Lecture 22 and 23

Earth Processes: Earthquakes

Dr. K. Vijaya Kumar School of Earth Sciences SRTM University, Nanded 431 606 Maharashtra, INDIA (E-mail: vijay_kumar92@hotmail.com)

Global Earthquake Locations

At the boundaries between plates, friction causes them to stick together. When built up energy causes them to break, earthquakes occur

Plate Boundaries and Earthquakes

Where do earthquakes form?

Figure showing the tectonic setting of earthquakes

Earthquakes
Shaking of earth due to movement of rocks along a fault. Rocks under stress accumulate strain energy over time. When stress exceeds strength of rocks, rock breaks. Strain energy is released as seismic waves. The longer that energy is stored up and is maintained without release, the more likely that a strong earthquake will occur.

Earthquakes are the manifestations of sudden release of strain energy accumulated in the rocks over extensive periods of time in the upper part of the Earth. Seismology (derived from Greek word Seismos meaning Earthquake and Logos meaning science) is the science of Earthquakes and related phenomena Aftershock An earthquake that follows a large magnitude earthquake called, main shock and originates in or around the rupture zone of the main shock. Generally, major earthquakes are followed by a number of aftershocks, which show a decreasing trend in magnitude and frequency with time. Seismograph/ Seismogram Seismograph is an instrument that records the ground motions. Seismogram is a continuous written record of an earthquake recorded by a seismograph.

Epicentre: It is the point on the surface of the earth, vertically above the place of origin (hypocentre) of an earthquake. This point is expressed by its geographical Coordinates in terms of latitude and longitude. Hypocentre or Focus: It is the point within the earth, from where seismic waves originate. Focal depth is the vertical distance between the Hypocentre (Focus) and Epicentre. Magnitude: It is a quantity to measure the size of an earthquake and is independent of the place of the observation. Intensity refers to the amount of damage done in an earthquake and is dependent on the place of observation

Tsunami A system of gravity waves formed in the sea due to large scale disturbance of sea level over a short duration of time. Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes under the sea bottom, submarine volcanic eruptions, displacement of submarine sediments, coastal landslides and meteor impact. However, not all coastal earthquakes produce Tsunamis.

Focus and Epicenter of Earthquake

NATURE OF EARTHQUAKES 1) Foreshocks 2) Main shock

3) Aftershocks
4) Earthquake Swarm

TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES
1) Tectonic Earthquake

2) Volcanic Earthquake
3) Collapse Earthquake 4) Explosion Earthquake CLASSIFICATION DISTANCE

1) Teleseismic Earthquake
2) Regional Earthquake 3) Local Earthquake

> 1000 km
> 500 km < 500 km

Types of seismic waves 1. Body waves -- travel through interior 2. Surface waves -- travel on surface of earth

Specific Body Waves Primary or "P" Waves: Primary waves Highest velocity Causes compression and expansion in direction of wave travel. Secondary or "S" Waves: Secondary or shear waves Slower than P waves but faster than surface waves. Causes shearing of rock perpendicular to direction of wave propagation Cannot travel through liquids
Surface Waves or "Love" (L) Waves Cause vertical & horizontal shaking Travel exclusively along surface of earth

Primary or P Wave

Secondary or S Wave

Seismic Waves

Time-Travel Curve

Seismographs

Seismogram Printout

Determining the location of an earthquake First, distance to earthquake is determined. 1. Seismographs record seismic waves 2. From seismograph record called the seismogram, measure time delay between P & S wave arrival 3. Use travel time curve to determine distance to earthquake as function of P-S time delay
Now we know distance waves traveled, but we don't know the direction from which they came. We must repeat the activity for each of at least three (3) stations to triangulate a point (epicenter of quake). Plot a circle around seismograph location; radius of circle is the distance to the quake.

Quake occurred somewhere along that circle.

Do the same thing for at least 3 seismograph stations; circles intersect at epicenter. Thus, point is triangulated and epicenter is located.

Triangulation of 3 stations to locate earthquake epicenter

Earthquake Magnitude
M5

M6

M7

Magnitude -- measure of energy released during

earthquake.

Richter Magnitude Scale

Distance km

SP sec

Magnitude ML

Amplitude mm

Determining the magnitude of an earthquake Magnitude -- measure of energy released during earthquake. There are several different ways to measure magnitude. Most common magnitude measure is Richter Magnitude, named for the renowned seismologist, Charles Richter. Richter Magnitude Measure amplitude of largest S wave on seismograph record. Take into account distance between seismograph & epicenter.
Richter Scale Logarithmic numerical (NOT a physical) scale Increasing one whole unit on Richter Scale represents 10 times greater magnitude. Going up one whole unit on Richter Scale represents about a 30 times greater release of energy.

The Richter magnitudes are based on a logarithmic scale (base 10). What this means is that for each whole number you go up on the Richter scale, the amplitude of the ground motion recorded by a seismograph goes up ten times. Using this scale, a magnitude 5 earthquake would result in ten times the level of ground shaking as a magnitude 4 earthquake (and 32 times as much energy would be released). A magnitude 1 seismic wave releases as much energy as blowing up 6 ounces of TNT. A magnitude 8 earthquake releases as much energy as detonating 6 million tons of TNT.

Earthquake Magnitude Scale

Magnitude Earthquake Effects Usually not felt, but can be recorded by seismograph. Often felt, but only causes minor damage. Slight damage to buildings and other structures. May cause a lot of damage in very populated areas. Major earthquake. Serious damage. Great earthquake. Can totally destroy communities near the epicenter. Estimated Number Each Year 900,000 30,000 500 2.5 or less 2.5 to 5.4 5.5 to 6.0

6.1 to 6.9 7.0 to 7.9

100 20

8.0 or greater

One every 5 to 10 years

Earthquake Magnitude Classes

Earthquakes are also classified in categories ranging from minor to great, depending on their magnitude.

Class Great Major Strong Moderate Light Minor

Magnitude 8 or more 7 - 7.9 6 - 6.9 5 - 5.9 4 - 4.9 3 -3.9

EARTHQUAKE INTENSITY
Intensity refers to the amount of damage done in an
earthquake

Mercalli Scale is used to express damage

Rossi-Forel Intensity Scale (I X) Modified Mercalli (MM) Intensity Scale (1956 version), (I XII) Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK) Intensity Scale (1992 Version), (I XII)

Isoseismals
Isoseismals are the curved lines joining the localities of same intensity.

Magnitude / Intensity Comparison

Magnitude and Intensity measure different characteristics of earthquakes. Magnitude measures the energy released at the source of the earthquake. Magnitude is determined from measurements on seismographs. Intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain location. Intensity is determined from effects on people, human structures, and the natural environment.

Magnitude

Typical Maximum Modified Mercalli Intensity I II - III IV - V VI - VII VII - IX VIII or higher

1.0 - 3.0 3.0 - 3.9 4.0 - 4.9 5.0 - 5.9 6.0 - 6.9 7.0 and higher

Abbreviated Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale I. Not felt except by a very few under especially favorable conditions. II. Felt only by a few persons at rest, especially on upper floors of buildings. III. Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors, especially on upper floors of buildings. Many people do not recognize it as an earthquake. Standing motor cars may rock slightly. Vibrations similar to the passing of a truck. Duration estimated. IV. Felt indoors by many, outdoors by few during the day. At night, some awakened. Dishes, windows, doors disturbed; walls make cracking sound. Sensation like heavy truck striking building. Standing motor cars rocked noticeably. V. Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened. Some dishes, windows broken. Unstable objects overturned. Pendulum clocks may stop. VI. Felt by all, many frightened. Some heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster. Damage slight.

VII. Damage negligible in buildings of good design and construction; slight to moderate in well-built ordinary structures; considerable damage in poorly built or badly designed structures; some chimneys broken. VIII. Damage slight in specially designed structures; considerable damage in ordinary substantial buildings with partial collapse. Damage great in poorly built structures. Fall of chimneys, factory stacks, columns, monuments, walls. Heavy furniture overturned. IX. Damage considerable in specially designed structures; welldesigned frame structures thrown out of plumb. Damage great in substantial buildings, with partial collapse. Buildings shifted off foundations. X. Some well-built wooden structures destroyed; most masonry and frame structures destroyed with foundations. Rails bent. XI. Few, if any (masonry) structures remain standing. Bridges destroyed. Rails bent greatly. XII. Damage total. Lines of sight and level are distorted. Objects thrown into the air.

EARTHQUAKE ENERGY
log E = 12 + 1.8 ML log E = 5.8 + 2.4mb log E = 11.4 + 1.5Ms

Magnitude versus ground motion and energ

Magnitude Ground Motion Energy

1.0 0.5 0.3 0.1

10.0 times 3.2 times 2.0 times 1.3 times

about 32 times about 5.5 times about 3 times about 1.4 times

A Magnitude 8 (M8) earthquake is much bigger than a M7 earthquake: Roughly 10x greater displacements Roughly 30x more energy released

the big one

Bigger Faults Make Bigger Earthquakes

1000

Kilometers

100

10

1 5.5 6 6.5 7 Magnitude 7.5 8

Bigger Earthquakes Last a Longer Time

100

Seconds

10

1 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8

Magnitude

EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE, FREQUENCY AND ENERGY

Stein & Wysession after IRIS

One of the largest earthquakes since seismometer invented ~ 1900

LIST OF SOME SIGNIFICANT EARTHQUAKES IN INDIA AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD

DATE LOCATION MAGNIT UDE

EPICENTRE Lat (Deg.N) Lat (Deg.E) 68.6 93 74.6 91 76.3

1819 JUN 16 1869 JAN 10 1885 MAY 30 1897 JUN 12 1905 APR 04

23.6 25 34.1 26 32.3

KUTCH, GUJARAT NEAR CACHAR, ASSAM SOPOR, J&K SHILLONG PLATEAU KANGRA, H.P

8.0 7.5 7.0 8.7 8.0

1918 JUL 08 1930 JUL 02 1934 JAN 15 1941 JUN 26

24.5 25.8 26.6 12.4

91.0 90.2 86.8 92.5

1943 OCT 23
1950 AUG 15 1956 JUL 21

26.8
28.5 23.3

94.0
96.7 70.0

SRIMANGAL, ASSAM DHUBRI, ASSAM BIHARNEPALBORDER ANDAMAN ISLANDS ASSAM ARUNACHAL PRADESHCHINA BORDER ANJAR, GUJARAT

7.6 7.1 8.3 8.1

7.2
8.5 7.0

1967 DEC 10

17.37

73.75

KOYNA, MAHARASHTRA KINNAUR, HP MANIPURMYANMAR BORDER BIHAR-NEPAL BORDER Uttarakhasi, UP

6.5

1975 JAN 19

32.38

78.49

6.2

1988 AUG 06

25.13

95.15

6.6

1988 AUG 21

26.72

86.63

6.4

1991 OCT 20

30.75

78.86

6.6

1993 SEP 30 1997 MAY 22 1999 MAR 29 2001 JAN 26 2004 DEC 26

18.07 23.08 30.41 23.40 03.34

76.62 80.06 79.42 70.28 96.13

Latur/Killari Maharashtra Jabalpur, MP Chamoli District, UP BHUJ , GUJARAT OFF WEST COAST OF SUMATRA

6.3 6.0 6.8 7.7 9.3

2005 OCT 08

34.49

73.15

PAKISTAN

7.6

Large earthquakes of the World

Date 0 May 22, 1960 Location Valdivia, Chile Name Magnitude 9.5 1960 Valdivia earthquake Prince William 1964 Alaska March 27, 1964 Sound, Alaska, USA earthquake Indian Ocean, 2004 Indian Ocean December 26, 2004 Sumatra, Indonesia earthquake Kamchatka, Russia 1952 Kamchatka November 4, 1952 (then USSR) earthquakes Pacific Ocean, 2011 Thoku March 11, 2011 Thoku region, earthquake Japan 1833 Sumatra November 25, 1833 Sumatra, Indonesia earthquake 1906 EcuadorEcuador January 31, 1906 Colombia Colombia earthquake

9.2
9.19.3 9.0 9.0 8.89.2 (est.)

8.8

February 27, 2010 January 26, 1700 July 8, 1730 November 1, 1755

Maule, Chile Pacific Ocean, USA and Canada Valparaiso, Chile

Atlantic Ocean, Lisbon, Portugal Rat Islands, February 4, 1965 Alaska, USA Pacific Ocean, July 9, 869 Thoku region, Japan Pacific Ocean, October 28, Shikoku region, 1707 Japan

2010 Chile earthquake 1700 Cascadia earthquake 1730 Valparaiso earthquake 1755 Lisbon earthquake 1965 Rat Islands earthquake 869 Sanriku earthquake 1707 Hei earthquake

8.8 8.79.2 (est.) 8.79.0 (est.) 8.7 (est.)

8.7
8.6 (est.)

8.6 (est.)

Assam, India Tibet, China Andreanof March 9, 1957 Islands, Alaska, USA Sumatra, March 28, 2005 Indonesia Arica, Chile August 13, 1868 (then Peru) Valdivia, Chile December 16, (Kingdom of 1575 Chile) Lima, Peru October 20, (Viceroyalty of 1687 Peru)
August 15, 1950

1950 Medog earthquake 1957 Andreanof Islands earthquake 2005 Sumatra earthquake 1868 Arica earthquake
1575 Valdivia earthquake 1687 Peru earthquake

8.6 8.6 8.6 8.59.0 (est.) 8.5 (est.)

8.5 (est.)

May 24, 1751

November 11, 1922 February 3, 1923 February 1, 1938 October 13, 1963

Concepcin, Chile (Kingdom of Chile) Atacama Region, Chile Kamchatka, Russia (USSR) Banda Sea, Indonesia (Dutch East Indies) Kuril Islands, Russia (USSR)

1751 Concepcin 8.5 (est.) earthquake 1922 Vallenar 8.5 earthquake 1923 Kamchatka 8.5 earthquakes 1938 Banda Sea 8.5 earthquake 1963 Kuril Islands earthquake 2007 Sumatra earthquakes

8.5 8.5

September 12, Sumatra, 2007 Indonesia

Figure 1. Schematic views of Indian tectonics. Plate boundary velocities are indicated in mm/year. Shading indicates flexure of India: a 4 km deep trough near the Himalaya and

Isoseismal of the 2001 Bhuj Earthquake, Mw 7.7

Isoseismals of large earthquakes in India

The earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic zones (Zone 2, 3, 4 and 5) unlike its previous version which consisted of five or six zones for the country. According to the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level of seismicity whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity.

Zone 5 Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers earthquakes of intensity MSK IX or greater. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.36 for Zone 5. Structural designers use this factor for earthquake resistant design of structures in Zone 5. The zone factor of 0.36 is indicative of effective (zero period) peak horizontal ground accelerations of 0.36 g (36 % of gravity) that may be generated by an earthquake in this zone. It is referred to as the Very High Damage Risk Zone. The state of Kashmir, Punjab, the western and central Himalayas, the North-East Indian region and the Rann of Kutch fall in this zone. Generally, the areas having trap or basaltic rock are prone to earthquakes.

Zone 4 This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas liable to MSK VIII. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.24 for Zone 4. The Indo-Gangetic basin and the capital of the country (Delhi), Jammu and Bihar fall in Zone 4. In Maharashtra Patan area(Koyananager) also in zone 4.

Zone 3
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of Kashmir, Western Himalayas fall under this zone. This zone is classified as Moderate Damage Risk Zone which is liable to MSK VII. and also 7.8 The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.18 for Zone 3.

Zone 2 This region is liable to MSK VI or less and is classified as the Low Damage Risk Zone. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.10 (maximum horizontal acceleration that can be experienced by a structure in this zone is 10 % of gravitational acceleration) for Zone 2.

Hazards associated with Quakes Shaking: Frequency of shaking differs for different seismic waves. High frequency body waves shake low buildings more. Low frequency surface waves shake high buildings more. Intensity of shaking also depends on type of subsurface material. Unconsolidated materials amplify shaking more than rocks do. Fine-grained, sensitive materials can lose strength when shaken. They lose strength by liquefaction. Buildings respond differently to shaking depending on construction styles, materials Wood -- more flexible, holds up well Earthen materials -- very vulnerable to shaking. Ground displacement: Ground surface may shift during an earthquake (esp. if focus is shallow). Vertical displacements of surface produce fault scarps. Tsunamis (NOT tidal waves) Tsunamis are huge waves generated by earthquakes undersea or below coastal areas. If earthquake displaces sea surface, wave is generated that can grow as it moves over sea surface. Fires Usually occurs from shifting of subsurface utilities (gas lines)

More reasonable assessment, based upon actual seismicity

The Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program (GSHAP), with the support of the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), and endorsed as a demonstration program in the framework of the United Nations International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (UN/IDNDR).

Earthquake Hazard Potential Map

Parkfield, CA Earthquake Capital of the World

Ground Acceleration
Seismologists usually define strong ground motion as the strong earthquake shaking that occurs close to (less than about 50 km from) a causative fault. The strength of the shaking involved in strong ground motion usually overwhelms a seismometer, forcing the use of accelerographs (or strong ground motion accelerometers) for recording.

What Controls the Level of Shaking?

Magnitude
More energy released

Distance
Shaking decays with distance

Local soils
amplify the shaking

Intense ground shaking during large earthquakes can damage or even cause failure of engineered structures such as buildings, bridges, highways, and dams. Sustained strong shaking can also trigger ground failures, such as rock falls, landslides, earth flows and liquefaction. Strong motion seismology uses special sensors, called accelerometers, to record these large-amplitude ground motions and the response of engineered structures to these motions.

Comparison of peak ground acceleration with the damage intensities and zone factors as defined by IS 1893 : 2002

IS code seismic zone Perceived shaking Potential damage

II Moderate Very light

III Strong Light

IV Very strong Moderate

V Severe Moderate heavy 3465

Peak acceleration (%g)

3.99.2

9.218

1834

Ground Acceleration of India

DAMAGE DEPENDS ON BUILDING TYPE RESISTANT CONSTRUCTION REDUCES EARTHQUAKE RISKS

0.2 g Damage onset for modern buildings

Earthquakes don't kill people; buildings kill people."

Coburn & Spence 1992

Primary effects

Secondary effects

Social Impacts Economic Impacts (impact on people) (impact on business in the area) Death, Businesses & Homes destroyed, property destroyed, Services e.g. water disrupted, Transport systems damaged Diseases Looting, Economic effect of restoring businesses

Environmental Impacts (impact on the landscape) Landscape destroyed,

Fires, Tidal Waves, Landslides

COMPLEX PLATE BOUNDARY ZONE IN SOUTHEAST ASIA Northward motion of India deforms all of the region Many small plates (microplates) and blocks

Molnar & Tapponier, 1977

Tsunami Movement: ~600 mph in deep water

~250 mph in medium depth water ~35 mph in shallow water

TSUNAMI - water wave generated by earthquake

NY Times

Worlds Largest Earthquake: 1964 Anchorage, Alaska

Registered 8.6 on Richter Scale

Tsunami Movement

NOAA

IN DEEP OCEAN tsunami has long wavelength, travels fast, small amplitude - doesnt affect ships

AS IT APPROACHES SHORE, it slows. Since energy is conserved, amplitude builds up - very damaging

TSUNAMI WARNING

Deep ocean buoys can measure wave heights, verify tsunami and reduce false alarms

Because seismic waves travel much faster (km/s) than tsunamis, rapid analysis of seismograms can identify earthquakes likely to cause major tsunamis and predict when waves will arrive

Earthquake Prediction
Earthquake Prediction: Precursory Events

Ex/ 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake

Soil Helium Variation

Also: Resistivity, water pressure and well levels, geyser activity, changes in seismicity

Earthquake Prediction: Animal Behavior??

Another Approach: Forecasting

Seismic Gap Hypothesis

Short-Term Crustal Deformation Precursor

Mogi, 1984

Short-Term Electromagnetic Precursor

Fraser-Smith, et al., 1990

Paleoseismology

Extend earthquake history with geologic record

Sieh et al., 1989

M >7 mean = 132 yr s = 105 yr Estimated probability in 30 yrs 7-51%

FREQUENCY-MAGNITUDE RELATIONSHIP
For New Madrid, combine instrumental seismology with earlier data to explore large earthquake recurrence Large paleoearthquakes occurred at ~ 1450 and 900 AD (Magnitudes unknown) Gives a M7 every few thousand years. Might NEVER get a M8 earthquake
Stein & Newman, 2004

Earthquake Cycle
Periodic Time-predicatable Slip-predicatable

Shimazaki and Nakata, 1980

Parkfield, California, showed evidence of the recurrence of similar-sized (M 6.0) earthquakes

In 1985 a 6.0 Parkfield earthquake was predicted with 95% confidence to occur by 1993. Mean = (1966-1857)/5 = 22 years Expected date = 1988

Didnt occur until 2004 (16 years late!)

Was it a success? Right size, right location, wrong date.

Prediction of the 1975 Haicheng, China Earthquake (M7.3)

Prediction based on foreshocks and animal behavior saved many lives