CNC Bending Springback: Condition that occurs when a flat-rolled metal or alloy is cold-worked; upon release of the forming

force, the material has a tendency to partially return to its original shape because of the elastic recovery of the material. This is called Springback and influenced not only by the tensile and yield strengths, but also by thickness, bend radius and bend angle. Springback is the release of stress from a bent tube upon completion of the bending process. To the extent that the tubes intrados has not been completely compressed or its extrados elongated while under the stress of the bending process, the bend will open up afterwards with two effects. One is radial growth. The other is an increase in the degree of bend. Because radial growth is seldom critical, it is the second springback effect that garners the most attention. This second effect is readily offset by over-bending the tube that is, exceeding the specified degree of bend by three to eight percent so that it will open up to the desired degree of bend once off the machine. Material rigidity, D of bend, and wall factor are the key factors in springback. Others are material type, thickness, hardness and bend radius. However, there are other factors, such as machine set-up, that can intervene, and there exists no comprehensive guide as to how any of these factors combine to produce a predictable measure of springback. Therefore, with each new application, trial-and-error remains the quickest way to determine the amount of springback that will occur with that application. To reduce springback: Corner setting: Coining or squeezing the metal slightly at the corners to relieve elastic stresses square-back The traditional style of wiper die, especially solid-bodied, in which the body is a rectangular block. The square-back style is recommended when the bending under high direct pressure, otherwise the half-round style is suitable for most other applications. Compare half-round; see wiper.

After cold forming, yield and tensile strengths may rise approximately 10 percent; elongation may decrease approximately 15 percent. Bending of pipe and tube can distort the cross section. This depends on the quality of the pipe bending machine tooling, the difficulty of the pipe bend and the experience of the pipe bender. The greater the radius, the less the resulting distortion; the tighter the radius, the greater the distortion. The inner wall of the pipe bend undergoes compression that thickens the wall. Excessive compression, in the worst case, can fold the material causing wrinkles or waves. The outer bend wall undergoes tension that thins the back wall. These same forces tend to make a round pipe oval, with the widest dimension of the oval transverse to the plane of the bend.

Wall factor The ratio between tube outside diameter and wall thickness. It is a rule of thumb for assessing the difficulty of a tube bend: The higher the wall factor, the more difficult the bend. The rationale behind this rule is that a wall that is thin relative to the tube outside diameter requires more support at the point of bend to prevent wrinkling or collapse. As a practical matter, the higher the wall factor, the more likely a mandrel and a wiper are needed to achieve good bend quality in rotary-draw bending. The wall factor needs to be considered in conjunction with other factors, such as the D of bend, to fully gauge the difficulty of a bend. wall thickness The measure of a tubes wall; the difference between the tube outside and inside diameters divided by two. See "WT" under geometry for illustration. wall thinning The reduction in wall thickness that occurs as the extrados is elongated at the point of bend. The reason the tube wall thins out is simple: The fixed amount of material contained in the wall must spread out to cover the extrados as its area increases at the point of bend. Conversely, the wall of the intrados thickens at the same time as the area of that region decreases. (See geometry for an illustration of the regions mentioned in this entry.) Wall thinning, as opposed to wall thickening, is an issue tube-benders take particular notice of, because many bend applications require a minimum wall thickness in the finished product. Many factors play a role in determining how much a wall will thin, not the least of which is the set-up. One of the key objectives of a good set-up is to minimize drag at the point of bend, which in turn minimizes the amount of wall thinning. To determine a realistic target for wall thickness of the extrados after thinning, use the following formula: WT (( OSR CLR ) / OSR x WT ) = RWT where WT is the starting wall thickness, OSR is the outside radius, CLR is the centerline radius, and RWT is the thickness of the wall after being reduced by bending. For example, in a 2 TOD x .065 WT x 4 CLR tube bend, the calculation for the target post bend wall thickness is .065 (( 5 4 ) / 4 x .065) = .04875. Therefore, a realistic target for wall thickness in this application is about .049. Achieving this target value assumes a forward-mandrel, low-pressure set up that reduces the drag of direct pressure at the point of bend and maximizes the effect of assist pressure. Increasing the assist pressure will account for variations in material plasticity, but will not significantly exceed the target value. To substantially increase this value will normally require starting with a heavier wall. However, boost pressure, which is a special feature most machines lack, is a mechanical means of measurably exceeding the target value, although at the expense of excessive thickening of the wall of the intrados. (See the articles under assist pressure and boost pressure for additional details.) Rotary draw benders Rotary draw benders (RDB) are precise in that they bend using tooling or "die sets" which have a constant center line radius (CLR). The die set consists of two parts: The former die creates the shape to which the material will be bent. The counter die does the work of pushing the material into the former die while traveling the length of the bend. Rotary draw benders can be programmable to store multiple bend jobs with varying degrees of bending. Often a positioning index table (IDX) is attached to the bender allowing the operator to reproduce complex bends which can have multiple bends and differing planes.

Rotary draw benders are the most popular machines for use in bending tube, pipe and solids for applications like: handrails, frames, motor vehicle roll cages, handles, lines and much more. Rotary draw benders create aesthetically pleasing bends when the right tooling is matched to the application. Mandrel benders Mandrel benders (MB) are machines designed to bend tube to a tight radius with little to no change in the shape of the tube. Typically a mandrel bender is needed when bending thin wall tubing to a radius much tighter than the material can bend without collapsing or distorting. The word mandrel refers to the part of the tooling set up which is inserted into the tube and remains inside the tube during the bend process. This internal mandrel helps to support the shape of the wall when bending. Performance automotive or motorcycle exhaust pipe is a common application for a mandrel bender.

THE RIGHT STUFF: SPECIFYING MATERIALS FOR TUBE-BENDING TOOLS by Bill Tingley, Vice President & General Manager, Bend Tooling Inc. Over the past half-century a lot of ideas have come and gone as to the best materials for rotary-draw tube-bending tools. This is not surprising because of the great advances in materials, heat treatments, and coatings during this period. What may be surprising is that the materials which were the right stuff at the middle of the 20th century remain, for the most part, the best choices for tooling materials at the beginning of the 21st century. Before further discussion, we should define what best means. The best material for a tube-bending tool is that which is most cost-effective. This means more than the ratio of tool life to tool cost, usually expressed as the per-bend cost of a tool. Cost-effectiveness must take into account process control i.e., stability in a tube-bending machines operation that optimizes productivity. In terms of tool life, this translates into exhausting that life through wear rather than failure. This is because, tool failure often causes a process failure, which in turn can shut down a tube-bending machine and reduce its hours of operation. So cost-effective tube-bending tools should tend to wear out and not break at the end of their life. To bring about this outcome, the tooling set-up on a machine is the most important factor. (For a proven

standardized set-up procedure, please see The Four-Step Set-Up article.) Next is the tooling material. The full tool kit for a rotary-draw tube-bending machine includes a die set, a mandrel, and a wiper. Each of these have different material requirements, which we will now examine one by one. DIE SETS A rotary-draw die set has three components: Bend die, clamp die, and pressure die. The key material requirement for these dies is that they are tough. A tough die has hard working surfaces that can absorb a shock without breaking. So a tough die has some give. It is not brittle. For the same reason we do not use glass hammers, we should avoid materials and heat treatments for bending dies that make them brittle instead of tough and so break instead of wear out. Consequently, the tool steels that are sometimes specified for rotary-draw die sets, such as A2, D2, or even a shock-resistant material like S7, are not the best materials in terms of cost-effectiveness. While they can be heat treated to a high level of hardness, they are designed to hold a sharp edge in metal-cutting operations. So the brittleness that comes with this hardness is acceptable for that use. However, tube-bending is, of course, not a metal-cutting process. There is no need for tooling materials that hold a sharp edge. There is a need for the durability of work surfaces, specifically the tube cavities of the bending dies, which brittleness degrades. This is why die sets made of tool steel must be drawn back (i.e., softened) during heat treatment to eliminate their inherent brittleness but also their superior hardness. Therefore, the extra cost of tool steel as a material for die sets does not deliver the maximal hardness that is the rationale for it. For almost all tube-bending jobs, the best choice of material is an alloy steel that can be heat treated to a high level hardness without inducing brittleness and then can be cased without significant dimensional distortion to further harden the working surfaces of the die set. Nitriding and carburizing are effective methods of casing to make die sets tough. This is why heat-treated alloy steels are used for NASCAR engine components. They are durable and shock-absorbent, whereas tool steel parts would catastrophically fail under the stress of a NASCAR competition. Likewise heat-treated alloy steel bending dies will tend to wear out over a long life rather than fail from breakage. MANDRELS Since the introduction of the modern ball mandrel in the 1950s, aluminum-bronze and hard-chrome plated steel have been the most common material specifications. The former has been preferred for ferrous and titanium tubing while the latter for aluminum, copper-based, and, in some cases, mild steel tubing. Even with the advent of remarkable life-extending thermal diffusion and titanium

coatings, there remain good reasons for preferring aluminum-bronze and hard-chromed plated steel for mandrel tooling. For example, the primary cause of shortened mandrel life is not the material specification but set-up. The purpose of the mandrel is to maintain the original round, square, rectangular, or other shape of the tubing throughout the arc of the bend. This is achieved by setting the mandrel so that its nose supports the point of bend, at which the tubing material becomes plastic as it is drawn into a bend. Too often the mandrel nose is set behind the point of bend so that the weaker balls and links must do the work of the nose, which significantly shortens the life of these components. To offset this defective set-up, frequently a coated tool steel is specified for the mandrel to make the balls last longer. This typically works, although at the unnecessary extra cost of expensive materials and surface treatments and at a significantly increased risk of the tool breaking rather than wearing out. Therefore, if the mandrel is set up as designed with the nose advanced into the point of bend, then the proven aluminum-bronze and hard-chrome plated steel material specifications remain the most costeffective for almost all tube-bending applications. Some of the dissatisfaction with these well-established materials arises from the use of improper grades. It is important that the aluminum-bronze specified for a mandrel is alloyed with nickel, which can double the life of the tool over non-nickel grades. Ampco-45 and similar grades are best, and Ampco-18 and other non-nickel aluminum-bronzes should be avoided. (This is not always possible for large-diameter and non-round mandrels for which nickel aluminum-bronze is not readily available.) Similarly, be sure that a hard-chrome plated steel mandrel is made of a through-hardened alloy steel and not a case-hardened low-carbon steel. Also, the plating must be an industrial hard chrome and not a build-up of decorative chrome, which will quickly chip and flake off. WIPERS Like mandrels, aluminum-bronze and steel have been the most common material specifications for wipers. Aluminum-bronze is best for ferrous and titanium tubing, and steel for non-ferrous tubing. Unlike mandrels, softer grades of these materials are preferred so that the finely tapered feathered edge of the wiper does not prematurely break because of brittleness. Generally this has meant that Ampco18 (or similar grades of aluminum-bronze) and unhardened steels have been preferred for wipers, and they remain the most cost-effective materials today. The most significant exception to this involves the bending of aluminized and galvanized steel tubing. To mitigate the build-up of debris from these coatings on the bore of the wiper, often a hard-chrome plated alloy steel is a good alternative to heavy lubrication or routine manual brushing of a soft bronze or steel wiper. As with mandrels, the most important factor in extending wiper tool life is set-up, not material specification. The key is whether the wiper can be raked or must be set at zero-rake. Raking the wiper usually lengthens its life, because less of the wiper bore is used to prevent the terminal hump from

forming at the end of the bend. However, raking is not always possible. Some rigid materials, like many stainless steels and hard coppers, require full containment of the tube at the point of bend and so the wiper must be set at zero-rake. If so, this necessitates a design change in the wiper, namely an offsetgeometry feathered edge. (For more details, please see The Wiper Feathered Edge: The Large Impact of Small Things article.) If these considerations for wiper set-up and design are kept in mind, then the conventional material specifications for wipers will continue to prove cost-effective. CONCLUSION What worked well fifty years ago as materials for tube-bending tools continues to work well today. Most of the perceived need for other solutions stems from overcoming problems in the set-up of tooling that causes excessive wear because the tools are not being used as designed. Typically these solutions, such as tool steels for die sets and titanium coatings for mandrels, are borrowed from the metal-cutting industry. Consequently these materials and coatings have been formulated to keep sharp edges, a quality not needed for tube-bending tools. Therefore, the toughness that is needed in tube-bending tools is compromised with the brittleness that is inherent in metal-cutting materials. Because of this mismatch between materials and function, their extra expense usually does not translate into greater costeffectiveness over aluminum-bronze, alloy steel, and conventional heat treatments. While there is a place in tube-bending tools for new materials, heat treatments, and coatings plastics in particular attention to sound tooling set-up and design will make the old standbys the best choice for almost all tube-bending applications. 4-STEP SET-UP THE TOOLS MAKE THE BEND by Bill Tingley, Vice President & General Manager, Bend Tooling Inc.

Even though we are in the age of computer-numerically controlled (CNC) machinery, the old bromide the tools make the bend is truer today than ever before. As applications have become more extreme in rotary-draw bending, the design, set-up, and maintenance of tools has returned to central importance. This article is primarily concerned with the set-up of tube-bending tools on a rotary-draw tube-bending machine. In it will be described four simple steps for setting up a complete set of tools on a machine, which if executed precisely and in the correct order, will maximize bend quality, tool life, and process control.

Modern features on tube-bending machines, especially pressure die assist, have permitted many tubebending machine operators to rely more upon manipulating machine controls to obtain adequate results than upon a precise, systematic tool set-up. Many optional controls on CNC tube-bending machines, such as variable assist pressure, circumferential boost, and in-cycle mandrel retraction, were created to make the most difficult applications practical. However, they are instead frequently used to push material about at the point of bend to overcome the defects of a poor set-up on routine applications. This over-reliance on the machines controls squeezes the tube into the desired shape through excessive use of radial force at the point of bend. Because this approach works against the axial tension on the tube that is natural to the rotary-draw process, high machine-actuated pressures must be used to force the part into shape. Use of high pressure at the point of bend often forces the machine operator to trade off tool life or process control in order to achieve acceptable bend quality. A four-step set-up procedure that combines a forward mandrel position with low machine pressure solves these problems. THE FOUR-STEP SET-UP It is not necessary to sacrifice longer tool life or improved process control for better bend quality. All three of these objectives can be maximized right now. Most tube-bending applications can be immediately de-pressurized with existing tool sets through a precise, back-to-basics, four-step set-up procedure. This set-up is known as Forward Mandrel, Low Pressure. The specific purpose of this procedure is to precisely position on the machine the critical working surfaces of your tools so that under minimum pressure they will exploit the natural axial flow of the tubing material and guide it into the desired shape. The four steps in a Forward Mandrel, Low Pressure set-up are: 1. 2. 3. 4. Mandrel nose placement Direct pressure die setting Wiper tip rake Pressure die assist setting

The trick to successfully implementing the four-step set-up is understanding that only one aspect of bend quality can be addressed at each step. Accurate placement of the mandrel nose ensures a stable round cross-section throughout the arc of the bend. A correct direct (or radial) pressure setting of the pressure die stops the buckling of the inside radius. A wiper tip properly raked away from the line of tangency prevents the wrinkle or series of small wrinkles that can form at the terminal end of the inside radius. And finally a balanced pressure die assist

setting will push out the outside radius sufficiently to mitigate flattening and to eliminate any terminal hump. Not all draw-bending applications require a mandrel or a wiper or the use of pressure die assist. But knowing the limits of what can be accomplished at each point of the Forward Mandrel, Low Pressure set-up will help you to troubleshoot problems more accurately and quickly and perhaps determine the need for one of these things if it is absent. Furthermore applying these steps in the above sequence will help overcome the common troubleshooting hurdle of one tool masking the failure of another for example, excessive direct pressure die pressure covering up an improperly placed mandrel nose. The following descriptions of each step will clarify these troubleshooting issues. STEP #1: THE MANDREL STEP #1: MANDREL NOSE PLACEMENT The mandrel is the central tool in the draw-bending setup. It is your primary means of controlling the flow of tubing material at the point of bend. To understand the best placement of the mandrel nose it is useful to understand the difference between the line of tangency and the point of bend.

The line of tangency is a theoretical plane fixed in space. It is perpendicular to the plane of bend and divides the bend arc from the tangent. On the other hand, the point of bend is an indefinite region surrounding the line of tangency in which the tubing material is in a plastic state [Figure #1]. In this region the tube wall will thicken along the inside radius (intrados) and will thin along the outside radius (extrados) as the clamps draw the tube around the bend die. The purpose of the mandrel nose is to cover this region of flowing material and ensure a consistently round cross-section by mitigating the simultaneous compression and stretch of the tube wall.

Because the point of bend extends past the line of tangency, so too must the mandrel nose to support it [Figure #2]. If it does not, then the compression and stretching of the tube wall is uncontrolled resulting in buckling and excessive flattening.

While more direct pressure die pressure can often remedy the buckling along the inside radius that will also exacerbate the flattening of the outside radius because of the additional drag it causes on the outside radius. Therefore, the mandrel nose placement past the line of tangency is critical, because it then can both eliminate buckling and minimize flattening. Commonsense informs us that there is a limit to how deep the mandrel nose can be placed past the line of tangency into the bend. At some point the outside line of the mandrel nose will intersect the outside radius of the tube bend and force the tubing material to form over the contour of the nose and perhaps the balls. What intuition does not tell us is that this point is relatively deep into the bend and that, in most instances, tube-bending machine operators are not using the mandrel nose aggressively enough. Several factors come into play in calculating how deep past the line of tangency the mandrel nose can be placed: Tube diameter (d) Wall thickness (t) Centerline radius (r) Mandrel nose diameter (m) Mandrel nose radius (n) Using the Pythagorean Theorem you can calculate this maximum depth (b): b = SQRT{ [r + (d/2) t ]2 [ r + (m/2)]2 } + n [FORMULA DETAILS]

For instance, for a 2-inch tube diameter x .049-inch wall thickness x 4-inch centerline radius application with a standard diameter mandrel, the maximum depth would more than 5/8 of an inch. Usually, a

placement somewhere between one-half and two-thirds of the maximum is best. The less rigid the material the deeper the placement must be.

This executes the Forward Mandrel principle of this set-up procedure. At the end of this first step, you should have a bend that is maintaining a consistent cross-section throughout most of the arc. The most serious problem you might have is buckling throughout the inside radius. If your mandrel nose is stable at the proper depth past the line of tangency and its diameter is not undersized for the application, then go onto the next step to determine the correct direct pressure die setting. It is important to ensure that your mandrel nose is not undersized for the bend you want to make. There is a practical limit to how small a mandrel nose diameter can be and still be effective. A properly sized mandrel nose is critical to mitigating flattening on the outside radius of the bend and buckling on the inside radius. The formula for the standard nose diameter (m) is: m = d ( t x 2.21 ) [FORMULA DETAILS]

If ease of loading is an important consideration, then the standard diameter (m) can be reduced by .005 for every inch of tube diameter (d). But if your mandrel nose diameter is substantially smaller than this, deeper placement of it past the line of tangency will not sufficiently compensate for its undersized condition. As noted above expect problems with buckling and flattening as a result. If you have other problems such as terminal wrinkles on the inside radius or a terminal hump on the outside radius, continue on. These problems will be fixed later in the set-up. STEP #2: DIRECT PRESSURE DIE SETTING In this next step you will execute the Low Pressure principle. If you have set the mandrel nose sufficiently forward into the bend so that it does most of the work in controlling the shape of the tube, then the only work the pressure die needs to do is to apply enough pressure so that tube does not pull away from the bend die during the bend. (If it does pull away, then the inside radius will buckle into the gap created.) Intuition suggests that not much pressure is needed to do this job. Whether mechanically or hydraulically, the pressure die applies a radial force upon the tube at the point of bend. Because this radial force is perpendicular to the natural axial flow of material in the drawbending process, drag results. Too much drag and you will have terminal humps and excessive flattening of the outside radius. Too much drag is usually the culprit when the tube slips from the clamp dies. Thus your objective is to eliminate as much drag as possible by determining the lowest direct (radial) pressure needed to prevent

buckling. Generally the more rigid the cross-section of the tube, the more direct pressure is needed to hold it against the pressure die. Most mild steel, stainless steel, aluminum, and copper round tube applications 3 inches and under in diameter will require only 400-1,200 pounds per square inch (PSI) of direct pressure to accomplish this. Square and rectangular tubes (especially if bent the hard-way) will require higher pressures. So will copper-nickel, super-alloy, and some stainless tubes. Unfortunately there is no simple formula for calculating the optimum setting because such factors as tube shape and size, wall thickness, centerline radius, degree of bend, and material rigidity must all be accounted for. An additional problem is that the pressure reading from the machine may not reflect what is actually applied to the tube. However, some time spent here on trial-and-error will yield benefits. A rule of thumb can help to establish a good starting point. Assuming a typical 3-inch capacity machine, set the direct pressure at 400-500 PSI* for the softest round tubular material such as soft aluminum, soft copper, and low-carbon hydroformable steel. Increase the initial setting to 600-700 PSI* for high-carbon steels, stainless steels, hard aluminum, and hard copper. For the most rigid mateials, such as titanium, nickel stainless, superalloys like Iconel, and non-round tubing of any material, an 900-1,000 PSI* setting is a good place to start. If continuous wrinkling or a buckle forms on the inside radius, increase the direct pressure setting in increments of 50 to 100 PSI* until this problem disappears. If there is no deformation on the inside radius, consider dropping the direct pressure. Once you determine the minimum direct pressure your application requires, you can rely upon this value for future set-ups of the same application and as a guideline to other applications. At the end of this step you will have combined the Forward Mandrel and Low Pressure concepts behind this set-up to produce an acceptable bend. Some imperfections may still be present, such as a terminal inside radius wrinkle or terminal outside radius hump. These can be fixed by the last two steps of the set-up procedure. [* Not all bending machines specify the direct pressure in this manner. Use the equivalent setting for your machine.]

STEP #3: WIPER TIP RAKE The wipers job is to prevent a wrinkle from forming at the end of the bend. Check whether or not there is a wrinkle at the terminal end of an otherwise smooth inside radius. If not, you do not need a wiper, and this step is completed. If so, the wiper tip needs to be positioned for optimal tool life.

The wiper fills the gap behind the line of tangency between the inside line of the tube and the curve of the bend die cavity [see figure to right]. If the tube wall is not sufficiently rigid it will bulge outward to fill this gap. With enough direct pressure die pressure this bulge will flatten out between the bend die cavity and the mandrel nose as the tube is drawn through the line of tangency. But at the terminus of the bend the bulge is not drawn through and flattened, and it can then form a wrinkle, or small series of wrinkles, if the bulge extends far enough to exceed the elasticity of the tubing material. Properly set, the tip of the wiper will catch the top of this terminal bulge before it sets into that wrinkle. Note that because all tubing materials have some elasticity, the bulge will to a certain extent flatten itself out once pressure is relieved from the point of bend. Therefore, it is not necessary for the wiper tip to contain the entire height of the terminal bulge. The wiper tip needs to obstruct only that marginal bulging which exceeds the materials elasticity and would set the entire bulge into a permanent wrinkle. This is why a wiper can be raked away from the line of tangency. The value of raking the wiper is that doing so extends its life. The key to this step in the Forward Mandrel, Low Pressure set-up is finding the natural resting position of the wiper at zero rake and then determining the maximum rake that can be set for the application.

To do this, hold a straightedge at the bottom of the grip section of the bend die cavity. With the wiper loosely mounted on the wiper post, bring in the wiper so that the bottom of its cavity also lines up with the straightedge. The wiper is now at zero rake. To find its natural resting position, gently slide the wiper along the straightedge towards the line of tangency until resistance is met. Check if the feathered edge of the wiper tip is in complete contact with the bend die cavity. If so, you have found the natural fit. If not, apply slightly more force until the feathered edge is securely backed by the bend die cavity. If you must use considerable force to find a fit, most likely the wiper is improperly cut or you are trying to get the tip too close to the line of tangency. The latter is a common problem because to the eye it looks better when the wiper is at the line of tangency; however, most wipers are not cut to permit such a setting, nor is it necessary if the purpose of the wiper is limited to containing the terminal bulge. Once you have found the natural zero rake position, rake the wiper by rotating the tip along the bend die cavity away from the line of tangency. You can increase rake in this manner so long as the terminal bulge does not set into a wrinkle. Once you have set the rake, you can measure the linear distance along the bend die cavity from the wiper tip to the line of tangency. Provided that replacement wiper tips are of the same design and manufacture, you can short-cut this step in the set-up by setting a new wiper at this distance. Note that raking the wiper applies only to low-pressure bending applications. Also, if the wiper is raked, the feathered edge should be cut to "simple-sweep" geometry. This is the most common geometrical form. For high-pressure jobs, the wiper should be kept a zero-rake and the feathered edge should have offset geometry to accommodate this. STEP #4: PRESSURE DIE ASSIST SETTING Like the wiper, pressure die assist is not necessary if there are no flaws for it to fix. In this case, if there is no terminal hump on the outside radius and the flattening is acceptable, you do not need pressure die assist. Turn it off or set it to a neutral pressure (depending upon your machine), and your set-up is complete. Otherwise start from a neutral pressure setting and increase the assist until the flaws disappear. Keep in mind that many newer CNC tube-bending machine have both assist pressure and boost pressure. The term boost generally means a type of axial pressure applied during the bend to the entire circumference of the tube by means of clamps behind the pressure die. Using this type of pressure forces material through the line of tangency to feed both the intrados and the extrados. Assist, on the other hand, feeds material only into the extrados which is useful in decreasing flattening and wall-thinning. Determining the minimum pressure die assist setting completes the Forward Mandrel, Low Pressure set-up.

TROUBLESHOOTING One of the advantages of the four-step set-up procedure just described is that it facilitates troubleshooting. Most defects in a tube bend can be traced to the set-up, and most set-up defects correlate with problem in one of the four steps. Therefore, once you have identified the nature of the defect, you will have a specific set-up parameter you should examine first. Mandrel Nose Problems Ovality (i.e., general deformation of the tubes cross-section) is excessive. Check if the mandrel nose is undersized or not placed deep enough into the bend according to the instructions under Step #1. If undersized, a temporary fix may be to advance it deeper into the bend. However, optimal bending will require a new mandrel made to the correct nose diameter. The inside radius buckles. Check if the mandrel nose is placed behind the line of tangency. If so, advance past tangency according to the directions for Step #1. The outside radius collapses. Check if the mandrel nose is placed behind the line of tangency. Advance past the line of tangency according to the directions for Step #1. A hump or humps form on the outside radius. This is usually not because the mandrel nose is too deep into the bend, but because there is excessive drag or insufficient assist from the pressure die. See below for details. However, if you do suspect the mandrel nose is the problem, check the depth of its placement and compare it to the first formula for Step #1. If the mandrel nose placement is too deep according to this formula, then retract it. Drag is excessive. This is not a defect but an immediate cause of many defects. Too much direct pressure-die pressure is usually the culprit, however, an oversized mandrel nose can be the problem. Check if the mandrel nose diameter is too large by using the second formula for Step #1. If so, the mandrel will have to be replaced.

Direct Pressure Problems Continuous wrinkling of the inside radius. If the entire arc of the inside radius is wrinkled, this indicates that the direct pressure-die pressure is too low. Use the guidelines under Step #2 to determine the proper pressure. Note that this defect is distinct from a single hump or a small series of humps forming on the inside radius at the end of the bend. This type of wrinkling is associated with the wiper die. (See below.) Excessive flattening of the outside radius. A very common problem that results from too much direct pressure die pressure. In effect, the pressure die is clamping on the tube at the point of bend causing the outside radius to stretch and flattening between the pressure die and the clamp die. Reduce the pressure according to the directions under Step #2. If the mandrel nose is properly placed and the direct pressure is correct and flattening is still too much, then the assist pressure should be increased. (See below.) Wiper Tip Problems A hump or humps form on the inside radius at the end of the bend. As described in Step #3, the role of the wiper is limited. These humps are the only problem the wiper is designed to solved, and these humps only occur if the wiper is not raked correctly or is worn out. Decreasing the rake will eliminate this probem. See Step #3 for the best way to set the wiper tip rake.

Assist Pressure Problems Excessive flattening of the outside radius. If excess direct pressure has been eliminated as a source of this defect (see Step #2), then increase the assist pressure according to Step #4. A hump or humps on the outside radius. Respond to this in the same way as to excessive flattening if mandrel nose placement is correct. (See Step #1 for mandrel nose placement.) Excessive wall thinning. If ovality and flattening are under control, then increase the assist pressure according to Step #4. Other Sources of Difficulty While the set-up is most often the source of a bending problem, other factors can cause trouble. If you have double-checked yourself and have not discovered the problem in the set-up, consider these possibilities: The machine is not applying pressure consistently. The machine is not lubricating the tooling properly. The tools are worn out. The working surfaces of the tools are mismatched or dimensionally incorrect for the bending application. The tubing material is undersized, oversized, or the wrong wall thickness. The tubing material is too hard or too soft.

Aluminium Alloy 6061 Composition, Properties, Temper and Applications of 6061 Aluminium
Background
Aluminium alloy 6061 is one of the most extensively used of the 6000 series aluminium alloys. It is a versatile heat treatable extruded alloy with medium to high strength capabilities.

Composition
Table 1. Typical composition of aluminium alloy 6061

Component Amount (wt.%) Aluminium Balance Magnesium 0.8-1.2 Silicon 0.4 0.8 Iron Max. 0.7 Copper 0.15-0.40 Zinc Max. 0.25 Titanium Max. 0.15 Manganese Max. 0.15 Chromium 0.04-0.35 Others 0.05

Key Properties
Typical properties of aluminium alloy 6061 include:

Medium to high strength Good toughness Good surface finish Excellent corrosion resistance to atmospheric conditions Good corrosion resistance to sea water Can be anodized Good weldability and brazability Good workability

Widely available

Note: Property data is provided below, but should be used a guide only. As data may vary between manufacturers, you should consult your supplier for more exact figures.

Physical Properties
Density: 2.7 g/cm3 Melting Point: Approx 580C Modulus of Elasticity: 70-80 GPa Poissons Ratio: 0.33

Mechanical Properties
Temper Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 110-152 180 179 min 260-310 0.2% Proof Stress (MPa) 65-110 95-96 110 min 240-276 Brinell Hardness (500kg load, 10mm ball) 30-33 Elongation 50mm dia (%) 14-16 16 9-13

0 T1 T4 T6

95-97

T-6 HEAT TREAT

T-6 =30% Increase in Strength

Heat Treatment is a process in which metals are alternately heated and cooled according to a preset schedule of time and temperature to improve the characteristics of the metal. T6 Heat Treatment is a specific heat treatment process which may be applied to aluminum / copper / silicon alloys, such as hypereutectic, to increase the strength of the alloy by as much as 30%. In the case of T6 heat treatment, the process occurs in two phases.

The First Phase of T6 heat treatment is called the Quench Phase. In this phase the alloy is
heated to 920 degrees Fahrenheit for 9 hours causing the copper in the alloy to become dissolved in the aluminum and forming what is called a "Single Phase Alloy". If allowed to air cool naturally, the copper will tend to reconstitute, or reform itself within the alloy. However, when the heated alloy is cooled rapidly by water quenching the reformation of the copper is retarded and the aluminum, supersaturated with copper, is locked into the "Single Phase Alloy" state.

Precipitation In the Second Phase of the T6 heat treatment process, called the Aging Phase, the alloy is

heated to 350 degrees Fahrenheit for 10 hours and then allowed to air cool. During this phase the copper combines with the aluminum in a process called "precipitation hardening" to form a copper aluminum crystal, CuAl2. (Please see the insert which shows the relationship of time to hardness and the structure of a correctly aged aluminum matrix in zone 2). It is the formation of these copper aluminum crystals which gives the alloy its strength. The key to maximizing alloy strength comes from controlling the size of the copper / aluminum crystals. Maximum strength is attained when the size of the crystals, or precipitated particles, is kept very small forcing them to conform to the structure of the aluminum.

The end result is an aluminum alloy, or hypereutectic piston, that is up to 30% stronger.
Thermal Properties
Co-Efficient of Thermal Expansion (20-100C): 23.5x10-6 m/m.C Thermal Conductivity: 173 W/m.K

Electrical Properties
Electrical Resistivity: 3.7 4.0 x10-6 .cm

Typical Heat Treatment/Temper States

Treatment F 0 T1 T4, T4511 T51 T6, T6511 Note: 1. This designation applies to products which are not cold worked after cooling from an elevated temperature shaping process, or in which the effect of cold work in
flattening or straightening has no effect on mechanical properties

Definition As fabricated Annealed to obtain lower strength temper Cooled from an elevated shaping process and naturally aged1 Solution heat treated and naturally aged2,3 Cooled from an elevated shaping process and artificially aged Solution heat treated and artificially aged2,3

2. This designation applies to products which are not cold worked after solution heat-treated, or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening has no
effect on mechanical properties

3. This designation applies to products which are not cold worked after solution heat-treatment, or in which the effect of cold work in flattening or straightening does
not effect mechanical properties.

Typically Available Forms

Being and extruded grade of aluminium, alloy 6061 is typically available as:

Tube Bar Pipe Rod

Although many manufacturers offer a range of other standard extruded profiles.

Applications
Typical applications for aluminium alloy 6061 include:

Aircraft and aerospace components Marine fittings Transport Bicycle frames Camera lenses Driveshafts Electrical fittings and connectors Brake components Valves Couplings

Title: Titanium Tube Bending for Aerospace Author(s): Donald J. Schweibold Journal: Aircraft Engineering and Aerospace Technology Year: 1989 Volume: 61 Issue: 12 Page: 8 - 29 ISSN: 0002-2667 DOI: 10.1108/eb036874 Publisher: MCB UP Ltd
Tube Forming Processes By Gregory Miller

Bend Allowance (Required pipe length) L=L1+L2+A A= BEND ALLOWANCE=2(R+Kt)/360 K=constant = when R t, 1/3 when R 2t, when R > 2t Ref: Metal Forming Processes, G R Nagpal

Probable Questions: Superimpose Sress strain diagram: steel and aluminium Preconditioning like annealing for Al pipes (T6) Force requirement to bend the pipes Original pipe length from bent pipe