qua lap luan
ba oan - tam oan luan (syllogisme).
Suy luan quy nap (raisonnement par induction) la hnh thc lap luan i t cai rieng le en
cai pho bien. Suy luan quy nap gom hai loai c ban: quy nap ay u (hay quy nap hoan toan),
va quy nap khong ay u (hay quy nap khong hoan toan) bao gom quy nap pho thong va quy
nap khoa hoc.
54
Suy luan loai t (raisonnement par analogie) la hnh thc lap luan i t nhng thuoc tnh
giong nhau cua hai oi tng e rut ra ket luan ve thuoc tnh giong nhau khac cua chung.
Theo ngha rong ve phep quy nap, co the xem loai t la mot hnh thc quy nap ac biet.
Can lu y, suy luan dien dch va suy luan quy nap tuy co nhng iem khac nhau, nhng
chung co tac dung bo sung cho nhau; o la moi lien he co tnh chat bien chng.
3. Suy luan dien dch (suy dien)
3.1. Suy luan dien dch trc tiep. ay la hnh thc suy luan ma trong o ket luan c rut
ra ch t mot tien e. Can phan biet loai nay vi tam oan luan tnh lc la hnh thc suy dien
gian tiep, se noi sau.
Co nhieu cach suy dien trc tiep.
T tien e la phan oan n, ta co the suy dien trc tiep bang cach da vao quan he cua
cac phan oan c ban A, I, E, O c the hien qua hnh vuong logic (xem: 6. Chng IV), hoac
thc hien cac phep hoan chuyen phan oan nh: phep chuyen hoa phan oan, phep hoan v
han t, phep i lp thuc t.
T tien e la phan oan phc, ta co the suy dien trc tiep bang cach da vao cac he thc
tng ng (xem: 9, Chng VI).
Phan sau ay, ch trnh bay ve cac phep hoan chuyen phan oan.
3.1.1. Phep chuyen hoa phan oan. Thc hien phep suy dien nay, ta chuyen oi chat cua
phan oan nhng khong lam thay oi noi dung va ngoai dien cua chu t phan oan. Co hai
cach chuyen hoa phan oan:
a) Thc hien phu nh kep, hay suy ra phan oan tng ng t phu nh kep: S la P S
khong phai la khong P.
V du:
T: Bai th nay hay, suy ra: Bai th nay khong phai la khong hay; hay ngoc lai.
T: Khong ca nao khong song di nc, suy ra: Tat ca ca eu song di nc; hay
ngc lai.
b) Chuyen ngha phu nh t he t sang thuoc t, hay ngc lai: S khong phai la P S la
khong P.
V du:
T: Mot so may bay khong phai la may bay co ngi lai, suy ra: Mot so may bay la may
bay khong co ngi lai; hay ngc lai.
3.1.2. Phep hoan v (hay ao ngc, nghch ao) han t. Thc hien phep suy dien nay, ta
hoan oi v tr cua chu t va thuoc t trong phan oan cho nhau, vi ieu kien, sau khi hoan
v, tnh chu dien cua cac han t trong phan oan xuat phat khong c tang len. Co hai kieu
hoan v han t trong phan oan: hoan v thuan tuy
1
va hoan v bien oi
2
.
V du:

1
Con goi la s ao ngc n gian.
2
Con goi la s ao ngc han nh.
55
(1) T: Goc vuong la goc co 90
0
,
S
+
P
+
suy ra: Goc co 90
0
la goc vuong. [Hoan v thuan tuy]
S
+
P
+
(2) T: Ca la loai ong vat song di nc,
S
+
P
-

suy ra:
Co loai ong vat song di nc la ca.[Hoan v bien oi]
S
-
P
+
Neu S va P trong phan oan xuat phat co tnh chu dien giong nhau th ta thc hien phep
hoan v thuan tuy. Cu the la:
- S
+
a P
+
hoan v thanh S
+
a P
+
(khi S P).
V du (1) neu tren.
- S
+
e P
+
hoan v thanh S
+
e P
+
.
V du: Ca khong phai la loai song tren can, suy ra: Loai song tren can khong phai
la ca.
- S
-
i P
-
hoan v thanh S
-
i P
-
(khi S P).
V du: Mot so sinh vien la oan vien, suy ra: Mot so oan vien la sinh vien.
Neu tnh chu dien cua S va P trong phan oan xuat phat khac nhau th ta thc hien phep
hoan v bien oi. Cu the la:
- S
+
a P
-
hoan v thanh S
-
i P
+
(khi P S).
V du (2) neu tren.
- S
-
i P
+
hoan v thanh S
+
a P
-
(khi S P).
V du: Co loai ong vat song di nc la ca, suy ra: Ca la loai ong vat song di
nc.
Phep hoan v han t khong thc hien c oi vi phan oan SoP.
3.1.3. Phep oi lap thuoc t
1
. Neu ta lan lt thc hien ca hai phep hoan chuyen phan oan
tren ay (chuyen hoa phan oan roi hoan v han t) th ta a thc hien phep suy dien oi lap
thuoc t. Cu the nh sau:
- SaP suy ra SeP .
V du:
+ T: Goc vuong la goc co 90
0
, suy ra: Goc khong co 90
0
khong phai la goc vuong.
[Thc hien chuyen hoa P: Goc vuong khong phai la goc khong co 90
0
thc hien hoan v
han t: Goc khong co 90
0
khong phai la goc vuong].
+Ca song di nc, suy ra: Loai khong song di nc khong phai la ca. [Thc
hien chuyen hoa P: Ca khong phai la loai khong song di nc thc hien hoan v han
t: Loai khong song di nc khong phai la ca].
- SeP suy ra SiP , hoac SaP .

1
Con goi : phep oi lap v t.
56
V du:
+ Ca khong phai la loai song tren can, suy ra: Co loai khong song tren can la ca (SiP).
[Thc hien chuyen hoa P: Ca la loai khong song tren can thc hien hoan v han t: Co
loai khong song tren can la ca].
+ Tam giac eu khong the la tam giac khong co ba canh bang nhau, suy ra: Tam giac co
ba canh bang nhau la tam giac eu (SaP). [Thc hien chuyen hoa P: Tam giac eu la tam
giac co ba canh bang nhau thc hien hoan v han t: Tam giac co ba canh bang nhau la
tam giac eu].
- SoP suy ra SiP, hoac SaP.
V du:
+ Mot so sinh vien khong phai la oan vien, suy ra, Mot so oi tng khong phai oan
vien la sinh vien (SiP). [Thc hien chuyen hoa P: Mot so sinh vien la oi tng khong phai
oan vien thc hien hoan v han t: Mot so oi tng khong phai oan vien la sinh
vien].
+ Mot so sinh vien khong phai la sinh vien gioi, suy ra: Sinh vien khong gioi (cung) la
sinh vien (SaP). ). [Thc hien chuyen hoa P: Mot so sinh vien la sinh vien khong gioi
thc hien hoan v han t: Sinh vien khong gioi (cung) la sinh vien].
Phep oi lap thuoc t khong thc hien c oi vi phan oan SiP.
3.2. Suy luan dien dch gian tiep: tam oan luan (syllogisme)
ay la hnh thc suy luan ma trong o ket luan c rut ra t hai tien e.
Trong toan hoc, e lap luan c chat che, ngi ta thng dung tam oan luan e suy t
gia thiet ra ket luan. V du: Hai goc oi nh th bang nhau, (ma)

1 O va

2 O la hai goc oi nh,

vay

1 O =

2 O .
Co nhieu loai tam oan luan (TL), nh se trnh bay sau ay.
3.2.1. Tam oan luan xac quyet
1

3.2.1.1. nh ngha: Tam oan luan xac quyet la hnh thc suy luan dien dch gom ba phan
oan, trong o cac phan oan eu la nhng phan oan xac quyet.
3.2.1.2. Cau truc cua tam oan luan xac quyet
Ngi ta dung cac k hieu sau ay e ch cac han t (thuat ng) trong TL:
S: Chu t (sujet) trong ket luan, c goi la tieu t (hay thuat ng nho - petit terme) trong
tien e.
P: Thuoc t (predicat) trong ket luan, c goi la ai t (hay thuat ng ln - grand terme)
trong tien e.
S va P trong hai tien e con c goi chung la han t bien (hay thuat ng ben).

1
ay la cach goi gon loai TL xac quyet n. Con goi: TL khong co ieu kien, TL nhat quyet (n), TL thuoc tnh
(n).
57
M: Han t xuat hien trong ca hai tien e nhng khong xuat hien trong ket luan, c goi
la trung t (hay thuat ng gia - moyen terme). Trung t gi vai tro ket noi hai han t bien,
nh o ta mi co the rut ra c ket luan t hai tien e.
Tien e cha S c goi la tieu tien e.
Tien e cha P c goi la ai tien e.
Theo o, chung ta co the xac nh cac han t va cac phan oan trong TL sau ay nh sau:
Moi ngi eu phai chet; (1) ai tien e (v cha P)
M P
Hoang la ngi, (2) Tieu tien e (v cha S)
S M
Vay Hoang cung phai chet. (3) Ket luan
S P
Tren ay la tam oan luan bat au bang ai tien e (trat t thuan). Tam oan luan cung
con co the bat au bang tieu tien e. V du:
Hoang la ngi, (2) Tieu tien e (v cha S)
S M
Ma moi ngi eu phai chet,(1) ai tien e (v cha P)
M P
Cho nen Hoang cung phai chet. (3) Ket luan
S P
3.2.1.3. Cac tien e (axiome) cua tam oan luan xac quyet
Tien e (hay cong l) la nhng ieu chan l n gian, khong the chng minh, dung lam xuat
phat iem trong mot he thong l luan nao o. Co hai tien e tam oan luan xac quyet:
a) Cai toan the bao ham cai bo phan. Cho nen, he a khang nh (hay phu nh) toan bo
mot loai oi tng th cung co ngha la a khang nh (hay phu nh) cac bo phan cua no. Tien
e nay phan anh moi quan he cua khai niem ve mat ngoai dien.
b) Thuoc tnh cua thuoc tnh s vat th cung la thuoc tnh cua chnh ban than s vat. Ngha
la, thuoc tnh cua khai niem loai cung la thuoc tnh cua khai niem hang. Tien e nay phan anh
moi quan he cua khai niem ve mat noi ham.
Phan tch moi lien he gia tien e va ket luan cua TL a cho tren ay, chung ta se thay
ro tnh chat tien e o.
3.2.1.4. Cac hnh va quy tac cua cac hnh tam oan luan xac quyet
a. Cac hnh TL xac quyet
Can c vao s thay oi v tr cua trung t M, Aristote a neu len ba hnh (figures) tam oan
luan; ve sau Galien bo sung them hnh th t nen hnh th t con co ten la hnh Galien
1
. Cac
hnh o la nh sau:


1
Aristote va cac nha logic hoc trc Galien khong tha nhan hnh th t v cho rang no co ket luan rat gng ep.
58
* Hnh th nhat

M P V du: Moi ngi eu phai chet,
Hoang la ngi,
Vay Hoang cung phai chet.
S M
S P

* Hnh th hai

P M V du: Ca khong song tren can,
Con vat nay song tren can,
Vay con vat nay khong phai la ca.
S M
S P

* Hnh th ba

M P V du: Trau bo la loai nhai lai,
Trau bo la gia suc,
Vay co gia suc la loai nhai lai.
M S
S P



* Hnh th t

P M V du: Mot so hoa qua la dc lieu,
Dc lieu la chat dung e che thuoc cha benh,
M S Vay co chat dung e che thuoc
S P cha benh la hoa qua.

b. Quy tac cua cac hnh TL xac quyet
1


1
Can lu y, quy tac hnh khong u e xet tnh hp logic cua TL. Chang han, TL kieu AAE hnh 1 tuy khong vi pham
quy tac hnh nhng ket luan E c rut ra t hai tien e AA la gia doi.
Trong mot so tai lieu logic hoc co neu hoac tranh luan ve mot so trng hp c coi la ngoai le cua TL. Chang
han, TL sau ay tuy vi pham quy tac hnh th nhat nhng co ket luan chan that: Mot so kim loai la kim loai kiem (SiP).
Mot so nguyen to hoa hoc la kim loai (SiP), Vay, mot so nguyen to hoa hoc la kim loai kiem (SiP), v.v. Y kien ve van e
nay noi chung con bat ong. Xem: Nguyen Van Tran (1992), Logich vui, NXB S that, HN, tr. 190; Vng Tat at (1998),
sd, tr. 109 111; To Duy Hp Nguyen Anh Tuan (1997), Logic hoc, NXB ong Nai, tr. 219 228; Nguyen Anh Tuan
(2000), Lo-gch hnh thc, NXB ai hoc Quoc gia TP HCM, tr. 194 205...
59
Hnh th nhat:
ai tien e phai la phan oan toan the, va tieu tien e phai la phan oan khang nh.
Hnh th hai:
ai tien e phai la phan oan toan the, va mot trong hai tien e phai la phan oan phu
nh.

Hnh th ba:
Tieu tien e phai la phan oan khang nh, va ket luan phai la phan oan bo phan.
Hnh th t:
Neu mot tien e la phan oan phu nh th ai tien e la phan oan toan the.
Neu ai tien e la phan oan khang nh th tieu tien e la phan oan toan the.
Neu tieu tien e la phan oan khang nh th ket luan la phan oan bo phan.
3.2.1.5. Cac quy tac chung cua TL xac quyet n
Trong tam quy tac sau ay, ba quy tac au la ve cac han t, con nam quy tac sau la ve cac
tien e.
Quy tac 1: Trong moi TL xac quyet ch c co 3 han t.
Neu ch co hai han t th o ch la mot phan oan, nen khong the suy dien gian tiep. Neu
co en bon han t th hai tien e khong co lien he logic (khong co trung t xac lap moi lien he
gia cac han t bien), do o ket luan rut ra khong chan that. Cac nha logic hoc goi ay la sai
lam bon han t. Loai sai lam nay xay ra thng do ong nhat hai t ng ong am nhng
d ngha.
Trong v du sau ay, do vat chat (1) va (2) mang hai ngha khac nhau, nen ket luan c
rut ra la gia doi:
Vat chat (1) ton tai vnh vien,
Banh m la vat chat (2),
Vay banh m ton tai vnh vien.
Quy tac 2: Trung t phai chu dien t nhat mot lan.
Trong v du sau ay, trung t (M) ca hai tien e khong co lan nao chu dien nen ket luan
c rut ra khong chan that:
Hau het sinh vien (M
-
) eu thch am nhac,
Bnh la sinh vien (M
-
),
Chac chan Bnh cung thch am nhac.
e tuan thu quy tac nay, trung t trong hai tien e TL phai co t nhat mot lan la chu t
cua phan oan toan the, hoac thuoc t cua phan oan phu nh.
Quy tac 3: Han t khong chu dien trong tien e th khong c chu dien trong ket luan.
60
Trong v du sau ay, do ngoai dien cua P trong ket luan ln hn ngoai dien cua P trong tien
e nen ket luan khong chan that:
Moi sinh vien eu phai thong thao ngoai ng (P
-
),
Giao s Tanh (S
+
) khong phai la sinh vien,
Vay, giao s Tanh (S
+
) khong thong thao ngoai ng (P
+
).
Quy tac 4: T hai tien e la phan oan phu nh, khong the rut ra ket luan.
Neu hai tien e phu nh th hai han t bien khong xac lap c moi lien he, do o khong
the rut ra ket luan . V du:

Ca khong song tren can;
Con vat nay khong phai la ca;
...............................................?
Quy tac 5: Neu co mot tien e la phan oan phu nh th ket luan cung phai la phan oan
phu nh.
Quy tac nay xuat phat t cac tien e cua tam oan luan. V du, phan tch suy luan hp quy
tac a cho hnh th hai:
Ca (P
+
) khong song tren can (M
+
),
Con vat nay (S
+
) song tren can (M
-
),
Vay con vat nay (S
+
) khong phai la ca (P
+
).
Xet hai tien e cua TL nay: ai tien e la phan oan phu nh nen ngoai dien cua trung
t M khong co lien he vi ngoai dien cua ai t ca (P); va trong tieu tien e, ngoai dien cua
tieu t con vat nay (S) b bao ham trong ngoai dien cua trung t M nen cung khong co lien he
g vi ngoai dien cua ai t ca (P). Nh vay, theo tien e cua TL, ket luan cung phai la phan
oan phu nh (xem hnh 13).




Hnh 13
Quy tac 6: T hai tien e la phan oan khang nh, khong the rut ra ket luan phu nh.
Neu hai tien e khang nh th cac han t bien c lien ket bi trung t. V vay, neu rut ra
ket luan phu nh th hai han t bien tr nen b phan cach trong ket luan.
Kieu AAO hnh th t v vi pham quy tac nay nen sai, mac du no khong vi pham cac quy
tac khac.
Quy tac 7: T hai tien e la phan oan bo phan, khong the rut ra ket luan.
Gia s ca hai tien e eu la phan oan bo phan, th ta se co bon trng hp: I I, IO, OI,
OO.
Neu hai tien e la I I th M khong chu dien trong ca hai tien e, vi pham quy tac 2 tren
ay.
M
S

P
61
Neu hai tien e la IO hay OI th thuoc t cua phan oan phu nh bo phan O se chu dien,
va theo quy tac 5 tren ay, ket luan phai la phan oan phu nh. Trong trng hp nay, hoac
M hoac P chu dien. Neu M chu dien th P trong ket luan (chu dien) se co ngoai dien ln hn
ngoai dien cua P trong tien e (khong chu dien), ieu nay vi pham quy tac 3 tren ay. Neu P
chu dien th M khong chu dien trong ca hai tien e, ieu nay vi pham quy tac 2 tren ay.
Neu hai tien e la OO th vi pham quy tac 4 tren ay.
Quy tac 8: Neu co mot tien e la phan oan bo phan th ket luan cung phai la phan oan
bo phan.
Gia s co mot tien e la phan oan bo phan th ta se co ca thay 12 trng hp tien e nh
sau: AI, AO, EI, EO, IA, IE, OA, OE, OO, OI, IO, I I. Tuy nhien, do cac trng hp EO, OE,
OO vi pham quy tac 4, cac trng hp OI, IO, I I vi pham quy tac 7 tren ay nen ch con lai 6
trng hp co the rut ra ket luan: AI, AO, IA, IE, OA, EI.
Vi cac trng hp AI va IA: Neu ai tien e la A va tieu tien e la I th chu t cua A chu
dien. e rut ra c ket luan khong vi pham quy tac 2 tren ay th chu t cua A phai v tr
trung t M. Trong trng hp nay, S va P se khong chu dien trong ca hai tien e; do o, e
khoi vi pham quy tac 3, S trong ket luan cung khong c chu dien, ngha la ket luan phai la
phan oan bo phan.
Vi cac trng hp AO, IE, OA va EI: ai tien e co the la E, A hay O va tieu tien e
tng ng la I, O, A. Cac han t chu dien la S va P cua E, hay S cua A va P cua O. Trong
trng hp nay, noi chung e khong vi pham cac quy tac 2, 3 va 5 tren ay, ket luan cung phai
la phan oan bo phan
1
.
e minh hoa cho tat ca cac quy tac chung tren ay, cung co the dung bieu o Venn the
hien quan he gia cac han t.

3.2.1.6. Cac kieu cua TL xac quyet
Tren l thuyet, moi tam oan luan gom 3 phan oan. Moi phan oan co the thuoc mot trong
bon dang A, I, E, O. Nh vay, moi loai hnh co 4
3
= 64 kieu; bon loai hnh se co tat ca: 64 x 4
= 256 kieu. Tuy nhien, v co nhng kieu vi pham quy tac hnh va quy tac chung hay nguyen tac
tiet kiem
2
nen ch con 19 kieu TL ung tng ng vi 4 hnh nh sau:

1
ay la nhng quy tac c soan lai. Trc kia, cac nha logic hoc truyen thong a neu len 8 quy tac chung cua TL xac
quyet nh sau:
a. Trong mot TL ch co ba han t: ai t, trung t va tieu t;
b. Trong ket luan, cac han t khong c co ngoai dien ln hn trong tien e;
c. Trung t khong c co mat trong ket luan;
d. Trung t phai co gia tr pho quat (ngoai dien ay u) t ra la mot lan;
e. Neu hai tien e eu la nhng phan oan phu nh th khong the ket luan c;
f. Vi hai tien e khang nh th khong the rut ra mot ket luan phu nh;
g. Ket luan luon luon phai theo tien e yeu nhat;
h. Vi hai tien e rieng th khong the ket luan c.
2
Nguyen tac tiet kiem: T hai tien e xac nh, neu rut ra c phan oan toan the th thoi khong rut ra ket luan la phan
oan bo phan. V du, hnh th nhat, t hai tien e dang A ta a rut ra c ket luan dang A, th thoi khong rut ra ket luan
dang I na.
Neu khong theo nguyen tac tiet kiem tren ay th se co en 24 kieu TL ung, cu the la co them 5 kieu ung sau:
hnh 1 them AAI (bAbArI) va EAO (cElArOnt), hnh 2 them EAO (cEsArO) va AEO (cAmEstrOs) va hnh 4 them kieu
AEO (cAlEmOs).
62
Hnh th nhat: AAA, EAE, AII, EIO
Hnh th hai: EAE, AEE, EIO, AOO
Hnh th ba: AAI, IAI, AII, EAO, OAO, EIO
Hnh th t: AAI, AEE, IAI, EAO, EIO.

Chang han, trong cac v du minh hoa cho cac hnh TL tren ay, v du neu hnh th nhat
thuoc kieu AAA, hnh th hai thuoc kieu EAE, hnh th ba thuoc kieu AII, hnh th t thuoc
kieu IAI.
19 kieu ung tren a c cac nha logic hoc trnh bay trong bai ve c thuat sau:
BArbArA cElArEnt primae dArII fErIOque (hnh 1);
CEsArE cAmEstrEs fEstInO bArOcO secundae (hnh 2);
Tertia grande somans recitat dArAptI fElAptOn dIsAmIs dAtIsI bOcArdO fErIsOn, quartae (hnh
3);
Sunt bAmAlIp cAlEmEs dImAtIs fEsApO frEsIsOn (hnh 4).
Trong cac ten goi tren eu co ba nguyen am (c in am) tng ng vi ba phan oan cua
cac kieu tam oan luan ung.
Lu y: Cac phan oan trong cac kieu TL c neu theo trat t thuan: ai tien e tieu
tien e ket luan.
Phep quy oi
Trong 19 kieu tren, cac nha logic hoc xem hai kieu Barbara va Celarent cua hnh 1 la hien
nhien ung, va dung chung e chng minh cho cac kieu con lai cua hnh 1. Vi cac kieu cua
ba hnh 2, 3 va 4, e chng minh, ngi ta quy oi chung ve mot trong cac kieu tng ng cua
hnh 1.
e thc hien phep quy oi, trc het, ta da vao cac phu am au cua kieu TL can quy
oi (thuoc cac hnh 2, 3, 4) e xac nh kieu TL tng ng hnh 1, chang han, kieu Cesare
(hnh 2) tng ng vi kieu Celarent (hnh 1); kieu Baroco (hnh 2), kieu Bocardo (hnh 3) va
kieu Bamalip (hnh 4) tng ng vi kieu Barbara (hnh 1), kieu Disamis (hnh 3) tng ng
vi kieu Darii (hnh 1); sau o, da vao cac phu am s, p, m, c sau tien e va ket luan cua
TL can quy oi, ta thc hien cac phep logic sau e co tien e va ket luan tng ng hnh 1:
s - thc hien phep hoan v han t thuan tuy; p thc hien phep hoan v han t bien oi, m
ao v hai tien e cho nhau, c thc hien phep chng minh phan chng.
V du:
(1) Chng minh TL:
Ca song di nc (A).
Co ong vat khong song di nc (O).
Vay, co ong vat khong phai la ca (O).
(kieu Baroco - hnh 2)
la kieu ung.
Trc het, ta da vao phu am au b, quy oi Baroco ve kieu Barbara - hnh 1. Sau o, da
vao phu am c, ta chng minh phan chng: Tieu tien e Moi ong vat eu song di nc (A)
va ket luan Moi ong vat la ca (A) la phan oan sai; do A sai nen phan oan mau thuan cua
no (O) ung.
63
(2) Chng minh TL:
Mot so sinh vien hoc logic hoc (I).
Moi sinh vien eu hoc tin hoc (A).
Vay, co ngi hoc tin hoc la ngi hoc logic hoc (I).
(kieu Disamis - hnh 3)
la kieu ung.
S o thao tac:
Disamis hnh 3 Darii hnh 1
M i P (s) P i M M a S
M a S (m) . . . . . . . . . . . P i M
S i P (s) P i S
Trc tien, da vao phu am au d cua Disamis, ta quy oi ve kieu Darii - hnh1. Tiep o,
da vao phu am s ng sau ai tien e i, ta thc hien phep hoan v han t thuan tuy, da vao
phu am m ng sau tieu tien e a, ta ao v hai tien e cho nhau. M a S va P i M chnh la hai
tien e cua kieu Darii. T o, ta suy ra ket luan: P i S.
Cu the, TL a cho tren c quy oi thanh Darii - hnh 1 la:
Moi sinh vien eu hoc tin hoc (A).
Co ngi hoc logic hoc la sinh vien (I).
Vay, co ngi hoc logic hoc la ngi hoc tin hoc (I).
Do trong Disamis co s ng cuoi, nen thc hien phep hoan v han t thuan tuy oi vi ket
luan P i S ta c ket luan S i P (Co ngi hoc tin hoc la ngi hoc logic hoc). o la ieu
can chng minh.
(3) e chng minh kieu Bamalip hnh 4, ta quy oi ve kieu Babara hnh 1.
P a M (m) M a S
M a S P a M
S i P (p) P a S
Do trong Bamalip co m ng gia hai tien e nen ta ao v hai tien e cho nhau. Theo kieu
Babara hnh 1, ta suy ra ket luan P a S. Do trong Bamalip co ch p ng cuoi, nen thc hien
phep hoan v han t bien oi oi vi ket luan P a S ta c ket luan S i P. o la ieu can
chng minh.
Chang han:
Cac nha th eu lang man (A).
Nhng ngi lang man eu nhay cam (A).
Vay mot so ngi nhay cam la nha th (I).
(kieu Bamalip hnh 4)
c quy oi thanh:
Nhng ngi lang man eu nhay cam (A).
Cac nha th eu lang man (A).
Vay cac nha th eu nhay cam (A).
(kieu Babara hnh 1)
64
Thc hien phep hoan v han t bien oi ket luan Vay cac nha th eu nhay cam, ta c
ket luan Vay mot so ngi nhay cam la nha th. o la ieu can chng minh.
3.2.2. Tam oan luan tnh lc
1

Tnh lc la mot hien tng thng thay trong dien at bang ngon ng t nhien. Tam oan
luan tnh lc la mot loai tam oan luan xac quyet n, trong o co mot phan oan khong
c noi, viet ro ra, nhng ngi nghe van co the ngam hieu mot cach t nhien, va do o, no
co the de dang c phuc hoi. V du, khi lap luan Anh la nha van, anh phai co tac pham,
ngi noi a lc i ai tien e: Moi nha van eu phai co tac pham.
Phan oan nao trong tam oan luan cung co the c tnh lc, nhng thng gap nhat la
tnh lc ai tien e, nh v du neu tren.
V du ve tnh lc tieu tien e:
Moi ngi eu phai an, vay ho cung phai an. Phan oan tnh lc: Ho la ngi.
V du ve tnh lc ket luan:
Ngi gia th lam benh, ma bac th a gia.... Phan oan c tnh lc: Nen bac cung
lam benh.
Tam oan luan loai nay rat thng c s dung trong giao tiep thng ngay, nhng cung
rat de mac sai lam. Chang han, Neu khong thi lai th au phai la sinh vien. Suy luan nay
xuat phat t ai tien e gia doi c tnh lc: Moi sinh vien eu phai thi lai va theo o a
lap luan:
Moi sinh vien eu phai thi lai.
Toi khong thi lai,
Toi au phai la sinh vien!
3.2.3. Tam oan luan co ieu kien
ay la loai tam oan luan ma ai tien e cua no la phan oan co ieu kien. Co hai loai
TL co ieu kien: tam oan luan co ieu kien thuan tuy va tam oan luan xac quyet - co ieu
kien.
3.2.3.1. Tam oan luan co ieu kien thuan tuy
Tam oan luan co ieu kien thuan tuy la TL co cac tien e va ket luan eu la phan oan
co ieu kien.
V du:
Neu sieng tap the duc th sc khoe tot,
Neu sc khoe tot th au oc minh man,
Nen, neu sieng tap the duc th au oc minh man.
S o:
Neu a th b a b

1
Con goi : TL rut gon, TL an, suy luan hai oan.
65
Neu b th c b c
Vay, neu a th c a c
K hieu: ((a b) (b c)) (a c).
Cach suy luan nay trong toan hoc goi la quy tac bac cau cua phep keo theo.
3.2.3.2. Tam oan luan xac quyet co ieu kien
Tam oan luan xac quyet co ieu kien la TL co ai tien e la phan oan co ieu kien,
con tieu tien e va ket luan eu la phan oan xac quyet.
Tam oan luan xac quyet co ieu kien co hai hnh thc : khang nh hoac phu nh.
a. Hnh thc khang nh
V du:
Tri ma th ng t,
Tri ma,
Vay, ng t.
S o:
Neu co a th co b a b
Co a a
Vay, co b b
K hieu: ((a b) a) b.
Cach suy luan nay c goi la quy tac ket luan trong toan hoc (modus ponens).
Lu y: Hnh thc suy luan khang nh cua TL xac quyet co ieu kien ch co ket luan tin
cay khi tieu tien e khang nh phan oan ng trc, ket luan khang nh phan oan ng
sau. Neu suy luan ((a b) b) a th ket luan sai (v ng t ma tri co the khong ma).
b. Hnh thc phu nh
V du:
Tri ma th ng t,
ng khong t,
Vay, tri khong ma.
S o:
Neu co a th co b a b
Khong co b b
Vay, khong co a a
K hieu: ((a b) b) a.
Cach suy luan nay c goi la quy tac ket luan phan ao trong toan hoc (modus tollens).
Lu y: Hnh thc suy luan phu nh cua TL xac quyet - co ieu kien ch co ket luan tin
cay khi tieu tien e phu nh phan oan ng sau, ket luan phu nh phan oan ng trc.
Neu suy luan ((a b) a) b th ket luan sai (v tri co the khong ma ma ng van co
the t).
66
3.2.4. Tam oan luan la chon
1

ay la loai tam oan luan ma mot hay hai tien e cua no la phan oan la chon.
Loai suy luan nay, trong toan hoc goi la quy tac la chon.
Co hai loai TL la chon: tam oan luan la chon thuan tuy va tam oan luan xac quyet
la chon.
3.2.4.1. Tam oan luan la chon thuan tuy
Tam oan luan la chon thuan tuy la TL co cac tien e va ket luan eu la phan oan la
chon.
V du:
Cau gom co cau n hay cau ghep,
Cau ghep hoac la cau ghep ang lap, hoac la cau ghep chnh phu,
Vay, cau hoac la cau n, hoac la cau ghep ang lap, hoac la cau ghep chnh phu.
S o:
S la A hoac B hoac C
A la A1 hoac A 2___________________________
Vay, S la A1, hoac A 2 , hoac B, hoac C.

3.2.4.2. Tam oan luan xac quyet la chon
Tam oan luan xac quyet la chon la TL co ai tien e la phan oan la chon, tieu tien
e va ket luan eu la phan oan xac quyet.

Tam oan luan xac quyet la chon co hai hnh thc:
a. Hnh thc phu nh khang nh
V du:
Loai san pham nay ch co Quang Nam, hay Quang Ngai, hay Bnh nh,
Mon nay khong phai cua Quang Ngai va cung khong phai cua Bnh nh,
Vay th no la cua Quang Nam.
S o:
a, hoac b, hoac c a b c
Khong a va khong b ~a ~b__
Vay la c c
K hieu: ((a b c) (~a ~b)) c.
Lu y:
hnh thc phu nh khang nh cua TL xac quyet la chon, e ket luan rut ra c
tin cay, tien e la chon phai khang nh tat ca moi kha nang (khong sot mot kha nang nao);
tien e xac quyet gat bo tat ca tr mot kha nang, kha nang con lai o chnh la ket luan.

1
Con goi: suy luan phan liet.
67
hnh thc nay, tien e la chon co the la phan oan la chon lien ket (tuyen long) hay
phan oan la chon gat bo (tuyen chat); ca hai trng hp eu suy ra ket luan chan that.

b. Hnh thc khang nh phu nh
V du:
Loai san pham nay ch co hoac Quang Nam, hoac Quang Ngai, hoac Bnh nh,
Mon nay la cua Quang Nam,
Vay th no khong phai la cua Quang Ngai va cung khong phai la cua Bnh nh.
S o:
Hoac a, hoac b, hoac c a b c
La a____________________ a_______
Vay khong b va khong c ~b ~c
K hieu: ((a b c) a) (~b ~c).
Lu y:
hnh thc khang nh phu nh cua TL xac quyet la chon, e ket luan rut ra c
tin cay, tien e la chon phai khang nh tat ca moi kha nang (khong sot mot kha nang nao);
tien e xac quyet khang nh mot kha nang, ket luan gat bo tat ca cac kha nang con lai.
hnh thc nay, tien e la chon nhat thiet phai la phan oan la chon gat bo (tuyen
chat) th mi co the suy ra ket luan chan thc. Trong thc tien, sai lam khi suy luan loai nay
thng la do nham lan ngha cua lien t logic hoac.
3.2.5. Tam oan luan phc
1

Tam oan luan phc la TL c xay dng bang cach lien ket nhieu tam oan luan xac
quyet n vi nhau, trong o, phan oan ket luan cua TL trc la tien e cua TL sau. Co
hai loai TL phc la TL phc tien va TL phc thoai.
a. Tam oan luan phc tien
Trong TL loai nay, ket luan cua TL trc la ai tien e cua TL sau.
V du:
Moi sinh vat (A) eu phai chet (B),
Ngi (C) la sinh vat (A),
Ngi (C) cung phai chet (B);
Giao vien (D) la ngi (C),
Vay, giao vien (D) cung phai chet (B).

S o:
(1) Tat ca A la B

1
Con goi la tam oan luan phc hp, lap luan lien ket..
68
Tat ca C la A
Tat ca C la B
[Tat ca C la B]
Tat ca D la C____
Vay, tat ca D la B
T s o (1), dang rut gon cua TL phc tien (bo qua ai tien e cua TL tiep theo) se co
s o la:
Tat ca A la B
Tat ca C la A
Tat ca D la C____
Vay, tat ca D la B
b. Tam oan luan phc thoai
Trong TL loai nay, ket luan cua TL trc la tieu tien e cua TL sau.
V du:
Ngi (B) la sinh vat (C),
Giao vien (A) la ngi (B),
[Giao vien (A) la sinh vat (C),]
Sinh vat (C) eu phai chet (D),
Giao vien (A) la sinh vat (C),
Vay, giao vien (A) cung phai chet (D).

S o:
Tat ca B la C
Tat ca A la B
Tat ca A la C
Tat ca C la D
Tat ca A la C____
Vay, tat ca A la D
e khong lap lai phan oan tat ca A la C tren ay, ta co s o TL phc thoai nh sau:
(2) Tat ca B la C
Tat ca A la B
Tat ca C la D
Tat ca A la C____
Vay, tat ca A la D
T s o (2), dang rut gon cua TL phc thoai (bo qua tieu tien e cua TL tiep theo) se
co s o la:
Tat ca B la C
Tat ca A la B
69
Tat ca C la D____
Vay, tat ca A la D
Lu y:
Neu oi cac phan oan xac quyet n thanh cac phan oan co ieu kien, ta se co cac cong
thc tng ng vi s o (1) va (2) tren ay nh sau:
(1) ((a b) (c a) (c b) (d c)) (d b);
(2) ((b c) (a b) (c d) (a c)) (a d).

3.2.6. Tam oan luan hp hai
1

ay la mot loai tam oan luan phc, trong o co hai tien e la hai tam oan luan tnh lc.
V du:
Nghe thuat (A) la mon an tinh than cua con ngi (C), v nghe thuat (A) nuoi dng tam
hon (B);
Am nhac (D) la nghe thuat (A), v am nhac (D) dung am thanh dien at tnh cam (E);
Vay, am nhac (D) la mon an tinh than cua con ngi (C).
S o chung:
Tat ca A la C, v A la B (1)
Tat ca D la A, v D la E (2)
Vay, tat ca D la C
Phan tch:
(1) tren ay la dang tnh lc cua: Tat ca B la C
Tat ca A la B____
Vay, tat ca A la C
(2) tren ay la dang tnh lc cua: Tat ca E la A
Tat ca D la E
Vay, tat ca D la A
T (1) va (2), ta co: Tat ca A la C
Tat ca D la A
Vay, tat ca D la C.
3.2.7. Tam oan luan la chon co ieu kien (song quan luan)
2

Tam oan luan la chon co ieu kien la hnh thc suy luan dien dch gian tiep, trong o
tien e la phan oan la chon va phan oan co ieu kien.
Trong suy luan loai nay, tien e co the cha nhieu kha nang la chon (song e, tam
e...). Lap luan a e cung tng t song e, nen ay, chung ta ch tm hieu ve song e:
song e kien thiet va song e pha huy.
3.2.7.1. Song e kien thiet
1


1
Hay tam oan luan phc (lien ket) rut gon.
2
Con goi: suy luan phan liet co ieu kien.
1
Con goi: song quan luan khang nh.
70
a) Song e kien thiet n
Trong suy luan loai nay, tien e co ieu kien neu len hai kha nang co the dan en cung
mot he qua; tien e la chon khang nh mot trong hai kha nang; ket luan khang nh he qua.
V du:
Neu hoc gioi (a) th c thng (b); va neu tham gia tch cc phong trao van the m
(c) th cung c thng (b).
Nam hoc gioi (a), hoac la co tham gia tch cc phong trao van the m (c).
Vay th Nam c thng (b).

S o:
Neu A la B th C la D; neu E la F th C la D.
A la B, hoac E la F.______________________
Vay, C la D
The hien cac phan oan bang k hieu logic menh e, ta se co s o:
(a b) (c b)
a c__________
b
K hieu: ((a b) (c b) (a c)) b.
b) Song e kien thiet phc
Trong suy luan loai nay, tien e co ieu kien neu len hai kha nang co the dan en hai he
qua khac nhau; tien e la chon khang nh ca hai kha nang; ket luan khang nh ca hai he
qua.
V du:
Neu hoc gioi (a) th c thng (b); va neu tham gia tch cc phong trao van the m (c)
th c c i giao lu vi trng ban (d).
Nam hoc gioi (a), hoac tham gia tch cc phong trao van the m (c).
Vay, Nam c thng (b) hoac c c i giao lu vi trng ban (d).
S o:
Neu A la B th A la C; neu A la D th A la E.
A hoac la B, hoac la D.________________
Vay, A hoac la C, hoac la E.
The hien cac phan oan bang k hieu logic menh e, ta se co s o:

(a b) (c d)
a c__________
b d
71
K hieu: ((a b) (c d) (a c)) (b d).
3.2.7.2. Song e pha huy
1

a) Song e pha huy n
Trong suy luan loai nay, tien e co ieu kien neu len quan he nhan qua gia mot ieu
kien va hai he qua tng ng; tien e la chon phu nh hai he qua; ket luan phu nh ieu
kien.
V du:
Neu hoc gioi (a) th va c thng (b), va c ban be ne phuc (c);
Nam khong c thng (~b), hoac khong c ban be ne phuc (~c).
Vay th Nam khong hoc gioi (~a).
S o:
Neu A la B th A la C va D.
A khong phai la C hoac D.
Vay, A khong phai la B.
The hien cac phan oan bang k hieu logic menh e, ta se co s o:
a (b c)
~b ~c___
~a
K hieu: ((a (b c)) (~b ~c)) ~a.
Song e pha huy n con co cong thc:
((a b) (ac) (~b ~c)) ~a.
a) Song e pha huy phc
Trong suy luan loai nay, tien e co ieu kien neu len hai ieu kien c s va hai he qua
tng ng; tien e la chon phu nh ca hai he qua; ket luan phu nh ca hai ieu kien c s.
V du:
Neu hoc gioi (a) th c thng (b); neu quang giao (c) th co nhieu ban (d).
Nam khong c thng (~b), hoac khong co nhieu ban (~d).
Vay th Nam khong hoc gioi (~a), hoac khong quang giao (~c).

S o:
Neu A la B th C la D; neu E la F th K la L
C khong phai la D hoac K khong phai la L
Vay, A khong phai la B hoac E khong phai la F.
The hien cac phan oan bang k hieu logic menh e, ta se co s o:
(a b) (c d)

1
Con goi: song quan luan phu nh.
72
~b ~d__
~a ~c
K hieu: (((a b) (c d)) (~b ~d)) (~a ~c).
Lu y: e tam oan luan la chon co ieu kien co ket luan tin cay, can tuan theo cac
quy tac sau:
Tien e la chon phai neu u moi kha nang;
Lap luan trong song e kien thiet phai i t khang nh c s en khang nh he qua; lap
luan trong song e pha huy phai i t phu nh he qua en phu nh c s.
V du, suy luan sau ay tuy hp logic, nhng do tien e gia doi nen co ket luan khong tin
cay:
(1) Con ngi ta mot la giau, hai la ngheo.
Neu a giau th can g phai lao ong.
Neu a ngheo th co lao ong cung ngheo.
Cho nen, du giau hay ngheo th cung khong can lao ong!
Ta co the lap luan e co ket luan trai ngc vi ket luan tren nh sau:
(2) Con ngi ta mot la giau, hai la ngheo.
Neu a giau th can lao ong e van giau.
Neu a ngheo th can lao ong e thoat canh ngheo.
Cho nen, du giau hay ngheo th cung can lao ong!
Trong logic hoc truyen thong, ngi ta goi suy luan nh (1) tren ay la song quan luan
nguy bien.

3.2.8. Cach phan tch tnh hp logic cua mot suy luan
Co nhieu cach e phan tch tnh hp logic cua mot suy luan.
3.2.8.1. Trng hp suy luan co cac tien e la phan oan xac quyet n
e xet mot TL xac quyet n co hp logic hay khong, ta co the da vao:
Quy tac chung cua TL xac quyet (xem: 3.2.1.5);
Cac kieu ung tng ng vi moi loai hnh TL xac quyet (xem: 3.2.1.6.);
Khao sat TL bang bieu o Venn.
Cach khao sat TL bang bieu o Venn
1
:
Theo cach nay, ta bieu dien hai tien e tren cung mot s o Venn vi ba vong tron. Neu ket
luan bieu dien c tren s o nay th suy luan la hp logic; con ngc lai la khong hp logic.
V du:
(1) Xet tam oan luan:
Quan he t la h t; M a P (1)
Lien t la quan he t; S a M (2)

1
Soan phan nay, chung toi da theo Hoang Chung (1994), sd, tr. 76 80. Ban oc co the tham khao them: Nguyen c
Dan (1996), Logch va tieng Viet, NXB Giao duc, tr. 157 159.
73
Vay lien t la h t . S a P (3)
Goi Q la tap hp tat ca quan he t,
H la tap hp tat ca h t,
L la tap hp tat ca lien t.
Ta se co s o tam oan luan:
Q a H
L a Q
L a H
Ta ve ba vong tron tng ng vi ba tap hp Q, H, L, va anh so th t theo hnh 14 di
ay:

Q H



7 L
Hnh 14
Theo tien e (1), ta gach bo vung 1 va 4 (v Q a H nen Q phai nam het trong H).
Theo tien e (2), ta gach bo vung 6 va 7 (v L a Q nen L phai nam het trong Q).
Ket luan cho ta quan he gia L va H. Cac vung 4 va 7 b gach bo, L (vung 5) nam het trong
H, chng to rang ket luan la L a H.
Vay, t cac tien e (1) va(2) tren ay, ta co ket luan hp logic: Lien t la h t (L a H).

(2) Xet tam oan luan:
Cac nha th eu la ngi lang man; (1)
Mot so ngi lang man la ngi tram cam; (2)
Mot so ngi tram cam la nha th. (3)
Goi T la tap hp tat ca nha th,
L la tap hp tat ca nhng ngi lang man,
C la tap hp tat ca nhng ngi tram cam.
Ta se co s o tam oan luan nay nh sau:
T a L
L i C
C i T
Ta ve ba vong tron tng ng vi ba tap hp tren (hnh 15) va anh so th t nh a noi
hnh 14 tren ay:
T L

x
1 2 3
5
4 x 6

1 2 3
5x
4 6

74

7 C
Hnh 15
Theo tien e (1) T a L, ta gach bo vung 1 va 4.
Theo tien e (2) L i C, ta anh dau x vao vung 5 hoac vung 6.
Ket luan cho ta quan he gia C va T.
Neu at dau x vung 5, ta co ket luan:
(a) Mot so ngi tram cam la nha th. (C i T)
Neu at dau x vung 6 th ta khong co (a) ma lai co ket luan:
(b) Mot so ngi tram cam khong phai la nha th. (C o T)
Nh vay, khi ca hai tien e (1) va (2) eu ung, th khong nhat thiet ket luan (a) ung.
Suy luan tren khong hp logic.
(3) Xet tam oan luan:
Moi ngi eu phai chet; (1)
Cho khong phai la ngi; (2)
Cho khong chet. (3)
Goi N la tap hp tat ca ngi;
M la tap hp tat ca nhng sinh vat phai chet,
C la tap hp tat ca cho.
Ta se co s o tam oan luan nay nh sau:
N a M
C e N
C e M
Ta ve ba vong tron tng ng vi ba tap hp tren (hnh 16) va anh so th t nh a noi
hnh 14 tren ay:

N M

x

7 C

Hnh 16
Theo tien e (1), ta gach bo vung 1 va 4 (v N a M nen N phai nam het trong M).
Theo tien e (2), ta gach bo vung 5 va anh dau X vao vung 6 va 7 (v C e N nen C phai
nam ngoai N).
Ket luan cho ta quan he gia C va M. Cac vung 6 va 7 c ghi nhan, nen ket luan co the
la C a M (Cho phai chet), ma cung co the la C e M (Cho khong chet).
Vay suy luan tren khong hp logic.
3.2.8.2. Trng hp suy luan co tien e la phan oan phc
1 2 3
5
4 6
x
75
e xet tnh hp logic cua mot suy luan co tien e la phan oan phc, chung ta co the da
tren cac quy tac suy luan tng ng, hoac chuyen suy luan thanh logic k hieu roi dung bang
chan tr e chng minh cong thc (xem 8, chng IV), hoac khao sat suy luan trong trng
hp tat ca cac tien e eu ung nh se trnh bay di ay.
Cach khao sat suy luan trong trng hp tat ca cac tien e eu ung
e khao sat tnh hp logic cua suy luan theo cach nay, trc het, ta phai oc k noi dung
cua suy luan, chuyen cac phan oan trong suy luan thanh k hieu logic, sau o dng s o cua
suy luan, roi dung bang chan tr e khao sat s o ay khi tat ca cac tien e eu ung. Neu ket
luan la hang ung th suy luan hp logic; neu co trng hp ket luan la sai th suy luan khong
hp logic.
V du:
(1) Khao sat suy luan: Neu tri ma th ng t. Tri ma. Vay, ng t.
Goi: a = tri ma; b = ng t. Ta co s o suy luan:
a b
a____
b
Xet khi ca hai tien e eu ung:
a ung, va a b ung, vay b phai ung. Ket luan b cua suy luan ung, vay suy luan nay
hp logic.
(2) Khao sat suy luan: Neu tri ma th ng t. Tri khong ma. Vay, ng khong
t.
Goi: a = tri ma; b = ng t. Ta co s o suy luan:
a b
~a____
~b
Xet khi ca hai tien e eu ung:
~a ung, do o a sai. a b ung, a sai, nen b co the ung ma cung co the sai. Do vay, ket
luan ~b co the sai ma cung co the ung. Suy luan nay khong hp logic.
(3) Neu trng hoc co thay giao tot va c s vat chat k thuat tot th trng giang day tot.
Trng nay khong co c s vat chat k thuat tot, nhng giang day tot. Vay trng nay co thay
giao tot
1
.
Goi: T = trng hoc co thay giao tot;
K = trng hoc co c s vat chat k thuat tot;
G = trng hoc giang day tot.
Suy luan co s o:
T K G
~K G___
T
Xet khi ca hai tien e eu ung:

1
V du cua Hoang Chung (1994), sd, tr. 92.
76
~K G ung tc ~K ung va G ung. T K G ung nhng v K sai ( do ~K ung) nen
T K luon luon sai du T co gia tr ung hay sai va T K G ung. Ket luan T co the ung
ma cung co the sai, vay suy luan nay khong hp logic.
3.2.8.3. Cac tnh huong thng gap vi mot suy luan hp logic (suy dien ung quy tac):
Neu moi tien e eu ung th ket luan phai ung.
Neu co t nhat mot tien e sai th ket luan co the ung hoac sai.
Neu ket luan ung th co the moi tien e eu ung ma cung co the co tien e sai.
Neu ket luan sai th phai co t nhat mot tien e sai.
4. Suy luan quy nap
Nh a noi, quy nap la hnh thc lap luan i t cai rieng le en cai pho bien. Suy luan quy
nap bao gom quy nap ay u va quy nap khong ay u.
4.1. Suy luan quy nap ay u
Suy luan quy nap ay u (hay quy nap hoan toan, quy nap hnh thc, quy nap nghiem ngat,
quy nap Aristote) la phep suy luan trong o ket luan chung c rut ra t nhng tien e bao
quat tat ca cac oi tng cua mot lp nao o.
V du:
Gia nh Minh co sau ngi: ong noi nguyen la k s, ba noi nguyen la bac s, ba la giang
vien ai hoc, me la giao vien trung hoc, anh ruot Minh va tot nghiep ai hoc Bach khoa,
Minh la sinh vien. Vay, gia nh Minh la mot gia nh tr thc.
S o chung cua quy nap ay u:
S
1
la P
S
2
la P
S
3
la P
. . .
S
n
la P
S
1
, S
2
, S
3,
... S
n
thuoc lp S
Moi S la P
Quy nap ay u cho ta ket luan ang tin cay. Tuy nhien, do ket luan cua no ch la s khai
quat moi trng hp a biet, nen ngoai viec giup ta tom tat, tong ket cac s kien, no t co tac
dung trong nghien cu, phat minh khoa hoc.
4.2. Suy luan quy nap khong ay u
Suy luan quy nap khong ay u (hay quy nap khong hoan toan, quy nap phong ai) la phep
suy luan trong o ket luan chung c rut ra t mot so tien e ai dien cho mot lp oi tng
nao o. Quy nap khong ay u co tac dung rat ln trong nghien cu, phat minh khoa hoc, v
ket luan cua no c khai quat ch t mot so trng hp nhat nh. Nhng cung v vay, ket
luan cua quy nap khong ay u co the sai lam.
Co hai loai quy nap khong ay u: quy nap pho thong va quy nap khoa hoc.
77
4.2.1. Quy nap pho thong
Suy luan quy nap pho thong la kieu suy luan trong o ket luan chung c khai quat t
nhng liet ke n gian mot so trng hp bat k co nhng thuoc tnh giong nhau. ay la kieu
suy luan thng gap trong i song hang ngay.
V du, nhng kinh nghiem dan gian: Chp ong nhay nhay, ga gay th ma; Trang quang
tri han, trang tan tri ma; Phu n ai ma chang ghen; Nen bac am toac t giay...
Ket luan cua quy nap pho thong thng rat de sai lam. Ch can mot trong nhng trng hp
nghien cu gap mau thuan th ket luan chung se b bac bo. V du:
Sat la chat ran,
Vang la chat ran,
ong la chat ran,
Bac la chat ran,
...
Sat, vang, ong, bac... eu la kim loai.
Vay, kim loai la chat ran.
Ket luan tren sai lam, v thuy ngan (chat long) cung la kim loai.
e quy nap pho thong tranh sai lam, can can c vao thuoc tnh ban chat e khai quat hoa,
so lng trng hp nghien cu can ln, va can a dang hoa cac trng hp nghien cu.
4.2.2. Quy nap khoa hoc
Suy luan quy nap khoa hoc la kieu suy luan trong o ket luan chung c khai quat t mot
so trng hp co cung thuoc tnh ban chat, hay co lien he tat yeu. Quy nap khoa hoc chnh la
suy luan da tren moi lien he nhan - qua gia cac hien tng.
V du:
Mot ket qua nghien cu a c cong bo tren t Tuan hoan cua Hoi nghien cu tim mach
M (so ra ngay 7 5 2002): Nhng ngi thng xuyen uong nhieu nc che co the giam
nguy c t vong trong trng hp b mot cn au tim. Nghien cu nay c thc hien vi 1900
benh nhan au tim: nhng ngi trc o thng xuyen uong khoang 19 tach che / tuan giam
nguy c t vong sau mot cn au tim 44% so vi nhng ngi khong uong che; thng xuyen
uong di 14 tach che / tuan giam nguy c t vong sau mot cn au tim 28% so vi nhng
ngi khong uong che.
So vi quy nap thong thng th quy nap khoa hoc co ket luan chung ang tin cay hn, Tuy
vay, ket luan cua quy nap khoa hoc cung khong phai la hoan toan chac chan. Gia tr cua quy
nap khoa hoc tuy thuoc vao so lng trng hp nghien cu va so lng kiem chng c
thc hien nhieu hay t; tuy thuoc vao thuoc tnh cua cac trng hp nghien cu co ban chat
hay khong, va moi lien he gia cac s vat, hien tng co hay khong tat yeu.
4.3. Cac phng phap quy nap da tren moi lien he nhan qua cua cac hien tng
78
Co bon phng phap quy nap da tren moi lien he nhan qua cua cac hien tng a c
F. Bacon va S. Mill neu ra
1
. Bon phng phap nay co tac dung bo sung lan nhau, nen thng
c ket hp s dung trong nghien cu nham tang o tin cay cua ket luan.
4.3.1. Phng phap tng hp
2
(methode de concordance)
Phng phap nay c phat bieu nh sau: Neu hai hay nhieu trng hp cua hien tng
c khao sat co mot ieu kien chung th ieu kien chung o co the la nguyen nhan gay ra hien
tng o.
S o:
Vi cac ieu kien A, B, C th xuat hien hien tng X
Vi cac ieu kien A, D, E th xuat hien hien tng X
Vi cac ieu kien A, F, G th xuat hien hien tng X
Co the A la nguyen nhan cua hien tng X.
V du:
Luc phong 102 cua k tuc xa mat trom co mat Hung, Tam, Teo. Luc phong 203 cua k tuc
xa mat trom co mat Teo, Hoa, Hai. Luc phong 506 cua k tuc xa mat trom co mat T, Teo,
Lam. Vay co the Teo la thu pham cua cac vu trom.
4.3.2. Phng phap sai biet
1
(methode de difference)
Phng phap nay c phat bieu nh sau: Neu hien tng xuat hien hoac khong xuat hien
co het nhng ieu kien nh nhau ch tr mot ieu kien, th ieu kien b loai tr o co the la
nguyen nhan (hay mot phan nguyen nhan) gay ra hien tng.
S o:
Vi cac ieu kien A, B, C th xuat hien hien tng X
Vi cac ieu kien B, C th khong xuat hien hien tng X
Co the A la nguyen nhan (hay mot phan nguyen nhan) cua hien tng X.
V du:
Nhom cua Tien s Tomas Prolla (H Wisconsin Madison, M) vao cuoi thang 10 / 2002
a cong bo mot ket qua nghien cu nh sau: Ho a tien hanh th nghiem tren hai nhom chuot
tuoi trung nien (14 thang tuoi); mot nhom co che o an uong bnh thng, nhom kia theo che
o an uong giam calori. Khi chung en 30 thang tuoi (tng ng tuoi 90 con ngi), ho a
phan tch te bao tim cua chung, va nhan thay, tim cua nhng con chuot an uong theo che o
giam calori t b thay oi ve gen lien quan en lao hoa hn 20% so vi nhom oi chng. Th
nghiem nay cho thay: an t calori (nhng am bao u vitamin va khoang chat) th co the bao
ve c tim, giup khoe manh va tre lau.
4.5.3. Phng phap ong bien
1
(methode des varitions concomitantes)

1
F. Bacon a lap ra ba bang: bang co mat, bang vang mat, bang trnh o roi phan tch va so sanh vach ra quan he nhan
qua cua hien tng. S. Mill da vao ba bang o e ra ba phng phap quy nap tng ng la: tng hp, sai biet, ong bien
va a them mot phng phap la tr d.
2
Con goi: phng phap phu hp, phng phap tng ong, phep so sanh s giong nhau.
1
Con goi: phng phap khac biet, phng phap sai d, phng phap bat ong, phep so sanh s khac nhau.
1
Con goi: phng phap cong bien, phng phap bien oi kem theo, phep nghien cu nhng s cung thay oi, phng phap
bien thien tng trung.
79
Phng phap nay c phat bieu nh sau: Neu mot hien tng nao o xuat hien hay bien
oi dan en s xuat hien hay bien oi mot hien tng tng ng, th hien tng th nhat co the
la nguyen nhan gay ra hien tng th hai.
S o:
Vi cac ieu kien A, B, C th xuat hien hien tng X
Vi cac ieu kien A
1
, B, C th xuat hien hien tng X
1

Vi cac ieu kien A
2
, B, C th xuat hien hien tng X
2

Vi cac ieu kien A
3
, B, C th xuat hien hien tng X
3

Co the A la nguyen nhan cua hien tng X.
V du:
(1) Trong nhng ieu kien bnh thng, ngi ta nhan thay mot vat b ot nong th the tch
cua no se gian n. Nhiet o cang tang th the tch cua vat cung tang tng ng. Khi vat ay
nguoi i, the tch cung giam tr lai. Vay, nhiet la nguyen nhan lam cho vat the gian n.
(2) Ngi ta khao sat va nhan thay rang: nhng khu vc cua thanh pho hut nc ngam t th
at lun t, nhng khu vc hut nc ngam nhieu th at lun cang nhieu. Vay, hut nc ngam la
nguyen nhan lam cho mat at thanh pho b lun.
4.5.4. Phng phap tr d
1
(methode des residus)
Phng phap nay c phat bieu nh sau: Trong mot hien tng, tr nhng ieu kien ma
ta biet ro la nguyen nhan gay ra cac phan nao o, th ieu kien con lai co the la nguyen nhan
gay ra phan con lai.
S o:
Vi cac ieu kien A, B, C th xuat hien hien tng X, Y, Z
Vi cac ieu kien B, C th xuat hien hien tng Y, Z
Vi ieu kien C th xuat hien hien tng Z
Co the A la nguyen nhan cua hien tng X.
V du:
Khi nghien cu s van ong cua Thien Vng Tinh (Uranus), nha toan hoc Le Verrier nhan
thay no khong i theo quy ao mot cach bnh thng, ma en mot cho nhat nh th quay cham
lai. Sau khi tnh toan thay nguyen nhan khong phai do anh hng cua Moc Tinh (Jupiter) va
Tho Tinh (Saturne) oi vi no, Le Verrier cho rang co the la do anh hng cua mot hanh tinh
khac ma cac nha thien van hoc cha biet en. Qua nhng tnh toan cua Le Verrier, mot nha
thien van hoc ngi c la Gall a dung knh vien vong theo doi toa o ma Le Verrier gia
nh va ngay 23 9 1846 a phat hien ra mot hanh tinh mi. o chnh la Hai Vng Tinh
(Neptune).
Trong i song hang ngay, chung ta rat hay dung phng phap quy nap nay.
5. Suy luan loai t
1


1
Con goi: phng phap loai tr, phng phap phan d, phng phap thang d, phep nghien cu cai con lai.
1
Con goi: loai suy, suy luan tng t, s so sanh tnh tng t.
80
5.1. Suy luan loai t (raisonnement par analogie) la phng phap suy luan can c vao mot
so thuoc tnh giong nhau cua hai oi tng e rut ra ket luan ve thuoc tnh giong nhau khac
cua chung. ay la mot hnh thc quy nap ac biet: xuat phat t tien e rieng e rut ra ket luan
rieng.
S o:
oi tng A co cac thuoc tnh: a, b, c, d, e, f
oi tng B co cac thuoc tnh: b, c, d, e, f
Vay B cung co the co a.
Hoac:
A, B cung co chung cac thuoc tnh a, b, c, d, e
A co thuoc tnh f________________________
B cung co the co thuoc tnh f.
V du:
(1) Ngi ta nhan thay Trai at va Sao Hoa co mot loat thuoc tnh giong nhau nh: eu la
hanh tinh cua Mat Tri, eu co bau kh quyen, eu co s thay oi cua ngay va em, eu co
nc... Ma Trai at co s song. Vay th co le tren Sao Hoa cung co s song.
(2) Trng A nhieu nam lien at thanh qua cao trong hoat ong giao duc. Trng B von
non yeu, ang muon vn len nh trng A, ben tm en trng A e hoc tap kinh nghiem.
Sau o, trng B ve tien hanh thc hien cac cong viec nh trng A a lam. Co the trng B
roi cung se at ket qua giao duc cao nh trng A.
Cau chuyen sau ay cho thay s van dung phep loai t e phan bac phan chng:
Mot hom no, co mot a chu uong ru nha. ang khi cao hng uong th bnh het ru.
Han ta ben quat ngi i mua. Anh ngi cam lay bnh, hoi: The con tien ru?. a chu
bc boi ma rang: Co tien mi mua c ru th gioi giang cai noi g?.
Anh ngi chang noi chang ra ng, xach bnh i. Lat sau, quay ve mang theo bnh ru. Ten
a chu mng tham, on lay bnh ma rot ru. Chang ng, rot mai ma ru khong chay ra. Th
ra la bnh khong.
a chu gian d quat ln: Sao khong co ru?. Luc nay anh ngi mi thung thang tra
li: Bnh co ru ma rot ru ra th gioi giang g?!.
(Theo Trieu Truyen ong, sd, tr. 47)
Suy luan loai t co gia tr rat ln ca trong sinh hoat thc tien lan trong nhan thc khoa hoc.
No giup hnh thanh cac gia thuyet khoa hoc. Tuy nhien, khi xem xet mot cach co lap, ket luan
cua suy luan loai t ch co tnh chat xac suat. Do vay, phep loai t can c s dung cung vi
nhng phng phap nhan thc khac.
5.2. Nhng ieu kien bao am o tin cay cua suy luan loai t
a) So d kien tng t gia hai oi tng cang nhieu th xac suat ung cua ket luan loai t
cang cao.
b) So d kien la thuoc tnh ban chat chung gia hai oi tng cang nhieu th xac suat ung
cua ket luan loai t cang cao.
81
c) Nhng d kien tng t gia hai oi tng phai co lien quan trc tiep vi ket luan.

5.3. Quan he gia suy luan loai t va mo hnh hoa
Suy luan loai t va mo hnh hoa co quan he rat chat che. Mo hnh hoa la phng phap tai
hien nhng ac trng cua mot oi tng goc nao o tren mot oi tng khac c xay dng
chuyen e nghien cu chung. oi tng c xay dng chuyen e nghien cu o c goi la
mo hnh. Mo hnh hoa la mot trong nhng bien phap can thiet trong nhan thc khoa hoc, khi
viec nghien cu trc tiep mot oi tng nao o - v nhng l do khac nhau - khong the thc
hien c.
Gia mo hnh vi oi tng goc phai co s tng t. S tng t o co the la nhng ac
trng vat l, hay la cac chc nang, tnh ong nhat cua s mo ta toan hoc ve hanh vi cua
chung.

V du:
Nghien cu t m da ca heo, ngi ta thay no gom ba lp vi vo so te bao hnh to ong cha
ay m va nc, va chnh nh co cau truc nay ma ca heo mo co the pha v moi k luc ve toc
o. Nam 1958, Gustav Kramer, mot k s ngi c lam viec tai M, che tao bo da ca heo mo
nhan tao. Ba chiec tau c boc bang lp da nay, trong khi chiec th t, than rat trn khong
boc g ca, dung e so sanh. Khi ca no keo mot lt bon chiec tau mo hnh ay, lap tc co nhng
dong nc xoay chung quanh chiec th t, trong khi ba chiec kia ch nhan mot na, tham ch
ch co 40% lc can ma chiec th t a gap phai.
Nh vay, nh th nghiem tren mo hnh, ngi ta a xac nhan s d ca heo mo co the lao
vi toc o cc nhanh la nh cau truc ac biet cua lp da cua no.
Sau o, ngi ta cho boc da ca heo nhan tao hong nhng chiec xuong du lch, va nhng
chiec xuong nay a lao ti trc vi mot toc o cha tng thay.
Hien nay, mo hnh hoa c ap dung rong rai trong nghien cu khoa hoc va trong thc tien
quan l da tren may tnh va cac thiet b mo hnh hoa ien t.


CAU HOI VA BAI TAP

1. Suy luan, suy luan dien dch, suy luan quy nap, suy luan loai t la g?
2. The nao la suy dien trc tiep? Co the suy dien trc tiep bang nhng cach nao?
3. Trnh bay ve cac phep hoan chuyen phan oan.
4. The nao la tam oan luan? Cau truc cua tam oan luan xac quyet?
5. Tam oan luan xac quyet co nhng tien e g?
6. Ve s o cac hnh tam oan luan xac quyet va cho v du minh hoa.
7. Neu cac quy tac chung, cac quy tac hnh va cac kieu ung tng ng vi bon hnh cua tam oan
luan xac quyet.
8. Theo anh (ch), vi tam oan luan tnh lc co ieu g can lu y e tranh suy luan sai lam?
82
9. Trnh bay s o cua tam oan luan co ieu kien thuan tuy, tam oan luan xac quyet co ieu kien
(gom hai hnh thc), va neu v du minh hoa cho tng trng hp.
10. Trnh bay s o cua tam oan luan la chon thuan tuy, tam oan luan xac quyet la chon (gom
hai hnh thc), va neu v du minh hoa cho tng trng hp.
11. Trnh bay s o tam oan luan phc tien, tam oan luan phc thoai, va neu v du minh hoa cho
tng trng hp.
12. Trnh bay s o tam oan luan hp hai, va neu v du minh hoa.
13. Trnh bay s o cac loai tam oan luan la chon co ieu kien (song e kien thiet n, song e
kien thiet phc, song e pha huy n, song e pha huy phc), va neu v du minh hoa cho tng
trng hp.
14. Neu li phat bieu, s o va cho v du minh hoa ve cac phng phap quy nap: tng hp, sai biet,
ong bien, tr d.
15. Trnh bay s o, neu v du minh hoa ve suy luan loai t. Nhng ieu kien bao am o tin cay cua
suy luan loai t la g?
16. Thc hien phep oi lap thuoc t (lan lt thc hien phep chuyen hoa phan oan va phep hoan v
han t) oi vi cac phan oan sau:
a. Chien tranh giai phong la chien tranh chnh ngha.
b. Kim loai th dan ien.
c. Go khong phai la chat dan ien.
d. Tam giac eu la tam giac co ba canh bang nhau.
17. Cac tam oan luan sau ay thuoc hnh th may? Hp quy tac hnh hay khong? Ch ra cu the quy
tac b vi pham va cha lai cho chnh xac, neu TL o vi pham quy tac:
a. Ngi Viet Nam yeu hoa bnh. Ngi Viet Nam yeu nc. Vay ngi yeu nc cung la ngi
yeu hoa bnh.
b. Ca th bang mang. Con nay khong th bang mang. Con nay khong the la ca.
c. Moi kien thc khoa hoc eu bo ch. Ma ieu nay khong phai la kien thc khoa hoc. Cho nen
ieu nay khong bo ch.
d. Hoc sinh phai thuoc cu chng. Em nay thuoc cuchng. Vay em nay la hoc sinh.
18. Cac tam oan luan sau ay thuoc hnh va kieu nao? Hp quy tac chung hay khong? Neu khong, th
tam oan luan ay a vi pham (nhng) quy tac nao trong cac quy tac chung cua tam oan luan?:
a. Hau het phu n eu thch chao hanh. Th N la phu n. Chac chan Th N cung thch chao hanh.
b. Chim th bay c. Con vat nay khong phai la chim. Vay con vat nay khong bay c.
c. ai a so sinh vien lp ta eu sinh ra nong thon. Dung la sinh vien lp ta. At Dung cung sinh
ra nong thon.
d. Cao su th mem. Ma vat nay cung mem. Vay th vat nay la cao su.
e. Phu n ai cung thch mac ep. Tam thch mac ep. Tam ung la phu n.
f. Gng th cay. Ma gng an c. Vay o cay an c.
19. Hay khoi phuc bo phan tnh lc cua cac suy luan sau ay; xac nh hnh, kieu va tnh chu dien
cua cac han t trong cac phan oan cua tam oan luan a c khoi phuc, roi cho biet phan oan
c tnh lc o chan that hay gia doi:
a. La sinh vien, anh phai thng xuyen i th vien oc sach.
b. Hung co nhieu ban, v Hung la con lanh ao cap cao.
20. Hay phan tch tnh hp logic cua cac suy luan sau ay bang bieu o Venn:
83
a. Sinh vien khoa ng van khong thch toan hoc. Sinh vien khoa ng van thch th ca. Cho nen, mot
so ngi thch th ca khong thch toan hoc.
b. Ca song di nc. Mot so ong vat song di nc an c. Vay co ong vat an c la ca.
21. Hay phan tch tnh hp logic cua cac suy luan sau ay bang cach xet trng hp tat ca cac tien e
eu ung:
a. Nam hoc va roi no khong c khen thng au. Bi neu no ma c khen thng th the nao
no cung khoe vi me no. Ma no khoe vi me no th me no a bao cho toi biet. Nhng t he en
gi toi chang he nghe me no noi g ca.
b. Co phng phap hoc tap ung an va cham ch th ket qua hoc tap tot. Sinh vien nay khong
cham ch nhng ket qua hoc tap tot. Vay sinh vien nay co phng phap hoc tap ung an.
c. Neu thch van th se gioi van. Ch khi thch van th mi lam th hay. Ban lam th khong hay. Vay
ban kho ma gioi van.
22. Phan tch e ch ra phng phap thiet lap moi lien he nhan qua trong cac v du cho sau ay, va
rut ra phan oan ket luan:
a. Mot nhom nghien cu cua ai hoc Vigo, Tay Ban Nha theo doi 78 ngi b chng cao huyet ap.
Ho o ap huyet 48 tieng ong ho lien tuc trc va sau khi nhng ngi nay trai qua 3 thang theo che
o an kieng va chia nhng ngi ay ra lam hai nhom: nhom 1 va an kieng va uong 100 mg aspirin
sau khi thc day trong ngay; nhom 2 cung an kieng nhng uong 100 mg aspirin trc khi i ngu. Ket
qua la huyet ap cua nhng ngi nhom 1 chang thay oi bao nhieu, trong khi nhom 2 c cai thien ro
ret.
b. Nam 1860, Pasteur lam th nghiem vi 73 bnh ng nc canh ong kn, kh trung. mc nc
bien, ong m 20 bnh th vai ngay sau co 8 bnh b h. o cao 85 met, ong m 20 bnh th vai ngay
sau co 5 bnh b h. Len nh nui Alpes, ong m 20 bnh th vai ngay sau co 1 bnh b h. So bnh ong
kn con lai eu khong h.
c. Ngi ta at mot so loai lan di mot nam tuoi vao kh hau ai vi nhiet o 17
o
C vao ban em
va 24C vao ban ngay, am o 60 80%, quang k thay oi t 6 24 gi chieu sang tuy ieu kien nuoi
cay. Ket qua, t 2 3 thang, toan bo lan eu n hoa. Th nghiem c lap lai nhieu lan va eu cho ket
qua nh nhau. Bang cach o, cac nha trong lan a ieu khien s n hoa sm cua mot so loai lan.
d. Ngi ta quan sat va nhan thay ca li kiem co the bi vi toc o 100 km/gi. Ngi ta cho rang,
mot phan nguyen nhan a giup ca li kiem bi nhanh nh vay la do hnh the va kha nang bien dang
cua vay uoi. Bang cac th nghiem sau o, k s A. A. Usov a khang nh ieu gia nh o.
e. Sau 5 nam nghien cu 423 cap v chong gia, cac nha khoa hoc thuoc ai hoc Michigan (M)
nhan thay nhng ai giup ngi khac, du ch 1 lan/nam th kha nang t vong thap hn t 40% 60%
so vi nhng ngi khong he giup ai ca trong suot 365 ngay trc o. Cach thc giup khac
nhau, t gi chau en cac s ho tr ve tnh cam... Co the viec giup nay a tao ra nhng cam giac
tch cc va lam giam nhng tac ong cua tim mach.










84


Chng VI

GIA THUYET, CHNG MINH, BAC BO
VA NGUY BIEN
1. Gia thuyet
1.1. Gia thuyet (hypothese con dch: gia thiet) la ieu neu ra trong khoa hoc e giai thch
mot hien tng t nhien hay xa hoi nao o va tam c chap nhan, cha c kiem nghiem,
chng minh.
Nh vay, gia thuyet, ngi ta cha xac nh c nguyen nhan sinh ra hien tng, cha
hieu ro moi lien he gia cac hien tng. Nhng gia thuyet khong phai la nhng suy oan tuy
tien, ma la nhng suy oan da vao nhng s kien nhat nh co trc hoac i kem vi hien
tng o, va khong mau thuan vi nhng quan niem, l thuyet a c khang nh.
Gia thuyet la khi iem cua moi nghien cu khoa hoc, khong co khoa hoc nao ma lai
khong co gia thuyet (Claude Bernard)
1
. Tuy nhien, gia thuyet ch tr thanh l luan khoa hoc
khi ket luan cua no a c chng minh ay u.
V du:
Nam 1801, mot nha vat l ngi c la Johan Ritter (1779 1859) phat hien vung en cua
mau tm trong anh sang mat tri, va ong at ten cho no la Tia t ngoai. Ong neu gia thuyet
rang cac tia sang cua vung en nay co anh hng rat ln en sinh l cua c the cac loai sinh
vat: chnh no a gay phong da cho nhng ngi leo nui hay tam bien, gay benh loa mat cua
nhng ngi tham hiem va c dan Bac cc. Ve sau, ieu nay a c bac s ngi an Mach
la Niels Ryberg Finsen (1857 1904) xac nhan bang nhieu th nghiem khac nhau.
1.2. Nhng quy tac chu yeu cua viec kiem tra va e xuat gia thuyet
a) Gia thuyet phai nhat tr hoac t ra la phai phu hp vi tat ca cac s kien ma no e cap.
b) Trong so nhieu gia thuyet mau thuan vi nhau c a ra giai thch mot loat s kien,
th gia thuyet tot hn la gia thuyet giai thch mot cach ong nhat so ln nhng s kien o; va
e giai thch mot so s kien rieng le trong mot loat s kien o th co the xay dng va s dung
cac gia thuyet cong vu
1
.
c) e giai thch mot loat nhng s kien gan bo vi nhau, phai neu len cang t gia thuyet
cang tot va moi lien he cua chung cang chat che cang tot.
d) Khi e ra gia thuyet, can phai nhan ro tnh chat xac suat cua nhng ket luan cua gia
thuyet.
e) Nhng gia thuyet mau thuan nhau khong the eu cung ung s that, tr trng hp
nhng gia thuyet o giai thch cac mat va cac moi lien he khac nhau cua mot oi tng.
1


1
Dan theo Le T Thanh, sd, tr. 112.
1
Gia thuyet cong vu la gia nh khoa hoc c neu ra giai oan au cua qua trnh nghien cu, la loai gia nh co ieu
kien nham tap hp va he thong hoa cac ket qua quan sat va mo ta s bo cac hien tng nghien cu phu hp vi quan sat.
1
Theo T ien triet hoc, sd, tr. 208 209.
85
2. Chng minh
2.1. Chng minh la g?
Chng minh la mot thao tac logic nham khang nh tnh chan that cua mot phan oan nao
o, bang cach da vao nhng phan oan chan that khac a c thc tien xac nhan. Chng
minh the hien s tuan thu quy luat tuc l cua t duy.
Trong chng minh th lap luan phat trien t ket luan tr ve l do.
V du:
Rau qua rat can cho sc khoe con ngi, v rau qua cha nhieu vitamin, ma vitamin rat can
cho sc khoe con ngi.
2.2. Cau truc cua chng minh
Mot chng minh gom co ba bo phan co quan he mat thiet: luan e, luan c va luan chng.
2.2.1. Luan e
ay la phan oan ma tnh chan that cua no can phai c khang nh. Luan e tra li cho
cau hoi: Chng minh ieu g?.
Luan e co the la mot luan iem ly luan khoa hoc, mot phan oan ve thuoc tnh, quan he,
nguyen nhan ton tai cua s vat, hien tng, mot ket qua quy nap...
Trong v du tren ay, luan e la rau qua rat can cho sc khoe con ngi.
2.2.2. Luan c
ay la nhng phan oan ma tnh chan that cua no a c cong nhan, c dung lam can
c khach quan chng minh cho luan e. Luan c tra li cho cau hoi: Chng minh bang cai
g?.
Luan c co the la cac tien e, nh ngha khoa hoc, nh l, luan iem khoa hoc a c
chng minh, co the la nhng t lieu thc tien tin cay.
Trong v du tren ay, luan c la vitamin rat can cho sc khoe con ngi, va rau qua cha
nhieu vitamin.
2.2.3. Luan chng
1

ay la moi lien he logic gia luan c va luan e, nh no ma luan e c suy ra mot cach
tat yeu t luan c. Luan chng tra li cho cau hoi: Chng minh nh the nao?.
e mot chng minh co gia tr, luan chng phai tuan theo cac quy tac, quy luat logic.
Trong v du tren ay, luan chng la quy tac logic cua tam oan luan thuoc hnh th nhat:
Vitamin rat can cho sc khoe con ngi, (ai tien e)
Rau qua cha nhieu vitamin, (tieu tien e)
Rau qua rat can cho sc khoe con ngi. (ket luan)
2.3. Cac quy tac chng minh
2.3.1. Quy tac oi vi luan e

1
Hay lap luan.
86
a) Luan e phai ro rang, xac thc
e co the chng minh, luan e a ra phai c xac nh. Muon vay, t tng va ngon ng
dien at cua luan e phai chnh xac, tng minh, tranh nhng y tng va cach dien at m ho.
Chang han, ngi ta khong the chng minh mot luan e nh: Yeu la chet trong long mot t,
hoac: Tieng Viet la mot ngon ng bien hnh.
Mau truyen sau ay cho thay, do a ra luan e khong ro rang, ma s Tau anh phai them
mot lan na chu thua tr Trang Quynh:
Sau lan thua choi trau, s bo Tau ban nhau chi o tro xiec nc. Gia trieu ng
nc ta, s a ra mot lo thuy tinh uc lien khong thay nut ma ben trong cha ay nc, roi
hoi:
Lam cach g lay nc trong lo ra c?
Vua a mat ra hieu cho Trang Quynh. Trang i ti, tay cam dui uc, tay cam lo, gi cao,
noi:
Muon lay c nc, ch co cach nay thoi, anh!
Roi Trang dang thang canh tay, ap v tan cai lo.
S Tau tung the, bat en, Quynh be:
Ngai o chung toi cach lay c nc ch co giao hen chung toi phai gi nguyen lo
cho ngai au!
The lathien trieu b ten, cang o cang thua.
(Theo Vu Ngoc Khanh (1995), Kho tang truyen ci
Viet Nam, tap 3, NXB Van hoa Thong tin, HN, tr. 256)
b) Luan e phai c gi nguyen trong suot qua trnh chng minh
Khi chng minh mot luan e nao o, neu khong gi nguyen luan e trong suot qua trnh
chng minh, tc khong chng minh luan e a xac nh, ma lai chng minh sang luan e khac,
th pham phai sai lam anh trao luan e (lac e). Chang han, trong mau oi thoai vi chu e
The nao la ve vang? a dan 2.1. chng II (Quy luat ong nhat), hai nhan vat A va B a vi
pham quy tac nay.
2.3.2. Quy tac oi vi luan c
a) Luan c phai chan that, khong mau thuan nhau
Luan c la cai can c tin cay e khang nh tnh chan that cua luan e. Nh vay, luan c
phai la nhng phan oan chan that c thc tien cong nhan hay a c chng minh mot
cach oc lap oi vi luan e. Neu luan c b vach ra la gia doi hay thieu c s th chng
minh khong co gia tr. Chang han, cac chng minh thien van hoc trc Copernic a tng da
vao luan c gia doi: Mat Tri quay xung quanh Trai at. Sai lam loai nay c goi la sai lam
can ban.
Luan c cung khong c mau thuan nhau, v trong hai luan c mau thuan th phai co mot
luan c la gia doi, ch khong the cung chan that.
b) Luan c phai la l do ay u cua luan e
87
Luan c cung se khong co gia tr chng minh neu no khong co moi lien he trc tiep vi
luan e, tc t luan c khong the suy ra luan e mot cach tat yeu, mac du no la nhng phan
oan chan that. Chang han, khong the chng minh Xuan hoc gioi bang cac luan c: Xuan
co bo la k s, me la bac s; Xuan co nhieu th in bao.
Sai lam loai nay c goi la sai lam khong suy ra c.
2.3.3. Quy tac oi vi luan chng
a) Luan chng khong c luan quan
Khi chng minh, khong c lay luan c e chng minh cho luan e, roi lai lay luan e e
chng minh cho luan c; v nh vay la luan e cha c chng minh. Chang han, luan chng
cua ong thay thuoc trong v kch Ngi benh tng cua Moliere: Khoi thuoc phien s d co
the lam say c la v no co nang lc lam say ngi!.
Loai sai lam do vi pham quy tac nay c goi la chng minh vong quanh.

b) Luan chng khong c vi pham cac quy tac suy luan.
Nh chung ta a tm hieu, e xay dng mot suy luan (dien dch, quy nap) ung an, co ket
luan tin cay th khong ch can tien e chan that ma con can phai tuan thu cac quy tac, quy
luat logic trong qua trnh lap luan. Nh vay, mot chng minh ch co gia tr khi luan e c rut
ra mot cach tat yeu t luan c chan that.
Noi rang: Ong Ba la ngi tot, v ngi tot th hay giup ngi ngheo, ma ong Ba hay giup
ngi ngheo, th chng minh nay khong co gia tr, v luan e Ong Ba la ngi tot khong co
moi lien he logic vi luan c (vi pham quy tac tam oan luan).
2.4. Phan loai chng minh
Da vao luan chng cua chng minh, co the phan chng minh thanh hai loai: chng minh
trc tiep va chng minh gian tiep.
2.4.1. Chng minh trc tiep
ay la cach chng minh ma trong o ngi ta to chc luan chng sao cho tnh chan that
cua luan c trc tiep dan ti tnh chan that cua luan e.
V du: e chng minh hoc lc, ta xuat trnh hoc ba hay phieu iem. e chng minh mot ke
nao o la thu pham trong mot vu an, ngi ta da vao cac dau vet tin cay cua ke o lu lai tai
hien trng.
2.4.2. Chng minh gian tiep
ay la cach chng minh ma trong o ngi ta to chc luan chng i t phu nh tnh chan
that cua phan e e khang nh tnh chan that cua luan e.
Co hai loai chng minh gian tiep la chng minh phan chng va chng minh loai tr.
a) Chng minh phan chng
e chng minh phan chng, ta vach ra tnh gia doi, sai lam cua phan e. ay la cach
chng minh thng dung trong toan hoc.
V du:
88
(1) Chng minh: Neu ng thang c cat mot trong hai ng thang song song a va b tren
mat phang th no cat ng thang kia.
Ta lap luan: Gia s c khong cat b, tc la c song song vi b, th qua iem O ta co the ke
c hai ng thang a va c cung song song vi b. ieu nay trai vi tien e Euclide. Vay, c
phai cat b (hnh 17).
c
a
O
b

Hnh 17
(2) Cong tac quy hoach at ai khong on nh khien cuoc song ngi dan b xao tron. Do
o, Nha nc can phai sm co quy hoach at ai on nh.
b) Chng minh loai tr (la chon)
e chng minh loai tr, ta vach ra tnh gia doi, sai lam cua tat ca cac thanh phan trong
phan oan la chon, tr mot thanh phan la luan e.
S o:
a b c
~a ~b__
c
V du: Ta ang ui (la) quan ao th thay ban ui khong con ien vao. Kiem tra, thay khong
phai do ien b cat, khong phai do ni o cam b long, cung khong phai do cau ch nhanh b t.
Vay th phai co bo phan nao o cua ban ui b hong.
(Xem them: 3.2.4.2., chng V - Tam oan luan xac quyet - la chon, hnh thc phu nh
khang nh.)
3. Bac bo
3.1. Bac bo la g?
ay la hnh thc chng minh ac biet, nham ch ra mot chng minh nao o co s vi pham
quy tac chng minh.
Neu nh e mot chng minh co gia tr, ca ba bo phan eu phai tuan theo cac quy tac logic,
th e bac bo, ta ch can vach ra bat c mot bo phan nao o cua cau truc chng minh a vi
pham quy tac logic la u.
3.2. Nhng cach bac bo
3.2.1. Bac bo luan e
Co hai cach bac bo luan e.
a) Chng minh he qua rut ra t luan e la gia doi
Cac nha logic hoc goi ay la cach bac bo quy ve s vo l. Cach nay c thc hien thong
qua viec gia nh luan e la chan that, t o rut ra he qua cua no. Neu he qua rut ra la gia doi,
mau thuan vi cac luan iem chan that a c chng minh hay vi hien thc th luan e b
bac bo.
89
V du:
e bac bo luan e neu nhan t th song tho (nhan t gia tho Thai Cong) (a b),
theo quy tac ket luan phan ao, ta co the rut ra he qua t luan e tren: neu khong song tho
th la khong nhan t (~b ~a). Thc te, co khong t ngi chet sm lai rat nhan t (~b a)!
Sach Co hoc tinh hoa
1
co chep mau truyen sau:

NHAN TRUNG DAI SONG LAU
Mot hom vua Vu e nha Han noi vi cac quan rang:
Ta xem trong sach tng co noi: Ngi ta nhan trung dai mot tac th song lau mot tram
tuoi.
ong Phng Soc ng ben ph ci. Cac quan hac la vo phep. ong Phng Soc cat mu,
ta rang:
Muon tau Be ha, ke ha than khong dam ci Be ha, ch ci ong Banh To mat dai ma
thoi.
Vua hoi:
Sao lai ci ong Banh To?.
ong Phng Soc noi:
Tuc truyen ong Banh To song tam tram tuoi, neu qua thc nh cau trong sach tng Be ha
va noi, th nhan trung ong dai tam tac, ma nhan trung dai tam tac th mat ong de dai en mot
trng.
Vua Vu e nghe noi, bat ci, tha toi cho.
(S k)
e bac bo luan e Ngi ta nhan trung dai mot tac th song lau mot tram tuoi, ong
Phng Soc a vach ra he qua rut ra t no la gia doi: Vay, mat ong Banh To phai dai en mot
trng!
b) Chng minh tnh chan that cua phan e
ay la cach van dung luat bai trung e bac bo: neu phan e (~a) c chng minh la chan
that, th luan e (a) la gia doi.
V du:
e bac bo luan e Hoc sinh trng X toan la hoc sinh gioi, ta chng minh phan oan
mau thuan cua no la chan that: Co mot so hoc sinh cua trng X khong gioi. Phan oan O
ung, nen phan oan A sai.

3.2.2. Bac bo luan c
e bac bo luan c, ta vach ra luan c cua oi phng la gia doi, mau thuan nhau, cha
c chng minh ve tnh chan that, hoac khong phai la l do ay u cua luan e.

1
Theo: On nh Nguyen Van Ngoc - T an Tran Le Nhan, Co hoc tinh hoa, quyen 1, NXB TP Ho Ch Minh tai ban, 1968,
tr.134-135.
90
V du:
e bao ve y kien cua mnh, nhng ngi c giao trach nhiem xay dng Nha may Thuy
ien Sn La a bao cao trc Quoc hoi: ap cua cong trnh thuy ien Sn La du xay dng
theo phng an nao eu la ap be tong trong lc cao t 135 177 met va en nay tren the
gii cha co ap be tong trong lc hien ai nao b o v vi bat k l do nao, ke ca mong ap
b xoi, lu tran qua nh ap hoac ong at. Mot v ai bieu ben phan bac: Theo bao cao
tham tra cua Uy ban Khoa hoc Cong nghe va Moi trng cua Quoc hoi, tai Hoi thao khoa hoc
ve d an Nha may Thuy ien Sn La to chc ngay 31 3 2001, nhieu ai bieu neu trng
hp ap be tong trong lc Thach Cng ai Loan a b v trong tran ong at ngay 21 9
1999 (co anh v ap ma chuyen gia Viet Nam thu thap c). (Theo Tuoi tre, 21 6 2001,
tr. 3).
Nh the, cai luan c en nay tren the gii cha co ap betong trong lc hien ai nao b
o v vi bat k l do nao, ke ca mong ap b xoi, lu tran qua nh ap hoac ong at a b
bac bo.

3.2.3. Bac bo luan chng
e bac bo luan chng, ta ch ra trong lap luan cua oi phng co s vi pham quy tac, quy
luat logic.
V du:
Co ngi lap luan: He co lam th co sai. Ma anh khong lam. Vay, anh se khong sai .
Xet trng hp tat ca cac tien e eu ung:
Suy luan tren co s o:
a b
~a_____
~b
V ~a ung, nen a sai. a sai, ma a b ung, th b co the ung ma cung co the sai. Vay ~b
co the sai ma cung co the ung. Suy luan nay khong hp logic.
Ta cung co the lap bang chan tr e chng minh cong thc: ((a b) ~a) ~b khong
phai la quy luat logic.
Ch ra lap luan nay khong hp logic, tc ta a bac bo luan chng
1
.
(Xem them cac v du: b) cua 2.3.3. va a) cua 3.2.1. tren ay, va lien he vi cac v du ve vi
pham quy tac, quy luat logic trong nhng chng trc).
4. Nguy bien
4.1. Nguy bien la g?

1
e hp quy tac logic, phai lap luan nh sau: He co lam th co sai. Ma anh co lam. Vay, anh co sai (quy tac ket luan);
He co lam th co sai. Ma anh khong sai. Vay, anh a khong lam (quy tac ket luan phan ao).
91
Nguy bien (sophistique) la mot thu thuat logic, trong o ngi ta co y dung nhng hnh thc
co ve ung an be ngoai nhng that ra la sai lam, e chng minh nhng luan e gia doi, hay
rut ra nhng ket luan xuyen tac s that
1
.
V du:
Protagoras (481 411 tr.CN) va la triet gia, va la luat gia. Ong co nhan day mot ngi
hoc tro, cho anh ta n hoc ph hen khi ra nghe se tra, va con cho anh ta mot ieu kien: lan au
tien ra hanh nghe trang s trc toa ma that kien th khoi phai tra tien an hoc lau nay cho ong.
Anh hoc tro hoc xong, ra i lam thay kien, khong he nhac nh g en mon n an hoc trc
ay. Protagoras viet th oi; anh hoc tro cu khong hoi ap.
Protagoras tc gian am n kien. Nghe tin, anh ta lien viet cho Protagoras mot la th vi
noi dung: Thay ng kien toi lam g! Theo li thay cam ket trc ay, ra toa, du toi that kien
hay c kien th ang nao toi cung khoi phai tra hoc ph cho thay!.
oc th, Protagoras bat ci, khen cho tai nguy bien cua anh hoc tro cu.
Giai thoai tren cho thay, anh hoc tro cu a nguy bien khi co y ong nhat viec anh ta hanh
nghe ma that kien vi viec anh ta la b cao ma that kien!
4.2. Nhng hnh thc nguy bien thng gap
4.2.1. Nguy bien vi luan e
a) nh ngha sai
ay la kieu nguy bien ma trong luan e co s anh trao khai niem da tren hien tng
ong am d ngha cua t ng.
V du:
Trong Thien -o-mos oi thoai cua Platon co mot oan bien luan gia Can-oen-ni-so-to-
lus va Kh-t-spus nh sau:
Can-oen: Anh bao anh co mot con cho, ung khong?
Kh-t: ung vay, mot con cho rat d.
Can-oen: No co con roi ch?
Kh-t: ung vay, chung eu rat giong vi con cho nay.
Can-oen: Con cho nay la bo cua chung a?
Kh-t: ung vay, ro rang toi trong thay no cung vi me lu cho con.
Can-oen: No khong phai la cua anh a?
Kh-t: Chac chan la cua toi.
Can-oen: Nh vay th, no va la bo, va la cua anh. Vay no la bo cua anh, lu cho con la
cac anh em cua anh.
(Theo Trieu Truyen ong, sd, tr. 331)

1
Trong tieng Viet, t sophistique c dch la phep nguy bien, va sophiste c dch la nha nguy bien; do vay, nhng t
nay thng mang sac thai ngha tieu cc. That ra sophiste, theo nguyen ngha tieng Hi Lap la nha thong thai, ngi
thong thao, ngi phat minh. Cac sophiste thuoc the he au tien a co nhng cong hien xuat sac ve tu t hoc, ve
nghe thuat hung bien, va ve nhng quan niem bien chng.
92
Trong oan bien luan nay, Can-oen a nguy bien bang cach anh trao cac khai niem (no
la) boco ngha la (no la) bo cua lu cho con; (no la) cua anh co ngha la (no la) cho cua
anh e rut ra ket luan (no la) bo cua anh.
b) anh trao luan e
ay la kieu nguy bien bang cach thay oi luan e ang tranh luan bang mot luan e khac.
V du:
Trong buoi hop co noi dung tong ket cong tac cua n v X, anh A khong phat bieu thang
vao nhng u, khuyet iem cua n v X ma lai luon mieng phe phan s ch ao cua cap tren.
c) Luan e m ho
ay la kieu nguy bien ma luan e co ngha khong ro rang, co the giai thch theo cach nay
hoac cach khac.
V du:
Trong truyen dan gian Viet Nam Ken re tay khong bat ca sau ay, phu ong a nguy bien
vi luan e m ho e ken re theo y mnh:
Xa, tai mot vung que, gia nh phu ong kia co mot co con gai xinh ep, gioi giang, a en
tuoi cap ke. Phu ong muon ken re, ben anh tieng: ngi nao tay khong bat ca th ong se ga
con gai cho.
Cac chang trai luc tuc keo en tro tai, ai cung bat c ca cam tay nhng phu ong c than
nhien, lac au khap lt.
Bong co mot chang trai khoi ngo tuan tu en trc mat phu ong, xoe hai ban tay ra noi:
Tha phu ong, nh con ay mi la tay khong bat ca ay a.
Phu ong khoai cha ci, om cham lay chang trai roi gat gu:
, ay chnh la chang re cua ta!
4.2.2. Nguy bien vi luan c
a) Luan c gia doi
ay la kieu nguy bien, ma trong o luan c c ba at, hay khong xac thc.
V du:
(1) e qua mat c quan ieu tra, ten toi pham dng hien trng gia nham chng minh la
mnh vo toi.
(2) Mot dan chng nao o b ngi noi (viet) co tnh them bt, cat xen au uoi e chng
minh cho luan e cua mnh.
b) Luan c cha c chng minh
ay la kieu nguy bien trong o luan c da tren tin on hay d luan quan chung, tc
nhng luan c cha c chng minh.
V du:
Anh ta khong xng ang c e bat vao chc vu nay, v va qua toi nghe ngi ta on
rang thi gian gan ay anh ta co quan he nam n bat chnh.
c) Luan c da vao quyen lc
93
ay la kieu nguy bien trong o bao lc, uy quyen chnh tr va ton giao c dung lam luan
c e suy ra luan e.
V du:
(1) e doa, dung vu lc buoc ngi khac phai nghe theo y kien cua mnh.
(2) Giet ngi la toi cc trong, loi ngha cung c Chua Tri. V vay, khong nen duy tr an
t hnh.
d) Luan c da vao t cach ca nhan
ay la kieu nguy bien ma trong o luan c e chng minh chnh la y kien cua nhng ngi
co ten tuoi, c nhieu ngi ne trong.
V du:
Cai cuon sach va xuat ban cua anh ta khong ang c oc, bi toi a nghe tien s X
mot nha phe bnh co ten tuoi - nhan xet nh vay.
4.2.3. Nguy bien vi luan chng
a) Lap luan ngoai luan e
ay la kieu nguy bien ma trong o co y chng minh nhng ieu nam ngoai luan e, ch
khong chng minh chnh luan e.
V du:
Anh ch no eu la nhng ngi hoc gioi: anh no la tien s, ch no la bac s noi tieng...Vay
th, no cung phai hoc gioi.
b) Lap luan khong ch ra ung hay sai
ay la kieu nguy bien trong o thay v ch ra gia hai phan oan mau thuan nhau, phai co
mot phan oan chan that, mot phan oan gia doi, th lai khong to ro thai o khang nh hay
phu nh vi tng phan oan, ma lai dien at lap lng e tron tranh.
V du:
Mot ngi en gap nha thong thai va noi:
Toi va cai nhau vi nhng ngi hang xom. Ong ta ke lai noi dung cuoc cai va o va
hoi nha thong thai Theo ong, ai ung, ai sai?
Ong ung. Nha thong thai tra li.
Hai ngay sau, mot ngi khac a tham gia cuoc cai va o cung en gap nha thong thai ay
va ke lai noi dung cuoc cai va. Ngi nay cung hoi nha thong thai ay la ai ung, ai sai. Va nha
thong thai lai tra li:
Ong ung.
Nghe c noi dung hai cuoc noi chuyen o, v nha thong thai ben hoi chong:
Tai sao lai the c? Ngi nay ung, ma ngi kia cung ung...?
Nha thong thai mm ci va tra li:
Em cung ung.
(Theo Vng Tat at, sd, tr. 89)
94
c) ong nhat toan the vi thanh phan, va ngc lai
ay la kieu nguy bien ma trong o co tnh khong phan biet cai rieng vi cai chung. Bi v,
khong phai t cai ung (hoac sai) vi mot bo phan oi tng nao o th cung co the suy ra cai
ung (hoac sai) tng ng vi toan the oi tng thuoc lp o, va ngc lai.
V du:
(1) Khong phai v mot so ngi thuoc a phng nao o phong khoang ma ta ket luan rang
moi ngi cua a phng o la phong khoang.
(2) Khong phai v phu n thng yeu uoi ma co B, co C cu the nao o cung yeu uoi.
d) Lap luan vong quanh
ay la kieu nguy bien ma trong o ket luan c rut ra t tien e, nhng tien e th lai
c suy ra t chnh ket luan.
V du:
Anh ta qua that la ngi tot, v ai tot cung eu phai nh anh ta!
e) Lap luan nhan qua sai
ay la kieu nguy bien do khai quat hoa voi vang: sau cai o la nguyen nhan cua cai
o, trong khi gia s viec trc vi s viec sau khong he co quan he logic nao ca.
V du:
Thay mot ngi b xe quet te tren ng, chet ngay sau o, ta de dang cho rang ngi o
v b xe ung nga ma chet. Nhng co the nguyen nhan thc s dan en cai chet cua ngi o
khong phai do tai nan giao thong, ma do mot cn benh ot phat khien ngi o t vong nen
nga vao xe.
f) Lap luan ba oan khong theo quy tac
ay la kieu nguy bien s dung hnh thc tam oan luan nhng co y vi pham quy tac cua
tam oan luan.
(Xem v du b) cua 2.3.3. tren ay, va cac v du ve vi pham quy tac neu trong phan tam
oan luan).

CAU HOI VA BAI TAP

1. Nhng quy tac chu yeu cua viec kiem tra va e xuat gia thuyet la g?
2. Phan biet chng minh vi bac bo.
3. Trnh bay ve cac bo phan trong cau truc chng minh.
4. Neu cac quy tac oi vi luan e, luan c va luan chng cua chng minh (co neu v du vi pham quy
tac tng ng).
5. The nao la chng minh trc tiep va chng minh gian tiep? Cho v du minh hoa.
6. Trnh bay cac cach bac bo (bac bo luan e, bac bo luan c va bac bo luan chng).
7. Trnh bay nhng hnh thc nguy bien (vi luan e, luan c va luan chng) thng gap.
8. Hay tm trong cac tai lieu khoa hoc mot mau chng minh va mot mau bac bo roi phan tch, ch ra
cau truc cua chung.
95
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