December 2011

Business Forecast for 2012 Thermal Spray Technology

PUBLISHED BY THE AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY TO ADVANCE THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND APPLICATION OF WELDING AND ALLIED JOINING AND CUTTING PROCESSES, INCLUDING BRAZING, SOLDERING, AND THERMAL SPRAYING

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The AWS Foundation

is pleased to announce recipients of the 2011 workforce development grants.
The Foundation is awarding a total of $79,704 to five projects. Many applications were received, and five outstanding projects were chosen to receive funding. We will recognize one recipient each month in upcoming issues of the Journal. These awards are made possible by the Miller Electric Mfg. Company, Hobart Brothers Company, Hobart Institute of Welding Technology, OKI Bering, and Bohler Thyssen Welding USA. We would like to recognize

Vermeer Corporation, Iowa.

As a result of this project, Vermeer Corporation will hire and train 55 new employees in a three-week welding training program. The training received by the new employees includes the following topics: Lean manufacturing, safety, blueprint reading, machine settings, gun angles, machine maintenance, grinding and sanding, cutting torch, plasma cutting, virtual reality welding, in-depth welding techniques.

Pictured are several of the new hires. Front Row (L-R) David McCartney, Eric Cox, Tracy Roush, Adam McCain Back Row (L-R) Don Dieleman, Chad Wood, David Beller, Dustin Baker

The Campaign for the American Welding Society Foundation

CONTENTS
Features
*22

December 2011 Volume 90 Number 12

AWS Web site www.aws.org

Departments
Editorial ............................4 Washington Watchword ..........6 Press Time News ..................8 News of the Industry ............10 Aluminum Q&A ..................14 Brazing Q&A ......................16 New Products ....................18 Coming Events....................46 Certification Schedule ..........48 Welding Workbook ..............50 Society News ....................51 Errata D1.1/D1.1M:2010......52 Guide to AWS Services ......70 New Literature....................74 Personnel ........................76 Thermal Spray Profiles ........80 Welding Journal Index ..........84 Classifieds ........................95 Advertiser Index..................98

22
28 32

Understanding Thermal Spray Technology Thermal spray basics are explained and two new technologies emerging for the commercial market are revealed M. F. Smith Business Forecast 2012 Industry leaders put on their forecasting caps to see what the coming year might bring M. R. Johnsen et al. Using Thermal Spray Coatings for Corrosion Control Thermal spray is an ideal technology for applying zinc, aluminum, and their alloys to many different steel structures for corrosion protection F. Van Rodijnen Manufacturing Outlook for 2012 Indicators are for the manufacturing sector to continue to grow going into 2012, but the dwindling number of qualified skilled workers might apply the brakes D. Johnson Incorporating Thermal Spray into Fabrication The thermal spray process has matured to handle many different fabricating jobs R. S. Brunhouse et al. Update on Digital Invertor Technology in China The use of digital technology in power sources is growing in China G. Zhang

32

37

40

*43

37 Welding Research Supplement

229-s Oscillatory Marangoni Flow: A Fundamental Study by Conduction-Mode Laser Spot Welding The effects of various amounts of a surface-active agent on weld pool formation characteristics were observed and an explanation of the differences proposed S. Kou et al. *241-s Ductile-Fracture Resistance in X100 Pipeline Welds Measured with CTOA An evaluation is made of the usefulness of the modified double cantilever beam test specimen for determining ductility in pipe E. Drexler et al. 249-s Characteristics of Resistance Welding Magnesium Alloys AZ31 and AZ91 An investigation into the resistance welding of magnesium alloys imparts a better understanding of the characteristics of expulsion and cracking H. Luo et al. 258-s Manual Keyhole Plasma Arc Welding with Application An experimental system is introduced that uses a sensorcontrolled plasma arc welding process to join pipe X. R. Li et al.
On the cover: Electric arc spraying of a windmill bearing with zinc. (Photo courtesy of OGRAMAC Engenharia de Superficie, Santo Antonio de Posse, SP, Brazil.)

Welding Journal (ISSN 0043-2296) is published monthly by the American Welding Society for $120.00 per year in the United States and possessions, $160 per year in foreign countries: $7.50 per single issue for domestic AWS members and $10.00 per single issue for nonmembers and $14.00 single issue for international. American Welding Society is located at 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126-5671; telephone (305) 443-9353. Periodicals postage paid in Miami, Fla., and additional mailing offices. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to Welding Journal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126-5671. Canada Post: Publications Mail Agreement #40612608 Canada Returns to be sent to Bleuchip International, P.O. Box 25542, London, ON N6C 6B2
Readers of Welding Journal may make copies of articles for personal, archival, educational or research purposes, and which are not for sale or resale. Permission is granted to quote from articles, provided customary acknowledgment of authors and sources is made. Starred (*) items excluded from copyright.

WELDING JOURNAL

EDITORIAL
Founded in 1919 to Advance the Science, Technology and Application of Welding

2011 A Year of Progress

At the beginning of 2011 the year I was privileged to serve as your president I wrote an editorial titled, Recapturing the Spirit of 76. It wasnt about the Revolutionary War, it was about 1976, when AWS started another kind of revolution by launching the Certified Welding Inspector (CWI) program. Before the creation of the CWI program, there was no standard to ensure that the person designated to inspect welds was qualified to do so. Its amazing we all survived! Becoming a CWI was the most career-enhancing move I ever made. I have always been inspired by the development of the CWI program 35 years ago a step that helped propel the American Welding Society forward on the international stage. It was my hope that 2011 would be another historic year, like 1976, in which the members, officers, volunteers, staff, and supporters of AWS would come together to do great things once again. Was 2011 a historic year? Consider these achievements of the Society: Development and approval of the first Boy Scouts of America merit badge for welding. Already, young men in my state of Texas and across the country are working toward earning their merit badges. And numerous welding professionals have signed up to be volunteer merit badge counselors. What a great step toward introducing young people to this profession. Recognition by the White House. AWS was personally thanked this year by President Obama for its efforts toward establishing manufacturing skills credentials for secondary education. We worked with the National Association of Manufacturers and others to build upon our SENSE (Schools Excelling through National Skills Education) program to help ensure a productive welding workforce for Americas future. Growing our membership to more than 68,000. Our Societys size and financial security are at the highest levels in its history. We are poised to move AWS headquarters into a world-class new building to better serve a vibrant membership that is growing worldwide. Launching our first online certification program. American Welding Online is currently training and testing Certified Welding Sales Representatives. Many more online programs for a variety of welding professionals will be introduced in the upcoming months. This will enable our customers to enhance their credentials in a more affordable and timesaving manner. Premiere of the AWS Careers in Welding Trailer. Thousands of young people have already been exposed to welding for the first time via our custom-built virtual welding exhibit on wheels. This year, it traveled to FABTECH as well as the Future Farmers of America (FFA) Annual Convention. This was also a year in which we were making history across the world. In India, the flag of the IIW Annual Convention was passed to AWS. We are preparing to help host this prestigious event when it returns to the United States next summer for the first time in more than a decade. At WorldSkills in London, we watched a young American win the Silver Medal in Welding and a Gold Medal for the best score of all American competitors. Our AWS Weldmex tradeshow in Mexico set records, just as we entered into a new show partnership in Brazil, supported by the launch of the Welding Journal Portuguese edition. We also announced that our FABTECH partnership is expanding to Canada with a show in Toronto next March. And, as I have traveled and talked with Section members, I learned about all the progress that has been made in our schools, businesses, and communities across the nation, as we dealt with the issues that face welding in these challenging times. I am very proud of this year and what we have joined together to accomplish. I will forever remember and cherish this historic year, and all the support you provided. John L. Mendoza
AWS President

Officers
President John L. Mendoza Lone Star Welding Vice President William A. Rice Jr. OKI Bering Vice President Nancy C. Cole NCC Engineering Vice President Dean R. Wilson Kimberly-Clark Global Safety Treasurer Robert G. Pali J. P. Nissen Co. Executive Director Ray W. Shook American Welding Society

Directors
T. Anderson (At Large), ITW Global Welding Tech. Center J. R. Bray (Dist. 18), Affiliated Machinery, Inc. J. C. Bruskotter (Past President), Bruskotter Consulting Services D. B. DeCorte (At Large), RoMan Mfg., Inc. G. Fairbanks (Dist. 9), Fairbanks Inspection & Testing Services T. A. Ferri (Dist. 1), Thermadyne Industries D. A. Flood (Dist. 22), Tri Tool, Inc. M. V. Harris (Dist. 15), Valley National Gases R. A. Harris (Dist. 10), Consultant D. C. Howard (Dist. 7), Concurrent Technologies Corp. J. Jones (Dist. 17), Thermadyne Industries W. A. Komlos (Dist. 20), ArcTech, LLC D. Landon (Dist. 16), Vermeer Mfg. Co. R. C. Lanier (Dist. 4), Pitt C.C. T. J. Lienert (At Large), Los Alamos National Laboratory J. Livesay (Dist. 8), Tennessee Technology Center C. Matricardi (Dist. 5), Welding Solutions, Inc. D. L. McQuaid (At Large), DL McQuaid & Associates V. Y. Matthews (Past President), Lincoln Electric Co. (ret.) S. P. Moran (At Large), ESAB Welding & Cutting Products K. A. Phy (Dist. 6), KA Phy Services, Inc. W. R. Polanin (Dist. 13), Illinois Central College R. L. Richwine (Dist. 14), Ivy Tech State College D. J. Roland (Dist. 12), Marinette Marine Corp. N. Saminich (Dist. 21), Desert Rose H.S. and Career Center N. S. Shannon (Dist. 19), Carlson Testing of Portland T. A. Siewert (At Large), NIST H. W. Thompson (Dist. 2), Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. R. P. Wilcox (Dist. 11), ACH Co. M. R. Wiswesser (Dist. 3), Welder Training & Testing Institute

DECEMBER 2011

/ Battery Charging Systems / Welding Technology / Solar Electronics

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WASHINGTON WATCHWORD

BY HUGH K. WEBSTER AWS WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT AFFAIRS OFFICE

of unintentional errors or technical malfunctions, but failure to correct such errors can result in severe penalties. The second proposed rule deals with the situation of large businesses using small businesses to secure contracts, but then refusing to subcontract any of the work to these small businesses once the contract is awarded. 76 Fed. Reg. 62313. In particular, if a company fails to use, or pays a reduced price to, the small businesses that it referenced or relied upon in its contract proposal to the government, then the company would be required to provide a written explanation to the contracting officer.

Bureau of Labor Statistics: Workplace Deaths Stay Steady

A preliminary total of 4547 fatal work injuries were recorded in the United States in 2010, about the same as the final count of 4551 fatal work injuries in 2009, according to results from the Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries (CFOI) program conducted by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. The rate of fatal work injuries for U.S. workers in 2010 was 3.5 per 100,000 fulltime equivalent workers, the same as the final rate for 2009. Over the last three years, increases in the published counts based on information received after the release of preliminary data have averaged 174 fatalities per year or about 3% of the revised totals. Final 2010 CFOI data will be released in spring 2012.

Bill Seeks to Increase Availability of Chinese and Indian Skilled Workers

The Fairness for High-Skilled Immigrants Act, H.R. 3012, would eliminate per-country visa limits, which reportedly are especially impacting green card availability for highly skilled Indian and Chinese nationals. Presently, of the 140,000 employment-based visas available, the maximum percentage that can be allocated to any country is 7%. This bill would instead allocate 85% of the available visas just to India and China for the next three years, and then phase out the allocation maximum entirely.

New Commerce Secretary Approved

The U.S. Senate has approved John Bryson as the new Secretary of Commerce. Bryson is a former CEO of the energy company Edison International and has served on the boards of directors of companies such as Disney and Boeing.

IRS Offers Amnesty Program on Employee Classification

The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) has developed a new program to permit taxpayers to voluntarily reclassify workers as employees, as opposed to independent contractors, for federal employment tax purposes IRS Announcement 2011-64. This program will allow employers the opportunity to come into compliance by making a minimal payment covering past payroll tax obligations rather than waiting for an IRS audit. Companies that might find this option attractive are those with workers who they have treated as independent contractors but whose status may be questionable, and therefore are at risk of an IRS audit, employment taxes, penalties, and interest for prior years.

House Expected to Repeal 3% Withholding Tax

The House Ways and Means Committee has approved repeal of the 3% withholding tax requirement on payments due to vendors to federal, state, and local governments, effective January 1, 2013, and the full House is expected to do the same this year. This tax was originally enacted in 2005 as an effort to address the estimated billions of dollars in taxes legally owed but left uncollected. The legislation is H.R. 674.

House Votes to Delay, Study Power Plant Rules

Last month, the House passed the Transparency in Regulatory Analysis of Impacts on the Nation (TRAIN) Act of 2011, H.R. 2401, which would delay implementation of two Environmental Protection Agency rules directed at utilities until a full study of their cumulative impact is completed. This study, which would be performed by an independent body, would assess not only health and social benefits, but also the impact on economic competitiveness, trade, energy supplies, consumer spending, and jobs. The White House has promised to veto this bill should it make it that far.

Job Training Program Revived

The Trade Adjustment Assistance (TAA) Extension Act of 2011 reignites the Trade Adjustment Assistance program, a longtime federal government initiative that had expired at the end of 2010. TAA provides assistance to companies and individual workers harmed by increased competition from imports, outsourcing, and other effects of international trade and globalization. Benefits to individuals include extended unemployment insurance, job search assistance, and vocational training. Approval of TAA, long delayed, was part of the deal worked to allow for passage of free trade agreements with Colombia, Panama, and South Korea.

Small Business Administration Addresses Designation Abuses

The Small Business Administration has issued two significant proposed rules regarding government contracting. The first would impose significant penalties on any company that misrepresents its status as a small business or as a women-owned or servicedisabled veteran-owned business in order to secure a government contract, subcontract, cooperative agreement, or grant. 76 Fed. Reg. 61626. This is an area widely considered to be riddled with abuse. Liability is limited when a misrepresentation is the result

Funds for IRS Enforcement Likely to Be Reduced

While common ground between Congressional Democrats and Republicans may be scarce generally, both parties have proposed to cut significant funding from the IRSs enforcement budget. A House appropriations bill and a Senate proposal would reduce the IRSs overall budget by $700 million, and of this almost one-half would be taken from enforcement.
Contact the AWS Washington Government Affairs Office at 1747 Pennsylvania Ave. NW, Washington, DC 20006; e-mail hwebster@wc-b.com; FAX (202) 835-0243.

DECEMBER 2011

AWS Conference on

Automated Welding
March-6-7, March-6-7, 2012, Orlando
ver the latest tec hnologies and This This two-day two-day conference will co cover technologies productive welding automation. applications of highly productive

F For or more information about attending or exhibiting a tabletop displa display, y, call (800) 443-9353 ext 264. www www.aws.org/conferences ww w.a . ws.org/conferences

elopment Hours applicable to AWS AWS W rec Professional Dev Development recertifications will be issued.

PRESS TIME NEWS

United States Welding Competitor Bradley Clink Wins Silver Medal at WorldSkills Competition
Publisher Andrew Cullison Editorial Editorial Director Andrew Cullison Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen Associate Editor Howard M. Woodward Associate Editor Kristin Campbell Peer Review Coordinator Erin Adams Publisher Emeritus Jeff Weber Design and Production Managing Editor Zaida Chavez Senior Production Coordinator Brenda Flores Advertising National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein Advertising Sales Representative Lea Paneca Senior Advertising Production Manager Frank Wilson Subscriptions Subscriptions Representative Sylvia Ferreira sferreira@aws.org American Welding Society 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126 (305) 443-9353 or (800) 443-9353 Publications, Expositions, Marketing Committee D. L. Doench, Chair Hobart Brothers Co. S. Bartholomew, Vice Chair ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod. J. D. Weber, Secretary American Welding Society T. Birky, Lincoln Electric Co. D. Brown, Weiler Brush J. Deckrow, Hypertherm D. DeCorte, RoMan Mfg. J. R. Franklin, Sellstrom Mfg. Co. F. H. Kasnick, Praxair D. Levin, Airgas E. C. Lipphardt, Consultant R. Madden, Hypertherm D. Marquard, IBEDA Superflash J. Mueller, Thermadyne Industries J. F. Saenger Jr., Consultant S. Smith, Weld-Aid Products D. Wilson, Kimberly-Clark Global Safety P. Wittke, Lincoln Electric Co. N. C. Cole, Ex Off., NCC Engineering L. G. Kvidahl, Ex Off., Northrup Grumman Ship Systems S. Liu, Ex Off., Colorado School of Mines J. L. Mendoza, Ex Off., Lone Star Welding S. P. Moran, Ex Off., ESAB Welding & Cutting Prod. E. Norman, Ex Off., Southwest Area Career Center R. G. Pali, Ex Off., J. P. Nissen Co. R. W. Shook, Ex Off., American Welding Society H. Villarreal, Ex Off., WELDCOA
Copyright 2011 by American Welding Society in both printed and electronic formats. The Society is not responsible for any statement made or opinion expressed herein. Data and information developed by the authors of specific articles are for informational purposes only and are not intended for use without independent, substantiating investigation on the part of potential users.

Bradley Clink, representing the United States, tied with two contestants from Australia and China to earn the silver medal in welding at WorldSkills London 2011. Also pictured is a welding competitor trying his best during the competition. (Photos courtesy of WorldSkills Intl.) At the 41st WorldSkills Competition, SkillsUSA WorldTeam welding representative Bradley Clink of Washtenaw Community College, Ann Arbor, Mich., tied for the silver medal in welding. He also joined all countries highest scoring students on stage to receive a gold medal for Best of Nation. The event took place in London, UK, October 5 to 8. Clink will receive the Miller Electric WorldSkills Competition Scholarship consisting of up to $10,000 per year for a period of four consecutive years. The other welding winners were as follows: Hyeon Woo Kim, representing Korea, achieved the gold medal; Guy Brooks of Australia and Xianfeng Pei of China earned silver medals; and Lucas Filgueira from Brazil and Jake Rambaldini from the United Kingdom received bronze medals. Medallions for Excellence were awarded as well. The Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio, as a Global Industry Partner of WorldSkills Intl and official sponsor of WorldSkills London, served as the exclusive provider of equipment, consumables, and weld fume control for the welding competition. Overall, the 2011 competition had more than 950 competitors from 51 countries. The 42nd WorldSkills Competition will take place in 2013 with Leipzig, Germany, as the host site. The 43rd WorldSkills Competition will be hosted in 2015 in Madrid, Spain. For more information about the organization, visit www.worldskills.org.

Grant to Help Train 45 Welders in Milwaukee

Super Steel LLC, Milwaukee, Wis., a manufacturer of large construction, agriculture, and transportation equipment, has recently teamed up with Milwaukee Area Technical College and staffing agency Aerotek to attain a grant for training new welders. The state Workforce Advancement Training Grant will provide $45,000 to the college to train employees with basic welding experience in a week-long class to prepare them for entry-level positions at Super Steel. Aerotek, Wauwatosa, Wis., will help find qualified candidates among its clients. Also, the grant allows for up to 45 welders to receive additional training through a 40-h, one-week course. According to Dirk Smith, chief operating officer, candidates for positions at Super Steel who are a good fit for the job and have potential will be referred to the course. Currently, the company has 400 employees. Smith hopes to hire 45 to 60 new employees by the end of the year with the help of the grant training.

Robotics Orders up 41% through September

According to data from the Robotic Industries Association, Ann Arbor, Mich., North American based robotics companies are enjoying one of their best years with orders up 41% through September. A total of 13,616 robots valued at $848.5 million were ordered in the first nine months by companies in North America. The automotive OEM and component suppliers are the biggest customers, accounting for 53% of the new orders. In nonautomotive segments, orders are up 28% in the first nine months of 2011. Metalworking and general industry lead the way here. So far, the biggest applications gains in 2011 are assembly, coating/dispensing, arc/spot welding, and material handling. 8 DECEMBER 2011

MEMBER

NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

Two Shipyards Selected to Build Vessels for Canadian Fleets

Irving Shipbuilding, Inc., has been selected to build a combat vessel work package of 21 vessels, and Vancouver Shipyards Co. Ltd. has been chosen to build a noncombat vessel work package of 7 vessels. The total value of both packages is $33 billion and will span 20 to 30 years. The selections are part of the National Shipbuilding Procurement Strategy, set to create jobs and generate economic benefits in shipbuilding and related industries across Canada. This will involve skilled work in various sectors, including steel manufacturing, information technology, and defense systems development and integration. Smalland medium-sized enterprises across the country will benefit through constructing large and small vessels, as well as work related to repairing and refitting. These two shipyards represents the largest proNew combat and noncombat vessels will be fabricated for Canada. Pictured curement sourcing arrangement in Canadian hisabove, taken earlier this year, is welding at Irving Shipbuilding on a wheelhouse tory. The approach and selection process are for the first of nine Mid-Shore Patrol Vessels for the Canadian Coast Guard. unique for the following reasons: open and transparent consultations with bidders on the concept, (Photo courtesy of Irving Shipbuilding, Inc.) requirement definition, evaluation criteria, and weighting of the criteria; use of independent third parties; a governance regime that resulted in merit-based decision-making; and transparency measures where bidders were informed of the results first and have agreed to share their own confidential reports on their capability to do the work. The Industrial and Regional Benefits Policy will also apply to the follow-on shipbuilding contracts. The selected shipyards will be required to identify business activities in Canada valued at 100% of the contract value. The next step is finalizing an umbrella agreement with each of the selected shipyards. Once signed, individual ship construction contracts will be negotiated with the respective shipyards. First in line will be the Royal Canadian Navys Arctic Offshore Patrol Ships in the combat package and the science vessels for the Canadian Coast Guard in the noncombat package. Small ship construction of 116 vessels, an estimated value of $2 billion, will be set aside for procurement amongst Canadian shipyards other than those selected to build large vessels. Regular maintenance and repair, valued at $500 million annually, will be open to all shipyards through normal obtaining processes. In addition, local colleges are aligning their training efforts in hopes of providing future workers. Nova Scotia Community College, for example, recently redeveloped and expanded its metal fabrication program to prepare individuals for careers in the steel-manufacturing industry. The province invested more than $190,000 in the diploma program through jobsHere with $67,000 to redevelop the apprenticeship curriculum and $123,000 to buy equipment to support a second section of the colleges metal fabrication diploma program. The program will continue at the Marconi Campus in Sydney home to a new, $7 million trades wing that is 26,840 sq ft and features five programs, including welding and metal fabrication and the additional section will be offered at the Akerley Campus in Dartmouth. Irving Shipbuilding also donated 25 welding stations and supplies worth $112,500 as part of its commitment to industrial and regional benefits for the Mid-Shore Patrol Vessel construction program at Halifax Shipyard.

Bridge Opens over Tempe Town Lake

The Tempe Town Lake Pedestrian Bridge in Tempe, Ariz., has recently been completed. The $5 million bridge complements the areas existing aesthetics and features criss-crossing parabolic arches that lead as a gateway into the Tempe Center of the Arts. Designed by T.Y. Lin Intl, San Francisco, Calif., an infrastructure consulting firm, the footbridge connects bike and pedestrian paths from the north and south sides of the lake. It is the lakes first nonvehicular bridge. Utilizing the existing Tempe Town Lake Dam as its foundation, the four span tubular steel structure consists of tied arches that lean into each other at a 21.4-deg angle and cross near both quarter points. One hundred and twenty-eight 1.375-in. steel cables criss-cross each other. 10 DECEMBER 2011

Designed by T.Y. Lin Intl, the new Tempe Town Lake Pedestrian Bridge combines artistry and practical use. (Photo courtesy of James M. Doyle.)

Additional features include a crowned 14-ft-wide concrete deck that flares to 16 ft at all pier and abutment locations; decorative high-tensioned fabric that resembles sails provides shade; and at night, soft white lighting illuminates the walkway, while blue lighting is projected upward at the structures canopies. The spans are fixed on the south end and allowed to expand on the north, resting on 1-in. sole plates and 4-in. elastomeric bearing pads. The entire bridge structure, along with the sprinkler system installed underneath its concrete walkway, helps to cool the rubber dam below and lengthen the life of the rubber bladders, which hold back lake waters. The bridges cost was paid for primarily with federal grant money and matching funds. The general contractor was PCL Construction; the steel fabricator was Stinger Welding, Inc.; and Clodfelter Bridge and Structures Intl, Inc., provided all steel cables.

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Wall Colmonoy Awarded Air Force Contract

Wall Colmonoys Aerobraze Engineered Technologies, Oklahoma City, Okla., recently announced the United States Air Force (USAF) has awarded the company a multiyear, multimillion dollar contract for the recore of heat exchangers to support the F15 global fleet designed to fly combat missions. As a major manufacturer of recored heat exchangers for the USAF for more than 28 years, we are proud to provide further support to the United States Air Force, said Ed Ridge, chief operating officer, Aerobraze Engineered Technologies. Wall Colmonoy developed high-temperature furnace brazing, which is used in the heat exchanger manufacturing process. Having developed the first heat exchanger repair procedures, the companys brazing expertise has resulted in USAF cost savings. Deliveries were scheduled to begin this fall.

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WELDING JOURNAL

11

Daimler Trucks North America to Create 350 New Jobs with Production Increase

A second shift will be added to the companys Portland, Ore., truck manufacturing plant. Pictured above is the Western Star 4700SF model. (Photo courtesy of Daimler Trucks North America.) Daimler Trucks North America (DTNA) plans to ramp up production of Western Star heavy-duty trucks at its plant in Portland, Ore., for which it will add a second shift. This will create approximately 350 new jobs at the facility by the end of 2012. About 330 of these jobs will be for shop employees. The new hiring will increase the number of production workers for Western Star trucks by almost 50%. The new shift is slated
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DECEMBER 2011

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ALUMINUM Q&A
Q: I work in the boat and shipbuilding industry. In recent years, I have seen more aluminum being used. The four 5xxx series aluminum filler metals being used fairly extensively are 5356, 5554, 5183, and 5556. I would like to know which of these filler metals should be used with which aluminum base metals, and why. A: The differences between the various
5xxx series aluminum base metals and filler metals are associated with strength and performance. To better understand these differences, we need to look at the characteristics of 5xxx series alloys in general and, specifically, the alloys in question.

BY TONY ANDERSON

Strength of 5xxx Series Aluminum Alloys

Magnesium is the major alloying element in the 5xxx series alloys. One controlling factor associated with these alloys is that magnesium can precipitate preferentially at grain boundaries as a highly anodic phase (Mg5Al3 or Mg5Al8), which produces susceptibility to intergranular cracking and stress corrosion. The maximum solubility of magnesium in aluminum is 17.4%. However, the maximum magnesium content of any currently registered wrought aluminum alloy is 5.5% because a substantial increase above 5.5% magnesium can promote precipitation, even at room temperature. Alloys containing less than 7% magnesium are stable at room temperature, and wrought alloys containing up to 5.5% magnesium that are correctly fabricated are stable up to 150F. No 5xxx series aluminum alloy with more than 3% magnesium content should be used in applications of prolonged elevated temperature (above 150F). In evaluating the use of these various alloys, its helpful to understand the effect of magnesium content on the strength of the alloy. Figure 1 shows there is a very distinct relationship between material strength and magnesium content in commonly used base alloys. As magnesium is added, there is a corresponding increase in strength. The 5xxx series alloys are nonheattreatable alloys which, in the unwelded condition, generally obtain their strength from strain hardening during the manufacturing process. As we are dealing with welds, which are typically evaluated in the as-welded condition, we should consider the annealed strength of these alloys. Groove welds in all 5xxx series alloys apply the annealed strength of the base alloy as

Fig. 1 If we examine the O temper (annealed) strength of these aluminum alloys, we can see that as the magnesium content is increased, there is a corresponding increase in tensile strength. the minimum tensile strength required to meet the welding procedure qualification.

Fig. 2 The strength ratings in this table provide the filler metal that will typically meet the minimum tensile strength requirements of the individual base metals without special attention being made to chemistry ranges that are above average for a specific alloy. try and all can be welded with 5356, 5183, or 5556 filler metals. If all welded connections used are fillet welds, the small differences in metal shear strength values between these three filler metals may or may not be significant. Certainly welding procedures for fillet welds could be easily qualified with all of these filler metals on all of these base metals. However, when it comes to tensile strength requirements, there are differences between these materials. Its safe to say large boats and ships that use these materials are generally manufactured with qualified welding procedures. If there is a requirement for welding procedure specifications (WPS) when manufacturing, then there is the corresponding necessity for the weld metal to meet the minimum tensile strength of the base material being welded. This is assuming that transverse tension tests are required for procedure qualification of groove welds. Selecting the most suitable filler metal for each base metal can be the difference between passing and failing reduced section tension tests during the welding procedure qualification process. In some cases, the strength differences between these filler metals is quite small, and the strength of any one classification can differ from one batch to another based on the actual magnesium content of the alloy and where it sits within the classification chemistry range limits. For this reason, I would recommend that Fig. 2 be used to select the most appropriate filler metal for each of these base metals. Caution: I expect some welding engineers will look at the recommendations in Fig. 2 and say, I have passed tension tests on 5083 base metal using 5356 filler metal or I have passed tension tests on 5383 base metal using 5183 filler metal. I have seen documented test results that

5xxx Base Metals and Filler Metals Used in Shipbuilding

Base Metal 5052, with a nominal magnesium content of around 2.5% and 25-ksi minimum tensile strength in the O temper, is one of the lowest strength 5xxx series base metals likely to be seen in this industry. Its sometimes used for the manufacture of small recreational boats or nonstructural components such as storage tanks. This base metal has good formability and is the only 5xxx series base metal shown in Fig. 1 (other than 5005, which is not typically used in this industry) that can be welded with 4xxx or 5xxx series filler metal. Filler metal 5356 provides significantly improved strength, ductility, and toughness over the 4043 or 4047 filler metals. Base Metal 5454 and its companion filler metal 5554, both with maximum magnesium content of 3%, were developed specifically to provide the highest strength (over 40 ksi in some tempers) among the 5xxx series alloys for sustained elevated-temperature service. Because of their controlled magnesium content, this combination of base alloy and filler metal is not susceptible to sensitization and stress corrosion cracking when used at elevated temperatures. Base Metals 5086, 5083, 5456, and 5383 The minimum tensile strengths of these alloys in the O temper are as follows: 5086 (35 ksi), 5083 (40 ksi), 5456 (42 ksi), and 5383 (42 ksi). All four of these base metals are used for structural components in the boat and shipbuilding indus-

14

DECEMBER 2011

substantiate these statements. However, as stated before, in some cases the strength difference between these filler metals is quite small, and the strength of any one classification can differ from one batch to another based on the actual magnesium content of the alloy and where it sits within the classification chemistry range limits. What Im implying is that the magnesium content (and also the manganese content in some cases) of these filler metals has a minimum and maximum range. The range provided within the classification is such that a significant difference in strength may be realized between the two extremes. This suggests that in terms of strength, all 5xxx series filler metals, even within the same classification, are not created equal. To further confuse the issue, two of these filler metal classifications can actually have the same chemistry (and, consequently, the same strength). With the introduction of some of the more recently developed 5xxx series alloys (like 5383), we have seen a trend toward dual classifications of filler metals. For example, a filler metal is now being produced that meets both 5183 and 5556 chemistry requirements. This 5183 filler metal, produced at its higher end of the magnesium range, provides higher strength and commonly passes tension tests when used for welding 5383. However, a 5183 filler metal with lower magnesium may not meet the required minimum tensile strength requirements. This suggests that it may not be realistic to suppose that passing a tension test with a specific filler metal classification will guarantee repeat performance with filler metal of the same classification but from another batch (or chemistry). For this reason it may be pertinent, when welding the high-strength 5xxx series base metals, to know what the actual chemistry of your filler metal is. You may ask, Why not produce all the 5183 filler metal at the top end of its magnesium range? The short answer to that question is as the magnesium content is increased in these alloys, the manufacturing process used to produce welding wire becomes more involved and, consequently, more expensive.

specifically to meet the tensile strength requirements on 5083 base material and does so very successfully when used in its mid-range chemistry. It will also meet the tensile strength of 5086 base metal. The 5183 filler metal was not developed for use on 5456 or 5383 base alloys, which have a higher tensile strength than 5083. If used on 5456 or 5383 base metal, 5183 filler may or may not meet the minimum tensile strength requirements depending on its magnesium content. The 5556 filler metal was developed for welding 5456 base alloy to meet its tensile strength requirements. This filler metal will typically meet the minimum tensile requirements on 5383 base metal, which has a tensile strength similar to 5456 base metal. The 5556 filler metal will also meet the tensile strength requirements for 5086 and 5083 base alloys. Note: One other issue to consider when developing welding procedures for these high-strength marine alloys is the influence of joint design on the strength of a weld through substantial dilution of the base material being welded. Tests have shown that dilution of magnesium from a highstrength magnesium base plate into the weld can positively influence weld metal tensile strength. This may be a situation where we can create a weld of acceptable strength in a test lab environment, but need

to consider if the weld can be consistently reproduced in a production environment with variations in joint design.

Conclusion
Selection of the most appropriate filler metal for these high-strength 5xxx series alloys may appear on the surface to be relatively straightforward. However, an understanding of the chemistry associated with these base alloys and filler metals, and its effect on strength, is certainly an advantage when developing welding procedures and evaluating test results during this process.

TONY ANDERSON is director of aluminum technology, ITW Welding North America. He is a Fellow of the British Welding Institute (TWI), a Registered Chartered Engineer with the British Engineering Council, and holds numerous positions on AWS technical committees. He is chairman of the Aluminum Association Technical Advisory Committee for Welding and author of the book Welding Aluminum Questions and Answers currently available from the AWS. Questions may be sent to Mr. Anderson c/o Welding Journal, 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126, or via e-mail at tony.anderson@millerwelds.com.

Which Filler Metal to Use?

Always use 5554 filler metal to weld 5454 base material in applications involving elevated temperature service (operating above 150F). The 5356 filler metal was developed for welding 5086 base metal and to match its tensile strength; it was not intended to match the higher tensile strength requirements on 5083, 5456, or 5383 base materials. The 5183 filler metal was produced
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WELDING JOURNAL

15

BRAZING Q&A
Q: We are soldering two reasonably heavy brass discs together. They are about 4 in. in diameter and 38 in. thick, and we have been requested to evaluate lead-free options. We have been looking at using 95 tin-5 silver as a replacement for the 70 tin30 lead solder we have been using. Initial trials have been inconsistent. We are using an organic acid-type flux and use a simple turntable with torch heating. We put a solder disc between the parts prior to heating. We are concerned about the quality of the joints as the strength results are not comparable to what we see with the 70 tin30 lead solder. A: When converting from the 70 tin-30 lead solder to the 95 tin-5 silver, a couple of things come to mind. The first is that the soldering temperature will be considerably higher. Associated with this increase in temperature is the potential need for a different flux. The solder process you describe should be acceptable for both solder filler metals but some adjustments should be anticipated. When you mention that the joint quality is suspect, the answer will most likely lie with one of these variables. The 70 tin-30 lead solder has a melting range of 361 to 377F (183 to 193C). It has a short melt range so I would expect an appropriate soldering temperature to be approximately 400F (204C) depending on the amount of flow that you expect from the solder. It has good flow potential by virtue of its high tin content. You are using a preplaced solder disc so flow is not a major requirement but proper heating is still necessary for good bonding. Higher lead content solders have difficulty flowing on even the most easily soldered substrates. I would expect 70 tin-30 lead to flow and bond well. With only 30% lead, a minimal amount of extra heat should be needed to ensure a good bond. The 95 tin-5 silver solder will melt and flow at a much higher temperature. The melting range is 430 to 465F (221 to 241C). It will probably require a soldering temperature in the area of 500F (260C). This, then, could be as much as 100F (38C) greater than the soldering temperature used with the existing process with the 70 tin-30 lead solder. The issues to consider include the heating process and its ability to heat the parts to this higher temperature, the soldering time and the flux being used. The process needs to be capable of heating the parts properly and the flux needs to be of a for-

BY TIM P. HIRTHE

mula capable of withstanding the elevated temperature. If possible, monitor the temperature that the parts reach in the heating process. Thermal marking sticks may be helpful and are easier to use than other heat-monitoring methods. They detect temperatures as low as 125F (52C) and are available in 25F increments up to 1800F (982C). The parts you describe are fairly large and will require significant extra heat to reach the soldering temperature of the tin-silver material. You need to ensure that the entire part reaches the minimum soldering temperature not just the outside surface. It may appear that the solder is melting and flowing on the outside but the inside of the joint may not be up to temperature. The flux used is a critical part of the process. Organic acid or intermediate fluxes can be effective in elevatedtemperature applications but they can become overextended and leave tenacious residues. You do not mention whether you are having this problem but be aware that it can be an issue with elevated temperatures and extended solder times. Depending on the formulation, organic acid fluxes can be used to temperatures up to 525F (275C). This is pushing the upper end of their effective range. If you are diluting the flux for the lower temperature tin-lead process, you may need to dilute the flux less or not at all when using the tin-silver solder. If it is determined that the flux is not capable of handling the higher temperature of this application, there are many options on the market. I recommend you explore all the inorganic acid flux options available as the alternative for elevatedtemperature soldering is to use an inorganic flux. These are usually quite corrosive and should be carefully considered before using them. Cleaning is a challenge as their residues can also be corrosive if stringent removal methods are not followed. You are probably looking for strengths equal to or exceeding the existing process. The 95 tin-5 silver is an excellent solder and should have properties acceptable in comparison to the tin-lead material. It is difficult to find published test data to support this, however. The American Welding Society publishes the Soldering Handbook containing a wealth of data on the bulk properties of solders and a variety of test data on soldered joints. I was not able to find any data where the properties of 95

tin-5 silver and 70 tin-30 lead were compared in the same set of test data. I did find one test where the data were useful, even though they were not precise. When evaluating the torsional shear strength of copper joints, data are available for the 95 tin-5 silver and several tinlead solders. It does not include the 70-30 solder but it does include 63 tin-37 lead solder. For the 95 tin-5 silver, the value is 10,610 lb/in.2 (73 MPa). For the 63 tin-37 lead, the value is 8000 lb/in.2 (55 MPa). This is not precise information but it does give some indication as to the relative strengths of the two solders. You will need to study the available data to get an idea of what you can expect in your case. From experience, the properties of the tin-silver will meet or exceed the tin-lead. The tin-silver solders are also known for having excellent fatigue and creep resistance. As an example of the difficulty in obtaining precise data, I can find creep and fatigue data for the 96.5 tin-3.5 silver solder but not for the 95-5. I am not sure what properties are required in your application, but I would expect the tin-silver to perform as well or better than the tin-lead. Make sure the parts are heated properly and that the flux used can stand up to the heat. Obviously, the big downside is the cost. Tin is more expensive than lead, and the price of silver is through the roof. In todays world however, getting the lead out is the priority.

This column is written sequentially by TIM P. HIRTHE, ALEXANDER E. SHAPIRO, and DAN KAY. Hirthe and Shapiro are members of and Kay is an advisor to the C3 Committee on Brazing and Soldering. All three have contributed to the 5th edition of AWS Brazing Handbook. Hirthe (timhirthe@aol.com) currently serves as a BSMC vice chair and owns his own consulting business. Shapiro (ashapiro@titanium-brazing.com) is brazing products manager at Titanium Brazing, Inc., Columbus, Ohio. Kay (Dan@kaybrazing.com), with 40 years of experience in the industry, operates his own brazing training and consulting business. Readers are requested to post their questions for use in this column on the Brazing Forum section of the BSMC Web site www.brazingandsoldering.com.

16

DECEMBER 2011

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Dataset Helps Designers Evaluate Thermal Sprayed and Other Coatings
The Granta MI software helps product designers, materials and process experts, plus environmental, health, and safety professionals make decisions on coatings and surface treatments. New capabilities, developed in collaboration with Rowan Technology Group, focus on the compliance, regulatory, and risk factors relating to restricted substances. In addition, the group has helped the company to compile the Coatings Data Module, a dataset that can be added to corporate materials databases stored in the softwares system (as shown in the left-hand window of the image while the right-hand window shows property data for a specific coating). It provides browser-based tools to search, browse, and use this data. The module also covers more than 100 coatings, including thermal spray, anodizing, corrosion inhibitor, conversion, CVD, electro/electroless plate, heat treat, primer, PVD, and topcoat. Traditional coatings such as cadmium plate with chromate conversion are included, as well as new and alternative coatings such as aluminum and low-hydrogen embrittlement zinc-nickel with trivalent and nonchrome sealers. Each coating is described in a well-referenced record detailing more than 60 technical, restricted substance, substitution, cost, and other properties. Within the software, this data can be integrated with an existing database of more than 6000 restricted substances and 60 regulations, legislations, and industry standards that impact these substances. Related substances, materials, coatings, legislations, and company material and process specifications are linked. Granta Design Ltd.
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Metal Fluid Works on HVOF Thermal Sprayed Parts

makeup. The fluid contains a proprietary blend of inhibitors that protect ferrous machine tool components while minimizing dissolved cobalt in solution. Also, it is low misting; does not smoke nor leave a slippery, oily film on parts, machines, or surrounding areas; is a clear mix; and rejects tramp oils. Cimcool
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Dust Collector Offers Fast Filter Changeouts

The VH Series of Torit brand PowerCore dust collectors are designed to meet the requirements of applications with abrasive dust in the metalworking and mining markets. They take up less floor space, feature fast filter changeouts, and handle airflows from 5000 to 50,000 ft3/min. The collectors use PowerCore filter packs; one replaces up to 20 8-ft baghouse bags and up to three standard, round cartridges. The series further offers heavy-gauge steel and all-welded construction; single hopper option and single air inlets/outlets to reduce ducting, installation, and material-handling costs; and a

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zero-turn pulse cleaning system. Applications include thermal spray, fabricated metals, and food production. Donaldson Co., Inc.
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Cutting Outfits Offer Design Advancements

chronized operation. In addition, the TTNG series of tube cutting machines can cut and bevel pipes and tubes of all schedules in one simultaneous operation. Protem GmbH
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Tools Enable Quick Pipe, Tube Welding Preparation

The TruTool TSC 100 removes mild steel, aluminum, and stainless steel slag. It can be used on flatbed laser machines with an output of up to 7 kW and removes slag from the sides of the slats as well as in spaces between and right up to the pallet frame. The slats are scraped by two powerful, toothed cleaning tools running in parallel. Also, the tool removes any material the laser cuts. It can be used by one person to clean a standard size pallet of 5 10 ft in about 30 min. To use, the operator places the tool on any area of the support slats and turns it on. Two vertical rows of toothed tools press onto the slat and move forward through the slats, scraping the slag off each slat. TRUMPF, Inc.
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Endless rotating Welding Gun for seal and strengh welding of tube sheets and heat exchangers including super duplex, titanium and other materials.

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Blades Produce Burr-Free Cuts without Filing

A selection of circular saw blades for cutting nonferrous metals such as copper, aluminum, and brass are available in a choice of diameters and tooth counts for light as well as heavy-wall tubes, extrusions, and plates. They can be ordered in diameters from 538 to 20 in. and with teeth counts ranging in number from 50 to 120. Various models are offered, including NF1060 (10 in. diameter with 60 teeth), NF1080 (10 in. with 80 teeth), NF1280 (12 in. with 80 teeth), and NF12100 (12 in. with 100 teeth). There are several 14-in.diameter blades as well. They should be used with oil or wax lubricants; are made of corrosion-resistant C-2 micrograin car-

The companys line of portable pipe end preparation tools include pneumatically, hydraulically, or electrically driven machines that allow welding preparation on pipes and tubes with 24500 mm diameters. The air-powered US40 beveler performs weld preparations on most metal pipes and tubes from 43 mm ID to 219 mm OD. The cutting head can bevel, face, and counterbore individually or in a syn-

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WELDING JOURNAL

19

the event of a power interruption, the magnets remain in their current state (on or off) and cannot be operated until power is restored. Operators can lift, move, or position steel or iron without slings, hooks, or cables and manually release the magnet. They are useful for handling flat and round material, especially semifinished products with flat surfaces, along with loading round bars into lathes. The magnets turn on and off by activating a switch on the magnet or on an optional

pendant controller. Maximum lifting capacity (with 2:1 safety factor) is 4500 lb for a flat steel plate and 3000 lb for a round surface product. Eriez
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Surface Preparation Unit Contains Multiple Waterjets

bide; come hand straightened; and have a perimeter concentricity and side runout of 0.001. Forrest Manufacturing Co.
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Permanent Lifting Magnets Handle Steel, Iron

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The VertaJet SRT-6LT enables fast surface preparation. The hand-held unit needs no air connection to rotate the 40,000 lb/in.2 waterjets and weighs 20 lb. It quickly removes paint, epoxies, and other coatings from steel structures and other surfaces. Multiple waterjets rotate at 3000 rev/min to create a 6-in. cleaning path. Features include ergonomic handles, a counterbalancing system, and dualtrigger operation to dump pressure. The machine uses no abrasive and has vacuum recovery to contain the water and debris. Maximum flow is 6 gal/min. NLB Corp.
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continued on page 75

20

DECEMBER 2011

Plan ahead.
Expand your credentials with an endorsement that fulfills your recertification requirements. Recertification every nine years requires either 80 hours of documented continuing education, retaking the Part B Practical Exam, or an endorsement to your certification. You can do this at any time, so why not do it now and secure the prestige and enhanced career potential of a credential in an additional welding code?
A CWI or SCWI SC can take a Supplemental Inspection Exam anytime during the nine-year cycle. Qualifying for and passing one of these exams meets the requirements for recertification. Endorsements are listed on your endorsement card. Endorsements to codebooks require passing a two-hour Open-Book Code Application exam on one of the following codes:


  

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Understanding Thermal Spray Technology

BY MARK F. SMITH

Descriptions of the leading thermal spray processes are presented as well as news about two emerging processes that hold promise for even wider applications
Originally invented in the early 1900s, thermal spray is a mature and continually evolving family of material-deposition technologies. In broad commercial use today, a remarkable variety of pure metals and alloys, ceramics, glass, polymers, and even composites (e.g., cemented carbides) are routinely thermal spray deposited onto a wide range of substrate materials. Thermal spray coatings offer designers and engineers great flexibility to independently optimize surface vs. bulk material properties to achieve performance and cost objectives. Industrial applications span the full range from high-tech coatings that enhance the performance of turbine aircraft engines and medical implants to workhorse applications for papermaking equipment, boilers, and printing presses. This article provides an overview of thermal spray technology today and a preview of two emerging process technologies, cold spray and very low pressure plasma spray, which are poised to further expand the capabilities and applications of thermal spray.

What Materials Can Be Thermal Sprayed?

In principle, anything that melts can be thermal spray deposited, and even some materials that dont melt can be codeposited along with other sprayable materials. Highly dissimilar material combinations and unique microstructures with special properties can be created. For example, under the right conditions, metal can be spray deposited onto plastic, wood, and even paper substrates Fig. 1A. Another example is co-deposition of aluminum metal and polyester to form a unique composite coating that provides a soft, but gas-tight, abradable seal around compressor blades in small turbine engines Fig. 1B. Some thermal spray coatings must be applied in controlled atmospheres, but most coatings are spray deposited in an ambient air environment. Compared to alternative coating technologies, such as vapor deposition processes or electroplating, thermal spray deposition rates are much higher, typically on the order of 4.4 to 44 lb/h (2 to 20 kg/h), and even higher deposition rates have been achieved in some specialized applications. For these reasons, it can be costeffective to spray coat very large surface areas; for example, applying anticorrosion coatings onto ship decks, large storage tanks, and bridges, or to build up deposits several millimeters thick for dimensional restoration of worn, damaged, or mismanufactured surfaces. Thermal spray has also been used to spray form near-net-shapes with materials that may be difficult or expensive to shape with more traditional fabrication processes, such as casting or machining. Spray forming is accomplished by spray-

ing onto a shaped mandrel that is later mechanically or chemically removed Fig. 2A, B.

Basics of Thermal Spray

Like the term welding, the term thermal spray denotes not one single process, but rather a broad family of process technologies that share some common characteristics, but also differ in important ways. There is no overall best process technology, and the choice for a given application will be driven by factors such as the material to be deposited, the application requirements, and cost. In all traditional thermal spray processes, a feedstock (powder, wire, or rod) of the material to be deposited is heated and, if necessary, atomized to form a spray of molten or nearly molten droplets. These droplets, typically 10 to 100 microns in diameter, are accelerated in a high-velocity gas jet and sprayed onto a target surface where they flow out and rapidly solidify Fig. 3A. Unlike spray painting, where there is typically a thin layer of liquid on the workpiece surface, each thermal spray droplet solidifies before the next droplet arrives. This results in a layered microstructure (Fig. 3B) that often has properties quite different from conventional wrought or cast materials. As illustrated in the composite wear coating in Fig. 3B, two or more different materials can be co-deposited, and the composition can be varied during deposition to create mixed, layered, or graded microstructures with special properties. The properties and performance of a sprayed coating are influenced by many process variables, such as the quality of the feedstock, the specific spray process, gas compositions and flow rates, deposition rates, ambient atmosphere, coating

MARK F. SMITH (mfsmith@sandia.gov) is deputy director, Materials Science and Engineering Center, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, N.Mex. Based on a paper presented at the AWS Thermal Spray Technology: High-Performance Surface Conference held November 3, 2010, during FABTECH, in Atlanta, Ga. 22 DECEMBER 2011

thickness, substrate preparation and geometry, substrate temperature, and spray gun-to-substrate distance (standoff) to name a few. In recent years, the overall consistency and quality of sprayed coatings have increased significantly with modern improvements in spray equipment and operations, such as improved spray gun designs, better feedstock materials, sophisticated process monitoring systems, highly automated closed-loop process controllers, and robotic spray equipment.

Some Commercially Important Spray Technologies

Fig. 1 A Plastic electronics housing before (left) and after (right) thermal spray coating with metal to provide electromagnetic shielding; B aluminum-polyester composite coating used for abradable seals in small turbine engines.

Similar to welding, commercially important thermal spray processes can be grouped into two broad categories as either electrical processes or oxyfuel processes. Popular electrically driven processes (Fig. 4A) include atmospheric plasma spray, low-pressure plasma spray, and wire arc spray. These processes use relatively low-voltage, high-amperage, direct current (DC) power supplies comparable to many welding power supplies. The most common oxyfuel processes (Fig. 4B) include powder flame spray, wire flame spray, and high-velocity oxyfuel spray (HVOF). The fuel for most of these systems is a gas, such as acetylene, MAPP, or natural gas; but, some high-energy systems are designed to run on liquid kerosene. The oxidizer is normally oxygen, but some systems use compressed air. As with different welding processes, each thermal spray process has unique advantages and limitations, so care must be exercised to select the optimum process for a given application. Plasma spray is one of the most versatile and widely used thermal spray processes. A plasma spray gun is similar in design and construction to a plasma cutting torch and operates on the same basic principles Fig. 5. Temperatures in a plasma spray gun can reach 9000 to 36,000F (5000 to 20,000C), more than sufficient to melt even the most refractory metal or ceramic. For this reason, the plasma spray process can deposit a much wider range of materials than many alternative spray technologies that operate at lower temperatures. Plasma spray is often carried out in an ambient air environment, a process called Atmospheric Plasma Spray (APS). For many spray applications, the presence of atmospheric oxygen is not detrimental to the properties or performance of the coating; for example, when spraying ceramic

oxide thermal barrier coatings to protect critical turbine engine components like blades, vanes, and combustor cans. Obviously, metals sprayed in an ambient air environment will react with atmospheric oxygen, and the resulting coating will contain some level of oxide impurities. This may be acceptable for many applications, but if a high-quality coating with few impurities is required, plasma spraying can also be done in an inert atmosphere, most often in a vacuum chamber at a reduced pressure of inert gas. This is called low pressure plasma spray (LPPS) or vacuum plasma spray (VPS). The Wire Arc Spray process is popular because it is one of the least expensive spray technologies and offers high deposition rates. In this process, an electric arc is struck between the tips of two metal wires of the feedstock material. The tips melt, and the molten metal is atomized to form a droplet spray with a jet of compressed air or other gas. As the wire tips melt away, new wire is continuously fed in to maintain a steady arc. So the feedstock wires are essentially consumable electrodes. A primary limitation is that this process can only deposit metals that are available in the form of electrically conductive wires. However, some ceramic metal composite (cermet) coatings can be arc sprayed using cored wires; i.e., hollow metal wires filled with ceramic hard particles that are incorporated into the cermet coating. Powder and wire flame spray processes are low-cost workhorse technologies in the thermal spray industry, differing only in the form of the feedstock material. Depending upon the combustion gases and operating parameters, maximum flame temperatures are on the order of 3600 to 5400F (2500 to 3000C). For this reason, some of the more refractory metals and ceramics cannot be deposited with flame spray devices. Nevertheless, they are suit-

Fig. 2 A Spray forming a satellite positioning rocket nozzle by plasma spraying a refractory ceramic inner liner and then a metal outer shell onto a removable mandrel (note nozzle shape in shadow); B boron carbide missile nose cone built by spray forming on a removable mandrel.

able for a remarkably wide array of materials and are the processes of choice for many commercial applications. High-velocity oxyfuel spraying, more commonly known simply as HVOF, is used for a variety of applications, but it is best known as a preferred process for spraying cemented carbide wear coatings. This combustion process operates at higher pressures than standard flame spray devices, and it uses an extended nozzle deWELDING JOURNAL 23

Fig. 3 A Generic thermal spray process with heated molten or semimolten droplets sprayed onto a substrate surface; B typical layered microstructure; in this case, a composite coating of nickel-chrome + tungsten carbide-cobalt sprayed onto a steel substrate.

printing, textiles, and many others. Thermal spray coatings are used for a wide range of purposes; for example, to combat corrosive environments, to prevent high-temperature oxidation, to control friction and wear, to build up and reclaim worn or damaged components, and to confer other special surface properties to a bulk material. Table 1 displays a number of thermal spray applications illustrating the diversity of materials, processes, and applications in use today.

Process Advantages and Limitations

A summary of major potential advantages of thermal spray would surely include the following: Independently optimize surface vs. bulk properties High deposition rates; ability to cover large surfaces and create thick deposits Wide choice of materials anything that melts Combine highly dissimilar materials Create unique microstructures and properties Cost and environmental benefits. Most of the potential advantages listed above have already been discussed, but the potential environmental benefits have not been addressed. The electroplating industry has come under increased scrutiny and regulation in recent years due to concerns over disposal of hazardous chemicals from plating baths as well as hazardous vapors that may form in some plating operations. Similarly, some chemical vapor deposition (CVD) processes involve highly toxic gases and may also create hazardous effluents. In contrast, the primary effluent from most thermal spray operations is simply overspray in the form of fine powder that

Fig. 4 Some commercially important electrical (A), and oxyfuel (B), thermal spray processes. Low-pressure plasma spray is carried out in a vacuum chamber at reduced pressures of inert gas. The bright bead-like features in the high-velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) spray jet are shock diamonds resulting from supersonic flow.

sign with sonic or supersonic flows that accelerate spray particles to much higher velocities Fig. 4B. The increased velocity reduces dwell time in the hot jet and helps prevent overheating and decarburization of the feedstock powder. As the high-speed droplets impact the workpiece surface there is also a peening effect that tends to produce very dense coatings with low porosity and more favorable compressive residual stress. High-velocity oxyfuel cemented carbide coatings are very hard, wear and corrosion resistant, and can be polished to an extremely smooth finish. These coatings, long used to control wear on critical surfaces in tur-

bine engines and other applications, have recently seen increasing use as a replacement for hard chrome plating in applications such as aircraft landing gear struts and large hydraulic cylinders.

Industrial Thermal Spray Applications

Much like welding, thermal spray processes are used in a broad range of applications in major industries including aerospace, power generation, petrochemical, automotive, marine, biomedical, primary metal producers, papermaking,

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Table 1 Some Industrial Thermal Spray Applications Industry Automotive Seam welds Piston cylinders Piston rings Shift forks Oxygen sensors Heat exchangers Pulp and Paper Yankee dryer rolls Center press rolls Calendar rolls Boiler tubes Corrugated rolls Digesters ID fans Aerospace Aircraft engines Aircraft engines Aircraft engines Aircraft engines Landing gear Airframe Airframe Petrochemical Ball valves Gate valves Piston rods Choke stems Offshore oil rigs Pump housings Compressor cylinders Processing tanks Wear, corrosion resistance Wear, corrosion resistance Wear resistance Wear, corrosion resistance Corrosion Dimension restoration Dimension restoration Corrosion resistance HVOF HVOF Flame spray HVOF Flame spray Arc spray Arc spray Flame spray Tungsten-carbide Tungsten-carbide Chrome-oxide Tungsten-carbide Aluminum Aluminum-bronze 420 stainless steel Aluminum Thermal barrier Abradable clearance control Wear resistance Dimension Restoration Wear, corrosion Conductivity Flap tracks Plasma Flame spray HVOF Arc spray HVOF Flame spray HVOF Yttria-zirconia Aluminum-polyester Tungsten-carbide Nickel-aluminum Tungsten-carbide Aluminum Tungsten-carbide Wear resistance Wear resistance Wear resistance Wear, corrosion resistance Wear resistance Wear, corrosion resistance Wear resistance Arc spray Plasma HVOF Arc spray HVOF Arc spray HVOF FeCrBSi Chrome-oxide Chrome-carbide Nickel-chrome Tungsten-carbide Alloy 625 Tungsten-carbide Filler Wear resistance Wear resistance Wear resistance Thermal barrier Corrosion resistance Arc spray Plasma Plasma Flame spray Flame spray Arc spray Silicon-bronze Steel Molybdenum Molybdenum Spinel Zinc Application Coating Purpose Process Coating

can be readily trapped in standard dustcollection systems. In many cases, this powder from the dust-collection system can be sold to a recycler who specializes in reprocessing this type of waste material. For this reason, thermal spray is generally considered to be among the more environmentally friendly coating technologies. Like all processes, thermal spray also has its limitations. A list of potential limitations includes the following: Primarily limited to materials with a stable molten phase Spray area limited to line of sight Residual stresses Oxides and porosity Poor thermal and electrical conductivity Low ductility and tensile strength. The first two limitations listed above are inherent in the fundamental nature of traditional thermal spray processes. The only way to deposit materials that dont melt is to co-deposit them with another material that does melt. As with spray painting, only surfaces with direct line of

sight to the spray gun can be coated. Special internal diameter (ID) spray guns are available for coating the inside surfaces of pipes and cylinders (e.g., arc spray device in Fig. 4A) but the opening must be large enough to accommodate the spray gun and provide adequate stand-off distance from the surface to be coated. The size of the spray pattern varies greatly with different spray devices, but generally falls in the range of 0.4 to 20 in. (1 to 50 cm). Large areas are coated by overlapping spray patterns, similar to spray painting. Residual stresses can be a significant issue in some applications, because incoming droplets solidify, then contract as they eventually cool to room temperature. This tends to create residual tensile stress in the coating that increases with increasing coating thickness. High tensile stress can potentially result in cracking or separation of the coating. Fortunately, there is opportunity to mitigate and, in some cases totally eliminate, residual tensile stress through process selection and processing variables. For example, the peen-

ing effect of very high spray velocities can modify the residual stress state of coating material as it is deposited. Careful control of the substrate temperature during deposition can also be used to mitigate undesirable residual stress. Oxides and porosity formed when reactive materials, such as metals, are sprayed in an ambient air environment (Fig. 6A) lead to the last two potential limitations of poor conductivity as well as reduced ductility and strength in comparison to conventional wrought or cast materials. Spraying in an inert atmosphere, especially in a partial vacuum as with low pressure plasma spray (LPPS), can virtually eliminate the last three potential limitations. The LPPS coatings are normally of exceptionally high quality with properties that rival, and often surpass, those of comparable wrought or cast materials. However, such high-quality coatings come at a premium price due to the high capital cost and complexity of LPPS spray equipment. For this reason, such coatings are primarily limited to high-value, high-

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Fig. 5 A Cross section of a generic plasma spray gun; B typical plasma spray gun.

Fig. 6 Metallographic cross sections of the same copper powder sprayed with two different processes. A Plasma sprayed coating has 5% porosity (black areas), 1.7 wt-% oxides (dark grey bands), and is only 15% as conductive as wrought oxygen-free high-conductivity (OFHC) copper; B cold sprayed coating has less than 0.5% porosity, only 0.3 wt-% oxides (identical to the feedstock powder), and is 85% as conductive as OFHC copper.

consequence components like turbine blades and medical implants. In some cases, a potential limitation, such as porosity, can actually be an advantage. For example, a highly porous ceramic thermal barrier coating has a lower thermal conductivity and may perform better than a similar coating with very low porosity.

Cold Spray Looks Promising

There are two emerging thermal spray technologies that are unlike anything in commercial use today. The first and more mature process is called cold spray. Cold spray is fundamentally different than all previous spray deposition technologies in that the powder feedstock is never melted, and generally is not even significantly heated in the spray gun. It is an entirely solid-state process in which fine powder particles, typically 5 to 20 microns in diameter, are accelerated in a supersonic

jet of compressed inert gas to very high velocities on the order of 1640 to 3280 ft/s (500 to 1000 m/s). Upon impact, these high-speed particles deform at very high rates and bond to the underlying surface. It is a process very similar to explosion welding, but on a microscopic scale. The peening effect in this deposition process creates desirable compressive residual stress that inhibits cracking. Also, since the spray particles are not molten, or even very hot, there is generally little or no reaction with atmospheric oxygen to form oxides in the coating and no changes in the chemistry or phase composition of the coating material. Figure 6 compares the microstructures of copper metal coatings deposited with atmospheric plasma spray and with cold spray. Both coatings were sprayed in an ambient air environment using the same feedstock powder, but the coating produced with cold spray has substantially lower oxide and porosity levels and higher conductivity. In fact, the oxide content in

Fig. 7 Metallographic cross section of a zirconia thermal barrier coating (TBC). The columnar microstructure of this very low pressure plasma spray (VLPPS) coating is quite different from traditional thermal spray coatings and can be more durable when subjected to repeated thermal cycling that is often associated with TBC applications.

the cold sprayed copper is virtually identical to the oxide content of the feedstock powder. Commercial use of cold spray is growing; however, this process only works well with ductile metals or other materials that can deform at high rates without shattering as they impact a substrate at very high velocities.

A New Low-Pressure Spray Method Evolves

The second emerging technology is far less mature, but it has some special characteristics unlike anything seen in previous spray technologies. There are several variants of this technology, and it is so new that the spray community has yet to set-

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tle upon a commonly accepted terminology for it, but I use the term very low pressure plasma spray(VLPPS). The VLPPS coatings are deposited with specially modified low pressure plasma spray (LPPS) equipment. Very low pressure plasma spray differs from traditional LPPS in the respect that coatings are deposited at chamber pressures roughly an order of magnitude lower than in the conventional LPPS process and also at higher plasma power levels. Depending upon the specific process variant, deposition may be in the form of very fine molten droplets, vapor phase deposition, or a mixture of vapor and droplet deposition. Although droplet deposition is similar to traditional thermal spray, vapor phase deposition is quite different. With vapor deposition, VLPPS is no longer strictly limited to line of sight. Deposition has even been demonstrated on the back sides of substrates (side that faces away from the spray gun). In addition, unlike the layered microstructures of traditional thermal spray methods (Figs. 3B and 6), the VLPPS vapor deposition process can produce columnar microstructures (Fig. 7) similar to those commonly associated with alternative coating technologies such as physical vapor deposition (PVD) or chemical vapor deposition (CVD). While these vapor deposited VLPPS coatings are similar to coatings produced by PVD or CVD, VLPPS deposition rates can be more than ten times higher. This intriguing new technology could potentially open up entirely new fields of applications for the thermal spray industry.

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Sources for Additional Information

Additional, more detailed information on thermal spray technology can be found in the AWS Welding Handbook, 9th Edition, Volume 3, Chapter 11, Thermal Spraying and Cold Spraying. For other questions, the Thermal Spray Society Web site offers both members and guests a wide variety of resources including a discussion forum where you can post questions and receive responses from industry experts. Visit http://tss.asminternational.org/portal/site/tss/. Photo Credits Sandia National Laboratories: Figs. 1A,B; 2A; 3A; 4A, B; 5A; and 6A, B. A. Freslon, CEA, France: Fig. 2B. Thermal Spray Technologies, Inc.: Fig. 3B. Praxair Surface Technologies: Fig. 5B.

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Business Forecast 2012

BY MARY RUTH JOHNSEN, HOWARD WOODWARD, AND KRISTIN CAMPBELL

Welding industry leaders project modest growth in the coming year

Lets face it over the past few years, times have been pretty tough, but industry leaders appear to be cautiously optimistic about 2012. Manufacturing is expected to continue outpacing sluggish growth in the overall economy, according to a recent quarterly survey of factory production by the Manufacturers Alliance/MAPI. The organization estimates GDP growth at 2.1% for next year, while growth in factory production is forecast at 3% for 2012. Improvement should continue in 2012 for 23 of the 24 industries surveyed. This is expected to be led by housing starts at 17%. Public works construction was the only industry expected to decline (by 5%) in 2012. These projections correspond with the

thoughts of business leaders at several major welding-related companies surveyed for their views on what lies ahead for their industry. The Welding Journal asked them about expected business growth for next year, what areas are likely to see the most growth, where the new jobs will be created, concerns with government policies helping or hindering business growth, plans for capital expansion, and the future business climate. The following executives offered their predictions for next year: Andrew Masterman, president and CEO, ESAB North America, Florence, S.C.

Mike Weller, president, ITW Welding North America, Appleton, Wis. Gerald Leary, president, Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome, Arcade, N.Y. Jack Lenz, CEO and president, Miyachi Unitek Corp., Monrovia, Calif. Donald DeCorte, vice president, sales and marketing, RoMan Mfg., Inc., Grand Rapids, Mich. J. R. (Rusty) Franklin, vice president of sales and marketing, Sellstrom Mfg. Co., Palatine, Ill. The questions and their comments follow.

MARY RUTH JOHNSEN (mjohnsen@aws.org) is editor, and HOWARD WOODWARD (woodward@aws.org) and KRISTIN CAMPBELL (kcampbell@aws.org) are associate editors of the Welding Journal. 28 DECEMBER 2011

Andrew Masterman, president and CEO, ESAB North America

Mike Weller, president, ITW Welding North America

Gerald Leary, president, Koike Aronson, Inc./Ransome

Comparing your business activity in 2011, do you project it will stay the same, grow, or slow down next year? Why?
When asked these questions, a majority of the respondents expected business activity to grow in 2012. However, one indicated it would stay about the same while another anticipated a slowdown. Leary of Koike Aronson projects a 4.5% increase next year, which is on top of a more than 50% increase from 2010 to 2011. He also noted demand for the companys equipment from various worldwide markets will continue to be good. Incremental business increases are expected from its expanded waterjet cutting line, and the new portable cutting machines and automation added to its positioner product line. Also, the Koike company started a presence in Brazil this year to help increase business in that region. Weller saw improvements in the business environment strength on a global basis across all sectors and geographies since the market adjustment in 2008. He added companies within ITW Welding North America (Miller, Hobart Brothers, Tregaskiss, Bernard, Weldcraft, and MAXAL) that are experiencing growth consistent with that observation. We are cautiously optimistic about the ongoing strength of this economy; and as it continues to grow, so will we to anticipate and meet the demand, Weller said. Masterman mentioned in 2011, ESAB was still seeing some rebound effects from

the downturn of the past couple years, but its distributor base and direct accounts are showing continuing signs of strength. What the company is seeing now does not indicate a downturn for next year.

Is there a particular area of your business you see growing in 2012? Why?
Responses to which areas of their businesses might grow varied not only in market segments but also in location from the United States to overseas. Lenz of Miyachi Unitek noted electric vehicles and solar panels. So long as governments are providing business incentives, they will remain hot, Lenz said. He thinks the hot geographic markets include Brazil, Russia, India, and China. Masterman sees ESAB growth in many areas of the North American market. The company will be importing less and producing more products domestically as its new Midway facility in Union County, S.C., will allow improvements to gas metal arc and submerged arc welding wire production. Weller pointed out many areas are strong, including energy-related industries, such as oil and gas; heavy-equipment manufacturing related to agriculture and mining; and rail, ship, and defense. A major focus for all ITW Welding North America companies moving forward is total system solutions to answer specific needs of each of these individual markets. DeCorte of RoMan Mfg. noted engineering consulting and welding lab work

services offer growth due to lack of inhouse expertise and downsizing. Automotive welding and tooling opportunities are still strong as well and look to stay that way for much of 2012. Additionally, Leary believes much of Koike Aronsons growth this year and next will be in export markets like Canada, South America, Mexico, Russia, and parts of the Middle East. Franklin sees international business growing because of new products Sellstrom Mfg. has developed.

Do you foresee creating more jobs in 2012? If yes, is it in a specific area of your business?
Based on current trends, some executives expressed optimism while others were guarded on what their companys hiring posture might be next year. Weller said ITW has been adding significant jobs at Miller and Hobart Brothers and expects to continue to invest in business development, welding and metallurgical engineers, and production employees. Weve also worked extensively with hiring college students, Weller said, and we will continue to staff up to meet our customers needs throughout 2012. Leary expects Koike Aronson to add about 10% more jobs in 2012 in electrical design, machining, and welding. We have openings now that we have found difficult to fill, Leary said. Franklin said from his perspective, he expects that job creation will be minimal at Sellstrom Mfg. WELDING JOURNAL 29

Jack Lenz, CEO and president, Miyachi Unitek Corp.

Donald DeCorte, vice president, sales and marketing, RoMan Mfg., Inc.

Rusty Franklin, vice president of sales and marketing, Sellstrom Mfg. Co.

Lenz of Miyachi Unitek expects to add more jobs in research and development projects, but he said it is likely that production requirements would be covered by increased overtime. Masterman said ESABs new Midway facility is creating 100 jobs immediately. It is also adding employees at Hanover and at its AlcoTec division. ESAB has a track record of hiring recent college and university graduates as well as working professionals, and we intend to keep recruiting the talent that is coming out of those schools, he said. DeCorte said RoMan Mfg. has no plans for hiring additional employees at this time.

Is there any present government policy (local, state, or federal) that you think helps or hinders business growth? Explain.
One respondent wants the federal government to kick-start fixing the nations infrastructure as a business stimulant. Cited were certain state laws that helped business growth and the environment in another state that forced a company to leave. Weller stressed the need for the federal government to address the nations worsening infrastructure problems from building new roads to repairing our crumbling bridges in order to stimulate business. Leary cited the effectiveness of the New York State Empire Zone program that offers significant tax incentives to 30 DECEMBER 2011

companies for expanding their businesses within their zones. On the other hand, New Yorks local, county, and state tax burdens make it difficult to recruit employees from outside the state. Franklin felt the current U.S. fiscal policy inhibits economic growth. Masterman emphasized the need to extend the wind tower tax credits, set to expire at the end of 2012, to keep that industry viable. State laws can be a game changer. He stated it became cost-prohibitive to repair a company facility in Ashtabula, Ohio, forcing the company to relocate to South Carolina where the business climate is more attractive. DeCorte said the climate in Michigan improved recently with the repeal of a business tax that removed additional financial burdens from the company.

Do you plan any capital improvements or have expansion plans for your company next year? If so, generally describe what it is.
Despite the sluggish economy, all of the respondents stated they are making capital improvements and/or have plans for expanding their businesses. We plan to add a lathe and new testing equipment to our existing plant, Leary of Koike Aronson said. We also plan to add another expansion of 40,000 to 100,000 square feet of office and manufacturing space. This expansion may take place next year if business grows beyond the 4.5% forecasted.

ESABs overall commitment is to invest in its North American facilities to meet the needs of its distributors and customers. Specifically, Masterman said, Our Midway facility will be operational in the first quarter of 2012, and we are already examining expansion potential there. Our Automated Process Center in Florence already contains more than $3 million worth of demonstration equipment, and we are committed to the continued investment into that center. Lenz said Miyachi Unitek has a program of continuing capital improvements, including facilities, tools, and equipment for the business. We are always looking for companies with which we can partner or acquire for business or technology expansion. ITW Welding North America made a point of investing in our facilities and operations even throughout the economic downturn so that we would be positioned to best serve the demand of our customers as things started to improve, Weller said. As that growth is occurring now, we will continue to make capital improvements throughout all sectors of our business in 2012 and beyond. We will also continue to explore growth via acquisition and industry partnerships on a global level.

Do you have any comments on how you feel the business climate will be in the future?
The respondents answers to this question varied widely. While some provided information on business in general, oth-

ers answered more specifically to the manufacturing sector they serve. Following are their comments. It seems that business cycles are accelerating so that there will be one full up and down cycle every four to five years, Lenz said. Thus, companies must be cautious in overextending financial resources, as the next down cycle will come sooner than expected. Franklin listed four things that must happen before the United States will see stable economic growth: Employment must grow. The only area where this can have dramatic results is in construction. We need to see a recovery in this area. Banks must relax their very strict credit policies for medium and small businesses. Currently, working capital and capital to grow are not readily available to this segment. United States develops some meaningful debt resolution plan. European debt crises need to have a resolution plan. Learys comments reflected the mood of Franklins thoughts. Unless the cost to do business in the U.S. is lessened significantly, the best we can hope for are small single-digit increases over the next few years, he said. The corporate tax

burden and other costs such as health care have to be reduced or we are going to continue to lose manufacturing business to countries like China, India, and Vietnam. DeCorte expects 2012 to be more stable (flatter) than 2011, which showed consistent growth for RoMan Mfg. Thus far, he said, world economic conditions dont seem to be hurting his companys specific industry, but he believes they could have a negative effect later in the year. We are heavily auto influenced and the car OEMs are still in a catch-up mode from 08 and 09, and are still being driven to develop new, more fuel-efficient models at a very rapid pace. For that reason, DeCorte sees even greater use of aluminum in the auto industry. This is driven from new caf (mpg) standards and the major car companies are moving faster than ever to drive out weight, he said. Aluminum is not new to the auto industry, but in the past was considered a luxury metal due to cost and processing. (It) looks to become more of a mainstream material due to necessity. Masterman expects steady, modest growth in 2012. I base this on not only the macroeconomic indicators, but also on discussions with customers and distributors. We believe (ESAB) will see continued activity in mining, railcar production,

and shipbuilding, to name a few. The stable economic and manufacturing activity in the U.S. provides us with a level of confidence that 2012 will bring slightly improving trends over 2011, he continued. Beyond 2012 who knows? Theres nothing to indicate right now whether 2013 will be better or worse, but were confident well see steady growth in 2012. Were cautious, but were investing in North America because we believe it is an attractive market with strong business fundamentals in the welding industry. Weller stated that no matter the economic climate, ITW Welding North America whether it is equipment, guns, filler metals, or full system solutions is focused on earning our customers business and to be the easiest company to do business with every day. He added, We will continue to make significant investments in our business to properly position us to be competitive and to be the partner of choice. While the business climate is a big part of that, we know that we cannot slow the pace of innovation because a company may not be ready to buy a piece of equipment today. Well continue to push forward with an eye on how the economy is affecting our customers, but will not allow it to slow our development of products and solutions.

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Using Thermal Spray Coatings for Corrosion Control

Electric arc spraying of a windmill bearing with zinc. BY FRED VAN RODIJNEN

The number of applications and amount of surface area to which thermal spray is applied continue to increase because of its reliable, maintenance-free features
The thermal spray process has been in use for more than 100 years in various industries. One of the oldest applications is for corrosion protection. In fact, thermal spray has been used for corrosion protection since its invention by M. U. Schoop at the beginning of the 20th century. Corrosion severely threatens steel structures in all types of environments, including those in urban, rural, industrial, and marine environments, and in atmospheric, submerged, and insulated conditions. American industries suffer $275 billion/year in corrosion-related costs. Thermally sprayed coatings of zinc, zinc alloys, aluminum, and aluminum alloys are currently the most popular materials used for active corrosion protection of steel and concrete Fig. 1. The simplest thermal spray processes combustion wire spray and electric arc wire spray are used to apply these coatings. In the oil and gas exploration and production industries, corrosion protection applications using these technologies have evolved since the early 1960s. Thermal spray technology has successfully been used to protect steel-based materials from corrosion in many different applications such as bridges, water pipelines, oil and gas drilling and production platforms, steel structures for buildings, and many more. The most used coating materials for urban environments are zinc and zinc alloyed with 15% aluminum (Zn15Al). Thermal spray technology has applied millions of pounds of these materials to protect steel structures. They offer a coating lifespan of greater than 20 years. The most used material in the oil and gas industry is thermally sprayed aluminum (TSA), which is also used to protect steel structures and pipes in marine environments. Thermally sprayed aluminum coatings, with a lifetime of 25 to 30 years, require no maintenance except for cosmetic reasons when painted. The maximum service temperature of TSA can be as high as 930F (500C). Although thermal spray is an older process, the number of applications and the surface area to which it is applied is still increasing resulting from its maintenance-free and reliable active corrosion protection features. it from further attack. It is recommended for use in several environments. The corrosion loss and thus the lifetime of a thermally sprayed protective coating depends on the reactivity of the zinc or aluminum in the corrosive medium Fig. 2. Zinc is especially resistant in alkaline and weak acidic media with a pH between 6 and 12. Aluminum, on the other hand, is resistant in weak alkaline and acidic media with a pH of between 2 and 10. Corrosion tests have shown that spraying zinc-aluminum alloys results in improved resistance compared with pure zinc or pure aluminum. In particular, the widely used Alloy Zn15Al is more resistant in salt spray tests, the dipping and standing test in NaCl solution, and the Kesternich test in a SO2-rich atmosphere. Zinc coatings are recommended for use in the 612 pH range and are much more resistant to hard than to soft water. However, zinc coatings offer poor resistance to almost all organic and inorganic acids, and in any aqueous environment above 140F (60C). For exposure to acidic conditions, soft water or hot water, aluminum coatings are the better choice. For corrosion protection applications in naval, onshore, submerged, and atmospheric environments, thermally sprayed coatings of zinc, zinc alloys, aluminum,

Protection against Atmospheric and Submerged Corrosion

Aluminum and zinc coatings are anodic to steel; protecting the steel as a large sacrificial anode. The aluminum coating tends to form an oxide film that protects

FRED VAN RODIJNEN (Fred.vanRodijnen@sulzer.com) is with Sulzer Metco Europe GmbH, Hattersheim, Germany. Based on a paper presented at the AWS Thermal Spray Technology: High-Performance Surfaces Conference held November 3, 2010, during FABTECH in Atlanta, Ga. 32 DECEMBER 2011

Fig. 1 Zinc-coated steel fence.

and aluminum alloys are currently the most popular choices for active corrosion protection of steel and concrete. In Annex B of the Norm, DIN EN ISO 2063, Thermal Spraying of Metallic and Other Inorganic Coatings (Table 1), we can find the advised coatings for different environments, as well as the recommended coating thickness for thermal spray coatings with and without a paint overcoat. The previously mentioned coatings are

typically applied with the combustion wire or electric arc wire spray technologies. Both technologies are flexible and can be used independently of the dimension of the construction to be coated. The thermal spray equipment is mobile and can be transported to the site of the structures to be coated Fig. 3. This is a big advantage compared to other technologies such as hot dip galvanizing, where the part must be transported to the zinc bath and is lim-

ited in dimension by the bath dimensions. Unlike a hot dip galvanized zinc coating, where a chemical treatment is necessary to achieve good adhesion to a paint system, the sandpaper-like surface and the microporosity of a thermal sprayed coating of zinc or aluminum is a perfectly prepared base for paint. Another advantage is that thermal sprayed coatings do not have a cure time as do many organic coatings; they are solid instantaneously and

Table 1 Recommendations for Use of Anticorrosion Coatings Recommended Minimum Thickness for Various Applications

Environment

Environment Class per EN ISO 12944-2 Im2 Im3 C2 and C3 C4 and C5-I C5-M C1

Zinc Unpainted Painted N.R.(a) 200 100 N.R.(a) 150 50 100 100 50 100 100 50

Coating Thickness (m) Aluminum Al5Mg Unpainted Painted Unpainted Painted 200 200 150 200 200 100 150 150 100 100 100 100 250(b) 150 150 200 250(b) 100 200(b) 100 100 100 200(b) 100

Zn15Al Unpainted Painted N.R.(a) 150 100 150 150 50 100 100 50 100 100 50

Saltwater Fresh water Urban environment Industrial environment Marine atmosphere Dry indoor environment
(a) N.R.=Not recommended (b) Offshore application

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Fig. 2 Effect of pH value on corrosion of Zn and Al.

Fig. 3 Zinc-coated potable water pipes. Advantages of thermal spray include that the equipment can be transported to the part to be coated and parts to be coated arent restricted to certain sizes. Although a family of related technologies, each thermal spray process brings distinct advantages. This provides a high degree of flexibility to meet a wide array of application and production requirements. These processes include the following: Atmospheric plasma spray Controlled atmosphere plasma spray HVOF (high velocity oxyfuel) spray, using either gas or liquid as the combustion fuel Combustion powder spray Combustion wire spray Electric arc wire spray This article concentrates on coating applications to protect against environmental and submerged corrosion.

Fig. 4 Thermal spray principle.

Thermal Spray Processes for Corrosion Control

Combustion Wire Spray Process
The combustion wire spray process, as shown in Fig. 5, employs a set of drive rolls powered by an air turbine or an electric motor to draw a metallic wire through the combustion wire spray gun. At the gun nozzle, a fuel gas of acetylene, propane, propylene, hydrogen, or MAPP is mixed with oxygen in precise volumetric proportions using a siphon plug and ignited to create a flame. The flame is then shaped by the guns air cap using compressed air. The metal wire is fed concentrically into the flame, melted and atomized by the compressed air, then the molten droplets are propelled toward a prepared surface where they solidify and bond to the substrate to form a coating. Figure 6 shows the combustion wire spray process for corrosion prevention on a gas transportation pipe.

Fig. 5 Combustion wire spray principle. can be transported immediately after coating application. An additional advantage over organic coatings is that thermal sprayed coatings do not expose the environment to volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The coating material may be a pure metal, an alloy, or a compound with unique physical properties that are, in most cases, achievable only through the thermal spray process. Thermal spray coatings are a highly cost-effective and straightforward method for adding superior properties and performance qualities to a given engineered surface. The varieties of products and coatings that thermal spray can enhance are virtually limitless, as are the types of coatings that can be produced. The coatings are usually metallic, ceramic, carbides, or a combination of these materials to meet a range of physical criteria.

Thermal Spray Technology

As shown in Fig. 4, thermal spray involves the use of a torch to heat a material, in powder or wire form, to a molten or near-molten state and the use of a gas to propel the material to the target substrate, creating a completely new surface. 34 DECEMBER 2011

Fig. 6 Combustion wire spraying of aluminum on a gas pipeline.

Fig. 7 Electric arc wire spray principle.

Arc Wire Spray Process

The electric arc wire spray process uses two metallic wires, usually of the same composition, as the coating feedstock. The two wires are electrically charged with opposing polarity and are fed into the arc gun at matched, controlled speeds. When the wires are brought together at the contact point, the opposing polarities on the wires create enough heat to melt the tips of the wires continuously. Compressed air is used to atomize the now molten material and accelerate it onto the workpiece surface to form the coating. The principles of the electric arc wire spray processes are shown in Fig. 7. Figure 8 shows an application where the electric arc wire spray process is used on parts from a windmill (see lead photo).

pected coating life exceeding 19 years. We have now more than 80 years experience with thermal sprayed, active metallic coatings, and this experience clearly demonstrates that these coatings provide excellent reliability for corrosion protection.

Thermally Sprayed Coatings in the Oil and Gas Industry

The first applications in the oil and gas industry date back to the latter half of the last century. It started with critical and difficult-toaccess parts on drilling and Fig. 8 Electric arc spraying of a windmill blade hub with exploration platforms such zinc. as flair booms. In the 1980s, other components like riser pipes joined the list of apsults in high life-cycle maintenance costs; plications. By the 1990s, complete steel especially when removal and replacement structures, such as offshore platforms, were of insulation is required. coated with aluminum. For the European The typical lifetime of a TSA coating offshore industry alone, structures exceedis 25 to 30 years (Ref. 3). This life can be ing 5,400,000 sq ft (500,000 sq m) of steel extended by increasing the coating thicksurface area have been coated with TSA. ness or adding a coating of paint on top Companies like Shell and Statoil include of the metalized coating. The thermally thermal spray coatings in their standard sprayed coating requires no maintenance specifications. Also, in the 1990s, the petrothroughout its entire life, although a chemical industry found TSA to be a solupainted top coat may require maintenance tion for the widespread maintenance probfor cosmetic reasons. Over the last 15 lem of corrosion under insulation (CUI). years, the global application of TSA coatBefore this time, TSA coatings for petroings for corrosion protection has inchemical applications were confined to vescreased exponentially on all types of strucsels in high-temperature, cyclic service. tures bridges, platforms, pipelines, etc. Fitzgerald et al. (Ref. 2) cited that CUI While TSA coatings are typically more exin piping systems consume 60 to 80% of pensive to apply then conventional paints, the piping maintenance budget and actheir total life cycle costs are far less becounts for 80% of the leaks that occur in cause of their longer, maintenance-free, the piping. Cyclic services that operate at and more reliable service life. both elevated temperatures (> 450F) and For environmental, safety, and cost reain the CUI range of 25250F have been sons, the battle against corrosion in the oil the most challenging to protect with conand gas industry will increase the number ventional paint systems. Conventional of applications for aluminum and zinc coatpaint systems have a limited life that re-

Combustion and Electric Arc Wire Spray Technology

The combustion wire spray process for anticorrosion applications is a flexible and manual process for on-site application on small- to average-size surface areas. The electric arc wire spray process is available in system configurations for manual or automated application. This process is used for in-shop application, on average, to large surface areas. The coating spray rate in automated application can be up to eight times the rate of combustion wire spray.

Corrosion Protection Applications

History of Thermally Sprayed Coatings
The first corrosion tests on thermal sprayed aluminum and zinc coatings were conducted in 1953. Reports (Ref. 1) describe the results after 19 and 34 years of exposure. The results reflected an ex-

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Thermally sprayed coatings of zinc, aluminum, and their alloys are the most popular materials for corrosion protection of steel and concrete.
ings. The following are the biggest advantages over conventional organic coatings: Longer life expectancy with minimal requirements for maintenance and inspection means lower life cycle costs. Resistance to mechanical damage. Greater range of temperature resistance than organic coatings 148 to 932F (100 to 500C). Provides sacrificial protection to steels in aqueous environments. A less expected application is that of zinc or Zn15Al for corrosion protection of steel

rebar in concrete structures. Corrosion of steel-reinforced concrete as a result of chloride ion intrusion from seawater affects many structures located in marine environments. This is also the case for inland structures affected by seasonal chloride loading (e.g., because of road-salting during the winter). Thermal sprayed zinc anodes were first investigated for use on concrete in the USA in 1983 (Ref. 4). In principle, zinc can be used in two different cathodic protection systems as a sacrificial anode and as an electrode in an impressed current system. It is an interesting field of application that surely will find entrance in the oil and gas industry.

coatings to large structures on site, immediate usability after coating, and reduced environmental impact. Its long service life, low maintenance requirements, and reliable corrosion protection characteristics make thermal spray a very attractive solution for a large number of corrosion-protection applications. References 1. Corrosion Tests of Flame-Sprayed Coated Steel 19-Year Report. 1974. Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society. 2. Fitzgerald, B. J., Lazar, P. III, and Winnik, S. 2003. ExxonMobil Chemical Co., Strategies to Prevent Corrosion Under Insulation in Petrochemical Industry Piping, NACE International Corrosion 2003 Conference, Houston, Tex. 3. Kay, B. 2006. ExxonMobil Chemical Co., Updated Protective Coating Costs, Products and Service Life, NACE International Corrosion 2006 Conference, San Diego, Calif. 4. Tinnea, J. S. 1998. Field of Performance of Sprayed Zinc Cathodic Protection Anodes, Proceedings of the 15th International Thermal Spray Conference.

Conclusion
Although thermal spray processes have been available for approximately a century, their use in environmental and submerged anticorrosion applications is still increasing in both the number of applications and the total surface area of applied coating per annum. Thermal spray processes offer some distinct advantages over other anticorrosion processes, such as the ability to apply

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Manufacturing Outlook for 2012

A positive forecast is predicted in the manufacturing industry due to apprenticeship programs, green growth, and military transitions
Welders are needed in the United States, especially considering most are in their mid-50s with a significant portion 60 years old or older.

BY DON JOHNSON

The face of manufacturing in the United States is set for a renaissance. The most recent Institute for Supply Management Report On Business states the manufacturing sector has grown for 26th consecutive months. One factor driving this rebound is the shift of manufacturing jobs back to the United States from abroad. All signs point toward a healthy next year despite one huge hurdle looming on the horizon a scarcity of qualified workers to fill open positions on factory floors. The number of talented employees retiring from the workforce in the next five years is higher than the number of individuals entering manufacturing straight out of high schools, trade schools, or colleges.

dead-end assembly line profession. The neglect is fueling a shortage of welders, machinists, and manufacturing technicians. According to the American Welding Society, the shortage of welders in the United States is at a critical stage. It is estimated there are approximately 500,000 welders in the United States and an ongoing need for 200,000 additional welders. With the elimination of apprentice programs that were in vogue 20 years ago, the odds of filling this demand do not appear to be in the cards any time soon. The base of welders currently employed who are nearing retirement age exacerbates the problem even more. A close look at the graying demographics of welders reveals that most are in their mid-50s with a significant portion 60 years old or older.

tives, the skilled labor shortage is going to cost more than initially thought. The survey revealed that the costs associated with the shortage will equal $100 million over the next five years. Costs will come from recruiting, training, and, at worst, quality issues due to inexperienced workers and mistakes. There is a push and pull on these costs. Current economy demands a slimmed down budget, but investments in the future are required. This cognitive dissonance is shown by the survey, which reported more than 60% of the executives stated initiating robust training programs is the key to manufacturings future, but conversely, those who were polled also had training budgets set at a meager 1 to 5%.

Bringing Attention to the Need for Welders

As evidenced, the industrial skilled trades in the United States are suffering from neglect. This stems from many avenues, including high school counselors who encourage unmotivated students to take college-bound classes; parents who only assign career validity to white collar jobs; and, most significantly, the skilled trades suffer from the outdated image of manufacturing as a low-paying, dirty, and

Where Can We Go from Here?

Welders cannot be recruited from other manufacturing industry subsets as welders are not the only skilled workers in short supply. The numbers of maintenance technicians, tool and die professionals, and production workers are also shrinking at alarming rates. According to a recent survey by the Nielsen Co. of 100 manufacturing execu-

Why the Lack of Interest in Welding or Skilled Trades in General?

This disinterest in skilled trades is due to a seismic shift in the American culture that has taken place in the country since World War II. During the war years, America out produced every country on the planet, building for example, close to 20,000 B-24 heavy bombers. Everyone was engaged and working toward a common end.

DON JOHNSON (dkjohnso@advancedtech.com) is vice president of marketing, Advanced Technology Services, Inc., Peoria, Ill.

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After the war, the country enjoyed prosperity like never before. Tract housing made home ownership more affordable than ever. Shiny new cars graced the quickly developed subdivisions, and the birth of suburban middle-class values was established. A set of values was born that shined a spotlight on the pathway to college, and manufacturing took a backseat as a low-end career choice. Combining this with outsourced labor and offshore manufacturing facilities, U.S. skilled trades began to become an afterthought. This cultural shift has manifested itself in the prevailing perception that exists today success can only be achieved through white collar careers. However, dont close the books on manufacturing just yet. America is set for a rebound.

with skills such as welding. In addition, as it sees bellwether companies begin returning manufacturing to our shores, there is the need for a new kind of workforce on the cusp of a new year. With labor questions at the forefront, the companys three main predictions for 2012 include the following:

Transition of Military Personnel

Finally, it predicts military veterans will help fill the new demand for jobs that manufacturing has created. Due to the military culture of discipline, along with the ability to adapt quickly, manufacturers will embrace the thousands of military veterans returning from Iraq and Afghanistan with open arms. Advanced Technology Services actively recruits military veterans and currently has more than 30% former military in its employment ranks.

Apprenticeship Programs
It predicts apprenticeship programs will come back as companies set their training budgets higher to meet the demand. Also, it sees a renewed interest in high school basics and industrial arts, plus recruiting efforts starting at a younger age. The companys TinkerTronics program works with middle school children to identify kinesthetic children who learn best with their hands as well as their minds.

Conclusion
As the past is looked at to help us develop future solutions, business and innovation growth will be seen; traditional methods will meld with savvy strategy to address present market needs; and the manufacturing industry, especially welding, will undergo an organic restructuring with skilled workers at the front lines of endowing new generations with historically valuable skills. The end of 2012 will also see us with a stronger, greener, and more sustainable industry.

Focusing on Predictions for Next Year

Advanced Technology Services, Inc., Peoria, Ill., a company that provides maintenance services for some of the worlds most successful manufacturers, is seeing a significant return of activity and need for high-quality, high-tech professionals

Green Growth
Second, it predicts that the green movement will help change the image of manufacturing as an environmentally friendly industry. More executives will start paying attention to the effect their decisions have on the environment.

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Register today.

the world of brazing and soldering.

ASM International and the American Welding Society again team to organize this four-day technical event. Recognized by industry professionals as the worlds premier event for the brazing and soldering community, IBSC brings together scientists and engineers from around the world who are involved in the research, development, and application of brazing and soldering. Hear renown speakers like Dr. Steven Liu and Eric Slezak Connect with colleagues during professional seminars on Sunday Bond with industry leaders, customers and friends at Monday evenings welcome reception and Tuesday nights poolside Viva Las Vegas social

Exposition and Sponsorship

The IBSC Exposition provides exhibitors with a forum to showcase the latest trends, products, processes and techniques in the industry. Traditional and custom exposition and sponsorship opportunities are available. Secure your exhibit space today! Visit www.asminternational.org/ibsc for the latest conference information and registration.

Be part of the future of brazing and soldering technology. Plan to attend IBSC 2012. Register today.

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Incorporating Thermal Spray into Fabrication

Thermal spray has the ability to mix materials, making the process useful for shielding, bonding, building, decorating, and containment applications. Pictured in action is a Hipojet-2700 high-velocity oxyfuel gun used on a piston rod.

BY RICHARD S. BRUNHOUSE, PETER FOY, AND DALE R. MOODY

Outlined are the standard methods and basic procedures for starting a thermal spray operation
One definition of fabrication is to construct by combining or assembling diverse, typically standardized parts. A coating, especially one applied using thermal spray, is generally not considered a standardized part. Some may question having thermal spray included in the normal fabrication process. However, it has advanced from a specialized, unregulated process to one that is standardized and able to be integrated into a fabrication shop (see lead photo). surface of a part. Restoration was primarily achieved with a flame spray gun using powder or wire feed. With the ability to mix materials, thermal spray found applications in shielding, and protecting substrates from corrosion, erosion, temperature, and electrical noise. Additional applications include hardfacing drill bits, thermal barrier coatings on turbine blades, copper coatings for electronic enclosures, tungsten-carbide coatings on hydroelectric turbines, and Teflon coatings on frying pans. This was augmented with bonding by applying a coating of material that would provide a bond between two different materials. Included in the group are coatings to bond a second coating such as tungstencarbide to a base metal and special coatings such as Hydroxylapatite (HA) for bonding a prosthesis to bone. More recently, thermal spray has been used for building. In this case, multiple passes of a thermal spray gun over a mold has been used to construct a form used in injection molding of plastic parts. The ability to install cooling passages into a mold is one benefit of building molds using thermal spray. Also, thermal spray is used by artists for decorating, providing a wide range of colors and textures. In one last function, thermal spray has been used for containment. A thermal spray vitrification process was developed in which molten glass is sprayed on a leadbased coating. The glass encapsulates the paint and, because of the thermal stresses, falls off upon cooling. The collected waste is vitrified so that it can be disposed of as nonhazardous waste or recycled into value-added products. No containment

What Can Thermal Spray Do for a Fabricator?

Think in terms of function. Initially, thermal spray operations concentrated on restoring by applying like material on like material to restore the worn or corroded

RICHARD S. BRUNHOUSE, PETER FOY, and DALE R. MOODY (DaleRMoody@aol.com) are with Plasma Powders and Systems, Inc., Marlboro, N.J.

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structure is required as there are no hazardous effluents produced by this process.

Why Is Thermal Spray Now Reasonable for a Fabrication Operation?

Maturity
Initially, thermal spray was like a teenager; exciting but sometimes not fully responsible. Early guns needed to be test fired and recalibrated when any change was made. Many operators had their own spray boundaries and mistrusted published parameters from material suppliers. Workpiece manipulators were modified decommissioned lathes, and gun controllers were adapted from garage-door openers. It was a tough industry to get your arms around. Now, with maturity, many improvements have been made. Standardized precision parts make it possible to rebuild and change guns without having to recalibrate each time. Many coating materials are provided with proven parameters that work and accomplish the desired function. Turntables and lathes designed for the thermal spray industry are available as are many reliable, reasonably priced, and easily used articulated robots.

Fig. 1 To produce coatings, high-velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) spraying uses more kinetic energy and less thermal energy. Shown is a Hipojet-2700 HVOF gun. the International Thermal Spray Association (ITSA). Many of the papers may be beyond the interest of a user starting to learn about thermal spray, but these meetings can provide a sense as to the industrys direction and new products. Attending trade shows such as FABTECH where activities tend to be more toward the application as opposed to theory. This is also an area where you can become familiar with ancillary processes that may be required, such as grit blasting and grinding. your operations? 3. Does the supplier have or have access to facilities that can be used for trial runs and development? 4. Does the supplier have a track record of being able to support customer equipment and material needs on a timely basis? 5. Does your supplier have access to a thermal spray shop that can serve as backup in case problems are encountered with spray operations?

Certification Offered
Also, ASM Intl. has developed a certification training program for the thermal spray industry (http://tss.asminternational.org/portal/site/tss/Certification/ ). Through this program, it is possible for new users to have some comfort when hiring thermal spray operators.

Selection Resources
Potential suppliers should be auditioned to find the best fit for your developing operation. Oftentimes, we might think of the large organization with international representation. A problem is often encountered here. Large suppliers to the thermal spray industry often adopt a business model that concentrates on the multimillion dollar customers such as large aerospace and power-generation firms, a smart business move by the large suppliers but a disadvantage to the fabrication house. The new and small shops often find that they cannot get the attention needed. Key points that a new thermal spray user should look for in a supplier are as follows: 1. Does the supplier have knowledge and experience in the specific thermal spray technology of interest (industrial, medical, or aerospace)? 2. Does the supplier have representation reasonably close in order to support Which thermal spray process can provide the desired function? Discussions with your supplier can help direct this. Thermal spray operations fall into one of two large categories combustion and electric. Under combustion processes, flame spraying, either powder or wire, and HVOF are found. With flame spraying, the flame can be adjusted for oxidizing, reducing, or neutral conditions. For wire flame spraying, materials include steel, aluminum, zinc, and copper. These systems are cheaper than arc systems and are also more portable. Powder flame spray has a wider selection of materials. The guns are lighter because a wire drive is not needed. However, the application rates are lower than for wire flame operations. The HVOF process uses more kinetic energy and less thermal energy to produce coatings Fig. 1. The coatings are dense and ideal for erosion protection. A fourth combustion process is the DWELDING JOURNAL 41

What Procedure Should Be Followed?

Familiarization
First, become familiar with the industry. A day or two on the Internet should provide ample information on any aspect of this industry. Important keywords to look up on a search engine include thermal spray, flame spray, arc spray, wire arc, plasma spray, cold spray, and high-velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) spraying. The information is certainly at your fingertips.

Connections
Become acquainted with the movers of the industry. Avenues to achieve this include the following: Attending and participating in technical meetings, such as those organized by

Thermal spraying helps fabricators perform the functions listed below. Restoring Shielding Bonding Building Decorating Containment

Five steps fabricators may use as a guideline for exploring the thermal spray field are as follows: 1. Familiarize yourself with the industry via an Internet search 2. Make contacts through technical meetings and trade shows 3. Use resources, which could include potential suppliers 4. Select the correct process depending on if whether it is a combustion orelectric operation 5. Evaluate equipment, installation, and manpower costs.

gun (detonation spraying). Here, a combustible mixture is pulse detonated by a spark in a chamber providing a pulsing action that heats and propels the feed stock. Electric thermal spraying processes include arc and plasma spraying. In wire arc spraying, spray rates tend to be higher and energy costs lower. The higher application temperatures associated with wire arc spraying makes this technique popular for applying corrosion protection. For high temperatures, plasma spraying is often the chosen process. A pressurized inert gas passing through an arc becomes a plasma gas used for both the heating and transfer of the powder being fed. There are variations on some of the processes, such as where the atmospheric pressure of the spray chamber is reduced and also chemically altered. These are specialized and generally not selected for a fabrication operation.

Cost Considerations
A qualified supplier should be able to assist with a cost/benefit analysis. Costs that need to be evaluated include the following: 1. Price of the basic equipment. This is the point at which many start. A thermal spray operation for a first-time user could start with a hand-held gas gun for outside use, for example, with bridge structures. However, it would not be unreasonable to consider an integrated internal facility consisting of a spray system, acoustical room, dust collector, turntable, and robot. 2. Price of the ancillary equipment. This includes any equipment that may be required but is not presently available in the shop. It may include a grit blast system, masking station, and grinding tool or polisher. 3. Cost of installation. This can be significant, especially if permits are required. One rule-of-thumb is to estimate the installation cost as 30% of the equipment cost. 4. Area for installation. What is the anticipated footprint? This needs to include an area for staging parts into and out of the spray operation. 5. Cost of manpower. As mentioned earlier, ASM certification has made this step easier. Included is training on how the spray units, manipulators, and dust collectors operate. 6. A cost/benefit analysis based on a projected production. For this, you would need to have a good anticipation of what is required now and in the immediate future.

Evaluation
Having selected the process of choice, the next step is to determine the cost, at least on a budget basis. This is more than the price of equipment. Fabricators need to be modest with their initial vision. A number of possibilities have never come to fruition because a goal of putting in a fully automated line far exceeded any benefit that would be realized. In one case, a power plant owner wanted to achieve self sufficiency with respect to gas turbine maintenance. The assumption was that one could buy a turnkey operation, train workers, and be in business coating turbine parts. However, it was unrealistic and never came to fruition. It would have been best to start modestly with spraying only stationary parts before taking on the more demanding rotation parts where a set of turbine blades can have a value as high as $5 million. A shop looking to invest in thermal spray may already have a good start in meeting that objective. If a welding operation already exists, there probably is a familiarity with containing radiation, contamination, noise, and fumes along with material accountability and disposal regulations.
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Conclusion
Using a well-structured analysis, fabricators should be able to prove the benefits of introducing thermal spray into their operations and be confident in the process selected.

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Update on Digital Invertor Technology in China

BY GUANGXIAN ZHANG
base current. The rate of rise of the pulse current can reach 100 A/100 s, which can adjust the current and voltage fast enough to meet the requirements of the welding process. The working methods of power devices include the hard switch and the soft switch. By contrast, the soft switch method eliminates the switch stress with high reliability. In Chinas domestic market, taking the Aotai brand for example, the conversion current and shunt capacitor with the leading leg is applied to form a new phase shift soft switch topology with the realization of the soft switch in full load scope, which increases the electric energy conversion efficiency to improve the inverter power efficiency by 89%.

The advantages of digital welding machines are analyzed, and the development and application of the digital technology in the main control, and interface circuits are examined
Since the economic reform in the early 1980s, Chinas national economy has undergone earth-shaking changes. Chinas steel output has reached 4 million tons, while 40 to 50% of steel construction relies on welding. In recent years, heavy welding users in China such as shipbuilding, automotive, building construction, petrochemical, transportation, and power generation equipment industries have progressed significantly, providing a good opportunity for the development of welding equipment. With the development of the power electronic technology, welding technology has experienced several developments, including transformer tap-type silicon rectifier welding machines, magnetic amplification rectifier machines, SCR rectifier welding, and inverter welding machines. Since the appearance of the inverter in the 1980s, it has been the focus of research and development because of its energy savings, lightweight material savings, and superior control performance. With the development of microcontroller (MCU) and digital signal processing (DSP) control technologies, the welding machine control technology transformed from analog control into digital control. It can control the drop transition precisely because of its high control accuracy and flexibility. The new digital welding power source with DSP control has become one of the major research fields worldwide.

Digital Control Technology and Application

For the digital welding machine, the core part of the control circuit is replaced by the digital technology and at the same time the control signal is changed from analog signal into 0/1-coded digital signal.

Digitization of the Control Circuit

Keep MCU, DSP, or FPGA as the core. According to welding technological requirements, build the digital control system, complete the welding data acquisition, and handle and test the welding process to control the arc precisely. The welding machine has many output features with multifunctions in one machine, a user-friendly interface, and a built-in expert system to realize welding with different materials and wire diameters.

The Digitization of Main Circuit

Inverter technology benefits from the digitization of the main circuit. The transition from analog welding machines to digital welding machines actually is the transition of the main circuit from analog to digital. In the digital main circuit, the machine works with the switch, which makes power consumption lower with the efficiency improved by 90%. The main circuit includes full-bridge circuit, half-bridge circuit, single-ended, and the chopped mode, and the combination of these types. Generally, we apply PWM control strategy in order to control the output power. The power switch mainly is IGBT with the inverter frequency of 20 kHz or higher. The minimum current can be up to 10 ~ 20 A under the control of

Typical Digital Control System

There are two stages in the development of the digital inverter welding machine. The first stage is represented by 80C51 or 80C196 MCU-controlled power source belonging to the period when digital welding machines were starting to develop. In the second stage, the application of MCU and DSP on the welding machine

GUANGXIAN ZHANG is with Shandong Aotai Electric Co., Ltd., Jinan, Shandong Province, China. This article is reprinted with permission from Modern Welding, published by Chengdu Only Welding Industry Development Co. Ltd., Chengdu, Sichuan Province, China. WELDING JOURNAL 43

trial University, have conducted extensive research. Shandong Aotai is representative of manufacturers that produce digital welding machines for wide use. The Three Gorges Project, West-East Gas Pipeline Project, aerospace engineering, marine engineering, petrochemical, container industry, moving car, and national large infrastructures projects have taken advantage of digital power source technology. Compared with foreign countries, the technology disparity has been narrowing in China Fig. 2.

Digital Interface
Fig. 1 Diagram of control system. makes it achieve full digital operation. Digital signal processing uses a microprocessor that is particularly suitable for DSP, mainly applied to quickly realize various DSP algorithms in real time. Not only can it solve the problem of an analog power source, but it also controls the transient process of the arc in microcosm. The DSP device has high-speed computing capabilities. Figure 1 shows a typical MCU + DSP dual-machine control system. In Fig. 1, the MCU deals with slow events in the welding circuit. It is responsible for exchanging data with each external module and transfers various data to DSP. At the same time, it processes all kinds of protection and logic signals in the hardware circuit and makes corresponding actions. DSP deals with high-speed events. It answers for controlling the stability of arc length and the waveform of various materials. It also has many functions such as the real-time control of welding processes and the realization of machine outside characteristics. It uses 485 communication modes between MCU and DSP, and improves the transmission rate as far as possible. a standard system are determined by the network hardware of resistance and capacitance. Therefore, it is very difficult to change once established, but in a digital control system, it is very easy to realize flexible control if changing software. Digital control makes the welding power have better stability. A standard control system is made up of many divided components such as resistance and capacitance. The parameters of analog components have certain precision and temperature drift. Digital control allows storage of welding data, which eases operation. With an expert system, numerous welding programs are stored in the computers database. The data contain much information such as welding method, material thickness, wire speed, welding current, and welding voltage. After the operator inputs several parameters, the best welding program can be determined. The network and welding automation can be realized through an interface with 485 communication modes, CAN (controller area network), and other fieldbus interfaces. It has the function of monitoring weld quality and online upgrading.

Automatic Welding Equipment

With the progress in science and technology, robots have gotten widespread application in day-to-day operations, and the industrial robot is the most useful. The Beckhoff bus communication controller is the communication standard used, and DeviceNet communication protocol is the highest level of national standard currently in use. A bus coupler can be used to connect electronic terminals to different fieldbus systems quickly and conveniently. It can also convert to another kind of fieldbus after a delay. A bus coupler can accomplish all the monitoring and control tasks that are required. DeviceNet defines a consistent application layer, which makes CAN agreement used for industry. DeviceNet, which is based on CAN, is an international standard (EN50325). It ensures all equipment that complies with the agreement will work in a system, no matter who manufactured the equipment.

Use of Digital Power Sources

With the mature development of digital welding machines, their growth in the market has been steady. Fronius, Lincoln, and other well-known manufacturers started early, and their technologies are mature. Domestic colleges in China, which are represented by Beijing Indus-

Advantages of Digital Control

Digital control makes the welding power source more flexible. The configurations of

Network Management System

Welding technology has been progressing over the years, but there is still room for improvement in process monitoring. Network monitoring of welding equipment (Fig. 3) can solve the problem. The system contains two kinds of hardware: the computer and welding machine. They usually transmit data by using RS-232, RS485, USB, CAN, and Ethernet. This system establishes the welding standard such as the real-time monitoring, the data real-time view, the data recording, the statistics, and other tasks. Finally, the system reduces administrative and management workload, improves product quality, and reduces cost.

Fig. 2 Digital power sources in use in manufacturing facilities in China.

44

DECEMBER 2011

Fig. 3 System structure.

Fig. 4 Inverter power source integrated with robot controller. trol of the welding arc. Digitization of the control circuit provides a flexible and fast control system to realize self-adaption adjustments according to different welding processes in real-time. This fast reaction to the welding arc and real-time adjustments contribute to the wide use of digital welding machines in a variety of industries. Digital interface and network management systems provide the capabilities to automate welding equipment, especially in robotic applications. This improves efficiency and reduces costs, leading to increased interest in digital welding machines and the spread of their use in the future. Works Consulted 1. Zhang, G. 2008. Inverter welder control principle. Machinery Industry Press, China. 2. Shuyan Yin, S. 2008. Digital Welder. Beijing University of Technology.

Meeting the Specific Requirements of the Welding Process

The requirements of different welding processes put a performance demand on digital welding machines. Research is being conducted to address different welding processes and develop specialized modules that can be used to produce new digital welding machines. For example, research is being conducted to meet the demands of high-speed welding, the welding of dissimilar metals, no-spatter short circuiting transfer, and twin-wire gas metal arc welding with low heat input to reduce deformation.

Multifunctions
With the development of digital control technology, the welding machine is no longer a simple source of power. It provides a digital operating system platform; multifeature adaptation and adjustment; wire drive with external connector; selfadjustment of welding parameters; process stability, real-time evaluation, protection, and diagnosis; and remote network monitoring, as well as other functions.

Integration with Robots

With the large amount of data communication capability, a robot can be integrated with the welding power source (Fig. 4), making it possible to integrate the control panel of the welding machine with the robot operating panel to take care of all the functions. With this integration, a robotic welding system can operate easier with improved response speed and weld joint quality.

Conclusion
The digitization of the main circuit provides the technical basis for rapid conFor info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

WELDING JOURNAL

45

COMING EVENTS

NOTE: A DIAMOND ( ) DENOTES AN AWS-SPONSORED EVENT.

Tube 2012, Intl Tube and Pipe Trade Fair. March 2630. The Fairgrounds, Dsseldorf, Germany. To exhibit in the North American Pavilion, contact Messe Dsseldorf North America, (312) 7815180; FAX (312) 781-5188; www.mdna.com. Japan Intl Welding Show 2012. April 1114. Intex Osaka, Osaka, Japan. Sponsored by The Japan Welding Engineering Society and Sanpo Publications, Inc. Visit www.weldingshow.jp/english/.

Fray Intl Symposium on Metals and Materials Processing in a Clean Environment. Dec. 47. Hilton Cancn Golf & Spa Resort, Cancn, Mexico. Sponsored by American Welding Society and other organizations; www.flogen.com/FraySymposium, or contact Florian Kongoli, chairman, fkongoli@flogen.com. Power-Gen Intl. Dec. 1315. Las Vegas Convention Center, Las Vegas, Nev.; (888) 299-8016; www.power-gen.com/index.html. SSPC 2012 Greencoat. Jan. 30Feb. 2. Tampa Convention Center, Tampa, Fla. The Protective Coatings Society. Toll-free U.S. (877) 281-7772; (412) 281-2331; www.sspc.org/events. 14th Middle East Corrosion Conf. and Exhibition. Feb. 1215. Gulf Intl Convention Center, Gulf Hotel, Kingdom of Bahrain. Sponsored by Bahrain Society of Engineers; www.mecconline.org. The Manufacturing Expo. Feb. 14, 15. The Galleria, Cleveland, Ohio. Sponsored by The Manufacturing Mart and Penton Media. (216) 470-3969; www.themanufacturingmart.com.

5th Intl Brazing and Soldering Conf. April 2225. Red Rock
Casino Resort Spa, Las Vegas, Nev. A joint activity of the American Welding Society and ASM International, it will bring together scientists and engineers from around the world who are involved in the research, development, and application of brazing and soldering. www.asminternational.org/IBSC. 9th Intl Laser Technology Congress AKL 12. May 911. Aachen, Germany. www.lasercongress.org. Intl Tube and Pipe Trade Fair and Aluminum/Non-Ferrous Trade Fair. May 2831. ZAO Expocenter, Moscow, Russia. Organized by Messe Dsseldorf Moscow and Metal-Expo. Contact Messe Dsseldorf North America, (312) 781-5180, www.mdna.com. Optimizing Operations through Continuous Improvement Conf. June 2628. Loews Vanderbilt Hotel, Nashville, Tenn. Sponsored by Tube & Pipe Assn., Intl; UK-based Intl Tube Assn.; and Fabricators & Manufacturers Assn., Intl; www.pipetubeconf.com/ nashville.

FABTECH Canada 2012. March 2022. Toronto Congress Centre, Toronto, Ont., Canada. Sponsored by the American Welding Society, Society of Manufacturing Engineers, and Fabricators & Manufacturers Association, Intl. A one-stop venue for welding, lasers, fabricating, metalforming, and other technologies tailored to the needs of Canadian manufacturing industries. Visit www.fabtechcanada.com; show updates will be posted on Twitter and LinkedIn.

Weld Test Stand

The Weld Test Stand allows for quick, secure clamping and positioning of pipe or plate test assemblies.

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46

DECEMBER 2011

 65th Annual Assembly of the International Institute of Welding

(IIW). July 813. Hyatt Regency Hotel Denver and Colorado Convention Center, Denver, Colo. Sponsored by the American Welding Society, Edison Welding Institute, and Welding Research Council. Featured will be an international conference on Welding for Repair and Life Extension of Plants and Infrastructure. Visit www.iiw2012.com. IMTS 2012, Intl Manufacturing Technology Show. Sept. 1015. McCormick Place, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by the Association for Manufacturing Technology; www.IMTS.com. 6th Intl Quenching and Control of Distortion Conf. Sept. 1013. Radisson Blu Aqua Hotel, Chicago, Ill. Sponsored by the Heat Treating Society of ASM International; www.asminternational.org/ content/Events/qcd/. 2nd Intl Welding and Joint Technologies Congress and 19th Technical Welding Sessions. Oct. 35. Civil Engineering School, Polytechnic University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain. www.cesol.es/jornadas2012.htm.

Educational Opportunities
Canadian Welding Bureau Courses. Welding Inspection Courses and preparation courses for Canadian General Standards Board and Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission certifications. The CWB Group. www.cwbgroup.org. Die Casting Industry Online Webinars. Dec. 7, 14; Jan. 11, 25; Feb. 8. Various topics, each 60 min long including Q&A session, begin 12 noon CST, $29 each session. North American Die Casting Assn. Visit www.diecasting.org/webinar for complete information. Art Using Welding Technology Classes and Workshops. Miami, Fla. With artist and sculptor Sandra Garcia-Pardo. Meet the artist at www.theartlink.org; (786) 547-8681. ASM Intl Courses. Numerous classes on welding, corrosion, failure analysis, metallography, heat treating, etc., presented in Materials Park, Ohio, online, webinars, on-site, videos, and DVDs; www.asminternational.org, search for courses. Automotive Body in White Training for Skilled Trades and Engineers. Orion, Mich. A five-day course covers operations, troubleshooting, error recovery programs, and safety procedures for automotive lines and integrated cells. Applied Mfg. Technologies; (248) 409-2000; www.appliedmfg.com. Basic and Advanced Welding Courses. Cleveland, Ohio. The Lincoln Electric Co.; www.lincolnelectric.com. Basics of Nonferrous Surface Preparation. Online course, six hours includes exam. Offered on the 15th of every month by The Society for Protective Coatings. Register at www.sspc.org/training. Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors Training Courses and Seminars. Columbus, Ohio; www.nationalboard.org; (614) 8888320. CWI/CWE Course and Exam. Troy, Ohio. A two-week preparation and exam program. Hobart Institute of Welding Technology; (800) 332-9448; www.welding.org.

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WELDING JOURNAL

47

CERTIFICATION SCHEDULE
Certified Welding Inspector (CWI)
LOCATION Beaumont, TX Fresno, CA Charlotte, NC Long Beach, CA Seattle, WA Pittsburgh, PA Birmingham, AL Denver, CO Waco, TX Corpus Christi, TX Milwaukee, WI Atlanta, GA San Diego, CA Miami, FL Houston, TX Norfolk, VA Kansas City, MO Indianapolis, IN Portland, OR Phoenix, AZ Boston, MA Anchorage, AK Chicago, IL Mobile, AL Rochester, NY York, PA Miami, FL Knoxville, TN Miami, FL Dallas, TX St. Louis, MO Springfield, MO Portland, ME Las Vegas, NV San Francisco, CA Nashville, TN Jacksonville, FL Waco, TX Baltimore, MD Detroit, MI Albuquerque, NM Corpus Christi, TX Miami, FL SEMINAR DATES Jan. 813 Jan. 813 Jan. 1520 Jan. 2227 Jan. 2227 Jan. 29Feb. 3 Jan. 29Feb. 3 Jan. 29Feb. 3 Feb. 510 Exam only Feb. 26Mar. 2 Feb. 26Mar. 2 Feb. 26Mar. 2 Feb. 26Mar. 2 Mar. 49 Mar. 49 Mar. 49 Mar. 1116 Mar. 1116 Mar. 1116 Mar. 1823 Mar. 1823 Mar. 1823 Exam only Exam only Exam only Mar. 2530 Exam only Exam only Apr. 1520 Exam only Apr. 1520 Apr. 1520 Apr. 1520 Apr. 29May 4 Apr. 29May 4 Apr. 29May 4 Exam only May 611 May 611 May 611 May 611 May 611 EXAM DATE Jan. 14 Jan. 14 Jan. 21 Jan. 28 Jan. 28 Feb. 4 Feb. 4 Feb. 4 Feb. 11 Mar. 3 Mar. 3 Mar. 3 Mar. 3 Mar. 3 Mar. 10 Mar. 10 Mar. 10 Mar. 17 Mar. 17 Mar. 17 Mar. 24 Mar. 24 Mar. 24 Mar. 24 Mar. 24 Mar. 24 Mar. 31 Apr. 14 Apr. 19 Apr. 21 Apr. 21 Apr. 21 Apr. 21 Apr. 21 May 5 May 5 May 5 May 5 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12 May 12

Certified Welding Supervisor (CWS)

LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE Atlanta, GA Jan. 913 Jan. 14 New Orleans, LA Apr. 1620 Apr. 21 Minneapolis, MN July 1620 July 21 CWS exams are also given at all CWI exam sites.

Certified Radiographic Interpreter (CRI)

LOCATION SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE Seattle, WA Feb. 27Mar. 2 Mar. 3 Houston, TX Apr. 1620 Apr. 21 Las Vegas, NV May 711 May 12 Miami, FL June 48 June 9 Dallas, TX July 1620 July 21 The CRI certification can be a stand-alone credential or can exempt you from your next 9-Year Recertification.

Certified Welding Sales Representative (CWSR)

CWSR exams will be given at CWI exam sites.

Certified Welding Educator (CWE)

Seminar and exam are given at all sites listed under Certified Welding Inspector. Seminar attendees will not attend the Code Clinic portion of the seminar (usually the first two days).

Certified Robotic Arc Welding (CRAW)

WEEKS OF, FOLLOWED BY LOCATION AND PHONE NUMBER Feb. 10, May 11, Aug. 10, Nov. 9 at ABB, Inc., Auburn Hills, MI; (248) 3918421 Feb. 20, May 21, Aug. 20, Dec. 3 at Genesis-Systems Group, Davenport, IA; (563) 445-5688 Feb. 27, Mar. 2, Oct. 22, Oct. 26 at Lincoln Electric Co., Cleveland, OH; (216) 383-8542 Feb. 6, Apr. 23, July 9, Oct. 15 at OTC Daihen, Inc., Tipp City, OH; (937) 667-0800 Jan. 16, Mar. 12, May 7, July 9, Sept. 10, Nov. 5 at Wolf Robotics, Fort Collins, CO; (970) 225-7736 On request at MATC, Milwaukee, WI; (414) 297-6996

9Year Recertification Seminar for CWI/SCWI For current

CWIs and SCWIs needing to meet education requirements without taking the exam. The exam can be taken at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector. SEMINAR DATES EXAM DATE LOCATION New Orleans, LA Jan. 914 No exam Denver, CO Feb. 611 No exam Dallas, TX Mar. 1217 No exam Miami, FL Apr. 1621 No exam Sacramento, CA Apr. 30May 5 No exam Pittsburgh, PA June 49 No exam San Diego, CA July 914 No exam Miami, FL July 1621 No exam

Certified Welding Engineer (CWEng) and Senior Certified Welding Inspector (SCWI)
Exams can be taken at any site listed under Certified Welding Inspector. No preparatory seminar is offered.

Advanced Visual Inspection Workshop

LOCATION Miami, FL Miami, FL Miami, FL SEMINAR DATES Feb. 9-10 May 17-18 Aug. 16-17 EXAM DATE Feb. 11 May 19 Aug. 18

International CWI Courses and Exams Schedules

Please visit www.aws.org/certification/inter_contact.html.

Important: This schedule is subject to change without notice. Please verify your event dates with the Certification Dept. to confirm your course status before making travel plans. For information on AWS seminars and certification programs, visit www.aws.org/certification, or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 273, for Certification; or ext. 455 for Seminars. Apply early to avoid paying the Fast Track fee. 48 DECEMBER 2011

WELDING WORKBOOK

Datasheet 328

Safe Practices during Thermal Spray Operations

Thermal spray operations can emit dangerous levels of heat, sound, and light (radiation). The primary techniques for mitigating these hazards are the proper design of the work environment and use of personal protective equipment (PPE). The preferred approach is to place the operator at a workstation outside the spray booth. In situations where that is not possible, every measure must be taken to minimize worker exposure and to use the necessary PPE. some form of hearing protection will be required. Some spray devices such as detonation spray guns can produce extremely high sound levels ranging up to 145 dB. At such extremes, the operator must be removed from the environment because injury can occur by means of mechanisms such as bone conduction of the sound pressure waves. Table 1 lists representative sound levels for a variety of common thermal spray operations. Keep in mind that actual sound pressure levels depend strongly on the specific spray environment, such as booth size, wall material, and construction details.

Heat
Thermal spray guns, especially high-velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) devices, generate substantial amounts of heat. The booth can quickly become overheated if there is not enough ventilation. Excessive heat loads can damage ductwork and the dust filter system. It is typically recommended the total exhaust airflow be sufficient to keep the exhaust air temperature below 40C (105F). However, exceptionally high flow velocities exceeding 91 m/min (300 ft/min) at the front face of the spray hood may interfere with spray operations. Besides the thermal hazards of spray devices, hot workpieces and tooling may require the use of thermally insulated gloves and handling tools. The use of auxiliary cooling jets may be required. Cotton clothing is preferred over synthetic fabrics, because cotton does not melt and does not support combustion as readily.

Light
Light (radiation) hazards associated with thermal spray operations include both visible and ultraviolet emissions. Plasma spray guns are well known for causing sunburn on unprotected skin. Excessive exposure to the bright emissions from thermal spray guns is similar to that associated with welding operations and can cause both acute injuries and chronic conditions such as cataracts. Helmets, hand-held shields, face shields, and safety glasses or goggles should be used to protect the eyes, face, and neck during thermal spray operations. Protective measures are described in ANSI Z87.1, Practice for Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protection, and ANSI Z89.1, American National Standard for Industrial Head Protection. Helmets, hand-held shields, and goggles must be equipped with suitable filter plates to protect the eyes from excessive ultraviolet and intense visible radiation. A guide for the selection of proper filter shade numbers is shown in Table 2. Autodarkening eye protection with variable filter lens shades is also available. These devices have lenses that are light activated. In other words, they are clear when the spray device is off and darken automatically and immediately when exposed to bright light from a spray gun. Other commonly used methods of reducing exposure to light hazards include remote process monitoring with cameras and the installation of curtains or dark shades on booth windows.

Noise
Sound levels associated with thermal spray operations vary greatly, but commonly exceed the limit of 85 dB for 8-h occupational exposure without protective measures as prescribed by the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). While OSHA rules concerning specific noise exposure limits and associated requirements should be consulted, in almost all cases,

Table 1 Typical Sound Pressure Levels Thermal Spray System Detonation flame spray gun HVOF (liquid fuel) HVOF (gaseous fuel) HVAF (air-fuel system) Combustion wire Combustion powder Ceramic rod gun Arc wire Air plasma (DC) Vacuum plasma, low-pressure, or controlled atmosphere Cold spraying Water-stabilized plasma Inductively coupled RF plasma Decibel Range (dB) 145 133 125135 133 118122 90125 125 105119 110125 Ambient 110 125 95

Table 2 Recommended Lens Shade Plates for Thermal Spraying Operations Thermal Spraying Deposits Wire flame spraying (except molybdenum) Wire flame spraying of molybdenum Flame spraying of metal powder Flame spraying of exothermics or ceramics Plasma and arc spraying Fusing operations Shade Numbers 5 5 to 6 5 to 6 5 to 8 9 to 12 5 to 6

Excerpted from the Welding Handbook, Vol. 3, ninth edition. 50 DECEMBER 2011

SOCIETYNEWS
BY HOWARD M. WOODWARD
woodward@aws.org

AWS Cosponsors First Brazilian Welding Show

BY ANDREW CULLISON

John Bruskotter, AWS 2010 president, is shown at the show during his talk on the offshore oil industry and the welding techniques used to build tension-leg rigs. The American Welding Society (AWS) participated in the first-time-ever Brazil Welding Show this past Oct. 1821 at the Expo Center Norte in So Paulo. As part of an American Pavilion, the AWS offered its programs and publications to an estimated 10,000 attendees over the four-day event. The AWS, as a cosponsor for the event, organized the American Pavilion of 12 exhibitors. Ray Shook, executive director, noted that AWS was pleased to participate in this inaugural welding show, and it was good to be involved in creating the American Pavilion. The Brazil Welding Show was organized by Messe Essen GmbH and its Brazilian partner Aranda Eventos. It was held alongside the well-established metalforming and fabrication show Corte & Conformao de Metais, which has been held on an everyother-year schedule since 200l. The overall number of exhibitors for both shows was 400, with the welding portion contributing 144 vendors from 19 countries. The total exhibition area was 34,000 sq m, making it one of the largest combined metalforming and welding show exhibitions in the world. In addition to the exhibition of an array of equipment, 48 technical presentations were made on a variety of topics during three days of the event. Included in those

The American Welding Society hosted the American pavilion at the Brazil Welding Show. Nineteen countries exhibited their products and services at the event, which also featured 48 technical presentations by experts in the welding field. presentations was one on offshore welding applications by John Bruskotter, AWS 2010 president. Bruskotter traced the history of oil rigs from the rickety land-based wooden structures to the modern sophisticated tensionleg offshore rigs. The first offshore rig was placed into service in 1947 off the coast of Louisiana. This started the proliferation of offshore rigs that exist today the world over. Shipyards, which were a concentrated source of welding activity during WWII, became a natural location for the fabrication of these rigs. Bruskotter pointed out the superstructure of offshore rigs is primarily of tubular design and because of the uniqueness of the connections, the welding is mostly manual shielded metal arc or semiautomatic flux cored arc. The fabrication does not lend itself to very much automation. In addition to the rigs, trunk lines are welded to carry the oil and gas to land. Although most are much shorter, some can be 100 miles long. Brazil is a highly industrialized country with a fast-growing economy. Bringing together welding and metalforming could prove to be a lucrative combination for equipment manufacturers. Shook noted these opportunities when he said, In concert with Essen, we feel that we both have an excellent foundation and momentum to build on the future. The next Brazil Welding Show is planned for 2013.

ANDREW CULLISON (cullison@aws.org) is publisher of the Welding Journal. WELDING JOURNAL 51

Tech Topics
Errata D1.1/D1.1M:2010 Structural Welding Code Steel
The following errata have been identified and will be incorporated into the next reprinting of this document. Page 23, 2.27.1.1 Correct 2.24 reference to 2.25. Page 150, note e Correct (see 4.12.4.2) reference to (see 4.13.4.2). Page 202, 5.22.1.1 Correct 2.13 reference to 2.14. Page 231, 6.26.6.4 First sentence, fourth line, correct or be to or by .... Page 281, 7.1 Correct C7.6.1 reference to C-7.6.1. Page 496, C-Table 6.7 Correct three Table 6.6 references to Table 6.7. Page 497, C-6.26.6 This paragraph appears twice. Delete the first appearance. Page 507, C-7.2.5 Correct last entry CL 0.125 in to read CL 0.125 in [3.2 mm]. Page 533, Index, PJP groove welds Correct entry 4.14.4.20 to read 4.14, 4.21. Standards for Public Review AWS was approved as an accredited standards-preparing organization by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in 1979. AWS rules, as approved by ANSI, require that all standards be open to public review for comment during the approval process. Draft copies may be ordered from Rosalinda ONeill, roneill@aws.org; (305) 443-9353, ext. 451. A5.22/A5.22M:20XX, Specification for Stainless Steel Flux Cored and Metal Cored Electrodes and Rods. Revised. $45. 11/28/11. B2.1-8-024:2001(R20XX), Standard Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 116 through 112 Inch Thick, ER3XX, As-Welded Condition, Primarily Plate and Structural Applications. Reaffirmed. $25. 12/12/11. B2.1-8-025:2001(R20XX), Standard Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Followed by Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 18 through 112 Inch Thick, As-Welded Condition. Reaffirmed. $25. 12/12/11. B2.1-1-210:2001(R20XX), Standard Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with Consumable Insert Root of Carbon Steel (M-1/P1/S-1, Group 1 or 2), 18 through 112 Inch Thick, INMs-1 and ER70S-2, As-Welded or PWHT Condition, Primarily Pipe Applications. Reaffirmed. $25. 12/12/11. B2.1-1-211:2001(20XX), Standard Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with Consumable Insert Root Followed by Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Carbon Steel (M-1/P-1/S-1, Group 1 or 2), 18 through 112 Inch Thick, INMs-1, ER70S-2, and E7018, As-Welded or PWHT Condition, Primarily Pipe Applications. Reaffirmed. $25. 12/12/11. B2.1-8-212:2001(R20XX), Standard Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 18 through 112 Inch Thick, ER3XX, As-Welded Condition, Primarily Pipe Applications. Reaffirmed. $25. 12/12/11. B2.1-8-213-97 (R20XX), Standard Welding Procedure Specification (SWPS) for Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 18 through 112 Inch Thick, E3XX-XX, AsWelded Condition (Primarily Pipe Applications). Reaffirmed. $25. 12/12/11. B2.1-8-214:2001(R20XX), Standard Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Followed by Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel (M-8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 18 through 112 Inch Thick, ER3XX and E3XXXX, As-Welded Condition, Primarily Pipe Applications. Reaffirmed. $25. 12/12/11. B2.1-8-215:2001(R20XX), Standard Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with Consumable Inserts of Austenitic Stainless Steel (M8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 18 through 112 Inch Thick, IN3XX and ER3XX, As-Welded Condition, Primarily Pipe Applications. Reaffirmed. $25. 12/12/11. B2.1-8-216:2001(R20XX), Standard Welding Procedure Specification (WPS) for Gas Tungsten Arc Welding with Consumable Inserts Followed by Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Austenitic Stainless Steel (M8/P-8/S-8, Group 1), 18 through 112 Inch Thick, IN3XX, ER3XXX, and E3XX-XX, As-Welded Condition, Primarily Pipe Applications. Reaffirmed. $25. 12/12/11. Revised Standard Approved by ANSI C3.7M/C3.7:2011, Specification for Aluminum Brazing. Approved 10/5/11. ISO Draft Standards In the United States, if you wish to participate in the development of International Standards for welding, contact Andrew Davis, adavis@aws.org; (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 466. Copies of draft international standards are available for review and comment from your national standards body, which in the United States is ANSI, 25 W. 43rd St., 4th Fl., New York, NY 10036; (212) 642-4900. Send comments regarding ISO documents to your national standards body.

Opportunities to Serve on AWS Technical Committees

Volunteer to serve on an AWS technical committee to help develop the standards that serve industrys ever-changing needs. E-mail the secretary listed, or call (800/305) 443-9353 at the extention shown to learn about the committees documents and the responsibilities for serving as a committee member. More than 1800 volunteers participate on the 160 AWS technical committees and subcommittees. Membership on AWS technical committees is open to everyone.

Soldering; Joining Nickel Alloys B2E Subcommittee on Soldering Qualifications; G2C Subcommittee on Nickel Alloys. Alex Diaz, adiaz@aws.org; ext. 311. Heat Treating Pipe D10P Subcommittee for Local Heat Treating of Pipe. Bryan McGrath, bmcgrath@aws.org; ext. 311. Thermal Spray; Oxyfuel Gas Welding C2 Committee on Thermal Spraying; C2B Subcommittee on 52 DECEMBER 2011

Thermal Spray Protection of Steel; C4 Committee on Oxyfuel Gas Welding. Efram Abrams, eabrams@ aws.org; ext. 307. Magnesium Alloy Filler Metals A5L Subcommittee on Magnesium Alloy Filler Metals. Rakesh Gupta, gupta@aws.org, ext. 301. Surfacing Industrial Mill Rolls D14H Subcommittee on Surfacing and Reconditioning of Industrial Mill Rolls. Matt Rubin, mrubin@aws.org, ext. 215.

Iraq Engineering Institute Becomes an AWS Sustaining Member

Recently, the Specialized Institute of Engineering Industries (SIEI), based in Baghdad, Iraq, became an AWS Sustaining Member. Shown accepting the AWS Sustaining Member plaque are (from left) SIEI Deputy Manager Ammar A. Wais, General Manager Majed M. AL-Jaf, and Executive Manager Thamer Y. Ibrahim. The SIE Institute was established by the Republic of Iraq in 1973 to help improve the technological capabilities of its engineering industries. In April 1978, SIEI signed a technical cooperation agreement with the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) and the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) under which the institute has been developed on modern lines with international expertise and experience. Visit its Web site at www.siei.gov.iq.

Matricardi and Mattson Assume New Roles at AWS

Carl V. Matricardi has been named District 5 director to fulfill the last two years of Steve Mattsons second term, which ends December 31, 2013. Matricardi is founder and president of Welding Solutions, Inc., Lawrenceville, Ga. In the welding industry for 35 years, he is an AWS Certified Welding Inspector and Certified Welding Educator. He has served as chairman of the Georgia Section where he currently is vice chair. Matricardi started his career as a combination welder in northeast shipyards. He holds a masters degree in education and has taught welding and manufacturing processes at technical colleges and state universities. He has also served as an expert witness on several highprofile weld-failure cases. Steve Mattson left the post of District 5 director to serve AWS as a special contractor responsible for the Careers in Welding Trailer while continuing his involvement with the Instructors Institute

Carl V . Matricardi and other initiatives. Mattson accompanied the trailer during its initial test launch at the Future Farmers of America Con-

Steve Mattson vention in October, at FABTECH in November, and will continue to accompany the trailer to special events.

Honorary Meritorious Awards

The deadline for nominating candidates for these awards is December 31 prior to the year of the awards presentations. Send candidate materials to Wendy Sue Reeve, wreeve@aws.org; 550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126. William Irrgang Memorial Award This award is given to the individual who has done the most over the past five years to enhance the Societys goal of advancing the science and technology of welding. It includes a $2500 honorarium and a certificate. International Meritorious Certificate Award This honor recognizes recipients significant contributions to the welding industry for service to the international welding community in the broadest terms. The award consists of a certificate and a one-year AWS membership. National Meritorious Certificate Award This award recognizes the recipients counsel, loyalty, and dedication to AWS affairs, assistance in promoting cordial relations with industry and other organizations, and for contributions of time and effort on behalf of the Society. George E. Willis Award This award is given to an individual who promoted the advancement of welding internationally by fostering cooperative participation in technology transfer, standards rationalization, and promotion of industrial goodwill. It includes a $2500 honorarium. Honorary Membership Award This award acknowledges eminence in the welding profession, or one who is credited with exceptional accomplishments in the development of the welding art. Honorary Members have full rights of membership. WELDING JOURNAL 53

New AWS Supporters

Sustaining Members
ADM Mechanical 2100 N. Jasper Decatur, IL 62526 Representative: Martin Redshaw www.adm.com Genesis Systems Group, LLC 8900 N. Harrison St. Davenport, IA 52806 Representative: Andrea Petersen www.genesis-systems.com Genesis Systems Group is the largest robotic systems builder in North America. The companys expertise is centered on the design, manufacture, and implementation of robotic welding, material handling, dispensing, and nondestructive inspection systems. The company offers complete training, warranty, and support services. GM Corp., Ltd. 555-3 Hwarim-ri, Guman-Myeon Goseong-Gun, Gyeongsangnam-Do 6388-20 South Korea Representative: Dujin Kang www.gmhi.co.kr Hanson Pressure Pipe 1003 N. MacArthur Blvd. Prairie, TX 75050 Representative: Peter Stamps www.hansonpressurepipe.com Hanson Pressure Pipe is a leading manufacturer and a principal supplier of highly engineered concrete and welded steel pressure pipe systems in the United States and Canada. Today, it has more than 80-million ft of pipe in service throughout the water, waste water, and power industries, in diameters ranging from 18 to 144 in. JAY Mfg. Oshkosh, Inc. 2045 W. 20th Ave., POB 3064 Oshkosh, WI 54903 Representative: Chris Boycks www.jaymanufacturing.com Kelly Iron Works, Inc. 1422 Remington St. Chester, PA 19013 Representative: Padraig Kelly www.kellyiron.com The EMF Co., Inc. PO Box 560345 Dallas, TX 75356 Representative: Michael Tignor www.emfcompany.com

Supporting Companies
Control Flow 9201 Fairbanks N. Houston Rd. Houston, TX 77064 Comm Steel, Inc. 900 E. 69th St. Cleveland, OH 44103 Johnson Machine Works, Inc. 318 N. 11th St. Chariton, IA 50049 Wayne Integrated Technologies, Inc. 160 Rodeo Dr. Edgewood, NY 11717 MACOS Sari Cd No. 1 Bursa, OSB PK 3, 16159, Turkey

Spendrup Fan Co. 2768 C 12 Rd. Grand Junction, CO 81502 T & M Decking, Inc. 4590 Denny Store Rd. Oxford, NC 27565 Tru-Stop, Inc. 1725 W. 10th Pl. Tempe, AZ 85251 Vantix Industrial Service 1715 N. Westshore Blvd., Ste. 920 Tampa, FL 33607

Educational Institutions
Adarsh Institute of Maritime Studies Near Nalla Farm House Moratandi, Auroville Pondicherry 605101, India River Valley High School 2250 E. Laguna Rd. Mohave Valley, AZ 86440 Underwater Works Inc., Ltd. #32 Eight Ave., Xavier St. Ext. Orchard Gardens Chaguanas, Trinidad, W.I.

Affiliate Companies
Avenir Aviation LLC 5183 NW 74th Ave. Miami, FL 33166 Bode North America, Inc. 660 John Dodd Rd. Spartanburg, SC 29303 CDP Industries LLC 400 Unity St., Ste. #120 Latrobe, PA 15650 Crosno Construction, Inc. 980 Ambrosia Ln. San Luis Obispo, CA 93401 D Sousa Mobile Welding & Fabrication 36 Stevens St. Enfield, NH 03748 Integrated Process Technologies, Inc. 8 Charlestown St. Devens, MA 01434 KCH Services, Inc. 144 Industrial Dr. Forest City, NC 28043 Maadi Group, Inc. 400 Montfort, Ste. 200 Montreal, QC H3C 4J9, Canada Perfect Engineering Fzco POB 32627, Jebel Ali Free Zone Plots No. 10913, 10911; South Zone Dubai 40265, UAE Petroleum Measurement Equipment 15794 Capitol Hill Montgomery, TX 77316

Welding Distributors
Pan Gulf Welding Solutions POB 2473, Al-Khobar 31952 Saudi Arabia Weld-Mart Australia 1 South St. Rydalmere, NSW 2116, Australia

AWS Member Counts

November 1, 2011 Grades Sustaining ......................................511 Supporting .....................................303 Educational ...................................569 Affiliate..........................................466 Welding Distributor........................53 Total Corporate ..........................1,902 Individual .................................57,437 Student + Transitional ...............11,140 Total Members .........................68,577

54

DECEMBER 2011

SECTIONNEWS

The Maine board members are from left (seated) Ray Roy, Ralph Ruel, Russ Norris, and Paul McClay; (standing) Chair Mike Gendron, Mark Legel, Scott Lee, Bob Bernier, Pat Kein, and Jim Kein.

Shown at the Seacoast School of Technology Student Chapter program are (from left) Paul Plourde, Advisor Jon Theberge, Mary Little, Dave Watson, Margaret Callahan, Tom March, Randy Nadeau, and John Conrad.

District 1
BOSTON

Thomas Ferri, director (508) 527-1884 thomas_ferri@thermadyne.com

dron headed the discussions about upcoming tours, AWS Certified Welding Inspector seminars and testing events, and the District conference. Participating were Ray Roy, Ralph Ruel, Russ Norris, Paul McClay, Mark Legel, Scott Lee, Bob Bernier, Pat Kein, and Jim Kein.

AUGUST 22 Activity: The Section held an executive board meeting. District 1 Director Tom Ferri and incoming Chair Bob Lavoie presented outgoing Chair Rick Moody the Section Meritorious Award.

Seacoast School of Technology Student Chapter

SEPTEMBER 19 Speaker: Jon Theberge, advisor Topic: Plans for the upcoming year Activity: The Student Chapter of the Maine Section discussed the SENSE (Schools Excelling thorough National Skills Education) program. Representatives from Portsmouth Naval Shipyard described a new program for skilled welding students, and plans for a tour of the facilBob Lavoie (left), Rick Moody (center), and Tom Ferri, District 1 director, are shown at the Boston Section program. ity. Attending the program were Russ Norris, Paul Plourde, Mary Little, Dave Watson, Margaret Callahan, Tom March, Randy Nadeau, and John Conrad. WELDING JOURNAL 55

MAINE
OCTOBER 11 Activity: The Section held an executive board meeting at Run of the Mill Public House in Saco, Maine. Chair Mike Gen-

Shown at the Lancaster Section program are (from left) Brian Kohler, Chair Mike Sebergandio, Justin Heistand, Al Siegrist, Trina Siegrist, Tim Siegrist, Randy Hyre, Dave Watson, Steve Mitchell, and Tucker Hill.

District 2
LONG ISLAND

Harland W. Thompson, director (631) 546-2903 harland.w.thompson@us.ul.com

Shown at the Long Island Section program are (from left) Walter Sargent, Tom Gartland, Alex Duschere, speaker Ken Temme, and Harland Thompson, District 2 director.

SEPTEMBER 24 Speaker: Ken Temme Affiliation: Divers Academy International Topic: Underwater welding and repairs Activity: The program was held in Erial, N.J. Attending the program were District 2 Director Harland Thompson, Walter Sargent, Vice Chair Tom Gartland, and Alex Duschere.

NEW JERSEY
OCTOBER 18 Speaker: Gus Manz, Section historian Topic: The history of welding safety Activity: Harland Thompson, District 2 director, presented the District Dalton E. Hamilton Memorial CWI of the Year Award to John Wilfong. Attending were Wilfongs wife, Robin, sister Mary Joe Wilfong, and his mother, Susan.

PHILADELPHIA
Harland Thompson, District 2 director (far left), is shown with the Wilfong family (from left) Mary Joe, Robin, John, and Susan. OCTOBER 12 Speaker: William J. Mowbray III, QA/QC manager Affiliation: J. J. White, Inc. Topic: Overview of the codes used for construction welding and repairs Activity: Frank Simone, Section treasurer and a past chair, received the District Meritorious Award in appreciation for his services to the Section and the Society. The program was held at Villaris Lakeside Restaurant in Sicklerville, N.J.

New Jersey Section Chair Herb Browne (left) is shown with speaker Gus Manz. 56 DECEMBER 2011

Philadelphia Section speaker William Mowbray (center) is shown with Chair William Mowbray (left) and Harland Thompson, District 2 director.

District 3

Michael Wiswesser, director (610) 820-9551 mike@welderinstitute.com

Florida West Coast members and guests pose for a group shot.

LANCASTER
SEPTEMBER 13 Activity: The Section members toured the Armstrong flooring manufacturing plant in Lancaster, Pa., to study the production of fiberglass-reinforced vinyl products. Conducting the program were John Nied, plant manager; David Kreiser, chemist; and Frank Gohl, engineer.

District 4
Roy C. Lanier, director (252) 321-4285 rlanier@email.pittcc.edu Presenters (from left) Lori Howell, Robert Harrison, and Joe Schady are shown with Gale Mole, South Carolina Section chair.

SW VIRGINIA
SEPTEMBER 22 Speaker: Mark Gilbert, associate professor, welding technology Affiliation: New River C. C. Topic: Welding 101, weld quality Activity: The program was held at New River Community College in Dublin, Va.

District 5
Carl Matricardi, director (770) 979-6344 cmatricardi@aol.com Florida West Coast Chair Damen Johnson (left) is shown with presenter Ross Wallace. Florida West Coast Chair Damen Johnson (center) presents Silver Member certificates to Albert Carr (left) and Robert Brewington.

FLORIDA WEST COAST

OCTOBER 12 Speaker: Ross Wallace Affiliation: Tampa Steel Erecting Co. Topic: Submerged arc welding Activity: Albert S. Carr and Robert R. Brewington received Silver Membership Certificates to recognize their 25 years of service to the Society. The program was held at Frontier Steak House in Tampa, Fla.

SOUTH CAROLINA
SEPTEMBER 15 Speaker: Lori Howell, RN Topic: Dealing with health and accident issues in industrial settings Activity: Following the talk, Joe Schady and Robert Harrison conducted a tour of Alpha Sheet Metal, Inc., in Ladson, S.C.

Shown at the SW Virginia Section program are (from left) Treasurer David Cash, Vice Chair Wayne Johnson, and Mark Gilbert, speaker and Section chair.

Presenter Joe West (left) is shown with Steve Mattson, North Florida Section chair. Joe West conducted the tour and detailed the companys procedures for the repair and rebuilding of large motors. WELDING JOURNAL 57

NORTH FLORIDA
SEPTEMBER 29 Activity: The Section toured Tampa Armature Works in Tampa, Fla.

Pittsburgh Section members and guests are shown at the October program.

Doug Tanner (left) is shown with Bob Christoffel, Northern New York Section program chair.

Will Dryden (left) is shown with speaker Eric Blackwell at the October Chattanooga Section program.

Stan Henn discussed pulse welding equipment for the Chattanooga Section members in September.

NORTHERN NEW YORK

Speaker Robert Sauders (left) is shown with Brad King, Pittsburgh Section chair. OCTOBER 4 Activity: Twenty-two Section members convened for a tour of USS Slater DE766 moored on the Hudson River in Albany, N.Y. Doug Tanner, trustee, Destroyer Escort Historical Museum, conducted the tour. Also detailed was the recent installation of pilings consisting of 4-ft-diameter pipes driven 75 ft to bedrock then filled with concrete and rebar.

Educators Robin Dykes (left) and Chris Renfro are shown at the Chattanooga Section meeting in September.

District 6
Zack Tobias (right) receives a speaker gift from Ben Finney, Dayton Section chair. 58 DECEMBER 2011 Kenneth Phy, director (315) 218-5297 KAPhyInc@gmail.com

District 7
Don Howard, director (814) 269-2895 howard@ctc.com

District 8 officers are shown at the District conference in Guntersville, Ala.

Shown at the kickoff meeting of the Great Oaks Career Campuses Student Chapter are from left (front row) Lachel Williams, Jeffrey Caudill, Tim Couch, Mac Conners, and Jason Cline; (standing) Advisor Bruce Scherer, Jordan Hines, Martin Gable, Lawrence Sexton, Mart Cresie, Demond Heard, David Wethington, Joel McElfresh, John Hulsman, Aaron Raver, Tony Smith, Mark Collins, Chris Jones, Zachary Heidi, Andrew Greisheimer, Todd Bronnert, and Robert Gross. The Chapter is associated with the Cincinnati Section in District 10.

COLUMBUS
OCTOBER 17 Speaker: Daniel P. Dennies, metallurgist Affiliation: Foothill Ranch, Calif. Topic: Engineering challenges of emerging new materials and processes Activity: ASM International hosted this joint meeting of members of the local chapters of AWS, ASME, AIAA, NACE, and SWE. The program was held at the Hyatt Regency in Columbus, Ohio, in conjunction with the Materials Science & Technology Conference.

Topic: Cleaning stainless steel weldments Activity: The meeting was held at Springfield Grille in Mars, Pa.

District 8 Conference
JUNE 23, 24 Activity: The opening event included a shrimp boil dinner served by the Valley View Cooking Club. The meeting was held at Marshall Technical School in Guntersville, Ala.

District 8
Joe Livesay, director (931) 484-7502, ext. 143 joe.livesay@ttcc.edu

District 9
NEW ORLEANS

CHATTANOOGA
SEPTEMBER 20 Speaker: Stan Henn, district manager Affiliation: Miller Electric Co. Topic: Recent innovations in pulse welding equipment and wireless remote technology Activity: The meeting was held at Komatsu America Corp. in Chattanooga, Tenn. OCTOBER 19 Speaker: Eric Blackwell, technical sales representative Affiliation: Olympus NDT Topic: Phased array ultrasonic technology Activity: This Chattanooga Section program was held at Alstrom Power in Chattanooga, Tenn.

George Fairbanks Jr., director (225) 473-6362 ts@bellsouth.net OCTOBER 19 Activity: AWS Life Member Bruce A. Hallila, a past District 9 director, presented the Silver Member Certificate Award to Terry L. Gamble Sr. for his 25 years of service to the Society. The presentation took place at Pellerin Milnor Corp. in Kenner, La.

DAYTON
SEPTEMBER 13 Activity: The Section members met at Henny Penny Corp. in Eaton, Ohio, to tour it facility. Zack Tobias conducted the program. Featured was the welding, fabrication, and assembly of stainless steel commercial fryers for McDonalds, KFC, and customers worldwide.

PITTSBURGH
OCTOBER 11 Speaker: Robert Sauders, sales manager Affiliation: Avesta Finishing Chemicals

District 10

Richard A. Harris, director (440) 338-5921 richaharris@windstream.net WELDING JOURNAL 59

Shown at the Upper Peninsula Section tour are (from left) Debra Deschaine, Peggy and Bruce Halverson, Richard Klaar, John Krueger, Todd Christian, Connie and David Degnitz, Rick Baldwin, Emmy Schussler, and Lloyd Cudnohufsky.

Mahoning Valley Section leaders are shown at the planning meeting in September. Shown at the Lakeshore Section tour are (from left) Chair John Zielonka with presenters Mark Tetzlaff, Pete Uvass, Brian Tetzlaff, and Jeremy Eisenschink.

Activity: The program was held at Sunset Bar and Grill in DeForest, Wis.

MAHONING VALLEY
SEPTEMBER 15 Activity: The Sections executive committee met at Rachels in Austintown, Ohio, to plan activities for the upcoming season.

UPPER PENINSULA
SEPTEMBER 13 Activity: The Section visited the Menominee Range Historical Foundation to study a WW II CG4A glider, circa 19421945, it has under renovation in Iron Mountain, Mich. Discussed was its process for searching North America and Europe to find the components to complete the work.

District 11
Robert P. Wilcox, director (734) 721-8272 rmwilcox@wowway.com Bruce Hallila (left), with the New Orleans Section, presents the Silver Member Certificate to Terry Gamble.

District 12
LAKESHORE

District 13
CHICAGO

Daniel J. Roland, director (715) 735-9341, ext. 6421 daniel.roland@us.ncantieri.com

W. Richard Polanin, director (309) 694-5404 rpolanin@icc.edu

SEPTEMBER 15 Activity: The members toured Fox Valley Tool & Die, Inc., in Kaukauna, Wis. The presenters included President Pete Uvass, Vice President Mark Tetzlaff, Brian Tetzlaff, and Jeremy Eisenschink. The business meeting, led by Chair John Zielonka, followed at Hyland House in Kaukauna.

SEPTEMBER 11 Activity: The Section hosted its annual Brookfield Zoo outing and buffet dinner at Bocaditos Restaurant. Eighty-five members and guests participated in the event.

PEORIA
SEPTEMBER 22 Speaker: Eric Ockerhausen, Section treasurer Affiliation: Illinois Central College Topic: Welding and life in China Activity: This past chairmens night program was held in Peoria, Ill.

MADISON-BELOIT
Speaker Randall Counselman (left) is shown with Tony Stute, Madison-Beloit chair. 60 DECEMBER 2011 SEPTEMBER 21 Speaker: Randall Counselman, P.E., CWI Affiliation: Oldenburg Group, Inc. Topic: AWS D1.1 Code Clinic

The Chicago Section members and guests are shown during their outing at the Brookfield Zoo.

Shown at the Peoria Section past chairmens night program are (from left) Curt Rippey, Phil England, Dan Ritthaler, Bill Tomich, speaker Eric Ockerhausen, Mark Kerley, and Rick Polanin, District 13 director.

Shown (from left) at the Lexington Section program are Monica Pfarr, Jamie Thomas, Joe Pawley, Coy Hall, Tim Pinson, Allen Mattox, and Chair Frank McKinley.

District 14
LEXINGTON

Robert L. Richwine, director (765) 378-5378 bobrichwine@aol.com SEPTEMBER 22 Speaker: Monica Pfarr, AWS corporate director, Solutions Opportunity Squad Topic: Job opportunities in welding Activity: Chair Frank McKinley, welding instructor Tim Pinson, and Monica Pfarr presented Woodrow Scott Memorial Scholarships to James Alcorn, Justin Durham, and William Donahue. Jamie

Shown at the Lexington Section program are (from left) James Alcorn, Justin Durham, William Donahue, Monica Pfarr, and Chair Frank McKinley. WELDING JOURNAL 61

The Kansas City Section members are shown at Zephyr Products Co. in Leavenworth, Kan.

St. Louis Section members and guests are shown during their tour of Fulton Iron & Manufacturing.

Mike Schneider (left) receives his Life Member Certificate from Mike Vincent, Kansas City Section chair. Thomas received the Lexington Section Educator Award, Joe Pawley the Section Meritorious Award, Coy Hall the Section CWI of the Year Award, Tim Pinson the District Director and District CWI of the Year Awards, and Allen Mattox the District Educator Award.

Shown at the St. Louis Section program are (from left) Chair Tully Parker, Tim Jost, Steve Stefanus, and Jerry Simpson.

District 15
Mace V. Harris, director (612) 861-3870 macevh@aol.com

District 16
KANSAS CITY
OCTOBER 13 Speaker: Jason Miles Affiliation: Zephyr Products

ST. LOUIS
SEPTEMBER7 Activity: The Section members toured Fulton Iron & Manufacturing LLC in St. Louis, Mo. Vice President Tim Jost and Steve Stefanus, plant superintendent, conducted the program. 62 DECEMBER 2011

David Landon, director (641) 621-7576 dlandon@vermeermfg.com

Topic: Welder training at the company Activity: Mike Schneider received his Life Membership Certificate for 35 years of service to the Society. The Section members learned about the companys program to give Leavenworth Penitentiary inmates the chance to earn AWS SENSE Levels 1 and 2 welder certifications while working in a manufacturing facility. A tour of the facility followed the presentation.

District 17
J. Jones, director (940) 368-3130 jjones@thermadyne.com

The founding members of the Everett Community College Student Chapter are shown at their first planning meeting.

CENTRAL TEXAS
OCTOBER 6 Speaker: Oren Reich, past District 17 director and retired TSTC welding instructor Topic: The benefits of AWS membership Activity: This was a joint meeting with the Texas State Technical College (TSTC), Waco, Student Chapter.

TULSA
SEPTEMBER 27 Speaker: William F. Newell Jr., PE Affiliation: Euroweld, Ltd., Mooresville, N.C. Topic: Weld metal procurement, how to get what you want Activity: The Section now offers professional development hours for recertification. E-mail Chair Adam Ensminger adam.ensminger@gasandsupply.com for complete information.

Speaker William Newell (left) is shown with Adam Ensminger, Tulsa Section chair.

Daniel Enz (right) accepts a speaker gift from Sjon Delmore, Olympic Section chair.

BRITISH COLUMBIA
SEPTEMBER 21 Speaker: David Lo, engineering manager Affiliation: Oceanworks International Corp. Topic: Capabilities of the ADS (Atmosphere Diving System) Activity: The event was held at UA Piping Trades School in Delta, B.C., Canada.

District 18
HOUSTON

John Bray, director (281) 997-7273 sales@afliatedmachinery.com

Speaker Gary Lewis (left) is shown with Derek Stelly at the Houston Section event.

OLYMPIC
OCTOBER 19 Speaker: Daniel Enz, president Affiliation: Enzco, Inc. Topic: Oxyfuel safety Activity: About 40 Section members attended this safety training event held at Bates Technical College in Tacoma, Wash.

SEPTEMBER 21 Speaker: Gary Lewis Affiliation: Superheat Topic: Heat treatment in the field Activity: Sixty-eight members and guests attended the program held at Bradys Landing in Houston, Tex.

PUGET SOUND Everett C.C. Student Chapter

OCTOBER 6 Speaker: Tom Thompson, alumium specialist Affiliation: AlcoTec Topic: Aluminum welding processes and filler metals

District 19
Neil Shannon, director (503) 201-5142 neilshnn@msn.com

Scott Stanley (left) and David Lo are shown at the British Columbia Section meeting. WELDING JOURNAL 63

Shown at the Colorado Section program are (from left) Chair John Steele, Jesse Grantham, Alan Barber, Thomas Kienbaum, and speakers Gerry Rhode and Kevin Allen.

Shown at the Colorado School of Mines Student Chapter training event are from left (seated) Cheryl Hawk, Devon Gonzales, Stephen Tate, Kin Ling Sham, Erik Pfeif, and Steven Klimowicz; (standing) Sindhu Thomas, Tareq Alsabti, Bryan Marschke, Advisor Stephen Liu, Jeff Schroeder, Scott Nelson, Scott Mitzner, Joe Bundy, Kevin Scott, Rick Hutchison, and Ali Alshawaf. Activity: Jerry Hope discussed the new features added to the Puget Sound Sections Web site. The Section officers met at Everett Community College for a special meeting with the new Student Chapter members. The officers and students set goals for an upcoming welding workshop for Robotics First to be hosted at the college. The founding Student Chapter members include faculty Advisor Robert White, Chair Jason Spiecher, Eric Arnold, Stuart Matthews, Shawn Turner, Christopher Sansbury, Bob Jones, Jason Heard, Steven Smith, and Nick Heiner.

COLORADO
OCTOBER 13 Speakers: Gerry Rhode, president, Rhode Sales; and Kevin Allen from Steel Max Topic: A survey of handy welders tools Activity: Chair John Steele presented Jesse Grantham and Alan Barber District Private Sector Instructor Awards and Thomas Kienbaum the District Meritorious Certificate Award. This meeting was sponsored by General Air Service and Supply in Denver, Colo.

Jerry Hope (left) is shown with Steve Pollard, Puget Sound Section chair.

SPOKANE
OCTOBER 19 Speaker: Brian Donald, senior field sales representative Affiliation: Nelson Stud Welding Topic: Stud welding Activity: The program was held at Cathay Inn Restaurant in Spokane, Wash.

Colorado School of Mines Student Chapter

SEPTEMBER 22 Activity: ITW-Miller and ITW-Hobart representatives visited the Center for Welding, Joining, and Coatings Research to provide training to the graduate students on the ITW-Miller Axcess and Dynasty welding systems. The ITW trainers included Bryan Marschke, Jeff Schroeder, Joe Bundy, Kevin Scott, and Rick Hutchison.

District 20
Brian Donald discussed stud welding technology at the Spokane Section program. 64 DECEMBER 2011

UTAH
SEPTEMBER 15 Activity: The Section members joined members of the local chapter of ASM In-

William A. Komlos, director (801) 560-2353 bkoz@arctechllc.com

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Utah Section and ASM International Chapter members are shown during their tour of Petersen, Inc., in Ogden, Utah.

AWS President John Mendoza (red necktie) poses with the AWCIWT Student Chapter Members.

AWCIWT Student Chapter members are shown at Jims Rod Shop in October. From left are Nestor Alaniz, Jimmy Thompson, Martin Toledo, Herman Quiroga, Justin Skellett, Chris Lundgreen, Arturo Gaona, Omar Macias, John Stratz, Jesus Leyva, George Padilla, Scott Gray, Manual Robles, Adrian Castillo, Gonzalo Huerta Jr., Advisor Samuel Colton, and Garrett Lakey. Kneeling are Gonzalo Huerta Sr. and Trisha Haswood. ternational to tour the Petersen, Inc., custom machining facility in Ogden, Utah. Jon Ballantyne, CEO, discussed the companys history then conducted a tour of its operations featuring advanced welding and machining processes.

SAN DIEGO and AWCIWT Student Chapter

SEPTEMBER 1820 Speaker: John Mendoza, AWS president Affiliation: Lone Star Welding Topic: Benefits of AWS certifications Activity: The three days of activities began with a welcome to Yuma dinner attended by more than 50 students and faculty of Arizona Western College Institute of Welding Technology (AWCIWT), Samuel Colton advisor. The next two days, Men-

District 21

Nanette Samanich, director (702) 429-5017 nan07@aol.com

doza visited WestAir Gases of Yuma followed by a trip to Arizona Western College for a program with welding students from the four area high school welding programs and college students. Speakers included college President Glenn Mayle, Yuma Mayor Al Krieger, and students John Stratz, Trisha Haswood, and Adrian Castillo. Honored were welding educators Gonzalo Huerta and Larry Lebsock who received AWS Life Member Awards for 35 years of service to the Society. Then, WELDING JOURNAL 67

Shown at the San Diego Student Chapter event are (from left) Secretary John Boach, Vice Chair Anthony Gonzalez, Advisor George Moore, AWS President John Mendoza, Treasurer Veronica Gaeta, Chair Brendan Lagather, and Sam Lindsey, San Diego Section Chair.

Presenter Patricia Lewis-Hansen (left) is shown with Liisa Pine, San Francisco Section secretary.

Members of the Germany Section are shown at their meeting held in Hamburg last September. Miner received the Section Educator Award, and Doug Williams received the Section Meritorious and CWI of the Year Awards. These were presented by Dale Flood, District 22 director. The program was held at Spengers Restaurant in Berkeley, Calif. OCTOBER 5 Speaker: Patricia Lewis-Hansen, CEO North American operations Affiliation: Multiplaz, LLC Topic: Welding and cutting with wateralcohol plasma Activity: Following the presentation and dinner at Salute e Vita Ristorante in Richmond, Calif., the 35 San Francisco Section members and guests studied a demonstration of water-alcohol plasma cutting technology conducted by George Gorgonio from Multiplaz. Andre Lopez provided his welding service truck to supply power for the demonstrations.

Shown at the September San Francisco Section program are (from left) Chair Elizabeth Moore, Secretary Liisa Pine, Nora Mendoza, AWS President John Mendoza, and Dale Flood, District 22 director. the group visited the U.S. Army Yuma Proving Ground Metals Branch where many AWC welding graduates are employed. The final stop for the day was at F.I.R.M., a high-tech welding fabrication company that supports the AWS SkillsUSA college postsecondary Student Chapter. On the 20th, Mendoza toured the educational Cultural Complex of the San Diego Continuing Education Program. Next on the itinerary was a tour of Inspec Testing hosted by Michael Gallegos for a presentation of phased array technology inspection of welds, followed by a tour of Workshops for Warriors hosted by Hernn Luis y Prado, then a tour of the GD NASSCOP shipbuilding facility led by Mike Sullivan. The final event for the day was a Student Chapter meeting where Marc Bell received his Life Member Certificate. OCTOBER 11 Speaker: Jim Whitener, president 68 DECEMBER 2011 Affiliation: Jims Rod Shop Topic: How to succeed in business Activity: The AWCIWT Student Chapter members met at Jims Rod Shop in Yuma, Ariz., to learn how Whitener and his staff build one-of-a-kind vehicles. Whitener stressed the importance of math, metallurgy, and schoolwork.

Dale Flood, director (916) 288-6100, ext. 172 d.ood@tritool.com

District 22

International Section
GERMANY
SEPTEMBER 27 Activity: The Sections members met in Hamburg, Germany, to compare the standards of AWS, ASME, API, ASNT, and other U.S. codes with the European documents. The next meeting is scheduled for September in Saarbrecken, Saarland, Germany. Date to be announced.

SAN FRANCISCO
SEPTEMBER 12 Speaker: John Mendoza, AWS president Affiliation: Lone Star Welding Topic: Value of AWS certifications Activity: Sharon Jones and Jerry Azzaro received District Director Awards, Scott

Member-Get-A-Member Campaign
Listed below are the members participating in the 20112012 AWS MemberGet-A-Member Campaign. Standings are as of October 19. For campaign rules and a prize list, see page 65 of this Welding Journal. For complete campaign rules, visit www.aws.org/mgm. Call the AWS Membership Department at (800) 4439353, ext. 480, with any questions about your member proposer status. Winners Circle Listed are the sponsors of 20 or more Individual Members per year, since June 1, 1999. The superscript denotes the number of years the member has earned Winners Circle status. E. Ezell, Mobile8 J. Compton, San Fernando Valley7 J. Merzthal, Peru2 G. Taylor, Pascagoula2 L. Taylor, Pascagoula2 B. Chin, Auburn1 S. Esders, Detroit1 M. Haggard, Inland Empire1 M. Karagoulis, Detroit1 S. McGill, NE Tennessee1 B. Mikeska, Houston1 W. Shreve, Fox Valley1 T. Weaver, Johnstown/Altoona1 G. Woomer, Johnstown/Altoona1 R. Wray, Nebraska1 Presidents Club Sponsored 38 new members E. Ezell, Mobile 7 G. Bish, Atlanta 3 B. Goerg 3 G. Mulee, South Carolina 3 D. Wright, Kansas City 3 Presidents Honor Roll Sponsored 2 new members O. Burrion, South Florida G. Fehrman, Philadelphia J. Gordy, Houston G. Jacobson, Cumberland Valley J. Mueller, Ozark T. Palmer, Atlanta M. Pelegrino, Chicago G. Sanford, Houston H. Suthar, Charlotte C. Whitesell, Tulsa Student Sponsors Sponsored 3+ Student Members M. Pelegrino, Chicago 89 G. Bish, Atlanta 50 R. Belluzzi, New York 34 M. Box, Mobile 34 D. Saunders, Lakeshore 27 A. Alvarez, Houston 25 J. Fox, NW Ohio 19 A. Baughman, Stark Central 17 J. Bruskotter, New Orleans 17 W. Davis, Syracuse 17 R. Evans, Siouxland 17 R. Wahrman, Triangle 17 E. Norman, Ozark 16 T. Palmer, Atlanta 14 D. Pickering, Central Arkansas 13 H. Hughes, Mahoning Valley 12 D. Schnalzer, Lehigh Valley 11 C. Kipp, Lehigh Valley 9 S. Robeson, Cumberland Valley 8 J. McCarty, St. Louis 5 J. Boyer, Lancaster 4 A. Badeaux, Washington, D.C. 3 R. Hutchinson, Long Bch/Or. Cty. 3

District 4 Names Awardees

Robert Simpson, Charlotte Section, and Ed Dupree, Tidewater Section, have received the District 4 Educator of the Year Awards. Jenord Alstom, Ticewater Section, and Bobby Perkins, Northeastern Carolina Section, were awarded the District 4 Certified Welding Inspector of the Year Awards. The District 4 Private Sector Instructor Award has been presented to Rick Land, Charlotte Section, and Jamie Wilburn, Triangle Section.

Nominate Your Candidate for the M.I.T. Prof. Masubuchi Award

November 5, 2012, is the deadline for submitting nominations for the 2013 Prof. Koichi Masubuchi Award. It is presented each year to one person, 40 years old or younger, who has made significant contributions to the advancement of materials joining through research and development. Nominations should include the candidates experience, publications, honors, and awards, and at least three letters of recommendation from fellow researchers. E-mail your nomination package to Todd A. Palmer, assistant professor, The Pennsylvania State University, tap103@psu.edu. Sponsored by the Dept. of Ocean Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (M.I.T.), this award includes a $5000 honorarium.

Overview of AWS Member Benefits

Individual Member Subscription to the Welding Journal plus members-only discounts on FedEx shipping, Liberty Mutual auto and home insurance, health insurance plans, auto rentals, T-Mobile services, credit cards, and major discounts on certifications, education, technical publications, and AWS products. Sustaining Company Member Includes ten Individual memberships, an engraved Sustaining Company Member plaque, listing on the AWS Web site with hyperlink to your companys Web site, and your choice of the AWS Standards Library with complimentary updates (a $10,0000 value), or discounts on Welding Journal advertising, or ten additional Individual memberships. Supporting Company Member Includes five Individual memberships, the engraved Supporting Company Member plaque, a listing on the AWS Web site, major members-only discounts. Educational Institution Member Includes three Individual memberships, engraved plaque, institution name listed on the AWS Web site with option to add a hyperlink to your Web site. Affiliate Company Member Includes one Individual membership, Affiliate Company Member certificate, your company name listed on AWS Web site, three Everyday Pocket Handbooks, storefront window decal. Welding Distributor Member Includes five Individual memberships, free listing on Distributor Locator Map (interactive map on AWS Web site that allows end-users to find your locations quickly), Distributor Company Member plaque, and options for adding a hyperlink to your Web site. Visit www.aws.org/membership or call (800/305) 443-9353, ext. 480, for complete information about AWS memberships. WELDING JOURNAL 69

Guide to AWS Services

550 NW LeJeune Rd., Miami, FL 33126; (800/305) 443-9353; FAX (305) 443-7559; www.aws.org Staff extensions are shown in parentheses.

AWS PRESIDENT
John L. Mendoza johnlmendoza@att.net Lone Star Welding 3319 Kashmir, San Antonio, TX 78223

PUBLICATION SERVICES
Department Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(275) Managing Director Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)

TECHNICAL SERVICES Department Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(340) Managing Director Andrew R. Davis.. adavis@aws.org . . . . . . .(466) International Standards Activities, American Council of the International Institute of Welding (IIW) Director, National Standards Activities John L. Gayler.. gayler@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(472) Technical Activities Committee, Computerization of Welding Information Manager, Safety and Health Stephen P. Hedrick.. steveh@aws.org . . . . . .(305) Metric Practice, Safety and Health, Joining of Plastics and Composites, Welding Iron Castings, Welding in Sanitary Applications, Personnel and Facilities Qualification Senior Manager, Technical Publications Rosalinda ONeill.. roneill@aws.org . . . . . . .(451) AWS publishes about 200 documents widely used throughout the welding industry. Senior Staff Engineer Rakesh Gupta.. gupta@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(301) Filler Metals and Allied Materials, International Filler Metals, UNS Numbers Assignment, Arc Welding and Cutting Processes Staff Engineers/Standards Program Managers Efram Abrams.. eabrams@aws.org . . . . . . . .(307) Thermal Spray, Automotive Resistance Welding, Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting Stephen Borrero.. sborrero@aws.org . . . . . .(334) Brazing and Soldering, Brazing Filler Metals and Fluxes, Brazing Handbook, Soldering Handbook, Railroad Welding, Definitions and Symbols Alex Diaz.. adiaz@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(304) Welding Qualification, Sheet Metal Welding, Aircraft and Aerospace, Joining of Metals and Alloys Brian McGrath . bmcgrath@aws.org . . . . . . .(311) Methods of Inspection, Mechanical Testing of Welds, Welding in Marine Construction, Piping and Tubing, Friction Welding, Robotics Welding, High-Energy Beam Welding Matthew Rubin.....mrubin@aws.org . . . . . . .(215) Structural Welding, Machinery and Equipment Note: Official interpretations of AWS standards may be obtained only by sending a request in writing to Andrew R. Davis, managing director, Technical Services, adavis@aws.org. Oral opinions on AWS standards may be rendered, however, oral opinions do not constitute official or unofficial opinions or interpretations of AWS. In addition, oral opinions are informal and should not be used as a substitute for an official interpretation.

ADMINISTRATION
Executive Director Ray W. Shook.. rshook@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(210) Deputy Executive Director Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253) Sr. Associate Executive Director Jeff Weber.. jweber@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(246) Chief Financial Officer Gesana Villegas.. gvillegas@aws.org . . . . . .(252) Executive Assistant for Board Services Gricelda Manalich.. gricelda@aws.org . . . . .(294)

Welding Journal Publisher Andrew Cullison.. cullison@aws.org . . . . . .(249)

Editor Mary Ruth Johnsen.. mjohnsen@aws.org . .(238) National Sales Director Rob Saltzstein.. salty@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . .(243) Society and Section News Editor Howard Woodward..woodward@aws.org . .(244)

Administrative Services
Managing Director Jim Lankford.. jiml@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(214) IT Network Director Armando Campana..acampana@aws.org . . . .(296) Director Hidail Nuez..hidail@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(287) Director of IT Operations Natalia Swain..nswain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(245)

Welding Handbook Editor Annette OBrien.. aobrien@aws.org . . . . . . .(303)

MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS
Director Ross Hancock.. rhancock@aws.org . . . . . . .(226) Public Relations Manager Cindy Weihl..cweihl@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . .(416) Webmaster Jose Salgado..jsalgado@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(456) Section Web Editor Henry Chinea...hchinea@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(452)

Human Resources
Director, Compensation and Benefits Luisa Hernandez.. luisa@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(266) Director, Human Resources Dora A. Shade.. dshade@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(235)

MEMBER SERVICES
Department Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(480) Deputy Executive Director Cassie R. Burrell.. cburrell@aws.org . . . . . .(253) Director Rhenda A. Kenny... rhenda@aws.org . . . . . .(260) Serves as a liaison between Section members and AWS headquarters.

International Institute of Welding

Senior Coordinator Sissibeth Lopez . . sissi@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(319) Liaison services with other national and international societies and standards organizations.

GOVERNMENT LIAISON SERVICES

Hugh K. Webster . . . . . . . . . . .hwebster@wc-b.com Webster, Chamberlain & Bean, Washington, D.C., (202) 785-9500; FAX (202) 835-0243. Monitors federal issues of importance to the industry.

CERTIFICATION SERVICES
Department Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(273) Director, Certification Operations Terry Perez..tperez@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(470) Oversees application processing, renewals, and exam scoring. Director, Intl Business & Certification Programs Priti Jain.. pjain@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(258) Directs all international business and certification programs. Is responsible for oversight of all agencies handling AWS certification programs. Director, Certification Programs Linda Henderson..lindah@aws.org . . . . . . .(298) Oversees the development of new certification programs, as well as AWS-Accredited Test Facilities, and AWS Certified Welding Fabricators.

CONVENTION and EXPOSITIONS

Jeff Weber.. jweber@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(246) Director, Convention and Meeting Services Selvis Morales.....smorales@aws.org . . . . . .(239)

INTERNATIONAL SALES
Managing Director, Global Exposition Sales Joe Krall..jkrall@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(297) Corporate Director, International Sales Jeff P. Kamentz..jkamentz@aws.org . . . . . . .(233)

Brazing and Soldering Manufacturers Committee

Jeff Weber.. jweber@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . .(246)

AWS FOUNDATION, INC.

Chairman, Board of Trustees Gerald D. Uttrachi Information..vpinsky@aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(212) Executive Director, Foundation Sam Gentry.. sgentry@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (331) Solutions Opportunity Squad Monica Pfarr.. mpfarr@aws.org. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (461) The AWS Foundation is a not-for-profit corporation established to provide support for the educational and scientific endeavors of the American Welding Society. Further the Foundations work with your financial support. Call for information.

EDUCATION SERVICES
Corporate Director Annette Alonso.. aalonso@aws.org . . . . . . .(229) Director, Operations Martica Ventura.. mventura@aws.org . . . . . .(224) Director, Education Development David Hernandez.. dhernandez@aws.org . . .(219)

GAWDA Gases and Welding Distributors Association

Executive Director John Ospina.. jospina@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(462) Operations Manager Natasha Alexis.. nalexis@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(401)

Corporate Director

RWMA Resistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance

Manager Susan Hopkins.. susan@aws.org . . . . . . . . .(295)

AWS AWARDS, FELLOWS, COUNSELORS

Senior Manager Wendy S. Reeve.. wreeve@aws.org . . . . . . . .(293) Coordinates AWS awards and AWS Fellow and Counselor nominees.

WEMCO Welding Equipment Manufacturers Committee

Manager Natalie Tapley.. tapley@aws.org . . . . . . . . . .(444)

70

DECEMBER 2011

NEW LITERATURE
Two Filler Metal Specifications Updated
ket. It includes valuable technical information to assist end-users in making purchase decisions based on price and performance benchmarks, supplier perception ratings, extensive end-user verbatim comments, a 30-page spreadsheet detailing in-depth comparisons of 42 equipment metrics for 116 different models of reflow ovens offered by 22 different suppliers; 23 figures, and 25 tables. The fee for the report is $2500. It is sold directly to reflow oven suppliers, end users, designers, and original equipment manufacturers. ITM Consulting www.itmconsulting.org
(603) 868-1754

Catalog Expands Its Metal Architectural Items

Revised editions have been released for AWS A5.14/A5.14M:2011, Specification for Nickel and Nickel-Alloy Bare Welding Electrodes and Rods, and AWS A5.23/A5.23M:2011, Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged Arc Welding. The A5.14 document supercedes the 2009 revision; the A5.23 update replaces the 2007 edition. The prices for each document are $52 list, $39 for members of the American Welding Society. To order, call the toll-free number or visit the Web site shown. World Engineering Exchange (WEX) www.awspubs.com
(888) 935-3464

pages the companys complete line of capacitive, inductive, weld-immune, specialapplication, NAMUR, ultrasonic, and photoelectric sensors. Also detailed are rotary encoders, cord sets, special function devices, and accessories. Included are complete product specifications, benefits, and ordering information, and more than 60 pages are dedicated to educational resource materials. To request a copy of the catalog, visit the Web site shown, then type sensor catalog in the search window. Pepperl+Fuchs, Inc. www.pepperl-fuchs.us
(330) 486-0001

Reflow Soldering Oven Market Report Issued

Reflow Soldering Oven Benchmark Report provides a comprehensive analysis of the worldwide reflow soldering oven marThe 2012 Architectural Metal Products and Railings catalog includes all railing systems, products, and services available from the company. Its 304 pages present a directory of more than 7800 items, including new products in the Slip-Fit railing system, Kalamazoo aluminum ball-style railing, Bantam LED mini spotlight, swageless cable rail assemblies, spiral stair kits, glass spiders and fittings for structural glass installations, and additional components in the PanelGrip dry glaze glass railing and cable railing systems. A technical information section provides instructions for proper installation and current code summaries. Visit the Web site shown, click the Catalog drop-down menu to view or download the document. You may also e-mail your request for a catalog to getcatalog@mailwagner.com. The Wagner Companies www.wagnercompanies.com
(888) 243-6914

Sensors Catalog Offered

The North American Sensor Catalog and Selection Guide details in nearly 1200

CHAMPION WELDING ALLOYS

Lake Linden, MI 49945
Toll Free: 800.321.9353 Phone: 216.252.7710 Fax: 216.252.7716 www.ChampionWelding.com INFO@ChampionWeldingAlloys.com

We are now ISO9001:2008 registered. Champion Welding Alloys can supply you with the AWS A5.5 chromemoly electrodes and related welding consumables that you need. We manufacture B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B8 and B9 electrodes. We also manufacture the low carbon grades for select alloys. Call, visit our website or email us for more information.
For info go to www.aws.org/ad-index

74

DECEMBER 2011

Course Addresses Deadly Accidents in Construction

Paper Addresses Humidity and Vacuum Furnaces

A recently released technical paper discusses tips for operating vacuum furnaces under high-humidity and high-temperature conditions. The six-page, fullcolor paper uses graphs to detail how humid air can cause water vapor to accumulate inside the furnace chamber causing metal parts to discolor or oxidize. Suggestions are presented on how to improve the final product appearance and minimize the possibility of contamination when faced with high humidity. The document can be downloaded free of charge. Visit the Web site, then click on the Technical Papers link at the top of the page. Solar Atmospheres www.solaratm.com
(800) 347-3236

Catalog Pictures Machine Safeguarding Solutions

The Construction Focus 4: OSHA Instructor Guide and the companion Student Handbook address the four leading causes of death in the construction industry. The documents are designed to make it easy for safety trainers to provide this vital information in both the 10- and 30-hour construction outreach courses to make workers more aware of and how to avoid: 1. falls; 2. being crushed between objects; 3. being struck by moving machinery or objects; and 4. electrocution. The training materials include trainer guidance, objectives, lesson activities, ten sets of student handouts, tests, and classsroom exercises. The PowerPoint slides and the OSHA video, Construction Safety: Choice or Chance?, are provided on the included CD. The price is $79.95. MANCOMM www.mancomm.com
(800) 626-2666

New Standards Released for Underwater Operations

The ADCI Consensus Standards for Commercial Diving and Underwater Operations, 6th edition, includes substantial differences from the 5th edition. The changes affect operational and equipment requirements, diving personnel medical training requirements, diving personnel certification, and the checklist and audit protocols. Except where noted, all new certification and equipment requirements take effect immediately. Other requirements are marked to take effect after July 2012 and others after July 2013. The PDF standards can be downloaded from the Web site for $200. The hard copy may be ordered for $275. Association of Diving Contractors Intl www.adc-int.org
(281) 893-8388

The 20112012 Product Selection Guide to Machine and Process Safeguarding illustrates and describes the companys lines of machine and process safety solutions. New products featured include safety interlock switches, light curtains, programmable safety controllers, and door lock switches. Each product includes specifications, certifications, accessories, CAD drawings, and installation manuals. Included is the safety library with access to education resource materials, fully illustrated articles on safety regulations and directives, risk assessment literature, types of protective measures, and background on safety technologies. To request a copy, complete the form posted on the Web site shown. OMRON Scientific Technologies, Inc. www.sti.com/newcatalog/
(800) 479-3658

NEW PRODUCTS
continued from page 20

3D Vision System Enhances Part Picking

MotoSight 3D Spatial Vision, a 3D vision system, delivers scalable real-time 3D vision guidance for the companys robots. It is also suited to enhance part picking, box moving, and automated kitting. The system is powered by Universal Robotics Spatial Vision robotics software. It features an alignment wizard that walks the user through calibrating the cameras and robot, then loading standard CAD files of parts the system should track. Additionally, it uses pattern matching to determine 3D for six degrees of position and pose information; offers guided intrinsic and extrinsic calibration; provides 24 mm accuracy at typical robot working distance

meter, a detector, and the corresponding mounting assembly. The kits utilize three detectors silicon, germanium, or thermopile. They operate in wavelength ranges from 200 nm to 10.6 microns, and up to 100 W average power. The 918D Series is designed for low-power lasers and operates in the visible or infrared spectrum. The 818P Series thermopile detectors are useful for measuring the average power for high-power lasers that operate in continuous-wave and pulsed modes. Newport Corp.
www.newport.com (877) 835-9620

using Logitech 9000 webcams; and accuracy is achieved through advanced vision processing of raw images. Motoman Robotics
www.motoman.com (937) 847-6200 continued on page 77

WELDING JOURNAL

75

PERSONNEL
OKI Bering Names VP Product Management
OKI Bering, Cincinnati, Ohio, a wholesaler of welding, safety, and industrial supplies, has named Randy Smith vice president of product management. Prior to joining the company, he served as director of global operations and sourcing at American Micro. sible for integrating trade show sales with media sales and oversee all operations including the FABTECH show and six FMA communications publications. Hoper, with FMA for 22 years, most recently served as director of expositions. Nuts, Bolts & Thingamajigs, the FMAs charitable foundation, elected Traci Tapani chairperson. Tapani is copresident, Wyoming Machine, Inc., Stacy, Minn. Bryan Hawkins, president and CEO, Hawkeye Industries, Inc., Tupelo, Miss., was elected vice chair; and Marcia Arndt, dean, manufacturing technology, Moraine Park Technical College, West Bend, Wis., was elected secretary/treasurer. The officers serve one-year terms. neering, and production management experience in the field as owner and general managing partner of Glacier Technology, Inc., in Plymouth, Minn., an equipment distribution firm specializing in custom dust-collection and air-filtration systems.

Greg Schreier

Doncasters Names CEO

Doncasters Group Ltd., Staffordshire, UK, has appointed its Chairman Tariq Jesrai to serve in the additional capacity as CEO, replacing Bill Ellis who resigned to pursue other interests. Previously, Jesrai served as CEO of McKechnie Aerospace.

Laboratory Testing Announces Staff Changes

Laboratory Testing, Inc., Hatfield, Pa., has hired metallurgist Alan Fabiszewski to perform weld qualification, failure analysis, and examinations of test samples in its Metallography Dept. Fabiszewski brings 20 Alan Fabiszewski years of experience in materials engineering and failure analysis to the job. Steve Walmsley, formerly UT Dept. supervisor, first shift, was promoted to serving as personnel trainer and quoting UT orders; Mike Martin, previously a UT technician, has replaced Walmsley as first shift supervisor. Bill King, formerly a UT technician at LTI, has joined the company in the newly created position of UT supervisor, second shift.

Protective Coatings Elects Board VP

The Society for Protective Coatings, Pittsburgh, Pa., has appointed Benjamin S. Fultz vice president of its board of governors. Fultz, who serves as chief of materials engineering technology for Bechtel Corp., has served on the board since 2008.

Tariq Jesrai

Berry Metal Appoints Marketing VP

Berry Metal Co., Harmony, Pa., has appointed John J. Mroz vice president, sales and marketing. Prior to joining the company, Mroz was sales manager, steel products, at Heraeus Electro-Nite Co.

Aluminum Assn. Elects Board Member

The Aluminum Association, Arlington, Va., has elected K. Alan Dick to its board of directors effective January 1, 2012. Dick is executive vice president and president of Rolled Products North America for Aleris International, Inc.

John Mroz

K. Alan Dick

Matheson Appoints Marketing Director

Matheson, Basking Ridge, N.J., has named Lynn Horak director of sustainable marketing for its Corporate Marketing Group based in Montgomeryville, Pa. Horak, with 25 years of experience in the specialty gases and electronic materials fields, most recently served as director of marketing at MEECO, Inc./Tiger Optics, LLC.

Chromalloy Taps President

Chromalloy, Orangeburg, N.Y., specializing in turbine engine repairs and advanced coatings, has appointed Carlo Luzzatto president. Luzzatto previously served as co-general manager of Ansaldo Energia, a division of the Italian conglomerate Finmeccanica S.p.A., a supplier of power plant equipment.

Airgas Names Safety Officer

Airgas, Inc., Radnor, Pa., has appointed Jim McCarthy vice president safety and compliance. With the company since 1988, McCarthy most recently served as director of gas supply chain since 2008.

FMA Names Expo VP and Fills Charity Board Posts

Fabricators & Manufacturers Association, International (FMA), Rockford, Ill., has appointed Mark Hoper to fill the newly created position vice president of expositions and media. He will be respon76 DECEMBER 2011

Camfil Farr Names Marketing Manager

Camfil Farr Air Pollution Control, Jonesboro, Ark., a producer of industrial dust and fume collectors, has appointed Greg Schreier to the newly created position of metalworking market manager. Schreier brings 26 years of sales, engi-

Applied Manufacturing Appoints Safety Director

Applied Manufacturing Technologies, Orion, Mich., a supplier of factory automation design, engineering, and process consulting services, has appointed Roberta Nelson Shea director of safety consulting services for its newly established Safety Services Business Unit. Nel-

son Shea previously served as president at Safety Compliance Services, LLC, and COO and general manager at Pilz Automation Safety, L.P., and has served on the boards of the American National Standards Institute and Robotic Industries Assn.

Intelligrated Appoints Key Mexico Managers

cation caster and wheel products, has appointed Darlene Thompson an engineering assistant, and Faith Taylor a full-time customer service representative. Thompson, with the company for five years, previously was a customer service representative. Taylor, filling the vacancy left by Thompson, has more than 13 years in the material handling industry. She will be working with the Mid-South regional sales representatives and customers.

Harris Products Hires Poland Quality Manager

The Harris Products Group, Mason, Ohio, a Lincoln Electric Co., has named Bartos Zynkin quality assurance and quality control manager for Harris Calorific Poland operations, based in Dzierzoniw. Prior to joining the company, Zynkin worked for eight years in an automotive industry quality department.

in Hanover many years before moving to Kingston. He spent many winters in St. Lucie West, Fla. Coulstring also worked as a machinist at Bethlehem Steel and at F.L. & J.C. Codman Co. in Rockland, Mass. He served in the U.S. Army during World War II. He was a member of the Rockland Fraternal Order of Eagles, Halifax Country Club, and PGA Golf Club in St. Lucie West, Fla. He enjoyed fishing and golfing, and owned Robert Coulstring a racehorse named Turf Doctor. Coulstring is survived by his wife, Louise, three sons, one daughter, two brothers, 13 grandchildren, and seven great grandchildren.

Fernando Meneses

Roberto Laguna

Intelligrated, Cincinnati, Ohio, has appointed Fernando Meneses and Roberto Laguna as key account sales managers in its Mexico City operation. Both Meneses and Laguna hold mechanical engineering degrees and have many years of experience in the material handling solutions industry.

NEW PRODUCTS
Obituaries Hilary Hil Bax
Hilary J. Hil Bax, died Oct. 15 in Surprise, Ariz. Bax, an AWS member for 27 years, served as chair of the St. Louis Section (19971999), and as District 14 director (19982002). Hilary J. Hil Bax He helped to shape the welding industry during his 46 years at Cee Kay Supply until he retired in 2004. In recognition of his many contributions to the welding industry, and his technical knowledge and sales approach, Cee Kay named its Hil Bax Tech Center in his honor. Bax is survived by Eileen, his wife of 51 years; two children, a sister, three brothers, and seven grandchildren. The St. Louis Section has established a scholarship fund in his honor. To contribute, send a check payable to American Welding Society, St. Louis Section, to Cee Kay Supply, 5835 Manchester Ave., St. Louis, MO 63110. These donations will be part of an annual $500 scholarship given by the St. Louis Section to a student pursuing a career in a welding-related field.
continued from page 75

Tools Useful for Preparing, Cutting Thin-Walled Tubing

PFERD Fills Top U.S. Sales Management Post

PFERD, Inc., Leominster, Mass., a provider of abrasive products, brushes, and power tools, has appointed Mark Noe to the newly created position director of sales, responsible for all U.S. sales operaMark Noe tions. Prior to joining the company, Noe was director of sales for the Apex Products division of Apex Tool Group.

Colson Caster Fills Two Posts

Robert N. Coulstring Sr.

Robert N. Coulstring Sr., 83, died Oct. 22 at his home in Kingston, Mass. An AWS member since 1991, Coulstring was the owner and founder of Triangle Engineering, Inc., a supplier of welding engineering products and testing services. Born in Boston, and raised in Rockland, he lived

Darlene Thompson

Faith Taylor

Four tube facing and one cutting tool are intended for use with 316 stainless steel, carbon steel, titanium, and most nickel-based alloys. The tube facing tools produce flat, smooth, square, burr-free, and chamfer-free tube ends. They also feature coated tool bits with two cutting edges, built-in electronic speed regulation, and a quick change collet system. The tools for preparation of thin-walled tubing, listed along with their dimension ranges, are as follows: TF16 from 18 to 1 in. OD; TF24 from 18 to 112 in. OD; TF40 from 14 to 212 in. OD; and TF72 from 12 to 412 in. OD. The TC72 is for cutting thinwalled tubing and elbows up to 412 in. Swagelok Co.
www.swagelok.com (440) 349-5934

Colson Caster Corp., Jonesboro, Ark., a supplier of standard and custom appli-

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THERMAL SPRAY PROFILES (advertisements)

ABC Testing Incorporated
Founded 1981

CenterLine (Windsor) LTD.

Founded 1957

ABC Testing Incorporated was founded by Carleton A. Richardson out of his home in Bridgewater, Massachusetts. The business has remained in the family with his son Bruce taking over in 2003. He is a 1982 Northeastern University graduate with a degree in mechanical engineering, ASNT certified level III, AWS certified welding inspector (CWI), and NYDOT certified ultrasonic inspector. We celebrated our 30th year in business in 2011. Our number 1 commitment is customer service. ABC Testing Incorporated is certified as ASNT SNT TC 1A, level III in ultrasonic, radiography, magnetic particle, liquid penetrant, and visual. We have several AWS certified welding inspectors on staff. We can provide inspectors certified by the NYDOT in ultrasonic testing. We are also certified by ABS to perform ship hull thickness surveys. We are Veriforce certified for inspection of gas pipelines. Visit our web site to see what we have to offer or contact us with any questions you may have.

24100 Chagrin Blvd. Suite 380 Beachwood, OH 44122 (216) 464-2300 Fax: (216) 464-2301 www.ardleigh.net

Bay State Surface Technologies

Founded 1968

ABC Testing Incorporated

95 First Street Post Office Box 868 Bridgewater, MA 02324 (508) 697-6068 Fax: (508) 697-6154 www.abcndt.com

Make Bay State your complete source for thermal spray equipment, materials, and services. We've been in business for more than 40 years and we are known for our high quality and affordable plasma spray systems, power feeders, twin wire arc metallizing equipment, thermal spray powder, and wire. We offer turnkey solutions and a broad array of auxiliary equipment. AS9100/ISO 9001 registered and award winning quality and service. Check out our new 40-kw plasma system, which is value priced for those companies that are just starting out with plasma spraying. See special offers online.

CenterLines Supersonic Spray Technology Division (SST) supplies cold spray metal coating systems and supplies to the aerospace, defense, glass, and automotive industries. Cold spray is a cost effective, practical process, resulting in very low oxidation, high density metal coatings with little to no effect on temperature sensitive materials. Cold spray coatings are extremely machineable with thin or thick build characteristics and are accepting of dissimilar materials with no galvanic reactions. In addition, CenterLine provides an extensive range of process development, system integration, R&D support, and job shop services. The SST family of products ranges from portable spray systems to fully automated turnkey production systems. The company also offers a wide variety of powder blends and peripheral equipment. Contact CenterLine to discuss how cold spray can protect, repair, restore, refinish and recoat your manufactured products.

Ardleigh Minerals, Inc.

Founded 1994

Ardleigh Minerals is a specialty recycler providing one-stop recycling services for aerospace, automotive, and implant manufacturers and their suppliers. Since 1994 Ardleigh has been specializing in the recycling of raw materials generated in thermal spray preparation and processing, including cold flame, HVOF, plasma, and wire arc spraying. Ardleigh proudly serves the aerospace, automotive, catalytic, electronic, and thermal spray industries. Ardleigh provides the maximum economic recovery to each facility.
80 DECEMBER 2011

(519) 734-8464 info@cntrline.com www.supersonicspray.com

201 Washington Street Auburn, MA 01501 (508) 832-5035 jkapur@aimtek.com www.baystatesurfacetech.com

THERMAL SPRAY PROFILES (advertisements)

H.C. Starck, Inc.
The H.C. Starck Group is a leading global supplier of refractory metals and technical ceramics, and serves growing industries such as the electronics, chemicals, automotive, medical technology, aerospace, energy technology, and environmental technology industries, as well as mechanical engineering and tool manufacturers. H.C. Starck has 12 state-of-the-art manufacturing facilities located in Europe, America, and Asia, and has close to 3,000 employees worldwide. Our technological excellence and 333 River St. well-established record of product West Springfield, MA 01089-3603 innovation encompasses metal, ceramic, (413) 734-4981 and thermal spray powders. With Fax: (413) 785-5052 our high-quality AMPERIT powders www.haydencorp.com we supply markets in the aerospace, automotive, and energy sectors. Comprehensive application engineering creates a big advantage for AMPERIT HFW Industries, Inc. products, from powder development to Founded 1950 complete coating solutions. H.C. Starck experts provide customers with technical HFW Industries is a manufacturer of assistance and advice based on their machine components and industrial extensive knowledge in materials and equipment, specializing in the integration coatings technology. of heat, wear, and corrosion resistant coatings to provide a complete single source for our customers manufacturing and repair needs. Our strength comes from a combination of state-of-the-art H.C. Starck No. American Trading LLC manufacturing capabilities, exceptional operating processes, and most imporNewton, Massachusetts tantly, a well trained and experienced staff Contact: Ana MacKendrick of over 70 employees. HFW provides an (617) 407-9960 extensive range of services in a modern ana.mackendrick@hcstarck.com 70,000 square foot facility. Thermal spraying via metallize, sprayweld, Rokide, plasma spray Hayden Corporation and HVOF Founded 1919 Hardfacing via PTA, subarc, TIG, MIG, and oxyacetylene torch Hayden Corporation's expertise in wear Machining conventional and protection spans three generations CNC turning to 54 in. diameter and multiple industries. Our experience x 26 ft. Milling of all types, with the strictest tolerances and including CNC machining centers. standards (military, aerospace, propri- Precision finishing internal, etary applications, etc.) helps us solve surface, and cylindrical grinding with clients' engineering challenges, not just temperature controlled grinding their service needs. Specialized capabili- facilities for extremely close tolerances. ties make Hayden a unique resource in Assembly including hydrotesting the Northeast: 1) Our own metallurgy and dynamic balancing. lab; 2) In-the-field thermal spray service, eliminating time and shipping expenses; and 3) CNC-guided laser cladding services for intricate wear 196 Philadelphia St. / P.O. Box 8 surfaces. In addition to the full range Buffalo, NY 14207-0008 of thermal spray coating processes, (716) 875-3380 Hayden also has in-house machining Fax: (716) 875-3385 capability for preparing and finish grindwww.hfwindustries.com ing customer components.

International Thermal Spray Association

Founded 1947

The International Thermal Spray Association is a professional trade organization dedicated to expanding the use of thermal spray technologies for the benefit of industry and society. Once known as Metallizing Service Contractors, the association has been closely tied to almost all major advances in thermal spray technology, equipment and materials, industry events, education, standards, and market development in North and South America. Considered the trade association of the thermal spray industry, ITSA membership represents a broad spectrum of thermal spray markets throughout the world. Contact us for copies of our What Is Thermal Spray? and SPRAYTIME newsletter publications.

For more information, contact Kathy Dusa (440) 357-5400 itsa@thermalspray.org www.thermalspray.org

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THERMAL SPRAY PROFILES (advertisements)

chemical, cement, mining, lumber, Plasma Technology Inc. The Surface Engineering Co. power generating, and other industries. When it comes to advanced thermal Spray coatings, the worlds toughest customers come to PTI, a recognized leader in the coating field. We have two modern, state-of-the-art facilities, with 24 fully operational spray booths equipped with advanced robotic systems for precise uniform application of HVOF, Plasma, Arc and Flame Spray coatings, machining, diamond grinding and super finishing, and laboratory testing. PTI is approved by NADCAP, FAA, JAA, the US military and over 100 of the largest aerospace and industrial companies. PTI applies over 300 different coatings for surface engineering solutions such as Wear Protection, Thermal Barriers, Corrosion/Oxidation Protection, Dielectric, Conductive, EMI Shielding, etc. PTI also offers thin film PVD coatings for aerospace and automotive applications. TAFA Incorporated
A Praxair Surface Technologies Company

146 Pembroke Road Concord, NH 03301 (603) 224-9585 www.praxairsurfacetechnologies.com

Saint-Gobain
Founded 1920

Saint-Gobain is a world class manufacturer of equipment and consumables for the thermal spray coatings industry. Our expansive equipment experience 10073 Commerce Park Drive dates back to 1920 with the Cincinnati, OH 45246 development of the first oxy-acteylene (513) 874-3586 flame wire gun followed by Rokide Fax: (513) 874-2880 Spray Systems, Plasma Spray Systems, E-mail: sales@polymet.us PTA and many innovative materials. www.polymet.us We offer a wide range of consumables in the form of powder, flexible cords, Rokide rods and wire for use in many different applications and industries. TAFA Incorporated We supply our own raw materials and this enables us to develop a product With more than 30 years of equipment, to meet your exact needs. Visit our applications, and coatings experience, website at www.coatingsolutions.saintTAFA Incorporated is a recognized gobain.com. leader in the thermal spray industry. 1754 Crenshaw Blvd. Whether you need thermal spray Torrance, CA 90501 materials, equipment, spare parts, fully (310) 320-3373 automated coating systems or technical Fax: (310) 533-1677 support, and assistance; TAFA has the solution you can rely on. Our product 70 Rye Street line includes carbide, metallic and South Windsor, CT 06074 ceramic powders, wires, and spare parts (860) 282-0659 complemented by our reliable and rugged HVOF, plasma, and arc spray Fax: (860) 528-2631 equipment. Application by application, www.ptise.com we offer the appropriate thermal spray process and the right material to do the job properly and cost-effectively.

Polymet Corporation
Polymet is a world-class manufacturer of high-performance welding, hardfacing and thermal spray wire. Our manufacturing processes include a patented hot extruded forged wire process, rolling, die drawing, and alloy cored wire fabrication. Polymets multiple wire processing capabilities allows it to be an innovator in problem solving. The high quality products provide protection against, abrasion, corrosion, impact and high temperature application for the aerospace, automotive, chemical, petro82 DECEMBER 2011

1 New Bond Street Worcester, MA 01615 (800) 243-0028 (508) 795-2380 coatingsolutions@saint-gobain.com www.coatingsolutions.saint-gobain.com

THERMAL SPRAY PROFILES (advertisements)

Sulzer Metco
Sulzer Metco is the worldwide leader for advanced thermal spray materials, integrated systems, and equipment for all thermal spray processes, specialized coating and surfacing services, high quality braze and weld hardfacing materials, and global customer support services. Contact Sulzer Metco to unravel your toughest surface engineering and joining applications.

Wall Colmonoy
A global leader in the manufacture and application of surfacing powders. Wall Colmonoys standard and custom range of surfacing alloys are applied by thermal spray processes extending the useful life of engineered components for such global industries as glass container, power generation, oil and Gas, energy, and transportation. Our specially formulated alloys, COLMONOY, WALLEX, andCOLFEROLOY have outstanding metallurgical and physical properties making them ideally suited to solving wear problems. The alloys are applied in a wide range of proven surfacing and thermal spraying techniques, including PTA, HVOF, spray and powder welding and Laser Cladding. Our manufacturing facilities in North America and Europe are equipped with modern laboratory and testing facilities. Our products are manufactured to quality standards set by international and national industrial associations. Wall Colmonoy. Progressive Collaboration for Superior Performance. Worldwide.

ATTENTION THERMAL SPRAY MARKETEERS

We would like to thank you for advertising in the fourth thermal spray profile that the AWS Welding Journal has published. If you would like more information on how to include your company in the next Thermal Spray profile in 2012, please contact us by email at salty@aws.org or lea@aws.org. You can also call us at 1-800-443-9353 ext. 243 or 220.

Sulzer Metco (US) Inc. 1101 Prospect Ave. Westbury, NY 11590 (516) 334-1300 Fax: (516) 338-2414 www.sulzermetco.com

101 W. Girard Madison Heights, MI 48071 Tel: (248) 585-6400 Fax: (248) 585-7960 www.wallcolmonoy.com

$ 6450.
$6450.
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Iron Man Comic Book, Welding Career DVDs Available for Free
Copies of four unique resource materials, including the Careers In Welding magazine, Iron Man comic book, and Hot Bikes, Fast Cars, Cool Careers and Careers In Welding DVDs, may be requested for free. Just visit www.CareersInWelding. com, click on the welding publications link, and fill out the form specifying the quantity you need of each item.

$BMM

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WELDING JOURNAL INDEX

Part 1 WELDING JOURNAL
SUBJECT INDEX
A Guide to Making GTAW Repairs on Stainless Steel D. Fisher, (Feb) 50 Abrasives for Grinding Aluminum, Selecting P. Carroll, (Sept) 32 Advanced Technologies for Tandem SAW Narrow Groove Applications D. Schwemmer, B. Beattie, and P. Wahlen, (Nov) 32 All about Welding Nozzles D. Bellamy and J. Wells, (Aug) 101 Aluminum, Selecting Abrasives for Grinding P. Carroll, (Sept) 32 Artist Seems to Defy Gravity, Through Steel and Glass J. Swartz, (Oct) 36 Automatic Evaluation of Digital Radiographic Images S. Das, D. Mukherjee, and B. K. Shah, (Nov) 29 Automatic Surfacing Machine, Developing an H. Xu, H. Wang, C. Ma, Y. Luo, H. Li, and B. Dai, (Jul) 48 Automotive Industry, Welding Challenges in Todays R. Ryan and D. Bellamy, (May) 38 Auto Innovators, Students Prove Themselves, (Feb) 113 Avoid Lower-Back Injuries, How to W. T. Fogarty, (Nov) 89 Backfires and Flashbacks in Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting A. F. Manz, (May) 109 Beam Welding in the United States, Electron D. E. Powers, (Jan) 30 Beveling, Comparing Thermal Cutting Processes for J. Sorvaag, (Sept) 36 Brazing Filler Metals, Comparing High-Temperature Nickel G. Stratford, A. Battenbough, L. Lee, and M. Weinstein (Mar) 54 Brazing Titanium and Chromium Using Ion Bombardment Heating M. Markovich, G. Fischer, and A. E. Shapiro, (Sept) 41 Bridge: One Fathers Journey from Start to Finish, Building a (Aug) 103 Building a Backyard Bridge: One Fathers Journey from Start to Finish, (Aug) 103 Business Forecast 2012 M. R. Johnsen, H. Woodward, and K. Campbell, (Dec) 28 Bulk GMAW Wire Package, How to Choose a L. Byall, (Mar) 44 Case for U.S. Manufacturing, The E. S. DeRocco, (Jan) 50 Causes and Cures for GMAW Flaws V. Lubieniecki, (Jul) 34 Ceramic Backing Enhances One-Sided Welding S. Tongzhan, D. Huan, X. Zhimin, N. Xilin, and Y. Jiancheng, (Oct) 48 Certification Program Emphasizes Safe Use of Robots V. Mangold, (Aug) 54 Cheese on the Moove K. Campbell, (Nov) 91 Chromium Using Ion Bombardment Heating, Brazing Titanium and M. Markovich, G. Fischer, and A. E. Shapiro, (Sept) 41 Collision Welding of Sheet Metals: A Practical and Green Technology Y. Zhang, H. Wang, S. Babu, J. C. Lippold, J. Kwasegroch, M. Laha, and G. S. Daehn, (May) 46 Comparing High-Temperature Nickel Brazing Filler Metals G. Stratford, A. Battenbough, L. Lee, and M. Weinstein (Mar) 54 Comparing Thermal Cutting Processes for Beveling J. Sorvaag, (Sept) 36 Composites for In-Service Pipeline Repair, Steel Sleeves vs. W. A. Bruce and W. E. Amend, (Jun) 72 Controlling Welding Costs, (Aug) 42 Corrosion Control, Using Thermal Spray Coatings for F. Van Rodijnen, (Dec) 32 Corrosion Resistance, Ni-Mo-Cr Alloy Shows Versatility in J. L. Caron, M. A. Britton, N. S. Meck, and H. J. White, (Mar) 40 Cost-Effective, High-Productivity Tool for Manufacturing, Remote Laser Beam Welding: A R. Mueller and M. Forrest, (May) 52 Costs, Controlling Welding (Aug) 42 Costs in Check, Keeping Stud Welding Shop Floor D. Phillips, (Aug) 50 Cracking of Welds in Nuclear Reactors, Understanding Stress Corrosion J. Ramirez, (Jul) 38 Cutting Processes for Beveling, Comparing Thermal J. Sorvaag, (Sept) 36 Developing a Sensor for Measuring Diffusible Hydrogen G. K. Padhy, V. Ramasubbu, N. Murugesan, C. Remash, and S. K. Albert, (Mar) 47 Developing an Automatic Surfacing Machine H. Xu, H. Wang, C. Ma, Y. Luo, H. Li, and B. Dai, (Jul) 48 Developing Guidelines for Numerical Welding Simulation C. Schwenk, (Apr) 49 Digital Radiographic Images, Automatic Evaluation of S. Das, D. Mukherjee, and B. K. Shah, (Nov) 29 Dissimilar Metal Welding, EPRI P87: A Promising New Filler Metal for J. A. Siefert, J. M. Tanzosh, J. P. Shingledecker, and W. F. Newell Jr., (Mar) 30 Dressing Makes a Better Spot Weld, Electrode H. Kusano, (May) 28 Electrode Dressing Makes a Better Spot Weld H. Kusano, (May) 28 Electron Beam Near-Net-Shape Processing Using Wire Feed K. Lachenberg, (Jan) 46 Electron Beam Welding in the United States D. E. Powers, (Jan) 30 EPA Air-Pollution Standards, Meeting the New T. Haynam and E. Ravert, (Nov) 93 EPRI P87: A Promising New Filler Metal for Dissimilar Metal Welding J. A. Siefert, J. M. Tanzosh, J. P. Shingledecker, and W. F. Newell Jr., (Mar) 30 Exploring Welding through YouTube A. Cullison, M. R. Johnsen, H. Woodward, and K. Campbell, (Apr) 38 FABTECH (Oct) 52 FABTECH 2010: A Showcase for Weldings Latest and Greatest A. Cullison, K. Campbell, and C. Guzmn, (Jan) 36 Filler Metal for Dissimilar Metal Welding, EPRI P87: A Promising New J. A. Siefert, J. M. Tanzosh, J. P. Shingledecker,

84

DECEMBER 2011

and W. F. Newell Jr., (Mar) 30 Flaws, Causes and Cures for GMAW V. Lubieniecki, (Jul) 34 Flaws, How to Avoid Gas-Related Weld R. Green, (Jul) 44 Flux Cored Filler Metals?,Whats New in K. Packard, (Mar) 36 Gas-Related Weld Flaws, How to Avoid R. Green, (Jul) 44 GMAW Flaws, Causes and Cures for V. Lubieniecki, (Jul) 34 GMAW Processes Reduce Pipe Rework M. Roth, (Jun) 68 Green Technology, Collision Welding of Sheet Metals: A Practical and Y. Zhang, H. Wang, S. Babu, J. C. Lippold, J. Kwasegroch, M. Laha, and G. S. Daehn, (May) 46 Hand Soldering Basics P. T. Vianco, (Sept) 47 Head, Protecting the B. Gardner and E. Sommers, (Aug) 38 How to Assure Quality in Outsourced Welded Products W. C. LaPlante, (Oct) 42 How to Avoid Gas-Related Weld Flaws R. Green, (Jul) 44 How to Avoid Lower-Back Injuries W. T. Fogarty, (Nov) 89 How to Choose a Bulk GMAW Wire Package L. Byall, (Mar) 44 HVAC Shops Capitalize on Welding Skills T. Bond, (May) 34 Hydrogen, Developing a Sensor for Measuring Diffusible G. K. Padhy, V. Ramasubbu, N. Murugesan, C. Remash, and S. K. Albert, (Mar) 47 Incorporating Thermal Spray into Fabrication R. S. Brunhouse, P. Foy, and D. R. Moody, (Dec) 40 Injuries, How to Avoid Lower-Back W. T. Fogarty, (Nov) 89 Inspections, Orbital Welding Systems Streamline In-Process J. Glessman, (June) 64 Invertor Technology in China, Update on Digital G. Zhang, (Dec) 43 Keeping Stud Welding Shop Floor Costs in Check D. Phillips, (Aug) 50 Laser Beam Welding: A Cost-Effective, High-Productivity Tool for Manufacturing, Remote R. Mueller and M. Forrest, (May) 52 Latest Developments in Welding Skills Training S. Keitel and C. Ahrens, (Apr) 52 Longevity: What Are They Doing Right?, Small Firms with A. Cullison, H. Woodward, and K. Campbell, (Jun) 78 Machining Thermal Spray Coatings D. C. Hayden, (Sept) 28 Manufacturing Outlook for 2012 D. Johnson, (Dec) 37 Manufacturing, The Case for U.S. E. S. DeRocco, (Jan) 50 Monitoring the Performance of Your Radiography System S. A. Mango, (Nov) 38 Meeting the New EPA Air-Pollution Standards T. Haynam, and E. Ravert, (Nov) 93 Near-Net-Shape Processing Using Wire Feed, Electron Beam K. Lachenberg, (Jan) 46 Navy Ships, New Steel Shows Promise for P. J. Konkol, K. M. Stefanick, and G. S. Pike, (Feb) 34 New Steel Shows Promise for Navy Ships P. J. Konkol, K. M. Stefanick, and G. S. Pike, (Feb) 34 Nickel Brazing Filler Metals, Comparing High-Temperature G. Stratford, A. Battenbough, L. Lee, and M. Weinstein (Mar) 54 Ni-Mo-Cr Alloy Shows Versatility in Corrosion Resistance J. L. Caron, M. A. Britton, N. S. Meck, and H. J. White, (Mar) 40 Nozzles, All about Welding D. Bellamy and J. Wells, (Aug) 101 Nuclear Reactors, Understanding Stress Corrosion Cracking of Welds in J. Ramirez, (Jul) 38 One-Sided Welding, Ceramic Backing Enhances S.

Tongzhan, D. Huan, X. Zhimin, N. Xilin, and Y. Jiancheng, (Oct) 48 Optimizing Shipyard Welding with Intelligent Process Controls J. Noruk, (Feb) 46 Orbital Welding Systems Streamline In-Process Inspections J. Glessman, (June) 64 Outsourced Welded Products, How to Assure Quality in W. C. LaPlante, (Oct) 42 Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting, Backfires and Flashbacks in A. F. Manz, (May) 109 Pipe Applications, Welding Advances in Tube and I. D. Harris, (June) 58 Pipe Rework, GMAW Processes Reduce M. Roth, (Jun) 68 Pipeline Repair, Steel Sleeves vs. Composites for In-Service W. A. Bruce and W. E. Amend, (Jun) 72 Protecting the Head B. Gardner and E. Sommers, (Aug) 38 Quality in Outsourced Welded Products, How to Assure W. C. LaPlante, (Oct) 42 Radiographic Images, Automatic Evaluation of Digital S. Das, D. Mukherjee, and B. K. Shah, (Nov) 29 Radiography System, Monitoring the Performance of Your S. A. Mango, (Nov) 38 Rail Defects, Weld Repair of (Feb) 42 Remote Laser Beam Welding: A Cost-Effective, High-Productivity Tool for Manufacturing R. Mueller and M. Forrest, (May) 52 Remote Voltage Control Improves Shipyards Productivity J. Feldhausen and J. Rappl, (Feb) 56 Repairs on Stainless Steel, A Guide to Making GTAW D. Fisher, (Feb) 50 Robots, Certification Program Emphasizes Safe Use of V. Mangold, (Aug) 54 Roles Welding Plays in Our Lives, The K. Campbell, (July) 28 Safe Use of Robots, Certification Program Emphasizes V. Mangold, (Aug) 54 Safety, Ten Tips for On-the-Job Welding K. Giebe, (Aug) 46 SAW Narrow Groove Applications, Advanced Technologies for Tandem D. Schwemmer, B. Beattie, and P. Wahlen, (Nov) 32 Select the Right Surface Finish to Improve Solderability E. P. Lopez and P. T. Vianco, (Sept) 44 Selecting Abrasives for Grinding Aluminum P. Carroll, (Sept) 32 Sheet Metals: A Practical and Green Technology, Collision Welding of Y. Zhang, H. Wang, S. Babu, J. C. Lippold, J. Kwasegroch, M. Laha, and G. S. Daehn, (May) 46 Shipyards Productivity, Remote Voltage Control Improves J. Feldhausen and J. Rappl, (Feb) 56 Shipyard Welding with Intelligent Process Controls, Optimizing J. Noruk, (Feb) 46 Simulation, Developing Guidelines for Numerical Welding C. Schwenk, (Apr) 49 Showcase for Weldings Latest and Greatest, FABTECH 2010: A. Cullison, K. Campbell, and C. Guzmn, (Jan) 36 Small Firms with Longevity: What Are They Doing Right? A. Cullison, H. Woodward, and K. Campbell, (Jun) 78 Soldering Basics, Hand P. T. Vianco, (Sept) 47 Soldering, Tips for Creating Consistency in (Mar) 60 Solderability, Select the Right Surface Finish to Improve E. P. Lopez and P. T. Vianco, (Sept) 44 South Africa, Weldings Future in M. Du Toit, (Oct) 31 Spot Weld, Electrode Dressing Makes a Better H. Kusano, (May) 28

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Stainless Steel, A Guide to Making GTAW Repairs on D. Fisher, (Feb) 50 Steel Sleeves vs. Composites for In-Service Pipeline Repair W. A. Bruce and W. E. Amend, (Jun) 72 Stud Welding Improves Kitchen Ventilation Systems, (May) 43 Stud Welding Shop Floor Costs in Check, Keeping D. Phillips, (Aug) 50 Students Prove Themselves Auto Innovators, (Feb) 113 Tandem SAW Narrow Groove Applications, Advanced Technologies for D. Schwemmer, B. Beattie, and P. Wahlen, (Nov) 32 Ten Tips for On-the-Job Welding Safety K. Giebe, (Aug) 46 Thermal Spray Coatings for Corrosion Control, Using F. Van Rodijnen, (Dec) 32 Thermal Spray into Fabrication, Incorporating R. S. Brunhouse, P. Foy, and D. R. Moody, (Dec) 40 Thermal Spray Technology, Understanding M. F. Smith, (Dec) 22 Thermal Spray Coatings, Machining D. C. Hayden, (Sept) 28 Through Steel and Glass, Artist Seems to Defy Gravity J. Swartz, (Oct) 36 Tips for Creating Consistency in Soldering (Mar) 60 Tips for On-the-Job Welding Safety, Ten K. Giebe, (Aug) 46 Titanium and Chromium Using Ion Bombardment Heating, Brazing M. Markovich, G. Fischer, and A. E. Shapiro, (Sept) 41 Training, Latest Developments in Welding Skills S. Keitel and C. Ahrens, (Apr) 52 Tube and Pipe Applications, Welding Advances in I. D. Harris, (June) 58 2012, Business Forecast M. R. Johnsen, H. Woodward,

and K. Campbell, (Dec) 28 2012, Manufacturing Outlook for D. Johnson, (Dec) 37 Understanding Stress Corrosion Cracking of Welds in Nuclear Reactors J. Ramirez, (Jul) 38 Understanding Thermal Spray Technology M. F. Smith, (Dec) 22 Underwater Welder, What It Takes to Be an K. Campbell, (Apr) 42 Update on Digital Invertor Technology in China G. Zhang, (Dec) 43 Using Thermal Spray Coatings For Corrosion Control F. Van Rodijnen, (Dec) 32 Ventilation Systems, Stud Welding Improves Kitchen (May) 43 Voltage Control Improves Shipyards Productivity, Remote J. Feldhausen and J. Rappl, (Feb) 56 Weld Repair of Rail Defects (Feb) 42 Welding Advances in Tube and Pipe Applications I. D. Harris, (Jun) 58 Welding Challenges in Todays Automotive Industry R. Ryan and D. Bellamy, (May) 38 Welding Plays in Our Lives, The Roles K. Campbell, (Jul) 28 Welding The Enchanted Highway M. R. Johnsen, (May) 105 Weldings Future in South Africa M. Du Toit, (Oct) 31 What It Takes to Be an Underwater Welder K. Campbell, (Apr) 42 Whats New in Flux Cored Filler Metals? K. Packard, (Mar) 36 Why Preheat? Feb (107) YouTube, Exploring Welding through A. Cullison, M. R. Johnsen, H. Woodward, and K. Campbell, (Apr) 38

AUTHORS FOR FEATURE ARTICLES

Ahrens, C., and Keitel, S. Latest Developments in Welding Skills Training, (Apr) 52 Albert, S. K., Padhy, G. K., Ramasubbu, V., Murugesan, N., and Remash, C. Developing a Sensor for Measuring Diffusible Hydrogen, (Mar) 47 Amend, W. E., and Bruce, W. A. Steel Sleeves vs. Composites for In-Service Pipeline Repair, (Jun) 72 Babu, S., Lippold, J. C., Kwasegroch, J., Laha, M., Daehn, G. S., Zhang, Y., and Wang, H. Collision Welding of Sheet Metals: A Practical and Green Technology, (May) 46 Battenbough, A., Lee, L., Weinstein, M., and Stratford, G. Comparing High-Temperature Nickel Brazing Filler Metals, (Mar) 54 Beattie, B., Wahlen, P., and Schwemmer, D. Advanced Technologies for Tandem SAW Narrow Groove Applications, (Nov) 32 Bellamy, D., and Wells, J. All about Welding Nozzles, (Aug) 101 Bellamy, D., and Ryan, R . Welding Challenges in Todays Automotive Industry, (May) 38 Bond, T. HVAC Shops Capitalize on Welding Skills, (May) 34 Britton, M. A., Meck, N. S., White, H. J., and Caron, J. L. Ni-Mo-Cr Alloy Shows Versatility in Corrosion Resistance, (Mar) 40 Bruce, W. A., and Amend, W. E. Steel Sleeves vs. Composites for In-Service Pipeline Repair, (Jun) 72
86 DECEMBER 2011

Brunhouse, R. S., Foy, P., and Moody, D. R. Incorporating Thermal Spray into Fabrication, (Dec) 40 Byall, L. How to Choose a Bulk GMAW Wire Package, (Mar) 44 Campbell, K., Cullison, A., and Guzmn, C. FABTECH 2010: A Showcase for Weldings Latest and Greatest, (Jan) 36 Campbell, K. Cheese on the Moove, (Nov) 91 Campbell, K. The Roles Welding Plays in Our Lives, (Jul) 28 Campbell, K. What It Takes to Be an Underwater Welder, (Apr) 42 Campbell, K., Cullison, A., Johnsen, M. R., and Woodward, H. Exploring Welding Through YouTube, (Apr) 38 Campbell, K., Cullison, A., and Woodward, H. Small Firms with Longevity: What Are They Doing Right?, (Jun) 78 Campbell, K., Guzmn, C., and Cullison, A. FABTECH 2010: A Showcase for Weldings Latest and Greatest, (Jan) 36 Campbell, K., Johnsen, M. R., and Woodward, H. Business Forecast 2012, (Dec) 28 Caron, J. L., Britton, M. A., Meck, N. S., and White, H. J. NiMo-Cr Alloy Shows Versatility in Corrosion Resistance, (Mar) 40 Carroll, P. Selecting Abrasives for Grinding Aluminum, (Sept) 32 Cullison, A., Guzmn, C., and Campbell, K. FABTECH 2010: A Showcase for Weldings Latest and Greatest, (Jan) 36

Cullison, A., Johnsen, M. R., Woodward, H., and Campbell, K. Exploring Welding Through YouTube, (Apr) 38 Cullison, A., Woodward, H., and Campbell, K. Small Firms with Longevity: What Are They Doing Right?, (Jun) 78 Daehn, G. S., Zhang, Y., Wang, H., Babu, S., Lippold, J. C., Kwasegroch, J., and Laha, M. Collision Welding of Sheet Metals: A Practical and Green Technology, (May) 46 Dai, B., Xu, H., Wang, H., Ma, C., Luo, Y., and Li, H. Developing an Automatic Surfacing Machine, (Jul) 48 Das, S., Mukherjee, D., and Shah, B. K. Automatic Evaluation of Digital Radiographic Images, (Nov) 29 DeRocco, E. S. The Case for U.S. Manufacturing, (Jan) 50 Du Toit, M. Weldings Future in South Africa, (Oct) 31 Feldhausen, J., and Rappl, J. Remote Voltage Control Improves Shipyards Productivity, (Feb) 56 Fisher, D. A Guide to Making GTAW Repairs on Stainless Steel, (Feb) 50 Fischer, G., Shapiro, A. E., and Markovich, M. Brazing Titanium and Chromium Using Ion Bombardment Heating, (Sept) 41 Fogarty, W. T. How to Avoid Lower-Back Injuries, (Nov) 89 Forrest, M., and Mueller, R. Remote Laser Beam Welding: A Cost-Effective, High-Productivity Tool for Manufacturing, (May) 52 Foy, P., Moody, D. R., and Brunhouse, R. S., Incorporating Thermal Spray into Fabrication, (Dec) 40 Gardner, B., and Sommers, E. Protecting the Head, (Aug) 38 Giebe, K. Ten Tips for On-the-Job Welding Safety, (Aug) 46 Glessman, J. Orbital Welding Systems Streamline InProcess Inspections, (June) 64 Green, R. How to Avoid Gas-Related Weld Flaws, (Jul) 44 Guzmn, C., Cullison, A., and Campbell, K. FABTECH 2010: A Showcase for Weldings Latest and Greatest, (Jan) 36 Harris, I. D. Welding Advances in Tube and Pipe Applications, (June) 58 Hayden, D. C. Machining Thermal Spray Coatings, (Sept) 28 Haynam, T., and Ravert, E. Meeting the New EPA Air-Pollution Standards, (Nov) 93 Huan, D., Zhimin, X., Xilin, N., Jiancheng, Y., and Tongzhan, S. Ceramic Backing Enhances One-Sided Welding, (Oct) 48 Jiancheng, Y., Tongzhan, S., Huan, D., Zhimin, X., and Xilin, N. Ceramic Backing Enhances One-Sided Welding, (Oct) 48 Johnson, D. Manufacturing Outlook for 2012, (Dec) 37 Johnsen, M. R. Welding the Enchanted Highway, (May) 105 Johnsen, M. R., Woodward, H., and Campbell, K. Business Forecast 2012, (Dec) 28 Johnsen, M. R., Woodward, H., Campbell, K., and Cullison, A. Exploring Welding through YouTube, (Apr) 38 Keitel, S., and Ahrens, C. Latest Developments in Welding Skills Training, (Apr) 52 Konkol, P. J., Stefanick, K. M., and Pike, G. S. New Steel Shows Promise for Navy Ships, (Feb) 34 Kusano, H. Electrode Dressing Makes a Better Spot Weld, (May) 28 Kwasegroch, J., Laha, M., Daehn, G. S., Zhang, Y., Wang, H., Babu, S., and Lippold, J. C. Collision Welding of Sheet Metals: A Practical and Green Technology, (May) 46 Lachenberg, K. Electron Beam Near-Net-Shape Processing

Using Wire Feed, (Jan) 46 Laha, M., Daehn, G. S., Zhang, Y., Wang, H., Babu, S., Lippold, J. C., and Kwasegroch, J. Collision Welding of Sheet Metals: A Practical and Green Technology, (May) 46 LaPlante, W. C. How to Assure Quality in Outsourced Welded Products, (Oct) 42 Lee, L., Weinstein, M., Stratford, G., and Battenbough, A. Comparing High-Temperature Nickel Brazing Filler Metals, (Mar) 54 Li, H., Dai, B., Xu, H., Wang, H., Ma, C., and Luo, Y. Developing an Automatic Surfacing Machine, (Jul) 48 Lippold, J. C., Kwasegroch, J., Laha, M., Daehn, G. S., Zhang, Y., Wang, H., and Babu, S. Collision Welding of Sheet Metals: A Practical and Green Technology, (May) 46 Lopez, E. P., and Vianco, P. T. Select the Right Surface Finish to Improve Solderability, (Sept) 44 Luo, Y., Li, H., Dai, B., Xu, H., Wang, H., and Ma, C. Developing an Automatic Surfacing Machine, (Jul) 48 Lubieniecki, V. Causes and Cures for GMAW Flaws, (Jul) 34 Ma, C., Luo, Y., Li, H., Dai, B., Xu, H., and Wang, H. Developing an Automatic Surfacing Machine, (Jul) 48 Mango, S. A. Monitoring the Performance of Your Radiography System, (Nov) 38 Mangold, V. Certification Program Emphasizes Safe Use of Robots, (Aug) 54 Mangold, V. Certification Program Emphasizes Safe Use of Robots, (Aug) 54 Manz, A. F. Backfires and Flashbacks in Oxyfuel Gas Welding and Cutting, (May) 109 Markovich, M., Fischer, G., and Shapiro, A. E. Brazing Titanium and Chromium Using Ion Bombardment Heating, (Sept) 41 Meck, N. S., White, H. J., Caron, J. L., and Britton, M. A. Ni-Mo-Cr Alloy Shows Versatility in Corrosion Resistance, (Mar) 40 Moody, D. R., Brunhouse, R. S., and Foy, P. Incorporating Thermal Spray into Fabrication, (Dec) 40 Mueller, R., and Forrest, M. Remote Laser Beam Welding: A Cost-Effective, High-Productivity Tool for Manufacturing, (May) 52 Mukherjee, D., Shah, B. K., and Das, S. Automatic Evaluation of Digital Radiographic Images, (Nov) 29 Murugesan, N., Remash, C., Albert, S. K., Padhy, G. K. and Ramasubbu, V. Developing a Sensor for Measuring Diffusible Hydrogen, (Mar) 47 Newell Jr., W. F., Siefert, J. A., Tanzosh, J. M., and Shingledecker, J. P. EPRI P87: A Promising New Filler Metal for Dissimilar Metal Welding, (Mar) 30 Noruk, J. Optimizing Shipyard Welding with Intelligent Process Controls, (Feb) 46 Packard, K. Whats New in Flux Cored Filler Metals? (Mar) 36 Padhy, G. K., Ramasubbu, V., Murugesan, N., Remash, C., and Albert, S. K. Developing a Sensor for Measuring Diffusible Hydrogen, (Mar) 47 Phillips, D. Keeping Stud Welding Shop Floor Costs in Check, (Aug) 50 Pike, G. S., Konkol, P. J., and Stefanick, K. M. New Steel Shows Promise for Navy Ships, (Feb) 34 Powers, D. E. Electron Beam Welding in the United States, (Jan) 30 Ramasubbu, V., Murugesan, N., Remash, C., Albert, S. K., and

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Padhy, G. K. Developing a Sensor for Measuring Diffusible Hydrogen, (Mar) 47 Ramirez, J. Understanding Stress Corrosion Cracking of Welds in Nuclear Reactors, (Jul) 38 Rappl, J., and Feldhausen, J. Remote Voltage Control Improves Shipyards Productivity, (Feb) 56 Ravert, E., and Haynam, T. Meeting the New EPA Air-Pollution Standards, (Nov) 93 Remash, C., Albert, S. K., Padhy, G. K. Ramasubbu, V., and Murugesan, N. Developing a Sensor for Measuring Diffusible Hydrogen, (Mar) 47 Roth, M. GMAW Processes Reduce Pipe Rework, (Jun) 68 Ryan, R., and Bellamy, D. Welding Challenges in Todays Automotive Industry, (May) 38 Schwenk, C. Developing Guidelines for Numerical Welding Simulation, (Apr) 49 Schwemmer, D., and Beattie, B., Wahlen, P. Advanced Technologies for Tandem SAW Narrow Groove Applications, (Nov) 32 Shah, B. K., Das, S., and Mukherjee, D. Automatic Evaluation of Digital Radiographic Images, (Nov) 29 Shapiro, A. E., Markovich, M., and Fischer, G. Brazing Titanium and Chromium Using Ion Bombardment Heating, (Sept) 41 Shingledecker, J. P., Newell Jr., W. F., Siefert, J. A., and Tanzosh, J. M. EPRI P87: A Promising New Filler Metal for Dissimilar Metal Welding, (Mar) 30 Siefert, J. A., Tanzosh, J. M., Shingledecker, J. P., and Newell Jr., W. F. EPRI P87: A Promising New Filler Metal for Dissimilar Metal Welding, (Mar) 30 Smith, M. F. Understanding Thermal Spray Technology, (Dec) 22 Sommers, E., and Gardner, B. Protecting the Head, (Aug) 38 Sorvaag, J. Comparing Thermal Cutting Processes for Beveling, (Sept) 36 Stefanick, K. M., Pike, G. S., and Konkol, P. J. New Steel Shows Promise for Navy Ships, (Feb) 34 Stratford,G., Battenbough, A., Lee, L., and Weinstein, M. Comparing High-Temperature Nickel Brazing Filler Metals, (Mar) 54 Swartz, J. Through Steel and Glass, Artist Seems to Defy Gravity, (Oct) 36 Tanzosh, J. M., Shingledecker, J. P., Newell Jr., W. F., and Siefert, J. A. EPRI P87: A Promising New Filler Metal for

Dissimilar Metal Welding, (Mar) 30 Tongzhan, S., Huan, D., Zhimin, X., Xilin, N., and Jiancheng, Y. Ceramic Backing Enhances One-Sided Welding, (Oct) 48 Van Rodijnen, F. Using Thermal Spray Coatings for Corrosion Control, (Dec) 32 Vianco, P. T. Hand Soldering Basics, (Sept) 47 Vianco, P. T., and Lopez, E. P. Select the Right Surface Finish to Improve Solderability, (Sept) 44 Wahlen, P., Schwemmer, D., and Beattie, B. Advanced Technologies for Tandem SAW Narrow Groove Applications, (Nov) 32 Wang, H., Babu, S., Lippold, J. C., Kwasegroch, J., Laha, M., Daehn, G. S., and Zhang, Y. Collision Welding of Sheet Metals: A Practical and Green Technology, (May) 46 Wang, H., Ma, C., Luo, Y., Li, H., Dai, B., and Xu, H. Developing an Automatic Surfacing Machine, (Jul) 48 Weinstein, M., Stratford, G., Battenbough, A., and Lee, L. Comparing High-Temperature Nickel Brazing Filler Metals, (Mar) 54 Wells, J., and Bellamy, D. All about Welding Nozzles, (Aug) 101 White, H. J., Caron, J. L., Britton, M. A., and Meck, N. S. Ni-Mo-Cr Alloy Shows Versatility in Corrosion Resistance, (Mar) 40 Woodward, H., Campbell, K., and Cullison, A. Small Firms with Longevity: What Are They Doing Right?, (Jun) 78 Woodward, H., Campbell, K., Cullison, A., and Johnsen, M. R. Exploring Welding through YouTube, (Apr) 38 Woodward, H., Campbell, K., and Johnsen, M. R. Business Forecast 2012, (Dec) 28 Xilin, N., Jiancheng, Y., Tongzhan, S., Huan, D., and Zhimin, X. Ceramic Backing Enhances One-Sided Welding, (Oct) 48 Xu, H., Wang, H., Ma, C., Luo, Y., Li, H., and Dai, B. Developing an Automatic Surfacing Machine, (Jul) 48 Zhang, G. Update on Digital Invertor Technology in China, (Dec) 43 Zhang, Y., Wang, H., Babu, S., Lippold, J. C., Kwasegroch, J., Laha, M., and Daehn, G. S. Collision Welding of Sheet Metals: A Practical and Green Technology, (May) 46 Zhimin, X., Xilin, N., Jiancheng, Y., Tongzhan, S., and Huan, D. Ceramic Backing Enhances One-Sided Welding, (Oct) 48

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Part 2 RESEARCH SUPPLEMENT SUBJECT INDEX

A New Chromium-Free Welding Consumable for Joining Austenitic Stainless Steels J. W. Sowards, D. Liang, B. T. Alexandrov, G. S. Frankel, and J. C. Lippold, (Apr) 63-s Analysis of Spot Weld Growth on Mild and Stainless Steel A. Aravinthan and C. Nachimani, (Aug) 143-s Application of Electro-Spark Deposition as a Joining Technology J. Gould, (Oct) 191-s Brazed Magnesium to Coated Steel, Microstructure and Properties of Laser A. M. Nasiri, L. Li, S. H. Kim, Y. Zhou, D. C. Weckman, and T. C. Nguyen, (Nov) 211-s Calorimetric Measurement of Droplet Temperature in GMAW E. J. Soderstrom, K. M. Scott, and P. F. Mendez, (Apr) 77-s Circuit Using a Cassie-Mayr Hybrid Model, Process Simulation in the AC Welding Arc A. Sawicki, L. Switon, and R. Sosinski, (Mar) 41-s Characteristics of Resistance Welding Magnesium Alloys AZ31 and AZ91 H. Luo, C. Hao, J. Zhang, Z. Gan, H. Chen, and H. Zhang, (Dec) 249-s Chromium-Free Welding Consumable for Joining Austenitic Stainless Steels, A New J. W. Sowards, D. Liang, B. T. Alexandrov, G. S. Frankel, and J. C. Lippold, (Apr) 63-s Comparison between DC(+) and Square Wave AC SAW Current Outputs to Weld AISI 304 for Low-Temperature Applications R. E. Toma, S. D. Brandi, A. C. Souza, and Z. Morais, (Sept) 153-s Consumable for Joining Austenitic Stainless Steels, A New Chromium-Free Welding J. W. Sowards, D. Liang, B. T. Alexandrov, G. S. Frankel, and J. C. Lippold, (Apr) 63-s Correlation of Microstructures and Process Variables in FSW HSLA-65 Steel L. Y. Wei and T. W. Nelson, (May) 95-s Cracking Susceptibility of Single Crystal Ni-Based Superalloy CMSX-4, Stray Grain Formation and Solification T. D. Anderson and J. N. DuPont, (Feb) 27-s Custom Beam Shaping for High-Power Fiber Laser Welding B. Victor, D. F. Farson, S. Ream, and C. T. Walters, (Jun) 113-s Deformations with the Digital Image Correlation Technique, Measuring Welding M. De Strycker, P. Lava, W. Van Paepegem, L. Schueremans, and D. Debruyne, (Jun) 107-s Digital Image Correlation Technique, Measuring Welding Deformations with the M. De Strycker, P. Lava, W. Van Paepegem, L. Schueremans, and D. Debruyne, (Jun) 107-s Dissimilar AISI 1010-ASTM B22 Joints, Effect of Friction Welding Parameters on Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of A. Kurt, I. Uygur, and U. Paylasan, (May) 102-s Ductile-Fracture Resistance in X100 Pipeline Welds Measured with CTOA E. Drexler, P. Darcis, C. N. McCowan, J. W. Sowards, D. McColskey, and T. A. Siewert, (Dec) 241-s Effect of Friction Welding Parameters on Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of Dissimilar AISI 1010-ASTM B22 Joints A. Kurt, I. Uygur, and U. Paylasan, (May) 102-s Effect of Helium on Welding Irradiated Materials, The S. Li, M. L. Grossbeck, Z. Zhang, W. Shen, and B. A. Chin, (Jan) 19-s Effect of Tool Geometries on Thermal History of FSW of AA1100 P. Biswas and N. R. Mandal, (Jul) 129-s Effects of Laser Parameters on Porosity Formation: Investigating Millimeter Scale Continuous Wave Nd:YAG Laser Welds J. T. Norris, C. V. Robino, D. A. Hirschfeld, and M. J. Perricone, (Oct) 198-s Electro-Spark Deposition as a Joining Technology, Application of J. Gould, (Oct) 191-s Fiber Laser Welding, Custom Beam Shaping for High-Power B.Victor, D. F. Farson, S. Ream, and C. T. Walters, (Jun) 113-s Filler Metal Influence on Weld Metal Structure of Microalloyed Steel N. Bajic, V. Sijacki-Zeravcic, B. Bobic, D. Cikara, and M. Arsic, (Apr) 55-s Friction Welding Parameters on Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of Dissimilar AISI 1010-ASTM B22 Joints, Effect of A. Kurt, I. Uygur, and U. Paylasan, (May) 102-s FSW of AA1100, Effect of Tool Geometries on Thermal History of P. Biswas and N. R. Mandal, (Jul) 129-s Galvanized Steels in a Gap-Free Lap Joint Configuration under Different Shielding Conditions, Laser Welding of High-Strength S. Yang, B. Carlson, and R. Kovacevic, (Jan) 8-s Gas Metal Arc Weld Pool Surface Imaging: Modeling and Processing X. Ma and Y. Zhang, (May) 85-s Helium on Welding Irradiated Materials, The Effect of S. Li, M. L. Grossbeck, Z. Zhang, W. Shen, and B. A. Chin, (Jan) 19-s High-Strength Steel Drawn Arc Stud Welding, Weldability of Advanced C. Hsu and J. Mumaw, (Mar) 45-s High-Strength Steels, Three-Sheet Spot Welding of Advanced C. V. Nielsen, K. S. Friis, W. Zhang, and N. Bay, (Feb) 32-s Imaging and Measurement of Pool Surface and Metal Transfer, Simultaneous Z. Z. Wang, X. J. Ma, and Y. M. Zhang, (Jun) 121-s Imaging: Modeling and Processing, Gas Metal Arc Weld Pool Surface X. Ma and Y. Zhang, (May) 85-s Interlayer Selection of Magnesium/Steel Lap Joints, Investigation on Welding Mechanism and X. -D. and L. -M. Liu, (Jan) 1-s Investigation on Welding Mechanism and Interlayer Selection Magnesium/Steel Lap Joints X. -D. Qi and L. -M. Liu, (Jan) 1-s Irridiated Materials, The Effect of Helium on Welding S. Li, M. L. Grossbeck, Z. Zhang, W. Shen, and B. A. Chin, (Jan) 19-s Joining Technology, Application of Electro-Spark Deposition as a J. Gould, (Oct) 191-s Joint Configuration under Different Shielding Conditions, Laser Welding of High-Strength Galvanized Steels in a Gap-Free Lap S. Yang, B. Carlson, and R. Kovacevic, (Jan) 8-s Lap Joint Configuration under Different Shielding Conditions, Laser Welding of High-Strength Galvanized Steels in a GapFree S. Yang, B. Carlson, and R. Kovacevic, (Jan) 8-s Laser Brazed Magnesium to Coated Steel, Microstructure and Properties of A. M. Nasiri, L. Li, S. H. Kim, Y. Zhou, D. C. Weckman, and T. C. Nguyen, (Nov) 211-s Laser Enhanced Metal Transfer Part 1: System and Observations Y. Huang and Y. M. Zhang, (Oct) 183-s Laser-Enhanced Metal Transfer Part II: Analysis and Influence Factors Y. Huang and Y. M. Zhang, (Nov) 205-s Laser Engineered Net Shaping for Repair and Hydrogen Compatibility P. S. Korinko, T. M. Adams, S. H. Malene, D. Gill, and J. Smugeresky, (Sept) 171-s

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Laser Spot Welding, Oscillatory Marangoni Flow: A Fundamental Study by Conduction-Mode S. Kou, C. Limmaneevichitr, and P. S. Wei, (Dec) 229-s Laser Welding, Custom Beam Shaping for High-Power Fiber B. Victor, D. F. Farson, S. Ream, and C. T. Walters, (Jun) 113-s Laser Welding of High-Strength Galvanized Steels in a GapFree Lap Joint Configuration under Different Shielding Conditions S. Yang, B. Carlson, and R. Kovacevic, (Jan) 8-s Low-Temperature Applications, Comparison between DC(+) and Square Wave AC SAW Current Outputs to Weld AISI 304 for R. E. Toma, S. D. Brandi, A. C. Souza, and Z. Morais, (Sept) 153-s Magnesium Alloys AZ31 and AZ91, Characteristics of Resistance Welding H. Luo, C. Hao, J. Zhang, Z. Gan, H. Chen, and H. Zhang, (Dec) 249-s Magnesium/Steel Lap Joints, Investigation on Welding Mechanism and Interlayer Selection X. -D. Qi and L. -M. Liu, (Jan) 1-s Manual Keyhole Plasma Arc Welding with Application X. R. Li, J. Heusman, L. Kvidahl, P. Hoyt, and Y. M. Zhang, (Dec) 258-s Material Properties for Welding Simulation Measurement, Analysis, and Exemplary Data C. Schwenk and M. Rethmeier, (Nov) 220-s Measuring Welding Deformations with the Digital Image Correlation Technique M. De Strycker, P. Lava, W. Van Paepegem, L. Schueremans, and D. Debruyne, (Jun) 107-s Metal Transfer, Laser Enhanced Part 1: System and Observations Y. Huang and Y. M. Zhang, (Oct) 183-s Metal Transfer Part II: Analysis and Influence Factors, Laser-Enhanced Y. Huang and Y. M. Zhang, 205-s Microalloyed Steel, Filler Metal Influence on Weld Metal Structure of N. Bajic, V. Sijacki-Zeravcic, B. Bobic, D.Cikara, and M. Arsic, (Apr) 55-s Microstructures and Process Variables in FSW HSLA-65 Steel, Correlation of L. Y. Wei and T. W. Nelson, (May) 95-s Microstructure and Properties of Laser Brazed Magnesium to Coated Steel A. M. Nasiri, L. Li, S. H. Kim, Y. Zhou, D. C. Weckman, and T. C. Nguyen, (Nov) 211-s Nd:YAG Laser Welds, Effects of Laser Parameters on Porosity Formation: Investigating Millimeter Scale Continuous Wave J. T. Norris, C. V. Robino, D. A. Hirschfeld, and M. J. Perricone, (Oct) 198-s Numerical Calculation, Welding Sequence Definition Using P. Mrvar, J. Medved, and S. Kastelic, (Aug) 148-s Oscillatory Marangoni Flow: A Fundamental Study By Conduction-Mode Laser Spot Welding S. Kou, C. Limmaneevichitr, and P. S. Wei, (Dec) 229-s Pipeline Welds Measured with CTOA, Ductile-Fracture Resistance in X100 E. Drexler, P. Darcis, C. N. McCowan, J. W. Sowards, D. McColskey, and T. A. Siewert, (Dec) 241s Plasma Arc Welding with Application, Manual Keyhole X. R. Li, J. Heusman, L. Kvidahl, P. Hoyt, and Y. M. Zhang, (Dec) 258-s Pool Surface and Metal Transfer, Simultaneous Imaging and Measurement of Z. Z. Wang, X. J. Ma, and Y. M. Zhang, (Jun) 121-s Porosity Formation: Investigating Millimeter Scale Continuous Wave Nd:YAG Laser Welds, Effects of Laser Parameters on J. T. Norris, C. V. Robino, D. A. Hirschfeld, and

M. J. Perricone, (Oct) 198-s Process Simulation in the AC Welding Arc Circuit Using a Cassie-Mayr Hybrid Model A. Sawicki, L. Switon, and R. Sosinski, (Mar) 41-s Repair and Hydrogen Compatibility, Laser Engineered Net Shaping for P. S. Korinko, T. M. Adams, S. H. Malene, D. Gill, and J. Smugeresky, (Sept) 171-s Resistance Welding Magnesium Alloys AZ31 and AZ91, Characteristics of H. Luo, C. Hao, J. Zhang, Z. Gan, H. Chen, and H. Zhang, (Dec) 249-s Review: Experiments and Simulations for Small-Scale Electrical Discharges J. Chen, L. He, D. F. Farson, and S. I Roklin, (Sept) 161-s SAW Current Outputs to Weld AISI 304 for Low-Temperature Applications, Comparison between DC(+) and Square Wave AC R. E. Toma, S. D. Brandi, A. C. Souza, and Z. Morais, (Sept) 153-s Simulation in the AC Welding Arc Circuit Using a Cassie-Mayr Hybrid Model, Process A. Sawicki, L. Switon, and R. Sosinski, (Mar) 41-s Simulation Measurement, Analysis, and Exemplary Data, Material Properties for Welding C. Schwenk and M. Rethmeier, (Nov) 220-s Simultaneous Imaging and Measurement of Pool Surface and Metal Transfer Z. Z. Wang, X. J. Ma, and Y. M. Zhang, (Jun) 121-s Small-Scale Electrical Discharges, Review: Experiments and Simulations for J. Chen, L. He, D. F. Farson, and S. I Roklin, (Sept) 161-s Spot Weld Growth on Mild and Stainless Steel, Analysis of A. Aravinthan and C. Nachimani, (Aug) 143-s Spot Welding of Advanced High-Strength Steels, Three-Sheet C. V. Nielsen, K. S. Friis, W. Zhang, and N. Bay, (Feb) 32-s Spot Welding, Oscillatory Marangoni Flow: A Fundamental Study by Conduction-Mode Laser S. Kou, C. Limmaneevichitr, and P. S. Wei, (Dec) 229-s Stainless Steel, Analysis of Spot Weld Growth on Mild and A. Aravinthan and C. Nachimani, (Aug) 143-s Stainless Steels, A New Chromium-Free Welding Consumable for Joining Austenitic J. W. Sowards, D. Liang, B. T. Alexandrov, G. S. Frankel, and J. C. Lippold, (Apr) 63-s Steel, Correlation of Microstructures and Process Variables in FSW HSLA-65 L. Y. Wei and T. W. Nelson, (May) 95-s Stray Grain Formation and Solification Cracking Susceptibility of Single Crystal Ni-Based Superalloy CMSX-4 T. D. Anderson and J. N. DuPont, (Feb) 27-s Stud Welding, Weldability of Advanced High-Strength Steel Drawn Arc C. Hsu and J. Mumaw, (Mar) 45-s Superalloy CMSX-4, Stray Grain Formation and Solification Cracking Susceptibility of Single Crystal Ni-Based T. D. Anderson and J. N. DuPont, (Feb) 27-s Temperature in GMAW, Calorimetric Measurement of Droplet E. J. Soderstrom, K. M. Scott, and P. F. Mendez, (Apr) 77-s Thermal History of FSW of AA1100, Effect of Tool Geometries on P. Biswas and N. R. Mandal, (Jul) 129-s Three-Sheet Spot Welding of Advanced High-Strength Steels C. V. Nielsen, K. S. Friis, W. Zhang, and N. Bay, (Feb) 32-s Training, Virtual Reality Integrated Welder R. T. Stone, K. Watts, and P. Zhong, (Jul) 136-s Virtual Reality Integrated Welder Training R. T. Stone, K. Watts, and P. Zhong, (Jul) 136-s

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Weldability of Advanced High-Strength Steel Drawn Arc Stud Welding C. Hsu and J. Mumaw, (Mar) 45-s Welder Training, Virtual Reality Integrated R. T. Stone, K. Watts, and P. Zhong, (Jul) 136-s Welding Sequence Definition Using Numerical Calculation P. Mrvar, J. Medved, and S. Kastelic, (Aug) 148-s

Welding Simulation Measurement, Analysis, and Exemplary Data, Material Properties for C. Schwenk and M. Rethmeier, (Nov) 220-s

AUTHORS FOR RESEARCH SUPPLEMENTS

Adams, T. M., Malene, S. H., Gill, D., Smugeresky, J., and Korinko, P. S. Laser Engineered Net Shaping for Repair and Hydrogen Compatibility, (Sept) 171-s Alexandrov, B. T., Frankel, G. S., Lippold, J. C., Sowards, J. W. and Liang, D. A New Chromium-Free Welding Consumable for Joining Austenitic Stainless Steels, (Apr) 63-s Anderson, T. D., and Dupont, J. N. Stray Grain Formation and Solification Cracking Susceptibility of Single Crystal NiBased Superalloy CMSX-4, (Feb) 27-s Aravinthan, A., and Nachimani, C. Analysis of Spot Weld Growth on Mild and Stainless Steel, (Aug) 143-s Arsic, M., Bajic, N., Sijacki-Zeravcic, V., Bobic, B., and Cikara, D. Filler Metal Influence On Weld Metal Structure of Microalloyed Steel (Apr) 55-s Bajic, N., Sijacki-Zeravcic, V., Bobic, B., Cikara, D., and Arsic, M. Filler Metal Influence on Weld Metal Structure of Microalloyed Steel, (Apr) 55-s Bobic, B., Cikara, D., Arsic, M., Bajic, N., and Sijacki-Zeravcic, V. Filler Metal Influence on Weld Metal Structure of Microalloyed Steel, (Apr) 55-s Bay, N., Nielsen, C. V., Friis, K. S., and Zhang, W. ThreeSheet Spot Welding of Advanced High-Strength Steels, (Feb) 32-s Biswas, P., and Mandal, N. R. Effect of Tool Geometries on Thermal History of FSW of AA1100, (Jul) 129-s Brandi, S. D., Souza, A. C., Morais, Z., and Toma, R. E. Comparison between DC(+) and Square Wave AC SAW Current Outputs to Weld AISI 304 for Low-Temperature Applications, (Sept) 153-s Carlson, B., Kovacevic, R., and Yang, S. Laser Welding of High-Strength Galvanized Steels in a Gap-Free Lap Joint Configuration Under Different Shielding Conditions, (Jan) 8-s Chen, J., He, L., Farson, D. F., and Roklin, S. I Review: Experiments and Simulations for Small-Scale Electrical Discharges, (Sept) 161-s Chen, H., Zhang, H., Luo, H., Hao, C., Zhang, J., and Gan, Z. Characteristics of Resistance Welding Magnesium Alloys AZ31 and AZ91, (Dec) 249-s Chin, B. A., Li, S., Grossbeck, M. L., Zhang, Z., and Shen, W. Effect of Helium on Welding Irradiated Materials, The, (Jan) 19-s Cikara, D., Arsic, M., Bajic, N., Sijacki-Zeravcic, V., and Bobic, B. Filler Metal Influence on Weld Metal Structure of Microalloyed Steel, (Apr) 55-s Darcis, P., McCowan, C. N., Sowards, J. W., McColskey, D., Siewert, T. A., and Drexler, E. Ductile-Fracture Resistance in X100 Pipeline Welds Measured with CTOA, (Dec) 241-s Debruyne, D., De Strycker, M., Lava, P., Van Paepegem, W., and Schueremans, L. Measuring Welding Deformations with the Digital Image Correlation Technique, (Jun) 107-s De Strycker, M., Lava, P., Van Paepegem, W., Schueremans, L., and Debruyne, D. Measuring Welding Deformations with the Digital Image Correlation Technique, (Jun) 107-s Drexler, E., Darcis, P., McCowan, C. N., Sowards, J. W., McColskey, D., and Siewert, T. A. Ductile-Fracture Resistance in X100 Pipeline Welds Measured with CTOA, (Dec) 241-s Dupont, J. N., and Anderson, T. D. Stray Grain Formation and Solification Cracking Susceptibility of Single Crystal NiBased Superalloy CMSX-4, (Feb) 27-s Farson, D. F., Ream, S., Walters, C. T., and Victor, B. Custom Beam Shaping for High-Power Fiber Laser Welding, (Jun) 113-s Farson, D. F., Roklin, S. I., Chen, J., and He, L. Review: Experiments and Simulations for Small-Scale Electrical Discharges, (Sept) 161-s Frankel, G. S., Lippold, J. C., Sowards, J. W., Liang, D., and Alexandrov, B. T. A New Chromium-Free Welding Consumable for Joining Austenitic Stainless Steels, (Apr) 63-s Friis, K. S., Zhang, W., Bay, N., and Nielsen, C. V. ThreeSheet Spot Welding of Advanced High-Strength Steels, (Feb) 32-s Gan, Z., Chen, H., Zhang, H., Luo, H., Hao, C., and Zhang, J. Characteristics of Resistance Welding Magnesium Alloys AZ31 and AZ91, (Dec) 249-s Gill, D., Smugeresky, J., Korinko, P. S., Adams, T. M., and Malene, S. H. Laser Engineered Net Shaping for Repair and Hydrogen Compatibility, (Sept) 171-s Gould, J. Application of Electro-Spark Deposition as a Joining Technology, (Oct) 191-s Grossbeck, M. L., Zhang, Z., Shen, W., Chin, B. A., and Li, S. Effect of Helium on Welding Irradiated Materials, The, (Jan) 19-s Hao, C., Zhang, J., Gan, Z., Chen, H., Zhang, H., and Luo, H. Characteristics of Resistance Welding Magnesium Alloys AZ31 and AZ91, (Dec) 249-s He, L., Farson, D. F., Roklin, S. I., and Chen, J. Review: Experiments and Simulations for Small-Scale Electrical Discharges, (Sept) 161-s Hirschfeld, D. A., Perricone, M. J., Norris, J. T., and Robino, C. V. Effects of Laser Parameters on Porosity Formation: Investigating Millimeter Scale Continuous Wave Nd:YAG Laser Welds, (Oct) 198-s Hoyt, P., Zhang, Y. M., Li, X. R., Heusman, J., and Kvidahl, L. Manual Keyhole Plasma Arc Welding with Application, (Dec) 258-s Hsu, C., and Mumaw, J. Weldability of Advanced HighStrength Steel Drawn Arc Stud Welding, (Mar) 45-s Huang, Y., and Zhang, Y. M. Laser Enhanced Metal Transfer Part 1: System and Observations, (Oct) 183-s Huang, Y., and Zhang, Y. M. Laser-Enhanced Metal Transfer Part II: Analysis and Influence Factors, (Nov) 205-s

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Heusman, J., Kvidahl, L., Hoyt, P., Zhang, Y. M., and Li, X. R. Manual Keyhole Plasma Arc Welding with Application, (Dec) 258-s Kastelic, S., Mrvar, P., and Medved, J. Welding Sequence Definition Using Numerical Calculation, (Aug) 148-s Kim, S. H., Zhou, Y., Weckman, D. C., Nguyen, T. C., Nasiri, A. M., and Li, L. Microstructure and Properties of Laser Brazed Magnesium to Coated Steel, (Nov) 211-s Korinko, P. S., Adams, T. M., Malene, S. H., Gill, D., and Smugeresky, J. Laser Engineered Net Shaping for Repair and Hydrogen Compatibility, (Sept) 171-s Kou, S., Limmaneevichitr, C., and Wei, P. S. Oscillatory Marangoni Flow: A Fundamental Study by ConductionMode Laser Spot Welding, (Dec) 229-s Kovacevic, R., Yang, S., and Carlson, B. Laser Welding of High-Strength Galvanized Steels in a Gap-Free Lap Joint Configuration under Different Shielding Conditions, (Jan) 8-s Kurt, A., Uygur, I., and Paylasan, U. Effect of Friction Welding Parameters on Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of Dissimilar AISI 1010-ASTM B22 Joints, (May) 102-s Kvidahl, L., Hoyt, P., Zhang, Y. M., Li, X. R., and Heusman, J. Manual Keyhole Plasma Arc Welding with Application, (Dec) 258-s Lava, P., Van Paepegem, W., Schueremans, L., Debruyne, D. and De Strycker, M. Measuring Welding Deformations with the Digital Image Correlation Technique, (Jun) 107-s Li, S., Grossbeck, M. L., Zhang, Z., Shen, W., and Chin, B. A. Effect of Helium on Welding Irradiated Materials, The, (Jan) 19-s Li, X. R., Heusman, J., Kvidahl, L., Hoyt, P. and Zhang, Y. M. Manual Keyhole Plasma Arc Welding with Application, (Dec) 258-s Li, L., Kim, S. H., Zhou, Y., Weckman, D. C., Nguyen, T. C., and Nasiri, A. M. Microstructure and Properties of Laser Brazed Magnesium to Coated Steel, (Nov) 211-s Liang, D., Alexandrov, B. T., Frankel, G. S., Lippold, J. C., and Sowards, J. W. A New Chromium-Free Welding Consumable for Joining Austenitic Stainless Steels, (Apr) 63-s Limmaneevichitr, C., Wei, P. S., and Kou, S. Oscillatory Marangoni Flow: A Fundamental Study by ConductionMode Laser Spot Welding, (Dec) 229-s Lippold, J. C., Sowards, J. W., Liang, D., Alexandrov, B. T., and Frankel, G. S. A New Chromium-Free Welding Consumable for Joining Austenitic Stainless Steels, (Apr) 63-s Liu, L. -M. and Qi,X. -D. Investigation on Welding Mechanism and Interlayer Selection Magnesium/Steel Lap Joints, (Jan) 1-s Luo, H., Hao, C., Zhang, J., Gan, Z., Chen, H., and Zhang, H. Characteristics of Resistance Welding Magnesium Alloys AZ31 and AZ91, (Dec) 249-s Ma, X., and Zhang,Y. Gas Metal Arc Weld Pool Surface Imaging: Modeling and Processing, (May) 85-s Ma, X. J., Zhang, Y. M., and Wang, Z. Z. Simultaneous Imaging and Measurement of Pool Surface and Metal Transfer, (Jun) 121-s Malene, S. H., Gill, D., Smugeresky, J., Korinko, P. S., and Adams, T. M. Laser Engineered Net Shaping for Repair and Hydrogen Compatibility, (Sept) 171-s Mandal, N. R., and Biswas, P. Effect of Tool Geometries on Thermal History of FSW of AA1100, (Jul) 129-s McColskey, D., Siewert, T. A., Drexler, E., Darcis, P., Mc-

Cowan, C. N. and Sowards, J. W., Ductile-Fracture Resistance in X100 Pipeline Welds Measured with CTOA, (Dec) 241-s McCowan, C. N., Sowards, J. W., McColskey, D., Siewert, T. A., Drexler, E., and Darcis, P. Ductile-Fracture Resistance in X100 Pipeline Welds Measured with CTOA, (Dec) 241-s Medved, J., Kastelic, S., and Mrvar, P. Welding Sequence Definition Using Numerical Calculation, (Aug) 148-s Mendez, P. F., Soderstrom, E. J., and Scott, K. M. Calorimetric Measurement of Droplet Temperature in GMAW, (Apr) 77-s Morais, Z., Toma, R. E., Brandi, S. D., and Souza, A. C. Comparison between DC(+) and Square Wave AC SAW Current Outputs to Weld AISI 304 for Low-Temperature Applications, (Sept) 153-s Mrvar, P., Medved, J., and Kastelic, S. Welding Sequence Definition Using Numerical Calculation, (Aug) 148-s Mumaw, J., and Hsu, C. Weldability of Advanced HighStrength Steel Drawn Arc Stud Welding, (Mar) 45-s Nachimani, C., and Aravinthan, A. Analysis of Spot Weld Growth on Mild and Stainless Steel, (Aug) 143-s Nasiri, A. M., Li, L., Kim, S. H., Zhou, Y., Weckman, D. C., and Nguyen, T. C. Microstructure and Properties of Laser Brazed Magnesium to Coated Steel, (Nov) 211-s Nelson, T. W., and Wei, L. Y. Correlation of Microstructures and Process Variables in FSW HSLA-65 Steel, (May) 95-s Nguyen, T. C., Nasiri, A. M., Li, L., Kim, S. H., Zhou, Y., and Weckman, D. C. Microstructure and Properties of Laser Brazed Magnesium to Coated Steel, (Nov) 211-s Nielsen, C. V., Friis, K. S., Zhang, W., and Bay, N. ThreeSheet Spot Welding of Advanced High-Strength Steels, (Feb) 32-s Norris, J. T., Robino, C. V., Hirschfeld, D. A., and Perricone, M. J. Effects of Laser Parameters on Porosity Formation: Investigating Millimeter Scale Continous Wave Nd:YAG Laser Welds, (Oct) 198-s Paylasan, U., Kurt, A., and Uygur, I. Effect of Friction Welding Parameters on Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of Dissimilar AISI 1010-ASTM B22 Joints, (May) 102-s Perricone, M. J., Norris, J. T., Robino, C. V., and Hirschfeld, D. A. Effects of Laser Parameters on Porosity Formation: Investigating Millimeter Scale Continuous Wave Nd:YAG Laser Welds, (Oct) 198-s Qi, X. -D. and Liu, L. -M. Investigation on Welding Mechanism and Interlayer Selection Magnesium/Steel Lap Joints, (Jan) 1-s Ream, S., Walters, C. T., Victor, B., and Farson, D. F. Custom Beam Shaping for High-Power Fiber Laser Welding, (Jun) 113-s Rethmeier, M. and Schwenk, C. Material Properties for Welding Simulation Measurement, Analysis, and Exemplary Data, (Nov) 220-s Robino, C. V., Hirschfeld, D. A., Perricone, M. J., and Norris, J. T. Effects of Laser Parameters on Porosity Formation: Investigating Millimeter Scale Continuous Wave Nd:YAG Laser Welds, (Oct) 198-s Roklin, S. I., Chen, J., He, L., and Farson, D. F. Review: Experiments and Simulations for Small-Scale Electrical Discharges, (Sept) 161-s Sawicki, A., Switon, L., and Sosinski, R. Process Simulation in the AC Welding Arc Circuit Using a Cassie-Mayr Hybrid Model, (Mar) 41-s Schueremans, L., Debruyne, D., De Strycker, M., Lava, P., and

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Van Paepegem, W. Measuring Welding Deformations with the Digital Image Correlation Technique, (Jun) 107-s Schwenk, C., and Rethmeier, M. Material Properties for Welding SimulationMeasurement, Analysis, and Exemplary Data, (Nov) 220-s Scott, K. M., Mendez, P. F., and Soderstrom, E. J. Calorimetric Measurement of Droplet Temperature in GMAW, (Apr) 77-s Shen, W., Chin, B. A., Li, S., Grossbeck, M. L., and Zhang, Z. Effect of Helium on Welding Irradiated Materials, The, (Jan) 19-s Siewert, T. A., Drexler, E., Darcis, P., McCowan, C. N., Sowards, J. W., and McColskey, D. Ductile-Fracture Resistance in X100 Pipeline Welds Measured with CTOA, (Dec) 241-s Sijacki-Zeravcic, V., Bobic, B., Cikara, D., Arsic, M., and Bajic, N. Filler Metal Influence on Weld Metal Structure of Microalloyed Steel, (Apr) 55-s Smugeresky, J., Korinko, P. S., Adams, T. M., Malene, S. H., and Gill, D. Laser Engineered Net Shaping for Repair and Hydrogen Compatibility, (Sept) 171-s Soderstrom, E. J., Scott, K. M., and Mendez, P. F. Calorimetric Measurement of Droplet Temperature in GMAW, (Apr) 77-s Sosinski, R., Sawicki, A., and Switon, L. Process Simulation in the AC Welding Arc Circuit Using a Cassie-Mayr Hybrid Model, (Mar) 41-s Souza, A. C., Morais, Z.,Toma, R. E., and Brandi, S. D. Comparison between DC(+) and Square Wave AC SAW Current Outputs to Weld AISI 304 for Low-Temperature Applications, (Sept) 153-s Sowards, J. W., Liang, D., Alexandrov, B. T., Frankel, G. S., and Lippold, J. C. A New Chromium-Free Welding Consumable for Joining Austenitic Stainless Steels, (Apr) 63-s Sowards, J. W., McColskey, D., Siewert, T. A., Drexler, E., Darcis, P., and McCowan, C. N. Ductile-Fracture Resistance in X100 Pipeline Welds Measured with CTOA, (Dec) 241-s Stone, R. T., Watts, K., and Zhong, P. Virtual Reality Integrated Welder Training, (Jul) 136-s Switon, L., Sosinski, R., and Sawicki, A. Process Simulation in the AC Welding Arc Circuit Using a Cassie-Mayr Hybrid Model, (Mar) 41-s Toma, R. E., Brandi, S. D, Souza, A. C., and Morais, Z. Comparison between DC(+) and Square Wave AC SAW Current Outputs to Weld AISI 304 for Low-Temperature Applications, (Sept) 153-s Uygur, I., Paylasan, U., and Kurt, A. Effect of Friction Welding Parameters on Mechanical and Microstructural Properties of Dissimilar AISI 1010-ASTM B22 Joints, (May) 102-s Van Paepegem, W., Schueremans, L., Debruyne, D., De Strycker, M., and Lava, P. Measuring Welding Deformations with the Digital Image Correlation Technique, (Jun) 107-s

Victor, B., Farson, D. F., Ream, S., and Walters, C. T. Custom Beam Shaping for High-Power Fiber Laser Welding, (Jun) 113-s Walters, C. T., Victor, B., Farson, D. F., and Ream, S. Custom Beam Shaping for High-Power Fiber Laser Welding, (Jun) 113-s Wang, Z. Z., Ma, X. J., and Zhang, Y. M. Simultaneous Imaging and Measurement of Pool Surface and Metal Transfer, (Jun) 121-s Watts, K., Zhong, P., and Stone, R. T. Virtual Reality Integrated Welder Training, (Jul) 136-s Weckman, D. C., Nguyen, T. C., Nasiri, A. M., Li, L., Kim, S. H., and Zhou, Y. Microstructure and Properties of Laser Brazed Magnesium to Coated Steel, (Nov) 211-s Wei, P. S., Kou, S., and Limmaneevichitr, C. Oscillatory Marangoni Flow: A Fundamental Study by ConductionMode Laser Spot Welding, (Dec) 229-s Wei, L. Y., and Nelson, T. W. Correlation of Microstructures and Process Variables in FSW HSLA-65 Steel, (May) 95-s Yang, S., Carlson, B., and Kovacevic, R. Laser Welding of High-Strength Galvanized Steels in a Gap-Free Lap Joint Configuration under Different Shielding Conditions, (Jan) 8-s Zhang, W., Bay, N., Nielsen, C. V., and Friis, K. S. ThreeSheet Spot Welding of Advanced High-Strength Steels, (Feb) 32-s Zhang, J., Gan, Z., Chen, H., Zhang, H., Luo, H., and Hao, C. Characteristics of Resistance Welding Magnesium Alloys AZ31 and AZ91, (Dec) 249-s Zhang, Y. M., and Huang, Y. Laser Enhanced Metal Transfer Part 1: System and Observations, (Oct) 183-s Zhang, Y. M., and Huang, Y. Laser-Enhanced Metal Transfer Part II: Analysis and Influence Factors, (Nov) 205-s Zhang, Y. M., Li, X. R., Heusman, J. Kvidahl, L., and Hoyt, P. Manual Keyhole Plasma Arc Welding with Application, (Dec) 258-s Zhang, H., Luo, H., Hao, C., Zhang, J., Gan, Z., and Chen, H. Characteristics of Resistance Welding Magnesium Alloys AZ31 and AZ91, (Dec) 249-s Zhang, Y., and Ma, X. Gas Metal Arc Weld Pool Surface Imaging: Modeling and Processing, (May) 85-s Zhang, Z., Shen, W., Chin, B. A., Li, S., and Grossbeck, M. L. Effect of Helium on Welding Irradiated Materials, The, (Jan) 19-s Zhang, Y. M., Wang, Z. Z., and Ma, X. J. Simultaneous Imaging and Measurement of Pool Surface and Metal Transfer, (Jun) 121-s Zhong, P., Stone, R. T., and Watts, K. Virtual Reality Integrated Welder Training, (Jul) 136-s Zhou, Y., Weckman, D. C., Nguyen, T. C., Nasiri, A. M., Li, L., and Kim, S. H. Microstructure and Properties of Laser Brazed Magnesium to Coated Steel, (Nov) 211-s

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NEWS OF THE INDUSTRY

continued from page 12

Industry Notes
CARSTAR Auto Body Repair Experts, Overland Park, Kans.,
and Airgas, Inc., Radnor, Pa., announced a supplier agreement for welding and cutting gases, equipment and supplies, and personal protection equipment to CARSTAR facilities.

to be at full capacity by February 2012. The increases come in response to a rise in sales of DTNAs commercial vehicles. Western Star trucks are primarily used for specialized applications such as logging, mining, and oil production. The brands approximately 750 employees mainly produce vehicles for markets in North and South America, Australia, South Africa, and Indonesia. For more information, visit www.daimler-trucksnorthamerica.com.

Bakers Gas and Welding Supplies, Inc., Lincoln Park, Mich.,

is offering a complimentary welding newsletter. To sign up, visit www.bakersgas.com; provide your email address, first name, and zip code; then click subscribe.

The Top 100 award designations for small- and medium-size

companies were recently announced in Germany. August Rggeberg GmbH & Co., which manufactures tools under the PFERD name, was honored as one of the recipients for 2011.

Chevy Corrosion Inspectors Seek More Durable Car Bodies

American Photonics Co., a producer of precision infrared optics and coatings, completed its new manufacturing facility in Sarasota, Fla., that quadruples their current capacity.

DENSO increased the number of robot service engineers in its

national service center in Maryville, Tenn., and robotics headquarters facility in Long Beach, Calif. Also, the company added a new robot field-service engineer in the Midwest region.

Rehm Thermal Systems delivered its 3000th soldering system.

The recipient was Hirschmann Car Communication, and the event was marked by a presentation at the customers headquarters in Neckartenzlingen, Germany.

HTP America, Inc., has a new Web site at www.USAWeld.com

with information on its gas metal arc and gas tungsten arc welding machines, plasma cutting tools, plus a quick parts locator.

The Benton Harbor, Mich., facility of Siemens Industry Inc.s

Corrosion Engineer Christa Cooper inspects the 2012 Chevrolet Cruze for signs of rust. Cooper and her team analyzed Cruze test vehicles subjected to extreme durability testing representing ten years of wear, tear, and elements. (Photo courtesy of General Motors.) Metallurgical Services recently received the Michigan Safety and Health Achievement Recognition Program Award.

Balluff, Stuttgart, Germany, a company specializing in sensors

for factory automation with worldwide subsidiaries in 54 countries on all continents, is celebrating its 90th anniversary.

Abakan, Inc.s subsidiary, MesoCoat, Inc., finalized an agreeGeneral Motors Corrosion Engineer Christa Cooper and her team look for corrosion underneath welded brackets and joints, and among the thousands of spot welds that hold together a vehicle body. The effort was performed recently on the 2012 Chevrolet Cruze. The outcome should mean years of little or no rust. The quest takes place inside the Vehicle Teardown Facility at GMs Milford (Michigan) Proving Ground. Cooper and her team analyzed Cruze test vehicles subjected to extreme durability testing representing ten years of wear, tear, and elements. We test to the 95th percentile environment, which is the mostsevere customer environment we can replicate in our labs and road courses, said Cooper. Then, the cars are disassembled piece by piece in a search for the tiniest evidence of rust. Skilled trade mechanics drill out 2000 to 3000 individual spot welds by hand seeking out corrosion in the sheet metal structure. It takes a two-person team two weeks to completely tear down a car to its base elements. When Cooper and her team find even a trace of rust, they look for ways to prevent it. Most often, the solution is finding a way to keep water out. Sealers and alternative materials are often prescribed. While the Cruze was under development, Cooper and her team uncovered corrosion where the inner panel of the rear door is joined to the safety beam. The team recommended switching out an uncoated steel bracket with a rust-resistant coated steel stamping. The change eliminated corrosion in that area. ment to move into a new 10,000-sq-ft facility in Eastlake, Ohio. It is designed to house two metal fusion cladding lines for CermaCladTM and thermal spray coating cells for PComPTM.

NLB Corp., Wixom, Mich., has turned a 24-ft trailer into a touring showroom that will travel to facilities and trade shows, letting waterjet users see nearly 200 high-pressure accessories.

Polymet, Cincinnati, Ohio, completed a distribution agreement

with Sinerji Metal Ltd. This will enable the company to promote its hardfacing, welding, and thermal spray wires in Turkey.

Clean Air America, Inc., Rome, Ga., recently assisted South

Puget Sound Community College to meet LEED Gold certification. The college trains students to become employed as welders in the building trades.

Welding company Able Industrial (www.able-industrial.com)

moved its headquarters to Deer Park, Tex. According to Terence Day, vice president/general manager, the company consolidated its formerly two facilities and is always looking to hire more welders and fitters.

Electrovert is celebrating the companys 60th anniversary.

Founded in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, it manufactures soldering equipment used in PCB assembly/semiconductor fields.

94

DECEMBER 2011

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CERTIFICATION & TRAINING
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Senior Technical Director

Select-Arc, Inc., the manufacturer which sets The Standard of Excellence in Tubular Welding Electrodes, is currently seeking a Senior Technical Director for our headquarters in Fort Loramie, OH. Job Scope: The Senior Technical Director manages the technical aspects of product development, product quality and maintenance of the product line. This person also interfaces with sales, applications engineering, production and marketing to provide the customer with the products and performance required. Job Responsibilities: Supervise and direct Development Engineers in the development of new products and in the maintenance of existing products. The Senior Technical Director formulates new products and maintains existing products as needed. Reduce product cost through innovative product design and evaluation of raw materials. Interact with customers to determine product needs and answer technical questions. Provide data sheets and technical literature as needed by sales and marketing. Maintain MSDSs for all products. Keep up to date on health and safety issues and regulations. Ensure that agency approvals (CWB, ABS, etc.) are performed and maintained on a timely basis. Participate on those AWS committees whose activities affect our product line. Assure maintenance of all aspects of the Quality System, including supervision of the Quality Manager. Education and Experience: Bachelor of Science in Metallurgy or Materials Science required. Degrees in other related fields with a background in materials will be considered. Experience should include a background in welding. Formulation experience and knowledge of slag systems is a plus. The position offers a comprehensive benefits package and a competitive salary. Please e-mail, fax or mail your rsum to: Dale Stager, Select-Arc, Inc., P.O. Box 259, Fort Loramie, OH 45845. Fax: (888) 511-5217. E-mail: dstager@select-arc.com. No phone calls, please. Select-Arc, Inc., is an equal opportunity employer.

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Development Engineer
Select-Arc, Inc., is seeking a Development Engineer to work at its Fort Loramie, Ohio, facility. The primary job responsibility entails developing new products for the welding of carbon and low-alloy steels, stainless steels, nickel alloys, and for hardsurfacing. Candidates should have a Bachelor of Science degree in Metallurgy or Materials Science. Degrees in other related fields with a background in materials will be considered. Welding experience is a plus. Job responsibilities include: Formulating new products as required. Maintaining and upgrading current products. Reducing product cost through innovative product design and evaluation of new raw materials. Developing technical data on new products.

Oxygen Analyzers, Purge Dams, Flow Meters for Pipe Welding

Competitive salary and a comprehensive benefits package are offered. E-mail, fax or mail rsum to Dale Stager at Select-Arc, Inc., 600 Enterprise Dr., PO Box 259, Fort Loramie, OH 45845 Fax: (888) 511-5217 E-mail: dstager@select-arc.com. No phone calls, please.

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Tube Welders and Experienced Boilermakers

You have worked for the restnow work for the best. New England Mechanical Overlay, Inc. (N.E.M.O) is now hiring tube welders and experienced boilermakers. Employment will begin January 2012 working up to 12 hrs per day, 6 to 7 days per week. Our employees work up and down the East Coast servicing Waste Energy Plants. The majority of our work is related to power plant outages. Your services will be needed January through March with the possibility of continuing through May. A valid driver license and reliable vehicle are a must. Mandatory use of Full-face Respirator and Basic P.P.E required. Must be able to pass GTAW root 6G tube test. N.E.M.O. will provide hotel accommodations with a $30.00 per diem and travel reimbursement starting from New Hampshire to job. For more information contact our office at 603-435-9999 or Jamie Byrd at 603-231-2898. You can also fill out an online application at www.nemoinc.net under the careers tab.

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WELDING JOURNAL

97

ADVERTISER INDEX
Arcos Industries, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IBC www.arcos.us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 233-8460 Astro Arc Polysoude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19 www.astroarc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(661) 702-0141 Atlas Welding Accessories, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 www.atlaswelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 962-9353 AWS Certification Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .21 www.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353 AWS Education Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7, 39 www.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353 AWS Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2 www.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353 AWS Membership Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13, 49, 73 www.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353 AWS Technical Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20 www.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353 Champion Welding Alloys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74 www.ChampionWelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 321-9353 Commercial Diving Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27 www.commercialdivingacademy.com . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 974-2232 Cor-Met . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 www.cor-met.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 848-2719 Diamond Ground Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31 www.diamondground.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(805) 498-3837 Divers Academy International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15 www.diversacademy.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 238-3483 FABTECH Canada 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17 www.fabtechcanada.com . . . . . . . . . . . . .(888) 322-7333, ext. 222 Fronius Perfect Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 www.fronius-usa.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(810) 220-4414 Gedik Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 www.gedikwelding.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+90 216 378 50 00 Greiner Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 www.greinerindustries.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 782-2110 Gullco International, Inc. - U.S.A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 www.gullco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(440) 439-8333 Hobart Inst. of Welding Tech. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 www.welding.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 332-9448 Industrial Maid Air Filtration & Ventilation Products . . . . . .12 www.industrial-maid.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 624-3247 Lincoln Electric Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .OBC www.lincolnelectric.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(216) 481-8100 Progressive Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36 www.progressivesurface.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(616) 957-0871 IFC = Inside Front Cover IBC = Inside Back Cover OBC = Outside Back Cover Visit the AWS Interactive Ad Index: www.aws.org/ad-index RWMAResistance Welding Manufacturing Alliance . . . . . . . .9 www.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353 Saint Gobain Coating Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38 www.coatingsolutions.saint-gobain.com . . . . . . . .(800) 243-0028 Select Arc, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .IFC www.select-arc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(937) 295-5215 Triangle Engineering, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .46 www.trieng.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(781) 878-1500 Uniweld Products, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11 www.uniweld.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 323-2111 Weld-Aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47 www.weldaid.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 935-3243 Weld Hugger, LLC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .45 www.weldhugger.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 935-3447 WEMCO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 www.aws.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(800) 443-9353 WorldSpec Online NDT Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12 www.worldspec.org . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(877) 506-7773 THERMAL SPRAY PROFILES ABC Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80 Ardleigh Minerals, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80 Bay State Surface Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80 CenterLine (Windsor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80 H. C. Stark, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 Hayden Corp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 HFW Industries, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 International Thermal Spray Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81 Plasma Technology, Inc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82 Polymet Corp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82 TAFA Inc./Praxair Surface Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82 Saint Gobain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .82 Sulzer Metco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83 Wall Colmonoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .83

98

DECEMBER 2011

SUPPLEMENT TO THE WELDING JOURNAL, DECEMBER 2011 Sponsored by the American Welding Society and the Welding Research Council

Oscillatory Marangoni Flow: A Fundamental Study by Conduction-Mode Laser Spot Welding

Through Marangoni flow, a surface-active agent can affect not only the weld pool depth, but also the pool surface deformation, pool surface oscillation, and ripple formation
BY S. KOU, C. LIMMANEEVICHITR, AND P. S. WEI

Marangoni flow, a fundamental subject extensively studied in welding, was further studied by using conduction-mode (non-keyhole) laser spot welding of 304 stainless steels. It was discovered that a surface-active agent, such as sulfur (S) in stainless steels, can affect not only the weld pool depth as explained by Heiple and Ropers model, but also the pool-surface deformation, pool-surface oscillation, and ripple formation. With low S (42 ppm), the pool surface was concave and oscillatory, and the resultant weld was shallow with clear ripples. With high S (140 ppm), however, the pool surface was convex and nearly steady, and the resultant weld was deeper without clear ripples. A mechanism was proposed to explain these strikingly different phenomena. At low S the fast outward surface flow can make the pool surface concave, as shown by computer simulation. The raised surface near the pool edge is unstable; it can oscillate with oscillatory Marangoni flow, disturb solidification at the pool edge, and cause clear ripple formation. At high S, the fast inward surface flow can make the pool surface convex. Oscillation of the raised surface near the pool center, however, may not disturb solidification at the pool edge enough to cause clear ripple formation. The mechanism was verified by observing pool-surface oscillation and ripple formation immediately after turning off the laser. Furthermore, oscillatory Marangoni flow was demonstrated by flow visualization in simulated stationary weld pools of NaNO3. Surface oscillation induced by oscillatory Marangoni flow was demonstrated with a NaNO3 drop laser heated from above.

Introduction
Weld Pool Marangoni Flow

The weld pool surface is warmer under the heat source and cooler near the pool edge. The gradients of surface temperature (T) can induce gradients of surface tension () along the pool surface because depends on T. Since the higher- liquid tends to pull the lower- liquid toward itS. KOU (kou@engr.wisc.edu) is professor, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisc.; C. LIMMANEEVICHITR is associate professor, Production Engineering Department, King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand; and P. S. WEI is professor, Department of Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical Engineering, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.

self, a surface flow toward the higher- liquid is induced. This flow is often called Marangoni or thermocapillary flow. Marangoni flow in the weld pool has become a subject of very active research worldwide since Heiple and Roper (Ref. 1) proposed a mechanism to explain why a small amount of a surface-active agent

KEYWORDS
Marangoni Flow Laser Weld Pool Surface Tension Thermocapillary Stainless Steel

WELDING JOURNAL 229-s

WELDING RESEARCH

ABSTRACT

can often affect the weld pool depth dramatically. The mechanism considers the effect of a surface-active agent on how varies with T. Surface-active agents in steels and stainless steels include sulfur (S), oxygen (O), selenium (Se), and tellurium (Te), among which S is most common. Figure 1 (Ref. 2) illustrates Heiples model for Marangoni flow in a stationary weld pool. When d/dT < 0 such as in a low-S 316 stainless steel (Fig. 1A), the surface flow is outward toward the pool edge (point 2 in Fig. 1B, where T is lower and higher than at point 1). The surface flow carries heat (from the heat source) outward instead of downward, thus making the pool wide and shallow. However, when d/dT > 0 such as in a high-S 316 stainless steel, the surface flow is inward toward the center (point 1 in Fig. 1C, where T and are both higher than at point 2). The surface flow turns downward at the center and carries heat to the pool bottom, thus making the pool smaller in diameter but significantly deeper Fig. 1C. With the high-S 316 stainless steel, it is possible for the temperature at the center of the pool surface to exceed about 2000C to make d/dT < 0, and hence, induce a small flow loop near the center of the pool surface with an outward surface flow. While this flow loop may slow down the inward surface flow and even reduce the pool depth somewhat, it seems too far away from the pool edge to affect ripple formation there significantly. DebRoy and coworkers (Refs. 3, 4) calculated the surface tension of liquid metals based on thermodynamic analysis. Their work further helped explain the effect of surface-active agents on Marangoni flow and the weld pool depth. The model of Heiple and Roper (Ref. 1)

Fig. 1 Heiples model for effect of surface-active agent on Marangoni flow and weld pool depth. A 316 stainless steel (Ref. 1); B low-S weld pool; C high-S weld pool (Ref. 2).

WELDING RESEARCH
Fig. 2 Detecting pool-surface deformation and oscillation of stationary laser weld pools with directed halogen light. A Concave surface; B convex surface.

has been confirmed by numerous welding experiments (e.g., Refs. 1, 2, 5, 6). It has also been confirmed by physical modeling (Refs.

79) as well as computer modeling (e.g., Refs. 1012). Limmaneevichitr and Kou (Ref. 7) developed a flow visualization tech- Fig. 3 Visualization of oscillatory Marangoni flow in a simulated stationary weld pool of NaNO3, with a CO2 laser beam to induce Marangoni flow and a He-Ne nique to reveal laser sheet to reveal the pattern of return flow in a flat (horizontal) plane 0.5 mm steady Marangoni below the bottom of the pool surface. flow in a simulated stationary weld simulations (e.g., Ref. 15). They also pool of NaNO3, which is transparent and showed that assuming a flat rigid pool surwell documented in physical properties. face that is not deformable can cause signifThey further revealed the reversal of icant errors in calculating the weld pool Marangoni flow in the presence of a surdepth. Tsai and Kou (Ref. 14) demonstrated face-active agent (Ref. 9). Kou and Sun the deformation of the weld pool surface in(Ref. 10) developed the first computer duced by volume expansion caused by meltmodel of heat transfer and fluid flow to caling and superheating. culate the unknown weld pool shape. The Hong et al. (Refs. 16, 17) developed a computer model confirmed the effect of the comprehensive thermofluid model of gassurface-active agent on the weld pool depth tungsten arc spot welds with a free surface proposed by the model of Heiple and geometry and a properly posed turbulence Roper. Using body-fitted curvilinear coormodel. They showed that predicted mean dinates to more accurately handle boundary flow velocities and final weld pool dimenconditions at the pool surface, Tsai and Kou sions in a relatively low-thermal conduc(Refs. 13, 14) demonstrated the deformativity material such as 304 stainless steel tion of the weld pool surface caused by were significantly affected by the sulfur Marangoni flow and density changes. They content and turbulence. He et al. (Ref. 18) showed that fast outward surface flow (in and Paul et al. (Ref. 19) demonstrated in the absence of a surface-active agent) can welding with a focused laser beam that the make the pool surface concave, which has free surface can be deformed by the recoil been confirmed by more recent computer

Table 1 Compositions of 304 Stainless Steels (wt-%) %C Low Sulfur High Sulfur 0.020 0.072 %S 0.0042 0.0140 %P 0.017 0.038 %Mn 1.80 1.76 %Si 0.44 0.48 %Ni 8.12 8.12 %Cr 18.38 18.20 %Mo 0.05 0.38 %Co 0.05 0.10 %Cu 0.09 0.37 %N 0.061 0.051 Fe

230-s DECEMBER 2011, VOL. 90

Fig. 4 Demonstration of surface oscillation induced by oscillatory Marangoni flow in a NaNO3 drop, with a CO2 laser beam (stationary) to induce Marangoni flow.

Weld Pool Oscillation

Weld pool oscillation can be used for process monitoring and control during welding. For instance, the oscillation frequency decreases significantly if the weld pool changes from partial to complete joint penetration during welding. When acted upon momentarily by an external force, such as a pressure pulse caused by a current pulse in pulsed gas tungsten arc welding, the pool tends to vibrate at natural frequencies that are related to the dimensions, penetration, and physical properties of the pool (Ref. 21). The natural frequency and amplitude of the oscillation can be measured by monitoring the arc, for instance, its voltage variation (Refs. 22, 23). Models have been developed to predict the frequencies of oscillation for various modes of oscillation (Refs. 2127). It has been shown that the frequency of surface oscillation is proportional to D3/2, where D is the pool surface diameter (Refs. 22, 23). Thus, the frequency can increase sharply with decreasing pool diameter.
Ripple Formation

Table 2 Physical Properties of NaNO3 Melt (Refs. 7, 33, 34) Properties Melting point, Tm, C Heat of fusion, H, J/g Temperature coefficient of surface tension, d/dT, dyne/(cm C) Surface tension, , dyne/cm Dynamic viscosity = , g/ (cm s) Density, , g/cm3 Kinematic viscosity, = /, cm2/s Specific heat, Cp, J/(g C) Thermal conductivity, k, W/(cm C) Thermal expansion coefficient, , C1 Thermal diffusivity, =k/( Cp), cm2/s Prandtl number, Pr = Cp/k Refractive index, n Emissivity, Transmission range, ,cm NaNO3 306.8 182 0.056 119.96 at Tm 0.0302 at Tm 1.904 at Tm 1.586 10 2 at Tm 1.71 at Tm 5.65 103 at Tm 6.6 104 1.74 103 at Tm 9.12 at Tm 1.46 0.3 0.35 104 3 104

Ripple formation has been an interest-

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pressure caused by evaporation of material from the pool surface. The only study on oscillatory Marangoni flow in the weld pool known to the authors is the computer simulation of Morvan and Bournot (Ref. 20) for conduction-mode laser welding (that is, without a keyhole), in which the pool was assumed two-dimensional (i.e., sheet-like), normal to the travel direction, and with a rigid pool surface (i.e., a straight line). An oscillation frequency of 10 to 20 Hz for aluminum or steel was suggested. It was stated in the real cases where the free surface can be deformed, the oscillations in the melted pool will be suppressed.

ing topic of research in welding. In the classic work of Kotecki et al. (Ref. 28), ripples on complete joint penetration spot welds made by gas tungsten arc welding of thin (e.g., 1.27 mm or 0.050 in.) metal sheets were studied. Turning off the arc suddenly released the arc pressure that was stretching the pool surfaces, setting the pool into oscillation like a drumskin. A one-to-one correspondence between ripples and pool oscillations was identified, and it was Fig. 5 Effect of sulfur (S) content of 304 stainless steel on ripple formation and concluded that penetration depth of spot weld. A, C Weld surface; B, D weld cross section. pool oscillations Laser power: 2200 W; welding time: 1.3 s during freezing arc welding. The weld pool, typically hemiproduced the weld surface ripples. The spherical in shape with a diameter of about ripple spacing decreased from near the 6 mm, solidified with ripples on the surface weld edge to the center. Surface oscillaupon turning off the arc. The ripple spacing tion of partial-penetration pools in a and amplitude both decreased from near thicker workpiece was also confirmed. The the weld edge to the center. It was shown arc pressure caused the pool surface to dethat the ripple spacing was equal to the press near the center and rise near the solidification (growth) rate times the period pool edge. The pool surface was set into of pool oscillation, that is, the growth rate oscillation when the arc pressure was suddivided by the frequency of pool oscillation. denly released upon turning off the arc. The present study deals with the effect Rappaz et al. (Ref. 29) studied ripples on of the surface-active agent on the poolpartial-penetration spot welds of Fe-15Nisurface deformation, pool-surface oscilla15Cr single crystals made by gas tungsten

WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 6 Effect of sulfur (S) content of 304 stainless steel on ripple formation and penetration depth of spot weld. A, C Weld surface; B, D Weld cross section. Laser power: 2800 W; welding time: 5 s.

tion, and ripple formation induced by Marangoni flow in the weld pool. It may be considered as a complement to the model of Heiple and Roper (Ref. 1), which explains the effect of the surfaceactive agent on the weld pool depth based on Marangoni flow. It focuses on stationary weld pools, aiming to understand the basic case of stationary weld pools first before dealing with the more complicated case of moving weld pools (Refs. 3032).

Experimental Procedure
Welding

Weld pool phenomena were studied by using conduction-mode laser spot welding of 304 stainless steels. In order to study Marangoni flow in the weld pool properly, interference from other driving forces (Ref. 2) for fluid flow must be excluded. In the case of gas tungsten arc welding, for instance, they can include arc factors such as the Lorentz force, the arc forces (the arc pressure and the shear force), and anode spot wondering. Unlike the keyholing mode, in the conduction mode, the workpiece surface is positioned below or above the focal point of the laser beam. The beam can thus be defocused to a size comparable to a gas-tungsten welding arc, e.g., 6.4 mm (14 in.) in diameter. This will allow the results to be compared with those of arc welding in future studies to infer what arc effects are occurring. Con232-s DECEMBER 2011, VOL. 90

duction-mode laser- and electron-beam welding have been a useful Fig. 7 Surface deformation and oscillation of stationary laser weld pools. tool for studying AE low-S 304 stainless steel; FJ high-S 304 stainless steel. Laser power: the effect of 2800 W; welding time: 5 s. Frame numbered in sequence with 130 s between two Marangoni flow on consecutive frames. the weld pool mm in diameter at the workpiece surface, depth and ripple formation associated determined with a beam profiler. The with moving pools (Refs. 5, 3032). In shielding gas was Ar at 23.6 L/min (50 order to gain the fundamental underft3/h) flow rate. The laser beam was tilted standing of Marangoni flow and its effect, about 7 deg off the vertical line in order to however, the weld pools were stationary in keep the beam from being reflected back the present study. The results from stato the focusing lens. The laser power tionary weld pools can serve as the founranged from 1800 to 3000 W and the welddation for understanding the more ing time from 1 to 8 s. complicated phenomena associated with To help determine if the pool surface moving weld pools, which will be dealt was concave or convex, the light from a with in follow-up reports. halogen lamp was directed through a To study the effect of the sulfur (S) confiber-optic bundle onto the pool surface as tent on weld pool phenomena, two heats illustrated in Fig. 2. The distance between of 304 stainless steels were welded, one the tip of the fiber-optic bundle and the with a lower S level of 42 ppm and the weld pool was about 60 mm. The pool surother a higher S level of 140 ppm. For conface acted as a mirror. The image of the venience of discussion, the former will be light (white) appears larger on a concave called low S and the latter high S. The pool surface (Fig. 2A) and smaller on a compositions of the stainless steels are convex one (Fig. 2B). A moving image shown in Table 1. Both stainless steels suggests an oscillatory pool surface. Weldwere 300 mm (12 in.) long, 50 mm (2 in.) ing was videotaped with a CCD camera at wide, and 6.4 mm (14 in.) thick. 30 frames per second, with a close-up lens A HAAS HL3006 YAG laser machine for observing the weld pool surface. was used for welding. The maximum The resultant welds were photographed power capacity was 3000 W. The waveto show the ripples on the surfaces. They length was 1064 nm. The distance between were then cut, polished, and etched to rethe laser head and the workpiece was veal the vertical cross sections of welds. about 140 mm. The laser beam was 6.4

The etching solution consisted of 50 mL HCl, 10 g CuSO4, and 50 mL H2O.

Oscillatory Marangoni Flow

Flow visualization was conducted in a simulated stationary weld pool of sodium nitrate (NaNO3). NaNO3 was selected for the following reasons. First, it has a transparent melt, a surface tension that decreases significantly with increasing temperature, a low melting point, and well-documented physical properties, as shown in Table 2 (Refs. 7, 33, 34). Second, the Marangoni number Ma for the simulated weld pool of NaNO3 can be close to those for steel and aluminum weld pools (Ref. 7). According to the similarity law of hydrodynamics, similarity in Marangoni flow between two fluid systems can be expected if the Marangoni numbers are close to each other (Ref. 34). Third, NaNO3 has a transmission range of 0.35 to 3 m and is, therefore, opaque to CO2 laser (10.6 m wavelength) just like a metal weld pool is opaque to the heat source. However, it is transparent to the He-Ne laser (0.633 m wavelength), which as will be described subsequently, was used for flow visualization. The purity of the NaNO3 used was above 99%. The apparatus for flow visualization is illustrated in Fig. 3. The procedure for flow visualization in simulated weld pool of NaNO3 has been described by Limmaneevichitr et al. (Refs. 79) and will be mentioned only briefly here. The NaNO3 pool for flow visualization was held in a cylindrical glass container of 5 mm inner radius, which was a test tube cut short. The pool was essentially hemispherical in shape except its top surface was concave instead of flat. The pool was heated from above by a CO2 laser beam positioned at the center of the pool surface to induce Marangoni flow. The beam diameter at the pool surface was 1.5 mm, and the power ranged from 2 to 14 W. The pool was surrounded by a bath of NaNO3 melt held in a rectangular glass container, which acted as a transparent heater for the light sheet to pass through. A laser light-cut technique was used for flow visualization. A laser light sheet was produced with the help of a 20-mW HeNe laser and optical lenses. The light sheet was oriented such that it intersected the NaNO3 pool to form a flat (horizontal) plane at 0.5 mm below the bottom of the pool surface. It was found that the pattern of flow oscillation was easier to recognize from above the pool than from in front of the pool. So, instead of a vertical light sheet cutting through the pool axis as in the previous studies (Refs. 79), a flat light sheet was used. Since the pool surface is concave, the surface flow along the pool surface cannot be revealed by a light-cut

Fig. 8 Pool-surface deformation induced by Marangoni flow in stationary laser weld pools of 6061 Al. A Concave pool surface with d /dT < 0; B convex pool surface with d /dT > 0 (Ref. 13). Laser power: 1800 W; steady state.

technique. So, the pattern of the return flow in a flat plane at 0.5 mm below the bottom of the pool surface was revealed by flow visualization. Aluminum particles 20 m in diameter were added to the NaNO3 pool to serve as a tracer to reveal the flow pattern. The particles were illuminated by the HeNe laser light sheet and hence revealed

the flow pattern in the pool. The density of aluminum (2.7 g cm3) is greater than that of the NaNO3 melt (1.9 g cm3). From Stokess law (Ref. 35), however, the settling velocity is much slower than Marangoni flow in view of the small particle diameter. To detect temperature oscillation in the NaNO3 pool caused by flow oscillation, a WELDING JOURNAL 233-s

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thermocouple was lowered into the pool after flow visualization was finished. The thermocouple was K-type (Omega HJMQSS-010-E-6) with a stainless steel sheath. The overall diameter of the thermocouple was 0.25 mm (0.01 in.). The thermocouple tip was at a radial position of 2.5 mm from the pool axis and at a vertical position of 0.5 mm below the bottom of the pool surface, where flow visualization was conducted. A data acquisition system (Omega WB-Dynares 16 Ultra) was used to record temperature data at the sampling rate of 10 Hz. The data were analyzed by Fast Fourier Transformation (Statistica Version 5.197).
Surface Oscillation Induced by Oscillatory Marangoni Flow

Fig. 9 Pool-surface deformation of a stationary laser weld pool of 6061 Al caused by density decrease due to melting (L < S) and superheating ( > 0) (Ref. 14). Laser power: 1800 W; steady state.

To demonstrate that oscillatory Marangoni flow can cause surface oscillation, a drop of NaNO3 was supported by a graphite rod at the bottom and heated by a CO2 laser beam from above, as illustrated in Fig. 4. The beam diameter was 1.5 mm at the top surface of the drop. Marangoni flow in the drop was revealed by using a flow visualization technique similar to that described previously. The flow pattern was revealed with a vertical light sheet of the He-Ne laser that cut the drop through its axis. The flow pattern was optically distorted by the lens effect of the drop.

WELDING RESEARCH

Results and Discussion

Welds and Ripples

Fig. 10 Mechanism explaining how surface-active agent affects pool-surface deformation, pool-surface oscillation, and ripple formation through Marangoni flow. A Low surface-active agent; B immediately after turning off laser in A; C high surface-active agent; D immediately after turning off laser in C.

A significant effect of the sulfur content of 304 stainless steel on the ripple formation on its welds was observed. More than a dozen spot welds were made, ranging from 1800 to 3000 W and 1 to 8 s. The results consistently show significantly clearer ripple formation on the low-S welds than the high-S welds. Typical results will be shown in the following paragraphs. The effect of welding conditions on ripple formation will be discussed elsewhere. A clear effect of the sulfur content on the ripple formation on the seam welds of the same 304 stainless steels was also observed. The results will be reported elsewhere. Figure 5 shows two spot welds made at the power level of 2200 W for a welding time of 1.3 s. Clear ripples are visible on the low-S weld (Fig. 5A) but not on the high-S weld (Fig. 5C). The ripples on the low-S weld (Fig. 5A) tend to be clearer and more widely separated near the weld edge than near the weld center, that is, the ripple spacing decreases from the weld edge to the weld center. These differences are consistent with the observation of Kotecki et al. (Ref. 28) and Rappaz et al.

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Fig. 11 Concave stationary laser weld pool of low-S 304 stainless steel. A Laser on; BJ laser off. Variations in halogen-light image (white spot) on pool surface in BI suggest pool-surface oscillation during solidification and hence ripple formation (Fig. 6A). Multiple light images (e.g., in E) indicate oscillation frequency > 30 Hz (130 s between two consecutive frames). Arrowhead in F indicates a ripple forming at solidification front (pool edge).

Fig. 12 Convex stationary laser weld pool of high-S 304 stainless steel. A Laser on; BJ laser off. Steady halogen-light image (white spot) on pool surface in BJ suggests little surface oscilltion during solidification and hence little ripple formation (Fig. 6C). Arrowhead in G indicates no ripple forming at solidification front (pool edge). 130 s between two consecutive frames.

(Ref. 29). Rappaz et al. (Ref. 29) observed in gas tungsten arc spot welding of Fe15Ni-15Cr that the growth rate increased, slightly more rapidly than linearly, from about 4 mm/s at the weld edge (3 mm in radius) to about 6 mm/s at 1 mm from the weld center. Xiao and den Ouden (Refs. 22, 23) showed that the frequency of poolsurface oscillation is proportional to (pool radius)3/2. Thus, as the radius decreases from the weld edge to the weld center, the growth rate seems to increase less rapidly than the pool-oscillation frequency. Since the ripple spacing is the growth rate divided by the pool-oscillation frequency (Ref. 29), it seems reasonable to expect the ripple spacing to decrease from the weld edge to the weld center. The transition from columnar grains at the weld edge to equiaxed grains near the center (Fig. 5A) is likely to be caused by the decrease in the G/R ratio from the pool edge to the pool center, where G is the temperature gradient in the liquid at the solidification front and R the growth rate (Ref. 2). Upon turning off the laser, the temperature near the pool center

dropped sharply, causing G to decrease and R to increase during solidification from the pool edge to the center. As already mentioned, Rappaz et al. (Ref. 29) showed that the growth rate increases from the pool edge to the pool center. As expected, a significant effect of the sulfur content on the weld shape was observed. The low-S weld (Fig. 5B) is slightly larger in diameter but significantly shallower as compared to the high-S weld (Fig. 5D). These weld shapes are consistent with Heiples model Fig. 1. Figure 6 shows two larger welds made at a higher power of 2800 W for a longer welding time of 5 s. Again, clear ripples are visible on the low-S weld (Fig. 6A) but not the high-S weld (Fig. 6C). Overall speaking, the ripples on the low-S weld tend to be clearer and more widely separated near the weld edge than near the weld center. The low-S weld (Fig. 6B) is slightly larger in diameter but much shallower as compared to the high-S weld (Fig. 6D). These results are consistent with those shown previously in Fig. 5. The small depression at the center of

the weld surface (Fig. 6D) does not mean the existence of a keyhole during welding. In fact, the weld surface after welding does not necessarily represent the pool surface during welding. As will be shown subsequently (Fig. 7FJ), the pool surface was convex everywhere and there was no keyhole at the center. The absence of a keyhole can be expected because the laser beam was defocused (to 6.4 mm in diameter). The depression formed during the last moment of weld pool solidification, when the solidification front was near the center. The formation of the depression is likely to be caused by the conservation of mass. The crown of the weld in Fig. 6D above the workpiece surface suggests the overall density of the material within the fusion boundary decreases after welding. Even so, the fact that the weld surface rises well above the workpiece surface from the beginning of solidification suggests that there might not be enough material left in the pool to sustain the high weld surface throughout solidification. As shown in Fig. 5D, on the other hand, the weld surface is essentially even with the

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Fig. 13 Flow oscillation in NaNO3 pool revealed by flow visualization of return flow at 0.5 mm below pool surface (Fig. 3). A Steady flow at 4-W laser power; B oscillatory flow at 6 W; C oscillatory flow at 14 W.

workpiece initially, rises gradually as solidification proceeds, and ends up without a depression.
Surface Deformation and Oscillation of Weld Pools

The evidence of the deformation and oscillation of the weld pool surface was observed in 304 stainless steel. The videotapes recorded during spot welding revealed wild surface oscillation in the case of low-S pools but little surface oscillation in the case of high-S pools. The oscillation of the low-S weld pool contradicts the statement of Morvan and Bournot (Ref. 20) in the real cases where the free surface can be deformed, the oscillations in the melted pool will be suppressed. Figure 7 shows the photos of stationary weld pools extracted from the videotape recorded during welding. The diameter of the low-S pool is 8.5 mm and that of the high-S pool 7.3 mm (in Fig. 7 and, subsequently, Figs. 11 and 12), based on the welds shown in Fig. 6. The surface of the high-S weld pool (Fig. 7FJ) appears convex. The fact that the image of the halogen light (white spot) is much smaller than

the pool surface further suggests that pool surface is convex. Although the light images in Fig. FJ are similar, close examination can still reveal some differences. For instance, the images in Fig. 7F and I appear slightly thinner (more elongated in the left-right direction) than that in Fig. 7G. These differences suggest that the pool surface oscillates near the center and the amplitude of oscillation is small. As for the low-S weld pool (Fig. 7AE), the light image varies in shape clearly from frame to frame. This suggests that the pool surface is clearly oscillating. With high-speed photography, it would be possible to determine the frequency and mode of oscillation. Furthermore, the light image is much larger than that in the high-S pool, covering nearly the whole pool surface except near the pool edge, which appears much darker. This suggests that the pool surface is concave and oscillating. The concave pool surface with low S (Fig. 7AE) is most likely caused by Marangoni flow instead of the recoil pressure of the material evaporating from the pool surface. Otherwise, the high-S pool surface (Fig. 7FJ) would also have to be concave instead of convex. The defocused

laser beam might have helped keep the beam power density low to avoid recoiling. Computer simulation has demonstrated that Marangoni flow in the weld pool can cause the pool surface to deform in conduction-mode laser spot welding of 6061 Al alloy (Ref. 13) and steel (Ref. 15). Quantitative discussion of oscillatory Marangoni flow in 304 stainless steel and its effect on pool-surface deformation and oscillation is difficult without a computer model that can handle both flow and surface oscillation. Also, turbulence may need to be considered. As compared to the case of laminar flow, as shown by Hong et al. (Ref. 17), with turbulence the maximum velocity can be lower and the pool shallower. Since such a computer model does not yet exist, the discussion here can only be qualitative. In the following discussion, the results of computer simulation of conduction-mode laser spot welding by Tsai and Kou (Refs. 13, 14) will be used even though the workpiece material was 6061 Al alloy instead of 304 stainless steel. This is mainly because they demonstrated the individual effects of the following factors on pool-surface deformation: 1) d/dT < 0; 2) d/dT > 0; and 3) volume expansion (due to melting and superheating). The following discussion would be difficult without referring to these results. In Fig. 8, Tsai and Kou (Ref. 13) show the surface deformation of stationary conduction-mode laser weld pools of 6061 aluminum alloy caused by Marangoni flow. The beam diameter is 8 mm at the pool surface, the laser power is 1800 W, and the power is on continuously to allow the weld pool to reach the steady state. Under the normal condition of d/dT < 0 (Fig. 8A), the outward surface flow is very fast, on the order of 1 m/s. Near the pool edge, however, it is slowed down suddenly by the edge. According to Bernoullis principle (Refs. 31, 35), the fluid pressure can increase as the result of a velocity decrease. Thus, near the pool edge the pressure can be expected to increase and push the pool surface upward. The extent the pool surface is pushed upward also depends on the interaction between the surface tension from the liquid, solid, and gas since these phases coexist at the pool edge. The conservation of mass requires that the pool surface be depressed near the center if it is raised near the edge. This makes the pool surface concave. More recently, Sim and Kim (Ref. 15) have also shown by computer simulation concave surfaces of stationary laser weld pools of steel (low S and conduction mode). With d/dT > 0 (Fig. 8B), such as in the presence of a significant amount of a surface-active agent, the fast inward surface flow converges to the center of the surface, where it is suddenly slowed down. This causes the pres-

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pool-surface deformation, pool-surface oscillation, and ripple formation through Marangoni flow, as shown in Fig. 10. As already explained previously (Fig. 8A), in the absence of a significant amount of a surfaceactive agent, the fast surface flow is outward toward the pool edge, the pool surface can be raised near the edge, and the pool surface can become concave (Fig. 10A). A pool surface raised significantly above the workpiece surface Fig. 14 Temperature oscillation induced by oscillatory Marangoni flow in without any support NaNO3 pool heated by CO2 laser at 6 W (Fig. 13B). A Temperature oscil- is unstable and senlation; B frequencies of temperature oscillation determined by fast-Fourier sitive to disturtransformation of A. bances. It can oscillate with the surface flow if the sure and hence the pool surface to rise flow is so strong as to become oscillatory, near the center. The conservation of mass that is, oscillatory Marangoni flow. Upon now requires that the pool surface be deturning off the laser, the pool-surface tempressed slightly near the edge. perature drops immediately. However, the However, as shown in Fig. 7FJ, the surtemperature drop is greater at the center of face of the high-S pool is convex everywhere the pool surface than at the edge. Thus, the instead of being convex near the pool center temperature gradients along the pool surand slightly concave near the pool edge, as face also drop, and the outward surface suggested by Fig. 8B. This is because of the flow is weakened. Consequently, the pool volume expansion associated with melting surface may still be concave and the pool (liquid density L < solid density S) and surface may still be raised near the pool superheating (thermal expansion coefficient edge, but not as much as before turning off > 0). Tsai and Kou (Ref. 14) show in Fig. the laser (Fig. 10B). The amplitude of sur9 by computer simulation that, in the abface oscillation may also drop. Surface ossence of any Marangoni flow (d/dT = 0), cillation may continue briefly after the laser the surface of a stationary weld pool can be is turned off. Since solidification occurs at convex due to volume expansion (S being the pool edge, usually fast in spot welding, 6.6% higher than L and = 1.0 104 1 it may be disturbed by the surface oscillaC for aluminum). The beam diameter is tion near the pool edge. Consequently, 8 mm at the pool surface, and the laser clear ripples may form. The solidification power is 1800 W. Gravity-induced flow is too rate, for instance, is about 7 mm/s based on slow (on the order of 1 cm/s) to deform the Figs. 6A, 11F, and 11G. As mentioned prepool surface. In order to highlight the effect viously, Rappaz et al. (Ref. 29) observed in of Marangoni flow alone on the pool surgas-tungsten arc spot welding of Fe-15Niface shape, volume expansion was excluded 15Cr a solidification rate of 4 mm/s near the from Fig. 8 ( L = S and = 0). However, pool edge and 6 mm/s near the pool center. as shown by Fig. 7AE, the low-S pool surIn the presence of a significant amount face is still concave despite the volume exof a surface-active agent, the fast surface pansion. Thus, it is clear that the fast flow is inward toward the pool center, and outward surface flow in the low-S pool is the pool surface can become convex (Fig. able to turn an otherwise convex pool sur10C). As mentioned previously, the pool face into a concave one. This demonstrates surface can be convex near the center and that Marangoni convection can cause sigdepressed near the edge (Fig. 8B) but has nificant pool-surface deformation. to be convex everywhere considering volume expansion due to melting and superMechanism Explaining Effect of heating (Fig. 9). The raised surface near the Surface-Active Agent pool center is unstable and can oscillate with A mechanism is proposed to explain the oscillatory Marangoni flow. However, pooleffect of the surface-active agent on the surface oscillation may be weak near the

Fig. 15 Marangoni flow inside a NaNO3 drop heated from above by a CO2 laser beam (Fig. 4). Arrow indicates direction of surface flow. Flow is asymmetric and unsteady, typical of oscillatory Marangoni flow.

Fig. 16 Shaking (surface oscillation) of a NaNO3 drop heated from above by a stationary CO2 laser beam (Fig. 4); 130 s between two consecutive frames.

pool edge even if it is significant near the pool center. When the laser is turned off, the already weak surface oscillation near the pool edge may diminish immediately. Thus, solidification at the pool edge may not be disturbed much and ripple formation may not be clear Fig. 10D. This mechanism was verified by observing the pool surface of 304 stainless steel immediately after turning off the laser. The low-S weld pool in Fig. 11 shows clear surface oscillation and ripple forma-

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tion. The photos in Fig. 11A and B show the pool surface immediately before and after turning off the laser, respectively. The image size of the halogen light (white in color) on the pool surface becomes much smaller immediately after the laser is turned off Fig. 11B. When the temperature gradients along the pool surface decrease immediately after the laser is turned off, two things can be expected to happen. First, the amplitude of surface oscillation near the pool edge decreases and this makes the light image smaller. Second, the concavity of the pool surface decreases and this also makes the light image smaller. Both are consistent with the smaller light image immediately after the laser is turned off Fig. 11B. As mentioned previously, the frequency of surface oscillation depends on the pool surface diameter (Refs. 22, 23). It may not necessarily change significantly because the diameter has not changed significantly yet. The pool surface does become darker, consistent with the sudden temperature drop at the pool surface upon turning off the laser. The light images of the pool surface in Fig. 11 BJ indicate pool-surface oscillation. The light image does not remain unchanged. Instead, it varies in shape and location from image to image. Thus, immediately after the laser is turned off, pool-surface oscillation can still continue briefly, for instance, for about 0.3 s (from Fig. 11B through J). The coexistence of multiple light images in a single photo of the pool surface (e.g., Fig. 11E) suggests that the pool surface oscillates at a frequency much higher than the frequency of imaging during videotaping, that is, 30 Hz. The arrowhead in Fig. 11F indicates a ripple forming at the pool edge, that is, the solidification front. This is consistent with the presence of clear ripples on the surface of the resultant weld Fig. 6A. The ripples that form as the surface oscillation diminishes are not as clear (Fig. HJ). This is consistent with the fact that ripples become less clear from the edge to the center of the resultant weld Fig. 6A. On the other hand, the high-S weld pool in Fig. 12 shows the absence of clear surface oscillation and ripple formation at the pool edge during solidification. The photos in Fig. 12A and B show the pool surface immediately before and after turning off the laser, respectively. The image of the halogen light (the white spot) on the pool surface becomes smaller immediately after the laser is turned off Fig. 12B. Again, the temperature gradients along the pool surface decrease immediately after the laser is turned off, and two things can be expected to happen. First, the amplitude of surface oscillation decreases and this makes the light image smaller. Second, the convexity of the pool surface decreases and this makes

the light image larger. The smaller light image (Fig. 12B) suggests that the oscillation amplitude decreased but the convexity did not change much. This can be considered as to further suggest that the convex surface of the high-S weld pool is mainly caused by volume expansion due to melting and superheating Fig. 9. The absence of significant variations in the shape and location of the light image from frame to frame (Fig. 12BJ) indicates the absence of significant pool-surface oscillation during solidification. The arrowhead in Fig. 12G indicates no clear ripple forming at the pool edge during solidification. This is consistent with the absence of clear ripples on the surface of the resultant weld Fig. 6C.
Oscillatory Marangoni Flow

perature oscillation induced by oscillatory Marangoni flow has been observed in liquid bridges of high Prandtl-number materials such as silicone oils and NaNO3 melts (e.g., Ref. 33). A liquid bridge is usually established between the bottom surface of a higher-temperature rod and the top surface of a lower-temperature rod, the two rods being vertical, coaxial, and identical in diameter. Yang and Kou (Ref. 36) have demonstrated temperature oscillation induced by oscillatory Marangoni flow in a liquid bridge of molten Sn, which is a low Prandtl-number material like other metals and semiconductors. The Marangoni number, which has been used to represent the extent of Marangoni flow, is a dimensionless number defined as follows:

Oscillatory Marangoni flow was demonstrated in a simulated weld pool of NaNO3 by flow visualization using the apparatus shown previously in Fig. 3. As shown in Table 2 for NaNO3, d/dT = 0.056 dyne/(cm C). Since d/dT < 0, the surface flow is outward toward the pool edge. The return flow below the pool surface is inward toward the pool axis, as indicated by the arrowheads in the schematic flow pattern in Fig. 3. The return flow revealed by the He-Ne laser light sheet in a flat (horizontal) plane 0.5 mm below the bottom of the pool surface is shown in Fig. 13. At the laser power of 4 W, the inward return flow is steady and it converges to a central point Fig. 13A. At 6 W, however, it no longer converges to a point but to a short boundary formed between two opposing streams of flow Fig. 13B. As indicated by the two opposite arrowheads, the opposing streams and their boundary oscillate. The flow pattern repeats itself in about 1.4 s. So, the onset of flow oscillation occurs between 4 W and 6 W, and the oscillation frequency is about 0.7 Hz (= 1/1.4 s). With a further power increase to 14 W, the flow becomes faster, as reflected by the thinner flow lines Fig. 13C. However, the mode and frequency of oscillation seem to remain essentially unchanged. The results of temperature measurements indicate clear evidence of temperature oscillation induced by oscillatory Marangoni flow, as shown in Fig. 14. As mentioned previously, the thermocouple was lowered into the pool to the plane of the light sheet, that is, 0.5 mm below the bottom of the pool surface, after flow visualization was finished, in order not to interfere with flow visualization. The pool temperature oscillates periodically Fig. 14A. Fast Fourier transformation of the temperature data shows that the primary oscillation frequency is about 0.8 Hz (Fig. 14B), which is close to the frequency of flow oscillation 0.7 Hz Fig. 13B. Tem-

Ma = dT

(T )L (1)

WELDING RESEARCH

where d/dT is the temperature coefficient of surface tension, T the temperature difference between the center and edge of the pool surface, L the characteristic length, the dynamic viscosity, and the thermal diffusivity. The characteristic length L can be taken as the radius of the pool surface. As the laser power is increased, T can be expected to increase, so is Ma. Thus, Marangoni flow becomes stronger, that is, increasing in velocity, and oscillatory. As mentioned previously, the similarity law of hydrodynamics suggests that similarity in Marangoni flow between two fluid systems can be expected if the Marangoni numbers are close to each other (Ref. 34). As also mentioned previously, the Marangoni number Ma for the simulated weld pool of NaNO3 can be close to those for steel and aluminum weld pools (Ref. 7). Though it does not affect the conclusions of the present study, it is worth mentioning that there have been two different theories about the onset of oscillatory Marangoni flow in liquids. One suggests that oscillations result from deformation of the free surface (Refs. 37, 38) while the other suggests that Marangoni flow becomes oscillatory beyond a critical value of Ma (Refs. 39, 40).
Surface Oscillation Induced by Oscillatory Marangoni Flow

The evidence of surface oscillation induced by oscillatory Marangoni flow was demonstrated with the help of a NaNO3 drop heated from above by a CO2 laser beam Fig. 4. Surface oscillation, if any, was difficult to detect in the hemispherical

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Conclusions Oscillatory Marangoni flow and its effects on weld pool phenomena including pool-surface deformation, pool-surface oscillation, and ripple formation, were investigated by using conduction-mode laser spot welding of 304 stainless steels. Within the experimental conditions used, the conclusions based on the results observed are as follows: 1) A significant effect of the surfaceactive agent, such as S in 304 stainless steels, on the pool-surface deformation, pool-surface oscillation, and ripple formation has been discovered. This effect of the surface-active agent complements that on the weld pool depth reported in the classic work of Heiple and Roper (Ref. 1). 2) A low-S (e.g., 42 ppm) pool surface can be concave and oscillating, and the resultant weld shallow and with clear ripples. A high-S (e.g., 140 ppm) pool surface, on the other hand, can be convex and much less oscillatory, and the resultant weld deeper and without clear ripples. 3) A mechanism has been proposed to explain how the surface-active agent can affect pool-surface deformation, poolsurface oscillation and ripple formation through Marangoni flow. With little surface-active agent present, as the fast outward surface flow slows down suddenly

Acknowledgments This work was supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. IIP1034695 and the University of Wisconsin Foundation through the Industry/University Collaborative Research Center (I/UCRC) for Integrated Materials Joining Science for Energy Applications. References
1. Heiple, C. R., and Roper, J. R. 1982. Mechanism for minor element effect on GTA fusion zone geometry. Welding Journal 61(4): 97-s to 102-s. 2. Kou, S. 2003. Welding Metallurgy, 2nd edition, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2003, pp. 103114. 3. Sahoo, P., DebRoy, T., and McNallan, M. J. 1988. Surface tension of binary metal-surface active solute systems under conditions relevant to welding metallurgy. Metallurgical Transactions, vol. 19B(3), pp. 483491. 4. McNallan, M. J., and DebRoy, T. 1991. Effect of temperature and composition on surface tension of Fe-Ni- Cr alloys containing sulfur. Metallurgical Transactions, B, vol. 22B, pp. 557560.

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NaNO3 pool because the concave pool surface was supported by the container wall near the pool edge Fig. 3. Pool surface oscillation, however, can be revealed clearly if the pool surface near the pool edge is raised without anything to support it. Figure 15 is an example of Marangoni flow in the NaNO3 drop. The induced Marangoni flow pattern is somewhat toroidal (like a donut), with a fast surface flow from near the top of the drop (warmer) to its bottom near the edge of the graphite rod (cooler), as indicated by the arrowhead. A vortex is visible near the surface on the right hand side of the drop. A similar vortex, however, cannot be seen on the left-hand side because the flow is asymmetric and unsteady, typical of oscillatory Marangoni flow. Since the flow pattern is optically distorted by the lens effect of the drop, the details of the flow pattern are not important. What is more important is that the flow pattern clearly varies with time, that is, oscillatory Marangoni flow. As the power of the laser beam was increased gradually (for instance, to 17.5 W), the flow became faster and oscillatory, and the drop began to shake visibly as shown in Fig. 16. Due to the shape of the drop and its small size, the oscillation frequency probably exceeded the speed of the DV recording system, judging from the blurred images of the drop.

near the pool edge, the pressure, and hence, pool surface near the edge can rise and make the pool surface concave. The raised pool surface near the edge is unstable and can oscillate with oscillatory Marangoni flow. Immediately after turning off the laser, surface oscillation may still continue briefly to disturb solidification at the pool edge and cause ripple formation. In the presence of a significant amount of a surface-active agent, however, the fast inward surface flow can make the pool surface convex and the raised pool surface near the pool center can oscillate. Since solidification occurs at the pool edge instead of the pool center, it may not necessarily be disturbed significantly to cause clear ripple formation. 4) The mechanism has been verified with 304 stainless steels. A low-S laser weld pool can exhibit a concave pool surface, brief but significant pool-surface oscillation immediately after turning off the laser, and clear ripple formation during solidification. A high-S laser weld pool, on the other hand, can exhibit a convex pool surface, immediate stop of pool-surface oscillation after turning off the laser, and no clear ripple formation during solidification. 5) Oscillatory Marangoni flow has been demonstrated by flow visualization in a simulated stationary weld pool of NaNO3. The frequency of flow oscillation matches that of the temperature oscillation it induces in the pool. 6) Pool-surface oscillation (shaking) induced by oscillatory Marangoni flow has been demonstrated with a NaNO3 drop laser-heated from above.

5. Pierce, S. W., Burgardt, P., and Olson, D. L. 1999. Thermocapillary and arc phenomena in stainless steel welding. Welding Journal 78: 45-s to 52-s. 6. Fujii, H., Sato, T., Lu, S., and Nogi, K. 2008. Development of an advanced A-TIG (AATIG) welding method by control of Marangoni convection. Materials Science and Engineering A, vol. 495, pp. 296303. 7. Limmaneevichitr, C., and Kou, S. 2000. Visualization of Marangoni convection in simulated weld pools. Welding Journal 79: 126-s. 8. Limmaneevichitr, C., and Kou, S. 2000. Experiments to simulate effect of Marangoni convection on weld pool shape. Welding Journal 79: 231-s. 9. Limmaneevichitr, C., and Kou, S. 2000. Visualization of Marangoni convection in simulated weld pools containing a surface-active agent. Welding Journal 79: 324-s. 10. Kou,. S., and Sun, D. K. 1985. Fluid flow and weld penetration in stationary arc welds. Metallurgical Transactions A, vol. 16A, pp. 203213. 11. Pitscheneder, W., DebRoy, T., Mundra, K., and Ebner, R. 1996. Role of sulfur and processing variables on the temporal evolution of weld pool geometry during multi-kilowatt laser welding of steels. Welding Journal 75(3): 71-s to 80-s. 12. Zacharia, T., David, S. D., Vitek, J. M., and Kraus, H. G. 1991. Computational modeling of stationary gas-tungsten-arc weld pools and comparison to stainless steel 304 experimental results. Metallurgical Transactions B, vol. 22B, pp. 243257. 13. Tsai, M. C., and Kou, S. 1989. Marangoni convection in weld pools with a free surface. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Fluids 9: 1503. 14. Tsai, M. C., and Kou, S. 1990. Weld pool convection and expansion due to density variations. Numerical Heat Transfer, part A, vol. 17, p. 73. 15. Sim, B., and Kim, W. 2005. Melting and dynamic-surface deformation in laser surface heating. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer, vol. 48, pp. 11371144. 16. Hong, K., Weckman, D. C., and Strong, A. B. 1998. The influence of thermofluids phenomena in gas tungsten arc welds in high and low thermal conductivity metals. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, vol. 37(3-4), pp. 293303. 17. Hong, K., Weckman, D. C., Strong, A. B., and Zheng, W. 2002. Modelling turbulent thermofluid flow in stationary GTA weld pools. Science and Technology of Welding and Joining 7(3): 125136. 18. He, X., Norris, J. T., Fuerschbach, P. W., and DebRoy, T. 2006. Liquid metal expulsion during laser spot welding of 304 stainless steel. Journal of Physics D. 39(3): 525534. 19. Paul, A., and DebRoy, T. 1988. Free surface flow and heat transfer in conduction mode laser welding. Metallurgical Transactions B, 19(6): 851858. 20. Morvan, D., and Bournot, Ph. 1996. Oscillatory flow convection in a melted pool. International Journal of Numerical Methods in Heat and Fluid Flow, vol. 6, pp. 1320. 21. Anderson, K., Cook, G. E., Barnett, R. J., and Strauss, A. M. 1997. Synchronous weld pool oscillation for monitoring and control. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications 33(2), March/April, pp. 464471. 22. Xiao, Y. H., and den Ouden, G. 1990. A study of GTA weld pool oscillation. Welding Journal 69: 289-s to 293-s.

23. Xiao, Y. H., and den Ouden, G. 1993. Weld pool oscillation during GTA welding of mild steel. Welding Journal 72: 428-s to 434-s. 24. Renwick, R. J., and Richardson, R. W. 1983. Experimental investigation of GTA weld pool oscillations. Welding Journal 62: 29-s to 35-s. 25. Soresen, C. D., and Eagar, T. W. 1990. Measurement of oscillations in partially penetrated weld pools through spectral analysis. Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement and Control 112: 463468. 26. Soresen, C. D., and Eagar, T. W. 1990. Modeling of oscillations in partially penetrated weld pools. Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement and Control 112: 469474. 27. Smith, E. T., Schultz, W., and KannateyAsibu, E. Jr. 1999. Modeling oscillations during conduction mode laser welding. Manufacturing Science and Engineering, ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Anaheim, Calif., MED Vol. 10, pp. 639648. 28. Kotecki, D. J., Cheever, D. L., and Howden, D. G. 1972. Mechanism of ripple formation during weld solidification. Welding Journal 51: 386-s to 391-s. 29. Rappaz, M., Corrigan, D., and Boatner, L. A. 1998. Analysis of ripple formation in single crystal spot welds. Proceedings of Modeling of Casting, Welding and Advanced Solidification Processes VIII, San Diego, Calif., edited by B. Thomas, C. Beckerman, and I. Onaka, TMS, Warrendale, Pa., pp. 713720. 30. Anthony, T. R., and Cline, H. E. 1977. Surface rippling induced by surface-tension gradients during laser surface melting and alloying. Journal of Applied Physics 48: 38883894. 31. Wei, P. S., Chang, C. Y., and Chen, C. T. 1996. Surface ripple in electron-beam welding solidification. Journal of Heat Transfer 118: 960969. 32. Wei, P. S., Chen, Y.H., Ku, J. S., and Ho, C. Y. 2003. Active solute effects on surface ripples in electron-beam welding solidification. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B, vol. 34B, pp. 421432. 33. Preisser, F., Schwabe, D., and Scharmann, A. 1983. Steady and oscillatory thermocapillary convection in liquid columns with free cylindrical surface. Journal of Fluid Mechanics 126: 545567. 34. Schwabe, D., Scharmann, A., Preisser, F., and Oeder, R. 1978. Experiments on surface tension driven flow in floating zone melting. Journal of Crystal Growth 43: 305312. 35. Kou, S. 1996. Transport Phenomena and Materials Processing, John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp. 4448, 9495, 417419, and 499515. 36. Yang, Y., and Kou, S. 2001.Temperature oscillation in a tin liquid bridge and critical Marangoni number dependency on Prandtl number. Journal of Crystal Growth 222: 135. 37. Ostrach, S., Kamotani, Y., and Lai, C. L. 1985. Oscillatory thermocapillary flows. PCH PhysicoChemical Hydrodynamics 6: 585599. 38. Kamotani, Y., Ostrach, S., and Pline, A. 1995. Thermocapillary convection experiment in microgravity. ASME Journal of Heat Transfer 117: 611618. 39. Schwabe, D., and Scharmann, A. 1979. Some evidence for existence and magnitude of a critical Marangoni number for the onset of oscillatory flow in crystal growth melts. Journal of Crystal Growth 46: 125131. 40. Xu, J-J., and Davis, S. H. 1984. Convective thermocapillary instabilities in liquid bridges. Physics of Fluids 27: 11021107.

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Ductile-Fracture Resistance in X100 Pipeline Welds Measured with CTOA

Use of the crack tip opening angle test for determining resistance to ductile fracture of high-strength welded pipeline materials was evaluated
BY E. DREXLER, P. DARCIS, C. N. McCOWAN, J. W. SOWARDS, D. McCOLSKEY, AND T. A. SIEWERT

ABSTRACT
A test for evaluation of resistance to ductile fracture [crack tip opening angle (CTOA)] was found to reveal changes in crack extension through the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and weld interface in X100 pipeline steels. This test provides a long ligament for crack extension data not available in Charpy or drop-weight tear specimens, and is much less expensive than the full-scale burst tests. The ductile-fracture resistance of girth welds, perpendicular to the growing crack, and seam welds and their HAZs, parallel with the crack, were evaluated. Analysis of the data reveals some general differences, such as changes in CTOA and crack extension rate as the crack moved through the base metal, HAZ, and girth weld material. The values for CTOA were observed to increase and the crack extension rate decreased as the crack moved through the weld and approached the weld interface. The plastic deformation appears to be strongly influenced by the properties and geometry of the narrow HAZ, the weld interface, and the tougher base material. Consequently, the CTOA of the HAZ associated with the girth weld was larger than that of the seam-weld HAZ. It was not possible to obtain CTOA data for the seam weld with the crack parallel within the weld, because the crack immediately diverted out of the weld material into the HAZ. The CTOA values from both girth welds and seam-weld HAZ were smaller than those of the base material. such as X52, X80, and X100 (Refs. 6, 5, 3, respectively). Welding of X100 base metal has many simultaneous challenges. Beyond the difficulty of obtaining a weld that is compatible with the base material under static loads, there are the complexities of understanding the influence of the weld should a running crack initiate and then propagate due to the combination of loads from service pressure, other factors such as third-party damage and any ground movement, and residual stresses introduced during the joining process (Refs. 7, 8).

Introduction
Crack tip opening angle (CTOA) is a crack ductility test that is widely accepted for assessing the likelihood of steady-state tearing behavior in the aluminum alloys found in older aircraft. Recently, it has gained acceptance in the pipeline community as a fracture parameter for pipeline design (Refs. 1, 2). The modified double cantilever beam (MDCB) specimen design advocated by Hashemi et al. (Refs. 3, 4) and Shterenlikht et al. (Ref. 5) was adopted for this work. Advantages of this specimen design include a long ligament arm (200 mm) for steady-state tearing and higher constraints, approaching those seen in pipeline material in service (Ref. 4). This design has been used successfully to generate values for the resistance to crack extension for pipeline base metals,
E. DREXLER (Drexler@boulder.nist.gov), P. DARCIS, C. N. McCOWAN, J. W. SOWARDS, D. McCOLSKEY, and T. A. SIEWERT are with National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Boulder, Colo. Contribution of the National Institute of Standards and Technology, an agency of the U.S. government; not subject to copyright in the U.S.A.

Crack tip opening angle measurements can provide this more global structural perspective by indicating whether the joints in the fabricated structure have the same resistance to crack extension as is seen with the fairly uniform base metal. Seam welds, girth welds, and their associated heat-affected zones (HAZs) are each of concern, separately and in concert. Tests of the various regions within the pipe (like tensile or Charpy impact tests of the base material, HAZ, and weld) are needed to confirm that each region satisfies the design minimums, but they cannot adequately measure the composite behavior of these regions in the fabricated pipe. This work evaluates the usefulness of CTOA measurements made with MDCB specimens in the complex and composite structure of a weldment, as it quantifies the resistance to crack extension for each of the weld regions. Crack tip opening angle testing of the MDCB specimen has several benefits (Refs. 6, 9). It permits multiple measurements of the CTOA from a single specimen (perhaps as many as 50 or 60 over a 40-mm distance). This allows measurement of the behavior as the crack enters and leaves the girth weld region that encompasses the base material, HAZ, and weld metal. Another benefit of using the MDCB specimen is that the test section does not restrain the transition to slant mode shear fracture.

Procedure
Materials

KEYWORDS
Crack Extension Crack Tip Opening Angle (CTOA) Ductile Fracture Ductile Tearing Heat-Affected Zone (HAZ) Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) Stable Tearing Welds

Weld material and the associated HAZ from X100 experimental pipelines were tested with MDCB specimens to obtain CTOA data. The certified composition for X100 pipeline is found in Table 1. The sections had a diameter of 1.32 m (52 in.) and were 20.6 mm (0.81 in.) thick. The pipe was received already welded. Girth welds were made manually with shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), and seam welds were produced by automatic submerged arc welding (SAW) with materials and procedures representative of future field production. More details on the seWELDING JOURNAL 241-s

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Fig. 1 MDCB specimen configurations for evaluation of CTOA: A Crack growth transverse to the girth weld; B crack growth in weld metal of the seam weld; C crack growth in the HAZ of the seam weld. Nominal specimen dimensions (mm) are shown in C. Fig. 2 CTOA test setup. Table 1Certified chemistry of X100 Base Material Al 0.025 C 0.084 Cr 0.021 Cu 0.286 Fe Balance Mn 2.092 Mo 0.127 N 0.005 Nb 0.041 Ni 0.501 P 0.010 S 0.002 Si 0.108 Ti 0.007 V 0.006

Table 2 Tensile Properties of X100 Orientation Base Metal (Trans.) Base Metal (Long.) Girth Weld (Trans.) Seam Weld HAZ 0.2 (MPa) 798 732 730 642 UTS (MPa) 827 806 835 693 0.2/ UTS 0.97 0.91 0.87 0.93 eu (%) 4.1 4.6 7.7 4.1 ef (%) 19.3 20.3 15.0 12.1 eu/ef 0.21 0.23 0.51 0.34

quences are included in the section on microstructural characterization. However, details of the weld procedure are unknown. The tensile properties of the base metal, girth weld, and seam weld HAZ are shown in Table 2. Round tensile specimens were machined from desired locations of the pipe material and tested according to ASTM E8 standard test method for tension testing. Girth weld specimens were taken transverse to the axis of the pipe and were all weld metal in the gauge section. Flat MDCB specimens were ground from the curved pipe. This approach avoids mechanical flattening, which introduces plastic deformation in the specimens. Figure 1 shows the specimen dimensions and the positioning of the weld location with respect to the notch for the various tests. The specimens were machined with the notch aligned with the axis of the pipe, the expected direction of a running crack. An initial straight notch (1.6 mm width 60 mm length) was machined through the specimen thickness as indicated. The notch length was measured from the load-line of the pins in the test fixture. The fixture is shown in Fig. 2 and discussed below. A laser was used to scribe a 1 mm 1 mm, or 1 mm 0.5 mm, grid on the test section to aid in the CTOA meas242-s DECEMBER 2011, VOL. 90

urements with the use of image analysis software.

CTOA Testing

Detailed CTOA test procedures can be found in the literature (Refs. 6, 9), but are described here briefly. Figure 2 shows the test setup, which utilized optical imaging (a digital charge-coupled device camera) to record images of the crack tip for post-test analysis of the CTOA of each material studied. The loading of the specimen was facilitated through the use of a pair of thick plate grips bolted to the side surfaces of the specimen Fig. 2. Two cylindrical pins provided free rotation of the whole assembly (specimen plus loading plates) during the experiments. Tightly clamping the grip section with the two thick loading plates increased the constraint levels in the gauge section. The long uncracked ligament and the loading geometry provided a condition that allows stable crack extension in the specimen ligament similar to that of crack extension in a real structure (Ref. 4). The load-line was between the left pair of holes where the grips were bolted. The test matrix is shown in Table 3. A servo-hydraulic testing machine with a load capacity of 250 kN (55 kip) was used

to initiate a fatigue crack at the 60-mmlong chevron notch and extend it an additional 5 to 10 mm. The subsequent CTOA tests were run in displacement mode at a crosshead velocity of 0.002 mm/s for one girth weld specimen of each thickness, and 0.02 mm/s for the remaining specimens. The effect of specimen thickness on CTOA was investigated by testing two different thicknesses, either 3 or 8 mm thick. Additionally, specimens were produced from three different locations on the linepipe. One location tested the girth weld, a second the seam weld, and the third the HAZ associated with the seam weld. With the specimen configuration used, data on ductile-fracture resistance were generated as cracks ran perpendicularly to girth welds, and parallel with the seam welds and their associated HAZ, which were centered in the test section of those specimens. The test sections were acid etched and neutralized to make the weld and HAZ visible.
CTOA Measurement

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Analysis of the images was conducted with commercially available image-analysis software, augmented with customized macros. The collected images were screened to meet minimum standards, such as having adequate focus and 1 mm of straight crack extension beyond the initial crack blunting. Crack extension in weld material was generally more erratic than in base metal. The analysis was also modified slightly from that reported in Darcis et al. (Refs. 6, 9). For the data reported here, the crack edge was traced by an operator for a distance of approximately 2 mm back from the crack tip to capture the data associated with the crack.

Fig. 3 A Graphical representation of how the CTOA values are determined; B an example of a crack opening (CTOA = 10 deg) highlighted in green. The crack is advancing from the left. The undeformed region of the specimen is seen as the dark triangle to the right at the tip of the crack.

Fig. 5 An example of the fracture through a girth weld. The approximate locations of the weld interfaces and edge of the HAZ are indicated. The crack jumped through the first HAZ to the left.

A metallographic mounts were also subjected to Vickers hardness testing. A load of 200 g was used for the indentations and an indent spacing of 250 m was typically used for hardness traverses across the weld regions. Fracture samples were also sectioned from the fractured weld regions and cleaned ultrasonically in methanol. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was performed on the fracture surfaces with an accelerating voltage of 10 kV.

Microstructural Characterization
C Microstructures of the girth and seam welds directly from CTOA specimens were evaluated to relate the metallurgical structure of the welds to the fracture behavior observed during the CTOA testing. Results of this evaluation, including micrographs, hardness traverses, and grainsize measurements are presented below.
Girth Weld

Fig. 4 A Girth weld cross section indicating regions where hardness traverses were measured; B the corresponding microhardness traverse results; C the grain size results.

Intersecting lines were then fit to 100 points of the upper and lower flank of the crack edge and the CTOA was calculated from the angle formed by the intersection of those fits Fig. 3A. For each analyzed image, the CTOA value and the crack length were recorded. Figure 3B shows a crack opening highlighted in green, advancing from the left in a HAZ region. The area is highly deformed above and below the crack opening, but deformation extends only a short distance directly ahead of the crack tip. The undeformed region is seen as the dark area to the right of the crack tip, mirroring the triangular shape of the open crack.
Table 3 Test Matrix Condition/Specimen Type 3 mm, displacement rate = 0.02 mm/s 3 mm, displacement rate = 0.002 mm/s 8 mm, displacement rate = 0.02 mm/s 8 mm displacement rate = 0.002 mm/s

Metallography

Metallographic samples were sectioned from the CTOA test specimens to determine microstructure and hardness of the weld regions. Samples were mounted, ground, polished to a 1-m finish, and etched in 2% nital. Metallography was performed on the etched specimens with light optical microscopy. Grain-size measurements were performed with commercially available image-analysis software designed for microscopy applications. Grain areas were measured and equivalent grain diameters were determined with the assumption of a spherical grain. Some

Figure 4A shows the etched cross section of the girth weld from a CTOA specimen, that is, perpendicular to the testing direction. Note the V-groove deposit consists of multiple passes. The weld deposit was approximately 8 mm in width at the bottom. This width corresponds to the specimen face and fracture shown in Fig. 5. The boundaries of the HAZ associated with the girth weld have been highlighted in Fig. 4A and were determined to be between 2 and 3 mm in width. Vickers hardness traverses were performed vertically at the weld centerline

Girth Weld 1 1 2 1

Seam Weld 2 0 2 0

Seam Weld HAZ 2 0 2 0

Base Metal 2 0 3 0

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in hardness variations through the thickness. The reduced sections of the MDCB specimens were machined so that the specimen thickness correB sponded to the area between 4 and 4 mm of this traverse. Therefore, the CTOA test specimens likely had minimal variability in hardness, with average hardness of approximately 270 Vickers hardness number (HV). The horizontal hardness traverse in Fig. 4C C shows that the base-metal hardness was on the order of 250 HV. Hardness decreased as the traverse entered the HAZ from the base metal, by approximately 10%. However, hardness recovered somewhat as the traverse apFig. 6 A Cross section of seam weld CTOA specimen indicating fracture proached the location; B, C corresponding microhardness; C corresponding grain size weld interface. measurements at locations indicated. Peak hardness values were achieved in the and horizontally across this cross section. weld metal, where measured values were The resulting hardness profiles of the veron the order of 300 HV. This increase in tical and horizontal traverses are shown in hardness was a result of overmatched weld Fig. 4B and C, respectively. The hardness deposits. traverse in Fig. 4B shows that the reheatThe average grain size from the base ing due to additional weld passes resulted metal to the weld interface is also shown in A

Fig. 4C. The grain size varied between about 4.5 m in the base metal to about 3.75 m in one location in the HAZ. Note that the decrease in grain size was in the same region where a drop in hardness was observed. Possible explanations for this softening could be transformation to a softer bainitic structure than the base metal upon cooling, or perhaps recrystallization or recovery; however, such an observation was not possible in the current work due to the limitations of light optical microscopy.
Seam Weld

The features of the seam weld were very different from those of the girth weld. Figure 6A shows a cross section of the entire weld after CTOA testing. The weld was accomplished in two passes, the first side and the second side, and both have a distinctive columnar grain structure. The weld itself is approximately 13 mm across at the first side and 14.5 mm at the second side, and the HAZ can be seen 8 mm beyond the weld interface. Four distinct HAZ regions were visible, two associated with the first pass, and two associated with the second pass. The two regions associated with each pass will be referred to as the high-temperature, adjacent to the weld, and the low-temperature HAZs. Each region had different hardness and average grain sizes, as seen in Fig. 6B, C. The hardness levels of the base metal, the low-temperature HAZ, the high-temperature HAZ, and the weld metal were approximately 250, 275, 250, and 300 HV, respectively. Grain sizes varied substantially between the base metal [3.5 m, Fig. 7A] and the HAZ adjacent to the weld interface [5.7 m, Fig. 7B]. Note that grain coarsening apparently did little to affect the hardness in the corresponding regions. Although a decrease in hardness (proportional to strength) may be expected with an increase in grain size, the transformation of the coarsened prior-austenite grains in the high-temperature HAZ to harder constituents (such as martensite or

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Table 4 Data on the Mean Value of CTOA from Each Specimen and for All Specimens for the Given Thickness Girth Weld Weld HAZ Mean () SD(b) () Mean () SD () 3 mm: all 1 2 8 mm: all 3 4 5 10.6 10.7 9.9 10.7 8.3 13.1 11.2 1.7 1.1 2.8 2.6 2.4 1.1 1.9 3.0 2.7 4.9 6.8 5.5 7.6 7.4 1.1 0.8 NA 1.7 1.4 1.5 1.6
(a)

Seam Weld HAZ Mean () SD () 4.0 4.2 3.8 7.0 7.2 6.5 1.1 1.3 0.9 1.3 1.3 1.1

SeamWeldHAZ Mean () SD () 3.8 4.9 3.0 6.1 6.5 5.7 1.6 1.6 1.1 1.4 1.2 1.5

Base Metal Mean () SD () 4.2 4.3 4.1 8.7 8.5 8.4 9.0 0.8 0.9 0.8 2.0 1.0 2.6 2.2

(a) HAZ here refers to the observed composite behavior of the joint. (b) SD = standard deviation.

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bainitic ferrite constituents) likely increased hardness to counteract the drop in hardness from increasing grain size. Larger (~ 50 m) prior-austenite grains are evident near the fusion boundary Fig. 7B.
CTOA Test Results Base Metal

Fig. 8 X100 test of base metal showing the characteristic crack features associated with different junctures in the force-displacement sequence.

Fig. 9 Graph showing the data of force vs. displacement for an X100 base metal and girth weld specimen. The dashed lines indicate where the crack entered and left the weld.

Girth Weld

Five girth weld specimens were tested with the crack oriented transverse to the weld, so that the path of the growing crack would pass through base metal, HAZ, weld interface, weld metal, weld interface, HAZ, and base metal. Two specimens were machined to a thickness of 3 mm; three specimens were machined to a thickness of 8 mm. One specimen of each thickness was tested at a crosshead velocity of 0.002 mm/s, while the remaining specimens were tested at 0.02 mm/s. Since the crack ran perpendicularly to the weld, it was expected that CTOA data would be obtained on the HAZ at two locations on each specimen. However, the crack propagated so quickly through the first HAZ into the weld material that no images were captured in any of the tests conducted at 0.02 mm/s. Figure 5 depicts one of these specimens. The weld and HAZ are visible on the face of the specimen as indicated on the figure. A prominent shear lip is also present on the weld fracture surface. Figure 9 shows the characteristic curve of force vs. displacement for CTOA tests of both uniform base metal and a specimen containing a girth weld, where the

girth weld is reached at crosshead displacements between about 24 and 28 mm. Both specimens were tested at a crosshead displacement rate of 0.02 mm/s and were 8 mm thick in the gauge section. With the uniform base metal, as the loading increased, the tip of the fatigue precrack blunted. Once tearing began, the load dropped linearly with the crosshead displacement during steady-state tearing. This behavior changed with the presence of a girth weld, however. The typical load drop associated with tearing (as observed in the base metal) was interrupted as the crack approached and entered the weld, indicated by the dashed line. It is observed that the effects of the weld on the slope of the force-displacement data are manifested well before the crack reaches the weld metal. Since the test was conducted in displacement control, crosshead displacement is directly proportional to time; therefore, a larger negative slope corresponds to greater crack-growth velocity. The data show, therefore, that the crack began growing more rapidly before entering the weld and slows before exiting the weld. Although changes in crack growth rate are not classical behavior and locally other mechanisms may dominate, the overall failure mechanism in the girth weld specimens was plastic collapse. Corresponding to the changes in the force record, there were changes in value of the CTOA measured on the specimen as the crack propagated through the weld

Fig. 10 Changes in CTOA as the crack proceeds across the base metal, HAZ, and girth weld of the specimen. CTOA is shown for base metal to contrast differences in observed behavior. Specimens are 8 mm thick.

region. Values for the CTOA with respect to crack length for a specimen containing a girth weld, and for uniform base metal for the purpose of comparison, are shown in Fig. 10. In typical tests of the uniform base metal, high initial CTOA values drop to a fairly consistent CTOA value observed during steady-state tearing. The high initial CTOA values are due to blunting of the fatigue precrack, and steadystate tearing usually occurs when the crack length is ~2 the thickness of the specimen. The average value of CTOA from the region of steady-state tearing of the particular test shown from X100 pipeline material was ~9 deg. Girth-weld specimens do not follow this model, however, which may be due to several factors, including the complexity

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Before describing the behavior of the weld tests, it is useful to discuss the be50 m havior of the base metal alone. Figure 8 shows the typical plot of force vs. crosshead dissplacement for a CTOA test of X100 pipeline material that was 8 mm thick in the gauge section and tested at 0.02 mm/s. Characteristic crack features associated with different junctures in the load-displacement sequence are also indicated. Note that the applied load increased linearly while the specimen remained in the elastic regime. At the onset of plastic deformation, the loading rate, proportional to the slope of the curve, continually decreased as plastic strains increased. A crack began to develop near the peak load, although some additional displacement was required for it to propagate in the sharp manner shown in Fig. 3. A well-developed crack was observed near the peak load and began to advance with displacement, with the overall applied load decreasing in proportion to the remaining cross-sectional area of the specimen. That is, as the crack advanced, the load necessary to cause crack extension decreased, typical of plastic collapse.

50 m

Fig. 7 Representative images of the grain size in the base metal (left image) and adjacent to the weld interface in the high-temperature HAZ (right image).

Fig. 11 Representative images from the fracture surface: A HAZ; B weld metal.

Fig. 12 CTOA vs. crack length for a test conducted in the HAZ of a seam weld.

Fig. 13 Image showing how the crack deviated from the seam weld into the HAZ.

Fig. 14 Post-test image of a seam-weld test specimen: A Cross section of the crack in the hightemperature HAZ; B, C 10 and 40 mm, respectively, from the end of the fatigue precrack.

of the the weld being at an angle to the approching crack front. Figure 10 shows the location of the HAZ and weld. It can be seen that once the CTOA makes its initial drop to steady-state tearing, the highest values of the CTOA appear to have no association with the HAZ, weld interfaces, or weld, but rather are found in the base metal before and after the weld. A study of the fracture surface reveals that in both instances, the fracture orientation is changing from slant to flat. It should be 246-s DECEMBER 2011, VOL. 90

noted that the transition from one orientation to another results in far subtler changes in the value of CTOA in a uniform base metal specimen. An example of this is shown in Fig. 10 at about 65 mm of crack length. The influence of the weld must not be discounted, however, even though this blunting of the CTOA occurs in the base metal, as this symmetric rise in the value of CTOA is typical of the girth weld specimens, although the exact mechanisms that cause a change in the fracture orientation are not clear. The test from which the data shown in Fig. 10 were extracted had other interesting behaviors that are worth mentioning. As the crack front approached the first HAZ, a crack began opening up in the weld metal. Although these cracks were not immediately connected on the observed surface, they apparently were beneath the surface. This highlights a limitation of the CTOA test; since the measurement takes place on the surface, influences through the depth may affect surface measurements. The two cracks connected abruptly, which accounts for the gap in the CTOA data between about 33 and 43 mm. Also, as the crack was exiting the weld the crack tip blunted (larger CTOA values) at the weld interface and again at the interface between the HAZ and the base metal. Comparisons between the fracture surface from the HAZ and weld metal of the girth weld are shown in Fig. 11A and B, respectively. Inclusions in the HAZ had a Ca-Al-Fe chemistry and the observed inclusion diameters were as large as 5 m. Within the weld metal the inclusions were smaller, averaging just under 0.5 m. The inclusions in the weld metal had a chemistry that included Fe-Mn-Si-Ti. Both regions showed ductile dimpling, although the dimple size was larger in the HAZ and exhibited a slight directionality, indicating a shear component to the fracture. Dimple directionality was associated with macroscopic shear fracture faces of the girth weld specimens, especially in the vicinity of the HAZ. Shear dimples were observed in base metal as well, albeit to a lesser extent. Base metal fracture surfaces were slant or double-slant, and typically

changed to full slant fractures in the vicinity of the girth welds. Since shear dimples were observed at random on all fractured regions of the weldment (base metal, HAZ, and fusion zone), it is not possible at this time to relate microscopic shear features to determined values of CTOA. However, equivalent dimple diameters were smallest in the fusion zone, where the lower values of CTOA were observed and largest in the HAZ where higher values of CTOA were observed. Dimple distribution is related to the inclusion size and distribution, which in turn could be affected in the HAZ by local thermal history due to multipass welding, and thermal history and alloying in the weld metal. A relationship between dimple diameter and CTOA is unsubstantiated by this work and requires further investigation. Several notable results were obtained during CTOA testing of the girth weld specimens. These results are as follows: The presence of the weld led to inconsistent behavior of the tearing crack, as the crack jumped through the first HAZ, joining with an already-initiated crack in the weld, and the second HAZ generated a larger CTOA than the weld. The CTOA of the weld material was significantly smaller in the 3-mm specimens, as compared with the 8-mm specimens. This finding was determined to be statistically significant based on the use of a students T-test, where p<0.0001. Table 4 shows the mean and standard deviation of each specimen tested and for all specimens for the given thickness. In every case, as the crack approached the weld interface when exiting the weld, the crack extension slowed or stopped as the crack tip blunted. This blunting resulted in an increase in the CTOA. This increase was as little as 59% higher than the mean value for the CTOA within the weld, to as much as 213% higher. The increase in CTOA was also associated with a plateau or abrupt decrease in slope in the load-displacement curve for the test. The loading displacement rate appeared to have had a small effect on the CTOA values. In the two slower tests con-

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ducted on girth welds, the CTOA values were smaller than the mean of the tests conducted at 0.02 mm/s. However, measured values of CTOA at the slower rates were still within one standard deviation. This agrees with observations of Reuven et al. (Ref. 10), where the authors found that neither crosshead displacement rate nor crack velocity had a significant effect on CTOA values of X100 pipeline base metal.
Seam Weld

Four specimens, two of each thickness, were tested at a crosshead displacement rate of 0.02 mm/s with the HAZ from a seam weld centered in the test section. As with the girth welds, significant differences in the CTOA (p<0.0001) were found depending on the thickness of the test section (see Table 4). Figure 12 is an example of a CTOA test conducted with the crack growing in the HAZ of a seam weld. This material behaves similarly when compared to that of the base metal in Fig. 10, although values for CTOA in the steady-state region are generally lower. Four seam weld specimens were tested in two thicknesses at a displacement rate of 0.02 mm/s. The specimen centerline was placed along the center of the seam weld in the longitudinal direction. This particular specimen geometry was intended to determine the CTOA of the weld metal. Although fatigue precracks were successfully placed at the weld centerline, during CTOA testing, the cracks inevitably diverted into the HAZs upon crack extension. Figure 13 shows an example of this where the crack propagated essentially vertically through the weld metal until it found the HAZ. The crack proceeded to follow the crack along the HAZ for the remainder of the test. Values for the CTOA of the HAZ from these specimens were similar to those obtained from the specimens made with the HAZ in the center of the test section, as shown in Table 4. Figure 13A shows the entire post-test specimen in which the growing crack deviated into the HAZ. The nature of crack progression through the HAZ is illustrated in Fig. 14B, C, which shows the cross section of the fracture 10 and 40 mm from the end of the fatigue precrack, respectively. The orientation of the growing crack was remarkably consistent along the length of the CTOA specimen, as it followed a path parallel to the weld interface of the first pass. Based on the hardness measurements collected from the side of the weld that did not fracture, the crack advanced through the high-temperature HAZ at the location where the hardness levels dropped to levels observed in the base metal. It is worth noting that the first and second passes of the weld deposits were not aligned on a

common centerline, as they appear offset in Fig. 6A. This likely affected the crack extension in the following way. The crack diverted immediately from the weld metal at the beginning of the CTOA test since the weld metal had higher resistance to crack extension than the HAZ. Therefore, the crack moved into the HAZ, to the site of the weak link (the high-temperature HAZ from the first pass) where no weld metal from the second pass was in its path. Note that on the left side of the weld in Fig. 6A, there is a large amount of weld metal from the second pass between the surface and the high-temperature HAZ of the first pass. Since the right side of the weld metal had very little weld metal from the second pass in this region, it was the easier side for crack extension to occur. This is a significant result since weld alignment may affect where the crack will propagate in certain welded joints.

cult to isolate individual contributions to changes in values of CTOA. Steady-state crack extension through the girth weld was not attained. Many contradictions to steady state were observed including: increases in CTOA, variable crack extension rates, changes in the slope of load vs. displacement, and deviation in crack path. Lastly, the plastic deformation ahead of the crack tip was distorted due to the presence of the fusion boundary and changes in microstructure. Although not steady state, the behavior associated with the crack extension is quantifiable for these test conditions and has the potential to be useful in the modeling of crack extension and growth in pipelines and their girth welds.
Seam Weld

Discussion
Girth Weld

Girth weld metal is similar in strength to that of the base metal in this pipe, unlike what is typically achieved in joints in lower strength pipe. Nevertheless, it was observed that the values for CTOA obtained from the girth weld material were quite small. The observed values for CTOA in the girth weld specimen were affected by interfaces and changes in material properties near the weld interface of the weld. The measured CTOA recorded in the HAZ is the result of composite behavior of the joint, and, therefore, does not reflect the HAZ material alone. As mentioned in the Metallography section, the softer girth weld HAZ is only 2 to 3 mm wide, which likely limits its influence on the local stress/strain field, but the weld interface poses an abrupt change in material properties that could permit stresses to concentrate at the interface and increase the measured CTOA. Although the HAZ was too narrow to accurately measure its ductile-fracture resistance, it is of interest that this test can show how a slow-growing crack might be influenced by the presence of a girth weld and predict what increases in load might be needed for continued crack extension through the weld. The mechanisms that cause a change in the fracture orientation of a growing crack are not understood. It appears that the presence of the girth weld, however, can exert an influence as far as 10 mm away, as observed in Fig. 10. Furthermore, the growing crack was more than 7 mm away when the second crack started opening up within the weld. The girth weld, its associated interfaces, and residual stresses create a complex system that makes it diffi-

The welding processes used for the seam weld (SAW) and the girth weld (SMAW) had significantly different heat inputs and so produced HAZs with different widths (8 vs. 3 mm), grain sizes (5.5 vs. 4.3 m), and hardness (275 vs. 240 HV, depending on which region of the seam weld HAZ is being compared). The wide HAZ and orientation of the seam weld allowed measurement of the CTOA properties of the associated HAZ. When testing the seam weld HAZ, the crack was oriented parallel to its length, unlike the girth weld specimen. The stress field above and below the crack may be constrained by the base material and the weld, but the crack was able to grow without crossing material interfaces, as occurred with the girth weld specimens. Comparisons between values of CTOA from the HAZ of the seam weld and the girth weld are not possible, for reasons stated previously. The mean value for CTOA from the seam-weld HAZ is ~7 deg. This value is less than the ~9-deg value for the X100 base metal (Ref. 10), showing that the seam-weld HAZ has comparatively low resistance to crack extension. CTOA tests of the seam-weld metal were unsuccessful as the crack jumped out of the weld into a region of the HAZ with the lowest hardness. This suggests that since the HAZ is the weakest link in this material system, a crack running in an actual pipeline would also preferentially jump to the HAZ and propagate in that location. Therefore, the test result showed qualitatively the preferential location of failure. The current design of the MDCB specimen presented particular challenges for obtaining results from the seam weld. The weld is not wide enough so that the entire reduced section can comprise the weld. This permits the crack to deviate into the associated HAZ. Narrowing the reduced section or side-

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grooving the specimen could help to maintain the crack in the weld. Further work needs to be conducted to explore these and other alternatives. Hashemi et al. (Ref. 3) and Shterenlikht et al. (Ref. 5) tested MDCB specimens with gauge thicknesses of 8, 10, and 12 mm, and 4, 8, and 10 mm, respectively. Neither group found that the thickness influenced the value for CTOA. This led them to conclude that CTOA is a fracture parameter. In this work, however, the values for the CTOA from the girth weld and the seam-weld HAZ were significantly smaller for the 3mm specimens than for the 8-mm specimens. Although not reported here, it was found that, similarly, base metal tests on 3and 8-mm specimens also resulted in smaller CTOA values from the thinner specimens (Ref. 11). These results would imply that there is a threshold thickness below which the constraints change sufficiently to affect the CTOA. This issue merits further investigation.

through the HAZ was immediate compared to the slower advance rates in other weld regions. During each of the four CTOA tests with the crack initiated in the seam weld metal, the cracks immediately sought the lowest energy path out of the weld metal after the onset of crack growth, and then propagated through the HAZ with lowest hardness. This precluded measurement of CTOA from the seam weld. Whether the issue was the weld having higher toughness or the HAZ having lower strength is not known with the data collected. The seam weld HAZ had a lower tearing resistance as compared with the base metal (~9 deg), with a CTOA of ~7 deg for the 8-mm-thick specimen. Fracture surfaces of CTOA specimens were typically slant or double slant and exhibited considerable microscopic ductility. Fracture was typically fully slant at the HAZ and weld metal after CTOA testing of girth welds.
Acknowledgments

pipeline girth welds. Proc. 24th Int. Conf. Offshore Mech. Arctic. Eng., pp. 385393. 8. Hudson, M., Di Vito, L., Demofonti, G., Aristotile, R., Andrews, R., and Slater, S. 2004. X100 Girth welding, joint properties and defect tolerance. Welding Engineering Research Center, Cranfield University, www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phasetrans/2005/LINK/17 6.pdf 9. Darcis, P. P, Kohn, G., Bussiba, A., McColskey, J. D., McCowan, C. N., Fields, R., Smith, R., and Merritt, J. 2006. Crack tip opening angle: Measurement and modeling of fracture resistance in low and high strength pipeline steels. Proc. Int. Pipeline Conf., IPC2006-10172. 10. Reuven, R., Drexler, E., McCowan, C., Darcis, P., Treinen, M., Smith, R., Merritt, J., Siewert, T., and McColskey, D. 2008. CTOA results for X65 and X100 pipeline steels: Influence of displacement rate. Proc. Int. Pipeline Conf., IPC2008-64363. 11. Darcis, Ph. P., Drexler, E. S., Fields, R., McColskey, J. D., McCowan, C. N., Reuven, R., and Siewert, T. A. 2009, Crack tip opening angle applications and developments in pipeline industry. 12th Intl. Conf Fract. 2009, Paper T35.005.

Summary and Conclusions

The current work was performed to evaluate the use of the CTOA test for determining the resistance to ductile fracture of high-strength welded pipeline materials. A girth weld made with the SMAW process was tested with the crack running perpendicularly (transverse) to the weld. A seam weld made with the SAW process was tested with the cracking running parallel (longitudinal) to the weld. Variations in microstructure, hardness, and weld orientation influenced the CTOA, crack extension rates, and crack propagation paths. Based on this work, the following conclusions can be made: MDCB specimen thickness influenced measurement of CTOA values. In general, testing of 8-mm-thick specimens resulted in higher CTOA values than 3mm-thick specimens. The relationship between plastic collapse and thickness is not fully understood from these tests. CTOA testing of girth welds was influenced by the composite nature of the weldment, which included geometrical changes at interfaces between various weld regions, and the presence of residual stresses. These issues prevented steady-state crack extension through the girth weld and complicated CTOA measurement. Girth weld tests of 8-mm-thick specimens revealed that CTOA values were highest in the HAZ (~11 deg), although these values were affected by the composite behavior of the weldment. The base metal had lower CTOA values (~9 deg) than the HAZ, followed by the weld metal (~7 deg). Crack paths across the girth weld were irregular in nature and propagation

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The authors thank the U.S. Department of Transportation for financial support; J. Matthew Treinen, Ryan Johns, Marc Dvorak, and Ross Rentz of NIST for their assistance; and Jim Newman of Mississippi State University and Jim Fekete of NIST for their excellent reviews of the manuscript.
References 1. Horsley, D. J. 2003. Background to the use of CTOA for prediction of dynamic ductile fracture arrest in pipelines. Eng. Fract.Mech. 70, pp. 547552. 2. Rudland, D. L., Wilkowski, G. M., Feng, Z., Wang, Y. Y., Horsley, D., and Glover, A. 2003. Experimental investigation of CTOA in linepipe steels. Eng. Fract. Mech. 70, pp. 567577. 3. Hashemi, S. H., Howard, I. C., Yates, J. R., Andrews, R. M., and Edwards, A. M. 2004. Experimental study of the thickness and fatigue precracking influence on the CTOA toughness values of high grade gas pipeline steel. Proc. Int. Pipeline Conf., IPC04-0681. 4. Hashemi, S. H., Howard, I. C., Yates, J. R., Andrews, R. M., and Edwards, A. M. 2004. A single specimen CTOA test method for evaluating the crack tip opening angle in gas pipeline steels. Proc. Int. Pipeline Conf., IPC04-0610. 5. Shterenlikht, A., Hashemi, S. H., Howard, I. C., Yates, J. R., and Andrews, R. M. 2004. A specimen for studying the resistance to ductile crack propagation in pipes. Eng. Frac. Mech. 71, pp. 19972013. 6. Darcis, P. P., McCowan, C. N., Windhoff, H., McColskey, J. D., and Siewert, T. A. 2008. Crack tip opening angle optical measurement methods in five pipeline steels. Eng. Frac. Mech. 75, pp. 24532468. 7. Liu, M., Wang, Y. Y., and Horsley, D. 2005. Significance of HAZ softening on strain concentration and crack driving force in

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248-s DECEMBER 2011, VOL. 90

Characteristics of Resistance Welding Magnesium Alloys AZ31 and AZ91

When welded, magnesium alloys are prone to cracking and expulsion, and therefore, care must be taken to ensure weld quality
BY H. LUO, C. HAO, J. ZHANG, Z. GAN, H. CHEN, and H. ZHANG
temperature range in which the melting of eutectics weakens the material and makes it prone to cracking, with the aid of thermal stresses; 4. Void formation. As the solubility of hydrogen in Mg drops drastically during cooling, the dissolved hydrogen in the liquid metal forms gas bubbles during solidification. The amount of gas bubbles can be significant when there is a supply of hydrogen. There is limited information available on resistance spot welding Mg alloys in the public domain. In a study on welding AZ31B alloys (Refs. 4, 5) it was found that the center of a weld nugget consists of fine equiaxed grains, decorated with Mg17Al12 precipitated from -Mg. Cracking was speculated to initiate in the welds during solidification, and electrode deterioration and expulsion were found to be the most common defects in welding Mg alloys. In another work on welding AZ91D and AM50, low melting phases at the grain boundaries in the base metal, possibly formed by segregation, melted during heating (below the melting temperature of the alloy), and solidified during cooling (Ref. 6). It was found that the low melting eutectics play an important role in the behavior of Mg and Al alloys. For instance, wetting of grain boundaries by low melting eutectics was considered responsible for the superplastic deformation of these alloys (Ref. 7). The present investigation was intended to study the characteristics of resistance welding Mg alloys, with a focus on understanding the mechanisms of cracking and expulsion, the most crucial issues influencing the integrity of a weldment. Such an understanding is beneficial in developing welding practice guidelines for largescale applications of Mg alloys in sheet metal manufacturing.

ABSTRACT
Resistance spot welding (RSW) was carried out on magnesium Alloys AZ31B and AZ91D. The similarities and differences between these two materials with regard to their welding characteristics and defect formation were investigated. It was found that liquation cracking was common in RSW AZ31B, and expulsion was common in RSW AZ91D. They were the direct consequences of high pressure in the liquid nugget, and a weakened microstructure due to grain boundary wetting by low melting eutectics.

Introduction
Significant efforts have been made in automobile weight reduction through the use of lightweight metals such as Al and Mg alloys. Magnesium alloys are attractive materials for auto components due to their low density, high specific strength, and excellent recyclability, as well as many other advantages over other structural metals/alloys. As stated in Magnesium Vision 2020 (Ref. 1), a vehicles average magnesium content is expected to increase to as much as 350 lb by the year 2020, replacing heavier components, substantially reducing its weight and ultimately improving its fuel efficiency. However, it is impossible to accomplish this goal with limited knowledge of processing magnesium alloys. A crucial issue in this regard is an industrial joining means of Mg components, such as resistance spot welding (RSW) for joining sheet materials. Resistance spot welding has many advantages over other joining means, and a significant amount of knowledge has been accumulated by the industry and academia on welding conventional sheet materials. However, such knowledge on resistance welding materials such as steels and even Al alloys cannot be directly applied to welding Mg. The difficulties in welding Mg alloys arise from their intrinsic physical properH. LUO, C. HAO, and J. ZHANG are with Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China. Z. GAN is with ENN Group, China. H. CHEN is with China Automotive Technology & Research Center, China. H. ZHANG (hozhang@eng.utoledo.edu) is with The University of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio.

ties. Extensive research work has been carried out and a number of important observations have been made in fusion welding such as electric arc welding of Mg alloys. Some of them may be helpful for understanding the behavior of Mg alloys during resistance welding, and they are summarized in the following (Refs. 2, 3): 1. Coarse grains in the fusion zone. Because of their high thermal conductivity, a high heat input rate is necessary in welding Mg alloys. This and the fairly low melting temperatures of the alloys (and, therefore, their low recrystallization temperatures) promote grain growth, accompanied by large segregation of alloying elements. These severely affect the strength of a welded joint; 2. Large thermal stresses and distortion. Because of their large coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE), welding Mg alloys produces significant deformation, distortion, and thermal stress in the weldment during the heating-cooling cycle; 3. Cracking. Magnesium may form a number of eutectics with other alloying elements. Such eutectics have much lower melting temperatures than Mg. For instance, the melting point of Mg-Cu eutectics is 480C, that of Mg-Al is 437C, and Mg-Ni is 508C. Therefore, there is a wide

KEYWORDS
Resistance Spot Welding Mg Alloys Cracking Expulsion Grain Boundary Wetting

Experiment
Materials

Two types of commercially available Mg alloys were selected for this study: WELDING JOURNAL 249-s

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Fig. 1 Microstructures of the following: A 2-mm AZ91D; B 2-mm AZ31B sheets.

WELDING RESEARCH

Fig. 2 CTE of various metals.

Fig. 3 Thermal conductivity of various metals.

a. AZ31B sheets: 2.0 and 2.6 mm in thickness, hot-rolled; b. AZ91D sheets: 2.0 and 2.4 mm in thickness, machined from continuous casting rods. The chemical compositions of these materials are listed in Table 1. Because they were machined from casting directly, the AZ91D sheets showed a large variation in both structure and properties. In most of the experiments the sheets were cleaned using 60-grit sandpapers, degreased, washed, and then dried before welding. They were welded within three hours after cleaning.
Welding Parameters

Table 1 Chemical Composition (wt-%) of Commercial AZ31B and AZ91D Magnesium Alloys Alloy AZ31B AZ91D Al 2.53.5 8.59.5 Zn 0.61.4 0.450.90 Mn 0.21.0 0.170.40 Si <0.1 0.05 Cu <0.05 0.025 Ni Fe Mg Bal. Bal.

<0.005 <0.004 0.001 0.004

The welding parameters used for welding Mg are governed by the physical characteristics of Mg alloys. Large electrode force, high electric current, and short welding time are generally needed. In the experiments, welding schedules were determined for specific material stack-ups. Although large welds are preferred for strength, the high electric current and/or long welding time needed to produce such welds can significantly reduce electrode life. Therefore, a welding schedule that could produce welds of diameter 250-s DECEMBER 2011, VOL. 90

between 3.5 and 5 times t (mm) was considered acceptable, to avoid excessive electrode deterioration. In welding 2.0-mm AZ31B sheets, the electric current value was adjusted in a range of 18.5 to 32.0 kA when electrode force was altered between 3 and 9 kN, depending on the surface condition, in order to produce reasonable welds. Welding 2.0-mm AZ91D sheets required a narrower range of electric current between 20 and 24.5 kA when electrode force was in the same range. Electric current values needed to be adjusted slightly when welding 2.6-mm AZ31B and 2.4-mm AZ91D sheets from welding 2.0-mm sheets of these materials. A welding time of six cycles, or 120 ms, was found adequate for both materials of all thicknesses in the study. Particular welding parameters are listed with the results when needed. Dome-shaped, Cu-Cr-Zr electrodes (Cr

0.25~0.65 wt-%Zr 0.08~0.20 wt-%) 20 mm in diameter and with face radii of 100 and 200 mm for thin and thick sheets, respectively, were used as the upper (positive) electrodes for welding. Flat-faced electrodes were used as the lower (negative) electrodes. A 300-kVA, three-phase DC pedestal resistance welding machine was chosen for the experiments.
Metallographic Examination

Some of the welds were sectioned and ground/polished. AZ91D sheets with a casting structure were etched using nital, and AZ31B was etched using picric acid. The weldments were then examined under an optical microscope for size and structure of the nugget, heat-affected zone (HAZ), and base metal.

Fig. 4 Electrical resistivity of various metals.

= 6 kN, current = 26 kA, and time = 120 ms.

Fig. 6 An AZ31B weld on 2.6-mm sheets with liquation cracks. Electrode force = 9 kN, current = 33.8 kA, and time = 120 ms. Experimental Procedure

Fig. 7 AZ31B welds with the following: A A single crack; B multiple cracks. 2.6-mm sheets, electrode force = 9 kN, welding time = 120 ms, and welding current = 35.4 and 41.4 respectively, for welds in A and B.

The metallographic specimens of the raw materials were examined first. A typical microstructure of AZ91D is shown in Fig. 1A. A large amount of phase (Mg17Al12), in addition to some small voids possibly formed during casting, exists at the grain boundaries. Testing showed that structures and properties varied drastically across different phases. For instance, the microhardness value measured near the voids was below 30 HV, while that on the phase was more than 100 HV. Such a large variation existed even after the material was heat treated for a long period of time for tempering and homogenization. Finer grain boundaries containing phase, and some inclusions in the matrix are observed in AZ31B, possibly due to the smaller amount of alloying elements and different fabrication process Fig. 1B. Preliminary experiments were conducted and AZ31B and AZ91D behaved quite differently in welding. Therefore, different emphases were placed on these two materials in this study. Expulsion in welding AZ31B, at both surface and interface, was

Fig. 8 Microstructure of liquation cracking in AZ31B welds with the following: A A narrow crack; B wide cracks corresponding to the ones in Fig. 7.

discussed first. Cracking in the HAZ was also extensively studied for this alloy. The effect of electrode force was explored on controlling expulsion and cracking. On AZ91D, however, the focus was placed on understanding the mechanism of interfacial expulsion and its difference from other theories of expulsion. Welds were also made with a constraint from two large washers clamped on the top and bottom sheet surfaces, similar to a mechanism of constraining used to reduce cracking in Al welding (Ref. 15), to understand the influence of the compressive zone at the faying interface.

Results and Discussion

In general, resistance welding Mg alloys is similar to welding Al alloys, while significantly different from welding steels because of the differences in RSW-related physical properties. The important properties of pure Fe, Al, Mg, and Cu were collected and compared in Figs. 24 (Refs. 811). Although the alloys of these metals may behave significantly different from those of their pure forms, these figures provide a baseline to understanding their behavior in welding. As shown in Fig. 2, WELDING JOURNAL 251-s

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Fig. 5 Cross-section of a weld on 2.0-mm AZ31B sheets. Electrode force

Fig. 9 Surface expulsion on 2.6-mm AZ31B sheets of original surfaces, and structural details near the surfaces.

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Fig. 10 A weld on 2.6-mm AZ31B sheets with traces of expulsion at the faying interface. Electrode force = 6.6 kN, electric current = 31.8 kA, and time = 120 ms.

Fig. 11 Effects of electrode force and welding current on weld size and expulsion (2.6-mm AZ31B sheets, welding current = 120 ms).

Figure 5 shows a weld made on 2-mm AZ31B sheets under extremely carefully controlled conditions (i.e., new electrodes, constrained sheets, etc.). Still visible are some small voids at the center of the weld. As a matter of fact, a significant proportion of Mg welds in this investigation contained one or more types of discontinuities: voids, cracks, and expulsion (at either the faying interface or surface). Similar phenomena have been observed in welding Al (Refs. 1215), but there are certain features unique to Mg welding. In addition, welding AZ31B appeared to be quite different from welding AZ91D. For instance, the faying interface expulsion was prevailing in both materials, but clearly they were governed by different mechanisms. Therefore, the results of these two alloys are presented separately in the following.
AZ31B Cracking

Fig. 12 Welds made using different electrode forces on 2.0-mm AZ31B sheets: A 3 kN (welding current = 18.7 kA); B 6 kN (welding current = 25.9 kA); C 9 kN (welding current = 31.7 kA). Welding time = 120 ms.

the large coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of Mg indicates that large distortion can be expected during welding, and a large electrode force is needed to suppress shrinkage void formation and expulsion. In addition, because of their low electrical resistivity and high thermal 252-s DECEMBER 2011, VOL. 90

conductivity (Figs. 3, 4), Mg alloys have to be welded with a high heat input rate, i.e., high electric current and short welding time. Because of their low bulk electrical resistivity, the surface condition and, therefore, the contact resistance plays an important role in welding Mg alloys.

Liquation cracking was frequently observed during welding of AZ31B sheets. Such cracks, in the form of fine whiskers, may not affect the static strength of a weldment, yet their possible influence on dynamic strength such as fatigue strength is not documented. Even if a welds strength is not directly affected, its integrity may be compromised as such cracking is always associated with other undesirable features such as the creation of weakened partial melting zones, internal voids and cracks,

and expulsion. For instance, liquation cracks and internal cracks/voids coexisted in the weld shown in Fig. 6. Therefore, liquation cracking should be avoided if possible. Figure 6 shows a typical AZ31B weld with whisker cracks. Originated in the HAZ close to the weld interface, they are located at the upper-right corner of the weld nugget, possibly due to misaligned electrodes. Such cracks are very similar to those observed in welding AA6111 sheets (Ref. 18). In the experiments it was found that, depending on the weld nugget size and electrode force level, an AZ31B weld may not have cracks at all (when the nugget is small), very few cracks (often small and narrow, as in Fig. 7A), or large amount of cracks (when the nugget is large, Fig. 7B). Liquation cracking always starts in the HAZ near the nugget, and it is intergranular in nature Fig. 8A, B. Through a large number of experiments in this investigation, the following general characteristics of liquation cracking were observed when welding 2.0- and 2.6-mm AZ31B sheets: 1. Liquation cracking was almost unavoidable when the nugget size reached a certain value. For instance, in welding 2mm sheets, virtually no cracks were observed in welds with a diameter smaller than 5.0 mm, cracking started when a weld was larger than 5.0 mm, and almost all welds had cracks when they were beyond 6.0 mm; 2. The severity of liquation cracking was a strong function of heat input. When welding using moderate levels of electric current few cracks appeared, and they were small and narrow. High electric current and long welding time resulted in many wide cracks; 3. The location of liquation cracking was affected by the constraining condition of the welding setup and electrodes. In general, cracks prefer locations where there is little constraint, as analyzed in Ref. 18; 4. Liquation cracking and expulsion were closely related, and cracking appeared to be enhanced by expulsion.
AZ31B Surface Expulsion

Fig. 13 A weld with expulsion made on 2.0-mm AZ91D sheets. Electrode force = 4.2 kN, welding current = 20.8 kA, and welding time = 110 ms.

Fig. 14 A An AZ31B weld; B an AZ91D weld, both show different amounts of plastic deformation at the faying interface near the nugget.

Most of the Mg welds made in this study contain one or more types of discontinuities. In fact, liquation cracking and surface expulsion were almost impossible to avoid in the present investigation once the welds reached a certain size when welding AZ31B. Surface expulsion, when it occurred, was always on the surface of the upper sheet in contact with the positive electrode. There was also a tendency of weld nuggets growing into the upper sheet more than into the lower one, possibly because of the electrical polarity. In general, surface expulsion is

strongly affected by the smoothness, hardness, and cleanliness of the surfaces of the sheets and electrodes, as they dictate the contact resistance and, therefore, heat generation at the interfaces. A well-known fact is that the actual contact between two smooth, slightly pressed metal surfaces is only a small fraction of the apparent contact area. The contact is established in the form of a number of clusters of microcontacts, with the locations of the clusters being determined by the large-scale waviness of the surface and the microcontacts by the smallscale surface roughness (Ref. 16). When an electric current is applied, the sheet surface becomes softened due to heating, and its actual contact area increases. The contact is also a strong function of the plasticity of the sheet material. Because Mg alloys have a low plasticity compared to Al alloys or steels, Mg sheets generally have smaller actual contact areas than Al alloys, and the electric contact is further reduced by contaminants such as oxides on the surfaces even after cleaning. Therefore, most of the electric current passes through a small number of microscopic clusters initially in contact, resulting in a large amount of heat generated near the surface, localized near the contact points. Surface expulsion occurs

when the pressure in the molten metal at the surface is sufficiently high, resulting from thermal expansion and electrode confinement. Examples of surface expulsion are shown in Fig. 9AD when welding using sheets of original surfaces, i.e., without cleaning. From Fig. 9A and B it can be seen that the weld nuggets are displaced from the faying interface, shifting to the upper surface. Welds in Fig. 9C and D have an asymmetric shape because of uneven heating. In all of the weldments surface expulsion occurred, and the locations of surface melting correspond to the sites of electrode deterioration from alloying and material depletion. In this investigation, the rate of electrode deterioration was very high: the upper electrode had to be replaced or dressed after fewer than 10 welds when welding AZ31B. The surface expulsion exacerbates the alloying reaction at the electrode-sheet interface, similar to that observed in welding Al alloys (Ref. 17). Cracking was also observed in parts of the weldments near the surface, as in Fig. 9B, D. Those in Fig. 9B are intergranular and located between the partial melting zone and the base metal where the structure was weakened by molten Al-Mg and possibly other low melting eutectics, concen-

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Fig. 15 Views of the following sectioning: A Perpendicular to; B parallel to the sheet surfaces of a small AZ91D weld. Electrode force = 9 kN, welding current = 23.2 kA, and welding time = 110 ms.
AZ31 AZ91

Fig. 17 Microstructure of the heat-affected zone near the fusion zone of an AZ91D arc weld (Ref. 20).

Fig. 16 Microstructures of AZ31 and AZ91 magnesium alloys (Ref. 19).

Fig. 18 Microstructure of the heat-affected zone of an AZ91D weld.

trated at grain boundaries. Thermal stresses due to shrinkage when welding current is shut off, aided by a deficit in volume in the molten nugget because of expulsion, can generate stresses sufficiently high to tear off the weakened structure and create cracks (Refs. 12, 13, 18). The whisker cracks in Fig. 9D were created in this manner, with a thermal stress in different directions from those in Fig. 9B. For all the cases in Fig. 9, expulsion was evidenced by the visible voids in the nuggets and traces of metal remnants at either the electrode-sheet interfaces and/or faying interfaces.
AZ31B Faying Interface Expulsion

Expulsion at the faying interface was also frequently observed in welding AZ31B. As seen in Fig. 10, expulsion occurred on both sides of the weld at the faying interfaces. A significant amount of voids are also visible in the weld nugget, resulting from the volume deficit created by the expulsion. Expulsion on the surface and at the fay254-s DECEMBER 2011, VOL. 90

ing interface in welding AZ31B appeared to be independent from each other, except in large-sized welds where they occurred simultaneously because of excessive heating. Same as in welding other types of materials, the mechanisms of these two types of expulsion are different. Surface expulsion is mainly caused by localized surface heating, as a result of nonuniformly distributed contact resistance between an electrode and a sheet; and interfacial expulsion is a strong function of nugget liquid pressure which is strongly related to the nugget size. Interfacial expulsion is controlled by the balance between the electrode force and that from a liquid nugget (Ref. 18). Figure 11 summarizes the experimental measurements illustrating the effects of electrode force and welding current on nugget growth and expulsion in AZ31B. The figure shows the limits of expulsion and electric currents for creating 8-mm welds in welding 2.6-mm AZ31B sheets. The welding time was fixed at six 20-ms cy-

cles, or 0.12 s. In the experiment the electric current was gradually raised to determine the 8-mm nugget and expulsion limits, for an electrode force varied in a range of 3 to 9 kN. It can be seen that the limits depend strongly on electrode force, similar to what was observed in Al welding (Refs. 12, 13). The welding current needed to make the same-sized welds increases with electrode force, because a large electrode force generally results in a low electric resistance and, therefore, a high heat input (or electric current) is needed. The difference between the electric currents needed to make 8-mm welds, with electrode forces of 3 and 9 kN, respectively, is about 10 kA. The expulsion limit in the figure has a similar dependence on electrode force as does that of the weld size, with higher electric current values. The difference between these two limits is an indication of operation window size in practice. A large difference between the two limits corresponds to a large range of welding current in which a sizeable weld can be achieved without the risk of expulsion. In Fig. 11 the difference ranges from 3 kA (with an electrode force of 3 kN) to 6 kA (with an electrode force of 9 kN). Therefore, a large electrode force is preferred as it produces a wide operation window, in addition to suppressing liquation cracking and void formation (Refs. 14, 15, 18). Increasing electrode force has been considered an effective way to suppress cracking and expulsion (Refs. 1215). Therefore, in this work welds were created using three levels of electrode force 3, 6, and 9 kN with appropriate values of welding current and time for making reasonable-sized welds. The weldments were sectioned in order to examine the microstructures, as shown in Fig. 12. Significant amount of large voids are visible in the weld made using a low electrode force of 3 kN Fig. 12A. Increasing electrode force to 6 kN (Fig. 12B) and then to 9 kN (Fig. 12C) effectively suppressed the void formation. As the electrode force increases, larger electric current is also needed to compensate the loss in electrical resistance. The nuggets become shorter and wider as a result.

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Fig. 20 Liquid pressure in a weld nugget as a function of temperature beyond melting.

Fig. 19 Expulsion in AZ31D along the faying interface.

Fig. 21 A schematic of a quarter of an AZ91D weldment.

AZ91D Interfacial Expulsion

Similar to AZ31B and Al alloys, AZ91D is prone to interfacial expulsion. Figure 13 shows a weld on 2-mm AZ91D sheets, with a large void and some cracks in the nugget. Traces of expulsion are visible on both sides of the nugget at the faying interfaces. This is a typical case in welding casting AZ91D sheets in the present study, and it was found that expulsion in AZ91D is unique in several aspects compared with AZ31B or Al welding, which may lead to a different explanation on the causes of expulsion in this material.
Expulsion Characteristics

It is common to observe significant plastic deformation at the faying interface in the HAZ near the nugget in resistance spot welds of Al and other materials. One such an example is an AZ31B weld shown in Fig. 14A, in which the sheets are bound together at the faying interface next to the nugget. The workpieces near the weld nugget in the HAZ were heated to an elevated temperature below the melting point, and plastic deformation could easily occur when they were squeezed by the electrodes. Such a plastic deformation at elevated temperature promotes solid bonding, and a solid bonding ring formed through this process may effectively seal the liquid nugget from expulsion. However, an examination of the weld structures revealed that little plastic deforma-

tion of the sheets occurred at the interfaces in welding AZ91D. The weld in Fig. 14B exhibits no plastic deformation and the original surfaces are virtually intact at the faying interface. Another unique feature of AZ91D welds with expulsion is the existence of a dense network of grain boundaries in the HAZ surrounding the nugget, which possibly melts and then solidifies during welding. Figure 15 shows different views of a fairly small weld nugget surrounded by a massive network of dark grain boundaries in the HAZ, and some of them are cracks either open or filled with (solidified) liquid metal Fig. 15A. Although low-melting eutectics can be found at the grain boundaries in many material systems, those in AZ91 are different from most others in their amount or volume fraction and the morphology. A comparison between AZ91 and AZ31 by Salman et al. (Ref. 19) in their study on the corrosion properties of these two Mg alloys shows that the microstructure of AZ91 has a nearly continuous network of Mg17Al12 at its grain boundaries, while AZ31 contains merely discrete particles of the phase (Fig. 16), similar to what was observed in Fig. 1. A continuous network of the eutectics may form along the grain boundaries only when the volume fraction is sufficiently large. The Mg17Al12 at the grain boundaries of these two alloys has a melting temperature of 437C, more than 100C lower than that of the alloys and, therefore, may melt during welding in the HAZ. Melting of such eutectics at grain boundaries was also observed in

a study on electric arc welding of AZ91D (Ref. 20). A close look of the microstructure near the weld interface of an arc weld, in Fig. 17, confirms grain boundary melting, as well as cracking at the grain boundaries resulted from melting of the -phase (Mg17Al12). Grain boundary melting was observed in all AZ91D welds with expulsion in the current study. One example is shown in Fig. 18 in which the HAZ has a high proportion of molten grain boundaries in the region next to the weld interface. As the result of melting and solidification, the grain boundaries in the HAZ are filled with fine equiaxed grains resulting from rapid cooling, similar to the observations of Munitz et al. (Ref. 6). A continuous network of Mg17Al12 at grain boundaries in AZ91, when it melts, allows for the ejection of liquid metal from the nugget through the HAZ. Both the cross section of a small weld (Fig. 15A) and a section along the faying interface of a weld (Fig. 15B), made using the same welding parameters, show the existence of such a liquid network during welding. Expulsion may occur through the liquid network if the pressure in the nugget is high enough, and the network has a sufficient number of intersections at the faying interface as outlets. There are many junctions of the Mg17Al12 network with the faying interface near the nugget, and the number decreases along the interface away from the nugget, as seen in Figs. 13 and 15. When there is such a liquid network, expulsion may occur even when

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Fig. 22 Welds on 2-mm AZ91D sheets made using different electrode forces: A 3 kN; B 5.4 kN; C 9 kN. Electric current = 23 kA and welding time = 120 ms.

sion was only moderately reduced. The force balance model as described in Ref. 18 works well in predicting expulsion by comparing the electrode force with that from the liquid nugget. According to the model, the expulsion is contained if the elecFig. 23 An AZ91D weld made with constraints. 2.0-mm sheets, electrode trode force is higher than that from the force = 7.8 kN, current = 25 kA, and time = 120 ms. nugget. While the electrode force can be the nugget is sealed at the faying interface measured directly, the force from a liquid by electrode squeezing, as the liquid metal nugget can only be approximated based on could flow from the nugget through the web the pressure in the nugget. Depending on of molten grain boundaries, and reach the the chemistry different metals have differfaying interfaces by circumventing the seal. ent liquid pressures and, therefore, weldAn examination of the weld cross sections ing these metals requires different elecproves that this is what actually happened. trode forces. The liquid pressure in a weld Traces of ejected metals are observed in all nugget can be estimated based on the voldirections around a weld shown in Fig. 19A, ume change due to melting and liquid exand the debris of the ejected metal are pansion, and those for Al, Mg, and Fe are clearly visible in the lower half of the figure plotted in Fig. 20. If the force balance covering the annular pressure ring, which is model is applicable to welding Mg, the an evidence of expulsion through the faying electrode force needed would be lower interface. The upper half of the weld, howthan for welding Al, as the liquid pressure ever, appears to be sealed by electrode is at least 20 MPa lower than in a compasqueezing and the annular pressure ring is rable Al weld with the same amount of clear of residual metals. A large amount of overheating. However, when welding ejected metal is found outside the ring, posAZ91D, expulsion was basically unavoidsibly resulting from an expulsion through able when the electrode force was lower the web of molten grain boundaries, bythan 9 kN, even when the electrode force passing the portion of the faying interface would be sufficient to suppress expulsion sealed by the compressive ring. The large in similar-sized Al welds. For instance, the voids, distributed in the radial directions in weld shown in Fig. 15B has a diameter of the nugget shown in Fig. 19B could be the approximately 5 mm. If a 200C overheatresult of such an expulsion. ing (beyond the melting point) is assumed for this weld, the liquid pressure in the Effect of Electrode Force nugget will be about 75 MPa estimated from Fig. 20. The force from the liquid An effective way to deter expulsion is nugget, which is the same as the electrode raising the electrode force level, as has force needed to contain the faying interbeen recognized by many practitioners face expulsion according to the force baland explained in the force balance model ance model, for this weld is 6 kN. Howof expulsion (Ref. 18). However, it was ever, the electrode force used for making found that increasing electrode force was this weld was 9 kN, yet expulsion still ocnot effective in controlling expulsion in curred. Therefore, there must be mechawelding AZ91D, as it occurred as soon as nisms of expulsion that are not accounted the nugget grew to a certain size when the for in the force balance model. electrode force was set below 9 kN. When An implicit condition for applying the it was raised to 9 kN the severity of expulforce balance model is the existence of a

seal formed around the nugget at the faying interface in the HAZ. Making such a sealing requires both a reasonable plasticity of the sheets at the interface and a sufficiently high electrode force. Without a noticeable plastic deformation at the sheet surfaces in welding AZ91D, as discussed in the previous sections, it is difficult to create an effective seal even when the electrode force is high. The electrode force alone can only close a fraction of the apparent contact area and leave the rest open for the liquid metal to penetrate through and, therefore, the effect of electrode force is limited in controlling expulsion in welding this alloy.
A New Expulsion Mechanism

WELDING RESEARCH

The fact that expulsion was almost inevitable in welding AZ91D even under large electrode force in the course of this investigation indicates that existing expulsion mechanisms are not effective in explaining the expulsion process in welding materials such as AZ91D. As discussed in the previous sections, the force balance model of expulsion did not work well for welding AZ91D because of the existence of a liquid network made of molten eutectics at the grain boundaries, and a lack of an effective sealing ring created by plastic deformation under electrode squeezing. The influence of such a network on the expulsion process in this alloy can be understood by approximating the evolution of various zones in a weldment during welding. For this purpose, one quarter of an AZ91D weldment was constructed (Fig. 21) using actual corresponding sections from several welds. A liquid network of molten eutectics at grain boundaries around the nugget forms as soon as melting starts, as the temperature in the HAZ next to the nugget is just below the melting temperature for the alloy, but above that of the eutectics. The size of this liquid network, measured from the center of the weld is rmelt (Fig. 21), and it grows along with the nugget (measured by rnugget). The compressive zone generated by the applied electrode force at the faying interface surrounding the liquid nugget can be considered a circular shape with radius rforce for simplicity. It is the region in which the compressive stresses are

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sufficiently high to seal either the liquid nugget or the intersections of the liquid eutectics network with the faying interface, if they fall within the range of this zone. Therefore, if an electrode force is too small to provide effective sealing, the compressive zone may not exist and rforce = 0, even when there are compressive stresses at the faying interface. As rmelt rnugget is always true, expulsion through the liquid network will occur before that directly through the faying interface and, therefore, expulsion happens when the liquid network outgrows the compressive zone, or rmelt > rforce. Therefore, expulsion in AZ91D depends on both the electrode force level and the welding stage that determines the value of rmelt. Consider a growing weld nugget under a moderate electrode force. At the beginning, the partial melting zone is narrow, and it is enclosed by the compressive zone (rmelt < rforce). Expulsion is contained because the liquid cannot penetrate through the faying interface directly, nor through the molten liquid network. As welding proceeds both the nugget and liquid network grow in size, and the liquid pressure and the resultant force from the nugget rise as well. Expulsion in AZ91D may occur if one of the following two conditions is met: when the force from the nugget reaches a level comparable to that of the electrode force, and when the liquid network grows beyond the compressive zone (rmelt > rforce). Therefore, expulsion in RSW AZ91D may occur either directly through the faying interface, or through the web of liquid grain boundaries. While the former is common for all the materials, the latter is unique to materials such as AZ91D. The volume fraction of the low melting phase (Mg17Al12 in this case) at the grain boundaries has to be large enough to make a connected liquid network that allows the liquid to go through. Experiments were performed to verify the proposed mechanism of expulsion. When the electrode force was altered at 3, 5.4, and 9 kN, but the electric current and welding time were kept unchanged, the nugget size decreased in both width and height, as shown in Fig. 22. Electrode force is apparently beneficial to reducing the severity of expulsion, but not sufficient to prevent it from occurring, as expulsion was detected in all three welds including the one made using an electrode force of 9 kN. Another experiment was conducted to test the effect of the compressive zone by using sheets clamped by two large washers; a weld made under this confinement is shown in Fig. 23. A significant reduction in expulsion was observed using such a confinement, which can largely be attributed to the extended range of the effective compression zone that is responsible for preventing expulsion through the liquid

network. No expulsion was detected when an electrode force of 9 kN was used when welding with constraining washers. Although electrode force alone is not sufficient for suppressing expulsion in AZ91D, a large electrode force helps reduce the gap between the faying surfaces and enlarge the compressive zone. Therefore, a large electrode force is still beneficial in deterring expulsion as observed in this study. When the electrode force was raised to 9 kN, the proportion of welds with expulsion dropped to below 50%.

Summary
This study characterizes the welding of two types of Mg alloys, AZ31B and AZ91D. It was found that because of the metallurgical differences between these two alloys, they behave quite differently in welding. Liquation cracking and surface expulsion were prevalent in welding AZ31B. Whisker cracks appeared in all welds with a nugget exceeding 6.5 mm in diameter, and high heat input helped cracking in severity and amount. Surface expulsion in AZ31B severely affected the electrode life, and generally fewer than ten welds could be made before electrode dressing was needed. Interfacial expulsion was also frequently observed in welding AZ31B. A significant amount of voids usually resulted from expulsion. Expulsion in welding AZ91D possesses unique features compared to that in welding AZ31B or Al alloys. The liquid metal was ejected in all the (radial) directions at the faying interface, and a large amount of voids and cracks were created in the nugget because of the significant loss of liquid metal. Interfacial expulsion could occur even when the weld was very small in diameter. Increasing electrode force is not as effective in controlling expulsion as in welding other metals, as the liquid metal may penetrate through the faying interface because of a lack of a strong solid bonding ring, or eject through a pathway formed by a liquid network of molten grain boundaries in the partial melting zone. A new expulsion mechanism, i.e., expulsion through a liquid network formed by molten grain boundaries, is proposed based on observations in the present investigation. In general, electrode life is the most critical issue in welding AZ31B, and expulsion is in welding AZ91D. Innovation is needed in order to extend the electrode life in welding AZ31B. For welding materials such as AZ91D increasing electrode force alone is not sufficient to suppress expulsion.
References 1. Magnesium Vision 2020, A North American Automotive Strategic Vision for Magnesium, USAMP, United States Automotive Materials Partnership, 2006.

2. Munitz, A., Cotler, C., Shaham, H., and Kohn, G. 2000. Electron beam welding of magnesium AZ91D plates. Welding Journal 79(7): 202-s to 208-s. 3. Munitz, A., Cotler, C., Stern, A., and Kohn, G. 2001. Mechanical properties and microstructure of gas tungsten arc welded magnesium AZ91D plates. Materials Science and Engineering A302: 6873. 4. Wang, Y., Feng, J., and Zhang, Z. 2005. Influence of surface condition on expulsion in spot welding AZ31B magnesium alloy. J. Mater. Sci. Technol. Vol. 21, No. 5, pp. 749752. 5. Wang, Y., Zhang, Z., and Feng, J., 2007. Effect of welding current on strength and microstructure in resistance spot welding of AZ31 Mg alloy, Chinese Welding Journal 16(4): 3741. 6. Munitz, A., Kohn, G., and Cotler, C., 2002. Resistance spot welding of Mg-AM50 and MgAZ91D alloys. Magnesium Technology 2002. TMS (The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society). 7. Straumal, B., Lopez, G. A., Mittemeijer, E. J., Gust, W., and Zhiyaev, A. P. 2003. Grain boundary phase transitions in the Al-Mg system and their influence on high-strain rate superplasticity. Defect and Diffusion Forum, Vols. 216-217, pp. 307321. 8. Zinovyev, V. E. 1990. Metals at High Temperatures: Standard Handbook of Properties, translated and edited by V. P. Itkin, Hemisphere Publishing Corp. 9. Aluminum: Properties and Physical Metallurgy. 1984. Edited by J. E. Hatch, ASM International, Metals Park, Ohio, 10. Baker, H. 1967. Physical Properties of Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys. The Dow Chemical Co., Midland, Mich. 11. Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys, ASM Specialty Handbook. 1999. Edited by M. M. Avedesian and H. Baker, ASM International, Materials Park, Ohio. 12. Zhang, H. 1999. Expulsion and its influence on weld quality. Welding Journal 78(11): 373-s to 380-s. 13. Senkara, J., Zhang, H., and Hu, S. J. 2004. Expulsion prediction in resistance spot welding. Welding Journal 83(4): 123-s to 132-s. 14. Senkara, J., and Zhang, H. 2000. Cracking in multi-spot welding aluminum alloy AA5754. Welding Journal 79(7): 194-s to 201-s. 15. Zhang, H., Senkara, J., and Wu, X. 2002. Suppressing cracking in RSW AA5754 aluminum alloys by mechanical means. ASME Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering Vol. 124, pp. 7985. 16. Greenwood, J. A. 1966. Constriction resistance and the real area of contact. Brit. J. Appl. Phys. Vol. 17, pp. 16211632. 17. Li, Z., Hao, C., Zhang, J., and Zhang, H. 2007. Effects of sheet surface conditions on electrode life in aluminum welding. Welding Journal 86(4): 34-s to 39-s. 18. Zhang, H., and Senkara, J. 2006. Resistance Welding: Fundamentals and Applications , CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, London, New York. ISBN 08493-2346-0. 19. Salman, S. A., Ichino, R., and Okido, M. 2010. A comparative electrochemical study of AZ31 and AZ91 magnesium alloy. International Journal of Corrosion, Volume 2010, Article ID 412129. 20. Luo, H. 2008. New joining techniques for magnesium alloy sheets. MS thesis, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, June.

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Manual Keyhole Plasma Arc Welding with Application

A sensing and control enhanced plasma arc welding process is used to produce pipe weldments that satisfy visual inspection criteria
BY X. R. LI, J. HEUSMAN, L. KVIDAHL, P. HOYT, AND Y. M. ZHANG

ABSTRACT
Making complete-joint-penetration welds on pipes in the 5G fixed position requires the highest skills and concentration from welders. This paper introduces a sensing and control enhanced plasma arc welding (PAW) process as a proposed method to lower the requirements for welder skills and concentration, and to better ensure pipe weld quality. It uses the measurements of arc voltage in innovative ways to detect the weld penetration. As a result, variations in welder operation are compensated such that welders with little training may produce acceptable completejoint-penetration pipe welds in the 5G fixed position. Welds made by novice welders on SS 316 have successfully passed all nondestructive and mechanical exams. The feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed method are thus verified.

Introduction
In a wide variety of applications, such as shipbuilding, power, and some offshore plants, as well as food processing, piping systems play an important role. Welding is the most common joining method in building those pipe systems. Although several major welding processes can be used to join pipes and tubes, gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is probably the most common choice for the root pass. For pipes under 8 in. in OD and under Schedule 10, GTAW should be sufficient to penetrate the entire wall thickness. For pipes over Schedule 10, joints need to be beveled/grooved to reduce the thickness that needs to be penetrated during the root pass and to create the exacting tolerances preferred for GTAW joint weldability. Machining needs increase the preparation time as well as the overall costs. Further, filler material becomes mandatory in order to produce weld bead contour with required positive reinforcement.
X. R. LI and Y. M. ZHANG (ymzhang@aiswelding.com) are with Adaptive Intelligent Systems LLC, Lexington, Ky. ZHANG is also with the University of Kentucky Institute of Sustainable Manufacturing and Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering(ymzhang@eng.uky.edu). J. HEUSMAN and L. KVIDAHL are with Ingalls Shipbuilding, a division of Huntington Ingalls, Inc., Pascagoula, Miss. P. HOYT is with Ingalls Shipbuilding(New Orleans Operation), a division of Huntington Ingalls, Inc. New Orleans, La.

In addition, care is needed to avoid tungsten inclusions, a common weld defect in the GTAW process. This paper proposes to use plasma arc welding (PAW) in manual pipe welding in order to overcome the aforementioned issues associated with GTAW. As an extension of GTAW, the PAW process uses a specially designed torch with an orifice configuration as shown in Fig. 1 to constrain the arc to increase the penetration capability (Ref. 1). This configuration has been used in a number of applications and studies (Refs. 25), which showed that the arc is much more directional and the process is much more tolerant to variations in the torch standoff distance (Ref. 1). With different settings, the PAW process can be operated in the following two modes: melt-in (or conduction mode) and keyhole. In the melt-in mode, the base metal is heated through the contact of the

plasma arc with the workpiece surface. This mode is good for joining relatively thin sections (up to 3.2 mm or 0.125 in.). It is similar to conventional GTAW except for the reduced arc beam diameter or the increased arc intensity. If the settings are correct, the keyhole mode may also be established because the plasma jet may displace the molten metal to form a keyhole or deep narrow cavity (typically through the entire wall thickness) (Ref. 6). The establishment of the keyhole allows the plasma jet to directly heat the entire thickness through the keyhole. The heating efficiency is improved, and the penetration capability is increased (Ref. 7). However, the PAW process is sensitive to parameter variations and its use in manual operations is rare and may require extraordinary skills. Through recent developments of the sensing and control enhanced PAW (Ref. 8) to be presented in this paper, manual operation of PAW has become a valid technology. For novice welders without GTAW experience, this sensing and control enhanced manual PAW is even much easier than conventional GTAW because the desired complete joint penetration can be ensured. The experimental system is briefly introduced first, followed by the introduction of the penetration control method. Visual and radiographic inspection as well as tensile tests were conducted, and the results are listed to verify the feasibility of the proposed method.

WELDING RESEARCH

Experimental Setup
Due to the sensitivity to welding parameter variations, the manual PAW process without automatic control is difficult for welders to operate. If the variation in torch movement is not compensated for, the weld bead may not be consistent. A sensing and control system was built to implement an advanced control algorithm into the PAW process. The experimental platform is generally divided into two major parts, welding process and control

KEYWORDS
Manual Pipe Welding Plasma Arc Welding (PAW) Penetration Control Type 316 Stainless Steel

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Fig. 1 The plasma arc welding process.

Fig. 2 Block diagram of the experimental platform.

system, as shown in Fig. 2. The welding process consists of the following three elements: power supply, torch, and welding platform/fixture. To accommodate the PAW process, the power supply should be able to deliver the requisite shielding gas, plasma gas, and coolant to the torch as well as high-frequency arc striking. A Thermal Arc Ultima-150 plasma welding power supply was selected, and a Thermal Arc PWH-3A plasma torch was used for the manual operation. The pipe welding platform, a rotational positioner, was used to clamp the pipe joints and rotate them to a desired position. The control system consists of isolation modules, an embedded controller, and a human machine interface (HMI). Isolation modules receive and filter signals of process parameters (welding current and voltage) measured from the process. At the same time, the embedded controller is isolated from the electrically noisy welding process. The isolation modules for welding current and voltage both act as low-pass filters, with a cutoff frequency of 1 and 3 kHz, respectively. The embedded controller is the core component of the control system. This controller measures the filtered and isolated process parameters by its A/D port. Based on the measured signals, the model predictive control algorithm performs calculations to determine the desired controller output (welding current signal) in real time. The welding current control signal is sent out via the D/A port and then through the output isolation module before entering the welding process (power supply). A commercial HMI terminal is used, allowing the welder to input welding conditions and desired parameters. Feedback control algorithms are implemented into the embedded system to control the weld penetration, as will be detailed later.

For pipe welding applications, complete joint penetration is typically necessary with specific weld bead contour requirements on both sides. Unlike structural welding, the welder typically has no access to the inner side of the pipe joint, and is not able to observe the inner side bead width directly. Therefore, for entry-level welders without extensive pipe welding experience, it will be difficult to make welds with acceptable inside contours. Sometimes, even for skilled welders, the weld bead may not be consistent due to careless operation or other reasons. The proposed pipe welding method aims at predicting and controlling the penetration depth through advanced sensing and control instead of welders experience. One of the key principles is to predict the weld penetration by the measurement of arc voltage in an innovative way. In arc welding, the easily measurable arc voltage is considered proportional to the arc length, but the accuracy is affected by the broad distribution of the unconstrained arc and welding current. This section introduces an innovative method of determining complete joint penetration by measurement of arc voltage.
Basic Principle

In order to reflect the weld pool depth,

a reference surface is needed in manual welding. Due to the unexpected welding operation manner and inaccuracy among different welders, the standoff distance is changing all the time. A pulsing method is introduced to develop penetration at a peak period (higher current level) and allow the weld pool to cool down at a base period (lower current level). With the PAW process, after the welding current is reduced to the base level, the arc force is decreased greatly. The melted metal around the plasma arc will flow back to the center of the weld pool to fill the keyhole. In this way, the melted weld pool can actually bounce back to the pipe surface. Therefore, a good reference can be provided during the base period, which will be used to determine the penetration depth from the outer side surface of the pipe joint. Extensive welding tests were conducted with fixed pulse frequency and duty ratio (open loop tests). By variation of travel speed and torch standoff distance within a certain small range, the trajectories of arc voltage to reach complete joint penetration also changed in a range. The trajectory under nominal was set as the desired trajectory to reach complete joint penetration. With small variations of travel speed and standoff distance, if the arc voltage can follow the desired trajectory, complete joint penetration can still be achieved, with an accepted error of

Table 1 Major Welding Process Parameters for Reference Arc Voltage Method Process Parameters Base current Reference peak current Peak current Polarity Electrode Plasma gas Plasma gas flow rate Shielding gas Shielding gas flow rate Standoff distance Values 20 A 45 A Algorithm determined DCEN 1 16-in. 2% thoriated tungsten Argon 2.0 ft3/h Argon 15 ft3/h 1 4 in.

Reference Arc Voltage Based Control

WELDING JOURNAL 259-s

WELDING RESEARCH

Arc Voltage

Base Current

Arc Current

t1 t2 t3 t4

Time

Base Current Minimum Peak Time

t1 t2

t3 t4

Time

Maximum Peak Time Peak Period Base Period

B
Fig. 3 A typical pipe weld made by a novice welder using the reference arc voltage method. A Front side of the weld; B back side of the weld.

Base Period

Fig. 4 Basic principle of the bottom detection method.

weld bead consistency. In the pulsing welding current, each regular pulse consists of a base and peak period. The base period duration is fixed, which is determined by extensive experiments. A typical peak period contains 20 to 40 control cycles, depending on the time needed to reach the desired penetration. By balancing the process dynamics and embedded controller capacity, the duration of the control cycle is set to 10 ms. During each control cycle, 10 arc voltage measurements are executed by the embedded controller in 1-ms intervals. The 10 measurements are then averaged (software low-pass filter) to represent the arc voltage during that control cycle. For each regular pulse during a base period, lower welding current is applied. The weld pool is merely melted and is flat to the pipe surface. At the beginning of a peak period, an intermediate welding current (between base and peak current) or initial peak current is applied to provide a reference point, also considered as the starting point of the control algorithm. In this interim stage, the top surface is still relatively flat due to the insufficient heat input under the reference welding current and relatively short time period. The arc voltage is meas-

ured at this stage as the reference voltage. Immediately following this interim period, the controlled peak current is applied to gain penetration. Once the measured arc voltage follows the desired trajectory, the desired penetration depth can be obtained in a preferred time period smoothly without overshoot. The arc voltage during peak period is measured repeatedly and compared to the reference voltage. The model predictive control (MPC) algorithm will determine the appropriate current control signal for the next control cycle until the arc voltage reaches the preset threshold that indicates complete joint penetration.
Feedback Control

weld penetration control. For reference regarding the arc voltage method, the PAW process can be considered as a single-input single-output (SISO) system. Concerning controller design convenience, the process input and output are defined as follows: u = I = I I k P P _k ref y k = V = V k V ref (1)

WELDING RESEARCH

As the key control algorithm selected for this application, MPC is an advanced method of process control that has been used in control applications since the 1980s. Welding technology can also be well controlled by the MPC method. The implementation of MPC on various welding processes has been successfully repeated in the Welding Research Laboratory at the University of Kentucky (Refs. 810). This research makes use of the basic idea of MPC to achieve accurate

Here, uk is the process input, which is defined as the welding current control signal in discrete time instance k. It is equal to the difference of the welding current at peak period IP_k and the reference welding current Iref. In the same way, yk indicates the process output, which means the arc voltage measurement at instance k. Its defined as the difference between arc voltage measurement during peak period Vk and the reference arc voltage Vref. In the control algorithm, the process is described by the following finite impulse response (FIR) model:

y = h( j )u
k j =1

k j

(2)

Table 2 Major Welding Process Parameters for Bottom Detection Method Process Parameters Base current Base period Peak current Minimum peak period Polarity Electrode Plasma gas Plasma gas flow rate Shielding gas Shielding gas flow rate Standoff distance Values 20 A 1000 ms 85 A 50 ms DCEN 1 16-in. 2% thoriated tungsten Argon 2.0 ft3/h Argon 15 ft3/h 1 4 in.

Here, k is also the present instant, yk is the output at k, ukj is the input at (kj) (j > 0). n and h(j)s are the order and the real parameters of the impulse response function, respectively. Assume h(j) (1 j n) are time invariant. They are unknown but bounded by the following intervals:

min

( j ) h( j ) h

max

( j ) ( j = 1, ..., n) (3)

Here, hmin (j) hmax (j) are the minimum and maximum limits of h(j) and are already known. Assume yk* is a point on the desired trajectory at instance k. The objective is to design a controller to deter-

260-s DECEMBER 2011, VOL. 90

mine the feedback control actions {uk} so that the closed-loop system achieves the following performance:

y = y * (k = 1, 2, 3, ..., N )
k k

(4)

N indicates the total number of control cycles designated to reach complete joint penetration. The unit step response s(i) of the process model and their upper and lower limits smax(i) and smin(i) are as follows:
i i s (i ) = hmax ( j ) s (i )= h( j ) smin (i ) max j =1 j =1 i = h ( j ), where (1 i n) (5) min j =1 s (i ) = s (n) s (i ) = s (n) s (i ) = s (n) max min min max where (i n + 1)

B
Fig. 5 Pipe weldment made by an operator with no prior welding experience. A Front side of the weld; B back side of the weld.

To ensure negative feedback control, the following condition is required:

max

(n) s

min

(n) > 0

(6)

In order to give a straightforward conclusion of controller design, the detailed deduction of algorithm and proof of stability are skipped and can be found in Ref. 11. After mathematical deduction, the process control action uk is then determined by the following: max y
k +n

(u ) = max y
k k k +n

k +n

(u

k 1

) (7)

+ max(s (n)u ) = y *

Its evident that the control algorithm given by Equation 7 could also be expressed by the following: max(s (n)u ) = y *
k n k +n

j =2

max(hmin ( j ) f ( j ,U k 1) ,
h
max

( j ) f ( j ,U

k 1

))

(8)

Where
f (j ,U
) = u
l =1 j 1

k 1

k +1 j

=u

k 1

k j

(9)

Here, uk = uk uk1 is the process input increment from a previous control cycle. In real-time control, uk will be calculated according to Equation 8 in each control cycle and added to the process input of a previous control cycle. This MPC algorithm has been implemented into the embedded control system to fulfill the reference arc voltage method. By analyzing the measured arc voltage sig-

nal, the welding current for the next control cycle can be determined. The closedloop feedback control signal will drive the arc voltage to follow the desired trajectory. In practical implementation, the control action determined by the control algorithm may generate a plasma arc with penetration capacity beyond the normal range. Therefore, the welding current output is limited in a normal working range (45 to 85 A). Besides, a sudden change in welding current may cause weld pool oscillation, and the welding current increment during each control cycle is also bounded. As a result, the actual arc voltage may not exactly follow the desired trajectory. However, since the arc voltage can eventually reach the desired increment above reference and there is no weld pool oscillation, smooth complete joint penetration can still be achieved. Table 1 summarizes major process parameters used. The lead author of the paper, an electrical engineer without welding training, held the plasma welding torch and tried to move perpendicular to the pipe surface at a nearly constant welding speed and stand-off distance. The material of the pipe being butt joint welded is Type 316 stainless steel that is described later. The completed pipe weld is shown in Fig. 3. Since the welder had no prior welding experience, the operation is not smooth. Several major parameters, including welding speed, torch angle, and standoff distance, were not kept ideally constant. However, after practice, the variations of the welding operation can be limited to a relatively small range around nominal operation performed by professional pipe welders. Moreover, with effectiveness of the proposed sensing method and MPC algorithm, the arc voltage signal followed the desired trajectory in an acceptable manner. Weld inspection showed that the de-

Tables 3 Alloy Composition (wt-%) of Type 316 Stainless Steel Pipes

sired complete joint penetration was achieved by an unskilled, novice welder with the assistance from the control system with the proposed sensing and control scheme. However, this reference arc voltage method is not stable under large torch movement variations. Improvements have been made to increase the stability of the penetration detection.

Bottom Detection Based Control

As introduced earlier, the reference arc voltage method can achieve complete joint penetration around a fixed duration of peak period by adjusting the welding current through model predictive control. A more reliable method was developed later, i.e., bottom detection method. This method applies constant welding current during peak period, and controls penetration by adjusting the duration of peak period according to the changing of measured arc voltage.
Basic Principle

A series of experiments was conducted in an open loop with constant welding current in peak period. By observation of experiment data, it was found that the rate of increasing (slope) of arc voltage tends to WELDING JOURNAL 261-s

WELDING RESEARCH

Carbon Manganese Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chromium Molybdenum ickel Nitrogen

0.08 2.0 0.75 0.045 0.03 16.018.0 2.003.00 10.014.0 0.10

Fig. 6 Pipe weldment made by an experienced welder.

Fig. 7 Outer side of the weld prepared for a radiographic test.

Fig. 8 Prepared specimens for the tensile test.

slow down, stop, or even slightly decrease during the peak period after a period of significant increase. This implies that the arc length has saturated, which may have been caused by a saturated weld pool. Since the weld pool does not develop further, a keyhole may have already been established, and it indicates that complete joint penetration is achieved. In this way, the slope, instead of the absolute value, of arc voltage can be used to determine if the weld pool surface has reached the bottom of the pipe joint being welded. In addition, since the welding current is constant during peak period, arc voltage can be considered to be proportional to arc length without any compensated as in the reference arc voltage method. The basic principle of this method is described in Fig. 4 (Ref. 12). In this method, the base period plays the same role as in the reference arc voltage method. In each peak period, a minimum peak time is applied to ensure that any short-term transient effects of the weld pool do not affect the control system. The arc voltage is then sampled at 1000 Hz (one sample in 1 ms). In each 10-ms control period, the average of the 10 arc voltage measurements is calculated to represent the peak voltage during this period. For any four consecutive control cycles during the peak period as shown in Fig. 4, the peak voltage Vp1 at time t1 is compared with Vp3 at t3. If (Vp3 Vp1)/(t3 t1) is less than the preset slope threshold when the keyhole appears (denoted as keyhole criterion), the algorithm variable keyhole_break is added by 1 (this variable is set to zero before each peak period). If keyhole_break reaches a designated value (generally 2 or 3 in order to reduce the effect of the noises), the peak period is stopped and switched to next base period. By properly selecting the keyhole

Table 4 Tensile Test Result on Specimens Specimen T1 T2 R1 R2 B1 B2 Description Top section No. 1 Top section No. 2 Right section No. 1 Right section No. 2 Bottom section No. 1 Bottom section No. 2 Tensile Strength (ksi) 89.5 82.4 91.0 87.6 84.8 78.8 Acceptance Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

WELDING RESEARCH

criterion and keyhole_break, the welding current will be accurately switched to the base period once the plasma arc reaches the bottom of the pipe thickness. Similar with those of the reference arc voltage method, the bottom detection method only uses a different variable (slope of arc voltage) as an indicator of complete joint penetration. By modifying the algorithm, the bottom detection method was also extensively tested. It was observed that during larger torch shaking, which is common for entry-level pipe welders, the bottom detection method would produce a more consistent weld bead.
Welding Experiments

achieve complete joint penetration, with accepted back side bead width. In addition, the welds made by the bottom detection method tend to be more consistent compared with the ones made by the reference arc voltage method. It can also be concluded that by the assistance of a developed control system, a novice welder can make welds comparable to those of an experienced welder.

Weld Quality Tests

After the preliminary test on the control algorithm, extensive welding experiments were conducted to prove the statistical stability. At the preliminary stage, a 1G rolled position was first tested to verify the feasibility of the method. After consistent welds were obtained for 1G, the more difficult 5G fixed position was tried, in which the torch travels around the whole circumference of the stationary pipe joint. The standard test was performed on Type 316 Schedule 10 stainless steel pipe, with 4.5 in. OD. The 5G fixed position was selected for all the specimens. A square butt joint was prepared with no root opening between two pieces of pipe. Due to the small heat-affected zone (HAZ) of the plasma welding

After implementing the bottom detection algorithm into the control system, a series of experiments was conducted. A set of recommended welding parameters is listed in Table 2. Schedule 10 Type 316 stainless steel pipes with 4.5 in. OD were used to perform the welding experiments. This method was tested with several operators. Figure 5 shows a typical weldment made by the lead author. For comparison, a weldment made by an experienced welding technician is shown in Fig. 6. It is observed that both specimens

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Material under Tests

Stainless steel is one of the most important classes of engineering alloys for a wide range of applications in various environments. Among all the wrought alloys, austenitic stainless steels are characteristically resistant to corrosion and oxidation, primarily as a result of the chromium composition (Ref. 13). Type 316 stainless steel has outstanding corrosion resistance in many aggressive environments. The chemical compositions of Type 316 stainless steel, in accordance with ASTM A240, Standard Specification for Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Stainless Steel Plate, Sheet, and Strip for Pressure Vessels and for General Applications, are given in Table 3. One of the major alloy elements, molybdenum (2.0~3.0%), makes it more resistant to pitting and crevice corrosion in chloridecontaminated media, seawater, and acetic acid vapors (Ref. 14). With remarkable corrosion- and heat-resistant properties, Type 316 stainless steel is preferred for applications such as shipbuilding and other offshore plants and facilities. All of the following tests are conducted on Type 316 stainless steel pipes.
Visual Inspection

Test Conclusion

Radiography

Visual inspection is the most commonly used nondestructive exam method that serves as the first step in almost every other inspection process (Ref. 15). Except for welds with critical requirements, most welds receive only visual inspection. An efficient visual inspection schedule can re-

Hidden discontinuities under the weld surface are not possible to be detected by visual inspection. The most common discontinuity with the GTA pipe welding process is porosity. Sometimes, gas porosity can appear on the weld surface, which can be identified by visual inspection. However, in most cases, porosity is under the weld surface, and is caused by gas entrapment in the molten metal. Radiography is the most widely used nondestructive method for detecting subsurface gas porosity in weldments. For the radiographic test, two 6-in.-long Schedule 10 stainless steel pipes with 4.5 in. OD were welded in the 5G fixed position. The outer side of the weld bead is illustrated in Fig. 7. According to the radiographic report, the weld did not have any porosity, cracks, melt-through, or other internal discontinuities. For the radiographic specimen, only root pass was conducted without filler material. Therefore, the weld pool is pushed

From the test results, it can be concluded that the welds made by the novice welder meet all the requirements of the tests performed, including visual, radiographic, and tensile. The underfill or concavity on the outer side is not an issue because the current practice requires a cover pass that would eliminate the concavity. Inconsistency of the backside bead width is a minor concern. While the requirement does not include the consistency of the weld bead width, a consistent weld bead width will certainly help promote the acceptance of the technology being developed. With further practice, a welder can certainly make more consistent welds.

Conclusions
Manual keyhole PAW is feasible. Innovative sensing and control were the keys to making it a valid manual pipe welding technology. The controlled keyhole PAW process proposed effectively reduced the effect of the lack of skills on pipe welding to an acceptable level. With the assistance of the controlled keyhole PAW method proposed, novice welders may weld stainless steel pipes at the WELDING JOURNAL 263-s

WELDING RESEARCH

process, as well as little sagging of the weld pool, no filler material was needed. In common GTA pipe welding procedure practice, two passes are used for an acceptable pipe weld. The root pass is performed to produce the needed complete joint penetration and desired inner side geometry. The second or cover pass with filler material is used to obtain sufficient convexity on the outer side of the pipe weld. In order to determine the feasibility and effectiveness of the controlled plasma process, only root passes were conducted for all specimens. Also, according to the requirements, an uphill welding direction should be used. Welds to be tested were made by the unskilled welder, the lead author who had no prior welding experience. However, the control algorithm took over the penetration detection task, while he only held and guided the plasma torch around the circumference of the pipe joint. The variations from his operation (e.g., hand shaking, changing position during welding) were compensated by the control. All the test specimens discussed in this section were produced by a bottom detection method.

duce the finished weld rejection rate by more than 75%. This inspection method is generally used before any other nondestructive or mechanical exam to avoid costly inspection of obvious weld defects. The elimination of welds with excessive surface discontinuities can make other costly tests more efficient. As mentioned above, all weldments used in the tests, including radiographic and tensile, were welded by the lead author, a novice welder. The welds made by novice and experienced welders illustrated in Figs. 5 and 6 were used for the visual inspection. One can observe that weldments in both Figs. 5 and 6 are free of sharp irregularities between weld beads and blend smoothly and gradually into the base metal at the weld edges. Neither weldment exceeds the undercut nor reentrant angle limits of the specification. The weld contours on both sides of the weldments meet the convexity and concavity limits. By adding the second/cover pass later, the outer side of the welds can overcome the underfill and have better contour to guarantee strength. In addition, the weldments are free of joint offset, cracks, and melt-through. By macroscopic inspection, there is also no surface porosity. Obviously, due to the nature of the PAW process (tungsten electrode recessed into the nozzle), there are no tungsten inclusions, which can be encountered in the GTAW process. Both weldments meet the requirements for basic visual inspection. It is apparent that with the assistance from the control system, even a welder with no prior welding experience can produce pipe weldments that comply with visual inspection criteria.

down by the plasma arc force and a slight underfill is observed. For qualified procedures requiring a second/cover pass, a second or cover pass can add sufficient filler material to achieve the desired outer side geometry.
Tensile Test

Transverse tensile tests are more commonly used for evaluation of weldments and quality control than any other type of tensile test. The specimens prepared for tensile tests are illustrated in Fig. 8. The notation T, R, and B stamped on the specimens indicate top, right (or left), and bottom side, respectively. Since the left and right side have no obvious difference in the welding operation, the right side was selected to represent the vertical position at both sides of the pipe joint. With each position, two specimens were machined and prepared for a tensile test. According to ASTM A240, the transverse tensile testing should meet the following criteria: The ultimate tensile strength shall be 75 ksi minimum. The actual measured tensile strength of each specimen is listed in Table 4. Although variations exist for different specimens, all specimens are acceptable for the tensile tests. In future qualified procedures, the addition of a second, or cover, pass will further guarantee the tensile strength of the pipe weld made by this plasma process.

5G fixed position to meet all major requirements. Acknowledgments This work was funded by the Navy SBIR Program under contract N00024-08C-4111 and Kentucky Cabinet for Economic Development (CED) Office of Commercialization and Innovation through Kentucky Science and Engineering Corp. under agreement KSTC-184512-08-048. The authors would also like to acknowledge the support of weldment testing by the welding lab personnel of Northrop Grumman Shipbuilding Gulf Coast and the continuous guidance and support from Russell Steve Fielder of the Naval Surface Warfare Center Carderock, West Bethesda, Md.
References 1. Welding Handbook. 1990. Welding process, 8th ed., Vol. 2. Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society.

2. Martikainen, J. K., and Moisio, T. J. I. 1993. Investigation of the effect of welding parameters on weld quality of plasma arc keyhole welding of structural steels. Welding Journal 72(7): 329340. 3. Zhang, Y. M., and Zhang, S. B. 1999. Observation of the keyhole during plasma arc welding. Welding Journal 75(2): 5359. 4. Zhang, Y. M., and Liu, Y. C. 2003. Modeling and control of quasi-keyhole arc welding process. Control Engineering Practice 11: 14011411. 5. Lu, W., Zhang, Y. M., and Lin, W. Y. 2004. Nonlinear interval model control of quasi-keyhole arc welding process. Automatica 40: 805813. 6. Martikainen, J. 1995. Conditions for achieving high-quality welds in the plasma-arc keyhole welding of structural steels. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 52: 6875. 7. Zhang, Y. M. 2001. Stochastic modeling of plasma reflection during keyhole arc welding. Measurement Science and Technology 12: 19641975. 8. Zhang, Y. M., and Kovacevic, R. 1997. Robust control of interval plants: A time domain approach. Inst. Elect. Eng. Proc. Contr.

Theory Appl. 144. 9. Zhang, C., and Walcott, B. L. 2004. Adaptive interval model control and application. American Control Conference, Vol. 4, 31853190. Boston, Mass. 10. Zhang, Y. M., and Liu, Y. C. 2007. Control of dynamic keyhole welding process. Automatica 43: 876884. 11. Zhang, Y. M., and Li, L. 1999. Interval model based robust control of weld joint penetration. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering 121: 425433. 12. Zhang, Y., and Li, X. System and Methods to Control Gas Tungsten Arc Welding and Plasma Arc Welding. Pending U.S. Patent, submitted in 2011. 13. Welding Handbook. 1980. Metals and their weldability, 7th ed., Vol. 4. Miami, Fla.: American Welding Society. 14. Rockel, M. W., and White, F. E. 1992. Superaustenitic corrosion-resistant alloys. Chemical and Petroleum Engineering 28: 450455. 15. Jeffus, L., and Bower, L. 2009. Welding Skills, Processes and Practices for Entry-Level Welders, 1st ed. Clifton Park, N.Y.: Cengage Learning.

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264-s DECEMBER 2011, VOL. 90

The Electrode That Takes the Stress Out of Stress-Corrosion Resistant Welding

Arcos 352

Arcos Industries, LLC has developed a pr remium nickel nickelchromium-iron n electrode fo for the welding of alloy 690 in nuclear reactor r and steam generator componen nts. This wire provides corrosion-resistant c welds on a br road range of f low alloy an nd stainless steels in applications requiring resistance to ox xidizing acids. Arcos 352 bare bar wire and covered electrodes: odes: U iii}i Viiii`i`v v stress-corros sion cracking resistance. U
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